<pubnumber>315R98900</pubnumber>
<title>Sustainable Business Economic Development and Environmentally Sound Technologies, 1998</title>
<pages>274</pages>
<pubyear>1998</pubyear>
<provider>NEPIS</provider>
<access>online</access>
<operator>mja</operator>
<scandate>05/18/16</scandate>
<origin>PDF</origin>
<type>single page tiff</type>
<keyword>energy technologies ests environmental countries technology cent production cleaner development pollution waste world developing environment industry sustainable new water unep</keyword>
<author> Regency Corporation Limited. ; United Nations Environment Programme.</author>
<publisher>Regency Corp.,</publisher>
<subject> </subject>
<abstract></abstract>
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Agenda 21, adopted at the 1992 United Nations Conference on
Environment and Development in ,Rio de Janeiro, emphasized the
importance of environmentally sound technologies to sustainable
development, particularly in moving business and industry further and
faster to cleaner production and eco-efficiency. The United Nations General
Assembly Special Session in June 1997 reinforced this, and industries will
also have to adopt new technologies to meet the commitments made by
governments at the Kyoto conference on climate change in December 1997.
But more needs to be done to accelerate the transfer, adoption and use 6f
environmentally sound technologies so that industry, especially in the
developing countries, can tackle the problems of pollution, waste
management, energy efficiency, land degradation and climate change.
Sustainable Business — Economic development and environmentally
sound technologies addresses these and other issues by:
& reviewing existing technologies for the control, reduction and
elimination of pollution, waste management and recycling, water
conservation, energy efficiency and cleaner production
B surveying increasingly important emerging technologies such as solar
and wind power, and biotechnology
M identifying the major driving forces behind environmentally sound
technologies, namely international and national legislation, financial
incentives and corporate competitiveness, and
• examining the key issues of financing, technology transfer,
assessment and information.
Complete with case studies of successful applications involving environ-
mentally sound technologies, the book provides a resource for all those
engaged in the challenge of accelerating the development, transfer and
adoption of environmentally sound technologies. It is intended to
strengthen the linkages between policy makers, producers and suppliers,
users and funding institutions.
image:
Economic development and
etwironmentmlly sound technologies
image:
The Malawi Development Corporation (MDC) was established in 1964 — its mission to stimulate development in the
agricultural, commercial and industrial sectors and in the country's mineral resources.
Acting as the engine for growth by identifying, promoting and implementing projects either through expanding
businesses within its existing portfolio or in the establishment of new ventures, MDC participates through direct
investment, equity or loans and in partnership with domestic and foreign private investors. But whilst economic
growth is essential to Malawi, protecting the environment is equally important to the future of the country.
EXISTING INVESTMENTS
* The Corporation requires
companies to provide goods
and services whilst at the
same time taking into
account the need for the
protection of health and the
environment.
" It encourages industries that
produce hazardous wastes -
including damaging gases — to
develop corporate strategies to
manage them properly and to
adopt new environmentally
sound technologies.
• MDC works closely with companies researching ways
of reducing the amounts of toxic pollution and by
encouraging recycling and safe treatment and disposal
• As part of the monitoring process conducted by the
Ministry of Research and Environmental Affairs,
MDC also ensures that environmental impact
assessment studies are undertaken in all projects
involving rehabilitation, diversification,
restructuring and expansion.
NEW PROJECTS
« hi line with World Bank regulations, MDC
undertakes environmental impact assessment studies
of each new project, working closely with the
environmental regulatory authorities in addressing
industrial waste management problems.
» The Corporation is the lead agency in the building
of industrial estates and factory shells in urban and
semi-urban areas, thereby encouraging industrial
development, supporting die government's export
processing zone scheme and attracting foreign
investment. It also ensures that the regulations
covering the protection
and/or replanting of trees and
the contamination of water
resources are rigorously
applied.
In both existing and new
investments, MDC encourages
the use of renewable resources
- water, soils and forests - in
a sustainable manner, offering
Better hospitality at Mount Soche Hotel, owned by support to ensure that those
Tourism Development and Investment Company (TDIC). resources that have become
MDC holds a major interest in TDIC degraded can be made usable
once more.
Whilst it is not possible to eliminate environmental
damage from pollution, MDC aims at prevention and
control measures which achieve an optimum level of
pollution - that is, the level where the costs are
balanced by the benefits. These measures include: waste
minimization through recycling 
processes
and self-
appraisal systems to assess compliance with
environmental regulations, as well as environmental
impact assessments of all new projects and belter
management of hazardous wastes.
A LEADERSHIP ROLE
MDC is playing a leadership role in protecting Malawi's
environment in other ways: by supporting the work of
environmental organizations, as a member of a
government-coordinated Task Force on industry
dealing with environmental protection; and by
providing information to the public through die
relevant organizations on the effects of environmental
damage.
The future development of Malawi must be
sustainable and MDC is playing its part to encourage
both economic growth and the protection of the
environment.
Malawi Development Corporation
MDC House, Glyn Jones Road, P.O. Box 566, Blantyre, Malawi
Tel: + 265 620 100 Fax: + 265 620 584
image:
Tlhie HJegeucy CorL'poiratiioBii Limited m. association
image:
ACKNOWLtUUhMtN IS
The Regency Corporation Limited, Gordon House, 6 Lissenden Gardens, London NW5 1LX, UK
Tel: 44 (171) 284 4858. Fax: 44 (171) 267 5505
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Project Director
Jane Gee
Editor
Trevor Russel
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Pictures
Cover/title page: main picture (cover only): Richard Jalo/UNEP;
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plOS: Tophiun Picturepoint; p!75: Didier Constant/UNEP;
pi84: Snnjity Acharya/UNEP; pi92: Chen-Hsian Su/UNEP;
p203: UNEP; p208: Jim T. Smith/UNEP; p219: Topham Picturepoint;
p226: Ufuk Iskendcr/UNEP; p236: Rongrudee Vongpracharapom/UNEP;
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Acknowledgments
Cartermill International Limited
CRU Publishing Ltd.
Dawson UK Ltd.
Europa Publications
Financial Times Information
Frost & Sullivan Inc.
Graham & Whiteside Limited
International Water Supply Association
Marconi International Register
Marquis Who's Who
Tele-Gulf Directory Publications WLL
Utility Data Institute - The McGraw Hill Companies, Inc.
Special thanks
Regency would like to thank Jacqueline Aloisi de Larderel,
Director, UNEP IE for her assistance and support of this
initiative. Regency, in association with UNEP, would also
like to thank the sponsors for their contribution to
Sustainable Business.
Display quotations in this book are taken from the United
Nations General Assembly Special Session (UNGASS) held
in June 1997 to review and to appraise the implementation
of Agenda 21.
The contents of this publication do not necessarily reflect the
views or policies of UNEP. The presentation of sponsoring
companies, their activities and technologies listed in this
publication do not imply any endorsement on the parr of UNEP.
No part of this publication may be used, reproduced, stored in
an information retrieval system or transmitted in any manner
whatsoever without the express written permission of The
Regency Corporation Limited. This publication has been
prepared wholly upon information supplied by the contributors
and whilst the publisher trusts that its content will be of interest
to readers, its accuracy cannot be guaranteed. Tiie publisher is
unable to accept, and hereby expressly disclaims, any liability
for the consequences of any inaccuracies, errors or omissions in
such information whether occurring during the processing of
such information for publication or otherwise. No
representations whether within the meaning of the
Misrepresentation Act 1967 or otherwise, warranties or
endorsements of any information contained herein, are given or
intended and full verification of all information appearing in
this publication of the articles contained herein does not
necessarily imply that any opinions therein are necessarily those
of the publisher. The publisher cannot accept responsibility or
liability for material provided by the corporate participants.
ISBN
09520469-7-0 Softback
09520469-8-9 Hardback
Also available in French and Spanish
© The Regency Corporation Limited 1998
All rights reserved
image:
PREFACE
n view of limited global resources, an increase in
: the world's population, and the need for develop-
'• ment as well as the need to protect the eco-
systems that sustain the world's productive capacity,
the importance of achieving environmentally
sustainable forms of development is inescapable.
Resource-efficient and cost-effective technologies
are crucial in the quest for sustainable development.
The United Nations Conference on Environment
and Development (UNCED), held in Rio de Janeiro
in 1992, was the first major event to highlight the
fact that business and industry play a crucial role in
bringing about sustainable development
An important pathway towards sustainability
for business and industry is the improvement of
production systems through technologies and
processes that utilize resources more efficiently
and at the same time produce fewer wastes, in
other words, achieving more with less. Environ-
mentaDy sound technologies play a key role in
improving productivity while protecting the
environment. They are less polluting, use resources
in a more sustainable manner, and recycle more of
their wastes and products. Also important are the
'soft technologies' such as technical know-how,
procedure, and organizational and managerial
structure.
The central role of environmentally sound
technologies in sustainable production means that
governments, industry and business associations,
and environmental organizations, as well as
industry and business themselves, must actively
promote their implementation if we are to realize
the goal of sustainability. UNEP, through its
Industry and Environment Centre (IE), has for
many years promoted the use of environmentally
sound technologies in industry to achieve eco-
efficiency and to develop cleaner and safer
processes, products and services. Through its
International Environment Technology Centre
(IETC), it promotes the use of environmentally
sound technologies for urban and waste manage-
ment. UNEP is therefore pleased to have been
associated with this publication which highlights
the efforts of many companies.
UNEP hopes that Sustainable Business will
help guide business and industry to incorporate
environmentally sound technologies into their
daily business and production activities and
encourage governments and local authorities to
favour the use of such technologies. It is only by
efficiently using and re-using the resources we
have that we can even begin to hope for a
sustainable future.
Jacqueline Alois! de Larderel, Director
UNEP Industry and Environment Centre
John Whitelaw, Director
UNEP International Environmental Technology Centre
image:
Table of contents
Preface 5
By Jacqueline Aloisi de Larderel, Director, UNEP Industry
and Environment Centre, and John Whiielaw, Director,
UNEP International Environmental Technology Centre
A bridge to sustainable development 11
A wide range 13
Growing use 13
Impressive results 14
Main needs 14
Barriers 15
Unfinished agenda 15
Box
ISO 14001 - a major drivmg force? 17
Bringing tangible, measurable benefits 21
A fivefold approach
Technology solutions exist
Three main categories
Four generations of ESTs
Cleaning up industry
Chemicals
Pulp and paper
Steel
Construction
Counting die costs of ESTs ,
Benefiting the bottom line
Sources
21
23
23
24
25
25
27
30
30
31
35
35
Transferring technologies 37
Success factors 37
Knowledge gap 39
Plugging the gap 40
Intermediaries crucial 41
Other issues 41
Reaching small and medium-sized enterprises 41
Skills management 44
Key role for private sector 46
Public sector approach 49
Montreal Protocol 50
Mixed private-public approaches 53
Capacity-building 55
Promoting exports 55
Is trade a barrier? 56
South-South transfers 57
"Start at home" 57
Sources . 59
Boxes
Bottom-line benefits are persuasive 39
Barriers to technology transfer 40
information systems sun>eyed 44
Asia and Pacific focus on small and medium-sized '
enterprises 46
Transferring ESTs to small and medium-sized
enterprises in Morocco 47
The OzonAction Programme 52
Not one-time transactions 55
ESTs can overcome trade concerns 56
Boxes
Characteristics of sttatainable technologies 24
Saving energy and raw materials in the
chemical industry 26
Reducing pollution in pulp and paper production 27
Wtistc reduction: an iiiyent priority for metal plating 29
On-site 'green' building techniques in Japan 31
Financing ESTs
What is the cost?
Private sector financing
Public-private partnerships
Funding technology transfer
Supporting smaller enterprises
Other funding sources
61
61
62
63
69
69
70
image:
TABLE OF CONTENTS
The World Bank
International funding
Self-financing in Europe
The good news — and the bad
Sources
Boxes
Privatization as a catalyst
An innovative approach to financing
ESTs
Funding renewable energy technologies
Implementing a national strategy
Pollution prevention in India
ESTs help Pakistan pulp and paper mill
Collaborating on the border
The role of government
Direct regulations
Command-and-control criticized
New thinking — new policies
Economic instruments
Eco taxes
European Union broadens policies
Taxing energy
California and zero-emission vehicles
The voluntary approach
Incentive programmes
International agreements
In the developing world
Critical role
Sources
Boxes
Japan: legislation is the driving force
Regulatory flexibility
Effluent taxes in the Netherlands
Nitrogen oxide charge in Sweden
Covenants work in the Netherlands
Government-industry partnerships advance
energy-efficient ESTs
The Montreal Protocol — a dramatic impact
on ESTs
'Technology tree'
Conflicting cases: Mexico and Tanzania
70
74
75
75
75
63
65
67
70
71
73
74
77
77
SO
82
83
85
87
90
90
90
92
93
93
99
99
79
82
83
85
91
92
95
96
97
ESTs for pollution control 101
Air pollution 101
Water and wastewater treatment 103
Solid waste treatment 106
Landfill 106
Waste to energy 107
Recovery and recycling 109
Land remediation 116
Environmental monitoring 116
Sources . 119
Boxes
Emissions control at an incineration plant 102
New lithography technology 102
Zero wastewater emission in the wiredrawing
process 103
Treating wastewater in the rubber industry 105
Solid and liazardous waste in Egypt 106
Waste-to-energy schemes work in Scandinavia 107
Recycling - an option for leather tanneries 112
An integrated approach in Madrid 113
Coping with scrapped cars 115
Air and water monitoring at a chemical plant 116
Reducing pollution and waste through improved
pmcess control 117
Cleaner production and
eco-efficieacy 121
ESTs for cleaner production 124
Improving technologies 126
Barriers to cleaner production 127
Funding constraints and needs 129
Cleaner Production Programme 130
Other United Nations activities 132
Progress and problems 133
Eco-efficiency 135
Towards zero emissions 135
Work in progress 136
Off the drawing board 140
The eco-factory 140
Industrial ecology 141
Valid and viable 141
Sources 141
image:
LAJIN i CN i a
Boxes
Clear environmental and financial benefits 124
Tunisian initiative leads to cleaner technologies 126
Economic return in the Philippines 127
Gas phase heat treatment of metals 127
Saving costs and improving product quality • 129
Reducing heat loss in, lead oxide units 130
Conserving water, energy and chemicals 130
TJie price can be acceptable 132
Saving water and waste in food process ing 133
Cleaner production initiatives in Thailand ' 135
Cleaner production at the grassroots 136
A fast response in Africa ', 137
ESTs for energy 143
Coal 145
Advanced technologies 145
Efficiency in industry 147
Fundamental changes ' 149
Residential and commercial use 150
Co-generation : 150
A key role for technologies 153
Sources 153
Biornass in developing countries
Some problems
Biogas
Not without difficulties
Increasingly popular
Fuel cell power
Geothermal power
Nuclear energy
Evolutionary advances
Thermonuclear fusion
"Real opportunity"
Sources
Boxes
Solar-powered telecommunications in
Australia
Solar power in Freiburg
Affording solar electricity
Choosing the right projects
Denmark - a world leader
The Swedish experience with biomass
Heating homes from straw
From distillery wastes to biogas
A "definite sustainable option "
171
171
173
174
176
177
177
179
181
181
183
183
157
159
160
166
167
170
171
173
174
Boxes
Cleaner coal technology in China
Energy saving in the glass industry
Efficient office lighting in the United States
Co-generation in the United Kingdom
District heating schemes in Europe
146 . ESTs for water conservation
147 Agriculture
149 Technologies and systems
149 Chemical pollution
150 Sanitation
A key issue
Sources
185
186
186
189
191
191
191
Renewable energy technologies
Cost is the key
Solar power
Passive solar
Solar thermal systems
Photovoltaic cells
Growing activity
Enormous potential
Wind power
Micro-hydro power
Biomass
155
156
157
157
159
160
161
164
166
169
169
Boxes
Water conservation in China
Permaculture in Australia
ESTs for road transportation
Fuel efficiency technologies
Technologies to reduce emissions
Alternative carbon-based fuels
Gas-powered vehicles
186
187
193
193
197
198
199
8
image:
Do they work? 201
Cheaper to use? 201
Zero-emission vehicles 202
Electric vehicles 202
Fuel cells . 204
A promising future 204
Sources 207
Boxes
The biggest challenge 196
Better traffic management vital too 197
Transport challenges in developing countries 205
Biotechnology 209
Cleaning up pollution 209
An exciting future 214
Trends in agriculture 215
Further applications 217
Approach causes concern 220
Biotechnology transfer _221
Clear benefits 225
Sources . 225
Boxes
Using micro-organisms against industrial pollution 210
New modular composting system 211
Viet Nam focuses on composting 213
Research projects produce results in the
United States 214
Promoting biotechnology transfer 218
Developing environmentally sound
biotechnologies in India 221
Biotechnology goes mobile 224
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Boxes !
Suppliers' claims felt unreliable 229
Using EnTA to choose the right technology in India 231
Assessing environmentally sound technologies in India 233
Asia: economic growth and
environmental deterioration 237
Massive investments needed 237
What is happening? 240
The driving forces 241
Reluctance on cleaner production 242
Finding the finance 242
Other regions in brief 243
Sources '• 245
Boxes :
Progress on cleaner production in China 239
Japan provides Jessonsfor the whole region 241
ESTs and future challenges 247
An integrated approach 255
Sources ' 255
Boxes
New technologies needed: air, energy and waste 250
New technologies needed: water and resources 253
Appendix: Sources of information 257
The UNEP Industry and
Environment Centre (UNEP IE) 269
Environmental technology
assessment
Ten steps for EnTA
Following a successful EnTA
A systems approach
Growing interest and cooperation
"Fix it or scrap it now"
Sources
227
229
231
233
235
235
235
The UNEP International
Environmental Technology
Centre <IEfc)
Selected publications from
UNEP IE arid IETC
270
271
image:
The market for environmentally sound
technologies is growing at 5 per cent every
year and will be worth US$300 billion per
annum by the year 2000.
image:
A bridge to sustainable development
Environmentally sound technologies (ESTs) are a key tool for implementing Agenda 21 -
and the fast grouting market for both end-ofpipe and cleaner production technologies
confirms Oiat industries and companies are taking up the challenge, witli some impressive
results. But, as the United Nations General Assembly Special Session (UNGASS) in June
1997 confirmed, serious environmental problems remain — and there are still major
barriers preventing the under adoption of ESTs, especially in developing countries. These
obstacles need to be removed before significant progress can be achieved.
genda 21 emphasizes the importance of
environmentally sound technologies
(ESTs). They "protect the environment,
are less polluting, use all resources in a more
sustainable manner, recycle more of their wastes
and products, and handle residual wastes in a
more acceptable manner than technologies for
which they are substitutes". Agenda 21, adopted
at the United Nations Conference on
Environment and Development in Rio de
Janeiro in 1992, also called on governments and
other players to develop new funding
mechanisms to accelerate the transfer of ESTs
from the 'haves', mainly in the industrialized
countries, to the 'have nots', chiefly in the
developing world. And it underlined the point by
urging business leaders to give environmental
management "the highest priority" in the move
towards sustainable industrial practices, calling
on business and industry to "develop techniques
and technologies that reduce harmful
environmental impacts". Agenda 21 also
stressed that "new and efficient technologies
will be essential to increase the capabilities, in
particular of developing countries, to achieve
sustainable development, sustain the world's
economy, protect the environment, and alleviate
poverty and human suffering".
The five years since Rio have seen noticeable
progress on these issues. In its Global
Environment Outlook 1997 (GEO-1), for
example, UNBP reported "significant progress",
with several countries achieving "marked
progress" in curbing environmental pollution
and reducing the intensity of resource use. At the
same time, the rate of environmental
degradation in several developing countries has
been slower than in industrial countries at a
similar stage of economic development. The
wider use of ESTs and cleaner production
approaches have contributed significantly to
these improvements,
Overall, however, the UNEP report states that
"progress towards a global sustainable future is
just too slow, and the necessary sense of urgency
is lacking". Serious environmental problems
persist. The critical ones, according to the World
Bank, are water pollution, air pollution, severe
land degradation and atmospheric changes.
These problems affect urban areas in particular:
making cities sustainable would contribute
enormously to global sustainable development.
In addition, according to UNEP, "current
patterns of energy use require drastic changes"
while modern farming practices are also
exacting a heavy price on the planet's resources.
The United Nations General Assembly
Special Session (UNGASS), held in June 1997,
was equally trenchant in its analysis.
"Significant environmental problems remain
image:
NORTEL
NORTHERN TELECO
PEOPLE REACHING OUT
Twenty-five years ago, a group of Nortel (Northern
Telecom) executives crafted a statement they called the
"Spirit" of Nortel: "People reaching out to meet the
challenge of bringing the world together through
communications — all in the spirit of leadership,
innovation, dedication and excellence." In keeping with
this core company ideology, w6 at Nortel have been
reaching out over the past decade to meet the challenge
of bringing the world closer to sustainability.
Nortel designs, builds and integrates digital networks
for customers in the information, communication,
entertainment, education, and commerce markets. With
headquarters in Canada, Nortel works with customers
in more than 150 countries around the globe. We create
telecommunications solutions that enable nations and
businesses to access the precious commodities of
experience and information that can fuel development
without harming the environment.
At the same time, we know that our business activities
impact on the environment; we use energy, raw
materials and chemicals, and generate wastes. We've
come to understand that actions taken to protect and
enhance the environment not only benefit the
communities in which we work and live, but also
contribute to customer value and employee satisfaction,
help us strengthen relationships with suppliers, and
lead to improved shareholder value.
In the early 90s, a network of dedicated Nortel
employees redesigned our technology and processes to
help Nortel become the first multinational company in
the electronics industry to end the use of ozone-
depleting CFC-113 solvents. The project clearly
contributed to shareholder value — we spent $1 million
on research and development, but saved about
$4 million in the three-year project period alone.
In the years that followed we devoted substantial time
and energy to sharing our CFC experience. Between
1992 and 1995, Nortel played a lead role in World
Bank-supported technology cooperation projects in
Mexico, India, China, Turkey and Viet Nam,
collaborating with local governments and the
International Cooperative for Environmental
Leadership. Although we believe this activity is part of
our social responsibility as a global corporate citizen,
our reasons for sharing are not just altruistic.
Technology cooperation helps to build brand image,
goodwill and strong relationships with customers in
emerging markets.
We are now reaching out to key stakeholders —
customers, employees, suppliers, and the communities
in which we have a presence — to develop new
environmental initiatives that contribute to business
success.
We are learning that several environmental activities
clearly help the company deliver superior value to'
customers. Initiatives such as product recovery,
packaging reduction and the development of
environmentally preferable products such as lead-free
phones matter to our customers. We're collaborating
with customers on projects aimed at minimizing the
environmental impacts of our products throughout their
life cycles. We're also entering into innovative supplier
arrangements that provide incentives to reduce the use
of harmful chemicals.
Like other large global corporations, Nortel has a
substantial base of committed employees, scientific
expertise and significant influence. By mobilizing these
resources and reaching out to stakeholders, we're trying
to ensure that economic development and
environmental protection go hand in hand.
For further information contact:
Mark Brownlie, Manager, Communications Strategy
Tel. 1 (403) 264 5170 or ESN 776-1021. Fax 1 (403) 291 5902
E-mail: mbrownli@nortel.com
image:
A BRIDGE TO SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
deeply embedded in the socio-economic fabric
of nations in all regions", it stated. Despite some
progress, "overall trends are worsening" and
"remain unsustainable", with the result that
"increasing levels of pollution threaten to
exceed the capacity of the global environment to
absorb them, increasing (he potential obstacles
to economic and social development in
developing countries",
A particular problem area is the transfer
of technologies to developing countries. As
the United Nations Department of Public
Information reported before UNGASS, while
"some progress has been made through the
United Nations on improving information about
new technologies and encouraging financing
partnerships in "developing countries, many
countries continue to be marginalized from
private sector investment and the technologies it
can bring". However, UNGASS failed to make
any significant headway on this issue.
As a result, many industries and companies
in the developing countries (including those
industrializing at a very rapid rate) are not
supporting ESTs, even though they are
indispensable tools for industry to use to move
towards sustainable development. This is vital
because Agenda 21 will only be implemented if
industry worldwide uses fewer natural resources
and progressively reduces pollution and waste
from its processes and products.
A wide range
What are ESTs? They cover a wide range
of process and product technologies. Some,
such as solar energy photovoltaics, fibre-optic
devices, electric or ultra fuel-efficient vehicles,
and biotechnology-based solutions, are avail-
able now, but are not yet economical enough to
be commercially applied on a wide scale. In
time, these and other emerging technologies
will transform both production and consump-
tion patterns, drive much of industry towards
sustainable production, and eventually move
some industrial sectors to the goal of
zero emissions.
But the crucial point is that, meanwhile,
many other ESTs, both end-of-pipe and
prevention technologies, are already available
to achieve significant, sometimes dramatic,
environmental improvements. Cleaner pro-
duction technologies focus on achieving process
and product change both to reduce pollution and
also to prevent it occurring in the first place.
End-of-pipe ESTs are more limited in scope, but
they do control andieduce waste and emissions,
as well as clean up pollution after it has
happened. There is now a paradigm shift taking
place towards the cleaner production approach.
As Agenda 21 makes clear, ESTs "are not just
individual technologies, but total systems which
include know-how, procedures, goods and
services, and equipment as well as organiz-
ational and managerial procedures".
Growing use
Industry worldwide, though mainly in the
industrialized countries, is using ESTs on a
wider scale. One measure - and it is only one
measure — is that the global market for
environmental products such as water and
wastewater treatment, waste management and
recycling, air pollution control, noise reduction
systems and services, is growing fast. It is
increasing by around 5 per cent every year
and is set to reach, conservatively, an annual
total of US$300 billion by the year 2000. The
United Nations Development Programme
(UNDP) projects the global compliance market
(including ESTs required to meet mandatory
environmental standards) to reach US$500
billion a year by 2000. It forecasts that the future
global market for environmental investments
will expand to US$300-600 billion annually for
pollution control, a total of US$1 trillion
for power from' 1993 to 2000, and a total of
US$250 billion for energy conservation over the
next 20 years.
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A BRIDGE TO SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
What is difficult to calculate from these
figures is the split between end-of-pipe and
cleaner production technologies, although at the
moment the market for the latter is certainly
much smaller. While end-of-pipe ESTs do help
to reduce emissions, they are transitional rather
than longer-term technology and should be used
in conjunction with cleaner production
approaches. Eventually, cleaner production
processes should take over and completely
replace end-of-pipe technologies. Nonetheless,
the market growth in ESTs does show that
industry is moving to tackle environmental
pollution problems.
This market for ESTs has grown for two main
reasons.
Companies have been required to meet
increasingly strict regulatory rules, national
regulations and international treaties for
pollution and waste reduction. For many
companies, the first step has been to use end-
of-pipe technologies, which is a short-term
and expensive solution. The ultimate goal
should be to move beyond this and use
cleaner production processes.
Many corporate leaders, accepting that
sustainable development is an integral part of
the business agenda, have moved proactively
to improve their companies' environmental
performance without waiting to be mandated
to do so. More and more companies have
recognized that minimizing, better still
eliminating, undesirable harmful effluents,
emissions and wastes, improves their
performance both environmentally and
economically. An emphasis on technological
innovation has been a feature of this approach.
This last point is proving an increasingly
important factor, for there is abundant evidence
of the considerable financial benefits from
using ESTs from companies themselves. The
return on the investment has been significant
and, as the World Business Council for
Sustainable Development says, companies that
introduce new technology to improve
environmental performance before mandated
to do so by regulations cut costs and boost
competitiveness.
Impressive results
Thanks to ESTs, industry has been improving,
and continues to improve, its environmental
performance. For example, the industrialized
countries have achieved major environmental
quality gains during the past 20-25 years at a
time when their economies have grown by 80
per cent. The industrialized countries account
for 80 per cent of the market for environmental
products. The cost has been 0.8 to 1.5 per cent
of gross domestic product (GDP), borne
equally by the private and public sectors. The
fact that many environmental problems remain,
and in some cases are worsening, takes nothing
away from what industry has achieved, but
it does underline how much more still has to
be done.
The Organisation for Economic Co-operation
and Development (OECD) says that one lesson
from the progress achieved is that "many of the
environmentally sound technologies and prac-
tices developed in the industrialized countries
can be adapted to the needs of the developing
countries". They need to be because achieving
sustainable economic growth in the developing
countries poses an increasingly formidable
challenge.
Main needs
There are several pressing requirements if
further progress is to be achieved:
: to develop and commercialize new, advanced
ESTs;
to continue the shift from end-of-pipe
approaches to cleaner production and
eco-efficiency - that is, to move faster from
pollution control to pollution prevention;
.' to accelerate the knowledge and adoption of
both new and existing ESTs throughout
14
image:
A BRIDGE TO SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
industry, in the industrialized world and, in
particular, in the developing countries;
. to make the policy changes that will support
the wider use of ESTs at the national and
local level;
to support the development of local ESTs.
As the UNEP GEO-1 report states: "Appro-
priate technological improvements, which result
in more effective use of natural resources, less
waste, and fewer pollutant by-products, are
required in all economic sectors. Truly global
availability and worldwide application of best
available and appropriate technology and
production processes need to be ensured through
the exchange and dissemination of know-how,
skills and technology, and through appropriate
finance mechanisms."
Barriers
The UNEP report highlighted two of the main
barriers to accelerating the use of ESTs: lack of
knowledge about the existence of commercially
available technologies and the benefits they
bring; and lack of financial resources to get them
where they are needed. A third important barrier
is the lack of political action to create the right
framework conditions for industry. While some
governments are now using a mix of command-
and-control policies and market-based incen-
tives to push industry faster towards cleaner,
more resource-efficient production, actual
delivery on the political commitments made in
Rio has, generally, fallen far short of what
was promised.
The first two barriers apply particularly to
developing countries though they are also a
concern to small and medium-sized enterprises
(SMEs) in many industrialized economies. The
third relates to both developing and industrial-
ized countries because there is a direct cause and
effect between government policies and industry
actions to improve environmental performance.
There is no doubting the crucial role that
government has in encouraging a faster take-up
of ESTs as part of its move to promote sustain-
able development.
Unfinished agenda
The June 1997 UNO ASS was held to review
progress on the implementation of Agenda 21.
Technology transfer and financing developing
countries' needs were among the issues
examined without any conclusive results. For
example, the meeting simply repeated that
industrialized countries should reach the
United Nations target of spending 0.7 per cent of
their GDP on official development assistance
(ODA) "as soon as possible", even though the
average level of ODA fell to 0.25 per cent of
GDP in 1996. There were no specific
commitments by the industrialized countries to
reverse the decline.
UNGASS did approve a 129-point programme
designed to guide further implementation of
Agenda 21, and also endorsed a six-paragraph
"statement of commitment' as a preamble. This
emphasized that the comprehensive implemen-
tation of Agenda 21 is "more urgent now than
ever" and committed governments to ensure more
progress will be achieved by 2002 when Agenda
21 is reviewed again.
In this report, UNGASS acknowledged the
"urgent need" for developing countries to
acquire greater access to ESTs, and urged the
international community to "promote, facilitate
and finance, as appropriate, access to and the
transfer of ESTs and corresponding know-how,
in particular to developing countries, on
favourable terms, including on concessional and
preferential terms, as mutually agreed".
"Much of the most advanced environ-
mentally sound technology is developed and
held by the private sector. Creadon of an
enabling environment, on the part of both
developed and developing countries, including
supportive economic and fiscal measures, as
well as a practical system of environmental
regulations and compliance mechanisms, can
image:
A BRIDGE TO SUSIAINABLt UtVtLUHVItN I
Now that we are all
walfcing together on the
right path, we must
accelerate our pace!
Carlos Saiil Menem,
President of Argentina
{The emphasis must
shift from process
to outcome
Robert Hill,
Minister of Environment, Australia
:':| Developing countries
cannot and should not
follow the same old
development patterns of
developed countries in
"pollution first, treatment
later", but take the road of
sustainable development
right from the initial gg
stage of development "1
^
Song Jian, State Councillor, China
Now we must go
from Rio to results.
We must aim for
measurable results and
report on our progress.
For our children and
grandchildren, we
have an obligation to
create a healthier,
cleaner world
Jean Chretien, <'•
Prime Minister of Canada
It is imperative for the
" developed countries to
mobilize new, additional
financial resources to the
developing countries, and
there must also be the
transfer of environmentally
sound technologies on
concessional and
preferential terms
Carlos Lemos-Simmonds,
Vice President of Colombia
help to stimulate private sector investment in
and transfer of environmentally sound tech-
nology to developing countries. New ways of
financial intermediation for the financing of
environmentally sound technologies, such as
'green credit lines', should be examined."
16
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A BRIDGE TO SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
UNGASS applauded public-private partner-
ships, within and between developed and
developing countries, as "essential for linking
the advantages of the private sector (access to
finance and technology, managerial efficiency,
entrepreneurial experiences and engineering
expertise) with the capacity of governments to
create a policy environment conducive to
technology-related private sector investments
and long-term sustainable development
objectives".
It urged governments and international
development institutions to bring together
companies from developed and developing
countries to create "sustainable and mutually
beneficial business linkages", and also urged
governments of developing countries to
strengthen South-South cooperation for
technology transfer and capacity building,
including setting up sector-specific regional
centres. It further called for attention to be given
to technology needs assessment as a tool for
governments to identify a portfolio of
technology transfer projects and capacity-
building activities to "facilitate and accelerate
the development, adoption and diffusion of
ESTs in particular sectors of the national
economy — as well as ... a tool for evaluating the
technologies themselves".
The special session also added several new
items to the sustainable development agenda,
including a global sustainable energy policy (to
be a focus of future work by the United Nations
Commission on Sustainable Development) and
eco-efficiency. On this, UNGASS said that
action to change unsustainable consumption and
production patterns should include considering
proposals for improving energy and materials
use efficiency in industrialized countries by a
factor of ten in the long term, and by a possible
factor of four in the next two to three decades.
Achievement of either goal will require the
adoption of ESTs.
Some concerns were expressed following
BOX 1.1
ISO 14001 — a major driving
force?
The new ISO 14001 standards for environmental management may
encourage moves to environmentally sound technologies (ESTs) in due
course - although opinions vary over this.
ISO 14001 aims to improve overall environmental performance in
industry worldwide, harmonize national and regional standards to
reduce the likelihood that they can be used as trade barriers, and
cover such areas as the use of raw and waste materials, internalizing
and accounting of environmental costs, reducing emissions
and - significantly - the transfer and implementation of ESTs
worldwide.
However, ISO 14001 is more about production than technology and
there is some debate about the impact that the standards will have on
the use and transfer of ESTs. in fact, they could be more of a barrier to
new technologies because often the goal is certification, not
environmental improvement. The one thing ISO 14001 does not do as
yet is provide a 'how to' method for improving performance: ISO
14001 provides a systemized way of giving companies assurances
that a system is in place to manage and enhance environmental
effects. Some observers maintain that the standards are unlikely to
have an immediate effect on emissions and wastes, or raw materials'
use - and while some improvements are likely to come about, this is
not guaranteed by ISO 14001 certification.
But the United Nations Commission on Sustainable Development
(CSD) says that governments may promote ISO 14001 participation
through fiscal and market policies, while financial institutions may
promote the transfer of ESTs by offering better financial terms to ISO
14001 certified companies. "The standards will have an immediate
effect on the amount of emissions and wastes being produced, as well
as towards the optimization in the use of raw materials in both
developed and developing countries, as their industries attempt to
meet ISO 14001 certification,"
The CSD adds: "The expected accelerated growth in EST transfer and
use must be dealt with by improving awareness of the problems, and
improving preparedness of governments, international organizations,
financial institutions and industry groups to better attend to the need
developing as a result of ISO certification. Policy measures have to be
taken to help make the adaptation process at national level less
'traumatic', and thus promote the development, transfer, use and
diffusion of ESTs."
UNGASS that developing countries may be
losing interest in the concept of sustainable
development, partly because, of their frustration
image:
Telenor
TELECOMMUNICATIONS
a key to sustainable development
Sustainable development demands reducing
the use of energy, raw materials and transport,
as well as waste and pollution. Telenor AS is
contributing to this goal by providing
telecommunications products and services to
replace energy and resource-demanding
activities.
Our core products are:
• Electronic post ('bits instead of atoms')
• Telephone meetings/picture telephones and
video conferences
* Telephone commuting
• Telephone banking/shopping
• Telephone medicine
* Electronic information
* Remote teaching
Telenor — a government-limited company with
an annual turnover of £2.3 billion, one
of Norway's largest businesses and a market
leader in telecommunications, computer
services and media arrangements — is bringing
those products to international markets.
• In Bangladesh, as a major shareholder in
Grameen Phone, we will be the first GSM
operator in the country to offer services
which will enable people in 40,000 villages
to be able to call neighbouring villages for
commercial information.
• In Bosnia, we were assigned by the telecom
and broadcasting authorities to carry out
two projects aimed at rebuilding basic
infrastructure in the country.
• In Eritrea, we have updated network plans
for the cities of Massawa and Keren and
assisted Telecom Services of Eritrea in
preparing tender documents for the
procurement of cables and turnkey outside
plant installation work.
» In January 1997, we signed a contract with
the United Nations Development
Programme (UNDP) to provide INMARSAT
services.
Telenor is also working to reduce the
influence of its own activities on the
environment. We have developed Telenor
Agenda 21 and our plans for 1997-2000 are
in the process of being finalized.
Environmental plans for our vehicles have
been completed and a strategic waste plan is
in preparation. Ali 18,500 Telenor employees
have been given their own environmental
handbook explaining the procedures that
need to be followed.
Sustainable development is a long-term
perspective. It will require, among other
things, more democracy and participation.
Information is criticial to this. Telenor is
playing an important role in expanding the
information society globally.
For more information contact:
Ellen-Birgitte Stromo, Environmental Adviser
Telenor AS, Corporate Security and Environment
PO Box 6701, 0130 Oslo, Norway
Tel: +47 612 49673 Fax: +47 612 79679
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A BRIDGE TO SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
at the failure to get stronger financial commit-
ments from industrialized countries, and partly
because their focus is on classic economic
growth. If this does turn out to be the case, it
augurs ill for introducing ESTs at a faster rate in
developing countries, even if the funding issues
can be overcome. In many developing countries,
legislation mandating environmental standards
is either non-existent or weakly enforced.
If governments lose enthusiasm for environ-
' mental protection, there is the risk that
companies will be under even less pressure to
adopt ESTs.
The outcome of the Third Conference of the
Parties to the United Nations Framework
Convention on Climate Change, held in Kyoto,
Japan, in December 1997, was also disappoint-
ing in many respects. Industrialized countries
agreed to reduce their greenhouse gas emissions
by an overall 5.2 per cent from 1990 levels by
2008-2012, but this was less than the European
Union (EU) and some governments had
proposed originally. However, the agreement
does cover six gases: carbon dioxide, methane,
nitrous oxide, hydrofluorocarbons, perfluoro-
carbons and sulphur hexafluoride, while initially
only the first three were to be included.
Although the Kyoto agreement does not detail
specific policies and measures for reducing
greenhouse gas emissions, it does say that each
industrialized country is to "implement and/or
further elaborate policies and measures in
accordance with its national circumstances".
These should include:
enhancement of energy efficiency;
promotion of sustainable agriculture;
promotion, research, development and in-
creased use of new and renewable forms of
energy, and "advanced and innovative
environmentally sound technologies".
As the Earth Negotiations Bulletin com-
mented after the meeting: "It is the economic
engine rooms of the world — the United States,
Japan and Europe - who have built their power-
bases on unsustainable technologies and who
must now lead the world in reversing the trends
they have led." Despite its shortcomings, the
Kyoto agreement could provide an important
fillip for the promotion and adoption of ESTs. A
post-Kyoto study said that Germany would
meet its greenhouse gas emissions reduction
targets if, among other measures, it increased
subsidies for renewables and energy efficiency
improvements.
In summary, much has been achieved but
much more still needs to be accomplished.
Agenda 21 is not yet half completed. Certainly,
there will be continuing progress. New driving
forces such as the ISO 14001 standards,
• international environmental agreements (such
as the Montreal Protocol on Substances that
Deplete the Ozone Layer and the Framework
Convention on Climate Change), and the
growing acceptance and adoption of life-cycle
analysis will force the pace further. More
companies will invest in improving environ-
mental performance, particularly as they see the
competitive benefits of doing so and the
competitive disadvantages of not doing so,
More widely, the importance of telecom-
munications to sustainable development will
become increasingly apparent as it becomes
commonplace to do tasks using the computer or
by telephone.
The question is how fast will the situation
change? The answer v/ill depend to a great
extent on whether the international community
can make considerably more progress in the
next five years than it has in the past five on
dismantling the barriers that are blocking the
wider diffusion and adoption of ESTs,
particularly in developing countries, but also by
industries and companies in industrialized
economies. It is perfectly possible to make
much faster progress in tackling today's
environmental problems: the technologies exist
already - the challenge is to remove obstacles
impeding their use.
image:
The use of environmentally sound
technologies supports sustainable
economic growth, benefiting business,
Industry and the environment.
image:
Bringing tangible, measurable benefits
Environmentally sound technologies (ESTs) exist today to help industries and companies
achieve significant improvements in their environmental performance by reducing
pollution, waste, and the use of energy and raw materials. Most of the technologies
provide end-of-pipe solutions, an interim but still important step. In addition, as
industries and companies are demonstrating, the use of ESTs brings direct benefits to
the bottom line.
'f ~v:-i nvironmentally sound technologies
lf"~1 (ESTs) support sustainable economic
,j?-.i'.*.?' growth by reducing and cleaning up
pollution, cutting down on the use of energy and
other material resources, and increasingly by
preventing pollution and waste through cleaner
production and recycling. In addition, by
providing proven, workable solutions to air and
water pollution, waste management and other
urgent problems, they are helping to make cities
and communities cleaner and healthier. End-of-
pipe technologies reduce pollution, but can
divert financial resources away from more
efficient cleaner production solutions. The focus
is more and more on cleaner production and
pollution prevention, not on end-of-pipe
pollution control.
The benefits of using ESTs will become
increasingly important. Already, those benefits
are tangible and measurable. They are felt most
directly by business, both large companies and
small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) -
which, while they do not individually pollute a
great deal, collectively contribute substantially
to the pollution problem. After all, it is industry,
in both developed and developing countries,
which accounts for the lion's share of
environmental pollution problems - although
agriculture, transportation and the rapid growth
in urban activity everywhere are also key
contributors.
A fivefold approach
There are typically five ways for any company
or industry to tackle its environmental problems:
5*. through simple operating and housekeeping
processes (fixing leaks; separating waste
streams to allow recovery);
*;i by redesigning and/or reformulating pro-
ducts (replacing chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)
with substitutes in aerosols; replacing mer-
cury, cadmium and lead with other less toxic
substances as components);
!$ by modifying processes (replacing single
rinse practices with counter current
processes; replacing single path processes
with closed loop processes);
'M through changing plant equipment (installing
new technologies such as ion exchange;
ultrafiltrarion; reverse osmosis to separate
components in the waste stream and allow
their recovery);
rSI by substituting less harmful raw materials
(using oxygen instead of chlorine for
bleaching in the pulp and paper industry;
using halogenated solvents instead of non-
halogenated compounds in the electronics
industry).
These are, in fact, the five steps to cleaner
production. However, the important point is that
ESTs - both end-of-pipe and cleaner production
technologies — make it possible to carry out all
of them. Many of the technologies used are
image:
raf ilnurla til aacoaa
THE ENVIRONMENT IS CENTRAL TO OUR BUSINESS
api, one of Italy's leading private industrial groups,
active both in the oil business and in the field of
alternative energy, was one of the first in the country
to grasp die strategic importance of ensuring its
business activities are compatible with the
environment.
The api Group today has more than 20 companies,
with a consolidated turnover of L6,OQQ billion a year,
It has 65 years' experience and enthusiasm of facing u
to new challenges - nowhere more so than in oil, its
core business.
The environment is a major challenge - for business,
and for every one of us. We intend to meet it not just by
complying with legislation, but by working with other
stakeholders to go even further in finding solutions.
That is why
" in 1991, we launched a L300 billion investment
Energy, Security and Environment programme at
our Falconara refinery, tlirough which the whole
cycle has been updated to provide more
environmentally friendly and secure products, while
achieving significant emission reductions and better
site placement with respect to the external area
* we are developing a computerized environmental
management system, based on internationally
recognized certification standards like ISO 14000 and
Emas, aimed at certifying any refinery activity in the
context of a sound environmental management system
» from 1999, we will issue an annual environmental
'balance sheet' for the Falconara refinery
« we have signed three agreements with the
Municipality of Falconara Marittima, Legambiente,
Italy's biggest environmental organization, and the
labour unions, committing the company to
environmental protection measures far beyond those
required legally. Together with Legambiente, we are
committed to organizing and running an annual
Forum on the Environment at the refinery to discuss
and find solutions to major problems concerning
industry-community relations.
These actions demonstrate api's determination to put the
environment at the centre of our business philosophy.
With its two partners, ABB Sae Sadelmi and Texaco,
api is also pioneering a new approach to energy
production in Italy, building the country's first power
station to use integrated gasification combined cycle
technology at its Falconara refinery.
It is one of the most ambitious and important projects
ever undertaken in the country — costing LI ,300 billion
and involving state-of-the-art gasification co-generation
technology to produce 280MW of electricity a year
from processing TAR, a bituminous production residue
with a high sulphur content.
The new plant will
* lead to a reduction of all pollutants, especially SOz
. andNOx
* remove a significant quantity of fuel oil with high
sulphur content from the market
• allow for an annual reduction of about 180,000
tonnes of COs
» allow the production of 280MW of clean electrical
energy without any further emission to the
atmosphere.
It symbolizes api's ambition to become an integrated
energy group, capable of exploiting various
technologies - including renewable sources — for
energy production in a way that is compatible with
protecting the environment.
This is our policy. It reflects our conviction that it is
only through cooperation that we can relate general
issues to the specific local situation and ensure that
technological excellence, traditionally in the hands of
the industrial sector, can also have a political and
social value, and have a directly beneficial influence on
the wider environment.
Clemente Napolitano
Managing Director
api raffineria di ancona
image:
specific to a particular process or product, but
many others can be adapted for wide use.
In adopting ESTs, companies need to
consider where the technologies fit into the five
phases of product life cycles (design,
production, distribution, use and disposal), and
to think about not just the impact of individual
pollutants, but the effects . of the whole
production process - which means adopting an
integrated approach to pollution prevention and
control.
This approach includes:
' minimizing energy, materials and wastes
used or created per unit of product;
".'• high process accuracy for the entire range of
products;
-". anticipating and preventing defects at each
step in the process;
.! system cut-off if defects are found;
a workforce trained to ensure quality control
at all. stages.
Almost all these systems will incorporate
ESTs. For instance, in automotive manu-
c
facturing, the use of more efficient assembly
methods will cut steel waste, energy per vehicle,
paint wastage and space to assemble the vehicle
(through more efficient use of heating, lighting
and land). The domino effect is important. For
example, reducing one input, energy, will bring
other environmental and economic gains,
including less contamination and less materials
use, while lean designs such as lighter cars which
contain recyclable aluminium and plastics can
lead to less mining waste, less hydrocarbon use,
less solid waste and fewer emissions.
Technology solutions exist
There is, rightly, much debate over exactly how
much progress has been achieved, and is being
made, in taclding the world's environmental
problems. But the key point is that the
technological means to improve the environ-
mental performance of most industrial activities
exist already; there is available, today, a suite of
BRINGING TANGIBLE, MEASURABLE BENEFITS
ESTs that v oil produce significant environmental
and econoriic gains - ranging from end-of-pipe
pollution control solutions (which are not
cleaner technologies from the purely technical
standpoint but which do help to reduce
pollution) to technologies that prevent pollution
through cleaner or eeo-efficient production.
Three main categories
Existing liSTs fall into three broad, main
categories.
' .'• Processes and materials that reduce the
environmentally harmful effects of a given
operation, without necessarily making
fundamc sital changes to the original process.
Examples include flue gas desulphurization,
catalytic converters for car exhausts, and
water treatment and detoxification.
: Process modifications to existing operations
to eliminate, or at least minimize, their
environmental impact. Examples
fuel conservation, waste heat
and co-generation technologies in
•gy sector, and advanced measure-
ntrol and computerized technologies
negative
include
recover
the ene
ment, cc
in other industries (for example, chemical) to
cut uncesirable by-products and achieve
cleaner, more energy-efficient processes.
; Technol jgies that are inherently sound from
an environmental standpoint. Examples
include solar energy, several process tech-
nologies (for example, membrane separation)
introduced into the chemical industry, and
biotechr ology applications.
General; y speaking, ESTs in the first two
categories have been developed more rapidly
and used more widely than those in the third.
The reasor is mainly economic. These ESTs,
parttcularl> in the first category - the classic
end-of-pipc solutions — usually involve only
incrementa. changes or additions to existing
equipment, whereas switching to technologies
in the third category can sometimes involve
heavy investment and other costs.
image:
BRINGING TANGIBLE, MEASURABLE BENEFITS
However, technologies which are inherently
environmentally sound do not always require
radical transformation and, while retrofitting
may be expensive, the costs can be less if the
technologies are installed from the outset. The
s
problem with some new cleaner technologies is
that their up-front costs are higher than for
traditional technologies - although these costs
are frequently recovered over the long term.
Four generations of ESTs
The International Institute for Sustainable
Development (DSD) classifies ESTs a different
way: into four generations - remediation,
BOX 2.1
Characteristics of sustainable
technologies
Low environmental impact
Very low or benign emissions to the environment in production, use
and disposal. ;
No toxic releases.
. Benefit environment Indirectly through uses;and/or inherent
efficiency.
Resource efficiency ;
Efficient utilization of material resources, often using recycled
material.
Based on renewable resources and energy (or minimal use of
non-renewable energy).
'". Efficient consumption of energy in production and use.
'.' Durable, re-usable and/or recyclable.
Economic advantages
Economically cost-effective compared to conventional product
or service.
.. Incorporate externalities In market price.
. Can be financed by the user through various financial saving
streams. '
Improve productivity or competitiveness of industry and commerce.
Social advantages
. Enhance or maintain living standards or quality of life.
: Readily available and easily accessible to all income groups and
cultures.
• Consistent with themes of decentralization, individual control and
democracy.
abatement, pollution prevention and sustainable
technologies.
Remediation technologies treat environ-
mental problems after they have occurred. They
include various soil clean-up methods, treatment
of surface water or ground water, and a variety of
technologies to restore damaged or degraded
landscapes.
Abatement or end-of-pipe technologies
capture or treat pollutants before they escape into
the envkonment, employing physical, chemical
or biological means to reduce emissions. They
include municipal sewage treatment systems,
catalytic converters for cars, heavy metal
treatment for the plating industry, electrostatic
precipitators and flue gas desulphurization
equipment for coal-fired power plants.
It is important to stress that these
technologies do not prevent or eliminate
pollutants. They are usually capital intensive,
require significant amounts of energy and
resources to use, and produce a waste disposal
problem of their own. But they are effective and
most regulatory activity and investment in ESTs
is focused on abatement technologies.
Pollution prevention technologies are of two
types. The first are improved or alternative
industrial and agricultural processes that do not
produce pollutants. Examples include paper
making processes that eliminate chlorine
bleaching, cleaning techniques that eliminate
toxic solvents, reformulated manufacturing
processes that eliminate heavy metals and toxic
chemicals, and agricultural practices that
eliminate chemical pesticides and fertilizers.
The second type are alternative products whose
use and disposal avoid or prevent pollutants.
These include phosphate-free, biodegradable
detergents, lead-free gasoline, mercury-free
batteries, water-based paints and adhesives,
and non-toxic cleansers.
Pollution prevention is being driven by
regulation (with its new focus on performance
rather than prescription), consumer pressure
24
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BRINGING TANGIBLE, MEASURABLE BENEFITS
and, not least, the need to modernize industry.
Industrial pollution is frequently caused by old,
inefficient processes that are heavy users of
materials and energy, and produce unwanted by-
products. Improving and replacing these tech-
nologies with more eco-efficient processes
generally reduces input costs, streamlines pro-
duction, eliminates or reduces wastes, and saves
money.
Sustainable technologies are resource
efficient, provide economic and social advan-
tages, and have a low environmental impact (see
Box 2.1).
The USD makes the point that technologies
can be modified to move to the next step along
the evolutionary path - and that there are "many
existing technologies, products and services to
which the attributes of sustainability can be
added". For instance, a product can be made
more sustainable by making it more resource
efficient or more renewable.
Cleaning up industry
The major users of ESTs are the manufacturing
industries. They are particularly heavy polluters,
accounting for 25 per cent of nitrogen oxide
emissions, 40-50 per cent of sulphur oxide
emissions, 60 per cent of water pollution, 75 per
cent of non-hazardous waste, 90 per cent of
toxic discharges to water, and virtually all
potentially hazardous releases and wastes in the
Organisation for Economic Co-operation and
Development (OECD) countries. The picture is
similar worldwide.
A few industries, which are mainly
dominated by large plants, are responsible for
most industrial pollution - about 75 per cent of
potentially toxic emissions, for instance. They
are energy supply, ferrous and non-ferrous
metallurgy, industrial chemicals, pulp and paper,
cement and mining. These industries provide
basic feedstocks to many other productive
operations, as well as products for the consumer
market - and are also heavy users of energy,
contributing considerably to greenhouse gas
emissions and global climate change.
One difficult problem: is that many of the
basic processes used by many of these industries
— for instance, to produce steel, aluminium, pulp
and paper, and chemicals — are fundamentally
the same as they were 50, even" 100 years ago.
The most effective approach to reducing their
pollution and energy use would be to rethink the
processes from scratch. ESTs are the key to
improving their performance and mitigating the
pollution they cause.
In fact, every major industry in the
industrialized world hass invested heavily in
(
measures to combat environmental pollution,
largely as a result of strjngent environmental
regulations since the lake 1960s. Consumer
products and chemical [industries reportedly
spend the equivalent of; 38 per cent of net
income after taxes on environmental manage-
ment, while the automotive industry spends
about two-thirds of its !net income on this.
Industry leaders expect: their environmental
spending to increase more rapidly than profits.
Progress and problems within some of the key
industries are examined bislow.
Chemicals ;
The chemical industry is one of the most serious
global polluters and, recognizing this, the indus-
try spends twice as much on research and de-
velopment a year as all manufacturing industries
do on average — with a sizeable share of this
spending going on finding ways to reduce the
level of pollution caused by its activities and to
save energy. Worldwide,: the industry's invest-
ments in environmental protection in recent years
have averaged 5 per cent o'f all its investments: in
some countries, notably iin Germany, environ-
mental investments have .exceeded 10 per cent.
Indeed, the German chemical industry is a good
benchmark, since 98 per cent of its environ-
mental investments have been spent on cleaner
air, water protection and iwaste disposal and, in
image:
IrtlNtjIBLt, MCASUMADLt
BOX 2.2
Saving energy and raw materials
in the chemical industry
One Chinese chemical company identified a total of 20 cleaner
production options when it reviewed Its operations at a penta-erythritol
plant In Beijing, which accounted for more than 40 per cent of the
chemical oxygen demand in the wastewater discharged by the entire
factory. The plant operations included synthesis, first and second
evaporation, crystallization, washing and drying.
The company implemented nine of the options within six months and
established the feasibility of another six. They included installing a
microcomputer to control the quantity and speed of addition of one of
the raw materials; improving and expanding the refrigeration system;
fitting new centrifuges with better separation characteristics; installing
vacuum pumps to recover product previously lost with wastewater
during the crystallization process; and installing an end-of-pipe
wastewater facility to meet higher discharge standards.
As a result of introducing the technologies, the plant has increased
production, reduced operating costs for treatment, and saved on raw
materials and energy use.
return, the industry has reduced air and water
emissions by 70 per cent and 90 per cent in the
last 25 years, while achieving a 200 per cent
increase in production.
In the 1970s, the response of most chemical
companies to legislation was to invest mainly in
end-of-pipe technologies - such as effluent
treatment equipment and flue gas scrubbing
units. Since then, the industry has introduced
ESTs on a huge scale worldwide, making
considerable strides in identifying and reducing
major pollutants. Some companies have made
substantial changes to process technology: by
optimizing operations to reduce emissions and
waste generation at source or by replacing
mercury-based techniques with membrane sep-
aration (in the chlor-alkali industry, for
example), and some have substituted dangerous
organic solvents such as benzene and
trichloroethylene with a number of less hazardous
alternatives. Generally speaking, however, the
industry has not made these kinds of
fundamental changes.
One factor is that most ESTs introduced into
the chemical industry have been designed for
large-scale production plants and operations.
The industry is now moving towards producing
small-scale speciality chemicals, and intro-
ducing automation and batch-processing
concepts - a shift which should lead to the
development of new ESTs compatible with
medium- and small-scale operations.
The industry uses enormous amounts of
energy to produce more than 70,000 distinct
products through organic and inorganic pro-
cesses. An encouraging feature of its progress has
been the substantial gains in energy efficiency,
for example a 43 per cent improvement in the
United States between 1974 and 1990, and
similar gains in other countries. This has been
achieved through new technologies such as:
: "> the LP-OXO low-pressure oxidation process
for producing industrial solvents and
plasticizer, which uses 40 per cent less
energy than conventional methods;
the new Unipol process for making
polyethylene;
"'.'. new ethylene oxide and ethylene glycol
production technologies;
state-of-the-art technologies for producing
acrylic, nylon and polyester fibres, which
have been transferred from the United States
to China, India, Indonesia and Turkey;
ion-exchange membrane cells, which use less
energy and eliminate the associated environ-
mental hazards of using mercury and dia-
phragm cells for producing chlorine and
sodium hydroxide.
The industry will need to make more radical
changes in technology to achieve further
significant reductions in the pollution it
causes, and there are difficulties with this.
Generally, the industry expects an integrated
process to recover its development and
installation costs in about 10-15 years; during
26
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BRINGING TANGIBLE, MEASURABLE BENEFITS
that time, the process is usually operated
according to its design specifications, regardless
of inherent inefficiencies and/or environmental
incompatibility. Meanwhile, retrofitting opera-
tions to incorporate radical process changes will
invariably be expensive. However, environ-
mental protection concepts arc being in-
creasingly incorporated into process designs
from the beginning. At the same time,
companies are moving to waste minimization in
their production processes, through measures
such as waste and wastewater treatment,
recycling, catalysts, membranes, desulphuri-
zation plants and noise reduction. Polluting
catalysts such as tin and mercury, for example,
will probably be replaced by enzymatic
catalysts that have been immobilized on
suitable substrates. Several biotechnology-based
applications are also expected to be adopted
by the industry.
Pulp and paper
The pulp and paper industry is large and
growing, reflecting the world's demand for
paper. Pulp and paper mill operations cause
significant air and water emissions, require
enormous volumes of water every day (and
therefore are often located near rivers, lakes or
seas), are heavy users of energy, and contribute
to emissions of nitrogen oxides and sulphur
dioxide — almost all from burning fuels rather
than from the production process. The
production processes in large modern mills are
more efficient than those in the older, smaller
ones, so they use energy, water and raw
materials much more efficiently, and pollute
much less. Some major pulp mills now have
'closed processes' to recycle effluent water, and
their emissions of known pollutants are virtually
non-detectable.
Even so, total energy consumption is-
increasing continuously, even in the most
modern mills and, in 1992, the United States
paper industry was the third largest user of
BOX 2,3
Reducing pollution in pulp and
paper production
An Indonesian pulp and paper manufacturer invested US$42 million in
a system to treat solid, liquid and gaseous wastes, and another
US$1.8 million in a fibre recovery process, and achieved major
reductions in pollution and the use of energy and raw materials.
The cleaner production technologies included:
"' using oxygen rather than bleaching chemicals to reduce the lignin
in the pulp;
. • lowering the chemical and biological oxygen demand of the
effluent;
'. ~ recycling the cooking chemical to provide power for cooking, pulp
drying and paper-making, while reducing the chemical oxygen
demand of the effluent;
:, • recycling the water from the pulp drying machine;
' i using a cascade system that cut water consumption by
23 per cent per tonne of pulp;
"• a fibre recovery system to recover good fibre from reject pulp,
saving 40 tonnes of pulp a day;
:'-. collecting and re-using all spills in the mill.
The mill produces 790,000 tonnes of short-fibre pulp a year, and
254,000 tonnes of writing and printing paper. As well as energy and
raw material savings, the new technologies have reduced the use of
clean water and there is also less effluent needing treatment.
energy after the petroleum and chemical
sectors. However, the industry does generate a
significant proportion of its own energy needs
by burning by-products such as residues and
bark. The United States industry, for instance,
generates 55 per cent of its energy needs in this
way. In recent years, a number of new tech-
nologies have reduced the water content in the
sludge produced by paper mill operations
sufficiently that it too can be incinerated and
used for generating electricity on site. In the
United States, the industry is a leader in co-
generation, where high-pressure steam is used
"first to drive electric turbines, and then is used
a second time for process applications
demanding steam or heat, a dual use which is
more efficient than using the energy just to
• produce electricity.
image:
CSN
Our Commitment:
as little environmental impact as possible
Companhia Sideriirgica National (CSN) is Brazil's
leading steelmaker. Our President Vargas mill — Latin
America's largest integrated steelworks, located 145
kilometres from Rio de Janeiro - produces hot and
cold rolled and galvanized sheet, non-coated sheet
and tin-free sheet, and tin plate for major industries,
and accounted for 17 percent of Brazil's total
production of crude steel in 1996. We are the world's
biggest one-site producer of tin mill products.
We know full well that our industry - like any
other - will only remain competitive if it respects
and generates benefits for the environment in
which it operates.
Therefore, our environmental policy is clear: we
have to be permanently watchful towards our
processes to guarantee that our operations alter the
environment as little as possible. And because the
quality of life of our employees and the wider
community is just as important as the quality of
our products, we have committed ourselves to:
» incorporating environmental considerations into
all our business decisions
» exceeding existing environmental legislation
» keeping open a permanent channel of com-
munication with the community on all
environmental questions
• developing environmental improvement pro-
grammes inside the company and for the
community
« recognizing environmental problems for which we
are responsible, and remedying them
* constantly improving our environmental
performance.
CSN began investing in environmental improve-
ments in the 1970s, well before the company was
privatized in 1993. Up to 1996, we had invested
more than US$230 million in technologies and
equipment to reduce emissions — and we have
already spent US$26.7 million of the US$100 million
set aside for further environmental investments to
1999.
In addition to specific spending on environmental
protection, we are also investing in projects which
will substantially benefit the environment. One,
budgeted at US$300 million, is the construction of a
thermoelectric cogeneration power plant that will
increase the re-use of steel mill gaseous emissions,
while reducing the consumption of electrical energy.
Our environmental management programme
includes: analysis of intake and discharge water of
the Paraiba River; monitoring gas and particulate
emissions into the atmosphere; labour force
occupational hygiene and health programmes;
development of mill risk analysis, and regular
twice-a-year environmental audits.
Our future goals include obtaining certification
based on the ISO 14000 and QS 9000 norms.
And we are carrying out technical studies on the
production of blast furnace slag bricks, recycling
of coke and sinter plant wastes, substitution of
wooden railroad sleepers by steel sleepers, and the
use of steel scaffolds instead of wooden ones — to
conserve natural resources and foster the use of
steel and steelmaking wastes.
At CSN we are determined to constantly improve
our environmental performance in order to
guarantee, for both present and future generations,
that we make as little impact as possible on the
environment.
One of six
electrostatic
precipitators - huge
anti-pollution
devices which filter
the air at the sinter
plants
President Vargas Steelworks -
overall night view
Companhia Sideriirgica Nacional
Rua Lauro Muller, n° 116 / 36° andar - Botafogo
cep 22299-900 - Rio de Janeiro - RJ - Brazil
Tel 55 (21) 545-1500 Fax. 55 (21) 545-1400
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BRINGING TANGIBLE, MEASURABLE BENEFITS
BOX 2.4
Waste reduction: an urgent priority for metal plating
Metal plating is a big, diverse business, •
covering products as varied as metal
cans, machinery, household appliances,
care and trucks, aircraft and even
jewellery,, musical instruments and toys,
and is dominated by small companies in
both developed and developing
countries. In the United States alone,
there are an estimated 13,500 meta!
finishing operations, most located in
highly industrialized areas, employing on
average 65 people and discharging
140,000 litres of wastewater a day,
A feature of the industry in developed
countries is the major technological shift
it has experienced over the past 10-20
years. One reason is that because metal
plating pollutes, the scope and
stringency of environmental regulations
have increased steadily, and something
like 30-50 per cent of some country's
plating industries have disappeared
because of these stricter rules. In
developing countries, however, there
have been far fewer and less rapid
technological advances - and
businesses there rely much more on
unskilled labour and less on automation.
Metal plating processes use many
chemicals - cyanide, chromium, cadmium,"
nickel, aluminium, copper, iron, lead, tin
and zinc - most of which end up as
wastewater or solid waste. Air emissions
include chromium and a cocktail of
dangerous solvents. Wastewaters are :
usually treated on site, but this still leaves.
a hazardous sludge for disposal. Residual
metais in wastewaters discharged to
municipal sewerage systems are partially
removed by the municipality's biological
treatment process, but this also generates .
a sludge. Contaminated liquid solvents are;
either recovered by distillation, or sent for1
incineration, while wet scrubbers can
control chromium emissions and other
heavy metals.
In these circumstances, while pollution ]
prevention is critical, waste minimization
is a priority for the industry. During the
past 10-15 years, the best companies
have made significant strides in this area
- in some cases reducing waste volumes.
by 90 per cent. However, the pace of :
change has been generally slow ;
throughout the industry.
As the Washington Waste Minimization
Workshop, organized by the Organisation
for Economic Co-operation and
Development (OECD) in 1995, was told, :
"cleaner technologies and products
already exist" - air emission control;
process solution maintenance (for
example, microfiltration, ion exchange,
membrane electrolysis); chemical
recovery (for example, evaporation, ion
exchange; electrodialysis, reverse
osmosis); and off-site metals recovery
(for example, filtration, ion exchange,
electrolytic). Why then, as the report to
the Washington meeting stated, are
there still "barriers (which) limit the use of
pollution prevention" in metal plating?
"in the developed countries, the industry is
dominated by small companies. With
fewer resources and personnel, they find it
impossible to use the technologies used in
larger companies. Consequently, these
businesses have a disproportionate impact
on the environment. The primary need of
these companies is access to information
on the relatively simple, but effective
technologies that are now available."
The report also noted "a lack of access to
new, cost-effective, cleaner technology" -
and that "industrial managers often do not
appreciate the financial and other benefits
associated with waste minimization, and
face significant psychological barriers
when shifting to unknown but cleaner
technologies".
The main focus in the 1970s and 1980s was
on reducing the amount of fibre and oxygen-
demanding compounds (or biological oxygen
demand — BOD) discharged into water, and
sulphur dioxide emitted into the air. There were
major investments in new in-plant
technologies, with the result that the Swedish
pulp and paper industry - one of the world's
largest - and the industry in Finland reduced
both per unit BOD emissions and sulphur
emissions by 90 per cent.
In the 1980s, the main environmental issue
was the reduction of organically-bound chlorine
and dioxins used in the bleaching process. The
development and introduction of new bleaching
technologies with low chlorine charges have led
to virtually dioxin-free bleaching. Currently, at
least 15 mills in Canada, Finland, South Africa,
Sweden and the United ;States are trying to
achieve closed-cycle bleaching. It is expected
that some will have totally closed bleaching
systems by the end. of the century although
this process only minimizes, and does not
eliminate, environmental impact. A centrai
challenge for the 1990s is to reduce nitrogen
oxide emissions.
image:
Steel
The iron and steel industry has a major impact
on the environment because of the sheer scale of
its operations, and its use of energy and raw
materials. In the 1950s and 1960s, it was a major
source of pollution, especially air pollution - a
problem tackled initially by retrofitting gas and
dust collection facilities to existing plants,
which has cost the industry over 50 per cent of
its expenditure on environmental control.
The industry has replaced older plants with
newer facilities, incorporating the most up-to-
date environmental practices in their design
. and operation, as commercial conditions
dictate. One result has been a significant
reduction in dust emissions in some countries.
Producing a tonne of steel can use up to 50
tonnes of water. Steel plants have tackled the
problem of discharges of contaminated water
through treating and recycling it. The
development of closed loop systems means that
in many countries over 90 per cent of the water
used is recycled. By some estimates, the
industry spent US$20 billion on environmental
control in the 1980s.
The industry also uses large quantities of
energy to produce heat to run the furnaces which
smelt the iron ore, and at several stages during
the processing operations. Continuous casting -
where the molten metal is poured continuously
into slabs or other steel shapes, instead of into
ingot moulds - has been increasing since the
1970s and now stands at 80 per cent of
production. In some countries, almost 100 per
cent of steel is continuously cast. It is far more
energy efficient because it removes a complete
process stage and significantly reduces the
amount of crude steel needed for each tonne of
finished steel supplied to customers. However,
retrofitting existing plants is very capital
intensive and can take years.
Another significant change has been to
electric furnaces, which also consume much less
energy, because they typically use 100 per cent
scrap and avoid the energy needed to smelt iron
ore. Electric furnace use has increased steadily
in the past 20 years, but has stabilized at about
35-40 per cent. (Open hearth furnaces had
disappeared entirely from United States
steelmaking by 1992.)
Two new process technologies under
development will revolutionize the industry:
direct steelmaking and near-net-shape casting.
Direct steelmaking uses existing post-
combustion and heat-transfer technology to
increase the scrap melting capability in basic
oxygen furnaces, and to produce steel from iron
ore in one operation, while achieving significant
cuts in energy consumption. Near-net-shape
casting applies several existing technologies to
cast the steel close to the shape of the final
product, thereby, reducing the amount of down-
stream processing. It will reduce energy use
even more than direct steelmaking.
Construction
The construction industry is an important one.
Its output represents 8-12 per cent of gross
domestic product in most national economies
and it certainly affects the environment directly,
through its own operations. But as a major
consumer for other industries, such as
mining/quarrying, cement, steel and aluminium,
it also has a major indirect impact.
Environmental impacts occur at every stage of
the construction cycle: siting, production and
supply of building materials and equipment, on-
site construction, operation and demolition. New
building development, together with the
quarrying of sand and gravel, extraction of brick
materials and clay, and exploitation of timber
resources, destroy natural areas, forests and
wetlands. Transporting building materials uses
large amounts of energy, as does the production
of cement, brick, glass, lime, steel and
aluminium. Moreover, these processes generate
greenhouse gases and emissions of dust, fibres,
particulates and other air pollutants. Demolishing
30
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BRINGING TANGIBLE, MEASURABLE BENEFITS
buildings creates massive amounts of waste,
adding to the considerable quantities produced by
quarrying and mining, and building maintenance
and operations. Solutions to these problems do
exist. They include the efficient use, re-use and
recycling of building materials, and cleaner
production and eco-efficient technologies.
Top priority is the efficient management of
natural resources. This is possible, thanks to
ESTs, at almost every stage of mineral use, from
eliminating waste in manufacturing operations
to the recovery of materials from products at the
end of their useful lives. Using more mineral
and agricultural wastes as inputs to the industry
would reduce its impact on the natural
environment. The recovery and use of mining
and industrial wastes include blast furnace slag
in cement production, gypsum from phosphate
production and desulphurization units for panels
and blocks, and red mud from aluminium
processing for brick and ceramics production.
The most significant results have been achieved
in using fly ash, produced in large amounts by
coal-fired power stations, as a raw material in
cement, concrete, sand-lime bricks and
ceramics, as well as for road building.
Agricultural wastes such as rice husks, coffee
shells and sawdust have long been used as
alternative fuels for brick firing. A new approach
is to use wastes as both raw material and fuel in
the cement industry. The rotary kiln is a very
efficient reactor for the thermal cracking of
waste, including rubber tyres, paints and other
toxic materials, and domestic waste.
The relationship with the cement industry is a
specific one as it is used almost exclusively by
the construction industry. Cement production
causes local pollution from airborne dust
particles. This can be controlled by using
efficient filtering systems. In France, for
example, dust emissions dropped from 200,000
tonnes a year in the 1950-1960s to very low
levels in the 1990s, even though production
doubled. But many cement plants worldwide do
BOX 2.5
On-site 'green' building techniques
in Japan
The Global Environment Centre carried out a survey of on-site 'green' •
techniques in the construction Industry in Japan and found that
companies had developed and adopted a range of measures,
including improvements to equipment and processes, and simple new
ways to control and re-use waste materials. Some examples are given
below.
• The development of a construction.method using panel concrete,
which does not require moulds for pouring concrete, reducing the
amount of waste and controlling the use of moulds made from
tropical wood. Building components such as floors, walls,
columns, stairs, girders and beams are manufactured as panel
concrete and assembled into one structure using cast-in-piace
concrete.
:•". The use of a plastic mould to replace the typical veneer board
mould, reducing the number of trees cut down. The plastic moulds
can be recycled and re-used, reducing construction waste.
The recycling of primary treatment soil using a slurry shield method,
leading to fewer deliveries and cutting disposal costs of the surplus
soil.
1 -'. The introduction of separate storage for general waste, industrial
waste and corrugated cardboard boxes. Storing the waste in one
place makes it difficult to identify the components, so disposal
costs are high. Separating the waste into different containers
makes identification easy, helps improve the site environment and
cuts disposal costs.
not use efficient filtering. Producers of cement,
lime, bricks, ceramics and glass are high-energy
users, operating at temperatures between 950
degrees and 1,450 degrees C. The cement
industry is making efforts to address the
problem of energy consumption, mainly through
using alternative fuels and improved processes
" and kiln design, A major step has been the
conversion from wet to dry production.
Counting the costs of ESTs
One familiar argument deployed by companies
against introducing ESTs is they cost too much
and could impact on corporate profits and
image:
TransCanada
OUR COMMITMENT
TransCanada is an international energy company with its
headquarters in Calgary, Alberta, Canada. We own and
operate over 15,000 km of natural gas and oil pipelines,
process and market energy products, have developed and
operate some of the world's most modern, high-efficiency
combined-cycle electric generation plants, operate the
world's largest high-quality carbon black facility, and
manufacture specialized chemicals for the agricultural and
pharmaceutical industries.
Our environmental management system is based on
visible commitment from employees, senior management
and directors. Company employees and contractors are both
responsible and accountable for environmental excellence.
We set standards, monitor our activities, and evaluate our
performance to ensure we continuously improve.
Our environmental programme minimizes the potential
adverse effects of our activities through avoidance,
mitigation or remediation, and restores any disturbed land
to as close to its original condition as possible.
Our project planning programmes include: preparing
environmental and socio-economic assessments;
including environmental specifications in contracts;
having independent environmental inspectors on site
during construction; avoiding wetlands whenever possible,
or using special construction practices to protect
vulnerable areas; minimizing impacts on wildlife by
avoiding construction in sensitive areas and during
breeding periods; protecting rare or sensitive plant
species. We also consult with community stakeholders
before, during and after construction, and work with local
authorities to evaluate heritage sites and excavate artefacts
when necessary.
Construction of the TransGas de Occidente pipeline in
Colombia. We have a 34% Interest in and operate this
natural gas pipeline - a 344 km pipeline with 400 km of
laterals. The line crosses some of the most difficult
mountain terrain In Colombia.
Two TransCanada employees inspecting an artificial
nesting structure for ducks. The structures were set up
in Manitoba as part of the Pipelines for Ducks Waterfowl
Nesting Tunnel Program, a joint Initiative of TransCanada
and the Manitoba Habitat Heritage Corporation.
Our management programmes include: monitoring
facilities, waste management, hazardous waste, noise
management, vegetation control, training, energy
conservation and air quality. We also audit environmental
performance and report to senior management and
TransCanada's board.
We fully support Canada's national Climate Change
Challenge to reduce greenhouse gas emissions to 1990
levels by the year 2000. Our commitment to implementing
cost-effective ways of reducing emissions includes:
moving natural gas out of pipelines rather than releasing it
into the atmosphere; improving compressor sealing
systems; using high efficiency, low NOx turbines;
operating three enhanced combined cycle power plants
which generate electricity using natural gas and waste heat
from our turbines. We have also planted over three million
trees on urban and rural lands across Canada.
TransCanada supports many local projects. Wherever we
are in the world, we work with stakeholders to address local
concerns. In developing countries, a significant challenge is
to meet local social and economic expectations while
building and operating safe, profitable projects.
Public expectations for responsible environmental
management are increasing. People demand to be involved
in development activities affecting their quality of life.
Scrutiny by governments and non-governmental
organizations (NGOs) is also increasing.
The challenges are many. TransCanada has the people and
the commitment to meet them.
G.W. Watson
President and Chief Executive Officer
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BRINGING TANGIBLE, MEASURABLE BENEFITS
workers* jobs. The same objections are raised by
countries concerned that spending on the
environment threatens their economic growth.
Germany is well placed to address these issues. It
has some of the toughest environmental rules in
the world, requiring both the private and public
sectors to make huge investments in clean air and
water, waste disposal, noise abatement and other
environmental protection measures.
A 1994 report from the German Federal
Environmental Agency (FEA) - Environmental
Protection — an Economic Asset — tackled head-
on the question of what ESTs really cost.
Between 1975 and 1991, manufacturing indus-
try and the government (in the former West
Germany) spent some US$250 billion on
pollution abatement or prevention - half on
investment, half on operating costs. At 1985
prices, this worked out at an annual average of
about US$15 billion. Tn terms of the economy as
a whole, environmental spending accounted for
1,6 per cent of gross national product - far less
than that spent on defence, education and health.
The FEA reported that in 1991 about 7,400 out
of a total of 73,000 manufacturing companies
invested in environmental measures, with an
average per company of US$500,000. Ah" and
water quality accounted for nearly 80 per cent
of corporate envkonmental investment. In 1991
(in the unified Germany), the proportion of
overall business investment dedicated to
envkonmental protection ranged from 0.8 per
cent to 24.9 per cent. Spending was well below
the average in leather processing, the garment
trade and manufacture of office equipment and
well above in leather production, chemicals,
non-ferrous metals, semi-finished products and
oil refining.
The report said that "it is extremely rare for
investments to be made simply for the sake of
the environment. They are usually also intended
to upgrade production technology. It would also
be wrong to deduce that the sectors spending
most on the environment tend to be those which
are having to downscale. Some pollution-
intensive sectors really are in decline (mining,
oil refining, iron and steel, foundries), while
others rank among the growth industries (energy
and water supply, chemicals, pulp/paper/
paperboard)."
Procurement and production "do not have to
be expensive just because they satisfy environ-
mental standards", said the FEA. "There are
many instances where a lot of money can be
saved on conventional feedstocks or production
methods." The report pointed out that public
subsidies have helped to ease the burden on
companies, and to "ensure that urgent environ-
mental investments are not put off till a finer day,
and to speed up the development and introduction
of cleaner technologies and environmentally
friendlier products". Federal government assist-
ance totalled some US$1.4 billion in 1991.
The FEA calculated the cost benefits to the
economy - and, therefore, to industry - from
protecting the environment. Specific measures
such as diesel fuel desulphurization to
reduce sulphur dioxide emissions, three-way
catalytic converters for all new vehicles and
those to force agriculture to comply with nitrate
levels in drinking water had a cost-benefit ratio
as much as 1:5. "This makes environmental
action a highly lucrative proposition", it
commented.
Tough environmental regulations and heavy
spending on ESTs and other improvements can
cost jobs by raising production costs and putting
companies at a disadvantage in the international
arena, the report acknowledged. But, it added,
this ignores the new jobs created thanks to
environmental protection. The FEA said mat
following present trends, more than 1.1 million
people in Germany will owe their jobs to
environmental protection and, conversely, some
185,000 more people would be out of work in
2000 if environmental policy were frozen at
1990 levels, "On balance, environmental
protection does not destroy jobs, but actually
image:
Determined to become clean
and sustainable
Healthy industrial development is essential to generate
resources to create jobs, as well as promote education
— both of which are the basis of social well-being. And
social well-being, is a condition for achieving
sustainable development.
But development will only be healthy if industry's
practices, processes and products are clean.
Government can encourage this transformation, and
society must accept and support it too — but it is
industry's responsibility to drive and implement the
changes. Altos Hornos de Mexico S.A. de C.V.
(AHMSA) is doing so.
Since privatization in 1991, the company has invested
around US$150 million in environment-related
programs.
Among the most important measures have been
installing a hydrochloric acid plant and water treatment
recycling facilities, as well as other equipment for
preventing atmospheric pollution. This investment has
paid off. AHMSA has reduced water consumption by
53 percent and atmospheric emissions by 60 percent,
and increased its recycling rate to 74 percent.
In December 1996, the company was awarded ISO
14001 certification at its hot strip mill and blast
furnace plants — the first steel plant in North America,
and the first company in Mexico to receive this
recognition.
AHMSA's commitment to a cleaner environment
extends to helping neighbouring communities. In the
last four years, for example, it has donated 3,550
waste containers and 21 refuse collection vehicles,
constructed a landfill and waste water treatment
plant, and provided support for the water supply
system. The company has recently signed an
agreement with the Federal Government to support
five national parks covering one million hectares —
and has also developed a deer breeding farm and
many other activities.
AHMSA's management, shareholders and employees
recognize that support for the environment is the key
to the company's continuing success. We are all
determined to continue the process until AHMSA is a
truly sustainable business.
Alonso Ancira Elizondo
Executive Vice President and
Chief Executive Officer
GRUPO ACERERO DEL NORTE
ALTOS HORNOS DE MEXICO
AHMSA
Prolongacion Juarez S/N
Col. La Loma, C.P. 25770
Monclova, Coahuila, Mexico
Tel: (86) 49 30 00/49 33 30 Fax: (86) 49 20 33
image:
BRINGING TANGIBLE, MEASURABLE BENEFITS
provides important new momentum for the
labour market." The report also noted that
environmental measures had created oppor-
tunities in manufacturing and other industries
for higher-qualified people.
And what do the companies themselves think?
The FEA also reported the results of a survey of
600 firms in the former West Germany:
g? only 30 per cent felt that protecting the
environment would hurt their profits;
M more than half believed it would improve
thek competitive position;
Ss two out of three companies had invested in
environmental protection and other measures
which had reduced costs or increased
earnings', and
'£, 60 per cent said that improving environ-
mental performance was critical to their
survival (emphasis added).
Benefiting the bottom line
The World Business Council for Sustainable
Development (WBCSD) reinforced the point
in its Signals of Change report, timed for the
1997 United Nations General Assembly Special
Session (UNGASS). Eco-efficiency, producing
more with fewer resources and less pollution,
"encourages business to become more com-
petitive", it said, stressing that the introduction of
ESTs, especially cleaner production technolo-
gies, brought major benefits to companies'
bottom lines. It gave some examples.
Sources
Automotive Environmental Analyst, March 1997,
Rnancia! Times.
Cleaner Production In the Asia Pacific Economic
Cooperation Region, 1994, UNEP IE,
Cleaner Production Worldwide, 1993, UNEP IE.
EarthEhterprlse™ Tool Kit, 1994, International
Institute for Sustainable Development.
Energy and Environmental Technologies to Respond to
Global Climate Change Concerns, 1994, OECD.
Environmental Protection - an Economic Asset,
1994, Environmental Economics Section, Federal
Environmental Agency, Germany.
Environmentally Sound Technology for Sustainable
Development, 1992, ATLAS Bulletin.
M A leading United States company has saved
at least US$750 million over the past 20
years by a continuous programme of pollu-
tion control and prevention,
$£ A copper smelting plant in the United States,
the most advanced in the world, uses the
Outokumpu Flash converting furnace to
achieve high capacity and productivity, while
capturing 99.9 per cent of the sulphur
generated in the smelting process, and
eliminating the open-air ladle transfer of
molten metals, a major source of emissions.
IS A sugar factory in Mexico, processing about
720,000 tonnes of sugar cane a year, has cut
its water consumption by 94 per cent,
reduced the amount of effluent it discharges,
saved US$220,000 in the first year and repaid
the investment within two years.
M China's biggest commercial enzyme producer
worked with, a United States company to
improve its manufacturing systems and re-
duce waste. The results: a 20 per cent energy
saving, a doubling of production and cost
savings of US$240,000 a year.
The WBCSD makes the point that "a require-
ment for sustainable development is basic
efficiency — getting as much added value as
possible, with as little input as necessary of
energy and natural resources, while producing
little waste, especially in the form of pollution".
ESTs make a central contribution to achieving
these results.
Greener Management International, April 1993,
Greenleaf Publishing.
Industry and Environment, various issues,
UNEP IE.
Signals of Change: Business Progress Towards
Sustainable Development, 1997,
World Business Council for Sustainable
Development.
• Technologies for Cleaner Production and Products,
1995, OECD.
Towards a Sustainable Paper Cycle, 1996, WBCSD
and the International Institute for Environment
and Development.
Washington Waste Minimization Workshop, 1995,
OECD.
image:
Developing countries can avoid the
mistakes made by the industrialized
world by introducing cleaner
technologies from the outset.
image:
Transferring technologies
While environmentally sound technologies (ESTs) need to be wed more vjidely throughout
industry in tiie developed economies — particularly among small and medium-sized
enterprises — the imperative is to accelerate their introduction and use in developing
countries. The fastest growth in population and economic activity in the years ahead will
occur outside the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD)
countries, and udth increased economic growth comes increased pollution. This is not
simply a 'local' issue: as many developing countries industrialise at a rapid pace, they
contribute increasingly to global environmental problems. Transferring state-of4he-art
ESTs, held mostly by the OECD countries, and training people to use them is essential to
meet this challenge. But there are a number of barriers to successful technology transfer and
these need to be overcome if the use of ESTs is to be accelerated.
',.':, s far as environmentally sound tech-
... .'•-•. nologies (ESTs) are concerned,
.it. developing countries need to make the
same changes as those implemented in a number
of industrialized economies. They need to:
replace environmentally damaging industrial
processes with environmentally superior
alternatives;
!.. reform manufacturing practices to cut
materials use, energy consumption and
pollution;
:•" improve existing technologies, largely trans-
ferred from countries that industrialized earlier
or, better still, replace them with new ESTs.
Indeed, many developing countries, starting out
on the process of industrialization, have an ideal
opportunity to leapfrog the 'dirty stages' in
technological development and avoid the
developed world's mistakes. It would be to every
developing country's advantage to implement
cleaner technologies from the start because it
would help them to:
~. compete in world markets with goods and
services that meet international standards;
'"-.. reduce pressure;
*• minimize environmental damage.
Despite this, the take-up of new technologies
outside the Organisation for Economic Co-
operation and Development (OECD) countries is
disappointing: 87 per cent of investment in ESTs
is still in Japan, North America and Western
Europe, though the market for them is increasing
in parts of Asia and Latin America. This suggests
that while there may be a demand for ESTs in
developing markets, there are a number of
barriers to technology transfer. These barriers
include lack of information, lack of funding,
intellectual property rights, royalties and lack of
skills in managing ESTs in developing countries.
Success factors
Transferring ESTs successfully depends on the
potential recipient:
• j: understanding their benefits;
i obtaining information, and having the
knowledge and tools to make an assessment;
1 •! understanding how to implement and manage
technological change successfully.
The United Nations Commission on
Sustainable Development (CSD) says that if
"any of these elements is omitted or seriously
deficient, successful technology transfer will be
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Laying the foundations for strong,
sustainable growth for Egypt
Egypt is one of the fastest-growing emerging
markets. A strategic location, a labour force of
17 million and the region's lowest-cost producer
make it the perfect manufacturing base and entry
point for the Arab, Asian and African markets.
The private sector is leading this surge for growth,
exports and jobs. Boosted by a major economic
reform programme which includes investment
incentives and tax exemptions, it already
accounts for 60 percent of Egypt's GDP, and this
will reach 85 percent by the year 2000.
The Ezz Group - a 100 percent privately-owned
company - is at the heart of Egypt's economic
renaissance. The company began trading in 1959
handling the local distribution of steel and
construction materials. In 1987, the group
expanded into industry, investing over $300
million in the steel and building materials sectors.
Today, it is a major manufacturer of steel rebars
and coil, and one of the country's largest
producers of high-quality ceramic and porcelain
tiling, exporting to 40 countries.
The Ezz Group understands its responsibilities as
an engine for growth. To compete in the global
market, it has invested heavily in modern facilities
supported by advanced technologies. A key
objective has been to establish a technologically
sound and enduring industrial base, balanced by
environmental management systems.
It has taken no short cuts: its facilities exceed
current national environmental protection
requirements and set an example for other
industrial investors. To date, over $19 million has
been invested in:
• Water Treatment Plants
The Group has followed strict regulations
requiring all water wastes to be free of hazardous
chemicals and suspensions upon discharge. Al
Ezz Steel Company has three water treatment
plants: for its rolling mills and its steel meltshop,
for water purification, chemical treatment, water
cooling, sludge treatment and oil and grease
removal. Al Ezz Ceramics and Porcelain Company
has an integrated dedusting, water recycling and
purification system.
• Fume Treatment Plants
Al Ezz Steel has equipped its plants with systems
- including 600 tons of steel fabricated ducts - to
collect gases and treat dust, and generate a clean
environment throughout the plant. Al Ezz
Ceramics and Porcelain factories are similarly
equipped.
• Anti-Flickering Systems
These systems control flicker pollution resulting
from the Arc Furnace operation inside the 220 kV
national electric grid.
The Ezz Group achieves high productivity
levels thanks to top industrial technology
and stringent quality control and management.
Its investment in pollution control systems
reflects an effort to reconcile the conflicting
needs of industry and the environment.
Through technology transfer, human
resource development and environmental
control systems, The Ezz Group is laying the
foundation for strong and sustainable growth for
industry and for Egypt.
EGYPT
AL EZZ CERAMICS CO. "GEMMA-AL JAWHARA"
AL EZZ PORCELAIN CO. "GEMMA-AL JAWHARA"
AL EZZ STEEL REBARS CO.
AL EZZ STEEL MILLS CO.
EZZ FOREIGN TRADE
8, El Sad El Aali St., Dokki, Cairo, Egypt
Tel. (202) 360 0150 Fax (202) 360 0155 Tlx. 22124 EZCO UN
Ahmed Ezz, Chairman
image:
TRANSFERRING TECHNOLOGIES
difficult". It also points out that, increasingly,
the issue for many developing countries may be
access not to a particular technology, but to the
process of technological change to achieve
cleaner production. UNEP stresses that "the
benefits and advantages (of ESTs) need to be
more widely understood and appreciated", and
in particular "much more emphasis is needed on
their economic benefits, as well as on their
ability to produce improved products and
services".
Companies - whether in developed or
developing countries — essentially have two
motives to adopt ESTs. One is because they
have no choice: legislation forces them to meet
mandatory environmental standards. The other
is because they understand the economic
benefits of reducing raw materials and energy
use, waste and pollution. Legislation and
regulations are important as well, as they can,
for example, penalize polluting industrial
processes.
Knowledge gap
Even though ESTs clearly add value, and
provide a good return for firms, large sections of
industry - mainly, though not exclusively in
developing countries - remain unimpressed by
the benefits. Indeed, there remains a large and
worrying knowledge gap generally on ESTs.
Time and again, companies in developing
economies say they do not know what
technologies are available. For example, 50
business leaders from the Middle East told a
workshop organized by DELTA (Developing
Environmental Leadership Towards Action) in
September 1996 that "lack of awareness of
alternative technologies" was a major obstacle
to improving their corporate environmental
performance.
This information gap is a critical constraint
on the transfer of ESTs. 'The ability to obtain
information on available technological alter-
natives is the first step towards making greater
BOX 3.1
Bottom-line benefits are persuasive
Evidence of improved financial performance is a key factor in
persuading firms to adopt environmentally sound technologies (ESTs).
This has certainly been one of the reasons for the success of a
programme to promote pollution prevention in the Philippines, funded
by the United States aid agency USAID under the Industrial
Environmental Management Project, and focused on small companies.
fin outside expert visits the company, identifies areas and
opportunities for introducing waste minimization, and prepares a report
for the management on what to do before making a return visit to
check on follow-up action.
Initially, companies were reluctant to volunteer for the scheme.
However, because so many of those that did take part reported big
cost savings from adopting the expert's recommendations, there has
been a surge of volunteers. Some are even willing to pay for what was
originally a free scheme. One other result has been the emergence of a
market for environmental management consultants.
Most of the changes proposed to companies cost little or nothing
which helps explain why, when introduced, they yielded significant
savings in operating costs. High-cost recommendations have not been
adopted as a genera! rule. "More time is needed to convince small
businessmen that such expenditure would eventually be recouped,
and some businessmen are also waiting until law enforcement
becomes truly efficient to justify the high cost of such
recommendations."
The Philippine Business for the Environment organization drew the
clear conclusion that an essential factor in the successful introduction
of new ESTs to a developing country was "evidence of profitability"
because "local entrepreneurs cannot afford to invest in undertakings
whose returns are more social than economic". The fact that
foreign consultants effectively demonstrated the new processes in situ
(that is, in the local environment) was also important. So too was the
fact that there was a reasonable level of local capability in science and
engineering.
use of ESTs and upgrading systems of
production ... the future widespread adoption of
ESTs in developing countries will largely be an
exercise in improved information exchange and
capacity-building", says the CSD.
According to UNEP: "Solutions to many
environmental problems may already exist.
They have been developed worldwide, and
implemented by institutions and communities.
image:
BOX 3.2
Barriers to technology transfer
Reports produced at a 1995 workshop in Geneva, organ'ized by the
United Nations Commission on Trade and Development (UNCTAD) and
the United Kingdom government, confirmed the difficulties in transferring
environmentally sound technologies (ESTs) to developing countries.
Three hundred companies in Argentina were surveyed on adopting
environmental management systems and cleaner technologies, and
five major barriers were identified:
lack ol information;
lack of qualified personnel;
lack of know-how to use the technologies;
a confusing regulatory framework;
financial requirements,
"Developing countries are discouraged from using ESTs", it said,
"because the costs of new ESTs are greater than those of existing
'polluting' technologies; there are insufficient financial resources to
cover the incremental costs; there is a lack of new resources, or
information about existing resources, that are specifically for ESTs."
The report also criticized the "insufficient information disclosure by
producers of ESTs", which "weakens the developing country's product
choices and negotiating advantages, and reduces the likelihood of
appropriate EST transfer decisions".
In another report, the Economic and Social Commission for Asia and
the Pacific stressed the importance of helping developing countries
acquire the necessary technological and managerial capabilities.
"There Is a need for change in the ongoing efforts to promote the
transfer of ESTs. These efforts appear to concentrate for the most part
on using imported equipment and expertise to achieve a one-shot
environmental improvement - rather than laying the basis for self-
sustaining paths of increasing efficiency in the future."
As part of the research process, and at the request of the parties to
the Montreal Protocol's Multilateral Fund, UNEP Is currently conducting
a study of the barriers related to the transfer of ESTs to replace ozone
depleting substances.
Yet, knowledge of these solutions appears not to
be global. Developing countries and countries
with economies in transition in particular, may
be unaware of the range of technological
alternatives available to solve the specific
environmental problems they face. Likewise,
they may not know that a large number of these
solutions are in the public domain, in some cases
are free of charge, and can significantly
contribute to alleviating pressures on the
environment for both developed and developing
countries."
Why is there such a lack of knowledge
about ESTs when there are a number of
information channels already available through
research centres, databases, national and
international information systems and industry
associations? (see Box 3.3). According to the
CSD, the problem is that there are no specific
support' structures to facilitate technology
transfer. Other factors that could account for the
lack of transfer are that the mandates and
financing of these information systems are not
specifically oriented to developing countries.
Indeed, many serve developed countries only. In
addition, many private companies do not want to
release technologies because frequently there is
little guarantee they will be adequately
compensated - by royalty fees, for example.
Plugging the gap
There is a consensus that the need is to
strengthen the existing channels, rather than
create new ones, and that:
country-based information access points are
important, for example coordinated and
networked with other facilities for tech-
nology transfer, such as centres for training,
demonstration and transfer of ESTs;
: ? information sources should be close to
the end-users so they know of their
existence and can access them easily, and
they should provide fast answers to end-
users' questions;
'x information itself must be driven by demand,
not supply, so that it is based on user needs;
• information should also be clear and specific:
why ESTs are needed, what ESTs are
available, their costs, benefits and
drawbacks, and how and where to get them.
End-users also need to know about cases
where ESTs failed, and why. For example, was
the technology inappropriate or was lack of
training to blame?
40
image:
TRANSFERRING TECHNOLOGIES
Intermediaries crucial
The role of intermediaries is crucial. They
provide information on technologies, identify
information sources or arrange access to the
technologies themselves. Intermediaries are
mainly international, governmental or non-
governmental environmental organizations,
university research centres and training
institutions,
As the first point of contact with end-users,
the intermediary is responsible for passing
on relevant information about ESTs, which may
come from information systems in developed
countries. This information may influence the
end-user's choice of technology or know-how.
The intermediary must be able to recognize and
meet the end-user's specific needs as companies
and industries in developing countries are often
unsure what questions to ask about improving
their operations. The intermediary has to help
form the questions, then provide the answers.
He or she can also play a significant role in the
contacts between EST suppliers in developed
countries and customers in developing
countries. The intermediary has a marketing role
to promote awareness of their services and
ultimately awareness of ESTs and their benefits.
Dissemination of information materials and
provision of seminars and training programmes
are ways to do this.
Other issues
Language is another barrier to information
access, since most of the materials available on
ESTs are in English only. The cost of accessing
a database can also be a deterrent, which raises
the issue of whether information should be
free, at least at the initial stage when an
intermediary is trying to raise awareness of
ESTs among potential end-users. A UNEP-
organized meeting of experts in Paris in 1995
proposed establishing a consultative mech-
anism in the form of an EST information
system network - a loose-knit network of
organizations and institutions using and
supplying information on ESTs.
Reaching small and medium-sized
enterprises
Small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs)
are often neglected in the transfer of ESTs,
for various reasons: their sheer number;
their relative lack of capital, knowledge and
technical capabilities; and the difficulties suppliers
face in identifying and contacting them. The
Industrial and Technological Information Bank of
the United Nations Industrial Development
Organization (UNIDO) found that information on
ESTs was mostly targeted at developed, not
developing, countries, compounding the problem
of reaching SMEs in developing countries.
Smaller enterprises frequently have limited
financial resources, which is one of the barriers
to implementing ESTs. Lack of access to
information is a further obstacle. There is also
the problem of the SMEs* own attitude towards
new technologies: they rarely have an
'information culture'; adopt a passive attitude to
information; and are conservative about making
changes to their existing practices.
A study by UNEP's Cleaner Production
Programme in conjunction with the World
Business Council for Sustainable Development
(WBCSD), and with financial support from the
European Union, is reviewing the current global
situation of SMEs to address the following
questions:
what information do enterprises need?
what information is available?
'*' what additional information should be
provided?
••'• how is information delivered and how could
delivery be improved?
Globally, environmental problems faced
and posed by SMEs are similar, and they seem
to be exacerbated in developing countries.
SMEs account for a large percentage of
economic activity and therefore have a major
image:
Cerrolatoso
ENVIRONMENTAL COMMITMENT MEANS SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY
Cerro Matoso S.A. (CMSAj in Colombia, South
America, is part of the Queensland Nickel
International (QNI) Group of Australia, the fourth
largest nickel producer in the western world, CMSA is
a leader in ferronickel production - contributing
3 percent of the world's output through opencast
mining and the advanced technology process of
pyrornetallurgy. It has the world's largest electric
furnace, uses smelting technology for processing
nickeliferous laterites, and uses expert and simulation
systems for process control. CMSA exports over
30,000 tonnes per year of ferronickel granules to
customers in Europe, Asia and the United States,
where they are used mainly for the production of
stainless steel.
CMSA's vision is to be a leading company in the
production of ferronickel at world level, contribute to
the sustainable future of its region, and to be the
favourite place to work in Colombia. Its mission is to
achieve efficient, economic management of nickel
deposits, provide high-quality ferronickel to its
customers, promote the development of its staff and
the contribution of each employee to the company's
success, and contribute to the progress of the region
where it operates and that of Colombia.
CMSA aims for continuous improvement through
a process of total quality and initiatives such as
management of loss control, an occupational
health programme, an environmental management
system, a quality insurance system, a development,
education and training plan, and managers leading
by example.
CMSA is fulfilling its commitment to creating a
sustainable future for the region of Montelibano,
400 kilometres south of the port of Cartagena in
Colombia, through a number of ambitious social and
environmental programmes. These include having set
up three foundations:
» the Fundacion San Isidro to contribute to the
welfare of the local community
• the Fundacion Educativa Montelibano to provide
quality education for employees* children and other
children in the region
• the Fundacion Panzemi to provide family health care
services.
The Company has also:
« set up a community nursery to provide CMSA with
garden plants and timber-yielding trees for
reforestation projects
Indicators of eco-efficiency
General aspects 1997
Economic aspects:
Exports
Payment of royalties
Taxes
US$167 million/year
US$5 million
US$15.2 million
Productivity:
Prior to 1990, the annual average increase
• in production was 8 percent; after 1990,
production has increased by an average of
18 percent It should be noted that this
improvement In productivity is associated
with a more efficient use of energy.
Employees:
Direct 725*
Indirect 2,500
Average years of service: 13
•71 percent of whom are inhabitants of Oie
Region
Industrial safety and health:
Decline in LTI (Loss Time Injury Frequency
Rate). This has been declining gradually,
both for CMSA workers and contractors,
from 9.8 and 9.7 respectively in 1992 to
2.7 and 4.2 in 1997.
Human resources development
programme in 1997:
• Total participants: 1,951
• Training/person per year: 69 hours
Investment in social development of
the Region \USS millions)
Fundacion San Isidro US$1,0m
Community support US$0.4m
Fundacion Educativa de
Montelibano US$2,7m
Fundacion Ciinica Panzenu US$1.4m
Channelling of external resources
to benefit the community US$1.1m
Total in 1997: US$ 6.6m
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Impact of Environmental Management
Programmes
* Continuous improvement by Total Quality Management Programme
* Implementation of the environmental management programme ISO 14001
* Quality assurance by ISO 9002
• Implementation of the International Loss Control System to manage safety on-the-job and off-the-job
* Implementation of an integral plan for management of all waste products within the CMSA operation
Examples of impact
* Recycling of ore fines to the smelting process
* Reduction In the energy consumption of the electric furnace from 450 kWh/t ore in 1991 to 390 kWti/t ore in 1998
• Substitution of electric power by gas in certain parts of the operation
* Installation of energy consumption measuring devices to improve management of energy resources
* Improvement of cyclone designs and gas scrubbers to reduce emissions in drying, calcination, smelting and refinery
* Erosion control measures by revegetation programmes
* Installation of sediment ponds
« Installation of process water treatment facilities
• Optimization of process water recycling
* Washing stations for mine equipment to minimize runoff of oil and grease into surface water
• Improvement of blasting techniques to reduce noise and vibration levels
* Creation of recycling company to manage industrial and municipal waste disposal
* Research into the re-use of slag, a byproduct of the smelting operation
» supported microenterprises producing paving blocks
and other products for the local construction industry
• promoted the REASER Recycling, Cleaning and
Service Enterprise to solve the town's waste
problems
• had the initiative to turn metals and other
retrievable materials into a commercial business,
with the profits invested in the Fundacion San Isidro
* helped local farmers to achieve self-sufficiency
through fish production, cattle raising and
cultivation of general crops.
The Company is running a development programme
for employees, who are predominantly from the
region, to learn new skills to create opportunities for
other income sources. It has also organized courses
for housewives to learn new skills offering
possibilities to increase their family income.
CMSA — one of the first companies to be awarded
ISO 9002, implements a Total Quality Process, and
an Environmental Management System based on ISO
14001 for continuous improvement in environmental
performance, reducing its environmental impact aad
conforming to international standards exceeding
Colombian legal requirements.
It manages atmospheric emissions through a range of
emission control equipment such as electrostatic
precipitators, scrubbers and bag filters in order to
comply with Colombian law and with internationally
accepted standards.
Process effluents are treated before discharge into the
environment. Monitoring programmes are in place to
manage and minimize the impact of the mining
activity on the environment.
Between 1992 and 1997, CMSA replanted 90
hectares of forests, including replanting the slag
dump, an inert and immobilized byproduct of the
smelting operation. The REASER Company is
processing the industrial waste of the CMSA
operation to achieve maximum recycling and final
disposal in an environmentally responsible manner.
CMSA is proud of what it has achieved.
In 1997, CMSA invested US$6.6 million in the social
development of the region, helping to improve the
quality of teacher training, promoting women's
leadership in family care, improving schools, health
centres and nurseries as well as housing, providing
advice to 910 enterprises and instilling a sense of
confidence in the local community.
Over the years, CMSA has managed to reduce
paniculate emission levels, reduce energy
consumption, optimize waste recycling and disposal,
and reduce accidents and personal injuries while at
the same time improving productivity levels. At
CMSA, quality, safety, occupational health and
environmental protection have priority over the levels
of ferronickel production.
CMSA is committed to helping to create a sustainable
future for the local community and the region as one
of the elements of its environmental commitment.
Office; Carrera 7 No. 26-20, 8th Floor, Santafe de Bogota, Colombia
"Tel. (57 1) 2887066 Fax. (57 1) 2857974
Operations Plant: Km 22 Carretera S.O., Montelibano, Cordoba, Colombia
Tel. fr--' ••-] 722CH Fax. (57 47) 793679
image:
BOX 3.3
Information systems surveyed
How easy is it for companies to find out about environmentally sound
technologies (ESTs)? How much information is available? Can
businesses find it? is it useful? In recent years, there has been a
considerable increase in the number of databases and information
systems - public, private and international - dealing with different
aspects of ESTs. Yet complaints continue about the lack of information,
UNEP has conducted two surveys to find out where the information is,
how to access it, and how much it costs. From a questionnaire sent to
over 400 United Nations agencies and organizations, other
International and national agencies, industrial organizations, research
groups and other bodies, UNEP identified 84 systems containing some
information related to ESTs - 33 including "substantial" information. Of
these 33:
53 per cent contained information on energy conservation, and
alternative and renewable energy supplies;
47 per cent Included information on water pollution control and
water supply;
, 44 per cent covered air pollution control;
41 per cent covered cleaner production;
34 per cent contained information on solid waste management;
31 per cent had information on greenhouse gas emissions and
alternatives to ozone depleting substances;
22 per cent had information on hazardous waste management.
Half the 84 systems had information on ESTs collected on an
international basis - the rest had Information from only specific
countries or regions. Only 14 were located in developing countries.
The survey found there had been a "dramatic" increase in on-line
systems (to 75 per cent). Over 50 per cent provided the information in
hard copy or printed form (47 per cent), white 18 per cent included a
query response service by telephone, fax or mail. Some 32 per cert of
the systems were free, but 54 per cent charged for information.
Information was provided to virtually anyone by 82 per cent (though
many of these charged), while 14 per cent restricted information to
particular users.
envkonmental impact, but thek small size and
isolated nature makes influencing • their
behaviour difficult. A small enterprise usually
has limited access to necessary information to
address envkonmental issues, and a limited
infrastructure to handle them.
In the European Union, 70 per cent of
economic activity is carried out by SMEs, but a
variety of factors, including difficulties in
accessing information, keep a majority of them
from meeting applicable environmental regu-
lations. In developing countries, the percentages
of SME economic activity are similarly high,
but usually coupled with a less well-established
regulatory structure. Recently, there has been
global recognition of the important role SMEs
play and of the need to address them.
A UNIDO study of SMEs in India found that
they were more interested in short-term profit
than long-term investment, so environmental
improvements had a low priority; operational
standards were low, with a limited capacity to
appreciate and absorb new technology; they
showed a general lack of awareness of the
technical aspects of the envkonment; and in
general they were reluctant to invest in new,
clean and efficient technologies unless forced to
do so. UNIDO commented that these results
could probably apply to other target audiences
in other countries. Specific measures to address
the SMEs include making technology suppliers
aware of developing countries* needs and the
potential market opportunities, and informing
technology buyers in developing countries about
the availability of ESTs.
Skills management
Even when companies know about particular
ESTs, they may still face two further potential
hurdles before they can introduce them into
their operations: deciding which are the right
ones to choose and invest in; and being able to
operate them effectively. There have been cases
of technologies being transferred which have
harmed, not protected, the environment. The
infrastructure to manage BSTs is part of the
building of users* capacity to assess and use
them successfully. Both the assessment process
and the infrastructure component are part of
what is called 'soft' technologies. Both
hard and soft technologies need to be
present for effective technology transfer and
implementation.
44
image:
Small enterprises often lack the
infrastructure to access, process and
implement the information necessary to
address environmental issues.
image:
BOX 3.4
Asia and Pacific focus on sm
and medium-sized enterprises
The Asian and Pacific Centre for Technology Transfer in India has 20
years' experience in moving environmentally sound technolot lies (ESTs)
Into developing countries. Its focus is squarely on small and i nedium-
sized enterprises (SMEs). "An Important challenge facing SM Es in the
region is to keep abreast of new technological and cleaner pi eduction
developments, and to apply these where relevant. SMEs are often too
busy with routine problems to take the long-term view that i essential
for technological innovation."
The centre's activities have concentrated on developing bus ess
contacts, creating networks, forming partnerships, and orgar izing
various technology promotion events and training programmi is - all
aimed at creating a better environment for the transfer of ES" s. The
number of negotiations facilitated by the centre rose steeply between
1990 and 1994, from about 250 to 2,500. The centre attribu es this to
a number of reasons, including understanding SMEs' needs md
creating a demand for ESTs through its own "aggressive" ma -ketlng
activities. The big increase in demand for ESTs "proves that i one
technology transfer centre turns 'greener1, it can help hundre is of
SMEs to become more environmentally friendly".
The centre says that partnerships, networking and technolog
brokering have emerged recently as key components in tech
transfer. It now has more than 1,000 partners in about 70 co
Networks it has established include the Asia-Pacific Mechan
Exchange of Technology Information (METI) and the Internati
Network for Transfer of Environmentally Sound Technologies
MET! Is a United Nations Development Programme funded
aimed at creating a regional network for collecting and diss
Information on ESTs available for transfer to SMEs in the re
Eleven countries participated in the first phase (1991-1993]
more than 300 network members were trained. INTET is ta
SMEs and technology consultants and brokers. The packa
Includes: Information on ESTs, business and investment
opportunities; search for partners worldwide; technology fin
consultancy sub-contracts; and marketing assistance. Abo
INTET's members are manufacturing companies. And it is a
sustaining network with 75 per cent of its income coming fr
services, 20 per cent through membership fees, and the re;
the sale of information.
Users need to assess how the E 5Ts will act
under specific conditions: in shoit, will they
work for my company and sddress my
problems? Those assessments need to be sector,
even project, specific. Some basic? criteria or
46
II
ology
ntries.
m for
nal
NTET).
roject,
minating
on.
ind
leted at
ncing;
half of
self-
T1
from
general guidelines for evaluating environmental
performance will be important in transferring
and applying ESTs (see Chapter 13). The infra-
structure to transfer and manage the technologies
requires adequate technical and managerial
skills, a trained workforce, programmes to
maintain and upgrade technologies, access to
funding and adequate energy, transportation and
other support systems.
The lack of skilled people in user companies,
particularly, but not solely, in developing
countries, is a serious bottleneck in technology
transfer. The OECD has noted that the skills
needed to use a particular technology effectively
do not automatically lead to a mastery of the skills
required to change or adapt it. There must be a
conscious effort of 'technological learning',
which requires substantial resources. Buyers of
ESTs must not only acquire the technologies -
they also need to acquire the capabilities to
operate, maintain and adapt them. Technology
sellers can help with long-term training packages.
There remains, however, the problem of a general
lack of environmental management capabilities, in
particular in SMEs. Remedying this situation will
demand a big rethink on training. Increasingly, the
focus on achieving skills in specific disciplines
will have to switch to improving interdisciplinary
and intersectoral training.
Key role for private sector
Agenda 21 urges that "governments and
international organizations should promote, and
encourage the private sector (emphasis added)
to promote effective modalities for the access
and transfer, in particular of developing
countries, of environmentally sound tech-
nologies", through a variety of interrelated
activities. Multinational companies have already
emerged as a significant force in the transfer of
ESTs thanks to the increase in global trade
and international business activities. By some
estimates, transnational corporations may
control as much as 70 per cent of world trade.
image:
Direct investment is one way (see Chapter 4).
But the mobility of labour (as well as capital)
which multinationals and transnational provide
also offers the potential for enhancing tech-
nology transfer, and promoting education,
training and information exchange. The sale of
ESTs from one company to another is another
piece of the transfer jigsaw.
In its Changing Course report to the 1992
United Nations Conference, on Environment
and Development in Rio, the Business Council
for Sustainable Development (predecessor of
the WBCSD) said unequivocally that tech-
nology transfer - which it called technology
cooperation - "works best through business-to-
business long-term partnerships that ensure both
parties remain committed to the continued
success of the project". It added: "Technology
cooperation is likely to be most successful when
it happens within a commercial setting. Both the
provider and the recipient companies will have
clear, self-interested motives to make the deal
succeed."
The elements of long-term partnerships, the
report explained, include a commitment to
business development, training of employees,
adapting, improving and upgrading ESTs, and
introducing new management systems. It
acknowledged some concerns among companies
that since competitive advantage is invariably
based on technological innovation, transferring
technology can mean transferring competitive
advantage. However, long-term partnerships
seem to allay their fears because they lead to an
expansion of business for companies in the
developed countries, not loss of business
through selling their technologies.
Most multinationals however have few
qualms about transferring ESTs — certainly to
their own subsidiaries. They recognize the need
to be as clean abroad as at home. The
Environmental Charter of the Japanese business
group, the Keidanren, for example, gives ten
guidelines to Japanese companies operating
BOX 3.5
Transferring ESTs to small
and medium-sized enterprises in
Morocco
An action tlan is being developed by the Moroccan government and
the United Nations Industrial Development Organization (UNIDO),
aimed at ti ickling the problem of small and medium-sized enterprises
. The absence of any national legislative or. institutional
s allowed industrial activities to take root which, while
adly-needed jobs, have also created air and water pollution
that polluto
controls h,
providing i
problems.
TRANSFERRING TECHNOLOGIES
Large-sea b factories could afford to import modem technologies with
built-in pol ution control devices. But small and medium-sized family
enterprises were in a different situation. They had limited access to
capital to t ipgrade their operations, and little or no information on how
to do so ti emselves. UNIDO reports that "the notion that an industry
does not r eeessarily have to be polluting in order to be competitive,
and that tt ere is a technological solution to the problems, was often
greeted wi :h astonishment. The fact that profits are even increased
when was es are reduced also seemed odd."
In 1991, tf e Moroccan government asked UNIDO to help prepare a
strategy fc r including ecologically sustainable industrial development in
its econon lie development plans. Work started in 1992, funded by the
Belgian gc vernment, and also involved the United Nations
Developm snt Programme (UNDP), the United Nations Educational,
Scientific i nd Cultural Organization (UNESCO) and the World Bank.
Now, the I toroccan government and UNIDO are developing an action
plan of pri' >rity areas to attack degradation at its source in industries
causing th 3 most pollution, as well as introducing measures to prevent
pollution o ;curing in the first place.
An enviror mental audit is being conducted of the key industries -
food, beve rages, textiles, tanneries, chemicals and metals. The aim is
to identify projects to transfer cleaner technologies, using incentives
provided t y the government. Other measures include a database on
environme itally sound technologies {ESTs), with linkages to other
national ai id international information centres, and joint committees of
the industi y and environment ministries and the private sector.
overseas. These include applying Japanese
standards lo the management of harmful
substances, providing local communities with
information on environmental measures, and
cooperating in promoting the country's own
environment al policies.
The peiformance of multinationals in
developing countries can often be — and
image:
ALCAM
Environmental protection is an integral part of
Alcan's way of doing business.
At Alcan, we have been working for more than
20 years to continually reduce the impact of our
operations on the environment. We have achieved
substantial gains; we intend to build on these and
to make further strides.
Our commitment to environmental excellence starts
at the top of the company - Alcan's President and
CEO sits, with five outside directors, on a board-level
environment committee that reviews environmental
policy and management systems, monitors their
effectiveness, and sets long-term goals,
Our company-wide environmental management
system conforms to ISO 14001 and incorporates the
best practices from around the world - with
responsibility for implementation given to line
management locally to ensure that activities take
into account internal, local and global concerns.
Each plant is responsible for establishing its own
environmental priorities within the framework of the
corporate environmental management systems"
structure, by
identifying significant aspects of its operations
that are likely to affect the environment -
including raw material use and energy
consumption, as well as emissions
assessing the adequacy of its production control
and pollution prevention technologies
setting clear targets to manage any risks
associated with emissions and reducing all
forms of waste including those associated with
energy, water and material consumption
establishing action plans with defined
responsibility and accountability for achieving
targeted improvements, including opportunities
for re-using and recycling materials, or finding
replacement materials or processes that
generate less waste and emissions
monitoring and measuring emissions to assess
progress versus targets and to evaluate air and
water quality
monitoring consumption of energy, water and
raw materials to aim for "plant best" or "world
class" performance
ensuring that capital expenditures include
funding for process changes and technological
improvements.
Implementing each plant's plan is directly linked
to the personal performance objectives of
managers and employees. Top management
reviews plant, business sector and corporate
performance annually and sets new goals for
subsequent years.
Alcan also operates a Product Stewardship
programme that uses life cycle information to
benchmark performance against competitors, and
against competing materials in specific product
applications. This programme demonstrates to
suppliers, customers, consumers, governments,
other industries and other groups, that we are
committed to ensuring that our products - at every
stage of their life cycles - make the most of
aluminium's unique combination of properties. Its
high strength to weight ratio, corrosion resistance,
thermal and electrical conductivity, barrier
properties and economical recyclability make
aluminium an environmental choice for a wide
range of uses.
Alcan believes that aluminium use is on the
threshold of unprecedented growth. We want to
build and strengthen partnerships with all kinds of
external communities - other like-minded
companies, government agencies and
environmental groups - so that we can harmonize
our actions and resources to ensure delivery of our
commitment to environmental excellence.
At Alcan, protection of the environment is no
longer viewed as only another cost of doing
business; it is our way of doing business.
ALCAN ALUMINIUM LIMITED
1188 Sherbrooke Street West, Montreal, Quebec, Canada H3A 3G2
Telephone: (514) 848-1330 • Fax: (514) 848-8162
image:
TRANSFERRING TECHNOLOGIES
Achieving sustainable
development is
perhaps one of the most
difficult and one of the
most pressing and
promising goals we face.
It requires on the part of
all of us commitment,
action, partnerships and,
sometimes, sacrifices
of our traditional life
patterns and
personal interests
Mostafa Tolba,
Chairman of the Commission on
Sustainable Development
Humankind is rapidly
reaching the threshold
of sustainability, and
we must adjust urgently
Ljerkamintas-Hodak,
Deputy Prime Minister of Croatia
If we are not doing what
needs to be done, it is
certainly not for lack of
knowledge. Since Rio, we
have shared more
knowledge of what
is right and wrong
than ever before
Poul Nyrup Rasmussen,
Prime Minister of Denmark
increasingly will be — an important influence on
local industry, including SMEs. The local
subsidiaries of multinationals are an important
source of information and technical assistance
for SMEs. Multinationals can also insist that
their suppliers conform to their environmental
quality standards.
Public sector approach
Most major developed countries run pro-
grammes to support the transfer of ESTs to
developing countries: some examples are
highlighted below.
H The United Kingdom is increasingly
focusing on private sector operators. Its
Technology Partnership Initiative promotes
direct access by companies in developing
countries and newly industrialized countries
to information about ESTs available in the
United Kingdom, and firms that can supply
them. At the same time, the initiative is
trying to raise awareness among United
Kingdom suppliers about the markets and
needs for ESTs in developing countries.
81 Denmark's International Development
Assistance Agency helps promote the use of
ESTs in developing countries. A sister
organization, the Industry Foundation for
Development Aid, has sponsored a number
of cleaner technology projects in China,
India, Poland and several African and Latin
American countries,
& The Canadian International Development
Agency assists Canadian companies to form
joint ventures with developing country
partners and also provides financial support.
image:
The ventures are aimed at testing, adapting
and demonstrating ESTs for possible
transfer. Other Canadian federal departments
and organizations disseminate information
on cleaner technologies.
(3* The Netherlands has a programme of grants
to investment projects in the industrial sector
with a positive environmental impact, and
which must be innovative and involve either
existing or new ESTs. The aim is to act as a
catalyst for similar actions in various
industrial sectors. Examples include wind
generators, solar home energy systems and
organic waste management facilities.
?•:• Australia's AusAID gives preference to
supporting overseas projects that meet local
needs, create jobs and involve appropriate
ESTs and local skills. One example is the
use of ESTs in East Java, Indonesia, to
support pollution prevention activities. A
private sector linkages programme includes
the demonstration, adaptation and supply
of proven and appropriate Australian
technology.
8* Germany sponsors the German Investment
and Development Agency, which promotes
technology transfer between private sector
companies in Germany and developing
countries. It has also established an
International Technology Transfer Centre to
assist SMEs in establishing contacts in Asia
and Eastern Europe.
8* Norway finances technology cooperation and
capacity development programmes on waste
minimization and EST strategies in a number
of countries. Some of them aim to increase
industrial productivity through ESTs, for
example, lower material spillage, water use
and energy usage. The programmes include
on-the-job training.
IS Japan sends teams of technology and
environment experts to live and work in
developing countries to leant about capacity,
infrastructure and the cultural setting
for technology cooperation, and then pro-
vides assistance in developing the right
environment to use various types of ESTs
efficiently.
££ The United States, through its Environmental
Pollution Prevention project, supports
programmes in both urban and industrial
sectors in developing countries - among them
Chile, Ecuador, Egypt, Indonesia and Tunisia.
?3 A recent example of a new mechanism is
the Technology Information Centre, set up
by the European Commission and the
Confederation of Indian Industry. It will
disseminate information to Indian industry
on commercially proven and available
indigenous and international ESTs, including
suppliers.
In addition to these, and other bilateral
programmes, there are also multilateral
initiatives. One of the most successful of these
has been the Multilateral Fund, set up under the
Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete
the Ozone Layer - itself a landmark agreement
and a major international motivating force in the
transfer of a specific category of ESTs to
developing countries.
Montreal Protocol
Under the Montreal Protocol, the production
and consumption of ozone depleting sub-
stances such as chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs),
1,1,1-trichloroethane, carbon tetrachloride,
halons and methyl bromide are controlled, and
will be phased out according to a schedule of
strict time targets. Both developed and
developing countries that are party to the
protocol must abide by their respective phase-out
dates, although developing countries are
generally given a tenryear 'grace period' in
which to comply. Additionally, the developing
countries are provided with technical and
financial assistance through the protocol's
financial mechanism, and in particular its
Multilateral Fund.
50
image:
The transfer of cleaner technologies
can help developing countries reduce
and minimize their contribution to
global environmental problems.
image:
IHANSI-tMHINtj I tUHINULUljlca
BOX 3.6
The OzonAction Programme
Under the Multilateral Fund, UNEP has the specific responsibility for
providing a clearinghouse function to help developing countries comply
with the Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone
Layer. Since June 1991, UNEP Industry and Environment Centre's
OzonActksn Programme has been designing, developing and delivering
quality-revtewed, need-based services for key stakeholders In
developing countries.
Services provided by the OzonAction Programme include:
>£ Information exchange to build awareness and assist with
Identifying, selecting and Implementing alternative technologies
and policies. It also helps in sourcing technologies, equipment
and services;
H training at the regional level to build skills to Implement phase-out
activities;
ft! networking to provide government ODS Officers with a means of
sharing their knowledge with their peers in developing and
developed countries;
B country-specific support activities consisting of country
programmes and institutional strengthening for countries that
consume low volumes of ozone depleting substances, national
training and refrigerant management plan preparation as specified
in the country programme and approved by the Executive
Committee.
OzonAction is an 'enabling' programme that strengthens the capacity
of governments and industry in developing countries to take informed
decisions that win result in effective investment projects. The goal of
the programme Is to build the local expertise required for the
responsible management of phase-out projects with minimal
external Intervention.
Since the signing of the Montreal Protocol in
1987, there has been a rapid commercialization
and adoption of literally hundreds of new
technologies, equipment and chemicals. The
impetus behind this rapid development of ESTs
includes the new business opportunities offered
by the shift to 'ozone friendly* technologies
under the protocol, the supportive policies,
incentives and disincentives put into place by
governments, and public awareness and support
for ozone layer protection.
The transfer of these newly commercialized
'ozone friendly* ESTs has been assisted by the
four Implementing Agencies of the Multilateral
Fund:
50 the United Nations Development Programme
(UNDP), which provides investment project
design and implementation, demonstration
projects, technical assistance, and country
programme and institutional strengthening;
K UNEP, which provides a clearinghouse
function consisting of information exchange,
training and networking of ODS Officers
(government officers in charge of proposing
and coordinating strategies to reduce and
phase out ozone depleting substances),
and helps develop country programmes and
institutional strengthening (see Box 3.6);
K! UNIDO, which provides assistance with the
formulation and implementation of small and
medium-scale projects, technical assistance
and training, and country programmes;
M the World Bank, which provides investment
for project design and implementation, and
country programmes.
As of late 1995, the Multilateral Fund had
allocated nearly US$0.55 billion to undertake
over 1,300 activities — most of which involve the
transfer of ESTs and the skills and knowledge
required for their successful implementation in
developing countries. These activities will
ultimately phase out more than 65,000 tonnes of
ozone depleting substances. To date, the
completed investment projects have resulted in
the elimination of about 1,500 tonnes of ozone
depleting substances.
Ten years after the signing of the Montreal
Protocol, the transfer of ESTs, supported by
the Multilateral Fund, and independently by
the private sector, has already resulted
in measurable success: the atmospheric
concentration of one of the major controlled
substances - CFC-11 - is now declining. Since
January 1994, industrialized countries have
stopped the production of halons and, since
52
image:
TRANSFERRING TECHNOLOGIES
January 1996, they have ceased production
of CFCs, carbon tetrachloride and methyl
chloroform, except for some 10,000 tonnes a
year for essential uses for which acceptable
substitutes are not yet available. Although
much work still remains, the undoubted
success of the Montreal Protocol does prove
that commitment and action by the global
community to transfer ESTs and skills to
developing countries can solve an environ-
mental crisis.
Mixed private-public approaches
Joint implementation is an initiative involving
government and the private sector: it is a
controversial concept, but its advocates argue it
could become a valuable mechanism for
transferring ESTs to developing countries.
Under joint implementation, countries can
offset their greenhouse gas emissions by setting
up reduction projects in other countries, and
share 'credits' for the results. The idea is that a
company in an OECD country will invest in
.projects in a non-OECD country, for example,
an energy efficiency scheme in Asia, and then
get a 'credit" for the resulting reduction in
greenhouse gas emissions there. The basis of
joint implementation is that emission reduc-
tions will benefit the environment no matter
where they occur. A few examples of projects
already under way are given below.
"! A US$200 million joint venture project has
brought together a Canadian electricity
utility, a state electricity board in India and
the Asian Development Bank. Instead of
building more coal-powered plants to meet
India's growing energy needs, the Canadian
company plans to upgrade current power
distribution systems to produce electricity
at half the cost and also sharply cut carbon
dioxide emissions over the next 30 years.
'''.'. A French cement company has plans to
modernize its cement plant in the Czech
Republic. The project includes a 50 per cent
increase in production capacity, a 14 per
cent decrease in fuel consumption and a
complete upgrade of pollution control
equipment.
K A deforestation project has been set
up involving the Norwegian government,
three Norwegian companies and Costa
Rica. Between them, the companies and
their government will invest more than
US$2 million. As a result, Norway will
offset 200,000 tonnes of national carbon
dioxide emissions over the next 20 years at
much lower cost, says the government, than
equivalent carbon dioxide reduction
programmes at home.
With the World Business Council for
Sustainable Development (WBCSD) taking the
lead, industry groups strongly support joint
implementation. The WBCSD says it will
promote the development and expansion of
new markets for innovative climate-friendly
technologies, in particular, by providing a
mechanism for companies in developing
countries to acquire new ESTs. The WBCSD's
International Business Action on Climate
Change initiative attracted more than 80
proposals when it launched an international
call for joint implementation proposals. They
included renewable energy sources, methane
emissions reduction, waste management and
fuel conversion/switching, and represented a
total potential for greenhouse gas reductions
equivalent to the carbon produced by three
900-megawatt coal-fired power plants over a
20-year period.
In the United States, a voluntary programme
designed by the Department of Energy and
supported by more than 600 companies
encourages individual power utilities to set
their own carbon dioxide reduction goals. In
addition, the companies have contributed
US$52 million to Venture capital funds to be
invested in fledgling enterprises around the
world that promote alternative and renewable
image:
DEVELOPMENT TO HEART
Sustainable development has become a
buzzword. But Petrotrin - the Petroleum
Company of Trinidad and Tobago Ltd. -
has taken the concept to heart by
implementing a broad-based
Environmental Management Programme
to deal with critical issues like water
quality, liquid and solid wastes, and
education and training. Key elements
include:
Manufacturing
A major US$350 million refinery
modernization project, nearing
completion, includes technology-based
pollution controls to reduce
considerably emissions of liquid and
gaseous pollutants. A new Sulphur
Recovery Unit and the
recommissioning of a mothballed gas
oil Hydrotreater Unit as a mild
hydrocracker, will virtually eliminate
SOj emissions from our refining
operations. Upgrading our Fluid
Catalytic Cracking Unit (FCCU) will
reduce carbon monoxide emissions
and particulates.
We have eliminated two large oily sludge
pits after biologically treating all
contaminated material. We are also
improving our wastewater treatment by
removing storm water from our process
water treatment facilities, installing
closed bleed systems, and converting two
barometric condensers to surface
condensers to reduce the volume of
contaminated process wastewater
needing treatment before discharge.
Further, we are identifying, quantifying
and mapping the dispersion
characteristics of CO, NOx, H2S, SO2
and paniculate matter from the refinery,
so that we can take measures in this area.
Exploration and Production
The country's petroleum industry has
adversely affected the natural
environment for many decades. We are
addressing these problems by:
* conducting environmental audits at
our oilfields
* upgrading oil and water separation
facilities to reduce oil and grease in
effluent
* installing facilities for treating
hydrogen sulphide gas
* conducting a groundwater
monitoring programme for a major
fresh water aquifer to assess the
effects on the aquifer of waterflood
projects and current and past
oil/chemical handling practices
Environmental Training
A broad cross-section of the
company's employees are trained in
environmental awareness and
environmental management issues,
including controlling chronic oil
pollution at source.
Petrotrin is aware of its responsibilities
as it explores for and produces crude oil
and natural gas in the land and marine
areas of Trinidad, participates in
Exploration drilling In Trinidad
upstream ventures with major
international companies, and
consolidates its position as the domin;
supplier of petroleum products to the
local market. We are committed to th
highest environmental and health
standards, within available funds. Our
customers want reassurance that our
products are produced according to
modern standards of environmental
management, and by a company whic
includes care for the environment in it
daily operations. We can provide that
assurance.
Mr. Donald Baldeoslngh
Chairman
Petrotrin
Petroleum Company of
Trinidad and Tobago Limited
Administration Building
Pointe a Pierre
Trinidad
West Indies
Tel: +1 (868) 658 4200/10/20/30
Telefax: -»4 (868) 658-1315
Telex: 39367/39373
Petrotrin
image:
TRANSFERRING TECHNOLOGIES
energies. Also in the United States, a pilot
programme, the United States Initiative on Joint
Implemention, has the specific goal of
encouraging private sector investment and
innovation in the development and dis-
semination of technologies that reduce
greenhouse gases.
However, environmental groups and many
developing countries maintain a wary attitude
towards joint implementation because they claim
it lets developed countries off the hook in
reducing their own greenhouse gas emissions.
Joint implementation's supporters counter that
while the industrialized economies produce most
carbon dioxide emissions now, the situation will
be reversed by 2010, so it is important to start
tackling the problem immediately in developing
and transitional countries.
The Framework Convention on Climate
Change does allow a pilot joint implementation
phase, which was due to end in 1997. The plan
was that governments would then agree on how
to carry out a proper joint implementation
regime. But the WBCSD has already warned
that the pilot phase is likely to fail because of
lack of incentives to encourage investors in joint
implementation projects.
Capacity-building
The OECD makes the point that to be effective,
technology transfer or cooperation "should
focus on strengthening the indigenous
capacities" of local industries and companies. It
says that governments at all levels, private sector
organizations and aid agencies (bilateral and
multilateral) need to incorporate pollution
prevention approaches in their strategies and
programmes.. It also calls for more interaction
and cooperation between these bodies.
Promoting exports
One other way of pushing technology transfer is
to encourage the private sector in developed
countries to transfer ESTs. The OECD has
BOX 3.7
Not 'one-time transactions
Environmentally sound technologies cannot be deployed effectively in
developing countries simply by "movement of prepackaged
technologies across national boundaries as one-time transactions",
according to the World Resources Institute. The key, it says, is not
technology transfer, but technology cooperation which "emphasizes
the long term, prefers partnering to arms-length transactions, and
Implies joint concept and development of technology, innovations
and adaptations In context that will benefit both parties over the
long term".
The World Resources Institute says that governments, international
organizations, aid agencies and non-governmental organizations
should largely stay in the background, and "manage the preconditions
which prompt individuals and enterprises to innovate in the right
directions". It proposes the following key elements:
SE enhancing environmental information disclosure - the sources,
types, amounts and consequences of pollution in the developing
countries;
K leveraging international standards to establish and enforce higher
environmental management standards in the developing world;
S3 strengthening business charters for environmental technology
cooperation;
H sector-specific intermediaries;
SB building capacity for technology adaptation - reorienting existing
aid programmes which still "rely too heavily on transfer of
technology as a principal -operating mechanism, focus too
much, on export promotion as a goal and too little on the
development of internal capacity to adapt and renew technology
of external origin".
called on member countries to make more use of
export promotion programmes to achieve this,
and several OECD governments have started to
do so. For 'example, the Nordic Environmental
Financing • Company, a publicly supported
venture, provides financing for firms from
Nordic countries to export environmental
technologies to Central and Eastern Europe.
The OECD has also proposed a package of
other initiatives on export promotion:
83 governments should keep better data on the
volume and types of EST exports, so they
image:
BOX 3.8
ESTs can overcome trade concerns
The impact of domestic environmental standards on international
trade has emerged as a major issue for business, particularly in
developing countries. Here the fear is that stricter product standards
In the developed countries may act as barriers to their exports and
may be used as a form of disguised protectionism. This could force
them to adapt processes or adopt new ones over and above
domestic requirements.
However, the reality is that environmental concerns are becoming an
increasingly important factor in international competitiveness in many
sectors. Companies are going to be required to improve their
processes and products if they want to compete, and firms in
developing countries Will be no exception.
The United Nations Commission on Trade and Development (UNCTAD)
argues that the development and transfer of environmentally sound
technologies (ESTs), in conjunction with the setting of domestic
environmental standards, Is the way for companies in developing
countries to address the issue. ESTs, it says, "could both enhance
trade and help preserve the environment by:
making products originating from developing countries compatible
with environmental standards abroad, thus improving trading
opportunities and/or international competitiveness;
improving the local environment of these countries; and
arresting the deterioration of the 'global corhmons'."
UNCTAD points out that ESTs are different from other technologies
because "the need to comply with standards is not merely defined by
commercial interests, but also by an international consensus on
protecting the environment. The difference between ESTs and other
technologies rests on the need to link the transfer of ESTs to
compliance with standards which are in turn linked to environmental
concerns."
It acknowledges that lack of finance and capabilities, shortage of
Information and absence of domestic incentives are all restraints on
transferring ESTs. But it argues that the supply of and demand for
ESTs "are likely to be stimulated by policies that promote trade and
growth in developed and developing countries alike - along with
policies that contribute to more integrated developmental and
environmental objectives. The implications of global and local
environmental concerns for trade and technology, and the use of
trade sanctions for enforcing standards show that firms in developing
countries will need to embark on a drive for the development and
transfer of ESTs." Otherwise, "limited access to ESTs could inhibit the
ability of developing countries to implement new and stringent
environmental standards and regulations domestically, and also
exacerbate any negative effects of environmentally related trade
restrictions imposed by developed countries".
can better identify those technologies not
receiving export support;
Isd countries should conduct environmental
reviews of their export credit and export
promotion activities to check whether
exports are beneficial or detrimental to
importing countries' environments;
SJ governments should design their export pro-
motion activities to ensure they complement
the efforts .of their aid programmes in
fostering the transfer of ESTs.
Is trade a barrier?
One issue is whether trade policies and
protection of intellectual property rights present
a barrier to transferring ESTs or actually
encourage the process. For example, import
barriers in developed countries against products
made with, or that contain, ozone depleting
substances contribute to the adoption of 'ozone
friendly' technologies in those countries.
The OECD studied seven ESTs: fluidized bed
combustion; oxygen delignification in the pulp
and paper industry; technologies to reduce or
eliminate the use of chrome in the leather tanning
industry; alternative cleaning processes to
eliminate CFCs from the electronics industry;
membrane cell technology in the chlor-alkali
industry; ion exchange technology in the metal
plating industry; and direct reduction technology
in the iron and steel industry. All were developed
in direct response to stringent regulatory
requirements in an OECD country. The
developers wanted to sell their technologies both
inside and outside the OECD area. The study
found that, generally speaking, trade policies
were not a barrier to this. But two factors
appeared as important obstacles to trade in ESTs.
': A key disincentive - cited by exporters and
importers alike - was the lack of environ-
mental requirements and/or enforcement in
receiving countries. The main reason why
industries in some countries imported ESTs
was because new environmental standards
56
image:
TRANSFERRING TECHNOLOGIES
forced them to do so. Where environmental
standards are inadequate or not enforced to
create a demand for ESTs, trade in them will
be hindered.
i&' The* lack of access to financing was a further
obstacle. Even when stronger environmental
regulations required firms to obtain ESTs,
they could not afford them. Companies
lacked adequate cash flow to make a
significant capital investment even when the
ESTs offered lower operating costs and were
more economical in the long term. This
problem was most acute in Latin America
and Central and Eastern Europe, and in
countries with limited foreign exchange
reserves. In some countries, governments
seemed reluctant to strengthen or impose
environmental standards because companies
could not comply with them.
Based on the OECD study, exporters and
importers would like governments to reduce or
eliminate tariffs on ESTs, waive local content
requirements or foreign exchange restrictions,
and strengthen patent protection.
South-South transfers
A further dimension to the technology transfer
issue is the question of South-South transfers to
SMEs, especially in the least developed
countries. Within the area of global warming
and climate change, the regional networks of
ODS Officers, run by UNEP under the Montreal
Protocol's Multilateral Fund, have provided
a successful platform for the exchange of
policy and technology information between
developing countries.
Technology for the People, a Geneva-based
non-governmental organization, argues that a
wide range of technologies tried and tested
by firms in the more advanced developing
countries — notably in Asia — could be
transferred to companies in the least developed
countries far more cheaply and effectively than
transfers of more sophisticated technologies
from developed countries. The major obstacle is
lack of money, and Technology for the People
says that there is simply no official support,
whether from home governments or inter-
national agencies. The other factor is that most
of the more advanced developing countries have
not yet adopted ESTs on a sufficiently broad
scale themselves to be able to export them. In
other words, they need to 'put their own house in
order' first.
Addressing this issue at a UNIDO roundtable
meeting in Vienna, Austria, in February 1995,
experts pointed out that cooperation among
developing countries could potentially reduce
the costs of developing ESTs. One constraint is
the limited range of technologies available in
developing countries. The meeting proposed a
four-point plan, for governments and United
Nations agencies:
II joint research for problem solving "to assure
that capacity-building measures are targeted
to the frontiers of technologies, and to
facilitate technology 'leapfrogging'";
v» networking among research institutes in
developing countries;
iS regional centres that play a role in
exchanging information and providing
training programmes for capacity-building;
;': networking with international organizations.
Developing countries themselves can of course
do more to create a demand for ESTs by intro-
ducing and actively enforcing legislation, and
through providing economic incentives. In addi-
tion, they could also develop national programmes
for using ESTs to foster cleaner production and
products: what an OECD workshop in Hanover,
.Germany, in 1994 called "a business plan'for
deploying ESTs where (hey would contribute
most to preventing pollution and waste".
"Start at home"
One other interesting element in a successful
technology cooperation strategy has been put
forward by William A. Nitze, President of the
image:
Stopping mercury emissions in
small-scale gold mining
metall-technic
For more information, please contact:
mt metall-technic GmbH
Zugspitzstr. 28a
D-85591 Vaterstetten, Germany
Tel: +49 8106 893 0
Fax:+49 8106 893 500
e-mail: metall-technic@t-online.de
About 40 percent of the world's gold is extracted
annually by small miners. Most of them use
mercury to collect it. And that creates a major
problem - because mercury is a serious and
dangerous pollutant.
But for small miners, there is no alternative to using
it. And with millions of people in Africa, South
America, the Philippines, Indonesia and elsewhere
supporting themselves through artisanal gold mining,
mercury contamination and poisoning is a worrying
issue in many parts of the world - and is becoming a
global threat as it passes through the food chain.
mt metall-technic GmbH has developed the
ThermEx closed system retort which prevents
mercury emissions during small-scale gold mining.
It works like this. Gold is found in concentrations of
10-100 grams per ton in sand or stone, which is
ground by hand into coarse gravel. The gold
particles are so small, they are invisible. But they
are large enough to be physically separated.
Mercury is added to attract the gold and form a
gold alloy. When this is heated over an open flame,
the mercury vaporises, leaving the gold behind.
In open distillation, the vaporised mercury escapes
into the atmosphere. But the ThermEx retort,
weighing about one kilogram and the size of two
cigarette packets, stops it from doing so by trapping
it in a cooler tube, where it condenses before
accumulating in a special collecting vessel.
Complete recovery of the mercury also eliminates
losses of gold - because in open distillation, the
mercury vapour carries up to 0.5 percent of the gold
into the atmosphere. Gold losses in open distillation
total up to 5 percent of the processed gold content.
That means many tons of gold are wasted.
ThermEx was described as a "new dimension in
retorts" at the Expert Group Meeting on UNIDO's
High Impact Programme for the Abatement of
Global Mercury Pollution Deriving from Artisanal
Gold Mining - and was also presented during the
UN General Assembly Special Session (Rio + 5) in
June 1997.
The world needs gold, and millions depend on
artisanal gold mining for their livelihood. Now,
thanks to ThermEx, both needs can be met -
without endangering the health and lives of millions
from one of the deadliest pollutants on earth.
image:
TRANSFERRING TECHNOLOGIES
Alliance to Save Energy in the United States -
"start at home". He .points out that many OECD
countries face a challenge in extending the use
of ESTs internally similar to the one faced by
developing and Eastern European countries
whose governments "have almost as much work
to do in organizing for change" as elsewhere.
"The United States and other OECD
countries will have little credibility in helping
developing or Eastern European countries
Sources
A Strategic Overview of the Development of Cleaner
Techno/ogles, 1992, ECOTEC Research and
Consulting Ltd,
Are Environmentally Sound Technologies the
Emperor's New Clothes?, 1994, UNDO
Discussion Paper.
Business and the Environment, various issues,
Cutter Information Corporation.
Changing Course: A Global Business Perspective on
Development and the Environment, 1992,
Business Council for Sustainable Development,
The MIT Press.
Do Environmental Imperatives Present Novel
Problems and Opportunities for the International
Transfer of Technology?, 1995, UNCTAD.
Elements for Establishing Policies, Strategies and
Institutional Framework for Ozone Layer Protection,
1995, OzonAction Programme, UNEP IE,
Energy and Environmental Technologies to Respond
to Global Climate Change Concerns, 1994,
!EA/OECD.
Enhancing the Process of Technological Change;
Innovative Mechanisms for the Transfer of
Environmentally Sound Technologies, George R.
Heaton, Jr, World Resources Institute, 1995, for
Roundtable on Technology Transfer, Cooperation
and Capacity Building for Sustainable
Development,
Environmentally Sound Technology for Sustainable
Development, 1992, ATLAS Bulletin,
Global Environmental Change Report, various issues,
Cutter Information Corporation.
Industry and Environment, various issues, UNEP IE.
Information Systems for Environmentally Sound
Technologies, report to Roundtable on
Technology Transfer, Cooperation and Capacity
Building for Sustainable Development, 1995,
UNIDO.
Lessons Learned from Three Information Exchange
Networks to Facilitate Technology Transfer, report
to Commission on Sustainable Development
Workshop, Seoul, 1994, UNEP,
'ESTs
deploy
unable to
companies
extensive
extend th
companies
to make
management
laboratories
not work."
and methods if we are unwilling or
idopt them at home ... If OECD
do not develop and implement
'eco-efficiency' programmes and
;m to their overseas affiliates,
.n non-OECD countries are unlikely
necessary changes in their own
procedures. We must act as
in discovering what does and does
the
OzonAction,
various issues, UNEP IE.
Phasing Out Ozone Depleting Substances, Fact
Sheet, 1£ 93, UNIDO.
Practical Gui felines for Industry for Managing
the Phasi \-out of Ozone Depleting
Substanc3s, 1994, OzonAction Programme,
UNEP IE.
Report of DE LTA Near East Workshop, 1996,
Internatio lal Academy of the Environment/
Sustainat le Business Associates.
Report ofRo jndtable on Technology Transfer,
Cooperat on and Capacity Building for
Sustainat le Development, 1995, UNIDO.
Report of tht Round Table Discussions on
Knowledi e Sharing Nebvorks for ODS
Phase-Oit, 1998, OzonAction Programme,
UNEP IE.
Report of the Workshop on Selected Cooperation
Aspects t ->r Technological Capacity-Building in
Developirg Countries, 1995, UNCTAD.
Report of the Workshop on the Transfer and
Developn ent of Environmentally Sound
Techno/oi, rfes, organized by UNCTAD and the
Government of Norway, 1993.
Reports of tr e United Nations Commission on
Sustainat le Development.
Saving the C zone Layer: Every Action Counts, •
1996, OzonAction Programme, UNEP IE.
Survey of Wi mnation Systems Related to
Environmentally Sound Technologies, 1996,
. UNEP.
Technological Capacity-Building and Technology
Partnership, 1995, UNCTAD.
Technologies for Cleaner Production and
Products: Towards Technological
Transforrr, ation for Sustainable Development,
1995, OE 3D.
UNIDO Envln mment Programme: Response to
Agenda 21, 1992, UNIDO. -
UNIDO Mattt re Industrial Development Newsletter,
1996, UNDO.
World Buslne ss Council for Sustainable
Developrr ent information materials.
image:
Private capital plays a major role in the
transfer of environmentally sound
technologies to industrial enterprises of
all sizes in the developing world.
image:
Financing ESTs
Finding the money to pay for environmentally sound technologies (ESTs) is a critical issue.
It is a problem far smaller enterprises in the industrialized economies, especially as they
shift their focus to cleaner production. It is also a major challenge for companies of all sizes
in the developing countries, and one which is inextricably linked to the issue of transferring
technologies. Various solutions have been proposed to overcome the funding gap, and
finance is available, but the gap remains worryingly large.
founding the finance for ESTs - for both
• pollution control and cleaner production —
is a major problem for developing
countries. The market for ESTs generally is still
in its infancy, and the United Nations
Commission on Sustainable Development (CSD)
has noted that "projects or transactions specifi-
cally geared toward the transfer of ESTs are few
and far apart". In fact, the majority of ESTs are
being transferred, and funded, within the context
of large infrastructure projects, rather than to
small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs),
even though such enterprises make up a big part
of the industrial sector.
Companies in developing countries face even
bigger obstacles when it comes to financing
cleaner production approaches. Cleaner produc-
tion is either unknown, or not yet considered a
viable approach to local industries' acute and
chronic pollution problems. This is partly be-
cause very few countries have demonstration
projects to show what can be achieved. Another
problem is that the return on investments in
cleaner production can take time and often
companies (particularly SMEs) do not have the
financial flexibility to wait for such a return.
Additionally, the loans needed by many
companies are simply too small to interest the
major lenders. Programmes can also be put off
course by economic and social policy decisions,
such as subsidized prices of energy, raw
materials or products, and support for unecor
nomic, and often polluting, enterprises. Weak
environmental legislation (if it exists) and weak
enforcement compound the problem.
The CSD has proposed a range of solutions,
including more use of international capital flows,
foreign direct investment, privatization, public-
private partnerships, financial intermediaries,
build-operate-transfer arrangements, venture
capital funds and leasing arrangements. Funding
is also available through the World Bank and
other financial institutions, intergovernmental
organizations and individual donor governments.
What is the cost?
According to the World Bank, the costs of
introducing ESTs can be high; sometimes too
high, especially for small companies. Certainly,
industries and companies in developed countries
have invested huge sums in pollution control and
— increasingly - prevention, and continue to do
so. Capital investment in pollution abatement
accounted for about 5 per cent of total industrial
investment in Germany, Japan and the United
States in the late 1970s and early 1980s, and had
risen to as much as 17 per cent in Japan in the
early 1970s.
But the World Bank says that the burden need
not be as heavy for industries in developing
countries, at least for large plants, because
emissions can often be reduced significantly at
image:
no extra cost by installing technologies already
in common use in industrialized countries. In
fact, industries in developing countries have the
advantage of making new investments, rather
than replacing old equipment. Because it is
difficult, sometimes impossible, to accom-
modate basic changes in production processes in
existing plants, industrialized countries have
tended to control emissions mainly by adding on
technologies. But when a new plant is being
built it is usually more cost-effective to adopt
cleaner production processes that recycle
residuals or generate less waste.
Ideally, end-of-pipe controls will be utilized
less in developing countries as their industrial
sectors expand, because each new investment
provides the opportunity to incorporate cost-
effective cleaner production technologies enabling
them to leapfrog narrow, end-of-pipe approaches.
Low-waste processes combined with end-of-pipe
controls should allow developing countries to
reduce emissions from large industrial plants,
while expanding output, at lower costs than those
incurred by industrialized countries.
The cost of end-of-pipe and in-plant controls
to reduce emissions and effluents, and to
implement cleaner production practices, varies
among sectors and according to individual
circumstances, making it difficult to put a figure
on the total bill. However, the World Bank has
calculated what the cost could be to developing
countries of introducing end-of-pipe ESTs on
the scale of the major industrialized countries. If
spending on pollution controls in developing
countries were to approach 2-3 per cent of
investment, they could appreciably reduce
industrial pollution and avoid post-pollution
clean-up costs. The extra costs, according to the
World Bank, would amount to US$10-15 billion
a year (or just 0.2-0.3 per cent of gross domestic
product) by the end of the decade. While high in
absolute terms, the World Bank says these costs
are small "in relation to the additional incomes
generated by good economic management".
Private sector financing
Improved access to private capital is a major key
in transferring ESTs to developing countries,
particularly to SMEs. United States Vice-
President Al Gore stressed this at the Third
Annual World Bank Conference on Environ-
mentally Sustainable Development in 1995.
"Our single best opportunity to make sustainable
development happen is to make investments in
sustainable practices and technologies attractive
to private business and private investment."
In many developing countries the availability
of private international capital has increased
dramatically in recent years. This inflow of
capital has been mostly to those countries where
the need for ESTs is greatest. In many cases,
private sector flows are much greater than
official development assistance flows; and the
latter are unlikely to grow rapidly, if at all.
However, this should not be a problem. The
CSD suggests that direct public sector support
for financing the transfer of ESTs is less
important, and effective, than a regulatory
regime that encourages or compels companies to
buy, sell, develop and/or use ESTs. "While
directly intervening in the marketplace may help
to channel millions of dollars in favour of EST
transfer, changing the very conditions under
which business investment decisions are made
has the potential to channel billions."
Between 1992 and 2020, developing
countries are expected to increase their output
from US$9 trillion to US$34 trillion: an average
growth of about 4.5 per cent a year. Clearly,
large amounts of capital will be needed to
support this fourfold rise. Most foreign direct
investment is not directed specifically towards
transferring ESTs to developing countries.
However, this may change. As developing
countries raise their environmental standards,
they are less inclined to be a dumping ground for
older, more polluting technologies. Large
foreign investors can no longer afford the risk of
their operations being performed poorly and
62
image:
FINANCING ESTs
BSTs, especially cleaner production tech-
nologies, are becoming more economically
attractive. So the prospects for more financial
support for developing countries to transfer
ESTs are good. The World Bank has said that
the pattern of existing finance needs to be
changed, and what is important is what happens
to the US$1.5 trillion already invested each year
throughout the developing world.
Privatization should also boost demand for
ESTs and open the door to finance. Turning
public enterprises into private companies is a
major feature of the economic restructuring of the
developing countries and transitional economies.
The development banks, led by the World Bank,
are supporting privatization through policy and
project lending, as well as technical assistance.
Many state-owned or state-run candidates for
privatization have left behind significant
environmental risks or 'pollution stocks'. They
may still be a source of continuing pollution
problems, or using natural resources at an alarm-
ing rate. Privatization can provide the investment
needed to turn these enterprises around, but those
that pollute and fail to meet strict environmental
standards will be pushed out of business.
Privatization can produce positive environ-
mental effects, such as more efficient use "of
natural resources and more rapid adoption of
ESTs. The World Bank is advising many
governments to assume responsibility for most
or all damages resulting from past practices,
thus providing the new owner with a 'clean
slate', and also providing a market for end-of-
pipe technologies and their suppliers.
There is considerable scope for including
EST criteria in the structuring, negotiating and
financing of privatization programmes and
tenders. Instead of awarding tenders to the
highest bidders, governments could weight
decisions with investments in ESTs and cleaner
production, and environmental improvements
in mind. This might also help to overcome
political obstacles where foreign ownership is
BOX 4.1
Privatization as a catalyst
The Polish government's of the Odra cement plant in 1993
provides a good illustration of how privatization can be an effective
catalyst for addressing environmental issues and introducing ESTs
into a company's operations.
Odra, one of 19 cement plants in Poland, was the first to be
privatized under the country's sweeping, multi-track privatization
programme. It consisted of a limestone quarry and a cement
plant on the outskirts of the town of Opole in Siiesia, nearly
325 kilometres from Warsaw, and was a heavy emitter of
cement dust.
A German company bought 80 per cent of Odra's shares; the other
20 per cent were reserved for sale to employees. The new owners
agreed to a major environmental investment programme, including: •
converting the plant to a more environmentally sound dry process
technology; installing a municipal waste system to convert the waste
to fuel for use in the plant; and expanding Opole's municipal landfill.
The key technology was the BRAM fuel-from-waste system. This
transforms household waste into flakes about 2.5 square
centimetres in size, which can be substituted for fossil fuels in
specially equipped cement plants. Such a plant can cut its fossil fuel
requirement by half.
an issue. However, putting this idea into
practice will require significant technical
assistance from donors.
Public-private partnerships
Public-private partnerships are another effective
way of financing the transfer of ESTs. The
involvement of the public sector — national,
regional and local government as well as
international aid agencies and development
banks - in projects with the private sector can
be crucial to ensuring that ESTs are used. There
are four main reasons for the public sector to
get involved:
0 there is often a need to mitigate political and
commercial risks, perceived or actual, in
order to unlock private capital and
technology;
Ei there may be a need to show that environ-
mentally sound technologies deliver real,
image:
Banl^Vustria
FINANCIAL RESPONSIBILITY AND AN
ENVIRONMENTAL ROLE
Banks today need to do more than exercise
financial responsibility on their clients' behalf; they
have an increasingly important role in supporting
the private sector to achieve sustainable
development goals.
As a signatory to UNEP's Statement by Banks on
the Environment and Sustainable Development,
Bank Austria is fully aware of its wider
responsibilities and is determined to meet them. -
Bank Austria is the country's leading credit
institution, formed initially from the merger in
1991 between Zentralsparkasse and Landerbank,
and strengthened considerably in 1997 when it
acquired a majority interest in the privatized
Creditanstalt-Bankverein, Austria's second largest
bank. The bank has enjoyed strong and consistent
growth: in the first nine months of 1997, net
operating income was 10,465,000 Austrian
schillings, a 23.5 percent increase. It is already
positioned as a bank of European dimension.
Bank Austria understands that as one of the main
contributors of private sector credit, the financial
services sector is inextricably linked by lending
and investment practices to economic activities that
may damage the natural environment — and the
signals which financial institutions send to their
clients about the relationship between
environmentally sound management practices and
credit lending rates are an important component in
building sustainable development.
At the same time, Bank Austria recognizes that
investing in the environment can be good business.
Investment in the provision of environmental
goods and services can offer extremely attractive
returns, while emerging environmental markets
offer very high growth rates - and one of the most
important new drivers of sustainable profitability is
companies with the ability to create new 'green'
technologies and opportunities.
For Bank Austria, therefore, supporting improved
corporate environmental performance is both
honouring a commitment to contribute to
sustainable development and a means of achieving
a healthy bottom line.
Mr. G. Randa,
Chairman and CEO
Bank Austria Aktiengesellschaft, Vordere Zollamtsstr. 13, A-1030 Vienna, Austria
Tel: + 43 1 711 91 0 Fax: + 43 1 711 91 6155
image:
FINANCING ESTs
BOX 4.2
An innovative approach to financing ESTs
Public-private sector partnerships are at
the heart of Sustainable Project
Management (SPM)'s, innovative
approach to financing and implementing
projects involving environmentally sound
or eco-efficient technologies.
SPM -was established in 1994 under the
auspices of the then Business Council
for Sustainable Development, and is now
involved in more than 20 projects
worldwide, including some with the
United Nations Development Programme
(UNDP) and the World Bank. The
projects focus on urban infrastructure
dealing with water, waste and energy "
efficiency, and the organization
concentrates on small to medium-scale
schemes typically costing US$5-50
million. These have traditionally been the
exclusive responsibility of municipal
authorities, but according to SPM,
this system is overwhelmed by the
massive influx of people to cities, the
lack of funds to improve and develop
services, and the difficulty in obtaining
new ESTs.
SPM lays down four key criteria for each
project:
: it must fully involve the public and
private sectors together from the
outset;
the development costs must be
shared equitably between the public
and private sectors, and external
sources of funding such as UNDP or
national development agencies;
the project must be inherently
profitable for its operating company to
attract private sector participation;
projects must use environmentally
sound technologies {ESTs).
The aim is to avoid the traditional situation
in which the private sector waits for the
public sector to identify a project and put it
out to tender, a process which often
involves the appointment of outside
advisers to help the public sector to define
a framework with which the private sector
can live. Says SPM Executive Chairman
Hugh Faulkner: Thus, only when the
project is half cooked by expensive chefs
does the private sector get involved. After
that, the process involves a long, drawn
out game of seeing how the private sector
could extract maximum return."
With an SPM project, the private and
public sectors sit down at the same
table at the outset and work through
every stage together. This includes
identifying financial and technology
partners, the technology options, the
actual choice of ESTs and, importantly,
deciding Issues of capacity building,
training and technology transfer or
cooperation. The partners form a joint
operating company to run the project,
SPM does not invest in any project. Its role
is to identify suitable schemes, identify
potential private sector investors, bring
them together with public sector parties,
act as honest broker in their negotiations,
and help put together the financial and
technology components of the package.
cost-effective benefits to the end-user before
the technologies can be widely diffused
using market mechanisms;
there may be a need for financial innovation
for EST transfer that requires, at least
initially, public sector leadership;
some ESTs may not be competitive with
alternatives from a business standpoint, but
there may be strong public interest reasons
why they should be subsidized.
Short term, the aim of public-private
partnerships is to leverage public resources to
mobilize private capital and harness market
forces as much as possible. The expectation is
that the private sector will be willing and able to
undertake the process of transferring ESTs
without public sector involvement in the long run.
Several countries have used build-operate-
transfer arrangements as an alternative to
foreign borrowing or public financing. The
private sector is responsible for financing and
building the project, and it is transferred to
public ownership once it is up and running.
Such projects are found particularly in the
power, transportation and water sectors. In
1993, there were some 400 such projects,
valued collectively at more than US$400
billion. Build-operate-transfer arrangements
have both advantages and drawbacks. Using
private sector financing provides new sources of
capita], which reduces public borrowing and
direct spending. Projects which might other-
wise have to wait and compete for limited
resources can move forward much faster. Using
image:
Each of us could and should
have made greater progress with
the implementation
of Agenda 21
Jacques Santer,
President of the European Commission
To attacfe Nature is
to attacfe mankind
Jacques Chirac,
President of France
l%We now possess the fenowledge and means to durablyt
protect Man's natural sources of life for the future
Helmut Kohl, Chancellor of Germany
;i The Rio promise on the
transfer of environmentally
sound technologies has
remained largely unfulfilled
Sarwono Kusumaatmadja,
Minister of State for Environment,
Indonesia
If the current trends
continue, the next
generations would face^
an ecological disaster
AH Akbar Velayati,
Minister for Foreign Affairs,
Islamic Republic of Iran
private sector capital and know-how reduces
project construction costs and schedules, and
improves operating efficiencies. The private
sector, not the public sector, assumes project
risk. The fact that the private sector is engaged
financially provides additional assurance of the
project's feasibility. In turn, governments can
build environmental impact and environmental
performance parameters into the design and
operation of the projects.
On the other hand, applying the build-operate-
transfer concept is a complicated undertaking
compared with conventional financing of public
sector projects, and although many projects have
been proposed, relatively few have been
implemented. Poorly prepared studies and
proposals have led to increased costs, delays and
frustrations. Differences over the costs of
construction, equipment and financing can cause
the negotiations to be protracted. The legislation
66
image:
FINANCING ESTs
BOX 4.3
Funding renewable energy technologies
Renewable energy technologies promise
considerable economic and
environmental benefits for developing
countries. But they need funding. The
United States-based World Resources
Institute (WR1) argues that these ESTs
have been given "short shrift" in
development assistance and ii has urged
a major rethink by donors to ease the .
way for developing countries to shift to
renewables.
Donors, says the WRI, got it badly wrong
during the 1970s and 1980s, by
supporting one-off projects which
focused too much on equipment and
engineering services and not enough on
capacity-building to manage change. Too
often, immature technologies were
promoted; no attempt was made to
match energy end-use needs with local
resources; and renewable energy
research centres worked independently
of the private sector, As a result, many
donors became disillusioned and many
aid recipients came to view these ESTs
"as second-class technologies that
industrialized countries were unwilling to
adopt themselves".
WRI makes four recommendations:
'•-". international donors and lenders must
'mainstream' applications of cost-
competitive renewable technologies;
! ' multilateral and bilateral agencies and
developing countries should
implement joint strategies for
technology commercialization;
;;.' donors should give higher priority to
long-term strategies for building
markets for renewables than to
competing for exports;
. multilateral and bilateral agencies
should target programmes for
renewable energies preferentially to
countries which allow them to
compete fairly with other technologies.
Renewable energy technologies that
combine lower costs with increased output
are excellent candidates for a coordinated
multilateral programme that could:
. '•; match the technology with
renewable energy resource
characteristics in both OECD and '
non-OECD countries;
.... help utilities and other would-be
developers identify appropriate
applications for the technology;
; : structure individual countries' needs
into an aggregate stream of orders;
..". issue a competitive notice for bids
from potential suppliers in any
country;
award contracts based on a
maximum allowable price that would
fall over time.
The WRI points out that no existing
multilateral institution is ready so far to
play such a catalytic role in commercial
development.
and regulations needed to streamline the
implementation of build-operate-transfer projects
do not exist in most countries. These projects are
complex from both a financial and legal point of
view and require committed government support
and involvement. This includes the government
establishing the right process for identifying
suitable projects and selecting bidders. The basic
structure needed is now better understood, and
standard solutions are being worked out, so that
many of the problems which bedevilled projects
in the past arc being resolved.
Another example of public-private partner-
ships is publicly sponsored investment funds
that focus on ESTs where, for example, govern-
ments will launch and seed a fund to attract
private investors, including venture capitalists.
The total amount involved so far is small.
However, the potential leverage of these funds,
and their effectiveness in transferring ESTs, are
"large", according to the CSD.
Another approach is leasing, which has many
advantages, particularly for SMEs. There is con-
siderable scope for developing leasing facilities
for ESTs. The key attribute of leasing is that the
initial arrangements are made with the sellers of
the technology, whereby they agree to support
sales of their technology (rather than finance
purchases). Ultimately, leasing should evolve
into a private sector function, but initially it
may need encouragement through public-
private partnerships.
One important category of partnership is the
publicly funded intermediary for EST transfer. It
image:
GARANTI BANK
WE BELIEVE CONSERVATION OF THE ENVIRONMENT
IS THE KEY TO FUTURE DEVELOPMENT
Garanti Bank, headquartered in Istanbul,
Turkey, operates a nationwide network of
207 branches serving corporate,
commercial and retail clients, Garanti is
proud of its record of excellence in all
banking areas -the bank holds the ISO
9001 Quality System Certificate. It has
been chosen as the 'Best Bank' in Turkey
by Euromoney for three consecutive years
- and in 1997 was nominated as the most
respected company in Turkey by the
Financial Times in its annual survey.
Garanti is also proud of its commitment to
investing in Turkey's future through
supporting initiatives for sustainable
growth as outlined in Agenda 21.
Agenda 21 stressed the importance of the
partnership of the private sector in
working to promote sustainable
development. Garanti Bank recognizes the
key role that the business community has
to play in Turkey in combining the
objectives of rapid economic growth and
environmental protection. While we
acknowledge that Turkey's development
needs are huge, Garanti also seeks to
ensure that our investments are directed
into areas compatible with long-term
sustainability. Garanti seeks to ensure that
a portion of its revenues are directed into
working for the conservation of Turkey's
nature and natural resources.
Since 1992, Garanti Bank has supported
programmes for the protection of Turkey's
biodiversity through its support of The
Society for the Protection of Nature (DHKD),
Associate Member of the World Wide Fund
for Nature (WWF). DHKD/WWF take action
to conserve the great diversity of Turkey's
habitats, fauna and flora through work that
combines field-work with policy, public
awareness and education.
Due to the growing importance of the
protection of nature in Turkey and all over
the world, Garanti seeks not only to protect
Turkey's wildlife and habitats from
extinction by supporting the efforts of
DHKD but also to raise public awareness on
the importance of the conservation of the
natural environment through its printed
materials, advertisements, credit cards and
even in the design of its branches.
Garanti's management, shareholders and
employees are proud to support the
Bank's environmental initiatives that have
been recognized by UNEP and WWF. In
1996, Garanti became one of just three
institutions to be nominated to the
prestigious UNEP Global 500 Roll of
Honour. In 1997, DHKD commended the
environmental contribution of Garanti
through the award of their "Prize for the
Environment".
Garanti Bank
63 Buyukdere Caddesi Maslak, 80670 Istanbul, Turkey
Tel/Fax 00 90 (212) 285 40 40 Telex 27635 gati-tr
http://www.garantibank.com.tr
image:
FINANCING ESTs
aims to help in the development of projects
oriented towards transferring ESTs by providing
pre-investment support such as funding feasi-
bility studies, finding partners and preparing
bankable proposals to mobilize private capital, as
well as match potential buyers with sellers.
The 'technology triangle' concept is another
form of public-private partnership. It involves
collaboration between government agencies and
institutions, the private sector and science and
technology institutions. The objective is to stimu-
late the development, transfer and diffusion of
ESTs through collaborative partnerships and
capacity-building.
Funding technology transfer
The CSD has proposed a number of measures to
increase the possibilities of funding the transfer
of ESTs to developing countries. Some of the
measures refer to the financial markets and can
apply also to encouraging more take-up of ESTs
by companies in the industrialized countries.
They include:
V in banking, moving beyond liability-based
environmental impact assessments to broader
assessments encompassing the potential for
ESTs;
i in capital markets, making information
available on environmental performance (for
example, resource use or waste produced),
to make the cost advantages of ESTs
transparent;
: in fund management, making fund managers
aware of the strategic investment advantages
of ESTs;
'.. . in privatization, encouraging the use of EST
criteria in tendering programmes.
Supporting smaller enterprises
Small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs)
account for a large percentage of economic
activity and hence have a major environmental
impact. However, their small size and their
isolated nature makes influencing their
behaviour difficult, particularly with regard to
ESTs. The major concern of SMEs is the short-
term financial bottom line. It is necessary to
explain the cost benefits of taking preventive
environmental action: saving money, reducing
costs and increasing efficiency. Focusing on
environmental terminology or international
environmental issues is rarely helpful. Getting
smaller enterprises to adopt ESTs should start
with promoting 'easy' changes that can be quickly
implemented and show a result, before working
up to more complicated and costly efforts. Often
SMEs need low-cost, easy-to-install technologies
— good housekeeping and awareness can reduce
waste by up to 50 per cent - yet EST suppliers
may try to sell them big expensive technologies
that are not applicable to their needs.
"Even though some multinational organi-
zations, multinational banks and governments
have made some efforts to address this problem,
these efforts are falling short due to the sheer size
of the potential market, and the limited amount of
funds that can be allocated to it", states the CSD.
The CSD is concerned by the fact that the SME
market for ESTs has been left "largely without an
active pool of informed buyers, and without
financial sources and instruments through which
these technologies can reach new potential
investors". It says governments can use financial
instruments, such as openly traded debt
conversion and joint implementation emissions
certificates, or secondary markets for debt related
to investments in ESTs, as well as providing loan
guarantees and 'seed' money to stimulate these
investments. Moreover, "new vehicles must be
created for brokers to continue to be attracted by
this market, and to continue to promote the
transfer of ESTs - as a marketable and profit-
making investment".
While government can play an important
catalytic role, the consensus is that the problem of
funding ESTs will only be solved by strong private
sector participation. Transnational corporations
should become 'mentors' to their local suppliers,
image:
I-INANUNU tti I S
BOX 4.4
Implementing a national strategy
A World Bank-financed environmental strategy study carried out in
Bulgaria in 1991-1992 found that past economic and management
policies were a major cause of environmental degradation. It set out
an action plan, including:
developing environmental legislation and regulations;
strengthening environmental institutions;
Improving the system of environmental monitoring;
establishing mechanisms for funding environmental protection.
These measures led to improved environmental quality and lower
pollution levels in the worst areas.
A follow-up study recommended a further set of priority issues:
Industrial air pollution;
leaded gasoline;
water and food contamination from heavy metals and toxic
organic compounds.
This helped to form the basis for a pollution abatement project, as
well as a debt-for-environment swap funded by Switzerland which
allowed Bulgaria to invest 20 per cent of its Swiss debt in a Pollution
Abatement Fund, to be used for environmental projects, audits and
feasibility studies.
both by urging them to implement environmental
management systems and by using their buying
power and credit worthiness to allow suppliers to
access funds for ESTs. Governments can help by
creating the right framework conditions.
Other funding sources
Private finance aside, most developing countries
can tap into a variety of other funding sources:
regional and international development funding
agencies; intergovernmental agencies; and non-
governmental agencies and donor countries.
Some examples include:
'. Japan's Green Aid Plan which has funded
projects involving technology demonstration
(for example, desulphurization technology) in
China, Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines
and Thailand;
: the United States Agency for International
Development which sponsors the Environ-
mental Technology Fund, a series of small
matching grants to help smaller enterprises
in the United States take their ESTs to the
Asian region and demonstrate them;
the Asian Development Bank's US$150
million fund for investments in companies
which contribute to sustainable development
in Asian markets;
.•: the Nordic Investment Bank's loans for pro-
jects involving the transfer of ESTs in China,
Estonia, Indonesia, Mauritius, Tunisia and
Turkey;
x. the Islamic Development Bank, which
finances major projects including technology
transfer and capacity-building, for example:
sewerage systems for eight cities in Tunisia;
a rubbish composting plant in Syria; disposal
of solid wastes in Saudi Arabia.
There are also a number of examples of
successful new funding initiatives:
a United States private sector company has
finalized an agreement with the Republic of
Korea to deliver sensors for car fuel
efficiency and pollution prevention;
"- a Thai govemment/USAID (the United
States development agency) initiative to
alleviate air pollution in Bangkok led to the
building of the world's first three-wheeled
electric vehicle factory in the Thai capital;
;;: the Finnish government has supported
investments in ESTs in power schemes in
China, pollution prevention and control pro-
jects in India, and energy and water saving
measures in Thailand.
The World Bank
The World Bank is the largest external financier
of environmental investments in the developing
world. In fiscal year 1995, pollution management
70
image:
FINANCING ESTs
and urban environmental projects accounted for
over 60 per cent of its total lending for the
environment. In 1996, the World Bank
committed US$1.63 billion and leveraged a
further US$1.64 billion from other sources for 20
new environmental projects, bringing its active
environmental portfolio to 153 projects, totalling
US$11.4 billion. These projects included direct
investment in pollution prevention and treatment
facilities, support for research into new
technologies, arid a clean technology initiative to
identify the opportunities for introducing cleaner
technologies in China, India, Indonesia, the
Philippines and Viet Nam. It should be noted,
however, that such investments are small
compared with the World Bank's funding of non-
environrnentally focused projects such as large
hydro-electrification schemes.
The World Bank has put a strong emphasis on
achieving efficiency gains in the energy sector,
but says "these alone will not be enough to meet
future demand in an environmentally acceptable.
way". Therefore, it has provided increasing
support for clean energy sources (natural gas
and clean coal for power generation) and
technologies, including: improving the quality
of automotive fuels (the total phase-out of lead
in petrol); emission control ESTs (particularly to
remove particulates from coal emissions); and
" the development of renewable sources of energy.
In 1995, the World Bank launched the Solar
Initiative, aimed at accelerating the pace at which
commercial and near-commercial renewable
energy applications reach the marketplace,
through basic research, development and tech-
nology demonstrations. Both large-scale, grid-
connected power and industrial applications for
solar and renewable energy, as well as small-
scale, rural-based applications have been brought.
into me World Bank's mainstream lending
programme. The World Bank has identified a
number of solar energy investments in various
countries, among them three geothermal projects
in the Philippines, a solar photovoltaic and wind
BOX 4.5
Pollution prevention in India
The US$330 million Industrial Pollution Prevention Project (1PPP) in'
India builds on the success of the previous Industrial Pollution
Control Project (IPCP). The change of name reflects the shift in focus
from pollution control to pollution prevention in the Indian industrial
sector.
The former iPCP achieved substantial success. It initiated more than
80 innovative environmental schemes. Twenty effluent treatment
plants were financed, providing cost-effective treatment to more than
.3,500 small and medium-scale industries, and together handling
about 150,000 tonnes a day. State pollution control boards were set
up under the IPCP, with the objective of getting industries to meet
their statutory requirements.
The IPPP Is designed to support the Indian government's policy of
pollution prevention and waste minimization, by encouraging the use
of clean technologies and through providing incentives to companies
to prevent pollution. It is providing more effluent treatment plants at
industrial estates in four states and helping the most polluting
industries to adopt cost-effective waste reduction and resource
recovery or pollution abatement measures. It also helps to
disseminate information on innovative, cleaner manufacturing
practices: for instance, through a cleaner technology network.
farm project in India and a biomass energy pro-
ject in Mauritius. Two of the Philippines projects
together add 640 megawatts to the country's
existing 1,000 megawatts of installed geothermal
capacity. As well as reducing carbon dioxide,
sulphur dioxide and nitrogen oxide emissions,
increased geothermal energy production wiD
reduce the country's dependence on imported oil.
Elsewhere in the energy sector, the World
Bank has focused on coal, pushing for the com-
mercialization of technologies such as coal
washing (standard practice in industrialized
countries) and integrated coal gasification (now
entering commercial application in Europe and
North America), and assisting countries in identi-
fying and preparing clean coal projects. It also
assists technology transfer through project
financing. In Indonesia, for example, it financed
the construction of three 600-megawatt coal .
units that use low-sulphur coal and are fitted with
image:
INTERNATIONAL
INVESTMENT WORLD Co. Inc. (U.S.A.)
GROUP OF COMPANIES
REGIST. OFFICE (USA) WILMINGTON, DELAWARE
INTERNATIONAL LOANS
A COMMON FATE
A COMMON PURPOSE
For too long, we have been wasting oir planet's natural resources and polluting our
environment. Today, we are all dismayed at the results and deeply concerned that further
damage and pollution will ruin our wate|r supplies and all the other resources we need to
assure a sustainable future.
All of us — leaders of the international
to the dangers. We know we share a cortimon
community, as well as ordinary people - are alive
fate.
We also share a common purpose - to check
the ruinous degradation and decline that
Companies is ready to participate in thi
Panagtotis Ag, PapadaMs,
President
Papadakis Investment Group
International Investment World Co. Inc.
Bahnhofstrasse 52, Zurich 8001, Switzerland
Usteristrasse 23, Zurich 8001, Switzerland
PO Box 2921, Zurich 8021, Switzerland
Tel Nos: (41 1) 212 7323-27
Fax Nos: (41 1) 212 7328-32
pollution, use resources sensibly, and arrest
is threatening our existence. Our Group of
task because it is vital to every one of us.
Mr. Panagiotis Ag. Papadakis, President
Alexandra P. Papadakis,
Vice President
Athens Office:
24 Pontou St. H528,
PO Box 14088,
11510 Athens, Greece
Tel Nos: (30 1) 779 5444/778 0351/
7784537-8/7717190-1
Fax Nos: (30 1) 771 7192/777 6048/778 4539
image:
electrostatic precipitators that remove 99.5 per
cent of the participate from the flue gas. China
and India are particular target countries, since
they are expected to double their use of coal
every ten years and the need for clean tech-
nologies is urgent.
In Central and Eastern Europe, the World
Bank has promoted efficient resource use and
pollution prevention. Most of the demand for
environmental investment comes from the
energy sector and inefficient, polluting
industries which, the World Bank says, "should
be restructured, or in some cases, shuttered". In
this region, there is a strong demand for grants,
not loans, but the World Bank only provides
grants for technical assistance projects to help
prepare project feasibility studies. There is also
the problem that "the demand for environmental
credit is still rather limited — partly because of
policy and institutional constraints, and partly
because of competing investment priorities".
Moreover, many environmental problems in
Central and Eastern Europe would be best
addressed by small investments, from several
hundred to several million dollars. The World
Bank acknowledges it is "ill-equipped" to
provide loans of this size, except through
financial intermediaries. One approach has been
to set up credit lines as environmental funds,
capitalized both from domestic sources
(environmental taxes and charges, and general
government revenues) and external sources
(loans from international institutions, donor
grant financing and debt-for-nature swaps).
The World Bank is moving more towards
pollution prevention and to promoting cleaner
industrial technologies. One example is the
Industrial Pollution Prevention Project (see Box
4.5) in India. Another is the Technology
Development Project in China, to support
reforms in technology and institutions that
promote the development of cleaner techno-
logies. Working with foreign suppliers to adapt
existing know-how, two engineering research
BOX 4.
ESR
pape
FINANCING ESTs
help Pakistan pulp and
<" mill
The Inter ational Finance Corporation (IFC) is encouraging private
investmei it In various projects involving ESTs. These Include water
supply ar d wastewater treatment, solid hazardous waste
managen lent, and manufacturing projects that include cleaner
productic n techniques and pollution control equipment. One project
involves I 'akistan's main pulp and paperboard mill and paper
converteij in Lahore, the country's second largest city.
Most of t ie wor!d5s pulp is produced from wood. However, non-wood
sources, such as wheat straw, rice straw, bamboo and bagasse,
which ref resent a major source of fibrous raw materials, are used
extensive y in developing countries. The Lahore company uses these.
But both wood and non-wood paper production can pollute the
envlronm 3nt. These problems can be avoided by proper mill design
and oper ition, and adequate effluent treatment and disposal.
The corn, >any began to improve its environmental pollution control
systems n 1987 and 1990 by investing in primary effluent treatment
facilities. Fhe IFC helped pay for these. Now it is providing a US$35
million loan package to help the company finance a major upgrade
that will r lake it one of the first straw pulp mills in the world to meet
the World Bank's environmental standards.
New chic rine mixing and oxygen treatment in a new bleaching line
will signrf cantly reduce the use of elemental chlorine and hypochlorite
in the ble aching process. A new chemical recovery plant will recover
the prow
expand® i, the use of chemicals and water will be reduced. Air
emission? will be clean and low-odour.
One ince itive for the company was the Pakistan government's plans
to step u 3 efforts to combat pollution through new legislation that set
standard s for emissions and liquid effluents, and by putting more
emphasii \ on enforcing previous laws. The IFC believes that
replicatin 3 the Lahore project could make a substantial contribution
to the ck aner production of pulp in countries such as China, Egypt
and Indie which also use straw, bagasse and bamboo as raw
materials! in place of scarce wood resources.
institutes
technology
pollution pr svention
The Woi
approaches
One is for
policies.
change behaSrour,
iss black liquid. While the plants operations will be
vill develop clean coal-burning
Other institutes will develop
technologies.
d Bank has also urged two other
o financing sustainable development.
governments to rethink their taxation
purpose of taxes should be to
; not just to raise more revenues.
The
image:
BOX 4.7
Collaborating on the border
Border regions can offer a special opportunity for governments and
businesses to cooperate in working together to finance the solution
of environmental problems. The North American Development Bank,
created by the United States and Mexican governments specifically
to finance environmental infrastructure projects in the border regions
of both countries, is an example of one such collabora'tion.
The border between the United States and Mexico stretches
3,380 kilometres and the area is home to more than 9 million
people. Because of the North American Free Trade Agreement
(NAFTA), border cities have attracted industrial investors. According
to Alfredo Phillips, the bank's managing director, the resultant
Increase in industrial activities necessitates more investment in
environmental protection.
He told the Third Annual World Bank Conference on Environmentally
Sustainable Development in 1995 that the growing commercial and
economic activity in the United States-Mexico border region has had
a particular Impact on its environment as polluted air, water or solid
waste from one side contaminates the other. The threat to water
supplies is especially serious. 'Water in some border areas may
soon become more valuable than oil", said Phillips, and this will
require new Infrastructure to tackle the issues of water supply and
wastewater treatment.
Phillips pointed out that long-term financing for water and sanitation
projects was not always available, so alternatives were needed. The
North American Development Bank has a start-up capital of US$750
million, and when fully capitalized will be able to provide support for
projects totalling USS8-10 billion, the estimated cost of infrastructure
schemes needed along the border over the next ten years.
The bank "offers much-needed support to public entities and private
entrepreneurs who want to invest in infrastructure services within the
border region". The North American Development Bank and its
borrowers fund projects with a variety of creative financial schemes,
such as co-financing, asset securitizatlon, syndication and loan
guarantees. Combining the resources of the World Bank, the Inter-
American Development Bank and other financing institutions allows
for a greater spread of risk and more favourable borrowing terms.
Individuals and enterprises should be encouraged
to act more responsibly towards the environment
through clear tax signals." The other is actually to
reduce the need for additional finance. "Many of
the resources invested in environmental
concerns", it says, "have been unnecessary".
Why? Because policy makers in this area "paid
inadequate attention to cost-effectiveness". The
World Bank's proposal: "We must pay greater
attention to reducing the costs of solutions."
The International Finance Corporation (IFC),
part of the World Bank group, is also a major
funder of projects involving ESTs. It too is
adopting some new approaches. In sub-Saharan
Africa, for example, the IFC is now supporting
private sector investments in commercially and
economically viable environmental schemes, such
as the collection, treatment and disposal of
hazardous wastes, the collection, recycling and
disposal of solid waste, and the treatment and
disposal of industrial and municipal wastewaters.
Interestingly enough, the IFC says that while
"there is no shortage of finance for 'good projects'
in the region, there is a shortage of good projects".
International funding
Various international environmental bodies also
make funds available to invest in ESTs. One such
source of funding resulted from the Montreal
Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone
Layer, which calls for the complete phase-out of
fully halogenated chemical emissions. As
described in Chapter 5, the Montreal Protocol's
Multilateral Fund helps developing countries to
eliminate ozone depleting substances by conver-
ting to alternatives through, among other things,
switching to new technologies. Industrialized
countries gave US$510 million for the period
1994-1996 and, in November 1996, agreed to
provide US$540 million for 1997-1999.
The Global Environment Facility (GEF) is an
international body that was set up to implement
pilot projects in four focus areas (climate
change, biodiversity, international waters and
ozone). Jointly run by UNDP, UNEP and the
World Bank, it has funds for projects in
developing countries that aim to protect the
global environment. It believes that:
&. more technologies are needed to offer
options for reducing emissions at least cost;
si GEF funding should encourage promising
but unproven technologies when the
74
image:
FINANCING ESTs
• technology, economics or market conditions
are not yet 'right';
'i": successful technologies will be those that
show potential for widespread use and could
eventually attract investment from conven-
tional sources.
Self-financing in Europe
The European Bank for Reconstruction and
Development (EBRD), set up specifically to help
Central and Eastern Europe, is involved in both
project-based lending to, and equity participation
in, joint ventures, privatized companies and
financial intermediaries. But one of its senior
officials, Timothy Murphy, made it clear at the
1995 World Bank conference that "the first
important lesson from our work is that most
financing of environmentally sustainable develop-
ment win have to come from within the countries
themselves". The role of the EBRD and other
development banks was, he said, to help develop
mechanisms that facilitate this process.
He explained that, given the other demands on
national financial resources, it would be wise to
reduce the need to pay for environmentally
sustainable development through direct central
government funding or loans from multilateral
development banks that require sovereign
guarantees. Much of the money would have to
come from the private sector or other competitive
sectors. He argued that it is better to finance
environmentally sustainable development from
the profits of the industrial sector, or from the
revenues of the municipal and utility sectors,
rather than rely on central governments or extern-
al agencies. "Economic growth should generate
sufficient resources for a proportion of profits and
Sources
Annual Reports of the World Bank.
Effective financing of Environmentally Sustainable
Development, Proceedings of the Third Annual
World Bank Conference on Environmentally
Sustainable Development, 1995, World Bank.
Government Strategies and Policies for Cleaner
Production, 1994, UNEP IE.
of locally and nationally collected taxes to be
devoted to environmental ends", he said.
Murphy noted that there is currently a
"window of opportunity" for many industrial
sectors in the region, including paper, chemicals
and metals. As demand for their products
increases, so opportunities are provided to bring
their environmental performance up to inter-
national standards. However, he stressed that
market forces alone cannot achieve the required
results, and that there remains a major catalytic
role for the EBRD, other development banks,
donor organizations and commercial sources of
finance to accelerate reform in the region.
The good news - and the bad
Financing ESTs, and particularly their transfer
to developing countries, remains an entrenched
problem and a source of North-South friction.
According to the World Bank, this is due to an
over-reliance "on public funds, or official
development assistance, while flows of private
capital have been regulated, rather than chan-
nelled and catalysed. It insists that approaches to
financing "must change".
The World Bank has advocated three central
pillars in a reform programme: increasing the
level of finance; changing the pattern of existing
finance; and reducing the; need for additional
finance. It adds: "The good news is that almost
all these ideas are being tried out-somewhere.
The bad news is they are not being tried in
enough places." Until they are, and until the
issue of financing ESTs is resolved, the uptake
of new environmentally sound and cleaner
production technologies will continue to lag
well behind the need.
Malnstreaming the Environment, 1995, World Bank..
Reports of the United Nations Commission on
Sustainable Development.
Response ofUNIDO to Agenda 21,1992, UNIDO.
Rethinking Development Assistance for Renewable
Electricity, 1994, World Resources Institute.
Warmer Bulletin, various issues, World Resource
Foundation.
image:
According to UNEP, governments can
use economic instruments to make the
"cost of pollution higher than the cost of
clean production".
image:
The role of go^rnment
Government has arguably the most important role of all in getting industries and
companies to adopt environmentally sound technologies, and so reduce pollution and
achieve cleaner production and eco-efficiency. In the past, the focus wtis on command-and-
control, but there is now a growing consensus that other measures, such as economic
instruments, will be more effective. Voluntary agreements with industry can also work. The
key is that whatever regulations and rules governments introduce, they must enforce them
to create an enabling environment for industry. Weak enforcement is a problem in many
developing countries.
hile it is industry that must
implement environmental improve-
ments and move, ultimately, to
cleaner production and eco-efficiency, govern-
ment is an important player, with a major role in
providing the framework conditions that will
accelerate the process. This requires specific
strategies and policy instruments, fashioned to
suit individual circumstances. UNEP proposes a
tool-box of public policies: a range of policy
instruments that includes legislation, financial
instruments, demonstration projects and other
information and education measures to promote
the use of environmentally sound technologies
(ESTs), saying that, "Different countries will
select the combination of tools they regard as
most suited to their needs." Peer pressure works
too, as companies scramble to keep up with
competitors reaping the environmental and
economic benefits of using ESTs. The best
companies are even ahead of government in
setting goals for improved environmental
performance. But the single most effective force
behind the adoption of environmentally sound
technologies has been regulatory action.
Historically, most industries in the developed
world have started using ESTs only because
pollution control regulations have required them
to take action to reduce emissions, and it has
been mainly end-of-pipe ESTs that have
provided the means for tliem to do so. Japan's
experience demonstrates this. It was only after a
battery of laws was introduced in the 1960s and
1970s to curb major air pollution problems that
Japanese industries and companies made huge
investments in ESTs, leading to the rapid de-
velopment of new state-of-the-art technologies
and reductions in emissidns to the lowest level
. of any industrialized country. The pattern has
been repeated in the United States and Western
Europe: tighter regulatory controls over
emissions and the adoptiojn of end-of-pipe ESTs
by industry, leading to significant improvements
in pollution performance;and in environmental
quality generally. Conversely, the absence of
regulations in many developing countries is a
key reason why their environment is deterior-
ating alarmingly.
Direct regulations |
Most existing environmental legislation is in the
form of direct regulations, with which polluters
are legally obliged to comply and which include
various penalties such as fines, imprisonment
and the shutting down of offending sites to
enforce this compliance. Within this general
framework, governments have applied regu-
lations in a variety of ways:
image:
A partnership approach to
achieving sustainable growth
The Sooth Africa Infrastructure Fund
Southern Africa's development needs are
enormous - South Africa alone needs to
spend R60 billion (US$ 13.5 billion) on new
infrastructure. But while the economies of
the Southern African Development
Community (SADC) are expanding rapidly,
the SADC governments cannot fund this
growth by themselves. They are now turning
increasingly to the private sector for support.
The South Africa Infrastructure Fund was
launched in July 1996 to attract private
sector investment in new projects within the
region. It is the first private equity
infrastructure fund of its kind in Africa, set
up by the Standard Bank of South Africa,
sponsored by the Standard Corporate and
Merchant Bank in Johannesburg, and now
involving 14 institutional investors in a
unique programme to demonstrate that
infrastructural development can be a joint
public-private responsibility.
At present, the Fund has R693,142,OQO
(US$ 155,000,000) in capital commitments -
earmarked for the development of airports,
energy projects, gas and oil pipelines,
harbours, telecommunications, toll roads,
transportation, and water and waste
management schemes. The Fund will invest in
privately-developed projects, strategic equity
partnerships, public-private partnerships,
"build-operate-transfer" ventures, concessions
and similar equity structures.
Standard Bank
The South African government has
recognized the Fund as an important vehicle
for facilitating economic and industrial
expansion, and by selecting a preferred
bidder for the concession to operate the
Maputo Corridor Development Road - N4
Toll Road, an initial investment of the Fund,
in just eight months, has also showed its
determination to address the country's
infrastructural needs.
With Africa, and southern Africa in
particular, positioned for significant
economic growth in the next decade, the
challenge is to ensure that investment goes
into projects that contribute to sustainable
growth. Agenda 21 stressed the importance
of the public and private sectors working
together to promote sustainable
development. The South Africa
Infrastructure Fund is an effective channel
through which the government and private
sector can cooperate as partners to achieve
this goal in southern Africa.
For further details, please contact
Philip Chen
Managing Director,
South Africa
Infrastructure fund
Tel (2711) 636 0434
Fax (2711) 636 1517
With us you can go so much further
Philip Chen
image:
THE ROLE OF GOVERNMENT
;> one way is to specify an environmental goal,
without necessarily stating how it is to be
achieved or what technology should be used
to meet it;
L;:. another is to require a certain technology to
be used in certain industries to reduce
pollution, without specifying the environ-
mental objective;
MS the toughest regulations stipulate both the
target and the technology to be used to
achieve it.
One of the most common regulatory
approaches has been for governments to lay
down specific environmental standards, for
example, a quality standard defining the level of
a particular pollutant in the air or water, perhaps
in terms of volume or concentration level; or an
emission standard, specifying the amount of a
type of emission from a particular source to the
environment. The advantages of environmental
standards are that they are clear, enforceable (in
theory at least), and are also applied across the
board to all polluters. But there have been
growing doubts about their effectiveness.
Often, regulations have been developed in a
piecemeal and reactive fashion, addressing only
specific problems, and sometimes resulting in
pollution being transferred from one medium to
another. National standards may also be
difficult, even impossible, to implement and
enforce across diverse industries, geographic
locations and technologies; while across-the-
board standards can cause real difficulties for
companies because each one faces different
pollution control problems. It may be too costly
to upgrade older, less efficient plants, while
building a new, non-polluting factory may not be
justified because of capital costs or market
conditions.
In the United States, regulators introduced
the 'bubble concept' to get round this problem.
Large industrial complexes have many potential
sources of pollution, and at one time the
environmental regulations required that each
BOX 5.1
Japan: legislation is the driving
force
The International Center for Environmental Technology Transfer
(ICETT) confirms the importance of legislation in driving the
development and adoption of environmentally sound
technologies in Japanese industry. In addition, Japan's experience
illustrates the point that companies can be divided into problem
creators and problem solvers. The former pay for polluting, the
latter make a profit from pollution control. Of course,
sometimes a company can be both a problem creator and
a problem solver.
:•» Sulphur dioxide concentrations reached critical levels in Tokyo and
other Japanese cities by the 1960s, and legislation was
introduced in 1968 imposing strict rules on the sulphur content of
fuel and stringent controls on sulphur emissions from large
industrial facilities. Up to that time, the only way of abating air
pollution was to dilute flue gas emissions using taller
smokestacks, sometimes as high as 120 metres. The
breakthrough came with flue gas desulphurization. The first units
appeared in 1970, and now all medium to large industrial facilities
have such equipment, and Japan has 75 per cent of all global flue
gas desulphurization installations. It also has the lowest per capita
emissions of sulphur dioxide of any industrialized country, with
ambient levels in Tokyo just 10-15 per cent of the levels in the
mid-1960s.
••": Emission of nitrogen oxides was another major problem. In 1973,
the Environment Agency set a new nitrogen dioxide standard, the
world's most stringent, requiring that the daily average of hourly
values should not exceed 0.02 parts per million. This forced
industry to move ahead rapidly with developing air denitrification
processes. ICETT reports that "while the national government
considered them feasible on a technical basis, private enterprises
insisted that some difficulties remained" but, nonetheless,
whereas there were just 5 units installed in Japan In 1972, the
number had risen to 430 by 1989. The installation of catalytic
converters in all new cars was a direct consequence of regulatory
standards for nitrogen oxide emissions introduced in 1978. The
result of the legislative measures on nitrogen oxide is that Japan's
emissions have been reduced to the lowest per capita level of any
large economy.
ICETT points out that in addition to setting mandatory standards, the
Japanese government also provided significant financial and tax
incentives to industries to invest in ESTs. In 1975, the Japanese
Development Bank financed approximately 200 billion yen's worth of
pollution control facilities. The government also played a leading role
in the development of new technologies: for example, work on flue
gas and flue oil desulphurization, carried out between 1966 and
1971, was a collaborative effort by the Ministry of International Trade
and Industry and the private sector.
image:
THE ROLE OF GOVERNMENT
80
one of these pollution sources
mandated standards. Under the bubble concept
however, regulators measure only
from the whole complex, which m
or more smokestacks may exceed
standards, but this is allowable because
emissions from other discharge p
enough to keep total emissions bek
ints are low
w the overall
standard. Supporters of the bubble concept
argue that this allows companies
conform to
the pollution
;ans that one
the emission
to phase in
pollution control ESTs and expei ditures on a
planned basis over time.
Command-and-control ciiticized
However, the whole command -and-control
approach has drawn an Increasing chorus of
criticism, not least because of
developing new ESTs. A further
ts effect on
complicating
factor is the rapid increase iA small and
medium-sized enterprises, which are much
more difficult to target and contro
United States Environmental
Agency noted that federal and sta
policies "are slowing technological innovation
for environmental purposes", anc
use of such concepts as bes
practicable, reasonable techno
companies no incentive to
.In 1991, the
Protection
compliance
said that the
"available,
ogies" gave
go beyond
regulatory norms and risked lock ng them into
traditional technologies, UNEP hiis also voiced
concern, pointing out that ccmmand-and-
control "encourages the use of expensive
pollution control technologies — tt.e adoption of
which often reduces the budget lor promoting
cleaner production. Once a pollution control
device is in place, there is little in :entive to pay
more money to reduce the need fc r the device."
UNEP has suggested that the 'negotiated
compliance* approach is better bf cause it aims
at obtaining compliance by the i se of general
and flexible guidelines, and barga ning between
the regulators and the regulated.
The Organisation for EC
operation and Developmei t (OECD)
momic Co-
acknowledges that command-and-control has
"by and large" been successful in arresting and
significantly reducing pollution, but says it has
"failed to allow polluters the flexibility to
develop and implement alternative tech-
nologies to achieve the desired objective".
"Even where the standards are performance-
oriented, not technology-specific, tight com-
pliance deadlines and the desire of industrial
managers to minimize the risk of non-
compliance have favoured conventional end-
of-pjpe _ solutions. Firms have mostly been
reactive; they have focused on achieving
compliance and minimizing costs for doing so.
Industry does not want to be forced to make
any technological changes which are costly or
reduce production efficiency, and which
apparently will not enhance profits. The effect
has been to stunt the development of new
technological solutions."
The World Bank has accepted the criticisms
of command-and-control, but believes that
"specific regulations on what abatement
technologies must be used in specific industries"
may be, in some situations, "the best instruments
available — and the quickest and most effective in
dealing with a few large polluters". Meanwhile,
the World Resources Institute (WRI) said in
1991 that "if promoting rapid continuous
technological transformation is today's mission,
then requiring all pollution sources to install
abatement equipment is not enough. The
development and deployment of technologies
economically and environmentally superior to
those in current use must be stimulated through a
wide range of mechanisms." Regulatory policy
design, stated the WRI, "often exhibits
systematic bias against new technology, and in
favour of the status quo", and stronger 'control
over new pollution sources "creates a
disincentive to modernize plants and equipment,
and prolongs the life of old ones".
The WRI also criticized legislative mandates
which encourage regulators to base standards on
image:
f -* f,1* A_ _ ...u.
The Convention on Biological Diversity requires
countries to facilitate access to genetic materials for
environmentally sound uses, including the production of
new plant varieties needed to achieve food security.
image:
THE HOLt Oh UUVtHNMtNl
BOX 5.2
Regulatory flexibility
The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) Common Sense Initiative
is an experiment aimed at introducing regulatory flexibility in the
United States. Six major industries are the focus of the project^ first
phase: automotive; computers and electronics; iron and steel; metal
finishing; oH refining; and printing. These Industries account for more
than 11 per cent of gross domestic product and a significant
proportion of the toxic releases in the United States,
Special teams have been formed to look at ways of turning
"complicated and inconsistent" environmental regulations into new
and comprehensive strategies for environmental protection. The
teams include representatives from the federal, state and local
governments; national and locally based environmental groups; the
trade unions; and the industries themselves. Their objective is to find
cleaner, cheaper and smarter approaches In the areas of regulation,
reporting, compliance and environmentally sound technologies,
emphasizing pollution prevention rather than end-of-pipe controls.
the current best available technologies.
"Sticking with conventional technologies on
which standards are based is less risky for
regulators, regulated sources and engineering
consultants than adopting less familiar
technologies. This creates a high hurdle for
entrepreneurs trying to develop and market new
technologies." Regulatory agencies, it added, are
generally not organized to promote wide-
ranging technological change because their
focus is on particular problem areas (air and
water pollution, and wastes), not on major
industries or economic sectors.
New thinking - new policies
In fact, there is now a growing shift in thinking
away from the traditional command-and-control
approach of setting prescriptive standards. In its
1996 report," Sustainable America, the United
States President's Council on Sustainable
Development captured the prevailing mood by
stating that while the government's reliance on
command-and-control regulation has "drama-
tically improved the country's ability to protect
public health and the natural environment,
society (now) needs to adopt a wider range of
strategic environmental protection approaches".
Technology-based standards and regulation,
said the President's Council, are not the right
answer in all cases, and while these can
sometimes encourage technological innovation,
they can also "stifle it". The report went on:
"There is no doubt that some regulations have
encouraged innovation and compliance with
environmental laws, resulting in substantial
improvements in the protection of public health
and the environment. But at other times,
regulation has imposed unnecessary - and
sometimes costly — administrative and technical
burdens, and discouraged technological
innovations that can reduce costs while
achieving environmental benefits beyond those
realized by compliance. Moreover, it has
frequently focused attention on clean-up and
control remedies, rather than on product or
process design to prevent pollution."
The Council advocated a move away from
the 'one-size-fits-all' approach to new
performance-based policies, "Regulations that
specify performance standards based on strong
protection of health and the environment — but
without mandating the means of compliance -
give companies and communities flexibility to
find the most cost-effective way to achieve
environmental goals. In return for this
flexibility, companies can pursue technological
innovation that will result in superior
environmental protection at far lower costs.
But this flexibility must be coupled with
accountability and enforcement." Under the
President's Council's proposed approach, the
focus would switch to the environmental
performance of an entire facility, rather than
separate air, water and soil requirements. This
could mean that the environmental gains for the
facility as a whole might exceed what would
have been achieved through source-by-source
regulations.
82
image:
THE ROLE OF GOVERNMENT
Economic instruments
The President's Council also called for greater
use of market forces in promoting sustainable
development, specifically economic incentives
to reduce pollution and "drive innovations and
the development of cleaner and more efficient
technologies". In fact, economic instruments
(taxes and charges, tradeable emissions permits,
deposit returns and subsidies) attract con-
siderable support. According to UNEP, they can
be used "to make the cost of pollution more
expensive than the cost of cleaner production"
and, by providing either rewards for compliance
or penalties for non-compliance, they can
"shape and direct technological investment, the
purchase and use of materials and energy, and
the management of pollution and waste".
However, as UNEP notes, "if unwisely
fashioned, they can subsidize pollution control
or environmentally-harmful industrial activity
through, for example, inappropriate taxes and
subsidies".
In theory, they are instruments that
internalize the social cost of production by
imposing an economic cost or penalty for
polluting. However, UNEP emphasizes that
before any of these instruments are applied,
governments need to analyse what forms of
economic instruments are already in operation,
either explicitly or implicitly. The latter include
subsidies to reduce production costs and make
industry more competitive with imports and
foreign production. Many of these policies cause
artificially low prices for energy and water
resources. "In general", says UNEP, "policies
that result in prices that reflect the real costs
involved should be implemented before other
economic instruments are employed."
Despite these issues, economic instruments
have many champions. The World Bank has
long advocated the use of market-based
instruments on the grounds that they "encourage
those polluters with the lowest costs of control
to take the most remedial action, and they thus
BOX 5.3
Effluent taxes in the Netherlands
The 1969 Pollution of Surface Waters Act in the Netherlands set new
controls on discharges from industrial operations and established a
system of effluent taxes to finance new wastewater treatment
facilities. Some Dutch industrialists were alarmed that the new, high
taxes would hurt their international competitiveness, but this proved
a false concern.
In a key move, officials from regional water management boards
visited every major firm in their area and advised them on how to
reduce effluent discharges by installing appropriate technologies. The
result was that between 1970 and 1985, oxygen-depleting industrial
pollution fell by more than 70 per cent, despite significant increases
in production. Was this due to the effluent tax? Several independent
studies have found a strong correlation between the tax and the
pollution reductions.
The experience of one major company is telling. This multinational
produced yeast, alcohol and a wide range of enzymes and
Pharmaceuticals. When the tax schedule was first proposed for its
region, the firm estimated its annual tax bill at US$10 million, a sum
equal to its annual net profit. It examined the cost of an internal
wastewater treatment system, but found this would probably cost as
much. What the company did was conduct a detailed analysis of its
entire operation, including its production processes and various
inputs and outputs, as well as forecasts of probable long-term
changes in product markets. It then negotiated a major
reconstruction programme with the local water board which
increased production capacity while also eliminating much of its
oxygen-depleting pollution.
Over a 15-year period, the firm reduced Us effluent discharges by
92 per cent and cut its effluent tax bill to about US$1 million.
One study said that the effluent tax had made the company a much
more 'eco-efficient' firm. Although it was the innovative thinking and
actions of the firm which actually reduced pollution, the threat of high
taxes initiated the process.
impose less of a burden on the economy". The
OECD says that "prices need to reflect the cost
of preserving environmental quality, as well as
other resources", and also backs the use of
economic instruments as among the measures
governments need to take to set an appropriate
policy framework.
For the business community, the World
Business Council for Susfainable Development
image:
Earth is where we live. We take the Earth for granted. Not only that, for centuries we have fought
over it, divided it, and destroyed many parts of it.
We have spoiled the soil we need to grow ourifood, damaged the air we breathe, polluted marine life
and the water we use. We have inflicted terrible harm on our environment by wars, and through
negligence and the misuse of technology. Global warming, acid rain, nuclear disasters, oil spills and toxic
waste are today major threats to our world.
As a leading provider of insurance for energy, property and marine risks, we are fully aware of the dangers
from pollution, human behaviour, industrial activity and the carriage of hazardous materials. It is our
practice, where appropriate, to evaluate risks based on environmental criteria.
Yet we also appreciate the efforts of responsible industries and government bodies in researching and
developing new methods of reducing pollution through the increased use of natural resources, such as solar
and water energy, as well as with new and encouraging agricultural techniques.
We are optimistic that the measures being takei by all those involved in the drive towards sustainable
development will bear fruit by establishing a Balance between continued economic and technological
development and the protection of the environment.
We particularly value, and fully support, the actMties of the United Nations and its agencies responsible for
implementing environmental programmes. We wish them every success - and believe that through their
efforts, our planet will become a better place to live, for us and for the generations to follow.
Trust International Insurance Company EC (Bahrain) began operations
in 1989 in the State of Bahrain with a paid-up share capital of US$lSm
(now US$50m). The Company's main activity is in the field of insurance
and reinsurance. It has subsidiaries and associated companies in the
United States, United Kingdom, Cyprus, Algeria, Spain, Qatar, Jordan,
Lebanon, Yemen and Palestine. The Group employs more than 300
people. The subsidiaries and associates are involved in direct/domestic
insurance and reinsurance coverage, as well as manufacturing and
development projects. Group turnover for the 12 mojtths ending
31 December 1997, was in excess of US$130m.
Its consolidated net
assets for the same period were more than US$70m.
TRUST INTERNATIONAL INSURANCE COMPANY EC
(BAHRAIN)
P.O. Box 10002, Manama, Bahrain, Arabian Gulf
Telephone: +973 532425 Facsimile: +973 531586
Telax:8177TllCBN
E-mail: tifcbah9batelco.com.bh
Ghazi Abu Nahl, Chairman
image:
THE ROLE OF GOVERNMENT
(WBCSD) says that "public policy should give
priority to economic instruments that provide
flexibility and encourage innovation". This
echoes the views of the WBCSD's predecessor,
the Business Council for Sustainable
Development which, in its Changing Course
report to the 1992 United Nations Conference
on Environment and Development, and in a
subsequent report on eco-efficiency, urged
governments to adopt economic instruments as
the main means of progressively internalizing
environmental costs. Stressing that this was
critical to promoting eco-efficiency in business,
Changing Course added: "Economic instru-
ments encourage innovation. They encourage
polluters to change to cleaner technologies, and
to develop new technologies. They encourage
new entrants to try and gain a competitive edge
by starting off with new technology. Command
approaches can have the same effect, but as they
often require companies to use a specific
technology, they may not be as effective in
motivating continuous change and improve-
ment. In fact, regulations based on outmoded
technologies can actually have the effect of
slowing improvements in an industrial sector."
The United States Environmental Protection
Agency (EPA) says that "an effective pollution
charge system minimizes the aggregate costs of
pollution control, and gives firms ongoing
incentives to develop and adopt new and better
pollution-control technologies". The WRI points
out that economic incentives are also "an
attractive policy mechanism for encouraging
technological transformation" because reducing
pollution has a "real dollar value to a firm". "If
all environmental control options are on an
equal footing, the demand for improved
technology should increase, and prompt more
research and development and investment."
Economic instruments were in fact endorsed
by the United Nations Conference on
Environment and Development. Principle 16 of
the Rio Declaration states: "National authorities
BOX 5.4
Nitrogen oxide charge in Sweden
The nitrogen oxide charge in Sweden is a direct charge on measured
emissions from a [imited group of large sources, rather than a charge
based on the characteristics of input fuels (as with a carbon tax). The
decision to calculate the tax in this way was governed by the nature
of the process by which combustion causes nitrogen oxide
emissions.
Direct measurement of the emissions leads to a much more precisely
focused incentive than charges based on the fuel characteristics.
However, the measurement technology is expensive, so the nitrogen
oxide charge was confined to a relatively small group of sources:
large heat and power plants which could afford it.
The nitrogen oxide charge did not come into force until January
1992, but its incentive effect started as soon as the Swedish
parliament approved its introduction. The plants took a number of
measures, including investments in new ESTs and new control
systems, to reduce emissions by 35 per cent between 1990
and 1992.
should endeavour to promote the intemalization
of environmental costs, and the use of economic
instruments, taking into account the approach
that the polluter should, in principle, bear the
cost of pollution, with due regard to the public
interest, and without distorting trade and
investment." Yet progress since then has been
patchy. Taxes and charges have been the most
widely applied of the possible economic
instruments. Many industrialists oppose them,
partly because they fear they will affect their
companies" ability to compete at both
international and micro levels, even though there
is no evidence that higher environmental
standards damage competitiveness.
Ecotaxes
The OECD reported in 1996 that environmental
tax measures included those on motor vehicle
fuels, other energy products, batteries, plastic
carrier bags, drinks sold in disposable
containers, pesticides, tyres, chlorofluorocarbons
(CFCs) and halons; while charges included
image:
itlt MUUt
For the next century,
the challenge is to
implement substantial
increases in natural.
resource productivity,
to become effective
and systematic in ,
doing more with less
f
John Bruton,
Prime Minister of Ireland
water, sewage, water effluent, municipal waste,
waste disposal and hazardous waste. It
commented: "Ecotaxes change relz tive prices to
ensure that polluters take account oi the effects of
their activities on the environment. ] 'olluters have
at least three options to reduce emis sions, besides
reducing output. They may install pollution
abatement technology, improve production
efficiency or change processes to r ;duce the use
of polluting substances. When taxe; are imposed
only on inputs, producers cannot re luce their tax
payments by using end-of-pipe t< chnology ...
Because polluters have to pjy taxes on
emissions, ecotaxes provide a pen lanent incen-
tive to reduce pollution, and
However, the OECD also struck
note: "Environmental taxes ma\
provide the same dynamic featur* in areas of
innovation. For instance, an input
provide an incentive to install avail ible emission
reduction technologies such as sen. bbers - and a
consumption tax may not provide incentives to
producers to reduce emissions."
86
o innovate."
a cautionary
not always
tax may not
The European Environment Agency called
for more ecotaxes in a special report in 1996. It
said that the use of environmental taxes within
the European Union (EU) had accelerated over
the past five or six years in Scandinavia, Austria,
Belgium, France, Germany, the Netherlands and
the United Kingdom, but still accounted for only
1.5 per cent of total tax revenues in 1993, Five
countries have implemented carbon taxes:
Denmark, Finland, the Netherlands, Norway
and Sweden. Denmark's tax, first introduced in
1992, was imposed on all types of carbon
dioxide emissions, except gasoline, natural gas
and biofuels. A subsidy is available to producers
of electricity for the amount provided by
renewable energy (wind and water power) and
renewable fuels (biogas and biofuels), or by
decentralized heat and power generation based
on natural gas. Norway's tax system includes
taxes on atmospheric emissions of carbon
dioxide, sulphur dioxide and lead, while Sweden
exempts biomass and biofuels from its carbon,
sulphur and nitrogen oxide taxes.
The European Commission wants an EU-
wide carbon tax. It says that neither technical
nor economic constraints can be blamed if the
industrialized countries fail to meet goals for
carbon dioxide emissions under the Framework
Convention on Climate Change. It has identified
a number of cost-effective technical options to
reduce emissions by up to 10 per cent in the
period 2005-2010, and argues that a tax on
carbon dioxide emissions will spur countries to
act. But the 15 EU member states remain
deadlocked over the issue.
A draft directive, prepared by the Com-
mission's tax directorate in 1996, proposed that,
for the first time, EU governments would tax
electricity, coal and natural gas, as well as
increase taxes on oil products (including
gasoline and diesel) every two years. Under the
proposal, governments would be required to tax
electricity and the heat generated during its
production at a progressively increasing rate
image:
THE ROLE OF GOVERNMENT
from 1998 to 2002. The current system of excise
taxes on mineral oils would be extended to cover
coal and natural gas and, as with electricity, the
minimum tax rates would be raised every two
years until 2.002. Most member states do not tax
coal at the moment, and just over half do not tax
natural gas. The draft proposals have been
fiercely attacked by the major European
industries, which have warned that new taxes
would harm their competitiveness in world
markets, and also claimed that "by depriving
industry of the cash needed to invest further in
more energy-efficient technologies, these taxes
would slow progress in energy efficiency
initiatives, and hence in curbing greenhouse gas
emissions".
In July 1996, a Japanese Environment
Agency panel said that Japan could stabilize its
carbon dioxide emissions at 1990 levels by 2000
if it levied a carbon tax. The tax could also raise
over US$9 billion in revenues to help industries
introduce new and additional energy-efficient
technologies. But Japanese business opposes
a carbon tax, and the Ministry of International
Trade and Industry is lukewarm towards
the idea.
European Union broadens policies
The EU has begun to broaden the range of
policy instruments it intends to use. The Fifth
Environmental Programme, adopted in 1993 and
running through to 2000, moves beyond
command-and-control to include market-based
proposals to internalize environmental costs.
This shift recognizes that, despite the adoption
of over 200 pieces of EU legislation over the
past 20 years, Europe's environment still suffers
considerable problems. Even so, new directives
which set objectives that have to be achieved,
but which allow member states to choose how to
achieve them (unlike regulations, which lay
down specific actions or measures), still reflect
the command-and-control philosophy. For
example:
I the Directive on Packaging Waste sets
recovery targets of between 50 and 60 per
cent;
: the Directive on Air Pollution by Emissions
from Motor Vehicles is one of two directives
designed to cut vehicle emissions by 70 per
cent by 2010, by introducing new
technologies for cars, such as on-board
diagnostics;
the Directive on Quality of Fuels is the
second directive aimed at cutting vehicle
emissions — it focuses on the oil industry and
envisages tighter fuel quality standards by
2005;
the Directive on the Ecological Quality of
Water will require the pesticide and fertilizer
industries to introduce; measures to reduce
pollution;
. the Directive on the Quality of Water
Intended for Human Consumption will
require a number of industrial sectors, such
as pesticide, copper and lead tube suppliers,
as well as the construction industries, to meet
certain standards;
' the Directive on Landfill Standards will
require all landfilled waste to be pretreated,
demanding investment in sorting stations,
composting units and incineration plants,
and will require gas from both new and
existing landfills to be collected and used, or
flared off.
The two directives aimed at cutting vehicle
emissions will require the adoption of new
technologies by both the. automotive and oil
industries. The directives followed the three-
year Auto Oil Programme, which included a
research project called the European Programme
on Emissions, Fuels and Engine Technology,
designed to investigate the relationship between
fuel and engine technology in terms of
emissions. Vehicle makers will have to install
on-board diagnostic systems that will monitor
emissions, and the data will be available for
proposed official annual inspections. This
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Managing environmental risk to gain competitive advantage
Sedgwick, a world leader in risk consultancy, insurance and reinsurance broking and financial services, uses its global distribution
network to deliver high quality, strategic environmental risk management and consultancy services to clients, wherever they operate.
We led the insurance and financial services sector in recognising the need for pro-active environmental risk management and
responsible operation by encouraging and assisting clients to identify and manage their environmental exposure and to set and
achieve national and international environmental performance objectives.
Our environmental risk management services are based on two basic concepts: that any change must make economic sense,
well-intentioned actions that have no commercial value will not be sustained; and that, unless real alterations are made to the way
an organisation operates, there will be little impact on its exposure to risk or achievement of environmental improvement. Protecting
the environment need not be a technical and complex matter. Environmental risks can be managed and clients can address their
environmental responsibilities by focusing on fundamentals.
Wide ranging global expertise
Sedgwick's team of qualified environmental risk consultants is based round the
world, and particularly in the US, Australia and Europe. We have invested in
communications technology, to provide a rapid exchange of information and ideas
across our international network. We can offer advice on a global scale or at local
level. We are constantly aware that "global change comes from local action"
(Gro Harlem Brvndtland, 1990).
We provide a wide range of environmental risk management and consultancy
services, backed by technical support as required, including:
• Environmental policy construction
* Pre-acquisition and pre-divestment environmental risk analysis
• Environmental project co-ordination and management
• Environmental audits
• Environmental risk management training
* Technical analysis and reporting of environmental risk for insurance broking
and investment purposes
• Development of insurance, alternative risk transfer and finance solutions.
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Practical management
Sedgwick provides true environmental risk management consultancy by initially
identifying the risk or risks and then providing the practical means for their
management. Great emphasis is placed on offering strategic consultancy advice
at board level, since the issues we are addressing are vital to the success and,
sometimes, survival of a company. We then harness a company's internal
resources to achieve economies of scale and ownership, to agreed objectives.
Finally, we ensure that our recommendations make financial sense, with
measurable benefits, allowing a straightforward decision-making process and
clear justification to management and key stakeholders.
We are also involved in the examination of global environmental change
and the link to natural perils, particularly severe weather patterns and its impact
on multinationals.
Serving the community
Sedgwick is aware of its relationships with the larger world community and we use
the information gained in our environmental risk management operations to
contribute to governmental, national and international organisations and business
sector interest groups, by providing support and advice on the business risk
element of environmental liabilities.
Despite its complexities, environmental risk can be approached in a similar way
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contrasts with the present situation where such
testing is only done on the production line, and
there is no subsequent monitoring of emissions
performance.
The expected standards are based on
technologies in development, such as pre-heated
catalysts for petrol cars and nitrogen oxide-
reduction catalysts for diesels. They represent a
cut in exhaust gases of 20-40 per cent for the
main emissions (particulates, carbon dioxide
and nitrogen oxides). Once these technologies
are in place, the onus will be on the oil industry
to produce more efficient fuels. By 2002, leaded
petrol should be phased out (except for countries
with a large number of older cars on the road),
and in 2005 expected new standards will require
the industry to reduce the amount of sulphur in
petrol and diesel. At a meeting of EU
environment ministers in October 1996, several
countries criticized the package as not strict
enough, in particular because it did not take
account of best available technologies. The EU's
Environment Commissioner, Ritt Bjerregaard,
agreed that the proposals did not go to the limit
of what was technically possible, but she said
that imposing best available technologies would
have doubled the cost for only modest additional
environmental benefits.
Taxing energy
Driving up the price of energy itself has equally
important objectives:
to improve the efficiency of existing
technologies;
to stimulate efforts to develop more energy
efficient technologies;
to switch to less polluting energy sources
(where possible).
Road transport has been one obvious target.
The United Kingdom is among a number of
countries that has taxed unleaded petrol at a
lower level than leaded fuel, and the difference
in price is one of the reasons why nearly 70 per
cent of all petrol sold in the country is now
unleaded. Logically, there should also be tax
incentives for alternative energy sources to fossil
fuels. But solar energy, for example, does not
enjoy the same tax treatment as conventional
energy and, since solar power plants have high
capital expenditure and essentially no fuel costs,
on a lifetime basis they are in effect taxed more
than conventional plants. A fossil fuel levy has
been proposed to help level the playing field.
Financial incentives, including subsidies, are
needed to encourage the use of renewable
energy sources and to assist the growth of
commercial markets.
California and zero-emission
vehicles
Perhaps the most dramatic example recently of
legislation accelerating the development of new
ESTs has been the Californian state govern-
ment's decision that a percentage of new
vehicles sold in the state must be zero polluting.
This move prompted a flurry of activity by the
major United States and other automotive
manufacturers on electric cars, with the first
commercial vehicle being launched in the
United States in 1996. In early 1996, the state
dropped the original requirement that 2 per cent
of all new vehicles sold there in 1998 must be
zero polluting, with the figure rising to 5 per
cent in 2001. But it did keep to its original 10
per cent requirement for zero-emission vehicles
by 2003 (an increase of a million vehicles a
year). Moreover, it said it would require auto
manufacturers to accelerate their research into
advanced battery technologies and begin selling
their low-emission vehicles nationwide by 2001.
The agreement provided for heavy damages if
the requirements are not kept.
The voluntary approach
Alternatives to legislation and regulation include
negotiated compliance or voluntary agreements,
and self-regulation by industry. The principles
for voluntary agreements are:
90
image:
THE ROLE OF GOVERNMENT
BOX 5.5
Covenants work in the Netherlands
The Netherlands' National Environmental
Policy Plan relies heavily on a
consensus-based, voluntary approach
through more than 70 covenants, signed
by government and industry. They have
the status of binding contracts under civil
law and have become a major
instrument in Dutch environmental policy.
The Institute for Applied Environmental
Economics (TME) and Aries Consultancy
conducted a study of the effect of this
consensus approach on the application
of process-integrated ESTs.
• One agreement, the Hydrocarbons
2000 (HC 2000} programme, started
in 1986, focuses on strategies for
achieving a reduction in hydrocarbon
emissions of 50 per cent in 2000,
relative to 1981. The programme was
initiated after the government
published draft regulations which
would have required several industries
to make heavy investments in various
areas. Thanks to the programme,
hydrocarbon emissions had fallen
from 263,000 tonnes a year in 1981
to 217,000 tonnes by 1992. This was
achieved by a battery of industry
measures Including: active coal or
biofiltration (chemicals); improved
technologies to reduce emissions
from paint overspraying and
substituting paints low in or free of
solvents (metal industry); using
biofilters to reduce solvent emissions
and incinerating the emissions
(printing industry}. TME and Aries
reported that the industries felt that
"technological development and.
market introduction was accelerated
by this programme".
The Packaging Covenant, signed in
1991, includes a government
commitment not to introduce
regulations; no.sanctions if targets are
not reached; and freedom for industry
to decide on what specific measures
to take to reach agreed packaging
reduction targets. By 1995, the
progress achieved on waste.
reduction, materials re-use and
product re-use was ahead of
schedule. Most research and
development activities have been in
the area of product modification,
including lower materials use.
The Covenant with the Base Metal
Industry, signed in 1992, involves
37 companies making iron, steel,
aluminium, zinc and copper
products. It includes reduction goals
for a number of substances, among
them sulphur dioxide, nitrogen
oxides, lead and dust. The
agreement provides that if certain
targets are not going to be reached,
industry must look for additional
measures and technologies as soon
as possible, and if new technologies
become available, making it possible
to achieve higher reductions, these
higher targets will replace the old
ones. By 1995, the industries were
largely on track to meet their targets,
using a mix of integrated and
end-of-pipe measures.
Of the covenant-based approach
generally, TME and Aries said it
"realizes environmental attention at the
strategic and management level in
industry, which influences the
investments and technological choices
to move in a more integrated direction.
Rrst results from the different
programmes indicate that increased
application and development of
cleaner technologies is actually
occurring. In particular, the HC 2000
approach has stimulated the
development and application of
cleaner technologies."
the authorities set the framework and tafgets,
and industry is free to choose how to reach
them;
the agreement is voluntary, but based on the
principles of producer/product liability;
if industry does not comply with the
agreement, the targets can be converted into
command-aod-control legislation.
Business prefers such agreements even though
support of them is under threat of legislation,
because they do allow companies more
flexibility than regulatory standards, and they
keep industry's bete noire (more taxes) at bay.
UNEP supports such negotiated compliance
between regulators and industries. Voluntary
agreements that attempt to get business and
government to work together to reach
environmental goals without resort to regulation
are growing in popularity worldwide.
But a report by the German Centre for
European Economic Research, commissioned
by the German Ministry of Trade and Commerce
in 1996, said that such deiils were unenforceable
and unlikely to achieve environmental results
beyond what businesses would have done
anyway. Governments, it added, should keep the
image:
BOX 5.6
Government-industry partnerships
advance energy-efficient ESTs
Governments can help the advance of ESTs by initiating research
and development projects and working in partnership with industry to
move them forward. In the United States, the Department of Energy
has played a critical rote in the development and dissemination of a
number of important energy-efficient technologies. Three of the most
successful are low-emissivity (low-E) windows, electronic ballasts and
high-efficiency supermarket refrigeration systems,
Low-E windows address the problem of heat losses in buildings
by reflecting long wave infrared radiation back to the inside of the
building.
Electronic ballasts help fluorescent lights to start, and also control
the current flowing through the lamp: they are more efficient than
the conventional electromagnetic ballasts.
The new supermarket refrigeration systems use multiple
compressors, a floating head pressure control, a microprocessor
control system and control algorithms.
In all three cases, the Department of Energy initiated and funded
research and development projects, and worked with private
companies to develop, refine and demonstrate the new technologies.
According to the American Council for an Energy-Efficient Economy,
these technologies are yielding "large benefits" to manufacturers,
consumers and the environment. "Without the Department of
Energy's financial and technical ass'stance, it is unlikely that the
companies would have actively pursued what were then perceived
as high-risk, uncertain technologies."
The primary energy savings from their use reached over 250,000
trillion joules a year by 1995, and the value of the savings in
energy te about US$1.5 billion a year at current energy prices. The
council estimates that, together, the three technologies reduced
annual pcflutant emissions in 1995 by 18,5 million tonnes
(carbon dioxide), 100,000 tonnes (sulphur dioxide), 76,000 tonnes
(nitrogen oxide), 3,700 tonnes (particulates) and 485 tonnes
(volatile organic compounds).
option of intervening to mandate the use of
certain technologies. The Canadian Institute for
Business and the Environment said in 1996 that
the country's move to embrace voluntary
environmental initiatives as a substitute for
regulation was becoming bogged down: not
only had it slowed environmental protection
and pollution prevention, it had retarded
innovation of environmental technology and hurt
Canada's competitiveness in the international
EST markets.
From a different perspective, a report from
the Global Environmental Management
Initiative, which studied several United States
and European programmes, found that "to
increase private sector participation, incentives
will have to be made bolder". In Changing
Course, the Business Council for Sustainable
Development said self-regulation "has achieved
and will continue to achieve important
improvements in the environmental impacts
of business and industry" and may prove
cheaper than command-and-control regulations
or economic instruments. However, it
acknowledged that self-regulation can be
frustrated by 'free rider* companies, using
non-compliance to gain an unfair competitive
advantage.
Incentive programmes
Governments can also introduce incentive
programmes or subsidies to promote ESTs. In
fact, a number have done so and experience
suggests they work. The Netherlands, for
example, uses subsidies combined with
government-sponsored demonstration projects
for new cleaner technologies. The government
also has an accelerated depreciation programme
for specific ESTs and publishes an annual list of
qualifying technologies, updated to take account
of changes in such things as energy price levels.
Return on investment ranges from three to seven
years. Dutch data show a good correlation
between the level of subsidy and implemen-
tation of new ESTs.
The arm of government can also extend to
environmental technologies themselves. The
California Environmental Protection Agency's
Technology Certification Programme offers a
'seal of approval* for companies producing
ESTs. Agency engineers peer review the
technologies to assure their effectiveness,
92
image:
THE ROLE OF GOVERNMENT
reliability and protectiveness: approved ESTs
are then subject to a 30-day public review
period. Illinois, Massachusetts and New Jersey,
as well as the German state of Bavaria, have
signed reciprocal agreements with the
Californian agency. Canada has been developing
a national certification programme for ESTs
modelled on the one in California. The aim is to
verify that claims about a technology's
performance are based on sound scientific
information and tested according to standard
protocols by certified, qualified laboratories.
The move has drawn a mixed reaction from
suppliers of ESTs,
International agreements
National laws and regulations are not the
only forces driving ESTs. International
environmental agreements, which have mush-
roomed in recent years, now run well into the
hundreds (including non-binding guidelines and
regional agreements). The International Institute
for Sustainable Development (DSD) says that
the "demand for sustainable technologies is
being driven, in part, by the recognition of such
global problems as atmospheric change, loss of
biodiversity, toxic chemical accumulations, and
resource degradation and depletion". Interna-
tional agreements "catalyse enormous change",
says the DiSD, and domestic legislation and
regulations follow as countries implement their
international commitments. It has identified a
number which are "driving technologies, now or
in the future".
Y. The Montreal Protocol on Substances that
Deplete the Ozone Layer, ratified by 127
countries, calls for the complete phase-out of
fully halogenated chemical emissions. It is
the most advanced international agreement
and has been implemented by national
legislation in dozens of countries (see
Box 5.7).
.'•'.: The Framework Convention on Climate
Change became law in March 1994. It aims
to reduce emissions of greenhouse gases,
including carbon dioxide, which augment the
natural greenhouse effect on the Earth's
atmosphere, triggering climate change.
7.'. The Convention on Biological Diversity
aims to conserve biological diversity and to
make sustainable and equitable use of its
components. It requires countries to
rehabilitate and protect ecosystems, and
facilitate access to genetic materials for
environmentally sound uses. It became law
in December 1993 and will most affect the
pharmaceutical, agricultural, energy and
forestry sectors.
;'; The Great Lakes Water Quality Agreement,
between Canada and the United States,
focuses on technologies and practices that
minimize emissions of toxic substances into
the Great Lakes. Over the past 20 years, it
has resulted in considerable investments in
water pollution control and sewage treatment
technologies. The emphasis is now shifting
to water pollution prevention technologies.
In the developing world
Regulatory actions have been much less
advanced in the developing world and the results
to date have been disappointing. One of the
major problems and concerns is that when
legislative standards have been introduced, they
have been enforced weakly or not at all.
According to the Asian Institute of Technology,
Asian governments ha%'e met "numerous
difficulties" in implementing laws and
regulations even though legislation, mainly
based on regulations in the developed countries,
has been adopted by practically all of them.
In Malaysia, for example, pollution control
measures adopted in the 1980s led to some
improvement in air quality, but "in a number of
cases, the government has not been able to
control repeating offenders due to its limited
powers and some loopholes in the regulations".
In Indonesia, while numerous environmental
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TOE ROLE OF GOVERNMENT
BOX 5.7
The -Montreal Protocol - a dramatic impact on ESTs
The Montreal Protocol on Substances
that Deplete the Ozone Layer is an
international agreement that has had a
more dramatic impact on the
development of new environmentally
sound technologies than many national
regulations. It has spawned a flurry of
business activity in chlorofluorocarbon
(CFG) recycling equipment and services;
alternative refrigeration and air
conditioning technologies; substitute
chemicals; and new cleaning processes
for electronic equipment.
The aerosol spray can industry Is one
example. The industry, faced with
pressure from environmental activists
and mounting consumer resistance,
began substituting alternative propellents
before the protocol was adopted, but the
protocol speeded up the process
towards a complete phase-out in
developed countries.
Technology has played a major role in
the industry's switch-over to alternatives,
mainly hydrocarbons. Ozone depleting
substances are also used in refrigeration
(domestic, commercial and Industrial
refrigerators and freezers); air
conditioning; foam production (insulation,
cushioning and packaging); fire
protection; and industrial solvents (circuit
board production and cleaning).
The protocol has forced industries to
took for alternative substances and
technologies. Examples of new
technologies developed because of the
protocol include those that follow.
The first system to use air-cycle
cooling for air conditioning passenger
trains has been developed. It uses air,
instead of ozone depleting
substances, as a refrigerant, together
with a special high-power
compressor to provide the
compressed air needed for the
cooling cycle. The German railways
have already ordered the first
production units, and other rail
operators in France, the United
Kingdom and the United States are
interested.
- A citrus by-product, d-llmonene, is
now available as an alternative to
chlorinated solvents such as CFCs.
A biodegradable substitute for
styrofoam, for use in fast food
containers, has been developed in
Wuhan, China.
A major element in the agreement is that
it provides specific financial assistance to
developing countries (which have a
longer time to phase out CFCs) to adopt
replacements if they cost more than
what is being repiaced. In November
1996, industrial nations agreed to
provide US$540 million over three years
to the special Multilateral Fund to help
developing countries' efforts to phase
out ozone depleting substances. The
developing countries had asked for
US$800 million.
One example of a project implemented
under the Multilateral Fund involved a
company in Venezuela, which produces
about 2,600 tonnes a year of expanded
polystyrene sheet, a form of flexible
plastic foam, which is made into
products such as polystyrene plates and
packaging. The company used 260
tonnes a year of CFCs as a blowing
agent for the foam. The project,
coordinated by the World Bank, involved
two other companies, one from Japan
and one from the United States, which
had extensive expertise in this area. The
Venezuelan factory was modified to
state-of-the-art foam manufacture, using
hydrocarbon butane as a blowing agent.
Including new waste systems, the
project cost US$1.6 million, largely paid
for through the Multilateral Fund.
In addition, the Montreal Protocol also
urges countries to ensure the transfer of
the best technology "under fair and most
favourable conditions". An example of
such technology transfer in action
involves China's domestic refrigeration
industry. The United States
Environmental Protection Agency has
introduced Chinese engineers to
American non-CFC refrigeration
technologies, while Germany's official aid
agency, GTZ, has arranged the transfer
of a leading non-CFC technology based
on the experience of Germany's
refrigeration producers. Thanks to this
collaboration, China has gained access
to modem refrigeration technology, and
developed national expertise in non-CFC
refrigeration, which it can spread through
the industry to accelerate the move to
ozone-friendly alternatives.
protection laws have been enacted since 1974,
"compliance by industry is far from
satisfactory". China has had increasing
problems implementing regulations, particularly
with small-scale industries.
The result, says the institute, is that "many
Asian developing countries have so far
experienced low effectiveness in implementing
the cornmand-and-contrdl approach". One
reason is the "lack of political will to strictly
enforce legislation". Even so, the ."ineffec-
tiveness of eommand-and-control does not deter
the governments from using this type of
regulation", among other reasons, because it is
image:
BOX 5.8
'Technology tree'
The International Institute for Sustainable Development has developed a 'technology tree', showing how the various
International agreements can affect industries, their production processes, technologies and even their end
products. The Framework Convention on Climate Change is a good example.
Activity
affected
Energy supply
Product/process
affected
Solar heating
Solar thermal electric
Solar electric -
Wind
Biomass
Nuclear
Family of
technology
Water heaters
Power towers
Photovoltaic
Electric
Combustion
Gasification
Alcohols
Fission
Fusion
Incandescent
HID
Induction
Ballasts
Reflectors
Electric drive
Heating
Cooling
Building design
Internal combustion engine
Transportation
Industrial
Other
Technology
Amorphous
Silicon
Polycrystalllne
Other
Turbines
Natural gas/propane
Geothermal
Wave
Ocean thermal
Energy
conversion and
transmission
Energy use
Thermal electric
generation
Co-generation
Tri-gsneration
District heating
Lighting Ruorescent
Tube
Compact
Circline
Radiowave
Core and coil
Electronic
Silver
Aluminium
Livestock production
Cattle production
(75 per cent of total livestock)
Other livestock
Selective breeding
Bloengineering
Diet supplements
Rice production
Rice paddles
Biogas digester
Selective breeding
Bioenglneering
Water management
Methane inhibitors
Biomass burning
Crop residues
Slash and bum
Shifting cultivation
Land clearing
(Deforestation)
Composting
Biogas digesters
Permaculture techniques
Timber
Biomass fuels
Nitrogen fertilization
Urea
Ammonium nitrite
Ammonium sulphate
Ammonium phosphate
Nitrogen solutions
Organic farming practices
Selection of fertilizers
for low nitrogen oxide production
Planting legumes
Soli cultivation
Chemical-based cultivation
Tillage practices
Organic farming practices
Nil/low tillage
Mulching
Planting legumes
Organic fertilizer
image:
THE ROLE OF GOVERNMENT
"a source of power and influence for
governments, and offers a way to hide the true
cost of environmental protection".
Some Asian governments are now turning to
market-based economic instruments. Thailand
leads the way, with a number already in use,
including subsidies for pollution control
equipment The Philippines' Environment Code
guarantees importers of pollution control tech-
nologies a tax credit, and deposit-refund schemes
exist in several industries. In China, factories that
use waste gas, waste liquids and other residues as
their main material qualify for tax reductions or
exemptions. "Pure regulations have not achieved
tlie desired effect in most Asian developing
countries", the institute reports. "Market-based
economic instalments may provide additional
tools for environmental management, but their use
in Asia is still limited. Experience has shown
that while there is increasing interest in their use,
there is still a need to combine economic
instruments with elements of command-and-
contcol. Therefore, economic instruments should
not be viewed as replacements for regulations, but
should be seen as complementary."
UNEP has laid down a number of general
principles for the efficient use of regulations:
i3 since environmental regulations were
originally designed with pollution control in
mind, it is important that governments
explicitly consider their implications for
cleaner production;
88 while developing countries must establish
their long-term environmental goals, they
need to allow enough time for these goals to
be attained;
® stricter requirements can often be imposed
on new industries, because those already
established have to make larger investments
to reduce emissions;
3 there is no point in establishing goals if they
cannot be implemented and enforced, and if
governments are unable to ensure compliance;
S it is better to specify progressively restrictive
BOX 5.9
Conflicting cases: Mexico and
Tanzania
The United Nations University Institute for New Technologies
(UNU/INTECH) has confirmed that effective and enforced
environmental legislation is a powerful influence on the transfer of
ESTs. It assessed the role of legislation in two countries: Mexico
and Tanzania. Mexico Is in a relatively advanced stage of
development, with a well-established environmental legislative
framework, high environmental standards and strong enforcement.
Tanzania lacks both an effective regulatory framework and
enforcement practices.
is The study found that in Mexico "rigorous enforcement practices
have a deterrent effect on companies with respect to corporate
behaviour and investing in ESTs. In order to bridge the gap
between legal requirements and existing capacities to comply with
them, ESTs need to be acquired. The demand by companies for
suitable ESTs, and related knowledge, is increasing. This is having
a positive impact on the growth of the national market for ESTs,
and on the improvement of the national capacities for EST-
innovation."
a In Tanzania, there was "practically no pressure on companies to
seek more environmentally sound methods of production, and
apply ESTs". Also, companies were not usually aware of
environmental legal requirements. "Little need was felt by
companies to inform themselves about environmental regulations
which apply to their specific lines of production, or to seek cleaner
production solutions. Consequently, the demand for ESTs is
limited, and where .emerging, mainly provoked by economic
benefits. This is having a negative impact on the dynamics of the
national markets for ESTs, and the devebpment of national
capacities for EST innovations."
UNU/INTECH concluded that these studies "underline the important
role that well-established and properly enforced national
environmental legislation can play for the effective transfer, use and
dissemination of ESTs*.
performance goals than to impose static
requirements, since the latter often lead
companies to apply pollution control not
cleaner production technologies;
goals should be defined so that they must
first be achieved through cleaner production
methods, followed by pollution control
technology only if necessary;
discretionary regulations, which allow
image:
AHMADIAH
Ahmadiah Contracting & Trading Co. KCSC
BUILDING A NEW FUTURE
By providing housing and infrastructure, the
construction industry makes a vital
contribution to the social and economic
development of every country — especially one
that is ravaged by war.
As one of the country's leading construction
and trading enterprises, Ahmadiah
Contracting and Trading Co. KCSC is playing
a vital role in Kuwait's post-war
reconstruction effort. The company has been
helping to build a better future for Kuwait for
more than 40 years — handling major public
and private projects such as hospitals, power
stations, motorways, sewage treatment plants,
houses, commercial centres, office
developments and hotels — all vital to the
country's long-term sustainability.
We are conscious that construction has serious
impacts on the environment. The leadership of
the company — Mr. Abdul Mohsen Faisal Al
Thuwainy (Chairman), Mr. Ahmad Faisal Al
Thuwainy (General Manager), and Mr.
Antoine T.N. Najjar (Managing Director) - is
committed to incorporating environmental
considerations into all our projects, large or
small.
To ensure the best possible standards, we use
the latest high technology to support our
highly-qualified engineers and technicians,
top-class project management skills and 2,600
committed employees.
In building sustainable communities, the
construction industry must address the issues
of air and water pollution, waste and energy
use. As a major presence in Kuwait,
Ahmadiah Contracting and Trading Co.
KGSC accepts its responsibilities so that future
generations of Kuwaiti citizens can be left
with a legacy they will be proud to inherit.
Mr, Abdul Mohsen
Faisal Al Thuwainy
Chairman
P.O. Box 446
Safat 13005 Kuwait
Tel.: 965 4814477 - 4816357
Tel.: 965 4832781 - 4814848
Fax: 965 4831367
E-mail: actc@ncc.moe.kw
Telex: 23314 Ahmadia - C.R.: 6689
image:
THE ROLE OF GOVERNMENT
flexibility on how goals are to be achieved,
are preferable to regulations that specify
what must be done, and how.
UNEP even questions whether developing
countries need to introduce regulations. "They
certainly do not have to be in place before
launching a cleaner production offensive. The
implementation of cleaner production does not
necessarily depend on the existence of an
extensive regulatory system. Developing
countries may well find it more feasible to
depend on raising awareness of the economic
benefits implicit in cleaner production. Coupled
with suitable support measures, this will be
enough to persuade many industrial leaders to
adopt cleaner production procedures — with
regulations and economic instruments playing a
less important role than they have in the
industrialized countries."
On the other hand, the World Bank supports
the use and enforcement of regulations and
financial instruments in developing countries,
while cautioning them against imitating OECD
countries and setting "unrealistically tight
standards", then enforcing them only selectively.
"Better to have fewer and more realistic standards
that are truly implemented", the Bank says,
Sources
Business and the Environment, various issues,
Cutter Information Corporation.
Changing Course, 1992, Business Council for
Sustainable Development.
EarthEnterprise™ Tool Kit, 1993,
International Institute for Sustainable
Development.
Eco-Efficient Leadership, 1996, World Business
Council for Sustainable Development.
Environment Watch Western Europe, various
issues, Cutter Information Corporation.
Environmental Performance in OECD Countries:
Progress in the 1990s, 1996, OECD.
Environmentally Sound Technology and Sustainable
Development, 1992, ATLAS Bulletin.
EPA Journal, May-June 1992, United States
Environmental Protection. Agency.
Global Environmental Change Report, various
issues, Cutter Information Corporation.
Government Strategies and Policies for Cleaner
Production, 1994, UNEP IE.
adding that regulations should first be
concentrated on controlling emissions from large
industrial facilities. As environmental policies
evolve in developing countries, there should be
more use of market-based instruments which,
among other things, "provide a financial incentive
for innovation in developing pollution controls
and low-waste technologies and practices".
Critical role
The OECD states that "market forces will not of
themselves" lead to the wider adoption of ESTs,
let alone the introduction and use of cleaner
production technologies. Governments will need
to make greater use of a combination of
economic instruments, regulation, incentive
programmes and voluntary agreements with
industry and other sectors of the economy.
"None of these instruments has yet been allowed
to show its full potential." It adds: "Unless
government takes a lead, even incremental steps
towards implementing cleaner technologies are
unlikely to occur. Moreover, countries that do
not take the incremental steps may well find
their economy at a competitive technological
disadvantage in future, compared with those
countries that move faster."
Implementation Strategies for Environmental Taxes,
1996, OECD.
Industry and Environment, various issues, UNEP IE.
OzonAction, November 1995, UNEP IE.
Partnerships: a Path for the Design of
Utility/Industrial Energy Efficiency Programs,
1996, American Council for an Energy-Efficient
Economy.
Sustainable America: a New Consensus for
Prosperity, Opportunity and a Healthy
Environment, 1996, President's Council for
Sustainable Development.
Technologies for Cleaner Production and Products,
1995, OECD.
The History of Pollution and Environmental
Restoration in Yokkaichi, 1994, International
Center for Environmental Technology Transfer.
Transforming Technology: An Agenda for
Environmentally Sustainable Growth in the 21st
Century, 1991, World Resources Institute.
World Development Report 1992: Development and
the Environment, World Bank.
image:
ESTs are available to address the
problems of air pollutants, Including
noxious gases, liquid and vapour
particles, dusts and fumes.
image:
ESTs for pollution control
A wide range of environmentally sound technologies (ESTs) is available for controlling air
and wafer pollution, treating contaminated wastewater, handling the huge volumes of solid
waste produced by industry and households, and monitoring environmental performance —
vital for effective abatement strategies. These technologies are not a substitute for cleaner
production solutions, but they are effective. This chapter reviews the main ESTs in each
category, and assesses their features and benefits.
she portfolio of environmentally sound
technologies available today for con-
L trolling and abating pollution, rather than
preventing it, is an extensive one, and includes
the following:
II air pollution control - reducing and
eliminating gases and particulates;
ffl water and wastewater treatment — removing
pollutants from sewage, and purifying
pollutants and contaminated drinking water
and industrial wastewater;
U waste management — reducing the amount of
solid waste produced, and treating and
disposing of what waste is left;
18 recovery and recycling;
M clean-up activities - contaminated land
remediation and treating environmental
disasters;
IS environmental monitoring - assessing
environmental quality and performance.
They are well-tried technologies (some of
them many years old). Their costs range from
moderate to high and they are continually being
improved. They fall far short of a cleaner
production approach to pollution problems and
are essentially an interim solution, but they are
effective in reducing pollution levels.
Air pollution
Air pollutants come in many forms: noxious
gases (hydrogen chloride, nitrogen oxides or
sulphur dioxide, for example), liquid particles,
vapour particles, dusts, fumes and entrained
particles. ESTs are available to address all these
problems.
88 Flue gas desulphurization is the main
technology for post-combustion pollution
control in coal burning. Both 'dry* and 'wet'
processes use lime or limestone to 'scrub'
carbon dioxide from emissions. Flue gas
desulphurization processes can remove more
than 90 per cent of sulphur dioxide and can
be fitted to existing power plants. A
combination of flue gas treatment and
combustion modifications can control the
formation of nitrogen oxides.
@s Wet scrubbers remove gas and liquid
particulates by causing the contaminants to
stick to a large wetted area before they are
washed or dissolved away. Capital invest-
ment, operating and maintenance costs are
moderate to high.
S« Venturi scrubbers are a relatively low-capital
investment system offering good chemical
and particulate recovery efficiencies. They
differ from wet scrubbers in relying on the
pneumatic pressure of a high-velocity gas
stream rather than hydraulic pressure for
atomizing the scrubbing liquid.
FS Dry collection systems use fabric filters, a
device similar to a large vacuum cleaner bag,
to separate suspended impurities from
image:
BOX 6.1
Emissions control at an
incineration plant
Luxembourg is one of the smallest countries in Europe, with just
400,000 people. Yet around 200,000 tonnes of municipal solid wastes
are generated there every year - of which an average 135,000 tonnes
is incinerated in a waste-to-energy plant at Leudelange.
The plant is over 20 years old. When first built, it was fitted with
electrostatic precipitators for flue gas cleaning - at the time, state-of-
the-art technology. In 1986, a semi-dry flue gas cleaning system was
added, together with bag filters. At the end of 1995, extensive
modifications were carried out to improve combustion controls and
reduce emissions to a level even lower than the stringent targets
proposed by neighbouring Germany.
The upgrade provides three new 8-tonne-an-hour furnaces, as well as
an extensive flue gas recirculation system, a catalytic reactor and the
Injection of ammonia to reduce nitrogen oxide emissions to about one-
third of European Union limits.
BOX 6.2
New lithography technology
One company has developed a lithographic printing system that could
stop the Industry from emitting some 500,000 tonnes of volatile
organic compounds (VOCs) Into the air every year. It features a 100
per cent vegetable oil based lithographic Ink that washes off presses
with a water solution, eliminating the use of VOC-emitting solvents.
The United States Environmental Protection Agency has proposed
control technique guidelines that limit VOCs in press wash to less than
30 per cent of total weight. The company has introduced the system
tn more than 50 of its own plants, and has already reduced VOC
emissions by more than 50 per cent.
process liquids. The cloth filters can control
dust concentrations ranging from sub-
micrometre fumes to powders 200 micro-
metres in diameter.
Electrostatic precipitators can achieve
efficiencies up to 99.9 per cent and handle
large volumes of gas at low power
consumption. They operate like a glass rod
rubbed with a silk cloth, giving the rod an
electrostatic charge so that it attracts
uncharged bits of lint and paper. Capital
investment, operating and maintenance costs
are moderate. Electrostatic precipitators are
used for:
i- ventilating low operating temperature
processes exposed to heavy fumes and dust,
such as asphalt saturators and converters,
glass melting, aluminium reduction pot lines
and carbon plants;
collecting pollution generated during
grinding operations, such as cement or
gypsum grinding;
••:: drying cement, gypsum, bauxite and
various ores;
" controlling air pollution from the
processing of materials such as cement,
gypsum, alumina and magnesite;
'•?. treating gases from blast furnaces and
other processes used in producing non-
ferrous metals;
:: recovering sulphuric and phosphoric acid,
leaving the cleaned gases to be discharged
into the atmosphere or sent to a scrubber for .
removing the remaining sulphur dioxide;
;3 recovering fly ash from coal-burning boilers.
:S Cyclones make use of centrifugal force to
separate dust, liquid droplets and gas.
Because they are easy to make, and contain
no moving parts, they can be built from a
wide variety of materials, covering operating
temperatures up to 1,100 degrees C. Capital
investment, operating and maintenance costs
are low.
Se Direct-flame and catalytic combustors in
fume control oxidize organic pollutants in
exhaust gases to form non-polluting by-
products. Applications include: chemical
processing, metal finishing, rubber and
plastic processing, and sewage disposal.
Capital investment, operating and main-
tenance costs are moderate to high.
102
image:
ESTs FOR POLLUTION CONTROL
iS, Gas adsorbers use the ability of certain solids
•to concentrate specific substances from the
gas stream on their surfaces. They can
remove two major condensable impurities -
carbon dioxide and water vapour. Investment
costs are moderate; operating and mainten-
ance costs are moderate to high.
Water and wastewater treatment
Less than one-hundredth of the world's water
supply is usable in its natural state. The
increasing need for safe, reliable water supplies
has created new requirements for water and
wastewater treatment systems. The major
treatment processes are outlined below.
«8 Filtration, one of the earliest, is still important
and becoming increasingly sophisticated. The
method, used to separate a relatively small
amount of solids from the liquid, involves
passing the mixture through a porous filter,
which' can be cloth, porous metals, porous
stone and diatomaceous earth, or graded beds
of sand or anthracite coal. This should leave
only the smaller, lighter suspended particles
and coagulated matter in the discharge stream.
When these are brought onto a clean filter bed,
they will be retained in the top few centimetres
of the bed. They then build up on the bed
surface, where a mat is formed which serves as
a fine-grain filter and affords a finer screening
than when the filter bed is operated initially.
8S Aeration involves using air or oxygen to break
large volumes of water into droplets,
increasing the area available for oxygen
transfer for biological treatment using the
aerobic process.
&' Carbon adsorption can eliminate organics not
completely removed by conventional
biological treatment. It involves passing the
contaminated stream through a vessel with
either carbon granules or a slurry. Adsorption
removes the impurities. Contactors for
granular carbon also function as filters,
removing suspended particles from the
BOX 6.3
Zero wastewater emission in the
wiredrawing process
The wiredrawing process contaminates waste rinse waters with
sulphate and nitrate salts. A company in Italy has now achieved zero
emissions by introducing a range of technologies and new processes.
Its first effort was to install a chemical precipitation plant. Since the
early 1980s, full water re-use has been introduced, which enables a
partial drag-out recovery. The present process management solved the
problem of wastewater pollution, but still left some outstanding critical
issues: the disposal of a considerable number of chemicals as
hazardous waste; high-energy consumption; and an increase in the
salinity of recycled rinsing water due to an accumulation of sulphates
and nitrates.
The company introduced a closed-cycle heating system, as well
as multiple cascading rinsing at two stages of the process, with the
final rinses carried out by recirculating water generated through
ion exchange and reverse osmosis respectively. These changes
resulted in a 95 per cent reduction in sludge and a 90 per cent
cut in chemical consumption, as well as savings in water and
energy usage.
stream. The carbon adsorption capacity can
be rejuvenated after it becomes exhausted.
Carbon adsorption does not work well where
"the molecules are small or highly polar, nor
with wastewater with a very high pH value.
Ion exchangers remove dissolved minerals
from aqueous solutions by using specialized
insoluble, inorganic compounds (called
zeolites) or synthetic organic materials such
as ion-exchange resins. The process is called
demineralization. Substances to be removed
by an ion-exchange system have first to be
ionized.
Air stripping can remove volatile organic
compounds (VOCs) from contaminated
wastewater and groundwater, through a
physical separation process to transfer the
VOCs from a liquid to a gaseous phase. The
higher the volatility of a compound, the more
easily it is stripped. Air strippers can remove
VOCs such as vinyl chloride, trichloroethane,
image:
THE POWER GENERATION COMPANY OF TRINIDAD & TOBAGO LTD.
The Power Generation Company of Trinidad
& Tobago Ltd. - known locally as PowerGen
— is a joint venture company formed between
the Trinidad & Tobago Electricity
Commission (T&TEC), Southern Energy, Inc.
and Amoco Power Resources Corporation
following the partial divestment of T&TEC's
generating plants.
We own and operate 1,178 megawatts of
installed capacity across three power stations in
Trinidad, and are currently the sole electricity
producer there, supplying all the needs of
T&TEC, which remains responsible for the
transmission and distribution of electricity to
all consumers.
PowerGen's shareholders recognized the
impact power generation has on the
environment in Trinidad & Tobago when the
new company was formed — and one of our
first undertakings was to include
environmental enhancement projects while
refurbishing our plants and upgrading our
facilities. We have agreed an environmental
policy, and we are developing an
environmental management programme.
These actions demonstrate that care for the
environment is becoming as much a part of
our business as the business of making
electricity itself.
As the introduction to our environmental
policy states: "PowerGen is committed to
operating and expanding our business in an
environmentally responsible manner. In
discharging our responsibilities to
stakeholders, we will meet our legal
obligations to the preservation of the
environment, and continuously improve our
environmental performance."
The key aspects of our environmental policy
include:
@ educating our employees to integrate
environmental responsibility into their
work
@ supporting local environmental education
and improvement efforts
© supporting the development of
environmental laws and regulations which
assist sustainable national development
@ reducing waste and improving the
efficiency of our work processes
© operating documented environmental
management programmes which include
performance goal setting and monitoring,
and
@ allocating appropriate resources to
implement our environmental management
programmes.
The important thing to recognize in our
programme is its cost-effectiveness.
The highest impact areas are the lowest cost
areas. Training employees to improve the
handling of waste oil, solvents and other
hazardous chemicals is inexpensive, and can
dramatically reduce harmful discharges.
Building proper oil and chemical storage
facilities and monitoring environmental
performance with modern instrumentation
is not costly, and can provide a high degree
of reassurance to the company's management,
which is ultimately responsible for the
organization's environmental performance.
The Power Generation Company of Trinidad
& Tobago is committed to protecting and
enhancing the environment in which it
operates in a sustainable way - one which
results in a quality of life that is both
environmentally and economically beneficial.
6A Queens Park West, First Floor
Port of Spain, Trinidad
Tel. +1 868 624 0383 Fax +1 868 625 0983
image:
ESTs FOR POLLUTION CONTTROL
trichloroethylene and tetrachloroethylene, as
well as pesticides such as chlordane,
dibromochloropropane and aldicarb, and
chlorinated aromatics such as dibrorao-
benzene. Removal efficiencies of 99.9 per
cent have been achieved in many cases.
H Membrane separation has been used for
many years to separate organic and inorganic
solids from solutions. The membrane,
usually made from a variety of synthetic
polymers, allows some compounds through,
but rejects others. Reverse osmosis,
ultrafiltration and electrodialysis are all
processes that use some kind of membrane to
separate a mixture of organic or inorganic
substances. Membrane-based processes
separate contaminants OD the basis of their
molecular weight and size: for example,
ultrafilters reject oil substances, while
reverse osmosis rejects ionic impurities.
Experts predict that reverse osmosis, well
established in desalination projects for a
number of years, is set to expand into other
applications such as the recovery of vehicle
antifreeze or pressboard manufacturing
waste in pulp mills.
$6 Precipitation is a three-step process for
removing heavy metals such as cadmium,
chromium, lead and copper from industrial
wastewaters by adding acids to adjust the pH
value, then aggregating the fine crystallites to
form large crystals, and finally removing the
heavier crystals by gravity in the
sedimentation tank.
38 Biological treatment cleans aqueous streams
containing organic contaminants. In aerobic
biological treatment, both simple and
complex organics are eventually decomposed
to carbon dioxide and water. In anaerobic
biological treatment, only simple organics
like carbohydrates, proteins, alcohols and
acid can be decomposed (see Chapter 12).
The efficiency of each of these technologies
depends on a large number of parameters. But
BOX 6.4
Treating wastewater in the rubber
industry
Designing a system to treat the effluent from the processing of latex
concentrate and the production of Standard Malaysian Rubber has
become an important and challenging goal, since Malaysia has about
80 latex concentrate and 100 rubber factories which produce
contaminated wastewater.
One company found a cleaner production alternative to the traditional
method of treating the wastewater in biological oxidation ponds as
permitted standards for discharge of effluents into waterways have
become very stringent,
The new wastewater treatment system is essentially an upward-flow
clarification system with integrated filtration and aeration features that
makes use of both physiochemical and biochemical processes to
reduce the chemical oxygen demand, the biological oxygen demand
and the solids content of the effluent.
The system's features include: instant coagulant 'penetration' of the
solids barrier, resulting in uttrashort chemical reaction time and
optimum precipitation efficiency; dual-stage clarification that maximizes
the rate of clarification and produces highly clarified water; closed-loop
hydraulic agitation that improves oxygenation of the flocculating mass;
cascade aeration following filtration which improves the level of
dissolved oxygen.
"The system - which is relatively inexpensive and easy to operate -
reduced biological and chemical oxygen demand by as much as
90-95 per cent. Discharge to the waterways is effectively zero and
water re-use conserves an important resource.
selecting the one most appropriate for the
treatment of a particular waste can achieve high
removal and destruction efficiencies.
One emerging new trend is the multimedia
approach - using a combination of technologies,
rather than a single treatment. In the United
States, one closed-loop system designed to
remove VOCs from industrial wastewater uses
nitrogen for removal, activated carbon for
adsorption or collection, and steam for recovery
and concentration. In this system, nitrogen-
stripping, an economic, energy-efficient and fast
way of removing VOCs, separates VOCs from
the effluent wastewater. The resulting vapour
image:
BOX 6.5
Solid and hazardous waste in
Egypt
With a population of over 50 million, and growing, as well as rapid
Industrialization and urbanization, Egypt has faced the full array of
waste issues - particularly in Cairo, Until recently, solid waste was
discarded and dumped indiscriminately, but the Egyptian government
has recognized that poorly managed waste is harmful to further
economic growth.
A study of the problem found that 60 per cent of municipal solid
waste Is from households, 15 per cent from business, 15 per cent
from street sweepings and gardens, and 10 per cent from
construction and demolition activities. About 80 per cent of the .waste
is food, 13 per cent metals, 20 per cent paper and only 2 per cent
plastics.
In 1986, sanitary or engineered landfills for solid waste disposal were
Introduced in the Cairo area, and since the mid-1980s about 80
Incinerators have also been installed, though without energy recovery.
However, these have proved disappointing because of the high
operating, labour and maintenance costs. The decision has now been
taken to pursue incineration only for some industrial hazardous wastes.
Composting looks to be the most promising solution, and five facilities
were built during the 1980s.
Overall, Egypt illustrates the typical evolution of waste management.
First, indiscriminate dumping is curtailed and safer, more costly, forms
of land disposal are used. Then, attempts at waste treatment are tried,
but cost proves a major handicap. The next step is to focus on waste
reduction. The question is whether Egypt, and other countries, will
follow the traditional waste management hierarchy - which could take
several decades - or jump more quickly to a national commitment to
waste reduction.
stream is saturated with water, cooled, and then
reheated. The VOCs in the gas stream are
adsorbed using one of two carbon adsorbers. The
resulting condensed steam and VOCs are then
available for recovery and re-use. The critical
element in the system is an adsorbent-activated
carbon, a highly efficient adsorbent, that is
combined with on-site regeneration. In refinery
operations, this system removes more than 99
per cent of benzene and other VOCs from the
waste stream, and these are recycled back to the
crude feed tank for re-use, not released into the
atmosphere. The system is operating at nine
major United States refineries and Is also being
used by a major electronics company for
removing trichloroetliylene from groundwater.
Solid waste treatment
Solid waste, like liquid waste, is an inevitable
by-product of industrial activity and modern
living but is a more immediately visible
problem. Industry, homes and shops generate
mountains of solid waste every year, a major
problem for the developed countries, and a
growing one elsewhere. Industrial waste
includes slag, bricks, dust, sludge, paper, acid,
oil and plastics. Domestic waste includes paper,
steel and aluminium cans, bottles, electrical
appliances, and even cars. In many western
countries, solid waste is the environmental
problem people seem to care about most.
Municipal waste has actually been growing
more slowly than overall economic growth but
this does not alter the fact that it is still growing.
It still has to be put somewhere. The choices are
to bury, bum, compost or recycle it.
Landfill
Most solid waste is landfilled. But in many
countries, there are fewer - in some cases, no
more - sites available, and landfill space is at a
premium. In the United States, the number of
legal landfills has dropped by more than two-
thirds since 1979. Holland has no landfills left
at all. Shortage of land has pushed up the cost
of landfill. So have increasingly stringent
regulations, designed mainly to make the practice
safer, rather than stop it. In developing countries,
the open dumping of solid, often hazardous,
waste without any controls raises enormous
health and safety problems. In most industrialized
countries, old and new landfills are being
required to meet higher standards to prevent
pollution. The best new sites now incorporate
sophisticated liner membranes, made from
natural or synthetic materials, which contain the
pollution, while advanced monitoring techniques
106
image:
ESTs FOR POLLUTION CONTROL
continuously test the groundwater quality around
the sites. Sealed landfill sites can also produce
methane-rich gas which, when harnessed in gas
recovery plants, can typically generate enough
electricity to serve 10,000 homes.
Waste to energy
There is a vast array of technological options
available to treat and reduce the amount of solid
waste before it is dumped. Incineration — the
main thermal method — is one option. The waste
is burned to convert combustible materials into
gases, leaving a solid residue of ceramic and
metallic materials. Other high-technology forms
of thermal treatment include plasma and thermal
desorption furnaces for destroying hazardous
waste, and methods that convert solid waste into
petrol-like liquid or into ceramic aggregate or
particulate material.
The problem with thermal methods is their
high cost, and environmental concerns about air
pollution and residue management. In fact, waste
incineration is controversial and fiercely opposed
by many environmentalists. Most waste is
organic: it has come to the end of its useful life
cycle and has no more value if recycled further,
yet it has a useful energy content, which can be
harnessed for heat and power by burning it in
waste-to-energy plants. One tonne of municipal
waste contains as much recoverable energy as
2.5 tonnes of steam, or 30 tonnes of hot water at
180 degrees C, or 500 kilowatt hours of
electricity produced by a generator. Residues left
after burning the waste can be landfilled.
Currently, Europe produces 200 million
tonnes of municipal solid waste annually, with
24 per cent being used for energy recovery.
Recovering energy from renewable sources
saves resources by replacing fossil fuels. Europe
is saving an estimated 5.5 million tonnes of coal
each year, and the estimated capacity for energy
from waste is 33 million tonnes annually, saving
11 million tonnes of coal. The waste is burned in
specially designed combustors. Heat exchange
BOX 6.6
Waste-to-energy schemes work in
Scandinavia
Waste-to-energy schemes are particularly well established in Denmark,
Norway and Sweden.
SS The Amagerforbraending incineration plant in Denmark processes
320,000 tonnes of household waste every year - one-third of the
total from the area - and extracts enough energy to provide 1.5
million gigajoules of heating for the district'. All the production
stages are controlled by high-technology computers. These are
linked to technologies for treating and filtering the flue gas, to keep
emissions well within regulatory limits.
li The Grinds plant near Oslo, Norway, handles 50,000 tonnes of
domestic waste a year, and uses a new process to convert about
55 per cent of this into fuel briquettes, which are used by a local
paper mill as an alternative source of energy in its production
processes. Of the remaining waste, 35 per cent is composted and
the final 10 per cent - usually metals, stone and glass - is landfilled.
'& The fluidized bed combustion plant at Udkoping, near
Gothenburg, Sweden, handles 30,000 tonnes of municipal and
commercial waste a year, and provides hot water for low-cost
heating for a hospital and about 18,000 of the town's population
of 25,000.
Almost half of Sweden's household waste is incinerated with energy
recovery and, in total, waste incineration provides 4,400 million
kilowatt hours of energy a year, enough to meet the needs of
250,000 homes.
from the very hot combustion gases produces
hot water or steam. This is used directly to
provide heat for local communities, or to drive
turbines to generate electricity.
Since the mid-1980s, state-of-the-art tech-
nology has been able to reduce gas emissions
from household waste combustors dramatically.
Advanced flue gas cleaning techniques mean most
of the unpleasant gases from incinerators can now
be scrubbed from the smoke, so that emissions of
acid gas are very low, absolutely and relative to
other forms of power generation. Dioxin
emissions are also reduced to negligible levels.
Most waste-to-energy plants worldwide
use a technology called, 'mass burn': mixed
image:
The Helsinki
Solution:
Combined Energy Production
and District Heating
Helsinki's solution for saving energy and protecting the
environment is based on the combined production of
heat and electricity, and district heating.
The electricity and heat required in Helsinki are
produced at Helsinki Energy's own power stations.
Helsinki Energy distributes electricity and heat to over
300,000 customers in the Metropolitan Area. In
addition, electricity is sold to other parts of Finland.
City-owned Helsinki Energy is also selling natural gas
to Industry replacing heavy fuel oil. Concentrating
energy production at our sites means that there are
very few chimneys in use, so the air in the
Metropolitan Area has become remarkably cleaner.
The district heating system (first introduced in the
1950s) has raised the efficiency of energy supplies from
40 per cent to 80 per cent — with enormous savings on
fuel and major benefits for the environment.
The share of natural gas in Helsinki Energy's
production has risen to over 50 per cent of all fuel
used in producing energy to supply customers. This is
due to the two natural gas-fired combi power plants
operating in Helsinki.
Consumers themselves are extremely energy-conscious.
The average heat consumption in homes supplied by
die district heating system has fallen from 65 kWh/m'a
to 44 kWh/m'a.
Due to district heating and concentrated energy production, almost all
house chimneys have become redundant in Helsinki.
In addition, the use of modern low NOx combustion
technology, desulphurization plants and electrostatic
precipitators has led to drastic reductions in emissions
of sulphur oxides, nitrogen oxides and dust. The
biggest environmental problem in Helsinki today is
the floating dust raised by traffic.
The combustion residues (fly ash and the end
product of desulphurization from the coal-fired power
plants) are used for land filling and as foundation
materials. Fly ash is also used as a binding agent in
the cement industry. Leftover end products are used
to fill old shafts.
Helsinki Energy is also working with other
organizations to find new uses for solid waste.
In addition, the company is committed to halving
the different kinds of chemicals it uses before
the year 2000 and is training all its staff to ensure
the practical implementation of its environmental
policy decisions.
It is not surprising, therefore, that the Helsinki
Solution for energy management - and especially
the role of district heating - is being followed by
many other cities in the world. Helsinki Energy
is now playing a leading role in rehabilitating the
energy systems throughout the Baltic States and
Eastern Europe.
HELSINKI ENERGY MANAGEMENT IN FIGURES
Electricity Supply
District Heat Supply
Share of District Heating
Energy Efficiency of Helsinki Energy
Specific Heat Consumption in Buildings
Emissions (SO2)/Produced Net Energy
Emissions (NO2)/Produced Net Energy
Emissions (COs)/Produced Net Energy
GWh/a
GWh/a
%
%
kWh/m3a
t(SO,y/GWh
t(NO2)/GWh
kt{CO2)/GWh
1960 1975
583 1 ,667
357 3,305
8 60
47 77
65 58
5.8 2.6
1 .9 1 .4
0.9 0.5
1990
3,117
5,425
88
82
47
1.6
1.5
0.4
1995
3,712
6,342
91
85
44
0.6
0.7
0.4
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ESTs FOR POLLUTION CONTROL
unprocessed waste is burned on a continuously
fed grate. This basic process has not changed for
some years, though it has been improved and
upgraded. Mass burn incinerators can handle
waste of all shapes and sizes. Its critics say this
encourages the widespread burning of materials
that could have been recovered.
An alternative way of burning waste for
energy recovery is to process it into a more
homogenous fuel, then burn it in a fluidized bed
boiler. This is typically a cylinder with a bed of
sand or similar material. When operating, the
fluidized bed consists of a mixture of hot sand, '
ash particles and a small amount of fuel (the
waste). The bed moves constantly because of air
injected through it - and the good mixing of air,
fuel and sand caused by the turbulence inside the
boiler ensures both good combustion and
reduced emissions. Its supporters say that the
need to reprocess the waste to a uniform size and
remove materials such as metals means that
fluidized bed technology fits well with materials
recycling. Another attraction is that the scale of
fluidized bed combustion is typically 30,000-
60,000 tonnes a year, against an average 200,000
tonnes or more for mass burn plants - which may
make the technology more acceptable to local
communities. Fluidized bed combustors are
already operational in Japan and Scandinavia.
The Organisation for Economic Co-operation
and Development (OECD) says that energy
recovery from waste incineration is "particularly
attractive" in cities "because it satisfies two
important, but apparently separate requirements
simultaneously: the need to dispose of sub-
stantial quantities of wastes, and the need to
provide, for heating and electricity demands. It
becomes a suitable solution to these two prob-
lems due to the coincidence of the relatively high
density of waste generation, and heating and
electricity loads in the urban environment."
However, the OECD makes the point that waste
incineration can conflict with recycling policies.
Public opinion in many countries still needs
to be won over for an expansion of waste-to-
energy projects. It also remains to be seen
whether waste incineration is a viable pro-
position for most developing countries: the high
cost and technical complexity of incineration
units with extensive pollution .control systems
make them a risky investment.
Recovery and recycling
Chemical recovery methods are largely used for
hazardous waste treatment. They include
chemical fixation or stabilization, which blends
the waste with carefully controlled Liquids to
produce a cement-like material that holds in any
toxic chemicals. However, while these methods
are relatively low cost, the materials still have to
be landfilled. Another category of chemical
treatment is one that breaks down certain types
of toxic organic molecules into simpler,
harmless materials. Solid and hazardous wastes
can also be treated by biological methods (see
Chapter 12).
There is no doubt that chemical recovery has
the potential to help solve the problem of waste,
especially plastic waste. For this reason, it is
attracting significant research-and-development
investment by the plastics industry. Plastics waste
can be a particular concern, and this is linked to
another factor: the changing composition of much
waste. A major component now is packaging:
cardboard, corrugated fibreboard, wood, poly-
styrene foam, paper, blister packs and other
plastics. The volume of this waste can, and
should, be minknized at source by:
i!i redesigning the packaging structure to
eliminate one or more layers;
S3 modifying production and/or product design
of existing packages to reduce weight;
® replacing the packaging with more environ-
mentally acceptable alternatives, preferably
completely biodegradable.
For the moment, however, packaging generally
remains a significant contributor to the waste
problem.
image:
tti IS HJM tAJU-U IIUIV UUIN I riUL.
One important new materials breakthrough
could help tackle the issue of plastic waste. It is
the replacement of conventional low-cost,
petroleum-based plastics with agriculturally
derived materials made from crops such as corn
or potatoes, or from food-processing solid
waste. These new "biopolymers" have similar
characteristics to such plastic products as
disposable food service utensils and bags, and
can be manufactured using the same equipment.
But they can be made to be fully biodegradable
and compostable under various conditions. The
new materials present an attractive option both
for industrialized countries, to replace plastics,
and developing countries, to overcome the glut
of plastic waste dumped openly.
Several major United States companies have
invested heavily in developing and commercial-
izing 'biopolymers'. Products made from
them include loose-fill packaging 'peanuts',
previously made from polystyrene, golf tees,
and bags to collect compost that are fully
biodegradable and stronger than paper bags. A
United Kingdom company is also developing a
natural polymer made by bacteria that eat sugar.
When discarded and in contact with bacteria
found in water and soil, it decomposes leaving
only carbon dioxide, water and a small amount
of biological material. This could replace some
of the plastics now in use, such as starch-based
and lactic-acid polymers.
Recycling is a pollution control and a
pollution prevention approach, involving both
technologies and processes. It has become an
increasingly favoured solution to waste manage-
ment problems in industrialized countries. But it
is also a key element in developing a closed-
loop approach to industrial and economic
activity. There will still be waste from industry
and consumers, even with cleaner production
approaches. Recycling is based on the principle
that waste should be treated as a resource in its
own right thereby reducing demand for natural
resources and the amount of waste needing final
disposal. It can also reduce overall energy
consumption and pollution.
Recycling involves three steps: recovering
recyclable waste; processing it into new materials
or products; and marketing those products. Waste
recovery for recycling is called reclamation. The
recovery stage can require waste collection and
separation, especially when the materials are
mixed with other wastes. Recycling can be
carried out on site (the waste being reprocessed
where it is produced) or off site (in a separate
processing facility). Several distinct forms of
technologies and processes are used in recycling.
'S- Mechanical recycling is the processing of
recyclable waste into new products without
changing its chemical structure. Glass waste
can be melted and remoulded, waste textile
fibres can be separated and graded, before
being turned into new products.
35 Chemical recycling involves -more funda-
mental changes to the molecular structure of
the recyclable wastes. Plastics can be 'cracked'
to produce simpler molecules, to create a range
of new products. These forms of recycling are
sometimes called feedstock recycling.
5: Closed-loop recycling is a process for
sending recyclable waste back into the same
products. For example, aluminium-can waste
is recycled back into aluminium cans.
& Open-loop recycling is a process for
transforming one product into another. For
example, polyethylene terephthalate (PET)
bottles can be made into plastic products for
use in engineering.
Using recycled materials reduces the use of
virgin material, conserving natural resources as
well as minimizing pollution problems in
industries that convert raw materials into
finished products. For example, steel produced
from scrap reduces air pollution by 85 per cent,
cuts water pollution by 76 per cent and eliminates
mining wastes altogether. Paper made from
recycled material reduces air pollutants by 74 per
cent and water pollutants by 35 per cent.
110
image:
Cathode ray tubes are recycled using
laser technology. This process saves
over 250,000 such tubes that would
otherwise be disposed of every year.
image:
tto IS MJM njLLU IIUN WUIN I nUL
BOX 6.7
Recycling — an option for leather
tanneries
There are small leather tanneries all over the world - many in
developing countries. They pose a number of environmental
probtems, with end-of-pipe solutions adding considerably to
running costs. But there is growing pressure on tanneries to tackle
their problems,
A recovery and recycling project in Greece has shown that tanneries
in developing countries have the opportunity to skip standard
pollution control measures and use a waste reduction approach that
reduces operating costs as well as eliminating environmental
problems. The project, run from 1988 to 1990, Investigated how
trh/alent chromium - a major tanning agent and the main cause of the
environmental problems - could be better managed through recovery
and re-use.
The tannery near Athens produces 2,200 tonnes a year of high-quality
leather from catta hides. Its annual revenues are more than
US$8 million, making it typical of tanneries in many other countries.
The environmental issue is that untreated chromium-contaminated
wastewater creates an Industrial hazardous waste, and using water
treatment pollution control technologies produces hazardous sludge.
In chrome tanning woddwide, between 20 and 40 per cent of the
chrome purchased Is discharged into wastewater.
The Athens project confirmed that with new technology, 95-98 per
cent of the waste chrome can be recovered and recycled within a
plant. The process Involves filtering and pumping the liquids that are.
left after hides are soaked in a chromium sulphate solution to a
treatment tank where magnesium oxide Is added to achieve a
certain level of alkalinity. This causes precipitation of chromium
hydroxide as a sludge. The clear water is removed and the
remaining sludge is dissolved in concentrated sulphuric acid. This
new liquid Is then available for re-use as a tanning solution - and
relatively clean wastewater is discharged. The technology can be
used In every conventional chrome tanning operation, and reduces
the amount of chemicals to be bought, making tanneries more
profitable - because chemical costs are a very large proportion of
their total operating costs.
Some of the best-known examples of high-
value recycling include paper with a very high
recycled-paper content, steel and aluminium
made entirely from scrap materials, and
automotive oil made from reprocessed oils.
Refining waste oil from factories and using it to
create fuels, and compressing waste paper and
wood to make solid fuels, provide alternative
sources of energy to oil or coal. However, one
drawback can be that the price of products, for
example, paper made from recycled materials, is
higher than products made from virgin materials
because the older, larger facilities that work with
virgin materials have a competitive advantage
over more expensive, newer and small-scale
plants converting recycled materials.
Re-use also includes public and private waste
exchanges through which companies can send
non-product outputs to be used by other firms to
reduce the virgin material they buy. A problem
with the waste exchange concept is that relatively
small amounts of chemicals with slightly varying
amounts of impurities are obtained at irregular
intervals. This creates difficulties for users trying
to replace standardized types of virgin chemicals
that must meet stringent specifications. One
solution is to use some discarded materials for
their heating value in cement kilns and other
specific types of furnaces. Another is to mix a
small amount of recycled material into a much
larger amount of virgin material.
Market forces of supply and demand play a
crucial role in the level of recycling. In some
countries, the poor survive by sorting rubbish
and selling materials for re-use or recycling.
However, as the volume of solid waste in urban
areas soars, such small-scale recycling becomes
increasingly difficult, dangerous and inadequate
to ease the problem. Nor is this situation helped
when recycling is subsidized in some countries
— as in Europe - and the cheaper, recycled waste
is then exported to lower-income countries in
Southeast Asia. In industrialized countries,
private sector recycling companies create a
different problem. By collecting large amounts
of material, they cause excess supply, which
depresses prices and makes many recycling
efforts economically inefficient. The resulting
supply-demand imbalance causes a shift to more
land disposal. This is becoming a global market
issue for some recycled materials because of
112
image:
ESTs FOR POLLUTION CONTROL
exports. For example, paper and ferrous metals
are often exported from the United States to
Asian markets, yet this does not lead to less
virgin material being used in the United States.
Indeed, there are a number of question marks
over the economics of recycling. Plastics, for
example, are expensive to sort. Other waste
materials may be contaminated and therefore
laborious to sort and, as a result, expensive too.
Despite these drawbacks, the tide is running
strongly in favour of recycling in industrialized
countries, and increasingly recycling laws are
the centrepiece of legislative action on waste.
Japan is a good example. The volume of
industrial waste rose from 312,000 tonnes in
1985 to over 400,000 tonnes in 1992. In 1992,40
per cent of this waste was recycled, sharply
reducing the amount for final disposal. In the
same period, the volume of municipal waste rose
from nearly 43,500 tonnes to more than 50,000
tonnes.The recycling rate jumped from 2.5 per
cent in 1985 to almost 4 per cent in 1992, again
cutting the amount of waste to be landfilled or
burned. In 1992, Japan produced 28.3 million
tonnes of paper and paper products, equivalent to
228 kilograms for every person. Yet the waste
paper recovery rate was 53.1 per cent, one of the
highest recycling rates in the world. Some 97 per
cent of beer bottles and 83 per cent of sake
bottles are recycled in the country. Japan
produced nearly 1.4 million tonnes of steel cans
in 1993, and a total of 829,000 tonnes (61 per
cent) was recycled. The recycling rate for
aluminium cans was nearly 58 per cent. About
5.75 million bicycles were discarded in 1992,
and 430,000 were recycled for later use.
Steady advances in technologies are also
helping to speed the transition to using recycled
materials. The electric arc furnace produces
high-quality steel from scrap using far less
energy than a traditional open-hearth furnace.
Since electric arc furnaces can operate wherever
there is a supply of electricity and a supply of
scrap metal — and can be built on a small scale —
BOX 6.8
An integrated approach in
Madrid
A new waste management plant in the Spanish capital of Madrid is
one of the most ambitious resource recovery projects seen in Europe -
bringing an integrated approach to handling solid waste through an
elaborate materials recycling, energy recovery and composting
system.
The recycling and composting facilities have been functional since
early 1993. Previously, 55-60 per cent of the material processed was
(andfilled, but the aim is to reduce this to between 5 and 10 per cent -
with 5 per cent materials recovery and the rest composted or burnt in
a new incineration plant.
The recycling option is tinted to the energy from the waste option -
that is, waste materials can be sent to the energy recovery facility if
this yields a higher revenue. Steel and glass are exempted from this.
In the energy recovery unit, up to 600 tonnes a day of refuse will be
directed to a three-stream fluidized bed combustor. The unit, built
under licence from a Japanese company, has been equipped for
emission control with a three-stage glass cleaning process of
cyclones, semi-dry scrubbars and baghouse filter.
they will become an attractive alternative to the
traditional steel mills.
One powerful argument in favour of recycling
is that it reverses the concept of the throwaway
society. However, recycling may not always be
the best waste management option. It may not
even be the best environmental solution.
Recycling can be polluting. Some studies suggest
that for paper, incineration with energy recovery
can result in lower environmental burdens.
The argument that it almost always takes less
energy to recycle an object than to use new, raw
materials is correct — to a point. Aluminium takes
huge amounts of energy to manufacture from
bauxite, but making it from recycled scrap metal
takes only 5 per cent of that energy. Recycling
plastics shows a similar pattern though some
plastics companies say it takes more energy than
it saves. Recycling steel uses half the energy of
making virgin steel. But recycling paper takes
about 75 per cent of the energy needed to make
image:
TAKING UP THE CHALLENGE
Bhoruka Power Corporation Ltd. is addressing one of the central challenges of
sustainable development - by providing people and industry with the energy supplies
they need whilst at the same time conserving precious resources.
The Corporation - which is active mainly in the south of India - specializes in low
overhead small hydro projects, supplying electricity generation mainly through
renewables.
As part of its development programme, six small hydro stations with a capacity of .
25 MW have recently been built, plans are being implemented to provide an additional
25 MW of hydro capacity, and the Company aims to increase installed capacity through
renewables to 100 MW within the next two years. Co-generation through bagasse in
existing sugar factories is also being vigorously pursued.
Renewable energy plays an increasingly important role in breaking the vicious cycle of
increasing numbers and increasing needs, causing declining resources and increased
wastes. For the sake of future generations we need, urgently, to control the delicate
balance of the ecosystem and move towards the goal of sustainable development by
applying a philosophy based on Reduce, Recover, Recycle, Reuse, Repair and Restore
Resources.
The Government of India is committed to this philosophy. Its plan of action is to
generate 10 percent of the country's total electrical energy requirement through
renewable energy by the turn of the century. Bhoruka Power Corporation Ltd. is
playing its part in helping to achieve this goal.
Mr. S. Chandrasekhar
Managing Director
Bhoruka Power Corporation Ltd.
48, Hitananda II, V Floor
Lavelle Road
Bangalore 560 001
India
Tel. + 91 80 227 3285/227 2271-6
Fax. + 91 80 227 0605
Email. bhopower@blr.vsnl.net.in
image:
ESTs FOR POLLUTION CONTROL
BOX 6,9
Coping with scrapped cars
Recycling obviously has its limitations -
some materials are very difficult to
recycle. Cars and trucks are an example,
and In Europe, the number of end-of-life
vehicles is expected to grow from
6 million a year in 1980 to about
12 million a year by 2000. Currently, a
typical 1,000 kilogram car is 75 per cent
recycled, with the remaining 25 per cent
ending up as landfill.
Europe, like most of the industrialized
world, has a recycling infrastructure in
place. This was largely developed in the
1960s as a result of advances in vehicle
crusher and shredder technology. Some
components are sold as used spares or
remanufactured. Others - batteries and
exhaust catalysers - are recycled. The
vehicle body is shredded and the ferrous
content removed by mechanical
separation.
The problem is the growing content of
plastics and the complexity of modern
vehicles. Several steps are needed to
make plastic (especially composite)
recycling a viable possibility:
s*i less rapid introduction of new
materials;
14 materials identification codes;
BS parts consolidation;
S; design for disassembly;
S8 materials recycling technology
development;
IS market acceptance of recycled
materials;
f 3 economic viability.
The European vehicle manufacturers •
themselves - aware of the need for
voluntary action as an alternative to
legislation - have adopted a range of
strategies to recycle end-of-life vehicles.
They include pilot dismantling operations,
independent recycling infrastructures,
bilateral agreements, and collaborative
organizations.
A range of disassembly operations has
been set up to address the issue of
plastics - including establishing the ideal
sequence for removing parts, creating
special tools and equipment to help
• disassembly, and identifying problem
areas. In one system, the vehicle fluids
are drained and major components
removed. The remaining body is
compressed and shredded before being
fed into a high-temperature furnace. Any
remaining plastics actually contribute to
the energy required for smelting - and
the high temperatures (in excess of
2,000 degrees C) destroy any potentially
harmful dioxins. One French car
manufacturer has set up its own
disassembly centres and aims to
process 8,000 vehicles a day by 2002.
The main problem with disassembly is
that it is labour intensive. In addition,
research by automotive companies in
Germany shows that, at current levels of
technology and with the current state of
car design, disassembly of plastics
components is no longer economic after
about 30 minutes. By this time, about
60 kilograms of plastic components have
been removed at a cost of around
US$1,4 per kilogram: it takes a further
60 minutes to collect another
10 kilograms of material.
Manufacturers are also making greater
efforts to use recycled materials in their
vehicles. But, as the Automotive
Environmental Analyst pointed out in
December 1996: "Recycling has become
a means of legitimizing new car
production. In practice, new cars do not
embody a high recyclate content.
Recycling of end-of-life vehicles can only
be considered an interim measure and
partial solution. The danger is that
recycling will be seen as an end In itself,
not as a basically undesirable activity."
virgin paper, and it takes almost as much energy
to recycle glass as it does to make it from
scratch. The picture can change when all the
energy that goes into making, using, disposing
of and recycling materials is added in. Glass, for
example, takes much more fuel than plastic to
carry around. So the unrecycled plastic bottle
could be 'greener' than the recycled glass one.
Therefore, the overall environmental costs of
recycling, including energy, are critical. On the
one hand, it can be expensive, even prohibitive,
because of the collection, separation and
reprocessing costs. But this can change when the
total economic situation is considered, including
such factors as landfill costs, potential
groundwater contamination, conservation of
resources, undervaluation of virgin materials,
and the visible nuisance of dumped materials.
It should be remembered that recycling is
part of a hierarchy of waste management
options:
S first, avoid using any non-essential items;
15 second, directly re-use a product, for
example, refill glass beverage containers;
J55 third, recycle the material to form a new
product;
image:
rwn rwuuu uwiv
BOX 6.10
Air and water monitoring at a
chemical plant
One major United States chemical producer uses state-of-the-art
technologies to monitor water and air emissions and implement a
continuous programme of pollution abatement at its complex in
Canada. The site includes 13 manufacturing plants where, on the one
hand, the final effluent from a number of plants is merged before being
returned to the nearby river while, on the other, air emissions from
point sources are widely scattered,
Gas chromatographs, pH analysis, organic carbon analysis and flow
measurement are used to monitor abnormal water releases. The
chromatographs are used to detect a variety of chemicals; pH
monitoring checks for sources of acids and alkalis; and organic carbon
analysis monitors high molecular weight compounds not otherwise
detectable. These technologies form part of a long-standing
programme to measure concentrations and loadings of priority
pollutants at parts per billion, even per trillion.
Stack monitoring Is one of two means of checking abnormal air
emissions: it monitors chemicals including chlorine, vinyl chloride,
ethylene and nitrogen oxides. Area monitors check for chlorine, vinyl
ctitoride and benzene, as well as combustible gases throughout the
complex. Other monitoring equipment checks all other air emissions.
* fourth, burn the material to extract whatever
energy it contains;
B finally, dispose of any remaining material in
a landfill.
Nor is recycling waste an end in itself. Every
company should aim to improve economic
' efficiency by reducing pollution and cutting the
amount of final waste.
Land remediation
Industrial sites can be contaminated when
chemicals have been disposed of improperly or
released accidently either by industry or as a result
of farming practices. The problem is a serious one,
with a number of possible approaches.
M Soil vapour extraction has been used extensively
over the past 10-15 years to remove volatile
organic compounds from contaminated soils.
The technology involves pumping the vapours
out of the ground so that they can be treated
by carbon adsorption. It has low operating and
maintenance costs, it can be installed rapidly
and it achieves permanent remediation.
'I: Stabilization and solidification technologies
encompass a broad, overlapping array of
treatment processes, which either convert the
hazardous wastes into their least soluble,
mobile or toxic form, or turn them into solid
monoliths. The techniques include using
cement, lime, thermoplastic materials
(bitumen, polyethylene, paraffin), organic
resins and organic polymerization.
S3 Soil washing and soil flushing scrub
excavated contaminated soils to remove the
contaminants.
•
K Low-temperature thermal desorption is a
process which uses heated air and agitation
to volatilize contaminants and transfer them
from soils to the airstream, which in turn is
recovered and treated before being
discharged into the atmosphere.
H Bioremediation takes advantage of the ability
of certain kinds of bacteria to degrade
chemical compounds by using natural
microbial metabolic processes to clean up
hazardous wastes. It can destroy the
contaminant completely, is generally cost-
effective and competitive with other
available ESTs, and is an ecologically
acceptable solution.
Environmental monitoring
Companies need to monitor their environmental
performance to:
85 assess the impact of their processes;
(8 identify the areas where pollution prevention
or treatment measures have to be taken;
3S keep their progress in reducing emissions
and waste, under ongoing surveillance.
Monitoring systems vary according to the
activity or process to be monitored, as well as
with the specific monitoring objectives. These
objectives include:
116
image:
ESTs FOR POLLUTION CONTROL
'$, preparing baseline data on the quality of the
air, soil, groundwater and surface water;
W. continuously checking releases from the
plant;
f,'? determining which pollution prevention or
control technologies to implement;
W, developing effective health and safety
measures.
The first element in a monitoring scheme is
to measure the flow of wastewater, air emissions
or solid waste. This includes identifying the
concentrations of basic contaminants, or at least
assessing a few basic parameters revealing
contamination. For example, the main variables
for water effluents are suspended solids,
dissolved solids, pH values, and biological and
chemical oxygen demand. Particulates, volatile
organic compounds, and oxides of sulphur and
nitrogen are usually measured for air emissions.
However, monitoring should cover all potential
sources of emissions, including leaks from
vessels, valves and connectors at production,
loading and storage sites, as well as fugitive
emissions from secondary sources, for example,
evaporative leaks from ponds.
Analytical techniques have changed consid-
erably in recent years. Initially based on the
main chemical or physical properties of the
pollutants to be controlled, they now cover the
biological properties too. Some of the main
monitoring techniques are highlighted in the
section below.
ifi Atomic absorption spectrophotometry — an
instrumentation method for chemically
analysing metals in a solution,
!S Chromatography - a technique for separating
the components of a mixture so that they can be
individually identified and measured. Gas
chromatography uses one of a range of
detection devices — thermal conductivity, flame
ionization, electron capture, flame photometric,
photoionization, ion trap or mass spectrometer
— to identify compounds in a gaseous effluent
High-performance liquid chromatography is
BOX6.11
Reducing pollution and waste
through improved process control
Producing cement is a complex process, and it is easy to lose control
and make a substandard product. Converting the kilns from oil or gas
to coal firing makes control even more difficult and, among other
things, it slightly increases the dust content of the exhaust gases -
which is removed by electrostatic dust precipitators.
The quality of the cement is largely determined by the firing
temperature - but levels of both nitrogen and sulphur oxides increase
with higher temperatures, so the process must be operated within a
certain temperature band - and if it falls too far below the optimum
temperature at the lower end of the scale, cement quality is reduced
while pollution is increased.
One new process control system, implemented at a cement factory in
Indonesia, is designed to maintain optimum process conditions -
stabilizing tjie running of the kiln, reducing fuel consumption and
increasing output, producing a consistent quality of product. It
monitors the nitrogen oxide, carbon monoxide and oxygen levels, the
temperature at the bottom of the four-stage pre-heater and the power
needed to run the kiln.
At the Indonesian plant, the system led to a 9 per cent increase in
capacity, a 3 per cent saving in fuel, a 40 per cent reduction in off-
specification material produced, and some reductions in nitrogen and
sulphur oxide emissions.
used to analyse mixtures containing non-
volatile components, which cannot be separated
by gas chromatography. Ion chromatography is
used to identify chloride, sulphate, carbonate,
phosphate and nitrate content.
& Colorimetry — a method of chemical analysis
in which chemical reagents are added to the
test sample to form coloured compounds
with the specific determinands present.
SI Conductimetry - which estimates concen-
trations of salt solution by determining their
electrical conductivity.
@ Flame photometry — a physical method of
analysis for determining lithium, sodium,
potassium, calcium and certain other
metals. It involves' spraying the sample
image:
Clean Energy for Peru
Energy
aOQ^LpO»
ao^Tb o°
CHILGENER
EGENORS.A
producers in Peru. With 405 megawatts ol generating
capacity — and more planned — and with 300 miles of
transmission facilities, we provide electricity to
approximately 20 percent of all Peruvians.
We are operated by and owned in part by Dominion
Energy, a subsidiary of Dominion Resources, a US$20
billion holding company with global business
interests. We are also owned in part by Chilgener, one
of South America's largest energy companies, with
US$3 billion in assets.
We are big. So is our commitment to the environment.
We believe it is both a good business practice and
our duty to protect the natural resources that
support our livelihood and enrich the quality of
life for our customers, employees and shareholders.
Our business practices reflect our longstanding
philosophy that economic growth and environmental
preservation are complementary ingredients for long-
term business success.
EGENOR is committed to sustainable development in
Peru. From its 200-mile-Iong sea coast, to its soaring
Andes mountain ranges, to its dense jungle rain
forests, we are a diligent steward of Peru's land, water
and air for the benefit of all.
At EGENOR we make environmental protection an
integral part of our economic planning and decision-
making. We willingly commit any resource necessary
to implement effective environmental programs.
Where opportunities exist, we are eager to assist
governmental agencies in framing responsible laws,
regulations and standards that will preserve the
nation's rich environmental integrity.
We actively educate our employees and encourage
them to seek innovative ways of improving the
environmental safety of our operations. We work
vigorously to maintain open channels of
communication with employees, government
agencies, public officials, the media and the public
at large to provide information about energy and
environmental issues.
We promote the efficient use of natural resources
through cost-effective conservation and energy
management programs when there are practical
opportunities at our businesses to do so. We ensure
the proper handling and disposal of all wastes and
strive to minimize their creation, while pursuing
opportunities to recycle and reuse waste materials.
The people of Peru share with us the abundant
natural resources of their rich country. In return, we
offer reliable, fairly priced electricity. This compact is
premised on our responsibility for environmentally
sound development. At EGENOR, we take that
commitment very seriously.
image:
ESTs FOR POLLUTION CONTROL
solution into a coal gas, propane or natural
gas, then measuring the emitted light
photometrically to assess the concentration
of the compound.
L>" Gravimetry - a method for weighing the
substance to be checked.
W. Inductively coupled plasma emission spec-
trometry — applicable to nearly all metals and
a number of non-metallic elements. The
sample is injected into a high-energy gas
plasma, where atoms absorb energy, then
emit radiation.
:S Infrared spectrophotometry - identifies and
measures chemical compounds or groups of
compounds according to how they absorb
infrared radiation at specific frequencies.
Ultraviolet visible spectrophotometry deter-
mines them on the basis of how they absorb
visible or ultraviolet light at a specific
wavelength.
; •. Ion-selective electrode - an electrochemical
device for measuring the concentration of a
particular ionic compound, or groups of
compounds.
•."; Potentiometrie titration - in which the end
point is detected electronically, rather than
with a visual indicator.
fe' Titrimetry - a method of chemical analysis in
which measured amounts of a reagent
solution are added incrementally to a known
quantity of test solution until the end point
is reached.
Instruments and test kits that are used in
this context include the following: pH meters,
redox measurement, conductivity meters,
dissolved oxygen meters, turbidity meters,
colorimeters and spectrophotometers, ultra-
violet fluorescence, chemiluminescence, flame
ionization, the atomizing trace gas monitoring
system, flame photometry, electrochemical
cell, and photoionization detector. The data
that are obtained must be comparable between
sources and time periods, in order, to be able to
assess the evolution of releases over different
lengths of time.
Environmental monitoring has become an
essential tool for effective environmental
management, and a key prerequisite for
assessing pollution problems and deciding
which" ESTs to adopt to deal with them.
Measuring pollution at its source is the first
critical step towards implementing a cleaner
production programme that makes use of
cleaner technologies.
Sources
A Survey of Waste and the Environment, 1993, The
Economist.
Business and the Environment, various issues,
Cutter Information Corporation.
Cleaner Production in the Asia Pacific Cooperation
flegfan, 1994, UNEP IE.
Cleaner Production Worldwide, Vol. II. 1995,
UNEP IE.
Environmental Strategies Handbook: a Guide to
Effective Policies and Practices, 1994, McGraw-
Hill, Inc.
Environmentally Sound Technology for Sustainable
Development, 1992, ATLAS Bulletin.
Hazardous Waste Management, Fact Sheet, 1993,
UNIDO.
Industry and Environment, various Issues, UNEP IE.
Information materials, Alliance for Beverage Cartons
and the Environment.
Managing Hazardous and Solid Wasfe, 1996, Green
Paper Series, United States Information Agency.
Plastics in Perspective, Association of Plastics
Manufacturers in Europe.
Recycling Fact Book: Wasfe Management and
Recycling in Japan, 1994, Clean Japan Centre.
Technologies for Cleaner Production and Products,
1995, OECD.
Technology Challenges for Industry, Greener
Management International, April 1993, Greenleaf
Publishing.
The Global Environmental Goods and Services
Industry, 1998, OECD.
Urban Energy Handbook: Good Local Practice,
1995, OECD. .
Warmer Bulletin, various issues, World Resource
Foundation.
Washington Waste Minimization Workshop, 1996,
OECO.
Wasfe Management Technologies: Opportunities for
Research and Manufacturing in Australia, 1990,
Department of Industry, Technology and
Commerce, Australia.
image:
Heavy Industries have a major impact on the
environment. Environmentally sound technologies
are the key to improving their performance, and
mitigating the pollution they cause.
image:
-
Cleaner production is referenced throughout Agenda 21 as an important strategy for
supporting sustainable development. It focuses on preventing pollution rather than merely
controlling it or cleaning it up after the event. In short, the goal of cleaner production is to
avoid generating pollution in vie first place. This in turn can cut costs, reduce risks and
help identify new opportunities. The concept was introduced by UNEP's Industry and
Environment Centre (UNEPIE) in 1989, and since then it has gained considerable ground
worldwide, as companies increasingly recognize the performance and financial benefits of
switching from end-ofpipe solutions. There is a growing understanding that cleaner
production — like eco-efficiency —is a win-win approach, and that it does not always require
major changes to processes and products. Often quite minor changes result in increased
financial and environmental returns.
^, ccording to UNEP, cleaner production
•^.1=- 's 4<tne continuous application of an
-.& JLintegrated preventative environmental
strategy to processes, products and services to
increase eco-efficiency, and reduce risks for
humans and the environment". This means:
in for production processes - conserving raw
materials and energy, eliminating toxic raw
materials, and reducing the quantity and
toxicity of all emissions and wastes;
M for products — reducing negative impacts
along the life cycle of a product, from raw
materials extraction to the product's final
disposal;
M for services - incorporating environmental
concerns into designing and delivering
services.
Cleaner production also requires "changing
attitudes, responsible environmental manage-
ment, creating conducive national policy
environments, and evaluating technology
options". Indeed, UNEP emphasizes that cleaner
production is a strategy going beyond tech-
nologies to encompass broader issues such as
management and government policy, and
extending both upstream and downstream of the
production process. Upstream, it covers product
design and the impacts of providing materials
and energy inputs; downstream, it looks into the
impacts of using products and their disposal
as waste.
However, while cleaner production is not a
technological 'fix', environmentally sound
technologies (ESTs) are clearly an integral part
of the strategy, and vital if industries and
companies arp to introduce cleaner production
practices into their operations. As UNEP states:
"If sustainable development is to be achieved,
processes, products and services have to be
reoriented tdwards new patterns, to both
alleviate environmental stress and bring better
industrial productivity. This requires the
development and use of new policy and
management tools in both government and
industry as well as the development and use of
environmentally sound technologies that prevent
pollution, and make efficient use of raw
materials" (emphasis added).
Cleaner production options are better than
end-of-pipe solutions because the latter
frequently require more materials in their
manufacture and more energy in their operation,
image:
BRITTASTEILMANNSUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
GmbH & CO KG
Britta Steilmann
Cotton is clothing the world. But It can be at a cost — to the
environment and to the health of people wearing shirts,
jeans and other cotton garments.
In the fields, cotton is treated with more pesticides than any
other comparable agricultural crop. Often, they are
the cheapest pesticides - eroding the soil, polluting
groundwater, contaminating the land and those
working on it.
As the picked cotton passes through the production and
manufacturing stages, it is exposed to more chemicals. In
fact, the textile industry uses more than 8,000 chemicals -
including considerable amounts of heavy metals, dyes and
other substances, even formaldehyde.
And those chemicals can harm us - especially
formaldehyde. As the temperature of the body is raised,
the genetic composition of formaldehyde changes
causing adverse effects. Children are particularly vulnerable
and assailable.
Moreover, the production stage creates excessive waste
whilst the washing process can be environmentally
devastating.
Too often, consumers only enquire about the price of the
clothes they buy. Even a tag that reads '100% cotton' does
not disclose the way in which the cotton was cultivated or
how the clothes were produced. What matters is the whole
life cycle of the product.
And the challenge today for every progressively-managed
company in the international textile market is to put the
environment at the heart of its operations.
Klaus Steilmann GmbH and Co. KG, the parent company of
Britta Steilmann Sustainable Development GmbH and Co.
KG, believes that "textiles make better textiles if they are
good for people and good for the environment".
image:
Of course the wearing qualities of our products are
important for both comfort and health. But how we
produce them is crucial to the concept of environmental
sustainability. Clothing which is manufactured without the
need for pesticides to produce the natural fibres, without
the production of waste material and without the release of
poisonous, persistent and even carcinogenic substances
into the atmosphere is unquestionably superior clothing.
We have an ambitious, ongoing development programme
that gives priority to environmental considerations in our
processes and products.
Our collection Britta Steilmann - It's One World
introduced a 'product passport7 bringing together a number
of environmentally relevant manufacturing techniques.
Three years ago we developed a companywide ecological
profile which all items must satisfy. This has been steadily
extended and updated with products being redesigned to
take life cycle aspects into account. Products based on
natural raw materials are rigorously optimized to make
them biodegradable, whilst materials based on artificial
fibres are designed to be recycled or disposed of without
the use of expensive technology.
Our policy on chemicals is "no more than necessary - as
environmentally sustainable as possible". If chemicals are
needed (for colour), only the most environmentally
acceptable products are selected. Our suppliers are chosen
because of their commitment to environmentally sound
management.
As a result, the company now has a system in place which
is in line with the model proposed by the Enquete German
Parliamentary Commission for the 'Protection of People
and the Environment' and detailed in its Shaping an
Industrial Society report. The Environmental Protection
Encouragement Agency states that our products "represent
the highest standard for environmentally benign textiles".
At Steilmann, we are proud to have introduced a new
environmental quality factor into the clothing sector. For
customers, it means that the items they purchase are good
not only for comfort and health, but also for the
environment and for the future of our children.
Postfach 600 207, D - 44842 Bochum, Germany
Tel: 49 2327 940 461 Fax: 49 2327 320 052
image:
CLEANfcH HHUUUCIICJN ANU tUU-tmutNUY
BOX 7.1
Clear environmental and
financial benefits
Case studies of cleaner production initiatives in developing countries
and countries in transition have underlined the potential for
considerable environmental and financial benefits.
In India, a pulp and paper mill which Implemented preventive
measures reduced its capital investment cost for end-of-pipe
equipment by 25 per cent, and its annual operating and
maintenance costs by 35 per cent. It cut, pollutant discharges by
40 per cent, increased annual output by 22 per cent, and reduced
off-site secondary pollution by using less sodium hydroxide and
energy. The company implemented 28 measures at a capital cost of
US$10X3,000 and an operating cost of US$40,000. Total savings
were US$400,000, gMng a return period1 of less than
four months.
In the Czech Republic, a carpet producer, with a yearly production
of 1.5 million square metres, disposed of, 660 tonnes of solid or
hazardous waste at a communal waste incinerator every year. It
Implemented 15 preventive measures and eliminated its
expenditure for solid waste disposal of US$1.3 million; reduced
the amount of solid waste by 100 per cent, water use by 30 per
cant and steam use by 10 per cent; improved the quality of the
output and made new by-products from recycled materials; and
reduced off-site air pollution from solid waste incineration. The
measures cost the company US$2.275 million to introduce.
The total annual savings were US$1.3 million, giving a return
period of about two years.
as well as having a disaggregated approach -
frequently only arresting a pollutant in one
medium for disposal in another. In other words,
end-of-pipe is usually less effective as well as
more costly than cleaner production.
ESTs for cleaner production
Pollution prevention is at the heart of the cleaner
production concept - moving away from end-of-
pipe pollution control technologies, beyond
even waste minimization, to adopting strategies
to prevent pollution occurring and using
technologies to achieve this. "The key difference
between pollution control and cleaner
production is one of tinning", UNEP explains.
"Pollution control was an after-the-event, "react
and treat' approach. Cleaner production is a
forward-looking, 'anticipate and prevent'
philosophy."
What are cleaner production technologies?
UNEP itself says they include:
•':.-' processes that use less toxic or non-toxic
materials;
I-.!' systems to increase process efficiencies, and
reduce raw materials use and losses;
::" systems to collect wastes and pollutants, and
recycle them back into the production
process.
"While some cleaner production approaches
involve modifications to existing systems and
processes, others involve entirely new and
innovative methods of producing products or
services that leap-frog over existing tech-
nologies in terms of their environmental
performance."
A UNEP study, conducted by the Toxic Use
Reduction Institute of Lowell, Massachusetts,
United States (and presented at UNEP's third
High-Level Seminar on Cleaner Production
in Warsaw, Poland, in October 1994) used
several criteria to classify cleaner production
approaches;
! ; reduction or elimination of hazardous waste
and other environmental pollutants;
'''•"• efficiency in the use of raw materials;
".'-,! efficiency in the use of energy;
t>! reduction or elimination of the use of toxic
chemicals;
'•"••- reduction of exposure to occupational
hazards;
3i products that are safe and compatible with
the environment.
The study then identified and evaluated four
types of cleaner production technologies, as
summarized below.
tut Business-driven technologies - fairly sophi-
sticated production technologies adopted
mainly to improve production quality
or efficiency, improve competitiveness or
124
image:
The Zero Emissions Research
Institute aims to redesign industrial
processes so that Industries use
• their wastes as raw materials.
image:
BOX 7.2
Tunisian initiative leads to
cleaner technologies
The two-year Environmental Pollution Prevention Project (EPS) in
Tunisia involved a number of initiatives earned at introducing pollution
prevention and clean technology into key industrial sectors - car
batteries, edible oils and soaps, tanneries, textile dyeing and electro-
plating. Providing technical assistance to industry to identify
and apply no-cost and low-cost pollution prevention techniques
and clean production technologies was a major feature of
the project.
Assessments were conducted in 12 facilities and identified 161
improvements ranging from materials substitution, process
modifications, and energy and water conservation to in-process
recycling. In total, the project recommended 27 energy conservation,
36 materials conservation and 50 waste minimization innovations.
Together, the various pollution prevention measures called for an Initial
investment of just over US$1 million with a total financial benefit of
over US$3.75 million.
The EPS project was helped by two factors. One was new legislation
requiring environmental impact assessments before starting new
projects. The second was the setting up of a special depoliutton fund
providing grants of up to 20 per cent of the investment cost for
depollution projects and the introduction of cleaner technologies.
The EPS project was supported initially by the United States aid
agency, USAID (October 1993 to March 1995). it is now supported by
UNEP and the United Nations industrial Development Organization
(UNIOO) as part of the network of national cleaner production centres,
with the new name of Centre de Production Plus Propre (CP3).
lower production costs. These technologies
improve environmental performance only as
a secondary or unintended benefit (for
example,'silver recovery systems in photo-
processing).
H Clean technologies - fairly sophisticated
production technologies used for the primary
purpose of improving environmental per-
formance (for example, waterless printing).
IS Appropriate technologies — fairly simple
technologies that improve environmental
performance, but are adopted mainly for
economic development, or other non-
environmental purposes.
S! 'Low-fruit* technologies — fairly simple
technologies that add to, or modify, existing
production technologies to improve environ-
mental performance, for example, drip tanks
for drag-out recovery in electro-plating
operations.
The study concluded that a large volume of
cleaner production technologies adopted by
industry will fall into the business-driven
category, while the small-scale, low-capital
requirements of the appropriate and 'low-fruit*
technologies — which "may be environmentally
superior to more advanced technologies" —
mean it is possible for developing countries to
build their own cleaner production technologies,
rather than import them.
Improving technologies
The UNEP study identifies four ways of
improving technology and these are given
below, with some examples.
?*: Change the process or manufacturing
technology:
••'-, for filtration and washing, use counter-
currcnt washing and recycle used solvent;
..: for parts cleaning, use mechanical clean-
ing devices, improve draining, use plastic-
bead blasting;
r. for surface coating, use electrostatic spray
• i", : ' • .... ...-. 1 . •.. (•-••
coating systems, powder coating systems,
airless air-assisted spray guns.
'.""; Change the input materials:
• in printing, substitute water-based ink for
chemical solvent-based ink;
"in textiles, reduce the use of phosphate-
containing chemicals, use ultraviolet lights
instead of biocides in the cooling tower;
. in electronic components, replace water-
based film-developing with dry systems.
W Change the final product:
ivc replace heavy metals in batteries with less
toxic materials;
replace volatile chemicals with water-
soluble formulations in spray cans;
126
image:
CLEANER PRODUCTION AND ECO-EFFICIENCY
S.S replace chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) with
ammonia or other environmentally safe
materials in refrigerators.
:.-.-: Re-use materials on site, preferably within
the process:
5 in printing, use a vapour-recovery system
to recover organic solvents;
s'. in textiles, use ultrafiltration systems to
recover dye-stuffs from waste water;
" in metal rules, recover nickel-plating
solution using an ion-exchange unit.
UNEP stresses the importance of "using the
cleaner production approach first, and making
decisions about technology later ... This is not
to claim that end-of-pipe technologies will never
be requked. The new approach is to tackle
problems using a cleaner production philosophy,
which will lead to a better selection and
planning on technology. This will lead to a
reduced need for end-of-pipe technologies, and
may in some cases, even eliminate the need for
them altogether."
UNEP also makes the point that cleaner
production is an extremely cost-effective
approach to environmental protection. Whereas
end-of-pipe ESTs usually produce no return on
investment nor add value to the products
produced, cleaner production leads to product
and process improvements, saves raw materials
and energy, and reduces waste and waste
disposal costs. "Cleaner production is a very
important approach to environmental protection
in developing countries that cannot afford end-
of-pipe waste treatment."
Barriers to cleaner production
The cleaner production concept is clearly
catching on. There are now hundreds of case
studies demonstrating the benefits to companies
of all sizes, in the form of fast returns as a result
of savings in the use of raw materials, and lower
waste treatment costs. Often these results can be
achieved with small investments of as little as
US$20,000-100,000. Yet there remain a number
BOX 7.3
Economic return in the Philippines
Some 110 companies participating In a USAID-funded industrial
environmental management project In the Philippines have invested
US$20 million and are reaping an annual benefit of US$30 million
as a result of the reduced cost of pollution abatement. In
addition, this investment has resulted in a 30 per cent reduction
in pollution.
The sectors covered by the project are: sugar mills and refining; pulp
and paper; vegetable and animal oils; tanneries; food and beverages;
fish canning; industrial chemicals; electro-plating; piggeries; meat
processing; cement; wood products; and metals and mining.
A key component of the programme is working with small and
medium-sized enterprises to conduct pollution management appraisals
- a tool which identifies financially sound opportunities for waste
reduction at the source of pollution, rather than end-of-pipe treatment.
BOX 7.4
Gas phase heat treatment of metals
Hardening, carburizing and nitrocarburizing of steel are heat treatment
processes usually carried out In baths of molten salts. The combination
of chemicals and high temperatures presents risks of explosion, burns
and poisoning, while environmental problems arise from the resulting
vapours and the removal, transport and disposal of the toxic salts.
A metal processing company in Singapore Introduced a new process
which avoided these problems by applying gas phase treatment using
a fiuidized bed of alumina particles. A mixture of air, ammonia,
nitrogen, natural gas, liquified petroleum gas and other gases is used
as the fluidizing gas to carry out the heat treatment. The bed is heated
by electricity or gas. Quenching is also carried out in a fiuidized bed.
The new process has reduced effluents, improved safety in the factory
and, in many cases, improved the quality of the final product. The
company invested about US$180,000 in replacing its existing salt bath
lines with four fluid beds. Savings on energy, salt and maintenance are
US$87,000 a year, allowing the investment to be paid back in
approximately two years.
of demand- and supply-side barriers to cleaner
production technologies and, as a result, despite
the benefits of those technologies, firms still opt
for end-of-pipe pollution control solutions.
image:
.tsisnara lextiie
Manufacturing Company (BTM)
BTM
Bishara Textile Manufacturing Company (BTM) was established in 1962 for textile hand printing. Today, it
is one of die leading companies in Egypt's textile and garment industry producing a full range of woven and
knitted fabrics and outerwear garments, using long-staple Egyptian cotton blended with other natural fibres,
Including linen, wool and silk, and synthetics. The company - situated in the 10th of Ramadan City, one of
the largest industrial zones in Egypt - employs some 1,300 people.
BTM's support of environmental issues is demonstrated within its own factory:
• Cotton fibres are collected automatically and reused in the spinning mills process through the A.C. and
Humidification unit.
* The processing mill (bleaching, de-sizing, dyeing, printing and finishing) uses energy conservation, effluent
water treatment and recycling technologies to reduce pollution and save resources. Within the next year, the
boiler's fuel will be changed from heavy oil to gas and effluent water from the dye house will be completely
recycled.
• The fabric intercuts from the cutting and sewing operations are sent to environmental charitable
organizations for use in hand-loom carpet manufacturing.
* Paper bags and boxes are recycled at a nearby paper recycling factory.
',<!" ,, \
The company is also playing a major role in the Environmental Pollution Prevention Project within the 10th
of Ramadan City — a project which aims to assist the 800 mills situated within the area to meet the
requirements of the new Environmental Law,
The project — under the Chairmanship of Mr. L. Bishara, founder of BTM — is strongly supported by Egypt's
largest banks and involves research centres and academic establishments evaluating the environmental effects
of industrial activities, non-governmental organizations spreading the concept of 'environmental awareness'
amongst individuals, and business leaders promoting the importance of environmentally responsible processes
for the future development of industry.
..;,;': "" ' •' ' - : "
Our commitment to encouraging environmental
excellence within our own organization is matched
by our intention to be amongst Egypt's industrial
leaders in the field of environmental issues.
Bishara Worsted Wool Manufacturing Co.
10th of Ramadan City, Egypt - PO Box 47
Tel. 20 15 362 750. Fax. 20 15 362 753
Industrial effluent (waste) wafer treatment from dye fiouse plant
image:
CLEANER PRODUCTION AND ECO-EFFICIENCY
On the demand side:
;i\ traditional pollution control approaches
remain dominant among many managers;
i supplies of pollution control ESTs are well
organized and widely dispersed;
f.3 government approaches favour pollution
control as the accepted standard for
regulatory compliance;
ES pollution control technologies are typically
easy to understand, and easy to install in
existing production processes, and do not
require rethinking processes.
On the supply side:
'£- the cleaner production industry is small and
operates on a limited scale;
'M the pollution control industry is dominant;
3 government does not focus on, nor support,
integrated pollution prevention approaches;
'">: some technologies have high initial costs;
^ there is a lack of adequate capital and
financing to stimulate the market;
Si there are limited research and development
initiatives for new technologies,
The UNEP study said: "Industry is clearly
making progress in implementing and pro-
moting cleaner production. Efforts are being
made, not only in leading large companies but
also in some small and medium-sized enter-
prises (SMEs). However, industry programmes
are often not fully implemented or integrated in
aD company activities and cannot be said to
represent industry as a whole. Industry needs to
take more responsibility in moving beyond
awareness-raising to actual behaviour modi-
fication, putting cleaner production tools (life
cycle assessment, environmental technology
audits, etc.) into real use and 'mass-spreading'
the cleaner production concept and tools,
particularly to SMEs."
According to the European Commission, the
spread of cleaner technologies to SMEs in the
member states is slow because:
S5 small companies have extremely limited
financial resources;
BOX 7.5
Saving costs and improving
product quality
A printed circuit board manufacturer in the United States introduced new
cleaner production technology into its process and made significant cost
savings as well as improving the quality of the final products.
In the manufacture of printed circuit boards, the unwanted copper is
etched away by acid solutions of cupric chloride. As the copper
dissolves, the effectiveness of the solution falls and it has to be
regenerated - traditionally by oxidizing the cuprous ion produced with
acidified hydrogen peroxide. Copper in the surplus liquid is eventually
precipitated as copper oxide, and usually landfilled.
Using an electrolytic technique Involving a divided cell, simultaneous
regeneration of the etching solution and recovery of the unwanted
copper is possible. A special membrane allows hydrogen and chloride
ions through, but not the copper. This is transferred via bleed valves
and recovered as pure flakes.
The company invested US$220,000 and was able to recover this
within 18 months thanks to cost savings on disposal, copper and
other materials. The coppsr is recovered in high-value form and there
are no hazardous chemicals to be handled.
ii environmental issues have a low priority;
S3 the concept of cleaner technology is
unfamiliar;
'& companies are waiting for compulsory
legislation, instead of anticipating future
requirements;
if« there is a lack of know-how on environmen-
tal policy and technological developments.
Funding constraints and needs
The Warsaw seminar also received a report on
the constraints on funding cleaner production in
developing countries - some of which apply
equally to accelerating the introduction and use
of ESTs generally. The main difficulties were
cited as:
K cleaner production is still unknown - or not
seen as a proven, viable approach;
e§ environmental legislation and enforcement
are weak;
image:
(JLtANkH PMUUUUI luiv MIVU D-AJ-CI i
BOX 7.6
Reducing heat loss in lead oxide
units
A lead oxide unit, using a pot-type electrical furnace, manufactures a
tonne of lead oxide a day. A waste minimization audit at a company In
India found that the radiation heat loss from the side walls in the
furnace was about 6.7 million joules per square metre every hour, and
from the top some 10 million joules. These losses meant the
temperature inside the furnace was not adequate for obtaining the
required yield and quality of lead oxide.
The cleaner production application centred mainly around process
changes. The furnace design was modified and better insulating
material was used to reduce heat loss. A ceramic fibre module was
added to the top of the furnace, and ceramic fibre blankets and
Insulating bricks were added to both side walls.
These modifications reduced fuel and power consumption, decreased
the cycle time, increased the furnace temperature, and increased the
percentage of lead oxide in the product. Capital investment was
US$10,000 and annual operating costs are US$5,000. Savings
amount to US$39,600 a year.
BOX 7.7
Conserving water, energy and
chemicals
A cleaner production assessment carried out at a textile dyeing plant in
Chile ted to changes that produced savings in water, energy and
ohemfca! use, and also reduced emissions of particulates and solids
In affluent.
Water efficiency was achieved by recycling water used in the cooling
process and from the air conditioning system, as well as improving
softener regeneration and service. A maintenance plan for steam traps
cut heat transfer losses through leakages, while installing a digital
monitoring system Improved the combustion efficiency of the oil-fired
boiler, saving on fuel use and reducing emissions of particulate matter.
Screens fitted to dye room drains reduced suspended solids in effluents.
H competing demands for scarce resources
make it difficult for developing countries to
consider long-term investments - even when
the benefits are known;
SB banks in developing countries find it difficult
to evaluate the economic soundness of
cleaner production projects so are reluctant
to fund them even when there are proven
financial benefits and sufficient collateral;
'-'•:': some macroeconomic and social policies
(natural resource pricing, state financing of
uneconomic production facilities) obscure
the benefits of, and act as a disincentive to,
cleaner production;
E financial institutions are frequently not
interested in funding projects requiring
smaller amounts of money;
?•* with smaller enterprises, banks usually pay
more attention to guarantees — which such
companies often cannot provide — than profits.
The 160 experts from governments, industry,
non-governmental organizations, academia and
international organizations from 45 countries
attending the Warsaw seminar concluded that
the specific funding and financing needs of
cleaner production include:
'fK awareness campaigns for industry, govern-
ment, funding agencies and banks, and the
public;
8? up-to-date, easily accessible and locally
relevant information on cleaner production
practices and technologies;
is? training for industry managers, plant
engineers, technicians, consultants, policy
makers, regulators and other target groups;
X demonstration projects in different industry
sectors and locations in each country.
Cleaner Production Programme
UNEP is leading the initiative on cleaner
production through its Cleaner Production Pro-
gramme, which was launched in 1990 when
there was a shift from end-of-pipe treatment to
pollution prevention. The programme — which
has achieved some striking results in a short time
— has four main objectives:
H to increase worldwide awareness of the
cleaner production concept;
130
image:
The costs of cleaner production
are lower than the costs of
remediation or dealing with
environmental disasters.
image:
rnuuuwi IUIM MIIU ci_/vj-i-i i i
BOX 7.8
The price can be acceptable
Cleaner production techniques aid technologies can be implemented
at an acceptable price, according to the results of demonstration
projects in Egypt, Senegal and Zimbabwe.
Experts visited pulp and paper, and cement facilities in the three
countries. They found many opportunities to reduce wastes, air
emissions and water discharges, and to conserve energy, water and
materials by installing and/or upgrading environmentally sound
technologies (ESTs) to control pollution,
In Egypt, the country's biggest pulp and paper mill was discharging
huge volumes of untreated effluent into the Mediterranean - the
equivalent of untreated sewage from a city with 1.6 million people. The
mill uses rice straw as a raw material. This has an extremely high silica
content and produces black liquor emissions. There are no current
ESTs able to handle this problem. However, the experts recommended
that Installing a desilicificalion system, followed by chemical and energy
recovery, couid provide an affordable solution. Recycling recovered
chemicals would significantly reduce raw material costs and Investment
in the necessary equipment would have a favourable return period.
In Senegal's only cement plant, the main problem was dust emissions
from the kiln stack and other areas. The experts proposed a full-scale
cleaner production audit to identity opportunities for waste reduction,
and materials, water and energy savings. They said some
improvements could be implemented and paid for immediately. Others,
like new gas conditioning and upgraded electrostatic filters, would
need new investment.
In Zimbabwe, three cement plants had programmes in place to reduce
dust emissions from kilns but the experts identified many opportunities
to reduce fugitive dust pollutants by installing filters and cleaning
existing ones. At four paper mis, they found opportunities for water
and energy conservation, and fibre recovery through fitting ESTs.
88 to help governments and industry develop
cleaner production programmes;
8? to foster the adoption of cleaner production;
3f to facilitate the transfer of cleaner production
technologies,
The programme is implementing a number of
activities to help meet these objectives.
V UNEP has established nine working groups
to build a network of cleaner production
policy and technology experts around the
world. The groups cover education and
training; policies, strategies and instruments;
metal finishing; textiles; pulp and paper;
leather tanning; biotechnology for cleaner
production; the food industry; and sustain-
able product development.
The International Cleaner Production
Information Clearinghouse produces publi-
cations, including a newsletter, and has a
computerized database with examples of
successful policies and strategies, listings of
contacts and institutions, 350 technical case
studies and 650 publications abstracts. An e--
mail connection provides users with
immediate access to the programme, and
cleaner production information is available
on the UNEP Industry and Environment
Centre's server on the World Wide Web.
A joint UNEP-UNIDO (United Nations
Industrial Development Organization) pro-
ject has set up national cleaner production
centres in 20 developing countries and
countries in transition. The first eight centres
are in Brazil, China, the Czech Republic,
India, Mexico, the Slovak Republic, Tan-
zania and Zimbabwe. Their role includes:
: initiating demonstration projects in local
industries;
«: raising awareness within industry, gov-
ernment, and research and development
institutions;
t. creating local cleaner production networks;
i collecting and disseminating information;
, -r r, running short- and long-term training
•'• • •• • L • , M- .„„» •; ., ^ 4*
activities for industry, government and other
institutions,
'•''-' Demonstration projects are operated in the
cement and pulp and paper industries
in Egypt, Senegal and Zimbabwe to
determine both the opportunities for, and
barriers to, cleaner production (see Box 7.8).
Other United Nations activities
Other United Nations and intergovernmental
agencies are also promoting cleaner production.
UNTDO, in addition to collaborating with UNEP
132
image:
CLEANER PRODUCTION AND ECO-EFRCIENCY
on setting up national cleaner production
centres, is also working directly with a number
of countries to get their governments to assign
high priority to the concept. Additionally, it
provides technical and financial support to
companies interested in introducing cleaner
production into their operations. Specific
UNDDO projects include:
55 demonstration of cleaner production
techniques, for example in the cement and
sugar cane industries in Egypt and Mexico
respectively;
'$?, a programme for pollution control in the
tanning industry, involving the introduction
of low-waste cleaner technologies in all
phases of leather processing, and low-cost
end-of-pipe wastewater treatment;
S; direct support for selected factories in Sri
Lanka to introduce techniques and
technologies to reduce pollutants at source;
31 assisting companies in Brazil to reduce
dyestuff and chemical usage, energy inputs
and processing times;
ail helping with a pilot-scale operation for
cleaner production of cereal pesticides in.
Poland.
The United Nations Development Pro-
gramme (UNDP) is working with UNEP in
Central and Eastern Europe to incorporate the
cleaner production approach into the region's
economic and environmental reconstruction
activities in coal mining and energy efficiency.
Progress and problems
It is clear from reports given at UNEP's fourth
High-Level Seminar on Cleaner Production, in
Oxford, United Kingdom (1996), that clean
production has now moved beyond the
conceptual to the implementation stage and that
there is a definite move towards it in all regions.
Encouragingly, an increasing number of
strategic alliances are taking shape. Industry is
participating actively in cleaner production
centres and workshops, and new groups — such
BOX 7.9
Saving water and waste in food
processing
A major food processing company in the United States developed a
cleaner production programme emphasizing water conservation, waste
minimization and solid waste recycling and has achieved major
environmental and economic benefits. A feature of the programme
was that It involved little technology.
"" One project recycled solid waste and scrap material from canned
food and the container manufacturing operation. Vegetable waste
was recycled as pig feed; recyclable cardboard was taken to a
recycling facility; woodan pallets and ingredient drums were
relumed to suppliers; 200-litre scrap stainless steel drums and
other scrap metals were sold to a salvage company.
SK A second project reduced the amount of enamel and thinner
wastes in the can manufacturing process fay detecting leaks and
spills, installing scrapers to dry clean enamelling equipment, and
filtering enamel for re-use.
S2 A third project, aimed at reducing water use, focused on dry
cleaning of floors and equipment, and led to process modifications
and policy changes, including turning water off when it was not
needed, as well as maintenance and housekeeping on a
continuous rather than once-a-day basis.
The recycling programme resulted in 70 per cent of the solid waste
and scrap material produced being recycled. The can enamel waste
reduction programme reduced the amount of solvents burned in the
boiler by 80 per cent, while the water conservation programme
cut water usage by half. Total annual savings are more than
US$1.1 million.
as trade unions and consumers - have become
involved as well.
However, as the reports from the different
regions made clear, a number of steps need to be
taken to accelerate cleaner production.
Legislation and its enforcement have to be
strengthened, and so does the training of people
in cleaner production technologies. More
information is another requirement. Latin
America reported the problem of 'inappropriate*
technologies being imported into the region. In
addition, there is a lack of environmental
management knowledge within companies,
image:
AMERICAN TEXTILE
MANUFACTURERS INSTITUTE
ATMl is the national trade association for the US textile industry. Member companies operate in more than 30
states and process nearly 80 per cent of all textile fibres used by plants in the United States. The industry
employs more than 600,000 people.
US textile manufacturers share a strong commitment to the environment and workplace safety and health.
ATMI's Code of Conduct, adopted in 1996, commits the industry to comply with laws guaranteeing fair and
equal treatment of employees, and to preserve the environment in local communities and facilities worldwide.
ATMl has established two programmes. Encouraging Environmental Excellence (E3) and Quest for the Best in
Safety and Health (Quest), to encourage US textile companies to exceed government regulations and set
standards for other industries to meet. The internationally registered E3 and Quest logos allow companies to
communicate their commitment to customers and consumers.
To qualify for E3 and Quest membership, a company must be an ATMl member, comply with all national and
local environmental and safety and health laws, and implement the programme guidelines. Each company is
recertified annually by submitting reports describing its progress in achieving environmental and safety and
health goals, and submitting new goals for the next year. If an E3 or Quest member violates environmental or
safety and health regulations, it must explain to ATMl why the violation occurred and what corrective
measures were taken.
AMERICA'S TEXTILES
E3 SUCCESS STORIES
ENCOURAGING
ENVIRONMENTAL
EXCELLENCE
e MANUFACTURERS iwsrmm:
US textile companies invest
millions of dollars every year
to ensure their manufacturing
processes are
environmentally friendly.
E3 companies work with
government regulators, community groups and
employees to address environmental issues quickly and
responsibly, concentrating on:
Recycling and waste minimization: E3 members recycle
both everyday items like office paper and aluminium
cans, and waste generated by their manufacturing
operations - and use recycled fibres in their
manufacturing processes.
Pollution prevention/water and energy conservation:
Pollution prevention efforts go beyond reducing the
amount of dyes and toxic chemicals used in processes.
E3 companies are using less water, and switching to
cleaner burning fuels and energy-efficient lighting.
Community involvement: E3 companies share
experiences in many ways, including producing
educational materials for schools, forming partnerships
with universities to conduct textile research and working
with environmental groups on preservation and
restoration projects.
Internationa! Standards: E3 was active in the European
Commission's development of an eco-Iabel for T-shirts
and bed linens, and is participating in the proposed
expansion of the eco-labei to all textiles.
QUEST SUCCESS STORIES
Quest members have made
many changes and
improvements to their safety
and health processes,
including:
Reducing injury and accident rates, as well as associated
workers' compensation costs and days away from work.
Introducing management tools to foster more upper
management involvement in safety and health issues,
incorporate safety into TQM (total quality management)
programmes and develop interactive safety and
environmental software programmes.
Programme improvements such as modernizing
facilities, improving indoor air quality artd enhancing
employee personal protection policies.
Demonstrating commitment to individuals through a
variety of non-work related programmes to benefit their
employees, e.g. on-site doctors to help employees with
personal health issues, and wellness and nutrition
awareness programmes.
More information about ATMl, the Code of Conduct, E3
and Quest can be found at www.atmi.org
Note: Environmental preservation and worker safety and health are
priorities of ATMl. We believe that this publication provides useful
and meaningful solutions for industries and companies to adopt to
protect the environment and employees. Support of this publication
does not imply endorsement of all UNEP's policies.
image:
CLEANER PRODUCTION AND ECO-EFFICIENCY
coupled with a lack of confidence in cleaner
production relative to end-of-pipe technologies,
and difficulty in raising the finance for cleaner
production investments.
Eco-efficiency
In 1996, the World Business Council for
Sustainable Development (WBCSD) - a coalition
of 120 leading international companies — joined
forces with UNEP to promote cleaner production
and its 'cousin*, eco-efficiency. The WBCSD's
predecessor organization, the Business Council
for Sustainable Development (BCSD), first
coined eco-efficiency in its report, Changing
Course, to the United Nations Conference on
Environment and Development in Rio hi 1992.
BCSD defined eco-efficiency as "the delivery of
competitively priced goods and services that
satisfy human needs and bring quality of life,
while progressively reducing ecological impacts
and resource intensity throughout the life cycle,
to a level at least in line with the earth's estimated
carrying capacity". Put in simple terms, the vision
of eco-efficiency is to 'produce more from less'
by cutting waste and pollution, and using less
energy and fewer raw materials.
Cleaner production and eco-efficiency are
clearly similar, interlinking and overlapping
concepts. According to UNEP and the WBCSD,
cleaner production starts from issues of
environmental efficiency which have positive
economic benefits, whereas eco-efficiency starts
from issues of economic efficiency which have
positive environmental benefits. They share the
objective of preventing pollution, and certainly
environmentally sound technologies are as
important to implementing eco-efficiency as
they are to achieving cleaner production.
Towards zero emissions
The ultimate goal for industry must be zero
emissions. Not all business leaders regard this as
a pipedream, as demonstrated by their backing
for the Zero Emissions Research Initiative
BOX 7.10
Cleaner production initiatives in
Thailand
Cleaner production initiatives in Thailand have included several projects
under the Federation of Thai Industries' Industrial Environmental
Management Programme. One of the key aims of the programme is to
promote environmental awareness and the use of clean technology in
Thai industry. It incorporates: waste reduction methods and
technology; technology transfer; and demonstration projects for clean
technologies. A feature of this programme is the involvement of private
organizations and industries in the United States, as well as United
Nations agencies such as UNEP and the United Nations Industrial •
Development Organization (UNIDO).
The textile, pulp and paper, chemicals and food processing industries
have been the main focus for the programme. Some developments
within the textile industry are highlighted below.
K UN1DO and United States experts carried out an in-plant
assessment, which led to recommendations on training textile
professionals in cleaner production techniques and to a direct
technical assistance programme on specie pollution reduction
technologies at individual plants.
85 A study tour was orgaiized to view the waste minimization activities
of industries in other countries.
i8 Industry leaders and government officials were also taken to Brazil,
the United States and Switzerland. This led them to identify
appropriate cleaner production techniques for the industry and
to formulate control strategies for dyes and the toxic constituents
in colours.
8? One of several demonstration projects focused on the
environmental and cost-saving benefits of vacuum technology
through reducing chemicals and saving energy, while improving
. product quality. The demonstration factory claimed a 26-40 per
cent reduction in chemicals and energy use in the finishing stage,
and 17 per cent savings in chemicals, with 43 per cent savings in
the mercerizing range. Several textile mills subsequently adopted
the system.
One major result of the programme was a new government
environmental standard for the textile dyeing and finishing industry,
which included a mix of regulation and voluntary measures, and
a balance between pollution prevention, waste minimization
and pollution control.
A similar approach featuring visits to mills in the United States has
been adopted in the pulp and paper industry. Demonstration schemes
have included a pilot-seals project to allow mills to assess the
economic and environmental gains from dissolved air flotation which
claims to recycle 7-10 tonnes of pulp a day in full-scale operation.
image:
CLEANER PRODUCTION AND ECO-EFFICIENCY
BOX7.11
Cleaner production at the
grassroots
In some countries, cleaner production activities are run at the grassroots
level. The Netherlands and the United States are two examptes.
In the Netherlands, provincial governments are taking a leading role
HI Implementing programmes. One of these is in the North Holland
province, which has about 7,000 enterprises - 10 per cent of them
discharging pollutants directly into water bodies, the other 90 per
cent discharging their pollutants Into municipal sewers. The North
Holland pollution team works directly with industry .to advfse
companies on pollution prevention potential, and also provides on-
site technical assistance in carrying out waste minimization audits
and implementing source reduction measures. The team also trains
municipal government staff and encourages them to integrate
pollution prevention factors Into their local regulatory activities.
The pollution prevention team targets its direct assistance to
industry to companies with 20 or fewer employees and has helped
firms in a diverse array of sectors, including chemicals, printing,
bakeries, automotive garages, electrical Installers, metal working
and metal finishing.
In the United States, there are more than 50 state and locally
sponsored pollution prevention programmes, run by regulatory state
agencies, universities, mixed agencies, etc. Their programmes
provide various combinations of services but fall into three main
categories: information; on-site technical assistance (including
conducting waste minimization audits and advice on specific
measures and technologies); and research and financial support.
The targets vary. Some programmes are focused on specific
industrial sectors in a limited geographical area. Others concentrate
on specific sub-sectors, while some are targeted at larger
generators of waste, or at smaller enterprises.
(ZERI), run out of the United Nations
University in Tokyo, Japan. Indeed, ZERI has
picked up an impressive degree of support from
senior management of major United States,
European and Japanese companies, as well as
leading politicians and scientists, since it was
launched in 1994. Perhaps more importantly, it
has begun to achieve some measurable results
from its pilot projects.
ZERI's premise is that "while immediate
pollution reduction is important" in industry, "it
remains insufficient", and overcoming this
demands "achieving technological breakthroughs
which will facilitate manufacturing without any
form of waste, i.e. no waste in the water, no waste
in the air, no solid waste".
The aim is a complete redesign of the
industrial process, so that an industry can use its
own wastes as a raw material or, failing that, so
that the wastes can be utilized by another
industry. Environmentally sound technologies
have a central role to play in ZERI's approach,
which embraces a five-step methodology, as
detailed below,
'*•': Total throughput models — examine indus-
tries to see how production could use all
input factors.
••( Output-input models - take an inventory of
all types of output not used in the final
product or manufacturing process. Often,
this output is considered waste and not only
has no economic value, but actually costs
money to dispose of. Once the types of
output have been established, industries are
identified which could use them as inputs.
;s? Indusaial clusters modelling - the output-
input models offer a basis for clustering
industries. Some could use the part output of
two or three manufacturing processes, while
some offer raw materials to four or five
industries.
: •'; Breakthrough technologies - present engi-
neering know-how, product and process
technologies will not lead to industrial
clustering, so new, breakthrough techno-
logies need to be found.
a; Industrial policy design - policy makers need
to rethink their approach to helping industrial
sectors work together.
Worh in progress
ZERI has looked at eight areas: six involving
industrial clustering (fish fanning, beer
breweries, sugar, forestry, paper and pulp, and
plastics, cement and construction materials), and
two focused on 'technologies from nature*
(colour pigments and waxes).
136
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CLEANER PRODUCTION AND EGO-EFFICIENCY
BOX 7.12
A fast response in Africa
It is no coincidence that several of the
Zero Emissions Research Initiative (ZERI)
pilot projects are in Africa, ZERI founder
Gunter Pauli says he is looking specifically
at projects "which offer fast responses to
the pressing problems" and insists that
the continent has "many ingredients
readily available for rapid solutions".
Making the desert flower
Originating in Antarctica, the cold
Benguela current - a flow of ice cold
water - offers the potential to convert the
Namib Desert into fertile land. In Hawaii,
it has;been proven to be technically
possible, and economically feasible, to
pump cold water from the ocean through
pipes in the sand on the dry side of the
islands. The effect is fast and simple:
condensation. This system has made it
possible to farm strawberries - a fruit
considered unsuitable for a tropical
climate. The Benguela current could be
pumped by wind power. The Namib
Desert is extremely rich in minerals and
has all the necessary nutrients - all it
lacks is water. A pilot programme is
under way on a 10-hectare plot of land
in Henties Bay.
Food from seaweed
The Antarctic sea water Is full of
nutrients, an abundance of plankton and
macrophytes, making it ideal for fish
culture, algae and seaweed farming.
Seaweed is widely used as food and
medicine in Japan, China, Korea
and the Philippines. The ocean water
off Namibia is pumped to capture
the moisture in the air and relayed
to the soil as condensation. It can
then be channelled to ponds to
cultivate seaweed on land. In 1994,
Namibia exported 400 tonnes of
dried seaweed.
All along the African coast - from South
Africa to Mozambique, Angola and
Tanzania - there are similar pockets of
opportunity. Tanzania already has a
flourishing seaweed farming industry,
producing 10,000 tonnes of dried
seaweed, and exporting US$3 million
worth of crop a year. A seaweed farmer
can earn up to US$1,000 a month, a
fortune by the standards of any African
farmer or labourer, and higher even than
the incomes of many middle ranking civil
servants.
Currently, American and Japanese
buyers extract only half the seaweed —
the rest is considered waste biomass
and discarded. In fact, the remaining
seaweed consists of highly nutritional
and value-added components. Cooking
technologies developed by the Las
Gaviotas environmental research centre
in Colombia will make it possible to use
solar energy to boil the dried seaweeds
and extract the valuable catrageenan -
increasing the commercial value of the
seaweed products fivefold.
Making full use of sisal
Sisal is a major crop in Tanzania and
produces an extremely strong fibre used
in twines, ropes, carpets and bags. The
production process, however, is
polluting, and only 2 per cent of the plant
is used. The sisal plant can also be used
for products such as citric acid, lactic
acid and alcohols. Citric acid is in rising
demand for soft drinks and food
products. On the basis of the sisal waste
stream, Tanzania could ferment about
half a million tonnes of citric acid a year.
Because of the country's climate, the
acid could even be obtained through
solid state fermentation, instead
of liquid fermentation which requires
hydrolysis and huge amounts of energy
for boiling. Solid state fermentation
would cut costs and would probably
eliminate synthetic chemicals. Moreover,
sisal's residue fibres are excellent raw
materials for pulp and paper. Tests have
also shown that sisal is an excellent base
material for the production of bioplastics.
With colour pigments, for example, ZERI
points out that industry has developed some
4,500 colours, most based on petrochemicals,
and used from textiles to cars, and cosmetics to
food. Yet the use of colour pigments in textiles is
polluting, requires heavy water usage, and most
of the pigments are wasted in the water. Metallic
paints used in the car industry cause health
hazards, both in production and disposal. ZERI
believes that research into the refraction of light
in the fibres of bird feathers could lead to a
breakthrough and build on the optical fibre
production technologies developed in tele-
communications for application in the textile
and car industries.
Synthetic waxes are polluting, both in
production and disposal. ZERI says that
studying the molecular structure of birds' wax -
which is fully biodegradable - could lead to
possible applications in industry, providing
ways can be found to maintain the wax in liquid
form at extremely low temperatures and solidify
it at high temperatures.
ZERI's work on paper has focused on finding
image:
A Bristol-Myers Squibb
Company
COMMITTED TO OUR CHILDREN'S FUTURE
An Amerindian prophecy says, "we will first notice we
cannot eat money after the last fish has been caught, and
the last tree has vanished from the Earth".
I hope this prophecy will never come true. In fact, from
the statements made at the climate change conference
in Kyoto, we seem to have more grounds for optimism
than ten years ago. But does that mean that we in
industry can lie back and be satisfied? Not at all.
It is obvious that we are responsible not just for our
immediate environment. Economic development in
each part of the world is tightly linked to the global
environmental situation. Increasing use of resources
and fossil fuels is the main problem. But also, in the
emerging markets, there is the issue that to improve
living standards for everyone, we must achieve higher
economic productivity - which means a bigger impact
on the environment.
As a relatively young company, Pharmavit has, from the
beginning, looked for solutions which do not cause
negative changes to our environment.
* We implemented a biological wastewater treatment
system to ensure that no contaminated water will
flow back into the ground.
»In 1997, we started a programme to reduce hazardous
waste emissions.
• Since obtaining ISO 9001 in 1996, we have been
striving for ISO 14001 - and hope to achieve this in
1999, making us one of the first pharmaceutical and
food supplement companies to reach this standard.
• Through our 'Fit for life' programme for Hungarian
schoolchildren aged 10-12, we are teaching thousands of
tomorrow's citizens how to protect their own
environment, so that one day they will be model citizens.
We plan to introduce the programme in Viet Nam.
Our acquisition by Bristol-Myers Squibb in 1996 was a
big step towards sustainable development. A good
example is Taxol, an anti-cancer drug. Its initial source
was the bark of a rare species of yew tree — but
removing the bark killed the tree. After a massive
research and development effort, Bristol-Myers Squibb
won approval for a semi-synthetic form of Taxol made
from yew tree twigs and needles. Eventually, we expect'
to produce Taxol's active ingredient from cell cultures in
fermentation tanks, in much the same way that penicillin
is produced.
Our goal is to double sales and earnings by 2000. A
major challenge during this period of accelerated
growth will be to reduce the size of our environment
'footprint'. In May 1997, Bristol-Myers Squibb
became the first major multinational corporation to
declare that its entire environmental, health and safety
management system conforms to ISO 14001.
We strive to conduct our business in a way that
supports .the goal of sustainable development -
economic activity that meets the needs of the present
generation without compromising the ability of future
generations to meet their needs. In short, we are
committed to our children's future.
Dr. fare Somody
General Manager
H-2112 Veresegyhaz, Lfrvai u. 5, Hungary
Tel. (36-28) 385-960 / 386-890 Fax. (36-28) 385-980
image:
CLEANER PRODUCTION AND ECO-EFF1CIENCY
We are firmly convinced that developed countries should
tabe the lead in developing environmentally sound
technologies and environmental policies,
implementing the necessary changes in their own countries'
Romano Prodi, Prime Minister of Italy
The global
environment
remains gripped by
many problems. If the
situation remains as it
is, it may be difficult
to pass on this
irreplaceable Earth
to the 21st century
Ryutaro Hashimoto,
Prime Minister of Japan
Many states with economies in
transition might turn into main
polluters of the environment. That is
why the United Nations should play a
more active role in an intensive
exchange of clean technologies
and their transfer to the
economies in transition
N. A. Nazarbaev, President of Kazakhstan
a new technology to separate ink from fibre.
Paper recycling has the drawback that only 65
per cent of the ink is removed effectively.
According to ZERI, there are several technology
options:
H magnetic resonance for heavy-metal-based
inks - unlike fibres, heavy metals conduct
electricity and can be magnetically
recharged;
SB) using an enzymatic or microbiological
approach for noD-heavy-metal-based ink —
since enzymes and bacteria can be made to
react to specific types of products, it may be
possible to manipulate them to devour a
certain type of ink and leave the fibres intact;
15 creating a new ink based on metalo-caloric
substances.
Technology also has a ikey potential role in
the search for a new way of distilling essential
oils, preservatives and colour pigments from the
leaves of felled trees. Existing distillation
processes are often highly energy intensive.
Designing a mobile distillation unit would open
up new opportunities. The unit could also
convert the second form of waste, small wood
debris, for energy generation.
ZERI says the sugar industry offers an
opportunity for industrial clustering. The need is
to find new uses for sugar (in massive over-
supply on the world's markets) and deteigents,
image:
CLEANER PRODUOI ION AND tUU-hl-HUItNUY
plastics, paper and water softeners are all
possible alternative uses for sugar as a
sustainable raw material for products currently
based on non-renewable resources. The missing
link is sugar application technologies.
Off the drawing board
Three pilot plants have been built in Fiji,
Namibia and Tanzania, to focus on recovering
all the biomass from industrial fermentation
processes, in particular brewery waste, and they
have shown that it is possible to generate seven
times more food, fuel and fertilizers with the
same amount of input.
A five-year research programme is under way
into materials separation technologies. It
includes steam explosion, vacuum evaporation
and membrane filtration. Brazil, Indonesia,
India and Malaysia are among countries actively
supporting this programme, while China, Costa
Rica, Fiji, Mauritius and Turkey are involved in
other ZERI activities. Gunter Pauli, who
founded ZERI, says the results to date confirm
that it has a tested methodology to apply the
zero emissions concept to any industry. In
January 1997, a new brewery which simul-
taneously produces beer without generating any
waste, acts as a protein and fish factory, and
produces local energy, was inaugurated in
Namibia, marking the first commercialization
worldwide of the zero emissions concept.
ZERI is attracting growing support. A
number of top industrialists have committed
their companies to the goal of zero emissions. It
also has the backing of several government
ministries in Japan, the European Commission,
the United States Department of Energy, and
other governments - as well as the Swedish
Royal Academy of Sciences and Oak Ridge
National Laboratory in the United States. ZERI
research institutes are now being set up in Japan,
North America, Europe, Latin America and the
Baltic region.
One United States floor covering company,
which supports ZERI, is investing in the de-
velopment of new technology to convert post-
consumer and post-industrial waste into usable,
value-added products. For example, old carpet
from offices is not landfilled, but taken to the
factory as a raw material for producing industrial
block for use on factory floors. The company is
also making a recycled-content floor product made
from post-consumer and post-industrial waste.
The eco-factory
The eco-factory concept — promoted in Japan
and described by the Japanese External Trade
Organization as the "ultimate 21st century
technology" - is in line with the ZERI approach.
It calls for technologies:
'".'. "designed to lessen, beyond existing levels,
the adverse influences aggravating the
ecological system;
• " which do not impair the productivity and
economy of production processes;
31 for the realization of production processes
for high value-added products".
The eco-factory essentially consists of
production-system and restoration-system
technologies. Products shipped out of the
factory are used by consumers, then discarded as
wastes which are collected and fed to the
restoration system for recycling as material
resources for the production process. On the
production side, the aim is first to design
products that have a minimum impact on the
environment, both during the production phase
in terms of raw materials and energy use as well
as pollution, and at the post-consumer disposal
stage of their lives. But the concept recognizes
that there will still be some waste which can be
re-used via the restoration process. The eco-
factory approach calls for five basic tech-
nologies: product design; production; dis-
assembly; materials recycling; and control and
assessment. Its promoters acknowledge that
breakthroughs are needed in most of these areas
before it can become a reality.
140
image:
CUEANER PRODUCTION AND EGO-EFFICIENCY
Industrial ecology
Both the Zero Emissions Research Initiative and
the eco-factory fit firmly into the concept of
industrial ecology which is attracting growing
interest from business, A no- or low-waste
approach is central to this concept. In-stream
recovery and the re-use of materials are crucial
tenets. Here, environmental considerations are
incorporated into all aspects of product and
process design, and technology plays a more
active and positive role in achieving sustainable
development.
An experiment in industrial ecology has been
going on in the Danish city of Kalundborg for
over 30 years. It involves the re-use of energy and
materials by a number of partners in a carefully
planned chain. A refinery provides gas to a power
plant and plasterboard company for their energy
needs, and the steam from the power plant is
passed to a biotechnology company and into a
district heating system. Lower temperature energy
goes into an experimental fish farm. This
industrial 'ecosystem' is saving 19,000 tonnes of
oil, 30,000 tonnes of coal and 600,000 cubic
metres of water a year. Financial savings are
estimated at US$12-15 million every year.
Valid and viable
Zero emissions and the eco-factory are still
emerging concepts, and therefore will only be
applicable on a larger scale in the longer term.
On the other hand, cleaner production and eco-
efficiency are valid and viable approaches and
are being implemented now at a growing pace.
Much more remains to be done to accelerate and
expand their acceptance and adoption: enlarging
the frontiers of cleaner production; identifying
innovative approaches in new and untried sectors;
and exploring new ways of financing and building
capacity. UNEP itself sees the main challenge for
the next two years as being on the demand side -
permits, procurement, supply chain management,
environmental management and the involvement of
multilateral as weE as private banks.
However, thanks largely to UNEP Industry and
Environment Centre's Cleaner Production Pro-
gramme (which has played a lead role in
demonstrating that pollution and waste do not have
to be generated because they can be eliminated at
source), there is now enough experience of both
cleaner production and eco-efficiency available to
prove that they work, and produce significant
benefits to business and to the environment.
Sources
Business and the Environment, various issues,
Cutter Information Corporation.
Changing Course: A Global Business
Perspective on Development and the
Environment, 1992, Business Council
for Sustainable Development, The MIT
Press Ltd.
Cleaner Production in the Asia Pacific Economic
Cooperation Region, 1994, UNEP E.
Cleaner Production Newsletter, various issues,
UNEP IE.
Cleaner Production Programme brochure,
UNEP IE.
Cleaner Production Programmes: What is the
Ultimate Goal?, report to Roundtable on
Technology Transfer, Cooperation and Capacity
Building for Sustainable Development, Vienna,
1995, UNEP IE and UNIDO.
Cleaner Production Worldwide, 1993, UNEP IE.
Cleaner Production Worldwide, Vol. II, 1995,
UNEP IE.
Eco-efficiency and Cleaner Production: Charting the
Course to Sustainability, 1995, World Business
Council for Sustainable Development and UNEP.
Eco-efficient Leadership, 1996, World Business
Council for Sustainable Development.
Ecofactory: Concept and R&D Themes, 1992, New
Technology Japan.
Government Strategies and Policies for Cleaner
Production, 1994, UNEP IE.
Industry and Environment, various issues, UNEP IE.
Our Planet, Volume 7 Number 6,1996, UNEP.
Ptromoting Cleaner Production, Fact Sheet, 1993,
UNIDO.
Report of the High-Level Seminar on Cleaner
Production, Warsaw, 1994, UNEP IE.
Report of the High-Level Seminar on Cleaner
Production, Oxford, 1996, UNEP IE.
Reports of the Zero Emissions Research Initiative,
United Nations University, Tokyo.
UNEP and UNIDO National Cleaner Production
Centre Programme, 1993, UNEP and UNIDO.
UNIDO information materials, various.
image:
The demand for energy Is
expected to double as living
standards rise throughout
the developing world.
image:
ESTs for energy
People need energy for most of their everyday tasks: heating, lighting, cooking and
transport and, of course, it is also essential for industry. But producing* and using energy
causes serious, and in some areas worsening, environmental damage* Current patterns
of production and use "are unsustainable., and have become more so since Bio", according
to the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP). There is a. pressing need to
implement available environmentally sound technologies (ESTs) more widely in the energy
sector, and to develop new technologies. One priority is to use ESTs to adiieve major energy
efficiency improvements.
energy demand has doubled
since 1973 and is predicted to
double again by the year 2020.
UNEP predicts a 100 per cent increase in energy
use in Asia and the Pacific, and growth of 50-77
per cent in Latin America for the period 1990-
2010. UNDP projects that the present annual
level of worldwide investment in the energy
supply sector, US$450 billion, will increase to
perhaps US$750 billion by the year 2020. The
World Energy Council forecasts that demand for
oil, coal and gas will soar to unprecedented
levels. As industrialization speeds ahead in the
developing countries their energy use will
continue to climb rapidly. Electricity use is
expected to grow especially fast: developing
countries are undertaking a massive number of
large-scale electrification projects. The World
Energy Council predicts that more electrical
generating capacity will be built worldwide in
the next 20-25 years than was built in the
previous century.
This enormous surge in demand for energy
brings with it the risk of adding greatly to
pollution locally (air pollution); regionally (the
long-range transport of acid precipitation, or
'acid rain*); and globally (greenhouse gas
emissions). It reinforces the importance of
introducing more pollution control and
prevention measures, applying more rigorous
demand-side management, and achieving
energy and energy-intensive materials efficiency
improvements.
However, the picture is not all black on the
pollution side. Industrialized countries have
made considerable progress in the past 20 years
in curbing a range of pollutants from power
plants and refineries, using well-established
technologies (see Chapter 6). For example, flue
gas desulphurization technology, or 'scrubbers',
can remove up to 95 per cent of sulphur dioxide
emissions from coal-burning power plants,
while various modifications can reduce nitrogen
dioxide releases by at least 50 per cent. Even so,
much more needs to be done, particularly with
retrofitting existing power plants. This is
especially the case in Central and Eastern
Europe, and the former USSR, where not only is
the combustion efficiency of old plants poor, but
modem, emissions control technologies are still
not widely used, and air pollution and acid rain
problems are acute.
A major concern in both industrialized and
developing countries is the world's current
reliance on fossil fuels, which is causing
continuing problems with greenhouse gas
emissions in particular. Transport is one energy
area requiring urgent action (see Chapter 11).
image:
ci Ltsunnuiuyy
meeting the needs of the environment
RENFE - the Spanish national rail network"- is" makfrig a significant contribution to the
environment by providing a'proven environmentally sound technology solution to the
transportation problems pf.pollution,/noise, congestion and accidents. ..•;••'••'..'.••'~"v\
.-"'.-•-"" ••-. • "•• • ''"":-:. x't '"••••; ' 'l-v -•'" • •/ i • -C"'
With its national network of: 12,280 kms of tracks, the company is serving an increasing
number of communities spread over a wide area, through its local, regional and" long
distance high-speed, ihterrrjodal and[freightservices.•---"" . " ,. r--
\ ;••->—o | . ." >'' • j; . "~ '>"" ...-•" ..... ,.
* ' --,-•'"' \ '' ! .•"' ' '*' •• '" i: -""
RENFE's contribution to Spain's environment can be measured by counting the external
costs - those costs borne by society as a; whole and not those met by the market - of
global climate change, local and regional atmospheric pollution, noise, accident rates
and traffic levels^against the expend iture'pf replacing "the railways with other forms of
transportation., - , . ,—<;';'/
,, _ ''.' ;• /' ''*.., ' - ••/. • •;>,'/
If the different impacts of each form o"f transport are evaluated dri a per unit basis,
RENFE's net contribution to society amounts to 123,0^8 millibn p'esetas. With the
continuing growth of the transportation system in Spain and the cost-cutting strategies
embarked upon by RENFE under'the 1994 Contract Programme made between the
company and the State, rail trarisportatJon^will save• Spa'hisn. society a net 151,000
million pesetas in 1998 - almost 30,000 million more thin in 1995.
': lr 'f- •' ' C, .-•'' -'
As support for the rail system increases, more units of transportation will be available,
they will make greater financial and'"economic sayings and, most significantly, they will
lower the environmental damage from transportation. Increased business for the
railways is a step forward to the ultimate objective - sustainable mobility.
RENFE
Urban traffic congestion
Accidents
Noise
Atmospheric pollution
Climate change
Million Ras
37,928
139,756
195
15,038
6,625
Environment Office/Gerencia de Medio Ambiente
Central.Office/Oficinas Centrales
Avenida de Pfo XII, 110, 28036-Madrid, Spain
image:
ESTs FOR ENERGY
But an equally important challenge is the area of
electric power supply and use. The Organisation
for Economic Co-operation and Development
(OECD) and the International Energy Agency
(IEA) call for a three-pronged approach:
88 improve the efficiency of fossil fuel
generation technologies;
(*' increase the share of power generation by
non-fossil fuel sources;
I- develop end-of-pipe technologies to capture
and dispose of greenhouse gas emissions
from fossil fuel power plants.
Coal
Coal is the single most important fossil fuel
because it dominates the generation of elec-
tricity, accounting for 44 per cent worldwide in
1993. Cleaner methods of mining coal are need-
ed, particularly to address associated methane
emissions, which account for between 4 and 7
per cent of all global methane releases. Methane
is naturally present in coal seams and is released
when the coal is extracted. The trend towards
deeper-seam mining is likely to lead to greater
methane releases. Technologies to address this
problem include those discussed briefly below.
?. Pre-extraction of coal bed methane - drain-
ing the gas, for example through horizontal
bore holes inside the mine and vertical bore-
holes from the surface. The extraction of coal
bed methane, in widespread use in the United
States, has attracted considerable interest in
Australia, and also in many Eastern and
Central European countries.
IS Underground coal gasification — an alter-
native to conventional extraction which, if
successful, offers the potential to exploit
deep reserves that are uneconomic to open up
by traditional, techniques. The technology
involves igniting and reacting the coal under-
ground with a mixture of oxygen (or air) and
water (or steam), to convert the coal into a
low or medium calorific gas which is brought
to the surface through a production well.
is Biotechnology — to convert coal to cleaner
fuels (see Chapter 12).
Pre-combustion technologies can upgrade the
quality of the coal, which helps combustion
efficiency. The most widely used is coal-
washing, which removes the coal ash and also
reduces the amount of inorganic sulphur: 30 per
cent in the case of conventional processes and
60 per cent using more advanced techniques. In
the future, biotechnologies may remove up to
90 per cent of the sulphur.
Advanced technologies
With electricity satisfying an increasing share of
worldwide energy demand, it is vital to improve
the efficiency of electricity generation from coal
and other fossil fuels. Advanced fossil fuel
technologies are widely available in the OECD
countries. But the extent to which they are being
used depends on the age of the existing plant and
the relative prices of fossil fuels. The efficiency
of generating systems is typically between 32
and 35 per cent. The more conventional tech-
nologies dominate present electricity produc-
tion. The most widely used is pulverized firing,
where the coal is ground to a very fine powder,
then blown in a cloud with combustion air into a
large boiler. The hot combustion products pass
through several banks of tubes, producing high
pressure superheated steam for use in a turbo-
generator. Current pulverized fuel boilers, fitted
with emission control equipment, have an
overall efficiency of 35-37 per cent. The aim is
to improve this to more than 45 per cent. More
modem coal and other combustion technologies
are now available, or being developed, that can
outperform pulverized firing on both efficiency
and environmental grounds.
W Fluidized bed combustion involves fluidizing
crushed coal with sand. Its own ash or lime-
stone by supporting the particles on a strong
rising current of air. Contact between the
sulphur compounds and the limestone
removes the sulphur directly from the
image:
hblSHJHtNtHUY
BOX 8.1
Cleaner coal technology in Cfiina
China presents a particular energy challenge, specifically w th its coal
Industry, The county is rich in coal deposits and coal acco jnts for
70 per cent of the energy used. This usage of coai-will prev ail in the
next century. The electricity-generating industry uses 25 pe • cent of
total coal consumption. Some 300,000 heating boilers, ind jstrial
furnaces and household stoves consume almost 500 millio T tonnes
of coal a year. The gfobal Implications of this are dramatic, ind so
developing clean coal technology is crucial and has therefcre been
the focus of China's environmental control measures.
The United Nations Industrial Development Organization (U MIDO) has
been working with China to develop its capacity to design and
manufacture boilers using circulating fluidized bed combus ion. The
pro|ect involves transferring this technology to a major corr pany to
replace inefficient, polluting coal and oil-fired boilers. UN1DC) is also
helping the Institute of Engineering Thermophysics at the C hinese
Academy of Sciences to design, install and produce opera.ing
manuals for these boilers, and to promote their use at oth€ r energy
generating plants in the country.
The circulating fluidized bed combustion technology will re uce
greenhouse gas emissions and help to remove sulphur, a f articular
problem In China because of the variable quality of the cce I. It will
also boost efficiency in plants. Most industrial boilers in Ch na
operate at 60-85 per cent efficiency, compared with a wor dwide
average of 80-85 per cent. Circulating fluidized bed combustion
boters typically achieve 90 per cent efficiency. This means less coal
is needed and less carbon dioxide is produced for each unit of
energy generated.
furnace. There is no need to use flue gas
desulphurization, and sulphur c ioxide can be
reduced by as much as 90 per i :ent. Nitrogen
oxide emissions are also reduced signifi-
cantly thanks to better control of furnace
temperatures. Fluidized bed combustion can
is a
146
ncluding low
widely used
tal thermal
burn a large variety of fuels,
grade fuels and wastes. It
commercial technique. T
capacity installed worldwide i icreased from
1,000 megawatts (thermal) in 1980 to about
30,000 megawatts (thermal) i i 1990, when
there were almost 1,000 units: n operation.
Pressurized fluidized bed combustion takes
fluidized bed combustion echnology a
stage further. It offers the potential for coal
to be used in a combined cycle power
generating plant, increasing efficiency
significantly. Three plants are currently in
operation in Japan, Spain and Sweden.
Retrofitting existing coal-fired power plants
with pressurized fluidized bed combustion
technology is regarded as an attractive and
competitive option because it can improve
performance, provide increased fuel
flexibility and increase output by up to 25
per cent. Today's plants use bubbling-bed
technology. Future ones are expected to use
circulating-bed technology, achieving even
more efficiency.
:A Integrated gasification combined cycle tech-
nology blows oxygen through the coal to
convert it to a clean gas stream of carbon
monoxide and hydrogen. This removes more
than 99 per cent of sulphur and reduces
nitrogen oxide emissions too. Coal-based
plants can already achieve efficiencies of
43 per cent, more than is achieved with most
pulverized fuel plants. The development of
better gas turbines, using different materials
and aircraft technology, and new hot gas
cleaning techniques will increase efficien-
cies to 50 per cent in the future.
v~4 The hybrid cycle combines fluidized bed and
gasification technologies to give "a higher
generation efficiency than either by itself.
Designs combining a pressurized fluidized
bed gasifier and a fluidized bed char com-
bustion chamber have been proposed in
Germany, Finland, the United Kingdom and
'the United States.
;;! The ultra-supercritical steam cycle is based
on the modern conventional steam cycle
which operates with suberitical steam at a
certain pressure. Increasing the pressure to a
supercritical level in the high pressure
turbine sections improves generation
efficiency. Increasing it further to ultra-
supercritical levels through developments in
image:
materials technology would theoretically
boost efficiency significantly. This tech-
nology is still in the design stages.
Si The Kalina cycle works by using two or
more working fluids, instead of just one as
used in the standard Rankine cycle. The
cycle involves raising high pressure steam in
a boiler, which is then expanded through a
steam turbine to generate electricity before it
is condensed and returned to the boiler. With
the Kalina method, the ratio of one fluid to
another is varied in different parts of the
cycle, and increases in efficiency of 10 per
cent or more are claimed by tailoring the
cycle to suit the specific system.
:-:£ The humid air turbine (HAT) cycle employs
a single gas turbine, in place of the gas and
steam turbines used in a combined cycle
plant, to generate electricity with increased
efficiency. It can be used with both natural
gas and coal-fuelled plants.
~... A new clean coal technology, developed
through a project funded by the European
Union's Joint Opportunities for Unconven-
tional or Long-Term Energy Supply (JOULE)
programme, involves mixing coal with waste
(household, industrial or agricultural) so that
carbon dioxide and other emissions are sig-
nificantly reduced. There are plans to use the
technology to build a pilot 5-megawatt power
station in Germany, able to produce enough
'clean' electricity for a town of 30,000 people
by burning all the waste the town produces.
Efficiency in industry
Energy efficiency or conservation, in Industry,
commercial buildings and homes, is an essential
strategy for reducing greenhouse gas and other
emissions from power plants. By some
calculations, countries could reduce their energy
consumption by at least 10-20 per cent simply
by adopting the most efficient technologies
currently on the market. As the heaviest user,
industry is clearly the prime target for improving
ESTs FOR ENERGY
BOX 8.9,
Energy
indu,
saving in the glass
try
Glass pro Auction is an energy-intensive activity, with up to 80-90
per cent c f energy use in the furnaces where glass is melted before
forming. E nergy savings can be achieved by: reducing heat carried
off with fli e gas by recovering the waste heat and using it to
regenerat s steam and power; reducing conduction with better
insulation in the furnace; and improving process control to optimize
furnace te mperature and pressure.
A progran me of furnace insulation and energy management was
introduced by the China Glass Development Centre, set up in
cooperatk in with the United Nations Industrial Development
Organizat on (UNIDO) in 1982, in six furnaces in Shandong, Henan,
Jiangsu a id Anhui.
Energy sa /ings in the plants range from 22 to 36 per cent, decreasing
production costs and reducing greenhouse gas emissions. At the
same tims, the improved process efficiency has increased output from
the plants by 12 to 26 per cent, leading to increased sales.
int)
energy effici
divided
generation,
plant equipment.
Improvemen
through one
Si improved
advanced
fe! equipmert
lighting r
Sii process r
8* process (
technoloj ies
& product i
stitute pr<
UNDP,
"significant
ency exists
major energ
petroleum re
"The introduction
;ncy. Energy use in industry can be
five main categories: steam
>rocess heating, motor drives for
air handling and lighting.
:s can be acliieved in each group
Dr more of the following changes:
energy management, for example
control systems;
changes, for example motor or
placement;
ifmements, for example recycling,
waste minimization;
bange, for example new process
hange, for example new or sub-
ducts.
while making the point that
otential to improve energy effici-
n all industries", singles out five
users: iron and steel, chemicals,
ining, pulp and paper, and cement.
of advanced technology to
image:
SAir
environmental care - the
best guarantee of long-term
business success
Air transport places a strain on the environment —
consuming energy, and producing pollutant
emissions which take considerable effort to reduce.
Air travel also brings together people, places and
markets - promoting business and trade, generating
prosperity and pleasure.
The SAirGroup and its member airlines - well aware
of the conflicts and contradictions inherent in their
activities — are firmly resolved to meet their
responsibility to the environment in which they operate.
It is right, and it makes business sense to do so.
Environmental care is one of the best guarantees of
long-term economic success. By ensuring that our
activities place as little strain as possible on the
world around us, we will enhance the acceptability
of our operations among customers, suppliers,
investors, the authorities and other key partners,
improve our competitiveness and help secure the
long-term future of the air transport sector.
We have made ecological considerations a firm
fixture in our overall management activities, and
ecological criteria an integral element in our
strategic and decision-making process.
Our ecological principles
• We will abide by all relevant laws and regulations.
>f? ,
f jr^jj ,„
• We will continually improve our ecological
efficiency and use of natural resources through the
available economic and technological possibilities.
.''-'"••" r, f- «y
• We abide by the principles of the International
Chamber of Commerce Business Charter on
sustainable long-term development.
Philippe Bruggisser
Chief Operating Officer
and Deputy President
of the Swissair Group
1 We periodically audit the impact of our activities
on the environment, and publish the results
in line with our policy of open and
transparent communications, inside and
outside the Group.
What we are doing
« With its investment of CHF 2.5 billion, Swissair
has become the first airline in the world to
introduce a new 'family* of Airbus aircraft,
using state-of-the-art engines that reduce NOx
emissions by 40 per cent, burn much less fuel, and
cut down on noise.
• Swissair is introducing a new heating system for
its head office complex, which uses a low-
temperature carbonization process to generate heat
from waste paper, cardboard and waste wood. The
system will save 800 tonnes of heating oil a year
and halve NOx pollutants.
« New stationary energy supply units at Zurich
Airport terminals are reducing pollutants from
kerosene-powered auxiliary power supply units by
90 per cent, saving 12.3 million litres of kerosene
annually.
• Swissair's own facilities treat industrial wastewater
so it can be reused in technical operations.
Pretreating the wastewater saves on both water
and energy use.
* Separating rubbish on Swissair aircraft, introduced
in 15>9Q, has considerably reduced the amount of
waste needing burning. Aluminium, glass, tin and
plastic are recycled.
Swissair's latest environmental report Flying the Globe with the World in Mind,
(also available on CD Rom), can be obtained from
Swissair Corporate Communications, CH-8058 Zurich Airport, Zurich, Switzerland
Tel. 41 1 812 4452 Fax. 41 1 812 9000
image:
ESTs FOR ENERGY
reduce costs, improve product quality and/or
facilitate environmental protection will usually
reduce energy requirements as well. The
promotion of technological innovation in these
industries will typically lead to substantial gains
in energy efficiency."
Fundamental changes
Many of the basic processes in the steel,
aluminium, pulp and paper, and chemical
industries are fundamentally the same as they were
50 or 100 years ago. Many of these processes,
however, need to be rethought and reshaped For
example, biotechnology, electrochemical pro-
cessing, laser processing, microelectronic control
and new materials can all contribute to improving
energy and materials use. Often, replacing energy-
intensive materials with others that use less energy,
a core element in cleaner production and eco-
efficiency, leads to very large savings.
A key approach is to focus on process
integration, reducing the overall consumption of
energy rather than concentrating only on the
energy requirements of individual processes. One
method integrates production processes with
electricity generation by combining the Corex
process for iron-making with co-generation using
gas turbines. According to the OECD and the
BEA, approaches to improving process efficiency
"parallel life cycle and fuel cycle analyses. They
rely on the application of several key concepts -
particularly the avoidance of heat and power
losses (through the application of heat recovery
and energy cascading technologies); process
substitution; and the closure of energy-intensive
material cycles. The technology development
challenge is to find ways to effectively apply the
concepts, and to adapt available and emerging
technologies so these concepts are cost-
competitive for a wider range of applications,
particularly smaller scale ones." Examples of this
approach include those below.
IS Better use of available energy from
combustion of fossil fuels through the
BOX 8.3
Efficient office lighting in the
United States
A project in California provides a good demonstration of the
potential to reduce not only electricity use overall, but peak
demand as well.
Part of an existing building was re-equipped with low-energy lights
and an electronically ballasted lighting control system. This
combination provides considerable flexibility: illumination levels can
be set manually or adjusted automatically, while light intensity can be
adjusted with dimmable lamps.
In one year, the strategy saved 68 kilowatt-hours of electricity for
every square metre in the buildings. Savings are most impressive at
weekends, when electricity use is down by 70-80 per cent.
BOX 8.4
Co-generation in the United
Kingdom
Small-scale, gas-driven combined heat and power units can have
conversion efficiencies of up to 85 per cent if there are reliable outlets
for all of the heat and power produced. As well as achieving savings,
companies can also control their own energy supply, reducing the
risk of costly shut downs.
A subsidiary of a major United Kingdom sugar company cut its
annual energy bill at one plant by 10 per cent thanks to co-
generation. The company installed a co-generation plant with an
hourly capacity of 15 megawatts of electricity and 50 tonnes of hot
steam. Surplus electricity is exported to the local utility company.
utilization of gas turbines for conventional
power generation, as well as the provision of
higher temperature process, drying or
distillation heat in refineries, the chemical,
pulp and paper, textile and food industries,
together with combustion engines or fuel cells
to provide power and lower temperature heat
for hot water, drying and space heating.
image:
ESTS FOR ENhHCaY
BOX 8.5
District heating schemes in Europe
A number of cites and towns in Europe are using co-generation for
district heating schemes, with encouraging results.
• Amsterdam, the Netherlands, has a number of community heating
and power plants, typically serving large apartment blocks, public
buildings and hospitals. They work at an average efficiency of 82
per cent (compared to 36 per cent in large power plants), and
have reduced sulphur dioxide emissions by 1,213 tonnes a year.
" Brescia, Italy, meets 50 per cent of its heating needs from district
heating systems, and has cut emissions of sulphur dioxide and
particulates dramatically from 1972, when 25 per cent of the city
was heated by natural gas and 75 per cent by gas oil or fuel oil.
Helsinki, Finland, has a district heating network covering 950
kilometres and supplying 90 per cent of the energy for heating
purposes. The city has received the United Nations Sasakawa
Environment Prize for its achievements In improving urban air
quality.
Rheinsberg, Germany, established a district heating system in
1992, then installed a new community heating and power plant in
1993, based on three natural gas fired engines, and peak load
boilers fired with wood chips and oil. More than 60 per cent of
consumers are connected to the system, and local air pollution
has been reduced thanks to their switching over from burning
brawn coal in Individual stoves.
It Avoiding heat losses by using heat ex-
changers and vapour compressors to capture
available heat from industrial or commercial
processes and use it for other purposes.
81 Recovering and upgrading waste heat, using
heat pumps and heat transformers.
• Reducing heat demand in buildings, and
heating and cooling demands of production
machinery, by using advanced thermal insu-
lation methods.
• Less energy-intensive processes such as thin
strip casting of metals and membrane
separation technology.
H Increased recycling of energy-intensive
materials.
II Substituting energy-intensive materials with
new materials, such as ceramics.
Residential and commercial use
There is also a great need to use energy more
efficiently in residential and commercial
buildings. Every year, people in the OECD
countries use the equivalent of 1,500 million
tonnes of oil to run the heating, air conditioning
and lighting in their shops, offices and homes.
UNDP calculates there are potential savings in
energy use of 30 to 50 per cent in residential
buildings in industrialized countries, while in
commercial buildings potential savings range
from 25-55 per cent in industrial countries to 50-
60 per cent in developing countries. For heating,
energy-efficient technologies include:
?"- improvements in traditional heating systems;
3s integrating renewable energy systems direct-
ly into building components;
?8 large underground systems to store hot water
for months, providing heat in the winter,
'i advanced, cost-competitive heat pumps to
provide both heating and cooling.
However, most of these developments involve
a Ugh standard of technology not available every-
where, especially in the non-industrialized
countries. Moreover, some are simply not relevant
to certain regions. Therefore, the aim should be to
improve technologies that offset energy con-
sumption in the most significant end uses for each
specific area, taking into account local social
factors, which may be as important as technical or
financial considerations. For example, wood
stoves for heating or cooking are widely used in
developing countries. As some stoves have
efficiencies as low as a few per cent the aim
should be to replace them with higher efficiency
models that are appropriate for local fuels and
available financial resources.
Co-generation
The OECD says that co-generation — the
simultaneous generation of heat and power from
the same source - is "one of the most effective
technologies for the rational use of energy". In
thermal power plants, generally one-third of the
150
image:
ESTs FOR ENERGY
energy is converted to electricity and the other
two-thirds produces low-grade heat. If this is not
usable, it means that 60-65 per cent of the
primary energy is wasted. Using technologies
like supercritical steam cycles and combined
cycles can increase efficiency to 45 per cent in
steam plants. But co-generation plants achieve
an efficiency of at least 80-85 per cent when
they are sited close to the users of the energy,
and the 'waste' heat is put to use, not discarded.
Co-generation is nothing new: it can be found
in industry throughout the OECD countries.
Small-scale, gas-driven combined heat and
power units are attractive to companies (for
example, in the chemical, primary metals, food,
and paper and pulp industries) wanting to cut
their energy bills. A joint European/United
States study has concluded that co-generation is
the cheapest form of thermal power generation.
But the same study found that co-generation is
being "neglected" in most national energy plans.
Overall, it provides only about 7 per cent of the
European Union's total electricity demand,
though the figure rises to more than 30 per cent
for the Netherlands, Denmark and Finland. The
OECD says there is considerable scope for
expanding co-generation into large office
buildings, commercial centres, hotels, hospitals
and sports centres.
Why, with its environmental and economic
benefits, is co-generation being "neglected"?
According to COGBN Europe, it is because the
players in the power industry are often
centralized and "characterized by vertical
integration, lack of competition and the
development of over-capacity", and because "for
the wider development of high efficiency co-
generation systems, reform is necessary". The
OECD also points out that many co-generation
projects fail because of economic miscalcu-
lations, for instance "mismatching heat and
power loads, disparate energy price evolution of
fossil fuels and of heat and electricity, and
insufficient scales of utilization times".
The international
community,
particularly
the industrialized
countries, have an
obligation to provide
access to environmentally
sound technologies and
corresponding
know-how to developing
countries on
favourable terms
Stephen Kalonzo Musyoka,
Minister for Foreign Affairs, Kenya
According to COGEN, a powerful argument
in favour of co-generation is that "new
technologies, especially engines and turbines,
now provide a vast range of opportunities for
smaller-scale and localized high efficiency
systems providing heating/cooling/electricity
where consumers want them". "This factor
explains the growing interest in using co-
generation with district heating schemes: a
"very robust and flexible system", says the
OBCD. However, such schemes are limited to
only a few countries in the OECD: Austria,
Denmark, Finland, Germany, Sweden and
Switzerland. For the OECD as a whole, district
heating contributes only 11-2 per cent towards
energy consumption in the residential sector.
Fuel flexibility is an important, factor in the
development of district heating systems. For
example, a system that can use cheap fuels, such
as wood, .peat and straw, provides a cushion
against price rises of other fuels. On the other
hand, setting up district healing networks requires
considerable investment, with a 20-30 year wait
image:
Journey to the Future
Railways conquered yesterday's frontiers.
Today's challenge is not geographical conquest, but environmental survival.
Railways can conquer tomorrow as well.
In Norway — a country of vast distances and sparsely
populated areas — railways have been bringing people
and business together for nearly 150 years. Norwegiai
State Railways (NSB) has played a major role in building £
modern society, and still intends to be a leader in meeting
today's historic challenges.
By using less energy and causing less pollution than other
means of transportation, railways offer unrivalled
environmental and social friendliness, as well as personal
safety. By constantly investing in modernizing the railway
network, NSB aims to provide an environmentally
sustainable form of transportation.
NSB also intends to maintain its leading role as a major
transport company committed to the Norwegian
environment, by constantly striving to improve its
performance in key areas such as energy consumption,
waste, noise pollution/vibration, air and soil pollution,
vegetation control, biological diversity, responsible land
use, and the correction of previous environmental
negligence.
Saving the environment is imperative for our planet's very
survival. The transportation sector must respond to the
challenge of Rio by contributing to the implementation of
Agenda 21. Developing efficient railways — and integrating
them with networking growth points in local communities
- is an important part of that contribution.
In NSB, we have committed ourselves to Agenda 21 - on
our Journey to the Future.
«NSB's vision is to ensure the company's position as a dec
environmental winner in the transport industry.*
O. Ueland
Executive Director
image:
ESTs FOR ENERGY
for a return, financially unattractive to investors.
Another problem is that many consumers have
had bad experiences with poorly designed and
built systems. This, says the OECD, has given
district heating a "bad reputation" in some
countries and can "present a major barrier to the
implementation of further schemes".
Nonetheless, the OECD is optimistic that co-
generation and district heating schemes will play
an increasingly important role as urban authorities
move to tackle the "growing environmental
impact related to the handling and conversion of
energy" in cities and towns. COGEN believes, for
example, that there are considerable long- and
medium-term opportunities in Central and Eastern
Europe, where the scope for refurbishing and
adding electricity generation capacity to existing
community heating systems (currently inefficient,
polluting and in a very poor state of repair) is
enormous. The European Commission has
confirmed its support for the wider use of co-
generation as a means of reducing Europe-wide
carbon dioxide emissions.
A key role for technologies
A priority is improving end-use energy efficiency.
UNDP is in no doubt that using the most efficient
technologies available today is the key to
achieving energy efficiency improvements in
both the industrialized and developing countries,
and that "the potential for further improvements
through continued research and development is
high, as the performance of current technologies
is far from their fundamental physical limits". But
while high rates of innovation in the energy sector
are needed to bring about a sustainable future,
many promising technologies for reducing
emissions, such as fuel cells and most renewable
energy technologies, require relatively modest
investments in research and development and
commercial incentives.
The new technological opportunities will be
taken up much more with new investments than
with retrofitting existing equipment, a point of
particular importance for developing countries
as they aim for more investments in new
infrastructure and equipment. Thus, says UNDP,
"if they were to have these opportunities, they
would be able to leapfrog to the new generation
of cleaner energy technologies, without going
through the same unsustainable path that the
industrialized countries have followed". UNDP
adds: "Energy can become an instrument for
sustainable development. The point is, while the
future may be difficult, a continuation of present
trends cannot be sustained."
Sources
Business and the Environment, various issues.
Cutter Information Corporation.
Energy after Rio: Prospects and Challenges, 1997,
UNDP.
Energy and Environmental Technologies to Respond
to Global Climate Change Concerns, 1994,
lEA/OECD.
Energy and the Environment, 1991, The Economist,
Energy Efficiency and the Environment: Forging the
Link, 1991, American Council for an Energy-
Efficient Economy.
Energy Efficiency survey, 1995, The Financial Times.
Environment Strategy Europe, various editions,
Campden Publishing.
Energy Systems, Environment and Development,
1991, ATLAS Bulletin.
Environment Watch Western Europe, various issues,
Cutter Information Corporation.
Environmentally Sound Energy Supplies, Fact Sheet,
1993, UNIDO.
Improving Industrial Energy Efficiency and
Reducing Greenhouse Gas Emissions, 1995,
UNIDO.
Industry and Environment, various issues, UNEP IE.
Power to the People: A Survey of Energy, 1994, The
Economist.
State of the Art of Energy Efficiency: Future
Directions, 1991, American Council for an
Energy-Efficient Economy.
State of the World, various editions, WorldWatch
Institute.
Technologies for Cleaner Production and Products,
1995, OECD.
Urban Energy Handbook Good Local Practice,
1995, OECD.
World Development Report 1992: Development and
the Environment, World Bank.
image:
The use of wind power to generate
electricity, both for grid-connected
and Individual power, has increased
by 25 per cent in the last four years.
image:
Renewable energy technologies
9
A shift, away from fossil fueh to renewable energy sources is the best la>ng-term solution to
the environmental problems caused by the production and use of energy hosed on fossil fuel
resources. How fast this happens depends on the commercial viability of the different
renewable energy technologies and their competitiveness compared zitith fossil foels.
f*"*^ enewable resources include some of the
...* oldest known to humankind, such as
w'->^"
,.4,, %», wind and water. The technology exists to
make use of such resources, and performance,
reliability and cost-effectiveness are all improving
steadily. As a result, solar energy, wind power,
landfill gas and biofuels are all being used on a
commercial scale around the world. Although
their share of the commercial market is small at
present, most forecasts project they will capture a
bigger share. However, the cost of renewables in
many applications is still higher than the cost of
using fossil fuels, which reflects an energy pricing
system that does not take environmental costs into
account. Moreover, in many countries fossil fuels
are subsidized at various stages of the energy
chain (extraction, transportation, generation).
Solar energy systems, for example, are more
expensive because they are rarely subsidized.
Yet the trend towards renewables is growing
impressively, not least because they are becoming
increasingly price competitive. The cost of wind
power has fallen by about 70 per cent since the
1980s and is close to the cost of power from a new
coal-fired plant The cost of electricity from solar
power stations built in California's Mojave Desert
in the mid-1980s and early 1990s has fallen with
each new 'installation: one 80-megawatt solar
thermal plant, built in 1989, produces power at a
third less cost than that from a new nuclear plant.
Many experts now believe that renewables
are poised to achieve a major breakthrough in
the world's energy market for four main reasons.
§£ Population. About 2 biEion people worldwide
are without power at all, while another billion
have access for only a few hours each day.
According to some estimates the developing
countries, taken as a wliiole, will spend over
US$700 billion on electricity supply and
transmission infrastructures during the next ten
years. This shows the energy market's
potential: the issue is how much of this market
renewables can manage So capture.
31 Technology. Technology advances are bring-
ing the costs of renewables closer and closer
to conventional fuels. In some situations,
they are directly competitive. Also, energy
technologies are going through a process of
miniaturization and modularization, which
means they are becoming smaller and more
suited for local usage.
Si Competition. Policy makers, especially in
developing countries, are increasingly looking
for more flexibility in bringing electricity to
large populations, searching for alternatives to
big, centralized monopoly utilities. This may
not necessarily mean more renewables (the
environmental impacts of power-market
restructuring are not yet clear) but it does
present an opportunity.
ffi Environment, The environmental case for
renewables becomes even stronger with the
growing concern over global climate change
and growing acceptance that we cannot
continue to rely on burning carbon fuels as the
primary energy source.
image:
RENEWABLE ENERGY TECHNOLOGIfcS
Two recent electricity-supply scenarios show
the difference a shift towards renewables could
make to the developing world. A *business-as-
usual" approach would mean that competition
among well-established technologies will lead
to a net decrease in the market share of
renewables. But, in an alternative scenario,
supportive public policies, strategic private
investment and commercial deployment would
cause a dramatic growth in renewables' share of
the power generation market, to more than 40
per cent by 2025. Scenario one will entrench the
market share of fossil fuels because, once
installed, the physical infrastructure of power
generation will be hard to shift. The alternative
scenario would offer both economic and
environmental benefits.
An additional advantage of renewable
resources is that they are distributed over a wide
geographical area, ensuring that developing
regions have access to electricity generation at a
stable cost for the long-term future. This is not
the case with fossil fuels. For example, more
than half of all Latin American, Asian and
African countries import over half of the
commercial energy they use. For many off-grid
applications, for which there is a considerable
demand in developing countries, several
renewable technologies are already cost-
competitive. Renewable generating equipment
comes in various sizes, from household to utility
scale, and can be located close to customers,
reducing investment in transmission and
distribution, while capacity can be increased as
demand rises by adding on units. Moving from
fossil fuels to renewables in developing
>r'' " ' ' ., , . ,
countries will also cut air emissions and air
pbllution and help them meet their international
obligations to curb carbon dioxide levels.
Cost is the feey
With the anticipated growth in capacity, the
requirement for investment capital will be
significant and cost effectiveness will be a
decisive factor in encouraging developing
countries to use clean generation technologies.
It will also be the key to the worldwide growth
of renewables. By some estimates, certain
renewables will start to gain a competitive
advantage from 2005 in many markets and, as
the cost comes down, the opportunities for
introducing them more widely in developed
countries will increase. This will give
consumers more choice about the source of the
electricity they use and some will undoubtedly
make their decisions on environmental grounds.
The World Energy Council says the costs of
renewables will continue to come down as the
technology improves and higher volumes of
renewable energy are produced. By contrast, it
expects the cost of fossil fuels to rise in the years
ahead because of emission controls and
increasing scarcity of the fuels themselves,
although other forecasts project that fossil fuel
costs are not likely to rise before 2010.
Some experts believe that during the next few
decades, new technologies will allow today's
giant power plants and refineries to be replaced
by a new generation of small, decentralized
energy systems. Oil, for instance, will be
replaced by hydrogen produced from solar and
wind energy, using electrolysis. Meanwhile, the
short-term prospects for renewable energy
technologies are difficult to predict for both
developed and developing countries.
The European Commission (EC) has outlined
a new sliategy for renewable energy that aims to
double its contribution to the European Union
(EU)'s energy consumption to 12 per cent by
2010. The original target was an 8 per cent share
by 2005, but the EC now believes "that"f2 per
cent is realistic "given political will". In a
discussion paper in November 1996, it said:
"Despite the fact that in Europe, we have
developed the technologies necessary to harness
renewables efficiently, they are not being widely
used." To address the cost handicap of renew-
ables, the EC's outline strategy put particular
156
image:
RENEWABLE ENERGY TECHNOLOGIES
emphasis on the need to internalize the external
costs of conventional fuels through proposed
energy taxes. Bu6 there is no guarantee that the
EU member states will accept the tax plans.
Indeed, the discussion paper itself has met with
a mixed response, with some countries arguing
that it is too ambitious. Several EU energy
ministers have stressed that the renewables
industry must bring down its costs to compete
with conventional energy sources without
subsidy. The EC's document did not favour any
particular renewable, but said that wind power,
solar heating, photovoltaics, biomass and
geothermal approaches all required a "stronger
political signal" to boost their contribution.
Despite the political difficulties and cost prob-
lems, renewables will certainly take an increasing
share of the total worldwide energy mix, though
how big a slice of the cake remains uncertain.
Two studies commissioned by the EC in 1992
found that renewable energies could in future
meet almost half of Europe's energy require-
ments. Indeed, Norway (and, outside Europe,
Brazil) already obtains over half its energy from
renewables. The United Nations Development
Programme (UNDP) suggests that the contribu-
tion from commercial renewable energy sources
to total global commercial energy will grow from
9 per cent in 1990 to 10-30 per cent in 2020-2025.
Solar power
There are three basic types of solar energy
systems:
SB passive solar power technology, incorpor-
ating features into the design and construc-
tion of buildings so that they trap the heat
available for use in space heating or cooling;
9R solar thermal systems, to produce heat for
electric power generation, and domestic and
commercial uses;
Hi photovoltaic systems, which produce electric
power directly from the sunlight.
The energy crises of the 1970s boosted en-
thusiasm for solar power, but this abated as oil
BOX 9.1
Solar-cowered telecommunications
in Australia
Telecom Australia has been relying on solar energy since 1975. It
was one of the world's first companies to use photovoltaic systems
to meet off-grid requirements and rise to the tough challenge of
providing a reliable, affordable telephone service to the Australian
outback, with its extremes of climate, distance and geography.
The utility runs a network of remote microwave and optical repeater
stations, small satellite stations and customer radio links, many of
which rely on photovoltaic;power. It is Australia's biggest photovoltaic
user and has developed more than 8,000 solar power sites with a
peak capacity of over 2 megawatts.
The Klmberley system spans a distance of 2,500 kilometres and has
41 solar-powered repeaters. The Kimberley base itself operates on
loads ranging from 70 to 300 watts. For loads of 700-2,000 watts,
some facilities use a hybrid of dlesel and solar power: the diesel
component supplies only a fraction of the energy, but it allows the use
of .a far smaller solar array arid a battery reserve of just a day or two.
prices fell and the costs of converting sunlight
into electricity remained stubbornly high. How-
ever, a combination of new technology develop-
ments and rising demand in developing countries
is reviving the prospects for .solar power.
Passive solar
Heating and cooling applications impose
different requirements on passive solar design.
Space heating is mostly needed during cold
periods, when the availability of solar power is
lowest. This means that passive solar designs for
space heating need large collection areas,
usually involving substantial glazing, which can
cause a problem of overheating in the summer.
Solar cooling of buildings relies on creating
temperature differences, which drive air move-
ment through convection. However, the use of
passive solar cooling is in decline in a number of
countries as new buildings incorporate air
conditioning. The rate at which passive solar
technology is adopted depends largely on the
image:
Energie Noord West
ENW Amsterdam N.V.
Energie Noord West (ENW), the energy utility company in
the north-western part of The Netherlands, including the
capital, Amsterdam, provides electricity to 1.1 million
people, natural gas to another 0.7 million, and is connecting
a growing number of customers to local district heating
networks.
Despite the challenge of rapid liberalization of the energy
market, ENW keeps the long-term target of a sustainable
energy supply firmly in mind.
The key to this is developing a decentralized energy supply
tailored to the specific demand requirements of individual
customers and local areas — and includes promoting
energy saving, combined heat and power (CHOP), the use
of heat pumps and storage, and implementing an
ambitious renewable energy programme.
Some examples of state-of-the-art energy supply
activities by ENW include:
• In Amsterdam, a neighbourhood of 600 houses was
built with a strong emphasis on sustainable building.
ENW developed a corresponding energy infrastructure —
a local heating network, with heat supplied from a local
CHP plant, a heat pump and heat storage capabilities.
The heating network temperature is lower than the
usual 90°C, thereby increasing overall energy efficiency.
Both heating and hot water supplies are metered, which
is an incentive for users to save energy. All the houses are
well insulated and fitted with double glazing to make
optimal use of passive solar energy. Households are
encouraged to use hotfill washing machines and
dishwashers. These characteristics will now be
implemented in a new suburb with 18,000 houses.
• ENW's $20 million environment programme aims to
stabilize CO- output by the year 2000 at 1990 levels.
The main feature is the ranking of .energy-saving
measures on the basis of costs per reduced ton of COz
— an approach which results in lower energy bills for
customers.
• Although relatively expensive, renewable energy is a
'must' for the future. To bridge the financial gap with
energy from fossil fuels, ENW sells 'green electricity* to
customers choosing to contribute to sustainable energy
supply - guaranteeing them that each 'green kilowatt-
hour' they buy is generated from a renewable source.
ENW also invests in renewables.
* Short-term, the most important source is wind energy.
ENW aims for 200MW of wind turbine capacity on
land, and 300MW on near- and off-shore locations by
2010.
* Medium-term, biomass gasification is the most viable
option. ENW is participating in a 30MW biomass
gasification plant to be built near Amsterdam. The
second option is heat pumps as individual heating
devices for households.
• Long-term, photovoltaics (PV) has the largest technical
potential in The Netherlands, especially when
integrated into buildings and connected to the grid.
ENW has a long history of applying PV, ranging from
the first autonomous PV-house in Castricum, with a
2.5 kWp PV generator, to the largest home-integrated
solar generator in the world, PV-Sloten (250 kWp on
the roofs and facades of 71 houses).
ENW has a long-term commitment to an efficient,
sustainable energy supply. It will continue this approach
as long as market conditions make it a viable option.
This leaves an important role for governments in
defining the boundary conditions for the energy market.
The near-shorn wind turbine park,
Lsty, owned by Energie Noord West,
consists of four NedWlrcMQ turbines
with a combined power of 2MW.
Energie Noord West N.V.
PO Box 23451,
1100 DZ Amsterdam
The Netherlands
Phone: +31 20 312 2500
Fax:+ 31 203122699
PV-Stoten, the largest house-
integrated PV generator in the world,
offered valuable opportunities for multi-
party cooperation.
image:
RENEWABLE ENERGY TECHNOLOGIES
rate of new building; hence the need to develop
passive solar technologies that can be retrofitted
to existing buildings.
Solar thermal systems
Solar thermal electrical technologies work by
focusing sunlight onto a receiving station or
collector to heat a fluid, which can then be used
to raise steam for electrical generation. A flat
plate collector, metal or plastic, is the most
important type of solar collector, although
collectors with built-in storage are also used.
Three technologies are utilized:
is longitudinal parabolic mirrors which con-
centrate the sun's rays on a trough in the
centre of the dish;
:-i mirrors in the form of parabolic dishes where
the heating occurs at the focal point;
?\- banks of flat mirrors set at an angle which
concentrate radiation on a central receiver
placed at the top of a tower (this system
produces the most power).
There is a wide range of applications for solar
thermal energy, some of which are described
below.
y Probably the most used at present is domestic
water heating, which requires a flat plate
collector and an insulated storage tank. As
solar energy heats water in the collector, it
rises to the top of the tank and when
withdrawn is automatically replaced by cold
water flowing into the bottom.
5-', Forced circulation systems are used to
provide the large amounts of hot water need-
ed in dairies, textile industries, hotels and
hospitals. They need large arrays of flat plate
collectors and a pump to circulate the water.
•'* Hot air obtained from collectors can be used
to dry various agricultural products such as
tea, tobacco and grains. Drying is done faster
than in open sunlight, and in a controlled way.
IS Space heating by solar energy is becoming
important for many industrialized countries
with cold climates.
BOX 9.2
Solar power in Freiburg
The historic German city of Freiburg is a showcase for various solar
energy technologies, including the country's first all solar powered
home.
:& Two large open-air swimming pools are supplied with solar heated
water.
Is': A demonstration block, built in 1978, and consisting of 12
apartments, is supplied with a 43 square metre tube collector
which provides 63 per cent of the domestic hot water and
12 per cent of the space heating demand.
!*' Photovoltaic cladding is used on a recently built commercial solar
centre in Freiburg.
'••; Passive solar technology is used in a group of terraced houses
built in 1985. These are compact buildings, optimized for solar
gain with conservatories and heavy insulation of non-transparent
parts. This project uses a new approach to transparent insulation.
• The insulation material is transparent and mounted in front of a
massive wall, painted b!ack to absorb the solar radiation. The
solar energy is transmitted through the material and absorbed by
the wall. The wall's temperature increases but, because of the
material's insulating properties, the heat is transferred through the
wall into the building. In hot summer temperatures, automatically
controlled blinds reflect the solar rays and prevent overheating.
:s The latest demonstration project is the home that is self-sufficient
. in energy: the first building in Germany to use the sun as its sole
energy source. It combines the most advanced solar and energy
storage technologies: transparent insulation and highly insulated
windows for passive gain; a high efficiency collector for hot water
demand; and a photovoltaic generator for electricity supply. The
building uses hydrogen for cooking via a catalytic burner - the
first time this has been done in a domestic situation.
• •$ Refrigeration and air conditioning can be
achieved using solar energy. ••
S« Cooking is an important solar thermal
application. Cooking time varies from 45
minutes to two and a half hours, depending
on the food and the solar radiation available.
Si Water pumping is an emerging solar tech-
nology, but still has to overcome problems of
cost and technical reliability. .
Almost all sorts of collectors have been tried for
power generation by solar energy. However, the
image:
BOX 9.3
Affording solar electricity
Can households in sparsely
populated areas in developing
countries afford solar electricity? The
evidence suggests they can.
Moreover, solar schemes may help
governments cut the cost of bringing
electricity to rural towns and villages.
At the moment, grid-based electricity
Is seldom financially viable. It can
cost US$10,000 per kilometre to
connect areas to the grid, and
because demand in rural areas is
usually tow, utilities are providing the
electricity at a loss. In a community
with a daily load of 100 kilowatt-
hours, locally diesel-generated
electricity can cost between 20 and
40 US cents a kilowatt, whereas
photovoltaic-generated electricity
costs between 50 and 150 US cents
a kilowatt, Irrespective of load. At
lower loads however, diesel-generated
electricity becomes more expensive,
and when the electricity use is down
to 12 kBowatt-hours, diesel and
photovoltaic prices are the same.
Governments may be prepared to
accept utilities making a loss on rural
electrification because they want to
access to ele ctricity.
may be a co:st
achieving
A solar home
solar cell rr»
give the who e population equal
y. Photovoltaics
•t-effective way of
, at a lower cost. But
can poor people afford solar
electricity?
system consists of a
lute, a charge
controller, a battery, cabling and
fluorescent lights. Studies show that
this costs households less than they
spend on buying candles, kerosene
and batteries for lighting, radios and
television. It is estimated that
between 5 and 15 per cent of rural
households In most developing
countries wo jld be willing and abie
to pay for a £ olar system. The
percentage t ante to be higher in
Latin Amertei i, and lower in Africa.
Changing fro TI candies to electric
light may als< > bring other direct
economic benefits: for instance, the
possibility of
ioing extra work at
home in the i jvening.
In a pilot projsct, initiated in 1991, 40
photovoltaic systems were installed
in the rural vi lage of Manyana,
Botswana. A i evaluation after two
years found that 100 per cent of the
households that had not been given
photovoltaic lighting wanted it; 83
per cent of the users did more
reading; 50 per cent of the teachers
said their pupils were performing
better; and 30 per cent of the
households were earning extra
income.
The project also found that the
villagers were willing and able to pay
for the photovoltaic installations.
They were given two-year loans to
buy their systems, with monthly
Instalments varying from US$8.75 for
. a two-light system to US$31.25 for a
six-light system. But, because
incomes in Botswana tend to
fluctuate with the seasons, it was
found that fixed, monthly repayments
were too rigid, and the system
needed to be more flexible.
Similar results were experienced in
Kenitra, Morocco, where 120
households were photovoltalc-
electrified. Examples of extra
incomes came from weaving, carpet
making and repairing farming
equipment during evening hours.
huge initial cost of solar powef stations is a
major disincentive.
Solar thermal energy for indu itrial uses is a
particularly important area fcr developing
economies, where energy use in the industrial
sector is quite high compared wit i other sectors
and where there is considerable potential for
using solar energy for industrial process heat,
especially in countries where solar radiation is
abundant. Possible, application:! include the
dairy industry, textiles, and the
food and agricultural crops.
However, there are still difficulties to be
overcome. Storage needs depend on the
160
processing of
application for which the solar system is
• designed, but in some situations large areas are
needed to collect the solar energy, which can be
a constraint for industries located in heavily
built-up areas. Providing back-up conventional
energy supplies can also contribute to the high
initial eosts of solar systems. The cost per
kilowatt-hour generally remains twice that of a
fossil fuel plant.
Photovoltaic cells
The other, and potentially most attractive, means
of capturing and converting the sun's energy
into electricity is through photovoltaic cells.
image:
RENEWABLE ENERGY TECHNOLOGIES
They are already cost-effective and used in a
wide range of applications including electricity
supply to small, isolated communities; water
pumping and desalination; and powering service
equipment. They consist essentially of two or
more layers of treated semiconductors. When
radiation falls on them, there is an interaction
between photons and electrons, which generates
electrical charges and then direct current power.
There are many potential applications, including
community television and even telecom-
munications. A key advantage of photovoltaics
is their versatility: they can be used not only in
large electricity plants, but also to power small
water pumps, rural communications systems
and individual residences,
In photovoltaic systems, there is usually a
trade-off between cost reductions and the
efficiency at which the cell converts sunlight to
electricity. Large crystals of 'bulk' semi-
conductors, while efficient, are expensive, where-
as thin films of semiconductor deposited on a
surface are much less expensive, but far less
efficient. Several materials are under trial. One is
cadmium telluride. Another is copper indium
diselenide, a semiconductor which converts light
to electricity with 17 per cent efficiency in the
laboratory. In Switzerland, research is focusing
on the Gratzel cell, an electrochemical system
which involves a titanium dioxide film, a photo-
synthesizer chemical and an electrolyte trapped
between panes of glass, Glasgow University is re-
searching understanding of how photosynthetic
bacteria capture light in the hope of mimicking
natural systems" remarkable ability to convert
light into energy. The EU's Joint Opportunities
for Unconventional or Long-Term Energy Supply
(JOULE) programme is supporting several
networks of laboratories working to improve the
technology of photovoltaic cells.
Innovations in fuel cells are expected to lower
the cost of producing electricity dramatically.
Over a ten-year timespan, it could initially come
down to about a third of the present cost of
producing scaar electricity. At this level, solar
energy woul
be more competitive and more
viable as a si gnificant power source for remote
areas, or in countries soch as Japan where
production costs are high because of a lack of
raw materials. By 2010, it is predicted that costs
;n to a level where solar electricity
will have fall
through mass
is economy
manufacturin
may be a truly viable and economic alternative to
traditional fcrms of electricity production in
most countries.
One facto' in favour of solar,power is that
environments 1 problems associated with tradi-
tional power stations are likely to lead to both
higher generating costs and restrictions on
output, which will narrow the price differential.
Advocates of solar power believe it can become
fully cost-coripetitive using existing technology
production: they argue that the key
of scale, in other words, a
;, not a technology issue.
Growing activity
Certainly, some major companies are taking
solar power more seriously. Two United States
firms, for ins :anee, have formed a joint venture
to build the world's biggest solar farm: a 100-
megawatt fa
solar panels
:ility using more than a million
that will be built in the Nevada
costs of the
Desert over the next 15 years. This kind of mass
production, the companies believe, will cut the
:lectricity to a price per kilowatt-
hour that compares favourably with other fuels.
Other United States manufacturers have
announced plans to build up to ten solar plants,
in Germany
provide up to
:r cent of the total output going to
untries.
with 70-80 p
developing c<
Solar thernal systems sire widely used for
water and spice heating throughout the world.
More than a nillion homes in the United States
have solar-po1 vered heaters. Over 1,000 buildings
ind Switzerland have been solar-
powered undc r government-funded programmes.
In the Middle East, rooftop solar collectors
65 per cent of the energy needed to
image:
EUSKO JAURLARITZA Qlgflgitg GOBIERNO VASCO
LUBRAtDEANTOUMENDU, 'SS Wr DEPARTAMEWTO DE ORDENACION
ETXEBlZrrZAETAlNGURUGIROSAItA ~tc*oa"~ DELTERRtTORlO, VIVIENDAYMEDIOAMBIENTE
EUSKADI-PAYS BASQUE MEDIO AMBIENTE
An Environmentally Friendly Technology
Agenda for the Basque Country
In a time of rapid and spectacular technological and economic change, the challenge
is to find innovative solutions to both current and future problems.
Nowhere are these solutions needed more than in protecting Nature — once
considered an inexhaustible resource, but now seen to be vulnerable and at risk.
We must protect the environment for our own sakes, and for our descendants' sakes.
We have a moral obligation to hand over to them a world they can live in. The
environment is a common heritage for all humankind: we are not its capricious
owners — we are merely in charge of managing it. We have no right to waste and
deprive our children — and their children — of the resources they will need when they
take on that responsibility.
The way forward is through sustainable development. But it requires determination
and commitment to introduce and implement the right policies and programmes —
and it also demands the active involvement of all sectors of society.
That is what the Basque Country is aiming to achieve. The Basque Country has
carried out an accelerated modernizing process during the past 20 years, and as a
land of fragile ecosystems, it knows, at first hand, the dilemma of balancing
development and environmental needs.
The Basque Country is committed to achieving the goals of Agenda 21, through plans
and projects that include the use of specific technologies adapted to scarce natural
resources and very diverse ecosystems — and to achieving them at regional level.
image:
The self-governing region of the Basque Country is determined to make environmental awareness
and improvements an integral part of the region's overall industrial structure with its priority being
to promote environmentally sound technology solutions.
These solutions are the focus of the activities of the Department of Housing,'Regional Planning
and the Environment, The Department — which has overall management of the region's
environment and coordinates activities aimed at preventing pollution and protecting natural
resources - has been given the responsibility for preparing an Environmental Policy.
The key to developing a successful Environmental Policy has been the Department's close working
relationship with the different social agencies and, in particular, with the business sector.
The Department - with the support of the Sociedad Publica de Gestion Ambiental IHOBE, S.A.
(Public Environmental Management Company) — has created programmes and specific projects
aimed at the introduction of environmentally clean technologies, the minimization of production
processes, the correct management of waste materials and the reclamation of contaminated land.
As a result, the Association of Environmental Industries (ACLIMA) has been established with the
purpose of improving competitiveness of the eco-industrial sector in the Basque Autonomous
Region by implementing a philosophy of respect for the environment.
Within this framework the Department has prepared an Environ-mentally Friendly Technological
Agenda for the Basque Region, focusing on ten key areas:
• Green services and products
• Control, monitoring and instrumentation
• Polluted land
• Industrial waters
• Urban waters
• Evaluation and treatment of waste materials
« Urban solid waste
• Dismantling and recycling
• Air and noise pollution
• Cleaner production in industrial sectors (electrolytic coating processes, paint and foundry sectors).
The Department believes that these areas are indispensable to the future economic development of
the Basque Region.
Contact: Esther Larranaga/Alexander Boto
Tel: 34 (4) 423 0743 - Fax: 34 (4) 423 5900
E-mail: ihobe002@sarenet.es - Web page: http//www.ihobe.es
image:
heat domestic hot water. Solar water heating is
also widely used in Australia, Israel and Japan.
Off-grid photovoltaic systems for household
lighting, water pumping and other small-scale
uses are also proliferating in countries like the
Dominican Republic, Colombia, Mexico, Sri
Lanka, Zimbabwe and Kenya (where more rural
homes receive electricity from photovoltaics
than from the grid). In the United Kingdom, the
government has helped finance the conversion
of a building in Newcastle-upon-Tyne into the
country's first solar-powered office block. The
government believes that office buildings could
generate a third of their electricity needs from
photovoltaic cladding. One of Europe's biggest
photovoltaic power stations, in Germany's Ruhr
Valley, uses solar cells covering nearly 2,500
square metres of roof space and can contribute
225 kilowatts at peak power to the building's
energy needs.
Overall, the world market for solar power is
small at present. Photovoltaic cells capable of
generating about 83 megawatts (enough to
power a small city such as Oxford in the United
Kingdom) were produced in 1995, yet some
forecasts say the industry can grow to 1,600
megawatts by the year 2010 and be worth more
than US$7 billion a year. In industrialized
countries, solar power could expand through
grid-connected applications where photovoltaic-
generated electricity can be fed back to the
national grid. In the short term, however, the
more likely applications will capitalize on the
main advantage of photovoltaic generation:
power generation at the point of use, avoiding
distribution and transmission costs.
The United States Department of Energy has
established a joint US$500 million, six-year
programme with the utilities, aimed at doubling
the numbers integrating photovoltaic products
and services into their mainstream businesses.
This in turn would double the sale of solar
products, leading to the level of high-volume
production mat could reduce costs significantly.
The programme includes both large-scale sys-
tems which feed power directly into the electric •
grid, and cost-effective, grid-independent appli-
cations ranging in size from a few watts to
several hundred watts. The utilities are attracted
to solar power because photovoltaic systems
generate surpluses during peak daytime hours,
creating an energy pool that the power com-
panies can tap into. In a 1996 survey of United
States consumers, a significant proportion said
they were prepared to pay a premium on their
monthly electricity bills to help fund solar
energy programmes.
Japan is promoting photovoltaics through its
'sunshine* renewable energy programme to
reduce dependence on nuclear power, and
imported oil and gas. The government is running
a pilot project involving 1,200 homes to assess
how much of a household's energy needs can be
met with the latest solar systems. Japan says that
new energy sources will account for 2 per cent
of its energy requirements by the year 2000 and
3 per cent by 2010. The European Commission
has called for EU production of electricity from
renewables to be trebled by 2010.
Enormous potential
Connecting homes to the grid is much more
expensive in rural than in urban areas, due to
lower load densities, lower capacity utilization
rates and often higher energy losses. Solar home
systems (photovoltaic systems designed for
home use) can help by providing lighting and
other services to large numbers of households
which are either poorly serviced by existing
energy sources (batteries, diesel engines, kero-
sene, candles, wood), or have no service at all.
A typical solar home system consists of a
20-100 peak watts photovoltaic array, a
rechargeable battery for energy storage, a
battery charge controller, one or more lights
(generally fluorescent), an outlet for a
television, radio/cassette player or other low
power-consuming appliance, switches and
164
image:
The costs of fuel cells to convert
solar energy are expected to fall
to about a third of current levels
in the next decade.
image:
HbNtWAtM-t hNtHUY I fcUHNULULilta
BOX 9.4
Choosing the right projects
The ability to Identify those energy projects with a good chance
of success is particularly important when demands on funds
are heavy. It is especially relevant for judging renewable energy
schemes against conventional ones.
The United Kingdom Department of Trade and Industry's Energy
Technology Support Unit has analysed successful renewabtes
projects Including wind power, small-scale hydro power, solar
photovoltalcs, solar thermal, biogas, direct combustion of biomass
and co-generation, and identified 53 critical success factors,
Universal critical success factors are essential features without
which no project will succeed. They include the use of proven
designs or performance guarantees; the existence of an
acceptable economic analysis and financial package;
a dear identification of social need; and legislative, political
and regulatory frameworks in place. Suitable staff,
materials, infrastructure and flexible tariff systems are
also necessary.
Funding bodies may be bilateral or multilateral aid organizations,
government specialist agencies or development banks. Their
programmes should be Independent of day-to-day political
Involvement, while remaining compatible with government
strategy. Renewabtes proposals must avoid conflict with wider
development plans. Schemes should be targeted where a
positive return is possible, and markets should be encouraged to
'puH in* appropriate technologies. Agencies should ensure that
schemes rely on market forces, not subsidies, and managing
agencies, responsible for seeing projects through, should
motivate their staff, give them clear goals and encourage
competitive energy markets.
Providing basic energy services to communities is a specific niche
energy market. Involving the community is important: its members
should be able to repair and develop the chosen technologies. The
range of customers should be as broad as possible. Assessments
of any scheme should take social as well as economic
considerations into account and where targeted Incentives are
needed they should be planned for phase-out. Rural electrification
schemes are another niche market: they should be free from day-to-
day government Interference and competition should be introduced
early on. The programme should also encourage local employment,
and develop education, training and infrastructure.
The abity of the selected technology to offer benefits in addition to
meeting energy needs should be considered. The intermittent nature
of wind, solar and hydro power can become a problem, so resource
availability and demand patterns need to be balanced. As the energy
market grows, developers must be able to make informed choices
between conventional and renewables technologies.
wires. They are safer and more convenient than
using kerosene or batteries, or burning wood or
candles, and more popular with users. They
also reduce reliance on expensive imported
fuels. The World Bank says they can offer the
most economical means to provide lighting and
power for small appliances in sparsely settled
and remote areas. Even in areas which one day
may be connected to the grid, they can serve as
an effective interim measure.
The World Bank estimates that there are
500,000 solar home systems installed world-
wide in countries such as Brazil, China,
Indonesia, Kenya, Mexico and Sri Lanka. And
the potential demand is considerable: a million
households in Indonesia and 300,000 in Sri
Lanka, for example. However, solar home
systems "do not yet have broad market accept-
ance, and face significant barriers to widespread
diffusion", according to the World Bank. The
main obstacle is their initial purchase price. The
World Bank has called for "adequate financing
arrangements, geared to low and middle-income
households". Otherwise, solar home systems
"cannot play a significant role in rural
electrification".
Wind power
Wind has long been utilized for pumping water
and other mechanical uses. Now, wind turbines
are being built in many countries to generate
either grid-connected or independent power, and
wind power is the world's fastest growing
energy source. Worldwide, installed capacity in
1996 reached 6,190 megawatts, 1,200 mega-
watts more than in 1995, and a 24 per cent
increase over 1994. The American Wind
Energy Association (AWEA) forecasts that
nearly 30,000 megawatts of new capacity,
representing a market share worth at least
US$30 billion, will be installed worldwide over
the next decade.
The biggest wind power market today is
Europe, which in 1995 had 2,420 megawatts of
166
image:
RENEWABLE ENERGY TECHNOLOGIES
installed capacity, compared to 1,700 megawatts
in the United States. The market in Asia is also
growing fast, particularly in India, where 500
megawatts of capacity was installed in 1995. In
Europe, Denmark and Germany are the leaders,
but the United Kingdom has the best technical
potential, with more than 126 terawatt (thousand
billion watt) hours of onshore wind energy
available to be harnessed every year. Europe's
biggest wind farm came on line in 1996 in mid-
Wales. The US$42 million facility will generate
enough electricity to power 25,000 homes at a
price competitive with that from conventional
energy sources.
Wind resources are sufficient to produce
thousands of megawatts of power in Asia and
Latin America, especially along coasts, in
western China, parts of India, north-east and
south Brazil, the Andes and northern Africa. In
these regions, small stand-alone systems are
especially suitable for remote areas with no
access to an electricity grid.
The technology has improved considerably in
recent years. Turbine capacities for individual
mills have risen from 75 kilowatts to those now
commercially available in the 1-1.5 megawatt
range, and reliability is close to 99 per cent.
Bigger, more efficient turbines and greater
production volumes have cut the cost of wind-
produced electricity by 30-50 per cent since
1990. In some countries, it is approaching the
cost of fossil fuels. Among the various
renewable energies, wind is probably the most
economically viable.
There may be public resistance to the
sighting of onshore wind energy schemes. A
wind farm of hundreds, even thousands of
machines can be unsightly, while the turbines
are also noisy and can affect television
reception and communication signals up to 4
kilometres away. The British Wind Energy
Association reported in 1996 that in the
previous year and a half, 17 out of 22 wind
schemes had been rejected by local councils in
BOX 9.5
Denmark - a toorld leader
Denmark is a world leader in wind power technology: Danish
companies have produced more than a third of the world's wind
turbines. At home, wind energy has been one of the main planks of
the country's strategy of reducing reliance on imported oil. In 1993,
wind supplied 3 per cent of Denmark's electricity and the aim is to
raise this figure to 10 per cent by the year 2000. One important point
is that commercial banks in Denmark see wind turbines as a sound
investment and are willing to finance them. The growth of wind
power is also a result of deliberate government policies creating
incentives to invest and guarantees so that banks would participate.
In India, too, there has been considerable interest from private
investors [n commercial wind farms following the success of a pilot
programme, initiated by the government in 1986. India faces an
electricity shortfall of 10,000 megawatts and already the power
shortage is hrtting the national economy. Wind energy is seen as one
way to overcome this. The potential for wind-powered electricity
generation in India has been put at 20,000 megawatts, though some
estimates place it as high as 50,000 megawatts.
the United Kingdom because local residents
found the wind turbines inappropriate for the
landscape. The alternative is to mount wind
turbines offshore. In 1991, Danish engineers
completed the world's first offshore wind farm,
in shallow water near Lolland Island. The
Vindeby station has 11. 460-kilowatt wind
turbines, connected to the grid by undersea
cable. They can generate about 10 million
kilowatt-hours of electricity every year.
The AWEA expects Europe to continue to
dominate worldwide installations over the next
ten years, accounting for nearly half the
predicted new capacity. Indeed, the EU plans that
wind power will supply 2 per cent of electricity
demand in 2005, which would allow seven
1,000-megawatt coal-fired plants to be decom-
missioned and reduce carbon dioxide emissions
by 30 million tonnes a year. The AWEA points
out that "a price shock of any significant size (to
fossil fuel prices) would shift the projections of
wind capacity up considerably".
image:
HCEEE
Estado
de TodcB
RIO GRANDE DO SUL
SEGRETAHIA DE ENERGIA,
MINAS E COMUNICAgOES.
PROTECTING BRAZIL'S NATURAL RESOURCES
Brazil's natural resources are special - which
imposes a particular duty on those industries
within the country to protect them.
CEEE, Companhia Estadua! de Energia
EI6trica, a public utility responsible for the
generation, distribution and transmission of
electric power in the State of Rio Grande do
Sul, is fulfilling its responsibility to the
region's environment.
CEEE was one of the founder members of the
Comites do Meio Ambiente e do Sector
EI<§trico (COMASE) - the authority which
enforces environmental regulation - and has
had an environmental poiicy since 1988.
Evidence of CEEE's commitment to caring for
Brazil's natural environment is demonstrated
by its reforestation and restoration
programmes for mined areas and reservoir
borders, and maintaining a greenhouse for
2,000,000 exotic, native plants.
So, too, is the Dona Francisca hydroelectric
development scheme - where CEEE has
adopted a pioneering approach, working
with the local community to transport and
relocate local wildlife 200 kilometres away
from the project.
Protecting the State of Rio Grande do Sul is
more important than ever as demand for
electricity increases rapidly.
With its 2,750,000 consumers, electricity
consumption is currently 3,380 MW/year
and forecast to rise by 5 percent a year, so
CEEE is investing heavily in new generation
and transmission capabilities to add
another 3,375 MW to its system.
Two parts of its power distribution
network - the North-Northeast and
Centre-West regions - are to be privatized
and the State Government will invite bids
later this year.
Even so, CEEE will remain a major force in
the region - providing the means to fuel
future development, whilst continuing to
safeguard a very special environment.
CEEE
For more information: tel. 00 55 51 334-52-75 / 53-78 fax 00 55 51 382-46-07
Rua Joaquim Porto Villanova, 201 Pr<§dio C sala 720- CEP: 91.410.400 Brazil
image:
RENEWABLE ENERGY TECHNOLOGIES
Micro-hydro power
About 9 per cent of the world's hydro potential
has been developed already, providing about 23
per cent of the world's 375,000-megawatt total
installed electricity capacity. Water power
already accounts for 60 per cent of electricity
capacity in Switzerland and almost 100 per cent
in Norway. A big proportion of this electricity is
produced by large schemes. But micro-hydro is
becoming increasingly important.
There is no agreed size of system for hydro to
be classified as micro-hydro. But the term is
mostly used for hydro systems rated from a few
hundred watts to about 300-kilowatt capacity,
which is about the maximum size for most
stand-alone hydro systems not connected to a
grid. Moreover, 300 kilowatts is also about the
maximum size suitable for run-of-the-river
installation.
Micro-hydro is one of the most environ-
mentally benign energy conversion options
available. It can be implemented much more
easily than large-scale hydro power because it
does not interfere significantly with river flows
and offers a number of advantages:
='-J as long as there is a reasonable head, it is a
concentrated energy resource;
:£ the energy available is predictable, though
variable;
":; running costs are low because no fuel and
only limited maintenance are needed;
;-t it is a long-lasting and robust technology:
systems can last for 50 years or more,
without requiring major new investment.
Yet there are shortcomings. It is a site-
specific technology and sites need to be close to
the water supply and to where the power can be
economically exploited. There is always a
maximum useful power output available from a
given hydro power site, which limits the
activities that make use of the power. River
flows often vary considerably, which can limit
the reliable power output to a small fraction of
the possible peak output. Lack of familiarity
with the technology and how to use it inhibits its
use. The cheapest micro-hydro systems are
locally built and can cost as little as US$200 per
kilowatt, though most fall within a capital cost
range of US$1,000-4,000 per kilowatt.
Micro-hydro power is a well-developed
technology, which has been applied worldwide
at a large number of sites. Micro-hydro power
stations are common in China, and Pakistan also
has long experience with small systems, some as
small as 5 kilowatts. Tea plantations in the
mountains of Sri Lanka often get their electricity
supply from their own small power station in a
nearby river. The technology is also well
established in other countries, including Brazil,
India and Nepal. Considerable technological
development took place in the 1970s and 1980s,
particularly in the area of electronics and control
systems. These developments have helped make
micro-hydro'technology even more reliable and
realistic. However, only about 10 per cent of the
developing world's potential small hydro
capacity has been exploited. Unused capacity is
greatest in China and Latin America.
Biomass
Biomass is an energy source which uses certain
crops, including wood or crop wastes, either
directly as fuels or as a fermentable source of
other fuels, such as alcohol or methane. It is a
renewable and locally available resource, and
falls broadly into three categories: woody bio-
mass, agricultural and agro-industry residues,
and animal wastes.
Woody biomass is obtained from natural and
cultivated forests, and agro-forestry. Agricultural
residues include rice straw, wheat straw, mustard
stalks, cotton sticks and jute sticks. In developing
countries these residues are harvested at the
village level and used essentially as either fodder
or cooking fuel. Some biomass residues such as
sawdust, groundnut shells, bagasse and coffee
husks, are products of agro-industries. The most
prominent animal waste is cattle dung, used both
image:
BOX 9.6
The Swedish experience with
biomass
Btomass fuels have made a big comeback in Sweden, after falling out
of favour after the Second World War, and today meet 18 per cent of
the countr/s total energy demand. The comeback is a result of:
S the large Increase in oil prices during the 1970s;
.? concern about the environmental impacts of fossil fuels;
.•' controversy over Sweden's nuclear power programme.
The large-scale use of biomass fuels has Increased from about
SO terawatt-hours in 1980 to 84 terawatt-hours in 1995, a 7 per cent
shift in the national energy balance and one of the best examples of
a successful switch from fossil fuels to renewable energy In the
Industrialized world.
The Stockholm Environment Institute says this success is due to
coordinated government support for research, training and
Investment in new technologies to enable them to compete with
established traditional technologies In an uncertain market.
Government incentives have included subsidies for investments in
installations using indigenous fuels and special taxes to discourage
the use of fossil fuels In some applications.
The Institute maintains that Sweden's experience with biomass offers
Important lessons for Africa where, "with proper management of
biomass resources, there fs large scope for Instance for electric
power generation from biomass on a sustainable basis". It says the
technologies exist, but institutional barriers need to be overcome,
and governments In Africa must establish long-term policies to
promote renewable energy technologies.
as ftiel and fertilizer. Using biomass can help
reduce greenhouse gas emissions In two ways:
sustainably harvested biomass produces no net
emissions, and biomass can also act as a
substitute for commercial fossil fuels.
There are two main ways of converting
biomass into useful forms of energy: bio-
chemical and thennochemical. The biochemical
route is a low-energy process and relies on
bacteria to degrade complex molecules of
biomass into simpler ones. The production of
biogas (a mixture of methane and carbon
dioxide;) from animal dung by anaerobic
digestion is the most important example of this
process (see the section on biogas below). In
thermochemical methods, the biomass is raised
to high temperatures and, depending on the
quantity of oxygen supplied, processes such as
pyrolysis, combustion and gasification occur.
Burning biomass directly in stoves and open
fires supplies a high level of oxygen. Pyrolysis
and gasification occur when there are lower
rates of oxygen supply, for example, preparing
charcoal from wood and burning municipal
solid waste.
Under specific conditions of temperature
and oxygen supply, a gaseous mixture rich in
carbon monoxide and hydrogen is formed. This
process is called thermal gasification. This gas
has a high calorific value and can be used to
drive dual fuel engines or diesel engines. A
gasifief used together with a diesel engine is
essentially a device for saving on diesel.
However, petrol engines can run completely on
producer gas, though there is some loss of
power, and diesel or petrol still need to be used
to start the engines. For example, during the
Second World War an estimated 800,000
vehicles were running on producer gas. The gas
can also be burned directly in an industrial oil-
fired boiler.
An advanced technology that could allow
electricity to be produced from plantation
biomass is the biomass integrated gasifier/
combined cycle. Although this technology is not
as advanced as coal integrated gasifier/
combined cycle technology, several demon-
stration projects are under way. Its potential for
competing with gasifier/eombined cycle tech-
nology is promising because much of what has
been learned in developing the coal technology
can be transferred to the biomass version. The
biomass integrated gasifier/combined cycle
would also facilitate decentralized rural electrifi-
cation and industrialization, a potential power-
market driver in itself.
170
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RENEWABLE ENERGY TECHNOLOGIES
Biomass in developing countries
Until the industrial revolution, wood supplied
most of the world's energy. Today, it still
provides more than 10 per cent, and biomass is
the main source of non-commercial energy in
developing countries, especially in rural areas,
and the fourth biggest energy resource world-
wide. In many African states it provides over
50 per cent of industrial energy, particularly for
small and medium-sized industries.
In India, there are already a number of small
wood gasifier systems in operation. Recent
studies indicate that the biomass available there,
excluding animal residues, could support electric
power plants up to 17,000 megawatts. A research
project, funded by the EU, is developing an
original method of generating electricity using a
burner which gasifies biomass at almost 1,000
degrees C. This process could produce electricity
with a yield of almost 30 per cent, which would
make it economically competitive.
One issue is the availability of wood from
forests. The use of wood as a domestic and
industrial energy source is one cause of
deforestation, and large amounts of wood are
wasted. Moreover, if biomass is used unsus-
tainably (without replanting) there will be a
significant release of stored carbon in the form
of carbon dioxide. But there is an enormous
volume of agricultural and mill residues
available. The United Nations Industrial
Development Organization (UMDO) has been
running a special programme, initially in Ghana,
Tanzania and Uganda, to promote increased
efficiency in present biomass use by industry
and to encourage users to substitute agricultural
residues for wood.
Another issue is the economics of biomass.
These seem promising, especially where bio-
mass is available at no or negligible cost: for
instance, there is no shortage of forestry residues
throughout Africa, Asia and Latin America.
Moreover, growing crops especially for energy
production by planting trees on marginal lands
BOX 9.7
Heating homes from straw
Biomass projects in Denmark are providing clean and reliable heating
for homes and a welcome source of income for farmers.
In Haslem, Denmark, the local electricity utility runs a straw-burning
plant that heats schools, factories and about 2,000 homes. The plant
burns 28,000 tonnes of straw a year, producing enough hot-water
heat to meet all the community's needs in summer and about
70 per cent of demand in winter. It also exports 5 megawatts of
electricity to the grid. The straw-fired plant cost US$14 million
to build and another US$2 million was invested in the heat
transmission system. Measures to reduce pollution accounted
for a third of total costs.
Another community heating plant at Feldrin bums woodchip and
bark. The fully automatic facility burns 6,500 tonnes every year and
provides hot water to about 500 residents through a 24-kilometre
pipeline. It cost US$1 million to, build in 1986 and was financed by
consumers. They either pay a lump sum, or pay according to how
much heat they use.
not currently used for food would greatly
expand potential capacity. The wood could be
burned directly in a wood-fired power plant, or
converted to ethanol. The WorldWatch Institute
has calculated that trees planted on marginal,
unused cropland in the United States could yield
as much as 265 million barrels of ethanol each
year, equivalent to 10 per cent of United States
gasoline consumption.
Some problems
Using biomass is not without problems. For
instance, there needs to be a continuous flow of
gases and biomass for the gasifier to work
properly, but the ash content in biomass fuels
turns to clinker during the process and can
block the production of gas. Ash removal
systems add to the cost and complexity of the
whole system. The phenomenon of arch form-
ation also causes difficulties. Here some of the
fuel is consumed rapidly, leaving a hollow
space above the air entry zone in the system.
image:
tESCELSA
__ rOSANTOCENTRAISELETRlCASS.A.
OUR COMMITMENT TO EARTH'S LIFE
Espfrito Santo Centrais EIe"trieas S.A, - ESCELSA
— is an electricity utility in Brazil. Since 1968 we
have distributed electric power in the state of
Espfrito Santo in the south-east region, and since
November 1997 we have been responsible for the
power supply to the state of Mato Grosso do Sul in
the central-west region.
Supplying power is a long-term issue, so we arc
used to thinking long-term — and the most
important long-term matter is life on Earth, In all
our activities - generation, transmission and
distribution — we are committed to the
environment, and therefore to life.
Our first choice of power supply is renewable
resources. That is why we have developed ten
small hydroelectric power plants. We are
examining integrated micro hydroelectric plants -
less than 1,000 kW installed capacity - as a
solution for some areas we serve with electricity.
And we import 80 percent of our needs from large
, hydroelectric power plants, like Itaipu and others -
also renewable energy sources.
.Because we consider renewable sources first,
before turning to non-renewable ones, we are
continuing to look for renewable sources
everywhere. Our search includes participating in
the development of hydraulic potentials, especially
those located in or near the areas we service, such
as in Mato Grosso do Sul.
Natural gas is another option. We have increased
our reserves significantly, and introduced natural
gas into our plans for future power generation.
Using locally produced natural gas means we can
generate electricity nearer the load centres,
reducing losses and environmental impact. And by
using natural gas from petroleum resources, we
transform an environmental problem into a solution
- electric power.
In the thermal area, we are proposing to use high-
efficiency machines which will reduce losses and
lead to less exchange of energy within the
environment.
As an energy service company, we are also
committed to efficient usage and preservation of
natural resources. Our programmes in this area
include: diagnostic services for industrial and
commercial customers, and public lighting;
appropriate handling of residuals from some
insulating oils; using space cables in urban areas to
prevent damage to trees; upgrading old
hydroelectric plants to improve their efficiency;
and reforesting river borders.
And, in another contribution to sustainable
development and to Earth's life, we are supporting
elementary schooJs
in teaching young
people how to use
electrical energy in
a rational and
efficient way.
Francisco Luiz
Sibut Gomide,
President
Rua Sete de Setembro, 362 - Centra'
Cep. 29.015-000, Vitoria - E.S. - Brasil
Tei No: 00 55 27 223-2323 Fax No: 00 55 27 222-8650
E-mail: fgomide@escelsa.com.br
image:
RENEWABLE ENERGY TECHNOLOGIES
This stops the biomass falling into the
combustion zone. With no fuel supply, and only
air supply, the gas quality can deteriorate
rapidly, until the production of gas stops
completely.
About half the people in the world cook all or
some of their meals with biomass, mainly
firewood; and biomass in all its forms - wood,
agricultural and forestry residues, and dung -
meets about 14 per cent of the world's energy
demands. In developing countries, it accounts
for 35 per cent of energy supplies, more than is
met by coal, gas, oil or hydro power. However,
using biomass fuels for cooking causes high
levels of indoor air pollution, often far above
safe levels. The World Health Organization and
the World Bank have reported that this pollution
is responsible for many acute respiratory
infections, and deaths from them, in developing
countries. While biomass for industrial energy is
an attractive option for businesses in Africa and
elsewhere, developing countries are looking for
a cleaner, safer alternative to biomass fuels for
household use, specifically for cooking. Biogas
may be an answer.
Biogas
Biogas production is a natural phenomenon:
when plant and animal matter decay in the
absence of air, the action of certain bacteria
produces an inflammable gas. Biogas tech-
nology consists of the production of a combus-
tible gas (biogas) and a value-added fertilizer
(sludge) by the anaerobic fermentation of
organic materials under controlled temperature
and other conditions.
The first attempts to recover and use biogas
from sewage and animal wastes were made in
Europe and the United States in the 1920s.
China had its first biogas plant in 1936. There
was an increase in biogas-related activities
during the 1970s, when two basic biogas plant
designs (an Indian model with a floating
gasholder and a Chinese alternative with a fixed
BOX 9.8
From distillery wastes to biogas
A large-scale biogas plant in China has achieved impressive results in
processing wastes from a nearby distillery and other local factories
and is an example of successful technology cooperation. The Beijing
Solar Energy Research Institute asked the United Nations Industrial
Development Organization (UNIDO) to help with the project, which in
turn involved experts from Germany and Denmark to build and test
the plant, completed in 1993.
The plant has two 400-cubic metre digesters next to the distillery at
Daxing. The distillery waste is highly organic and was previously
disposed of in water, using up the dissolved oxygen, killing fish and
river life. Now the liquid waste is pumped into pre-storage tanks,
then to the digesters, which are concrete tanks with mixers, heating
coils and biogas outlets. The biogas is stored in a dome. The plant
also treats wastes from a jam factory and oil production.
This biogas plant can treat 10 tonnes of industrial waste a day,
producing 2,000-3,000 cubic metres of biogas. The yield is 35
kilojoules of renewable energy per litre of biogas. The project has
produced a number of beneficial results:
a marked reduction in water pollution from the distillery and other
local industries;
a reduction in the use of coal for local domestic energy
production;
. major cuts in methane emissions;
the transfer of technology, skills and understanding which will
considerably improve Beijing's capability to design and operate
other large-scale biogas plants to treat industrial waste and
produce renewable energy.
dome) were developed and field tested. This
accelerated the production of biogas in those
countries and also led to the spread of the
technology to other Asian countries. At that
stage, animal dung was considered the main, if
not the only input material, and most of the
plants were family-sized units attached to rural
households. The fertilizer potential of the sludge
was not fully recognized either.
The input for biogas production can be any
organic material. The most commonly used are
human and animal wastes, agricultural crop
image:
RENEWABLE hNhHUY I tUHNULUUItS
BOX 9.9
A "definite sustainable option "
The viage of Dhanawas is about 45 kilometres from Delhi. Around
64 per cent of the 151 households had electricity, but it was
unreliable and erratic. For example, though the village was electrified,
there was not a single streetlight. Eighty per cent of the total energy
use in the village was for cooking and heating water, and only 2 per
cent of households used electricity for these needs. The main fuels
were dung cakes and crop residues.
In 1985, biogas technology was introduced in Dhanawas. The
introduction was progressive, partly for cost reasons and partly
because plant designs ware adapted and modified to reduce costs
and Improve gas production rates. There was some initial resistance
from villagers but by 1994 there were 20 plants installed and others
being built.
Those with biogas use it inside the kitchen as a clean fuel substitute
for liquid petroleum gas and kerosene. Significantly, the success of
the scheme In Dhanawas led to people from neighbouring villages
vlsiling the plants. The Tata Energy Research Institute reported that
"biogas technology has emerged as a definite sustainable option to
meet the cooking energy requirements in and around Dhanawas".
A survey showed that the biogas generation potential for the village
was 237 cubic metres of gas a day. This is the maximum amount of
gas that can be generated through community gas plants. The gas
requirement for cooking is 340 litres per person a day. However, the
villagers have not been keen on biogas community plants: they
prefer Individual family-size units.
The institute stresses that key to the successful experience In
Dhanawas was proper implementation and developing a
methodology for post-installation services. Most villagers carry out
minor repairs themselves, which has helped to dispel doubts about
servicing problems.
residues, aquatic plants, and industrial and
municipal solid wastes. The output, biogas, is a
mixture of methane, carbon dioxide and hydro-
gen sulphide, with traces of hydrogen, nitrogen
and carbon monoxide. The gas is non-
poisonous, does not smell, and burns with a
clean blue sootless flame. It is a safe source of
fuel that is presently used for cooking, lighting
and powering engines.
The potential of biogas technology is in the
simultaneous generation of fuel, fertilizer and
feed from the same organic material. The
benefits for individuals can be clean, efficient
cooking and better lighting, as well as
improved health by eliminating smoking fuels,
and even saving the time spent on collecting
firewood. At the community level, biogas is a
possible source of power for small-scale, agro-
industries and can reduce pollution from
human and animal waste. The long-term
national attraction is that it can mean savings in
foreign currency spent on kerosene and
chemical fertilizers, reduce the need for
expensive distribution of energy in rural areas,
and minimize environmental pollution.
Not without difficulties
There sere, however, some difficulties associated
with biogas production. The capital cost of a
biogas plant, plus the maintenance and repair
charges, are usually beyond the means of an
average farmer, and even with government
loans and subsidies there is still the temptation
for fanners to put other needs (livestock,
pumps, etc.) first. This raises the question of
whether there is sufficient motivation for a
small farmer to install a biogas plant. The fact
that biogas is a clean, convenient fuel, and the
biogas system environmentally sound, is not
necessarily sufficient reason. Neither does
biogas automatically save energy. Moreover,
the amount of food that can be cooked by it is
less than can be cooked using dung cakes.
Ensuring a steady supply of biogas for any one
type of domestic fuel need can also pose
problems. For instance, seasonal temperature
variations can slow down the pace of biogas
production and closing down the system for
maintenance or repairs interrupts gas supplies
for cooking and lighting. There is reportedly
quite a large failure rate of the fixed dome
biogas plants, as a result of cracking. Both
'under-feeding' and 'over-feeding' can reduce
and even halt the gas production. The biogas
plant's main attraction for the farmer is
probably as a source of fertilizer.
174
image:
Small-scale renewable energy
production, like this blogas plant, will
help provide much-needed energy in
the developing world.
image:
HtNtVWHLt ewcnu I I com M
The international community
ought to give special attention
to promoting the transfer of
environmental technologies,
a pivotal task in ;
environmental cooperation
Kim Young Sam,
President of the Republic of Korea
Transfer of environmentally
sound technologies is crucial
to the success of Agenda 21
-°
Dato' Law Hieng Ding, ,
Minister of Science,
Technology and the Environment, Malaysia
fc, I leave here with
>; the fear that
unless we all act
now with a
renewed
commitment,
my country and
many like it would
neither have a
voice nor a seat
at a future Rio
Maumoon Abdul Gayoom,
President of the Maldives
Increasingly popular
Even with the difficulties outlined previously,
biogas technology is becoming increasingly
popular in developed and developing nations
alike. In many African and Latin American
countries, it is being pursued as a rural
technology for producing energy and fertilizer,
while industrialized countries are turning to it for
pollution control and large-scale energy produc-
tion. Altogether, the technology is being
promoted in more than 45 countries. The EU's
JOULE programme includes a number of research
and development projects aiming, for instance, to
increase the sustainable, use of biomass for
electricity production and fuel manufacture by
developing thermochemical conversion.
In many countries,- progress is well
advanced. In Brazil, where a National Biogas
Programme was launched in 1978, there is now
a total of 50,000 operational rural biogas
plants. Demonstration programmes in Pakistan
have generated a demand for 15,000 plants, and
nearly 500 family-size facilities have been
installed in Pakistan. Countries in Africa are
working on adapting the available know-how
to suit their agro-climatic and feedstock
conditions. Dairy farmers in the United States
are investing in biogas plants as an extra farm
profit centre. A series of experimental and
demonstration plants of various sizes has been
installed in Belgium since 1978. Denmark is
focusing its efforts on developing biogas
generation from farm wastes with the aim of
making large farms self-sufficient in energy,
Italy has more than 70 agricultural plants built
or planned: the largest takes wastes from 24
176
image:
RENEWABLE ENERGY TECHNOLOGIES
farms to produce biogas for generating
electricity for irrigation.
The leaders in biogas technology and pro-
duction, however, are China and India.
Between them they have over 8.5 million
biogas plants in operation, 90 per cent of them
in China. There, for example, biogas from food
and agricultural wastes makes up nearly 50 per
cent of the gas supply to over 10 million rural
households. India has set a target of 12 million
units in place by 2001,
The Tata Energy Research Institute has
shown that using biogas instead of traditional
fuels (liquid petroleum gas and kerosene) cuts
cooking time and costs, and is a lot healthier in
terms of indoor air pollution. Its experiences in
Dhanawas (see Box 9.9) have also convinced the
institute that biogas plants are a strong
alternative to liquid petroleum gas with
"enormous significance" for India's national
economy. "In the eventuality of rural areas
becoming more and more prosperous", it states,
"the demand for liquid petroleum gas would far
exceed the supply in future, necessitating costly
imports, and development of an elaborate
network for gas distribution."
Fuel eel! power
Fuel cell technology was first used in'the. 1960s
to provide electricity for United States
spacecraft. It generates power through an
electrochemical process (a reaction between
hydrogen and oxygen) rather than combustion.
The technology is reliable, flexible in terms of
its fuel sources, and virtually pollution-free, and
can produce electricity at efficiencies greater
than in fuel combustion. It could be used in
vehicles (see Chapter 11), homes and industries
with considerable environmental benefits.
But the technology is expensive, mainly due
to the cells* high-priced parts, including some
that are made of platinum. Because of this, it is
in a relatively early stage of commercialization,
and the world's first commercial fuel cell factory
was only opened in late 1995. One company in
the United States has produced a 200-Mlowatt
phosphoric-acid fuel-cell unit and sold it to
hospitals and offices in the United States. Users
say it is more reliable than diesel generators. A
demonstration project using a 2-megawatt fuel
cell to supply energy to 1,000 homes in
California was launched in April 1996. Another
company now produces fuel cells' a tenth of the
size they were in 1989, cutting the cost because
they use much less platinum. This company is
among several working to develop fuel cell
engines for mass transit. The EU!s Solid Oxide
Fuel Cell project is planning to build a unit that
will produce 20 kilowatts of electrical power.
Further development so that cell technology
can extend beyond the present limited niches
depends on advances in electrochemistry, and
materials and membrane technology. Phosphoric
acid, molten carbonate, solid oxide and proton-
exchange membrane cells are some of the other
areas being investigated, but their viability
depends on bringing costs down, demonstrating
reliability and improving performance.
Geothermal power
Naturally occurring hot water and steam
formations already provide modest quantities of
electricity in some parts of the world. But hot
dry rock, magma and geopressurized formations
represent huge energy sources virtually
untapped at present World resources of hot dry
rock alone are estimated to be 20 times all fossil
fuel resources. Current geothermal technology
derives mainly from technologies used by the oil
and gas industry. One problem is that
geothermal exploration involves big investment
risks. Moreover, the returns from the upfront
costs of developing a geothermal field are more
gradual than from mineral extraction.
Nonetheless, geothermal is more than an
emerging technology in some parts of the world.
In the Philippines, for example, it provided 21 per
cent of the national power supply in 1992, and the
image:
E N"E C
ENECO is the Netherlands' leading utili.ty company, with
products and services in the fields of energy distribution
(gas, electricity and heat), cable television and
telecommunications, waste processing and, to a lesser
extent, electricity generation. ENECO operates in an
extremely varied home market including the world's
biggest port and industrial complex, and agricultural and
horticultural areas, as well as areas of greenhouse growers
and numerous urban centres, of which Rotterdam and The
Hague are the largest.
Through its core business ENECO has gained a lot of
experience ia design, monitoring and managing the necessary
networks and equipment for its products. High voltage grids,
high pressure natural gas grids and district heating networks
are developed by ENECO's engineering departments.
Decentralized production of electricity, combined with the
production of heat, is carried out on a small scale. At this
moment, ENECO has approximately 170 co-generation
units in operation, with a total capacity of 650 MWe.
District absorption cooling and gas expansion are examples
of innovative technologies which have been applied by
ENECO to explore new ways in the field of energy
production and distribution.
Consultancy activities are executed on behalf of the
beneficiaries of international institutes and banks, such as
the European Union, United Nations, EBRD and the World
Bank. For an optimal market and customer approach
ENECO has established ENERGY 6c TELECOM Europe
B.V., parent company of the organizations for each Central
and Eastern European country which ENECO has entered
for developing business. Energy & Telecom Czech Republic
Sro and Energy & Telecom Romania Sri are directed by
local managers.
International activities
In line with government programmes for the improvement
of environmental conditions in Central and Eastern
Europe, ENECO supports local energy efficiency measures
and develops energy resources for the future. Products and
services which are offered on the international market are:
• energy production and supply by means of combined
heat-power plants (engineering and investments)
• engineering services in the field of district heating, gas
technology and electrical designs
• technical audits, second opinion
• energy measuring, billing and collection, including the
required IT knowledge
• energy consultancy services in the field of energy
efficiency
• management consultancy in the fields of privatisation,
financial accounting, logistics.
#^ -^ f*.* i, **•* *«?",-> T'^-^SwV ,•%' t* v? ^ J * *.'
'
B
International consultancy programmes
During the last decade, ENECO has acquired experience in
the field of international consultancy and projects such as:
• environmental audit power plants - Ukraine
• management training programme — Bulgaria
• billing and collection - Russia
• training managers, district heating companies — Poland
• energy efficiency project — Moldova
• gas distribution and district heating - Lithuania and
Ukraine
• cable distribution network — St. Maarten (Caribbean)
• evaluation of quotations - Thailand/Jordan.
NV ENECO International Projects
Rivium Quadrant 75
P.O. Box 899
2900 AW Capelle a/d IJssel
The Netherlands
Phone:+31 104576972
Fax:+31 104577772
image:
RENEWABLE ENERGY TECHNOLOGIES
government has targeted 1,675 megawatts of geo-
thermal capacity over the next decade. Kenya,
one of several East African countries with sig-
nificant geothermal resources, uses them to meet
6 per cent of its generating capacity. Virtually all
the Pacific Rim countries and all those along East
Africa's Great Rift and the Mediterranean Sea are
well endowed with geothermal energy. Iceland,
Indonesia and Japan are among the countries with
the greatest potential.
Nor is interest in geothermal confined to the
developing countries. Developed countries are
active in this area, as just a few examples show.
M Thousands of families in Switzerland are
using heat trapped underneath the ground to
warm their homes using heat pumps.
ffl The Netherlands government plans to use
heat pumps or low-temperature geothermal
energy in 150,000 homes by 2000.
8$ In France, there are a number of completed
projects in Paris, Bordeaux and other regions
providing domestic heating and saving the
equivalent of 200,000 tonnes of oil each year.
ES One of the most ambitious French schemes is
in the town of Meaux, 50 kilometres east of
Paris, where four wells and a 20-kilometre
network of pipes provide heat to 10,500
homes, two hospitals, a swimming pool,
several schools, and other commercial and
public buildings. This scheme alone has
saved more than 150,000 tonnes of oil and is
expected to have a profitable life of 30 years.
But geothermal power requires a heavy initial
investment, a drawback for most developing and
many developed countries. In both the Swiss and
French cases, the projects have been possible
only with generous financial backing from the
government.
Nuclear energy
Nuclear power is an energy source already used
in many countries: in 1993 it accounted for
17 per cent of the world's electricity (23 per cent
in the Organisation for Economic Co-operation
and. Development (OECD) region). But it is a
teclinology that attracts so much controversy and
opposition that its prospects, at least in the
medium term, are extremely uncertain. There is
no disputing nuclear energy's performance as an
alternative to fossil fuels and in reducing carbon
emissions. The Worldwatch Institute estimated in
1990 that increased use of nuclear power during
the previous 15 years had displaced 298 million
tonnes of carbon emissions annually, 5 per cent
of the yearly total. Nuclear reactors also produce
negligible emissions of sulphur dioxide and
nitrogen oxides. But the technology has several
major problems, among them costs, environ-
mental risks and storage of waste.
Nuclear plants, while relatively cheap to
operate, are expensive to build. In addition,
companies face long lead times and often delays
in gaining approval, meeting environmental
safeguards and actually building the plants.
They also face the costs of disposing of
radioactive wastes and decommissioning plants
in the future. Such investments, become even
harder to justify when fossil fuel prices are low.
The other objection to nuclear power is on
safety grounds. Despite the industry's insistence
that plants are safe, serious incidents like those
at Three Mile Island arid Chernobyl have
severely undermined public confidence and
acceptance. Critics claim that the nuclear indus-
try's problems are not due to engineering
mistakes, but stem from basic unresolved
technological issues, not least the lack of an
'inherently safe' design. Even if nuclear plants
themselves were made 'inherently safe' - and
the public accepted they were1 safe - there
remain two other problems: what to do with the
nuclear waste they produce and how to decom-
mission plants at the end of their life.
At the beginning of 1993, there were 425
nuclear reactors connected to electricity grids,
using one of four main reactor technologies. The
most widely used is the pressurized light water
reactor and the next is the boiling light water
image:
SLOVENSKE
ELEKTRARNE
AIMING FOR THE LOWEST POSSIBLE
ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT
Slovenske' elektnirne a.s., created from the former
state enterprise in 1994, is responsible for electricity
production, operating the 220kV and 400kV
transmission grids, and importing, exporting and
selling electricity. The company supplies 89 percent
of electricity in the Slovak Republic, delivering to
three regional distribution companies and directly to
several major industrial enterprises.
It operates one nuclear power plant, three thermal
plants and 30 hydro power plants. A second nuclear
plant is being built, and SIovensk6 elektrarne is
participating in the construction of two hydro power
plants and one combined cycle power plant.
Slovenske" elektrdrne focuses its efforts on producing
electricity and heat with minimal environmental
impacts. The environment has priority in its
development programmes, and the company's
environmental policy objectives are to
£ comply with Slovak Republic legislation and
other regulations
% reduce negative impacts on the environment from
its own activities to the lowest level possible
@ reinforce awareness of staff of the importance of
environmental protection, and involve them
actively in environmental activities and
programmes
$ encourage customers to use electric and thermal
power rationally
9 develop relations and communication with the
public to improve mutual understanding on
environmental matters.
Slovenske elektrame; has prepared an environmental
management and audit programme to aim for
continuous environmental improvement in its
operations. Environmental technologies are playing a
central role in its ongoing drive to reduce harmful SO:,
NOx and ash emissions, including
% installing desulphurization and new fluid boiler
technology at the Novaky thermal power plant
@ replacing mechanic ash precipitators with
electrostatic precipitators at the Vojany power plant
§ using desulphurization, denitrification, fluid
boilers and turbine side technologies in the
reconstruction of the Vojany plant
e) installing monitoring equipment to ensure
continuous measurement of emissions, and
% carrying out extensive safety upgrading measures
at the Bohunice nuclear power plant.
The company also intends to develop renewable resources
- which currently account for almost 20 percent of the
total power consumption in the Slovak Republic. It has
established a specialist centre to focus on research
coordination, participation in preparing relevant
legislation, and preparing specific projects concerning
hydro and wind power stations, using solar and
geothermal energy, and harnessing biomass and biogas.
Since 1991, Slovenske elektrarne has spent more than
6 billion Sk in the environmental area, and it expects to
invest a further 15 billion Sk over the next ten years to
fulfil its commitment to the goal of generating and
supplying electricity and heat in a way that is
acceptable to the environment.
Hranifina 12
827 36 Bratislava 212, Slovenska republika
Tel. +421 7 521 7585 Fax. +421 7 569 3552
image:
RENEWABLE ENERGY TECHNOLOGIES
reactor. Both designs are based on the use of a
relatively high power density core with water as a
cooling and moderating medium. The Canadian
Deuterium Uranium (CANDU) design is a
pressurized reactor using heavy water to cool and
moderate a natural uranium core. Most existing
gas cooled reactors are based on carbon dioxide
cooling of low power density cores fuelled with
enriched or natural uranium fuel. This type of
reactor is unlikely to be deployed in the future.
Evolutionary advances
Nuclear technologies typically have a very long
lead time, so what is on the drawing board today
will not be in service until around 2010. The focus
is on evolutionary advances, rather than dramatic
breakthroughs, and the industry's goals are to
increase safety margins, simplify and reduce
building and operating costs, shorten lead times
and reduce radiation doses to people working in
nuclear plants, as well as to improve output.
Another objective is to reduce the amount of
uranium used in a reactor. One way to achieve
this could be by using mixed oxide fuel in
thermal reactors, replacing fissile uranium by
fissile plutonium. There are hopes that uranium
consumption could fall by 10-15 per cent by
2000. A number of reactor design concepts have
been advocated, with a greater use of inherent
and passive safety features. These are small and
medium-sized reactors, designed to increase
safety margins by virtually eliminating the poss-
ibility of a core melt accident. If they win public
acceptability, they could have a role to play in
district heating. Canada has already developed a
2-10 megawatt passive safety reactor speci-
fically for space heating requirements.
Another type of reactor is the high temp-
erature gas reactor, which uses a thorium/highly
enriched uranium fuel and can be cooled with
helium at temperatures high enough to produce
process heat. Past research and development
programmes have demonstrated this technology
to be feasible. The fast reactor has been
demonstrated at large prototype size and can
dramatically increase the efficiency of uranium
utilization. However, a fast reactor is currently
1.5 times more expensive to build than an
equivalent thermal reactor.
In most countries, there has now been a
complete stop or slow down in plans to install
more nuclear power generation capacity: France
and Japan are the only OECD countries publicly
committed to expanded programmes, although
the Republic of Korea is looking at nuclear
power options. Other countries, for instance
China, are also considering nuclear power. The
World Bank estimated mat in 1992 nuclear
power provided less than 1 per cent of the
energy used in developing countries and said
this share "seems unlikely to rise significantly".
The International Energy Agency says that
"even those countries with rapidly growing
economies may find the required capital
investment prohibitive". Nuclear power's main
hopes of penetrating into most developing
countries probably rest on the development and
availability of smaller, less expensive reactors
and, in the main, these are unlikely to be ready
before 2020-2030.
Thermonuclear fusion
As it is clean and has virtually inexhaustible
resources (hydrogen, and its heavy isotope,
deuterium), controlled thermonuclear fusion by
magnetic confinement looks a very promising
energy option and could, according to some
experts, become a major energy source in 50
years* time. Scientists have been trying since the
Second World War to harness the energy released
by the union of light nuclei, reactions which
occur at the heart of stars like the sun. However,
recapturing those conditions poses some difficult
experimental problems, since reactions will only
take place within a dense gas at temperatures
exceeding 100 million degrees C.
Work is moving ahead, and Joint European
Torus (JET), a tokamak or ring-shaped reactor
image:
BINACIONAL
FORGING ENERGY WITH NATURE FOR
A SUSTAINABLE FUTURE
Itaipu Binacional was created in 1973 by the
governments of Paraguay and Brazil to develop and
operate the Itaipu hydro-electric project on the Parana
River in the boundary between the two countries. The
Itaipu power plant is the largest in the world, both in
terms "of plant rated capacity {currently 12,600,000
kW and scheduled to increase to 14,000,000 kW by
the year 2001 with the addition of two more units),
and annual energy output (over 88,000 GWh tliis
year). The project supplies about 80 percent of
Paraguay's total electric energy needs and 25 percent
of Brazil's.
But the key point is that the high-quality Itaipu energy
is renewable, and generated with no pollution - a true
gift of nature and a paradigm of a sustainable
business.
Moreover, its environmental impact was very low
for such a huge project — thanks to its comparatively
small reservok area, of about 1,350 sq. km.
Indeed, the reservoir displaced fewer than
40,000 people — and today, more than 15 years
after the reservoir was filled, it is confirmed that
it has caused negligible climatic damage to the
surrounding area.
Itaipu Binacional has devoted considerable time, effort
and resources to fulfilling its environmental and social
responsibilities to protect the regional biodiversity and
improve the standard of living of the local
communities.
Before the reservoir was filled, the area was searched
and studied for archaeological sites. A special fauna
rescue programme was implemented in 1982, and
animals were sent to special breeding centres before
being reintroduced into the wild, and also to Itaipu's
Zoo for scientific purposes. Suitable areas were also
bought for the native Guarani Amerindians living near
the Parana River, and these were developed as
reservations before being handed over to the Indians
themselves.
One major environmental project designed to protect
the reservoir shoreline involved buying a 200-metre
minimum wide strip of land, running for
2,900 kilometres and covering an area of more than
640 sq. km. Forested areas, mostly on the Paraguayan
shore, have been kept in their natural state — while
former pastures and agricultural fields, mostly on the
Brazilian shore, are being recovered by reforestation
with hundreds of native species. To date, about
15 million seedlings have been planted.
Another major project involves buying pristine forests
and other valuable ecosystems near the lake, with two
vast biological reserves mostly covered by lush
subtropical rainforest, on the Paraguayan shore, five
medium-sized biological refuges and a binational park
— a total area of about 410 sq. km.
Itaipu is unique among large hydro-electric projects in
that the sum of the areas dedicated to conserving
biodiversity is nearly as big as the area flooded by the
reservoir.
Other programmes include fish hatcheries and
aquaculture stations, preserving or reconstituting
gallery forests along the lake tributary streams,
providing assistance for soil conservation and modern
farming techniques, and support for community
health care, sanitation and environmental education
activities.
Itaipu Binacional has amassed rich and varied
experience in the environmental field — and today owns
a considerable number of ecological assets, a bequest for
future generations. In fact, these assets are already open
to be shared with the scientific community,
environmental organizations, and people in general.
Much has been done - but more can be accomplished.
Itaipu Binacional extends an invitation to all those
who can create partnerships and contribute resources
— financial and people — to enlarging existing
programmes and devising new ones.
Panoramic view of Itaipu's
hydro-electric power plant.
Environmental education in the
natural resource area of Itaipu.
Asuncion
Calle De la Residenta, 1075
Asunei6n, Paraguay
Tel. 595 (21) 207-161 Telex (305) 176 PY ITAIPU
Curitiba
Rua Comendador Araujo, 551
80420 - Curitiba - PR, Brazil
Tel. 55 (41) 321 4411 Telex (41) 5163 / 2599
image:
RENEWABLE ENERGY TECHNOLOGIES
whose powerful magnetic fields enable it to
contain ionized gases, is one of the most
advanced experimental thermonuclear fusion
installations in the world. The reactor, built by
the EU, is at Culham, in the United Kingdom. In
November 1991, for the first time in the world,
JET produced 1.7 megawatts of energy for two
seconds using a mixture of deuterium and
tritium, demonstrating that thermonuclear
fusion energy can be produced on Earth. The
EU, Japan, Russia and the United States plan a
joint project to build an international
thermonuclear experimental reactor.
"Real opportunity"
The World Energy Council says that increased
use of renewable energy should be encouraged;
that there is now a "real opportunity to achieve a
sustainable balance" between fossil fuels and
renewables; and that the contribution of
renewables will increase over the next 30 years.
However, non-renewable energy resources will
continue to dominate the world's energy market
for the foreseeable future. This will certainly be
the case in the industrialized countries. For one
thing, there has been too much investment in
fossil fuels to abandon them easily or quickly; for
another, switching to renewables on a huge scale
will take years anyway and, importantly, future
projections for prices of fossil fuels may make it
difficult for renewables to seize market share.
But the situation could prove quite different in
developing countries where there is the greatest
need for more energy, and where renewable
technologies can be well placed to meet that
demand. A major factor in their growth could be
the level of financial support from the
international funding organizations which are
still an important lever, even though their
resources are dwarfed by private sector funds.
Sources
American Wind Energy Association information
materials.
Best Practices for Photovoltaic Household
Electrification Programs, 1996, World Bank.
Biogas Technology, 1985, Tata Energy Research
Institute.
British Nuclear Industry Forum information materials.
Business and the Environment, various issues,
Cutter Information Corporation.
Community Biogas System in Methan, Gujarat,
1992, Tata Energy Research Institute.
Energy and Environmental Technologies to Respond
to Global Climate Change Concerns, 1994,
• IEA/OECD.
Energy and the Environment, 1991, The
Economist.
Energy after Rio: Prospects and Challenges, 1997,
UNDP.
Energy Systems, Environment and Development,
1991, ATLAS Bulletin.
Environment Strategy Europe, various editions,
Campden Publishing.
Environment Watch Western Europe, various issues,
Cutter Information Corporation.
Environmentally Sound Energy Supplies, Fact Sheet,
1993, UNIDO.
Fixed Dome Biogas Plants, 1987, Tata Energy
Research Institute.
Fuel Cell Commercialization Group information
materials.
Global Environmental Change Report, various
issues, Cutter Information Corporation.
IEA Greenhouse Gas Technology Information
Exchange (GREENTIE) materials.
Improving Industrial Energy Efficiency and
Reducing Greenhouse Gas Emissions, 1995,
UNIDO.
Industry and Environment, various issues, UNEP IE.
Managing the Biogas Programme, 1994, Tata
Energy Research Institute.
Power to Change, 1993, Greenpeace International.
Power to the People: A Survey of Energy, 1994, The
Economist.
Renewable Energy Development in India, 1995, Tata
Energy Research Institute/World Resources
Institute.
Renewable Energy for Development, newsletter,
various issues, Stockholm Environment Institute.
Renewable Energy Utilization, 1993, Tata Energy
Research Institute.
Rethinking Development Assistance for Renewable
Electricity, 1994, World Resource's Institute.
RTD Info, European Commission.
State of the World, various editions, WorldWatch
Institute.
Sustainable Energy Development in Dhanawas,
1994, Tata Energy Research Institute.
UNESCO press materials, 1996.
Utility Photo-Voltaic Group information materials.
World Development Report 1992: Development and
the Environment, World Bank.
image:
*K.&aiSll!ii':3ff'tiilatltS£f. -Wl*.;
Better management of the world's
fragile water resources and reducing
pollution of water supplies are
priorities for a sustainable future.
image:
ESTs for water conservation
Serious problems of water availability and quality pose a threat to future development in
some areas of the world, as well as threatening continued economic growth in the
industrialized countries. It is necessary to reduce pollution of existing supplies and to cut
back on water usage. Environmentally sound technologies can play an important role in
achieving both objectives, including in the key area of agriculture, and industry is under
pressure to give priority to these issues.
• ? ';;.;•' ';orld demand for fresh water, by
"1, ii; _/ industry, fanning and households, is
% 5 growing faster than the supply
available. While there are about 1,400 million
cubic kilometres of water on Earth, only 2.5 per
cent is fresh water, and only about 0,5 per cent
is readily available for human consumption from
lakes, reservoirs, rivers and surface ground-
water. In its Global Environment Outlook 1997
(GEO-1) report, UNEP warned that water
resource issues will be the major impediment to
further development in several regions, and
noted the likely future problems from competing
demands. The World Business Council for
Sustainable Development (WBCSD) has voiced
concern that industry could suffer water use
restrictions because governments will give
priority to other needs. It is expected that within
the next few decades major international
problems will be sparked by the sharing of fresh
water resources,
Water has become a critical issue on the
global sustainable development agenda. The
focus is on managing resources more efficiently
by improving the quality of water supplies and
easing the pressure of demand, particularly by
industry and agriculture, the two heaviest users.
These objectives are linked: if there is less
pollution and contamination of supplies, there
will be more cleaner water available, especially
for domestic consumption. Similarly, if industry
can re-use more of the water it currently uses, it
will need to consume less overall,
Environmentally sound technologies (ESTs)
can play a key role in meeting both objectives.
In fact, companies are paying increasing
attention to water pollution issues. They are
taking advantage of the wide variety of
technologies available to improve water quality
by controlling industrial waste discharges, as
well as to treat wastewater so that in many cases
it can be re-used safely (see Chapter 6).
Membrane-based treatment technologies have
emerged in response to the demands for more
pretreatment and production of clean water.
They work by separating contaminants on the
basis of their molecular weight and size: for
example, ultrafilters reject oily substances over a
range of concentrations, and reverse osmosis
(well established in desalination .projects for a
number of years) rejects ionic impurities.
Moreover, as industries move progressively
towards adopting cleaner production and
eco-efficient techniques and technologies, much
of the current pollution will be prevented at
source. However, using high-tech solutions can,
in some situations, create problems. For
instance, water purification by reverse osmosis
is very costly and requires a .large amount
of energy. So, there are disadvantages as
well as advantages to using technologies that
appear to be environmentally sound.
image:
no i o r\jr\
v^wi^oui »vr»i
BOX 10.1
Water conservation in China
China ranks sixth in the world in the total amount of its water
resources, but only 88th in terms of fresh water per capita. Currently,
demand Is outstripping supply. Industrial waste is one major reason
for water shortages in many areas: the rate of water re-use by
Industry generally is less than 30 per cent.
A series of water conservation measures In recent years have
Increased the rate of industrial water re-use greatly. For example, cities
Bke Datong, Zbo and Baotou have water re-use rates of 92.8 per cent,
91.7 per cent and 88.1 per cent respectively, while average annual
water consumption by industry in Beijing was reduced by over 6 per
cant between 1978 and 1984. How was this reduction achieved?
Cooling water represents 70 per cent of total industrial water use.
The introduction of closed cooling water systems means that
Industries can re-use much more water, while reducing effluent
discharges. Various Industries have also adopted non- and low-
waste processes, and multi-purpose closed recycling systems. In the
electro-plating industry, for instance, 99 per cent of washing water is
recovered by using countercurrent washing evaporation and
recovery-ion exchange. Wastewater from oil extraction can be
recharged underground after treatment and closed recycling
processes in coal washeries have dramatically reduced the amount
of discharged wastewater.
In industry in the developed countries, there
is a trend towards improved water use. French
industry, for instance, reduced its demands for
water by 12 per cent between 1984 and 1990,
and globally, industries like oil, and pulp and
paper, have reduced their discharges bf nearly
70 per cent. In addition, industry groups like
the WBCSD accept that industry must
contribute to developing new water manage-
ment policies and initiatives, many of them
involving environmentally sound technologies.
One particular problem to be tackled is the use
of water in rnegacities, which swallow
enormous amounts of water. The amount that is
wasted is huge, primarily due to the lack of
basic household ESTs for water conservation.
Small-scale technologies, including those for
lavatory cisterns and showers, can have an
important impact.
Agriculture
Worldwide, agriculture is the major user of water,
accounting for 70 per cent of global water use (up
to 80 per cent in some individual countries),
which is primarily for irrigation. Irrigation has
been a cornerstone of global food production,
allowing huge areas of the Earth's sunniest,
warmest and most fertile lands to become
important crop-producing regions. However,
there has been a heavy price to pay in water usage
and water wastage, as the efficiency of irrigation
system:? averages less than 40 per cent. In many
large surface-water systems, less than half the
water diverted from reservoirs actually benefits
crops. Much seeps through unlined canals, while
an additional amount runs off the land or
percolates unused through the soil because
farmers apply water unevenly, excessively, or at
the wrong times. Waterlogging and salinization
are also serious problems in China, India, Russia
and the United States.
A 10 per cent improvement in irrigation
efficiency would release a substantial volume of
water for other uses, and substituting marginal
for high-quality water would produce similar
benefits. The technologies exist to achieve these
gains but, as the Food and Agricultural
Organization of the United Nations (FAO)
reports, while "many of the technical solutions
have been produced and implemented in the
developed countries, adoption has been slow in
most developing countries, mainly because of
their cost and complexity".
Technologies and systems
Adopting modern technologies and better
management practices, including using simple
low-tech systems, is the answer. A few of these
technologies and systems are discussed below.
® Low-energy precision application systems
which deliver water closer to the ground and
in large droplets, cutting evaporation, can be
90 per cent more efficient than surface
irrigation. Large sprinklers can be made
186
image:
ESTs FOR WATER CONSERVATION
more efficient by attaching vertical drop
tubes to the sprinkler arm.
Surge flow irrigation, the intermittent
application of water to furrows or borders,
creating a series of on and off periods of
constant or variable time spans, has a
reported efficiency of 70 per cent or more. Its
use has grown rapidly in the United States,
although it still needs to be adapted to
farming conditions in developing countries.
In many developing countries, the critical
need is to improve the performance of canal
systems. Studies in the Philippines have
shown that when farmers actively participate
in the planning and management of projects,
canals and other infrastructure work better,
more land gets irrigated and rice yields
are higher.
Yields can also be improved by simple
techniques to increase soil moisture in the
root zones of crops. For example, farmers
can build check dams of earth and stone to
capture runoff from hillsides, and then chan-
nel this water to their fields. These simple
practices work. In India, a watershed man-
agement effort involving about 600,000
hectares, nearly a third of the cultivated area,
was based on low-cost techniques used by
farmers to increase soil moisture in their
fields, and cropping intensity was reported to
have doubled.
The Environmental Defense Fund in the
United States says that a variety of proven
small-scale techniques collectively offer a via-
ble, environmentally sound alternative to large
irrigation projects. It calculates that even the
most expensive small-scale methods, includ-
ing small reservoirs to store rainfall, perco-
lation tanks to replenish groundwater, and
check dams to increase rainwater productivity,
cost less than half as much per hectare as
irrigation from a huge dam would cost.
Another need is to make increasing use of
treated urban wastewater for irrigation,
BOX 10.2
Permaculture in Australia
The Environmental Technology Centre at Murdoch University, Perth,
Western Australia, practises permacuiture (sustainable agriculture) in
an attempt to grow an integrated food forest in seemingly
unfavourable conditions.
The coastal plain of Perth is a series of alluvial sand dunes, which
means the 'soil' is deep infertile sand with minimal water holding
" capacity, and while rainfall is a moderate 800 millimetres a year, most
of ft falls In the three months of winter, leaving the summers long, hot
and dry. Good quality groundwater is available at modest depth.
Permaculture entails reducing the current reliance on annual grasses
and replacing them with perennial trees and shrubs which provide
both food and soil building material. The over-clearing of native trees
for wheat production In Western Australia has caused soil salinity and
poor, easily eroded soil structure, forcing farmers to rely almost
entirely on superphosphate fertilizer for plant nutrients.
The 2-hectare project also grows plants for windbreaks, mulch,
nitrogen fixation, timber production, for attracting birds and insects,
and for micro-climate control. These various elements are zoned, so
that those requiring the most attention are located close to the office,
while those needing less attention, such as the mixed orchards, nut
trees, Umber trees and mulch producers, are placed increasingly
further away.
To improve the soil structure and water holding capacity, waste
organic material from various sources was brought in initially and
spread on the soil. Brewery waste, for instance, was used
extensively, while the local municipality supplies mulched tree
prunings from local parks and gardens. Mulch, now grown on site, is
critical to retaining water in the dry summer and, when combined
with 'dripper' irrigation, produces a healthy soil and minimal water
losses through evaporation.
Natural granite and dolomite rock dust and 'green manure' are used
instead of artificial fertilizers. Leguminous species are interplanted
throughout to fix nitrogen in the soli and to provide mulch. Once
established, the gardens are self-fertilizing and pesticides are not
used. Apart from rainfall, all water on site is supplied from pumped
groundwater: some of it is used to irrigate the growing areas. The
dripper irrigation pipes allow watering In windy conditions, or during
the heat of the summer days.
returning valuable nutrients to the land and
helping to keep troublesome pollutants out of
rivers and streams. Israel is re-using 35 per
cent of its municipal wastewater, mostly for
irrigation. Akeady more than 15,000 hectares
image:
Aguas Argentines
Improving quality of life with new solutions
At a time when water is one of the most urgent
sustainable development challenges, Aguas Argentinas
is carrying through one of South America's most
important urban management projects ensuring that
over the next 30 years, ten million people receive clean
drinking water.
The company is part of a consortium of seven national
and international partners, led by Suez-Lyonnaise des
Eaux, which four years ago was awarded a concession
to upgrade, renovate and expand existing infrastructure
of water and sewage systems. Aguas Argentinas is the.
franchise holder for Buenos Aires and its suburbs,
reaching a population often million.
Since 1993, US$1.02 billion has been invested and
rapid progress made on renovating, redeveloping and
extending the water and sewage network. The results to
date:
• a new water treatment system handling 300,000 mj
a day has achieved a 37 percent increase in drinking
water production capacity;
• an extra 1.6 million people are receiving safe
drinking water, bringing the total served to
7.6 million;
* 800,000 more people have been linked to the
sewage system, bringing the total to 5.8 million.
The largest infrastructure projects currently under way
include:
• A Drinking Water Transportation Tunnel to supply
West Buenos Aires with a capacity of 36,000 m'/h,
a length of 15.3 kilometres and a diameter of
3.5 metres, being constructed 30 metres
underground.
• Construction of a new North Wastewater Treatment
Plant. First module will be operational during 1998 to
cover the needs of 270,000 people. The complete
project will meet the needs of 1,100,000 people.
» Enlargement of Southwest Wastewater Treatment
Plant. The first stage will increase capacity by 40 per-
cent to meet the needs of 500,000 people. The final
project will serve 2,000,000 people.
• Aguas Argentinas has developed a new remote-
controlled cleaning system to clear the waste that has
built up in the main sewage collectors of Buenos
Aires. The first five kilometre section was cleaned
during 1996. This new technology allows the
cleaning operations to be performed without creating
odour or noise, dramatically improving the
performance of the wastewater systems.
In four years, Aguas Argentinas has rapidly improved
water quality to meet stringent international standards,
achieved consistency in production levels, installed
procedures to track service quality and developed a
massive training effort for employees to focus on
customer satisfaction.
In addition to completing the development of
infrastructure to serve ten million people, Aguas
Argentinas is also working to induce essential cultural
changes in the population - such as increasing
responsibility for the environment and a prudent use of
natural resources. It is presently developing a major
educational programme for elementary schools within
the Concession area. The programme aims at making
the children aware of the importance of water as a vital
resource. It offers a basic idea of water waste and
environmental sanitation. By the end of 1997, the
programme had reached approximately 300,000 children.
Aerial view of
Genera! San
Martfn water
treatment plant
(left)
Aerial view of
General Manuel
Belgrano water
treatment plant
Reconquista 823 (1003) Buenos Aires, Argentina, Tel: (54-1) 319-0800/0999
image:
ESTs FOR WATER CONSERVATION
are irrigated with the reclaimed water, and the
authorities plan to re-use 80 per cent of the
country's total wastewater by 2000.
Chemical pollution
Modem agriculture affects water quality through
the runoff of fertilizers, pesticides and soils into
surface waters, and the leaching of fertilizers and
pesticides into groundwater. In order to protect the
quality of both suiface water and groundwater it is
necessary to reduce the amounts of chemicals
being used. Two promising approaches have been
developed and are briefly discussed below.
.'. Integrated pest management (IPM) employs a
wide range of pest-control methods including
growing pest-resistant varieties of crops (for
instance, a variety of maize has been bred that
confers resistance to seven major diseases);
introducing populations of natural enemies;
using pest diseases and insect hormones;
practising crop rotation; and using various
tillage techniques. A carefully timed and
judicious application of conventional pesti-
cides reduces chemical use, which in turn
decreases polluted runoff and leaching, so
improving water quality. For example, FAO's
rice IPM programme has reached about
600,000 farmers in Asia, cutting pesticide
usage by up to two-thirds, increasing yields,
and reducing water and land pollution.
..,>'. Integrated plant nutrition systems (IPNS) aim
to improve the efficiency of plant nutrient
supply to crops through using on- and off-
farm sources of nutrients more effectively.
IPNS also helps to improve the productive
capacity of the soil through sustainable
agricultural production. According to FAO,
IPNS may "significantly" reduce the need for
mineral fertilizers by providing "timely and
sufficient" supplies of plant nutrients and re-
ducing plant nutrient losses on cropping
systems. One benefit is the reduction in
fertilizer runoff, thereby minimizing the
pollution of surrounding water resources.
is more urgent than ever to
endow the multilateral
institutions and mechanisms
with the financial means
to ensure a transfer of
technology and substantial
aid to the countries ;i|%
needing it ^y
His Majesty Hassan II,
King of Morocco
Eco-efficiency, access to clean
and environmentally-friendly
technology and actions to
address unsustainable
consumption and production
patterns must be adopted as i
international priorities
Gert Hanekom, Minister of Environment
and Tourism, Namibia
IPM and IPNS are two emerging approaches
to sustainable farming that impact directly on
water quality. According to FAO, there will be
an increasing take-up of new technologies,
initially in developed countries, and the result
will be "new or better tools for technology
development in developing countries, and some
of the technologies for developed country
markets will be directly usable". The World
Resources Institute (WRI) says the way to
protect the resource base on which agricultural
production depends, including good quality
water supplies while increasing agricultural
production to feed more people, is through a
combination of cutting-edge high technology
and the tried-and-true methods of the past.
image:
Companhia de Saneamento do Estado de Sao Paulo
LEADERSHIP IN WATER AND WASTEWATER SOLUTIONS
As the biggest environmental sanitation company in Latin America — and one of the largest in the world
- Sabesp is contributing to a better environment within the region. Operating water and waste systems
in Slo Paulo — Brazil's largest and richest state — Sabesp's products and services are bringing the benefits
of a cleaner, safer environment to more than 22 million people. •
But the company is more than a major source of water for the population. As a leader in the field of
water and wastewater treatment, Sabesp has won international recognition, and with its state-of-the-art
technology supported by highly-trained, expert engineers and technicians, the company assists other
Latin American countries in finding solutions in various key environmental areas.
There has also been a marked turnaround in Sabesp's economic situation. Today, under new
administration and thanks to the introduction of a modern dynamic management system based on co-
participation, the company has become a benchmark of success and efficiency amongst suppliers of
sanitation infrastructure services.
The results speak for themselves. In 1995, Sabesp earned a profit of more than US$26 million and, with
the company now open for private investment, Sabesp is seeking to raise more than US$650 million in
private-sector financing over the next four years.
The management of Sabesp is committed to environmental leadership. With its plans to invest more
than US$3 billion in the short-term and around US$5 billion through to the next millennium,
the company will be financing and developing new projects in one of the world's largest water
and wastewater markets.
Rua Costa Carvalho, 300
Pinheiros, Sao Paulo - SP, Brazil 05429-000 ^^^
Tel: +55 (11) 3030 4000 Dr> Mova®0 carmigna"
Internet. http://eu.ansp.br//~sabesp President
image:
ESTs FOR WATER CONSERVATION
Sanitation
Poor sanitation, a major cause of the degradation
of groundwater and surface water, is an
especially acute problem in developing coun-
tries, which cannot afford to provide every
dwelling with individual piped water and
sewerage connections. The focus there has
been on developing viable alternatives,
including those described below.
S3 Effluent sewerage is a hybrid between a
septic tank and a conventional sewerage
system. A tank, located between the house
sewer and the street sewer, retains the solid
wastes, thereby allowing smaller sewers to
be laid at flatter gradients and with fewer
manholes. These systems have been widely
used in small towns in Australia and the
United States, and in India, Latin America
and parts of Africa.
H Simplified sewerage was developed in
Brazil, where it is routinely used. It allows
smaller, shallower, flatter sewers with fewer
manholes. It works as well as conventional
sewerage, but costs about 30 per cent less.
H The condorninial system was developed and
applied in northeast Brazil. It comprises
shallow, small-diameter backyard sewers,
laid at flat gradients, and costs about 70 per
cent less than a conventional system.
A key issue
Some of the issues connected with the use of
ESTs in other areas also apply, inevitably, to
their role in the better management of fresh-
water resources. For instance, there are eco-
nomic barriers to technology transfer. The fact
that most technologies are owned by private
Sources
Clean Water, Safe Water: New Solutions, Spring
1995, WMX Technologies, Inc.
Global Environment Outlook 1997, UNER
Murdoch University 1996 Annual Report,
The Role of Industry in the Sustainable Management
of Fresh Water Supplies, 1996, World Business
Council for Sustainable Development.
companies makes it more difficult for them to
be spread to new users. Training for local auth-
orities and communities is vital, so that they
can understand the problem of water con-
servation and the role of ESTs. Here,
technology assessment, including the selection,
adoption, application and operation of ESTs, is
an important tool for decision makers to find
and select the most appropriate technology.
Pricing is certainly another key' issue: water
can no longer be provided as a free commodity.
Maintaining water sources and supplies to
control the quantity and quality are also
essential. For example, in many countries, as
much as 60 per cent of the water for
distribution is lost through the pipes before it
reaches the user.
Water has now emerged as a key issue, in
both industrialized and developing countries,
because it is a major factor in the process of
industrialization. In developing countries, there
is severe pressure on available supplies which
can have a serious impact on water quality. In
countries without guaranteed access to water
industrial progress can be slowed, and even
stopped. Industry fears that, increasingly, it
will have to compete with other users and could
take second place to these. That is why the
WBCSD has urged that companies give
priority to improving water management
practices and technology, including setting
quantifiable targets for conserving water
(involving reduction, re-use and recycling);
designing eco-efficient water practices, such as
zero emission processes, reducing water usage
and improving water quality; and transferring
technologies to developing countries.
Transforming Technology: An Agenda for
Environmentally Sustainable Growth in the 21st
Century, 1991, World Resources Institute,
Water Conservation, Industry and Environment, July-
December, 1990, UNEP IE,
World Agriculture: Towards 2010,1995, FAO.
World Development Report 1992: Development and
the Environment, Worfd Bank.
image:
With 50 million new motor vehicles
entering the world market each year,
tha total number of vehicles could
reach 1,000 million within 12-15 years.
image:
ESTs for road transportation 21
With the number of road vehicles rapidly growing throughout the world, pollution from
road transport has become one of the most urgent environmental problems facing policy
makers today. The Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) has
highlighted the key role of environmentally sound technologies (ESTs)- in any
"comprehensive emissions control strategy". They include technologies to improve fuel
efficiency and reduce emissions from vehicles, as well as a range of alternative fitels and
new kinds of vehicles, including electric cars.
1 here have been considerable technology
•ji improvements in the field of transport,
•. and new cars today are roughly 90 per
cent cleaner than they were 25 years ago. But
clearly more needs'to be done to produce lower-
emission/lower-consumption vehicles, if only to
keep pace with the rapidly increasing amount of
traffic on the world's roads. More action is
needed on several fronts: fuel efficiency,
pollution controls and the development of
alternatives to gasoline as a vehicle fuel. ESTs in
the transport sector have an important role to
play in meeting this challenge. They fall into
three broad categories, addressing all three
priority areas:
:. catalytic converters and other devices that
reduce or convert pollutants from gasoline
and diesel engines into harmless or less
harmful emissions;
'- technology that reduces fuel consumption, so
reducing the amount of pollutants from
vehicles;
more advanced technologies based on
alternative non-polluting fuels, such as
electricity, hydrogen and solar power.
ESTs in the first two groups are already on the
market, but are still subject to intensive
research and development to achieve further
refinement. Other ESTs are still at the
experimental stage.
Fuel efficiency technologies
Vehicle emissions can be reduced in two ways:
by applying pollution control technologies to
decrease them directly, or by improving fuel
efficiency — less fuel in means less dirt out. A
number of technologies is now available to
achieve both objectives.
85 Reducing vehicle body weight and aero-
dynamic drag lowers energy demands on the
engine, thus cutting fuel consumption.
Streamlined designs lead to fuel efficiency
gains, while advanced polymer composites
and other net-shape materials also reduce
vehicle weight and lead to fuel efficiency
improvements.
W: A vehicle using a super or turbocharged
high power density engine and combining
electronic fuel injection and engine regu-
lation with an electronically controlled
continuously variable transmission system
can achieve a high fuel efficiency, while
offering high engine power.
SI Smaller engines can reduce fuel con-
sumption and, when designed in concert with
turbochargers or other power-boosting
technology, can compensate for the reduced
power. Variable valve technology, which
changes the number of valves in use per
cylinder, can pull more power from a given
engine, allowing downsizing. Oxygen
image:
Bridas
A CLEAR VISION
Bridas Corporation is a growing international energy
company with important assets in the energy sector
in Argentina, South America, North America and
Central Asia, certified reserves of 1,530 MM BOE
(millions of barrels of oil equivalent) and uncertified
reserves of 3,700 MM BOE - as well as a share in
electricity generation and in the transport and
distribution of hydrocarbons. Owning 5 trillion
cubic feet of natural gas in South America and 20,5
trillion cubic feet in Central Asia, it is in a
particularly strong position to meet those regions'
future growth.
Bridas has been prompt in responding to global
market trends. It has invested heavily in the Central
Asian region and was one of the first western
companies to set up in Turkmenistan. In 1997, it
joined with Amoco to create a new company to
exploit opportunities in the Latin American energy
market. Pan American Energy is now the second
largest company in Argentina.
Policies
Bridas fully supports the goal of sustainable
development, and the United Nations Environment
Programme's work. The company's aim is to reduce
to zero all personal accidents, occupational
illnesses and contamination of the environment,
and to create a working environment which
contributes to the well-being and professional and
personal fulfilment of its staff.
It has introduced a Code of Conduct for Health,
Safety and Environment, one of the pillars of its
operational strategy, which reflects the company's
conviction that improving safety practices and
protecting the environment contribute to the well-
being of the individual and the company, and to the
sustainable development of the enterprise. Staff
familiarization sessions are held frequently as part of
the ongoing drive to reduce risks.
Bridas also has
* Programmes for Total Quality and Continued
Improvement and Re-engineering of all its
processes. The introduction of new technologies
is a key element in the company's drive for
continuous improvement.
• A health, safety and environmental management
system, conforming to ISO 14000 and BS 8800
standards, and covering the entire organization.
Bridas operates gas fields and oilfields in very
varied and fragile environmental areas and
each must be treated in a different way. The
company's strategy for protecting the environment
in these areas is implemented through
comprehensive programmes of remediation
and prevention.
Prevention
The aim is to prevent negative environmental
impact as far as possible.
Everything the company does in each field is
monitored annually, and every new project is
evaluated to assess its environmental consequences.
The results of this monitoring process are used in
developing an annual plan to improve safety, health
and environmental performance throughout the
company - and the plan is revised every three
months. Each area has a management plan to treat
residues in line with local characteristics, and to
reduce residue levels through reuse, recuperation
and recycling.
Remediation
Bridas has Inherited a legacy of contaminated land
from previous operators. To date, it has invested
about US$12 million in remediation efforts - for
example, cleaning more than 1,400 earthea pits
containing oil and drilling fluids, and replanting
some 500 pits. The company's objective is to
reduce the amount of hydrocarbon parts per
million to levels lower than the usual regulations
"require, so that by reconditioning the soil, it can
be re-exploited.
Major improvements carried out in the oilfields of
Keimir, Turkmenistan, include recovering about
20,000 cubic metres of crude oil and drilling mud
deposited in earthen pits, and cleaning up
numerous oil spills.
The company has also focused on improving
the disposal of water produced and gas flared
into the air. Today, 96 percent of all water
produced is being re-injected in the reservoir,
with the aim of re-injecting all of it by mid-1998.
In an effort to reduce COj emissions, in accordance
with the Rio Summit, vented or flared gas has
been reduced to 0.4 percent of the total daily
production.
image:
Mission
Bridas believes that ongoing sustainable
development should create a 'waterfall effect* in the
environment. Therefore, it demands that all its
contractors and suppliers conform to the
requirements of its environmental management
system - which improves their standards and quality
of service, and encourages an exchange of know-
how and best practice; This is a condition of doing
business with Bridas.
Bridas also works closely with the local
communities in which it operates - for example,
organizing training courses and meetings, and
producing a range of materials for local authorities
and schools, to raise awareness of environmental
conservation issues. It has planted trees and lawns
in the Patagonia region, in Argentina and in
Turkmenistan where - in a desert-like climate -
natural re-vegetation is difficult,
Bridas and its employees have a clear vision and
mission. They believe that the world energy industry
will only ever be competitive if, in its strategies for
continued economic growth, it also includes the
preservation and upkeep of natural resources - so
that in meeting the needs of today's generations, it
also safeguards the needs of future ones. The
company is determined to play its part in achieving
this goat.
tindero Atravesado Field, Marimenucp Lake, Neuquen
"f
BRIDAS CORPORATION
Abbott Building, Main Street
(P.O. Box 3186) Road Town
Tortola, British Virgin Islands
Tel: (1-809) 494-5155
Fax: (1-809) 494-5477
Mailing addresses:
Bridas House
90 Putney Bridge Road
London SW18 1HR
United Kingdom
Tel: (44-181) 875-9908
Fax: (44-181) 875-0626 / 9089
8'Greenway Plaza, Suite 618
Houston, Texas 77046-080T
USA
Tel: (1-713) 965-0010
Fax: (1-713) 552-9051 /9703
Av. Leandro N. Alem 1180
1001 - Buenos Aires
Argentina
Tel: (54-1) 310-4100
Fax: (54-1) 310-4605
San Sebastidn Plant, Tierra del Fuego
Gas Treatment Plant, Lujan de Cuyo, Mendoza
image:
CC>Is I"un l-u_v\u i riAuxorun i«i
BOX 11.1
The biggest challenge
According to the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and
Development (OEGD) and the International Energy Agency (IEA),
transportation - especially road transport - "presents perhaps the
biggest challenge of any energy end-use sector" for reducing air
pollution. Two statistics show why:
. there are between 600 and 700 million motor vehicles on the
wortdls roads, and with 50 million new vehicles put on the market
each year, the number could reach 1,000 million within 12-15
years;
:\ during its lifetime, an average car travels 160,000 kilometres, uses
more than 11,500 litres of gasoline and over 200 litres of oil, and
discharges more than 35 tonnes of pollutants.
With the world's car fleet alone producing 10 trillion cubic metres of
exhaust fumes every year, motor vehicles, not industry, have become
the single biggest source of emissions of several key pollutants,
among them carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides and toxic volatile
organic compounds, as well as the major cause of the world's
worsening air pollution problem, particularly in urban areas. In
addition, road vehicles are a major contributor of non-natural
carbon dioxide emissions, accounting for about 30 per cent of
carbon dioxide emissions from oil use, and around 15 per cent of
worldwide carbon dioxide emissions from all fossil fuel use,
Including coal burning.
It la little wonder, therefore, that the vehicle industry has been identified
by both legislators and environmental groups as a prime target, with
the result that making vehicles 'cleaner' through technology
Improvements has leaped to the top of the Industry's agenda.
separation is another technology for
reducing engine size without power loss.
Two-stroke engines are being intensively
developed by engine manufacturers and
could enter the market on a large scale
around 2005. Two-strokes have a higher
power output and torque per unit of engine
displacement than conventional four-stroke
engines, which means the engine can be
smaller, with lower friction and lower heat
losses to the engine coolant, so improving
fuel economy. However, a distinct disad-
vantage of two-strokes is that they emit high
levels of hydrocarbons and smoke.
: Considerable effort is being devoted to
developing low-heat rejection or adiabatie
diesel engines. The use of these engines
eliminates the engine cooling system, with
its power losses and reliability problems.
They could also improve fuel efficiency by
using turbocompounding techniques -to har-
ness the increased energy of exhaust gases
from the uncooled engine.
•'.4 Lean-bum combustion has been explored,
both for fuel efficiency and as a nitrogen
oxide reduction strategy. In a lean-burn
engine, combustion occurs in the presence of
large amounts of excess air, and the increase
in air-to-fuel ratio improves fuel combustion
and efficiency. However, at high speeds, or
with heavy loads, the exhaust gas contains
too much oxygen for the currently available
three-way catalyst to control nitrogen oxide
emissions, and these rise sharply — a factor
which is likely to limit lean-burn technology
to smaller engine vehicles. However, one
Japanese car producer has developed a lean-
burn engine which it says cuts nitrogen oxide
emissions by 90 per cent.
>-i Direct fuel injection used to have a poor
emissions performance. But recent advances
in emission control technology have
improved this, and vehicles using direct fuel
injection can show fuel efficiency improve-
ments of up to 10 per cent over similar
indirect-injected engines. Electronic fuel-
injection control boosts performance further.
The Organisation for Economic Co-operation
and Development (OECD) has pointed out that
while there was a flurry of developmental
activity into increasing vehicle fuel efficiency in
the wake of the 1970s' oil crisis, interest slumped
when oil prices fell in the 1980s. The result
has been that "many of the potential
improvements in efficiency that could have been
accomplished over the last ten years have been
left unrealized". But it is confident that various
state-of-the-art fuel-efficiency technologies,
196
image:
ESTs FOR ROAD TRANSPORTATION
either in production, production-ready or
prototype-tested, can achieve "very substantial"
benefits. One study predicts that combinations of
these different technical options could achieve an
average fuel-efficiency improvement of up to 55
per cent for cars, compared to 1986 vehicles.
Technologies to reduce emissions
Technologies aimed at reducing emissions
include those discussed below.
88 In-engine emission controls, many of which
also improve fuel economy, include advanced
air/fuel management systems such as fuel
injection, electronic control of spark timing,
advanced choke systems and improved trans-
missions. These can also improve combus-
tion conditions, reducing exhaust emissions
further.
S£ Exhaust gas after-treatment techniques, such"
as catalysts, have long been in use in the
United States but are relatively new in
Europe and elsewhere. Catalytic converters,
containing platinum compounds or other
materials, are fitted upstream of the exhaust
pipe to minimize the emission of carbon
monoxide, nitrogen oxides and unburned
hydrocarbons. Industry experts predict that
such emission control technology will
continue to improve, notably catalysts which
can work with variable specification fuels,
sensors, fuel injection and engine controls.
But these improvements will not come
cheaply. The World Bank estimates that using
catalytic converters may raise costs by 4 US
cents a litre. For diesel vehicles, recently
developed devices for removing particulates (the
largest pollutant), nitrogen oxides and sulphur
have similar costs. The World Bank calculates
that the cost of phasing in cleaner fuels and
emission controls over 20 years would rise to
US$ 10 billion a year (0.2 per cent of world gross
domestic product (GDP)) by 2000, and US$35
billion a year (0.5 per cent of world GDP) by
2010. However, even using the most advanced
BOX 11.2
Better traffic management vital too
Solving the problem of pollution from road vehicles will require more
than technical improvements to the vehicles themselves.
An Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development
(OECD) study in eight countries has found that technologies will
achieve about a third of the required improvements, while the rest
will come from demand-side management and "cultural behaviour
changes".
Increasing attention is being paid to logistics technologies to manage
the movement of vehicles, In the expectation that these could
achieve considerable benefits at less cost, especially in the freight
sector.
emission control technologies, available now or
in the foreseeable future, gasoline-fuelled
vehicles will still be substantial contributors to
air pollution. It is therefore necessary to improve
the quality of gasoline in order to cut emissions
this way,
Currently oil companies are investing billions
of dollars in trying to produce lower-emission
gasoline. For example, the commercialization of
unleaded gasoline (where the lead oxide
originally added to improve engine performance
is removed) was a significant technological
change in fuel. The use of unleaded fuel in
conjunction with catalytic converters represents
an important modification from the standpoint
of emissions control.
Reformulated gasoline reduces die amount
of problematic chemicals. A Finnish company
has launched a new kind of gasoline, containing
a higher degree of oxygen and fewer aromatic
compounds, which it says cuts vehicle
emissions by up to 20 per cent. Although
emission control technologies help address
tailpipe pollution problems, the real environ-
mental gains are likely to come from switching
from gasoline to alternative fuels, or to other
energy options altogether.
image:
co i& rx/n
Alternative carbon-based fuels
Methanol, produced from natural gas, crude oil,
coal, wood biomass and organic wastes,
promises two air quality benefits over gasoline:
lower ozone-forming potential, and minimal
emissions of benzene and other polycyclic
aromatic hydrocarbons. In addition, pure meth-
anol produces only small amounts of sulphur
oxides. The area of concern with methanol
vehicles is the emission of formaldehyde, which
is toxic and probably carcinogenic, although the
United States Environmental Protection Agency
(EPA) says any increased cancer risks from
formaldehyde emissions would be more than
offset by the big reduction in cancer risk from
the decrease in buta-1,3—diene emissions
produced when gasoline is burnt.
Methanol is being encouraged for use in some
heavily polluted areas in the United States
(particularly the Los Angeles basin) and
Scandinavia, where it can be produced as a
'renewable' fuel from biomass. There has also
been a push in the United States to introduce
methanol in flexible-fuel vehicles burning
methanol-gasoline blends, and one United States
automotive manufacturer has developed a
variable fuel engine car that runs on both
methanol and gasoline.
Ethanol, which is similar to methanol, but
much cleaner and less toxic, can be produced by
processing agricultural crops such as sugar cane
or corn. However, it is more expensive to
produce and needs large crop harvests and large
amounts of energy in its production. It also
produces higher nitrogen oxide emissions than
methanol, though still considerably lower than
those from diesel engines. Ethanol has a high
octane quality, which is why it has been used
mainly in blends with gasoline, notably in Brazil
and the United States.
Although about 90 per cent of cars made in
Brazil in the past ten years use ethanol as a fuel,
the government has cut subsidies for sugar cane
ethanol. This has pushed up fuel prices, with the
result that the fleet has shrunk from 4.5 to 4.2
million. However, the .government says it is
committed to supporting the alcohol fuel
programme by, for example, maintaining a 22
per cent minimum alcohol content in gasoline. It
is also looking at ways to promote a 'green fleet'
in the country by encouraging buses, taxis and
other urban public vehicles to switch to fuel
with a higher alcohol content.
Gasohol (nine parts gasoline, one part
ethanol) accounted for about 6 per cent of
United States vehicle fuel consumption in 1991.
Ethanol blended with gasoline contributes to the
formation of photochemical smog, and can also
produce many more times acetaldehyde than
gasoline vehicles, though the cancer risk
associated with acetaldehyde is much lower than
that of buta-l,3-diene.
Producing ethanol from corn requires large
amounts of land: in the United States, to fuel a
typical car for a year on pure ethanol would take
nine times the amount of cropland needed to
feed the average citizen. Moreover, growing
crops year after year causes serious soil erosion.
However, in June 1994, the EPA decided to give
special preference to ethanol over methanol-
based fuel, by announcing that 30 per cent of
the additives used in its new cleaner burning
gasoline programme must come from a
renewable source. The United States has an
ethanol programme, based on maize, of about 2
million tonnes a year, but the high production
cost has required considerable government
support. In September 1992, the government
boosted the programme by allowing ethanol to
be used in reformulating gasoline in nine of the
most heavily smog-afflicted United States
cities, starting in 1995. Government subsidies
would make ethanol cost-competitive with
methanol (unsubsidized ethanol sells for three
times more).
Vegetable oEs, produced from processing
rapeseed, sunflower seeds, coconuts or soya
beans can be used as blends with diesel fuels.
198
image:
ESTs FOR ROAD TRANSPORTATION
However, there are environmental problems
associated with their use. The German
Environmental Protection Agency found that
large emissions of nitrogen dioxide during the
production cycle was a major disadvantage. In
addition, as with ethanol, there are soil protection
issues to address. Moreover, growing crops
specifically for biomass energy and dedicated
energy feedstock plantations means large
commitments of land and resources to make this
a realistic alternative.
However, even with these limitations,
between 20,000 and 30,000 tonnes of biodiesel
were produced in Germany in 1994,
constituting a small but steadily growing share
of the overall amount of diesel fuel used there
(about 20 million tonnes annually). The federal
government has exempted biodiesel from fuel
tax to make it more attractive to consumers, and
there has been a steady increase in the number
of service stations selling biodiesel. One study
calculates that biodiesel production in Germany
could reach 2 million tonnes a year by 2010. A
report by Germany's federal and state agricul-
ture ministers in August 1994 found that,
compared to normal diesel, biodiesel reduces
carbon dioxide emissions by up to 65 per cent,
produces less soot, carbon monoxide and non-
combusted hydrocarbons, and is biodegradable.
However, the World Resources Institute (WRI)
contends that, in many parts of the world,
growing energy crops for motor vehicles could
compete with food production at a time
when climate change could put a strain on
agricultural production.
Gas-powered vehicles
Natural gas can be used as a motor vehicle fuel,
either compressed in cylinders as compressed
natural gas, or as liquefied natural gas. This
latter form, however, is rarely considered
because it is more expensive and more difficult
to handle. Between three-quarters of a million
and a million vehicles worldwide, mainly in
Argentina, Canada, Italy, New Zealand and the
former Soviet Union, use compressed natural
gas, emitting much less carbon dioxide and
carbon monoxide than gasoline or methanol
vehicles; similar or possibly higher levels of
nitrogen oxides; and virtually no benzene,
smoke or sulphur oxides.
The authorities in Mexico City, faced with
the worst air quality in the world, have ordered
1,000 taxis to be converted to natural gas, based
on studies which show that they would emit
96 per cent less pollution than conventional
vehicles. Two major barriers keep gas-powered
vehicles off the road: the need for bulky gas
storage tanks, especially in cars, and the absence
of a network of refuelling stations. These prob-
lems of distribution and limited vehicle range,
together with possible leakage of methane
during transport, distribution and use, still have
to be overcome before such vehicles can be used
on a large scale. However, there is growing
support for gas-powered vehicles in a number of
countries, including the United States, where
one foreign car manufacturer estimates that they
will represent 5 per cent of its sales in the next
five years. In Japan, local authorities are using
gas-powered vehicles for collecting rubbish and
on local bus routes, and the government aims to
put 600 refuelling stations in place by the year
2000 to encourage the number of vehicles to
climb to 200,000.
Liquefied petroleum gas, a mixture of mainly
butane and propane produced as a by-product
from crude oil refining and natural gas
processing, is the most widely available of the
alternative fuels. Currently it is being used by an
estimated 4 million vehicles found predomin-
antly in Australia, Canada, Italy, the Netherlands,
New Zealand and the United States, as well as in
Asia, which accounts for around a third of world
use. Australia, Canada, Prance, Italy, Japan and
the Netherlands favour the fuel with subsidies
and/or lower rates of duty.
Liquefied petroleum gas allows the use of
image:
GREEN OASIS: AT THE LEADING EDGE OF
WASTE OIL RECOVERY AND REUSE
Green Oasis Environmental inc. is a new
and rapidly developing, socially conscious
organization. Its proprietary process for
converting used motor oil into a clean
diesel fuel that is environment friendly does
its share towards helping to solve many of
our world's pollution problems.
Waste automotive and industrial oils amount
to 5.2 billion gallons a year globally. The
pollution generated by the indiscriminate
dumping of some of this oil is further
complicated by its only present use of
being consumed as poor quality burner
fuel. Such fuels require costly technology to
clean their emissions to an acceptable
level. Often that never happens, either
through unavailability of this technology or
the significant cost associated with its use.
Green Oasis has combined a solution to
this problem with an economic incentive to
the individuals or companies that wish to
invest in their own future. The Green Oasis
process permits the utilization of what is
currently an undesirable waste item, turning
it Into a valuable and saleable product.
Because of this important economic factor,
Green Oasis has named its processor and
process the 'EnviroEconomics System'.
The EnviroEconomics plant uses a one-
step method of distillation and thermal
cracking by applying process heat in an
oxygen-free environment. Each 100 gallons
of waste oil processed yields approximately
70 gallons of #2 diesel fuel and 20 gallons
of high heat #5 fuel oil. The remaining ten
gallons generate 'light ends' that are
recaptured to fuel the conversion process.
The plant is compact in size and can be
operated by one person. Its computer
controlled operating system offers the
greatest in flexibility and minimizes the skill
level requirements for its operators.
The EnviroEconomics process is now
attracting considerable international
attention. The company is also expanding
rapidly within the United States.
The operation of the processor has recently
been verified with both local and national
environmental agencies as a non-polluting
entity in itself.
The EnviroEconomics technology has put
Green Oasis at the leading edge of the
waste oil industry, and firmly in the forefront
of efforts both in the United States and
other countries, to mitigate a real
environmental issue.
Detailed Information on both the company
and its processor can be obtained by
contacting P. Woessner at
< grno@awod.com > or by fax on
1-803-722-5785.
image:
ESTs FOR ROAD TRANSPORTATION
lean-burn calibrations, which increase efficiency
and reduce emissions. It produces fewer non-
carbon dioxide greenhouse gases during com-
bustion and, when used in spark-ignition
engines, it produces virtually zero emissions of
particulate matter, very little carbon monoxide
and moderate hydrocarbon emissions. However,
its supply and availability are linked directly to
crude oil and natural gas production which will
limit its potential as a substitute for conventional
fuels. A recurring problem is the lack of existing
refuelling infrastructure. Liquefied petroleum
gas is probably best suited as a special fuel for
vehicles such as urban buses and delivery trucks
operating in pollution-sensitive areas.
Do they work?
The use of alternative fuels is generally
promoted to reduce oil dependency and local air
pollution. If it can be established that they also
contribute to reducing global greenhouse gas
emissions, this would be an important additional
argument in their favour. The evidence on this is
contradictory. A 1993 study by the International
Energy Agency (IEA) found that it is technically
possible to reduce greenhouse gas emissions by
up to 80 per cent by using alternative fuels. The
problem is that this technical potential is
unlikely to be achieved in the short term.
Moreover, most of the fuels (except liquefied
petroleum gas and compressed natural gas, as
well as diesel) are likely to be more expensive
than gasoline to produce for the next 20 years.
However, the IEA also found that cars using
liquefied petroleum gas, compressed natural gas
or diesel can have life-cycle greenhouse gas
emissions 10-30 per cent lower than those from
gasoline-powered cars. A 1996 report by AEA
Technology for the United Kingdom govern-
ment similarly said that liquefied petroleum gas
offers some emissions benefits, mainly for
nitrogen oxides, hydrocarbons and particulates;
compressed natural gas brings substantial
reductions in most pollutants; while alternative •
alcohol-based fuels have low net carbon dioxide
emissions, although other emissions are similar
to conventional fuels.
However, other studies take a different
position. The WRI accepts that methanol and
ethanol blends for gasoline could reduce carbon
monoxide emissions, but says they would not
necessarily slow global warming,!while switch-
ing to compressed natural gas would only
do so slightly. "For reducing carbon dioxide
emissions, alternatives based on fossil fuels
are not the answer. Using biomass as a feedstock
for alcohol production would help, but is it
feasible and practicable to produce large
amounts of carbon-based fuels this way on a
sustainable basis?"
Cheaper to use?
The IEA study produced another interesting
finding: that cars run on liquefied petroleum gas,
compressed natural gas or diesel may be cheaper
to use for some drivers. The agency calculated
driving costs in France and the United States. In
the United States it worked out that, while few
drivers would find diesel-powered cars cheaper
to run than gasoline-powered cars, cars run on
compressed natural gas are likely to have lower
costs for the average driver, compared with
conventional gasoline. But they are also likely to
be confined to niche markets for the foreseeable
future. One reason for this is cost. Currently in
France, for example, using a car powered by
compressed natural gas is likely to be more
expensive than using a gasoline-powered car.
On financial grounds alone, the IEA con-
cluded that the economic potential for cars
powered by compressed natural gas is large in
both France and the United States. But their
reduced range, long filling time and the lack of
compressed natural gas refuelling stations
impedes their use. If the problem of reduced
range were addressed through increasing fuel
storage capacity, the cost of cars powered by
compressed natural gas would be likely to rise to
image:
a point where they became more expensive than
gasoline-powered cars because their fuel tanks
would have to be so large.
Zero-emission vehicles
If the various alternative carbon-based fuels
have too many drawbacks to be ideal options for
replacing gasoline, what are the alternatives?
Zero-emission vehicles, either hydrogen-
powered vehicles or battery-driven electric
vehicles (or a combination of the two), are
generating considerable interest and excitement.
Hydrogen is attractive as an alternative fuel
because, aside from nitrogen oxide emissions, it
is virtually non-polluting, containing no carbon,
sulphur or other polluting materials. Using
hydrogen in a fuel cell, rather than an internal
combustion engine, would also practically
eliminate nitrogen oxide emissions. Storage,
however, is a problem, and safety concerns will
have to be addressed before winning public
acceptance. Hydrogen engines also need to be
larger to compensate for the fuel's low energy
density. Another issue is that although hydrogen
itself does not cause much pollution or contribute
to global warming, its manufacture does. The gas
is produced commercially by electrolysis, which
uses considerable energy and which, in effect,
shifts the pollution from the tailpipe to the
smokestack,
Germany, Japan and the United States all
have research and development programmes on
hydrogen-powered vehicles, and the Musashi
Institute of Technology in. Japan has developed a
number of vehicles, including a small car with a
two-stroke engine, running on liquid hydrogen.
In addition, several leading car manufacturers
are currently testing hydrogen vehicles. One
Japanese car company is developing a
hydrogen-powered car, which emits only steam
as exhaust, by converting the rotary gasoline
engine to run on hydrogen, while a German car
maker has hydrogen-powered versions of many
of its larger cars, using cryogenic (very low
temperature) storage. The introduction of
hydrogen into vehicles may follow its use for
power generation, but unless regulations are
introduced compelling zero-emission vehicles in
certain areas, the cost of hydrogen will probably
keep it away from the market in the short term.
Electric vehicles
In the early years of the century, there were
more electric-driven cars on the roads than
gasoline ones. There is now a revival of interest
in electric vehicles, spurred in no small measure
by California's legislation on zero-emission
vehicles (see Chapter 5). Their supporters say
they would reduce urban pollution and
greenhouse gas emissions significantly over the
coming decade. They could also lay the
foundations for a pollution-free transport
system, although this would only be the case if
the electricity they need is itself originally
generated without producing pollution —
otherwise the pollution is merely transferred
back a stage. But electric vehicles have some
distinct disadvantages: their range is extremely
limited and they can take up to six hours to
recharge, but the major constraint to their
development has been the lack of a light,
compact, durable low-cost battery.
Electric vehicles currently on the market rely
on off-the-shelf, lead-acid batteries, charged
from a standard wall plug. Alternatives include
nickel-cadmium, nickel-iron, sodium-sulphur,
sodium-nickel-chloride, nickel-metal-hydride,
nickel-hydrogen and lithium-polymer electro-
lyte batteries. One Israeli company has
developed a zinc-air battery, with ten times the
• energy density of lead batteries. The German
postal service has been testing these and plans
eventually to convert 80 per cent of its 25,000
vehicle fleet to electric vehicles powered by
zinc-air batteries. California also uses electric
vans for mail distribution, while electric buses
are now running in some cities in the United
States, as well as Italy, Switzerland and the
202
image:
The renewed interest in and use
of electric vehicles can
contribute to the reduction of
urban pollution.
image:
ESTs FOR ROAD TRANSPOHIAI ION
United Kingdom. Ultracapacitors, which store
large amounts of electricity and can charge and
discharge quickly, and flywheels, which store
energy in a spinning rotor, are being developed
as replacements for batteries. ,
Fuel cells ;
The real breakthrough in electric vehicles is
likely to come with fuel cells: mini power plants
which convert chemical energy
to electricity
very efficiently, and without pollution. Fuel cell
technology is not new but costs dnd indifferent
performance have blunted its advajnce. However,
recent progress in both cutting costs and
improving performance have
prospects. Development of pro
membrane fuel cells is regardec
boosted its
:on exchange
as the most
promising for use in vehicles. :
In the United States, the development of fuel
cells is the centrepiece of the ongoing
Partnership for a New Generation of Vehicles
between the government and the three major car
manufacturers. The first vehicle powered by a
fuel cell entered the United States marketplace
in late 1995, with a range of 72.5 kilometres
and a top speed of 25 kilometres per hour. They
were intended for use in operations such as
airport cargo handling and grounds
maintenance. One German car producer has
already unveiled the world's firsf car powered
by a fuel cell which is suitable for everyday
operation, and has announced it could start
selling hydrogen fuel cell equipped production
models as soon as 2006. Progress on fuel cells
will also have a direct influence oh the technical
and commercial viability of hydrogen-powered
vehicles. Indeed, the ideal ;:ero-emission
vehicle is an electric vehicle powered by
hydrogen fuel cells.
Hybrid electric vehicles ar; also being
developed. They supplement the dlectricity with
other sources, such as on-board gasoline-
powered engines; have a longer range than
electric-only vehicles; and polli te much less
204
than comparable internal combustion engine
cars. However, they do still emit air pollutants
(because of this they do not qualify as zero-
emission vehicles under California's legis-
lation). Experimental hybrid buses using a
diesel engine to operate an electric generator
are on the streets in Munich, and one European
manufacturer has produced a gas-turbine hybrid
with a range of 50 kilometres, operating
on batteries.
Further down the road may be the so-called
'hypercar', promoted vigorously by Amory
Lovins of the Rocky Mountain Institute in the
United States. Under this concept, the standard
engine is replaced by a super-light, ultra-
efficient hybrid drive system, with small electric
motors powering the wheels, the energy for the
motors being generated on board by a small gas-
burning power plant. Through reduced engine
weight and the use of advanced composite
plastics, the vehicle weighs between a quarter
and a third" less than standard cars today. Lovins
says it could run at 65 kilometres per litre and
have a range of 975 kilometres.
A promising future
Every major car manufacturer in the world is
now investing in electric vehicle development.
There has been a flurry of activity in the past
two to three years, including the commercial
introduction of a number of models, and there
have been rapid technological advances. This
suggests electric vehicles have a promising
future. How promising it is remains to be seen.
According to one forecast, there could be a
million electric vehicles on the roads world-
wide by the year 2000; and by 2005 this
number could climb to 1.8 million (SOU.dOO in
the United States and 500,000 in each of
Europe and Japan). Other estimates regard this
forecast as optimistic.
The German Environmental Protection
Agency has estimated that it costs an additional
US$3,000-5,000 to buy an electric car rather
image:
ESTs FOR ROAD TRANSPORTATION
BOX 11.3
Transport challenges in developing countries
Developing countries already face
serious air pollution and other problems
from cars and freight traffic, which will
worsen as they industrialize, and rising
incomes lead to more vehicles on the
road.
In 1993, for example, Asian countries
accounted for about 23 per cent of the
vehicles sold worldwide; by the year
2000 they are expected to account for
29 per cent of the forecast sales of 57
million. Currently it is estimated that road
transport contributes 14 per cent of
global carbon dioxide emissions. Already
the developing countries are responsible
for about 30 per cent of this, and the
figure is expected to rise to 35 per cent
by the end of the century.
The situation concerning fuel
consumption and emissions can be
particularly unsatisfactory in many
developing countries because the
average lifetime of vehicles, and thus the
proportion of older vehicles, may
be quite high. This is often compounded
by the continuous inflow of used vehicles
from industrialized countries. In
addition, maintenance is often very
poor and the quality of fuel may be low,
leading to high emissions and high
consumption. The result is that in
developing countries, emissions per
vehicle are generally higher than in
industrialized economies, particularly
emissions of lead, sulphur oxides and
particulate matter. One reason is the
high lead content: introducing unleaded
fuel is quite costly and only some
of the higher income countries have
done so. Also, older, poorly maintained
vehicles emit more pollutants and few
vehicles are fitted with emission
control devices. The large number of
two-stroke engines, which emit high
levels of hydrocarbons and smoke, is
another factor.
There are a number of automotive
manufacturers in developing and
transitional economies. In 1988, these
accounted for about 10 per cent of all
car production. Most of these vehicles
were made under joint ventures
with Organisation for Economic
Co-operation and Development (OECD)
car makers, but several countries,
among them China and India, have their
own go-it-alone manufacturers, and
the fuel efficiencies of the vehicles
produced are significantly below
OECD standards. Moreover, few of
these countries have the technological
capacity for electronics or materials
production which is necessary to
implement current levels of vehicle
technology.
Because incomes in rural areas are
expected to grow slowly, it is unlikely
there will be any significant increase
in access to motorized transport in
these areas. The major growth is
occurring, and is predicted to continue,
in urban areas. In some cities, the
rate of urban motorization has
outstripped the rate of population
growth, and vehicle growth could be
higher if manufacturers in nations such
as China become major exporters of
cheaper vehicles.
Meeting this challenge will require
transferring technology in order to:
:.;. improve fuel quality;
*& introduce more efficient power units
with emissions controls;
.if improve standards of maintenance;
: introduce improved versions of low-
cost/low-power motorized transport,
designed specifically for high fuel
efficiency and low emissions.
What are the prospects? The level of fuel
efficiency and the emissions
characteristics of vehicles produced by
some developing-country manufacturers
has improved markedly, thanks to
exports to developed economies. For
example, companies in the Republic of
Korea, Malaysia and Taiwan are now
producing vehicles that meet European,
Japanese and United States standards.
As the demand increases in their own
countries, these car manufacturers
should be ideally placed to fill this
market. The question is whether they
will incorporate ESTs into the vehicles
they build.
than a conventional gasoline-powered vehicle,
and states that a switch to electric vehicles
"simply isn't cost-effective". Both the agency
and other experts contend that ultra-low-
emission technologies offer a better bet than
electric vehicles for reducing emissions.
However, the World Health Organization says
"we must start planning now for vehicles based
on renewable energy resources, and if we do not
'' invest in research and development to improve
electric vehicle technologies, we risk a catas-
trophe when fossil fuels run out".
Bringing down the high cost of electric cars
(likely to be the biggest deterrent to consumers)
is the priority for manufacturers. The short range
may be less of a drawback: over 80 per cent of
Europe's journeys are less than 15 kilometres,
while the total distance travelled by all the cars
image:
EGPC
really working for the environment
Egypt's energy prospects have never
looked so promising — with oil and
gas production continuing apace, and
new reserves of both fuels ready to be
explored and developed. But this
situation reinforces the need to take
steps to protect the environment.
Under the leadership of the Egyptian
General Petroleum Corporation
(EGPC), the petroleum sector is
implementing a series of important
reforms to do so.
Measures include:
f eliminating the addition of
tetraethyl lead to gasoline
f installing hydro-desulphurization
units for petroleum products
f fitting isomerization units to
increase the octane number
f installing used oil recovery units
| installing a sulphur producing unit
to reduce pollution
f building a hydro-cracking complex
to improve product quality and
upgrade fuel oil to lighter products
f fitting a unit to distil petroleum
wastes
f installing biological and industrial
sewage units
f setting up four pollution-fighting
centres fitted with the latest
equipment
f using computer simulation
programmes to study oil leaks into
the Suez Gulf, Red Sea and
Mediterranean
f working with other agencies on
gaseous, liquid and solid waste issues
f preparing environmental maps and
databases for all sites
f introducing environmental safety
programmes for employees
| switching power stations from fuel
oil to natural gas
f using natural gas instead of gasoline
for moving different types of
vehicles
Energy is important to Egypt. But so is
the environment. The EGPC is
working to ensure that the two go
forward together.
The Egyptian General Petroleum Corporation
Palestine Street part 4 Maadi Gedida
11724 New Maadi
Egypt
Tel. 202 353 1438/353 1447
image:
in an average American household is only 66
kilometres a day. This suggests a market for
electric vehicles for short trips in cities and
towns, where vehicle pollution is worse. Few
experts expect zero-emission vehicles to replace
gasoline-filled vehicles on a massive scale, even
in the medium term. But they clearly have a role
in the future reshaping of the world's pattern of
travel and transport, and are likely to make an
increasingly important contribution to tackling
air quality and pollution problems. For the
moment, however, the best estimate is that
conventionally powered vehicles wiE continue
to dominate for the next 10-15 years.
As the OECD emphasizes, technology
improvements to vehicles are only part of the
solution; traffic management and control
measures are also needed. In addition, the
number of cars and trucks on the roads has to be
reduced. One alternative is to move people and
goods by rail. Trains not only cause less
pollution than road vehicles, but a shift from
road to rail transport would also cut traffic
congestion and significantly ease worsening
air pollution problems, particularly in the big
urban areas.
Meanwhile, transportation remains a serious
environmental challenge, and not only because
of the pollution caused by road vehicles. There
is also increasing concern about the
Sources
Automotive Environment Analyst, various, Financial
Times,
Energy and Environmental Technologies to Respond
to Global Climate Change Concerns, 1994,
IEA/OECD.
Managing the Transition to a Sustainable
Transportation System, Francis E. K, Britton,
EcoPlan International.
Motor Vehicle Pollution; Reduction Strategies
Beyond 2010, 1995, OECD.
Promotion of Environmentally Sound Technology:
the Low-Consumption/Low-Emission
Automobile, Gerard Dorin, Spring 1992, ATLAS
Bulletin.
Taming the Beast: A Survey of Living with the Car,
July 1996, The Economist.
ESTs FOR ROAD TRANSPORTATION
environmental
emissions of
impact of aircraft, for example
litrogen oxides. Aircraft manu-
facturers are continually improving engine and
fuel efficienci
growth in ai
technological
some worries
pressure to ens
marine polluti
But it is
transportation
new technolog
addressing this
ments in the fu
s but, as with road vehicles, the
traffic is outstripping these
idvances. Shipping, too, causes
and shipbuilders are under
ue that their vessels produce less
fuels become
reducing the
conventional v
least disrupt!
n in future.
fie inexorable growth in road
hat poses the major threat, and
es will contribute powerfully to
. As the OECD says: "Improve-
zl efficiency of vehicles will play
an important, and perhaps profound role in a
larger strategy to reduce vehicle pollution. Until
more sustainable options such as alternative
practical on a large scale,
specific fuel consumption of
shicles appears to be one of the
e means of lowering carbon
dioxide emisst3ns from transport. As part of a
more general strategy to reduce demand for
fossil fuels, steady improvements in the fuel
efficiency of conventional vehicles could buy
time for the gradual implementation of more
radical measuies, while stimulating the devel-
opment of tec!
applied to v«
energy sources
nologies that could ultimately be
hides powered by alternative
The Endless Roi
October 199
The Keys to the
for the 21st C
World Resou 'ces
The Resurgence
1996, Scientific
Transport and tfi
Environment,
Transportation a. id Energy:
Sustainable 1
American Co
Economy.
World Developrr ent Report 1992: Development and
the Envlronmgnt, World Bank.
World Motor /no jstry survey, March 1996, The
Financial Times.
d: A Survey of the Car Industry,
, The Economist.
Car: Electric and Hydrogen Vehicles
•entury, 1994, James J. MacKenzie,
Institute.
of Electric Vehicles, November
American.
Environment, Industry and
January-June 1993, UNEP IE.
7 Strategies for a
ransportation System, 1995,
jncil for an Energy-Efficient
image:
Currently biotechnology is the dominant
technology in wastewater treatment,
it Is also used in the treatment of soils
and solid waste.
image:
Biotechnology 12
Biotechnology is used increasingly as the environmentally sound tedinology (EST) of choice
in many applications, particularly pollution clean-up. It also offers enormous promise in
tackling many more environmental problems. New applications are expected to include
water treatment, treatment of solid wastes (including biodegradable plastics)., biomining,
agriculture (creating plants resistant to ifee most adverse weather conditions), combating
desertification, and even to form the basis for cleaner production. But a key issue is the
transfer of biotechnology know-how.
iotechnology, broadly defined as any
technique that uses living organisms to
make or modify a product, improve
plants or animals, or develop micro-organisms
for specific use, is not new per se. However,
modern biotechnology, based on the use of new
tissue culture methods, and recombinant-DNA
technology, or genetic engineering, is an
exciting science and rich in potential. Advanced
biotechnologies are moving rapidly from .
research into commercial production - opening
up new frontiers in areas from manufacturing to
health care to pollution clean-up. They will play
an increasingly important role in fostering the
economic and social development of developing
countries, for example by improving health
through providing powerful new diagnostics,
vaccines and drugs.
Already, biotechnological techniques are
making an important — in some cases, essential
- contribution to the protection and clean-up of
the environment. They rely on the ability of
natural processes to degrade organic molecules.
Microbes play a pivotal role digesting and
degrading organic compounds to their mineral
components and have become remarkably
effective, to the point where they can mineralize
most organic substances. There are several ways
in which biotechnology can prevent or reduce
environmental damage, including:
added-value processes, which convert a
waste stream into useful products;
end-of-pipe processes, which purify the
waste stream to the point where products
can be released without harm into the
environment;
development of new biomaterials, leading to
the manufacture of materials with reduced
environmental impact;
- new biological production processes that
generate less, or more manageable, waste.
Cleaning up pollution
At present, the main use for biotechnology is to
clean up or remedy pollution. One of the first
applications was wastewater clean-up, followed
by air and off-gas cleaning. Now the focus of
bioremediation is shifting increasingly towards
soil and solid waste.
Biotechnology is already the dominant
technology for wastewater treatment: biological
treatment can cope with a wide range of
effluents more effectively than chemical or
physical methods, and is particularly suitable for
treating wastewater containing the more
common organic pollutants. In fact, it was first
used to treat wastewater more than 100 years
ago. Since then, both aerobic and anaerobic
processes have been developed. Aerobic treat-
ment has become the established technology for
image:
BIOTECHNOLOGY
BOX 12,1
Using micro-organisms against
industrial pollution
Industries established long ago in then rural areas are now creating
serious pollution problems for new communities that have developed
nearby. In Monterey, United States - which has a cluster of industries
Including glass, cement, steel, chemical, paper and brewing - one
company, producing rayon fibre and cellophane film, had to cope
with serious sulphur gaseous emissions from two facilities close to
houses built 20 years after the factories.
A search for a way to eliminate the foul-smelling emissions found that
none of the available abatement technologies was suitable because
they were ai too costly- The plants, which provide 1,500 jobs and
25 per cent of the company's revenues, were not profitable enough
to support an expensive solution.
It was decided to explore the use of micro-organisms, since both
contaminants contained sulphur and theoretically were easily
degradable by naturally occurring bacteria. Biological treatment was
compared with four other methods - chemical scrubbing, carbon
adsorption, catalytic and thermal Incineration, and chemical and
photochemical oxidation - and was chosen because biological
reactors were easy and cheaper to install, maintenance was low, and
the company had experience of biological processes for wastewater
treatment.
A pflot btoreactor removed 95 per cent of both compounds within
ten weeks of operation, and full-scale operation has yielded excellent
results, confirming that the btotreatment option is competitive with
other technologies.
low- and medium-strength wastes, and also for
toxic and recalcitrant molecules. Anaerobic
processes are more effective for highly organic
wastes, such as food processing wastewaters,
municipal sludges and animal husbandry
slurries. During the past ten years, they have
begun increasingly to replace aerobic systems in
many applications. Anaerobic wastewater treat-
ment plants are more compact, separate carbon
compounds as a combustible gas (methane) and
can achieve recovery rates of more than 80 per
cent. Biotechnological methods are now widely
used to remove nitrate, phosphate, heavy metal
ions, chlorinated organic compounds and toxic
substances. The main aim of water treatment
used to he to reduce organic matter generally.
Nowadays cleaning up industrial pollutants is
becoming critically important and this is leading
to the development of biological processes for
removing specific pollutants.
Since the mid-1980s biological treatment has
also been used in both Western Europe and the
United States to control odours and volatile
organic compounds in contaminated air.
Traditional off-gas treatment methods -
incineration, dispersion, catalytic oxidation,
scrubbing and adsorption - are best suited to
handling large volumes of well-defined waste
gases. Malodour problems from waste plants in
particular are usually caused by varying
mixtures- at very low concentrations. Biological
control offers a simpler alternative to chemical
oxidation, leaves no chemical residues and uses
less energy.
The biotechnological processes used in
air/off-gas treatment are primarily:
;:•; biofiltration, in which immobilized micro-
organisms, sticking to an organic matrix
such as compost or bark, degrade the gas
pollutants;
' bioscrubbing, in which the pollutants are
washed out using a cell suspension, which is
regenerated by microbial activity in an
aerated tank;
•I biotrickling filtration, in which immobilized
micro-organisms sticking to an inert matrix
degrade the pollutants while they are
suspended in a water film and supplied with
inorganic nutrients by a medium trickling
through the device.
Biofilters are mainly used to abate odours
and treat volatile organic solvents, and can be
found in wastewater treatment plants, fish
processing plants, gelatin works, foundries,
resin processing plants and in plywood
production. Biofilters have also been used to
remove easily biodegradable compounds
emitted by oil cracking or off-gases from the
petrochemical industry, and the feed and food
210
image:
BIOTECHNOLOGY
industries. Here biofilters replace physical or
chemical air treatment techniques. Bio-
scrubbers and biotrickling filtration systems
have been introduced successfully in sectors
such as food, brewing, some chemical
processes, wastewater treatment units and
agriculture. Biofiltration is relatively cheap, but
cannot treat all types and concentrations of
pollutants. Bioscrubbers can clean highly
contaminated off-gases, but require larger
investment and have bigger running costs.
Overall, biological treatment of air/off-gas
problems competes favourably with other
techniques in terms of energy consumption,
materials balance and cost. For example,
operating costs for biological gas treatment
typically work out at 20 and 40 per cent of the
costs of chemical and thermal processes
respectively. A major advantage is that
pollutants are totally converted into harmless
substances, without the accumulation of toxic
residues or side products. A wide range of
gaseous wastes has been identified as treatable
by biotechnological means, and commercial
processes are already available for most of them.
Moreover, it has been demonstrated that
biotreatment technologies will remove gaseous
air pollutants from industrial units located in the
centres of heavily populated industrial zones.
Industrial biotreatment of industrial or
domestic solid waste is largely confined, at
present, to composting wastes with a high
proportion of organic materials. Most municipal
waste contains a high amount of organic,
biodegradable material, for example, food waste,
lawn clippings, and wet and soiled paper unsuit-
able for recycling. In industrialized countries,
organic material can account for 50 per cent of
household waste. Composting uses controlled or
engineered biodegradation, taking several weeks,
or even months, to recycle organic materials into
compost. Using the compost in farming or
horticulture improves soil quality, reduces
irrigation needs, and cuts both soil erosion and
BOX 12.2
New modular composting system
A German composting process uses a new containerized, modular
box system to separate all metals and other 'foreign materials' from
household waste. It then shreds and screens a mixture of 80 per
cent blowaste, 20 per cent green waste (from public amenity sites),
before feeding it automatically by conveyor into the composting box.
Two bunkers, or containers, store the shredded and unshredded
woody material, while a third bunker receives the biowastes. The
boxes can be used for a single stage process, which entails leaving
the waste in the box for 7-10 days before it is allowed to mature
outside for 12 weeks. A final screening process removes any
oversized or contaminated items. The facility has 14 composting
boxes, each with Hs own temperature and carbon dioxide controls,
and an air circulation system, which blows dry air through the floor
into the piled organic material, and withdraws moist air through pipes
in the roof of the box, passing it qn through the filtration system.
The plant can produce 12 different soil mixes, each tailored for various
applications, such as golf courses-, landscaping and plant cultivation.
The bunkers containing the product mixes are computer controlled to
ensure a consistent mixing process and can produce 60 tonnes an
hour of end product. A sophisticated water purification system using
high performance micro-biological techniques in a sealed system
ensures that no wastewater is discharged.
Facilities using this system have now been built In Germany, Canada,
Austria, the United Kingdom and Luxembourg. The boxes - each
weighing 50 tonnes and capable of a throughput of 1,280-1,500
tonnes of organic material a year - are built at the company's factory,
then taken by road for final installation.
the use of chemical fertilizers. Composting solid
waste is attractive in places where the use of
landfills or incinerators is limited or expensive
and where natural soils are of low quality, such
as in the arid countries of the Middle East.
For industrial solid waste, anaerobic
digestion is increasingly replacing aerobic
processes because it converts organic materials
to usable methane, a fossil fuel substitute. The
value of generating methane PS a fuel versus
actual waste disposal varies according to
circumstances. For example, j- ' aot the priority
in developed countries. Ho\ : m developing
countries anaerobic 1'enr.enlers are used
extensively in rural areas to produce biogas for
image:
Fertiberia
An overview of our management philosophy
on the environment
Fertiberia is Spain's leading manufacturer of fertilizers and the fourth largest fertilizer company
in the European Union, with eight factories and nearly 2,000 employees. Company turnover,
including that of its fully owned subsidiary Sefanitro, is 85,000 million Pta. (approximately US$550
million). Exports are about 15 percent of total sales. Between 1995 and 1997, the company's
investments were 9,200 million Pta. (approximately US$60 million). Fertiberia has been owned by
Grupo Villar-Mir, an independent industrial family group, since April 1995.
We know it is vital to ensure our operations do not harm the environment. So environmental issues
are given the highest priority.
The company has invested over 3,400 million Pta. (approximately US$22 million) over the last four
years to implement a plan to reduce air and water emissions, solid wastes and contamination. This
has involved modifying processes and installing end-of-pipe technology solutions, including
recycling, to prevent or minimize discharges to water systems and the ground, and washing gaseous
effluents. The goal is zero-liquid discharge.
These solutions - many of them developed by our own engineers - will enable Fertiberia to comply
with both Spanish legislation and standards set by the European Fertilizer Manufacturers Association
(Efma). Through our internal audit system, personnel from one factory checks the results of others.
In fact, Fertiberia's environmental performance depends on our employees, and the company
conducts an ongoing environmental awareness programme among all of its 2,000 people, at all
levels and in all departments.
Local communities also need to know what we are doing - so the company holds an Environment
Week in every factory every year. Events include round tables involving employees, local
authorities and union representatives.
In addition, we compare our performance with that of other Efma member companies - using
annual benchmarking to match ourselves against the Best Available Techniques (BAT) emission
levels set out in the Efma booklets on BAT.
We are not standing still. We are now- developing an environmental
management system which, when implemented, can be certified. That
will be the final step in our environmental policy, following an
approach completely in line with the EU's directive on Integrated
Pollution Prevention and Control (1PPC).
The environment - as well as quality, client service and
competitiveness - is a major challenge, a key to making our business
sustainable. We intend to succeed.
Juan Miguel Villar-Mir, President
Fertiberia, Juan Hurtado de Mendoza, 4, 28036 Madrid, Spain
image:
BIOTECHNOLOGY
cooking, heating, and even as a fuel for small
electricity generators.
Soil and land treatment is another important
application for biotechnology. Soil can be
contaminated by both organic pollutants
(spillages from chemical plants, gas works and
other manufacturing sites) and inorganic
pollutants (heavy metals and anions such as
sulphate). Biotechnology is most effective
against organic pollution: the micro-organisms
use the contaminants as a food or energy source
to turn the pollutant into microbial biomass.
Bioremediation treatments fall into two groups:
one is in situ, which has the advantage that the
remediation does not disturb the site, and the
other is ex situ, which consists of digging up the
soil and treating it above ground, which is much
easier to control.
The technology of land bioremediation has
been successful enough in the United States,
Europe and elsewhere to demonstrate that it
works. In the Netherlands, one company using
both biological and non-biological techniques
can handle up to 100,000 tonnes of contami-
nated land a year. Its major advantage over other
technologies is cost: it is the cheapest option,
other than taking the contaminated soil to
landfill. Experience in the United States shows
that using biological instead of physical or
chemical methods can achieve savings of
65-85 per cent.
However, any remediation process must be
reliable. This is especially so with polluted sites
which are extremely complex, and the choice of
technology is also very site specific. The
problem with bioremediation is that it needs to
build up a bank of results to confirm it is
predictable, yet there is a hesitancy about using
it until its reliability is proven. Remediation can
also be a time-consuming process, tying up
capital and preventing land use. Its big advan-
tage is that because micro-organisms are used to
break down the organic matter, the end products
are minerals, • carbon dioxide, water and
BOX 12.3
Viet Nam focuses on composting
Solid waste has reached unmanageable proportions in many cities in
Viet Nam - and the government's strategy is to build composting
plants in and around urban centres. Since the waste stream in Hanoi
and other Vietnamese cities and towns contains a high share of
organic material, with a high moisture content, it is potentially
compostable - especially since it is relatively uncontaminated by
either plastics or pollutants.
In Hanoi, collected waste is taken to a newly opened engineered
sanitary landfill site or to a pilot composting plant. Built in 1993-1994,
with funding from the United Nations Development Programme
(UNDP), the plant uses an aerobic forced air process to produce
7,500 tonnes of compost a year.
Tine pilot plant has proved a success, but lack of funds prevents the
government from building more. Therefore part of its strategy is
to use the composting plant to produce fertilizers, for which
there is a big demand, with the aim of largely replacing Imported
artificial fertilizers.
In Viet Nam, farming and household wastes in rural areas are mostly
used as fuel for cooking or as fertilizers. Biogas tanks which would
allow methane recovery have not been widely introduced - mainly
because of lack of money and also because of the lack of
appropriate technology.
biomass, unlike all other technologies - except
incineration - which concentrate the material
without changing its form.
In biomining, biological treatment processes
are being used to remove cyanide and metals
from mine water, while micro-organisms have
been used to detoxify solutions by separating
out heavy metals and to recover precious metals
from industrial waste.
A rapidly growing number of bio-
technologies have been developed for agri-
culture, some of which have environmental
relevance. For instance, agricultural biotech-
nologies targeted towards increasing product-
ivity can - through improving yields per unit of
input, or reducing inputs and costs per unit of
output — mean that the same amounts of food
are produced with less land, water and
image:
BKJIfcGHNULUUY
BOX 12.4
Research projects produce results
in the United States
The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) In the United States is
leading a major effort by government scientists, private industry and
the academic community to find new ways to use naturally occurring
micro-organisms to clean up environmental contaminants.
The technology moved into the public spotlight during the clean-up
operation after the Exxon Valdez oil spill in Alaska, when EPA
scientists applied fertilizer to parts of the coast to stimulate natural
oil-degrading bacteria. Subsequent studies showed that this
treatment caused oil to degrade twice as fast as the oil in
untreated areas.
Since then, research into bioremediation in the United States has
increased three or four times, and the EPA's Office of Research and
Development has set up a five-year Bioremediation Research
Programme, one of the alms of which is to speed up the transfer of
new discoveries from the laboratory to the field.
In one study, EPA scientists applied white rot fungus to samples
contaminated with pentachlorophenol and other toxic
compounds: preliminary results showed that pentachlorophenol
concentrations of up to 1,000 parts per million were reduced
by 85-90 per cent.
At another site, petrochemical wastes were treated with a process
which involved injecting air into the liquid to encourage aerobic
degradation, adding nutrients, using centrifugal pumps to emulsify
the waste, and mixing the subsoil in with a hydraulic dredge.
Within 120 days, volatile organic compounds in the waste were
reduced from 3,400 to 150 parts per million, benzene
concentrations from 300 to 12 parts per million, and vinyl chloride
tevels from 600 to 17 parts per million.
Treating ground water contaminated with benzene, toluene and
xytene from an aviation fuel spill by adding hydrogen peroxide as
an oxygen source to stimulate indigenous microbes, brought the
water within ERA'S drlnWng water standards within six months.
These results demonstrated that while bioremediation is a Blow
process, it is less costly than alternative clean-up methods. By
converting toxic chemicals to other materials, it actually removes the
toxic elements from the environment, rather than just separating
them for disposal later on.
agrochernicals. In livestock production,
hormones that can increase milk yields in cows
can now be mass-produced by genetically
altered bacteria, while tissue culture, which has
advanced considerably in recent years, can
allow whole plants to be generated from single
cells, or small samples of tissue.
Bioreactors are used to produce biogas from
biomass, a lignocellulosic (woody plant)
material, which is often a primary or waste
product from the agricultural and forest products
industries. Bioreactors use bacteria and archae-
bacteria to produce methane and biogas from
three main sources: landfill; dedicated sources
of biomass; and as a by-product from anaerobic
treatment processes for sewage sludge, animal
slurries and high-strength industrial waste
streams. Biogas formation is an efficient method
of recovering chemical energy from very wet
organic waste, and can be burned in furnaces or
in modified internal combustion engines.
Removing water vapour and carbon dioxide
creates methane which, after further puri-
fication, can be compressed and used in natural
gas pipelines.
An exciting future
Biotechnology is an established environ-
mentally sound technology (EST) with many
applications, and already plays a significant role
in tackling a number of pollution problems. The
future offers even more promise.
For water treatment, new biotechnology
methods are being developed that will remove
nitrogen, phosphorous and sulphur compounds.
Bioprocessing is being extended to various
industrial processes, including a number in the
petrochemical and chemical industries.
Specialized, highly active strains of micro-
organisms are being used to treat specific
pollutants in other industries. These include
industries using catalysis, textiles, leather
production, cellulose and starch processing,
electro-plating, mining, surface degreasing and
coating, and printing. Biosorption may replace
physical or chemical methods such as
precipitation, adsorption or ion exchange in
scavenging heavy metals ions.
214
image:
BIOTECHNOLOGY
Future solid-waste applications are expected
to include:
?? detoxification, to selectively remove heavy
metal ions, leaving only trace amounts of
pollutants;
'?: digestion of wastes with an organic content;
?. transformation of waste into biogas, allowing
a more rapid waste turnover;
; the development of biodegradable plastics to
reduce the volumes of solid wastes.
The International Solid Waste Association
reported recently that "there can be little doubt
that methods of organic waste treatment are of
high priority in all countries".
Biodegradable plastics can be degraded into
water and carbon dioxide by micro-organisms in
the environment. However, their development
and commercialization presents some problems,
such as the definition of biodegradability and
methods for testing it, labelling and costs. One
bacterial polymer, polyhydroxybutyrate, has
been commercialized. It is a thermoplastic
polymer which may help with problems asso-
ciated with the disposal of non-biodegradable
petroleum-based plastics. However, its efficacy
remains to be validated. Currently, the Japanese
government is supporting a number of research
and development projects looking into bio-
degradable plastics.
Work is moving ahead rapidly to develop
advanced bioreactors to handle industrial
effluents. Because they are highly alkaline or
acidic and have heavy salt concentrations, these
effluents can resist micro-organisms. The aim is
to use membranes to separate the organisms
from the effluent and allow only the organic
pollutants through. A second generation of
biofilters, bioscmbbers and biotrickling filters
for industrial ak/off-gas treatment will employ
specialized micro-organisms as well as
combinations of biological with chemical or
physical techniques such as membrane
technology. This will allow the treatment of
higher concentrations, and a wider range, of
pollutants and toxic pollutants — markets
currently dominated by ESTs such as active
carbon filtration, scrubbers and incineration.
In time, biotechnology may replace these
technologies, which are relatively expensive in
terms of investment and operation costs.
Biotechnology solutions are also expected to
make an increasing impact on land clean-up
problems. They are especially suited to treating
complex organic contaminants and moderately
contaminated sites where it is costly, or
impossible, to disrupt existing activities. There is
also likely to be increasing use of bacteria for
reducing pollution in the mining industry. The
National Institute of Standards and Technology in
Japan is investigating the use of metal-
metabolizing micro-organisms for resource
recovery, bioremediation and coal cleaning.
Trends in agriculture
In agriculture, a priority of modern plant
genetics is to replace nitrogen fertilizers, a major
source of pollution, with nitrogen fixation
within the plant. An example is the development
of cereals with the ability to fix some of their
own nitrogen. Breakthroughs in genetic
modification methods could increase plant
resistance to virus and other diseases, as well as
to drought, salt, cold and heat, thus increasing
the land resources available for crop production,
or raising crop yields, and so lessening the
pressures on marginal lands. Another major
benefit would be a reduction in the use of
fertilizers and pesticides.
Converting agricultural raw materials into
food and non-food products - such as wood,
pulp and paper, and leather - contributes large
amounts of industrial waste. Using bio-
technology to improve production processes,
such as replacing harsh leather-tanning chemi-
cals by enzymes, could reduce and ultimately
eliminate waste generation by converting wastes
into useful products. Already 10 per cent of the
value of the wheat crop is derived from using
image:
At Monsanto, we pledge to be part
of the solution
We all depend on natural resources, biological
productivity and healthy global markets to survive.
Preserving these elements for the future will require
imagination and bold action. As a global, science-based
company, Monsanto believes we have the expertise to
help find technical solutions that will allow the world to
move toward a sustainable future.
Sustainability is our Responsibility
E-mail: webguru@monsanto.com
image:
BIOTECHNOLOGY
new enzyme technologies to convert straw into
starch and other industrial products.
According to the International Energy Agency
(IEA) and the Organisation for Economic Co-
operation and Development (OECD), new
biotechnology "can affect every stage of plant
life, breeding, growth, harvesting and residue
treatment" - and at every stage there could be "a
consequent benefit for the environment in the
form of more efficient, iess resource-consuming,
less polluting agricultural practices". For
example, agricultural land can be either a sink or
a net source of methane gas, depending on the
cultivation techniques. Methods to reduce
methane emissions may actually increase
emissions of nitrogen oxides. Solving this
problem may involve a combination of natural
methods and artificially created organisms.
Plant researchers are investigating the way in
which nitrogen is fixed and made available to
certain plants (for example, legumes) in order to
improve nitrogen-fixing efficiency. Through
biotechnology, it is likely that it will be possible
to transfer nitrogen-fixing genes to non-fixing
organisms. Plants fix carbon dioxide in various
ways, and the carbon loss also varies between
species. A major cause is photorespiration,
where oxygen is fixed and carbon dioxide
respired. Photosynthetic improvement might
increase carbon dioxide yields by 10-20 per
cent. Advanced genetic engineering may also
make it possible to separate the two fixation
processes and make it easier to transfer genes
for efficient carbon metabolism from one
species of plant to another. Ultimately, it may
also be possible to reduce photorespiration
through the genetic manipulation of photo-
synthetic enzymes.
Genetic technology could also have a
significant impact on rice growing. Paddy fields
are a major emitter of methane worldwide. At
the moment, their ecosystems are too complex
and too little understood to introduce 'foreign*
organisms. Improving management techniques
..&"'
/€.
t|g| The future of sustainable
development rests largely in
local and national hands. Commitment
to an eco-revolution iife
will be bottom up, if at all ""$
Simon Upton,
Minister for the Environment,
New Zealand
Hi International cooperation
" * has waned, and the political
will to implement Agenda 21
has continued to recede "'"^
Alhaji Abdullah! Adamu,
Minister of State for Works and Housing, Nigeria
is currently the only way to reduce methane
emissions. -Dry-rice cultivation causes much
lower methane emissions, so a shift from wet to
dry cultivation would reduce global methane
releases. The problem is that paddy fields have a
much higher yield, and with so many people
depending on the success of a particular rice
crop, such a shift would be an enormous move.
The key to the switch is to use biotechnology to
produce new kinds of rice that are adapted to dry
cultivation and give high yields.
Further applications
Biotechnology can also help reverse the impact
of desertification. About 35 per cent of the
Earth's land area is desertified, or threatened by
desertification, and reclaiming the use of some
of these areas would put more land back into
productive and profitable use. One role for
image:
dlOltUINULlAiY
BOX 12.5
Promoting biotechnology transfer
There are a number of initiatives under way to promote the transfer,
development and use of environmentally sound biotechnologies in
developing countries,
. UNEP supports a network of regional Microbial Resources
Centres (MIRCENs) which collect and maintain microbial genetic
resources and also provide research and training in pilot
applications. Examples include biodegradation of persistent
chemicals used in agriculture and Industry, and bioremediation.
Each MIRCEN acts as a centre of excellence for training in
environmental microbiology and biotechnology, including their
application in environmental management. These centres are
supported by selected institutions in developed countries to
Increase exchange of expertise. The United Nations Educational,
Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) collaborates
on this. UNEP also conceived and supported the
establishment and use of the international Microbial Strain
Data Network, a referral system of information on microbial
strains and cell lines.
The Global Environment Facility Is funding a project involving
eight countries which includes agricultural biotechnologies
and genetic engineering components. The Biolnformatics
Network on Biotechnology and Biodiversity - run by the United
Nations Industrial Development Organization (UNIDO), the
United Natbns Development Programme (UNDP) and
the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United
Nations (FAO) - is an information-sharing network linking eight
Asian countries. Non-govammental organizations and the
business sector in each country are encouraged to take
part. The United Nations Economic Commission for
Europe has also held seminars and workshops on
bioremediatton of polluted groundwater, technologies for
containing water, biological methods for treating pollution
In unsaturated zones above groundwater, and treating
extracted contaminated soil.
UNIDO focuses on the role of modern technology for
btoremediation of contaminated land and water, providing
technical advice and assistance, and running regional workshops
on the strategic development of appropriate technologies and
combinations of technologies, including new biotechnology
for treating polluted land and water, and industrial effluents.
UNIDO's International Centre for Genetic Engineering and
Biotechnology, created in 1983, provides advanced research and
development training facilities in biotechnology and genetic
engineering for scientists from developing countries, at two
centres in Trieste, Italy, and New Delhi, India. Particular attention
is given to strengthening biotechnology activities in India.
Cooperative research programmes at the centre Include
environmental biotechnology.
biotechnology includes water retention and
prevention of salt damage. A Japanese research
group has developed a new 'super-bioabsorbent*
material that can absorb and hold water more
than a thousand times its own weight. Using
gene recombination and eel! fusion techniques,
the longer-term aim is to breed plants that can
survive in desert conditions and even to produce
genetically engineered crops which would thrive
on seawater irrigation.
Biodesulphurization of oil and coal is also
emerging as a promising technology. Removing
sulphur from fossil fuels is important. However,
while current oil desulphurization technologies
are efficient, they require high temperatures and
pressures and do not remove all the organic
sulphur compounds. Several biological micro-
organisms are capable of removing pyritic
sulphur from coal: other microbes are being
evaluated to remove organic sulphur. Bio-
technology also offers possibilities for reducing
methane emissions at a number of stages of the
coal fuel cycle, and it may also be possible to
use micro-organisms to convert low rank coal
into methane. Preliminary studies have
demonstrated that coal liquefaction can be
achieved in a single step by using enyzmes to
produce a flammable liquid with potential
as a fuel.
Biotnass, for example, could be a long-term
option for the production of electricity. The
basis could be existing forestry and agricultural
residues, produced in huge quantities. The most
promising option for biomass power is
integrated gasification/gas turbine technology.
Assessments suggest that modest-scaled power
plants (20-50 megawatts) could achieve thermal
efficiencies of more than 40 per cent in a few
years, and 50 per cent by 2010, at much lower
capital costs than conventional plants. Low and
high pressure gasifiers using biomass are being
developed. Lignocellulose has a negligible
sulphur, low ash and high volatiles content, and
high char reactivity, all of which make it a
218
image:
A bacterial polymer, polyhydroxybutyrate,
has been commercialized to help with the
disposal of non-biodegradable,
petroleum-based plastics.
image:
BIOltOHNOLUUY
potentially ideal feedstock in a modern
gasification system.
Biotechnology may also be used to produce
hydrogen. The oil-refining process requires
large amounts of hydrogen — usually produced
from fossil fuels and thereby releasing carbon
dioxide. Scientists believe that biotechnology
coukl be the key to using sunlight as an energy
source, leading to bioteehnological processes to
replace present chemical processes, so saving
significant amounts of energy and natural
resources, and reducing waste.
Biotechnology may also become the basis for
cleaner technology by eliminating specific
pollutants, either through replacing them or
making their use unnecessary. One example is
using biological methods to destroy excess
solvents during industrial processing. In
principle, biotechnologies can play a role at
virtually every stage of energy production,
transmission and consumption, in reducing
greenhouse gas emissions. The possibilities
range from the development of cleaner fuels
(biomass, hydrogen) or cleaning traditional
fuels, to cutting energy use in agriculture and
energy-intensive industries by improving
traditional production processes.
UNEP's Cleaner Production Programme has a
working group on Biotechnology for Cleaner
Production, which focuses on bioteehnological
processes that lead to the prevention of industrial
wastes and emissions. For some industrial
processes, there are biotechnological alternatives
which, when implemented, produce less waste
and fewer emissions than traditional processes.
The Biotechnology for Cleaner Production
working group is collecting case studies to
illustrate the development of these processes.
Some examples are given below.
'••• A small electro-plating company is using
biological degreasing with activated
microorganisms, in combination with a
- closed rinse water system, as an alternative
to degreasing using alkalis. The main
environmental benefits are reduction of
sludge by 50 per cent, reduction of water use
by 90 per cent and reduction of acid use by at
least 20 per cent. Running costs have been
reduced by US$80,000.
' A textile finishing company is using an
enzymatic bleach clean-up process. Natural
fabrics such as cotton are normally bleached
with hydrogen peroxide before dyeing,
Bleaching agents arc highly reactive
chemicals and even very small amounts
of hydrogen peroxide can interfere with
the dyeing process. The new clean-up
method removes hydrogen peroxide after
bleaching and before dyeing by using a small
dose of the enzyme catalase which decom- •
poses hydrogen peroxide to water and
oxygen. The benefits are reduced water and
energy consumption.
£fi The enzyme lipase can replace traditional
solvent extraction of fats from animal hides
and skin, reducing the use of organic solvents
and improving the quality of the finished
leather.
;•' Instead of the traditional use of pumice
stones in jeans finishing, enzymes can be
used to give them the same look and better
quality. Productivity is increased because
laundry machines contain more garment and
less stone.
: Using the enzyme amylase in the desizing of
textiles means that smaller quantities of
aggressive chemicals, such as ammonium
persulphate and hydrogen peroxide, are
required. Using fewer chemicals also reduces
damage to the fibres.
Approach causes concern
Despite its proven benefits — and clear
advantages over other ESTs in a number of
applications — there is anxiety in some people's
minds over using biotechnology for pollution
clean-up. A particular example is recorobinant
DNA (r-DNA) technology, which is being used
220
image:
BIOTECHNOLOGY
to develop superior strains of micro-organisms
to speed up degradation and expand the range of
easily degradable compounds. It may be
especially useful in degrading hydrocarbons or
producing biopolymers. While suitable micro-
organisms may develop naturally, r-DNA
technology can achieve results faster and more
efficiently. There is concern about possible
environmental risks arising from using r-DNA to
create such new strains, as genes from
genetically engineered varieties could spread
back into naturally occurring organisms. The
experience of the pharmaceutical industry,
which has developed a number of new, useful
and safe products based on r-DNA technology,
may help to set people's minds at rest.
Biotechnology transfer
Biotechnology is no exception to the issue of
EST transfer and is subject to similar constraints
(see Chapter 3). However, the United Nations
Commission on Sustainable Development
(CSD) has noted that while every country needs
to be able to "acquire, absorb and develop" all
and any technology, the transfer of biotech-
nology "poses new challenges" to developing
countries. This is why Agenda 21, Chapter 16, is
devoted to the environmentally sound manage-
ment of biotechnology, particularly in its
transfer to developing countries.
Many developing countries have neither the
technological resources nor the scientific
competence to take up bioscience research and
development, and they also lack the technical
capability to develop scaled-up and downstream
industrial processes. A lack of scientists and
engineers prevents research institutions from
conducting the multidisciplinary research that
can bring biotechnology to fruitful result. Most
of the research and development in bio-
technology is carried out in well-funded
universities, research institutes and major
companies in developed countries.
All these factors contribute to a clear gap
BOX 12.6
Developing environmentally sound
biotechnologies in India
India's National Environmental Engineering Research Institute has
developed a number of environmentally sound biotechnologies -
demonstrating that not all advances take place in developed
countries. They include the following.
X A chemo-biochemical technology for desulphurizing gaseous fuels
and emissions containing hydrogen sulphide, which also recovers
elemental sulphur. The process removes 99 per cent of the
hydrogen sulphide. The recovered sulphur, with a purity of up to
99.7 per cent, can be used commercially.
••• '• A technology for producing biosurfactants - active compounds
derived from biological sources which, like synthetic surfactants,
exhibit characteristic physical and chemical properties.
Biosurfactants can be used in situ to enhance oil recovery, in
remediation of oil spills, and as detergents.
•<" The bioremediation of mine spoil dumps, which involves
excavating pits on the eroded, stony dumps, filling them with
bedding material {organic waste and spoil), and planting selected
saplings pretreated with microbial cultures. The process reclaims
spoil dumps, mined land and wastelands within three to four
years without using chemicals. The degraded ecosystems recover
fast, providing carbon dioxide'Sinks.
vr A process using a microbial treatment which removes 85 per cent
of high pyritic sulphur and 89 per cent of ash from coal before it is
burned, leaving coal which is usable in thermal power plants, coal
gasification plants and for generating cleaner liquid fuels.
The institute's cost-benefit analysis of these and other
biotechnologies shows that the initial investments, annual operating
and maintenance costs, benefits and investment returns are
attractive to small-scale enterprises in developing countries.
between developed and developing countries
and there is the risk that this will widen further.
However, thanks largely to the efforts of several
United Nations organizations, a number of
developing countries are now giving increasing
attention to biotechnology development in key
areas such as agriculture, food and pharma-
ceuticals, conversion of low-cost or marginalized
raw materials into high added-value products,
and marginalized lands into more productive
image:
Plant Nutrients
for Food Security
'Plant Nutrients for FtXtd Security'
IM - FAO <Muid Food Summit 1996
'Mineral Fertilizer Production and tits
Environment1
IFA/UNEf/WIDO
Fertilizer
Feeds
the World
Sustainable agriculture and the development of food security rely
on effective management of plant nutrients,
+ Nutrients removed by harvests must be replenished.
+ The fertility of soils low in nutrient reserves must be enhanced.
+ Depleted soils must be rehabilitated.
+ Other constraints which inhibit crop response to plant nutrition
must be remedied.
integrated plant nutrition promotes the combined use of various
nutrient sources, especially those which can be mobilized locally
by the farmers themselves. The benefits of organic matter extend
beyond its nutritional value, but organic inputs alone are not
sufficient to maintain high yields.
Properly applied fertilizers contribute to meeting the demand for
food while at the same time avoiding the need to clear forests and
cultivate fragile soils.
The fertilizer industry is committed to the promotion of both efficient
and responsible use of its products.
AH'- IFA/OCPF
International Fertilizer Industry Associate
28 rue Marbeuf, Paris 75008, France
TeJ: 4-33 1 53 93 05 00 Fax: +33 1 53 93 05 47 Email: ifamail@worldnet.fr
http://vvww.fertilizer.org
IFA is an integral link in the International Agri-Food Network
The International Fertilizer Industry Association (IFA), whose membership numbers around 500 companies in aver 80 countries,
includes manufacturers of fertilizers, raw material suppliers, regional and national organizations, research institutes, traders and
engineering companies. IFA collects, compiles and disseminates information on the production and consumption of fertilizers,
and acts as a forum for its members and others to meet and address technical agronomic, supply and environmental issues. IFA
also sponsors research related to the efficient use of plant nutrients in agriculture, and liaises closely with relevant international
organizations, such as the World Bank, FAO, UNEP and other UN agencies.
image:
Responsible
Environmental
Manaement
rium
• , -Hl^s-Jlrr S-T--"™.«;it;-.f;%ji|_5;,-!;,:w>-;
kgrium's vision is to be a leader in helping to achieve a world of
ibundant food and fibre by being an environmentally responsible
supplier of products and services to the food and fibre industries.
We pursue this vision by:
» Promoting partnerships with employees, customers, suppliers and t>« a .>• •:-,•. >--;,;*.-
neighbours to:
(i) responsibly manage and use our products and services while, at all
times, safeguarding public health and the environment, and "
(ii) recommend balanced use of inputs to maximize yields and ensure
the maintenance of soil quality, both of which are critical to sustainable .... ,..:.;4s .^ v,.^;.
agriculture. "' '**ff'/y-'^^-i
> Actively supporting the environmental activities of industry
organizations such as the International Fertilizer Industry Association, ,.;:, •;„
The Fertilizer Institute, the Potash and Phosphate Institute, and the
Canadian Fertilizer Institute.
> Auditing and continuously improving our processes, practices and
policies.
fr Researching and developing new products and services that sustain
and preserve our shared environment.
* Conducting all aspects of our business in eonformanee with
applicable laws, regulations and guidelines and, in the absence of
such, utilizing responsible practices at all locations.
Agrium Inc., Suite 426,10333 Southport FSoad S.W., Caigary, Alberta, Canada T2W 3X6
Mr. R. A. (Dick) Nichols, Corporate Relations Manager
Telephone 1-403-258-5746 Fax 1-403-258-8327 E-mail: dnichols@agrium.com
Home Page: http://www.agrium.com
image:
BOX 12.7
Biotechnology goes mobile
The Latona Project addresses three major problems particularly
affecting developing countries:
pollution and disease caused by open-air rotting of municipal
rubbish and sewage sludge;
toss of fertility and essential trace elements from the soil;.
contamination from over-use of synthetic fertilizers.
The project proposes a totally biodegradable solution - ideally suited
to developing countries which typically generate up to 80 per cent of
their waste stream in organic matter. The alternative is landfill, which
can create health problems and contaminate drinking water.
The project involves a high-tech but entirely natural biological
process that btodegrades the putrefactive organic components of
municipal solid waste, sludge and food processing wastes. It co-
composts waste materials inside sealed, rotating bioreactors, and
turns them into a high-quality humus or organic fertilizer. The process
also piodegrades most highly toxic polychlorinated biphenyls and
other synthetics in a natural microbial, enzymatic system that
includes using sophisticated computer automation. The bioreactors
can handle wastes ranging from those of a small-town population up
to those from large cities, emit no gases, odours or leachates, and
produce no undesirable by-products.
The project also Includes two special elements designed to promote
the new technology and "take the classroom to the people":
special mobile units which can perform the same co-composting
processes as larger plants, converting waste into humus. Each
unit also carries video cassette players to run short educational
programmes for anyone wishing to see them;
a 5,000 tonne ship, outfitted with two large bioreactors, a soil-
testing laboratory, a technical library and a conference room
where seminars can be held at most ports of call.
areas. Biofertilizers (to increase crop yields and
reduce the use of agrochemicals in farming),
tissue culture, vaccines and some new
diagnostics are all being transferred successfully.
Several countries (among them Brazil, China,
Cuba, India, the Republic of Korea and
Singapore) have set biotechnology as a major
priority for development, investing significantly
themselves, and encouraging foreign investment.
Biotechnology-based enterprises have been set
up and modern biotechnology research
programmes have increased. The countries with
economies in transition generally have a strong
foundation in science and technology, and a
critical mass of people skilled in biological
sciences so, potentially, they can move forward
quite rapidly in biotechnology development. But
their lack of finances raises serious questions
about how fast they can move.
Despite the advances in many developing
countries, biotechnology is not yet widely used
in cleaning up industrial processes or contam-
inated land, even though the CSD says the need
to do this is "urgent". This is not for want of
effort. For example, the United Nations
Industrial Development Organization (UNIDO)
Programme on Clean Industry which covers
ongoing activities in waste minimization and
industrial effluent treatment, includes biotech-
nology among the BSTs it promotes (see also
Box 12.5). However, the CSD says there remains
"enormous scope" in many countries for using
existing environmentally sound biotechnologies
"that are available, but not applied". *
The reasons for this particular situation are
the same as those inhibiting the general
introduction of biotechnology. Biotechnology
development has increased most rapidly in
industrialized countries, with the result that the
technical and information gaps between them
and most developing countries have also
increased. This raises concerns about the
developing countries' ability to both acquire and
manage new biotechnologies. Lack of resources
adds to their difficulties, preventing .them from
restructuring their science and technology
infrastructures, acquiring new technology
management skills, and adjusting to new
standards in biosafety. Some countries can cope
- most cannot.
Even where international and bilateral
support programmes in developing countries
have introduced new initiatives in biotechnology
224
image:
BIOTECHNOLOGY
— and demonstrated successfully the potential
for biotechnology applications — they have been
financially constrained from moving faster and
further. The CSD also states that the level of
financial support is "far below" what is required
if developing countries are to participate in, and
benefit from, biotechnology development,
Moreover, there is "major potential" for
expanding the role of financial institutions at
various levels in promoting biotechnology
programmes and projects. The private sector -
business, industry and the banks - can play a key
role in applying biotechnology for sustainable
development. "As commercial biotechnology
development increases in scope and volume, and
with the trend towards a globalized economy, the
impact of biotechnology itself is likely to become
increasingly global in nature", the CSD predicts.
Developing countries can also do more
themselves by integrating biotechnology more
fully into wider policy-making, for example. The
CSD says national policies should address issues
such as developing managerial skills to choose,
assess and prioritize biotechnologies, applying
appropriate standards and regulations, and perhaps
"special economic measures" to encourage
businesses to commercialize more applications.
Clear benefits
Biotechnology can offer both environmental and
economic benefits. The Institute for Applied
Environmental Economics in the Netherlands
conducted a comparison between biostoning and
pumice stoning of jeans, and concluded that
biostoning was more environmentally sound.
Other studies in the Netherlands suggest that
biotechnology could be the cheapest method for
treating soil, air and water problems. Moreover,
biotechnology does not require raw materials or
energy and produces hardly ..any secondary
wastes - unlike other ESTs which, while
extremely effective, require chemicals and/or
energy and often shift wastes to other environ-
mental areas, for example, from water to air.
The OECD has concluded that many
biological ESTs are already competitive and have
now become indispensable to environmental
protection and clean-up. Certainly industry
expects biotechnology to play an increasing role
in all areas, not necessarily as the only solution,
but as an important tool within a broader set of
ESTs. Industry has no prejudices for or against
biotechnology. The test is whether, compared
with conventional technologies, it improves the
cost-effectiveness of industrial processes.
Sources
Backs to the Future: United States Government
Policy Toward Environmentally Critical
Technology, 1992, World Resources Institute.
Biochemical Treatment ofGeothermal Waste,
Technology Brief, 1995, Brookhaven National
Laboratory.
Biotechnology and Sustainable Development, Fact
Sheet, 1993, UNIDO.
Bfotechnology for a dean Environment, 1994, OECD.
Energy and Environmental Technologies to Respond
to Global Climate Change Concerns, 1994,
IEA/OECD.
Environmental Economic Comparison of
Biotechnology with Traditional Alternatives, 1996,
Institute for Applied Environmental Economics.
Environmentally Sound Management of
Biotechnology, 1995, United Nations
Commission on Sustainable Development.
EPA Journal, May-June 1992, United States
Environmental Protection Agency.
International Workshop on Biotechnology for
Cleaner Production, 1995, Institute for Applied
Environmental Economics.
Managing Solid and Hazardous Waste, Green Paper
Series, 1996, United States Information Agency.
National Environmental Engineering Research
Institute Annual Report, 1995.
New Era for Third World Biotechnology, Information
Note, 1996, UNIDO.
Technologies for Cleaner Production and Products,
1995, OECD.
Tfte Latona Project, Insight, Summer 1995, UNEP
International Environmental Technology Centre.
Warmer Bulletin, various issues, World Resource
Foundation.
Waste Management Technologies: Opportunities for
Research and Manufacturing in Australia, 1990,
Australian Department of Industry, Technology
and Commerce.
Widsr Application and Diffusion of Bloremediation
Technologies, 1996, OECD.
image:
Nafursthutzqebtet
Environmental technology assessment
pnTA} Is a tool that helps decision makers
anticipate the environmental consequences
of technological developments.
image:
Environmental technology assessment 13
Introducing environmentally sound technologies (ESTs) - whether creating new solutions
for industries in developed countries,, or transferring technologies to developing countries —
should bring opportunities. But it can create risks too. The key to avoiding these u to
understand the impacts the new technologies may liave, and to explore alternatives before
making significant investments. Environmental technology assessment is an important tool
to help decision makers make informed choices.
*~:|l^he real value of environmental teeh-
|- nology assessment (EnTA) is that it
r,li« places environmentally sound tech-
nologies (ESTs) in a broader context by
providing decision makers with an objective
analysis of the positive and negative effects of
the introduction or use of a technology on the
environment and society. It can be applied at the
micro- or macro-level and involves multiple
stakeholder perspectives.
At the micro-level, EnTA is applied to a
specific technology (for example, cyanide
extraction in gold mining) to indicate
environmental impacts and possible alternative
technologies. At the macro-level, technology is
not defined as a piece of equipment or a single
process, but rather as a production system such
as car manufacturing or mining. EnTA's strength
as an assessment tool is that it allows decision
makers to anticipate the environmental
consequences of various technologies and make
decisions in line with a country's policies.
UNEP's Environmental Technology Assess-
ment Programme aims to create awareness of the
need and value of EnTA among the key decision
makers, such as government agencies, industries
and trade associations, technology suppliers and
developers, non-governmental organizations,
research institutions and funding organizations,
and to encourage its use as a policy tool. It sees
EnTA as an important element "to support the
development and application of ESTs". The
main objective of the programme is to stress
the importance of including environmental
considerations in technology assessment. The
programme gives priority to developing
countries, and embraces a number of elements
within its two core activity areas of awareness-
raising and capacity-building.
In awareness-raising, the focus is on using
existing demonstration projects and case studies
in developing countries as reference points, with
the aim of:
sS showing the linkages between economic and
environmental benefits; and
SSI illustrating both good and bad technology
choices from an environmental standpoint.
The objective of capacity-building is to build
capacity for carrying out and applying environ-
mental technology assessments, by providing:
Si information on EnTA methodologies and the
data needed to apply them; and
%& directories of technology assessment institu-
tions and sources of information and training
resources.
UNEP's Anticipating the Environmental
Effects of Tedwology is a two-part document
containing a primer and workbook to be used by
people in government and other areas. It is
designed to help the user be "more aware of,
sensitive to and able to act on potentially
adverse effects of new technology". New
image:
»> ROM
FER
HIM
A key partner in
Romanian industry's
growth
If Romania is to exploit its exciting potential for
future growth whilst at the same time easing its
environmental problems, the country's chemical and
petrochemical industries need to raise their
environmental performance to reach European and
international standards.
By providing expert advice and production licences
for new environmentally sound technologies, and
with the importation of measuring and control
devices and other essential equipment needed to
renovate plants, RomFerChim S.A. is a key partner
in the industries' efforts to achieve their
environmental goals.
RomFerChim is also contributing to Romania's
development in other ways - by reinvesting profits in
new production |oint ventures and by helping
customers to overcome hard currency and credit
shortages so that they can buy imported raw materials
and produce and distribute goods in the local market,
thereby creating jobs and helping the economy.
As a private company since 1994 - following a
successful management and employee buy-out
from the State - RomFerChim is committed to the
sustainable growth of Romania's major industries.
And we understand the chemical, petrochemical
and pharmaceutical sectors. We are the country's
largest exporter and importer of fertilizers and raw
materials for the fertilizer industry. We are a major
exporter of industrial chemicals, petrochemicals and
dyestuffs. We import specialized products and raw
materials for the pharmaceutical sector and export
its finished products.
RomFerChim is ready to work with potential
partners - preferably as co-investors - to seize the
exciting investment opportunities now emerging in
the industries that are so crucial to Romania's
progress towards a more sustainable future.
RomFerChim S.A., 202 A, Splaiul Independents! St. 77208,
Bucharest 6, Romania, PO Box 12-226
Tel: (+40 1) 638 53 05; 638 58 20; 638 40 70; 638 20 20; 638 38 55
Fax: (+40 1) 312 11 41; 211 47 23 Telex: 10073; 11489 CHICOR
RomFerChim GmbH
Bockenheimer Landstrasse 70
6000 Frankfurt Am Main
Germany
fel: +49 69 721987
Fax: +49 69 729635
Joint Ventures:
Romital srl
20032 Cormano (Milano)
Via del Giovi 6
Italy
Tel: +39 2 66302030; 66302008
Fax: +39 2 66302029
Telex: 320114 ROMITA!
Amrochem Inc.
Purchase (New York)
2975 Westchester Avenue
NY 10577, USA
Tel:+1 9146944788
Fax:+1 9146944825
Telex: 426510 USA
image:
ENVIRONMENTAL TECHNOLOGY ASSESSMENT
technology here includes new or adapted
technologies that are introduced to a country or
location. Anticipating the Environmental Effects
of Technology lists ten steps for conducting a
technology assessment,
Ten steps for EnTA
SI Examine the reason for the proposed
technology. This is key to anticipating both
the beneficial and any possible undesirable
side effects, and to understanding what the
alternatives may be.
Bit Describe the technology. This should include
material and energy inputs, capital and
labour inputs, industrial and engineering
processes and operations, products and by-
products, scale- of operation and trans-
portation requirements, as well as when
the technology will be deployed, what
significant modifications or improvements it
will involve and when, and .how fast, it will
replace older technologies.
SI Consider alternatives. These include
possible systems modifications or other
approaches to dealing with the reason for
introducing the proposed new technology.
H Examine future trends and events. How will
future trends and developments, including
local ones, affect the technology, and what
impact may it have on them?
H Identify affected stakeholders. Individuals,
organizations and institutions that may be
affected by a particular technology or,
conversely, how they can influence it. It is
important to know who they are and their
likely role.
S Identify and evaluate potential impacts. Direct
impacts are those which arise from the
technology itself, its product or output, and its
uses. They can include intended or designed
benefits such as improved energy efficiency. It
is equally important to assess and evaluate
indirect or secondary costs and benefits. The
•most significant environmental impacts are
BOX 13.1
Suppliers' claims felt unreliable
Three in four of the key decision makers involved in choosing
environmentally sound technologies (ESTs) would not rely exclusively
on the suppliers' assessment of the environmental impact of their
technologies. This finding Demerged from a survey by UNEP's
International Environmental Technology Centre (IETC) into the training
needs for improving decisjon-making in managing ESTs for large
cities and freshwater 'and reservoir basins. Questionnaires were
sent to 1,500 experts, and 520 replied.
Asked if they would rely exclusively on the environmental impact
assessment of ESTs by this suppliers, 38 per cent said 'No' and
another 36 per cent said they would only do so after consulting other
users. Only 8 per cent found suppliers' environmental technology
assessment (EnTA) reports reliable.
Central government institutions and scientific bodies carry out most
EnTAs; independent research centres, local or municipal government
institutions, and the privat^ sector carry out rather fewer. The survey
respondents rated central government as the maun decision maker,
followed by local or municipal governments, environmental specialists,
industrial managers and npn-govemmental organizations. Half stated
that technology decisions were 'Very much" or "to a large extent"
based on scientific EnTAs which !ETC called "somewhat discouraging".
What should decision mafers know about environmental implications
of technologies before deciding on their use? The replies included:
I . ' '! •
•& they should be knowledgeable about the environment and EnTA;
3: they should be aware of, or familiar with, various countermeasures
and methods for solving environmental problems;
!B information on how the technologies in question fared in other
countries is a crucial part of the decision-making process;
!S alternative technologies should be evaluated to ensure the most
appropriate one is employed;
33 decision makers must be knowledgeable about waste
management, risks, energy usage and the cost benefits of the
ESTs under consideration;
iS the ability to detect fault information in technical reports, and to
anticipate potential effects of ESTs is imperative;
!S decision makers need fo be familiar with pertinent general
information on the ESTs in question and local conditions.
likely to be on labour, land, energy, minerals
and the environment itself.
image:
The longest journey
begins with a single step
FOUNDED IN 1905, HYDRO W3S the first
industrial producer of nitrogen fertilizers,
using renewable energy by harnessing the power
of Norwegian waterfalls.
Today, Hydro is the leading fertilizer marketer
to a world whose growing population places great
'demands on the natural environment in satisfying
its food needs.
NEEDS TO BE SERVED,
A RESPONSIBILITY TO BE MET
Hydro's business activities span a wide range
of industries satisfying the basic needs of a
modern society — Eght metals and polymers
indispensable in transportation, construction and
manufacturing, oil and gas as valuable energy and
feedstocks for diverse activities.
Every one of our enterprises brings benefits
to society — and also brings new challenges in
environmental responsibility.
Hydro has been engaged in systematic
environmental management and continuous
technical improvement for over 30 years:
- first installing equipment to reduce discharges
from existing plants
- developing and introducing cleaner
technologies, improving energy efficiencies,
implementing modem process surveillance,
raising the quality of routines, competence
and standards, and
- now, focusing on sustainable production by
initiating life cycle studies in all our business
areas to produce more from less,: and satisfy
increasing needs, while imposing less demands
on valuable resources.
Since 1993, our environmental aims have
been anchored in Hydro's strategic principles:
OVR PRODUCTS should place minimum demand
on the environment over their life cycle, and
recycling and reuse are a part of this strategy,
OVR PRODUCTION TECHNOLOGIES should use
energy and resources efficiently. We place the
same stringent demands on suppliers.
OUR RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT should
contribute directly to developing appropriate
solutions with a long-term environmental
perspective.
OUR EXTERNAL RELATIONS should demonstrate
candour and openness.
OUR ORGANIZATION will be characterized by a
high level of environmental consciousness at
every level. Managers will share the responsibility
for applying these principles in their planning
and actions.
WE HAVE. MADE A BEGINNING,
BUT MUCH REMAINS TO BE DONE
The pace of global development sets us a
continuous challenge. We have set out on a
journey towards the goal of environmentally
responsible development. It is a long journey,
but we have taken the first important steps.
Hydro was one of the first industrial companies
to publish a comprehensive environmental report.
For a copy of the latest report, please fax
your business card or letterhead to Hydro at
(+47) 22 43 27 25.
Hydro if an industrial group based on the processing of natural resources to meet needs for
food, energy and materials. For further information, please contact Norsk Hydro ASA, N-0240 Oslo, Norway.
Til (+47) 22 43 21 00. Fax (+47) 22 43 27 25. Internet: http://www.hydw.com
image:
ENVIRONMENTAL TECHNOLOGY ASSESSMENT
BOX 13.2
Using EnTA to choose the right technology in India
One example of a way environmental
technology assessment (EnTA) can be
used is illustrated by the approach taken
to consider and choose wastewater
treatment alternatives for Munger and
Bhagalpur in India.
Conventional wastewater treatment
plants can be expensive to build and
require exacting operation and
maintenance programmes. Moreover, in a
tropical climate like Indians, treatment
systems based on slow trickling filtration
processes run into problems of smell and
attracting insects. This makes it
especially important to rank the
technology options that will achieve the
desired level of treatment, while taking
into account other key factors such as
the availability of land, equipment, energy,
skilled people, and costs and benefits.
In most countries, municipal wastewater
is treated in several stages: preliminary
treatment (screening, removing grit and
so on); primary treatment (mixing,
flocculation, sedimentation, flotation and
filtration); secondary treatment (activated
sludge or trickling filtration, then
secondary sedimentation); and tertiary
treatment (anaerobic or aerobic
digestion, and disposal of mineralized
sludge). In India, however, a number of
alternative low-cost wastewater
treatment options are applied, including
waste stabilization ponds, aerated
lagoons, oxidation ditches and carousel
ditches.
The usual way of measuring the
effectiveness of these systems is
according to how much they reduce
biological oxygen demand, suspended
solids and total collforms. On that basis,
waste stabilization ponds are the most
commonly used method of sewage
treatment in India, because they treat
effluent to a higher final quality than the
others, and are also reliable and easy to
operate although they use more land.
Applying a different methodology for
assessing the technologies produces a '
different result. The assessment
sequence is:
*S identify the alternative treatment
processes to meet the stipulated
effluent standards;
M estimate the sizes of individual units in
the treatment process;
58 estimate land, power and staff
requirements;
ti estimate annual benefits and net
annuaiized costs, if any;
fc; identify the attributes for ranking and
assign scores to individual processes;
Si add up the scores for individual
alternatives and draw up a ranking
list.
The costs of various treatments were
estimated based on capital costs of the
works, cost of land, and operating and
maintenance costs. The capital costs were
annuaiized to obtain a common basis for
comparison and, where applicable, sales
of biogas, sludge and treated wastewater
were added in. Energy and staff costs
were also included. Three parameters
were used: environmental (reduction of
biological oxygen demand in the effluent);
health (percentage destruction of
coliforms, helminths and viruses); and
aesthetic (odour, suspended solids and fly
nuisance). Based on these criteria, the
ranking of the various ESTs was as follows
(from the top):
'sa aerated lagoon;
'A aerated lagoon with settling pond;
i-j 'carousel oxidation ditch;
M activated sludge process;
W: stabilization'ponds;
fc? trickling filter bed.
S't Identify the key decision makers. Deciding
who has authority to act or influence
technology is not necessarily straight-
forward. It can be government, the private
sector, corporate or non-business groups, or
any combination of these. Therefore,
identifying who has rights and authority is
important.
SI Identify action options for the framework
that supports decision-making. For example,
government actions can include regulations,
permits, and incentives or disincentives — all
of which can be powerful instruments for
shaping choices.
*§ Draw conclusions.
fii Make recommendations.
Following a successful EnTA
Following a successful EnTA, a company (or
government) may:
SS modify the project to reduce disadvantages
and/or increase benefits;
58 identify regulatory or other control needs;
08 define a surveillance programme for the
technology as it becomes operational;
Sf stimulate research and development to define
risks more reliably, forestall anticipated
negative effects, identify alternative methods
image:
Environmental Improvement
At Monomeros Colombo Venezolanos S.A., we believe that sustainable
development is the main challenge for humankind — and the best hope for
a better way of life for all of us.
But we all have to contribute, including business - and as a multinational
company supplying the manufacturing industry with basic chemicals and
intermediates, and the agricultural sector with chemical fertilizer products,
we are certainly aware of our responsibilities.
That is why environmental protection is an integral part of our
continuous improvement policy. Why we
• take environmental demands into account in conducting our business
activities
• encourage and promote awareness of environmental issues throughout
our organization — and the significance of our activities to the
environment
* aim for continuous efficiency improvements in the use of energy and
raw materials
• work for the systematic reduction of air and water emissions
• involve our suppliers and customers in the search for environmental
improvements
« take advantage of cleaner technologies '
» adopt ISO 14000 and Responsible Care as models for effective
environmental management
Sustainable development is our best hope for the future - and we are
determined to contribute to its achievement.
xtr^-w
IX)
monomero©
COLOMBO VENEZOL AIMOS S.A.
U ENMESH gUIMICA DEL GflUPO ANDINO (E.IYU.)
Via 40, Las Flores,
Barranquilla, Colombia.
Tel. 5753 559123
Fax. 5753 556595
image:
ENVIRONMENTAL TECHNOLOGY ASSESSMENT
BOX 13.3
Assessing environmentally sound technologies in India
The Technology Information,
Forecasting and Assessment Council
(T1FAC) was set up by the Indian
government with the brief to study
future environmentally sound technology
(EST) choices for addressing the
country's environmental issues. While
TIFAC did not use EnTA methodology
per se in its work, its method of
assessing future ESTs mimics the EnTA.
concept.
Fly ash
Fly ash, a waste from thermal power
plants, causes serious pollution
problems. Fly ash utilization Is high In
industrialized countries (80 per cent in
Germany, 70 per cent in the Netherlands
and 65 per cent in Denmark, France and
Belgium) but extremely low (2 per cent)
in India. India's experience with imported
technologies has not been satisfactory
because of factors such as variation in
the quality of fly ash, plant and
equipment engineering.
TIFAC's studies focused on more
effective ways to use and dispose of the
30 million tonnes of fly ash produced
every year, and concluded that among
the possible applications were
underground mine fills, building
components, roads and embankments,
ash ponds, and dams and hydraulic
structures. The government
subsequently launched a programme to
develop technologies for fly ash
utilization involving three ministries and
user and industry groups, who will part-
fund the activities, including large-scale
demonstration projects.
Leather
Leather, one of India's traditional
industries, has enjoyed phenomenal
growth in the past ten years and
become a major export earner.
However, the leather tanning industry is
one of the most polluting. TIFAC's study
identified the need for both technology
upgrading and new technologies,
including ESTs, such as the use of
enzymes for dehairing, end-of-pipe
effluent treatment and waste
management (for example, chrome
recovery from effluent).
Industry is now participating in a
programme which focuses on ESTs
including enzymatic dehairing, chrome
management and upflow anaerobic
sludge blanket bioreactors, as well as
less-salt-and saltless curing methods,
new vegetable tanning methods and
solid waste reduction through process
changes.
Energy
TIFAC has identified energy as a priority
area, and called for the development of
technologies aimed at achieving energy
conservation and the development of
new renewable energy sources. Coal will
continue to be a major source of energy
in India, but Indian coals have a low
sulphur content and so the quality is
inferior. Whereas most research and
development efforts in other countries
aim at reducing the sulphur content of
coal, TIFAC's study shows that the
technology need in India is for coal
gasification,
Sugar
India Is the world's leading raw sugar
producer, but the recovery systems in
most factories are far less efficient than in
other countries. TIFAC has
recommended the development of
membrane technology, along with
biomethanation for treating effluent. Its
proposals have been incorporated in a
new programme on sugar production
technologies set up by the government.
TIFAC has also established a series of
task forces for long-term technology
assessment in areas such as food
processing, road transportation,
packaging and biotechnology.
for achieving technology goals, identify
corrective measures for reducing or elimina-
ting negative effects;
identify experiments in order to clarify
uncertainties;
identify needed institutional changes;
identify new benefits;
delay the project;
identify partial or incremental implementa-
tion strategies;
prevent the technology from developing or
being used.
A systems approach
The UNEP primer draws a clear distinction
between environmental assessment and EnTA.
The former is a public policy tool, widely used
worldwide, invariably required by regulation, and
focusing mostly on air, water and land, whereas an
EnTA adopts a "comprehensive systems view",
taking a far broader look at all the effects of the
technology, and considers the alternatives. UNEP
stresses the importance of not thinking too
narrowly about the technology but instead
adopting a systems approach with particular
image:
ENVIRONMENTAL TECHNOLOGY ASShSbMhN I
We need to enable the
developing countries to mafee a
great leap towards eco-efficient
production ... What the
industrialized
countries can do is offer their
experience and
transfer their environmentally j
sound technologies
Thorbjorn Jagland, Prime Minister of Norway
Sustainable
development is not
something governments
or international bodies
do to people. [It] is
something
people do for
themselves, and
their children
Cielito F. Habito,
Secretary of Socio-Economic
Planning, the Philippines
(Solutions require vision,
innovation and leadership. The
private sector has all the
essential credentials to actualize
the goals of sustainable
development. With its
eco-efficient leadership, it can
steer us to a sustainable future'
Syeda Abids Hussain, Federal Minister
for Environment, Pakistan
i All countries of this world are in
the same boat. If it floats, all will
survive. Should it sink, all
will perish - be they developed
or developing countries,
rich or poor nations
AH Bin Said Al Khayareen,
Minister of Municipal Affairs
and Agriculture, Qatar
emphasis on "the exploration of the total
technology cycle from concept to disposal".
"One must look over the whole cycle, which
may run anywhere from months to 50 or more
years, to understand the system fully."
Decision makers "should not limit their
thinking to the technology that has been
proposed, but appreciate there are always
competing technologies. Also, there are nearly
always emerging technologies which may hold
promise of doing the job or reaching the
objective in a better way. In many cases, there
are non-technological alternatives to achieving
the objective at hand - institutional, legal, or
regulatory alternatives which are sometimes
called social technologies."
All technologies go through the same generic
cycle: identify the need, problem or opportunity;
the choice of alternatives; selection of sites and
technologies; design; construction, operation
and maintenance; and repair follow-up. "A
cursory examination of the cycle shows it is
replete with assumptions about the short- and
long-range future", says the UJNEP primer. "The
short-term assumptions about pay-out and
effects often mask deep-seated uncertainty.
234
image:
ENVIRONMENTAL TECHNOLOGY ASSESSMENT
about the longer-range future, and the potential
for previously unexamined negative or positive
outcomes." This underlines the need to carry out
a thorough, wide-ranging EnTA.
Growing interest and cooperation
There is growing interest in technology
assessment in Europe — and an increasing focus
on the environmental impacts of technologies.
However, the picture is very uneven: a survey by
the Institute for Technology Assessment and
Applied Systems Analysis, in Karlsruhe,
Germany, found (unsurprisingly perhaps) that
Germany was the most active country in the
field, with over half the current EnTA projects.
It was followed by the United Kingdom,
Switzerland, Denmark and Austria.
The survey found that "problem-induced"
EnTAs had replaced the "classical technology-
induced" technology assessment investigations,
which examine the environmental impacts of
specific individual technologies. This, it said,
reflected the goal of developing options "for
environment-friendly solution of social problems,
which generally include not only technological
approaches but also social innovation". However,
many of the EnTA projects also focused on how
to accelerate the diffusion of ESTs, concentrating
mainly on policy measures, and providing more
financial and other support for firms. The
emphasis on problem-induced assessments "is
possible acknowledgement that technology-
induced technology assessment falls short of its
goals in many cases since alternatives to the tech-
nologies under review and interdependencies
between technologies are given too little
attention, and the demand for individual
technologies is frequently not questioned".
In 1995, the European Commission set up a
• European Technology Assessment Network and
also made funds available for a specific pro-
gramme on targeted socio-economic research.
More than a third of these funds will be for
technology assessment.
The United Nations Commission on
Sustainable Development has underscored the
importance of finding out developing countries*
needs for ESTs in the context of technology
cooperation. Some initiatives include:
i5 a European Commission-funded project to
help Tunisia identify its requirements, select
suitable technologies and determine their
appropriateness;
3 a national needs assessment in Costa Rica,
supported by the Netherlands;
JfB a joint Switzerland-Pakistan project to
identify the demand for ESTs in Pakistan's
textile and paper industries, enhance the
capabilities of these industries for absorb-
ing the technologies, and promote partner-
ships between Swiss suppliers and potential
users in Pakistan.
"Fix it or scrap it now"
Over time, as decision makers in government,
industry and other areas focus more on
introducing ESTs into their policies and
practices for managing environmental issues,
EnTA will assume increasing importance as a
key methodology for assessing all the factors
involved in technology choices. To quote the
UNEP primer's "elementary guideline", the
question comes down to: "Will this project,
plan or programme be good for our children,
and our children's children? If not, fix it or
scrap it now."
Sources
Anticipating the Environmental Effects of Technology
-A Primer and Workbook, 1996, UNEP IE.
Environmental Risk Assessment for Sustainable
Cities, 1996, Technical Publication Series 3,
UNEP 1ETC,
Industry and Environment, April-September 1995,
UNEP IE.
Training Needs in Utilising Environmental Technology
Assessment (EnTA) for Decision-Making, 1995,
Technical Publication Series 1, UNEP IETC.
UNEP IE information materials.
image:
A htgh environmental price has been paid for
Asia's rapid economic development,
Including the loss of natural resources such
as forests and an Increase In acid rain.
image:
Asia: economic growth and
environmental deterioration
If any region can be seen as a microcosm of the environment and development problems and
opportunities fating the world, particularly the developing countries, it is Asia. Despite the
recent difficulties experienced by some countries, the region has enjoyed rapid economic growth,
which has gone hand-inJiand with increasing environmental deterioration. The need for
environmentally sound technologies (ESIs) has become enormous - ami, remains so, not-
withstanding current economic and financial problems. Countries have been investing in ESJs,
but have they done enough given the scale of the problems? Where can they find the finance for
new technologies? And, in comparison witii Asia, what is happening in other regions?
sia is home to 2.5 billion people, half
the planet's population. It has some of
, the richest and poorest countries on
Earth, including several that - until recently -
have achieved staggering economic success,
with levels of growth far outstripping the
performance of western countries. The region is
a mixed bag in terms of development, including
Japan (a developed nation); Hong Kong, the
Republic of Korea, Singapore and Taiwan
('Asian Tigers'); Indonesia, Malaysia, Pakistan,
the Philippines, Thailand and Viet Nam ("Tiger
Cubs'); China and India ('Awakening Giants');
and Bangladesh, Cambodia, Laos, Myanmar,
Nepal and Papua New Guinea ('In Waiting').
Those areas that have achieved rapid industriali-
zation and economic development have done so
at the cost of extensive environmental damage
and deterioration, as just a few examples show.
The air in Beijing is 35 times dirtier than in
London, and 16 times more contaminated
than in Tokyo. China is the only country
outside the industrialized world with a
serious acid rain problem.
In Bangkok and Jakarta, ambient levels of
particulate matter exceed World Health
Organization standards for 100 or more days
a year, while sulphur dioxide standards are
exceeded for more than 50 days a year in
several Southeast Asian cities.
Levels of faecal coliform and dissolved
mercury in many Asian rivers are 50-100
times above recommended safety levels.
: According to one study, 85 per cent of river
water in China is unsuitable for drinking
because of pollution.
Solid waste volumes in Bangkok have
increased 200 per cent in the last ten years. In
many areas of the country, waste is" simply not
collected but dumped in rivers, canals and on
the street, while waste that is collected is
often dumped without proper controls.
Between 1961 and 1985, Thailand cut down
45 per cent of its forests, including almost all
its virgin rainforests.
Nor do the signs seem encouraging. During
the 1980s, energy consumption in the region
grew at a faster rate than anywhere else, and Asia
could account for 35 percent of the world's total
energy demand by 2015. By then, Asian demand
will have expanded by 150 per cent compared
with 1993, with China and India leading the way.
Carbon dioxide emissions, which have increased
by 30 per cent in the region since 1995, are also
set to continue rising.
Massive Investments needed
While the situation seems grim, it does provide
the opportunity to introduce environmentally
sound technology (EST) solutions on a massive
image:
Interactive Water Management Planning -
the DHV approach
Times are changing faster than ever - and people's
acceptance of change is no longer uncritical. This
certainly applies to their environment: now, they are
ready to stand up and be counted, and expect to be
informed, consulted and, above all, involved in key
decisions.
So, the decision-making process across the world must
be handled with care. The effects of a project -
redeveloping an urban area, building a high-speed rail
link, locating a water treatment plant - on the local
population and environment have to be thoroughly
thought through from the outset.
The role of consultants has changed too. DHV used to
be engineers commissioned simply to solve a specific
problem. We still provide engineers: but we are also
rnultJdisciplinary consultants working alongside our
clients to provide planning, development and strategic
advice from a project's conceptual state.
The DHV Group ranks amongst the top 20
international consultancies in its field. We have been
working for large and small companies, international
financiers, government agencies and non-profit
organizations for 80 years. We employ 2,500 people
in over 40 locations worldwide - focused on
transport, infrastructure, water, the environment,
physical planning, agriculture, industrial
accommodation, construction and institutional
strengthening and development.
Clients expect us to understand local circumstances:
our permanent presence in 16 European, Asian,
African and Latin American countries ensures this. But
our local people are also backed up by DHV's central
knowledge centres: for transport and infrastructure,
water and environment, accommodation building and
international development (which carries out projects
for organizations such as the World Bank). Clients
take their specific demands to their nearest DHV
office, which organizes the right mix of local
knowledge and specialist expertise. This is the key to
DHV's success.
DHV has almost 80 years' experience with all kinds of
water issues - and we have been working on
environmental problems for more than 30 years. Our
efforts are focusing on water pollution control in
public and private sectors, water supply and
distribution, promoting the re-use of purified waste
water and transforming waste into products with an
economic value.
Today, we are introducing a new interactive approach
to water management planning which — because we
are the largest consultancy for water in the
Netherlands — is becoming the established norm in the
country and abroad. It involves nine different but
interrelated steps. These nine steps create the structure
of a plan cycle, on the strategic, tactical and
operational levels - advancing the interchange of
knowledge and know-how, easing decision-making,
setting the framework for a potential water
management network in which everyone concerned
can participate, and providing a comprehensive and
integrated system for balancing diverse interests.
We believe this new approach can address many of
the water problems worldwide: indeed, we are using it
in our water management rehabilitation study in
Bosnia and our water basin management project in
Indonesia.
As issues of water availability and quality move to the
top of the sustainable development agenda, the task in
the years ahead will be the total management of water
and the environment, with an eye for economic and
social factors. Our approach is an increasingly
important contribution to achieving this goal.
image:
ASIA: ECONOMIC GROWTH AND ENVIRONMENTAL DETERIORATION
BOX 14.1
Progress on cleaner production in China
Nowhere in Asia is the need for action
greater and more urgent than in China,
whose emergence as an industrial 'super
power' is having, and will continue to
have, an increasing economic and
environmental impact, not only on the
region but on the world.
By 1992, China was producing an
estimated 14.4 million tonnes of dust a
year and 16.85 million tonnes of sulphur
dioxide; and solid wastes were
increasing by 20 million tonnes annually.
China is set to become the world's
leading source of carbon emissions by
2010. By the early 1990s, the pollution
control budget, mainly end-of-pipe
measures, had reached 0.8 per cent of
gross national product. Many of the
fastest-growing enterprises are based on
high energy and high materials
consumption, while rural enterprises (and
there are 25 million of them, employing
125 million people and accounting for a
quarter of the national economy) are
among the heaviest polluters.
The Chinese authorities and the
international community are alert to the
challenge, and a project launched by the
National Environmental Protection
Agency, which ran from 1993 to 1995,
has achieved some important results. It
has also acted as a springboard for
further efforts to promote cleaner
production and the use of
environmentally sound technologies
(ESTs) more widely throughout the
country.
•- •" Stage one involved choosing a
national centre to deal with
cleaner production (this later
became the Chinese National
Cleaner Production Centre). The
first Chinese experts were trained
in cleaner production techniques;
materials and manuals were
produced; and audits were
conducted in 11 companies in
Beijing, Changsha and Shaoxing.
;.' Stage two was a demonstration
phase: audits were carried out in
18 companies in Beijing,
Shaoxing and Yantai, and options
that required little or no
investment were implemented,
producing substantial economic
and environmental savings.
Stage three evaluated the policy
obstacles to cleaner production in
China, and set out a strategy for
a long-term approach.
Stage four began in March 1995
and aimed at the large-scale
dissemination of cleaner
production through several
workshops, and a batch of
materials, including sectoral
guides, and general information
brochures and newsletters.
The following has been achieved since
1993.
.: A National Cleaner Production
Centre has been established.
Six hundred people have attended
training sessions, with 150
professionals now officially
qualified in cleaner production
auditing.
. A network of Chinese institutions
has been established.
i Twenty-nine cleaner production
audits have been conducted in
27 enterprises, resulting in:
. annual economic benefits of
US$2.9 million from adopting
management or technology changes
which required little or no investment;
pollution reductions averaging
30-40 per cent, and reaching 95 per
cent in some cases;
identifying technology changes that
could save more than US$215 million
a year for a US$200 million
investment.
These results demonstrate not only the
value, of cleaner production and ESTs,
but the successful cooperation between
the national and local authorities in
China and international organizations.
UNEP's Industry and Environment Centre
(UNEP IE), the World Bank and the
United Nations Industrial Development
Organization (UNDO) have all
been involved.
Now, with a national system in place, the
goal is to introduce the cleaner
production approach and ESTs to 3,000
companies over the next five years, with
the top 100 polluters in China the main
target. Already, the UNEP Regional Office
for Asia and the Pacific is assisting in
a project for the pulp and paper
Industry in six Chinese provinces; a
number of bilateral projects have been
introduced to other industrial sectors;
and the World Bank and UNEP IE
are establishing funds to help finance
future projects.
scale. The enormity of the need is clear (for
example, it has been estimated that China alone
should invest US$50 billion in new
technologies to mitigate greenhouse gas and
acid rain emissions), and there is a growing
recognition by many governments that they
must invest in ESTs because further environ-
mental deterioration will actually hurt their
continuing economic growth.
Such investment is already beginning to
image:
happen. The United Nations Development
Programme (UNDP) estimates that' China
(including Hong Kong and Taiwan) and Singapore
will between them spend approximately
US$2 billion a year on air pollution control by
2000. And, according to die Regional Institute of
Environmental Technology (RIET) in Singapore,
overall expenditure on ESTs in China (including
Taiwan), India, Indonesia, the Republic of Korea,
Malaysia, the Philippines, Singapore and
Thailand, is increasing at between 6 and 25 per
cent a year. Hong Kong, for example, has recently
developed three fully lined landfills with leachate
and gas collection as advanced as anywhere in the
world; Taiwan is building 21 waste-to-energy
plants for treating the majority of its solid wastes;
and Singapore, long a pacesetter in providing
primary and secondary treatment of all sewage, is
upgrading its systems even further.
However, the picture is a mixed one. The fact
is that only the !Asian Tigers' and a few of the
'Tiger Cubs* (as well as Japan) can afford
to import ESTs from the western world - and
their ability to do so has now been compromised
by their recent economic difficulties. Nor
is lack of money the only problem. The
Confederation of Indian mdustry has complained
that many ESTs are still not available in India,
and has stressed that many western technologies
need to be adapted to local conditions. For
example, a US$16 million incineration plant in
New Delhi had to be scrapped when it was
realized that Indian waste is highly organic and
too moist to be burned properly.
What is happening?
According to the RIET report, providing
efficient waste collection services and landfill
sites is a municipal waste management priority
in most countries: nowhere more so than in
China and India, where most solid waste is
simply dumped in open sites. The Republic of
Korea is also investing heavily in waste
incineration. The report notes that a number of
local companies in India have shown interest in
investing in waste treatment technologies,
"although there appears to be a predisposition
towards complex solutions not necessarily
appropriate to the prevailing situation".
All types of wastewater treatment equipment
are needed in the region, but each country has its
own specific requirements. For instance,
technologically-advanced Singapore does not
need the high-volume primary treatment
systems so badly required in India, where only 8
out of 3,119 cities and towns have full sewage
collection and treatment facilities. Some
countries lack the finance to invest in
wastewater ESTs, They include China, where
there is an urgent need to build facilities to treat
sewage that is polluting water supplies. China's
first survey of industrial pollution, conducted in
1988, found the country had 165,000 polluting
factories, and the government estimates it would
cost US$3.7 billion to retrofit these factories
with pollution control equipment. Another
problem in China is that several individual
factories share one building so any pollution
control equipment has to be compact enough to
fit into the limited available space.
Providing clean water supplies to the rapidly
growing populations is a priority in the region
where, in some countries, 50 per cent of the
people living in rural areas still have no access
to safe drinking water. There is a major require-
ment for water treatment plants, including on
the many newly established industrial estates,
because companies cannot rely on the poor
quality and erratic supply of public water for
their processes.
Many countries in the region are suffering
severe air pollution problems. The major
pollutants are carbon dioxide, nitrogen dioxide,
sulphur dioxide, lead and suspended particulates,
mainly from vehicles^ manufacturing operations
and power generation plants. At the moment, the
market for end-of-pipe air pollution tech-
noiogies is relatively small, although this is
240
image:
ASIA: ECONOMIC GROWTH AND ENVIRONMENTAL DETERIORATION
expected to change quite quickly as govern-
ments begin to enforce regulations and
standards more rigorously. Indonesia, for
example, is focusing on the chemical, cement
and steel industries, which are considered to
have enough capital to invest in air pollution
control equipment. Since many firms in these
sectors are state-owned, they are under direct
pressure to comply.
Many Southeast Asian countries have
implemented measures to tackle air pollution,
such as requiring new cars to have catalytic
converters and making unleaded fuels more
readily available, although the latter can require
significant investment. The technologies most in
demand at present are simple dust extraction and
filtration equipment, pulse fabric filters, and
high-tech electrostatic precipitators, scrubbers
and bag filters. There is also some limited
demand for flue-gas desulphuriz-ation for coal-
fired thermal plants.
The driving forces
RET points out that the driving forces towards
environmental improvement in the region are
diverse. In the Republic of Korea, Singapore and
Taiwan, the market for ESTs is being driven
mainly by:
^ pressure from central governments, includ-
ing increasingly stringent regulations;
iS improved enforcement of environmental
regulations by newly empowered and
resourced 'policing agencies';
5S public pressure;
S the corporate environmental policies and
programmes of the larger international
companies;
IS the emergence of ISO 14001.
In the less developed countries, the driving
forces are 'softer* and less effective, resulting in
environmental improvement being given a lower
priority. Typical forces are:
SS local and national regulation, though the
. level of enforcement is low;
BOX 14.2
Japan provides lessons for the
whole region
Japan obviously offers some lessons to the other countries in Asia
and the Pacific. Immediately after the Second World War, Japanese
policy makers gave priority to economic recovery and industrial
growth, and the environment was of low importance. But real annual
growth in Japan of 12 per cent in the second half of the 1960s was
matched by an Increasing amount of pollution of the air, water and
soil, particularly in the major cities, in response to mounting pressure
from the public and local governments, the centra! government
introduced, in 1958 and then in 1962, the first major pieces of national
environmental legislation. The foundations for Japan's current system
of tough pollution control laws and regulations were laid in 1967, and
the regulations have been progressively tightened since then.
Private sector investments in pollution control started to become
significant in the late 1960s and peaked sharply in the mid-1970s: in
1975, they represented about 14 per cent of total private capital
investment, and 0.63 per cent of gross national product (QNP). The
government first began to provide subsidized loans towards pollution
control investment in 1963, but by 1991, 71 per cent of the
investment by private companies in pollution control was financed
either by the firms themselves, or by commercial bank loans, and
only 24 per cent was funded by government lending institutions. In
addition, there has been massive public investment - in sewerage
and sewage treatment, and solid waste disposal, for example -
which during 1986-1991 averaged 0.74 per cent of QNP a year.
Many of the pollution problems caused by conventional industrial
pollutants were brought under control during the mid-1970s, when
pollution levels started to fall rapidly. However, some problems
persist, with toxic chemicals, solid and hazardous wastes, and water
pollution from non-point sources. Various studies have shown that
the volume of pollution control investment has had, at worst, a
negligible effect on growth of gross domestic product. In the mid-
1970s, the costs were high for such industries as textiles, pulp and
paper, iron and steel, non-ferrous metals and electric power. Since
then, the impact has fallen sharply, finally becoming insignificant.
SH the corporate environmental policies of
international companies, which require local
partners and suppliers to meet their
standards;
«& international donor-assisted initiatives in
environmental protection.
RIET predicts that as thesu countries get richer,
the driving forces will become 'harder'.
image:
South feels that sacrificing
growth will only perpetuate
injustice. Developing countries deem
it unreasonable that they are
required to address long-term
environmental problems at the
expense of immediate needs
Goh Chok Tong, Prime Minister of Singapore
The report states: "Another significant driver
could develop with the 'voluntary greening' of
large local and regional companies — as happened
with their European, American and Japanese
counterparts. For example, in Hong Kong, one of
-'*•?- , ---.\
the large electricity producers in Asia has
voluntarily developed its own environment
management system. Many other companies are
also proceeding down this road and, as part of
this, are often requiring better performance from
suppliers. Corporate policy and programmes
could become an even more significant pressure
for change in a developed Asia than they were in
Europe and the United States."
Reluctance on cleaner production
The RIET report also assesses the demand and
opportunities for moving to clean as opposed
to end-of-pipe technologies in Asia. It gives a
number of reasons why companies are reluctant
to move to these ESTs:
H end-of-pipe approaches are generally
cheaper in the short term;
S5t they often have a higher profile and are
usually less disruptive to current production
processes;
SI there is a well-developed market for end-of-
pipe technologies, whereas clean technologies
are more process-specific and the'expertise
to implement and maintain them may not
exist;
' _ the longer-term nature of the reairn on in-
vestment can make it difficult for companies
to commit themselves to clean technologies;
." emission standards may be less stringent
than in developed countries, so companies
may not think such investments are _
worthwhile;
I investment in production equipment has
often not been amortized, so companies are
unwilling to reinvest in wholesale changes.
One way forward, says RIET, is for
governments in the region to avoid the "rigid"
comniand-and-control regulations used in the
United States and Europe, which force
companies to use end-of-pipe technologies to
meet specific emissions targets. In Asia,
"legislation could be geared so that companies
could divert resources to process changes that
reduce environmental impacts - rather than
trying to meet specific standards". However, the
report warns that those trying to sell clean.
technology applications to companies in the
poorer countries in the region will have to
"prove that they could produce greater financial
returns in the short to medium term over other
technologies", and that the applications will
have to be "robust, relatively easy to service and
able to utilize readily available processes and
i. ', " " i ''
chemicals, and equipment to be viable".
Finding the finance
Finding the finance to pay for ESTs and other
environmental improvements is of course an
issue for most countries in the region. The
Asian Development Bank (AsDB) in Manila has
• warned that if industrialization continues to be
at the expense of the environment, its benefits
will be outweighed by the costs of environ-
mental degradation. In response, it has under-
taken to allocate 40 per cent of its annual
lending of US$3.5 billion to environmental
projects. The AsDB recognizes that this is only
a fraction of what is needed, but says its
investments will stimulate action and spending
242
image:
ASIA: ECONOMIC GROWTH AND ENVIRONMENTAL DETERIORATION
by governments and the private sector. The
AsDB sees its main role as helping governments
to introduce and enforce tough environmental
Standards and rules, as well as a system of
economic instruments, such as 'green* taxes and
the pricing of resources so their use more
closely reflects their true cost.
Other sources of finance could be domestic
capital markets and co-financing with the private
sector. ECO ASIA is an informal meeting of
environment ministers from 24 countries,
including Australia, China, India, Japan and the
United States, and ten international organizations
including UNEP, the AsDB, the Organisation for
Economic Co-operation and Development
(OECD) and the Economic and Social
Commission for Asia and the Pacific. A report
from ECO ASIA in May 1996 said that, under a
'business as usual* scenario, by 2025 the manu-
facturing sectors of countries in the region would
increase between 300 and 800 per cent, primary
energy consumption would rise to 2.3.-3.S times
the 1990 level, there would be serious air and
water pollution as well as an increase in industrial
waste, and carbon dioxide emissions would
account for 36 per cent of the world's total. The
report called for a number of reforms, including
more investment in environmental protection and
energy conservation, and also urged the private
sector to transfer ESTs to subsidiaries or joint
ventures in developing countries.
Other regions in brief
In order to provide a comparison with Asia,
environmental problems in other regions are
examined briefly below.
Si In Northern Europe, the main concerns are
acid rain and pollution from both industry
and traffic, and water quality. While
industrial pollution ,is decreasing, natural
resources continue to face pressure from
urbanization and pollution. This is the largest
regional market for environmental protection
in the world, estimated at USS15-20 billion a
year, and growing at over 4 per cent annually.
The fastest growing sectors are desulphuri-
zation, emission controls, wastewater and
sewage clean-up, waste treatment and incin-
eration. Longer term, the growth areas will
be 'greener* transport, plastics recycling,
energy efficiency and 'soft* energies. The
European Union (EU) is the main driving
force for environmental action, but indivi-
dual member states - notably Finland,
Germany, the Netherlands and Sweden —
often set an aggressive pace on policies
through their national legislation. 'Polluter
pays* has gradually become accepted as the
basic tenet of government policy.
IS Southern Europe is not as advanced environ-
mentally, but this is changing, largely due to the
EU. Italy, for instance, has introduced a number
of environmental laws in the last few years, and
Greece, Portugal and Spain are also plugging
gaps. However, the regulations are not always
enforced rigorously, even by the EU. Water and
waste treatment are two expanding sectors,
while end-of-pipe ESTs are in demand by
industry as companies move to comply with
. tightening standards. The extent to which
Southern Europe moves more rapidly will
mainly depend on whether the EU insists on
these countries complying with EU-wide rules.
B< The major problems in Central and Eastern
Europe (including Russia) are massive air
pollution, contamination of millions of
hectares of land by industrial wastes, and
poisoning of rivers and seas by chemicals.
The state of many of the region's ageing
nuclear reactors is a critical concern. Most
countries are gradually developing legislative
and structural frameworks, mixing a 'poll-
uter pays' approach with a blend of tax
incentives, subsidies and fines. While the
need for ESTs is unlimited, the problem is
'Who pays for them?*
!£ Environmental awareness is growing, but
only slowly, in the Middle East, and the
image:
CLOSING THE LOOP
ON ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION
The prudent use of chemicals in agriculture
and industry is essential to economic growth in
both the developed and the developing nations,
A clean environment is also essential to long-term
viability, and modern technology is beginning to
make these two needs compatible. With this
object in view, Micro Matic A/S, headquartered
in Odense, Denmark, is helping foster a cleaner
world and a safer workplace with its closed
system technology for liquid transfer.
Micro Matic established its expertise with
the design and manufacture of extractor valves
and coupler heads for die beverage industry.
It now leads die world in supplying dispensing
equipment for beer, wine and soft drinks. But
helping people around the world relax and enjoy
a drink is only part of die Micro Matic mission.
Micro Matic knows die importance of
environmental quality and worker safety.
That's why the engineers at Micro Matic have
adapted their technology to the task of liquid
chemical packaging.
With nearly 100,000 chemicals now in
commercial use, the need for secure containment
of liquid chemicals is a top priority. The Micro
Matic Drum Valve System and Macro Valve
System offer environmentally safe solutions to the
standardization of liquid containers and drums
for returnable packaging. The closed liquid
transfer system reduces worker exposure and
product contamination while providing reusable,
refillable drums and containers. A closed
system widi recyclable packaging means a
commitment to a cleaner, safer tomorrow.
The Drum Valve System and the
Macro Valve System both passed
'UN group I, II and III tests for
hazardous materials packaging.
As defined in the Earth Summit report,
Micro Matic technology helps "to stimulate
industrial innovation towards cleaner production
methods, to encourage industry to invest in
preventive and/or recycling technologies so as
to ensure environmentally sound management
of all hazardous wastes, including recyclable
wastes, and to encourage waste minimization
investments."
Production of the industrial product
portfolio occurs at die Micro Matic plant in
the United States, Micro Matic USA, Inc.
Environmental concerns and corresponding
governmental regulations in the USA have
created high demand for safe, secure, reusable
packaging for industrial liquids, particularly
commodity agricultural chemicals such as
herbicides and insecticides.
As the first principle of die 1992 Rio
Declaration on Environment and Development
stated, "Human beings are at the centre of
concerns for sustainable development. They are
entitled to a healthy and productive life in
harmony with nature." As other global markets
begin to adopt closed system standards of safety
and reliability in the packaging of hazardous
liquids, Micro Matic will assist
industry in protecting
our planet.
• MICRO
MATIC
GBOUP
MICRO MATIC
Industrial Business Offices:
MICRO MATIC USA, INC
T<N: -(-1(818)082-8012
Fax: 4-1 (818)341-9501
E-mail: mmltv@tnlcro-rnalic.com
EUROPE: MICRO MATIC
Dcutschland Gmbh
Tel: -149 (89) 89 81 41-0
Fax: +49(89)853344
E-mail: mmltv@micro-malic.de
I
_. •"-
L — - —
image:
ASIA: ECONOMIC GROWTH AND ENVIRONMENTAL DETERIORATION
environment comes well down the list of
government priorities. But the region faces
enormous and potentially unsustainable
pressures on its water supplies (salinity is a
growing problem because of poor irrigation
techniques) and the major cities face
increasing air pollution problems. The main
opportunities for ESTs are for water
conservation technologies, the development
of drought-tolerant crop varieties and solar
energy generation."
SJ Ak and water pollution top the environ-
mental concerns in Latin America, where
three-quarters of the people live in urban
areas. In southern Brazil and Mexico,
pollution from factories and cars has reached
crisis proportions in the cities. The industrial
conglomerate of Cubatao, near Sao Paulo,
has been called the most polluted city on
Earth, while Mexico City has the worst air
quality of any world capital. However, while
most governments in the region have an
environmental policy in place, enforcement
generally Jags well behind legislation and
this is likely to hinder the widescale adoption
of ESTs in industry.
vJ Sub-Saharan Africa is the world's poorest
region. It faces a multitude of environmental
problems, desertification and,water shortages
being the most urgent Industrial pollution is
less of an issue generally in the region,
although chemical contamination of rivers
and coastal waters is becoming a major
concern in Nigeria, Ghana and Kenya.
Smokestack pollution is severe in parts of
Sources
Asian Development Bank reports.
Cleaner Production in China: A Story of Successful
Cooperation, 1996, National Environmental
Protection Agency of China, China National
Cleaner Production Centre, UNEP IE and World
Bank.
Local Pollution Control Approaches in Japan,
International Center for Environmental Technology
Transfer.
Private Financing for Sustainable Development and
South Africa, which relies on coal for 80 per
cent of its energy. The main needs for ESTs
are for water conservation, recycling and, in
some parts, pollution prevention, but most
African governments show little means or
will to enforce an environmental agenda.
3J North America has some of the toughest
environmental legislation in the world, and
the United States Environmental Protection
Agency is arguably the most powerful
environmental regulatory body. Air quality is
the major issue, while water pollution is
another serious concern, Water supply is an
emerging problem. United States companies
continue to invest hugely in ESTs both in
response to federal and state legislation (for
example, in California) and because of the
now ingrained culture of corporate environ-
mentalism. Regulations have driven techno-
logical innovation, and with the expected
shift from command-and-control to market-
based economic incentives, there is unlikely
to be any let-up.
There is no region without its environmental
problems. Some areas, such as North America
and Western Europe, have more experience with
addressing environmental issues, whether
through legislation or economic means. Others,
such as Asia, now have the economic clout to
begin addressing their environmental problems.
The question is their willingness to do so. Given
that the region will remain an economic
powerhouse, Asia remains a key litmus test of
whether economic and environmental interests
and needs can be balanced successfully.
Private Investment and the Environment, 1998,
UNDP:
Quality of the Environment in Japan, 1994,
Environment Agency, Government of Japan.
The Asian Environmental Market: An Overview of
Business Opportunities, 1996, Regional Institute ,
of Environmental Technology.
Tomorrow Magazine, various Issues, Tomorrow
Publishing AB.
World Development Report 1992: Development
and the Environment, World Bank.
image:
US President Bill Clinton has said that the challenge of
attaining sustainable development can only be met by
developing and deploying technologies that will protect
the environment while sustaining economic growth.
image:
ESTs and future challenges 25
The wider use of existing environmentally sound technologies (ESTs) would bring major
environmental and economic gains, particularly in the shorter term. Yet there also remains
a pressing need to develop new, more advanced EST solutions to a wide range of problems,
still low on the agenda, but certain to become urgent. What are the main environmental
challenges ahead, and what are the technology needs?
'? '"•••'•'.'• •" ithout environmentally sound
\ '.' technologies (ESTs), the world
. . would be in a much worse state
than it is. And if available end-of-pipe and
cleaner production ESTs were used more
widely, in both the industrialized and the
developing countries, it would be in even better
shape. It is important to recognize what ESTs
have already achieved, as well as how much
more they could achieve in terms of further
significant environmental gains and economic
benefits. It is also important to recognize that
many problems persist not because there are no
technological solutions, but because those
solutions are not being applied.
Of course, the ultimate goal, agreed on at the
United Nations Conference on Environment and
Development in Rio in 1992, is sustainable
development. The global community, however,
is still falling a long way short of reaching it.
Agenda 21 is nowhere near complete, and it will
take a major effort, involving fundamental
changes, not just tinkering at the edges, to finish
the job. However, making even some progress
on Agenda 21 will depend both on getting
existing ESTs more widely adopted by industry
and others, and on the development of a number
of new technologies.
The list of future environmental challenges is
a daunting one. The focus will be increasingly
on preventing pollution, although control
technologies may still be used to bridge the gap.
The key challenges fall into several major areas,
including:
i?: air quality;
[?? energy efficiency and climate change;
iss toxic substances and hazardous and solid
wastes;
.. water resources;
w resource use and management.
New prevention and control technologies are
needed to deal cost effectively with local and
global air quality problems such as air toxicity,
indoor air pollution, acid deposition and ground-
level ozone. Today's technologies are inade-
quate to resolve the problems of greenhouse gas
emissions and global climate change.
The key to solving the problems of climate
change and energy efficiency will be new
technologies that reduce energy requirements.
Other measures include conversion to low-
carbon fuels, reducing emissions of greenhouse
gases and, particularly in developed countries,
infrastructure developments to improve energy
efficiency in road vehicles, lighting and heating.
The energy-inefficient infrastructure in Central
and Eastern Europe badly needs improving,
while developing countries need to develop low-
carbon energy sources.
Pollution prevention will play> an increasingly
important role in reducing toxic and hazardous
wastes at source. Toxic substances are found in
the wastes produced by industrial and combustion
processes, and also result from accidental
image:
At humankind's peril, grace has been divided from nature and spirit
from matter.
A society has developed where everything from human habits to politics
and economics exploits the environment with callous indifference. Unless
the nature of. the state is harmonized with the state of nature, humanity's
greed and ignorance will eventually take us beyond the capacity of the very
ecosystems that support human existence.
Ecology would suggest that spirit, soul, consciousness and creativity are
***• ' part of the mystery of evolution, not outside the process, and that creation
is ongoing, not simply an epic event in our past.
'„ ENVIROTECH LTD. is a private sector consulting and project
management company, whose purpose is applying technology and scientific
engineering and know-how to reverse degradation of the environment,
'• prevent pollution and minimize waste.
image:
ffieir fag
financial beneSS
igyptjXebanc
IS at
Pollution is a toss 6t profh
%
V
Pollution prevention and compliance with,e
perceived as economic burdens. These measures,,
result in environmental protection and lower oper;|u,oriaj
guide our clients towards such positive resplts.
in.
• Industrial Facilities Program
* Monitoring and Analysis Services
• Waste Management andv!R££ycling
» ISO 14000 upgrade measures"
ENVIROTECH LTD. provides an inf
related to waste minimization.
?.<• «.* *
ENVIROTECH LTD., Cairo1
9 Al-Masgid Al-Aksa St.
Mohandiseen, Giza
12411 Egypt
Tel. +2023043699
fee,
ill
etf 15J
P V"' )*^i^a^
image:
ESTs AND FUTURE CHALLENGES
BOX 15.1
Netv technologies needed: air, energy and waste
To Improve air quality
, New building materials and consumer
products that minimize adverse
Impacts on Indoor air quality.
" New cars and trucks that emit fewer
pollutants, and transport systems
redesigned to address the
increasing number of vehicles on
the roads,
• Renewable energy production
technologies capable of displacing
fossil fuel combustion.
" Redesigned industrial and chemical
production technologies with
Inherently low potential for air
emissions.
: Hlgh-effictency fossil fuel power plants
that substantially reduce emissions of
pollutants.
New technologies to reduce wind
erosion of soils and air pollution by
dusts and airborne particulates.
Cost-effective, efficient paniculate, air
toxicity, sulphur dioxide and nitrogen
oxide control technology capable of
being retrofitted to existing power
plants.
Low-cost technology to control
volatile organic compounds from
small stationary sources.
Cost-effective nitrogen oxide control
technologies for residential,
commercial and small Industrial
combustion systems.
'•:: Controls to mitigate critical air toxicity
compounds from major sources such
as incinerators, wood stoves and iron
and steel production.
To improve energy efficiency and deal
with climate change
v. Accelerated commercial development
of renewable fuels and technologies.
*2 Improved thermal efficiency of coal-
fired plants through clean-coal
technologies.
"^ Improved coal-gas, natural-gas and
hydrogen-based fuel cells.
ii High-efficiency advanced gas turbine
systems.
-?• New on-board vehicle technologies
and materials, and improved
efficiency of vehicles powered by
alternative fuels.
'• More efficient lighting and heating
systems for residential and
commercial buildings.
Increased industrial energy efficiency
through improved electric motors,
recycling of used materials and
co-generation.
: Substitutes for CFC-12 in automobile
air conditioners, further development
of refrigerant replacements, and new
materials to replace CFC-blown foam
insulation.
. Technologies to reduce or capture
methane emissions from natural gas
flaring, venting and leaking during oil
production, and from coal seams.
". Improved technologies for collecting
and purifying landfill gas.
'-•:•: Technologies for recovering nitrogen
oxide emissions.
"* Cost-effective methods of re-using
and recycling chlorofluorocarbons
(CFCs), and incinerating them.
To deal with toxic substances and
hazardous and solid wastes
'. '• Pollution prevention-based processes
for alternative energy sources and
cycles.
• Pesticides and fertilizers based on
improved chemicals and
biotechnology, alternatives to non-
selective chemical pesticides, and
implementation of targeted
application of fertilizers.
. Alternative chemical synthesis routes
• that use less toxic feedstocks and .
cause less toxic chemical
intermediates and waste products.
'' Advanced systems for effluent
treatment of toxic substances formed
during chemical synthesis and
combustion, mineral extraction and
manufacturing processes.
Advanced sewage treatment systems
capable of handling toxic organics
using an engineered anaerobic,
energy-efficient digestion stage and
other biotechnology-based systems.
chemical discharges. Generally speaking,
hazardous wastes are controlled mainly by end-
of-pipe technologies which separate them from
waste emissions and effluents and treat them for
final disposal, either by burning or burying. The
need is to employ ESTs which:
avoid toxic and hazardous substances where
their use is not essential;
minimize waste formation, and promote
recovery, recycling and re-use;
achieve cost-effective management of non-
recycled wastes and their disposal.
250
image:
'!»s*w»«'«w>>.
'
•v^f^^^s^^ga^KSB^g^^^^saprrt1^^
The environmental challenges facing the world require a political
as well as a technological response - including a wider
application of economic instruments to internalize environmental
costs and a change in both corporate and individual behaviour.
image:
Sustainable Water Development:
,the STL-Merit Way
Water is an increasingly
precious resource.
Through its innovative
participation in the water
sector, STL-Merit Limited is
working to ensure that
supplies in Ghana and other
African countries are
sustainable.
• H - :^>; i „-.•• •.. • . . •' ;
STL-Merit is active in most
areas of the water supply
industry — as a provider of
water for small, medium- and
large-scale schemes, through
handling packaged water
treatment plants and large
wafer treatment installations,
and sewerage and wastewater
systems, and through working
with multinational companies
to supply water delivery
projects in rural areas.
STL-Merit has equity
participation in a joint venture
water drilling and engineering
unit with the Ghana Water
'>.-*<«. .' • ;;. ;. • , '»:>.;» r-
and Sewerage Corporation
(G.W.S.C.), and is discussing
with authorities in Zimbabwe,
Cameroon, Guinea and South
Africa, the possibility of
replicating their water delivery
;•„..- ,r j" . . iry-.-s." •-•: .*. •»
strategies. It is also sponsoring
an international water export
STL-Merit's solutions to a serious water problem for a major
municipality in Ghana demonstrate 'its commitment to
environmental sustainability. The present water source is highly
polluted, suffers from seasonal drought and can only meet 45
percent of current demand.
The short-term solution to meet the present water shortage
involves drilling various boreholes and fitting them with
mechanized pumps to deliver water to the existing distribution
network. This system virtually eliminates the need to use water
treatment chemicals - and the pumps are driven by solar
energy.
The long-term solution to meet future demand involves
drawing water from a new surface source through tube wells
along the riverbed, instead of directly from the lake. This
system takes advantage of natural water filtration and
purification, and eliminates flocculating agents.
STL-Merit is also developing a programme to make the
catchment area of the river serving the existing water
treatment works' environmentally safe and sustainable,
addressing problems of waste material dumped in the river
and deforestation along its banks.
transmission line to carry
treated water from Ghana to
neighbouring countries.
STL-Merit is also working to
develop capacity-building skills
in Ghana and West Africa —
sponsoring human resources
development programmes, and
working with a UK specialist
water industry training
• . .o ..,••• ;'• ... iTl •* •
association, to develop
G.W.S.C.'s training facility into
a regional institute for water
supply and sanitation training.
STL-Merit knows that water is
a resource that must be
utilized in a sustainable way.
In putting its knowledge of the
water supply — in Ghana in
particular and Africa in
general - at the disposal of
other companies interested in
becoming active in this
market, it is determined to
implement this philosophy in
all its projects.
Mr. Steve Mawuenyega,
Executive Director
STL-Merit Limited
PO Box C3S Cantonments
Accra, Ghana
Tel. (233) 21 779SOO
image:
ESTs AND FUTURE CHALLENGES
BOX 15.2 j
New technologies needed: water and\resources
To improve water quality and
supply
1- Technologies and practices that
prevent agricultural contamination
of groundwater.
S Alternative technologies for
bleaching techniques that avoid
dioxin production.
&, New manufacturing processes that
limit the production of toxic
by-products.
88 Cost-effective technologies to
conserve water in industrial,
.agricultural and residential
applications.
SI Improved desalination
technologies.
iG Technologies'for improving
the control, removal or
degradation of toxic
contaminants that are present
in low concentrations in
wastewater.
5& Improved capability to detect the
movement of toxic chemicals into
groundwater from other sites.
K More effective nutrient removal
technologies for wastewater,
agricultural runoff and otner non-point
sources. i
Technologies for improved
biodegradation of organi$
pollutants. I
Polishing technologies fof diluting
aqueous industrial wastes following
membrane and blotreatment.
?S Improved membrane technologies for
drinking Water. '
I
i"s Cost-effective, low-tech treatment
systems for use by small'utilities.
Advanced technologies for recycling'
and disposal of biosolidsland other
residuals, industrial recycling of
process water, recycling and re-use
of household water. i
& Cost-effective treatment and
preventive technologies and
practices for reducing urban
runoff.
To improve resource use and
management
4 Shortening of both extraction
and processing chains to produce
advanced minerals in a single
operation.
ii3 New materials and products that can
be fully recycled so that all wastes are
re-usable.
& Recycling technologies using
cellulose-based materials to reduce
• carbon dioxide release.
•is Long service life materials (advanced
metals, composites, ceramics) that
can be substituted for conventional
materials.
a? Pollution reduction technologies that
convert sulphur in coal into re-usable
products.
Both renewable and non-renewable resources
must be managed much more efficiently. About
75 per cent of all extracted minerals are non-
renewable. The need is to find technology
solutions that conserve the mineral stocks
already in circulation, thereby reducing demand
for virgin resources and the environmental
damage due to extraction. These technologies
include processes that minimize pollutants and
recycle wastes internally, make mineral-based
products more durable, repairable and re-
cyclable, and improve energy efficiency. The
need for new technologies to protect water
resources, improve their quality and reduce their
cost is also urgent.
Agriculture is another major source of
pollution problems in many developed
countries. In iother parts of the world, point
source pollution, for example from industrial
and mining wastes, is equally serious. Non-point
source runofr is a serious issue everywhere.
s'ol
Engineering solutions alone do not work: the
answer will J depend on technologies and
practices that combine ecological know-how
with engineering capabilities. Bringing down
the cost of wkter and wastewater treatment is
one of the biggest challenges. Reducing the cost
i
of existing technologies or finding other cheaper
approaches are essential to ensure safe, adequate
water supplies,.
image:
: s r
~
ENVIRONMNTAL CORP
PRODUCING THE POWER OF THE STARS
FOR A CLEANER AND SAFER ENVIRONMENT
A 21st century solution to waste problems
Waste is perhaps the most visible sign of our j
mistreatment of our planet — our most j
conspicuous footprint. Our throwaway society (
generates mountains of waste materials — of all
kinds and in all shapes and sizes. All of the waste
we create is an affront to the environment: much
of it is also deadly. j
" "'. ' j
To date, waste has been treated mainly by '
burning, or burying in the ground. But those djiys
ore over. Now, there is a 21st century solution:)
Startech Environment Corporation's Plasma '
Waste Converters (PWCs), which remediate anji
recycle a range of wastes into useful commodity
products.
:.. ',. . i
PWCs use a process of molecular dissociation -H-
also referred to as Closed Loop Elemental ,
Recycling — to tackle hazardous and non- :
hazardous wastes, organic and inorganic solids,
liquids and sludge. They can even handle medical
wastes, tyres, contaminated soils, and hazardous
aqueous liquids. !
Depending on the waste feed, the clean, (
electrically-driven PWCs can produce a synthesis
gas, Plasma Converted Gas™ (PCG), as well as
metals and silicates, as commodities, PCG can be
used in many ways, including as a fuel to produce
electricity, as a chemical feedstock to produce i
chemical industry products, and for powering '
heating and cooling systems. "!
Startech's solution is capturing customers' !
imagination. '
*
* A new $100 million, world-class PWC j
Resource Recovery Centre being built for a |
consortium of municipalities in Puerto Rico
will handle 1,000 tons of solid municipal waste
per day when it is completed in 1999.
•fr One of Australia's leading companies engaged
in eradicating hazardous wastes is buying the
Startech systems for its operations — and plans
to present the service to the Australian
Government for the clean-up preparations for
the 2000 Olympics.
* A 5,000 tons a year medical waste facility in
Massachusetts, USA, will provide the health
care industry with major cost savings, as well
as'improving public health and safety.
*• Self-contained, mobile PWC units are being
incorporated into various semi-trailer and self-
propelled mobile configurations produced by a
US company, so that they can process
hazardous waste on health care, military and
industrial sites, ensuring the waste does not
leave the facility.
"to Two industrial-sized PWC systems have been
delivered to Hawaii to help deal with the
dangerous situation of removing munitions,
contaminated soil and hazardous debris from
the island of Kahoolawe, left after decades of
military exercises.
With increasing public opposition to waste
incineration, and a growing shortage of land for
landfill dumps, there is now an urgent need to
find new solutions to the mounting waste
problem worldwide. Startech's solution is a
proven, cost-effective 21st century technology
that is ready and available now.
Startech Environmental Corp.
Tel. +1 (203) 762 2^99 Fax +i (203) 761 0839
image:
ESTs AND FUTURE CHALLENGES
An integrated approach
The National Scieoce and Technology Council
in the United States stresses that "given the
interwoven nature of environmental problems,
systems approaches are essential if we are to
attain sustainable development". This will mean
integrating technology Deeds and solutions, and
addressing specific, key "macro-challenges":
energy, materials, biotechnology and urban
environments.
The World Resources Institute (WRI) says
that "technological change consists of both
innovation — the introduction of a new product,
process, or system - and diffusion — the applica-
tion of innovations in new contexts. Tech-
nological change links social and economic
needs with technical solutions. The needed
fusion of economic and environmental object-,
ives requires technologies that meet two
criteria. First, they must be able to transform
industry and transportation from materials-
intensive, high-throughput processes to systems
that use fuel and raw materials highly
efficiently, rely on inputs with low environ-
mental costs, generate little or no waste, recycle
residuals, and release only benign effluents.
The need, in short, is for technological systems
that are environmentally "closed' — that is,
detached as much as possible from natural
systems. Second, because the first criterion
cannot be fully met, new technology must help
societies live strictly off nature's income, rather
than consuming nature's capital."
The WRI adds: "Bringing about this
transformation will be neither certain, quick, nor
easy. Many adverse trends in global environ-
mental quality are evident. Nevertheless, the
current moment offers unique potential — in part
because of new technological developments.
These advances could create a new technical
Sources
Technology for a Sustainable Future: A Framework
for Action, 1994, United States National Science
and Technology Council.
base for long-term environmentally sustainable
development"
The environmental challenges require a
political as well as a technological response.
Agenda 21 urged major poEcy changes. More
than five years on, many of these have not been
implemented and, where they have been
introduced, they have not always been pursued
with the necessary vigour. The 'shopping list' of
poEcy items is well-known, and includes a
wider application of economic instruments to
internalize environmental costs and thus change
both corporate and individual behaviour. The
issue of funding, central to the transfer of
technologies to the developing countries,
remains no nearer resolution now than in 1992.
The information revolution poses another
challenge. Telecommunications products and
services, including teleconferencing, tele-
commuting, teleshopping and telemedicine, will
increasingly replace many activities which
today use considerable energy and raw
materials, and also cause waste and pollution.
But it is essential that these services reach the
developing countries and that the information
society becomes a truly global one.
So, the political and technological agenda is a
formidable one. Its successful implementation re-
quires political will to introduce the poEcies that
wiU accelerate the adoption of ESTs; more under-
standing within business of the benefits of ESTs
and a greater commitment to using them; and
more resources for technology transfer and to
research and develop new technologies. But, as
United States President Bill Clinton has said:
"Attaining sustainable development is one of the
greatest challenges facing the global community
- a challenge that can only be met by developing
and deploying technologies that will protect the
environment, while sustaining economic growth,"
Transforming Technology: An Agenda for
Environmentally Sustainable Growth for the 21st
Century, 1991, World Resources Institute,
image:
ftie,widest possible access to information on
environmentally sound technologies is
essential If the global community is to meet
current environmental challenges.
image:
Appendix: Sources of information
This appendix is an extract from the publication, UNEP Survey of Information Systems Related to
Environmentally Sound Technologies, copyright 1997 by the United Nations Environment Programme.
This list of information systems and institutions does not imply an endorsement on the part of UNEP.
Note: Institutional changes are frequent and it is possible that some of the contact details may be out of date.
ACPD
Nome: Australian Cleaner Production
Database
Address: Tourism House, 40 Blackhall Street,
Barton A.C.T. 2600, Australia
Tel: -1-61-6-274-1472
Fax: +61-6-274-1921
E-mail: woods® mgdestmxO 1 .erin.gov.au
Internet address:
http://kaos.erin.gov.au/nct/ncpd.html
Teclvwlogies covered: Cleaner production
process.
Infonnatlon contained: Cleaner production,
new cleaner production processes. Australian
and international case studies, bibliographies,
contacts, cost equations, and other pertinent
information.
AIT
Name: Asian Institute of Technology
Address: Centre for Library and Information
Resources, G.P.O. Box 2754, Bangkok,
Thailand
Tel: +66-2-524-5853
Fax: +66-2-516-2126
E-mail: stueart@rccsun.ait.ac.th
Internet address:
http://www.ait.ac.th/AJT/research.html
Description; Operates the Environmental
Systems Information Centre Network
(ENSICNET), the Energy Technology
Programme (ETP) and the Regional Energy
Resources Information Centre (RERIC).
Collects and repackages information in a wide
range of environment, energy and technology
fields for dissemination, to users worldwide.
ANNiTTE
Name; Asian Network on Technology for
the Environment Database
Address: 3 Science Park Drive, #04-08, PSB
Annex, Singapore 118223, Singapore
Tel: +65-777-2685
Fax: +65-773-2800
E-mail: riet@pacific.net.sg
Information contained: Environmental
pollution control, manufacturing and recycling
technologies. Environmental technology
products and services, business types, model
application, and product specifications.
APCII
Name: Asian and Pacific Centre for
Technology Transfer
Address: Technology Bhawao, Off New
Mehrauli Road, P.O. Box 4575, New Delhi
110016, India
Tel: +91-11-6856276
Fax:+91-11-6856274
E-mail: apctt®sirnetd,ernet.in
Description: Established in I977,APCTT
operates as a UN regional centre under the
aegis of the Economic and Social Commission
for Asia and (he Pacific (ESCAP). The
objectives of the centre are to assist the
members of ESCAP through strengthening
their capabilities to develop, transfer, adapt and
apply environmentally sound technologies, and
to identify and promote the transfer of
technologies relevant to the region.
APCTT data banb
Name: APCTT data bank on ESTs
available for transfer
Address: P.O. Box 4575, New Delhi 110 016,
India
Tel:+91-11-6856276
Fax: 4-91-11-6856274
E-maii: apctt©simetd.ernet.in
Technologies covered; Cleaner production (all
sectors).
Information contained: Cleaner production
and pollution control for various industry
sectors including agriculture, chemicals,
construction, transport, electronics,
information, energy, food, instrumentation,
industrial logistics and services, machinery,
materials, coatings, medical technology,
metals, plastics and rubber, paper, wood and
textiles. Technology offers, technology
requests, consultants and institutions.
AQUAUNE
Name: AQUALINE
Address: Franicland Road, Blagrove, Swindon
SN5 8YF, UK
Tel: 444-1793-511711
Fax:+44-1793-511712
Internet address: lnip://www.wrcplc.co.uk/
Technologies covered: Water.
Infonnation contained: Water resources and
supplies, water quality, monitoring and
analysis of water and wastes.
AQUASCI
Name: Aquatic Sciences and Fisheries
Abstracts
Address: 7200 Wisconsin Ave., Bethesda,
Maryland 20814, USA
Tel: +1-301-961-6751
Fax:+1-301-961-6720
Internet address: http://www.csa.com/
Technologies covered: Water, air.
Information contained: Marine and freshwater
environments.
AHCT
Name: African Regional Centre for
Technology
Address: B.P. 2435, Immeuble Fahd Ben
Abdel Aziz, Avenue Djily Mbaye, Dakar,
Senegal
Tel: +221-23-77-12
Fax:+221-23-77-13
• E-mail: arct@endadakgn.apc.org
Description: ARCT is an intergovernmental
organization set up by the Heads of African
Governments in 1977. Established under the
auspices of the Organization of African Unity
and the United Nations Economic Commission
for Africa, the centre presently has 31 member
states. The centre's objectives are to promote
regional technology transfer capacity and
utilization by diffiising the results of research
and development in member states in the fields
of post-harvest technologies, renewable energy
conversion systems and capital goods as well as
information technologies. The centre is currently
operating a technology management information
and communication network called ARCTIS-
NET which was established to support the
development of technology and its application in
Africa.
AREC
Name: Appropriate Renewable Energy
Centre
Address: Ministry of Energy, Mines and Water
Resources, Planning and Programming
Division, P.O. Box 5285, Asmara, Eritrea
Tel: +291-1-127944
Fax: +291-1-127652
Description: AREC was established to collect
information on renewable energy technologies
(both indigenous and external sources of
technologies) including solar photovoltaic,
solar thermal, wind power, hydro power,
biogasification and geothermal.
image:
APPENDIX: SOURCES OF INFORMATION
' '. • AfiET
ffame: Appropriate Renewable Energy
Technologies
•*J %, Address; Ministry of Energy, Mines and Water
Resources, Planning and Programming
Division, P.O. Box 5285, Asmara, Eritrea
Tel: +291-1-127944
Fax: +291-1-127652
. Teehnologicf eovtred: Cleaner production,
energy, water, land and agriculture, solid
waste, hazardous waste, global environment,
building ami engineering.
Jifformatfon contained: Renewable energy
technologies (both indigenous and external
sources of technologies). Solar photovoltaic,
• solar thermal, wind power, hydro power,
biogasification, geoihermal, improved
traditional cooking stoves, elc. Relevant
materials sent by numerous consultants and
suppliers of finished products and LEAP
software for energy and environment.
ASSET
ffame: Abstracts on Selected Solar Energy
Technologies
Address: Darbari Sclh Block, India Habitat
Centre, Lodi Road, New Delhi 1 10003, India
Tel; +91-11-462-2246
F«:.+91:1 1-462-1770
E-mail; mailbox <Steri,emet.in
Technologies covered: Energy.
Information contained: Non-conventional
energy technologies - solar, byconversion,
wind and energy storage.
: /ATTIC ;'' '"
Name: Alternative Treatment Technology
Information Centre
Address: US. EPA (MS 106), 2890
\Vbpdbridge Ave.^fedison, New Jersey 08837-
3679, US A
Tel: + l-908-321-6635/HotLin=: +1-703-908-
2137
Fax: +l-9QS-32l'-6677
E-mail: Sulliyaii.paniel@epamail.epa.gov
Internet address: httpJAvww.epa.gov/attic/
covered: Hazardous waste.
Information contained: Pollution control and
performance data for US alternative treatment
. technologies for hazardous waste.
CAEPI
Namt: Chinese Association for
Environmental Protection Industry
Address: 9 Sanlihe Road, Haidian, Beijing
100835, (Sum
Tel: +86- 10-839-39-30
Fax: +86- 10^139-37-48 ' "
Description: CAEPI is in the process of
developing the Chinese National Information
System for Environmental Protection which
includes general environmental protection
technologies including pollution control,
pollution prevention, energy conservation and
environmental management.
CARIS
Name: Current Agricultural Research
Information System
Address: GIL A-108, Viale delleTerme di
Caracalla, Rome 00100, Italy
Tel: +39-6-522-54993
Fax: +39-6-522-54049
E-mail: joseph.judy@fao.org
Internet address: http://www.fao.org/
Information contained: Agriculture, animai
production, aquaculture, fisheries, food,
forestry and plant production.
CAT
Name: Centre for Alternative Technology
Address: Information Office, Machynlleth,
Powys SY20 9A2, Wales, UK
Tel: +44-1654-702400
Fax: +44-1654-702782
E-mail: cat@gn.apc.org
Internet address: http://www.foe.co.uk/CAT/
Description: Established in 1975, CAT is a
cooperative company involved in the
promotion of ideas and information on
technologies which support rather than
damage the environment. CAT is involved
with educational activities and residential
courses, and runs a visitor centre. It also
provides information/consultancy services and
publishes on the subject of alternative
technology. CAT publishes a database on
suppliers, manufacturers relating to renewable
energy, waste and biological buildings.
CCT
Name: Center for Clean Technology
Address: 7440 Boelter Hall, Los Angeles",
California 90024-1600, USA
Tel:+1-310-206-3071
Fax: +1-310-206-3906
E-mail: cct@seas.ucla.edu
Internet address: http://cct.seas.ucla.edu
Description: CCT is based at the University
of California, Los Angeles (UCLA). Founded
in 1990, the centre employs a multi-
disciplinary approach to solving
environmental issues. The goal of the centre is
to create a scientific, engineering and human
resource base for the design of clean,
economical and competitive technologies. The
centre provides expertise in six areas:
pollution prevention, combustion and air
toxics, water and wastewater treatment,
intermedia transport and chemicals in the
environment, remediation and restoration, and
environmental risk reduction.
COABA
Name: Chemical Engineering and
Biotechnology Abstracts
Address: Theodor-Heuss-AHce 25, D-60486
Frankfurt am Main, Frankfurt, Germany
Tel: +49-69-7564-349
Fax: +49-69-7564-201
E-mail: iud@dechema.de
Internet address: http://www.dechema.de/
Technologies covered: Water, air, solid waste
management, hazardous waste management,
energy, cleaner production, land and
agriculture, construction, building and
engineering, and global environment.'
Information contained: Chemical engineering
in biotechnology: manufacture of organic and
inorganic materials; processing of waters,
effluents, sewage and wastes of all sorts;
recovery and processing of petroleum; energy
and raw materials', equipment, machine and
plant construction;'safety and environmental
protection.
CeuCITT
Name: Center for Clean Industrial and
Treatment Technologies
Address: Michigan Technological University,
CenClTT, 1400 Townsend Drive, Houghton,
Michigan 49931, US A
Tel:+1-906-487-3143
Fax: +1-906-487-3292
E-mail: ppradeck@mtu.edu
Internet address: http://cpas.mtu.edu/cencitt
Description: A research consortium dedicated
to advancing the science, engineering and
implementation of pollution prevention. It was
established in 1992 with founding members:
Michigan Technological University
(administrative lead), the University of
Wisconsin - Madison, and the University of
Minnesota - Twin Cities. CenClTTs mission
is to assist industry in pollution prevention by
devising clean technologies and process
design tools, and by pursuing promising leads
in treatment, beneficialion, and re-use where
prevention is not feasible. CenClTT's goal is
to make it easier for industry to minimize
waste generation and prevent pollution while
preserving economic competitiveness in the •
global marketplace. CenCITT is currently
developing a series of software tools for
efficiently delivering design information on
clean technologies and pollution prevention
methodologies to conceptual process and
product designers.
258
image:
APPENDIX: SOURCES OF INFORMATION
CERES-CKN
Name: CERES - Global Knowledge
Network to Enable Environmentally Sound
Product & Process Development
Address: Concurrent Engineering Research
Center, P.O. Box 6506, West Virginia
University, Morgantown, West Virginia
26506-6506, USA
Tel: +1-304-293-7226
Fax: +1-304-293-7541
E-mail: ceresgkn@cerc.wvu.edu
Internet address:
http://www.cerc.wvu.edu/ceres/
ceres_index.html
Description: A consortium of universities,
research laboratories, private companies and
governmental organizations is undertaking the .
creation of a network of global knowledge
bases (to be known as CERES-GKN) to enable
decision makers around Ihe world to make
environmentally sound, technologically feasible
and economically justifiable choices during the
development of products and processes. The
consortium has formed a not-for-profit
corporation, CERES-GKN, Inc., headquartered
in the University of Rome at Torvergata and
with regional offices in Japan and the United
States. Consortium members are seeking
cooperative relations with world bodies and
national initiatives that support the use of
information technology for such purposes.
CES
Name: Canadian Environmental Solutions
Address: Industry Canada, Environmental
Affairs Branch, 235 Queen Street. Ottawa,
Ontario K1A OH5, Canada
Tel:+1-613-952-5437
Fax:+1-613-954-3430
E-mail: envinet@ic.gc.ca
Internet address: http://info.ic.gc.ca/ic-data/
Technologies covered: Energy, water, air,
noise and vibration, land and agriculture, solid
waste.
Information contained: Industry: air, water
and energy. CES currently addresses industry
sector problems related to water, air, soil,
research and development, and energy. It
contains 500 environmental problems, 1,000
solutions and their descriptions, along with
600 companies that can provide solutions.
CETC
Name: California Environmental
Technology Center
Address: Scripps Institution of Oceanography,
University of California, San Diego, 9500
Oilman Drive, 0241 La Jolla, San Diego
92093-0241, California, USA
Tel: +1-619-534-8400
Fax:+1-619-534-8270
E-mail: cetc@sio.ucsd.edu
Internet address:
http://sio.ucsd.edu/sp-progs/cetc/cetc.html
Description: CETC was established by the
California Environmental Protection Agency
and the University of California, San Diego -
Scripps Institution of Oceanography. It is
essentially a virtual organization designed to
act as a catalyst to facilitate the development
of environmental technologies.
CISEPI
Name: China's Information System for
Environmental Protection Industry
(Engineering Industry)
Address: 1 Capital Gymnasium, Nanlu,
Haidian, Beijing, PR China
Tel: +86-1-839-3892 or 834-0088
Fax: +86-1-839-3748 or 834-0825
Technologies covered: Cleaner production,
energy, water.
Information contained: Industrial pollution
control, cleaner production, environmental
impact assessment, water recycling, energy
conservation, environmental management.
Information on companies which produce
products and technologies for pollution
control in the engineering industry,
engineering projects design and construction.
Each entry also contains cost and price
information.
CIC
Name: Clean Japnn Centre
Address: 3-6-2 Toranomon, Minato-ku, Tokyo
105,Japan
Tel:+81-3-3432-6301
Fax:+81-3-3432-6319
Description: The Clean Japan Centre was
established in 1975 with support from the
Ministry of International Trade and Industry
and the private sector. Since its establishment,
CIC has sought to promote waste
management and recycling. CJC has also
undertaken work on the development of
recycling technology systems.
CLU-IN
Name: Clean-Up Information Bulletin
Board System
Address: 401 M Street, SW (5102G),
Washington, District of Colombia 20460,
USA
Tel: +1-703-603-9902
Fax: +1-703-603-9135
E-mail: turner.gary@epamail.epa.gov
Internet address: Iutp://clu-in.com
Technologies covered: Land and agriculture,
hazardous waste, water pollution control.
Information contained: Innovative treatment
technologies. Full-text reports on site clean-
ups with emphasis on innovative treatment
technologies.
CNISEP
Name: China's National Information
System for Environmental Protection
Address: 9 Sanlihe Road, Haidian, Beijing
100835, PR China
Tel:+86-10-6839-3892
Fax: +86-10-6839-3748
Technologies covered: Cleaner production,
energy, water, air, land and agriculture.
Infonnalion contained: Environmental
protection technologies including pollution
control, pollution prevention, energy
conservation and environmental management.
CPAS
Name: Clean Process Advisory System
Address: Michigan Technological University,
Center for Clean Industrial and Treatment
Technologies (CenCITT), 1400Townsend
Drive, Houghton, Michigan 49931, USA
Tel: +1-906-487-3551/3143
Fax: +1-906^87-3292
E-mail: dlstoh@mtu.edu
Internet address: http://cpas.mtu.edu
Technologies covered: Cleaner production,
water, land and agriculture, solid waste,
building and engineering.
Information contained: Pollution prevention,
waste minimization, cleaner production,
environmentally friendly construction
technologies and land remediation. Pollution
prevention process and product design system
incorporating design information with clean
process and product technology tools.
CREST
Name: Center for Renewable Energy and
Sustainable Technology
Address: SEREF, 777 N. Capitol Street, N.E.,
Suite 805, Washington, District of Colombia
20002, USA
Tel: +1-202-289-5370
Fax:+1-202-289-5354
E-mail: info@crest.org
Internet address: http://solstice.crest.org/
Description: CREST, a project of the'non-
profit Solar Energy Research and Education
Foundation (SEREF), is dedicated to the
promotion of renewable energy, energy
efficiency, the environment and sustainable
development. One of CREST's primary
functions is to explore and demonstrate the
use of advanced information and
communication technologies in this field.
CREST is the operator of Solstice, an online
information service available via the Internet
for energy professionals, policy makers and
anyone interested in expanding their
knowledge about renewable energy, energy
management and sustainable technology.
CTCCIS
Name: Control Technology Center
Clearinghouse Information System
Address: MD-13 Research Triangle Park,
North Carolina 27711, USA
Tel: +1-919-541-0800
Fax:+1-919-541-0072
E-mail: ttnbbs@rtpcnc.epa.gov
Technologies covered: Air.
Information contained: Air pollution control
technologies and pollution prevention
methods as applied to emission sources.
image:
APPENDIX: SOUHUhK Ot- INHJHMAI [UN
" '
CTIN
Name: Clean Technology Information
Network - CT Database
Address: National Environmental Engineering
Research Insu°lute~(NEE"RI), Nehru Marg,
Nagpur 440-020, India
T«:+91-712-226071
Fax:+91-712-222725
fi-miil: peckay@csnceri.nen.n!c,in
Technologies covered: Cleaner production,
water pollution control, air pollution control,
Infonnation contained: Cleaner technologies,
cleaner production and pollution control for
Industrial manufacturing sectors. Information
on 510 international case studies for 14
industrial" sectors,"
CWRT
Name; Center for Waste Reduction
Technologies
Address: 345 East 47th Street, New York,
Nefil
wYwk 10017-2395, USA
Tel: +1-212-705-7462
Rut: -H-212-838-8274
E-mail: cwrt@iatcfte.org
Internet address:
htlpl/Avww.che.ufl.edu/aiche/
sponsorcdjresearch/c wrt/
Description: Established in 1991, CWRT
promotes programmes to prevent pollution
and conserve energy by carrying forward
targeted i«search and technology transfer
programme's and contributing to the growing
international technological base, CWRT seeks
' to benefit its sponsors (including the US
Department of Energy) and society by
identifying, developing and transferring
environmentally beneficial technologies in a
cost-effective and timely manner by
leveraging resources. CWRT has been
Involved with thejjeyelopment of the Clean
Process Advisory System (CPAS). CWRT
formed aljiances^with the Center for Clean
Industrial and Treatment Technologies
(CcnCtTT) and Hie National Center for
Manufacturing Sciences (NCMS),
' DTA
Name: The Database Technology
Assessment (TA - Database)
Address: Forscriungszentrum Karlsruhe,
Institute for Technology Assessment and
Systems Analysis (1TAS), P.O. Box 3640,
Karlsruhe D-76Q21, Germany
Tel: +49-7247-822509/822500
Fax: +49-7247-824806
E-mail: eoenen@itas.fzk.de
Internet address:
http://www.tab.fzk.de/eng/itaseng.htmlor
http://www.riz-karlsruhe.de/ta.html
Technologies covered: Water, air, noise and
vibration, solid waste management, energy,
cleaner production, land and agriculture,
construction, building and engineering, global
environment.
Information contained: Key technologies:'
biotechnology; data processing, information
and communication; manufacturing, including
CAD, CAM, CIM; laser-, opto- and micro-
electronics; new materials. Directory of 496
institutions in 16 countries as well as
international institutions, information on
2,332 research projects and 5,255
bibliographic citations.
ECC1
Name: Energy Conservation Center, Japan
Address: Hatchobori 3-19-9, Chuo-ku, Tokyo
104, Japan
Tel:+81-3-5543-3018
Fax: +81-3-5543-3021
Description: The objective of ECCJ is to
foster international technical cooperation in
the field of energy conservation. Established
in 1978, it provides training programmes in
Japan and overseas and supports the
establishment of centres for the promotion of
energy conservation in key regions abroad.
Through its tics with energy conservation
organizations overseas and its sponsorship of
international conferences, exchange of
knowledge on energy conservation
technologies is made possible.
EDAS
Name: Energy Design Advice Scheme
Address: School of the Built Environment,
University of Ulster, Newlownabbey
BT37 OQB, Northern Ireland
Tel: +44-1232-364090
Fax:+44-1232-364090
E-mail: p.waterfield@ulst.ac.uk
Technologies covered: Energy, building and
engineering.
Information contained: Energy and
environment-conscious design of buildings
and services including energy in use and
embodied energy (materials manufacture,
construction process, etc.). Descriptions of
systems and processes related to energy in
buildings.
EEA • "' '
Name: European Environment Agency
Address: Komgcnsnytorv 6, Copenhagen K,
DK-1050, Denmark
Tel: +45-3336-7100
Fax:+45-3336-7199
E-mail: ia@eea.dk
Internet address: http://www.eea.dk
Description: The EEA is currently in the
process of establishing clearinghouses in the
areas of clean technology, life cycle analysis
and risk assessment,
EEIS " " " • • - •
Name: Energy and Environment
Information System
Address: Industrial Technology Information
Bank (INTIB), Vienna International Centre,
P.O. Box 300, Vienna A-1400, Austria
Tel: +43-1-2! 131-3705
Fax:+43-1-21131-6843
E-mail: ppemblelon@unido.org
Internet address: http://www.unido.org
Technologies covered: Cleaner production,
energy, water, building and engineering,
hazardous wastes, air, solid waste, global
environment, industrial.
Information contained: Industrial sectors
including electronics industry, leather and
leather products, building materials, cement,
ceramics, industrial manpower training, wood
products, textiles and clothing, iron and steel,
non-ferrous metals, petrochemicals, food
processing, fertilizers.
EIDS
Name: Environmental Information and
Documentation System (UMPLIS)
Address: Bismarckplatz 1, Berlin-Grunewald
D-14193, Germany
Tel: +49-30-8903/2305/2213
Fax: +49-30-8903/2154
Technologies covered: Cleaner production,
energy, water, air, land and agriculture, noise
and vibration, solid waste, hazardous waste,
global environment.
Information contained: Pollution control for
hazardous substances, air qiialiiy, waste
disposal, marine environment, environmental
law, research and development, water, noise,
ecology and nature conservation.
ENERGY CONSERVATION DATABASE
Name: Energy Conservation Database
Address: Energy Conservation Center, Japan
(ECCJ), Hatchobori 3-19-9, Chuo-ka, Tokyo
104, Japan
Tel:+81-3-5543-3017
Fax:+81-3-5543-3022
Technologies covered: Energy.
Information contained: Energy conservation
technologies related to energy management,
heat insulation, combustion, heating and
cooling, heat recovery, heat storage,'power
generation, co-generation, power distribution,
lighting, motive power, air conditioning,
transportation and recycling.
260
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APPENDIX: SOURCES OF INFORMATION
ENERGY/ENVIRONMENT DISC
Name: Energy/Environment Disc
Address: 345 E. 47th St., New York, New
York 10017, USA
Tel:+1-212-705-7600
Fax:+1-212-832-1857
Internet address: http://www.ei.org/
Teclmologies covered: Air, solid waste,
energy,
Information contained: Air pollution, fuels,
alternative energy sources, geology, resource
management, waste disposal and processing,
nuclear technology and geophysics.
ENERGY TECHNOLOGY AND NATURAL
RESOURCES DIRECTORY
Name: 94-95 Directory on Energy
Efficiency and Natural Resources
Address: Natural Resources Canada, Energy
Efficiency Programs Division, 580 Booth,
Ottawa, Ontario K1A OE4, Canada
Tel:+1-613-996-7512
Fax: +I-613-943-I590
Technologies covered: Energy, land and
agriculture.
Information contained: Renewable and
conservation energy technologies: active solar
energy, energy, bioenergy, ground source heat
pumps, natural gas transportation fuel systems,
photovoltaic energy, small hydro power, wind
energy, wood burning appliances, building
energy control systems, building space
conditioning, energy-efficient building
products, heat recovery and distribution, and
industrial process equipment The directory
provides information on companies involved in
energy related technologies. Each entry
contains the company name, the type of
company, address, contact numbers, contact
names, employees, sales category, and
descriptions-of products and services.
ENSICNET
Nairn: Environmental Systems Information
Centre Network
Address: P.O. Box 2454, KJong Luang 12120,
Thailand
Tel: +66-2-524-5882/524-5863
Fax: +66-2-524-5879/524-5870
E-mail: stueart@ait,ac.th/enreric@rccsun,ac.th
Internet address:
http://www.ait.ac.th/clair/centers/ensic.html
Teclmologies covered: Cleaner production,
water, air, solid waste, land and agriculture.
Information contained: Pollution control
technologies for sanitation, water supply and
water resources, wastewater treatment, solid
waste treatment, toxic and hazardous waste,
air and noise pollution.
ENVIROTECH ON-LINE
Name: Envirotcch On-Line
Address: 611 Belciiertown Rd, P.O. Box 44,
Amherst, Massachusetts 01004, USA
Tel: +1-413-598-8600
Fax:+1-413-598-0350
E-mail: gormally@crocker.com
Internet address: http://www.envirotech.org
Teclmologies covcisd: Cleaner production,
energy, water, air, land and agriculture, solid
waste, hazardous waste, building and
engineering.
Information contained: Environmental pollution
control technology, products, services, research
and financing provided by US environmental
technology companies. Technology
descriptions, industry directories.
EPS INFO
Name: Environmental Pollution Prevention
Project
Address: 1530 Wilson Blvd., Suite 900,
Arlington, Virginia 22209-2406, USA
Tel:+1-703-351-4004
Fax:+1-703-351-6166
E-mail: apenderg&habaeo.com
Internet address/WWW:
http://wastenot.inel.gov:80/enviro$en$e/intern
et/ep3/ep3100.html
Technologies covered: Cleaner production,
water, air.
Information contained: Industrial cleaner
production (pollution prevention) technologies
(from assessment reports in EP3 projects) in
developing countries which include electro-
plating, food processing, paper, plastics,
printing, tanning and textiles.
EREC
Name: Energy Efficiency and Renewable
Energy Clearinghouse
Address: NREL, 1617 Cole Blvd., Golden,
Colorado 80401-3393, USA
Tel: +1-303-275-4256
Fax: +1-303-275-4222
E-mail: wulf@tcplink.nrel.gov
Internet address: http://erecbbs.nciinc.com/
Teclmologies covered: Global environment,
energy, construction and engineering, land and
agriculture.
Information contained: Renewable and
conservation energy technologies. Energy-
efficient technologies for residential,
commercial and industrial applications
including building envelope measures
{insulation, weatherization, windows, resource
efficient construction principles and
techniques, etc.), building equipment
(lighting, heating, ventilating and air
conditioning, appliances, etc.), and other
devices (motors, controls, energy management
systems).
EREN
Name: Energy Efficiency and Renewable
Energy Network
Address: MSEE-541, Rm. SE-036, Forrestal
Bldg., 1000 Independence Ave., SW,
Washington, District of Colombia 205585,
USA
Tel: +1-303-275-4035
Fax:+1-303-275-4222
E-mail: Iowep@tcplink.nrel.gov
Internet address: http://www.eren.doe.gov
Technologies covered: Global environment,
energy, solid waste, land and agriculture.
Information contained: Renewable and energy
conservation technologies. Resources on
energy efficiency and renewable energy
technologies. Renewable energies: solar, wind,
geothermal, hydrogen, fuels, chemicals,
ocean. Information on and access to
documents, databases, bulletin boards,
discussion groups on all kinds of energy
efficiency and renewable energy technologies.
ETC
Name: Environmental Technology Centre
Address: Institute for Environmental Science,
Murdoch University, Murdoch WA 6150,
Australia
Tel:+61-9-360-2167
Fax:+61-9-310-4997
E-mail: ho@essunl.murdoch.edu.au
Internet address:
http://wwwies.murdoch.edu.au/institute/
ics.html
Description: The ETC, which was established
by the Remote Area Developments Group, is
located on the campus of Murdoch University
and seeks to educate and inform the public
about environmentally sound technologies
(ESTs) in the five spheres of human existence:
food, water, shelter, energy and material
resources. Both research and display facilities
are available at the 1.7 hectare centre with a
view to promoting an understanding of ESTs
to students, industry and the community. The
focus is on ESTs relevant to urban villages
and remote/rural communities.
ETDE
Name: Energy Technology Data Exchange
Database
Address: P.O. Box 1000, Oak Ridge,
Tennessee 37831, USA
Tel: +1-423-576-1272
Fax: +1-423-576-2865
E-mail: debbie.cutler@ccmail.ost5.gov
Internet address: http://www.etde.org
Technologies covered: Global environment,
energy.
Information contained: Greenhouse gas and
pollution control, and waste management
technologies. The energy database includes
records on the latest energy technologies that
can help mitigate greenhouse gases or
conserve energy, on alternative and renewable
technologies, and on environmental aspects of
energy production and use, such as oil spill
clean-up devices and air pollution monitoring
techniques.
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ETNA
Name: Environmental Technology Network
for Asia
Address; 1133 20th Street NW, Suite 300,
Washington, District of Colombia 20036,
USA
Tel:+1-202-835-0333
Fix; +1-202-835-0366
E-mail: ty<xfer@usaid,gov
Internet address: ~ "
http://www.info.usaid.gov/business/ctis/
etna html
Teciinologies covered: Water, energy, solid
waste, iir, water.
Iitfotmation contained: Covers air pollution
control:, water, liquid pollution, solid waste
treatment, containment and disposal,
groundwaler treatment, environmental
services, energy conservation, renewable
ene*fgy, waste minimization. Environmental
technologies offered by US companies.
EUREKA
Name; Environmental Research Projects
Address; 19H, Avenue des Arts, Botte 5,
lOOO-BrusscIs, Belgium
Tel; +32^2-229-2240
Fax: +32-2-218-7906
E-mail: jamorano@mail.interpac.be
Internet address: liltp://curcka.belspo.be
Technologies covered: Cleaner production,
energy, water, air, noise and vibration, land
and agriculture, solid waste, hazardous waste,
global environment, building and engineering.
Information contained: This address offers
access to EUREKA general information. The
database contains information on EUREKA
projects and EURfiKA umbrellas with
descriptions based on the original reports
supplied by the participants. Included are
project name, status, technological area,
participants, contact names, application
market, and other relevant information,
EUROW1N
Name; European Wind Turbine Database
Address: Ollmannstrassc 5, Freiburg
D-79100, Germany
Tel: +49-761-4588-219 (216)
FM: +49-761-4588-217
E-mail: mrehm@ise.fhg.de
Internet address: http://www.ise.lhg.de/
Technologies covered: Energy.
Information contained: Renewable energy
technologies (Europe), "Wind energy
conversion systems (wind turbine generators).
Statistical summary of wind turbine
installations and performance and report of
wind energy activities in progress in 18
European countries.
GAHNfiT
Name: Global Applied Research Network in
Water Supply and Sanitation
Address: Water Engineering and Development
Centre (WEDC), Loughborough University,
Leicestershire LEI 1 3TU, UK
Tel: +44-1509-222885
Fax:+44-1509-211079
E-mail: d.l.saywell@lboro.ac.uk
Internet address:
http://agate.Iut.ac.uk/department/cv/wcdc/
index.hUrjl
Technologies covered: Water, solid waste.
Information contained: Solid waste
management, water quality monitoring.
GEC
Nome: Global Environment Centre
Address: 2-110 Ryokuchi Koen, Tsurumi-ku,
Osaka 538, Japan
Tel: +81-6-915-4121
Fax:+81-6-915-0181
E-mail: gec@unep.or.jp
Internet address: http://www.unep.or.jp/gee7
Description: GEC is a supporting foundation
to UNEP 1ETC. The centre has considerable
experience in the field of urban environmental
issues and undertakes research on global
environmental preservation. GEC is also
actively involved in information dissemination
on global environmental issues and
technology. In December 1995, the centre
began operating a World Wide Web site and
an environmental technology database.
OEM
Name: Global Environmental Marketplace
Address; 1-7-42 Honkugenuma, Fujisawa,
Kanagawa 251, Japan
Tel:+81-466-25-5985
Fax:+81-466-25-5999
E-mail: kiti@infosfream.ab.ca
Internet address:
http://www,infostream,ab,ca/gem/
Technologies covered: Global environment,
air, construction and engineering, land and
agriculture, cleaner production, energy, water,
solid waste, hazardous waste.
Information contained: Waste management
focusing on recycling technologies. Over 100
Japanese technologies collected yearly that
are usable in municipalities and industry.
Technologies listed arc licensable to
developed nations and transferable to
developing countries. Introduction of Japanese
environmentally sustainable technologies to
the world and wee vena.
6ETNET
Name: Global Environmental Technology
Network
Address: 20, Avenue Appia, Geneva
CH-12I1, Switzerland
Tel: +41-22-791-3754
Fax: +41 -22-791 -0746/4123
E-mail: lapensee@who.ch
Technologies covered: Global environment,
energy, solid waste, land and agriculture,
cleaner production, water.
Information contained: Environmental
pollution control technologies. Human health
and safety, occupational health.
GNET
Name; Global Network for Environmental
Technology
Address: 7010 Little River Turnpike,
Annandale, Virginia 22003-9998, USA
Tel: +1-703-750-6401
Fax: +1-703-750-6506
E-mail: Joellejordan@gnet.org
Internet address: http://www.gnet.org/
Description; GNET is a gateway to constantly
updated information on innovative
environmental technologies, business and
news, with leads to marketing, intelligence,
financing and contracting opportunities.
GNET seeks.to promote sustainable
development and environmental remediation
through technological innovation, with a focus
on the commercialization of US Department
of Energy developed applications. Featuring
moderated discussion forums, as well as full-
text search capabilities, GNET is an
interactive community and an in-deptli data-
source for the environmental marketplace.
GBEC
Name; Gambia Renewable Energy Centre
Address: Ministry of Trade, Industries and
Employment, The Energy Division, Central
Bank Building, Banjul, the Gambia
Description: GREC undertakes research and
collects information on. alternative sources of
fuelwood and energy-saving technologies.
QUEEN PAGES
Name: Source Directory for Environmental
Technology
Address: 58 Poh Wall Yuen, 2/F, P.O. Box 47,
Yung Shue Wan, Lamrna, Hong Kong
Tel:+852-2982-1274
Fax: +852-2982-2430
Technologies covered: Cleaner production,
energy, water, air, noise and vibration, land
and agriculture, solid waste.
Information contained: Water and waste
treatment, waste management and recycling,
air and noise pollution control, soil
decontamination and remediation, power
generation and energy efficiency, new and
renewable energy technologies. Details of
2,300 suppliers from 33 countries comprising
manufacturers, engineering consultants and
information services.
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APPENDIX: SOURCES OF INFORMATION
GREENTIE
Name: Greenhouse Gas Technology
Information Exchange
Address: Swentiboldstraat 21, P.O. Box 17,
Sittard NL-6130 AA, the Netherlands
Tel: +31-46-595203
Fax:+31-46-510389
E-mail: nloovbag@ibmmail.com
Internet address: http://www.greentie.org
Technologies covered: Global environment,
air, energy, cleaner production.
Information contained: Greenhouse gas and
chlorofluorocarbon (CFC) alternative
technologies (sources not known). Energy
technologies, energy end-use technologies,
carbon dioxide control and abatement
technologies, CFC-alternate technologies.
Contains names and addresses, contact
person, etc. and descriptions of technology
expertise of organizations dealing with
greenhouse gas technologies, such as research
and development institutions, consultancy and
equipment suppliers.
HCT
Name: Hydrocarbon Technology
Information Service
Address: Postfach 5180, Dag-Hammarskjtild-
Weg 1-5, Eschborn D-6236, Germany
Tel:+49-6196-79-3198
Fax: +49-6196-79-7352
E-mail: gtz-gate-fckw@geod.geonet.de
Technologies covered: Global environment.
Information contained: Hydrocarbons used as
replacements for chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs).
ICARUS
Name: Information Systems on
Conservation and Application of Resources
Using a Sector Approach
Address: University of Utrecht, Department of
Science, Technology and Society, Padulaan
14, Utrecht NL-3584 CH, the Netherlands
Tel:+31-30-537638/7600
Fax: +31-30-537601
E-mail: J.deBeer@nwsmail.chem.ruu.nl
Internet address/WWW:
http://www.chem.ruu.nl/nws/www/nws.htnil
Tcclmologies covered: Energy.
Information contained: Information on saving
potential and cost for about 900 energy
efficient technologies that can be applied in
all economic sectors in the Netherlands for the
periods 1990-2008 and 1990-2015; energy
growth and price scenarios; carbon dioxide
emission factors per fuel; energy balance for
1990.
ICETT
Name: International Center for
Environmental Technology Transfer
Address: 3690-1, Sakura-cho, Yokkaichi 510-
12,Japan
Tel:+81-593-29-8 111
Fax:+81-593-29-8115
E-mail: icett@tcp.ip.or.jp
Description: ICETT was established in 1990
by Mic prcfectural government and Yokkaichi
municipality as an environmental technology
transfer centre. The centre's present name was
adopted in February 1991. In close
cooperation with ihe Mie prefectural
government, the city of Yokkaichi, private
companies and acadcmia, ICETT seeks to
promote the transfer of Japan's environmental
pollution control technologies. The centre
undertakes research and development and
organizes training programmes for
participants from developing countries.
ICPIC
Name: International Cleaner Production
Information Clearinghouse
Address: Tour Mirabeau, 39-43 quai Andre
Citroen, 75739 Paris Cedex 15, France
Tel: +33-1-44-37-14-50
Fax: +33-1-44-37-14-74
E-mail: icpic@unep.fr
Internet address: http://www.unepie.org
Technologies covered: Global environment,
cleaner production.
Information contained: Industrial cleaner
production for improved housekeeping
practices, industrial process changes, product
changes, material changes and materials
recycling, and a directory of contacts.
IEA
Name: International Energy Agency
Address: 2 rue Andrd Pascal, 75775 Paris
Cedex 16, France
Tel: +33-1-45-24-98-73
Fax:+33-1-45-24-94-75
Internet address: http://www.iea.org
Description: The IEA is an autonomous body
which was established in 1974, within the
framework of the Organisation for Economic
Co-operation and Development (OECD), to
implement an international energy
programme. It carries out a comprehensive
programme of energy cooperation among 23
of the OECD's 26 member countries. The IEA
has a programme of over 40 international
energy collaboration projects covering energy
technology information centres, fossil fuel
technologies, renewable energy technologies
and nuclear fusion science and technology.
These projects are open to participants from
all countries.
IEA CADDET REGISTER
Name: IEA CADDET Energy Efficiency
Register
Address: P.O. Box 17, Sittard NL-6130 A A,
the Netherlands
Tel: +31-46-4202224
Fax:+31-46-4510389
E-mail: nlnovcce@ibmmail.com
Internet address: http://www.caddet-ec.org
Technologies covered: Energy.
information contained: Energy saving end-use
technologies and demonstration projects with
application in the end-use sectors, buildings,
industry, transport, utilities and agriculture.
Each entry contains a description of the
project under the headings: general
description, technical data, energy data,
economic data and environmental data.
Contact information is included for the host
company, monitoring organization and a
contact organization for further information.
IEA CADDET RENEWABLES REGISTER
Name: IEA CADDET Renewable Energy
Register Database
Address: ETSU, Harwell OX11 ORA, UK
Tel:+44-1235-432536
Fax: +44-1235-433595
E-mail: philip.mann@acat.co.uk/
caddet.renew@aeat.co.uk
Interne! address: http://www.caddet-re.org
Technologies covered: Energy.
Information contained: All renewable energy
technologies: wind, biomass, waste, solar
(active, passive), photovoltaic, hydro,
geothermal and tidal. Contains information on
renewable energy demonstration projects from
seven CADDET member countries.
IEBTI
Name: International Environmental
Business and Teclmology Institute
Address: 100 Morrissey Bd., Boston,
Massachusetts 01125-3393, USA
Tel:+1-617-287-7723
Fax:+1-617-482-7347
Description: IEBTI has developed an
information system called Envirotech On-Line
which provides details of environmental
pollution control technology, products,
services, research and financing provided by
US environmental technology companies.
Funding has been received from the US
Department of Commerce to launch the
system.
image:
APPENDIX: SOURCES OF INFORMATION
IEP
Name: Institute of Environmental
Protection
AiMrtu; 3111 Krueza Street, Warsaw 00-548,
Poland
Tel:+48-2-621-3670
FKJ +48:2-29-5263
E-mail: eirn/bitnet.josOpIearn.bitnct
Description: The Institute of Environmental
Protection is currently working on an EST
database with support from the Polish State
Committee for Scientific Research. The
database will contain information on the best
available technology related to wastewater and
industrial effluent control in the Polish
context, ""* "
IETD
Name: Innovative Environmental
Technology Databa.sc
Addrtsi: 1795 Turtle Hill Road, Enterprises,
Florida 32725, USA
Tel: +1-407-321-7912
Fax: +1-407-321-3098
E-mail: solutions@env-sol.cotn'
Internet adilress: http://www.env-sol.com
Technologies covered: Cleaner production,
solid waste, global environment.
Information contained: Covers water,
Wisfewater, air, remediation, waste reduction
and recycling. "How to*' datafile of waste
management solutions. Also includes
comprehensive collection of treatability studies
covering treatment technologies and post-
(reatmcnt analysis.
INFOTERfiA
Name: UNEPINFOTERRA
Mdrcss: P.O. Box 30552, Nairobi, Kenya
Tel: +254-2-62-35II
Fax: +254-2-62-3943
E-mail: infotinf@unep.org
Internet address: http://www.unep.org
Description: INFQTERRA, the Global
Environmental Information Exchange
_ Network of UNEP.was established in 1975 by
a decision of the Imrd Governing Council
with the aim to develop a mechanism to
"facilitate the exchange of environmental
information within and among nations".
INFOTERRA subsequently established a
decentralized information system operating
through a worldwide network of national
environmental institutions designated and
supported by their governments as focal
points. In 1996, INFOTERRA became part of
the Division of Environmental Information
and Assessment.
ISAT
Name: Information and Advisory Service
on Appropriate Technology
Address: Deutsche Gesellschaft ftir
Technische Zusammenarbeit (GTZ), Postfach
5180, Eschbom D-65726, Germany
Tel:+49-6196-79-3184
Fax: +49-6196-79-7352
E-mail: dirk.franken@gtz.de
Internet address: http://www.gt2.de/gaie/isat
Technologies covered: Energy, water, air,
noise and vibration, building and engineering.
Information contained: Environmental
pollution control, renewable energy systems,
water supply and wastewater disposal,
agriculture, food processing, crafts and small-
scale industry, building and construction
materials, household energy. Technology
descriptions.
1AEE
Name: Japanese Advanced Environmental
Equipment
Address: Kiknishinko Bldg., Rm. 405,
5-8 Shiba-koen, Minato-ku, Tokyo 105, Japan
Tel: +81-3-3434-6820
Fax:+81-3-3434-4767
Internet address: http://www.unep.or.jp/gec/
Technologies covered: Water, air, noise and
vibration, solid waste.
Information contained: Air and water
pollution control, waste treatment, noise and
vibration control equipment. Classifications of
equipment, descriptions of technologies,
products list, directory of manufacturers,
detailed index.
lEMU/TPI DATABASE
Name: Joint Environmental Markets
Unit/Technology Partnership Initiative
Address: JEMU/TPI, 151 Buckingham Palace
Road, London SW1W 9SS, UK
Tel: +44-171-215-1644
Fax:+44-171-215-1089
Technologies covered: Global environment,
air, noise and vibration, construction and
engineering, land and agriculture, water, solid
waste, hazardous waste, energy, cleaner
production.
Information contained: Air pollution control,
water and wastewater treatment, waste
management, contaminated land, energy
management, renewable energy, marine
pollution control, environmental monitoring
and analysis, environmental consultancy
services, noise and vibration control, recovery
and recycling.
KIK/AFAS
Name: Karlsruhe Research Centre
Address: P.O. Box 3640, Karlsruhe D-76021,
Germany
E-mail: lessman@itas.kfr.de
Description: KfK/AFAS has developed a
database called the TA (Technology
Assessment) Database which includes studies
on the potential of new technologies,
technological forecasting and monitoring, as
well as other aspects of technology
assessment.
Name: Korea Institute of Industry and
Technology Information
Address: Technology Transfer Information
Centre, 206-9 Choengryangri-Dong,
Dongdacmum-ku, P.O. Box 205,
Cheongryang, Seoul, Republic of Korea
Tel: +82-2-962-6211
Fax:+82-2-962-7198
E-mail: kimjae@kinins.ldniti.re,kr
Internet address: http:\\www.kiniti.re.kr
Description: K3NITI has been mandated to
assume a key role in the establishment of a
nationwide information dissemination system
to support the industrial and technological
development of the Republic of Korea. The
institute performs three key roles: it
undertakes surveys of the supply and demand
for technologies; it organizes seminars and
workshops on technology transfer; and it
develops databases on technology transfer
information,
LINK
Name: The LINK System
Address: 1215 Fourth Avenue, St. 320,
Seattle, Washington 98161, USA
. Tel: + 1 -206-622-5589/206-323- 1 820
Fax: +1-206-622-6343/206-329-3364
E-mail: LINK@haIcyon.com
Technologies covered: Water, air.
Information contained: Technologies,
products and services for subscribers from all
segments of the environmental pollution
control industry. Detailed experience profiles
and contact information for US environmental
companies that subscribe to the servjce,
. l-.tf *•»
264
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APPENDIX; SOURCES OF INFORMATION
MECTAT
Name: Middle East Centre for the Transfer
of Appropriate Technology
Address: Middle East Engineers and
Architects Ltd., P.O. Box 11.3, Beirut,
Lebanon
Tel:+961-1-341323
Fax:+961-1-346465
Description: MECTAT is an environmental
resource centre promoting environmentally
sound technologies and environmental
awareness. It was established in 1982 and is
affiliated with Middle East Engineers and
Architects Ltd. (MEEA), a consulting firm
based in Beirut, Lebanon. The centre's main
areas of interest include: waste management,
renewable energy, sustainable agriculture,
fresh water resources, housing, environmental
awareness raising an'd environmental
management. Its activities focus on research,
development, field testing, training,
consultancy, and promotion of technical
know-how.
NATTA
Name: Network for Alternative Technology
and Technology Assessment
Address: c/o Walton Hall, Open University,
Milton Keynes, Bucks MK7 6AA, UK
Tel:+44-1908-65-4638
Fax; +44-1908-65-3744
E-mail: d.a.elliott@open.ac.uk
Internet address: http://eeru-www.open.ac.uk/
Technologies covered: Energy.
[nfonnalion contained: Renewable energy:
wind farms, water power, solar and biofuels.
Policies and technology development in the
field of renewable energy with emphasis on
the United Kingdom.
NEERI
Name: National Environmental Engineering
Research Institute
Address: Nehru Mnrg, Nagpur 440020, India
Tel: +91-712-223-893
Fax: +91-712-222-725
E-mail: peekay@csneeri.ren.nic.in.
Description: NEERI was established in 1958
and is a constituent laboratory under the
Council of Scientific and Industrial Research
(CSIR), government of India. It has developed
a database which contains 510 case studies on
cleaner technologies. Since 1996, the Indian
Centre for Promotion of Cleaner Technologies
(ICPC) has been established at NEERI.
NETCEN
Name: National Environmental Technology
Centre
Address: Culham, Abingdon, Oxfordshire
OX143DB, UK
Tel: +44-1235-463811
Fax: +44-1235-463389
E-mail: maurice.alphandary@aeat.co.uk
Description: NETCEN is part of AEA
Technology, a major science and engineering
organization with staff based in the United
Kingdom and in an increasing number of
offices overseas. NETCEN provides research,
consultancy and technical services across all
environmental media, including monitoring
and management of air and water quality,
monitoring of emissions from industrial
processes, waste management and technical
emergency response. It is also heavily
involved in environmental technology transfer
activities.
NREL
Name: National Renewable Energy
Laboratory
Address: 1617 Cole Boulevard, Golden,
Colorado 80401-3393, USA
Tel:+1-303-275-4090
Fax:+1-303-275-4091
E-mail: webmaster@nrel.gov
Internet address: http://www.nrel.gov/
Description: NREL was established by the
Solar Energy Research, Development and
Demonstration Act of 1974 as a national
centre for federally sponsored solar energy
research and development. Two
environmentally sound technology-related
information systems ate based at the
laboratory. These are the Energy Efficiency
and Renewable Energy Network (EREN) and
the Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy
Clearinghouse (EREC).
NSFC
Name: National Small Flows Clearinghouse
Address: West Virginia University, P.O. Bpx
6064, Morgantown, West Virginia 26506-
6064, USA
Tel:+1-304-293-4191
Fax; +1-304-293-3161
Technologies covered: Water.
Information contained: Pollution control for
alternative wastewater treatment technology
for small communities. Innovative and
Alternative (I/A) Facilities Technologies
Database containing information on 1,900
facilities using a combined total of 2,600
innovative and wastewater technologies. A
manufacturers and consultants database
contains contact and product information, and
details on expert consultants.
NTfC
Nome: National Technology Transfer
Center
Addivss: Jesuit College, 316 Washington
Avenue, Wheeling, West Virginia 26003,
USA
Tel:+1-304-243-2551
Fax: +1-304-243-2539
E-mail; webmaster@nttc.edu
Internet address: http://www.nttc.edu/
Description: The National Technology
Transfer Center (NTTC) was established by
the US Congress to link US companies with
federal laboratories in order to turn
government research results into practical,
commercially-relevant technology. One
specific sector deals with environmental
technology transfer and is referred to as the
Environmental Technology Gateway.
OAIC
Name: OzonAction Information
Clearinghouse
Address: Tour Mirabeau, 39-43 qua! Andre
Citroen, 75739 Paris Cedex 15, France
Tel: +33-1-44-37-14-50
Fax: +33-1-44-37-14-74
E-mail: ozonactiou@unep.fr
Internet address: http://www.unepie.org
Technologies covered: Global environment,
air, cleaner production.
Information contained: All alternative
technologies, chemicals and strategies that
reduce, replace or eliminate the production and
use of ozone depleting substances. The
technologies address (he following industrial
sectors: aerosols, sterilants, carbon
tetrachloride, batons (fire protection), rigid and
flexible plastic foams, refrigeration, air
conditioning, heat pumps, solvents, coatings,
adhesives and rnelhyl bromide (soil fumigation
and crop shipment disinfection). OzonAction
contains technology case studies; a database of
ozone depicting substances-reduction products
and services; national and corporate
programme summaries; details of experts;
literature database of significant ozone
depleting substances-reduction documents; and
message centres. It also relays the solvent
substitute database known as OZONET
compiled by the Industry Cooperative for
Ozone Layer Protection (ICOLP).
image:
APPENDIX: SOURCES OF INFORMATION
OCETA
Name: Ontario Centre for Environmental
Technology Advancement
Address: difPolson Street, 2nd Floor, Toronto,
Ontario MSA 1A4, Canada
Tel:+1-416-778-5264
Pax:+1-416-778-5624
E-mail: oceta@hookup.net
Internet address: httpj/www.oceta.on.ca/
Description: OCETA is part of the network of
Canadian Environmental Technology
Advancement Centres, It is a private sector, not-
for-profit corporation committed to helping
snail and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs)
overcome the barriers involved in the
commercialization of new environmental
technologies, OCETA is an industry-led
initiative dedicated to providing Ontario-based
companies with a wide range of technical and
. business-based services. OCETA acts as a
, critical link in technology transfer, providing
access to engineering, regulatory, financial,
educational and management services, along
with information resources and key support
services.
OECD
Name: Organisation for Economic
Co-operation and Development
Addreis: 2 me Andre1 Pascal, 75775 Paris
Ccdcx 16, France
Tel:+33-1-45-24-8500
. Internet address: http://csl-hq,oecd,org/
Description: The OECD records and studies the
characteristics of past and actual economic
growth. The OECD is the world's largest source
of comparative data on the industrial
economics. It produces a wide range of
publications studies, comparative analyses and
statistical reports covering agriculture,
environmental policy, pollution, hazardous
substances, radioactive wastes, toxic substances,
pollution control regulations, transnational
pollution, urban planning, energy sources and
fuels, nuclear energy, energy research centres,
technology transfer and development, ft lias
examined the trade issues associated wiih the
transfer of clean technologies, use of
biotcehnojogy in pollution prevention detection
and remediation, and also the development of
sustainable agricultural cleaner technologies.
i The OECD and IEA have supported the
establishment of the CADDET system and the
GREENTIE initiative.
POLLUABS
Name: Pollution Abstracts
Address; 7200 Wisconsin Ave., Suite 601,
Belhesda, Maryland 20814-4823, USA
Tel: +1-301-961-6750
Fax:+1-301-961-6720
Internet address: http://www.csa.com/
Technologies covered: Water, air, noise and
vibration, land and agriculture, solid waste,
hazardous waste.
Information contained: Bibliographic:
contains about 200,000 citations, with
abstracts, to the worldwide technical and non-
technical literature on pollution research,
sources and controls. Covers air, water, land,
thermal, noise and radiological pollution;
pesticides; sewage and waste treatments;
environmental action; toxicology and health.
PPIC (ENVIROSENSE)
Name: Pollution Prevention Information
Clearinghouse
Address: 401 M Street, SW 7409,
Washington, District of Colombia 20460,
USA
Tel: +1-202-260-1023/3161
Fax: +1-202-260-0178
E-mail: ppie@epamail.epa,gov
Internet address: http://es.inel.gov
Technologies covered: Air, energy, noise and
vibration, land and agriculture, cleaner
production,
Information contained: Cleaner production
(pollution prevention) source reduction,
recycling, life-cycle assessment,
environmental labelling, safer substitutes.
Case studies, programmes and technology
descriptions.
RBLC
Name: Reasonably Available Control
Technology, Best Available Control
Technology, Lowest Available Emission
Rate Clearinghouse
Address: MD-13, Research Triangle Park,
North Carolina 27711, USA
Tel:+1-919-541-0800
Fax:+1-919-541-0072
E-mail: blaszczak.bob @epamail.epa,gov
Internet address: http://ttnwww.rtpnc.epa.gov
Technologies covered: Air.
Information contained: Air pollution control
technologies and pollution prevention
methods as applied to emission sources in the
United States. Summaries of technologies,
emission limits, costs, etc. applied to major
sources in the United States by state and local
agencies.
REFIS
Name: Russian Ecological Federal
Information System
Address: B, Gruzinskaya, 4/6, Moscow
123812, Russia
Tel: +7-095-284-8235
Fax: +7-095-284-8550
Technologies covered; Water, solid waste.
Information contained: Pollution control,
industrial and municipal wastes, agriculture,
water purification and biotechnology. Survey
of organizations/institutes in Russian
Federation developing environmentally sound
technologies.
Information source: General description of
Russian technologies, directory of contact
organizations, documentation, information
from 300 organisations.
RENTER
Name: Information System on Cleaner
Technologies
Address: 29 Strandgade, Copenhagen K,
Denmark
Tel:+45-32-660100
Fax:+45-32-660479
Technologies covered: Cleaner production,
water, air.
Information contained: Industrial cleaner
production and pollution control technologies
for iron and metals, wood and furniture,
plastics manufacturing and food processing
(Fish only: dairy, vegetables and meat to be
added). Technology descriptions, possible
alternatives.
RERIC
Name: Regional Energy Resources
Information Center
Address: P.O. Box 4, Klong Luang 12120,
Thailand
Tel: +66-2-524-5866
Fax: +66-2-524-5870
E-mail: enreric@ait.ac.th
Internet address:
http://www.ait.ac.th/clair/rericl.html
Technologies covered; Energy.
Information contained: Energy planning,
energy conservation, renewable energy
resources, solar, wind and biomass energy and
small-scale hydro power.
266
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APPENDIX: SOURCES OF INFORMATION
RET
Name: Renewable Energy Technologies
Address: Usmanu Danfodiyo University,
Sokoto, P.M.B. 2346, Nigeria
Tel: +234-60-237568
Fax: +234-60-237568
Technologies covered: Energy.
Information contained: Renewable energy
technologies, alternative sources or energy,
energy conservation. Development,
installation and application information on
biogas and solar energy technologies.
HIET
Name: Regional Institute of Environmental
Technology
Address: 3 Science Park Drive, SISIR Annex
#04-08, Singapore 118223, Singapore
Tel: +65-777-2685
Fax: +65-773-2800
E-mail: RIET@paciRc.net.sg
Description: Supported as a joint initiative of
the European Commission and the Singapore
Institute of Standards and Industrial Research,
RIET is a not-for-profit organization. It is
involved in the promotion and exchange of
know-how and skills in the fields of
environmental management and technology
between Europe and Asia. It also seeks to
provide assistance to regional policy makers
for better industrial production, and to develop
expert human resources in this field. It acts as
a bridgehead between European and Asian
•companies which supply and use
environmental technology and services.
RITE
Name: Research Institute for Innovative
Technology
Address: 2-9-2 Kizugawadai, Kizu-cho,
Soraku-gun, Kyoto 619-0, Japan
Tel:+81-7747-5-2302
Fax:+81-7747-5-2314
E-mail: 5nfo@rite.or.jp
Internet address: http://www.rite.or.jp
Description: RITE was established in July
1990 to promote the "New Earth 21"
programme with the aim of developing
research in advanced industrial technologies
that are environment friendly.
SAGE
Name: Solvent Alternatives Guide
Address: EPA, Research Triangle Park,
North Carolina 27711, USA
Tel:+1-919-541-7633
Fax: +1-919-541-7891
E-mail: sage-inaster@clean.rti.org
Internet address: http://clean.rti.org
Technologies covered: Global environment.
Information contained: Ozone depleting
substance-solvents and volatile organic
compounds. Details on economically and
technically feasible non-ozone depleting
substance/volatile organic compound
alternatives. Provides case studies.
SEI
Name: Stockholm Environment Institute
Address: SEI-Stoekholm, Lilla Nygatan 1,
Box 2142, Stockholm S-103 14, Sweden
Tel: +46-8-723-0260
Fax: +46-8-723-0348
E-mail: seihq@nordnet.se or
seihq@nn.apc.org
Internet address: http://nn.apc.arg/sei/
Description: Stockholm Environment Institute
(SEI) was established by the Swedish
Parliament in 1989 as an independent
Foundation for the purpose of carrying out
global and regional environmental research.
The institute is active in international
initiatives on environment and development
issues and, for example, made substantive
contributions to the preparatory work of the
United Nations Conference on Environment
and Development (UNCED), including the
action plan Agenda 21. The research areas
covered are urban environment, common
property management, energy resources,
atmospheric environment, climate change,
cleaner production, freshwater resources,
economic instruments and biotechnology.
SOLARPACKS
Name: JEA Solar Power and Chemical
Energy Systems Program
Address: Kleiroannsruh 7,
Githorn-Winkel D-38518, Germany
Tel:+49-5371-15742
Fax: +49-5371-15755
E-rnail: solarpactss@dlr.de
Internet address:
http://www.demon.co.uk/tfc/SolarPACES.hUnl
Description: SolarPACES is an International
Energy Agency (IEA) programme designed to
promote the commercial application of solar
thermal power and solar chemical energy
systems.
TERI
Name: Tata Energy Research Institute
Address: 9 Jor Btgh, New Delhi 110 003,
India
Tel:+91-11-462-2246
Fax:+91-11-462-1770
E-mail: mailboxfBteri.ernet.in
Description: TERI is one of India's leading
energy research centres. TERI was established
in 1974 as a non-profit research institute with
funding from the Tata chemical conglomerate.
The institute works on energy efficiency
issues, depletion of finite energy resources
and the environmental implications from the
national to global levels. TERI maintains a
database on renewable energy, energy
conservation and pollution control
technologies. The database is intended for
energy planners involved in establishing
priorities for further technology and research
investments and to provide information for
industrial entrepreneurs. TERI also publishes
three abstracting journals: Abstracts of
Selected Solar Energy Technology (ASSET),
TERI Information Digest on Energy (TIDE)
and TERI Information Service in Global
Warming (TISGLOW).
TISGLOW
Name: TERI Information Service on Global
Warming
Address: Darbari Seth Block, India Habitat
Centre, Loth Road, New Delhi 110003, India
Tel: +91-11-460-1550/462-2246
Fax:+91-11-462-1770
E-mail: banilk@teri.eraet.in
Technologies covered: Global environment,
energy.
Information contained: Greenhouse gases,
conservation of non-renewable energy
sources, power generation using fossil fuels.
Descriptions, status, cost, environmental
performances, efficiency, conservation
potential, applicability and remarks on power
generation technology options.
TOXtlNE
Name: TOXLINE
Address: 8600 Rockville Pike, Belhesda,
Maryland 20894, USA
Tel:+1-301-496-1131
Internet address: http://www.nim.nih.gov/
Technologies covered: Land and agriculture,
hazardous waste,
Information contained: Biomedicine,
chemical industry, environmental policy,
occupational safety, pesticides, toxicology and
waste management.
TROPAC & RURAL
Name: Tropag & Rural
Address: Mauritskade 63, Amsterdam
NL 1092 AD, the Netherlands
Tel:+31-20-5688298
Fax: +31-20-6654423
E-mail: ibd@support.nl
Technologies covered: Land and agriculture.
information contained: Tropical and sub-
tropical agriculture including crop production,
crop protection, fertilizers and soils, plant
nutrition, agricultural techniques, crop
processing and storage, animal husbandry,
aquaculture, forestry, agro-forestry, farming
systems research and agricultural
development, environmentally sound
agricultural practices.
image:
= UNDP _ __
Name: United Nations Development
Programme
Address; One United Nations Plaza, New
York, New York 10017. USA
Tel: +1-212-906-5000
Fix,:,+ 1-2,12:906:50pl
E-mafl: jSouza@undp.org
Internet address: http://www.undp.org
Description: UNDP is the world's largest
multilateral source of grant funding for
development cooperation. It was created in
1965 through a merger of two predecessor
programmes for United Nations technical
cooperation. UNDP operates a World Wide
Web server providing details of all its
activities including the Sustainable
Development Network, UNDP was given the
lead responsibility at the United Nations
Conference_on Environment and Development
(UNGED) for capacity-building to help
developing countries formulate economic,
social and environmental goals, plans,
programmes and policies that lead to
sustainable development. In 1989, UNDP
initiated the Sustainable Development
Network (SON) project as a tool to help
developing countries move toward sustainable
development.
UNECE
Name: United Nations Economic
Commission for Europe
.Address; Palais des Nations, CH-1211
Geneva 10, Switzerland
Tel: +41-22-917-3258
Fax:+41-22-917-0178
Description: UNECE has undertaken a
number of important studies related to
environmentally sound technologies including
the 1994 report on low-waste technologies in
engineering "industries and an inventory of
safety guidelines in biotechnology.
UNIDO _" _ ""'
Name: United Nations Industrial
Development Organization
Address: Vienna International Centre,
P.O. Box 300, A-1400 Vienna, Austria
Tel: +43-1-211-3IO705
Fax:+43-gll-3j76843
E-mail: ppe'mbletonfilunido.org
Internet arfiress:
hllp://www.unido,org/start/services/
envtronment/envinfo
Description; UNIDO is the UN agency
responsible for promoting die industrial
development of developing countries. The
organization operates a number of
computerized information systems, networks,
services and products under the umbrella of
the Industrial and Technological Information
Bank (INTTB), One such system deals with
energy and environmental information,
concentrating on cleaner production in
Industry. It seeks to provide sustainable, cost-
effective mechanisms for industrial
environment information targeted to small and
medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) in
developing countries.
Name: Vendor Information System for
Innovative Treatment Technologies
Address: Tech. Inno. Office (5I02G). USEPA,
401M St. SW, Washington, District of
Colombia 20460, USA
Tel: +1-703-603-9903
Fax:+1-703-603-9135
E-mail.' ma.cari@epamail.epa.com
Internet address: http://clu-in.com
Technologies covered: Solid waste, land,
agriculture.
Information contained: Innovative treatment
technologies for contaminated site clean-up,
groundwater, soil, sludge and sediments.
Information provided by 141 US vendors of
231 innovative technologies - bench, pilot and
full-scale - to treat groundwater hi situ, soils,
sludges and sediments. Information on each
technology includes the vendor name, address
and phone number, technology description,
highlights and limitations, contamination and
matrix treated, project and performance data,
available hardware, unit price information,
treatability study capabilities and literature
references.
WAST
Name: Wastelnfo
Address: B7.12 Harwell Laboratory, Harwell
0X11 ORA, UK
Tel:+44-1235-433442
Fax; +44-1235-432854
Technologies covered: Solid waste, hazardous
waste.
Infonnation contained: All aspects of waste
disposal and treatment including landfill,
incineration, biological or chemical treatment
and separation techniques and waste
recycling.
WATERUT
Name: Water Literature Database
Address: P.O. Box 395, Pretoria 001, Republic
of South Africa
Tel: +27-12-841-3362
Fax:+27-12-349-1154
E-mail: sawie@cis.cO.za
Internet address:
http,7/africa.cis.co.za:81/env/sawic/inain.html
Technologies covered: Water, solid waste.
Information contained: Water supply, water
treatment, water pollution control, water
quality, hydrology, irrigation, groundwater,
wastewater treatment, industrial wastes, waste
management, environmental issues, sanitation,
development issues, legislation. Includes
references selected from journals, books,
conference proceedings, reports, pamphlets
and theses.
WRPC
Name: Water Re-use Promotion Centre
Address: 3F Randic Akasaka Building,
2-3-4 Akasaka, Minato-ku, Tokyo 107, Japan
Tel:+81-3-3583-9431
Fax: +81-3583-9436
Description: WRPC was set up in 1973 in
order to develop and spread water production
technologies designed to deal with water
recycling, desalinization and environmental
problems. The centre seeks to promote the
transfer of advanced environmental
technologies to countries suffering from water
shortages. It publishes a quarterly journal
entitled Zosui Gijiirsu (Water Technology).
WTC
Name: Wastewater Technology Centre
Address: Box 5068, 867 Lakcshore Road,
Burlington, Ontario L7R 4L7, Canada
Tel:+1-905-336-4855
Fax:+1-905-336-4765
Description: Established in 1971, the
Wastewater Technology Centre (WTC)
provides services that address pollution
prevention, pollution control, site remediation,
residue management need and analysis. The
cenlre promotes responsible environmental
stewardship through the development,
application and commercialization of effective
environmental protection systems and know-
how providing cost-effective solutions for
industry and government. WTC's pollution
control expertise is directed towards the
industrial sector involved in process
improvements, product recovery, water and
wastewater treatment plant optimization and
infrastructure management.
268
image:
The UNEP Industry and Environment
Centre (UNEP IE)
The United Nations Environment Programme's
Industry and Environment Centre (UNEP IE)
was established by UNEP in 1975 to bring
industry and government together to promote
environmentally sound industrial development.
The mission of UNEP IE is "to encourage the
development and implementation of industrial
policies, strategies, technologies and manage-
ment practices that contribute to sustainable
development by making efficient use of natural
resources as well as by reducing industrial
pollution and risk".
The goals of UNEP IE are to:
'M build consensus for preventive environmental
protection through cleaner and safer
industrial production and consumption;
Wi help formulate policies and strategies to
achieve cleaner and safer production and
consumption patterns, and facilitate their
implementation;
•;•:.; define and encourage the incorporation of
environmental criteria in industrial production;
'•.• '. stimulate the exchange of information on
environmentally sound technologies (ESTs)
and forms of industrial development.
To achieve these goals, UNEP IE has de-
veloped seven work programme areas: Cleaner
Production; Safer Production (Awareness and
Preparedness for Emergencies at the Local
Level - APELL); Industrial Pollution Manage-
ment; Environmental Technology Assessment
(EnTA); Energy; Tourism; and protection of the
ozone layer (OzonAction).
UNEP IE*s general approach is to:
.'''• define the concepts, policies and tools that
will lead to sustainable production and
consumption;
create widespread awareness of these
concepts, policies and tools;
& help build capabilities for implementing
them;
" . demonstrate their effectiveness;
•*» monitor results and achievements regularly.
In this context, UNEP IE organizes
conferences and seminars, undertakes training
activities and demonstration projects, and pro-
duces practical supporting publications, such as
the Industry and Environment quarterly review
and the technical report series, as well as other
handbooks and training materials which provide
practical information to decision makers
throughout the world. UNEP IE also uses new
delivery mechanisms (diskettes, World Wide
Web) to render the information more accessible,
UNEP IE develops partnerships with industry,
government, non-governmental organizations
(NGOs) and other international organizations,
and arranges consultative meetings between
industry, NGOs and other partners on issues of
mutual interest.
UNEP IE, with a focus on industrial tech-
nologies, works together with the UNEP
International Environmental Technology Centre
(IETC) to promote access to ESTs and their use.
UNEP Industry and Environment Centre
Tour Mirabeau
39-43, quai Andre Citroen
75739 Paris Cedex 15
France
Tel: +33-1-44-37-14-50
Fax: +33-1-44-37-14-74
E-mail: unepie@unep.fr
http://www.unepie.org
image:
The UNEP International Environmental
Technology Centre (IETC)
The International Environmental Technology
Centre (ETC) was established by UNEP in
April 1994. It has offices at two locations in
Japan - Osaka City and Kusatsu, Shiga
Prefecture.
The centre's main function is to promote
the application of environmentally sound tech-
nologies (ESTs) in developing countries and
countries with economies in transition. IETC
pays specific attention to urban problems, such
as sewage, air pollution, solid waste and noise,
and to the management of freshwater lake and
reservoir basins.
IETC is supported in its operations by two
Japanese foundations: The Global Environment
Centre Foundation (GEC), which is based in
Osaka and handles urban environmental
problems; and the International Lake Environ-
ment Committee Foundation (ILEC), which is
located in Shiga Prefecture and contributes
accumulated knowledge on sustainable manage-
ment of freshwater resources. •
JETC's mandate is based on Agenda 21,
which came out of the United Nations
Conference on Environment and Development
(UNCED) process. Consequently, IETC pursues "
a result-oriented work plan revolving around
three issues, namely:
improving access to information on ESTs;
. fostering technology cooperation, partner-
ships and transfer;
• building endogenous capacity.
4. the .centre, togetheTwith UNEP IE in the
field of industrial technology, brings together
information on technologies and makes it
available through its directory of ESTs. Equally
importantly, it works with partner organizations
within the United Nations system and elsewhere
to increase the management and decision-
making capability of those responsible for
managing cities and freshwater basins in
developing countries and countries with
economies in transition, so that ESTs can be
adopted and used. The adoption and use of ESTs
are recognized as being critical to countries"
ability to achieve sustainable development. .
Capacity-building activities are approached
through the development of modules for use in
training. These are structured so that they can be
used flexibly, in a variety of formats and
programmes. The centre makes best use of its
resources by working with partner organizations
also engaged in capacity-building or direct
investment programme implementation.
In short, IETC is a small office, poised and
equipped to make a major contribution to the
achievement of sustainable development.""
Osaka Office
2-110 Ryokuchi koen, Tsurumi-ku
* Osaka 538-0036, Japan
Tel: +81-6-915-4580
Fax:+81-6-915-0304
Shiga Office
? , •- : , ?av ,-,; ,.
1091 Oroshimo-cho, Kusatsu City
Shiga 525, Japan
Tel:+81-775-68-4581
" Fax:+81-775-68-4587
E-mail: ietc@unep.or.jp
http://www.unep.or.jp
270
image:
Selected publications from UNEP IE
and IETC
UNIP IE
Cleaner production
CP18 Ecodesign — A Promising Approach to Sustainable
Pmduction and Consumption, a joint UNEP/Ratheneau
Institute/TU Delft publication, 1997, 346 pages,
FF750/USS150.
CP17 ICPIC-DV, the diskette version 3 of the
International Cleaner Production Information
Clearinghouse, operating on any IBM-compatible
computer, UNEP, 1998, FF250 / US$50.
CP1 Cleaner Pmduction: A Guide to Sources of
Information, 1998,35 pages, FF75 / US$15.
CP16 Eco-Efficiency and Cleaner Pmduction, Charting
the Course to Sustainability, a joint UNEP/WBCSD
publication, 1996, 17 pages, free of charge.
CP15 Cleaner Production in China; A Story of
Successful Cooperation, 1996, 10 pages, FF40/ US$8.
CPI4 Life Cycle Assessment: What it is and How to
do it, 1996, 92 pages, FF200 / US$40.
CP9 Cleaner Production Worldwide, Volume II, 1995,
48 pages, FF100 /US$20.
CP8 Government Strategies and Policies for Cleaner
Production, 1994, 32 pages, FF100 / US$20.
CP7 Cleaner Production in the Asia Pacific Economic
Cooperation Region, 1994, 41 pages, FF100 / US$20.
CP6 Cleaner Production Worldwide, Volume I, 1993,
36 pages, FFI00 /US$20.
CP4 Climate Change and Energy Efficiency in Industry,
a joint UNEP IE/IPIECA publication, 1991,64 pages,
free of charge.
CP3 Audit and Reduction Manual for Industrial
Emissions and Wastes (TR7), a joint UNEP/UNIDO
publication, 1991, 127 pages, FF200/US$40
(also in French and Spanish — Spanish version can
be ordered from UNEP/ROLAC, Boulevard de los
Virreyes N° 155, Loma-Virreyes, 11000 Mexico D.F.,
Mexico).
Cleaner Production Netvsletter, a twice-yearly bulletin
included in the Industry and Environment review (see
next page) (also in French and Spanish).
Industrial pollution management
PM35 Environmental Management in Oil and Gas
Exploration and Pmduction (TR37), a joint UNEP/
E&P Forum publication, 1997, 68 pages, £25 / US$40.
PM34 The Environmental Management of Industrial
Estates (TK39), 1997, 138 pages, FF300 / US$60.
PM33 Steel Industry and the Environment — Technical
and Management Issues (TK38), a joint UNEP/IISI
publication, 1997, 155 pages, FF350/US$70.
PM32 Environmental Management in the Pulp and Paper
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PM31 Mineral Fertilizer Production and the
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PM29 Monitoring Industrial Emissions and Wastes
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131 pages, FF200 / US$40.
PM27 Industry & Environment Emission Standards &
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PM24 Case Studies Illustrating Environmental Practices
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PM23 Environmental Management in the Brewing
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PM21 Environmental Management in the Electronics
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PM20 Environmental Aspects of Industrial Wood
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PM16 Hazardous Waste: Policies and Strategies
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Environmental technology assessment (EnTA)
TA3 Survey of Information Systems Related to
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TA2 Anticipating the Environmental Effects of
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TA1 Industry Environmental Compliance (TR36)', 1996,
158 pages, FF200 / US$40.
UNEP Industry and Environment review
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Training Needs in Utilising Environmental Technology
Assessment (EnTA) far Decision-Making - A
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Earthquake Waste Symposium Osaka, 12-13 June 1995
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Environmental Risk Assessment for Sustainable Cities,
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272
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ELECTRIC1DADE DE MO£AMB1QUE-E.P.
FUELLING A NATION'S RECOVERY
Mogambique's efforts since ending its devastating
17-year civil war in 1992 have been "impressive",
according to James D. Wolfensohn, President of the
World Bank. And the country's transformation to a
peaceful democratic society and stable growing
jconomy in only five years has been, remarkable.
Under a bold programme to modernize the economy,
the old system of central planning has been replaced
with significant economic liberalization — and with
more than 700 enterprises out of about 1,000
privatized, there is now a flourishing private sector,
commanding well over two-thirds of industrial output
and holding the key to sustained economic
development.
Industrial recovery is firmly on the way, and in a
:ountry that possesses rich land, marine and mineral
resources, including coal and natural gas, the
foundations are in place for continued progress.
But Mocambique is not neglecting its responsibilities to
the environment.
The National Environment Commission, established
after the Rio 'Earth Summit', initiated the National
Environment Management Programme — which
identifies the major environmental and sustainable
development concerns and challenges, contains a
national environment policy and strategy, proposes new
environmental legislation, and sets out the major
priorities for action for managing natural resources, the
urban environment and the coastal zone.
The rapidly-growing private sector will play a central
role in moving Mogambique's sustainable development
agenda forward.
So too will the energy sector. Industry and business need
increasing and reliable supplies of energy to run
factories and offices. Access to energy is also one way
that ordinary people, especially in rural towns and
villages, will expect - and increasingly, will be able - to
share in the country's growing prosperity.
Electricity is the fuel to meet these needs: to power
industrial and commercial advances, and to
revolutionize the everyday life of the whole population.
Electricidade de Mogambique-E.P. is the national
electricity utility and will be a powerful force in the
country's continuing economic and social recovery, and
in spreading the benefits of further economic growth
throughout Mocambique.
This means tackling some formidable challenges - such
as the logistical difficulties of maintaining security of
supply to thinly-scattered consumers, the high cost of
delivering electricity to them and improving the
generally low levels of energy efficiency.
Moreover, those challenges have to be met without
damaging the country's environment. The war left it
largely unscathed, the government's national policy and
strategy for sustainable development intends to keep it
that way and Electricidade de Moc,ambique-E.P. is
determined to contribute to this goal.
We will do so by, for example
B introducing the technologies for producing and
distributing electricity efficiently
• applying an environmentally sound approach to all
our distribution and transmission operations, and
I implementing policies to help industrial and
domestic consumers alike to use energy sensibly.
Electricidade de Mogambique-E.P, shares and fully
supports the government's commitment to a sustainable
future for the country — and by putting environmental
considerations at the forefront of its activities will play
an important part in fuelling progress towards it.
Electricidade de Mocambique-E.R, Av. Agostinho Neto, No. 70, 8 Andar
PO Box No, 2447, Maputo, Mocambique
Tel. 258 1 490636 Fax. 258 1 491048
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