United States
Environmental Protection
i Agency
EPA/600/R-15/154 | August 2015
www.epa.gov/ord
Using the DPSIR Framework to
Develop a Conceptual Model:
Technical Support Document
Office of Research and Development
National Health and Environmental Effects Research Laboratory
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EPA/600/R-15/154
August 2015
www.epa.gov/ord
Using the DPSIR Framework to
Develop a Conceptual Model:
Technical Support Document
Prepared by
Patricia Bradley Susan Yee
Atlantic Ecology Division Gulf Ecology Division
NHEERL, ORD NHEERL, ORD
33 East Quay Road 1 Sabine Island Drive
Key West, FL 33040 Gulf Breeze, FL 32561
US Environmental Protection Agency
Office of Research and Development
National Health and Environmental Effects Research Laboratory
Atlantic Ecology Division,
Narragansett, Rl 02882
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Notice and Disclaimer
The US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) Office of Research and Development (ORD)
prepared this report. It has been subjected to the Agency's peer and administrative review and
has been approved for publication as an EPA document. Mention of trade names or commercial
products does not constitute endorsement or recommendation for use.
This is a contribution to the EPA Office of Research and Development's Sustainable and Healthy
Communities Research Program. Research for this report was also conducted under the
Ecosystem Services Research Program and the Safe and Sustainable Waters Research Program.
The appropriate citation for this report is:
Bradley P and Yee S. 2015. Using the DPS//? Framework to Develop a Conceptual Model:
Technical Support Document. US Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Research and
Development, Atlantic Ecology Division, Narragansett, Rl. EPA/600/R-15/154.
This document can be downloaded from: http://www.epa.gov/nscep/index.html
Foreword
The approach described in this manual reflects procedures developed by EPA ORD during
8 years of ecological and sustainability research, including decision-support workshops
conducted in Florida, Puerto Rico, and the US Virgin Islands. The overall objective is to deliver
a technical support manual into the hands of decision-makers so they can apply the DPSIR
conceptual model in support of complex environmental decision-making.
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Table of Contents
Notice and Disclaimer ii
Foreword ii
Figures v
Table vi
Acknowledgements vii
1 Introduction to Systems Thinking Frameworks 1
2 The DPSIR Framework 3
2.1 Driving Forces 5
2.1.1 Economic Driving Forces 6
2.1.2 Social Driving Forces 8
2.2 Pressures 9
2.2.1 Environmental Pressures 9
2.2.2 Human Behavior Pressures 11
23 State 12
2.3.1 Environmental State 13
23.2 Human Systems State 14
2.4 Impacts 16
2.4.1 Ecosystem Services 16
2.4.2 Human Well-being 17
2.5 Responses 18
2.5.1 Driving Forces-based Responses 20
2.5.2 Pressure-based Responses 22
2.53 State-based Responses 22
2.5.4 Impact-based Responses 23
2.6 Summary 23
3 DPSIR as a Discussion Tool 27
3.1 Ecological Case Study—Coral Reef and Coastal Ecosystems Linkages
with the Tourism and Recreation Sector 30
3.2 Eco-Health Case Study—Asthma 36
4 Summary 45
4.1 Identifying and Conceptualizing the Problem 45
4.2 Collecting and Analyzing Relevant Data 45
4.3 Appraising Scientific and Assessment Outcomes 46
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Appendices
A. CmapTooIs Software Guidance 47
B. Operational Systems-Thinking Tools—The ReefLink Database, Tutorial on Systems
Thinking and the Eco-Health Relationship Browser[[[ 58
C. Systems-Thinking Tools under Development at EPA—DASEES and SystemSketch ........ 63
D. Glossary 64
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Figures
1-1. Diversity of issues facing coastal communities 1
2-1 The Eco DPSIR framework and conceptual relationships among DPSIR categories 3
2-2. The Eco-Health DPSIR framework, with two parallel tracks differentiating
ecosystem health (left side) and human health (right side) 4
2-3. DPSIR Category—Driving Forces 6
2-4. Examples of Economic Driving Forces: a) residential housing, b) energy,
c) water, and d) health industries 6
2-5. Examples of Social Driving Forces: a) religion, b) culture, and c) marriage 8
2-6. DPSIR Category—Pressures 9
2-7. Examples of Environmental Pressures facing communities: a) stormwater discharge,
b) vegetation clearing and erosion, and c) sediment discharge 10
2-8. Examples of Human Behavior Pressures: a) vaccinations, b) smoking, c) swimming,
d) running, e) riding public transportation, and f) recycling 11
2-9. DPSIR Category—State 12
2-10. Examples of Environmental State: a) coral reef biota (Hawksbill Turtle),
b) built environment, c) hurricane, and d) forest fire 14
2-11. Examples of Human Systems State: a) body systems, b) race, c) disease
(Parkinson's disease), and d) economic status 15
2-12. DPSIR Category—Impacts 16
2-13. Example Ecosystem Services: a) tourism (snorkeling), b) recreational fishing,
c) pollination, and d) provisioning (food) 17
2-14. Examples of Human Well-being: a) happiness, b) spiritual fulfillment,
c) freedom, and d) safety 18
2-15. DPSIR Category—Responses 19
2-16. Examples of Responses: a) coral nursery, b) technology, c) sediment retention,
and d) revitalization 20
2-17. The complete Eco-Health DPSIR framework 24
3-1. DPSIR elicitation during a workshop held in La Parguera, Puerto Rico 27
3-2. Screenshot of CmapTools software 28
3-3. Template for DPSIR conceptual map 29
3-4. Tourism and recreation DPSIR template 31
3-5. Driving Forces-tourism and recreation economic sector and associated sub-sectors 32
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3-6. Pressures associated with recreational fishing and boating 32
3-7. Organisms being harvested, resulting in a decreased population
(change in BioticState) 33
3-8. Changes in Abiotic and Biotic State associated with recreational fishing and boating 33
3-9. Ecosystem Services (Impacts) affected by recreational fishing and boating 34
3-10. Responses that could be implemented to mitigate the Impacts of the tourism
and recreation sector 35
3-11. Asthma DPSIR template 37
3-12. Human State associated with asthma 38
3-13. Human Behavior Pressures that contribute to asthma (Human State) 38
3-14. Environmental State contributes to asthma (Human State) 39
3-15. Human activities that exert pressure on Environmental State 39
3-16. Social factors (Driving Forces) that influence Human Behavior (Pressures) 40
3-17. Economic Sectors (Driving Forces) that influence human activities (Pressures) 40
3-18. Changes in Ecosystem Services (Impacts) 41
3-19. The consequences of human condition (Human State) on
Human Well-being (Impacts) 42
3-20. Management actions that can be taken to prevent, control or ameliorate asthma . 43
3-21. Economic Sectors (Driving Forces) that benefit from Ecosystem Services
and Human Well-being (Impacts) 44
Table
2-1. Categories, sub-categories, and concepts within the Eco-Health DPSIR 25
VI
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Acknowledgements
First, and foremost, we wish to thank the creators of the DPSIR Framework: Edith Smeets and
Rob Weterings (TNO Centre for Strategy, Technology and Policy, The Netherlands) and Peter
Bosch, Martin Buchele and David Gee (European Environment Agency). We also want to
acknowledge OECD's earlier Pressure-State-Response framework. Their vision provided the
core structure and concepts, which EPA further refined and implemented for use in the
United States.
Secondly, we wish to acknowledge the research teams who helped to develop and refine our
DPSIR approach:
EPA Ecosystem Services Research Program (ESRP) Focus Groups:
Driving Forces Focus Group Members:
Jim Bohnsack (NOAA National Marine Fisheries Service)
David Bosch (US Department of Agriculture)
William Fisher (USEPA Office of Research and Development)
David Gilliam (Nova Southeastern University Oceanographic Center)
Richard Harvey (USEPA Region 4)
Aaron Hutchins (The Nature Conservancy)
Jim Sanchirico (University of California, Davis)
Pressure Focus Group Members:
Mace Barren, Jim Latimer and John Lehrter (USEPA Office of Research and Development)
Lauretta Burke (World Resources Institute)
Billy Causey (NOAA Office of National Marine Sanctuaries)
lisa Kuffner (USGS Southeast Ecological Science Center)
Margaret Miller (NOAA National Marine Fisheries Service)
Anthony Pait (NOAA National Ocean Service)
State Focus Group Members:
Richard Appeldoorn (Caribbean Coral Reef Institute, University of Puerto Rico)
Mike Colella (Florida Fish and Wildlife Research Institute)
William Fisher and Susan Yee (USEPA Office of Research and Development)
Ron Hill (NOAA National Marine Fisheries Service)
Peter Houk (Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands)
Judy Lang (Atlantic and Gulf Rapid Reef Assessment Program)
Diego Lirman (University of Miami, Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science)
Caroline Rogers (USGS US Virgin Islands)
Adam Zitello (NOAA National Ocean Service)
VII
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Impact Focus Group Members:
Suzanne Ayvazian, Patricia Bradley, Daniel Campbell (USEPA Office of Research
and Development)
Emily Cooper and Jeffrey Wielgus (World Resources Institute)
Bob Leeworthy (NOAA Office of National Marine Sanctuaries)
Steve Newbold (USEPA National Center for Environmental Economics)
Linwood Pendleton (Coastal Ocean Values Center)
James Sanchirico (University of California, Davis)
Response Focus Group Members:
Aaron Hutchins and James Byrne (The Nature Conservancy)
Brian Keller (NOAA Office of National Marine Sanctuaries)
Charles LoBue (USEPA Region 2)
Kent Edwards (Florida Department of Environmental Protection,
Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary)
LisaMarie Carrubba (NOAA National Marine Fisheries Service)
Patricia Bradley (USEPA Office of Research and Development)
Wayne Davis (USEPA Office of Environmental Information)
ReefLink Website:
Patricia Bradley, Peter Shuba, Susan Yee (USEPA Office of Research and Development)
Justin Bousquin, Eric Johnson, Ashley Weatherall Ludwig, Grace Tyson
(Student Services Contractors)
Tutorials on Systems Thinking using the
DPSIR Framework:
Walter Berry, Patricia Bradley, Ann Vega and Susan Yee (USEPA Office of Research
and Development)
Eco-Health DPSIR:
Patricia Bradley, William Fisher, Patricia Murphy, Sally Perreault, James Quackenboss
and Susan Yee (USEPA Office of Research and Development)
Justin Bousquin, Eric Johnson (Student Services Contractors)
DASEES and SystemSketch:
Patricia Bradley, Brian Dyson, Marilyn Buchholtz ten Brink, Ann Vega and Susan Yee
(USEPA Office of Research and Development)
Ingrid Heilke, Claudette Ojo (ORISE)
Tom Stockton (Neptune and Company, Inc.)
VIM
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We wish to also recognize the participants in our decision-making workshops:
2007 Coral Reef Monitoring Needs Assessment Workshop, St. Croix,
US Virgin Islands:
Rafe Boulon, Mark Hardgrove, Ian Lundgren and Joel Tutein (National Park Service)
Diane Capehart, Courtney Dickenson, Aaron Hutchins, Ben Kenlarts, Karlyn Langjahr, Anita
Nibbs, Nadine Noorhasan, Norman Quinn and William Tobias (USVI Department of Planning
and Natural Resources)
Chris Jeffrey (NOAA National Ocean Service)
Emily Tyner (University of the Virgin Islands)
Beverly Yoshioka (US Fish and Wildlife Service)
Charles LoBue (USEPA Region 2)
Heidi Bell (USEPA Office of Water)
Wayne Davis (USEPA Office of Environmental Information)
Patricia Bradley and William Fisher (USEPA Office of Research and Development)
Leska Fore (Statistical Design)
2009 Coral Reef Decision Support Workshop in the Florida Keys:
Mike Buchman, Karrie Carnes, Scott Donahue, Lilli Ferguson, John Halas, Lauri MacLaughlin,
Sean Morton and Bill Precht (NOAA Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary)
Billy Causey and Bob Leeworthy (NOAA Office of National Marine Sanctuaries)
Dana Wusinich-Mendez (NOAA Coral Reef Conservation Program)
James Bohnsack (NOAA Southeast Fisheries Science Center)
Jennifer Baxter, Shelli Braynard, Nancy Diersing, Kent Edwards, Alicia Farrer and Todd Hitchins
(Florida Department of Environmental Protection, Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary)
Major Mike Edwards (Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission)
Chris Bergh and James Byrne (The Nature Conservancy)
Jeff Cramer (Florida Keys Commercial Fishermen's Association)
Eric Hochberg (National Coral Reef Institute, Nova Southeastern University)
Joseph Boyer (Florida International University)
Patrick Rice (Florida Keys Community College)
Jerry Ault (University of Miami, Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science)
Bruce Popham (Marathon Boatyard)
Leah Gould (Florida Keys Marine Life)
Bob Holston (Dive Key West)
Diana Ruelens (Sanctuary Friends Foundation of the Florida Keys)
William Barrett, Walter Berry, Patricia Bradley, Tim Canfield, William Fisher, Walt Galloway,
Laura Jackson, Norma Lewis, Sue Schock, Ann Vega and Susan Yee (USEPA Office of Research
and Development)
Bill Kruczynski (USEPA Region 4)
Kelly Black and Tom Stockton (Neptune and Company, Inc.)
Amanda Rehr and Mitchell Small (Carnegie Mellon)
IX
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2010 Coral Reef and Coastal Ecosystems Decision Support Workshop,
Caribbean Coral Reef Institute, La Parguera, Puerto Rico:
Richard Appeldoorn, Miguel Canals-Silander, Jorge Garcia-Sais, Francisco Pagan, Manuel Valdes
Pizzini and Ernesto Weil (University of Puerto Rico)
Miguel Canals-Mora, Damaris Delgado-Lopez, Miguel Garcia Nilda Jimenez-Marrero, Craig
Lilyestrom and Aida Rosario (Puerto Rico Department of Natural and Environmental
Resources)
Annette Feliberty-Ruiz (Puerto Rico Environmental Quality Board)
Lisa Vandiver (NOAA Restoration Center)
Lia Brune, Chris Caldow and Dave Whitall (NOAA National Ocean Service)
LisaMarie Carrubba (NOAA National Marine Fisheries Service)
Lillian Ramirez (Puerto Rico Sea Grant Program)
Carlos Ramos Scharron (University of Texas at Austin)
Madeleine Cancel (Caribbean Maritime Educational Center, Inc.)
John Czapiga (Citizen stakeholder)
Deb Curaco, Luis Meyer-Comas, Paul Sturm and Roberto Viquiera (Center for Watershed
Protection)
Jose Castro and Angel Figueroa (USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service)
Magaly Figueroa and Skip Van Bloem (USDA Forest Service)
Aaron Hutchins (The Nature Conservancy)
Luis Soler-Lopez (USGS Caribbean Water Science Center)
Raimundo Espinoza (Estado Libre Asociado de Puerto Rico)
Kelly Black and Tom Stockton (Neptune and Company, Inc.)
Amanda Rehr and Mitchell Small (Carnegie-Mellon University)
Evelyn Huertas (EPA Region 2)
Patricia Bradley, William Fisher, Walt Galloway, Leah Oliver, Joe Williams and Ann Vega (EPA
Office of Research Development)
Finally, we appreciate the effort of six peer reviewers who took the time to carefully read and
greatly improve the report: Justin Bousquin (EPA ORISE Fellow); Randy Bruins, Brian Dyson and
Bill Fisher (EPA, ORD); Evelyn Huertas (EPA Region 2); and Paul Sturm (Ridge to Reefs, Inc.).
Note: Organizational affiliation is based upon the participant's organization when attending a
workshop or otherwise supporting the DPSIR development process.
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Chapter 1: Introduction to Systems
Thinking Frameworks
Modern problems (e.g., pollution, urban sprawl, environmental equity) are complex and often
transcend spatial and temporal scales1. Scientific research and decisions are frequently limited
to a particular economic concern, level of authority or scientific field and therefore address a
single aspect of a problem with insufficient understanding or consideration of short- and long-
term consequences to the larger system2. Additionally, stakeholders and decision-makers
frequently implement multiple, uncoordinated management actions. While each of these
management actions may be successfully implemented for a particular purpose, the combined
effects may not lead to improved environmental conditions.
Systems thinking is an approach to problem solving that is based on the belief that the
component parts of a system are best understood in the context of their relationships and
interactions with one another and with other systems3. A systems approach considers more
than one issue and broadens the decision context. As an example, there are a multitude of
issues that affect island communities (Fig. 1-1). Decision-makers can follow a structured process
to organize this vast number of issues, management options and information in a systems
framework that facilitates examination of the decision alternatives and likely tradeoffs.
Tourism policies
Outreach &
education
Water
quality
Coral
bleaching
Sea
temperature
Predation
Everglades
Sewage
Economic
values
Hurricanes
Sediment
Fishing
Energy
management
Seagrasses
Diving/snorkelling Sea turtles Diadema
Climate change
Grounding Acropora
Parmaceuticals
Coral
disease
Mangroves
Habitat
Agriculture
Nutrients
Algae
Beach replenishment
Upwelling
Sponges
Ecosystem restoration
Shoreline
protection
Ocean acidification
Coastal
development
Figure 1-1. Diversity of issues facing coastal communities. These issues are often discussed as single issues,
without consideration for how they fit together. This can lead to confusion and frustration among stakeholders
1 Knol et al. 2010; Yee et al. 2012
2 O'Connor and McDermott 1997
3 von Bertalanffy 1972
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Conceptual models, which consist of diagrams and accompanying narratives, can be developed
to capture, visualize and organize connections between key factors in a complex system4 and
can be used to evaluate consequences of alternative decisions on the provision of ecosystem
services by linking anthropogenic and environmental stressors to ecosystem condition5.
Conceptual models also can form the conceptual foundation for development of predictive
mathematical models, performance indicators, or other decision support tools, particularly in
the case of complex multi-disciplinary problems such as sustainability.
When decision-makers and stakeholders develop the conceptual model in a collaborative
manner, the learning experience contributes to a shared understanding of system dynamics
and appreciation of the diversity of information needed to select appropriate management
actions and identify a suite of relevant performance indicators6. This collaborative learning
process is, in itself, a major tangible product of the process7.
Conceptual models6:
» Formalize current understanding of system processes and dynamics
• Identify linkages of processes across disciplinary boundaries
• Identify the bounds and scope of the system of interest
• Contribute to communication
o Among decision-makers
o Among scientists and program staff
o Between scientists and decision-makers
o With the general public
4 Joffe and Mindell 2006; Knol et al. 2010; Yee et al. 2011
5Yeeetal. 2011
6 Gross 2003
7 i
' Wright 2002
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Chapter 2: The DPSIR Framework
One framework supporting a systems approach is the Driving Forces - Pressures -State -
Impacts - Responses (DPSIR) framework, which has been a valuable tool for organizing and
communicating complex environmental issues. The DPSIR framework was developed by the
European Environmental Agency8, has been used by the United Nations9, and has been adopted
by the US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) in the Sustainable Puerto Rico initiative.
The DPSIR framework is a systems-thinking framework that assumes cause-effect relationships
between interacting components of social, economic, and environmental systems. The DPSIR
framework has been used for many environmental resource applications, including
management of agricultural systems10, water resources11, land and soil resources12,
biodiversity13 and marine resources14. The DPSIR framework also can be used to integrate
social, cultural, and economic aspects of environmental and human health into a single
framework15. DPSIR has most commonly been used in the context of environmental
management to link ecological and socioeconomic factors (Fig. 2-1). For many types of
environmental decision-making, this basic version will suffice. For purposes of this manual, we
will refer to this DPSIR as the Eco DPSIR.
DPSIR Framework
y
Driving
Forces
State -+ Impacts
Responses •*•
Figure 2-1. The Eco DPSIR framework and conceptual relationships among DPSIR categories
8EEA1999
9UNEP2007
10 Kuldna et al. 2009; Binimelis et al. 2009
11 Mysiak et al. 2005; Borja et al. 2006
12 Gisladottir and Stocking 2005
13 Maxim et al. 2009; Omann et al. 2009
14 Mangi et al. 2007; Ojeda-Martinez et al. 2009; Yee et al. 2011; Nuttle and Fletcher 2013
15Yeeetal. 2012
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Many environmental issues include aspects of Human Health and Well-being, and the Eco
DPSIR did not adequately capture those aspects. EPA has expanded DPSIR to more explicitly
include Human Health, with two parallel tracks, one representing Ecosystem Health (on the left)
and the other Human Health (on the right) (Fig. 2-2). The Eco-Health DPSIR also captures core
concepts of sustainability including equity, natural capital, human well-being and human
habitat16, incorporates social, economic, physical and behavioral risk factors related to human
health and well-being (in addition to environmental factors) and integrates the social, cultural
and economic aspects of ecosystem health and human health into a single framework. The
structure of the Eco-Health DPSIR follows a defined logic sequence; however, for both natural
scientists and human health scientists it represents a paradigm shift away from research that
focuses on singular aspects of complex issues17.
benefits
or costs
Driving Forces
Economic Sectors
(e.g. farming, schools,
housing & construction industry,
manufactur ng & trade)
ere
i
Social Drivers
. a . (e.g. social relations.
<4-influen.ee->. coMmmunity status/
access to services)
v *
r^s* /
ate influence
\
r
Environmental Pressures
(e.g. atmospheric emissions,
applied chemicals,
construction, landscaping)
affe
-
4
g
*s
Pressures Human Behavior
(e.g. smoking, eating habits,
4— influences - outdoor activities,
housekeeping,
transportation choices,
product choices)
cts affe
^
Environmental State
(e.g. built environment,
weather, air particulates,
insects, pets, microorganisms,
forests & plants)
gent
i
cts
Human State
(e.g. asthma, stress,
affects — > obesity, lifestage
population demographics
& distribution)
*
;rate affect influ
1
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During EPA-conducted focus groups, participants found it particularly challenging to place some
concepts into the appropriate categories18. Consequently, EPA developed a rigorous system of
definitions that distinguishes social, economic and environmental factors to reduce confusion
regarding the meaning of categories and provide a generic process that could be applied
broadly across different systems, topics, or decision contexts. Definitions were largely derived
from the original intent of DPSIR19, but include sub-categories to provide clarity and help guide
discussions. The generic nature of the categories and sub-categories make this integrating
framework easy to transfer and apply across a variety of systems, communities and issues.
These detailed descriptions and lists are intended to serve as a quick reference guide for the
facilitator and note-taker to use during a DPSIR workshop elicitation.
2.1 Driving Forces
Driving Forces are the factors that motivate human activities and fulfill basic human needs,
which have been consistently identified as the necessary conditions and materials for a good
life, good health, good social relations, security, and freedom20. The spatial distribution and
intensity of Driving Forces varies - they can originate and act globally, regionally or locally.
Driving Forces are not:
• Climate and weather influences (e.g., hurricanes, sea level rise, global climate change)
- these are all part of Environmental State21
• Any type of "management" (e.g., water management) - these are responses
• Human population - this is actually reflected in human state, and is a result of Social
Driving Forces
Driving Forces describe "the social, demographic, and economic developments in societies"22.
Many studies specifically refer to economic sectors as drivers, while social factors that influence
the structure, characteristics, and functioning of economic sectors, are less frequently
described23. Social determinants also have a strong influence on human health24. Therefore for
the purpose of this framework, Driving Forces have been divided into two categories, Economic
Sectors and Social Driving Forces (Fig. 2-3).
18Yeeetal. 2011
19EEA2005
20 Narayan 2000; MEA 2005; EEA 2005; Maxim et al. 2009
21 Note that because Driving forces, in DPSIR terminology, arise from fulfillment of human needs, they do not
include the natural external influences (such as climate and weather) typically referred to as forcing functions in
ecological modeling.
22 Gabrielsen and Bosch 2003
23 Maxim et al. 2009
24 U.S. Department of Health and Human Services 2008; www.healthypeople.gov
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V,
Driving Forces
f N
[> Economic Sectors
Food & Paw
ruuu
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In creating a generic DPSIR conceptual model, EPA found it useful to collapse some NAICS
sectors and slightly re-categorize others to reflect human needs or to better capture certain
issues relevant to environmental management. In some cases, Driving Forces may fall into more
than one sector (recreational fishing for food and culture). Ambivalent issues should be placed
where they will be most relevant to a management issue.
o Sectors providing Food and Raw Materials include:
• Agriculture-croplands, rangelands
« Aquaculture
« Oil and gas extraction
• Fishing- commercial fisheries, artisanal fishing, and recreational fishing
« Forestry
• Mining and quarrying - coal mining, mineral mining
o Sectors fulfilling human needs for Water include:
• Drinking water supply
« Irrigation
o Sectors fulfilling human needs for Shelter include:
• Housing - home construction, real estate, single family and multi-unit housing
• Textiles and apparel
o Sectors fulfilling human needs for Health include:
* Medical care - hospitals
• Pharmaceuticals and cosmetics
• Social assistance - child care centers
* Waste management - sewage treatment facilities and landfills
o Sectors fulfilling human needs for Culture include:
« Tourism and recreation - recreational fishing and hunting, beaches and natural lands,
• Education - primary and secondary education, colleges and universities
• Information --telecommunications, scientific research, biotechnology research and
development
• Social organizations- churches, outreach groups, families
o Sectors fulfilling human needs for Security include:
• National defense - coastal defense, munitions
« Public administration - government, courts, law enforcement
o Infrastructure sectors provide the physical, organizational, and technical support for the
economy to function and include:
• Manufacturing and trade
• Transportation - air and road transportation, ship and boat operation, warehousing
« Construction and civil engineering - road and utility line construction, building
construction, dam construction, pipeline construction
« Finance and insurance - banks, insurance
• Technical services - management of companies, repair and maintenance services,
personal services
• Utilities - electric power, natural gas
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2.1.2 Social Driving Forces
Humans live together in organized communities with shared laws, traditions, and values.
Social Driving Forces fulfill human needs for social relations, equity, governance, and cultural
identity25 (Fig. 2-5). Social Driving Forces broadly capture the suite of social, community, and
political characteristics that influence the structure and function of economic sectors, as well as
act as key determinants of human health. For example, a lack of equity or repressive
governance may influence the ability of economic sectors to function or constrain the ability
of individuals to fulfill their basic human needs.
Figure 2-5. Examples of Social Driving Forces: a) religion, b) culture, and c) marriage
Social Driving Forces include:
o Social Relations are the day-to-day interactions and connections within a community,
including:
• Religious affiliations
• Social groups
• Marriage
• Family dynamics
25 ME A 2005
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o Equity describes the fairness of opportunities in a community, including;
• Access to education
• Access to health care
• Access to jobs
o Governance is the political disposition and characteristics of a community, including;
• Voting patterns
• Roles of decision-makers
• Type of government
o Cultural Identity are the history, social, and cultural attitudes that define a community,
including;
• Urban, rural, tribal, or coastal communities
• Ethnic or religious identity
2.2 Pressures
Pressures are defined as human activities, derived from the functioning of Social and Economic
Driving Forces that induce changes in the environment26, or human behaviors that can
influence human health. Pressures are not stressors. Stressors are the components of state that
are changed by pressures (e.g., land development [the pressure] - increases sediment [the
stressor] in the coastal zone, which then may stress the ecological components of the reef).
Pressures fall into two classes - Environmental Pressures and Human Behavior Pressures,
(Fig. 2-6).
Pressures
.influences-
Environmental
Pressures (~.~ ">/—
Landuse f Contact
Discharges I Changes I
Human Lifestyle
Behavior [ Choices
[self Care] [ Mobility]
Figure 2-6. DPSIR Category—Pressures
2.2.1 Environmental Pressures
On the environmental side, identifying a particular activity as a Pressure implies a causal
relationship between that activity and an environmental change27. Environmental Pressures
may include discharges of chemical, physical, or biological agents, land-use changes and direct
contact uses (Fig. 2-7). The intensity of Environmental Pressures depends on the technology
and extent of source activities and can vary across geographic regions and spatial scales.
26 EEA 2005; Maxim et al. 2009
27 Rogers 2003
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Figure 2-7. Examples of Environmental Pressures facing communities: a) stormwater discharge,
b) vegetation clearing and erosion and c) sediment discharge
Environmental Pressures include:
o Landuse changes resulting from alterations of the natural landscape, typically associated
with population growth, including:
• Coastal development
• Land development
• Shoreline alteration
• Hydrologic modifications
o Discharges of pollutants as may result from the operation of industries or vehicles, or the
diffuse distribution of contaminants from agricultural lands, roads, or lawns through
ground-water or storm-water run-off, including:
• Applied chemicals- use of fertilizers, pesticides, insecticides, and herbicides
• Atmospheric discharges - vehicle and smokestack emissions including greenhouse
gas emissions, sulphur and nitrogen oxide emissions, volatile organic compound
emissions
• Waterborne discharges - point and non-point source discharges including
wastewater discharges, contaminant discharges, and impervious surface run-off
o Contact uses are human activities that lead to a direct alteration or manipulation of the
environment, and include:
• Physical damage - dredging and filling, boat gear and anchor damage, vessel
groundings, trampling, movement of boats, deforestation
10
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• Biological addition - ballast discharge, release of non-natives, feeding, creation of
artificial habitat
• Biological harvest - harvesting, fishing, accidental by-catch, clear cutting
2.2.2 Human Behavior Pressures
Human Behavior is an additional class of Pressures that can influence human health indepen-
dent of Environmental Pressures, which influence the physical condition of the environment.
We specifically define Human Behaviors, as with all Pressures, as human activities that can
increase the chances of developing a disease, disability, or syndrome (Fig. 2-8). In some cases,
the burden of chronic disease is preventable with modifications of these behaviors. However,
Social Driving Forces (e.g., social status, exposure to violence) and economic sectors (e.g.,
health services, government) can both motivate and constrain human actions (e.g., our ability
to consume a healthy diet), and are often beyond, or perceived as beyond, personal control28.
Figure 2-8. Examples of Human Behavior Pressures: a) vaccinations, b) smoking, c) swimming, d) running,
e) riding public transportation, and f) recycling
Human Behavior Pressures include:
o Self-Care refers to actions and attitudes that contribute to the maintenance of personal
health and well-being. Self-care includes:
• Nutrition and diet (i.e., healthy eating)
• Personal hygiene
• Housekeeping practices
• Medical care (e.g., disease screening, primary care and vaccinations)
28 U.S. Department of Health and Human Services 2008; www.healthypeople.gov
11
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o Lifestyle is the aggregation of personal decisions (i.e., over which the individual has
control) that can be said to contribute to, or cause, illness or death. Lifestyle includes:
• Transportation choice
• Housing choice
• Consumptive patterns (e.g., overeating)
• Resource use and recycling
• Risky sexual behaviors
• Tobacco and/or alcohol use
• Exercise
• Sun exposure
o Mobility involves how people choose to get from one place to another. Travel behavior
and transportation mode choice, or the decision to drive, use public transit, bike or walk
to a destination, is heavily influenced by built and physical environment factors such as
community design, land-use mix, residential density, street connectivity and
transportation infrastructure.
• Walking • Biking • Riding in an automobile
•Climbing • Public transportation
2.3 State
State refers to the state of the natural and built environment (e.g., the quantity and quality of
physical, chemical, and biological components)29, and human systems (e.g., population level
and individual attributes)30. Chemical, physical and biological processes interact to affect
different ecosystem components (e.g. chemicals, biological species) that can be measured by
their attributes (metrics of quantity or quality). All biota incorporate community and population
attributes, but human condition also incorporates individual-level and subpopulation-level
attributes (Fig. 2-9).
State
affects
Environmental
State
Abiotic
Built
Environment
[ Physical &
chemical
m
affects
Biotic
I Living Habitat
f Inhabitants]
f Microorganisms 1
& Pathogens
f Invasives]
Human State
-exposure
Individuals
Personal
^ Characteristics J
f Body Systems ]
Communities
Population
Distribution
Population
I Demographics
Public
Health Status
Figure 2-9. DPSIR Category—State
29 Gabrielson and Bosch 2003
30 Yee et al. 2012
12
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2.3.1 Environmental State31
Environmental State refers to all of the physical, chemical and biological components of the
natural and built environment32(Fig. 2-10). Environmental State includes:
Abiotic State includes the non-living chemical and physical factors in the environment as well as
the built environment (man-made structures), which affect the survival, growth, and
distribution of living organisms in the Biological state. Abiotic phenomena are a part of all of
biology. The abiotic state reflects the magnitude, frequency, and concentration of abiotic
components of the environment including:
• Physical environment (e.g., climate, air and sea temperature, precipitation, storms and
hurricanes, drought, hydrology, ocean circulation patterns, fire)
• Chemical environment (e.g., nutrients, pH, atmospheric CCh levels, salinity,
contaminants)
• Built environment - man-made physical structures or extreme modifications of the
natural environment (e.g., buildings and roadways) that contribute to human habitat
Biotic State includes the biological components of the ecosystem and their interactions,
including humans. In general, this includes sessile plants or animals that provide the living
habitat and base of the food web that supports higher trophic levels. Biological condition may
be measured by individual- or community-level attributes, including:
• Living habitat (e.g., deserts, forests, grasslands, agricultural lands, wetlands, coral
reefs, freshwater lakes and streams, estuaries)
• Inhabitants (e.g., birds, mammals, reptiles, amphibians, invertebrates)
• Invasive/non-native species (e.g., plants, animals, insects)
• Microorganisms and pathogens (e.g., decomposers, mycorrhizae, bacteria, fungi,
viruses)
31Yeeetal. 2012
32 Gabrielsen and Bosch 2003
13
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Figure 2-10. Examples of Environmental State: a) coral reef biota (Hawksbill Turtle), b) built environment,
c) hurricane, and d) forest fire
2.3.2 Human Systems State
Human health is "a state of complete physical, mental, and social well-being and not merely the
absence of disease or infirmity"33. Determinants of health include the structure and function of
economic sectors (e.g. health services, education, policy-making), social driving forces (e.g.,
equity and cultural identity), human behaviors (e.g., diet and mobility), the physical
environment (e.g., green space, weather), and individual biology and genetics34. These
relationships are shown through the influence of Driving Forces, Pressures, and Environmental
State on human state (Fig. 2-2). As with other biota (e.g., fish, birds), metrics of the Human
State may include population-level attributes, such as distribution or demographics, and
individual-level attributes, such as intrinsic personal characteristics including one's age and sex,
and the condition or health of individual body systems (Fig. 2-11).
33 WHO 1946
34 U.S. Department of Health and Human Services 2008; www.healthypeople.gov
14
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Figure 2-11. Examples of Human Systems State: a) body systems, b) race, c) disease (Parkinson's disease),
and d) economic status
Human Systems State may be measured by individual-or community-level attributes, including:
• Individual level
o Personal characteristics
• Life stage
• Gender
• Ethnicity
• Socio-economic status
o Body systems
• Respiratory system
• Immune system
• Gastrointestinal system
• Reproductive system
• Endocrine system
• Neurological system
• Mental health
• Genetics
15
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• Community level
o Population distribution - community-level distributions of:
• Age
• Economic status
• Race
• Education
• Gender
o Public health status - community-level metrics of:
• Disease prevalence
• Disease incidence
2.4 Impacts
Changes in the quality and functioning of the ecosystem have an Impact on the welfare of
humans, including the production of ecosystem goods and services and ultimately, human
well-being35 (Fig 2-12).
Impact
Ecosystem Services
f Supporting Jf Regulating")
f Provisioning J f Cultural]
Human Well-being
Economic
Prosperity
Health &
Safety
Cultural
& Social
Well-being
Figure 2-12. DPSIR Category—Impacts
2.4.1 Ecosystem Services
Ecosystem goods and services have been variously defined as ecosystem processes, or the
products of those processes that directly or indirectly benefit humans36. As notably defined by
the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment, ecosystem goods and services include:
• Provisioning services - the biological, chemical, or products obtained or harvested from
ecosystems for human use including of food, water, biochemical and genetic resources,
and raw materials
• Regulating services-the biophysical processes that regulate the ecosystem, including
regulation of air quality, water quality, climate, disease, pollination, and natural hazards
• Cultural services - the nonmaterial benefits people obtain from the ecological integrity of
ecosystems through spiritual enrichment, cognitive development, reflection, recreation,
and aesthetic experiences, including recreational and educational opportunities, aesthetic
value, sense of place, and spiritual or religious value
35 Gabrielsen and Bosch 2003
36Costanza et al. 1997; MEA2003, 2005; President's Council of Advisors on Science and Technology 2011;
Munnsetal. 2015
16
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• Supporting processes - biophysical processes that maintain the functioning of the
ecosystem, and are necessary for the production of other ecosystem services, but may
not have direct impacts to humans, including nutrient and contaminant cycling, provision
of food and habitat to critical species, water cycling and primary production (Fig. 2-13)
Figure 2-13. Example Ecosystem Services: a) tourism (snorkeling), b) recreational fishing, c) pollination,
and d) provisioning (food)
2.4.2 Human Well-being
Human Well-being is an abstract concept that captures a mixture of people's life circumstances
and quantifies the degree of fulfillment of basic human needs for food, water, health, security,
culture, and shelter (Fig. 2-14). Human Well-being reflects a positive physical, mental and social
state37. Human Well-being can be quantified by metrics reflecting how well human needs are
being met, including needs for basic materials, social relations, good health, security, and
freedom38.
Human Well-being includes:
• Economic prosperity (e.g., productivity, ability to work, income)
• Health and safety (e.g., life span, medical or insurance costs, sick days, pain and suffering)
• Cultural and social well-being (e.g., "happiness", sense of belonging, community vibrancy,
spiritual fulfillment)
37 Diener and Seligman 2004; MEA 2005; Clark and McGillivray 2007; Summers et al. 2012; Yee et al. 2012
38 MEA 2005
17
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Safety
Figure 2-14. Examples of Human Well-being: a) happiness, b) spiritual fulfillment, c) freedom, and
d) safety
2.5 Responses
A key benefit in using the DPSIR framework is that it explicitly includes an Action or Response
component that can be taken at any level of the causal network39 (Fig. 2-15). In the DPSIR
framework, Responses are actions taken by groups or individuals in society and government to
prevent, compensate, ameliorate or adapt to changes in the state of the environment; and to
modify human behaviors that contribute to health risks, to directly modify health through
medical treatments, or to compensate for social or economic impacts of human condition on
human well-being40 (Fig. 2-16).
39 Smeets and Waterings 1999; Waheed et al. 2009; Yee et al. 2011
40Yeeetal. 2012
18
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Driving Forces-based Responses
f Agricultural Policies J ( Educational Reforms J f Trade-off Evaluation
f Manufacturing & Trade Regulations J f Energy Policies J f Health Policies J
f Transportation & Construction Policies J f Equity Policies J
f Technological Innovation 1 f Decision Support Tools
Pressure-based Responses
Landuse Management J ( Human Behavior Modification]
( Resource Use Management J f Discharge Limitations J
^Technological Improvements J f Outreach & Education J
State-based Responses
f Revitalization J f Remediation J ( Community Planning )
Monitoring J f Restoration) f Medical Treatments j
Impact-based Responses
( Monitoring J (Mitigation J f Index of Well-being ]
f Ecosystem Service Valuation J (Compensation for Losses!
Figure 2-15. DPSIR Category—Responses
19
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Figure 2-16. Examples of Responses: a) coral nursery, b) technology, c) sediment retention, and
d) revitalization
2.5.1 Driving Forces-based Responses
Responses may seek to control Driving Forces through policies or economic decisions that
directly influence sectors, including:
o Food and energy policies are legislation, restrictions, and guidelines that pertain to
sectors that harvest or extract natural resources, including:
• Agricultural best management practices - including pest and nutrient management,
or conservation buffers
• Fishing and hunting policies - such as catch limitations, consumer preferences for
sustainable species
• Energy policies - including carbon credits, emissions testing, alternative energy
sources
o Health policies are decisions that impact the functioning of health sectors, including:
• Waste-treatment policies
• Biomedical research funding
• Patent laws regarding naturally found bio-chemicals
20
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o Cultural policies are responses that impact the distribution and functioning of cultural
sectors, including tourism, recreation, education, and social organizations. Responses
include:
• Environmental education and outreach - including training, demonstrations, or
brochures
• Tourism policies - including establishing visitor centers or marketing to increase,
decrease, or direct tourism activities
o Security and public administration policies are responses to improve the decision-
making and enforcement abilities of government institutions, including:
• Actions to improve enforcement of existing laws
• Political pressure by citizens or officials on government
o Transportation and construction policies are responses to improve the distribution and
functioning of sectors that provide infrastructure for buildings and transportation
networks, including:
• Construction codes and policies
• City ordinances
o Manufacturing and trade policies are responses to control the production, distribution,
and sale of goods and services, including:
• Actions to encourage competition among businesses
• Environmental compliance
• Consumer protections
• Workplace safety regulations
o Education policies seek to impact the distribution, function, and quality of educational
institutions, including secondary schools and colleges through actions such as:
• Adopting and enforcing educational standards
• Grants for research, construction, or supplies
o Equity policies seek to improve fairness and access to services among populations
through:
• Elimination of barriers to access
• Programs and actions to enhance diversity
o Decision support tools are tools that help decision-makers make informed decisions by
presenting information in a straightforward, interactive, and scientifically defensible
manner, including:
• Development or application of models, websites, and other tools
• Statistical analysis
• Visualization and geospatial analysis
• Cost-benefit analysis
• Trade-off evaluations
21
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2.5.2 Pressure-based Responses
Responses may also seek to control Pressures through regulations or technology that limit
human activities, or decisions designed to modify human behavior, including:
o Land-use management which seeks to plan and control development of lands through:
• Land-use zoning
• Building permits
• Beach re-nourishment
• Designation of protected areas
o Discharge limitations which place limits on and monitor pollution including:
• Non-point source discharge regulations
• Point or mobile source discharge regulations
o Technological innovations, which involve research and development to improve the use
of technology, including leading toward environmentally-sound practices through:
• Improved technology
• Alternate energy sources - such as solar or wind power
o Resource use management is regulations, policies, and actions designed to control the
use of natural resources including through
• Setting designated uses
• Hunting, fishing, or boating regulations and licenses
• Coastal zone management, including Marine Protected Areas
• Designating protected areas
Responses may be designed to modify individual human behaviors that contribute to
health risks:
o Human behavior modification is an attempt by an individual to modify their own
behavior, which may be negatively contributing to personal health, such as quitting
smoking, dieting, or opting for public transportation
o Outreach and Education attempts to get an individual or group of individuals to modify
their behavior by providing materials and information through presentations, brochures,
and other promotional tools
2.5.3 State-based Responses
Responses may also directly impact the State of the environment, human condition or human
health through:
o Environmental responses which seek to control the physical, chemical, and biological
environment including:
• Water quality monitoring
• Air quality monitoring
• Setting water or air quality criteria
• Biological monitoring
• Scientific research
• Setting biological criteria
22
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• Restoration, remediation, and revitalization activities - including efforts to re-
establish native species
o Medical treatments designed to directly modify human condition or health including
• Medications
• Surgery
• Physical therapy
o Community planning seeks to modify the state of the community by promoting and
implementing actions such as
• Homeowner assistance
• Expanded economic opportunities
2.5.4 Impact-based Responses
Responses may also be designed to quantify or compensate for social and economic impacts of
human condition on human well-being:
o Monitoring involves tracking the success of implemented decisions on one or more
indicators measuring environmental or human well-being impacts through
• Surveys and opinion polls
• Field observations
o Ecosystem Services Valuation is the process of estimating the monetary or non-
monetary merit of potential or implemented decisions, including:
• Market valuation
• Non-market valuation
o Mitigation is an effort to alleviate burdens on persons or the environment caused by
some action by compensating for the loss of environmental benefits, including:
• Compensatory mitigation
• Mitigation banking
o Compensation for losses is an effort to alleviate burdens on individuals caused by some
action or offense by compensating for economic, social, or emotional losses with money
or other things of economic value, and includes:
• Financial compensation
• Statutory environmental damage insurance
o Human Well-being Index is an effort to quantify the condition of humans and society,
defined in terms of the basic material and other natural resource needs for a good life,
freedom and choice, health, wealth, social relations, and personal security41
2.6 Summary
The DPSIR framework provides a flexible, well-defined conceptual model for organizing and
communicating complex environmental issues (Fig. 2-17).
Smith et al. 2012; Munns et al. 2015
23
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The hierarchy of concepts in social, health, and environmental sciences identified in the generic
Eco-Health DPSIR framework (Table 2-1) is intended to identify potential places for interactions
among multiple stakeholder perspectives and across scientific disciplines.
The strength of the DPSIR approach is that it:
• Is transparent and simple - with 5 concepts that are readily understandable to both
scientists and stakeholders
• Enhances communication by simplifying the complex connections between humans and
the environment
• Fosters a systems approach
• Is inherently human-centric, appealing to the public and decision-makers
• Implies causal relationships among the factors
Chapter 3 will demonstrate how DPSIR can be used in a workshop setting.
Figure 2-17. The complete Eco-Health DPSIR framework
24
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Table 2-1. Categories, sub-categories, and concepts within the Eco-Health DPSIR
Category
Concepts
Driving Forces
Economic Sectors
Food and Raw Materials
Water
Shelter
Health
Culture
Security
Infrastructure
Social Driving Forces
Social Relations
Cultural Identity
Governance
Equity
agriculture, aquaculture, oil and gas extraction, fisheries, forestry, mining
drinking water supply, irrigation
home construction, real estate, textiles and apparel
medical care, Pharmaceuticals and cosmetics, social assistance, waste management,
public health agencies
tourism and recreation industry, schools, telecommunications, scientific research,
social organizations
national defense, public administration, law enforcement
manufacturing and trade, transportation, construction and civil engineering, finance
and insurance industries, utilities, technical services
religious affiliations, social groups, marriage, or family dynamics
urban, rural, tribal, or coastal communities; ethnic or religious identity;
voting patterns, roles of decision-makers, type of government
access to education, access to health care, access to jobs
Pressures
Environmental Pressures
Discharges
Land-use Changes
Contact Uses
Human Behavior
Self-Care
Mobility
Lifestyle Choices
point/non-point source discharges, agricultural/urban run-off, atmospheric
emissions, applied fertilizers/chemicals, wastewater discharges, solid waste disposal
coastal development, land development, shoreline alteration, hydrologic
modifications, deforestation, devegetation, creation of impervious surfaces
dredging, filling, trampling, release of non-native species, creation of artificial
habitat, harvesting, fishing
personal hygiene, housekeeping, smoking, eating habits
walking, climbing, utilizing transportation alternatives, time-activity patterns
transportation or housing choice, consumptive patterns, resource use and recycling
State
Environmental State
Abiotic State
Physical and Chemical
Environment
Built Environment
Biotic State
Living Habitat
Inhabitants
Invasive species
Microorganisms and
Pathogens
Human State
Individuals
Personal Characteristics
Body Systems
Communities
Population Distribution
Population Demographics
Public Health Status
climate, air and sea temperature, precipitation, storms and hurricanes, drought,
hydrology, ocean circulation patterns, fire, nutrients, pH, atmospheric CCh levels,
salinity, contaminants
buildings, roadways, furnishings, landfills, brownfields, parks
deserts, wetlands, grasslands, forests, coral reefs, agricultural lands
birds, mammals, fish, reptiles, amphibians, invertebrates
invasive plants, invasive animals, invasive aquatic species
decomposers, mycorrhizae; bacteria, fungi, viruses
life stage, gender, ethnicity, socio-economic status
respiratory system, immune system, gastrointestinal system, reproductive system,
endocrine system, neurological system, mental health, genetics
population density, population spatial distribution
community-level distributions of age, economic status, race, education, gender
community-level metrics of disease prevalence or incidence
25
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Category
Table 2-1 (continued)
Concepts
Impacts
Ecosystem Services
Supporting
Regulating
Provisioning
Cultural
Human Well-being
Economic Prosperity
Health and Safety
Cultural and Social
Well-being
soil stabilization, wave energy attenuation, nutrient and contaminant processing,
water cycling, carbon storage and cycling, and provision of resources and habitat to
critical species
air and water quality regulation, climate regulation, erosion regulation, water
purification, disease/pest regulation, pollination, natural hazard regulation
water resources, food resources, biochemical or genetic resources, fuel, fiber,
ornamental resources
recreational value and ecotourism, aesthetic value, cultural value, spiritual or religious
value, sense of place, educational or knowledge value, research potential, untapped
future potential
productivity, ability to work, income
life span, medical or insurance costs, sick days, pain and suffering
"happiness," sense of belonging, community vibrancy, spiritual fulfillment, connection
with the natural world
Responses
Driving Forces-based Responses
Food and Energy Policies
Health Policies
Cultural Policies
Transportation and
Construction Policies
Manufacturing and Trade
Regulations
Education Policies
Security Policies
Equity Policies
Decision Support Tools
Pressure-based Responses
Land-use Management
Discharge Limitations
Technological innovations
Resource Use
Management
Behavior Modification
Outreach and Education
State-based Responses
Environmental Responses
Medical Treatments
Community Planning
Impact-based Responses
Monitoring
Valuation
Mitigation
Compensation for Losses
Human Well-being index
agricultural best management practices, fishing policies, hunting policies, energy
policies
waste-treatment policies, biomedical research funding, biochemical patent laws
environmental education and outreach, tourism policies
construction codes, city ordinances
environmental compliance, consumer protections, workplace safety
educational standards, grants
law enforcement, political pressure on government
elimination of barriers to access, programs to enhance diversity
models, websites, statistical analysis, visualization, geospatial analysis, cost-benefit
analysis
landuse management, building permits, beach renourishment, designated protected
areas
non-point source regulations, point and mobile source regulations
improved technology, alternate energy sources
setting designated uses, hunting licenses, fishing licenses, boating licenses, designated
protected areas
quitting smoking, diet modification, opting for public transportation
presentations, brochures, promotional tools
monitoring, restoration, remediation, revitalization
medications, surgery, physical therapy
homeowner assistance, expanded economic opportunities
surveys, opinion polls, field observations
market valuation, non-market valuation, multi-attributed utility theory
compensatory mitigation, mitigation banking
financial compensation, statutory environmental damage insurance
Methods to quantify and monitor well-being
26
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Chapter 3: DPSIR as a Discussion Tool
The DPSIR conceptual framework is a useful tool in workshops and meetings for motivating
discussions and brainstorming among participants. EPA uses a two-person team to elicit and
document the brainstormed DPSIR - a DPSIR facilitator and a note-taker who captures the
participants' ideas into the conceptual map as they are brainstormed (Fig. 3-1).
Figure 3-1. DPSIR elicitation during a workshop held in La Parguera, Puerto Rico. The facilitator is standing
in the front of the room, and the Cmap note-taker is seated with a laptop, facing the workshop participants.
The computer is being projected onto the screen, so participants can view the DPSIR as it is being developed
Software applications such as the IHMC CmapTools (Fig. 3-2) or the EPA SystemSketch tool
are useful to construct a DPSIR concept map. Guidance on using CmapTools is provided in
Appendix A. Example Cmap files, templates, and DPSIR concept lists and definitions can be found
at the EPA DPSIR tutorial website (Appendix B). More information on EPA's SystemSketch tool
can be found in Appendix C, along with information on the DASEES decision support system,
which can help stakeholders understand where conceptual models fit in the overall decision
process. Facilitators and note-takers should be trained in the Eco-Health DPSIR framework and
either CmapTools or another conceptual modeling tool prior to the workshop/meeting.
27
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Figure 3-2. Screenshot of CmapTools software. This tool is available from URL: http://cmap.ihmc.us/
Facilitators can start at any point in the DPSIR. Most study areas or communities already have
activities in progress (e.g., a watershed management plan, an environment impact assessment, or
a set of issues of concern). In that case, facilitators can start with the management options that
have been identified in the management plan (Reponses) and work their way backwards through
the DPSIR framework.
To elicit information, discussion questions are assigned at each level of the DPSIR framework.
This provides a step-by-step method to guide participants into thinking about relationships
among social, economic and environmental factors relevant to the discussion topic. If the
discussion is centered on ecosystems and ecosystem services, then an ecologically focused DPSIR
can be developed using only the example questions on the left side of Fig. 3-3. However, if the
discussion is focused around sustainable communities, including both ecosystem services and
human health impacts, then the DPSIR should be developed using the questions from both sides
of Fig. 3-3 (Ecosystem Health and Human Health).
28
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Ecosystem Health
Human Health
Driving Forces
Economic
Sectors
What are the key
Economic Sectors involved
that may be creating
pressures on the environment?
Pressure
Human
Activities
What human activities
cause Environmental Pressures?
What are the resultant stressors?
State
Ecosystem
How do activities
affect the Environmental State,
including the condition of the
abiotic, biotic, or built environment?
impacts
Ecosystem
Services
What do humans gain
from the environment
in the form of Ecosystem Services?
Responses
Decisions
What actions can be taken
to affect drivers, pressures,
state, or impact?
Driving Forces
Economic
Sectors
What are the costs
of loss or benefits of
ecosystem services
to the economy or society?
Social
Driving Forces I
What are the key
Social Drivers, including
political or cultural drivers,
which may have influence?
What individual Human Behaviors
or choices have influence
on human condition or quantity
of pressures on the environment?
Human
State
How does environmental degradation
or human behavior affect
Human State or condition,
including individual human health or
community-level characteristics?
Impacts
Human
Wellbeing
What are the consequences of changes
in human condition or change in ecosystem services
on Human Well-being, including
prosperity, safety, and social well-being?
Responses
Decisions
What actions can be taken
to affect drivers, pressures,
state, or impact?
Social
Driving Forces
What are the costs
of loss or benefits
of human well-being
to the economy or society?
Figure 3-3. Template for DPSIR conceptual map. Questions used during discussion stepping through each
generic DPSIR category on the left or right side of the generic framework to elicit more information toward building
a detailed conceptual model for a given topic under consideration (Source: Yee et al. 2012)
29
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Participant input for each discussion question is visually captured during the meeting discussion
as lists of keywords in a conceptual model42. Use of a Cmap template to guide the DPSIR
development is also helpful. The template includes the color-coded DPSIR levels and the
discussion questions for each level. It is helpful to maintain this color scheme to quickly
determine which level a topic falls into. In the examples the following color scheme is used:
Driving Forces - light green
Pressures - dark green
State - peach
Impacts- pink
Responses - purple
The note-takers generate the DPSIR maps real-time using Cmap software and the DPSIR is
projected so the group can see what is being developed.
There are several benefits to using the DPSIR process in a workshop elicitation. For participants, it
encourages whole-systems thinking, thinking about ecosystem services (benefits they gain from
the environment), considering alternative perspectives (e.g. gets the farmer thinking about the
perspective of the fisherman), considering the purpose and possible unintended consequences of
proposed actions, and considering new management options. Furthermore, as participants see
their own contributions added to the conceptual model, it shows them they have a voice in the
discussion. For organizers, it provides a way to get the conversation going and allows the
facilitator to elicit information on stakeholder priorities and concerns.
Case studies
Although DPSIR has been applied to a wide range of problems43, here we provide two specific
examples, one for an ecological assessment using the ecologically focused DPSIR and the other
for an eco-health assessment using Eco-Health DPSIR. Each case study walks through the
elicitation process, including the discussion questions and example participant responses.
3.1 Ecological Case Study—Coral Reef and Coastal Ecosystems
Linkages with the Tourism and Recreation Sector
This case study begins with the Driving Force - the tourism and recreation economic sector. It is a
fitting example because coral reef-based tourism and recreation is an important industry in many
coastal communities.
42 Canas et al. 2003; Yee et al. 2011
43 Maxim et al. 2009; http://cfpub.epa.gov/si/si_public_record_report.cfm?dirEntryld=235356
30
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The note-taker starts with a Cmap template showing the DPSIR components and respective
questions (Fig. 3-4). (Note - because this example addresses only ecological condition and not
human health, this is just the left side of the Eco-Health DPSIR template.)
Tourism and Recreation
Driving Forces
Economic
Sectors
T«
What Tourism and Recreation
Sub- Sectors may be creating
pressures on the environment?
Pressure
Human
Activities
What human activities result from
those sub-sectors?
How do the activities affect the
Environmental State, including the
condition of the abiotic, biotic, or
built environment?
What do humans gain from the
Response
Decisions
What actions can be taken
to affect drivers, pressures,
state, or impact?
What are the costs
of loss or benefits of
ecosystem services
to the economy or society?
Figure 3-4. Tourism and recreation DPSIR template. Note: the questions are tailored to the starting pomt-Driving
Forces.
31
-------
Question #1: What Tourism and Recreation Economic Sectors may be creating pressures on the
environment?
The facilitator leads a discussion with workshop participants on the Tourism and Recreation
Economic Sectors in their community. Tourism and Recreation sectors operate facilities and
provide services for the varied cultural, entertainment and recreational interests of residents and
tourists. Coral reef-based tourism and recreation includes recreational scuba diving, snorkeling,
surfing, recreational fishing, beachcombing, beach sunbathing, swimming and viewing nature and
wildlife. It also includes the infrastructure needed to support the industry, including hotels,
restaurants, marinas and transportation (Fig. 3-5).
Tourism and Recreation
Driving Farces
Economic
Sectors
What Tourism and Recreation
Sub-Sectors may be creating
pressures on the environment?
Recreational
sport fishing
Beach sun bath! n
& swimming
Beachcombing
viewing natun
a wildlife
Figure 3-5. Driving Forces-tourism and recreation economic sector and associated sub-sectors
Once the participants feel comfortable with this part of the conceptual model, the facilitator
moves on to the next question. Note: the participants can re-visit any section throughout the
facilitated discussions. The idea is to jointly develop a conceptual model that participants feel
truly represents their situation.
Question #2: What human activities (Pressures) result from those economic sub-sectors?
The facilitator leads a discussion about each economic subsector. For illustration purposes, this
example focuses on Recreational sport fishing. The Pressures included harvesting, by-catch and
waste; anchor, gear and boat groundings; and oil, metals and sewage discharge (Fig. 3-6).
Tourism and Recreation
Driving Forces
Economic
Setters
what Tourism and Recreation
Sub-Sectors may be creating
pressures on the environ merit?
Pressure
Human
Activities
What human aclivitie
those sub-sectors?
S result from
Recreational |
sport fishing 1
f Harvesting 1
[ By-Catch)
(waste] |
\
Result in
Anchor Damage
Damage from
Fishing Gear
Beach sunbathing
& swimming
f Beachcombing 1
J C°"l
[Metals]
( ^
Boat Groundings *••
3
Figure 3-6. Pressures associated with recreational fishing and boating
32
-------
Question #3: How do activities affect the Environmental State, including the condition of the
abiotic, biotic, or built environment?
The facilitator leads a discussion about each Pressure. For illustration purposes, this example
focuses on Harvesting, By-catch and Waste. There are two components of Environmental State
Abiotic and Biotic. The facilitator first focused on Biotic State and asked which organisms were
being harvested, and the participants identified invertebrates, fish and sponges. The group also
defined the relationship - harvesting reduces the populations of these organisms (Fig. 3-7).
Tourism and Recreation
Driving Forces
fcoaomfe
Sectors
What Tourism and Recreation
Sub-Sectors may be creating
pressures on the environment?
What human activity result from
State
Ecosystem
How do the «
affect the tnv
Including the c
abiotic, i> .1 1,. .
tivities
ronmenlal State,
ofidrt
-------
Question #4: What do humans gain from the environment in the form of Ecosystem Services?
The participants brainstormed a wide range of Ecosystem Services (Impacts) that would be
impacted by the changed ecological state. These included services that directly benefit humans
(food, erosion control, Pharmaceuticals, tourism and recreation), as well as supporting services -
the processes and functions that underlie the other ecosystem services (e.g., biodiversity,
primary production, and nutrient cycling) (Fig. 3-9).
Tourism and Recreation
What Tourism arid Recreation
Sub-Sectors may be creating
pressures on the environment?
What human activities result from
those sub-sectors?
HOW do the activities
affect the Environmental State,
including trie condition of the
abiotic, biotiCr or built environment?
Impact
Ecosystem
Scrvfc&s
What do humans gain
from the environment
In the form of Ecosystem Services?
Response
Decisions
What actions can be taken
to affect drivers, pressures,
state, or Impact7
Supporting SwvlcH Biodiversity
Nutrient Cycling J j Primary Production
Figure 3-9. Ecosystem Services [Impacts] affected by recreational fishing and boating
Once all of the other Economic Sectors, and the resultant Pressures and States associated with
those sectors were identified, the discussions moved on to the Responses. For the purposes of
this case study, the other sub-sectors are not shown.
34
-------
Question #5: What actions (Responses) can be taken to affect Driving Forces, Pressures, State, or
Impacts?
The participants brainstormed a set of management actions, including permits to regulate sport
fishing, law enforcement, coastal zone management, resource management, ecosystem
monitoring and restoration and valuation (Fig. 3-10).
Figure 3-10. Responses that could be implemented to mitigate the Impacts of the tourism and recreation sector
35
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3.2 Eco-Health Case Study—Asthma
In this example, the facilitator began with a Human State—asthma, which is a public health
concern with enormous economic and social consequences for families and communities44.
An array of interacting environmental, economic and social factors are associated with the
prevalence and severity of asthma45. Recently there have been efforts to evaluate systems
approaches for reducing well-known asthma disparities for children and minorities by combining
public health intervention programs with strategic housing, building and maintenance practices46.
However, prior to Yee et al. 2011, a framework that integrated such approaches with efforts
designed to reduce pollution and to evaluate effects on ecosystem services had not been
developed.
By incorporating both ecosystem health and human health into a single integrated framework,
we are able to obtain a broader systems perspective on how factors related to asthma may have
multiple origins and multiple social, economic, and environmental consequences. This
perspective can then be applied in decision models to evaluate which interventions to reduce
incidence and severity of asthma, provide the greatest benefit and least cost across all sectors.
To begin the process of building an asthma DPSIR, the note-taker would start with a Cmap
template showing the DPSIR components and respective questions (Fig. 3-11).
44Akinbamietal. 2011
45 Wright and Subramanian 2007
46Takaroetal. 2011
36
-------
Ecosystem Health
Human Health
What are the key
Economic Sectors involved
that may be creating
pressures on the environment?
Pressure
Human
Activities
What human activities
cause Environmental Pressures?
What are the resultant stressors?
State
Ecosystem
How do activities
affect the Environmental State,
including the condition of the
abiotic, biotic, or built environment?
Impacts
Ecosystem
Services
What do humans gain
from the environment
in the form of Ecosystem Services?
Responses
Decisions
What actions can be taken
to affect drivers, pressures,
state, or impact?
What are the costs
of loss or benefits of
ecosystem services
to the economy or society?
What are the key
Social Drivers, including
political or cultural drivers,
which may have influence?
What individual Human Behaviors
or choices have influence
on human condition or quantity
of pressures on the environment?
Human
State
How does environmental degradation
or human behavior affect
Human State or condition,
including individual human health or
community-level characteristics?
Impacts
Human
Wellbeing
What are the consequences of changes
in human condition or change in ecosystem services
on Human Well-being, including
prosperity, safety, and social well-being?
Responses
Decisions
What actions can be taken
to affect drivers, pressures,
state, or impact?
Social
Driving Forces
what are the costs
of loss or benefits
of human well-being
to the economy or society?
Figure 3-11. Asthma DPSIR template. Note: this is the Eco-Health DPSIR Template with Ecosystem Health on the left
and Human Health on the right
37
-------
Question 1: What is the human condition of concern (Human Health State)?
Using the template as a guide, we begin with asthma as a condition of the individual human
respiratory system in State (Fig. 3-12).
Human
State
What is the human
condition of concern ?
Is it an individual or
community-level concern?
Human State
Individuals
[Asthma]
j
X] f Communities J
^
Figure 3-12. Human State associated with asthma
Question 2: What Human Behaviors (Pressures) contribute to this condition?
The facilitator next leads a discussion to identify Human Behaviors (e.g., smoking, housekeeping,
and outdoor activities) influencing asthma risk (Fig. 3-13).
Pressure
Human
Behavior
Human Behavior Pressures
Stress I Outdoor Activity I ra
What individual Human Behaviors
or choices have influence
on human condition or quantity
of pressures on the environment?
Human
State
Exacerbate
Figure 3-13. Human Behavior Pressures that contribute to asthma (Human State)
38
-------
Question 3: How does the environment contribute to this condition (Environmental State)?
Environmental State can also impact Human State. The participants brainstorm the potential
environmental influences (e.g., pollen, dander, or mold) that can influence asthma (Fig. 3-14)
Environmental
State
Human
State
How does the environment
contribute to this condition?
Exacerbates
Human Behavior Pressures
Stress! I Outdoor Activity I
J V M
Exacerbates
\
Human State
>, Individuals
•A
L
Communities I
~
Figure 3-14. Environmental State contributes to asthma [Human State)
The group next discusses the human activities that exert pressure on the environment, and
therefore increase the effect on human state.
Question 4: What human activities exert Environmental Pressures?
Environmental Pressures, such as air pollution, application of chemicals, or landscaping,
can determine the quantity and types of potential allergens in the environment (Fig. 3-15).
What human activities
cause environmental
pressures? What are the
resultatant stressors?
Human Activity Pressures
Application of 1
pesticides /cleaners I
Changes
Human State
Individuals
[ Asthma j
L
[Communities J
Figure 3-15. Human activities that exert Pressure on Environmental State
The discussion next moves toward linking Pressures and State to key social and economic factors
(Driving Forces).
39
-------
Question 5: What Social Driving Forces influence human behavior?
Social Driving Forces such as attitudes and understanding of family and friends, and community
economic status (access to and coordination of health care; ability to intervene) can influence
human behaviors (Fig. 3-16).
Social Driving Forces
What social sectors
Influence human behavior?
Social Driving Forces
Family J ( Economic Status
Changes
Stress jf Outdoor Activity \
f Housekeeping^ f Smoking \
Envin
~Changes
Human state
Individuals
I Asthma I
( Communities I
Figure 3-16. Social factors (Driving Forces) that influence Human Behavior (Pressures)
Question 6: What Economic Sectors influence Human Behavior?
Economic Sectors, such as agriculture, transportation, landscaping services, construction,
and manufacturing, also play a role in creating environmental pressures that act as triggers
of existing asthma or exacerbate the development of asthma (Fig. 3-17).
Social
Driving Forces
Economic
Driving Forces
What
Economic Drivers Influence
human behavior?
Human
State
Environmental
State
Changes
Figure 3-17. Economic Sectors (Driving Forces) that influence human activities (Pressures)
40
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Question 7: What Ecosystem Services (Impacts) do humans gain from the environment?
Changes in the condition of the environment, due to pressures such as land development, may
lead to loss of Ecosystem Services (Impacts) such as air and pest regulation or recreational
opportunities, which can help ameliorate potential environment-related asthma triggers
(Fig. 3-18).
Changes
Leads of loss of
Human State
Individuals
[asthmTj
3
\ Communities J
Ecosystem Services
Human
State
Figure 3-18. Changes in Ecosystem Services [Impacts). Workshop participants next identify the social
and economic consequences of asthma at both the individual and societal levels
41
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Question 8: What are the consequences of human condition on Human Well-being (Impacts)?
Affected individuals and their families may suffer from loss of productivity from missed work and
school, or increased medical costs which may trickle through the broader economy or impact
social relations (Fig. 3-19).
Trigger or
Exacerbate
Economic Driving Forces
Landscaping
Services
Agriculture
Manufacturing I
'v J
Construction
Transportation
Pressure
ffc/frrafi
Activities
Pressure
Human
Bshavior
Changes
Impact
Ecosystem
Services
Impact
Human
Wetlbeing
What are the
consequences of
human condition on
well-being?
Leads of loss of
Ecosystem Services
lecreational | l' Air 6, Climate ^
pportunitiesj Regulation I
Re
Opportu
Social Driving Forces
Influence
Human Behavior Pressures
fstresTV Outdoor Activity |
Exacerbates
Human State
Individuals
f Asthma J
v
1 Communities J
Leads to reduced
Human Well-being [ Lifespan
Figure 3-19. The consequences of human condition (Human State) on Human Well-being (Impacts)
The facilitator next leads discussion to identify potential decision options (Responses)
for preventing, controlling, or ameliorating asthma.
42
-------
Question 9: What are the possible management actions that can be taken (Responses)?
Individuals or society can implement Responses to asthma in a number of ways, such as trying to
influence socio-economic driving forces through policies47, directly regulating discharges or
improving technology to reduce pressures, attempting to modify human behaviors, implementing
interventions that modify the environment and/or improve medical care for affected
individuals48, and mitigating or compensating for losses related to asthma (Fig. 3-20).
Economic
Driving Force
Social
Driving Force
Trigger or ~
Driving Forces
Economic Driving Forces
[ Family | | Economic Status
' Friends
^
Human Activity Pressures
Application of 1
pesticides/cleaners 1
f Plantings J f Air pollution 1
Pressures
3
^~
Human Behavior Pressures
[stress^ f Outdo
f Housekeeping '
3r Activity 1 +?
[smokingj
a—
Ex
/
^Regulate or
modify
Exacerbates
"S^ Responses
\
Construction policies,
agricultural policies,
equity poltdes,
iHC.
-~
Emlsstons
regulations,
land-use
planning,
behavior
environmental
restoration,
medical treatments,
etc.
Mitigation,
compensation far
tone*, etc.
/
Mitigating
Wliat actions can be taken
to affect Drivers, Pressures,
State, or Impact?
Figure 3-20. Management actions that can be taken to prevent, control or ameliorate asthma
47Takaroetal. 2011
48 Clark etal. 2010
43
-------
Finally, changes in Ecosystem Services and Human Well-being have consequences for the socio-
economic sectors.
Question 10: Which Economic Sectors (Driving Forces) benefit from Ecosystem Services and
Human Well-being?
The economy in general may benefit from increased worker health and productivity, while
specific sectors may be impacted by changes in recreational opportunities (Fig. 3-21).
Mitigating
or compensating
for losses
social
Driving Forces I
N
r^-
^onstructlon policies,
agricultural policies,
equity policies,
etc.
Emissions
regulations,
land-UM
planning,
behavior
modification, etc.
!
environmental
restoration,
medical treatments,
Mitigation,
compensation for
losses, etc.
/
Pressure
Human
Behavior
Impact
Human
Figure 3-21. Economic Sectors [Driving Forces) that benefit from Ecosystem Services and Human Well-being
[Impacts]
44
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Chapter 4. Summary
Conceptual frameworks such as DPSIR provide a mechanism for planning and organizing
information, identifying knowledge gaps or stakeholder concerns, identifying metrics or
indicators for assessment, and providing the conceptual basis for mathematical models49. The
DPSIR framework has been widely lauded as a communication tool among policy makers,
scientists, and the public for its ability to simplify in five steps the complex topic of environmental
management50. To make the DPSIR framework more broadly applicable to issues of sustainability,
this report has extended the framework by integrating human health and ecosystem health into a
single framework. Furthermore, this report has provided a hierarchical system of DPSIR
subcategories and concepts and provided guidelines for discussion.
4.1 Identifying and Conceptualizing the Problem
Stakeholder discussions, structured within an overarching framework, can better define the issue
under consideration and help identify concepts and relationships of primary concern to
participants51. In a formal decision analysis, DPSIR can provide a guided discussion tool, such as
described in Chapter 3, for eliciting participant objectives and the means to achieve them52.
The flexibility of the DPSIR framework allows the initial concept to be anywhere within DPSIR,
depending on the specific economic, ecological, or management concerns of the decision maker.
Although starting with a narrow set of concerns, framing the problem within DPSIR encourages
the decision-maker to adopt a systems approach, and think about the uphill and downhill
challenges to the problem within the larger system53.
Decision-makers are apt to see more options when the major concepts (socio-economic driving
forces, human activities, environmental variables, human impacts) are identified and overlaid
with potential responses54. DPSIR also encourages decision-makers to think about problems and
solutions with an eye toward the long view—for example, how might a particular solution play
out over the long run? And what unintended consequences might it have?
4.2 Collecting and Analyzing Relevant Data
Once key research areas and science questions have been identified, scientific data can be
collected and analyzed to better understand the system55. One of the identified advantages of a
49Yeeetal. 2011
50 Ojeda-Martinez et al. 2009
51 Joffe and Mindell 2006; Knol et al. 2010; Yee et al. 2011; Bradley et al. 2013
"Yeeetal. 2015
53 http://cfpub.epa.gov/si/si_public_record_report.cfm?dirEntryld=235356
54 Odermatt 2004
55 Ojeda-Martinez 2009
45
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framework like DPSIR is that it implies causal relationships among the factors56. Because DPSIR
hints at the dynamics of the system57, it can provide the conceptual foundation for development
of mathematical simulation models for forecasting effects of alternative decision scenarios on
long-term sustainability and health of communities.
Development of mathematical simulation models requires integration and coordination across a
number of disciplines including social, ecological and health sciences. Computational models for
complex systems are inherently more complicated than a conceptual framework, but the Eco-
Health DPSIR can serve to highlight key variables and relationships, for which parameter
estimates and functions will be needed, and to identify areas where existing models may be
appropriate or where new models are needed58. When fully parameterized, the DPSIR framework
can therefore support economic cost-benefit analysis of various Responses (management actions)
and the value of the Impacts (ecosystem goods and services).
4.3 Appraising Scientific and Assessment Outcomes
Even without development of rigorous mathematical simulation models, the Eco-Health DPSIR is
useful for identifying potential unintended consequences of decisions, both beneficial and
adverse. Identifying potential side effects of decisions is extremely difficult, particularly when
scientific knowledge and data are incomplete59. By planning and executing scientific research
within a conceptual framework, however, decision-makers will have access to a fuller suite of
knowledge, organized in a way that enables tracing interactions among concepts through the
system. Thus, through development of a DPSIR, potential tradeoffs among stakeholders begin to
emerge.
The Eco-Health DPSIR can also benefit research planning. Even when individual scientific research
projects are separate, pieces of the system, a well-designed DPSIR can provide context for linking
their objectives and results, and interpreting them collectively60. This process, in turn, can
identify critical knowledge gaps and needs for additional research.
Additionally, the use of concept mapping software or relational database tools allows direct
annotation of DPSIR concepts with literature, science questions, research projects, collaborators,
or other information61. The systematic organization of information can be used to prioritize
research needs through a combination of literature reviews and expert opinion on the concepts
and relationships that are likely to be important62.
56 Smeets and Waterings 1999
57 Knol et al. 2010
58 Joffe and Mindell 2006; Yee et al. 2011
59 Knol et al. 2010
60 Joffe and Mindell 2006
61 Giupponi 2007; Yee et al. 2011
62 Russell etal. 2011
46
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Appendix A: CmapTools Software Guidance
Download and Install Cmap Tools
The CmapTools software can be downloaded from http://cmap.ihmc.us/. Follow the website
instructions for downloading and installing the software.
Create a New Cmap
From the "Views - CmapTools" window: Select File, then New Cmap.
Tools Window Help
Cmap
New Folder...
New Discussion Thread...
SIN
New Soup...
. Open
m< Close
sew
c Add Resources...
c Add Web Address...
Export Folder as Web Page...
Import >•
Print View... 36P
Open an Existing Cmap
From the "Views - CmapTools" window: Select File, then Open.
From Edit on the menu bar, select Preferences.
Browse to the folder where the existing Cmap is and select OK.
Highlight the Cmap that you wish to open.
47
-------
CmapTools File Edit Tools Window Help
,ifl O <~> O My Cmaps - Generic Coral Reef DPSIR
Q Generic Coral Reef DPSIR
-.
tenencDPSIR.cmap
-»v
ffi
Save a Cmap
To save to a particular folder, first select Preferences from the Edit menu under the window
"Views - CmapTools".
Browse to the folder where you wish to save the Cmap and select OK.
From your Cmap window, select File, then either Save Cmap if you intend to save editing on an
existing Cmap, or Save Cmap As to save a new Cmap.
* CmapTools File Edit Format Collaborate Tools Window Help
collapsed.cmap
O *
53X£J Tue3:16PM Key West Hon Q. •=
Save Cmap As _
UMtion Q Ctnenc Coul R«tf DPSIR
a BJ
A CenencDPSIR.cmap
A CenencDPSIR collapsed.cmap
tentncOPSIft collipsed.cnup
Focus Question
Keywords
48
-------
Add a Concept
Using the left mouse button, double-click anywhere on the Cmap.
A shape will appear with question marks inside of it (blue box with question marks).
CmapTools File Edit Formal Collaborate Tools Window Help
BOO CenericDPSIR collapsed.cmap
Type in a label to replace the question marks.
Left-click on a white portion of the Cmap outside of the shape to set the label.
The shape has now become a new concept (blue box that says "New Object").
CmapTools File Edit Format Collaborate Tools Window Help
O
e n o
CsnericDPSIR to!lapsed.emap
- ;-
-
New Object
Infrtstrvctural
Btoiog**! St*f*
Ecosystmm S*rvfc*s *wt>o***
49
-------
*» If' if>
Create a Proposition from One Concept
Left-click on the concept you
would like to make a new
proposition from. Left-click
and drag from the arrows at
the top of the concept.
As you continue to hold the
mouse button down, notice
that an arrow from the
selected concept will follow
around the mouse pointer.
Drag the arrow some distance
away from the concept and
release the mouse. A new
concept will be created, along
with a rectangle that connects
the two concepts (blue box with question marks).
CmapTools file Edit Forma Collaborate Tools Window He|p_
JUi CenericDPSIR collmpsed.tmap
< o *
tnfostruavrf ' "~" r~4l>~»*Hi>* *«<* ,
WJMr SMHv Cutturt fKlfTJty
II 1,4 , II
°~~«.
'—~"—'
Type in a label for the rectangle, then left-click on a white portion of the Cmap to set the label.
A linking phrase for the new proposition has now been created. These may reflect a verb that
implies causality, such as "causes" or "leads to". Box is now labeled "Human State" and the
linking verb "influences" has been added.
CnupTools tat
r
format Collaborate Tools Window Help
GenencDPStR eollapsed.cenap
•» o *
a- »i
To create only an arrow and
prevent the linking phrase box
from being created, hold the
shift key when you left-click
and drag the arrow to a new
concept.
50
-------
Create a Proposition from Existing Concepts
Starting with two or more concepts, left-click on a concept you would like to make a new
proposition from.
Left-click and drag from the arrows at the top of the concept.
As you continue to hold the mouse button down, notice that an arrow from the selected concept
will follow around the mouse pointer.
Select another concept to drag the arrow over and release the mouse. (The selected concept is
the blue box entitled "New Object".)
A rectangle will appear with lines connecting to both concepts.
Type in a label for the rectangle to add a linking phrase. (The verb "Impacts" links the concepts).
To create only an arrow and prevent the linking phrase box from being created, hold the shift key
when you left-click and drag the arrow between concepts.
; CmapTools File Edit Format Collaborate Tools Window Help
> O
GenericDPSIR collapsed.cmap
ib
-
management
Infrastructure
New Object
Impacts
Human Needs
Food A raw materials HeaWi
Water Shelter Culture Security
Policies
Foodtwiirgy SKunqr
Dothao. regulation!
—" —
Watwrbom* diichargt Alroo&ptwlc ffischafflft
Applied chemical* BioJegicaf tutfv**t
Abiotic State
myiiffl riroeiti
'"*"" Conlmi™,!!
OMIt MUiiOMi
Bcosystvn
C02 Salinity
UgM
"
Ecosystem
Services su«»n««s*nrioH R*UI*>K> s«vii»
^
Cu«ur>l tevlcn *
51
-------
Copy/Paste or Edit an Existing Concept
Right-click on an existing concept.
The concept may be copied by selecting "Copy" from the "Edit" on the menu-bar or pressing
Ctrl+C.
Select the white portion of the Cmap. Select "Paste" from the "Edit" menu, or Ctrl+V, to paste
the concept. The pasted concept will retain the formatting of the copied concept.
*f Lot >*<•* OAMHM few Whte. ntb
[Resource use & management «
(Coastal zone management |
ns&
i
Birds & '
Mammals ]
foodwefc ~*
»
? habitants
Reptiles &
Amphibians !
[Invertebrates] '[Fish]
Human State I Human State
The text may be editing by double-clicking inside the concept box, and replacing the existing text
with new text.
Change Colors
To change the color of a concept, select the concept by right-clicking it.
Then left-click Object... from the menu that appears. The "Styles" window will open to the Object
dialog.
52
-------
[ Resource use & management
Selecting Multiple Cmap Objects. You can change the color of multiple Cmap items at the
same time.
A way to select multiple adjacent Cmap items is by clicking and holding the left mouse button
to drag a selection rectangle over the items.
By holding down Ctrl and left-clicking on items, more than one non-adjacent item may be
selected. A combination of left-clicking and dragging rectangles, all while holding down the
Ctrl key, can capture both adjacent and non-adjacent Cmap items into the selection.
You can also use the "Select" options under the "Edit" menu to select all, concepts only, lines
only, or linking phrases only.
Then right-click to set the style for your selection.
Note: Three items have been selected in the image below: The purple box named "Responses",
the green box named "Human Behavior' and the orange box named "Human State". You can tell
they have been selected, because they are outlined in a thicker purple line.
53
-------
Responses
Resource use & management]
j Coastal zone management
Change Fonts and Sizes
To change text font and size, select any number of concepts and/or linking phrases.
Right-click the selection.
Then left-click Format Style. A sub-menu appears.
Now left-click the Font... menu item. The "Styles" window will open to the Font dialog.
Human Behavior t \f a n [a D
Resource use & management j
[ Coastal zone management]
54
-------
Add or Change Direction of Arrows to Linking Lines. You can change the directional emphasis
within propositions by using arrows. Right-click the selection.
Then left-click Line... from the Format Style sub-menu.
The order in which concepts are created for propositions affects the direction that linking line
arrows point. Propositions may not appear logical until the arrow direction is reversed.
To reverse the direction that linking line arrows point, begin with a selection that includes
these lines.
Right-click the selection.
Then left-click Line... from the Format Style sub-menu. The "Styles" window will open to the
Line dialog.
Left-clicking the Reverse button (under the Connection Direction heading) will reverse the
direction that arrows point.
Nested and Merged Nodes. You can provide more detail about a subject by putting Cmap items
inside of a nested node. Nested nodes are useful when you want to add extra information to an
expandable concept, and wish to be able to quickly access or hide it as needed.
To create a nested node, begin by right-clicking a selection of Cmap items you want to include in
the node. All Cmap items may be selected by pressing Ctrl+a. In the image below, the green items
"Human Behavior" "Self Care", "Lifestyle" and "Mobility" have all been selected.
Policies I Cultural Health
Resource use & management!
Left-click Nested Node, then left-click Create from the sub-menu. The nested node initially
appears in its expanded mode with a set of arrows on the right.
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Policies Cultural Health
Resource use & management
(Coastal zone management]
You can expand or collapse a nested node by left-clicking the set of arrows («) on the right of the
node. A nested node enters label mode once it is collapsed. In label mode, the nested node may
be labeled just as a normal concept would.
Cmap items located inside nested nodes may be arranged just the same as if the items were
located in their own Cmap.
Policies [Cultural Health
Resource use & management
[ Coastal zone management]
To reveal other Cmap items that may be covered up by an expanded nested node, return the
node to its label mode.
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To add existing Cmap items to a nested node, hold shift while dragging the selection of items
into the node.
Add and Edit Links to Resources
To add a resource link, begin by left-clicking a concept you want to link with a resource.
Select
Then select Add Edit Links to Resources... from the menu bar.
You can also perform this action by right-clicking the selected concept.
Then left-click on Add Edit Links to Resources... from the menu that appears.
Using the "Editing Resource Links for [...]" window, you can manually navigate through folders to
add resource links to concepts in Cmaps. Now when viewing the Cmap, a resource link group
icon will appear attached to the concept.
When the resource link group icon is left-clicked, it will reveal a selectable list of resources that
have been added to the concept.
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Appendix B: Operational Systems-Thinking
Tools-The ReefLink Database, Tutorial on
Systems Thinking and the Eco-Health
Relationship Browser
EPA scientists have developed several tools to transfer the information: the ReefLink Database,
a Tutorial on Systems Thinking and the Eco-Health Relationship Browser.
The ReefLink Database
The ReefLink Database utilizes the DPSIR framework to describe the linkages between decisions,
human activities, and provisioning of coral reef ecosystem goods and services.
ReefLink Database
OCornaa Us @Share
You are here: EPA Home » Research » ReefLink Database
ReefLink Database
A Decision Support Tool for Linking Coral Reefs and Society through Systems Thinking
Pressures through
Human Activities
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This database provides a navigable hierarchy of related topics and information for each topic
including concept maps, scientific citations, management options, and laws.
Agricultural
Best Management
Fisheries
regulations
Energy
policies
Environmental Tourism
education & outreach policies
Legislation &
Management
Options
Agriculture Policies & Guidance
I EPA, as a regulatory agency, has pnmary responsibility for enforcing the envi
1 environmental statutes. Sometimes, however, that authority needs to be furth
issues policy or guidance to encourage compliance with environmental require
Sheppard C Dixon D J Gourlay M Sheppard A Pavel R 2005 Coral mortality
increases wave energy reaching shores protected by reef flats Examples from the
Seychelles. Estuanne Coastal and Shelf Science 64 223 - 234
Gourlay I' -, £, « **{£ ;d flow on coral reefs an
analysisfo jCI 6 llil Tidal reef-tops wrth steep faces,
Coastal &• ,••• n 1 j*p^a+||rp
FnhyOE —-, '.'p^Cdl'Mr*? ikanderM.M 2004 The role of fnngmg coral
>—'[in beach protection of Hurghada Gulf of Suez Red Sea of Egypt Ecological
xJneering 22.17-25
provide
Sand
production
The database can be used by: 1) the public to learn how their community may affect or benefit
from coral reefs, 2) scientists to identify decision scenarios for which their research may be
relevant, and 3) reef managers to understand how systems thinking can aid in identifying
alternative management options. The ReefLink Database can be accessed
at: http://cfpub.epa.gov/si/si_public_record_report.cfm?dirEntryld=242306
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Tutorial on Systems Thinking
The Tutorial on Systems Thinking provides: 1) an overview of how to incorporate systems thinking
into decision-making, 2) an introduction to the DPSIR framework for linking socioeconomic and
environmental factors in decision-making, 3) an illustration of several tools, including concept
mapping and keyword lists, which can be helpful in generating a DPSIR, and 4) an example of
using DPSIR to integrate human health and ecosystem health into a single framework. The
tutorial can be accessed at: http://cfpub.epa.gov/si/si_public_record_report.cfm?dirEntryld
=235356.
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Advanced Search
LEARN THE t&SUES SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY LAWS & REGULATIONS ABOUT EPA
Tutorials on Systems Thinking
Ll Contact Us
Tutorial on Systems
Thinking
ReefUnk Database
You are here: EPA Home » Research "Tutorials
Tutorials on Systems Thinking using the DPSIR Framework
Currently, many policy and management decisions are made without considering the goods and services humans derive
from ecosystems and the costs associated with protecting them. This approach is not sustainable. How do we think about
what it means to be sustainable? We need to anticipate the consequences of alternative decisions on ecosystems or the
value of ecosystem services. Conceptual frameworks provide a tool for capturing, visualizing, and organizing the
connections among human decisions, the pressures that socio economic factors create on the environment, and the
potential consequences for provisioning of ecosystem goods and services. By thinking about the whole system within a
systems framework, scientists, stakeholders, and decision makers can better anticipate how elements in the system are
linked together.
This set of tutorials provides I) an overview of incorporating systems thinking into decision making, 2) an introduction
to the Driver Pressure -State Impact- Response (DPSIR) framework as one approach that can assist in the decision analysis
process, and 3) an overview of DPSIR tools, including concept mapping and keyword lists, which can be helpful in
generating a DPSIR. Each module takes approximately 20 minutes to complete.
• Module 1: Decision Making Overview (PDF version, 30 pp, 1.8MB, About PDF)
• Module 2: DPSIR Overview (PDF version, 19 pp, 19SKB, About PDF)
• Module 3: DPSIR Tools (PDF version, 33 pp, 1.1MB, About PDF)
• Module 4: Integrating Human Health & Ecosystem Health into a Single Framework (PDF version, 26 pp, 5.1MB,
About PDF)
Tutorial Shortcuts
• What is Systems Thinking and what is the DPSIR Framework?
• How do I create a DPSIR for my project? Can I see an exampfe?
* How do I create a DPSIR using the Generic DPSIR tools? Can I see an example?
• How do I use DPS1R as a discussion tool in a workshop? Can I see an example?
• How do I use my DPSIR to identify indicators? Can I see an example?
• How do I use my DPSIR to organize information? Can I see an example?
• How do I use my DPSIR as a framework for model development? Can I see an example?
Supporting Documents
• DPSIR References
• Tutorial Glossary
• Tutorial Cited References
DPSIR Tools: Concept maps and keywords
• GenericDPSlR.cmap
• GenericDPSlR_cmap.jpg
• GenericDP5IR_5lmple.cmap
• GenericDPSlR_simple_cmap.jpg
• OPSIRJrVords_Ltsl.xls
• lntegrated_DPSIR.cmap
• tntegrated_DPSIR_cmap.jpg
• lntegrated_DPSIR_Glossary.pdf (About PDF)
• lntegrated_DPSIR_Words_List.xls
Ne»s by E-mail EPA Mobile Wldgels Hews Feeds
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The Eco-Health Relationship Browser
The Eco-Health Relationship Browser illustrates scientific evidence for linkages between human
health and ecosystem services—benefits supplied by Nature. While not DPSIR-based, this
interactive tool does provide information about several of our nation's major ecosystems, the
services they provide, and how those services, or their degradation and loss, may affect people.
The Eco-Health Relationship Browser can be accessed at: http://enviroatlas.epa.gov/enviroatlas
/Tools/EcoHealth_RelationshipBrowser/introd uction.html.
xvEPA
LEARN THE ISSUES SCIENCES TECHNOLOGY LAWS & REGULATIONS ABOUT EPA
EnviroAtlas CjContaaUs @Share
You are here: ;.PA Home » EnviroAtlas »Eco-health Relationship Browser
Click HERE to open the Relation Browser in a new window, or right click to download the data (XML), or view the data in a (PDF) [45 pp. 207 K, About FDD.
Bibliography Eco-Health Relationship Bro\ Urban Ecosystems
Aesthetics &
Engagement
with Nature
Hover over linkages (+) to view the relationship between elements.
Details
Description: Urban Ecosystems
Water An urban ecosystem is a dynamic
Mitigsystem that contains both built and
natural elements. In urban ecosystems,
built infrastrcuture typically covers a
large proportion of the land surface
and/or people live in high densities.
These systems include all green and
blue spaces within the area, such as
Recre,parkSi cemeteries, lakes and streams,
P^yalong with human components. Urban
Actecosystems can mimic the function of
natural ecosystems and thus provide
their own important ecosystem services
that contribute to human well-being in
those urban areas. Various green
environments such as shade trees,
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Appendix C: Systems-Thinking Tools
under Development at EPA-DASEES
and SystemSketch
EPA is developing an open-source, web-based decision analysis framework called DASEES:
Decision Analysis for a Sustainable Environment, Economy and Society. DASEES integrates
guidance and decision support tools to implement a five step iterative Bayesian decision process:
Step 1 - Understand Context
Step 2 - Define Objectives
Step 3 - Develop Options
Step 4 - Evaluate Options
Step 5 -Take Action
DASEES provides guidance and software tools that can be used to support decision-making by
applying a Structured Decision Process. DASEES provides a suite of tools to assist users to
establish the context within which the management problem is contained - the Decision
Landscape (DL) Suite.
A Decision Landscape Section allows users to summarize the political, regulatory, social,
institutional and scientific context of the decision.
A Social Network Analysis (SNA) tool provides a visual insight into who is, and more importantly,
who is not sharing in the information flow for the decision at hand.
A Driving Forces-Pressures-States-Impacts-Response (DPSIR) model (SystemSketch) enables
causal understanding in the decision context. SystemSketch provides a dynamic, graphic
visualization tool to help stakeholders better understand system context and access to
information resources.
CIS-based visualization tools.
A "sandbox" area for exploring and recording thoughts and ideas that arise during deliberation.
DASEES is still a prototype and has not yet been released for public use.
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Appendix D: Glossary
Brainstorming - a group problem-solving technique in which members spontaneously share ideas
and solutions.
Coral reef - a complex tropical marine ecosystem dominated by soft and hard (stony) corals,
anemones and sea fans. Stony corals are small animals with an outer skeleton of calcium
carbonate that form colonies and are responsible for reef building.
Decision landscape - a decision support framework for capturing the physical, legal, and
institutional environment in which a particular management choice is made; it includes
identification of management and policy options, outcomes of interest, and stakeholder valuation
of outcomes, as well as the key participants involved in making the decision (decision makers,
information collectors, and stakeholders), the information they use to inform the decision and
that information's associated uncertainty, and the methods of assessment they use to evaluate
outcomes.
Decision maker - a person(s) entrusted with the responsibility to make a decision. Decision
makers include federal, territorial and government managers, corporations, non-governmental
organizations and the general public.
Decision-making - an outcome of mental processes leading to the selection of a course of action
among several management options.
Decision support tools-software, models, data sets, maps, etc. to support decision-making.
DPSIR - a decision support framework for capturing the physical and human processes in a
decision process; it includes the identification of the Driving Forces (socioeconomic sectors that
drive human activities), Pressures (human activities that stress the environment), resulting
environmental and ecological States (reflect condition of the natural and living phenomena),
Impacts on services and values (effects of environmental degradation of ecological attributes and
ecosystem services), and Responses to those impacts (policies and responses).
Drivers [Driving Forces] - the economic and social factors that motivate human activities and
fulfill basic human needs for materials for a good life, good health, good social relations, security,
and freedom.
Eco-Health DPSIR - an extended version of DPSIR that includes parallel tracks for ecosystem
health and human health (Yee et al. 2012)
Ecosystem - includes the plant and animal communities in an area together with the non-living
physical environment that supports them. Ecosystems have physically defined boundaries, but
they are also dynamic: their boundaries and constituents can change over time. They can import
and export materials and energy and thus can interact with and influence other ecosystems. They
can also vary widely in size.
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Ecosystem Goods and Services -are outputs of ecological processes that directly (final ecosystem
service) or indirectly (intermediate ecosystem service) contribute to social welfare (Munns et al.
2015).
Human Weil-being -the condition of humans and society, defined in terms of the basic material
and other natural resource needs for a good life, freedom and choice, health, wealth, social
relations, and personal security.
Imports-changes in the quality and value of ecosystem services, and ultimately human well-
being, caused by changes in environmental or human condition.
Management options -alternatives that are under the control of decision makers and from which
one or a combination of several (to be implemented as a strategy) can be chosen.
Market valuation - an economic assessment of the price at which an asset would trade in an
auction setting.
Model - a physical, mathematical, or logical representation of a system of entities, phenomena,
or processes; i.e. a simplified abstract view of the complex reality.
Non-market valuation - an economic assessment of willingness to pay for environmental goods
and services, such as clean water or healthy wildlife, which are not revealed in market prices.
Outcomes - the results, impacts or consequences of making a decision.
Pathogen - microorganisms (e.g., bacteria, viruses, or parasites) that can cause disease in
humans, animals and plants.
Pressures- human activities that stress the condition of the environment or humans.
Social network-a decision support framework for capturing the people involved in a decision
making process and the relationships between them, such as who has authority to make
decisions and who they work or interact with. Social relationships are typically depicted in terms
of nodes (individuals within networks) and ties (relationships between the individuals).
Stakeholders - individuals, groups, or organizations impacted by a management choice.
State - condition of humans and the environment, including physical, chemical, and natural living
components
Uncertainty- inability to predict outcomes due to random variability (for example, streamflow is
sometimes high and sometimes low) or incomplete scientific knowledge regarding causal
relationships (for example, how does a given concentration of sediments in the harbor affect
coral reef growth rates).
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