Reducing Black
Carbon Emissions
in South Asia
Low Cost Opportunities
Office of International and Tribal Affairs
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
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Cover photo credits: photo of child with traditional cookstove (Selvan Thandapani - Chennai, India);
photos of traditional brick kiln and traffic (The Energy and Resources Institute, New Delhi, India)
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Table of Contents
List of Acronyms and Abbreviations 4
Acknowledgements 6
1. Introduction 7
2. Black Carbon Mitigation in the Industrial Sector 12
A. Benefits of Reducing Black Carbon Emissions from the Brick Industry 13
B. Opportunities for Reducing Black Carbon Emissions from Brick Kilns 14
3. Black Carbon Mitigation in the Transportation Sector 21
A. Benefits of Reducing Black Carbon Emissions from On-Road Fleets 22
B. Opportunities for Reducing Black Carbon Emissions from On-Road Fleets 24
C. Examples of Initiatives to Reduce Black Carbon Emissions from On-Road Fleets 31
4. Black Carbon Mitigation in the Residential Sector 33
A. Benefits of Reducing Black Carbon Emissions from Cookstoves 33
B. Opportunities for Reducing Emissions from Cookstoves 36
C. Examples of Initiatives to Promote Improved Cookstoves in South Asia 40
5. Conclusion 43
Appendix A. Black Carbon Emissions in South Asia 45
Appendix B. Climate Impacts of Black Carbon and Co-Benefits of Reducing
Black Carbon Emissions in South Asia 49
Appendix C. Brick Making in South Asia 55
Appendix D. Black Carbon Emissions from On-Road Fleets in South Asia
and Current Initiatives to Reduce Emissions 61
Appendix E. Improved Cookstove Production Models in South Asia 63
Appendix F. List of Participants from the Kathmandu Consultation 64
Endnotes 68
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List of Acronyms and Abbreviations
AMC
Corporation
C
CNG
CO2
CO2e
DALY
EPA
Agency
ft
g
gal
GHG
IAP
I/M
kg
km
L
Ib
LCV
LPG
m
MAV
Ahmedabad Municipal
Celsius
compressed natural gas
carbon dioxide
carbon dioxide equivalent
disability-adjusted life year
U.S. Environmental Protection
feet
gram
gallon
greenhouse gas
indoor air pollution
inspection and maintenance
kilogram
kilometer
liter
pound
light commercial vehicle
liquefied petroleum gas
meter
multi-axle vehicle
mg/Nm
meter
MJ
mm
mm WG
MTOE
MW
u,m
NGO
NOX
PCFV
Vehicles
PCIA
PM
SDS
S02
SSP
TERI
Institute
Tg
UNEP
Programme
USAID
Development
WHO
milligram per normal cubic
megajoule
millimeter
millimeter water gauge
million tons of oil equivalent
megawatts
micrometer
nongovernmental organization
nitrogen oxide
Partnership for Clean Fuels and
Partnership for Clean Indoor Air
particulate matter
South Distribution Services
sulfur dioxide
Swayam Shikshan Prayog
The Energy and Resources
teragram
United Nations Environment
U.S. Agency for International
World Health Organization
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Acknowledgements
This report was developed by the Office of Global Affairs and Policy in the U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency's Office of International and Tribal Affairs. Anthony Socci, Yuolanda Tibbs,
and Angela Bandemehr managed the overall development of the report. The research for this
report was conducted by Nimmi Damodaran, Alexis St. Juliana, and Joseph Donahue, Stratus
Consulting.
A number of key contributors and reviewers provided significant assistance for which the report
developers are exceptionally grateful. Colleagues in EPA's Office of International and Tribal
Affairs, Office of Atmospheric Programs, and Office of Research and Development reviewed the
report. Veerabhadran Ramanathan, Scripps Institution of Oceanography, University of
California San Diego, Gregory Carmichael, University of Iowa, Durwood Zaelke, Institue for
Governance and Sustainable Development, and Jaime Schauer, University of Wisconsin-
Madison reviewed the science-based portions of the report. Girish Sethi and Sachin Kumar, The
Energy and Resources Institute, India contributed substantially to the development of the
section on reducing black carbon emissions from brick kilns. Jessica Seddon, Indian Institute for
Human Settlements provided thoughtful contributions and assistance.
The report developers would also like to recognize and thank Surendra Shrestha and
Mylvakanam lyngararasan from the United Nations Environment Programme and the staff of
the International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development for their considerable efforts in
planning and conducting the consultation in Kathmandu, Nepal, on reducing black carbon
emissions in South Asia.
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Reducing Black Carbon Emissions in South Asia, Low Cost
Opportunities
1. Introduction
Climate change is manifesting itself in varied ways, especially in the world's polar regions and
major mountain glacier systems, the latter being critical sources of fresh water and livelihoods
for millions, if not billions, of people. It is also becoming clear that climate change is being
driven not only by long-lived greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide (C02) which are well
mixed globally, but also by what are known as short-lived climate forcers or SLCFs (methane,
tropospheric ozone, and black carbon), a suite of pollutants that reside in the atmosphere for
an extremely short time by contrast, prominent among them being black carbon particles.
Despite the short-lived nature of pollutants such as black carbon, they exert a significant
influence on the climate system, especially on regional and local scales [1]. By some estimates
black carbon might exert fully half or more (27-55%) of the warming attributable to C02 [1], [2],
[3], especially on regional scales.
Because pollutants such as black carbon are significant climate forcers and are at the same time
short-lived, mitigating black carbon, as well as other SLCFs, in the near term can contribute to
numerous sustainable development goals such as cleaner and healthier air, food and water
security, reduced mortality and the mitigation of climate change and its impacts especially in
highly sensitive regions such as South Asia[4]. As noted in a 2011 study, Near-Term Climate
Protection and Clean Air Benefits: Actions for Controlling Short-Lived Climate Forcers, the
current state of scientific knowledge is sufficiently robust to justify action on black carbon
pollution as well as other SLCFs at national and regional scales [5]. And because there is high
confidence that such reductions will bring about significant and immediate health and climate
benefits, any measures taken to reduce black carbon and other SLCFs can be viewed with
confidence as a 'no-regrets' policy.
Early and sustained action on SLCFs inclusive of black carbon is likely to slow the increase in
near-term global warming expected by 2040, by up to 0.4 to 0.5 degrees Celsius. At the same
time, by 2030, such actions can prevent an estimated 2.4 million premature deaths annually by
reducing black carbon and tropospheric ozone in particular, and improve air quality and health
in addition [5]. In its 2012 report, OECD Environmental Outlook to 2050: The Consequences of
Inaction, OECD notes air pollution is poised to become the world's foremost environmental
cause of premature deaths, and Asia is anticipated to be especially hard hit [6].
This report focuses on black carbon and is intended to help achieve near-term climate and
other benefits by providing information and examples of a variety of low-cost, high-impact and
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high feasibility opportunities to reduce black carbon emissions in South Asia. This region is
especially vulnerable to the multiplicity of impacts attributable to black carbon.
The Case for Reducing Black Carbon Emissions
Black carbon is an aerosol particle emitted as a by-product of the incomplete combustion of
fossil fuels or biomass. Black carbon absorbs solar radiation and releases the energy as heat,
which contributes to a strong regional and global atmospheric warming and accelerates the
melting of ice and snow not only from atmospheric heating but also from the heat absorbed by
black carbon soot deposited on ice and snow surfaces. And while the indirect effects of the
interaction of black carbon and clouds on climate and local weather patterns remains largely
unresolved, the direct effects of BC are best quantified and appear to result in significant
climate warming globally and regionally, provoking a broad swath of additional impacts as well
[7]-
There is a growing consensus [3] that black carbon emissions are of concern because of their
impacts on climate, health, water and food resources, seasonal weather patterns, and
livelihoods. For example, in a recent report, UNEP identified reducing black carbon, as well as
other short-lived pollutants, as a real opportunity to slow the rate of near-term climate change,
improve public health, and reduce crop-yield losses, with near immediate results, especially in
areas of the world such as South Asia where concentrations of black carbon are extremely high.
About half of the 0.4°C climate benefit resulting from reductions in SLCFs in 2050 comes from
implementing the black carbon reduction measures, mainly in Asia and Africa [5].
Black Carbon in South Asia
Owing to its high concentration of black carbon, its densely populated cities, and its proximity
to one of the largest imperiled sources of fresh water in the world, the Himalayan glacier
system, South Asia is considered to be especially vulnerable to the impacts of black carbon from
the standpoint of climate, health, security, and livelihoods.
Reducing atmospheric concentrations of black carbon in South Asia can result in improved
public health and a slowing of the rate of near-term climate change. The health benefits from
implementing black carbon mitigation measures would be realized immediately. Because of
the very high particulate matter burden in Asia in general, reductions in black carbon could
prevent a greater number of premature deaths in this region than anywhere else. Regions
taking action on black carbon would also benefit significantly from reduced regional warming
and reduced disruption of regional weather patterns such as the monsoonal system in South
Asia. Such measures would also reduce the volume of black carbon particles being deposited
on snow and ice surfaces in the Himalayas, and elsewhere, as black carbon is suspected of
contributing to the acceleration of the melting of some mountain glaciers and snowpack in
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South Asia. Furthermore, unlike greenhouse gases that remain in the atmosphere for centuries
or longer, local and regional reductions in black carbon can bring about significant tangible
near-term benefits locally and regionally [5].
Several existing studies explore highly technical and resource-intensive solutions to reducing
black carbon emissions (e.g., [8]). This report seeks to fill an important gap in highlighting low-
cost yet effective and accessible opportunities and actions for reducing black carbon emissions
by illustrating ways policymakers, communities, and nongovernmental organizations (NGOs)
can readily engage in South Asia. These mitigation efforts have implications not just for global
and regional climate, but also for regional and local health, economic development, trans-
boundary air pollution, and related issues. Figure 1 presents a map of the countries in South
Asia.
In South Asia, black carbon emissions warrant concern for a variety of reasons:
* Rising black carbon emissions pose a serious threat to water supplies from Himalayan
glaciers and snowmelt. Black carbon emissions affect water supply in South Asia by
contributing to the melting of glaciers and snowpack. When black carbon lands on snow
and ice it reduces the reflectivity (albedo); this causes the snow and ice to absorb
additional heat from sunlight. Additionally, black carbon contributes to general regional
warming, which accelerates snow and ice melting. In South Asia, both of these
properties alter seasonal water supply patterns in areas that rely on snow or ice melt
from the Himalayas [9, 10, 11].
. , , i , , i • Afghanistan
* Black carbon emissions alter the
monsoon season and harm
agriculture. Black carbon
emissions alter rainfall patterns
and the annual Asian monsoon by
changing atmospheric conditions
such as temperature and cloud
formation [1]. By altering the
hydrologic cycle (including
snowmelt and rainfall), black
carbon contributes to agricultural
stress and failure. Black carbon
emissions also affect agricultural
production by reducing the amount of sunlight that reaches the Earth's surface, which
shields the surface and limits photosynthesis.
Figure 1. Regional map of South Asia.
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* Black carbon emissions contribute to indoor and outdoor air pollution. Black carbon is a
primary component of particulate matter (PM),1 which can have severe health effects
on exposed populations. For instance, exposure to indoor air pollution (IAP) including
PM from household solid fuel combustion (e.g., residential cooking) accounts for at least
570,000 deaths annually in India [12]. In addition, across all of Asia, outdoor air pollution
is estimated to cause nearly 490,000 deaths per year [14]. These adverse health effects
also lead to reductions in worker productivity in South Asia, which can hinder economic
development.
The magnitude of black carbon emissions in a region depends on local practices and choice of
fuels and technologies used. Although estimates vary, developing nations in the tropics and
Asia are generally recognized as dominant source regions of black carbon emissions [13]. All of
Asia, including China and India, accounts for approximately 40% of global black carbon
emissions [15].
Black carbon emissions in South Asia are primarily derived from four sectors: residential,
industrial, transportation, and open biomass burning. The residential sector represents the
largest single source of black carbon emissions in South Asia. The transportation and industrial
sectors are also significant contributors. Figure 2 displays the sectoral breakdown of black
carbon emissions in India, the largest emitter Transport
of black carbon in the region. Note that, as
shown in Figure 2, brick kilns represent two-
thirds of industrial sector emissions and
heavy duty trucks represent a little more
than half of the transportation sector
emissions in India. Appendix A provides
additional information on black carbon
emissions sources in South Asia.
Mitigating Black Carbon in South Asia
Recognizing the acuteness and scale of the
black carbon problem in South Asia, as well
as the global ramifications if left
unaddressed, the U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency (EPA) embarked on an Figure 2. Sectoral black carbon emissions in India.
Sources: [16,17,18].
21%
Industry
15%
1. Coarse particles that have diameters of less than 10 u,m (called PM10) are small enough to be inhaled through the nose and
mouth and enter the lungs. However, finer particulates that have diameters of less than 2.5 u,m (called PM2.s) are harder for the
body to protect against and clear once inhaled. Studies have linked PM to respiratory irritation (e.g., coughing), aggravated
asthma and bronchitis, irregular heartbeat, nonfatal heart attacks, and premature death in people with heart or lung disease,
among other effects [103].
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effort to identify and evaluate unique low-cost but high-impact opportunities to reduce black
carbon emissions in South Asia. As part of this effort EPA partnered with UNEP to conduct a
consultation with regional stakeholders.2 The consultation held in March 2011 drew together
regional government representatives, practitioners, regional NGOs, and international experts to
discuss current initiatives and opportunities to reduce regional black carbon emissions in the
industrial, transportation, and residential sectors (see Appendix F for list of attendees).
EPA and UNEP recognize that reducing black carbon emissions in South Asia carries the unique
potential to achieve global and regional climate benefits while also capitalizing on a number of
regional and local co-benefits across South Asia. Appendix B discusses the climate impacts of
black carbon and the co-benefits from reducing emissions in South Asia. This report identifies
and brings to light a suite of opportunities to reduce black carbon emissions in South Asia
within and across sectors. The goal is to assist policymakers, governments, NGOs, and others to
take immediate and effective action in South Asia to reduce black carbon emissions. The
mitigation options identified here focus on emissions in the industrial, transportation, and
residential sectors, three of the four primary sectors that contribute to most of the region's
black carbon emissions. The fourth sector, open biomass burning, largely lies outside EPA's
technical expertise and mission focus and is therefore not addressed in this report.
Through discussions with regional stakeholders and practitioners, and a review of literature on
mitigation strategies in South Asia, EPA identified low-cost, high-impact, and readily accessible
emissions reduction opportunities with the greatest potential in the following subsectors of the
industrial, transportation, and residential black carbon emissions sectors:
* Improving the efficiency of brick making. Brick kilns in the industrial sector represent a
largely untapped source of potential emissions reductions, with substantial
opportunities for engagement with kiln owners and operators, who remain largely
unaware of the financial co-benefits associated with improved firing efficiency.
* Improving public and private fleet efficiency and management. Heavy duty trucking
represents more than 50% of the emissions from the transportation sector in India. One
aspect of addressing emissions reductions from heavy duty trucking includes improving
fleet efficiency and management. The United States has considerable expertise in this
area, particularly with EPA's SmartWay Transport Partnership, and from experience with
recent international community pilot and training programs.
* Improving the efficiency of cookstoves. Improving the efficiency of cookstoves in the
residential sector is an active area of interest for many U.S. and international agencies,
2. A summary of the consultation is available at
http://www.rrcap.unep.org/abc/userfiles/file/BC%20Workshop%20Summarv Final.pdf. The December 2011 UNEP Black
Carbon e-Bulletin overviews the consultation (http://www.unep.org/dec/docs/BCBulletinDecll.pdf). A forthcoming issue of the
bulletin will include additional information.
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but much work remains to be done to communicate the benefits of improved
cookstoves.
Table 1 summarizes the mitigation options described in this report for the industrial,
transportation, and residential sectors. These options are targeted for agencies and
organizations that want to take action in the near future in a meaningful but cost-effective
manner. In many cases these activities can result in local economic development through a
variety of factors, including reducing fuel expenditures, producing higher-quality and higher-
value products, and decreasing worker sick days. Additionally, the activities described in this
report build off existing technological and policy-based actions to reduce air pollution (including
black carbon emissions) in South Asia; it is advantageous to leverage existing activities by
building on them or developing complementary options rather than duplicating them. Finally,
the behavior-based mitigation efforts stressed in this report can broaden the scope of
co-benefits already achieved by changing public attitudes toward technological interventions
and helping mitigation efforts realize their full potential.
Table 1. Black carbon mitigation
Opportunities
Industrial: Improve the »
efficiency of brick making
options in South Asia
Mitigation options
Adopt more efficient low-cost technologies for current combustion
practices, (see page 16)
Use cleaner fuels, (see page 18)
Adopt better operating practices in coal firing, (see page 18)
Use alternative building materials, (see page 18)
Develop best practice trainings for kiln operators and firemen, (see
page 19)
Transportation: Improve
public and private fleet
efficiency and
management
Residential: Improve the
efficiency of cookstoves
Demonstrate the benefits of vehicle inspection and maintenance
(I&M). (see page 25)
Train drivers and fleet managers on fuel-efficient eco-driving
techniques (see page 27)
Improve fleet logistics, (see page 28)
Increase use of improved cookstoves. (see page 37)
Use alternative fuels, (see page 37)
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How to Use this Document
This report is a resource for interested parties seeking information on low-cost and effective
opportunities and actions for reducing black carbon emissions that they can readily engage in
South Asia. The report and its appendices present a wealth of information and resources on
reducing black carbon emissions in South Asia.
The remainder of this report includes four main sections. Sections 2, 3, and 4 describe specific
low-cost, high-impact options and opportunities for reducing black carbon emissions in the
industrial, transportation, and residential sectors, respectively. Each section begins with a brief
overview of the industry and its black carbon emissions. The sections are then structured to
present the reader with the co-benefits, including cost savings when possible, of acting to
reduce black carbon emissions and then profile actions already occurring and opportunities to
mitigate black carbon. Throughout these sections,text boxes highlight innovative projects that
are designed to give organizations, including NGOs and governments, a better sense of what
can be done at low cost and still result in a meaningful contribution to reducing black carbon
emissions. While this document does not provide step-by-step project implementation
instructions, it does identify areas ripe for action at a minimal up-front cost. Section 5
summarizes the report's findings and provides a brief conclusion. This is followed by a list of
references, which include citations for sources in the main body of the report and the
appendices. The appendices include:
* Appendix A - Black Carbon Emissions in South Asia
* Appendix B - Climate Impacts of Black Carbon and Co-benefits of Reducing Black Carbon
Emissions in South Asia
* Appendix C - Brick Making in South Asia
* Appendix D - Black Carbon Emissions from On-Road Fleets in South Asia and Current
Initiatives to Reduce Emissions
Appendix E - Improved Cookstove
Production Models in South Asia
Appendix F - List of participants
from the Kathmandu Consultation.
In this section
Adopt more efficient
technologies, page 16
Use cleaner fuels, page 18
Use alternative building
materials, page 18
Adopt improved operating
practices, page 18
Train kiln owners and
workers, page 19
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2. Black Carbon Mitigation in the Industrial Sector
The industrial sector is one of the largest contributors
to black carbon emissions in South Asia, accounting for
approximately 23% of all black carbon emissions in
Asia [8]. In India, the industrial sector accounts for
approximately 15% of all black carbon emissions, with
approximately two-thirds of those emissions, or 9%,
attributable to brick kilns [18]. The most commonly
used kiln in South Asia is the Bull's trench kiln (see
Figure 3), which uses very simple technologies that are
inefficient and highly polluting. Nevertheless, this kiln
is commonly used because of its high profit margins
combined with low initial investment requirements. To
date, the brick industry has been an overlooked sector
for black carbon mitigation, leaving room for
significant action.
Figure 3. Smoke emissions from a Bull's
trench
The brick industry in South Asian countries provides a very important livelihood for large
numbers of the rural poor during the dry summer months, when crop production yields little
income. In India, between eight and ten million people work in brick kilns, and in Bangladesh
brick kilns employ an estimated one million people. The rural poor migrate to work at brick kilns
as firemen who control the brick-firing process or clay
molders who form the bricks before they are fired
(Figure 4 shows laborers fueling a brick kiln). Migrant
workers use traditional skills and are typically
unaware of improved or new technologies that could
increase their skills or improve operational efficiency.
Kiln owners usually remain detached from day-to-day
kiln operations. They rent land, hire migrant workers
through agents, set up kilns, and leave management
to local supervisors who carry out little of the actual
work themselves. Moreover, brick kiln owners remain
largely unaware of new brick-making technologies
and operating practices. As a result, brick kilns remain
inefficient and are a significant contributor to black
carbon emissions. Fjgure 4 Workers fue|jng a brick kiln in India.
An effective and cost-effective means of reducing black carbon emissions from brick kilns is to
improve operating practices and increase combustion efficiency by working with both kiln
owners and workers - particularly the firemen who control the brick-firing process [19]. Owners
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are much more likely to adopt better operating practices or make technical modifications to
existing kilns when they can see the potential fuel and cost savings that can be achieved by
improving combustion efficiency. Firemen, other kiln workers, and local residents would also
benefit from improved air quality. Trade associations such as the Federation of Nepal Brick
Industries and the All India Brick and Tile Manufacturers Federation can serve as a means to
disseminate information to brick-kiln owners and workers on how to improve the efficiency of
kiln operations cost-effectively.
The following sections outline the co-benefits of more efficient brick making, identify options to
mitigate black carbon emissions, and highlight several examples of innovative South Asian
programs already transforming the brick-making industry. While a number of individual
projects are aimed at reducing black carbon emissions in the region, there does not appear to
be any large-scale coordinated initiatives to reduce brick-kiln emissions across the industrial
sector. In this way, brick making in the industrial sector stands in contrast with fleets in the
transportation sector and cookstoves in the residential sectors.
Appendix C provides additional information on brick-making practices, kiln technologies, and
regulations in key South Asian countries.
A. Benefits of Reducing Black Carbon Emissions from the Brick Industry
Efforts to reduce black carbon emissions from brick kilns to achieve climate benefits can
simultaneously result in energy savings and, therefore, cost savings and health co-benefits. The
following sections provide information on these benefits.
Energy Savings
Adoption of more efficient operating practices and technologies can result in significant energy
and cost savings in the brick-making industry. For example3:
» Adopting best operating practices in Bull's trench kilns could result in energy savings of
about 1 MTOE per year in India. This is the equivalent of roughly 311 million gal (1.1
billion L) of crude oil - enough crude oil to produce more than 143 million gal (541
million L) of gasoline [20].
» Switching from conventional solid bricks to resource-efficient products such as
perforated bricks and hollow bricks could result in energy savings of about 0.6 MTOE per
year across India, assuming 30% of Bull's trench kilns in India adopt this technology shift.
3. These estimates are based on the production/fuel consumption figures from a study undertaken by The Energy and
Resources Institute (TERI) in 2000, the most recent study on the Indian brick industry. The actual energy savings would
therefore be substantially higher than these estimated figures due to growth in the brick-making industry.
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» Replacing 10% of solid bricks in India with fly ash bricks could save about 0.3 MTOE per
year across the country.
In addition, resource-efficient products such as perforated and hollow bricks have better
thermal insulation properties than solid bricks, and so could help reduce heating and cooling
loads for buildings, which helps lower energy costs for property owners as well.
Climate Benefits
The economic growth in Asian countries such as India has led to an increase in urban
population. This increase has created demand for improved infrastructure, which increases
demand for building materials, especially bricks. Brick production has negative climate impacts
due to C02 and black carbon emissions. One study has shown that emissions from brick making
in Asia could be reduced by switching to more efficient kilns, such as the vertical shaft brick kiln,
and additional reductions could be achieved by switching to hollow-brick production [21].
Health Benefits
The traditional brick-making technologies that are typically used in South Asian countries are
highly polluting. Incorporating pollution control systems such as gravity settling chambers has
helped reduce emissions from Bull's trench kilns in India. However, poor operating practices are
the norm and continue to result in unhealthy levels of air pollution, especially at kilns where
pollution control systems have not been installed. Brick-kiln emissions affect both kiln workers
and people residing and working near kilns.
Although there have been few comprehensive studies to assess the impact of emissions from
brick kilns on health in general, several studies have evaluated the local health impacts of
emissions from specific brick-making industrial areas. For example, one study surveyed the
health of residents living in proximity to a brick-making industrial area in the Kathmandu Valley
in Nepal and found that 95% of residents in the surveyed area had experienced some type of
respiratory disease within the past year, compared with only 51% of the control population
[22]. The results of this study are statistically significant and suggest a clear correlation between
residents' proximity to brick kilns and adverse impacts on respiratory systems. Improved
practices could reduce emissions and resulting health impacts.
B. Opportunities for Reducing Black Carbon Emissions from Brick Kilns
Black carbon emissions from brick making are influenced by a number of factors, including the
technology used, the fuel source, and how the brick kiln is operated and maintained.
While mitigation options that attempt to reduce black carbon emissions by introducing new or
modified technologies or fuels are typically more costly than traditional kilns or fuels, there are
a growing number of illustrative examples of modest up-front investments that pay off quickly.
These methods are listed in the text box on this page and described below.
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Producing Resource-Efficient Bricks
The Bharat Brick Co. started producing and
marketing perforated bricks on a small scale in
2005. In 2009, Bharat replaced its fixed
chimney kiln with a more energy-efficient,
high-draft kiln. With technical support and
input from experts, the clay brick molding
process was improved through using
equipment such as double shaft mixers and
conveyor belts. The owner received the
National Gold Star Award from the Indian
Society for Industry & Intellectual
Development for outstanding performance in
innovation in the clay processing industry.
Based on this success, Bharat is looking to
make further upgrades to produce resource-
efficient bricks, including hollow blocks, on a
large scale.
Source: [24].
Implementing these emissions reduction
methods sometimes requires a change in
behavior (e.g., how a kiln is operated or
maintained). For example, the market
currently demands solid red bricks that
produce a good "ring" sound when two bricks
are hit together. This ring is considered an
important indicator of product quality, and
bricks that produce this ring are typically
produced by traditional Bull's trench kilns. To
encourage the move from Bull's trench kilns to
more efficient technologies, it might be
necessary to change the perception that the
ring sound is a necessary or reliable indicator
of quality. Creating communications materials
and conducting outreach activities that
highlight efficiency and financial gains from
new technologies can be an effective means of
reducing black carbon emissions from brick
kilns. Communications should emphasize that
bricks created using alternative technologies,
practices, fuels, or design will still result in
cost-effective and sturdy building materials.
Training sessions and communications and
outreach campaigns can focus on best
operating practices and associated financial
benefits. Such an approach could help
overcome behavioral barriers to improving
brick-kiln efficiency, such as lack of awareness
among kiln owners, workers, and product
purchasers regarding alternative technologies
and fuels, best operating practices, or
improved brick design [23].
The following sections describe several low-
cost, high-impact mitigation options to reduce
black carbon emissions from brick making in South Asia. Each section includes information on
existing activities or initiatives that focus on changing kiln management and operations
behavior through knowledge sharing and capacity building.
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Adopt More Efficient Technologies
Switching from inefficient to more efficient kilns can reduce emissions and, correspondingly,
reduce fuel consumption (see the examples in the text boxes on pages 15 and 17). Reduced fuel
costs can increase profits based on the initial level of investment and/or access to appropriate
financing. Available cost-effective and efficient technologies include Hoffmann kilns, zig-zag
firing kilns, tunnel kilns, and vertical shaft brick kilns (see Appendix C for more information on
these technologies). These technologies are profitable, energy efficient, environment friendly,
and produce a higher percentage of high-quality bricks (see Figures 5 and 6). For example, it is
estimated that vertical shaft brick kilns can reduce emissions by as much as 80% relative to
Higher
Particulate Emissions
Low Quality Coal
Fuel Source
Natural Gas
Bull's Trench/ Fixed
Clamp Chimney
Zig-zag
Hybrid
Hoffman
Vertical
Shaft
Tunnel Hoffman
Initial Investment
Higher
Quicker
Return on Investment
Slower
Figure 5. Relative participate emissions, fuel sources, and investment requirements for various brick kiln
technologies assuming good operating practices.* Sources: Compiled from the presentations of Ijaz Hossain and
Sameer Maithel [26, 27].
*ln most cases, but not all, lower particulate emissions equate to lower black carbon emissions.
traditional combustion technologies [25].
Fuel Efficiency
Higher
Clamp
Bull's Trench Fixed Chimney Hoffman Zig-zag Vertical Shaft
Figure 6. Relative fuel efficiencies for various brick kiln technologies assuming good operating practices."
Source: Compiled from the presentation of D.J. Reeve [28].
*ln most cases, but not all, increased kiln efficiency equates to lower black carbon emissions.
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Conversion from Bull's Trench Kiln to Natural Draft Zig-zag Firing
From Bull's Trench Kiln
to Natural Draught Zig-Zag Kiln
Prayag Clay Products of Varanasi, India, switched to a zig-zag kiln, allowing them to more efficiently produce bricks,
lower black carbon emissions, and increase profits.
Traditional Bull's trench kilns are used throughout South Asia. These kilns require firemen to feed coal into the kiln
at intervals of 10 to 20 minutes, which leads to variations in the internal kiln temperature, inefficient combustion,
and high black carbon emissions.
Prayag Clay Products of Varanasi, India, converted from a highly polluting Bull's trench kiln to an efficient zig-zag
kiln 10 years ago. The design increases air flow rates and decreases inefficient combustion. Additionally, continuous
feeding of fuel ensures consistent internal kiln temperature, more efficient combustion, and lower black carbon
emissions.
Several operations practices help ensure that the Prayag kiln is as efficient as possible. These practices include
properly stacking the green, unfired, bricks in the kiln; monitoring the kiln firing temperature; and installing a shunt
system with a flue gas temperature meter. These practices, along with the kiln design, allow fuel to burn efficiently
at a consistent temperature, resulting in more high-quality bricks and less pollution on the ground and in the air.
These reductions in pollution resulted in marked reductions in CO2emissions. For example, the CO2 emissions from
the new zig-zag kiln are on average 50% lower than CO2 emissions from the old Bull's trench kiln.
Greentech Knowledge Solutions, a partner of Prayag Clay Products, estimates that the initial investment to
transition from a Bulls trench kiln to a zig-zag kiln was between $10,000 and $15,000. However, switching to a zig-
zag kiln increased annual revenue by $20,000 to $30,000. This investment quickly paid for itself in less than one
year through lower fuel costs and the ability to produce a higher quality and more valuable product.
Source: [29]. Photos courtesy of O.P. Badlani, Prayag Clay Products.
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Use Cleaner Fuels
Using alternate fuels can reduce or eliminate the use of firewood and low-quality coal in brick
kilns, fuels that typically lead to substantial black carbon emissions (see Figure 5). Alternative
options include natural gas and higher-quality coal. Since natural gas is only available through
utility lines, only brick kilns located close to the utility grid, such as several in Bangladesh, can
fire their kilns with natural gas. Using higher-quality coal (although more costly than its dirtier
low-quality alternative) combined with the adoption of better operating practices will also
reduce black carbon emissions and can potentially reduce overall operating costs.
Use Alternative Building Materials
The demand for bricks as a building material is growing due to increasing commercial and
housing needs, despite concerns about the availability of resources such as clay and coal, and
pressure for the brick industry to reduce pollution. Construction practices in urban areas have
also changed over time.
For example, in multi-story buildings the load is now carried by cement columns rather than
bricks, and bricks are mainly used as filler material. These changing practices are paving the way
for the introduction of alternative resource-efficient products, such as hollow blocks,
perforated bricks, and fly ash bricks. Producing and successfully marketing these alternative
building products would help reduce the
consumption of highly polluting fuel, improve
health, and reduce climate impacts. Using these
materials would also affect the cooling loads and
energy costs of businesses and residents during the
summer because they have better insulating
properties than traditional bricks. Also, production
of hollow and perforated bricks requires that
production methods be changed from hand
molding to mechanical molding by machines. This
will result in a more consistent production of
uniform bricks that could command a higher price
in the market.
Adopt Improved Operating Practices
Coal is the primary fuel used to make bricks in
South Asian countries. A number of better
operating practices can be incorporated in coal
firing to help control and reduce emissions while
conserving fuel (see the example in the text box).
Improved operating practices for coal-fired kilns
(e.g., the Bull's trench or fixed-chimney kilns in
Results from Implementing
Best Operating Practices at
Prayag Clay Products
Best practices
» Long firing zone with continuous coal
feeding
» Small coal spoon size (200-400 g/spoon
versus 1,000-2,000 g/spoon)
» Smaller coal size (0-5 mm versus
0-25 mm)
* High air velocities
» Zigzag firing versus Bull's trench
* Firing temperature measurement
» Flue gas temperature monitoring
Results
» Lower emissions of PM and CO2
» Coal consumption reduced 15%-25%
* Energy consumption 0.95-1.0 MJ per kg
of fired bricks versus 1.2-1.3 MJ per kg
* 85% of the highest quality bricks versus
50%-60%
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India and Nepal and the similar Bull's trench kiln in Bangladesh) aim to increase brick-firing
efficiency by maintaining a consistent kiln temperature. A varying kiln temperature causes fuel
to burn inefficiently, resulting in additional black carbon emissions. In general, best practices
include:
» Using the proper coal size
» Using a good-quality coal with higher energy content
» Using a smaller-capacity spoon for feeding coal
» Charging small quantities of fuel more frequently
» Ensuring a sufficient steady air supply in the combustion zone
» Properly operating side flues to maintain a constant draft
» Using insulated feedhole covers
» Using a wider coal-feeding zone
» Using a minimum temperature of 700°C to start coal feeding.
In addition, kilns that have a higher operating draft (e.g., higher stack heights; less cool air
infiltration after the combustion zone; lowfrictional resistance in the kiln, ducts, and chimney)
and use high-quality coal will have lower black carbon concentrations in their emissions.
Conduct Training to Institute Best Practices
Brick firing in kilns is usually performed by untrained firemen who are typically not well
versed in the most efficient operating practices. Consequently, there is an enormous
opportunity to improve brick-making efficiency by training firemen across South Asia.
Training would help firemen implement best operating practices in brick kilns and could
help realize energy savings of about 5% [30]. A number of pilot training projects have begun
in South Asia, such as at the green vertical shaft brick kiln project in Bangladesh and a
project currently being implemented by TERI in India [31]. Given the newness of this effort,
few results are available at this time.
An effective training program for employing best practices would likely feature a train-the-
trainer approach focused on master firemen, the most well-regarded and experienced
firemen in the community, from whom other firemen seek advice and guidance. A trained
and certified master fireman could ensure that the firemen under him employ best
operating practices, thereby effectively spreading knowledge and expertise to a large
number of firemen. The topics covered in this training should include the best operating
practices outlined in the previous section. Such a training program would be organized in
two phases:
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» In the first phase, participatory classroom training sessions could be organized for the
master firemen during the "off" season (August-December) when the brick kilns are
closed due to monsoon and most of the firemen and master firemen return to their
villages. Twenty master firemen could be trained in one class.
» In the second phase, on-site training sessions (with the same participants who attended
classroom training sessions) would be organized at the kiln sites during the brick-making
season (January-June). During this session, interactive discussions and activities would
be carried out with the master firemen, firemen they supervise, and brick-kiln
entrepreneurs. On-site sessions ensure the proper implementation of lessons learned in
the first-phase classroom sessions, including a means of monitoring and evaluating the
impact of the operational training. This on-site follow-up interaction would help fine-
tune training programs. It is anticipated that each master fireman could train 10 firemen
in his village or locale. Therefore, one training program would effectively reach about
200 firemen.
This two-phase training strategy is expected to maximize the opportunities for the trained
master firemen to share their technical knowledge with the firemen - both in the villages
and at the kiln sites. The outcome will be wider adoption of best operating practices at the
kiln sites, leading to lower operating costs, increased profitability, improved energy
efficiency, decreased emissions of black carbon, climate benefits, improved health
conditions locally and regionally, and better working conditions for the firemen and other
kiln workers. TERI estimates an initial cost of developing course material at $16,000 and
$30,000 per training program for one class of 20 master firemen and 20 follow-up training
sessions for 200 firemen. See Figure 7 for additional details on the TERI training strategy.
VILLAGE LEVEL
BRICK KILN SITE
TERI
Class room training ^.'
of trainers .*"'
"' x On site/ class room
BTK entrepreneurs/ trained
master firemen
Class room training with
port of local N
1
• Energy efficiency
* Reduced carbon emissions
• Improved environment
• Better working conditions
• Better product quality
Figure 7. TERI firemen training program structure.
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3. Black Carbon Mitigation in the Transportation Sector
Emissions from on-road vehicles (e.g., passenger cars, light duty vehicles, buses, and freight
trucks) and off-road vehicles (e.g., boats or barges, planes, construction or agricultural
equipment, and trains) contribute greatly to black carbon emissions in South Asia. Overall, the
transportation sector is the third largest source of black carbon emissions in Asia and it is
expected to become the second largest source by 2030 [8]. In India, the country that
contributes the most to South Asian black carbon emissions, transportation accounts for
approximately 21% of the country's total black carbon emissions and nearly 60% of black
carbon emissions from fossil fuel combustion [16,17, 18]. These emissions also contribute to
considerable impacts on public health. For example, PM is especially prevalent in urban areas,
which have high concentrations of both on- and off-road vehicles.
Black carbon emissions from the transportation sector are the result of inefficient combustion
of fossil fuels including gasoline and diesel, and improper fleet management (e.g., failing to
optimize the amount of cargo carried per trip). The inefficiencies that lead to these emissions
also result in increased energy consumption and higher fuel costs. For this reason, improving
the efficiency of fossil fuel combustion in the transportation sector can simultaneously save
money, improve local air quality, and reduce black carbon emissions to the atmosphere.
Globally, there is a wealth of experience in the development and implementation of activities
that improve both fuel efficiency and fleet management in the transportation sector.
Traditionally, these activities have focused on reducing the impacts of the transportation sector
on air quality and reducing fuel costs, rather than reducing black carbon emissions. This section
draws on lessons learned from these activities and explains how they can be effective at
reducing black carbon emissions and achieving substantial economic and public health co-
benefits.
This section focuses on reducing black carbon emissions from private and public sector fleets
(e.g., on-road freight and other goods-carrying vehicles). One reason for concentrating on fleets
is that the trucks that make up these fleets have higher emissions factors than nearly all other
vehicle types (with the exception of buses) [32]. Overall, heavy-duty trucking (which includes
fleet vehicles) accounts for approximately 11% of all black carbon emissions and more than half
of all black carbon emissions from the transportation sector in India [16,17, 18]. In addition,
several organizations are implementing successful programs that have reduced black carbon
emissions from fleets while achieving sizeable co-benefits, primarily increased fuel savings.
Nevertheless, fleets remain a largely untapped, yet achievable front for further action and
exploration.
Additional information on black carbon emissions from the transportation sector in South Asia
is provided in Appendix D.
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A. Benefits of Reducing Black Carbon Emissions from On-Road Fleets
As noted above, activities that reduce black carbon emissions from fleets by both improving
fuel efficiency and fleet management can generate substantial co-benefits, primarily reduced
public health impacts and mitigated climate impacts. This section describes these co-benefits in
greater detail. Additionally, a primary motivation to improve fleet efficiency and management
are the often substantial fuel savings realized and thus also cost savings for fleet operators.
Increased Fuel Savings
Fuel economy and fleet management measures can reduce black carbon emissions by reducing
the amount of fuel burned thus also decreasing the operational costs to fleets. Many simple
behavioral changes can help increase fuel savings. For example, educating drivers about the
importance of accelerating gently and maintaining constant speeds can help reduce fuel
consumption by more than one-third. Simply tightening gas caps can save as much as 30 gal
(114 L) of fuel over the course of one year [33]. Using low-rolling resistance tires on heavy-duty
trucks can help reduce PMi0 emissions and fuel consumption by more than 2,000 L per year per
truck [34]. Overall, training programs that address these behavioral changes can improve fuel
economy by between 5% and 20% [35, 36]. In addition, improved fleet logistics can reduce fuel
use by as much as 7% [37].
Figure 8 illustrates the fuel savings that can be achieved by using various strategies to improve
the efficiency of fleet trucks. The figure also illustrates how these strategies can both reduce
fuel costs and reduce PM emissions, which include black carbon.
Climate Benefits
Reducing black carbon emissions from the transportation sector in South Asia leads to
considerable environmental, health, and economic development benefits. The environmental
benefits are generally twofold: black carbon emissions reduction activities reduce emissions of
C02 (a long-lived climate forcer) and PM (which consists largely of black carbon, a short-lived
climate forcer). According to one estimate, trucks and non-passenger light vehicles (i.e., those
used for transporting goods) produce 47% of all C02 emissions from road transport in India
[32]. It is estimated that by 2035, heavy-duty vehicles in Asia will produce more than 2,500
million tons of C02 emissions per year, far more than any other type of on-road transportation
despite there being relatively fewer heavy-duty vehicles in Asia than other vehicle types [38].
The climate benefits that could be achieved through driver and fleet manager training and outreach are
difficult to estimate. However, the SmartWay program suggests that reducing an average U.S. truck's
fuel consumption by 5% can lead to an estimated annual reduction in CO2 emissions of eight tons.
Table 2 presents an example of the combined fuel savings and climate benefits associated with installing
technology upgrades on all trucks registered in Guandong Province [more information on this project
and its predecessor (the Guangzhou Project) is provided in a text box on page 26].
U.S. EPA - REDUCING BLACK CARBON EMISSIONS IN SOUTH ASIA
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SmartWay Strategies Costs vs. Fuel Savings \
Trailer Side Fairings
S1.4SO-$2.500
Saves 7%
Trailer Mounted Gap Reducers
$700 -$1,100
Saves 2%
Smart Way Approved
Tractor Cap
$1.100 differential COM
Saves SX
Trailer Boat Tail
$2,000 $3,000
Saves SK
Low Rolling
Resistance Tires
$2,SOO Trailer (2%)
$3.000 Tractor (2%)
Saves 4%
Idle Reduction
Equipment (APU's)
$«.ooo-$is,ooo
Saves 8%
Fuel Tank Side Fairings
$1,700-$2.100
Saves IX
2010 Engine
$9,000 Pius Motel few
t waUtor - more than 2007
compliant engine
8SK less PM than 2006MY
•5% less NO. than 2009MY
Diesel Exhaust Fluid
$.01 CPM
Burn 2 galtom 0€f
per 1
CPG = $3.00
Aero Mirror & Bumper
$32$ differential toil
Saves 2%
Tractor (18% fuel savings)
Additional Coin per Tractor: $20,02$ $29,42$
Additional Wcifht: g$0 lot {appro*)
Trailer (16% fuel savings)
Additional C«U per Trailer. S6.6SOS9.100
Additional W*4|ht: 900 HH (ipproi)
* f ueh saving sir j!*g*i jre not cumulative. Conservative estimate of 2$% overall savings yields KOI on all equipment »1B yrs to 2.6 yrs
(Based on long-haul application. 120.000 annual VMT. 2.000 idle hours on APU, and $} 00/gal)
• Information Courtesy ol Inirruate Diunbutor Company: IOC Shtppen Summrt a Green Freight Training Program 2010
Figure 8. Strategies for saving costs while improving fleet truck fuel efficiency and reducing PM emissions (based
on the experience of EPA's SmartWay Program). Source: [39].
Table 2. Benefits from installing technology upgrades on all trucks registered in Guangdong
Province
Parameter
Total number of trucks registered in Guangdong Province
Total investment costs (tires and aerodynamics)
Total fuel savings (liters per year)
Total fuel cost savings
Total
1,230,000
$12 billion
3.96 billion L/year
$3.6 billion/year
Total CO2 savings
Total nitrogen oxide (NOX) savings
Total PM savings
Payback period in years
Sources: [34, 40].
10 million tons/year
37,000 tons/year
1,584 tons/year
3.38
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Health Benefits
Air pollution in Asia is estimated to contribute to 530,000 premature deaths per year [41]. PM is
generally recognized as the air pollutant of greatest concern in Asia [42]. Reducing emissions of
PMio could help reduce urban air pollution-related mortality by as much as 15% worldwide
[41].
Figure 9 shows the relative contribution of on-road transport to overall emissions of PM2.5 in 16
Asian cities.
.a
o
^
c
o
3
-2
§
100
so
^
^
^
-^ ^ 8^ ^ X ^ ^ ^ ^
V ^ ^ -t? ^ ^
Figure 9. Relative contribution of vehicles to PM2.5 in selected Asian cities. Source: [38],
adapted from [43].
In addition to reducing impacts on human health by reducing pollutant emissions, emissions
reduction programs can help improve the overall safety of roadways in Asia. For example, I/M
programs can help reduce the risk of breakdowns and assist with logistical planning to minimize
the occurrence of overloading, which has been identified as contributing to road accidents [38].
According to one estimate by the Asian Development Bank, approximately 44% of the world's
road deaths occur in Asia and the Pacific, despite the fact that the region only has 16% of the
world's vehicles [44].
B. Opportunities for Reducing Black Carbon Emissions
from On-Road Fleets
Particulate emissions, including black carbon, from fleets are
influenced by the following factors [32]:
In this section
Improve I/M practices, page 25
Implement fuel-efficient eco-driving,
page 27
Improve fleet logistics, page 28
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» Type of vehicle
» Type of fuel
» Type of combustion engine
» Emissions mitigation technologies
» Maintenance and operation
» Vehicle age.
To reduce emissions from fleets, activities can target one or several of these factors.
Traditional, long-term mitigation options include changes to the type of vehicle, fuel,
combustion engine, or mitigation technology and might include regulation (e.g., PM emissions
standards for new vehicles, engines that use diesel and gasoline). Introducing new emissions
control technologies, such as retrofitting vehicles with diesel particulate filters, can reduce PM
emissions including black carbon by as much as 95%, but this approach might also require
regulation [45]. These efforts are underway in some South Asian areas. For example, in Delhi
most commercial vehicles use compressed natural gas (CNG) rather than diesel fuel [32].
Another approach taken by countries is to increase fuel quality to allow the introduction of
cleaner vehicle technologies. For example, since 2010 11 Indian cities were providing lower
sulfur diesel fuel (50 ppm), which enables the use of cleaner diesel technologies and thus also
reduces PM emissions [46]. In some instances, it may be difficult to reach vehicle operators or
fleet managers due to the highly fragmented nature of the sector.4 In addition, fleet managers
may not realize that there are incentives for them to change maintenance, driving, or logistics
practices (e.g., due to the lack of tax policies and financing mechanisms in South Asia that favor
cleaner transportation technologies [40,45, 47]). However, effective training sessions and
communications and outreach campaigns can help overcome these obstacles by targeting
appropriate audiences and demonstrating the benefits of improved fleet logistics,
maintenance, and driving practices in other regions.
The following sections describe several readily achievable, low-cost, and high-impact black
carbon emissions reduction activities with the potential to generate considerable economic and
public health co-benefits.
Improve Inspection and Maintenance Practices
Improperly functioning vehicles can increase pollutant emissions. According to one estimate by
UNEP, approximately one-half of a given fleet's emissions come from just 10% to 15% of the
fleet's vehicles [48]. For this reason, many governments have developed and implemented
vehicle I/M programs to improve fuel efficiency and reduce the amount of pollution generated
4. It is estimated that at least 80% of India's trucking enterprises have only one or two trucks and only 10% of companies in the
country have more than 15 trucks [38, 40].
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by vehicles, including personal vehicles and corporate fleets. Through such programs,
governments can require vehicles to be inspected regularly and ensure that they do not
produce emissions in excess of a given threshold. If a vehicle is found to produce emissions at
levels beyond the established threshold upon inspection, the government can require
maintenance in order to reduce emissions.
Even when compliance with I/M programs is not compulsory, fleet managers and owners will
benefit from having their vehicles inspected and maintained. Therefore, a key strategy for
reducing black carbon emissions and achieving the associated climate and health co-benefits is
to promote the fuel-saving benefits of having fleet vehicles regularly inspected and rigorously
maintained. This approach can be used both in locations where government I/M programs exist
and where I/M is not required by government regulation.
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Guangzhou, China "Green Trucks" Pilot Project
The World Bank, with the Clean Air Initiative for Asian Cities and other partners (including EPA), developed a
"Green Trucks" pilot project in Guangzhou, China, from 2008 through 2010. The project involved working with
three private trucking companies to help them improve the efficiency of their fleet vehicles to reduce fuel
costs, air pollution and associated health impacts, and climate impacts.
In addition to a baseline analysis of emissions and fuel consumption and a survey of fleet managers' and
drivers' practices, this project involved selected technology upgrades and an eco-driving training course. This
course consisted of a one-hour presentation on key topics related to efficient vehicle use and fleet
management. Topics included:
» Improved driving practices - progressive shifting to optimize fuel efficiency
* Vehicle I/M - tips for tire maintenance
» Truck loading and equipment - using lighter trucks
* Logistics and planning - planning freight trips to minimize the number of trips with empty trucks
These courses were offered to truck drivers and fleet managers. Based on information collected through the
baseline survey and observations, eco-driver training can greatly improve the effectiveness of emissions
control technologies (as described below) because in many cases drivers and fleet managers do not know how
to properly operate new equipment.
The technology upgrades portion of the project involved installing new tires and aerodynamic equipment on
the companies' trucks. The technology upgrades were recommended by EPA's SmartWay program, based on its
experiences in the United States. The upgrades achieved a fuel savings of 7% for one company that installed
new tires and aerodynamic equipment on two long-haul heavy-duty trucks, and 18% for a second company
that installed efficient tires on two garbage trucks [47, 49]. The payback periods for the two companies'
upgrades were roughly 5.1 years and 1.5 years, respectively. Based on the findings from the project, the project
partners estimated the possible benefits of scaling up the project to include technology upgrades for all trucks
in Guangdong Province, which includes Guangzhou (see Table 2).
One of the key findings from this project was that investments in fuel efficiency can have very short payback
periods, but that upfront financing is necessary for the investments to be made. The project partners
emphasized the need for sources of financing in the region. One solution is to reach out to lenders. For
example, in the United States, micro-financing options such as revolving loan funds have been used by a
number of small trucking companies to make fleet improvements. These options often involve access to low-
interest loans [47].
Looking to the immediate future, the project's success resulted in a $5 million grant from the Global
Environment Facility to implement a regional project that spans Guangdong Province (including Guangzhou).
The Guangdong Green Freight Project, which will involve retrofitting more than 2,000 trucks with SmartWay
technologies, will leverage an additional $17 million in co-financing from multiple sources by incorporating this
project into a broader capacity building effort with the Chinese trucking industry [49]. In the long-term, the
pilot project (along with the Guangdong Green Freight Project) is being used to test designs for a future Green
Freight China program that will be applied at a broader scale.
Source: [34].
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Best practices and case studies that provide opportunities for quickly learning the advantages,
disadvantages, and unique challenges associated with the design and implementation of these
programs in South Asia are available from a number of governmental and nongovernmental
sources. For example, I/M programs have been implemented in several localities and larger
jurisdictions in South Asia. In 2004, the U.S. Agency for International Development (USAID)
produced a comprehensive evaluation of best practices for I/M programs based on
international experience [50]. This particular guidance includes case studies from several
governments.
Implement Fuel-Efficient Eco-Driving
Vehicle speed and driver behavior can significantly impact emissions and fuel economy. Eco-
driving refers to a "driving style characterized by lower speeds, less acceleration and 'thinking
ahead' in traffic," that can help improve fuel efficiency [51]. Training courses in eco-driving help
the driver reduce fuel consumption while reducing black carbon emissions (see the text box on
the Guangzhou project on page 26, the Ahmedabad project on page 29, and the Meralco
project on page 30). Over the long run, drivers who have completed eco-driving training
courses often achieve 5%-10% fuel efficiency improvements, compared to their fuel
efficiencies before the course [51]. In addition, better driving practices can also lead to savings
on vehicle maintenance costs (e.g., costs for replacing parts susceptible to wear and tear, such
as brakes, clutches, and vehicle suspension systems).
During eco-driving training courses, trainees are taught how to calculate fuel efficiency as well
as five basic rules [52]:
1. Anticipate traffic flow
2. Maintain a steady speed at low revolutions per minute
3. Shift up early
4. Check tire pressures frequently at least monthly and before driving at high speeds
5. Remember that any extra energy required costs fuel and money.
The eco-driving training sessions provided in the Guangzhou, China "Green Trucks" pilot project
(see the text box on page 26) lasted one hour each and were based on training materials
developed by EPA's SmartWay Transport Partnership. Through this pilot project, it was
discovered that many drivers lacked knowledge on how to properly operate and maintain their
equipment (e.g., operating tire pressure monitoring sensors). The training sessions helped
provide the drivers with the information they needed to use the equipment correctly and thus
improve their vehicles' efficiency [34].
Table 3 presents a breakdown of fuel savings that can be achieved by implementing different
eco-driving practices.
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Table 3. Fuel savings from typical eco-driving practices
Minimizing load 2% per 100 Ibs (45 kg) of load reduced
Avoiding rapid acceleration and sudden braking in 5%
city
Maintaining tire pressure
1% for each properly inflated tire
Having regular tune-ups
Up to 20%
Unclogging air filters
One mile per gallon (3.8 L) of fuel consumed
Combining short trips to reduce the number of times Every time the engine is started, it uses 20%
the vehicle is started more fuel than if it were running
continuously
Source: [53].
Improve Fleet Logistics
Poor fleet management can have implications for fuel economy and black carbon emissions.
Overloading trucks has been identified as a major cause of pollutant emissions in India; long-
distance transport trucks (which weigh approximately nine tons) often carry between 14 and 20
tons of goods on outbound trips, amounts that are beyond their specified loads. In Pakistan, it
is estimated that 70% of 2- and 3-axle trucks and 40% of 4- and 6-axle trucks are overloaded
[40]. Trucks are overloaded because operational costs can be minimized if the number of truck
trips is reduced. However, when these trucks (which run on diesel fuel) are operated at levels
outside their specification ranges, their engines are overworked, which results in excess
pollution. In addition, overworked engines suffer from increased wear and typically are not
serviced regularly. Because truck engines are overworked when the trucks are overloaded, they
require additional fuel and are more likely to break down. Fortunately, many fleet managers
have found that they can reduce their overall costs by not overloading their trucks [38, 54].
When considering fleet logistics, some trucks carry minimal loads (or no loads at all - called a
"deadhead"). In some fleets, deadhead truck trips can account for one-tenth of all fleet miles
traveled, and contribute substantially to pollutant emissions and fuel expenditures [38]. In
India, it is estimated that between 37% and 46% of all truck trips are deadheads [40]. Figure 10
shows that many fleet vehicle trips are deadhead trips.
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20%
40%
60%
80%
Figure 10. Load distribution of freight vehicles in India. MAV = multi-axle vehicle;
LCV = light commercial vehicle. Source: [38].
I imply
I up to 2.5 tons
12.5 to 5 tons
I 5 to 7.5 tons
17.5 to 10 tons
10 to 12.5 tons
112.5 to 15 tons
15 to 20 tons
20 to 25 tons
>25tons
100%
Ahmedabad, India's Municipal Fleet Program
Ahmedabad is the seventh largest city in India and one of the fastest growing cities in the world. The
Ahmedabad Municipal Corporation (AMC) manages the city's various public agencies. It owns a fleet of roughly
1,000 trucks and other vehicles that traditionally operate on diesel fuel. In addition to these vehicles, its
contractors own and operate approximately 700 vehicles in the city. Overall, the combined fleet consumes
approximately 10,000 L of fuel per day, primarily diesel. AMC estimated that its fleet's annual CO2 emissions
were approximately 13,000 tons and that the fleet was wasting the equivalent of 20 MW of electricity per day
due to inefficient fuel use.
In recent years, AMC has endeavored to reduce its fleet's impact on local air pollution while reducing its fuel
costs. AMC launched a capacity-building initiative among its fleet drivers and operators, training them on
proper usage of fleet vehicles. This training provides participants with information on the benefits of reducing
idling and overloading, using the clutch with optimal efficiency, minimizing unwanted accelerating, and limiting
excessive speed. Simultaneously, AMC is conducting training that instructs fleet maintenance staff on how to
develop proper vehicle I/M regimens, which include routinely verifying that fuel compressors are working
effectively and that tire pressure remains at optimum levels.
AMC has also converted its entire diesel-fueled fleet to cleaner-burning alternatives, such as CNG, and has
started to replace its older vehicles with ones that are built to comply with more stringent air pollution
standards.
Overall, AMC's efforts have reduced their fleet's fuel costs and contribution to air pollution levels in
Ahmedabad.
Source: [55].
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Meralco South Distribution Services' Green Fleet Program
Meralco South Distribution Services (SDS), part of the Meralco Corporation, is an electricity distributor in the
southern portion of Luzon Island in the Philippines. Meralco SDS has a fleet of approximately 300 vehicles,
including passenger vehicles and trucks. In 2009, the company adopted a new environment, safety, and health
policy that includes a goal of improving fuel efficiency to achieve environmental and health benefits while
reducing fuel costs. To reach this goal, the company monitored fuel consumption and kilometers driven in 2008
and used this information to determine average fleet-wide fuel efficiency. Along with this study, the company
surveyed its fleet drivers and managers to better understand their awareness of fuel consumption-related
factors and practices that might help improve fuel efficiency. This information informed the design of an eco-
driving training course for the company's drivers and fleet managers.
In addition to developing fleet-wide fuel efficiency measures, the company developed estimates of their fleet's
baseline emissions of CO2 and other pollutants, such as PM10 (which includes black carbon). To develop these
estimates, the company used the UNEP-TNTToolkit for Clean Fleet Strategy Development, which was
developed by the PCFV and provides fleet managers with tools to help them understand key health and
environmental impacts associated fleet operations. Using this toolkit, the company estimated that its
300 vehicles emitted 1.4 tons of PM10 annually.
Based on the results of this analysis and an evaluation of fleet components that contribute most to emissions
and fuel consumption, the company identified the following priority areas for improvement: emergency pick-
up trucks, utility pick-up trucks, vans, and basket trucks. For each of these areas, the company established a
fuel efficiency goal. To meet each goal, the company identified specific activities that it would implement,
focusing in particular on the following: eco-driving training for drivers, improved vehicle maintenance, and
redesigning its fleet to "right-size" its vehicles (e.g., using smaller vehicles when possible).
The eco-driving component of the Green Fleet Program included several specific activities, including:
» A train-the-trainers program that gave presentations to the company's different fleet sectors and
guided drivers' through best-practice based exercises
» A series of driver trainings, run by the trainers who participated in the train-the-trainers program,
which involved presentations and driving exercises for the company's 400 drivers
* A rewards program, through which the company recognized drivers for achieving high fuel-efficiency
ratings and for having no accidents over the course of a year, among other things
A communications and outreach campaign that developed eco-driving materials and posted them in
all company facilities.
During the eco-driving training sessions, drivers and trainers were given information on specific practices that
they can use to improve fuel efficiency. The most attention was paid to practices involving proper acceleration
and braking (i.e., not accelerating too quickly and not braking suddenly unless necessary), appropriate gear
shifting (i.e., going through lower gears gently and quickly without forcing the engine to reach high levels of
rotations per minute), and anticipation of lane changes and obstacles further down the road. After being
trained in these practices, drivers were given practical tests to ensure their understanding of the eco-driving
principles and to help them visualize the fuel savings. Table 3 presents the approximate fuel savings that can be
achieved using such practices. The information in the table is based on a training session that was developed by
the managers of the Honda Philippines fleet, which - like Meralco SDS - has adopted the UNEP-TNTToolkit.
The program's benefits after the first year of implementation were considerable for all fleet operations.
Figure 11 presents the fuel-efficiency improvements for three fleet sectors. Overall, from 2008 to 2009,
Meralco SDS improved its fleet-wide fuel efficiency by 16% and achieved reductions in its fleet's emissions of
CO2 and PM10by 10% and 4%, respectively. Considering the clear benefits of the program, the company has
decided to incorporate eco-driving training into all new driver training modules and to mandate that drivers
partake in eco-driving refresher courses every three years. Other branches of the Meralco Corporation are now
beginning similar projects on their own.
Source: [56].
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10.00
7.51
2008 2009 2008 2009
Figure 11. Realized fuel efficiency gains by the Meralco SDS. Source: [56].
C. Examples of Initiatives to Reduce Black Carbon Emissions from
On-Road Fleets
Several organizations have developed resources that fleet managers can use to make informed
decisions about how their fleets are operated. These resources include the following:
» Clean Fleet Strategy Development Toolkit (UNEP, PCFV), developed by the Partnership
for Clean Fuels and Vehicles (PCFV). The UNEP-TNT Toolkit for Clean Fleet Strategy
Development provides fleet managers with tools to help them understand key health
and environmental impacts associated with how their fleets operate. The toolkit
contains a number of tools that, when used together, function to prepare both public
and private vehicle fleet managers to (1) evaluate the impacts of their fleets on the
environment and human health, and (2) then develop a practical strategy for corrective
and cost-effective action through a number of options (from eco-driving and improved
maintenance to advanced fuels and technologies). The toolkit takes fleet managers and
those interested in learning about lowering emissions from road transport through a
step-by-step system that is accessible to both the experienced and beginner personnel
in the field. UNEP held several training sessions to introduce fleet managers to the
toolkit and to explain its application and value. Drivers from one company in the
Philippines achieved a 16% improvement in fuel efficiency by using eco-driving practices
after completing a UNEP-TNT toolkit training session [40]. The online toolkit can be
accessed at http://www.unep.org/tnt-unep/toolkit/.
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» SmartWay Transport Partnership Models and Literature (EPA). Through the SmartWay
Transport Partnership, a partnership between private and public sectors based in the
United States, fleet managers can access a series of models that they can use to improve
fleet logistics. For example, by entering basic fleet information into the models, fleet
managers can generate estimates of the fuel and emissions impacts of their fleets'
operations (see Figure 8). The partnership has also developed a large library of
information resources on fuel-efficient fleet management, including fact sheets with
estimated fuel savings associated with different management practices. The SmartWay
Transport Partnership resources can be accessed at
http://www.epa.gov/smartwaylogistics/transport/index.htm.
Several international campaigns and partnerships offer forums for fleet managers to gain
access to resources, best practices, and information on innovative approaches. Examples of
partnerships include:
» Partnership for Clean Fuels and Vehicles (UNEP). This partnership was developed by
UNEP to work with governments and organizations in developing countries to help them
reduce air pollution from the transportation sector. The partnership concentrates on
helping regions transition to lead-free, low-sulfur fuels in addition to assisting them in
their efforts to reduce transportation-related emissions through technological and
behavioral changes. The partnership helps countries reduce PM (and also black carbon)
emissions from transport by promoting the cleaner fuels needed for cleaner vehicles as
well as cleaner vehicle standards. The partnership offers a wealth of information on the
current status of country standards and regulations, as well as best practices and other
experience-based resources. More information on the partnership can be found at
http://www.unep.org/transport/pcfv/.
» Sustainable Transport Community of Practice (Clean Air Initiative for Asian Cities). This
initiative administers a community message board for individuals and organizations
involved in transport planning and operations. The message board provides an
opportunity for community members to share ideas and solicit feedback from
colleagues. More information is available at
http://www.cleanairinitiative.org/portal/communities/transport forum.
» Global Fuel Economy Initiative (50by50). Several South Asian governments are
collaborating with this initiative. For example, the Indian Ministry of Transport is
working with the initiative to institute an inspection and certification regime for
vehicles, in addition to the establishment of fuel-efficiency labels that are mandatory for
all new vehicles in the country beginning in 2011 [57]. More information on the Global
Fuel Economy Initiative can be found at
http://www.fiafoundation.org/50by50/pages/homepage.aspx.
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4. Black Carbon Mitigation in the Residential Sector
Nearly three billion people use biomass fuel in their homes for heating and cooking [58].
Biomass includes wood, dung, or other natural materials such as leaves or agricultural remnants
[15]. When these fuels are combusted, they release black carbon and other pollutants into the
atmosphere. While residential fuel use, primarily biomass combustion for cooking, comprises
26% of black carbon emissions globally [59], it accounts for approximately 60% in Asia [60]. In
India, the most populated nation in South Asia, about 70% of the residents live in rural areas
and 90% of them rely on biomass as a cooking fuel [12, 61].
Residential fuel use is also closely tied to health outcomes. The World Health Organization
(WHO) estimates that residential fuel use, which contributes to indoor air pollution, is
responsible for 2.7% of the global disease burden [62]. In India, where 160 million households
use solid fuels and indoor air pollution leads to 570 thousand deaths annually [12].
This section focuses on how using more efficient, improved cookstoves and/or switching to
cleaner-burning fuels can help reduce black carbon emissions and contribute substantial public
health benefits. It includes detailed information on the co-benefits of and opportunities for
reducing black carbon emissions from residential fuel consumption and provides examples of
methods that have been used to achieve these co-benefits.
A. Benefits of Reducing Black Carbon Emissions from Cookstoves
Reducing emissions of black carbon from cookstoves can generate numerous co-benefits. This
section provides detailed information on several of these co-benefits, including climate
benefits, health benefits, and improving conditions for vulnerable populations.
Climate Benefits
Improved cookstoves and cleaner-burning fuels reduce black carbon emissions from the
residential sector and offer considerable climate benefits. Improved cookstoves reduce
emissions of both black carbon and C02, a key GHG. One improved cookstove program
estimates that its 80,000 cookstoves would prevent 580,000 tons of C02 and 114,000 kg of
black carbon from entering the atmosphere [63]. According to one estimate, switching to
improved stoves in India could reduce the country's total GHG emissions by 4% [12].
Overall, efforts to reduce black carbon emissions through the increased use of improved
cookstoves and cleaner-burning fuels are quite cost-effective. The Copenhagen Consensus on
Climate has reported approximate values for the reduction of black carbon. For every dollar
spent switching to an improved stove, the benefit is between $100 and $880 of carbon dioxide
equivalent (C02e). In addition, USAID reports that improved stoves have a cost-effectiveness of
about $4 per ton C02e [64]. However, there is limited information related to the cost-
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effectiveness of individual cookstove programs, largely due to the fact that these programs are
not collecting data on their black carbon emissions reduction outcomes. To date, just one
program, a pilot project called Project Surya, has measured black carbon emissions reductions
from its improved cookstove efforts (see the following text box for additional information).
Using Cell Phone Technology to Monitor and Measure Black Carbon Emissions
Project Surya is one of the few improved cookstove
programs with black carbon mitigation as its primary
objective. It focuses on creating low-cost cookstove
technology solutions to mitigate black carbon. Project
Surya is exploring solar and biogas cookstove alternatives
in addition to typical improved cookstoves. The project
emphasizes the importance of centrally manufactured
stoves to maintain quality control. During its
demonstration phase, Project Surya hopes to reach
close to 10,000 Indian homes. In the long term,
Project Surya plans to spread these technology
solutions across continents.
One particularly innovative idea introduced through the project is community-based monitoring of black
carbon emissions using cell phones with support from project partner Nexleaf Analytics. Nexleaf's technology
involves placing an air sampler in the homes of cookstove users. A cell phone then captures images of filters
that have been exposed to black carbon. The images are sent via cell phone to a computer program that
analyses the data. This technology is truly innovative due to its versatility and has been shown to be:
» Inexpensive and portable
* Accurate
» Capable of providing real-time reporting
* Able to work with almost any cellphone camera
In the future, such innovative cell phone technology may be used more broadly for cookstove programs to
determine if improved cookstoves are genuinely improved, if they are being used, and whether they are being
used appropriately, based on recorded levels of indoor air pollution. Given its worldwide availability and
potential for innovation, cell phone technology has the potential to be used in other sectors and for monitoring
pollutants other than black carbon. Cell phone technology is likely to transform the way one monitors and
evaluates pollution and other important variables such as temperature, thus reducing the need for costly,
centrally located, and complex monitoring devices requiring specialized trained and/or highly skilled personnel.
Photo: Nexleaf's black carbon sensor with cell phone attached in an India Kitchen. The sampler sits next to a
clean-burning cookstove. Photo courtesy of N. Ramanathan. Sources: Compiled from the reports of [65] and
[66].
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Health Benefits
Many of the health benefits from improved cookstoves come from reduced indoor air pollution.
As stated earlier, residential fuel use in India is linked to 570 thousand deaths annually,
primarily due to the inefficiency of traditional cookstoves, which produce large volumes of PM
(including black carbon; [12]). Because improved cookstoves can be as much as 50% more
efficient than traditional ones, they produce much less indoor air pollution [67, 68]. One study
found that improved stoves reduced PM-related illness by 25%-65% [69].
Reduction of illness associated with cookstoves also results in
reduced associated medical expenses. Implementation of an
improved biomass cookstove program in South Asia would
save approximately $18 million per year in health system costs,
and these savings would increase if biofuel or liquefied
petroleum gas (LPG) programs are included [58]. These health
benefits would accrue primarily to women and children
because they are more often exposed to high levels of indoor
air pollution.
Benefits to Vulnerable Populations
Transitioning to new fuels or improved stoves could
significantly improve the lives of women and children in South
Asia (Figure 12). Improved cookstoves increase productivity for
women as a result of improved health. For example, for a
woman earning minimum wages in South Asia, an untreated
mild respiratory infection that lasts about 10 days could lead
to lost earnings of roughly 3%-4% of annual income. Cumulatively, South Asia could avoid
84 million sick days with a value of $167 million through the effective implementation of a
cookstove program [58].
Stoves that use less fuel or cleaner fuels free women and children to engage in other activities.
The time saved on cooking and collecting fuel can be used for activities such as education and
microenterprise. WHO estimates that the average household spends about 40 minutes per day
collecting firewood in South Asia, and homes in Nepal spend more than twice that time (1.5
hours per day). In South Asia, improved stoves could save 1.7 billion hours of work collecting
fuel, with a value of $4.7 billion annually [58]. Additionally, the collection of fuel often
compromises the safety of women and children because they are vulnerable when they venture
to collect firewood.
The entire improved cookstove supply chain also creates economic opportunities. Local
production results in increased job creation. Even in the case of centralized production models,
local partners are needed for distribution, sales, and servicing.
Figure 12. A woman holding an
infant near a traditional
cookstove. Source: [70].
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Increase use of improved
cookstoves, page 37
Switch to a cleaner fuel,
B. Opportunities for Reducing Emissions from Cookstoves
A traditional cookstove, shown in Figure 13, contributes to
substantial black carbon emissions and indoor air pollution.
There are two ways to reduce black carbon emissions from
cookstoves: (1) improve the combustion efficiency of the
cookstove to require less fuel and reduce emissions, and (2)
switch to fuels that produce fewer emissions.
Most cookstove programs implement both traditional,
technology-focused activities and behavioral, intervention-based activities simultaneously. The
initial steps of cookstove programs focus on technological change and the introduction of
improved cookstoves. This is usually followed by behavior-based activities to both promote the
adoption of the technology and dispel reluctance to adoption. The purpose of this approach is
to reduce barriers to accepting new cookstove technology that have been chronicled by many
cookstove programs. Introducing improved cookstoves does not necessarily translate into
adoption (see the text box on page 38). Depending on the program design and stove type,
challenges can include afford ability, stove performance, design (e.g., multiple dishes cannot be
cooked simultaneously, regional foods cannot be cooked long enough or hot enough), and long-
term adoption [67, 71, 72]. One researcher noted that you cannot simply ask users if they
would use a stove that requires less fuel. The real question is, "If you had a stove that used less
fuel, would you be willing to chop your wood into 20-cm lengths, and control, damper, and
clean the flue" [73]? Many cookstove designers are now ensuring that stoves have a design that
appeals to users, even if the stoves have slightly lower performance levels. Additional
Criteria for Improved Cookstoves
» User needs: Solutions must meet the social, resource, income, and behavioral needs of users.
* Scalability: Solutions must be scalable through markets or other mechanisms.
* Performance: Solutions must substantially improve technology design and performance relative to
baseline conditions, and - once industry standards are in place - be able to meet any international
standards for performance and safety. The product must also be able to meet the basic needs and
expectations of the user, which are likely to vary regionally.
Monitoring: Solutions must stand up to rigorous field monitoring and evaluation to demonstrate actual, in-
field impacts.
Source: [74].
anudi, iii-
information on cookstove production models is provided in Appendix E.
The following sections describe efforts to reduce black carbon emissions from cookstoves by
using improved cookstoves and cleaner-burning fuels.
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Increase Use of Improved Cookstoves
Efforts to improve cookstoves have existed for decades.
Characteristics of improved cookstoves include high
thermal, fuel, and combustion efficiency; high heat-
transfer ratio; low emissions of smoke and other
pollutants; and sometimes the use of chimneys to remove
stove emissions from kitchens. Only the properties that
improve stove efficiency reduce black carbon emissions.
Initial attempts to improve traditional cookstoves (Figure
13) focused on changes to existing stoves, which were
predominantly made of mud, clay, stones, and/or bricks.
These improvements included the use of additional
chambers to improve fuel efficiency (Figure 14) and the use
of chimneys (Figure 15) to vent emissions outside the
house. Although chimneys reduce indoor air pollution, they
contribute to outdoor air pollution. Later improvement
efforts introduced the use of metals and ceramics and a
complete redesign of the cookstoves (Figure 16). Use of
fans to improve air circulation in these stoves led to
increased fuel efficiency and lower emissions. In the
gasifier stove, another type of improved cookstove, gases
and smoke from the fuel are forced into a flame above the
fuel where nearly complete combustion is achieved.
The criteria for developing sustainable cookstoves require
consideration of not just the performance of the stove but
also user preferences, commercial scalability, and
monitoring of effectiveness (see the text box above). The
importance of including local participation in the design,
marketing, and maintenance of cookstoves was repeatedly
emphasized in the Kathmandu Consultation (see the text
boxes on pages 38, 39, and 40). Improved cookstoves
present an interesting problem when costs are considered.
First, there are programmatic or implementation costs.
Second, there are the costs to the users. Experience from
multiple programs shows that the costs of the stove should
be passed on to the users so they view the stoves as an
investment that requires maintenance and care.
Figure 13. Traditional cookstove.
Figure 14. Cookstove with simple
modifications. Source: [75].
Figure 15. Cookstove with
chimney. Source: [76].
Figure 16. Cookstove with
complete redesign. Photo by
Selvan Thandapani.
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Switch to a Cleaner Fuel
The second primary method to reduce black carbon emissions from the residential sector is to
switch to a cleaner fuel. In many cases this means moving from biomass or coal to kerosene or
LPG. In India, the central government and some state governments have launched programs to
implement fuel switching among low-income households in urban and rural areas. In rural
areas, the central government is planning an initiative to provide a subsidy of roughly $30 to
rural households below the poverty line. This subsidy is for LPG cylinders and pressure
regulators. Without a subsidy, many users could not afford LPG or other clean fuels. The State
of Tamil Nadu has implemented a program to provide free LPG stoves and has subsidized the
cost of gas cylinders from a distributor. As a result of this program initiated in 2006, nearly
three million stoves are expected to be distributed through 2011.
In urban areas of India there has been an unsubsidized switch to LPG over the past several
years; however, government initiatives may substantially increase LPG use in rural areas. There
are also efforts to switch from biomass to solar-powered cooking and electricity in rural areas
of India, although these efforts are on a smaller scale.
Marketing and Adoption of Improved Cookstoves in India
Gram Vikas is an NGO that has been working since 1979 to bring sustainable improvement to the quality of life
of poor, marginalized, indigenous, and tribal rural communities, mostly in Orissa, India. Gram Vikas also works
in the field of renewable energy. To date, it has built nearly 60,000 family-size biogas plants (which provide
household fuel to families), of which 82% are still working.
Gram Vikas does not focus on black carbon emissions reductions; rather, it helps achieve emissions reductions
by improving cookstoves in communities for the benefit of improving women's health. Gram Vikas' stove
program propagated in-situ, double-pot, energy-efficient, mud stoves with chimneys to reduce smoke in rural
areas of Orissa. In the initial phase starting in 1982, Gram Vikas constructed about 50,000 cookstoves. Within
one year of establishment most stoves were no longer used. A survey conducted 10 years later revealed that
less than 500 of these stoves were working. Gram Vikas realized that although the improved stove technology
was simple, there was no one to assist village women with trouble-shooting, and so they reverted to their old
stoves. Later, Gram Vikas restarted the stove program by training a few women in several villages. These
women constructed stoves and were equipped to solve problems. In a short time, all cookstove users learned
how to resolve problems with their new stoves. A total of 35,000 stoves were made in this manner, and at any
given time at least 85% of them are working. During this second project phase, Gram Vikas discovered that
I women want to cook outside during the non-rainy season. The mud stoves are not suitable for outdoor use, so
portable steel stoves were introduced, and more than 10,000 families have purchased these stoves.
Source: [77].
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Marketing Improved Cookstoves
USAID partnered with Winrock International to promote
improved cookstoves in Bangladesh. This program used multiple
commercialization and engagement strategies to build support
for three stoves that improve indoor air quality and health.
From 2005 to 2007, USAID and Winrock partnered to
disseminate new cookstoves that require less fuel and decrease
indoor air pollution. Additional partners included Concern
Worldwide Bangladesh, the Village Education Resource Center,
and the Appropriate Rural Technology Institute. The program
promoted three different stove designs and also carried out
educational activities on the hazards of indoor air pollution.
This multifaceted program used trained cookstove
entrepreneurs to promote the stoves. These entrepreneurs
lived in the community and specialized in one or more tasks
including manufacturing, installation, and/or retail. The
entrepreneurs took part in ongoing training to learn how to fix
and repair stoves. They were offered microfinance
opportunities to begin their businesses. Ninety-five percent
(95%) of the entrepreneurs paid off their microfinance loans
on-time and in full. Many of the entrepreneurs, in turn, offered
customers payment plans.
The stove and education program used marketing tactics to
educate the public and increase demand. Educational tactics
included the development of posters, billboards, and song
performances. The education program also conducted
outreach to targeted audiences including school children and
teachers. The cookstove program developed billboards,
created product demonstration centers, and distributed
pamphlets.
On the right are several examples of marketing materials
including posters, billboards, and product demonstrations used
by the USAID program and a different program sponsored by
the Shell Foundation.
Source: [68].
Photos (top to bottom): Flyer and billboard for the USAID
initiative; flyer for the Shell Foundation's Room to Breathe
Campaign; and a cookstove product demonstration. Sources
(top to bottom): [68, 78, 79].
Buy a Smoke-less Stove today!
\ Uses about half the fuel /Sjjfc Produces less smoke
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Woman-Owned Cookstove Venture
Swayam Shikshan Prayog (SSP) in India connects product manufacturers and rural women to promote cleaner
and healthier cookstoves and improve the livelihoods of women.
SSP builds networks between established corporations, such as cookstove manufacturers, and female survivors
of disasters. These connections enable rural female entrepreneurs to launch retail businesses in renewable
home energy products, such as cookstoves. SSP's Business Development Services provide three key benefits:
1. Financial - everyone in the value chain makes a profit.
2. Environmental - all enterprises are rooted in the principles of clean, renewable energy.
3. Social - all businesses fortify the development of village communities.
Female entrepreneurs are involved in both the design and sale of home energy products. First, women assist in
designing a product that is accepted by the rural community. Second, women are trained as entrepreneurs to
sell stoves door-to-door. These trained entrepreneurs purchase products from the manufacturer, which they
pick up at SSP warehouses. The idea behind this approach is that because women are the primary users of
these products, they are also the best salespeople. So far, 70,000 cookstoves have been sold.
SSP has worked in disaster-affected areas of three Indian states since 1998, and has launched 8,944 agricultural
and non-farm businesses through microfinance. It has also nurtured 1,820 female retail entrepreneurs with a
total consumer base of 63,000 families and cumulative earnings of $460,000. On average, entrepreneurs have
experienced 33% income growth.
Source: [80].
C. Examples of Initiatives to Promote Improved Cookstoves in South Asia
Initiatives to promote improved cookstoves range
from local-level to international efforts and include:
» National Biomass Cookstove Initiative in
India
This initiative, a project of India's Ministry of
New and Renewable Energy, aims to
upgrade 160 million cookstoves in India [12].
The project's goal is to reduce indoor air
pollution, including emissions of black
carbon, other aerosols, and GHGs. Project
coordinators are careful to not assume that
there will be an easy adaptation to new
clean fuel sources. The goal is to create
effective technologies and enable a
relatively easy transition by maintaining
affordable biomass as the primary fuel source.
at http://www.mnre.gov.in/prog-nbci.htm.
Cookstove Program
Design Elements
Program design is an important element to
ensure that users continue to use, maintain, and
replace their stoves after a program has ended.
The following elements can increase the
sustainability of a cookstove-focused mitigation
option:
» Consultation with users regarding stove
design
» Worker training
* Quality-control efforts
» Payment plans (versus subsidies)
* Maintenance programs
* Proper and ongoing evaluation
Additional information can be accessed
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» Global Alliance for Clean Cookstoves
This is a public-private partnership that seeks to create a market for clean cookstoves
and fuels worldwide. The goal is to introduce improved cookstoves to 100 million
households by 2020. The partners include multiple U.S. government agencies
(i.e., Department of State, USAID, EPA, Department of Energy, and Department of
Health and Human Services), the United Nations Foundation, other national
governments (i.e., Norway, Denmark, Malta, Germany, and Peru), private-sector entities
(i.e., Shell, Morgan Stanley, Bosch, and Siemens Home Appliances Group), foundations
(i.e., Shell Foundation and Osprey Foundation), and multiple United Nations
organizations (i.e., United Nations Development Programme, UNEP, United Nations High
Commissioner for Refugees, and United Nations Industrial Development Organization).
Among other activities, the initiative is focused on (1) developing strategies for
developing and sustaining effective programs and outcomes; (2) increasing the
information base on risks and benefits to health and climate; (3) raising awareness of
the benefits; (4) evaluating existing programs; (5) developing standards and labels based
on testing; and (6) exploring financing mechanisms for deployment. More information
on the alliance can be found at http://cleancookstoves.org/.
» The Partnership for Clean Indoor Air (PCIA)
PCIA was launched in 2002 with the goal of reducing indoor air pollution and improving
the life of vulnerable populations, primarily women and children. The initiative currently
has more than 400 partners who provide technical assistance, build capacity, implement
projects, and conduct outreach to promote the use of improved cookstoves and heating
systems and reduce indoor air pollution [81]. Additional information on PCIA can be
accessed at http://www.pciaonline.org/.
» Anagi Stove of Sri Lanka
An improved cookstove program in Sri Lanka led to the development of the "Anagi"
stove. The Anagi is a two-pot, single-piece, clay stove that uses biomass and is more
fuel-efficient than traditional cookstoves. Initially, the Anagi stove was not well
received. However, after several years and with the right mix of partners, an Urban
Stoves Program was created to successfully market the stoves. Using existing tile
production and distribution channels, the stoves are sold as an "off-the-shelf" product.
Key elements of this program include training potters and quality-control efforts. The
success of the stove is apparent with three million Anagi stoves in use and many knock-
offs in existence (albeit not built to design specifications; [82, 83]). Additional
information on the Anagi stove is available at
http://www.impactalliance.org/ev en.php?ID = 49263 201&ID2 = DO TOPIC.
Table 4 lists local efforts in South Asia where organizations are involved in producing
cookstoves, conducting demonstration projects, or conducting outreach to promote the use of
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improved cookstoves. Stove manufacturers such as Prakti Lab, First Energy, and Envirofit are
also involved in marketing improved cookstoves that they manufacture.
Table 4. Examples of local efforts to promote improved cookstoves
Country Lead organization
Link
India Appropriate Rural Technologies
Institute
http://www.arti-india.org/index.php
India
India
India
Nepal
Gram Vikas
http://www.gramvikas.org/chullah.php
SKG Sangha
http://www.skgsangha.org/activ eco.html
Swayam Shikshan Proyog
http://www.sspindia.org/SSP-WhatWeDo2.html
Centre for Rural Technology
http://www.crtnepal.org/7option = projects&pjid =
3033333637
Nepal
Nepal
Child Welfare Scheme
http://www.pciaonline.org/content/breathing-
spaces-asha-stoves
Practical Action-Nepal
http://www.pciaonline.org/practical-action-nepal
Sri Lanka Integrated Development
Association
http://www.ideasrilanka.org/our%20initiatives.html
Sri Lanka Practical Action - Sri Lanka
http://practicalaction.org/wherewework srilanka
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5. Conclusion
South Asia contributes a large proportion of global black carbon emissions. Growing
populations and increasing demand for fossil fuel consumption in the region will only
exacerbate the impacts associated with these emissions over time unless steps are taken now
to reduce black carbon emissions. These impacts include exacerbation of regional climate
change and increased regional impacts principally on public health, water resources, and
economic development. South Asia's populations are uniquely vulnerable to these impacts due
in part to the large number of people currently exposed to unhealthy levels of air pollution and
the large proportion of people that are dependent on historical seasonal snowmelt, icemelt,
and rainfall patterns for drinking water and agriculture. Efforts to reduce black carbon
emissions in South Asia can therefore aid in reducing adverse impacts on populations in this
region, while also helping to reduce contributions to global climate change.
Recognizing the unique potential for achieving considerable environmental and development
co-benefits globally and across South Asia in particular, EPA has undertaken an effort to
identify, evaluate, and bring to light unique and possibly overlooked low-cost and high-impact
opportunities for reducing black carbon emissions in South Asia. It is EPA's aim, therefore, to
make information on these activities and opportunities broadly available, but especially to
those organizations interested in taking immediate, low-cost, and effective actions to help
reduce black carbon emissions in South Asia.
This report presents information on opportunities in the industrial, transportation, and
residential sectors in South Asia. It specifically focuses on low-cost but high-impact
opportunities that can have long-term benefits, such as utilizing low-cost technologies,
modifying operations, and initiating training and communication and outreach campaigns.
These opportunities and actions serve to complement actions that are typically resource
intensive such as regional policy and regulatory development, technology transfer (e.g.,
retrofitting diesel vehicles with filters and switching to low-sulfur fuels), and infrastructure
improvements that are traditionally used to achieve environmental and development
co-benefits on a different scale. Although not the focus of this report, financing (including
microfinancing) of the mitigation opportunities is an important consideration.
Specifically, this report presents information on initiatives that have been developed in
response to each of the following opportunities:
» Improving the Efficiency of Brick Making in the Industrial Sector
Brick making in South Asia has changed little over the past millennium. Current practices
remain inefficient, which results in high levels of black carbon emissions. Efforts to
introduce newer brick-making technologies have not gained traction yet. However,
proper operation and maintenance of existing brick kilns can lower fuel costs, reduce
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black carbon emissions, and improve worker health. Communications and outreach
strategies that promote more-efficient practices to targeted stakeholders - including
policymakers, brick-kiln owners and operators, and customers (e.g., architects, builders,
and government bodies) - and training sessions targeted at kiln firemen are of critical
importance. Such low-cost initiatives can help reduce black carbon emissions by
introducing these stakeholders to the considerable environmental, health, and social co-
benefits that can be achieved by improving the efficiency of the brick-making process.
As a largely overlooked sector, this is a considerable opportunity for action.
Improving the efficiency of brick making represents a unique, relatively low-cost, cost-
effective, and under-realized opportunity to bring about immediate and meaningful
reductions in black carbon emissions in South Asia. This is because there is currently a
deficit of mitigation activities and a general lack of awareness of black carbon emissions
reduction-related co-benefits in this sector.
» Improving Public and Private Fleet Efficiency and Management in the Transportation
Sector
Black carbon emissions from the transportation sector are increasing in South Asia as
populations rise and demand for personal vehicles grows. Immediate low-cost
opportunities to mitigate black carbon emissions in this sector include improving driver
operations (i.e., eco-driving) and fleet management and logistics, promoting pilot
projects, conducting regular vehicle I/M, and improving communication about the
benefits associated with these actions. As described in this report, current initiatives in
this sector have shown that considerable fuel-cost savings can be achieved while
reducing black carbon emissions and other co-benefits.
» Improving the Efficiency and Adoption of Cookstoves in the Residential Sector
Improved cookstoves have been in the spotlight of local, national, and international
initiatives for over 30 years. Initial programs aimed at reducing indoor air pollution had
mixed success. Many programs failed to meet the basic needs of the users, who quickly
reverted to old technologies. More recently, cookstove programs have focused on
redesigning stoves that appeal to users and engaging in education and outreach efforts
to promote their use. Many large and well-funded initiatives currently dominate this
field. Primary low-cost opportunities include leveraging existing initiatives by helping to
promote entrepreneurship, increasing the availability of financing, including micro-
financing at the local level, and underscoring the health benefits of using improved
cookstoves especially for women and children. Perhaps the single most notable
opportunity, in an otherwise well-financed global effort principally aimed at
manufacturing and marketing improved stoves, is the issue of stove adoption or
resistance to adoption. This report underscores the critical importance of involving
communities in the original design of cookstoves so that they meet user needs and
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preferences, thereby facilitating adoption and retention. As the initiatives described in
this report show, these efforts can contribute substantial co-benefits, including
improved health and reduced impacts on vulnerable populations (i.e., the poor, women,
and children).
In conclusion, this report has identified, evaluated, and brought to light unique and possibly
overlooked low-cost and high-impact opportunities for reducing black carbon emissions in
South Asia, with a goal of making information on these activities and opportunities broadly
available, especially to those organizations interested in taking immediate, low-cost, and
effective actions to help reduce black carbon emissions in South Asia.
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Appendix A. Black Carbon Emissions in South Asia
This appendix describes the sources (e.g., fossil fuel
combustion) and sectors (e.g., residential) that
contribute to black carbon emissions in South Asia.
Due to the lack of emissions information (including
source fuel estimates and emissions factor
calculations) for much of the region, many studies
rely primarily on information from India as the
primary indicator of black carbon emissions for the
entire South Asian region (see Figure A.I). India
ranks highest in South Asian black carbon emissions
at 64%, with other countries contributing
substantially less - Pakistan (22%), Bangladesh (8%),
Nepal (4%), Sri Lanka (2%), and Bhutan (less than 1%)
[60].
South Asian Black Carbon Emissions in the
Global Context
Sri
Lanka Bhutan
Nepal 2% <1%
Figure A.I. Percent South Asian black
carbon emissions contributions. Source:
Adapted from [60].
Black carbon emissions vary considerably by region
and sector due to variation in local practices and the types of fuels and technologies used in
different regions and sectors. Although region-based inventories of black carbon emissions
vary, developing nations in the tropics and Asia are generally recognized as dominant source
regions [13]. For the purposes of inventorying black carbon emissions, Asia is generally
disaggregated into East/Southeast Asia (consisting primarily of China) and South Asia
(consisting primarily of India). Studies on the regional distribution of black carbon emissions
consistently identify East/Southeast Asia as the region with the highest total emissions of black
carbon (e.g., [15, 60, 84, 85]). However, all of Asia, including China and India, accounts for
approximately 40% of global black carbon emissions [15]. A 2009 study estimated that China,
India, and Indonesia - the three most prevalent contributors - produced approximately 80% of
Asia's energy-related black carbon emissions in 2006 [60]. In addition, China's contribution to
global black carbon emissions has been increasing rapidly since the 1990s due to its heavy
reliance on coal and biofuels [60, 86].
Table A.I presents regional estimates of global black carbon emissions, showing non-biomass
burning anthropogenic sources in South Asia as contributing approximately 7.3% of all black
carbon emissions. At this time, there is still considerable uncertainty regarding non-
anthropogenic, biomass burning emissions of black carbon in South Asia, which makes it
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difficult to determine precisely how much of the overall black carbon load is attributable to that
region [87, 88].
Table A.I. Regional contributions to global black carbon emissions3
Region
Non-biomass burning anthropogenic emissions
Black carbon
emissions (in Tg)
Percent of total
East/Southeast Asia/China0
North America
Europe
South Asia
Other (South America and Africa)
1.5
0.4
0.5
0.6
1.5
18.3
4.9
6.1
7.3
18.3
Biomass burning
South America
Africa
Other (North America, Europe, South Asia, and
Southeast Asia)
Total
1.2
1.5
1.0
8.2
14.6
18.3
12.2
100.0
a. The Koch et al. estimates are based on global black carbon emissions estimates from [15].
b. Estimates for major emitting regions are provided for each of two source types: non-biomass
burning and biomass burning; minor emitters for each source type are subsumed under the
category "other." Koch et al. define six major emitting regions: North America, South America,
Africa, Europe, South Asia, and Southeast Asia.
c. Koch et al. define Southeast Asia as being approximately equal to China in geographic area.
Source: [85].
Sources of Black Carbon in South Asia
Globally, approximately 40% of black carbon is from the burning of fossil fuels, 40% is from
open biomass burning, and 20% is from the burning of biofuels [13].
However, determining the strength of the three primary source types for South Asia is difficult
for several reasons, resulting in disagreement as to the relative contributions from each of the
three source types (see, for example, [8, 89, 90, 91]). One reason is that black carbon emissions
from the residential sector, which contributes the greatest proportion of black carbon
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emissions, are derived from both biofuel and fossil fuel combustion, making it difficult to
determine the relative contribution from each source to the sectoral total. In addition, open
biomass burning (e.g., from forest fires/clearings) contributes a substantial amount of black
carbon emissions in South Asia, but the burning is largely seasonal and emissions factors are
uncertain and variable across different parts of the region.
In general, it is agreed that biomass burning and fossil fuel and biofuel combustion for
residential uses are the largest sources of black carbon emissions in South Asia, while
nonresidential fossil fuel combustion (e.g., for transportation and industrial uses) contributes
less to overall black carbon emissions in the region. According to one estimate, fossil fuel, open
burning, and residential biofuel combustion account for 25%, 33%, and 42% of black carbon
emissions in India, respectively [92].
Black carbon in the atmosphere over South Asia does not come exclusively from South Asian
sources; it can come from sources outside the region. As noted earlier, aerosol particles are
capable of traveling great distances, hence the concern and awareness of transboundary air
pollution. For example, one study explains how prevailing wind patterns draw black carbon
emissions in considerable quantities from Africa and the Middle East to the region - reaching
the Tibetan Plateau - especially during dry months when biomass burning activities in these
regions are most prevalent [93]. Although emissions from Africa and the Middle East contribute
greatly to total black carbon concentrations above and on the Himalayas and the Tibetan
Plateau, India and China remain the primary sources of black carbon in this region [93].
Sector-Specific Emissions of Black Carbon in South Asia
The four sectors that contribute to black carbon emissions include residential, industrial,
transportation, and open biomass burning. There are regional and temporal differences in the
contribution of these sectors to total emissions of black carbon. These differences are largely
dependent on regional development levels. Increasing levels of development lead to a shift
from residential and agricultural sources to industrial and transportation sources [59].
Developed countries experience a larger contribution from the transportation and industrial
sectors using fossil fuels, while developing countries experience it from biomass burning in the
residential sector. This has implications for both the chemical composition of the emissions
(i.e., the ratio of organic carbon to black carbon) and the potential effects of the emissions at
the local and global levels. Locally, increasing levels of emissions from transportation, for
example, can lead to increased levels of ambient black carbon as it is a primary component of
emissions from many different types of vehicles (e.g., diesel cars and trucks). At the global level,
because black carbon emissions from industry and transportation tend to have higher light
absorption tendencies than black carbon emissions from agriculture and other biomass burning
sources, development that leads to shifts from rural agricultural emissions to more urban
emissions can have implications for overall radiative forcing at the global and regional levels.
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Considering the sectoral contributions to total black carbon emissions in South Asia, it is clear
that the residential sector contributes the greatest portion of the total amount by far [60, 94].
However, the contributions of the industrial and transportation sectors to black carbon
emissions in South Asia have increased in recent years. As shown in Figure A.2, one report
estimated the breakdown of the non-biomass burning black carbon emissions from the
industrial, residential, and transportation sectors in all of Asia to be 23%, 61%, and 14%,
respectively, with an additional 2% of emissions produced by power generation [60].
In India, it is estimated that biofuel use for cooking in the residential sector accounts for 40% of
all black carbon emissions (see Figure A.3). Additional emissions from the residential sector
include emissions from heating and lighting, but emissions factors for these activities are
uncertain [92]. Open biomass burning of agricultural waste and forests accounts for 24% of all
black carbon emissions in India, while transportation and industry contribute 21% and 15%,
respectively [18]. Within the transportation sector, it is estimated that heavy-duty trucking
accounts for approximately 52% of all black carbon emissions [16]. Within the industry sector,
brick kilns contribute the largest proportion (approximately 60% of all industrial black carbon
emissions; [16]). The high proportion of black carbon emissions from brick kilns in the industrial
sector can be attributed to the low-temperature combustion used in the brick-making process
relative to other industrial processes, such as cement production and iron and steel
manufacturing, which require higher combustion temperatures. These higher combustion
temperatures result in more complete burning and thus less black carbon pollution [16].
Black carbon emissions vary according to the season of the year for certain sectors in South
Asia. As a result, emissions tend to peak during the dry season months preceding the monsoon
in South Asia [93]. In part, this is the result of increased biomass burning and brick-making
activities in the region during the dry season [93, 95]. For example, in the Kathmandu Valley of
Nepal, brick making at the region's 125 kilns occurs primarily in the dry months of December to
April [95].
100%
90%
80%
tan
60%
20%
i o%
O%
• Power Industry Residential •Transportation
Figure A.2. Black carbon emissions from
different sectors in 2000 and 2006 in Asia.
Figure A.3. Sectoral emissions of black
carbon in India. Sources: [13,14,15].
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Appendix B. Climate Impacts of Black Carbon and
Co-benefits of Reducing Black Carbon Emissions in
South Asia
Black carbon consists of carbonaceous particles that are emitted to the atmosphere as a by-
product of the incomplete combustion of biomass, biofuels, and fossil fuels [1]. The chemical
composition of black carbon depends on its source and can range from partly charred organic
plant residues to fine, nearly pure graphitized carbon particles that result from the combustion
of carbon-containing materials, such as coal [96, 97]. Despite this variability, black carbon is
generally recognized as the portion of atmospheric carbonaceous particles that absorbs visible
radiation [98]. The effects that black carbon can have on climate change and the co-benefits
from reducing their emissions in South Asia are discussed below.
Effects of Black Carbon on Climate Change
According to a 2011 UNEP assessment, Integrated Assessment of Black Carbon and
Tropospheric Ozone [1], black carbon (BC) exists as particles in the atmosphere and is a major
component of soot. BC is not a greenhouse gas. Instead it warms the atmosphere by
intercepting sunlight and absorbing it. BC
and other particles are emitted from many common sources, such as cars and trucks,
residential
stoves, forest fires and some industrial facilities, resulting from the incomplete combustion of
fossil fuels, wood and other biomass. BC particles have a strong warming effect in the
atmosphere, darken snow and ice when they are deposited, and influence cloud formation. In
addition to having an impact on climate, anthropogenic particles are also known or are
suspected of having a negative impact on human health, agriculture, precipitation patterns and
the melting of snow and ice in polar regions and snow and ice-covered mountains.
But unlike greenhouse gases such as C02, that remain in the atmosphere for decades to
millennia, black carbon remains in the atmosphere for only days or weeks. Yet despite its
relatively short stay in the atmosphere, black carbon exerts a significant positive radiative
forcing and among other things, causes a warming of the atmosphere through a number of
different processes. The contribution to climate warming of one gram of black carbon seen
over a period of 100 years, for example, has been estimated to be anywhere from 100 to 2000
times higher than that of one gram of C02 [1].
According to the UNEP 2011 report, Near-Term Climate Protection And Clean Air Benefits:
Actions for Controlling Short-lived Climate Forcers [5]," there is a close relationship between
emissions of black carbon, a warming agent, and organic carbon, a cooling agent as they are
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always co-emitted, but in different proportions depending on the source. Similarly, mitigation
measures have varying effects on the black carbon/organic carbon mix, and on concentrations
of other particles and ozone precursors. Therefore, the effectiveness of mitigation measures
applied to different sources must take into account the changes in all emissions that influence
warming. Black carbon causes warming of the atmosphere by a number of different processes.
These particles absorb visible light due to their dark color. This absorption leads to a
disturbance of the planetary radiation balance and eventually to warming. Another impact of
black carbon is that when it is deposited on ice and snow it reduces the albedo of these
surfaces, increasing both atmospheric warming and the melting rate caused by increased
absorption of heat by the darker snow and ice. Black carbon particles also influence cloud
formation. The limited level of knowledge of how some of these processes work also leads to a
level of uncertainty of the overall effect of black carbon on global warming, that is higher than
that, for example, of methane.
Black carbon aerosols have a large impact on regional circulation and rainfall patterns as they
cause significant asymmetry in heating patterns over a region [99,100]. While not fully
quantifiable, the impact of black carbon on regional weather patterns and regional warming is
more certain than its impact on global warming. This is because, at the global scale, co-emitted
species such as organic carbon may offset warming due to black carbon. At the regional scale
however, changes are more closely related to atmospheric heating which is dominated by black
carbon, and co-emitted species have less of an impact.
Black carbon and organic carbon make up a substantial part of the fine particulate matter in air
pollution that is the major environmental cause of ill health and premature deaths, globally
[101]. The health-damaging particulate matter is characterized as PM2.5, particles with a
diameter less than 2.5 micrometers - 'fine' or 'small-sized' particles which affect the respiratory
and cardiovascular systems - and its impacts occur due to both outdoor and indoor exposure.
The health benefits of reduced emissions from measures that focus on black carbon are mainly
achieved by the overall reduction in this fine particulate matter. It should be kept in mind that
all reductions of black carbon emissions reduce PM2.5 concentrations but all reductions of PM2.5
do not necessarily reduce black carbon." [5]
Co-benefits of Reducing Black Carbon Emissions in South Asia
Because of the effects that black carbon particles have both at the ground level locally and in
the global and regional atmosphere, a reduction of black carbon emissions can lead to a
number of co-benefits in addition to a reduction of adverse impacts on climate change.
Examples of the most salient of these co-benefits, each of which has implications for
development in South Asia, follow.
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I
.2 ;=r^
if
il
JO
B
0 -
Carbon Dioxide Anthropogenic Methane Other GHGs (Nitrous
Black carbon oxide. Halocarbons.
tropospheric and
stratospheric ozone)
Figure B.I. Contributions of anthropogenic GHG and black carbon emissions to
direct radiative forcing at the top of the atmosphere. Source: [2], as adapted by [8].
Reduced Health Impacts
PM, of which black carbon is a primary component, can have severe health effects on exposed
populations. Coarse particles that have diameters of less than 10 iim are small enough to be
inhaled through the nose and mouth and enter the lungs. However, finer particulates that have
diameters of less than 2.5 iim are harder for the body to protect against and clear once inhaled.
Studies have linked PM to respiratory irritation (e.g., coughing), aggravated asthma and
bronchitis, irregular heartbeat, nonfatal heart attacks, and premature death in people with
heart or lung disease, among other effects [103]. The adverse effects on health can be
especially severe for populations with pre-existing respiratory conditions, heart disease, and
nervous system disorders. Inhalation of PM can occur indoors (e.g., as a result of cooking over
an inefficient cookstove) and outdoors (e.g., urban air pollution produced by on-road vehicles).
Black carbon emissions contribute to both indoor and outdoor air pollution. Anenberg et al.
[104] estimate that halving global anthropogenic black carbon emissions avoids 157,000 annual
premature deaths globally, with India accounting for 31% of the avoided deaths.
The direct health effects are most severe for indoor air pollution. In the 1990s residential fuel
use contributed to an estimated 496,000 deaths, more than 448 million illnesses, and over
15.9 million disability-adjusted life years (DALYs) lost annually in India [67].5 More recent
estimates show the number of deaths attributable to IAP growing, with 570,000 Indian deaths
attributable to IAP in 2005 [12]. Using efficient cookstoves can help reduce indoor air pollution
considerably. According to one study, improved cookstoves reduced indoor PM by 25%-65%
[69].
5. "DALYs, or disability-adjusted life years, are a standard metric of the burden of disease. DALYs combine life-years lost due to
premature death and fractions of years of healthy life lost as a result of illness and disability" ([67], p. 10).
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Outdoor air pollution is also a considerable health threat in much of South Asia. According to
one study, more than 80% of the Asian population (close to 3 billion people) is exposed to PM2.5
concentrations that exceed the WHO annual mean guideline, in some instances, by more than a
factor of four [91].6 In addition, across all of Asia, one group of researchers estimated that
outdoor air pollution in Asia causes nearly 490,000 deaths per year [14]. A 2010 study
estimated that anthropogenic PM2.5 exposure results in 3.5 ± 0.9 million cardiopulmonary
mortalities and 220,000 ± 80,000 lung cancer mortalities annually and Asia accounts for about
75% of the excess mortalities [108]. Reduction of black carbon emissions from the industrial,
transportation, and residential sectors can help reduce outdoor air pollution and its adverse
health impacts.
Increased Productivity
People who work in industries that produce high levels of black carbon emissions can
experience reduced productivity as a result of chronic or acute exposure to black carbon.
Because of the health impacts that black carbon emissions can have on humans, reducing black
carbon emissions from certain industries can lead to increased worker productivity. For
example, a brick-kiln manager might improve the productivity of the company's labor force by
increasing the combustion efficiency of the brick kiln, which concurrently reduces black carbon
emissions and diminishes adverse health impacts on the kiln operator. In the residential sector,
decreasing black carbon emissions and indoor air pollution by using improved cookstoves can
lead to decreased sick days and therefore increased household income, and can also reduce the
number of hours women and children spend collecting fuel, allowing for additional time spent
on microenterprise or schooling.
Reduced Impacts on the Himalayas and Water Resources
Black carbon emissions can impact water resources in South Asia in multiple ways. First, black
carbon emissions contribute to general regional warming that leads to increased melting of
snow and ice (including glaciers), which alters seasonal water supply patterns in areas that rely
on snow or ice melt, including those areas of South Asia dependent on predictable water
supplies from the Himalayas [9, 10,11]. Numerous studies have evaluated the link between
South Asian emissions sources and black carbon deposited in the Himalayas and on the Tibetan
Plateau. According to one study, snow and ice cover over the Himalayas decreased by almost
1% from 1990 to 2000, with black carbon emissions from India accounting for approximately
30% of this observed change [109]. Combined with emissions from China and Nepal, emissions
of black carbon from India account for more than 90% of all black carbon deposited in the
Himalayas [93]. India contributes the most substantial portion of black carbon emissions to that
6. Global models that are used to translate black carbon emissions inventories into estimated surface concentrations (which
have implications for public health and radiative forcing) typically underestimate surface concentrations of black carbon by
factors ranging from 2 to 10 over India. This is believed to be the result of several factors, including the discrepancies between
coarse resolution global models and fine resolution observations in urban areas, underestimation of the emissions' source
strength and factors, and improper consideration of aerosol advection and transport properties [105,106,107].
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region during the months of the pre-monsoonal dry season, when open burning and brick-
making activities are most active [93]. In addition to changes in anthropogenic activities that
result in increases or decreases in black carbon emissions, natural factors that influence the
contribution of South Asian emissions to black carbon deposition on (and loading over) the
Himalayas and the Tibetan Plateau include prevailing wind patterns, monsoonal temperature
and precipitation trends, and simple proximity [93].
Over the long term, snow and ice melt in the region can have dire consequences for
populations dependent on these sources for their water. According to one study, the loss of all
Himalayan glaciers would result in reductions of annual water supplies of about one-third in the
western Himalayan region [110].
Black carbon emissions can also affect water supplies in the region by reducing the albedo of
snow and ice (i.e., reducing its ability to reflect sunlight and thus increasing its propensity to
absorb heat). Reduced albedo leads to increased melting of snow and ice in South Asia [111].
Ice core sampling provides evidence that over the past 30 years, and especially since 1990,
black carbon concentrations in southern Tibetan glaciers have been increasing, indicating an
increase in Asian black carbon sources [112]. A reduction in snow albedo over Tibet has
reduced snowpack by 50% in seasonal snow areas due to the snow-albedo feedback and the
snow grain size-temperature feedback [113].7
Black carbon emissions can also affect water resources by altering rainfall patterns in South Asia
because changes in the atmospheric radiation balance caused by black carbon have the
potential to influence the Asian monsoon circulation [1]. The emissions of black carbon and
other aerosols in Asia give rise to a densely polluted atmosphere over much of the region. This
pollution, referred to as the Indo-Asian haze or the Asian Brown Cloud, is most pronounced
between December and April, prior to the monsoon rains that flush these pollutants from the
atmosphere. However, the density of this polluted layer is significant enough that it may also
influence the regional circulation patterns that create the monsoon.
Several studies suggest that black carbon emissions have contributed to changes in the timing
and nature of the Indian monsoon. For example, a 2008 study describes that high
concentrations of black carbon over South Asia during the dry season because of increased
emissions from certain sectors result in increased temperatures in the lower troposphere [115].
Higher temperatures in the troposphere during this season result in increased precipitation (up
to a 10% increase during March, April, and May). However, with the onset of the monsoon, the
higher temperatures in the troposphere over much of India move northward, resulting in
7. It is important to note that the notion that increased snow and ice melt in South Asia could result in flooding is incorrect.
However, in some instances, flooding could occur as an indirect result of black carbon-induced melting, as in the case of glacial
lake outburst floods where water builds up behind the terminal moraine of a melting glacier that ultimately breaks [114].
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cooling temperatures over much of the region. This cooling brings reductions in monsoonal
precipitation over much of the region [91,115]. Other studies have found that emissions of
aerosols such as black carbon create an "elevated heat pump" effect, whereby a warming of
the atmosphere along the southern slopes of the Tibetan Plateau creates a rising air mass,
which pulls warm, moist air over India. This circulation reinforces the monsoonal circulation and
has the potential to shift the start of the monsoon to earlier in the year [115, 116].
The net effects of black carbon emissions on rainfall are still uncertain and largely dependent
on regional specifics. However, it is clear that black carbon has the potential to substantially
alter rainfall patterns in South Asia, which could have significant implications for the amount of
water available for agricultural and other purposes. Moreover, the implications of reduced
water supply for the health of supply-dependent populations should not be overlooked, as
changes in water supply can increase vulnerability to nutritional deficiency and disease spread
[114, 117]. The implications of these impacts are all the more serious given the fact that large
portions of South Asia are projected to be water stressed by 2050 due to other climate change
effects not related to black carbon [111].
Reduced Impacts on Agricultural Production
As noted above, black carbon emissions can contribute to changes in water resources by
changing snow and ice melt timing and monsoon rainfall patterns. Clearly, these effects have
implications for agriculture in many areas of South Asia where agriculture-based populations
depend on the predictability of seasonal water supply. Black carbon emissions can also affect
agricultural production by reducing the amount of sunlight that reaches the Earth's surface.
Because black carbon in the atmosphere absorbs incoming solar radiation, that radiation is
prevented from reaching the surface, a process called "dimming." According to one estimate,
aerosol-induced surface dimming has increased 6% since pre-industrial times in the atmosphere
above India and China. This increase in surface dimming has led to reduced photosynthesis
productivity [91].
Increased Energy Conservation
As noted above, black carbon emissions are produced as a consequence of incomplete
combustion of carbonaceous fuels. Incomplete combustion is an indication that fuel inputs are
not producing energy outputs with optimal efficiency. Strategies that improve the efficiency of
fuel combustion can therefore achieve black carbon emissions reductions while also reduce the
amount of input fuel needed to achieve determined outputs. More-efficient cookstoves, for
example, can help reduce the amount of fuel that families need to purchase in order to perform
daily cooking tasks. This in turn will reduce the indoor air pollution that is produced by
combustion in less-efficient cookstoves. The energy conservation co-benefits can be clearly
observed when looking at the transportation sector. For example, it is estimated that improved
fleet logistics that reduce black carbon emissions (e.g., reducing vehicle idling) can reduce fleet
fuel use by as much as 7% [37]. In the brick-making sector, using best practices to improve the
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combustion efficiency of a traditional kiln can help save 1 MTOE over the course of one year
[30].
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Appendix C. Brick Making in South Asia
The following sections provide background information on the brick-making industry in several
South Asian countries. Where available, estimates of black carbon emissions from brick making
are provided.
India
India comprises approximately 11% of global brick production [118]. Brick-making industry units
in India are generally located in clusters. The basic raw material for brick making is clay and the
fuel required is coal and biomass. In India, there are more than different 100,000 brick kilns
located in peri-urban and rural areas in clusters across the country [119]. It is estimated that
these kilns produce about 140 billion bricks every year and that annual demand for bricks in the
country will increase to 270 billion bricks by 2020 and 615 billion bricks by 2030 [27]. Brick
making is a highly energy-intensive process and consumes about 24 million tons of coal and
large quantities of biomass fuels per year [120]. The large-scale brick-making regions in India
are shown in Figure C.I.
Several types of brick kilns are being used for firing bricks. The choice of technology depends
generally on factors such as scale of production, soil and fuel availability, market conditions,
and skills available. The predominant technologies used in India for firing green bricks are Bull's
trench kilns and clamp kilns (Figure C.2).
Figure C.I. Prominent brick-making regions in
India.
Figure C.2. Clamp kiln.
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Existing Emissions Standards for Brick Kilns in India
The Ministry of Environment and Forests issued a notification dated April 3, 1996, on emissions
standards for brick kilns. This notification presents standards for maximum allowable
suspended PM concentrations in flue gases and minimum stack height for brick kilns
(Table C.I).
Table C.I. Emissions standards and stack height regulations for brick kilns
Maximum concentration
limit of suspended PM
Size
Size Kiln capacity
Small Less than 15,000
bricks per day [less
than 15 ft (4.6m)
trench width]
(mg/IMm3)
1,000
Stack height
Minimum stack height 22 m (or)
induced draft fan operating with
minimum draft 50 mm WG with
12-m stack height
Medium 15,000 to 30, 000
bricks per day [15 to
22 ft (4.6-6.7 m)
trench width]
750
Minimum stack height 27 m with
gravitational settling chamber or
induced draft fan operating with
minimum draft 50 mm WG with
15 -m stack height
Large More than 30,000
bricks per day [more
than 22 ft (6.7m)
trench width]
750
Minimum stack height 30 m with
gravitational settling chamber (or)
induced draft fan operating with
minimum draft 50 mm WG with
17-m stack height
Note: The above emissions limits are achievable by installing fixed chimney/high-draft kilns and/or
settling chambers.
Source: [121].
Estimates of Black Carbon Emissions from Brick Kilns in India
Overall, it is estimated that brick making in India accounts for approximately 60% of black
carbon emissions from the industrial sector in that country and 9% of black carbon emissions
from all Indian emissions sources [16, 17, 18].
Emissions from conventional clamp kilns in India can be very high. According to one study,
suspended PM from clamp kilns ranged from 117 mg/Nm3to nearly 4,000 mg/Nm3, which is
well above the emissions standards [120]. Fortunately, emissions can be reduced using certain
control systems. Under a study supported by the Central Pollution Control Board, Government
of India, TERI [30] performed a detailed stack emissions monitoring and ambient air monitoring
of Bull's trench kilns with gravity settling chambers in different geographical locations in India.
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The gravity settling chamber design in India is provided by (1) the Punjab State Council for
Science and Technology, (2) the Central Building Research Institute, and (3) the Aligarh Muslim
University. The stack emissions levels from all three designs after the pollution control system is
installed (i.e., gravity settling chamber) are below the existing emissions standards of
750 mg/Nm3 for brick kilns having capacities of more than 15,000 bricks per day. The monitored
emissions levels are shown in Table C.2.
Table C.2. Stack emissions levels from various gravity settling
chamber designs in Bull's trench kilns
Suspended PM (mg/Nm3)
Minimum Maximum
Punjab State Council for
Science and Technology
113
514
Central Building Research
Institute
143
486
Aligarh Muslim University
226
463
Source: [30].
The minimum and maximum emissions levels also indicate that the three pollution control
systems are close to the 500-mg/Nm3 level, which is well below the existing emissions
standards for brick kilns (i.e., 750 mg/Nm3). However, no estimates were made during this
study to determine the black carbon emissions associated with the various gravity settling
chamber designs in Bull's trench kilns.
Table C.3. Stack emissions of different types of brick kilns
Kiln type
Bull's trench kiln moving chimney
Stack emissions (mg/m3)
Suspended PM SO2 NOX
1,675
Bull's trench kiln fixed chimney
Bull's trench kiln fixed chimney with settling chamber
High-draft kiln
Zig-zag natural draft
Vertical shaft brick kiln
500-1,040
141-187
270-300
296-370
78-80
17
14
26
10
106
32
27
32
23
1.9
Source: [30].
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Using Pollution Control Systems in Brick Kilns
The use of pollution control systems in brick kilns helps control and reduce emissions. In India,
the 1996 notification by Ministry of Environment and Forests made it mandatory to use gravity
settling chambers in Bull's trench kilns, which has helped reduce emissions (Table C.3).
Bangladesh
Clay-fired bricks are one of the most widely used building materials in Bangladesh. The brick-
making industry in Bangladesh employs close to 1 million people and accounts for
approximately 1% of the country's gross domestic product [26]. The 2005-2006 annual
production of bricks was estimated to be 15 billion bricks from an estimated 5,000 kilns
operating in the country [26]. Table C.4 identifies the market share of different brick-firing
technologies in Bangladesh. As the table shows, the predominant technology is the fixed-
chimney kiln - similar to the Bull's trench kiln in India - which is a highly inefficient firing
technology. Table C.4 also shows that energy-efficient vertical shaft brick kilns have not yet
been deployed in Bangladesh because of concerns about the quality of the bricks compared to
Table C.4. Share of market for key brick-firing technologies in Bangladesh
Kiln type
Fixed-chimney kiln
Bull's trench kilnb
Zig-zag bull's trench kiln
Hoffman kiln
Total
Number
3,123
794
197
26
4,140
Percent of
total kilns
75.4
19.2
4.8
0.6
100
Brick
production3
(billions)
9.4
2.0
0.7
0.3
12.4
Percent of
total brick
production
75.8
16.1
5.7
2.4
100
a. Based on an average for each type: Fixed-chimney kiln - 3 million; Bull's trench kiln - 2.5 million;
zig-zag Bull's trench kiln - 3.5 million; and Hoffman kiln - 12 million.
b. Bull's trench kilns haven been banned in Bangladesh [26].
Source: [122].
those produced using conventional Bull's trench kiln technology [26].
The brick industry in the country has grown by the classic replication principle of copying one
brick from the other. As a result, there is practically no variation in kiln design or operation.
There is some size variation in the fixed-chimney kiln (same as the Bull's trench kiln in India),
but the standard size, which constitutes approximately 80% of the total, produces about 3-4
million bricks per year. In remote areas, some kilns produce fewer than 3 million bricks, while
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some larger kilns close to large urban centers are capable of producing up to 6.5 million bricks
per year.
Presently, there are several initiatives underway in Bangladesh to improve brick-firing
technologies in the country. For example, the Bangladesh Department of Environment is
undertaking a project to study emissions from different types of brick-firing technologies and
evaluating emissions reduction options. In addition, the World Bank is funding a project to
review vertical shaft brick kiln technology application in Bangladesh and the Global
Environment Facility is funding a project that involves using coal-fired tunnel kilns.
Use of firewood for brick making is banned in Bangladesh. However, a survey conducted under
a project funded by the Global Environment Facility found that nearly all kilns use some
quantity of firewood, which contributes to deforestation [122]. Use of low-grade coal as a
supplementary fuel in brick firing is estimated at about 2.2 million tons. Coal used in the brick
industry is imported from India. A few brick kilns located near natural gas grids use natural gas
as fuel.
Relevant Environmental Regulations in Bangladesh
The Department of Environment has established regulations for minimum stack height for the
fixed chimneys used in brick kilns, which is 38.1 m. The permissible emissions standard for total
suspended PM from brick kilns is 1,000 mg/Nm3. However, there is no regulation for provision
of pollution control systems in brick kilns.
The nationwide environment and energy performances of brick kilns have not been monitored
in Bangladesh, and this may be the reason for the absence of comprehensive environmental
regulations for brick kilns. Samples taken during one particular study revealed that suspended
PM concentrations from moving-chimney Bull's trench kilns in Bangladesh can reach up to
2,000 mg/Nm3, which is double the standard [26]. However, ambient air quality standards are
available for Bangladesh, and ambient air quality for industrial areas would be applicable for
brick kilns as well. There is also a provision for separate "Environmental Courts" in Bangladesh,
which handle cases related to brick kilns.
Nepal
Presently, there are an estimated 500 moving-chimney brick kilns and 200 Bull's trench kilns in
Nepal [123]. These kilns produce more than 1.4 billion bricks each year, consuming more than
200,000 tons of coal annually and emitting more than 8,000 tons of particulates annually [23].
Kilns are located mostly in the Kathmandu Valley, with some in the terai region, which is a belt
of marshy grasslands, savannas, and forests between the Himalayan foothills and the Indo-
Gangetic Plain. Major brick clusters in the Kathmandu Valley are Bhaktapur, Lalitpur, and
Kathmandu. Brick kilns in Nepal range from small clamp kilns to large-scale Hoffmann kilns.
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According to the Status of Brick Kilns in the Kathmandu Valley there were nine clamp kilns
(Thado Bhatta), 3 Hoffmann kilns (Chinese Bhatta), and 113 Bull's trench kilns (Chimney Bhatta)
in the valley [124]. Most of the bricks (87%) are produced from the Bull's trench kilns. All other
kilns, except Hoffmann, use sawdust, fuel-wood, and rice husk as fuel. In the Kathmandu Valley,
coal consumption is 10-13 tons of coal per 100,000 bricks. The brick industry in the Kathmandu
Valley is estimated to consume 50,000 tons of coal per year and is probably the largest
consumer of coal in the country.
During 2000, TERI performed detailed energy and environmental monitoring of Bull's trench
kilns in Nepal. The stack emissions monitoring results are presented in Table C.5.
Table C.5. Stack emissions monitoring results
Suspended PM SO2 NOX
# Type of brick kiln (mg/IMm3) (mg/IMm3) (mg/IMm3)
1 Moving chimney-Bull's trench kiln 570-1,440 160-1,126 44-107
2 Fixed chimney-Bull's trench kiln 99-241 164-657 15-43
Source: [30].
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Appendix D. Black Carbon Emissions from On-Road
Fleets in South Asia and Current Initiatives to
Reduce Emissions
The following sections provide background information on black carbon emissions from the
transportation sector in South Asia, focusing on emissions from on-road fleets, as well as
information on several current initiatives to help reduce these emissions.
Black Carbon Emissions from the Transportation Sector
Emissions from the transportation sector come from both on-road (e.g., passenger vehicles and
freight trucks) and off-road (e.g., shipping, aviation, and rail) sources. Globally, it is estimated
that road transportation sources account for approximately 16% of all black carbon emissions,
while off-road transportation accounts for 9% [125]. On-road transportation sources typically
have higher black carbon emissions factors than non-road sources. According to an inventory of
black carbon emissions from a range of combustion sources, diesel-fueled vehicles produce
between 1.3 and 3.6 g of black carbon per kilogram of fuel combusted, while rail and shipping
sources produce only 0.51 and 0.34 g per kg of diesel fuel combusted, respectively [15].
Black carbon emissions from private and public sector fleets (e.g., on-road freight and other
goods-carrying vehicles) are of particular interest because the trucks that make up these fleets
generally have higher emissions factors than nearly all other vehicle types (with the exception
of buses; [32]). For example, in India the average PM emissions factor for trucks is estimated to
be 0.28 g/km, compared to 0.05 g/km, 0.2 g/km, and 0.03 g/km for two-wheelers, light
passenger vehicles, and cars/jeeps, respectively [32]. This difference is explained in part by the
differences in fuel types. Trucks and non-passenger light vehicles (i.e., those used for
transporting goods) typically operate on diesel fuel, while two-wheelers, light passenger
vehicles, and cars/jeeps typically use gasoline, which produces less black carbon per kilogram
combusted [32]. As shown in Table D.I, diesel fuel accounts for an increasing percentage of
overall fuel used in the transportation sector in several key Asian countries. Overall, heavy-duty
trucking (which includes most fleet vehicles) accounts for approximately 11% of all black carbon
emissions in India and more than half of all black carbon emissions from the transportation
sector in that country [16, 17, 18].
In addition, on-road fleets account for the majority of all freight transport in South Asia. With
continued increases in consumptive activities in the region, freight transport is expected to
continue to increase as well. Figure D.I shows the percentage of total freight activity accounted
for by on-road trucking in several South Asian countries.
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Table D.I. Percentage of diesel in the
transportation sector fuel mix
Country
Bangladesh
China
India
Pakistan
Philippines
Thailand
Vietnam
1980
73.3%
13.4%
55.0%
71.4%
17.6%
52.2%
15.5%
2005
79.0%
40.2%
66.4%
84.1%
54.4%
68.6%
55.6%
Source: [38].
0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100%
Figure D.I. Percentage share of road transport in total freight activity in selected
Asian countries. Source: [38].
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Appendix E. Improved Cookstove Production Models in
South Asia
There are several models for producing improved cookstoves, including centralized mass
production at a few facilities, centralized production in local factories, and artisanal production
[74]. The advantages of the centralized mass production model are that it ensures a greater
degree of quality control and can enable quick ramp-up of production to meet demand. The
disadvantages of this system are that it does not always consider differences among local users,
does not increase jobs at the local level, requires substantial capital investment, produces
stoves that tend to be higher priced, and incurs increased shipping charges. Centralized
production at the local level involves the use of molds and prefabricated parts to assemble
stoves locally. The advantages of this method are that it increases local employment, considers
local preferences, and produces moderately priced stoves. However, quality control is not as
high as with the previous method. The third production model is also referred to as artisanal
production where local artisans are trained to build better mud stoves. The advantages of this
model are that it improves the local economy and offers the most affordable stove, but quality
control is the lowest among the different models.
Many large-scale initiatives emphasize central construction of stoves. Understandably,
durability and quality control are important for effective mitigation of black carbon. However,
past experience has shown that users often revert to old technologies rather than replace new
technologies as time goes on (particularly if the initial program is subsidized). Centrally
manufactured stoves that do not receive user input at the local level may not necessarily fit the
needs of all users due to variance in local cooking practices or preferences. Additionally, an
ongoing concern with centrally manufactured stoves is that they lack the local economic
benefits that come from local production. A variety of studies support a local production model
[67, 68, 126,127]. However, differences between the two production models, central and local,
can be resolved through quality-control strategies, such as using molds and sourced materials
and certifying stoves [67].
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Appendix F. List of Participants from the Kathmandu
Consultation
1. Sanjeev Agrawal, Central Pollution Control Board, India
2. Akhtar Ahmad, Consultant, Bangladesh
3. Syed Nazmul Ahsan, Ministry of Environment, Bangladesh
4. Harish Anchan, Envirofit Eco Organization, India
5. Saima Asghar, Ministry of Environment, Pakistan
6. Elham Azizi, Department of Environment, Iran
7. O.P. Badlani, Int Nirmata Parishad, India
8. Samjwa Baj'rachaya, International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development, Nepal
9. Renu Bhandari, SEWA NEPAL, Nepal
10. Stephanie Borsboom, The World Bank, Nepal
11. Carina Cabrido, Clean Air Network Nepal, Nepal
12. Gregory Carmichael, University of Iowa, USA
13. Mahendra Bahadur Chitrakar, Federation of Nepal Brick Industries, Nepal
14. Nimmi Damodaran, Stratus Consulting Inc., USA
15. Asad Ullah Faiz, Ministry of Environment, Pakistan
16. Sandro Fuzzi, Institute of Atmospheric Sciences and Climate of the Italian National
Research Council, Italy
17. Purushottam Ghimire, Ministry of Environment, Nepal
18. Urs Hagnauer, Vertical Shaft Brick Kiln Project, Nepal
19. Ijaz Hossain, Bangladesh University of Engineering and Technology, Bangladesh
20. Naw Wah Wah Htoo, Asian Institute of Technology, Thailand
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21. Mohamed Ibrahim, Ministry of Housing, Transport and Environment, Maldives
22. Mylvakanam lyngararasn, United Nations Environment Programme, Kenya
23. Liisa Jalkanen, World Meteorological Institute, Switzerland
24. Ganesh Raj Joshi, Ministry of Environment, Nepal
25. Madhav Karki, International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development, Nepal
26. Manzurul Haque Khan, National Institute of Preventive & Social Medicine, Bangladesh
27. Manzurul Haque Khan, National Institute of Preventive & Social Medicine, Bangladesh
28. Murad Khan, Ministry of Environment, Pakistan
29. Usha Kiran, Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR), India
30. Rasnayake Mudiyanselage Kulasena, Central Environmental Authority, Sri Lanka
31. Sachin Kumar, The Energy and Resources Institute, India
32. Sandor Lau, Cascade Sierra Solutions, USA
33. Bernadeth Lim, Asian Institute of Technology, Thailand
34. S.N. Yatagama Lokuge, Ministry of Health, Sri Lanka
35. Joe Madiath, Gram Vikas, India
36. Sameer Maithel, Greentech Knowledge, India
37. Anjila Manandhar, Clean Energy Nepal, Nepal
38. Fan Meng, Chinese Research Academy of Environmental Sciences, China
39. Vijaykumar. H. Mistry, Ahmedabad Municipal Corporation, India
40. Pradeep Mool, International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development, Nepal
41. C.P. Muthanna, Environment and Health Foundation, India
42. T. Nakajima, The University of Tokyo, Japan
43. Peter Neil, IUCN Asia Regional Office, Thailand
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44. Sanjeev Kumar Paliwal, Central Pollution Control Board, India
45. Arnico Panday, University of Virginia, USA
46. Kamla Kant Pandey, Int Nirmata Parishad, India
47. Shashank Pandey, Vertical Shaft Brick Kiln Project, Nepal
48. Upmanyu Patil, Swayam Shikshan Prayog, India
49. Bidya Banmali Pradhan, International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development,
Nepal
50. Pratikshya Pradhan, Center for Rural Technology, Nepal
51. Sophie Punte, Clean Air Initiative for Asian Cities (CAI-Asia) Center, Philippines
52. V. Ramanathan, University of California, San Diego, USA
53. Darrell Reeve, Cleaner Production Australia, Australia
54. Ibrahim Hafeez Rehman, The Energy and Resources Institute (TERI), India
55. Heather Adair Rohani, Consultant to World Health Organization, Switzerland
56. Maheswar Rupkheti, United Nations Environment Programme, Kenya
57. Girish Sethi, The Energy and Resources Institute (TERI), India
58. Aminath Shaufa, Centre for Community Health and Disease Control, Maldives
59. Arun Shrestha, International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development, Nepal
60. Basanta Shrestha, International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development, Nepal
61. Jay Pal Shrestha, Embassy of the United States of America, Nepal
62. Ram Shrestha, Consultant, Nepal
63. Surendra Shrestha, United Nations Environment Programme, Kenya
64. Anthony Socci, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, USA
65. Yuolanda Tibbs, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, USA
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66. Zia-UI-lslam, Ministry of Environment, Pakistan
67. Sushma Upadhyay, Ministry of Environment, Nepal
68. Chandra Venkataraman, Indian Institute of Technology, India
69. S.C. Yoon, Seoul National University, Korea
70. Jigme Zangmo, National Environment Commission, Bhutan
71. Y. Zhang, Peking University, China
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Endnotes
[1] UNEP. 2011a. Integrated Assessment of Black Carbon and Tropospheric Ozone: Summary for
Decision Makers. Available: http://www.unep.org/dewa/Portals/67/pdf/Black Carbon.pdf. Accessed
5/11/2011.
[2] Jacobson, M.Z. 2007. Testimony for the Hearing on Black Carbon and Global Warming. House
Committee on Oversight and Government Reform. October 18, 2007. Available:
http://www.stanford.edu/group/efmh/iacobson/0710LetHouseBC%201.pdf. Accessed 1/24/2012.
[3] Ramanathan, V. 2010. Testimony of V. Ramanathan before Congress. March 16, 2010.
[4] UNEP 2011.Towards an Action Plan for Near-term Climate Protection and Clean Air Benefits. UNEP
Science-policy Brief. 17pp.
[5] UNEP 2011. Near-term Climate Protection and Clean Air Benefits:Action for Controlling Short-Lived
Climate Forcers, United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), Nairobi, Kenya, 78pp
[6] OECD (2012), OECD ENVIRONMENTAL OUTLOOK TO 2050: THE CONSEQUENCES OF INACTION,
OECD Publishing.
doi: 10.1787/9789264122246-en
[7] U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Report to Congress on Black Carbon. March 2012. Available:
http://www.epa.gov/blackcarbon/2012report/fullreport.pdf
[8]USAID. 2010. Black Carbon Emissions in Asia: Sources, Impacts, and Abatement Opportunities. April.
[9] Hansen, J. and L. Nazarenko. 2004. Soot climate forcing via snow and ice albedos. PNAS
101(2):423-428.
[10] Planner, M.G., C.S. Zender, J.T. Randerson, and P.J. Rasch. 2007. Present-day climate forcing and
response from black carbon in snow. Journal of Geophysical Research 112011202:1-17,
doi:10.1029/2006JD008003.
[ll]Shindell, D. and G. Faluvegi. 2009. Climate response to regional radiative forcing during the
twentieth century. Nature Geoscience 2:294-300.
[12] Venkataraman, C, A.D. Sagar, G. Habib, N. Lam, and K.R. Smith. 2010. The Indian national initiative
for advanced biomass cookstoves: The benefits of clean combustion. Energy for Sustainable
Development Volume 14.
[13] Ramanathan, V. and G. Carmichael. 2008. Global and regional climate changes due to black carbon.
Nature Geoscience 221-227.
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[14] Cohen, A., H. Anderson, B. Ostro, K. Dev Bandey, M. Krzyzanowski, N. Kunzli, K. Gutschmidt, A.
Pope, I. Romieu, J. Samet, and K. Smith. 2005. The global burden of disease due to outdoor air pollution.
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[15] Bond, T.C., D.G. Streets, K.F. Yarber, S.M. Nelson, J.-H. Woo, and Z. Klimont. 2004. A technology-
based global inventory of black and organic carbon emissions from combustion. Journal of Geophysical
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[16] Reddy, M. and C. Venkataraman. 2002a. Inventory of aerosol and sulphur dioxide emissions from
India I: Fossil fuel combustion. Atmospheric Environment 36:677-697.
[17] Reddy, M. and C. Venkataraman. 2002b. Inventory of aerosol and sulphur dioxide emissions from
India II: Biomass combustion. Atmospheric Environment 36:699-712.
[18] Venkataraman, C. 2011. Black Carbon Emissions by Sector. Presentation at Consultation on Black
Carbon Mitigation: Co-benefits and Soft Approaches, Kathmandu, Nepal. March 21-23.
[19] Panday, K. 2011. Brick Kiln Manufacturers' Association. Presentation at Consultation on Black
Carbon Mitigation: Co-benefits and Soft Approaches. Kathmandu, Nepal. March 21-23.
[20] U.S. DOE. 2009. The How's and Why's of Replacing the Whole Barrel. Available:
http://energy.gov/articles/hows-and-whvs-replacing-whole-barrel. Accessed 11/1/2011.
[21] Heierli, U. and S. Maithel. 2008. Brick by Brick: The Herculean Task of Cleaning up the Asian Brick
Industry. Available: www.swiss-cooperation.admin.ch/nepal/en/Home/./resource en 163077.pdf.
Accessed 2/10/2011.
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Office of International and Tribal Affairs
Office of Global Affairs and Policy
June 2012
EPA-160R12002
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