<pubnumber>600976017</pubnumber>
<title>News of Environmental Research in Cincinnati 1975</title>
<pages>56</pages>
<pubyear>1976</pubyear>
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<abstract></abstract>
<operator>mja</operator>
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PB257155
II MM|| INIII| II
' KFA-600/9-76-01^
September 1976
OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH IN CINCINNATI
1975
Compiled by
Technical Information Staff
Program Element 1RA103
U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
OFFICE OF RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT
CINCINNATI, OHIO 45268
REPRODUCED BY: NT|S
U.S. Department of Commerce
National Technical information Service
Springfield, Virginia 22161
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CONTENTS
NERC—Cincinnati Electron Microscope Facility ...... 1
Robert S, Safferman
Poliovirus and Bacterial Indicators of Fecal
Pollution in Landfill Leachates ............. 5
R. A. Glotzheeker and A, L. Novello
Examination of Drinking Water Supplies for Viruses ... 9
Walter Jakubowski and Norman A. Clarke
A Copper-Cadmium Column for Manually Determining
Nitrate			13
M. B. Gales, Jr. and R. L. Booth
Pollution from Urban Land Runoff ..... 	 17
Anthony N. Tafuri
Striving for Zero Discharge of Industrial Wastes .... 21
J. Cianaia and H. M. Freeman
Sewer Transport of Household Refuse; A Replacement
for the Refuse Truck			. . 25
Osaar W. Albreaht and Donald A. Oberaeker
The Bacterial Quality of Bottled Water 	 29
Edwin E. Geldreiah, Harry D. Nash, Donald J. Reasoner,
and Raymond E. Taylor
Modern Ways of Strip Mining in Mountainous Areas .... 33
Elmore C. Grim
Nature and Use of Coal Ash from Utilities	37
Richard A. Games
A Radiotelemetry System for Monitoring Respiration
in Dogs	...41
Mildred J, Wiester, Rwrrult litis, and Charles T, Pfetser
Improving the Fuel Value of Sewage Sludge 	 45
S. W. Hathaway and R. A. Olexsey
Do Regulated Freight Rates Discourage Recycling? .... 49
Osaar W. Albreaht
iii
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ews of
nvironmenlal
esearch in
METHODS DEVELOPMENT
AND
QUALITY ASSURANCE
RESEARCH
C in c in n ati
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
January 15,
1975
NERC—CINCINNATI ELECTRON MICROSCOPE FACILITY
Robert S. Safferman*
BACKGROUND
Scientists atthe National Environmental Research
Center (NERC) in Cincinnati have in the past relied
on other laboratories for support of ultrastructural
studies. With the Center's expanded efforts in this
area, efficient research management could no longer
depend solely on extramural activities; in April,
1973, NERC Director Dr. Andrew W. Breidenbach
authorized the establishment of the first electron
microscope (EM) facility in the history of the Center.
For its implementation, the Director appointed a
committee of principal scientists representing tire
major program users of the facility. To fulfill the
multi-faceted needs of the NERC—Cincinnati labora-
tories, the committee recommended purchase of the
JEOL** model JEM 100B election microscope
< Figure 1).
Equitable use of the facility was ensured through
continuation of the committee concept. Functioning
in four regulatory areas, the committee enacts EM
operating policies; evaluates periodically the fa-
cility's performance; assesses new or additional
support equipment for purchase; and designates
responsibility for maintaining the EM facility. EM
utilization is unique in that each laboratory desiring
use of the facility is responsible for providing its
own EM expertise.
The basic JEM 100B was installed in the Robert
A, Taft Laboratory, where it will be temporarily
*Dr. Safferman is Chief, Virology Section, Methods De-
velopment & Quality Assurance Research Laboratory,
National Environmental Research Center, Cincinnati,
513/684-8277.
••Japan Electron Optics, Ltd, (Mention of trade names or
commercial products does not constitute endorsement or
recommendation for use.)
housed until the new NERC complex adjacent to the
University of Cincinnati campus is completed.
Major modifications have been made on the micro-
scope since its initial installation as a transmission
mode instrument. An added high-resolution scanning
attachment (Figure 2) provides, in the combined EM
system, the capability of specimen examination by-
scanning, scanning transmission, and conventional
transmission modes. Aside-entry goniometer (Figure
3) has replaced the original top-entry stage to permit
relatively large-angle specimen tilting needed for
proper orientation to the detector of the Ortec energy
dispersive X-ray spectrometer. This spectrometer
serves to determine elemental composition directly
from EM observed specimens.
RESEARCH APPLICATION
To many NERC—Cincinnati programs, the new
EM facility has already opened new realms of re-
search. Although it is too early to appreciate its
full effect in realizing EPA objectives, the EM
facility has important applications for a variety of
major environmental problems in the areas of ad-
vanced waste treatment, methods development,
water and air toxicology, and water supply. Obvious-
ly, high-resolution EM studies are indispensable
for structural determinations of virus-infected cells,
virions, isolated viral nucleic acids and proteins,
and small parasitic bacteria such as Bdellovibrio.
High-resolution microscopy is extremely important
in inhalation toxicology programs concerned with
ultrastructural evaluation of tissue morphology after
animal exposure to smoke and dust particulates. Of
prominence recently has been the use of EM in water
standards development, where it has been used to
identify the presence of high numbers of asbestos
fibers in drinking water supplies. Elemental analysis
of colloidal material remaining after wastewater
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Figure 1, JEM 100B electron microscope operable in scanning, scanning transmission, and conventional
transmission modes. The EM is housed in 8 12'x18* room previously determined to be free from
ElVHnterfering mechanical vibrations and magnetic fields. Also utilized are a connecting dark-
room and specimen preparation laboratory containing such EM accessory equipment as light
microscopes, vacuum coater, and ultramierotome.
Figure 2. Recording EM image from high-resolution scan-
ning device.
treatment and ultrastruetural study of polymer attach-
ment in floceulation and sludge conditioning are
other less prominent, but potentially important, EM
applications in water management.
In support of quality assurance needs, EM studies
have been programmed to determine the degree of
viral particle aggregation in suspension so that the
observed number and state of these aggregates can
be interpreted with regard to disinfection kinetics
and virus-cell interactions. Further viral studies
are intended to determine size and kind of particu-
lates (waterborne sediments, silts, fibers, and
sludges) involved in viral binding and to elucidate
the mode of virus attachment as well as the effect
of environmental factors on this binding.
To ascertain the toxic effects of air and/or
water pollutants from mobile and stationary sources,
2
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EM studies have also been programmed to delineate
ultrastructural changes in animal tissues. Such
studies involve multimedia exposure to a combina-
tion of organic agents, which include polynuclear
aromatic hydrocarbons, halo ethers, and chlorinated,
hydrocarbons; and to single pollutants such as trace
metals resulting from industrial discharges (mercury
and cadmium), water treatment practices (copper),
the use of fuel additives (lead and manganese), and
use of air pollution control devices (degradation
products from platinum, palladium, and aluminum).
In the first months that the EM has been in serv-
ice, about half the time has been allotted to staff
training. The remaining time has been applied to
the ultrastructural study of such biological material
as viruses (Figure 4) and parasitic bacteria (Figure
5) and to the analysis of asbestos fibers (Figures 6
and 7). With the acquisition of the energy dispersive
system, the EM is being used in its first function as
a total analytic tool to evaluate the distribution,
size, kind, and mineral composition of asbestos
fibers found in drinking water throughout the United
States.
Figure 4. Electron micrograph of AS-1 virus that infects
the unicellular blue-green algae Anacystis
nidu/ans and Synechococcus cedrorum. Bar
represents 1000 A. (R. Saffemian)
Figure 3, Positioning of specimen: (TopJ insertion of
grid in rotating specimen holder. (Bottom)
insertion of holder through airlock into side-
entry goniometer.
Figure 8. Electron micrograph of a parasitic bacterium,
Bdellovibrio bacteriovorus, penetrating its
host cell. Bar represents 5000 A. (A. Venosa)
3
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SUMMARY
The instrument, now totally operable for chemical
identification and structural determination, fully
supports the research objectives proposed for the
EM facility. In its future applications, the EM
should be as much a necessity to analytical aspects
of environmental research as the gas chromatograph
and mass spectrometer.
Figure 6, Chrysotile asbestos in raw water sample:
(top) morphological observation of particle,
(bottom) selected area diffraction pattern. Bar
represents 5000 A, (R. Lishka)
Figure 7. Amphibole asbestos in raw water sample:
(top) morphological observation of particle,
(bottom) selected area diffraction pattern. Bar
represents 6000 A. (R. Lishka!
UNITED STATES
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
NATIONAL ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH CENTER
Cincinnati, Ohio 45268
POSTAGE AND FEES PAID
U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
EPA -3*35
' OFFICIAL BUSINESS
PENALTY FOR PRIVATE USE, S300
AN EQUAL OPPORTUNITY EMPLOYER
4
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ews of
r» v iron mental
SOLID AND HAZARDOUS
WASTE RESEARCH
esearch in
c incinn all
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
January 31,
1975
POLIOVIRUS AND BACTERIAL INDICATORS OF
FECAL POLLUTION IN LANDFILL LEACHATES
R. A. Glotzbecker and A. L. Novello*
BACKGROUND
One of the basic objectives of solid waste disposal
is the protection of public health and environment.
Presently, over 90 percent of solid waste in the
United States is disposed of on land. One public
health concern is the presence of untreated human
and animal fecal matter in solid waste disposal sites.
Excreta and products of animals have long been a
part of municipal solid wastes;8 the use of disposable
diapers is one way human excreta become present in
solid waste. Viral and bacterial pathogens associated
with fecal matter in solid waste represent health
hazards because of their potential for leaching from
the landfill to ground or surface waters.
STATE OF THE ART
The degree of the health hazard from enteric infec-
tious agents in sanitary landfills depends on three
basic conditions:5 the amount and nature of the
pathogens in the disposed solid waste, the survival of
the pathogens in the landfill environment, and the
movement of the pathogens from the landfill into the
environment (e.g., groundwater).
Studies have shown that raw municipal solid
waste can contain fecal coliforrns, fecal strepto-
cocci, and pathogens such as salmonella and entero-
viruses.4,7'8 Little is known about the survival of
enteric pathogens in the landfill environment, but
fecal coliforrns, fecal streptococci, and en-
teroviruses have been found in leachates.
During the initial 2-month leaching period of a
10-month study by Blannon and Peterson,1 an ex-
*The authors (513-684-448?) are'graduate students working in a
cooperative program involving the Department of Civi! and En-
vironmental Engineering, University of Cincinnati, and the Solid
and Hazardous Waste Research Laboratory, National Environ-
mental Research Center — Cincinnati.
perimental field-scale landfill leachate contained
high densities of fecal coliforrns (averaging 1.5 mil-
lion and 48 million organisms per 100 ml, respective-
ly). After 2 months, the fecal coliform density
dropped to low values that continued through the
remainder of the study. Fecal streptococci, how-
ever, were leached in high, although quite variable,
numbers throughout the study.
Engelbrecht5 used a lysimeter containing shred-
ded municipal solid waste to simulate a sanitary
landfill. Poliovirus. reovirus, and Rous sarcoma
were added as the lysimeter was filled with solid
waste. Fecal coliforrns and fecal streptococci were
detected in the leachate and showed some persis-
tence before disappearing rapidly after 76 to 96 days
of lysimeter operation. No viruses were detected in
leachate samples using direct plaquing techniques.
The survival of poliovirus, fecal streptococci, and
Salmonella typhimurium was also investigated by
Engelbrecht5 in leachates at pH 5.3 and 7.0 incu-
bated at 22 C and 55 C. Bacteria and viruses were
more rapidly inactivated at 55 C than at 22 C; such
high temperatures are not uncommon during initial
solid waste decomposition in a sanitary landfill. Am-
bient temperatures (10 C to 20 C) are observed at the
periphery of the landfill and after the anaerobic fer-
mentation processes predominate. The rate of inac-
tivation was greater at pH 5.3 than at pH 7.0;
leachate from a landfill is typically between pH 5.0
and 5.5 because of the vigorous production of or-
ganic acids. These results indicate that acidic
leachates and the initial high temperatures of a land-
fill can inhibit bacterial and viral survival.
Cooper et al.4 conducted a study involving simu-
lated sanitary landfills and simulated open dumps.
Bacteriological analysis indicated the presence of
large numbers of indicator bacteria of fecal pollution
in the leachates. The coliform density in sanitary
5
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landfill lvsimeter leachate declined relatively rapidly
with time; coliform density declined much less
rapidly in open dump leachates. Virus recovery from
the leachates was generally low and irregular over a
period of 20 weeks. The virus recovery technique
was a modification of a method developed by Sobsey
et al.11 The use of sodium ethylenediaminetetraace-
tate (EDTA) and the dilution of preclarified leachate
with water facilitated successful virus concentra-
tion . Cooper et al. noted that without the addition of
EDTA to the cell culture inoculum, the results would
erroneously indicate that the leachates were highly
viricidal. The results of the study indicated that
gradual saturation of landfills may cause greater in-
activation of viruses than would rapid saturation.
This detrimental effect did not seem to apply to the
bacterial parameters.
CURRENT RESEARCH
The Solid and Hazardous Waste Research
Laboratory recently completed an investigation to
determine the occurrence of bacterial indicators of
fecal pollution in leachates, the survival of these
bacteria and poliovirus in leachates, and the removal
of bacteria and viruses in leachates by soils.
Occurrence of Indicator Bacteria of Fecal Pollu-
tion in Leachates
The results of a comparative study indicated that
the most probable number (MPN)" method was
superior to the membrane filter (MF)12 method for
determining fecal coliforms and fecal streptococci in
a municipal landfill leachate. Fecal coliform and
fecal streptococci densities in municipal landfill
leachates determined by the MPN method were 10 to
1,000 times higher than those determined by the MF
method. Similar studies by Smith and Madison10
indicate the same conclusion. Others2 have recog-
nized the limitations of the MF method in other types
of waters. The high, heavy metal cation concentra-
tion typically found in leachates, is believed to be
one of the factors that limited the use of the MF
method. Based on these results, the MPN method
was used throughout this study.
Leachates from an active municipal landfill that
received some 1,800 metric tons (2,000 short tons)
(wet weight) of waste per day were bacteriologieally
examined. The densities of fecal coliforms and fecal
streptococci from this municipal landfill leachate are
shown in Table 1. Leachates from an experimental
landfill completed in 1971 were also examined bac-
teriologieally. This experimental landfill study (the
Boone County Field Site) was a continuation of the
work done by Blannon and Peterson. The Boone
County leachate initially contained high densities of
fecal coliforms and fecal streptococci; unlike fecal
streptococci, the fecal coliform density in leachate
drastically dropped after 2 months of leaching. Fecal
TABLE 1. FECAL COLIFORMS AND FECAL
STREPTOCOCCI IN MUNICIPAL
LANDFILL LEACHATE
Organisms,''100 ml (MPN)
Sampling Date
Fecal coHforms
Fecal streptococci
1/16/74
4.6 X
102
1.5 X 1Q3
1/30/74
7.7 X
101
1.8 X 102
2/13/74
4.6 X
102
1,4 X 10'
2/28/74
1.7 X
102
2.2 X 102
3/02/74
1.1 X
101
1.4 X 1Q2
4/02/74
9.4 X
102
2.2 X 103
5/06/74
2.3 X
10l
1.1 X 10*
streptococci densities remained high, but quite vari-
able, throughout the 35-month study. Both of these
studies indicated that landfill leachate can be a po-
tential source of enteric pathogens.
Survival Studies
The survival of Escherichia coli ATCC 11229,
Streptococcus faecalis SEC (Sanitary Engineering
Center), and poliovirus 1 Mahoney (LP) RKP-42 was
determined in leachates. Virus determinations were
made by the plaque method, with the addition of
EDTA to the cell culture inoculum, a technique de-
veloped by Sobsey et al.11 Our results (similar to
those of others4,11) indicated that EDTA improved
the recovery of viruses in leachates.
Results of bacterial survival studies (Table 2) indi-
cated that E. coii and S. faecalis may survive in
leachate from hours to months depending on the
leachate source. It appears that the rate of bacterial
reduction in leachate depends upon temperature,
leachate quality, and other factors not evaluated.
TABLE 2. DAYS FOR 99.9 PERCENT REDUC-
TION OF MICROORGANISMS IN
LEACHATES AT 10 AND 20 C

Experimental
Municipal

landfill
landfill
Microorganism
leachate
leachate

10C
10 C 20 C
E. coli
0,12
56 21
S. faecalis
0.21
>100 35
The results of the poliovirus survival studies (Ta-
ble 3) indicated that virus inactivation was directly
related to temperature. There was less variability of
poliovirus survival than of bacterial survival in the
two different leachates. The results also indicated
that the use of fecal coliforms and fecal streptococci
as indicators of animal viral pollution in leachates is
of questionable validity, since these bacteria were
very sensitive to the experimental landfill leachate.
6
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TABLE 3. PERCENT POLIOVIRUS SURVIVAL
IN LEACHATES AT 10 AND 20 C
Experimental Municipal
landfill landfill
Days 	leachate	 	leachate

IOC
20 C
10C
20 C
7
100
64
66
30
21
53
18
26
4.1
35
67
9.1
29
1.2
55
30
1.5
14
0.06
90
36
0.43
8.9
>0.01
Results of bacterial survival investigations indi-
cated that the fecal coliform and fecal streptococci
levels in leachates may drop drastically during
transport from the sampling point to the laboratory.
Leachate from experimental landfills was collected
in duplicate; one sample bottle contained sufficient
EDTA to give a 0.01 M concentration, and one con-
tained none. The chelation of metal cations in
leachate by EDTA protected the indicator bacteria
of fecal pollution against inaciivation during trans-
port to the laboratory. Shipe and Fields9 and Coles3
reported similar results on the protective effect of
EDTA on coliform bacteria in waters with high metal
cation concentrations.
Soil Column Studies
Soils from two sanitary landfill sites were packed
in 30- by 10-cm-ID Plexiglass columns to a height of
10 cm. In one column, a yellowish-brown, silty clay
soil consisting of 6 percent sand, 58 percent silt, and
36 percent clay by dry weight was packed to a dry
density of 1,570 kg/m3 (97.7 pcf). In another column,
a brown, gravelly, silty sand soil consisting of 20
percent gravel, 54 percent sand, 18 percent silt, and 8
percent clay by dry weight was packed to a dry
density of 1,900 kg/m3 (124 pcf). The soil columns
were saturated from the bottom with sterile water to
displace air.
To simulate conditions below a sanitary landfill,
the columns were maintained at 10 C under an at-
mosphere of nitrogen. A constant head of 10 cm of
leachate seeded with 10s E. coli per 100 ml was
maintained above the clay soil column, and the same
head of leachate seeded with 108 E. coli and 105
poliovirus per 100 ml was maintained above the
sandy soil column. The seeded leachates and perco-
lates were examined for fecal coliforms and viruses.
As leachate percolated through the clay soil col-
umn, E. coli was effectively retained in the soil ma-
trix. Less than three fecal coliforms per 100 ml were
detected in the percolate. Over a period of 119 days,
640 ml of percolated leachate were collected; this
leachate represented 1.8 times the calculated pore
volume of the soil and 27 times the calculated
specific yield of soil.6
More than 99 percent of the E. coli and 80 percent
of the poliovirus in leachate were removed during
percolation through a sandy soil column. Figure 1
depicts the percent survival of the E. coli and
poliovirus in the applied leachate and the percent
recovered in the percolate. The increased break-
through of the bacteria from days 14 to 20 may have
been caused by channeling in the soil. During the
study, 4.9 liters of percolated leachate were col-
lected, which represented 18 times the calculated
ALL DATA At 10 C.
~ POLIOVIRUS SURVIVAL IN LEACHATE
¦ POLIOVIRUS IN PERCOLATE
O E. COLI SURVIVAL IN LEACHATE
• E. COLI IN PERCOLATE
DAYS
Figure 1. Poliovirus and E. coli in municipal landfill
leachate and sandy soil column percolates.
(AH data at 10 C. C poliovirus survival in
leachate; (poliovirus in percolate; Of. coli
survival in leachate; #£. coli in percolate.)
7
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pore volume of the soil and 25 times the calculated
specific yield of the soil.®
From the results of these experiments, it is con-
cluded that uniform soils, particularly soils with high
clay content, underlying landfills have the capacity
to protect groundwaters from pathogens. This con-
clusion is limited to continuous strata of soils similar
to the types used in this study and is contingent on
the distance leachates move through soils. It is,
therefore, apparent that landfill site selection is a
critical factor in protecting public health.
FUTURE RESEARCH
Additional research is needed to determine a ra-
tional assessment of the problem of pathogens in
landfills and their migration into the environment by
the leaching process. Further research should be
undertaken to compare the survival of bacterial indi-
cators of fecal pollution and enteric pathogens.
Many methods are available for concentrating vi-
ruses in water, and several have been applied to
leachat es. Comparisons of promising methods could
contribute needed information to provide the best
detection possible for small quantities of viruses in
large quantities of leachates.Microbiological
monitoring of leachates and groundwaters below ac-
tual landfill sites is desired since there are a limited
amount of field data.
REFERENCES
1. Blannon, J. C. and M. I.. Peterson, "Survival of Fecal Col-
iforms and Fecal Streptococci in a Sanitary Landfill." News
of Environmental Research in Cincinnati, U. S. Environmen-
tal Protection Agency, April 12, 1974. Available from Na-
tional Environmental Research Center, Cincinnati, Ohio
45268.
2.	Clark, If. F., P. W. Kabler, and E. E. Geldreich, "Advan-
tages and Limitations of the Membrane Filter Procedure."
Water and Sewage Works, 104:385-387, 1957.
3.	Coles, H. G., "Ethylenediamine Tetra-acetic Acid and
Sodium Thiosulphate as Protective Agents for Coliform Or-
ganisms in Water Samples Stored for One Day at Atmos-
pheric Temperature." Proceedings of the Society for Water
Treatment and Examination, 13:350-363, 1964.
4.	Cooper, R.C., S. A. Klein, J. C. Leong, J. L. Potter, andC. G.
Golueke, "Effects of Disposable Diapers on the Composition
of Leachate from a Landfill," Sanitary Engineering Research
Laboratory Report No. 74-3, University of California, Berke-
ley, 1974.
5.	Engelbrecht, R. S., M. S. Weber, P. Amirhor, D. H. Foster,
D. LaRossa, "Biological Properties of Sanitary Landfill
Leachates." Presented at Water Resources Symposium No.
7: Virus Survival in Water and Wastewater Systems, Univer-
sity of Texas, Austin, April 1-3, 1974.
6.	Linsley, R. K,, and J. B. Franzini. Water — Resources En-
gineering. McGraw-Hill, Inc., 1964, pp. 74-75.
7.	Peterson, M. I.., "Soiled Disposable Diapers — A Potential
Source of Viruses." Journal of the American Public Health
Association, 64:912-914, 1974.
8.	Peterson, M. L., "Pathogens Associated with Solid Waste
Processing." Open-file report SW-49r (out of print), U. S.
Environmental Protection Agency, Cincinnati, Ohio, 1971.
9.	Shipe, E, L., Jr., and A. Fields, "Chelation as a Method for
Maintaining the Coliform Index in Water Samples." Public
Health Reports, 71:974-978, 1956.
10.	Smith, L., and M. A, Madison, "A Brief Evaluation of Two
Methods for Total and Fecal Coliforms in Municipal Solid
Waste and Related Materials," Unpublished data, U. S. En-
vironmental Protection Agency, National Environmental Re-
search Center, Cincinnati, Ohio, 45268 1972.
11.	Sobsey, M. D., C. Wallis, and J. L. Melnick, "Development
of Methods for Detecting Viruses in Solid Waste Landfill
Leachates." Journal of Applied Microbiology, (in press),
1974.
12.	Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Waste-
water. 13th edition, American Public Health Association,
Washington, D.C., 1971.
UNITED STATES
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
NATIONAL ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH CENTER
Cincinnati, Ohio 45268
POSTA0E AND FEES PAID
U.S ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
EPA-335
OFFICIAL BUSINESS
PENALTY FOR PRIVATE USE. S300
an equal opportunity employer
8
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ws off
nviro nmental
WATER SUPPLY
RESEARCH
esearch in
C in cinnati
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
February 10,
1975
EXAMINATION OF DRINKING WATER SUPPLIES FOR VIRUSES
Walter Jakubowskl and Norman A, Clarke*
INTRODUCTION
"What is the potential human health hazard as-
sociated with the transmission of viral disease agents
by or through drinking water?" This question has
been asked for a number of years by those concerned
with the treatment and distribution of drinking wa-
ter. A wide variety of factors must be considered in
the course of arriving at a definitive answer.
Human beings are hosts to over 100 members of
the enteric virus group (polio-, eoxsackie-. echo-,
reo-, and adenoviruses). These viruses reproduce in
the human digestive tract and are consequently ex-
creted into sewage. From that point of entry into the
aquatic environment, their numbers steadily de-
crease, since viruses cannot reproduce outside a
living cell. The action of time, sewage and water
treatment processes, sunlight, physical and chemi-
cal inactivation by various suspended and dissolved
materials, and simple dilution all serve to diminish
the concentration of viruses in water. The low con-
centrations of viruses that conceivably could occur
in water, together with the fact that human enteric
viruses are transmitted through person-to-person
contact, combine to make an assessment of the sig-
nificance of the water vehicle in the transmission of
viruses an extremely difficult problem.
One approach to resolving the question is to de-
termine if viruses can be found in treated drinking
water. In the development of virus detection
methodology, the seeding of 3.8 liters (1 gal) of water
with 4,000 to 40,000 infectious units of virus had
been considered, at one time, a "low" virus con-
*The authors are with the Criteria Development Branch of the
Water Supply Research Laboratory, National Environmental Re-
search Center — Cincinnati (513-684-8392), Mr. Jakubowski is a
microbiologist and Dr. Clarke is Director, Biological Contamin-
ants Program.
centration for laboratory experimentation. Current
techniques are able to detect poliovirus at levels of 1
or 2 infectious units per 380 liters (100 gal) when 1900
liters (500 gal) are sampled.1 However, these
methods are not 100 percent efficient in recovering
virus in laboratory experiments, and it is therefore
not unreasonable to assume that more virus than can
be detected may actually be present in field samples.
Viruses, in low numbers, have been demonstrated in
river water downstream from sewage treatment
plant discharges and at drinking water treatment
plant intakes.2
SURVEYS OF WATER SUPPLIES
Between 1969 and 1971, a pilot study of viruses in
water in two Massachusetts communities was con-
ducted, and the first suspected isolation of viruses
from treated drinking water in the U nited States was
reported.3 This report prompted the Water Supply
Research Laboratory (WSRL), of the National En-
vironmental Research Center (NERC) in Cincinnati,
to conduct a much broader study of the potential
problem of viruses in drinking water.
FY 1973 Survey4
The study, begun in July 1972, had three main
objectives: a) to determine if the results obtained in
the pilot study could be confirmed, b) to evaluate
three virus concentrating techniques, and c) to relate
the presence or absence of viruses in drinking water
to treatment processes, water source, and bacterial
and zoomicrobial quality. At that time, three WSRL
field laboratories participated in the survey: the
Northeast (NE), the Gulf Coast (GC), and the
Northwest (NW); each lab utilized the virus con-
centration technique that it had under evaluation.
The three techniques had several components in
common (Figure 1), but they differed in the type of
9
 image: 








ADDITIVE
PUMPv
-c
"t-° n V
N 82S2O 3
>
- 1

s. f



HCI +
M g C12
or
AICI3
MIXING
CHAMBER
TO WASTE-
NWWSRL	i
FIBERGLASS POLYELECTROLYTE «

IbNEWSRL V GCWSRL
FLOW-THROUGH MEMBRANE FILTER
GAUZE PAD
"t
XT
WATER METER
Figure 1, Virus concentrating systems used In FY 1973 survey.
virus adsorbing unit employed: NE used a gauze pad
device, GC had a membrane filter, and NW used a
fiber glass cartridge coated with an insoluble
poly electrolyte. A hydraulically operated pump5
was used to introduce sodium thiosulfate (to neut-
ralize chlorine) and hydrochloric acid and mag-
nesium or aluminum chloride (to provide optimum
pH and cationic conditions for virus adsorption) via
a mixing chamber upstream from the virus retaining
unit. Upon return to the laboratory, the sampling
devices were put through a procedure designed to
release any viruses into a small volume of liquid.
These concentrates were then examined for viruses
in tissue culture cells and/or mice.
A total of 80 virus study samples were processed
from 10 water treatment plants in six States and the
District of Columbia. Sample volumes varied from
19 to 950 liters (5 to 250 gal), depending on the
technique used and the quality of the water sample.
Additionally, 12 positive controls (known virus de-
liberately added) were processed as a check on the
sensitivity of the techniques used. Data indicated
that the three techniques had a sensitivity of detect-
ing about one enterovirus unit per 3.8 liters (1 gal) of
water when 380 liters (100 gal) or more were sam-
pled.
The GC laboratory examined 45 study samples
from two communities in the south and the District
of Columbia; the NW laboratory examined 12 sam-
ples from two treatment plants in a single community
in the west. No viruses were recovered from these
samples. Twenty-three study samples were proces-
sed from water plants in five different communities
in the northeast and the District of Columbia. Only
one 19-liter (5-gal) grab sample yielded a virus,
which was subsequently confirmed by an indepen-
dent laboratory as a vaccine-like strain of poliovirus
type 3. The sample from which this virus was iso-
lated had been processed early in the course of the
study. In addition, this same virus was isolated from
a supposedly virus-free control water. At the time,
as in the initial phases of any complex undertaking,
there were problem areas still unresolved in the pro-
cessing and examination of the concentrates. There
is a definite possibility that this isolate was a labora-
tory contaminant, and therefore no significance is
attached to the isolation.
Coliform organisms were found in only four sam-
ples of finished water in the entire study, and these
were well within the limit of one coliform/100 ml
allowed by the U.S. Public Health Service Drinking
Water Standards. Examinations of concentrates for
sahnonellae, shigellac, and coliforms were negative.
Zoomicrobes (nematodes and amoebae) were found
in essentially all finished water samples tested.
The 1972-73 study produced valuable background
data and uncovered many logistical problems as-
sociated with conducting a study of this magnitude.
Within the limitations of the methodologies
employed, it was concluded that the drinking water
from these 10 selected systems was not polluted with
sufficient numbers of viruses to be an important
vehicle for the transmission of human enteric vi-
ruses.
10
 image: 








FY 1974 Survey
Six water supplies located in Ohio, Indiana, and
Missouri were selected for the survey, and sampling
was initiated in October 1973. The sampling device
consisted of the additive pump portion of Figure 1
coupled to a 293-mm diameter, disc-type membrane
filter holder. The holder contained a stack of three
cellulose nitrate membrane filters with porosities of
8, 1, and 0.45 /am, At each sampling site, 380 liters
(100 gal) of drinking water were processed through
the unit at a flow rate of 3.8 liters (1 gal) per min.
After transportation to the laboratory, the filter
membranes were treated to elute adsorbed viruses,6
which resulted in a concentrate volume of approxi-
mately 10 ml. The concentrates were examined for
viruses in tissue cultures.
Of the 41 samples collected in FY 74, five were
samples in which a known virus had been added at
random to test the sensitivity of the method in the
field. The technicians collecting the samples, pro-
cessing the eluates, and examining the tissue cul-
tures had no prior knowledge of which samples had
received virus. Each of these "positive controls"
was a different virus serotype added at a concentra-
tion of 100 infectious units per 380 liters (100 gal) of
drinking water. Four of the five positive controls
were recovered. Failure to recover the fifth control
was attributed to difficulty experienced in collection
of the sample and equipment failure during the elu-
tion process. The 36 test samples have been com-
pletely processed through cell cultures, and no vi-
ruses have been isolated from these samples.
CURRENT RESEARCH
Field Survey
The virus survey is a continuing task. In July 1974,
two major changes were incorporated into the sam-
ple collecting procedure; anepoxy — fiber glass fil-
ter7 replaced the cellulose nitrate membranes as the
virus adsorbent, and sample volume was increased
to 1900 liters (500 gal). The filter apparatus being
used in the current survey is shown in Figure 2.
Evaluation of this device in our laboratory has re-
vealed a virus-recovery efficiency that is equivalent
or superior to that of the membrane filter procedure
and allows the processing of larger volumes without
clogging difficulties. The same sampling sites are
being utilized, although other sites are in the process
of being selected.
Methods Evaluation
A close liaison is maintained between the survey
group and the virus methods evaluation group. This
contact enables improvements uncovered in the
laboratory to be more rapidly implemented in the
field. Experiments are designed with a view toward
application of the results to field survey techniques.
Currently, several virus adsorbents are being
evaluated simultaneously in the laboratory under
rigorously controlled conditions; these include.
 image: 








epoxy-eoated microfiber glass in disc and cartridge
configurations, yarn-wound fiber glass cartridges,
and cellulose nitrate membranes, A considerable
body of literature exists on the use of these adsor-
bents for concentrating viruses, but much of this
work concerns their use with distilled or deionized
water or prefiltered tapwater. Furthermore, un-
naturally high levels of virus and low volumes of
water were necessarily used in initial evaluations.
The efficiency of virus recovery under these condi-
tions can, and indeed does, decrease significantly
when 380 liters (100 gal) or more of drinking water,
dosed with one virus unit per 3.8 liters (1 gal) or less,
is sampled directly from the tap. Consequently, the
virus adsorbents are now being compared by WSRL
researchers at virus levels that might be expected to
occur in natural waters and with sample volumes up
to 1900 liters (500 gal) of treated drinking water.
FUTURE RESEARCH
At present, field samples are collected and con-
centrated onsite and transported to the laboratory
for elution and examination. This procedure may
decrease the chances of virus isolation because of
virus inactivation by adverse conditions during
transport. To eliminate this possibility, a mobile,
self-contained laboratory is being designed to con-
centrate and elute samples onsite. The ideal virus
concentrator has not yet been developed. Research
will continue on improving existing methods and
evaluating newer method s as they become available.
The accumulation and analysis of meaningful data
are necessary for a valid assessment of the hazard of
viral disease transmission through drinking water
supplies, and WSRL virologists are directing their
efforts to this end.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The investigators responsible for conducting the
FY 1973 survey at each of the three field laboratories
were: Dr. E. W, Akin at Gulf Coast, Dr. O. C. Liu at
Northeast, and Dr. J. C. Hoff at Northwest. The FY
1974 survey was directed by Dr. E. W. Akin.
REFERENCES
1.	Clarke, N. A., W. F. Hill, Jr., and W. Jakubowski. 1974.
Detection of viruses in water; Tentative standard method.
AWWA Water Quality Technology Conference, Dec. 3, 1974,
Dallas, Texas, oral presentation,
2.	Everyone can't Jive upstream; A contemporary history of
water quality problems on the Missouri River. 1971., EPA,
OWQ, Region VII, Kansas City, Missouri, USGPO,
Washington, D.C. No. KP2.2:Up7, 295 pp.
3.	Potable Waters, Hearings before the Committee on Com-
merce, US Senate, on Amendment 410 to S1478. Serial No.
92-57. USGPO, Washington D.C. (Mar. 20, 1972).
4.	Clarke, N. A., E. W. Akin, O, C. Liu, J. C. Hoff, W. F. Hill,
Jr., D. A. Brashear, and W. Jakubowski. 1974. Vims study for
drinking water supplies. J. AWWA. In press.
5.	Hill, W. F., Jr., E. W. Akin, W. II. Benton, C. J. May hew, and
W. Jakubowski, 1974. Apparatus for conditioning unlimited
quantities of finished waters for enteric virus detection. Appl,
Microbiol. 27:1177-1178.
6.	Sobsey, M, D., C, Wallis, M. Henderson, and J. L. Melnick.
1973.	Concentration of enteroviruses from large volumes of
water. Appl. Microbiol. 26:529-534.
7.	Jakubowski, W., J. C. Hoff,N. C. Anthony, and W. F. Hill, Jr.
1974,	Epoxy-fiberglass adsorbent for concentrating viruses
from large volumes of potable water. Appl. Microbiol. 28:501.
UNITED STATES
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
NATIONAL ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH CENTER
Cincinnati, Ohio 45268
POST AGE AND FEES PAID
U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION ASENCY
EPA-335
OFFICIAL BUSINESS
PENALTY FOR PRIVATE USE. S300
AN EQUAL OPPORTUNITY EMPLOYER
F51
U. 5. MAIL
12
 image: 








e ws of
ri viro nrriental
iiesearch in
W incin na(i
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
METHODS DEVELOPMENT
AND QUALITY
ASSURANCE
RESEARCH
February 28,
1975
A COPPER-CADMIUM COLUMN FOR
MANUALLY DETERMINING NITRATE
M. E. Gales, Jr. and R. L. Booth*
INTRODUCTION
Nitrate has been considered a most important
water quality parameter because of its association
with human and animal waste. Nitrate is usually the
most prevalent form of nitrogen in water, because it
is the end product of the aerobic decomposition of
organic nitrogen. Nitrate from natural sources is at-
tributed to the oxidation of nitrogen of the air by
bacteria and to the decomposition of organic mate-
rial in the soil. Fertilizers may add nitrate directly to
water resources through runoff. Nitrate-rich
effluents discharged to receiving streams can pro-
duce algal blooms. It has also been recognized that
cyanosis due to methemoglobinemia may occur in
infants whose drinking or formula water contains a
high concentration of nitrates.
The determination of nitrate has always been a
difficult problem. Although a number of methods
have been developed for its determination, all are
subject to some form of interference and none are
applicable to a large variety of sample types. Com-
pliance monitoring of point-source discharges, as
required by the National Pollution Discharge Elimi-
nation System (NPDES), has accelerated the need
for a simple, reliable method for nitrate determina-
tions that can be used for all types of water and waste
samples.
A number of methods have been developed that
are based on reducing nitrate to nitrite; the nitrite
(originally present plus reduced nitrate) is deter-
mined by diazotizing with sulfanilamide and coup-
ling with N-(l- naphthyD-ethylcnediamine di-
hydrochloride to form a highly colored azo dye that
*Mr. Gales, research chemist (513-684-2900), and Mr. Booth,
technical coordinator, are with the National Environmental Re-
search Center, Methods Development & Quality Assurance Re-
search Laboratory, Cincinnati, Ohio.
is measured spectrophotometrically. There are very
few known interferences with this colorimetric
method, and it has a very high sensitivity.
Since 1951 zinc has been used as a reductant for
the determination of nitrate; however, this reaction
tends to continue beyond nitrite, and closely con-
trolled conditions are necessary if reproducible re-
sults are to be obtained. O'Brien and Fiore1 auto-
mated this procedure, but the efficiency of the reduc-
tion varies with time and the number and kinds of
samples. Mullin and Riley2 developed a method that
reduces nitrate to nitrite by the use of hydrazine in
the presence of copper. The yield of nitrite was not
stoichiometric, however, but only 60%. Kamphake
et al.,3 in automating this procedure, obtained a
100% reduction of nitrate to nitrite when applying the
procedure to surface waters, sewage, and industrial
waste. A shortcoming of the copper-hydrazine
method, however, is its inability to determine nitrate
in saline waters. Cadmium4 is also used to reduce
nitrate to nitrite. The metal can be used as cadmium,
amalgam-cadmium, and eopperized-eadmium. The
automated copper-cadmium method8 has been used
successfully to analyze a variety of water samples.
The manual colorimetric methods most commonly
used are the phenoldisulfonic acid, chromatropie
acid, and brucine methods. Of this group, the
phenoldisulfonic acid method fi-7 is the most popular,
but seldom yields reliable results except under care-
fully controlled conditions. Further, it is subject to
interference from chloride and nitrite ions, and the
suggested pretreatment for their removal frequently
leads to inaccurate results. The chromatropie
method8 is very tedious to apply, and the 2.5-ml
sample volume is difficult to pipet accurately.
Barium, strontium, lead, iodide, iodate, selehite.
13
 image: 








and selenate interfere with the chromatropic method
through the formation of precipitates.
The brueine method, developed by Jenkins and
Medsker, 9 gives reliable results for determining ni-
trate levels in natural waters. In an Analytical Refer-
ence Study, 10 the brueine method yielded the best
overall results and was recommended for use in the
range of 0,1 to 2.0 mg NOs-N/1, More recently,
Holty and Polworowski11 have shown that the color
developed by this procedure does not level off above
2 mg/1 (1:1 stoichiometry), but instead drops off to
absorbance levels within the range of 0.1 to 2.0 mg of
NOs-N/l of the standard curve before increasing
again. When this happens, the concentration of ni-
trate appears to be within the range of the standard
curve, but actually the sample may contain as much
as 50 times the apparent concentration of nitrate.
Holty eliminated this problem by increasing the con-
centration of brueine sulfate. Although there are
some problems with the brueine method, it has
proven to be the most reliable for manually determin-
ing nitrate in surface waters and in some industrial
wastes. Subsequent studies on a variety of treated
waste effluents showed, however, that extremely
erratic results were obtained in samples that con-
tained high concentrations of oxidizing or reducing
agents and/or high concentrations of organic matter.
The objective of this study was to develop a man-
ual method that could be used to determine nitrate-
nitrogen in wide variety of water and waste samples.
Based on a literature review, the cadmium reduction
method in Standard Methods6 appeared to be most
promising. Nitrate is reduced to nitrite in this
method by passing the sample through a column
containing mercury-cadmium filings. Although this
method appears in Standard Methods, the interfer-
ences are not identified. Changes were made in rea-
gents and sample treatment to make this method
identical with the automated copper-cadmium
methods. By determining and eliminating the inter-
ferences of this method, reliable results were ob-
tained for both water and waste samples over a range
of 0.01 to 1.0 mg NO3-N/L
EVALUATING AND REVISING THE METHOD
The reduction columns used for this study con-
tained copper-cadmium. Cadmium powder was used
in place of cadmium filings. Mercury-cadmium was
not used because mercury is considered a hazardous
material.
A preliminary evaluation of the manual cadmium
reduction method6 was carried out by analyzing
samples of river water, industrial waste, and sewage.
The results were compared with those obtained with
the brueine method (Table 1). Although both proce-
dures gave comparable results for the river water
samples, the brueine method yielded a higher con-
TABLE 1. COMPARISON OF NITRATE RE-
SULTS OBTAINED BY THE BRU-
CIME AND CADMIUM REDUC-
TION METHODS®
NOs-N, mg/1	
Sample Present	%
Method	description in sample Added Found Recovery
Brueine Ohio River
1.1
0.5 1.6
100
Brueine Industrial
16.7
10.0 25.8
97
waste



Brueine Sewage
0.20
0.50 0.53
75
Cadmium Ohio River
1.1
0.5 1.6
100
reduction



Cadmium Industrial
10.2
10.0 13.0
69
reduction waste



Cadmium Sewage
0.29
0.50 0.32
40
reduction
centration and better recovery of nitrate for the in-
dustrial waste sample. On the other hand, with the
sewage sample, the cadmium reduction method gave
a somewhat higher concentration of nitrate and the
brueine method gave better recoveries.
Additionally, industrial waste samples containing
high concentrations of organic matter were also
analyzed. In this case, better recoveries were ob-
tained by the cadmium reduction method (Table 2).
The cadmium reduction method was also applied to
an industrial waste that contained 1.6 mg Fe/1 and to
a treated waste effluent from the Cincinnati Sewage
Treatment Plant. These samples were analyzed by
the automated cadmium reduction method and the
manual method.8 Excellent results were obtained by
the automated method, but poor results were ob-
TABLE 2. COMPARISON OF THE BRUCINE
AND CADMIUM REDUCTION
METHODS FOR NITRATES IN
SAMPLES CONTAINING HIGH
CONCENTRATIONS OF ORGANIC
MATTER
% Recovery
Sample Brueine method	Cadmium reduction
	 method
1	90	91
2	49	25
3	<1	101
4	<1	109
5	54	101
14
 image: 








tained by the manual method. As a means of increas-
ing the recovery, the same ratio of sample to am-
monium chloride (1:3) that was used in the auto-
mated method was applied to the manual method.
This modification improved the recovery of nitrate
from the industrial waste sample, but results from
the sewage sample did not improve.
Subsequently, it was observed that samples con-
taining metals gave low results (Table 3). Apparent-
ly, metals precipitated at the top of the column and
thereby slowed the flow of the sample. This interfer-
ence was eliminated by adding disodium ethylene-
diaminetetraacetate (EDTA)12 to the ammonium
chloride solution. The ammonium ehloride-EDTA
solution was adjusted to a pH of 8.5 with ammonium
hydroxide13 to hold the EDTA in solution. Use of
this reagent complexed the metals present in the
sample and thus kept the surface of the cadmium
clean. To determine the maximum concentration of
EDTA that could be used without affecting the re-
duction, a series of distilled water solutions contain-
ing 1.0 mg of nitrate-nitrogen/1 and varying amounts
of EDTA were analyzed. The maximum yield of
nitrate was obtained with 0.1 gram of EDTA.
TABLE 3. THE EFFECT OF EDTA ON THE
RECOVERY OF NITRATE FROM
DISTILLED WATER
EDTA, conc.
NOa-N in standard,
NOa-N found,
g/80 ml
mg/1
mg/1
0.1
1.0
0.99
0.2
1.0
0.93
0.3
1.0
0.91
The use of EDTA produced excellent nitrate re-
covery from surface water (Table 4), but recovery
from sewage still did not improve. Suspecting that oil
and grease present in domestic waste could be inter-
fering by coating the cadmium and thereby reducing
its efficiency, the column was washed with acetone
and, indeed, large amounts of oil and grease were
removed. Accordingly the oil and grease were re-
moved from the sample prior to its passage through
the column by adjusting the pH of 100 ml of sewage
to 2 and extracting it with two 25-ml portions of
Freon. After the extraction, the pH of the sample
was readjusted to 6. With this pretreatment of the
sample, 96% recovery of nitrate was obtained from
the sewage samples, and the column was used to
efficiently analyze 48 sewage samples.
After the above modifications were made, the per-
cent recovery of nitrate from industrial waste, sew-
age, river water, tap water, and ocean water was
TABLE 4. THE EFFECT OF EDTA ON
THE RECOVERY OF NITRATE
FROM SURFACE WATER
Sample NOs-N in sample, NOa-N added, %
	mg/1	mg/1 Recovery
Little Miami



River
0.71
0.50
97
Ohio River
1.7
1.0
99
Muddy Creek
0.42
0.50
99
determined. As shown in Table 5, excellent results
were obtained for all samples. The percent recovery
was verified by spiking a sewage sample at three
levels — 0.2,0.5, and 1.0 mg of NO3-N/I. The recov-
ery of these spikes was 100%, 102%, and 101%, re-
spectively.
The precision of this method was also determined
by analyzing four concentration levels of nitrate in
sewage. They included a low concentration near the
detection limit of the method, two intermediate
levels, and one level at the upper limit. The concent-
rations of nitrogen used in this study were 0.04,0.24,
0.55, and 1.05 mg/1. The standard deviations were
±0.005, ±0.004, ±0.005, and ±0.01 mg/1,
respectively,
APPLYING THE METHOD
A very simple and accurate method for determin-
ing nitrate in all types of water and waste samples has
been developed. Interference from metals is elimi-
nated with the use of EDTA; oil and grease are
removed by acid extraction with Freon. The sen-
sitivity of this method is 0.01 mg NO.3-N/I. with a
working range of 0.01 to 1.0 mg N/1. Essentially, a
filtered sample is passed through a column contain-
TABLE 5. RECOVERY OF NITRATE FROM
A VARIETY OF SAMPLES
Sample
NO3-N in NOs-N
sample, rag/I added, mg/1
NOs-N %
found, mg/l Recovery
Industrial




waste
23.0
20.0
44.0
102
Sewage
0.01
0.50
0.48
94
little




Miami




River
0.71
0.50
1.2
98
Muddy




Creek
0.42
0.50
0.91
99
Ocean




water
0.08
0.50
0.58
100
Tap




water
1.5
0.50
2.0
100
15
 image: 








ing granulated cadmium-copper to reduce nitrate to
nitrite. Separate (rather than combined) nitrate-
nitrite values are readily obtained by carrying out the
procedure first with, and then without, the initial
Cd-Cu reduction step. This method will be included
in the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency's 1974
edition of "Methods for Chemical Analysis of Water
and Wastes."14
REFERENCES
1.	O'Brien,I. E., and Fiore. J. "RobotChemist; Determination
of Nitrates in Sewage and Wastes." Wastes Eng., 33:128-132,
1962.
2.	Mullin, J. B.. and Riley, J. P. "The Spectrophotometry: De-
termination of Nitrate in Natural Waters with Particular Re-
ference to Sea Water." Anal. Chim. Acta, 12:464-481, 1955.
3.	Kamphake, L. J., Hannah, S. A., and Cohen, J. M. "Auto-
mated Analysis for Nitrate by Hydrazine Reduction." Water
Research, 1:205-216, 1967.
4.	Brewer, P. E., and Riley, J. P. "The Automatic Determina-
tion of Nitrate in Sea Water." Deep Sea Research, 12:765-
772, 1965.
5.	Henrikson, A. "Automatic Methods for Determining Nitrate
and Nitrite in Water and Soil Extracts." Analyst, 95:514-5! 8.
May 1970.
6.	"Method 213B." In: Standard Methods for the Examination
of Water and Wastewater, 13th ed. American Public Health
Association, Washington, D.C., pp. 458-461, 1971.
7.	Takas, M. J. "Phenoldisulfonic Acid Method of Determining
Nitrate in Water." Photometric Study, Anal. Chem., 22:1020,
1950.
8.	West, P. W., and Ramachandran, T. P. "Determination of
Nitrate Using Chromatropic Acid." Anal. Chim, Acta,
33:317, 1966,
9.	Jenkins, D,, and Medsker, L. L. "Brucine Method for De-
termination of Nitrate in Ocean, Estuarine, and Fresh
Waters." Anal. Chem., 36(3):610-612, March 1964.
10.	"Water Nutrient No. 1, Study Number 27." Analytical Re-
ference Service, U. S. Department of Health, Education, and
Welfare, Cincinnati, Ohio, 1966.
11.	Holty, J. G., and Potworowski, H. S. "Brucine Analysis for
High Nitrate Concentration," Environ. Sci. Techno!.,
6(9):835-837, Sept. 1972.
12.	Brewer, P. G., Chan, R. M., and Riley, I, P. "Automatic
Determination of Certain Micro-Nutrients in Sea Water."
Automation in Analytical Chemistry Technic on Symposium,
1965.
13.	"A Simultaneous Multiple Channel System for Nutrient
Analysis in Seawater with Analog and Digital Data Record.''
Advances in Automated Analysis, Technicon Symposium,
Technicon International Congress, Vol. II, pp. 133-145,1969,
14.	"Methods for Chemical Analysis of Water and Wastes,
1974." In press.
UNITED STATES
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
NATIONAL ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH CENTER
Cincinnati, Ohio 45268
POSTAGE AND FEES PAID
U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
EPA-335
OFFICIAL BUSINESS
PENALTY FOR PRIVATE USE. S300
AN EQUAL OPPORTUNITY EMPLOYER
16
 image: 








©'W s of
n wir© pineiifal
ADVAMCED WASTE
TREATMENT RESEARCH
isea- v© li in
G» ineiririaSi
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
April 11,
1975
POLLUTION FROM URBAN LAND RUNOFF
Anthony N, Tafuri*
INTRODUCTION
The most obvious, easily recognizable sources of
potential water pollution are domestic and industrial
wastes. Inadequately treated discharges from
municipal and industrial sewers (point sources) pose
the greatest single threat to water quality. Con-
sequently, point sources have long been studied, and
much has been learned about how to diminish or
eliminate their influence on water quality.
The cost of waste management increases rapidly
as higher levels of treatment are required, and the
ultimate national goal of "zero discharge" is ex-
pected to require public investment many times that
of present levels. Even with "zero discharge" of
municipal and industrial wastes, however, national
goals for water quality may not be achieved in some
areas because of pollution from urban land runoff
and other nonpoint sources. A recent report of the
Council on Environmental Quality1 indicated that in
80 percent of the urban areas studied, downstream
water quality was not controlled by point sources.
DESCRIPTION OF URBAN LAND RUNOFF
Urban land runoff is the discharge of excess urban
surface waters, occurring as a direct result of pre-
cipitation, into the nearest natural or manmade col-
lection channel. Urban runoff has been found to
contain significant amounts of organic wastes, nu-
trients, fecal bacteria, heavy metals, and solids. As
the rainwater passes through the atmosphere, it
sweeps out particulate matter, gases, and odors pro-
duced by natural conditions and industries. From
there, it flushes the earth's surface, washing all ob-
jects with which it comes in contact. Materials can
be dissolved, suspended, floated, or forcefully re-
*Mr. Tafuri (201-548-334?) is a Sanitary Engineer with the
Storm and Combined Sewer Section (in Edison, New Jersey), of
the Advanced Waste Treatment Research Laboratory, National
Environmental Research Center — Cincinnati.
moved and carried away. Essentially, what happens
is that "Mother Nature" cleanses the urban envi-
ronment in a fashion similar to washing off the patio
with a hose.
In light of the types of substances ready for water
transport in the urban environment, it is not surpris-
ing that urban runoff contains substantial quantities
of objectionable materials. Fertilizer, animal wastes,
leaves, and grass clippings are typically found on
lawns and other surfaces. Streets and parking lots
contain engine oil, combustion byproducts, and mis-
cellaneous litter. The materials worn from tires and
brake shoes are also distributed in the streets. Heavy
particulate matter in airborne waste settles out and is
transformed into water pollutants. Litter such as
cans, bottles, plastic, and paper products can be
washed away. Erosion and sedimentation also con-
tribute pollutants to urban runoff.
The seriousness of urban runoff has, to some ex-
tent, been overshadowed by the urgent need for
treatment of domestic and industrial wastes. Con-
sequently, runoff has not been adequately studied,
and its role in water pollution control is poorly un-
derstood. Communities may make expensive sew-
age treatment plant improvements and still not
achieve water quality goals because of the impact of
urban runoff or some other nonpoint source. Steps
must be taken to harmonize land use with water
quality or to treat the runoff waters to reduce their
adverse effects on receiving streams.
DURHAM RESEARCH
In a study by Dr. Edward H. Bryan2 urban runoff
was measured in Durham, North Carolina, from Au-
gust 1, 1968 through June 30, 1970. Dr. Bryan found
that with respect to biochemical oxygen demand
(BOD), the total weight contribution of urban runoff
from the study basin was estimated to equal that of
sanitary wastewater effluent following secondary
treatment. The contribution of chemical oxygen de-
17
 image: 








mand (COD) in the storm water was greater than that
attributable to discharge of raw sanitary wastewater
from a strictly residential or average urban area. The
total solids were found to be substantially larger than
would be expected from average raw domestic
wastewater. The contribution of phosphate was
found to be nominal for urban stormwater when
compared with that of domestic wastewater.
Follow-Up Study
In an attempt to further characterize pollution
from urban runoff, a foilowup study of the Durham
watershed was initiated in 1971 under the joint spon-
sorship of the U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency and the North Carolina Water Resources
Research Institute.3 The study site was the upper
Third Fork Drainage Basin in Durham, North
Carolina — a 1.67-square-mile drainage basin com-
pletely within the city limits — with its northern
boundary located in the heart of the downtown busi-
ness district.
The primary objectives of the Durham study were
characterizing urban runoff with respect to pollutant
concentrations and comparing the impact of urban
runoff's annual yield of pollutants on water quality
with that of domestic wastes. The characterization
of urban runoff is important, since planners, en-
gineers, and other interested groups need to know
what pollutants are associated with this source, how
much is contributed during specified time periods,
and how pollutants are distributed within each runoff
event. Careful evaluation of all sources of potential
water pollution is essential for public officials who
must decide how to spend the limited funds available
for pollution control.
Research Findings
The average concentration and annual yield of
pollutants in runoff from the Durham Third Fork
Creek study area are given in Table 1. These data are
in general agreement with the values obtained by
Bryan2 and investigators in other metropolitan
areas.
The Third Fork Creek study area is served by the
Durham Third Fork Sewage Treatment Plant, which
removes an average of 91 percent of the organics (as
measured by BOD) and 85 percent of the suspended
solids. The annual yield (1972) of raw and treated
municipal waste from the Durham Third Fork Sew-
age Treatment Plant is compared with annual yield
from urban land runoff in Figure 1. From this figure it
can be seen that after providing secondary treatment
of municipal wastes, the largest single source of pol-
lution on an annual basis from the watershed is urban
runoff. In fact, the dissolved oxygen content of the
receiving watercourse during storm flows was inde-
pendent of the degree of treatment of municipal
wastes beyond secondary treatment. Even when the
2000-1
NO SEWAGE 91% TREATMENT
TREATMENT	OF MUNICIPAL
WASTE
Figure 1. Annual pollutant (COD) yield from urban land
runoff, (To convert pollutant yield to grams
par year per square meter, multiply by 40.88.)
secondary plant was assumed to be upgraded to
"zero discharge," oxygen sag estimates were un-
changed. The results from this figure cannot be as-
sumed to represent precisely the severity of the
runoff problem since runoff is often accompanied by
high flow rates (and therefore high degrees of dilu-
tion) in receiving waters. It can be seen, however,
that the runoff problem can be a very important one,
especially when receiving water flow is low.
Another project objective was to investigate the
applicability and effectiveness of chemical coagula-
tion and sedimentation of urban land runoff.
Sedimentation for 15 minutes under ideal conditions
was found to remove an average of 61 percent of the
COD, 77 percent of the suspended solids, and 53
percent of the turbidity. Alum, with or without
coagulant aids, was judged to be the most effective
coagulant for chemical treatment of urban land
runoff. An average of 60 mg alum per liter was found
to effect removals of COD, suspended solids, and
turbidity of 84 , 97, and 94 percent, respectively.
Sedimentation, which is much less costly than chem-
ical coagulation, removed a significant portion of
organics and solids and should be considered as the
first alternative in treatment of urban runoff. Alum
IB
 image: 








TABLE 1. AVERAGE CONCENTRATION AND
ANNUAL YIELD OF POLLUTANTS
FROM THE DURHAM STUDY AREA
2000-1

Average
Annual

concen-
yield

tration
lb/acre/
Pollutant
mg/1*
yr.t
Chemical oxygen demand
170
938
Total organic carbon
42
187
Total solids
1440
7700
Total susp. solids
1220
6700
Kjeldahl nitrogen as N
1.0
6
Total phosphorous as P
0.8
5
Aluminum
16
64
Cobalt
.16
2
Chromium
,23
1.6
Copper
.15
1.6
Iron
12
102
Lead
.46
71
Manganese
.67
1.2
Nickel
.15
2.9
Zinc
.36
2
Fecal coliforms (No./ml)
230
—
*Except coliforms
1'To convert to grams/yr,/sq. meter multiply by 40.88
produces significant increases in pollutant removal
over sedimentation.
The effect of sedimentation and/or chemical
treatment of urban runoff in reducing the total annual
pollutant yield from an urban area is shown in Figure
2 for three different options: (1) no sewage or urban
runoff treatment, (2) 91 percent sewage treatment
plus sedimentation of urban runoff, and (3) 91 per-
cent sewage treatment plus chemical treatment of
urban runoff. Figure 2 illustrates that treatment of
both domestic wastes and nonpoint sources may be
necessary to substantially reduce pollution dis-
charges in urban areas.
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
Urban land runoff is a significant source of pollu-
tion. When compared to the raw municipal waste
generated within the study area, the annual urban
runoff of COD was equal to 91 percent of the raw
sewage yield, the BOD yield was equal to 67 percent,
and the suspended solids yield was 20 times that
contained in the raw municipal wastes.
If Durham provided 100 percent removal of or-
ganics and suspended solids from the raw municipal
waste on an annual basis, the total reduction of pol-
lutants discharged to the receiving water would only
be 52 percent of the COD, 59 percent of the ultimate
BOD, and 5 percent of the suspended solids.
During storm flows, dissolved oxygen content of
the receiving watercourse was found to be indepen-
MUNIC1PAL
SEWAGE
URBAN
RUNOFF
a
_i
LLJ
>~
Q
O
o
2!
<
o
Q_
IE
CD
>
k_
0?
o.
o
CO
i—
Q.
w
*U
e
3
O
a
1000
OPTIONS
Figure 2. Pollutant (COD) yields with different treatment
options; (1) no sewage or urban runoff treatment;
(2) 91 percent sewage treatment plus sedimen-
tation of urban runoff; and (3! 91 percent sewage
treatment plus chemical treatment of urban run-
off.
dent of the degree of treatment of municipal wastes
beyond secondary treatment. Oxygen sag estimates
were unchanged even if the secondary plant was
assumed upgraded to zero discharge.
Solid wastes such as beer cans, broken glass bot-
tles, garbage, bed springs, shopping carts, etc., also
find their way into urban stream beds. These solid
wastes, believed to be typical of urban streams, not
only contribute to lower water quality, but are
aesthetic pollutants that add to property devaluation
and are a hazard to public safety as well.
In urban drainage basins, the beneficial effects of
upgrading secondary municipal waste treatment
plants may be uncertain in view of the apparent
relative impact of urban land runoff on receiving
water quality.
Consequently, urban areas planning to upgrade
secondary sewage treatment plants because of pos-
19
 image: 








sible contravention of stream standards should care-
fully assess the pollution potential of urban runoff.
Full-scale evaluations of the efficiency,
economics, and applicability of alternative facilities
to reduce the impact of urban land runoff on water
quality should be made. Some handling techniques
worth considering are:
•	Storage of urban runoff during periods of high
flows, with eventual pumpback to the sewage
treatment plants during periods of low sewage
flow. The excess surface water may be stored in
tanks, ponds, or underground.
•	Physical solids separation by such devices as
fine mesh screens and swirl concentrators.
•	Separate physical/ chemical treatment.
• Plain sedimentation through manmade or
natural settling basins, with chlorination where
necessary.
Citizens can also be encouraged to help improve
the quality of urban streams by avoiding littering and
supporting local solid waste disposal programs.
REFERENCES
1.	Council on Environmental Quality, Third Annual Report,
Washington, D.C., 1972.
2.	Bryan, Edward H,, Quality of Stormwater Drainage from
Urban Land Areas in North Carolina, Report No. 37, Water
Resources Research Institute, University of North Carolina,
June 1970.
3.	Colston, Newton V., Characterization and Treatment of
Urban Land Runoff, Report No. EPA-670/ 2-74-096 (in press).
Recent reports of interest {available from IVJTIS* only):
"OnShore Treatment Systems for Sewerage from Water era ft Retention Systems/'
EPA-670/2-75-007; Project Officer, D. J. Cesareo. PB 239 630/AS.
"Water Renovation of Municipal Affluents by Reverse OsmosisEPA-670/2-75-
009; Project Officer, H. Boslian. PB 240 018/AS.
"Feasibility Study of Use of Molten Salt Technology for Pyrolysis of Solid
Waste," EPA-670/2-75-014; Project Officer, D. A. Oberackcr. PB 238 €74/ AS.
"Industrial Solid Waste Classification Systems," EPA-670/2-75-024; Project
Officer, R. A. Carries. PB 239 119/AS.
"Stream Pollution Abatement by Supplement Pumping," EPA-670/2-75-035; Pro-
ject Officer, C. A. Brunner, PB 239 566/AS.
*National Technical Information Service, Department of Commerce, Springfield,
Virginia 22151.
UNITED STATES
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
NATIONAL ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH CENTER
Cincinnati, Ohio 45268
POSTAGE AND FEES PAID
U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
EPA-335
OFFICIAL BUSINESS
PENALTY FOR PRIVATE USE. S300
AN EQUAL OPPORTUNITY EMPLOYER
20
 image: 








ews of
nviro n me nta I
& search in
INDUSTRIAL WASTE
TREATMENT RESEARCH
LABORATORY
C incinnatt
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
April 25,
1975
STRIVING FOR ZERO DISCHARGE OF INDUSTRIAL WASTES
J. Ciancla and H. M. Freeman*
INTRODUCTION
Recent Federal legislation (PL 92-500) declares
that it is the national goal to eliminate the discharge
of pollutants into the navigable waters of the United
States by 1985. As a result, the closed-loop approach
to pollution control has assumed a dominant role in
the industrial research and development program of
the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. The
elimination of pollutant discharges can be ac-
complished by chemical recovery and water reuse at
the same manufacturing facility or through by-
product recovery of the waste materials.
However, the concept of recovering usable con-
stituents from wastes and recycling treated
wastewaters generally requires considerable in-
genuity and a thorough insight into the processing
operations. Many technical and economic barriers
must be overcome before this concept becomes a
reality, particularly when the processing operation
generates a complex waste containing a variety of
contaminants. The EPA industrial research, de-
velopment, and demonstration program, by advanc-
ing technically sound and economically feasible im-
provements in waste treatment through the de-
velopment and demonstration stages, is attempting
to shorten the time between the research and im-
plementation stages of industrial closed-loop con-
trol. The Industrial Waste Treatment Research
Laboratory, part of the National Environmental Re-
search Center in Cincinnati (NERC-Cincinnati), is
the EPA laboratory designated to carry out this in-
dustrial research and development program.
This article briefly describes a number of projects
in the metal finishing and nonferrous metals indus-
*Mr. Ciancia (201-548-3410) is the Chief of the Industrial Pollu-
tion Control Branch of the Industrial Waste Treatment Research
Laboratory, National Environmental Research Center — Cincin-
nati; Mr. Freeman is a Staff Engineer in that branch.
tries in which closed-loop-type technology has been
developed or demonstrated. To date, EPA has sup-
ported over 30 research and development studies in
these industries. Technological developments for
recovering chemicals and reusing wastewater from
other industries will be discussed in future
NERC-Cincinnati newsletters.
Closed-loop-type treatment of wastes from the
metal finishing and nonferrous metals industries not
only eliminates the discharge of pollutants into the
environment but also conserves natural resources
and prevents the buildup of solid wastes (sludges)
produced by chemical treatment techniques.
SIGNIFICANCE OF METAL FINISHING
AND NONFERROUS METAL POLLUTION
PROBLEMS
The metal finishing and nonferrous metals indus-
tries produce a multitude of waste discharges rang-
ing from very dilute large flows to highly concen-
trated batch dumps.1'10 The major contaminants in
the wastes from these industries are a wide variety of
toxic heavy metals, cyanide, fluoride, acid or al-
kalies, oils, and suspended solids. The wastes pro-
duced in the metal finishing industry come mainly
from dumped spent-processing baths, rinsewaters
used to wash off process solution adhering to the
surface or trapped in crevices of parts removed from
metal finishing baths, and accidental spills and leaks.
The major wastewaters arising in the nonferrous
metals industries are mud slurries, flotation plant
tailings, gas scrubber waters from smelting and refin-
ing, discarded leach liquors, spent electrolytic solu-
tions, clean-up water, slag and ore storage runoff,
direct contact cooling water, and metal fabricating
processing bath dumps, rinsewaters, and leaks and
spills.
The large amounts of toxic and other harmful con-
taminants in metal finishing and nonferrous metal
21
 image: 








industry wastes represent a serious pollution prob-
lem. The wastes are harmful to humans, animals,
and various forms of aquatic life; and, if discharged
into sewers, can vitiate the biological treatment pro-
cesses and cause corrosion of the metal and concrete
structures.
CLOSED-LOOP TREATMENT PROCESSES
Reverse Osmosis
Under an EPA grant to the American Electroplat-
ers5 Society (AES), Abcor, Inc. (Cambridge, Mas-
sachusetts) conducted a project to demonstrate the
technical feasibility and determine the economics of
reverse osmosis (RO) for treating metal finishing
rinsewaters by recovery of the chemicals and reuse
of the water.6
The application of RO for closing the loop on metal
finishing rinse wastes is shown in Figure 1. Rinsewa-
ter from the first tank, which would otherwise be
discharged to the drain, is separated by the RO sys-
tem into a "concentrate" and "permeate" stream.
The concentrate stream is returned to the processing
bath, and the purified or permeate stream is recycled
to the rinsing operation. A small evaporator is re-
quired for those metal finishing operations where
insufficient natural evaporation occurs in the bath.
WATER MAKEUP
DRAGOUT
EVAPORATION
DRAG-IN
DRAGOUT
METAL
FINISHING
BATH
EVAPORATOR!
(WHERE "
NEEDED )'v
CONCENTRATE
¦m
PURIFIED WATER (PERMEATE)
Figure 1. Reverse osmosis recovery system.
The major advantages of RO over other metal
finishing rinse recovery processes are low capital
and energy costs, simplicity of operation, and com-
pact equipment requiring a minimum of space. The
modular nature of RO units makes them particularly
well suited for small-scale installations. The most
important limitations of RO are the pH and operating
temperature limitations of presently available com-
mercial membranes and the inability of RO to con-
centrate the chemicals in the rinsewaters sufficiently
for certain baths to close the loop without a small
amount of additional concentration by an
evaporator.
The first phase of the AES study involved the
testing of all commercially available membranes in
modular pilot plant equipment on actual metal finish-
ing rinsewaters. Tests conducted on cellulose ace-
tate tubular, cellulose acetate spiral wound, and hol-
low fiber polyamide membranes showed that RO is
presently an attractive method for treating mixed
plant effluents and rinsewaters from Watts nickel,
nickel sulfamate, copper sulfate (acid copper), cop-
per pyrophosphate, nickel fluoroborate. and zinc
chloride baths, as well as copper, zinc, and cadmium
cyanide baths. However, the technique was found to
be unsuitable for treating chromic acid and very high
or low pH rinse wastes. After short-range testing,
several new membranes now under development
appear promising for expanding the pH range and
capabilities of RO and for handling oxidizing chemi-
cals such as chromic acid.
The hollow fiber polyamide membrane had a long
operating life (3 years) over the pH range of 4 to 11.
In contrast, the cellulose acetate spiral wound and
tubular membranes had reasonable operating lives
over a pH range of 2.5 to 7. Thus, the polyamide
hollow fibers appear to be the only attractive mem-
brane for alkaline cyanide and noncyanide rinsewa-
ters at present, and probably should be satisfactory
for most alkaline applications except where very
high pH levels result from the required concentra-
tion. On the other hand, the cellulose acetate mem-
branes are more suitable for the acid baths and
should be effective in treating these rinsewaters ex-
cept where the pH is extremely low or oxidizing
acids are present.
The second phase of this AES project is a demon-
stration study of a full-scale, polyamide hollow fiber
RO system for treating rinsewater from a copper
cyanide plating bath in a plating shop. Although the
RO system only concentrates the copper cyanide in
the rinsewater to a fraction of bath strength, cop-
per cyanide plating solutions are operated hot, and
there is sufficient loss of water from the process
solution to permit return of all the chemicals to the
bath without the need for an evaporator. After satis-
factory initial operation, the company changed the
copper cyanide processing operation and the RO
system had to be moved to another plant, delaying
the completion of the project.
Process Changes and Electrolytic Recovery
One of the earlier projects supported by EPA was
a full-scale demonstration at Volco Brass & Copper
22
 image: 








Company (Kenilworth, New Jersey) to evaluate the
effectiveness and economics of a pollution control
system that involves process changes, electrolytic
copper recovery, and integrated rinse treatment of
brass mill wastes,2
The plant produces about 75 tons of typical copper
and cuprous alloy wire per day and uses a hot sul-
furic acid primary pickle followed by an ammonium
bifluoride — chromic acid secondary pickle. Waste
treatment was needed for both the spent pickling
solutions and the dilute wastes from the rinsing op-
erations following the various cleaning steps. Con-
ventional chemical treatment of these wastes would
result in relatively high capital and operating costs,
large-scale equipment, and substantial amounts of
potentially toxic sludge.
The new approach demonstrated under the grant
involves: the installation of an electrolytic recovery
system in the primary pickle bath to remove copper,
which would otherwise build up requiring the sul-
furic acid solution to be dumped; the replacement of
the chromic acid — ammonium bifluoride secondary
pickle with a hydrogen peroxide — sulfuric acid
solution containing proprietary additives;, and the
incorporation of an integrated chemical rinse sys-
tem. The hydrogen peroxide oxidizing treatment in
the secondary pickling bath results in the formation
of water and eupric sulfate buildup, which is periodi-
cally removed by simple crystallization and added to
the electrolytic recovery system or sold separately
as a byproduct. The integrated chemical rinse is a
recycle system in which the copper sulfate washed
from the wire is precipitated by the alkalinity in the
rinsewater and settled as a salable dense copper
sludge in a reservoir tank.
Therefore, the new pollution abatement approach
eliminates such troublesome contaminants as
chromium, ammonium, and fluoride; recovers es-
sentially all of the copper; prevents the dumping of
the process baths; and reduces the plant's process
water requirements by about 90 percent. The com-
pany estimates that when the cost of pickling plus
conventional treatment is compared with that of
pickling plus the new waste treatment /recovery sys-
tem, a substantial savings results — $540 daily com-
pared with $194 daily. In addition, the new system
requires much less floor space and eliminates a
troublesome sludge problem.
Electrodialysis
A grant was awarded to the RAI Corporation
(Long Island, New York) to demonstrate (in pro-
totype equipment treating a simulated waste) the
feasibility of using electrodialysis to close the loop
on copper cyanide rinsewater.3
The application of the electrodialysis process is
shown in Figure 2. The system is designed to main-
WORK DRAGOUT
WORK
WORK
Figure 2. Electrodialysis recovery system,
tain the required quality of water in each rinse tank
by returning the amount of chemicals carried over
with the parts back to the preceding tank, which
contains a much higher concentration of chemicals.
The ionic species in the feed entering each elec-
trodialysis stack are transported through the mem-
branes by the application of direct current. As the
rinsewater flows through every other compartment,
the cation exchange membrane permits the passage
of cations and rejects anions and the anion mem-
brane allows the passage of anions and rejects ca-
tions. Thus, the rinsewater flowing through these
compartments is purified and a concentrate is
formed in the adjacent compartments.
The study showed that the chemicals in the rinse-
water could be concentrated to slightly over 70 per-
cent of bath strength. For copper cyanide plating,
this level of concentration is s ufficient to return all of
the chemicals to the processing operation since the
bath is operated hot and a significant amount of
natural evaporation occurs. The ability of elec-
trodialysis to achieve high levels of chemical con-
centrations should permit the process to economi-
cally close the loop on a large number of rinse wastes
without the need for additional evaporation.
A grant was recently awarded to establish the
effectiveness and economies of the electrodialysis
process for closing the loop on a brass cyanide rinse
waste under actual plant conditions with full-scale
equipment.
Ion Exchange
A unique ion exchange process has recently been
developed for recovering phosphoric acid used in the
bright finishing of aluminum parts; it also has appli-
cation for purifying other processing acids used in
the nonferrous metal and metal finishing industries.
The process was investigated through the pilot
plant stage by Lancy Laboratories (Zelienople,
23
 image: 








Pennsylvania). On the basis of this work, EPA
awarded a grant to the Douglas & Lomason Com-
pany to optimize the new ion exchange system (un-
der pilot plant conditions) and to evaluate the effec-
tiveness and economics of the process for treating
phosphoric acid wastes produced in their Cleveland,
Mississippi, plant.7
Referred to as "acid retardation," the technique
employs a strongly basic anion exchange resin for
separating the phosphoric acid and aluminum con-
tamination that builds up during the bright finishing
of aluminum parts. The anion exchange resin ac-
complishes the separation by retarding the phos-
phoric acid as the processing solution flows through
the bed. The aluminum remains in the solution and
passes out of the column into the effluent. The acid is
then eluted from the bed with water, eliminating the
use of the chemicals that are needed to regenerate
the resin in conventional ion exchange systems.
The completed pilot plant study shows that over
75 percent of the phosphoric acid can be recovered
for reuse in the processing operations and that the
technique is more economically attractive than al-
ternative methods for treating or disposing of the
spent phosphoric acid. The full-scale demonstration
study has recently been initiated to evaluate the ion
exchange process under actual plant conditions.
CONCLUSION
By continuing to establish and support research
programs involving innovative technology such as
described herein, the Industrial Waste Treatment
Research Laboratory of NERC-Cincmnati intends
to play a major role in attaining the national goal of
zero discharge of industrial wastes.
REFERENCES
1.	BatteUe-Columbus (Ohio). A State-of-thc-Art Review of
Metal Finishing Waste Treatment. Federal Water Quality
Administration, U.S. Department of the Interior, Water Pol-
lution Control Research Series, 12010 EIE, November 1968,
NTIS PB 203 207.
2.	Volco Brass and Copper Co, Brass Wire Mill Process
Changes and Waste Abatement, Recovery and Reuse. U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency, Water Pollution Control
Research Series, I2010DPFI!/ 71. November 1971.
3.	Towiner, S. B. (RAI Corp.). Investigation of Treating Elec-
troplaters Cyanide Waste by Electrodialysis, U.S. Environ-
mental Protection Agency, Grant Project 12010 DFS, En-
vironmental Protection Technology Series, EPA-R2-73-287,
December 1973, NTIS PB 231 263/AS.
4.	Kunin. R. Product Finishing (Cincinnati), 33:66, April 1969.
5.	Lancy, L. E,, Chap. 12, In: Industrial Pollution Control
Handbook, H. F. Lund, ed. McGraw-Hill Book Co., New
York. 1971.
6.	Membrane Processes for Treating Metal Finishing Wastes
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Project 12010 HQJ
to the American F.lectroplaters' Society (Progress Reports).
7.	Phosphoric Acid Recovery — Phase I U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency, Grant Project S-802637 to Douglas &
Lomason Company (draft in preparation).
8.	Applied Science and Technology Branch, Office of Research
and Development, USEPA. Projects in the Industrial Pollu-
tion Control Branch, July 1972. Environmental Protection
Technology Series, EPA-R2-72-120, December 1972, NTIS
PB 218 160.
9.	North Star Research & Development Inst. Ultrathin Mem-
branes for Treating Metal Finishing Effluents by Reverse
Osmosis. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Water Pol-
lution Control Research Series, 12010DRH11/ 71, November
1971. NTIS PB 208 211.
10.	BatteUe-Columbus (Ohio), Water Pollution Control in the
Primary Nonferrous Metals Industry, Volumes I and II. U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency, Environmental Protec-
tion Technology Series. EPA R2-73 247a and 247b, NTIS PB
229 446/AS and PB 229 467/AS. September 1973.
11.	Yuronis, D. Plating, 55:1071, 1968.
UNITED STATES
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
NATIONAL ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH CENTER
Cincinnati, Ohio 45268
POSTAGE AND FEES PAID
U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
EPA-335
OFFICIAL BUSINESS
PENALTY FOR PRIVATE USE S30O
AN EQUAL OPPORTUNITY EMPLOYER
24
 image: 








ews off
nvironmental
esearc h in
C
SOLID AND HAZARDOUS
WASTE RESEARCH
LABORATORY
May 9,
m	___ ** ..	M ¦»
i n c i n n 311	1975
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
SEWER TRANSPORT OF HOUSEHOLD REFUSE
A REPLACEMENT FOR THE REFUSE TRUCK
Oscar W. Albrecht and Donald A. Oberacker*
BACKGROUND
Today's modern sewer networks evolved from
yesterday's cesspools and open trenches in the in-
terest of health, sanitation, and safety. Then in the
1950's, the concept of wet-transporting putrescible
kitchen wastes was introduced and subsequently
practiced by way of the now well-known home gar-
bage grinder. The next logical step could be to grind
and mix the remaining household wastes with sew-
age — a procedure referred to as the wet-transport
system. The thought of putting ground-up refuse into
sewers is perhaps disturbing, but so was the idea of
the kitchen garbage disposal when it was first intro-
duced. Recent studies have shown that the concept
might have promise in the future.
Recently, a comprehensive analysis was made of
the wet transport system to determine its technolog-
ical and economical feasibility.1 Previous studies
had investigated mainly the technical aspects of wet
transport systems, with very little attention given to
economic feasibility.2"4
The recent Curran study suggested that the wet
transport system would be technologically feasible
and convenient, but more expensive than the con-
ventional method of collecting and transporting ref-
use, A cost analysis of the two systems (based on
1973 prices) indicated that the wet transport system
would probably cost each household between $113
and $196 annually, depending on population served
and refuse generation rate, compared with $43 to
*Mr. Albrecht is a research economist and Mr, Oberacker is a
mechanical engineer with the Solid and Hazardous Waste Re-
search Laboratory, National Environmental Research Center —
Cincinnati (513-684-4484). Acknowledgement is made to Dr. H.
E. Bostian and Dr. H. C. Goddard for providing helpful comments
and review. Dr. Bostian served as co-project officer along with
Mr. Oberacker for the Curran research project.
$115 annually for the present conventional system
(Table 1). A comparison of these costs suggests that
the wet transport system is uneconomical for present
wide-scale application. The concept may, however,
see gradual implementtion through its appeal to cer-
tain consumers influenced by its convenience,
aesthetics, and promotion by manufacturers and res-
idential developers.
MECHANICS OF WET TRANSPORT SYSTEMS
A considerable amount of research has been con-
ducted on finding alternative systems for grinding
household refuse, feeding the refuse into the sewer
TABLE 1. COMPARATIVE ANNUAL COSTS PER
HOUSEHOLD FOR CONVENTIONAL AND WET
TRANSPORT SYSTEMS, BY SIZE OP POPULATION
AND REFUSE GENERATION RATE*
Item
Total system cost range
Conventional sytemt
Wet system
Population size?


50,000
$57-115
$132-196
100,000
52-110
126-184
500,000
43-101
113-160
Refuse generation rates§

1.02 kg
43-101
113-160
1.53 kg
45-103
126-172
2,04 kg
47-105
134-181
"Source: Curran Associates, "A Preliminary Assessment of
Wet Systems for Residential Refuse Collection," EPA Contract
No, 68-03-0183 (March, 1974), p. 152.
tlncludes the usual costs for sewage collection and sludge
handling and assumes incineration of refuse.
JA generation rate of 1.02 kilograms per capita per day is
assumed.
§Kilograms per capita per day are for a population of 500,000.
25
 image: 








along with ordinary sewage, determining whether
the mixture flows well through the system, and de-
termining the proper treatment and disposal. The
studies referred to above included investigations of
both individual and mul,ti-household or apartment
grinders, plumbing requirements, new versus old
sewers, rheological properties, and necessary mod-
ifications to existing sewage treatment plants. Some
household refuse such as yard waste, discarded
bicycles, TY sets, or large metal cans, etc., are too
bulky or difficult to grind in household refuse grind-
ers. These nongrindable items would have to be
collected at intervals by conventional methods.
Small metal cans, bottles, paper, and bones could be
ground and discharged to the sewer along with the
putrescible garbage. In older, slower-flowing sew-
ers, metals and glass may have to be collected sepa-
rately because of settling problems.
COMPARATIVE COSTS OF WET TRANSPORT
AND CONVENTIONAL SYSTEMS
Expenditures for collecting household refuse have
increased rapidly in recent years. State and local per
capita expenses for solid waste management rose
from $3.69 in 1962 to $6.98 in 1971, a 90 percent
increase. These figures do not reflect social costs in
terms of air, water, land, and noise pollution, disease
vectors, etc. Nor is the value of household labor
associated with handling residential refuse included
in these figures. Much of the increase in expendi-
tures is due to labor costs. Between 1962 and 1971,
the annual wage increases to private refuse collec-
tion and disposal workers ranged between 3.4 and
7.2 percent in several major cities.5 Recent wage
increases to refuse workers have outpaced the gen-
eral inflationary trend.8 The trend in wage rates,
coupled with increased unionization and the poten-
tial for strikes, means that labor costs will continue
to significantly influence refuse collection costs.
Some savings in conventional collection systems
can be effected by substituting capital for labor in-
puts — the use of larger trucks and transfer stations,
for example. There are limits to this substitution, of
course. The use of capital in place of labor also
involves an opportunity cost which must be consid-
ered, regardless of whether the collection is oper-
ated by a private firm or by local government. Cur-
rent interest rates are near record highs, and refuse
equipment costs have also risen (though not as
rapidly as wages). Another factor in the higher cost
of solid waste management is the steady increase of
land values, particularly near major cities where land
available for refuse disposal is at a premium.
The total system costs for the wet transport sys-
tem and the conventional method of collection and
transport on a generalized basis, by size of popula-
tion area and refuse generation rate, can be com-
pared in Table 1. The Springfield, Massachusetts,
area was selected to represent costs for a typical
standard metropolitan statistical area (SMSA) (Ta-
ble 2). For the costs in Table 1. it was assumed that
the refuse was incinerated; Table 2 reflects disposal
by sanitary landfill. Generally, landfill is a less ex-
pensive method of disposal. Economy of scale was
shown with respect to size of population served,
irrespective of the system, but costs for both
methods increased with higher per capita refuse gen-
eration rates.
In Table 2, the estimates of component costs for
the Springfield SMSA produced some interesting
observations. Collection costs for nongrindables
would be only $2.50 annually per household, com-
pared with $17.50 by the conventional system. On
the other hand, sewer maintenance cost would be at
least $6.00, compared with the present $2.00. Total
system costs from between $114.50 and $142.50 for
26
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TABLE 2. COMPARATIVE ANNUAL COSTS PER
HOUSEHOLD FOR CONVENTIONAL AND WET
TRANSPORT SYSTEMS, SPRINGFIELD SMSA*
Cost

Conventional
Wet transport
Item
system
system
Refuse collection
$17.50
$2.50t
Bulky refuse collection
1.00
2.00
Disposal^
3.50
1.00
Sewer maintenance
2,00
6.00-9.00§
Grinding
—
80.00-105.00
Treatment
9.00
12.50
Sludge handling
5.50
8.50
Sludge disposal
0.75
2.00
Annual Total
39.25
114.50-142.50jt
'Source: Cu trail Associates, "An Assessment of Wet Systems
for Residential Refuse Collection: Summary Report," EPA Con-
tract No, 68-03-0183 (March, 1974), p. 80. Data are 1973 price
estimates for Springfield, Massachusetts.
fCollection of nongrindables only.
tAssumcs landfill of refuse,
§Assumes one flushing per year. If four flushings are required,
the cost would rise to $24 to $36.
•jrExcluding the grinder system costs, total costs would be
$34.50 to $37.50.
the wet transport system are thus significantly higher
than the $39.25 for the conventional system.
Specific variables found to influence the cost of
wet transport were:
•	Population density (single-family versus multi-
family dwellings)
•	Refuse generation rate per capita
•	Age of housing unit
•	Cost of grinder (including plumbing, mainte-
nance, power, etc.)
•	Proportion of nongrindables
•	Water consumption
•	Hydraulic transport (including sewer modifica-
tion and maintenance)
•	Treatment costs (including modifications)
•	Sludge handling and disposal
•	Resource recovery opportunities
Of the above, population density and the refuse
generation rate were considered of major impor-
tance. Population density (i.e., single-family or
multi-family dwellings) affects the technological
choice for a neighborhood versus an individual
household grinder system. The latter appeared fea-
sible in low density areas, whereas neighborhood
grinder systems are more practical for density areas
of four or more households per structure.
Regarding refuse generation rates, the cost com-
parisons between conventional and wet transport
systems in Table 2 are based on 1.02 kg (2.25 pounds)
per capita per day; EPA estimated a national aver-
age generation rate of 1.51 kg (3.32 pounds) for
1972.7 As shown in Table I, this assumption has
some effect on total system cost. These rates do not
include commercial and industrial solid wastes.
The largest single cost component of the wet
transport system is the annualized grinder and as-
sociated system costs of $80 to $105 (Table 2). The
initial expense for the grinder and the associated
installation cost is crucial to consumer acceptance of
the entire concept. An underlying assumption is,
therefore, that all homeowners would voluntarily
purchase the grinder and assume the necessary in-
stallation costs. Otherwise, adoption of the system
would have to be mandatory to be workable. In new
housing areas just being developed, the system could
perhaps be made a part of the development plan. The
extent of plumbing modifications may make it pro-
hibitive for older, established residential areas.
The nongrindable component of household refuse
(e.g., bulky items, metals, resilient plastics, rubber,
leather, synthetic textiles, etc.) would have to be
collected in the usual manner, but at less frequent
intervals. Modifications in collection equipment
might be needed since the nongrindables would con-
tain a large proportion of metals and be of higher
densities than conventional refuse. Storage of non-
grindables would also have to be provided. If the
trend toward increased use of paper and plastic con-
tinues, the proportion of metals in refuse would
probably decline.
An important but not fully determined component
is the necessary sewer maintenance cost. The cost
analysis assumed only one sewer flushing each year,
but it was noted that up to four flushings might be
needed. This increase would quadruple the costs for
sewer maintenance.
The cost and availability of water for the grinding
system are additional variables to be considered.
Initial flow must be diluted to below 2 percent solids
for proper functioning until the ground refuse is de-
livered to the curbside sewer system where the nor-
mal sewage flow is probably sufficient for further
transport. The use of household nonfecal wastewa-
ter was considered as an alternative source of water;
however, the additional costs for plumbing modifica-
tions and storage appeared to make this alternative
uneconomical.
Another important aspect concerns the treatment
of the refuse-sewage mixture. Preliminary indica-
tions are that the refuse-sewage mixture can proba-
bly be handled by conventional treatment methods,
with modifications to accommodate the additional
solids loading. An unanswered question, however, is
what inhibitory effects on the treatment process may
result from the introduction of hazardous or toxic
and nonbiodegradable substances by way of the ref-
use.
27
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Disposal of refuse in sludge form was shown to be
less costly than disposal by conventional landfilling
because economies of scale result from combining
refuse and sewage, according to the Curran results,8
The larger volume of sludge from wet transport sys-
tems, however, increases the importance of select-
ing sites for sludge disposal. In the Springfield, Mas-
sachusetts, SMSA, refuse disposal, as combined
sludge with conventional disposal of nongrindables,
was estimated to cost $3,00 annually on a household
basis, compared with $4.25 for refuse disposal by
landfill and sewage sludge separately (Table 2). In-
cineration of combined sludge appeared to be
economical when the distance to a landfill exceeded
72.4 kilometers (45 miles).
Resource recovery opportunities under a wet
transport system (with the possible exception of
paper) appeared to be equal to those existing under
the conventional refuse handling system. From an
energy conservation viewpoint, the increased use of
electricity for grinding and treatment plant opera-
tions would be offset by a savings in fuel used by
refuse collection vehicles. Additionally, the wet
transport system may offer a better potential for
energy recovery through methane production by
anaerobic digestion.
CONCLUSION
Although the economics appear unfavorable at
this time for the wet transport system, it has certain
potential advantages over the conventional method
of handling household refuse that are not easily con-
verted into monetary terms. These include im-
provements in aesthetics, reductions in noise and
odor pollution, and potential improvement in public
health. Evaluating the true social desirability of the
wet transport system is extremely difficult and re-
quires the conceptualization and measurement of all
costs and benefits. From society's point of view, the
refuse management system to be preferred is that
that maximizes total net social benefits, including
the environmental impacts.
There are certain technological aspects about the
wet transport system requiring further investigation.
These include: (1) the degree of sewer maintenance
required, (2) the compatibility of treatment systems
with the heavier loading caused by refuse, including
possible increases in hazardous and toxic sub-
stances, and (3) the extent to which modifications
would have to be made to household plumbing and
existing sewer lines.
Wide-scale implementation of the wet transport
system is not likely to occur for some time. If it does
occur, implementation will be gradual to minimize
any adverse effects on refuse workers and provide
additional time to evaluate the areas needing further
study,
REFERENCES
¦	blllballVlaW
1.	Curran Associates, An Assessment of Wet Systems for Resi-
dential Refuse Collection. EPA Contract No. 68-03-0183.
2,	Los Angeles County Sanitation District, Report on a Study of
the Feasibility of Disposing of Rubbish into a Sewage Disposal
System. Unpublished memorandum report dated September
13, 1963.
3.	Foster-Miller Associates, Feasibility of Hydraulic Transport
of Ground Refuse Through Sewer Appurtenances. EPA Con-
tract No. 68-03-0095.
4.	Zandi, I., and J. Hayden, A Pneumo-SIurry System of Collect-
ing and Removing Solid Wastes. Advances in Solid-Liquid
Flow in Pipes and Its Applications. New York: Pergamon
Press, 1971,
5,	Curran Associates, An Assessment of Wet Systems for Resi-
dential Refuse Collection: Phase II, Draft Report, EPA Con-
tract No. 68-03-0183, p. 202,
6,	Clark, R,, Urban Solid Wastes Management: An" Economic
Case Study, EPA R2-73-012, p. 18, August 1972.
7.	U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Air and
Waste Programs, Resource Recovery and Source Reduction
— Second Report to Congress, EPA SW-122, p. 4, 1972.
8,	Curran Associates, An Assessment of Wet Systems for Resi-
dential Refuse Collection; Summary Report, EPA-670/2-74-
068, p. 57-62, August 1974. NTIS PB 236 085/AS.
UNITED STATES
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
NATIONAL ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH CENTER
Cincinnati, Ohio 45268
POSTAGE AND FEES PAID
U S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
EPA-335
OFFICIAL BUSINESS
PENALTY FOR PRIVATE USE. S30O
AN EQUAL OPPORTUNITY EMPLOYER
28
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ews of
nviro n me ntal
esearch in
WATER SUPPLY
RESEARCH
LABORATORY
C iri cinnati
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
THE BACTERIAL QUALITY OF BOTTLED WATER
Edwin E. Geldrelch, Harry D. Nash, Donald <J. Reasoner, and Raymond H. Taylor *
The growing public concern over water pollution,
the fact that numerous municipal water supplies use
polluted streams for source water, opposition to the
addition of fluoride to some municipal water
supplies, and the taste and odor problems in some
community water supplies have stimulated growth
of the bottled-water industry in the United States.
The recent publicity about the occurrence of or-
ganohalides in finished drinking waters has also had
a positive effect on sales. In 1972, there were an
estimated 700 water-bottling plants in the United
States that accounted for at least $ 107 million in total
sales.
Some of the larger bottled-water companies now
reach large regional markets throughout the country
in addition to expanded local sales. With the in-
creased geographical distribution and growth in
bottled-water sales, an increasing proportion of the
population is exposed to a potable water source of
uncertain bacteriological quality. The need for sys-
tematic bottled-water quality surveillance is a grow-
ing concern. Some states require that bottled-water
quality standards comply with the U.S. Public
Health Service Drinking Water Standards;1 how-
ever, most states either have no regulations, or the
existing regulations are ineffective or not enforced.
Unfortunately, few states specify a definite sampling
frequency for bacteriological examination or repeat
testing when the initial sample results are unsatisfac-
tory.
The assumption that bottled water is of unques-
tionably good quality simply because the source
water is a spring or artesian well is untenable. The
labeling of some bottled waters may even imply that
the bottled waters are derived from pristine sources
that do not require treatment and consequently are
superior to municipal water supplies that utilize pol-
luted raw water sources.
The purpose of this study was three-fold:
*The authors arc Research Bacteriologists with USEPA's
Water Supply Research Laboratory in Cincinnati, Ohio
(513-684-8414).
(1)	investigate the bacteriological quality of a va-
riety of brands of bottled water purchased
from retail outlets,
(2)	investigate the variability in bacteriological
quality of freshly bottled water, and
(3)	characterize changes in the bacterial density
of bottled water during storage.
CONDUCTING THE SURVEY
Sample Collection
One-half- or one-gallon containers of available
brands of bottled water were purchased from local
retail outlets for bacteriological examination. After
initial examination, some bottled-water samples
were examined repeatedly over a period of 30 days
or longer to evaluate changes in bacterial density
during storage.
In addition, samples of freshly bottled water, ob-
tained directly from the bottler, were examined bac-
teriologically. A portion of these samples had been
collected in conjunction with a nationwide bottled-
water study conducted by the Water Supply Divi-
sion, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency,2 in
which 25 water bottlers were surveyed. Five water
bottlers in the Cincinnati, Ohio, area were included
in that survey.
All bottled-water samples were transported (unre-
frigerated) to the laboratory within 6 hr for analysis.
Some samples of freshly bottled water were held in
the laboratory at 23 ± 2 C for repeat sampling to
determine how the bacterial populations changed
during storage. After the initial examination, repeat
examinations were conducted over a period of 63
days.
Bacteriological Tests
1. Standard Plate Count (SPC). The SPC of
bottled-water samples (freshly bottled and retail
purchased) was determined using the pour plate pro-
cedure described in Standard Methods for the
Examination of Water and Wastewater.3 Five repli-
cate plates were made for each dilution. The plates
were examined and colonies counted after 72-hr in-
cubation at 35 C.
29
 image: 








2.	Total and Fecal Coliform. Total and fecal col-
iform determinations were conducted according to
Standard Methods membrane filtration procedures.
Separate 250-rnl volumes of samples were examined
for fecal and total coliform determinations of bottled
water.
3.	Pseudomonas aeruginosa counts. The mem-
brane filter method of Levin and C'abelli,4 utilizing
M-PA agar, was used to examine the bottled-water
samples for the presence of Pseudomonas
aeruginosa.
SURVEY RESULTS
A total of 129 freshly bottled-water samples were
collected directly from 25 different bottlers. Of these
only 14 (10%) had an initial SPC greater than 500
bacteria per ml (Table 1). Total coliforms were de-
tected in six samples; only two of these exceeded the
USPHS Drinking Water Standards coliform limit
(for an individual sample) of four coliforms per 100
ml. Also, one of the two coliform positive samples
contained fecal coliform bacteria, and the other col-
iform positive sample contained 52 Pseudomonas
aeruginosa per 100 ml,
TABLE 1. RANGES OF STANDARD BAC-
TERIAL PLATE COUNTS IN
FRESHLY BOTTLED WATER
SAMPLES*
SPC/ral
Number of
samples
%
of samples
Cumulative
%
<1
23
17.8
17.8
1-10
56
43.4
61.2
10-100
28
21.7
82.9
100-500
8
6.2
89.1
500-1,000
5
3.9
93.0
1,000-10,000
7
5.4
98.4
>10.000
2
1.6
100.0
* All samples were plated within 48 hr of bottling.
The bacterial densities in bottled-water samples of
unknown age purchased from retail sales outlets
were highly variable. The data in Table 2 show that
42 of 101 samples (41.6%) contained greater than 500
bacteria per ml, and about 11% contained less than 1
bacterium per ml. Three samples had total coliform
counts that exceeded the USPHS Drinking Water
Standards. Fecal coliform bacteria were not de-
tected, but one sample contained Pseudomonas
aeruginosa at a concentration of 13 per 100 ml.
Table 3 shows the variability in bacterial density
and the frequency of coliform-positive samples
among the 19 brands of bottled water analyzed dur-
ing this study. Examination of the bacterial density
TABLE 2. STANDARD BACTERIAL PLATE
COUNTS IN BOTTLED WATER
OBTAINED FROM RETAIL OUT-
LETS*
SPC /ml
Number
of samples
%
of samples
Cumulative
%
<1
11
10.9
10.9
1-10
20
19.8
30.7
10-100
19
18.8
49,5
100-500
9
8.9
58.4
500-1,000
6
5.9
64.3
1,000-10,000
16
15.9
80.2
>10,000
20
19.8
100.0
"Samples purchased after undetermined periods in stock.
ranges reveals the variability of the SPC from brand
to brand, as well as the variability within the same
brand where multiple samples were analyzed.
Comparison of the data in Tables 1,2, and 3 shows
that the bacteriological quality of bottled water
examined within 48 hr of bottling was not representa-
tive of the quality of bottled water obtained from the
retail shelf after an undetermined period in stock.
Forty-four bottled-water samples purchased from
retail stores were stored at room temperature for 30
days and sampled weekly. The maximum SPC per ml
recorded for stored bottled-water samples are
grouped by range in Table 4. The SPC in 33 of the 44
stored samples (75%) increased to over 500 bacteria
per ml during the storage period; this indicates that
sufficient nutrients were present in the bottled wa-
ters to support significant increases in bacterial
densities.
In addition, changes in bacterial populations of six
freshly bottled-water samples stored at 23 ± 2C were
followed for a period of 63 days. These samples were
collected and examined in conjunction with a
nationwide pilot survey of water bottlers and bottled
water.5
To determine if the increase in bacterial density in
bottled water could be minimized during storage,
seven pairs of bottled-water samples were pur-
chased. One bottle from each pair was stored at
refrigerator temperature (4 ± 2C) and the other stored
at room temperature (23 ± 2C) for the duration of the
storage experiment. Samples from each bottle were
examined weekly for 8 wk to observe changes in
bacterial density. Results from six of the paired sam-
ples showed that the maximum bacterial density at-
tained in the stored refrigerated sample was signifi-
cantly lower than that attained in the stored unrefrig-
erated sample (Figure 1). In the remaining paired
sample, maximum counts of less than 20 bacteria per
30
 image: 








TABLE 3. COMPARISON OF STANDARD
PLATE COUNT VARIABILITY
AMONG BRANDS OF BOTTLED
WATER
Brand
Sample
type*
Number of
samples
SPC/ml
ranget
Coliform
positive
samples:):
A
F
91
< 10-25,000
3/91

R
16
<10-28,000
0/16
B
R
6
< 10-260,000
0/4
C
F
1
<10
0/1

R
11
1200-160,000
0/11
D
R
5
31-650
0/5
E
F
1
<10
0/1

R
2
100,000-390,000
2/2
F
R
2
<10-12,000
0/2
G
F
2
<10
0/2

R
1
<10
0/1
H
R
9
<10-390
1/9
I
R
2
<10
0/2
J
R
2
<10-2,000
1/2
K
R
2
<10-12
1/2
L
R
4
13-4300
0/4
M
R
1
<10
0/1
N
R
1
<10
0/1
O
R
1
1,000,000
1/1
P
R
1
8,600
0/1
Q
R
1
<10
0/1
R§
R
1
<10
0/1
s§
R
1
12
0/1
'Fresh (F) - Samples direct from bottler, examined within 24
hr; Retail (R> = Samples of unknown age purchased from retail
outlets.
f Standard Plate Count (SPC) range values represent average
bacterial counts per ml, calculated from five replicate plates,
incubated for 72 hr at 35 C, using plate count agar.
fOne or more coliforms/100 ml.
§Imported bottled water, carbonated.
TABLE 4. MAXIMUM STANDARD PLATE
COUNTS ATTAINED IN RETAIL
PURCHASED BOTTLED WATERS
DURING ROOM TEMPERATURE
STORAGE FOR 30 DAYS
Maximum SPC/
Number
%
Cumulative
ml
of samples
of samples
%
<1
2
4.5
4.5
1-10
4
9.1
13.6
10-100
4
9.1
22 J
100-500
1
2.3
25.0
500-1,000
1
2.3
27,3
1,000-10,000
13
29.5
56.8
> 10,000
13
43.2
100.0
5 IKITIJI count
¦ MAXIMUM COUNT: ROOM TEMP. STfMCC
100,000 ¦ luxiMtm COUNT; REFBiB STORSGE
LU
CP
- £EiO,OOD -
BO
3 4 5 6 7 8 9
SAMPLE NUMBER
Figure 1. The effect of refrigerated and room tempera-
ture storage on the standard plate count of
bottled water.
ml were observed in bt>th the room temperature and
refrigerated samples. The peak bacterial density in
the refrigerated samples occurred after an average
storage of 26 days, as opposed to only 11 days stor-
age for the room temperature samples.
DISCUSSION
Although a specific statement may not be present
on the brand label of a bottled-water product, it may
be implied that, compared with municipal supply
source water, the bottled-water source is initially of
better quality and the finished product will retain this
high quality during shelf life prior to purchase. The
results obtained during this study do not support this
implication. Persistence of initial bacterial contami-
nation will be determined by the availability of
bacterial nutrients, water temperature, pH, and an-
tagonism or competition of other bacteria present in
the water.
Concern over high bacterial counts in bottled
water relates to; the possible loss of coliform test
sensitivity in waters with excessively high bacterial
populations and the increased risk of human expo-
sure to organisms that are considered secondary
pathogenic invaders.5 The bottled-water standards
adopted by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration,
31
 image: 








which became effective on May 22, 1974,do not
include a SPC limit for bacteria, although the eol-
iform limit is similar to that of the present USPHS
Drinking Water Standards, This is unfortunate be-
cause, in many cases, bottled water is recommended
for use in preparing baby formula, prescriptions, and
fruit juices, coffee, tea, and other beverages. Thus,
some infants and many older people who use bottled
water are in a position of increased health risk be-
cause of possible exposure to bacteria that may be
secondary pathogens. Both young and elderly indi-
viduals are relatively more susceptible to secondary
pathogens than the rest of the population.
RECOMMENDATIONS
Bottled drinking water should be analyzed for bac-
teriological quality at the same frequency per month
as is required by the USPHS Drinking Water Stand-
ards, with a repeat sampling program and a followup
sanitary survey when the results are unsatisfactory.
At the time of bottling, the water should contain less
than 1 coliform per 100 ml and have a SPC of less
than 500 bacteria per ml. Samples taken from super-
market, drugstore, and restaurant supplies should
have less than 1 coliform per 100 ml and a SPC of less
than 1,000 organisms per 1 ml. Establishment of a
SPC limit is suggested for control of bacterial quality
deterioration during storage.
The results from the bottled-water survey and
from the storage studies support two recommenda-
tions for the bottled-water industry and retailers.
First, refrigerated storage will minimize bacterial
multiplication in bottled water from the time of bot-
tling to sale. The consumer should also be advised to
keep bottled water refrigerated. Second, each con-
tainer should be marked with the bottling date, or lot
number, or both to assist both retailer and consumer.
The lot number would be desirable as an aid to recall
of a given lot of bottled water from retail shelves
when the bacteriological quality is unacceptable
and, at the same time, would discourage retail over-
stocking, shorten storage time, and thus, minimize
increases in bacterial populations in bottled-water
products.
REFERENCES
1.	Public Health Service. Drinking Water Standards. PHS Publi-
cation No. 956, — U.S. Department of Health, Education, and
Welfare, Washington, D.C. (Rev. 1962).
2.	Bottled Water Report. Bottled Water Study. A Pilot Survey of
Water Bottlers and Bottled Water, Water Supply Division,
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (Sept. 1972),
3.	Standards Methods for the Examination of Water and Waste-
water, APHA, AWWA, and WPCF, New York (13th Ed.,
1971).
4.	Levin, M, A,, and Cabelli, V. J. Membrane Filter Technique
for Enumeration of Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Appl. Mi-
crobiol. 24 (6):861-87G (1972).
5.	Geldreich, E. E., Nash, H. D., Reasoner, D. J., and Taylor, R.
H. The Necessity of Controlling Bacterial Populations in Pota-
ble Waters; Community Water Supply. Jour. AWWA. 64
(9):596-602 (Sept. 1972).
6.	U.S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare, Food and
Drug Administration. Bottled Water Quality Standards; Addi-
tion of Fluoride, and Current Good Manufacturing Practice
Regulations. Federal Register, 38:226; Part III, Monday, Nov.
26, 1973. pp. 32558-32565,
UNITED STATES
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
NATIONAL ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH CENTER
Cincinnati, Ohio 45268
POSTAGE AND FEES PAID
U S ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
EPA-335
-s
UjSjMML
v J
official business
PEN Al TY FOR PRIVATE USE S300
AM EQUAL OPPORTUNITY EMPLOYER
 image: 








ews of
nvironmenlal
INDUSTRIAL WASTE
TREATMENT RESEARCH
esearch in
C incinn ati
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
June 13,
1975
MODERN WAYS OF STRIP MINING IN MOUNTAINOUS AREAS
Elmore C. Grim*
BACKGROUND
The energy crisis has placed a great demand on the
coal resources of America. A U.S. Bureau of Mines
report estimates that the demand for coal could grow
from the 595 million tons produced in 1973 to 1.5
billion tons a year by 1985. Half of the industry's
production now comes from surface mines. To
achieve the 1985 figure, surface mining will expand,
since it takes 5 years to open a new deep mine and
only 2 years to open a surface mine.
Surface mining is a very broad term that refers to
any process of removing the earth, rock, and other
strata to uncover the underlying mineral or fuel de-
posit, Strip mining is a type of surface mining in
which the strata above the deposit are removed in
narrow bands, one cut at a time. By its very nature,
strip mining is a destructive process.
Strip mining in the past has created problems that
are still present today. Mining practices have all too
often been aimed at removing minerals by the
simplest and cheapest method possible, without
plans for the preservation of land, water, and air, and
with too little consideration for the rights of others.
Recent laws have resulted in new attitudes and
methods by the mining industry and improved en-
vironmental conditions.
Strip mining methods employed to recover coal
can be divided into two general types; area and con-
tour.
Area strip mining is practiced on gently rolling to
relatively flat terrain and is commonly found in the
Midwest and Far West. It is characterized by giant
earthmoving equipment capable of handling several
thousand cubic yards of material per hour. Unless
graded or leveled, the mined area resembles a
plowed field or the ridges of a gigantic washboard
(Figure 1). In general, the pollution from area mines
is not as severe as that from contour mines. Silt from
•Mr. Grim is the Surface Mining Specialist with the Min-
ing Pollution Control Branch, National Environmental
Research Center, Cincinnati, Ohio 45268.

Figure 1. Area strip mining with concurrent reclamation.
erosion can often be confined to the mining area. The
current legislative trend is to require restoration of
the disturbed area to its approximate original con-
tour with all spoil ridges and highwails eliminated
and no depressions left to accumulate water. Several
States now require the operator to separate topsoil
from the subsoil and to stockpile the two types sepa-
rately. When mining is completed, the overburden
can then be put back in its original sequence and
re vegetated to prevent erosion.
Contour strip mining is practiced on rolling to very
steep terrain. The conventional method of mining
consists of removing the overburden from above the
mineral seam, starting at the outcrop and proceeding
around the hillside (Figure 2). The cut appears as a
contour line, hence the name. A shelf or bench is
created on the side of the hill. On the inside, it is
bordered by the highwall, ranging in height from a
few feet to more than 100 feet; on the outer side, the
bench is bordered by a high ridge of spoil with a
precipitous downslope that is subject to severe ero-
sion and landslides. Another problem inherent in this
type of mining is the toxic materials in the overbur-
den. During the stripping operation, the high-quality
soils near the surface are placed on the bottom of the
spoil pile and then covered with low-quality and
33
 image: 








Figure 2, Typical contour strip mining.
often toxic overburden materials. These materials
are exposed to weathering and conversion to soluble
acids that are carried away by water. Erosion pro-
longs the pollution problem by continuing to reveal
new surfaces to weathering.
Legislation at both the State and Federal level is
becoming more stringent and making it illegal to
push overburden beyond the outcrop and over the
mountainside. This type of restriction will ban the
conventional method of strip mining on steep slopes
as well as other mining methods that create a fill
section beyond the solid edge of the bench. Because
of this, concerned Federal and State agencies, along
with the coal industry, have been working together
to develop modern contour mining methods that
minimize the adverse effects on the environment and
at the same time allow the maximum recovery of
coal. These new methods (head-of-hollow fill,
mountain-top removal, and block cut) are now ac-
cepted methods of mining on steep slopes. The spoil
is not placed on the outslope, but hauled to a fill area
designed for that purpose or placed on the bench
behind the operation. These methods are not the
final answers for all mining conditions and are being
refined as more experience with varying conditions
is gained.
MODERN CONTOUR MINING METHODS
Head-of-Hollow Fill Method
The head-of-hollow fill method was developed to
provide storage space for spoil from the removal of
entire mountain tops and as a waste area for over-
burden from contour benches. Instead of mites of
unstable outslope, with its potential for slides and
erosion, a stable usable area can be constructed.
This method, if used properly, will also improve
aesthetics, allow for full recovery of one or more
coal seams, and produce potentially valuable flat-
to-rolling mountaintop land.
Narrow V-shaped, steep-sided hollows that are
near the ridge top and are free of underground mine
openings, seeps, or wet weather springs are selected
for filling. The size of the selected hollow must be
such that the spoil generated by the mining operation
will completely fill the treated head-of-hollow (Fig-
ure 3).
If the head-of-hollow is constructed according to
design, stability of the fill can be expected. The
horizontal and vertical pressures should provide
adequate friction to prevent a failure in the fill. Sev-
eral head-of-hollow fills have passed through five
PROCEDURE:
).SCALP ENTIRE AREA THAT WILL BE COVERED WITH FILL. REMOVE AND STORE TOPSOIL
2.CONSTRUCT	FRENCH DRAINS IN THE HOLLOW WATER COURSES.
3.BUILD	THE FILL IN COMPACTED LAYERS.
FACE OF FILL NO STEEPER THAN 2:1.
4.CONSTRUCT	CROWNED TERRACES EVERY 20 FEET,
APPROXIMATELY 20 FEET WIDE.
5.CENTER	OF COMPLETED FILL BENCH IS CROWNED
TOWARD THE HIGHWALL. SO THAT WATER
WILL FLOW ONTO EXCAVATED BENCHES.
6.BUILD	SILT CONTROL STRUCTURES BELOW HOLLOW FILL.
MOUNTAIN TOP
BUNG REMOVED
TOPSOIL
CROWNED
TERRACES
Figure 3. Head-of-hoi low fill.
34
 image: 








winters with no slides and little or no erosion. Some
operators have graded the face of the fill to approxi-
mately 22° from the horizontal, eliminating the
crowned terraces,
Mountain-Top Removal Method
The mountain-top removal method of surface min-
ing is an adaptation of area mining to contour mining
for rolling-io-steep terrain. Where coal seams lie
near tops of mountains, ridges, knobs, or knolls,
they can usually be economically strip mined. The
entire tops are removed down to the coal seam in a
series of parallel cuts. Excess overburden that can-
not be retained on the mined area is transported to
head-of-hollow fills, stored on ridges, or placed in
natural depressions. This mining method produces
large plateaus of level, rolling land that may have
great value in mountainous regions.
The first cut is stripped as "a box cut, leaving at
least a 15-foot barrier of coal bloom undisturbed
(Figure 4). This cut is made roughly parallel to the
ridge. Overburden from the first cut is transported to
the predetermined storage area. However, the over-
burden from succeeding cuts is deposited in. the pre-
viously excavated cut. The mountain top is thus
reduced by a series of cuts parallel to the ridge line.
Approximately 50 percent of the overburden is
transported to storage areas for disposal, and none is
pushed over the downslope.
When mining is completed, the mountain top is
completely covered with a 20- to 40-foot layer of
spoil and is graded nearly flat (Figure 5). Coal is
recovered from areas that would not ordinarily be
mined because they are unsuitable for underground
mining. Since all the coal is recovered, the reclaimed
area will not be disturbed again by future mining.
Block-Cut Method
The block-cut method is a simple innovation of the
conventional contour strip mining method for steep
terrain. Instead of casting the overburden from
above the coal seam down the hillside, it is hauled
back and placed in the pit of the previous cut. The
method is not new and is known by various names
(haul back, pit storage, put and take, etc.), depend-
ing on the locality. Basically, the operational proce-
Figure 5. Mountain-top removal method; mountain top
after final grading and topsoiling.
dures are similar in that no spoil is deposited on the
downslope below the coal seam, topsoil is saved,
overburden is removed in blocks and deposited in
prior cuts, the outcrop barrier is left intact, and rec-
lamation is integrated with mining.
When beginning the mine, a block of overburden is
removed down to the coal seam and disposed of.
This first-cut spoil can be placed above the highwall
or moved laterally and deposited in a head-of-hollow
fill or ridge fill. The original cut is made into the
hillside to the maximum depth that is to be mined.
The width is generally three times that of the follow-
ing cuts. After the coal is removed, the overburden
from the second cut is placed in the first pit, and the
coal from the second cut is removed. This process is
repeated as mining progresses around the mountain1.
Once the original cut has been made, mining can be
continuous, working in both directions around the
hill or in only one direction (Figure 6).
The cuts are mined as units, thereby making it
easier to retain the original slope and shape of the
mountain after mining. In all cuts, an unmined out-
crop barrier is left to serve as a notch to support the
toe of the backfilled overburden. Block-cut mining
makes it possible to mine slopes steeper than those
presently mined without the danger of slides and
with minimal disturbance. Approximately 60 per-
cent less total acreage is disturbed by this method
than by other mining techniques now in use. There is
TOP OF RIDGE
—HIGHWALL-
CUT 7
CUT 5
CUT 3
CUT 1

CUT 2
CUT 4
CUT 6








-OUTCROP BARRIER-
HOILOW
PROCEDURE:
L5CALP FROM TOP OF HIGHWALL TO OUTCROP BARRIER,
REMOVE AND STORE TOPSOR.
2 REMOVE AND DISPOSE OF OVERBURDEN FROM CUT 1.
3.PICK UP COAL. LEAVING AT LEAST A 15 FOOT UNDISTURBED
OUTCROP BARRIER
4 MAKE SUCCESIVE CUTS AS NUMBERED.
5.OVERBURDEN IS MOVED IN THE DIRECTION, AS SHOWN BY
ARROWS. AND PLACED IN THE ADJACENT PiT.
6.COMPLETE BACKFILL AND GRADING TO THE APPROXIMATE
ORIGINAL CONTOUR.
Figure 6. Block-cut method.
35
 image: 








significant visual evidence that the block-cut method
is less damaging than the old practice of shoving
overburden down the mountainside and creating
permanent scars on the landscape. The treeline
below the mined area and above the highwall is pre-
served. Results of the mining operation are generally
hidden and cannot be seen from the valley below.
This cosmetic feature is only one of the advantages
that make this an acceptable steep-slope raining
method.
The block-cut method is no longer experimental
and is now operational in several States. Enough
information is available from active operations to
show that this method is potentially feasible from an
economic and environmental standpoint.
CURRENT RESEARCH
A comprehensive environmental assessment of
the head-of-hollow fill, mountain-top removal, and
block-cut methods has never been made. Such an
assessment is necessary to develop a plan of action
to help control pollution from surface mining ac-
tivities and to determine land use capabilities. The
Mining Pollution Control Branch is currently making
these assessments. Guidelines developed as a result
of this program will provide a means for selecting
methods, techniques, and alternatives for premining
planning, operating procedures, and reclamation.
Controls for eliminating significant problems
documented during the assessment will be recom-
mended.
With proper surface mining and reclamation prac-
tices, the Nation can have the fuel it so vitally needs
and minimize environmental degradation.
PERTINENT PUBLICATION
The Mining Pollution Control Branch has recently
published a comprehensive manual on the strip min-
ing of coal:
Environmental Protection in Surface Mining of
Coal, by Elmore C. Grim and Ronald D. Hill (En-
vironmental Protection Technology Series, EPA-
670/2-74-093, October 1974). Copies are available
from the Technical Information Staff or the Mining
Pollution Control Branch, National Environmental
Research Center, Cincinnati, Ohio 45268; or from
the National Technical Information Center,
Springfield, Va. 22151 as report PB 238 538/AS.
UNITED STATES
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
NATIONAL ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH CENTER
Cincinnati, Ohio 45268
POSTAGE AND FEES PAID
U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
EPA-335
OFFICIAL BUSINESS
PENALTY FOR PRIVATE USE S300
AN EQUAL OPPORTUNITY EMPLOYER
36
 image: 








ews of	SOLID AND HAZARDOUS
WASTE RESEARCH
LABORATORY
nvironmental
esearch in
June 30,
incinnati	^^1975
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
NATURE AND USE OF COAL ASH FROM UTILITIES
Richard A. Games*
BACKGROUND
In 1972, an estimated 46 million tons (or more) of
coal ash were collected from the burning of 350 mil-
lion tons of coal in some 500 power plants in the
United States. The ash is derived from the inorganic
mineral constituents in the coal and the incompletely
combusted organic material. Bottom ash is collected
from the bottom of the boiler unit and fly ash is taken
from the air pollution control equipment through
which the stack gases pass.
The largest concentration of coal-burning power
plants in the country is in the Middle Atlantic States
and the East North Central States; west of the Mis-
sissippi, coal-burning plants constitute only a small
percentage of the total. A geographic distribution of
coal burned by U.S. utilities in 1971 is shown in
Table 1.
CHARACTERISTICS OF COAL ASH
Chemical Constituents
The specific chemical composition of a particular
coal ash is dictated by the geology of the coal deposit
and the boiler unit operating conditions. The coal ash
residues recovered from various boiler units are
primarily iron aluminum silicates with additional
amounts of lime (CaO), magnesia, sulfur trioxide,
sodium oxide, and carbon (see Table 2). About 12
percent of the coal burned is recoverable as coal ash
residue. A high percentage (50-90) of that ash is in the
glass state, with small quantities of quartz, mullite,
magnetite, and hematite mineral phases.
Physical Characteristics
About 70 percent of the coal ash residue is col-
lected as fly ash. For any specific boiler unit, the fly
* Mr. Carries (513-684-4487} is an Environmentalist with the U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency's Municipal Environmental
Research Laboratory in Cincinnati, Ohio.
TABLE 1. GEOGRAPHIC DISTRIBUTION
OF COAL BURNED BY U.S.
UTILITIES IN 1971

Coal burned
Percent
Geographic area
(thousands of tons)
of total
New England2
2,701
0.8
Middle Atlantic1"
43,869
13.4
East North Central"
119,444
36.5
West North Central*1
27,898
8,5
South Atlantic'
65,903
20.1
East South Central'
51,565
15.7
West South Central"
10
0.1
Mountain11
15,885
4.9
Pacific1
0
0
Total
327,358
100.0
"Maine, New Hampshire, Vermont, Massachusetts, Rhode
Island, Connecticut.
"New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania.
'Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, Wisconsin.
'¦Minnesota, Iowa, Missouri, Kansas, Nebraska, South Da-
kota, North Dakota.
'Maryland, Delaware, Virginia, West Virginia, North Carolina,
South Carolina, Georgia, Florida.
'Mississippi, Alabama, Tennessee, Kentucky.
"Louisiana, Arkansas, Texas, Oklahoma.
"New Mexico, Arizona, Nevada, Colorado, Utah, Wyoming,
Montana, Idaho.
'California, Oregon, Washington.
ash and bottom ash have basically the same chemical
composition except that bottom ash has a reduced
carbon content. Fly ash generally occurs as fine
spherical particulates with an average particle
diameter of 7 microns. Depending on carbon con-
tent, fly ash ranges in color from light tan to black
and has an average specific gravity of 2.3. The pH of
fly ash varies from 6.5 to 11.5, but averages about 11.
Almost 20 percent of fly ash, by volume, is com-
posed of very lightweight particles that float on the
surface of an ash lagoon. These particles, called
cenospheres, have a true density of about 0.5 g per
37
 image: 








TABLE 2. CHEMICAL CONSTITUENTS
OF COAL ASH
Constituent
Average
Constituent
Average
%
Silica (Si02)
45
Boron (B)
Trace
Alumina (Al2Oa)
25
Phosphorus (P)
Trace
Ferric oxide (Fe2Oa)
14
Manganese (Mn)
Trace
Calcium oxide (CaO)
4
Molybdenum (Mo)
Trace
Magnesium oxide
2
Zinc (Zn)
Trace
(MgO)



Titanium dioxide
1
Copper (Cu)
Trace
(TiCy



Potassium oxide*
2
Mercury (Hg)
Trace
(K,0)



Sodium oxide (NajO)
1
Uranium (LI)
Trace
Sulfur trioxide (S03)
2
Thorium (Th)
Trace
Carbon (C)
4


•Alkalies
cm3. These cenospheres are C02- and Nz-filled mi-
crospheres of silicate glass ranging in size from 20 to
200 microns.
The bottom ash is collected either as an ash or a
slag, depending on the particular boiler design. The
ash material is gray to black in color, is quite angular,
and has a porous surface. The slag particles are
normally black, angular particles having a glassy
appearance. The bottom ash particles have an aver-
age diameter of 2Yi mm and an average specific
gravity of 2.5.
Coal Ash Characteristics
and Advanced Technology
Advancing boiler-design technology and the en-
forcement of stricter air pollution codes for boiler
facilities may alter the nature of the coal ash pro-
duced in the future. The various desulfurization
processes, coal fractionation processes, and new de-
signs for electric generating facilities can produce
coal ash and slag products that are considerably
different from those currently being produced.
The coal fractionation processes used for obtain-
ing clean gas or liquid fuels and the reconstitution of
the coal to obtain a clean, low-ash, low-sulfur fuel
yield slag and char residues at the conversion facility
rather than at the power plant. The liquefaction
process produces a filter cake of inorganic materials.
The fluidized-bed gasification process generates a
powder waste composed of the fluidizing media, the
coal residue, and a calcium sulfate precipitate. A
glassy slag is produced from the high-temperature
gasification process. Because of the relative new-
ness of these processes, the chemical composition
and physical characteristics of the residues have not
yet been well defined.
Conversion of existing boiler units to fluidized-
bed units will change the nature of the coal ash
recovered. Ash from this process will be less vit-
rified, basically as a result of lower operating tem-
peratures. The quantity of crystalline material will
show an increase (quartz, magnetite, alumina, and
calcium sulfate), and the alkaline content is also
likely to be higher.
Several processes have been developed to meet
the newly established codes for control of S02 emis-
sion from stationary sources. A number of these
processes completely alter the nature of the col-
lected material, and others add a new residue mate-
rial to the solid waste stream. Most processes re-
quire the wet or dry injection of an alkaline powder
(limestone, dolomites, etc.) to absorb the gaseous
sulfur in the stack effluent. The presently preferred
system is the wet injection or scrubbing process
(limestone), which in most cases generates a new
waste product (CaSO.,) rather than modifies the fly
ash. Preliminary calculations indicate that these
wastes will probably result in doubling the residue
wastes from utilities. Since these desulfurization
processes are still largely in the development or pilot
stage, it is not possible to accurately identify the
chemical characteristics at this time.
UTILIZATION
Since 1966, the coal ash utilization rate has varied
only slightly and is estimated to be about 15 to 16
percent of the total ash collected in the United
States. From data supplied by the Edison Electric
Institute, it is apparent that the largest use of coal ash
is as a mineral fill material for roads and other con-
struction projects. Average European utilization of
bituminous coal ash from 1972 was approximately 27
percent; but in Belgium, France, Poland, the United
Kingdom, and West Germany, total utilization ex-
ceeded 50 percent. The two largest applications of
European coal ash were as fillers on construction
sites and in concrete blocks.
Though a multitude of technically sound applica-
tions have been developed for using coal ash, its total
use has been very limited. Yearly fluctuations in the
quantities of coal ash used in the various applications
developed suggest that firm markets have not or
cannot be established. At the present time, appreci-
able quantities of coal ash are being used only for fill
for roads and other sundry construction projects.
The use of coal ash as a replacement for cement in
concrete and concrete products is making some
progress, and a more stable market is being estab-
lished. The use of fly ash in concrete offers several
technical advantages—for example, improved
mechanical strength and improved resistance to sul-
fate leaching. Fly ash and boiler slag are also being
used to a large extent in road-base stabilization and
as filler in asphalt. Boiler slag is particularly noted
for increasing the skid resistance of asphalt pave-
ment. The use of coal ash as a raw material in the
38
 image: 








manufacture of Portland cement is another applica-
tion that has recently increased. Recent research
results indicate that large quantities of coal ash can
also be effectively used for agriculture, land, and
water reclamation projects. Fly ash has been effec-
tively utilized in reclaiming surface mine spoil, as a
soil nutrient, and as an aid in treating polluted
waters.
A number of applications developed for coal ash
have the potential for utilizing the entire quantity of
ash generated. These include agriculture and land
recovery, road-base stabilization, structural fill, and
cement and concrete products.
Effective utilization of coal ash in the many de-
fined applications requires that the potential user be
favorably impressed with the product and that the
product be economically advantageous. Depletion
allowances, discriminatory freight rates, and other
practices presently mediate against the economic
competitiveness of coal ash. New or improved Fed-
eral economic policies toward secondary materials
such as coal ash could substantially increase their
use potential.
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Of the approximately 46 million tons of coal ash
collected in 1972, only about 16 percent was utilized.
Thus, over 38 million tons of ash had to be removed
to disposal sites at the expense of the utility and,
eventually, the consuming public. At present, dis-
posal costs are approaching $2 per ton of ash dis-
posed. To meet anticipated energy requirements for
1980, coal consumption by the utilities is projected to
be almost 500 million tons. Such an increase in coal
consumption coupled with the decreasing quality of
available coal (higher ash content) will result in sub-
stantially increased quantities of coal ash. Stricter
air pollution codes (reduced particulate and sulfur
emissions) will also result in increased quantities of
coal ash to be collected for ultimate disposal.
The technology for various uses of coal ash has
been well established. The potential market for most
of these applications is quite good, and several of
these applications have potential markets that could
utilize all the ash collected. The major need at this
time is to initiate programs that will encourage great-
er use of the developed applications. With the antici-
pated increase in coal ash production and increasing
disposal costs, the need for programs to stimulate
ash utilization is paramount.
In addition to these use-stimulation programs,
studies are needed to characterize ash residue from
the new processes such as fluidized-bed boiler units,
gasification and liquefaction, and desulfurization.
Without such studies, effective utilization technol-
ogy for these types of waste will not become availa-
ble, and they will add significantly to the disposal
problem.
A more complete discussion of the material pre-
sented here and an extensive bibliography are to be
found in Characterization and Utilization of Munic-
ipal and Utility Sludges and Ashes: Volume III Util-
ity Coal Ash (EPA-670j2-75-033c) prepared under
the direction of N. L. Hecht and D, S. Duvall of the
University of Dayton Research Institute for the
Solid and Hazardous Waste Research Laboratory,
NERC-Cincinnati, EPA Research Grant Number
800432, Richard A. Carnes, Project Officer.
USEPA OFFICE OF RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT—REORGANIZATION
Effective June 29, 1975, the new Office of Research & Development (ORD) organiza-
tion became effective. This means that the original four National Environmental Research
Centers andoldlaboratories were totally replaced by the new structure of 15 laboratories.
The new laboratories under the supervision of acting directors in Cincinnati carry out
work either through its own facilities, field stations, or through contract, grant, or inter-
agency agreements with other organizations,
ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING AND SUPPORT LABORATORY (EMSL)
Mr. Dwight G. Ballinger
This laboratory develops field and laboratory methods for monitoring physical, chemical,
radiological, microbiological, and biological water quality and waste characteristics. An
Agency-wide quality assurance program is conducted by the laboratory, and technical sup-
port is provided to Regional and other laboratories on water and waste monitoring method-
ology and quality assurance techniques. The laboratory publishes methods manuals,
quality assurance guidelines, and research reports on Agency water monitoring technology.
39
 image: 








MUNICIPAL ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH LABORATORY <MERL)
Dr. Andrew W. Breidenbach
MERL is responsible for research, development, and demonstration programs for munici-
pal wastewater, water supply, solid and hazardous wastes, and ancillary environmental
problems. The programs include collection, treatment, disposal, and management of liquid
and solid wastes, and the technology needed to produce potable water. The MERL effort
includes an integrated systems and economic analysis approach to assure cost effective
output for the municipal user. The Laboratory reports to the Deputy Assistant Adminis-
trator for Air, Land, and Water Use,
HEALTH EFFECTS RESEARCH LABORATORY {HERD
Dr. R. John Garner
Another Cincinnati laboratory is designed to carry out research programs to determine the
health effects of environmental pollutants and to assess the socioeconomic consequences
of these effects. Toxicological, clinical, and epidemiological studies are conducted on a
long- and short-run basis with support agencies assisting. The activities of the labora-
tory are supervised by a director who is responsible to the Deputy Assistant Administrator
for Health and Ecological Effects,
INDUSTRIAL ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH LABORATORY (IERL)
Dr. David G. Stephan
Develops and demonstrates cost-effective technologies to prevent, control, or abate pol-
lution from operations with environmental impacts associated with the extraction, process-
ing, conversion, and utilization of energy and mineral resources and with industrial
processing and manufacturing. Evaluates environmental control alternatives, including
conservation measures, and assesses the environmental and socioeconomic impacts, of
the operations. The Director of the laboratory is responsible to the Deputy Assistant
Administrator for Energy, Minerals, and Industry,
united STATES
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
Cincinnati, Ohio 45268
POSTAGE AND FEES PAID
U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
EPA-335
mrhIbbb
OFFICIAL BUSINESS
PENALTY FOR PRIVATE USE, S300
AN EQUAL OPPORTUNITY EMPLOYER
40
 image: 








(i&llM Of
cnvi'RonmemfiL rc/bhkk
I
cinnoli
u,/, onvSronmeritol protection agency
HEALTH EFFEC
RESEARCH
LABORATORY
September 29,
1975
A RADIOTELEMETRY SYSTEM FOR MONITORING RESPIRATION IN DOGS
Mildred J. Wiester, Rumult litis, and Charles T. Pfetzer*
INTRODUCTION
The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency is in-
terested in the health effects of many toxic pollutants
in the atmosphere. Toxicologic^] information can be
obtained from animals chronically exposed to con-
trolled experimental atmospheres containing these
pollutants. Meaningful measurements of respiration
in test animals are needed for this type of informa-
tion. Since respiratory measurements are less al-
tered if they can be obtained from free roaming ani-
mals, there is a need for suitable instrumentation and
methodology by which breathing parameters can be
remotely monitored and assessed. A system that
accurately measures the exposure of an inhaled pol-
lutant without hindering the animal's ventilatory
mechanisms could be of utmost value in air pollution
research. This study describes such a system de-
veloped for use with dogs.
If rate (frequency, f) and depth (tidal volume, VT)
of pulmonary ventilation are measured, the minute
respiratory volume (VE) of a dog can be calculated
by: VE = VT x f. This reduces the problem of
measuring inhaled dosages of any known atmos-
pheric pollutant to a matter of simple arithmetic. For
example: VE x atmospheric pollutant concentration
x time = total dose. Known exposures of any pol-
lutant can be correlated with physiological or be-
havioral effects as well as with pathological tissue
levels of the pollutant.
The spirometer,1-2 plethysmography pneumo-
tach,4,5 and the pneumograph band6 have all been
used successfully to obtain accurate breathing rates
and volumes in acute respiration studies. Each of
these devices, however, is unsuitable for chronic
exposure experiments for one or all of the following
reasons: (1) physical restraints or anesthesia needed
to apply or maintain a device may alter the dog's
body position, breathing patterns, and mechanics;
(2) connections and/or wiring of devices often results
~Dr. Wiester and Rumult litis (513-684-7488) are with the U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency's Health Effects Research
Laboratory in Cincinnati, Ohio. C, T, Pfetzer submitted .(1974)
part of this work to Wright State University, Dayton, Ohio, in
nartial fulfillment of his M.S. reauirements.
in reduced mobility; and (3) a dog may remove any
device attached to it (e.g., pneumograph band).
Many methods of short-term evaluation call for
using a restrained dog—a condition unacceptable in
chronic studies.4 The ideal chronic exposure
requires conditions that allow natural breathing
without contact with the experimenter.7 Since bar-
biturates depress pulmonary ventilation,® chronic
exposure requires the dog to be unanesthetized
while measurements are being made. To be func-
tional, the system would have to satisfy the following
requirements: (1) respiratory measurements should
be taken from unanesthetized and unrestrained
dogs; (2) extra stimuli to respiration should be gener-
ated only by the pollutant; (3) animals should be able
to tolerate the monitoring device with no ill effects;
(4) the system should be reliable, stable, and easy to
operate throughout the period of chronic exposure
(approximately 6 weeks); (5) equipment and proce-
dure should be economical and sufficiently easy to
assemble so that the system could be used re-
peatedly on small groups of dogs; and (6) the system
should be easy to calibrate. The purpose of this study
was to develop and validate an implantable system
that would accurately measure breathing rate and
volume in dogs and be appropriate for monitoring
respiration during chronic exposure to aerosol pol-
lutants. An ideal monitoring system would be a
small, implantable respiration sensor signaling a
radiotelemetry transmitter. A device such as this
eliminates the need for restraints or anesthesia dur-
ing measurement and locates wires and instruments
inside the dog.
Because suitable radiotelemetry equipment was
not available commercially nor was there any
method for respiratory measurements of this nature
referenced in the literature, we undertook to develop
such a system.
EQUIPMENT AND PROCEDURES
The system has two main implantable parts: the
sensor and the transmitter. The sensor unit consists
of a semiconductor strain-gauge, which, when surgi-
cally mounted onthe dog's rib, detects and converts
breathing movement to an output voltage signal. The
 image: 








signal is fed into the transmitting unit and amplified.
The transmitted signal is received by a remote FM
receiver and subsequently recorded (Figure 1).
Figure 1. Sensor-radiotelemetry system.
The strain-gauge forms one arm of a Wheatstone
bridge. The other arms are formed by three precision
resistors equal in value to the nominal value of the
unstressed gauge (Figure 2). When no stress is
applied to the sensor, the output of the bridge is zero.
Since the condition is difficult to maintain (because
stresses are developed when the sensor is mounted
on the rib), a balancing potentiometer trimmer is
provided across the bridge. When stress is applied to
the sensor, resistance of the gauge changes and an
output voltage from the balanced bridge results.

TO TRANSMITTER
Rl
%
Ro
SG
V
GF
£
CURRENT LI M m MG RESISTOR
BALANCING POTENTIOMETER <50K fl)
NOMINAL RESISTANCE OF STRAIN GAGE (2-2KH|
STRAIN GAGE
SUPPLY VOLTAGE (I 5V)
GAGE FACTOR (I40)
STRAIN (IN/IN)
e*= OUTPUT VOLTAGE
e0W
£ R0
2 Rq
-y'x GF. £ VOLTS.
Figure 2, Wheatstone bridge circuitry.
An ivory plate (30 x 6'x 2 mm) was chosen for the
strain-gauge mounting. Gauges (BLH Electronics of
Waltham, Mass.*) were the semiconductor type
SPB 3-15-200 with a nominal resistance of 2,000
ohms and a gauge factor of 140. Eastman 910 adhe-
sive was used for attaching the gauge to the ivory.
Gauge leads were soldered to silver circuit stick tabs
(Circuit Stick of Gardena, Calif.). The tabs were also
attached to the plate with Eastman 910 adhesive.
Belden 32 AWG lead wires were soldered to the
standoff tabs. The surface of the plate containing the
gauge and tabs were coated with a layer of Gauge-
kote (Bean and Associates, Detroit, Mich.), and the
lead wires were covered with silastic medical grade
tubing (Dow Corning). The unit and silastic tube
connections were then encapsulated with Scotch
cast #5 (3M Co.), This structure, when hardened,
was hand sculptured to 34 X 10 x 4 mm with a hand
rotary drill and cutting bits (Figure 3).
The small, single-channel FM transmitter
(supplied by Case Western Reserve University,
Cleveland, Ohio) was designed to respond to fre-
quencies higher than those generated during normal
breathing, which makes the transmitter nonrespon-
sive to breathing signals. Therefore, an impe-
dance-matching transformer was added between the
strain-gauge and transmitter. Because the time con-
stant of this circuitry is in milliseconds, this system is
more than responsive to a 2- to 3-second breathing
excursion. Also, AC coupling to the transmitter was
required to eliminate effects of baseline shifts. The
power source consisted of two Eveready (S76) silver
oxide batteries. The batteries, Wheatstone bridge,
impedance transformer, and transmitter were all
built into a small, implantable unit 55 mm long and 9
mm in diameter.
* Mention of commercial products does not imply endorsement
.01
Figure 3. Mounted strain-gauge.
For reception of transmitted signals, a dipole-type
antenna was designed and constructed. The antenna
was insulated and mounted in the exposure
chamber. A coaxial cable, connected to the antenna,
extended to the FM receiver in a remote room. The
receiver used was a commercially available (Defense
Electronics) Model. GPR 20 FM receiver. The AC
signal decoded by its limiter discriminator is fed to a
polygraph recorder.
Before surgery, all electronic implantable devices
were gas sterilized. Surgery consisted of making a
3-inch (7.6 cm) incision in the lateral chest skin,
retracting the muscles, and exposing a segment of
the eighth rib. The periosteum was removed from the
area of the bone where the sensor would be placed
(just above and proximal to the anterior rib carti-
lage). With the use of orthopedic instruments, two
holes were drilled through the rib, and the sensor
was then secured with bone screws. During surgery,
the resistance of the gauge was directly monitored by
a digital ohmmeter. Screws were turned to full tight-
ness in such a manner that the resistance of the gauge
remained at its unstressed value and the sensitivity
of the gauge was maintained at its maximum. Follow-
ing strain-gauge attachment, wires from the gauge
were threaded under the skin and exited through a
puncture wound in the back neck skin. The transmit-
ter unit was surgically implanted under the back
skin; later it was attached to the sensor after the
stability of the implanted strain-gauge apparatus was
rnnfiririfd
 image: 








SIGNAL INTERPRETATION AND COMMENTS
Calibration was aimed at achieving a good esti-
mate of minute volume from the unanesthetized dog.
To calibrate the strain-gauge signals for volume, the
signals had to be compared with simultaneously re-
corded, direct-volume measurements, and for this
purpose, a spirometer was used. Breathing output
signals (seen in Figure 4B) have a time decay con-
stant; therefore, they represent the rate of change of
stress in the bone during breathing excursions. For
calibration of breathing minute volume, the dog was
anesthetized and outfitted with an endotracheal tube.
The tube was placed in series with a Collins 13.6-liter
spirometer (Collins Co., Braintree, Mass.). The dog
was placed in three basic body positions: right lateral
recumbency; left lateral recumbency; and stomach.
For each position, the dog was monitored while
breathing either room air or while breathing a low-
oxygen, high-carbon-dioxide gas mixture, which
caused increases in rates and volumes. The strain-
gauge reading curves were analyzed for frequency
and shape of the volume curve; they were also elec-
tronically integrated (Figure 4C) to determine areas
under the curve. Area values were compared with
minute volumes simultaneously recorded on the
spirometer (Figure 4A).
10
Figure 4. A, spirometer recording of 10 inhalation volumes;
B, simultaneous breathing output: C, electronic integra-
tion of area under each inhalation curve.
A calibration curve was constructed from data
obtained with the dog placed in different body posi-
tions and breathing different atmospheres. The
curve plots minute volume (liters per minute), re-
corded by the spirometer against the area under the
curve of a simultaneously recorded and integrated
ctrQin-iraiifrp nntnnt (mm*	mirmtp\ fFiourp
E
1
*	DOG PLACED IN RIGHT LATERAL RECUMBENCY
•	DOG PLACED IN LEFT LATERAL RECUMBENCY
k DOG PLACED ON STOMACH
|6
§ 4
Z 2
S
50 100 150 200 250
STRAIN GAUGE SIGNAL INTEGRATION <mm2/mln)
Figure 6. Strain-gauge volume calibration curve.
Results indicated that stresses developed in the
ribs during breathing, detected by the strain-gauge,
produced corresponding output voltages that
showed a linear relationship to minute volumes.
Furthermore, when the voltages were transmitted
through the telemetry device, they retained their
linearity.
Once calibration curves are constructed for each
strain-gauge, the respective curves can be used to
estimate volume measurements of subsequent
strain-gauge signals. Practical application of a
breathing rib sensor can be seen in Table 1.
TABLE 1. COMPARISON OF ANESTHETIZED
AND UNANESTHETIZED BREATH-
ING FROM THE SAME DOG.

Dog respiratory values a

Immediately
Item
Before following

anesthesia pentobarbital

anesthesia
Breathing rate (breaths/min)	16"
Strain-gauge bridge output (rarnVrrtin)	38b
Minute volume (liters/min)	l-.Ol"	1.05d
Tidal volume (ml/breath)	63c	127d
Inhalation time (sec)	0.8*	0.8b
Exhalation time (sec)	1.6b	1.6"
Resting time (sec)	1.41,	5.4"
•Values were averaged over 3-minute periods.
bRead from polygraph recording.
'Computed using calibration curve (Figure 5).
"Directly read From Collins spirometer.
DISCUSSION
Both direct and indirect methods have been valu-
able in obtaining animal measurements of respirato-
ry minute volume. If complete accuracy of results is
paramount, it is best to use the direct methods.
However, experimental design and procedure do not
always allow for direct measurements, and in such
cases, indirect methods are used at the expense of
accuracy. In the case of chronic pollutant exposures,
both direct and current indirect measurement proce-
dures are unsuitable for many of the same reasons.
Anv mfthAi-lc nrf»«<*ntlv avntlahlp rf»rmirp rpcrnlar
 image: 








human contact, with handling of the animals and
often, physical restraint. Many methods
(pneumotach or spirometer, for example) also re-
quire anesthesia. Because of profound metabolic ef-
fects resulting from anesthesia, it is difficult to make
inferences of physiological response to pollutants by
the animal. For chronic pollutant studies, the trend
must be away from human contact of any kind and
toward an indirect system that would not alter the
respiratory system in any way. It was the objective
of this study to develop a monitoring device that
allows for a close estimation of breathing volume
with minimal experimenter contact. After analysis
of the principles of breathing mechanics and a review
of available systems, it was determined that a
strain-gauge rib sensor should be developed.
The concept of a rib-stress sensor is based on the
fact that the bony thorax has a bellows-like respira-
tory role. It alternately increases and decreases the
volume of space that it encloses. The rib, a passive
structure in the thorax, would generate stress only in
response to the volume enclosed and would not re-
flect the numerous forces responsible for achieving
this volume. In effect, the.rib will respond to change
of volume in the thorax regardless of whether the
forces are due to intercostal or diaphragmatic
sources.
Because of the circuitry of the system described
earlier, the strain-gauge responding to stresses in the
rib records only those dynamic changes of stress in
the rib resulting from instantaneous changes during
breathing. The strain-gauge then faithfully describes
not only the exact time relationship and frequency of
inspiration and expiration, but it also indicates the
magnitude of volume change by the intensity of its
output. The strain-gauge measures the rate of change
in stress rather than stress duration in the rib, and
subsequently the rate of change of volume in the
thorax. Integration of this type of strain-gauge out-
put yields respiratory volume measurements.
Other than signal interpretation and calibration of
the sensor, a basic concern of the system is its dura-
bility after implantation. The sensor had to be her-
metically sealed for protection against invasive body
fluids. Various types of encapsulants and adhesives
were considered, based on evaluation of over 40
different types by McKay.8 Scotch cast #5 was cho-
sen for its sealant properties, response to stress,
availability, and general working convenience. The
method of encapsulation used for this work pre-
vented tissue fluid leakage for more than 8 weeks
when properly applied.
REFERENCES
1.	Mead, J., and C. Collier. 1959. Relation of volume history of
lungs to respiratory mechanics in anesthetized dogs. J, Appl.
Physiol. 14(5): 669-678
2.	Drorbaugh, J. I960. Pulmonary function indifferent animals. J.
Appl. Physiol. 15: 1069-1072
3.	Dubois, A. B . S. Y. Bothelho, G. N. Berdell, R. Marshall, J.
H. Comroe. 1955, A rapid plethysmography method for
measuring thoracic gas volume: A comparison with a nitrogen
washout method for measuring functional residual capacity in
normal subjects. J. Clin. Invest. 35: 322-327
4.	Pickrell, J. A., S. E. Dubin, and J, C, Elliot. 1971. Normal
respiratory parameters in unanesthetized beagle dogs. Lab,
Animal Sci. 21(5): 677-679
5.	Attinger, O. E,, R. G. Monroe, and M. S. Segal. 1956. The
mechanics of breathing in different body positions. I. In
normal subjects, J, Clin, invest. 35: 904-911
6.	Hamlin, R. L., and R. C. Smith. 1967. Characteristics of respi-
ration in healthy dogs anesthetized with sodium pentobarbital.
Am. J. Vet, Res. 28: 173-178
7.	Dubin, S, E, 1970. Lung compliance of normal unanesthetized
beagle dogs. Am. J. Vet. Res. 31: 895-902
8.	Goodman, L. S,, and A, Oilman. 1970. The Pharmacological
Basis of Therapeutics. Fourth Edition. The Macmillan Com-
pany, New York, N. Y.
9.	McKay, R. S. 1971. Bio-Medical Telemetry. John Wiley and
Sons, Inc.. New-York, N. Y.
U S ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
Office of Research and Development	postage and fees paid
Technical Information Staff	u.s environmental protection agency
Cincinnati, Ohio 45268	epa-335
OFFICIAL BUSINESS
PENALTY FOR PRIVATE USE, $300
AN EQUAL OPPORTUNITY EMPLOYER
 image: 








new/ of
enviRonmenTAL re/earch
in Cincinnati
u./.environmental protection agency
MUNICIPAL
ENVIRONMENT
RESEARCH
LABORATORY
October 31,
1975
IMPROVING THE FUEL VALUE OF SEWAGE SLUDGE
S. W. Hathaway and R. A. Olexsey*
BACKGROUND
An increasingly crucial component of the cost of
incinerating municipal sewage sludge is that contrib-
uted by consumption of auxiliary fuel.1
Raw liquid sludge, at approximately 4 percent sol-
ids, contains far too much water to permit autoge-
nous combustion of the sludge solids. Even after
mechanical dewatering in such devices as vacuum
filters and centrifuges, mixtures of primary and sec-
ondary sludges still have moisture contents exceed-
ing 75 percent. At these high moisture contents,
more heat energy is required to evaporate the en-
trained water than can be provided by the sludge
solids in the cake. Thus, auxiliary fuel, usually in the
form of fuel oil or natural gas, is introduced into the
incinerator to supply the necessary heat energy not
provided by the sludge solids.
Varying auxiliary fuel requirements depend on the
volatile content of the sludge and other constraints
such as heat loss and noncombustible chemicals.
Therefore, two variables are important when con-
sidering sludge incineration: (1) sludge volatility
(combustibles) and (2) cake moisture content. Con-
trolling either volatility or moisture, or both, is the
key to improving the combustibility of the sludge
cake.
Several municipalities are now exploring alterna-
tives to costly consumption of expensive auxiliary
fuels (fuel oil and natural gas). Among alternative
fuels being considered are coal, municipal refuse,
wood chips, and other paper products.
Biological, or secondary, sludge is much more
difficult to dewater than is primary sludge. Most
wastewater treatment plants that incinerate second-
ary and primary sludges blend the two together and
'Mr. Hathaway (Research Chemist) and Mr. Olexsey (Mechan-
ical Engineer) are with the U.S. Environmental Protection Agen-
cy's Municipal Environmental Research Laboratory in Cincin-
nati, Ohio (513-684-8373).
dewater this mixture, usually on a vacuum filter.
Because of the presence of secondary sludge, the
mixture is very difficult to dewater. Cakes of low
solids (14-20 percent) content are produced by vac-
uum filtration and relatively low filter rates result
even though chemicals are normally used to aid de-
watering.
A study2 concerning the use of incinerator ash for
sludge conditioning before vacuum filtration, com-
pleted in 1972, found that an ash dose of about 2 kg
ish/kg dry sludge solids was required to double the
yield of the unconditioned sludge. The moisture con-
tent (kg water/kg sludge solids) also increased with
the higher dosages of ash. From a thermal
standpoint, the ash, which has no beneficial heat
value, represents a load of mass that was to be
heated to temperature, thus absorbing energy
needed for evaporating water. Therefore, auxiliary
fuel would still be needed because the same amount
of sludge solids and water are involved.
The Cedar Rapids (Iowa) wastewater treatment
plant is now using incinerator ash along with chemi-
cals (ferric chloride and lime) to improve the cake
yield from a pressure filter. Addition of 1.5 kg ash/kg
sludge solids has cut the chemical costs for condi-
tioning from $22/metric ton3 sludge solids to $7/
metric-ton sludge solids. However, at the ash ratios
used, the volatile content of the cake is only 11 to 15
percent. Autothermic incineration is possible only
because the high pressures in the filter press (200 psi)
produce a cake with only 40 to 50 percent moisture.
Similar experience with ash conditioning and low
polymer addition has occurred at the Indianapolis,
Indiana,4 wastewater treatment plant. Filter rates
were increased almost three-fold and cake moisture
dropped from approximately 80 to 60 percent. How-
ever, because of considerable buildup of inert ash,
heavy additions of auxiliary fuel were still needed to
complete combustion of the sludge cake.
45
 image: 








COAL AS CONDITIONER
Sludge dewatering aids, whether chemical, such
as polyelectrolyte, or inert, such as ash, change
either the chemical, electrical, or physical properties
of the sludge before filtration. The most obvious
effect of inert solids conditioning is a physical
phenomenon. Sewage sludge (for the most part
biological sludge) is a highly compressible sub-
stance. Under pressure, the floe particles tend to
flatten out and expand. The result of this action is
detrimental to the separation of water from the sol-
ids. Once the particles flatten out, the filter medium
(the thin cake of flattened solids) becomes less po-
rous and slows down the flow of filtrate; the calcu-
lated specific resistance of the cake increases under
increasing pressure.
On the other hand, substances such as ash or
granulated coal are, in essence, incompressible. The
only appreciable resistance is that caused by a
thicker cake deposited on the cloth as filtration pro-
ceeds. Therefore, to condition sludge with a sub-
stance such as ash or coal serves to reduce the origi-
nal sludge compressibility,
THERMAL PROPERTIES OF SLUDGE
AND COAL
In the study described here, granulated coal, with
a maximum particle size of 9.5 mm, was added to
liquid sludge in dosages ranging from 0.2 to 1.0 kg
coal/kg dry sludge solids. This range was established
from a theoretical basis of heat energy (Btu's)
needed for combustion at different cake moisture
contents. In Table 1, the measured thermal proper-
ties of the sludge and coal can be compared. In Table
2 are listed the heat energy required to evaporate the
water and the auxiliary fuel required for several
sludge cakes in a multiple hearth furnace. An exit gas
temperature of 800°F was assumed for calculations.
Note that the autogenous range is theoretically
somewhere between 25 and 30 percent cake solids
(assuming 64 percent volatile solids and 23,244 kJ/kg
[10,000 Btu/lb] volatiles). Energy supplied by the
sludge cake is dependent on the percent volatiles in
TABLE 1. COMPARISON OF THERMAL
PROPERTIES

Average values
Property
Coal
Sludge
Btu/lb* dry


volatile solids
14,200
10,500
Volatile solids, %
93.6
65-75
Btu/lb dry solids
13,300
8,100
Sulfur, %
0.60
0.60
~To convert to kJ/kg, multiply by 2.3244
the solids, and heat requirements are on the order of
5,927 kJ/kg (2,550 Btu/lb) of water at 75 percent
excess air.
The heat value of the coal is much higher (30,WO
kJ/kg [13,300 Btu/lb]) than that of the sludge (18,800
kl/kg [8,100 Btu/lb]). Therefore, adding coal will
increase the volatile content and, also, the ratio of
volatiles to water. As coal is added to the sludge
(before filtration), the solids concentration is in-
creased. This is passed on through vacuum filtration
and results in a cake with less water per unit of
volatiles. The experimental result of adding coal in
varying dosages to the initial sludge is illustrated in
Figure 1. The solids concentration of the cake pro-
duced on the vacuum filter is increased, but not
linearly because of cake buildup and resistance to
filtration. In Figure 2, coal dosage is plotted against
the calculated heat requirement to incinerate sludge
cake with the corresponding moisture content (see
Figure 1). This heat must be provided by the com-
bustion of the sludge solids in the dry cake and, if
necessary, auxiliary fuel. Also shown in Figure 2 is
the experimentally determined heat of combustion
of coal-sludge mixtures (or energy supplied by the
solids). It is evident from the diagram that when coal
dosage is above 0.3 kg coal/kg sludge solids, there
COAL DOSE (lb, COAL/ lb. DRY SLUDGE SOLIDS)
Figure 1, Effect of coal addition on solids content.
46
 image: 








AUXILIARY FUEL REQUIRED
12,000
i
10,000
«J 8000 <
Q
O 6000
| 4000
m 2000
0
COAL ADDITION
(lb COAL/lb DRY SLUDGE SOLIDS)
Figure 2. Incinerator requirements.
will be sufficient energy from the combustion of the
sludge cake to supply the heat needed for incinera-
tion. Further addition of coal will only produce ex-
cess heat, which is probably not usable,
COAL AS AN AID TO DEWATERING
Dewatering rates for typical chemically con-
ditioned primary-activated sludge mixtures are in
the order of 14.6 to 30 kg/m2-hr (3 to 6 lb/ft2-hr*).5
Chemical costs range from about $5 to $16 metric
ton6 dry sludge solids. In Figure 3 are the results of
filter leaf testing with mixed primary-activated
sludge obtained from the USEPA pilot plant in
Lebanon, Ohio. The cycle time simulating filter
drum action was 6 minutes per revolution, with 30
percent of the total time for submergence and 70
percent of the time for drying under vacuum. The
filter media was a polypropylene monofilament fab-
ric. Results show that without polymer, coal addi-
tion has no effect at all on the net yield of sludge
solids (i.e., mass of coal in the cake is subtracted
out). With polymer added at the rate of 4.0 kg/metric
ton, yield approximately doubled. Coal dosage now
had a positive effect when polymer was added to the
sludge. Net yield increased by a factor of 1.2 when
coal dose was increased from 0 to 1.0 kg coal/kg
sludge solids. Net yield at 1.0 kg coal/kg sludge was
17.5 kg/m2-hr (3.5 lb/ft2-hr). Total yield was 34 kg/
nr-hr (7 lb/ft2-hr). At a cycle time of 6 minutes, this
yield indicated a thick cake. Cycle time could easily
be halved and a cake thick enough for easy discharge
could be produced. Total and net yield would be
expected to increase by a factor of %/2~(i.e., 1.414) if
cycle times were halved, but an undesirable reduc-
tion in cake solids would be anticipated.
•To convert from Ita/fP-hr to kg/rn'-hr multiply by 4.882
Q
>¦ 2 -
DC
LU
j	®		<B>	»	
i _	#
2 •- NO POLYMER
o a- 8 LB. POLYMER / TON DRY SLUDGE SOLIDS
| 	I	i	I	I	5
u	0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
COAL DOSE (lb. COAL/lb. DRY SLUDGE SOLIDS)
Figure 3, Effect of coal and polymer on filter yield.
It is clear from these data that the addition of coal
in the particle size range used in this study does not
produce a startling increase in filter yield. The pri-
mary advantage is the increase in cake solids noted
earlier (Figure 1) and the reduction in auxiliary fuel
requirements (Figure 2). It is possible that coal
ground to a finer mesh size would have a greater
influence on net filter yield.
COST IMPLICATIONS
Only general ranges can be discussed for costing
the addition of coal to sludge. In terms of auxiliary
fuel, the coal is effective at a dose of approximately
0.3 kg coal/kg solids. Current contract values for 1
metric ton of mine-run bituminous coal are in the
range of $22-$33.7 At $33/metric ton, the cost for coal
addition to the sludge would be $10/me trie ton dry
sludge solids.
If no coal were used to condition the cake, the
resultant moisture content of the product cake would
be the 82 percent recorded for the no-coal sludge in
Figure 2. From Table 2, we can see that about 220
liters (59 gallons) of No. 2 oil would be required to
provide conditions of combustion for this cake.
Using the low end of the current contract price range
of7?-90/liter (270-33$'/gallon) results in a fuel cost of
$17.50/metric ton of dry solids. Net savings in sludge
processing cost would be $17.50 minus $10.00 or
$7,50/metric ton.
CONCLUSIONS OF LAB TESTING
Addition of granulated coal to liquid sludge can
result in a significant cost reduction. Although the
coal does provide the necessary heat energy for au-
togenous combustion, it cannot, in itself, serve as a
complete conditioning agent. Additional condition-
ing agents would still be required, but indications are
AUTOGENOUS RANGE
SOLIDS IN FILTER CAKE
~ ENERGY REQUIRED FOR
COMBUSTION OF WET FILTER
CAKE
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2
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TABLE 2. ENERGY REQUIREMENTS FOR SLUDGE CAKE



Btu x 106*

Gal
Ratio of
Lb water/
Bui x 106
provided by
Btu x 10fl
#2 fuel oil
cake moisture/
ton dry
required for
sludge solids,
auxiliary Btu
, for auxiliary
solids
solids
water evap.
ton
requirement
requirement/ton
95/5
38,000
97.00
14.70
82.30
572
90/10
18,000
45.95
14.70
31.25
217
85/15
11,333
28.93
14.70
14.23
99
82/18
9,111
23.25
14.70
8.55
59
80/20
8,000
20.42
14.70
5.72
40
75/25
6,000
15.31
14.70
0.61
4
70/30
4,667
11.91
14.70
Excess
—




autogenous

65/35
3,714
9.49
14.70
Excess
—




autogenous

'Assuming volatile solids of dry sludge solids = 70%; heating value of volatile solids = 10,500 Btu/lb volatiles; to convert from Btu's to kJ
(kilojoules), multiply by 1,054; to convert from gallons to liters, multiply by 3,785.
that an interaction between the coal and the condi-
tioning agent may result in a reduction in the need for
conditioning chemicals when coal is used.
FUTURE STUDY
To completely define the use of coal as a sludge
additive, actual tests with full scale vacuum filters
are required. In the interim, pilot-scale testing with a
small continuous rotary vacuum filter is being per-
formed at the EPA Lebanon, Ohio, pilot plant. The
operation of this machine will enable production of
sludge cakes with varying parameters such as cycle
time and granulated coal dosage.
REFERENCES
1.	Olexsey, R. A., and Farrell, J, B., "Sludge Incineration and
Fuel Conservation," News of Environmental Research in Cin-
cinnati, May 3, 1974.
2.	Smith, I. E., Hathaway, S. W.» Farrell, J. B„ and Dean, R.B..
"Sludge Conditioning with Incinerator Ash," presented at the
27th Annual Industrial Waste Conference, 1972.
3.	Gerlich, J. W., and Rockwell, D. M., "Pressure Filtration of
Waste Water Sludge with Ash Filter Aid," EPA-R2-73-231,
June 1973.
4.	Personal communication: Mr. Dennis Wells, Department of
Public Works, Indianapolis, Indiana.
5.	"Process Design Manual for Sludge Treatment and Disposal,"
EPA-625/1-74-006, EPA Technology Transfer.
6.	Personal communication: current price, Calgon Cationic
WT-2660 $0.40/lb liquid polymer,
7.	Cincinnati Gas and Electric Company reports cost of $18.90
per ton in February 1975.
8.	Personal communication: Dale Bergstedt, Minrteapolis-St.
Paul Wastewater Treatment Plant.
U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
Office of Research and Development
Technical Information Staff
Cincinnati, Ohio 45268
POSTASE AND FEES PAID
U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
EPA-335
OFFICIAL BUSINESS
PENALTY FOR PRIVATE USE. S300
AN EQUAL OPPORTUNITY EMPLOYER
48
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new/ of
enviRonmenTAL rg/garch
in Cincinnati
~./.environmental protection agency
MUNICIPAL
ENVIRONMENT
RESEARCH
LABORATORY
November 14,
1975
DO REGULATED FREIGHT RATES DISCOURAGE RECYCLING?
Oscar W. Albrecht*
BACKGROUND
The question of whether Interstate Commerce
Commission (ICC) regulated freight rates for com-
mon carriers are discriminatory and discourage the
movement of waste materials for recycling has been
debated publicly at length, particularly in regard to
the railroad movement of ferrous scrap. The Insti-
tute of Scrap Iron and Steel (ISIS) has repeatedly
charged that railroad rates favor the movement and
use of the virgin material (iron ore) over ferrous
scrap in the making of steel, asserting that railroad
freight rates average 2XA times more for iron and steel
scrap than for iron ore.1 The National Association of
Recycling Industries (NARI) has also argued that
waste materials destined for recycling have been
discriminated against by the regulated rates.2
The issue of fair and appropriate freight rates is not
a new one. In 1925, for example, when agriculture
was considered in a state of economic depression,
the "Hoch-Smith Resolution" passed by Congress
stated ". , . it is declared to be the true policy in rate
making to be pursued by the Interstate Commerce
Commission in adjusting freight rates, that the condi-
tions which at any given time prevail in our several
industries should be considered insofar as it is legally
possible to do so, to the end that commodities may
freely move."3 There is precedent, therefore, for
setting freight rates to achieve national goals other
than maintaining a healthy and economically viable
transportation system.
The increasing interest in resource recovery and
recycling has spurred new interest in the ICC's rate
making procedures. A study conducted for the De-
*The author is a Research Economist with the Municipal En-
vironmental Research Laboratory, Cincinnati (513) 684-4484,
Acknowledgment is made to Dr. John S, Curtiss, Economics
Department, University of Cincinnati, for his critical review of the
two EPA studies on freight rates and the ICC rate-making proe-
partment of Transportation examined rates and
other transportation characteristics involved in the
movement of secondary materials vis-a-vis basic
raw materials.4 The results were inconclusive, but
the study pointed out that ICC's accounting and'
costing procedures were generally inadequate for
determining the cost of railroad transport. The ICC
recently initiated its own investigation of the railroad
freight rate structure and is studying what base to use
in determining rate of return.
RESULTS OF TWO EFA STUDIES
In 1965, Congress enacted the Solid Waste Dis-
posal Act to deal with the problem of accumulating
solid waste. The Act was subsequently amended by
passage of the Resource Recovery Act of 1970, The
latter required that study and investigation be made
of the effect of existing public policies upon the
reuse, recycling, and conservation of materials from
solid waste.®
The purpose of this paper is to review the results of
two U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)
funded efforts directed at investigating alleged dif-
ferences in regulated rates for virgin and secondary
materials. The studies were carried out by the Re-
search Planning Institute (RPI) and Moshman Asso-
ciates.8,7 The RPI study was concerned mainly with
the manner in which discriminatory rates influence
long-run investment decisions in the steel and
papermaking industries. It assumed that technologi-
cal and economic constraints limit the choice of raw
materials in the short-run, but that raw material costs
and transportation rates play an important role in
long-run decisions as to where and what kinds of
plants to build.
The RPI findings showed that on a direct compari-
son of the revenues generated, the rail movement of
virgin materials was favored over that of secondary
materials. If transport costs were weighted by chem-
ically equivalent amounts needed to produce the
49
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final products (steel and paperboard), however, the
secondary materials (ferrous scrap and waste paper)
had the advantage if movement was effected by rail,
and the virgin materials (woodehips and residue)
benefitted if movement was made by motor carrier
(Table 1).
TABLE 1. COMPARISON OF REVENUES
FROM TRANSPORTING VIRGIN
AND SECONDARY MATERIALS,
1970*
Mode
Virgin
material
($/net ton)
Secondary
material
($/netton)
Rail transport — direct comparison


iron ore vs. ferrous scrap
2.31
4.83
roundwaod vs. waste paper
1,92
8.01
woodehips and residue vs.
2.58
8.01
waste paper


Rail transport — chemically weighted*


coal basis vs. ferrous scrap?
7.34
4.83
coke basis vs. ferrous scrap §
7.79
4.83
woodehips and residue vs.
9,47
8,81
waste paper


pulp vs. waste paper
16.81
8.81
Motor transport — direct comparison


woodehips and residue vs.
2.44
9.68
waste paper


pulp vs. waste paper
5.10
9.68
Motor transport—chemically weighted*


woodehips and residue vs.
8.95
10.65
waste paper


pulp vs. waste paper
5.10
10.65
•Source: Reference No. 6
+CHemically weighted by the transportation costs for compo-
nent amounts needed to produce 1 ton of raw steel or 1 ton of
paperboard,
fThe coal basis assumes that coal is moved to the blast furnace
for conversion into coke; transport of limestone is included.
SThecoke basis assumes that coke is moved to the blastfurnace
from distant coking ovens; transport of limestone is included,
A basic weakness of the RIP study is that it uses
average revenue per ton (conversely, cost to ship-
per) rather than actual ton-mile rates. The first value
is obtained by dividing the carrier's revenue for
transporting each commodity by the total tonnage, a
technique that is insufficient to show rate discrimina-
tion. It would be better to use actual ton-mile rates
for individual commodity shipments, but such data
are difficult to obtain because of the complexity of
freight rate schedules. Average revenue per ton is
more inclusive of shippers costs, but does not relate
to any particular service because it lumps together
various sizes of shipments and dissimilar distances
(routes). The comparisons are thus valid only if car-
rier costs are similar for each type of service.
The Moshman study compared the contribution in
freight rates of secondary material with that of virgin
material. Contribution was defined as the difference
between the rate for the shipment and the associated
variable costs. Comparisons were made for six
commodity pairs: ferrous scrap and iron ore, cullet
and glass sand, aluminum scrap and aluminum ingot,
waste paper and wood pulp, scrap rubber and new
rubber, and reclaimed rubber and new rubber. The
matching process for similarities in length of haul
and carload weights greatly reduced the number of
possible comparisons, and it was necessary to com-
pare "all moves" for most commodities.
1960 A *62 k '64 A '66 X '68 k '70 k
'61 '63 '66 '67 '69 '71
years
Additional railroad revenue from transporting ferrous
scrap compared with that from iron ore ( S/ton). (Source:
Reference No, 6-1
Results of the Moshman study indicated that fer-
rous scrap, glass cullet, and reclaimed rubber were
making larger contributions than their virgin coun-
terparts (Table 2). The national averages, however,
obscured many individual variations, including
those between the railroad territories and between
different lengths of routes. For example, ferrous
scrap made a larger contribution than iron ore on a
national basis, but most scrap moved less than 200
miles; within this distance, the contribution rates of
iron ore and scrap were about equal.
WHEN ARE RATES DISCRIMINATORY?
A basic question relating to the results of the
above studies is whether the differences in revenues
or differences in contributions to variable costs can
be accepted as evidence of discriminatory rates. In
economic terminology, discrimination exists when a
seller sells an identical product to different buyers at
different prices. When variations in production or
50
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TABLE 2. CONTRIBUTIONS TO VARIABLE
COSTS RESULTING FROM RAIL-
ROAD RATES FOR SELECTED
VIRGIN AND SECONDARY
MATERIALS, 1969*

Contribution to
Commodity
variable cost

(%)
Iron ore
171
Ferrous scrap
196
Wood pulp
187
Waste paper
144
Glass sand
130
Glass cullet
204
Aluminum ingot
55
Aluminum scrap
38
New rubber (natural and synthetic)
52
Scrap rubber
40
Reclaimed rubber
66
~Source: Reference No. 7
service costs are taken into account, discrimination
exists when a seller charges prices that result in
different price-to-incremental-cost ratios. If Px and
MCi are the price and incremental cost for one prod-
uct and P» and MC2 are the price and incremental
cost of a second product, economic discrimination
exists when Pj/MCt is not equal to P2/MC2.
This rule for evaluating discrimination is appro-
priate where conditions of competitive equilibrium
exist and product prices tend to equal incremental
cost of production. For regulated industries or
utilities operating under conditions of decreasing
costs, the rule is less applicable. It is generally rec-
ognized that railroads have unused track capacity
and that additional handling capacity can be added at
less cost per ton than the initial cost of the basic
track. This means that for a considerably larger vol-
ume of traffic the average ton-mile cost would de-
cline and the incremental cost would be below the
average total cost. Thus, conventional cost pricing,
where price is equal to incremental cost, is inappro-
priate for setting rates if the railroads are to operate
without losses.
Given the nature of the cost functions and the
tradition of government regulation, the question is
how can railroad rates be efficiently structured to
serve the public interest? The Emergency Railroad
Transportation Act of 1933, which the ICC uses as
justification for economic discrimination in rates,
states: "In the exercise of its power to pre scribe just
and reasonable rates the Commission shall give due
consideration, among other factors, to the effect of
rates on the movement of traffic by the carrier or
carriers for which the rates are prescribed; to the
need, in the public interest, of adequate and efficient
railway transportation service at the lowest cost
consistent with the furnishing of such service; and to
the need of revenues sufficient to enable the carriers,
under honest, economical, and efficient manage-
ment to provide such service."8 Thus, discrimina-
tion in the ICC sense refers to a rate that adversely
affects the movement of a commodity or its contribu-
tion relative to another rate. Since regulations re-
quire railroads to operate some unprofitable lines,
the ICC allows economic discrimination to enable
carriers to recapture their total costs.
The issue of discrimination is inextricable from the
question of competition. Section 3 of the ICC Act of
1887, while not specifically referring to discrimina-
tion, makes it unlawful for a railroad to give any
"... undue or unreasonable preference or advantage
to any particular person, company, firm,..." or to
subject any of the preceding to ". . . undue or un-
reasonable prejudice or disadvantage. .,."9 It is said
that the ICC has vacillated with regard to the ques-
tion of competition between iron ore and ferrous
scrap and has remained noncommittal with regard to
the other commodities. If competition exists, the
Commission may still approve rate differentials for
one or more of the following reasons: (a) cost of
service differs, (b) value of service differs, or (c)
intermodal competition is present. Thus, it is impos-
sible to conclude that discrimination exists based on
rate disparity alone.
SUMMARY
The two EPA studies failed to provide conclusive
evidence that ICC-regulated rates discriminated
against secondary materials. The RPI study implied
that discrimination might exist (in the ICC sense) for
motor carrier rates weighted by the amounts of
chemical constituents needed to make paperboard.
The study failed to document, however, that long-
run investment decisions involving raw material
substitutions and plant locations were actually af-
fected by the rate differences. The Moshman study
compared percentage contributions to variable cost
of different rates per ton-mile. To the extent that the
costs were representative, the study implied that
economic discrimination existed for ferrous scrap
because the applicable rates did vary from incremen-
tal costs on long hauls when compared with those for
iron ore. Discrimination was also suggested for cul-
let and reclaimed rubber because the contribution
percentages for these materials were higher than for
their virgin counterparts. However, as mentioned
earlier, the appropriateness of ICC costing proce-
dures has been questioned.
Further research is needed to assess fully the ef-
fects of differential rates for virgin and secondary
materials. It would be particularly desirable to
51
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examine the impact of different rates on the move-
ment of secondary materials from more distant areas
that may be disadvantaged by higher transport costs
relative to total production costs. The role of trans-
port costs in management decisions concerning the
choice of raw materials and location of plants should
also be given further study.
Concerning the basic question of rate discrimina-
tion, the issue is related to the national goals and
objectives for regulating the common carriers. Prob-
ably in no country of the world today are transporta-
tion rate s entirely free of government regulation, and
in many countries, the rates reflect social goals unre-
lated to the cost of supplying transport service. The
point to be emphasized is that at present there are no
clearly defined criteria for establishing freight rates.
And determination of discrimination in the conven-
tional economic sense, based on incremental cost
pricing, is generally inappropriate because of the
nature of the costs prevailing in the railroad industry.
If freight rates are to be regulated to achieve a social
objective, such as recycling, new decision rules to
guide the rate making processes are needed.
^Until recently, the ICC has rather consistently
resisted pressures to make rate adjustments in favor
of social goals, but there are indications that it may
now be relenting somewhat in the face of increased
public pressure. Since the rates in the EPA studies
were analyzed, there have been at least four general
rate increases, and for several of these the ICC or-
dered "holddowns" on selected recyclable com-
modities.
REFERENCES
1.	Cutler, H., and Goldman, G. S. Transportation: Bugaboo of
Scrap Iron Recycling. Environmental Science and Technolo-
gy, 7(5):4Q8-4il, May 1973.
2.	Mighdoll, M, J. National Priorities for Recycling: Proposals for
a Legislative Action Program. A statement made before the
Fiscal Subcommittee of the Joint Economic Committee^ of
Congress, Washington, D. C , November 8, 1971.
3.	Hoch-Smith Resolution, January 30, 1925.49 U.S. Code, sec.
55.
4.	Herbert O. Whitten and Associates. Recyclamation; Rail
Transport Economics of Substitutability of Recycled Scrap or
Waste for Basic Raw Materials, National Technical Informa-
tion Service, Springfield, Va. 22161. PB 212-037, December
1971.
5.	Resource Recovery Act of 1970, October 26, 1970, PL 91-512,
84 Stat. 1227, sec. 205; 42 U.S. Code, sec. 3251 et seq.
6.	Resource Planning Institute. Raw Materials Transportation
Costs and Their Influence oil the Use of Wastepaper and Scrap
Iron and Steel. National Technical Information Service,
Springfield, Va. 22161. PB 229-816 and PB 229-817, 1974.
7.	Moshman Associates. Transportation Rates and Costs for
Selected Virgin and Secondary Commodities. National Tech-
nical Information Service, Springfield, Va. 22161, PB 223-871,
1974.
8.	Locklin, D. P. Economics of Transportation. 7th ed. Richard
D. Irwin, Inc., Homewood, 111, 1973,p. 263;49 U.S. Code, sec.
15a(2).
9.	Interstate Commerce Act. 49 U.S. Code, sec. 3.
U S ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
Office of Research and Development
Technical Information Staff
Cincinnati, Ohio 45268
OFFICIAL BUSINESS
PENALTY FOR PRIVATE USE, S300
AN EQUAL OPPORTUNITY EMPLOYER
POSTA6E AND FEES PAID
U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
EPA-335
52
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