United States
Environmental Protection
Agency
Air and Radiation
(6601J)
EPA 402-R-99-001
September! 999
?/EPA
Cancer Risk Coefficients for
Environmental Exposure to
Radionuclides
Federal Guidance Report No. 13
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This report was prepared as an account of work sponsored by agencies of the United
States Government. Neither the United States Government nor any agency thereof, nor
any of their employees, makes any warranty, express or implied, or assumes any legal
liability or responsibility for the accuracy, completeness, or usefulness of any information,
apparatus, product, or process disclosed, or represents that its use would not infringe
privately owned rights. Reference herein to any specific commercial product, process, or
service by trade name, trademark, manufacturer, or otherwise, does not necessarily
constitute or imply its endorsement, recommendation, or favoring by the United States
Government or any agency thereof.
An electronic document version of this report is available at the US EPA world-wide-web
site: http://www.epa.gov/radiation/federal. Additional Federal Guidance related information
and reports are also available at this site.
This report was prepared for the
Office of Radiation and Indoor Air
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Washington, DC 20460
by
Oak Ridge National Laboratory
Oak Ridge, Tennessee 37831
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EPA402-R-99-001
Federal Guidance Report No. 13
Cancer Risk Coefficients for
Environmental Exposure
to Radionuclides
Radionuclide-Specific Lifetime Radiogenic Cancer
Risk Coefficients for the U.S. Population, Based on
Age-Dependent Intake, Dosimetry, and Risk Models
Keith F. Eckerman
Richard W. Leggett
Christopher B. Nelson
Jerome S. Puskin
Allan C. B. Richardson
Oak Ridge National Laboratory
Oak Ridge, Tennessee 37831
Office of Radiation and Indoor Air
United States Environmental Protection Agency
Washington, DC 20460
September 1999
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PREFACE
The Federal Radiation Council (FRC) was formed in 1959, through Executive Order 10831.
A decade later its functions were transferred to the Administrator of the newly formed
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) as part of Reorganization Plan No. 3 of 1970. Under these
authorities it is the responsibility of the Administrator to "advise the President with respect to
radiation matters, directly or indirectly affecting health, including guidance for all Federal agencies
in the formulation of radiation standards and in the establishment and execution of programs of
cooperation with States." The purpose of this guidance to Federal Agencies is to ensure that the
regulation of exposure to ionizing radiation is adequately protective, reflects the best available
scientific information, and is carried out in a consistent manner.
Since the mid-1980s, EPA has issued a series of Federal guidance documents for the purpose
of providing the Federal and State agencies technical information to assist their implementation of
radiation protection programs. The first report in this series, Federal Guidance Report No. 10 (EPA,
1984a), presented derived concentrations of radioactivity in air and water corresponding to the
limiting annual doses recommended for workers in 1960. That report was superseded in 1988 by
Federal Guidance Report No. 11 (EPA, 1988), which provided updated dose coefficients for internal
exposure of members of the general public and limiting values of radionuclide intake and air
concentrations for implementation of the 1987 Radiation Protection Guidance for Occupational
Exposure (EPA, 1987). Federal Guidance Report No. 12 (EPA, 1993) tabulated dose coefficients
for external exposure to radionuclides in air, water, and soil.
This report, Cancer Risk Coefficients for Environmental Exposure to Radionuclides, Federal
Guidance Report No. 13, provides numerical factors for use in estimating the risk of cancer from
low-level exposure to radionuclides. A risk coefficient for a radionuclide that exposes persons
through a given environmental medium is an estimate of the probability of radiogenic cancer
mortality or morbidity per unit activity inhaled or ingested, for internal exposure, or per unit time-
integrated activity concentration in air or soil, for external exposure. A risk coefficient may be
interpreted either as the average risk per unit exposure for persons exposed throughout life to a
constant activity concentration of a radionuclide in an environmental medium, or as the average risk
per unit exposure for persons exposed for a brief period to the radionuclide in an environmental
medium. The risk coefficients given in this document apply to populations that approximate the age,
gender, and mortality experience characterized by the 1989-91 U.S. decennial life tables. These
in
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coefficients are tabulated using the SI unit of activity (becquerel), as are the dose coefficients in
Federal Guidance Report No. 11 and Report No. 12.
An interim version of this report was published for public comment in January 1998. That
version described the methodology used for derivation of a risk coefficient and provided risk
coefficients for exposure to any of approximately 100 important radionuclides through various
environmental media. This final version includes the background information given in the interim
version, extends the tabulation of risk coefficients to more than 800 radionuclides, and provides
additional discussion of the sources and extent of uncertainty in estimates of cancer risk from
exposure to radionuclides.
The tabulated risk coefficients are based on state-of-the-art methods and models that take into
account age and gender dependence of intake, metabolism, dosimetry, radiogenic risk, and
competing causes of death in estimating the risks to health from internal or external exposure to
radionuclides. Although many of the biokinetic and dosimetric models used here are updates of
models used in Federal Guidance Report No. 11, the present report does not replace either that
document or Federal Guidance Report No. 12 or affect their use for radiation protection purposes.
The dose coefficients given in Federal Guidance Report No. 11 and Report No. 12 continue to be
recommended for determining conformance with the radiation protection guidance to Federal
agencies issued by the President and will be updated in the future as warranted. The risk coefficients
tabulated in the present report have a different purpose — they are intended for use in assessing risks
from radionuclide exposure, in a variety of applications ranging from analyses of specific sites to the
general analyses that support rule making. Although the application of these risk coefficients for
purposes such as cost/benefit analysis, environmental impact statements (EISs), and environmental
assessments (EAs) — especially by Federal agencies — is encouraged to promote consistency in
risk assessment, such use is discretionary.
The tabulated risk coefficients are intended mainly for prospective assessments of potential
cancer risks from long-term exposure to radionuclides in environmental media. While it is
recognized that the tabulations are also likely to be used in retrospective analyses of radiation
exposures of populations, it is emphasized that such analyses should be limited to estimation of total
or average risks in large populations. The risk coefficients are not intended for application to
specific individuals, ages, or genders and should not be used for that purpose. Also, the coefficients
are based on radiation risk models developed for application either to low acute doses or low dose
rates and should not be applied to accident cases involving high doses and dose rates, either in
prospective or retrospective analyses.
IV
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Some risk assessment procedures are established as a matter of policy, and additional
guidance may be needed before using these risk coefficients in such policy matters. For example,
EPA recommends that radiation risk assessments for sites on the National Priorities List under the
Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act be performed using the
Health Effects Assessment Summary Tables (HEAST), which are periodically updated to reflect new
information, such as that contained in this report.
In using Federal Guidance Report No. 13, the cancer risk associated with a radionuclide
intake or external exposure is calculated as the product of the appropriate cancer risk coefficient and
the corresponding radionuclide intake or exposure. This calculation presumes that risk is directly
proportional to intake or exposure, i.e., it follows a linear, no-threshold (LNT) model. Current
scientific evidence does not rule out the possibility that the calculated risk at environmental exposure
levels may be overestimates or underestimates. However, several recent expert panels (UNSCEAR,
1993, 1994; NRPB, 1993; NCRP, 1997) have concluded that the LNT model is sufficiently
consistent with current information on carcinogenic effects of radiation that its use is scientifically
justifiable for purposes of estimating risks from low doses of radiation. As a practical matter, the
LNT approach is universally used for assessing the risk from environmental exposure to
radionuclides as well as other carcinogens. Within the LNT context, sources of uncertainty in the
radionuclide cancer risk coefficients are discussed in the report, and judgments of uncertainty in the
risk coefficients are given in Chapter 2 for a number of radionuclides. As new scientific evidence
becomes available, we shall consider its effect on the information presented in this report and shall
update the report as needed.
The risk coefficients were calculated using the DCAL (Dose and Risk Calculation) software,
developed at Oak Ridge National Laboratory for the EPA. DCAL is a comprehensive system for
calculating dose and risk coefficients using age-dependent models. A manual describing the DCAL
software and the quality assurance procedures for this software will be published separately.
This report would not have been possible without the contributions of the many investigators
who produced the building blocks that provided the basis for the results presented here. These
include: Jerome S. Puskin and Christopher B. Nelson, who assembled the models for age-dependent,
organ-specific cancer risks; Richard W. Leggett and Keith F. Eckerman, who developed many of the
age-specific biokinetic and dosimetric models published by the International Commission on
Radiological Protection and who provided the basis for calculation of doses from internal and
external exposure; and Robert Armstrong, who supplied pre-publication values for the 1989-91 U.S.
decennial life tables. The major effort required to prepare the report itself was carried out by Keith
F. Eckerman, Richard W. Leggett, Christopher B. Nelson, Jerome S. Puskin, and Allan C.B.
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Richardson. Preparation of the report was funded by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, the
U.S. Department of Energy (DOE), and the U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC).
Technical reviews for the draft interim version of the report were contributed by William J.
Bair, Bernd Kahn, Charles E. Land, John R. Mauro, and Alan Phipps. Review comments on the
interim version (EPA, 1998) were provided by Federal agencies (including NRC and DOE), State
agencies, and members of the public. The EPA Science Advisory Board (SAB) formally reviewed
and commented on the interim report. This final version of Federal Guidance Report No. 13 reflects
consideration of all these comments.
We gratefully acknowledge the work of the authors, the agencies that contributed funding
for this work, and the helpful comments of the technical reviewers, the Science Advisory Board, and
the public. We would appreciate notice of any errors or suggestions for improvements so that they
may be taken into account in future editions. You may address comments to Michael A. Boyd,
Radiation Protection Division (6608J), U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC
20460.
Stephen D. Page, Director
Office of Radiation and Indoor Air
VI
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CONTENTS
PREFACE iii
LIST OF TABLES xi
LIST OF FIGURES xiii
CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION 1
Radionuclides and exposure scenarios addressed 2
Applicability to the current U.S. population 3
Computation of the risk coefficients for internal exposure 4
1. Lifetime risk per unit absorbed dose at each age 4
2. Absorbed dose rates as a function of time post acute intake at each age 5
3. Lifetime cancer risk per unit intake at each age 6
4. Lifetime cancer risk for chronic intake 6
5. Average lifetime cancer risk per unit activity intake 7
Computation of the risk coefficients for external exposure 7
How to apply a risk coefficient 8
Limitations on use of the risk coefficients 9
Uncertainties associated with risk coefficients 10
Software used to compute the risk coefficients 12
Organization of the report 13
CHAPTER 2. TABULATIONS OF RISK COEFFICIENTS 15
Risk coefficients for inhalation 16
Risk coefficients for ingestion 17
Risk coefficients for external exposure 18
Adjustments for current age and gender distributions in the U.S 19
CHAPTER 3. EXPOSURE SCENARIOS 137
Characteristics of the exposed population 137
Growth of decay chain members 137
Inhalation of radionuclides 138
Intake of radionuclides in food 141
Intake of radionuclides in tap water 142
External exposure to radionuclides in air 143
External exposure to radionuclides in soil 143
CHAPTER 4. BIOKINETIC MODELS FOR RADIONUCLIDES 145
The model of the respiratory tract 145
The model of the gastrointestinal tract 147
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Systemic biokinetic models 151
Treatment of decay chain members formed in the body 155
Solution of the biokinetic models 156
CHAPTER 5. DOSIMETRIC MODELS FOR INTERNAL EMITTERS 157
Age-dependent masses of source and target regions 157
Dosimetric quantities 160
Nuclear decay data 161
Specific absorbed fractions for photons 161
Absorbed fractions for beta particles and discrete electrons 163
Absorbed fractions for alpha particles and recoil nuclei 164
Spontaneous fission 165
Computation of SE 165
CHAPTER 6. DOSIMETRIC MODELS FOR EXTERNAL EXPOSURES 167
Interpretation of dose coefficients from Federal Guidance Report No. 12 167
Nuclear data files used 168
Radiations considered 169
Effects of indoor residence 170
CHAPTER 7. RADIOGENIC CANCER RISK MODELS 171
Types of risk projection models 171
Epidemiological studies used in the development of risk models 173
Modification of epidemiological data for application to low doses and dose rates .... 173
Relative biological effectiveness factors for alpha particles 174
Risk model coefficients for specific organs 174
Association of cancer type with dose location 178
Relation between cancer mortality and morbidity 180
Treatment of discontinuities in risk model coefficients 183
Computation of radionuclide risk coefficients 183
APPENDIX A. MODELS FOR MORTALITY RATES
FOR ALL CAUSES AND FOR SPECIFIC CANCERS A-l
APPENDIX B. ADDITIONAL DETAILS OF THE DOSIMETRIC MODELS B-l
Definitions of special source and target regions B-l
Age-dependent masses of source and target regions B-2
Absorbed fractions for radiosensitive tissues in bone B-2
APPENDIX C. AN ILLUSTRATION OF THE MODELS AND METHODS USED
TO CALCULATE RISK COEFFICIENTS FOR INTERNAL EXPOSURE . . . . C-l
Gastrointestinal tract model and// values C-l
Respiratory tract model C-2
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Biokinetics of absorbed thorium C-4
Structure of the systemic biokinetic model for thorium C-4
Parameter values for the systemic model for thorium C-6
Predicted differences with age in the systemic biokinetics of thorium C-8
Treatment of Th chain members produced in systemic tissues C-9
Comparison of updated and previous systemic models for thorium C-l 1
Conversion of activity to estimates of dose rates to tissues C-l3
SE values C-13
Use of SE values to calculate dose rates C-16
Conversion of dose rates to estimates of radiogenic cancers C-l 8
Comparison with risk estimates based on effective dose C-22
APPENDIX D: UNCERTAINTIES IN ESTIMATES OF CANCER RISK
FROM ENVIRONMENTAL EXPOSURE TO RADIONUCLIDES D-l
Purposes of this appendix D-l
General sources of uncertainty in biokinetic estimates D-2
Uncertainties associated with the structure of a biokinetic model D-2
Types of information used to construct biokinetic models for elements D-2
Sources of uncertainty in applications of human data D-3
Uncertainty in interspecies extrapolation of biokinetic data D-4
Uncertainty in inter-element extrapolation of biokinetic data D-6
Uncertainty in central estimates stemming from variability in the population D-7
Examples of data sources for some specific biokinetic models D-7
Model of the respiratory tract D-7
Gastrointestinal tract model and f, values D-9
Systemic biokinetic models for parent radionuclides D-10
Models for radionuclides produced in the body by radioactive decay D-l7
Uncertainties in internal dosimetric models D-18
Specific energy (SE) for photons D-18
SEs for beta particles and discrete electrons D-19
SEs for alpha particles D-20
Special dosimetric problems presented by walled organs D-21
Uncertainties in external dosimetric models D-21
Transport of radiation from the environmental source to humans D-21
Effects of age and gender D-23
Uncertainties in risk model coefficients D-24
Sampling variability D-24
Diagnostic misclassification D-24
Errors in dosimetry D-25
Uncertainties in the effects of radiation at low dose and dose rate D-26
Uncertainties in the RBE for alpha particles D-29
Uncertainties in transporting risk estimates across populations D-30
Uncertainties in age and time dependence of risk per unit dose D-32
IX
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Uncertainties in site-specific cancer morbidity risk estimates D-33
Imprecision in risk model coefficients as indicated by differences
in expert judgments D-33
Proposed procedure for assigning nominal uncertainty intervals to risk coefficients D-34
APPENDIX E. ADJUSTMENT OF RISK COEFFICIENTS FOR
SHORT-TERM EXPOSURE OF THE CURRENT U.S. POPULATION E-l
Computation of risk coefficients for the hypothetical current population E-l
Comparison of coefficients for the current and stationary populations E-4
APPENDIX F. SAMPLE CALCULATIONS F-l
APPENDIX G. NUCLEAR DECAY DATA G-l
GLOSSARY GL-1
REFERENCES R-l
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LIST OF TABLES
Table Page
2.1 Mortality and morbidity risk coefficients for inhalation 21
2.2a Mortality and morbidity risk coefficients for ingestion of tap water and food 83
2.2b Mortality and morbidity risk coefficients for ingestion of iodine in food, based
on usage of cow's milk 105
2.3 Mortality and morbidity risk coefficients for external exposure from environmental
media 107
2.4 Uncertainty categories for selected risk coefficients 129
3.1 Age- and gender-specific usage rates of environmental media, for selected ages .... 139
4.1 Absorption types considered in ICRP Publication 72 for particulate aerosols 148
5.1 Source and target organs used in internal dosimetry methodology 158
7.1 Revised mortality risk model coefficients for cancers other than leukemia, based on
the EPA radiation risk methodology 175
7.2 Revised mortality risk model coefficients for leukemia, based on the EPA radiation
risk methodology 176
7.3 Age-averaged site-specific cancer mortality risk estimates (cancer deaths per
person-Gy) from low-dose, low-LET uniform irradiation of the body 179
7.4 Dose regions associated with cancer types 180
7.5 Lethality data for cancers by site in adults 181
7.6 Age-averaged site-specific cancer morbidity risk estimates (cancer cases per
person-Gy) from low-dose, low-LET uniform irradiation of the body 182
A. 1 Gender- and age-specific values for the survival function, S(x), and the expected
remaining lifetime, e(x), used in this report A-2
B.I Age-specific masses of source and target organs B-3
B.2 Absorbed fractions for alpha and beta emitters in bone B-4
C.I Age-specific transfer coefficients in the systemic biokinetic model for thorium C-7
C.2 Predictions of 50-y integrated activity of Th following injection into blood at
age 100 d, 10 y, or 25 y C-9
C.3 Comparison of estimated 50-y integrated activities of Th and its decay chain
members, assuming independent or shared kinetics of decay chain
members, for the case of injection of Th into blood of an adult C-12
C.4 Comparison of ICRP's updated and previous models as predictors of 50-y integrated
activity after acute intake of Th by an adult C-15
C.5 Comparison of cancer mortality risk coefficients with risk estimates based on
effective dose, for ingestion or inhalation of Th C-24
D. 1 Summary of reported data on uptake and retention of iodine by the human thyroid D-14
D.2 Age-averaged site-specific cancer morbidity risk estimates (cancer cases per
person-Gy x 10"2) from low-LET uniform irradiation of the body at high dose
and dose rate, as estimated by nine experts on health effects of radiation . . D-34
XI
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LIST OF TABLES, continued
Table Page
E.I Average daily usage of environmental media by the two hypothetical populations . . . E-3
E.2 Comparison of risk coefficients for the two hypothetical populations E-5
G.I Summary information on the nuclear transformation of radionuclides G-5
xn
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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure Page
1.1 Components of the risk coefficient computation 4
3.1 Gender-specific survival functions for the stationary population 138
3.2 Age- and gender-specific usage rates used to derive risk coefficients for inhalation,
ingestion of water, ingestion of food (energy intake), and ingestion of milk . . 140
4.1 Structure of the ICRP's respiratory tract model 146
4.2 Model of transit of material through the gastrointestinal tract 149
4.3 Structure of the ICRP's biokinetic model for zirconium 152
4.4 Structure of the ICRP's biokinetic model for iodine 153
4.5 Structure of the ICRP's biokinetic model for iron 154
4.6 The ICRP's generic model structure for calcium-like elements 155
5.1 Illustration of phantoms used to derive age-dependent specific absorbed fractions
for photons 162
C.I Predictions of the ICRP's updated and previous respiratory tract models, for
inhalation of Th in soluble, moderately soluble, or insoluble 1-um
(AMAD) particles C-3
C.2 The ICRP's generic framework for modeling the systemic biokinetics of a
class of bone-surface-seeking elements, including thorium C-5
C.3 Retention of Th on trabecular surfaces for three ages at injection, as predicted by
the updated model for thorium C-8
C.4 Biokinetic model for thorium given in ICRP Publication 30 C-12
C.5 Comparison of predictions of ICRP's updated and previous systemic biokinetic
models for thorium C-14
C.6 Age-specific SE values (high-LET) for 232Th C-15
C.7 Estimated weight of red marrow as a function of age C-16
C.8 Contributions of Th in Trabecular Bone Surface, Trabecular Bone Volume, and
Red Marrow to the high-LET dose rate to Red Marrow in the adult C-17
C.9 Estimated dose rates to Red Marrow following acute ingestion of 232Th, for three
ages at ingestion C-17
C.10 Estimated dose rates to Red Marrow following acute inhalation of moderately
soluble Th, for three ages at inhalation C-17
C. 11 Relative risk functions, r\(u, x), for leukemia in males for three ages at irradiation . . C-19
C. 12 Age- and gender-specific mortality rates for leukemia, based on U.S. data for
1989-91 C-19
C.13 Gender-specific survival functions based on U.S. life tables for 1989-91 C-20
C.I4 Gender-specific lifetime risk coefficient (LRC) functions for radiogenic leukemia . . C-20
C.I 5 Derived gender-specific risk ra (X) of dying from leukemia due to ingestion of 1 Bq
of Th in food at age x,- C-21
xin
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LIST OF FIGURES, continued
Figure Page
C.I 6 Derived gender-specific risk ra (jc,-) of dying from leukemia due to inhalation of
1 Bq of 232Th (Type M) at age*,- C-21
C.I7 Gender-weighted average lifetime risk coefficients for ingestion of 232Th in food,
using updated and previous biokinetic models for thorium C-22
C. 18 Gender-weighted average lifetime risk coefficients for inhalation of moderately
O'SO
soluble Th, using updated and previous biokinetic models for thorium . . . C-22
D. 1 Reported half-times for the short-term retention component for tritium taken in
mainly as HTO by adult humans D-l 1
D.2 Reported biological half-times for cesium in adult male humans D-l5
D.3 Estimated effects of age on effective dose for photons uniformly distributed in
angle D-23
D.4 Uncertainty distributions assigned to the DDREF in recent reports D-28
D.5 Comparison of predictions of cancer mortality based on simplistic estimate with
risk coefficients for intake of radionuclides in tap water D-35
E.I Comparison of gender-specific age-distributions in 1996 U.S. population with
hypothetical stationary distributions based on 1989-91 U.S. life table E-2
xiv
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CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION
Since the mid-1980s, a series of Federal guidance documents has been issued by the
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) for the purpose of providing Federal and State agencies
with technical information to assist their implementation of radiation protection programs. Previous
reports have dealt with numerical factors, called "dose factors" or "dose coefficients", for estimating
radiation dose due to exposure to radionuclides. The present report is intended as the first of a series
of documents that will provide numerical factors, called "risk coefficients", for estimating risks to
health from exposure to radionuclides. These reports will apply state-of-the-art methods and models
that take into account age and gender dependence of intake, metabolism, dosimetry, radiogenic risk,
and competing causes of death in estimating the risks to health from internal or external exposure
to radionuclides. The present report provides tabulations of cancer risk coefficients for internal or
external exposure to any of more than 800 radionuclides through various environmental media.
Subsequent reports may expand the exposure pathways and health endpoints considered.
The risk coefficients developed in this report apply to an average member of the public, in
the sense that estimates of risk are averaged over the age and gender distributions of a hypothetical
closed "stationary" population whose survival functions and cancer mortality rates are based on
recent data for the U.S. Specifically, the total mortality rates in this population are defined by the
1989-91 U.S. decennial life table (NCHS, 1997), and cancer mortality rates are defined by U.S.
cancer mortality data for the same period (NCHS, 1992, 1993a, 1993b). This hypothetical
population is referred to as "stationary" because the gender-specific birth rates and survival functions
are assumed to remain invariant over time.
For a given radionuclide and exposure mode, both a "mortality risk coefficient" and a
"morbidity risk coefficient" are provided. A mortality risk coefficient is an estimate of the risk to
an average member of the U.S. population, per unit activity inhaled or ingested for internal
exposures or per unit time-integrated activity concentration in air or soil for external exposures, of
dying from cancer as a result of intake of the radionuclide or external exposure to its emitted
radiations. A morbidity risk coefficient is a comparable estimate of the average total risk of
experiencing a radiogenic cancer, whether or not the cancer is fatal. The term "risk coefficient" with
no modifier should be interpreted throughout this report as "mortality or morbidity risk coefficient".
It is a common practice to estimate the cancer risk from intake of a radionuclide or external
exposure to its emitted radiations as the simple product of a "probability coefficient" and an
estimated "effective dose" to a typical adult (see the Glossary for definitions). For example, a
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"nominal cancer fatality probability coefficient" of 0.05 Sv~ is given in ICRP Publication 60 (1991)
for all cancer types combined. This value is referred to as nominal because of the uncertainties
inherent in radiation risk estimates and because it is based on an idealized population receiving a
uniform dose over the whole body. It is pointed out by the ICRP (1991) that such a probability
coefficient may be a less accurate estimator in situations where the distribution of dose is
nonuniform. There are also other situations in which the product of a probability coefficient and the
effective dose may not accurately represent the risk implied by current biokinetic, dosimetric, and
radiation risk models. For example, such a product may understate the implied risk for intakes of
radionuclides for which there is an apparently multiplicative effect during childhood of elevated
organ doses and elevated risk per unit dose. Such a product may overstate the risk implied by current
models in the case of intake of a long-lived, tenaciously retained radionuclide because much of the
dose may be received during late adulthood when there is a relatively high likelihood of dying from
a competing cause before a radiogenic cancer can be expressed. Finally, the weighting factors
commonly used to calculate effective dose do not reflect the most up-to-date knowledge of the
distribution of risk among the organs and tissues of the body.
In contrast to risk estimates based on the product of a probability coefficient and effective
dose (for intake by the adult), the risk coefficients tabulated in this document take into account the
age dependence of the biological behavior and internal dosimetry of ingested or inhaled
radionuclides. Also, compared with risk estimates based on effective dose, the risk coefficients in
this document characterize more precisely the implications of age and gender dependence in
radiogenic risk models, U.S. cancer mortality rates, and competing risks from non-radiogenic causes
of death in the U.S. Finally, these risk coefficients take into account the age and gender dependence
in the usage of contaminated environmental media, which is generally not considered in risk
estimates based on the simple product of a nominal probability coefficient and an estimated effective
dose.
Radionuclides and exposure scenarios addressed
Risk coefficients are provided for the following modes of exposure to a given radionuclide:
inhalation of air, ingestion of food, ingestion of tap water, external exposure from submersion in air,
external exposure from the ground surface, and external exposure from soil contaminated to an
infinite depth.
With a few exceptions described in Chapter 6, the radionuclides addressed in the external
exposure scenarios are the same as those considered in Federal Guidance Report No. 12 (EPA,
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1993), which tabulates dose coefficients for external exposure to radionuclides in air, water, and soil.
Each of the radionuclides considered in the external exposure scenarios either has a half-life of at
least 10 min or occurs in the decay chain of such a radionuclide.
With a few exceptions described in Chapter 5, the radionuclides considered in the internal
exposure scenarios are the same as those addressed in ICRP Publication 72 (1996), which is a
compilation of the ICRP's age-dependent dose coefficients for members of the public from intake
of radionuclides. These radionuclides include most but not all of those considered in the external
exposure scenarios. Specifically, the radionuclides addressed in the external exposure scenarios but
not in the intake scenarios are those with half-lives less than 10 min and radioisotopes of radon or
other noble gases. New models and methods for assessing the risk of exposure to radon and its
short-lived progeny are under development.
For each of the internal exposure modes, the risk coefficient for a radionuclide includes the
contribution to dose from production of decay chain members in the body after intake of the parent
radionuclide, regardless of the half-lives of the decay chain members. For both internal and external
exposure, a risk coefficient for a given radionuclide is based on the assumption that this is the only
radionuclide present in the environmental medium. That is, doses due to decay chain members
produced in the environment prior to intake of, or external exposure to, the radionuclide are not
considered. However, a separate risk coefficient is provided for each decay chain member of
potential dosimetric significance. This allows the user to assess the risks from ingrowth of
radionuclides in the environment.
The risk coefficients tabulated in this report are applicable to either chronic or acute exposure
to a radionuclide. That is, a risk coefficient may be interpreted either as the average risk per unit
exposure to members of a population exposed throughout life to a constant concentration of a
radionuclide in an environmental medium, or as the average risk per unit exposure to members of
a population acutely exposed to the radionuclide in the environmental medium. For purposes of
computing the risk coefficients, it was assumed that the concentration of the radionuclide in the
environmental medium remains constant and that all persons in the population are exposed to that
environmental medium throughout their lifetimes.
Applicability to the current U.S. population
The risk coefficients are based on exposure of a hypothetical stationary population with
survival functions and cancer mortality rates similar to those of the current U.S. population, but with
steady-state gender and age distributions based on these survival functions and fixed gender-specific
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birth rates. Due to uncertainty in the future composition of the U.S. population, the use of such a
stationary population is appropriate for consideration of long-term, chronic exposures. Because the
gender-specific age distributions in the current U.S. population differ considerably from those of the
hypothetical stationary population, however, the question arises as to the applicability of these risk
coefficients to short-term exposures of the U.S. population that might occur in the near future. This
question is addressed in Appendix E, where the tabulated risk coefficients are compared with values
calculated for short-term exposure of a hypothetical population with the age and gender distributions
of the 1996 U.S. population. As is the case for the hypothetical stationary population, total mortality
rates in the hypothetical 1996 population during and after exposure are assumed to be those given
in the 1989-91 U.S. decennial life table, and cancer mortality rates are taken to be those given by
U.S. cancer mortality data for the same period. The comparison reveals only small differences in
risk coefficients for the two populations.
Computation of the risk coefficients for internal exposure
A schematic of the method of
computation of a risk coefficient is
shown in Fig. 1.1 for the case of
internal exposure to a radionuclide.
The main steps in the computation are
shown in the numbered boxes in the
figure and are summarized below.
1. Lifetime risk per unit absorbed
dose at each age
For each of 14 cancer sites in
the body, radiation risk models are
used to calculate gender-specific
values for the lifetime risk per unit
absorbed dose received at each age.
The age- and gender-specific
radiation risk models are described in
Chapter 7. These models are taken
/ Cancer risk coefficients \
1 from epidemiologic studies: J
Ve.g.. A-bomb survivors^/
,
Risk model coefficients
transported to U.S. population
[ Age-specific biokinetic ]
V and dosime ric methods J
1 U.S. vita statistics ]
V and cancer morta ity data J
,•
absorbed dose at each age
2. t-
rune
unit a
,.
3. Lifetime risk per unit
activity intake at each age
(U.S. age- and gender- \
specific usage data for 1
environmental medium J
Fig. 1.1. Compon
The numbers id
4. Lifetime cancer risk for a
constant activity concentration
in environmental medium
5. Risk coefficient; Average
lifetime cancer risk
per uni ac Ivlty intake
snts of the risk coefficient
entify key steps described
Absorbed dose rate as a
ion of time following a
.-tivity intake at each age
computation.
in the text.
-------
from a recent EPA report (EPA, 1994) that provides a methodology for calculation of radiogenic
cancer risks based on a critical review of data on the Japanese atomic bomb survivors and other
study groups and methods of transporting radiation risk estimates across populations. Parameter
values given in that EPA report have been modified in some cases to reflect updated vital statistics
and cancer mortality data for the U.S. and to achieve greater consistency in the assumptions made
in this report for different age groups and genders.
The cancer sites considered are esophagus, stomach, colon, liver, lung, bone, skin, breast,
ovary, bladder, kidney, thyroid, red marrow (leukemia), and residual (all remaining cancer sites
combined). An absolute risk model is applied to bone, skin, and thyroid; that is, it is assumed for
these sites that the radiogenic cancer risk is independent of the baseline cancer mortality rate (the
cancer mortality rate for that site in an unexposed population). For the other cancer sites, a relative
risk model is used; that is, it is assumed that the likelihood of a radiogenic cancer is proportional to
its baseline cancer mortality rate. The baseline cancer mortality rates are calculated from U.S. cancer
mortality data for 1989-91 (NCHS, 1992, 1993a, 1993b).
The computation of gender- and cancer site-specific values for the lifetime risk per unit
absorbed dose involves an integration over age, beginning at the age at which the dose is received,
of the product of the age-specific risk model coefficient (times the baseline mortality rate of the
cancer in the case of a relative risk model) and the survival function. The survival function accounts
for the possibility that the exposed person may die from a competing cause before a radiogenic
cancer is expressed. The computation is described in detail in Chapter 7.
The estimates of lifetime risk per unit absorbed dose are independent of the radionuclide and
exposure pathway. They are calculated only once and are used as input for the calculation of each
risk coefficient.
2. Absorbed dose rates as a function of time post acute intake at each age
Age-specific biokinetic models are used to calculate the time-dependent inventories of
activity in various regions of the body following acute intake of a unit activity of the radionuclide.
For a given radionuclide and intake mode, this calculation is performed for each of six "basic" ages
at intake: infancy (100 days); 1,5, 10, and 15 years; and maturity (usually 20 years, but 25 years in
the biokinetic models for some elements). The biokinetic models used in this document are
described in Chapter 4. With a few exceptions described in that chapter, these biokinetic models are
the same as those applied by the ICRP in its development of age-specific dose coefficients for
-------
inhalation or ingestion of radionuclides by members of the public (ICRP, 1989, 1993, 1995a, 1995b,
1996).
Age-specific dosimetric models are used to convert the calculated time-dependent regional
activities in the body to absorbed dose rates (per unit intake) to radiosensitive tissues as a function
of age at intake and time after intake. Absorbed dose rates for intake ages intermediate to the six
basic ages at intake (infancy; 1,5, 10, and 15 years; and maturity) are determined by interpolation.
The dosimetric models used in this document are the models used in the ICRP's series of documents
on age-specific doses to members of the public from intake of radionuclides (ICRP, 1989, 1993,
1995a, 1995b, 1996). These models are described in Chapter 5.
3. Lifetime cancer risk per unit intake at each age
For each cancer site, the gender-specific values of lifetime risk per unit absorbed dose
received at each age (derived in the first step) are used to convert the calculated absorbed dose rates
to lifetime cancer risks, for the case of acute intake of one unit of activity at each age xt. This
calculation involves integration over age of the product of the absorbed dose rate at age x for a unit
intake at age xt, the lifetime risk per unit absorbed dose received at age x, and the value of the
survival function at age x divided by the value at age xt. The survival function is used to account for
the probability that a person exposed at age xt is still alive at age x to receive the absorbed dose. It
is assumed that the radiation dose is sufficiently low that the survival function is not significantly
affected by the number of radiogenic cancer deaths at any age. The calculation is described in
Chapter 7.
4. Lifetime cancer risk for chronic intake
The risk coefficients in this document are applicable to either chronic or acute exposures.
However, for purposes of computing a risk coefficient, it is assumed that the concentration of the
radionuclide in the environmental medium remains constant and that all persons in the population
are exposed to that environmental medium throughout their lifetimes.
The usage of environmental media may vary considerably with age and gender. Such
variation is taken into account in the calculation of risk coefficients for the internal exposure
scenarios. The age- and gender-specific models of usage of environmental media (air, food, or tap
water) are described in Chapter 3. Daily ingestion of a given radionuclide in food is assumed to be
proportional to age- and gender-specific daily energy intake. For radioisotopes of iodine, alternate
-------
risk coefficients are calculated for food under the assumption that daily ingestion is proportional to
age- and gender-specific daily usage of cow's milk. The age- and gender-specific ventilation rates
applied here are reference values given by the ICRP. Age- and gender-specific usage rates for tap
water, food energy, and cow's milk are average values estimated from recent data for the U.S.
For each cancer site and each gender, the lifetime cancer risk for chronic exposure is obtained
by integration over age x of the product of the lifetime cancer risk per unit intake at age x and the
expected intake of the environmental medium at age x. The expected intake at a given age is the
product of the usage rate of the medium and the value of the survival function at that age.
5. Average lifetime cancer risk per unit activity intake
Because a risk coefficient is the estimated radiogenic cancer riskper unit activity intake, the
calculated lifetime cancer risk from chronic intake of the environmental medium must be divided
by the expected lifetime intake. The expected lifetime intake is given by the integral over age of the
product of the usage rate and the survival function.
Therefore, in the calculation of a gender- and cancer site-specific risk coefficient, usage of
the environmental medium appears both in the numerator (see Step 4) and the denominator. This
makes the risk coefficient independent of the concentration of the radionuclide in the medium and
of the population-averaged usage rate of the medium but does not diminish the importance of the
usage rate in the derivation of the risk coefficient. For example, the risk coefficient for a given
radionuclide in food may differ considerably from the coefficient for the same radionuclide in tap
water because the assumed age-specific patterns of consumption are substantially different for food
and tap water.
Except for the calculations of the time-dependent organ activities and absorbed dose rates,
each of the steps described above is performed separately for each gender and each cancer site. A
total risk coefficient is derived by first adding the risk estimates for the different cancer sites in each
gender and then calculating a weighted mean of the coefficients for males and females. The
weighted mean of coefficients for males and females reflects the gender ratio at birth, the gender-
specific risk per unit intake at each age, and the gender-specific survival function at each age.
Computation of the risk coefficients for external exposure
The computation of risk coefficients for external exposure scenarios is similar to that for
internal exposure scenarios but involves fewer steps because the absorbed dose rates are taken
-------
directly from Federal Guidance Report No. 12 (EPA, 1993). The methods and models used in that
report are summarized in Chapter 6. As in the internal exposure scenarios, it is assumed that the
concentration of the radionuclide in the environmental medium remains constant and that all persons
in the population are exposed to that environmental medium throughout their lifetimes.
The external dose rates used in the calculation were based on a reference adult, standing
outside with no shielding (EPA, 1993). Although there is expected to be some variation with age
in organ dose rates from uniform external exposure (usually less than 30%), comprehensive
tabulations of age-specific organ dose rates due to external exposure are not yet available. In the
present document, the dose rates calculated for the adult are applied to all ages, and no adjustments
are made to account for potential reduction in dose rates due to shielding by buildings during time
spent indoors.
How to apply a risk coefficient
The risk coefficients in this report may be used to assess per capita (population-averaged)
risk due to the acute exposure of a population or, equivalently, to assess the risk due to the chronic
lifetime exposure of an average individual to a constant environmental concentration. They also may
be used to assess the per capita lifetime risk in a population from a lifetime exposure to a time
varying environmental radionuclide exposure (or intake) rate, using the product of the risk
coefficient and the lifetime exposure (or intake) due to that time varying rate.
A risk coefficient, r, is specific to the radionuclide, the environmental medium, and the mode
of exposure through that medium. For a given exposure scenario, the computation of lifetime cancer
risk, R, associated with intake of, or external exposure to, a given radionuclide involves
multiplication of the applicable risk coefficient r by the per capita activity intake / or external
exposure X. Thus, R = r -I for intake by inhalation or ingestion and R = r • Xfor external exposure,
where / is the activity inhaled or ingested per capita and X is the time-integrated activity
concentration of the radionuclide in air, on the ground surface, or within the soil.
For external exposure, estimation of the time-integrated activity concentration X requires
information on the constant or time-dependent concentration of the radionuclide in the medium and
the length of the exposure period. For an internal exposure scenario, estimation of the per capita
activity intake / of the radionuclide requires the same information, plus an estimate of the average
usage rate of the medium by members of the population during the exposure period. The user may
apply the per capita usage rate of air, food, or tap water given in Chapter 3 (see the "combined
lifetime average" usage rates in Table 3.1) or, because the risk coefficients are independent of the
8
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average usage rate of the medium, may apply an average usage rate better suited to the exposure
scenario. For example, if the exposure scenario involves acute inhalation of a radionuclide in a
rapidly passing cloud, the average inhalation rate in the exposed population during the exposure
period may differ from the 24-h average rate given in Chapter 3. However, the assumptions
described in Chapter 3 concerning relative age- and gender-specific usage of the environmental
media are inherent in the risk coefficients for internal exposure and hence cannot be changed by the
user.
To ensure consistent risk calculations, the risk coefficients given in this document
(Chapter 2) are tabulated to three figures. No indication of the level of uncertainty is intended or
should be inferred from this practice. A calculated risk should be rounded appropriately.
Appendix F provides sample calculations that illustrate how the tabulated risk coefficients may be
applied to different types of exposure.
Limitations on use of the risk coefficients
Analyses involving the risk coefficients tabulated in this report should be limited to
estimation of prospective risks in hypothetical or large existing populations, or retrospective analyses
of risks to large actual populations. The tabulations are not intended for application to specific
individuals and should not be used for that purpose.
In contrast to situations involving representative population samples, the coefficients
tabulated in this report may not be appropriate for assessing the risk to an average individual in an
age-specific cohort due to chronic exposure to an environmental concentration that varies
substantially over the life of the cohort. In such special cases, the time-varying environmental
concentration must be incorporated explicitly into the calculations described in Chapter 7. Such
applications are beyond the scope of this report.
The risk coefficients for external exposure scenarios are based on estimated dose rates for
a reference adult male, standing outdoors with no shielding (EPA, 1993). Activity distributions in
air, on the ground surface, or in soil are assumed to be of an infinite extent. It is left to the user to
decide whether a reduction factor is appropriate for a given application to account for the finite
nature of the activity distribution in the environment, shielding by buildings during time spent
indoors, or other factors encountered in the real world.
The risk coefficients are based on radiation risk models developed for application either to
low doses, defined as acute absorbed doses less than 0.2 Gy, or to low dose rates, defined as dose
rates less than 0.1 mGy min"1 (EPA, 1994). The assumption is made that the absorbed dose is
9
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sufficiently low that the survival function is not significantly affected by the number of radiogenic
cancer deaths at any age. Thus, these risk coefficients should be applied with care to cases involving
large cumulative risks, either in prospective or retrospective analyses.
Uncertainties associated with risk coefficients
The risk coefficients tabulated in this document are derived from models representing
characteristics of the U.S. population, the biological behavior of elements in the human body, the
doses to radiosensitive tissues from radiation originating either inside the body or in an external
medium, and the lifetime cancer risk per unit dose to these tissues. The models representing the U.S.
population, including its usage of air, food, and water, are based on reasonably detailed information.
The biokinetic, dosimetric, and radiation risk models generally have been derived from much less
detailed and sometimes inconsistent data bases and in many cases have substantial uncertainties
associated with their predictions. These uncertainties are propagated in the derivation of a risk
coefficient, with the result that a risk coefficient is an uncertain representation of the cancer risk per
unit intake of, or external exposure to, a radionuclide.
The level of uncertainty associated with a given risk coefficient may vary considerably from
one application to another. For example, the uncertainty assigned to an inhalation risk coefficient
for a radionuclide may depend strongly on the availability of information on the chemical and
physical form of the inhaled radionuclide because the accuracy of the estimated doses to the lungs
and other radiosensitive tissues often depends strongly on such information. As a second example,
a risk coefficient that is considered to be a reasonably reliable predictor for a relatively high, acute
external exposure to a radionuclide may be appreciably less certain for a lower, prolonged exposure
due to uncertainty in the shape of the dose-response curve at low dose and dose rate.
On the other hand, each risk coefficient involves important uncertainties, stemming from
limitations in the underlying biokinetic, dosimetric, and radiation risk models, that are largely
independent of the exposure scenario. For example, there are important gaps in current
understanding of the typical biological behavior of many radionuclides. Also, there are substantial
uncertainties associated with interpretation of available epidemiological data for radiogenic cancer
and extrapolation of that data to other populations and other radiation types, regardless of the
assumptions used to extrapolate from high to low dose and dose rate.
In Chapter 2, selected risk coefficients are assigned to "uncertainty categories" that represent
different levels of uncertainty associated with estimates of cancer mortality due to intake of, or
external exposure to, radionuclides. Essentially, an uncertainty category is intended to reflect the
10
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precision with which an estimate of radiogenic cancer mortality can be made for an ideal population
and exposure scenario, assuming that the probability of inducing a radiogenic cancer is proportional
to absorbed dose. Thus, an uncertainty category does not reflect uncertainties associated with the
use of a linear, no-threshold model for estimating radiogenic cancer at low doses, absorbed dose as
a measure of radiogenic cancer risk, or idealized representations of the population and exposure. The
selection of an uncertainty category for a given risk coefficient was based on subjective judgments
by the authors of this report but was guided by an analysis of the sensitivity of the risk coefficient
to major uncertainties in the underlying biokinetic, dosimetric, and radiation risk models.
Appendix D provides a general discussion of current understanding of the biological behavior
of radionuclides in the human body, conversion from internally or externally distributed
radioactivity to absorbed dose to tissues, and extrapolation from tissue dose to cancer risk. A
systematic procedure is proposed for deriving quantitative statements of uncertainty for risk
coefficients in the form of "nominal uncertainty intervals". The term "nominal" is used to reflect
the fact that the uncertainty interval for a risk coefficient would be based on a fixed set of typically
dominant sources of uncertainty in radiogenic cancer risk estimates, an idealized population and
exposure scenario, and the assumption that the probability of inducing a radiogenic cancer is
proportional to absorbed dose.
A major source of uncertainty, and controversy, in radiogenic cancer risk estimation is the
use of a linear, no-threshold model to calculate risks for low, acute doses or low dose rates. The
uncertainty in the cancer risk per unit dose at low dose and dose rate is difficult to quantify and can
only be characterized through a broad examination and synthesis of diverse sources of information
from molecular, cellular, animal, and human studies.
Arguments for and against the existence of an effective threshold for radiogenic cancer have
been made on the basis of epidemiological data, but conclusions appear to depend on the population
and cancer type considered and the assumptions underlying the analysis. It is doubtful that human
epidemiological data can be used to determine the existence or absence of a threshold for radiogenic
cancer, due to the statistical uncertainties inherent in such data. Molecular, cellular, and animal
studies can furnish important information but, so far, have not provided definitive evidence regarding
the existence of thresholds for radiogenic cancers in man.
Carcinogenesis is understood to be a multistage process in which a single cell gives rise to
a tumor, with mutation of DNA required in one or more of the steps leading to malignancy. Since
cancer is a common disease, the background rates for each of these steps must be greater than zero,
and any filtration mechanism for removing precancerous cells must be imperfect. Traversal of a
single ionizing track through a cell appears to be capable of causing DNA damage that cannot always
11
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be faithfully repaired. Until there is more definitive information on the effects of radiation at low
doses and dose rates, it seems reasonable to assume that any exposure that increases the rate of
mutation of DNA has a nonzero probability of causing cancer (EPA, 1999).
In recent years, various expert panels have concluded that use of a linear, no-threshold model
is reasonably consistent with much of the available information on carcinogenic effects of radiation
and is scientifically justifiable for purposes of estimating risks from low doses of radiation
(UNSCEAR, 1993, 1994; NRPB, 1993; NCRP, 1997). Nevertheless, current scientific evidence
does not rule out the possibility that the resulting risk calculated at environmental exposure levels
may be substantially over- or underestimated or even that there may be a net beneficial effect of low
dose radiation (Luckey, 1990; Jaworowski, 1995; Goldman, 1996). Clearly, further efforts are
needed to clarify the dose-response relationship for low dose and dose rates.
Evidence that low dose radiation may induce or activate cellular DNA repair mechanisms
through an adaptive response or some stimulatory mechanism has led to speculation that low doses
may be protective against cancer. The stimulatory effects seen to date have been short term and may
not provide a significant reduction in cancer risk (Puskin, 1997). A detailed review of possible
radiation induced adaptive responses can be found in the UNSCEAR (1994) report. At this time,
too little is known about the adaptive response to influence EPA's estimates of risk at low doses.
Although the risk coefficients in this document are based on a linear, no-threshold model,
their derivation includes a dose and dose-rate effectiveness factor (DDREF) to account for the
apparent decrease in cancer risk of low-LET radiation at low dose or dose rate compared with the
observed risks due to a much higher acute dose (NCRP, 1980). Reported values of the DDREF
generally have been based on comparisons of radiogenic effects at high and moderately low doses
or dose rates. Differences in reported DDREFs must be considered when assessing the uncertainty
associated with application of a risk coefficient, but consideration of such differences does not
address the uncertainty in the linear, no-threshold hypothesis, per se.
Software used to compute the risk coefficients
All computations of dose and risk were performed using the DCAL (DOSE
CALCULATION) software (Eckerman et al., 1999). DCAL is a comprehensive biokinetics,
dosimetry, and risk computational system designed to serve current needs in radiation dosimetry and
risk analysis. It performs biokinetic and dosimetric calculations for acute intake of a radionuclide
by inhalation, ingestion, or injection into blood at a user-specified age. DCAL couples the generated
12
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absorbed dose rates with radiation risk estimators and mortality data to predict organ-specific risk
of radiogenic cancer mortality or morbidity from intake of a radionuclide.
DCAL has been extensively tested and has been compared with several widely used solvers
for biokinetic models and systems of differential equations. DCAL was used by a task group of the
ICRP to derive or check the dose coefficients given in its series of documents on age-specific doses
to members of the public from intake of radionuclides (ICRP, 1989, 1993, 1995a, 1995b, 1996).
Organization of the report
Risk coefficients for intake of, or external exposure to, environmental radionuclides are
tabulated in Chapter 2. The tables of risk coefficients are followed by a summary of subjective
judgments concerning the extent of uncertainties in risk coefficients for selected radionuclides and
exposure modes.
The assumptions and models used to derive the risk coefficients tabulated in Chapter 2 are
described in Chapters 3 through 7. The exposure scenarios, including assumptions concerning the
vital statistics of the exposed population and the age- and gender-specific usage rates of
environmental media by the population, are described in Chapter 3. Biokinetic models, dosimetric
models for internal exposure, dosimetric models for external exposure, and radiation risk models are
described in Chapters 4, 5, 6, and 7, respectively.
Some additional details concerning the models used in the calculations are given in
Appendices A and B. Appendix C provides a detailed illustration of the models and computational
steps involved in the derivation of a risk coefficient for ingestion or inhalation of a radionuclide.
The sources of uncertainty in the biokinetic, dosimetric, and radiation risk models are discussed in
Appendix D. Appendix E compares the tabulated risk coefficients with values calculated for
short-term exposure of a non-stationary population with age and gender distributions similar to those
of the current U.S. population. Appendix F provides several sample calculations that illustrate how
the tabulated risk coefficients may be applied to different types of exposure. Appendix G provides
a summary of information on the nuclear decay characteristics of each radionuclide and gives details
of its decay chain when indicated. A glossary of terms is provided at the end of the appendices.
13
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CHAPTER 2. TABULATIONS OF RISK COEFFICIENTS
The risk coefficients tabulated here are based on a hypothetical stationary population with
total mortality rates defined by the 1989-91 U.S. decennial life table (NCHS, 1997) and cancer
mortality rates defined by U.S. cancer mortality data for the same period (NCHS, 1992, 1993a,
1993b). These coefficients may be interpreted in terms of either acute or chronic exposure to
environmental radionuclides. That is, a risk coefficient may be interpreted as the risk per unit
exposure for a typical person exposed throughout life to a constant concentration of a radionuclide
in an environmental medium, or as the average risk per unit exposure to members of a stationary
population that experiences an acute exposure to that radionuclide in that environmental medium.
Risk coefficients are tabulated for the following modes of exposure:
1. inhalation of a radionuclide in air (Table 2.1);
2. ingestion of a radionuclide in tap water (Table 2.2a);
3. ingestion of a radionuclide in food (Table 2.2a; an alternate set of risk coefficients for
radioisotopes of iodine in food is given in Table 2.2b);
4. external exposure to radiation from a radionuclide in air (Table 2.3);
5. external exposure to radiation from a radionuclide on the ground surface (Table 2.3);
6. external exposure to radiation from a radionuclide in soil, assuming contamination to an
infinite depth (Table 2.3).
Subjective judgments concerning the extent of the uncertainties associated with selected risk
coefficients are summarized in Table 2.4.
A risk coefficient for a given radionuclide is based on the assumption that this is the only
radionuclide present in the environmental medium. In particular, growth of chain members in the
environmental medium is not considered. For each radionuclide addressed, however, a separate risk
coefficient is provided for each subsequent member of the chain that is of potential dosimetric
significance. Also, in the derivation of risk coefficients for inhalation or ingestion of a radionuclide,
ingrowth of chain members inside the body is considered.
With a few exceptions described in Chapter 5, the radionuclides addressed in the internal
exposure scenarios are the same as those considered in ICRP Publication 72 (1996), which is a
compilation of the ICRP's age-dependent dose coefficients for members of the public from intake
of radionuclides. With a few exceptions described in Chapter 6, the radionuclides addressed in the
external exposure scenarios are the same as those considered in Federal Guidance Report No. 12
(EPA, 1993), which tabulates dose coefficients for external exposure to radionuclides in air, water,
15
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and soil. Some of the radionuclides addressed here may be of little practical importance with regard
to radiogenic cancer risk from environmental exposure.
For some of the radionuclides addressed in Table 2.1 (inhalation) or 2.2a (ingestion of tap
water or food), the hypothetical radiogenic cancer risk may be of less concern than other potential
toxicological hazards. For example, for ingestion of soluble forms of 238U, the possibility of
chemically induced damage to the kidneys may be a more important consideration than the
hypothetical radiogenic cancer risk (cf. Wrenn et al., 1985). The reference information for
assessment of non-radiological risks from intake of radionuclides is beyond the scope of this report.
In a few cases, the half-life of a radionuclide is sufficiently long that the mass intake of the
element becomes an important consideration in a prospective risk assessment, in that an extremely
small radiogenic cancer risk would result from the mass of the radionuclide that might be inhaled
or ingested under any plausible environmental exposure scenario. The mass per unit activity of a
radionuclide (kg Bq"1) can be calculated from the expression, m = 7.56X 10"20 A T1/2, where A is the
atomic mass number and T1/2 is the radionuclide's half-life in years. As an illustration, the
radiological half-life of "5In is 5. lx 1015 y, and the mass per unit activity of "5In is 7.56x 10"20 x 115
x 5.1xl015kgBq1 = 4.4xlO-2kgBq';thatis, 1 Bq of "5Inhas amass of 44 g.
For radioisotopes of elements that are under tight homeostatic control by the human body,
the inhalation or ingestion risk coefficients given in this document may not be appropriate for
application to some exposure scenarios. For example, the ingestion risk coefficient for 40K would
not be appropriate for application to ingestion of 40K in conjunction with an elevated intake of
natural potassium. This is because the biokinetic model for potassium used in this document
represents the relatively slow removal of potassium (biological half-time of 30 d) that is estimated
to occur for typical intakes of potassium, whereas an elevated intake of potassium would result in
excretion of a nearly equal mass of natural potassium, and hence of 40K, over a short period.
Risk coefficients for inhalation
Risk coefficients for inhalation of radionuclides in air are given in Table 2.1. These
coefficients are expressed as the risk of cancer mortality or morbidity per unit activity intake (Bq" ).
The intake rate of a radionuclide in air is assumed to depend on age and gender. The age-
and gender-specific inhalation rates used in this report are given in Chapter 3, Table 3.1.
The form of the inhaled material is classified in terms of the rate of absorption from the lungs
to blood, using the classification scheme of ICRP Publication 66 (ICRP, 1994a). Type F, Type M,
and Type S represent, respectively, fast, medium, and slow rates of absorption of material inhaled
16
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in particulate form. Material-specific deposition and absorption models are used for vapors and
gases (ICRP, 1995b).
ICRP Publication 71 (1995a) critically reviews inhalation data for 31 elements and provides
dose coefficients for members of the public for environmentally important radioisotopes of those
elements. In that document, inhalation dose coefficients for a radionuclide are provided for all three
absorption types, and a default type is recommended for situations where no specific information is
available. ICRP Publication 72 (1996), which is a compilation of ingestion and inhalation dose
coefficients for members of the public, lists the effective dose coefficients given in ICRP
Publication 71 and provides coefficients for 60 additional elements. For each of these 60 elements,
attention is restricted in ICRP Publication 72 to those absorption types considered in an earlier
document on occupational intakes of radionuclides (ICRP, 1994a). The absorption types addressed
in ICRP Publication 72 are summarized in Table 4.1 of this report.
The information underlying the selection of an appropriate absorption type for a radionuclide
usually is very limited. In many cases, the selection must be based on occupational rather than
environmental experience. Due to the uncertainty in the form of a radionuclide likely to be inhaled
by members of the public, inhalation risk coefficients for a radionuclide are provided here for all
three absorption types. In cases where a default absorption type is recommended by the ICRP
(1995a, 1996), that type is identified in the table of inhalation risk coefficients (Table 2.1).
Inhalation of a radionuclide in the form of a vapor or gas has also been considered for
selected cases. In particular, risk coefficients are provided for tritium as a vapor (HTO) or gas (HT),
carbon in gaseous form as carbon monoxide (CO) or carbon dioxide (CO2), sulfur as a vapor (SO2
or CS2), nickel as a vapor, ruthenium as a vapor (RuO4), iodine as a vapor or gas (methyl iodide,
CH3I), tellurium as a vapor, and mercury as a vapor.
Risk coefficients for inhalation of radionuclides in particulate form are based on an assumed
activity median aerodynamic diameter (AMAD) of 1 um. This particle size is recommended by the
ICRP for consideration of environmental exposures in the absence of specific information about the
physical characteristics of the aerosol (ICRP, 1994a).
Risk coefficients for ingestion
Separate risk coefficients are calculated for ingestion of radionuclides in tap water and
ingestion of radionuclides in food. Both sets of coefficients are given in Table 2.2a. These risk
coefficients are expressed as the risk of cancer mortality or morbidity per unit activity intake (Bq~ ).
17
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The age- and gender-specific usage rates for tap water are given in Chapter 3, Table 3.1. Tap
water usage is defined as water drunk directly as a beverage and water added to foods and beverages
during preparation. It does not include water that is intrinsic in foods as purchased.
Food usage is defined as the total dietary intake, excluding tap water. The risk coefficients
for food in Table 2.2a are based on the assumption that the intake rate of the radionuclide is
proportional to food energy usage (kcal d" ). Age- and gender-specific values for daily usage of total
food energy are given in Chapter 3, Table 3.1.
The assessment of the intake of a radionuclide in food typically is based on its activity
concentration in food (for example, Bq kg" ) and an average usage rate (kg d" ). The relation
between food energy usage and food mass usage is discussed in Chapter 3.
The biokinetic model used to derive risk coefficients for ingestion of radiocarbon was based
on balance considerations involving daily intake and total-body content of carbon and was designed
mainly for dosimetry of 14C-labeled metabolites (ICRP, 1981, 1989). Observations of the short- and
intermediate-term behavior of radiocarbon in human subjects and laboratory animals indicate that
this model may yield substantial overestimates of tissue doses from ingestion of some commonly
encountered forms of radiocarbon. For example, the model may overestimate doses from ingestion
of 14C-labeled bicarbonate by an order of magnitude or more.
Table 2.2b gives a second set of risk coefficients for ingestion of radioisotopes of iodine in
food, based on the assumption that intake of radioiodine is proportional to intake of milk. Age- and
gender-specific values for the assumed daily intake of cow's milk are given in Chapter 3, Table 3.1.
Risk coefficients for external exposure
Risk coefficients are provided in Table 2.3 for each of three external exposure scenarios:
external exposure from submersion in contaminated air, external exposure from contamination on
the ground surface, and external exposure from soil contaminated to an infinite depth. A risk
coefficient for a given radionuclide is expressed as the probability of radiogenic cancer mortality or
morbidity per unit time integrated activity concentration in air, on the ground surface, or in soil. The
coefficients for submersion in air are given in units of m Bq" s" , those for exposure to radiation
from the ground surface are given in units of m Bq" s" , and those for exposure to radiation from
soil contaminated to an infinite depth are given in units of kg Bq" s" .
The risk coefficients in Table 2.3 are based on external dose rates tabulated in Federal
Guidance Report No. 12 (EPA, 1993). Those dose rates were calculated for a reference adult male,
standing outdoors with no shielding. Activity distributions in air, on the ground surface, or in soil
18
-------
were assumed to be of an infinite extent. In this report, no adjustments are made to account for
potential differences with age and gender in the external doses received, potential reduction in dose
due to shielding by buildings during time spent indoors, or the finite nature of the activity
distribution in the environment.
Adjustments for current age and gender distributions in the U.S.
The risk coefficients tabulated in this chapter were developed for a stationary population with
gender and age distributions that would eventually occur in a closed population with male-to-female
birth ratios indicated by recent U.S. data and with time-invariant survival functions defined by the
1989-91 U.S. decennial life tables. Due to the uncertainty in the future composition of the U.S.
population, the use of a stationary population based on recent U.S. vital statistics is judged to be
appropriate for consideration of long-term, chronic exposures to the U.S. population. Because the
gender-specific age distributions in the current U.S. population differ considerably from those of the
hypothetical stationary population, however, the question arises as to the applicability of these risk
coefficients to short-term exposures of the U.S. population that might occur in the near future. In
Appendix E, risk coefficients for the stationary population are compared with coefficients derived
for short-term exposure of a population with gender and age distributions based on the 1996 U.S.
population, but with the same survival functions and cancer mortality rates as the stationary
population. The comparisons show that the risk coefficients for the stationary population are
reasonably good approximations of the corresponding risk coefficients for short-term exposure of
the 1996 U.S. population and that, for a given exposure scenario, the ratio of risk coefficients for the
two populations varies little from one radionuclide to another. Scaling factors are provided in
Appendix E for conversion of risk coefficients for the stationary population to more precise risk
coefficients for a hypothetical short-term exposure to the 1996 U.S. population.
19
-------
-------
Table 2.1. Mortality and morbidity risk coefficients for inhalation.
Explanation of Entries
Risk coefficients for inhalation of radionuclides are expressed as the probability of radiogenic
cancer mortality or morbidity per unit intake, where the intake is averaged over all ages and both
genders. The form of an inhaled radionuclide is classified in terms of the rate of absorption from
the lungs to blood, using the classification scheme of ICRP Publication 66 (ICRP, 1994a). For each
radionuclide, separate risk coefficients are provided for particulate aerosols of Type F, Type M, and
Type S representing, respectively, fast, medium, and slow absorption to blood. For some elements,
the ICRP recommends a default absorption type for particulate aerosols when no specific information
is available (Table 4.1). A default type for an element is indicated by an asterisk. Risk coefficients
are also provided for tritium as a vapor (HTO) or gas (HT), carbon in gaseous form as carbon
monoxide (CO) or carbon dioxide (CO2), sulfur as a vapor (SO2 or CS2), nickel as a vapor,
ruthenium as a vapor (RuO4), iodine as a vapor or gas (methyl iodide, CH3I), tellurium as a vapor,
and mercury as a vapor. The/; (gastrointestinal uptake) values shown are the values for the adult
and may differ from the values applied to infants and children (see Chapter 4).
Entries under the heading "Chain" indicate whether the radionuclide is in the same decay
chain as other radionuclides addressed in the table (see Appendix G for details concerning decay
chains). An entry "Y" (yes) under the subheading "P" (parent) indicates that the radionuclide is the
parent of a decay chain containing at least one other radionuclide in the table. An entry "Y" under
the subheading "D" (daughter) indicates that the radionuclide is formed in the decay chain of at least
one other radionuclide in the table. These entries are included as an aid in the estimation of cancer
risk from intake of decay chain members that form in the environment. The risk coefficient for
intake of a radionuclide already includes the contribution to dose from production of decay chain
members in the body after intake of the parent.
To facilitate application of the risk coefficients, including conversion to other units, the
coefficients are tabulated to three figures. No indication of the level of uncertainty is intended or
should be inferred from this practice. Calculated risks should be rounded appropriately.
To express a risk coefficient in conventional units (MCi"1), multiply by 3.7*104 Bq uCf1.
To express a risk coefficient in terms of a constant activity concentration in air (Bq nf3), multiply
the coefficient by 2.75X10 UA, where UA is the lifetime average inhalation rate (for example,
17.8m3 d"1 in Table 3.1) and 2.75* 1 d* d is the average life span. Note that the relative age- and
gender-specific inhalation rates indicated in Table 3.1 are inherent in the risk coefficient.
21
-------
Table 2.1. Mortality and morbidity risk coefficients for inhalation.
Chain
Nuclide T1/2 P D
Hydrogen (particulate)
H-3 12.35 y - -
Hydrogen (water vapor)
H-3 12.35 y - -
Hydrogen (elemental)
H-3 12.35 y - -
Hydrogen (organic)
H-3 12.35 y - -
Beryllium
Be-7 53.3 d - -
Be-10 1.6E6 y - -
Carbon (particulate)
C-ll 20.38 m - -
C-14 5730 y - -
Carbon (monoxide)
C-ll 20.38 m - -
C-14 5730 y - -
Carbon (dioxide)
C-ll 20.38 m - -
C-14 5730 y - -
Fluorine
F-18 109.77 m - -
Sodium
Na-22 2.602 y - -
Na-24 15.00 h - -
AMAD
a
(jum) Type f1
1.00 F 1.0
*M 0.1
S 0.01
V 1.0
G 1.0
G 1.0
1.00 F 0.005
M 0.005
S 0.005
1.00 F 0.005
M 0.005
S 0.005
1.00 F 1.0
*M 0.1
S 0.01
1.00 F 1.0
*M 0.1
S 0.01
G 1.0
G 1.0
G 1.0
G 1.0
1.00 F 1.0
M 1.0
S 1.0
1.00 F 1.0
M 1.0
S 1.0
1.00 F 1.0
M 1.0
S 1.0
Mortal ity
(Bq"1)
3.61E-13
4.58E-12
2.12E-11
1.04E-12
1.04E-16
2.37E-12
2.17E-12
3.68E-12
4.60E-12
3.01E-10
7.30E-10
2.38E-09
3.23E-13
6.76E-13
7.14E-13
1.15E-11
1.76E-10
4.29E-10
8.30E-14
6.14E-14
1.52E-13
3.68E-13
7.78E-13
2.78E-12
3.00E-12
7.21E-11
8.28E-10
2.31E-09
8.94E-12
2.59E-11
2.79E-11
Morbidity
(Bq"1)
5.28E-13
5.38E-12
2.30E-11
1.52E-12
1.52E-16
3.47E-12
3.12E-12
4.72E-12
5.77E-12
3.59E-10
8.05E-10
2.54E-09
3.74E-13
7.52E-13
7.92E-13
1.68E-11
1.91E-10
4.58E-10
1.22E-13
9.09E-14
2.23E-13
5.39E-13
9.11E-13
3.04E-12
3.28E-12
1.05E-10
9.46E-10
2.63E-09
1.28E-11
3.05E-11
3.25E-11
22
-------
Table 2.1, continued
Chain
Nuclide T1/2 P D
Magnesium
Mg-28 20.91 h - -
Aluminum
Al-26 7.16E5 y - -
Silicon
Si-31 157.3 m - -
Si -32 450 y Y -
Phosphorus
P-32 14.29 d - Y
P-33 25.4 d - -
Sulfur (inorganic)
S-35 87.44 d - -
Sulfur (dioxide)
S-35 87.44 d - -
Sulfur (carbon disulfide)
S-35 87.44 d - -
Chlorine
Cl-36 3.01E5 y - -
Cl-38 37.21 m - -
Cl-39 55.6 m Y -
AMAD
(jum) Type4^
1.00 F 0.5
M 0.5
S 0.5
1.00 F 0.01
M 0.01
S 0.01
1.00 F 0.01
M 0.01
S 0.01
1.00 F 0.01
M 0.01
S 0.01
1.00 F 0.8
M 0.8
S 0.8
1.00 F 0.8
M 0.8
S 0.8
1.00 F 0.8
*M 0.1
S 0.01
V 0.8
V 0.8
1.00 F 1.0
M 1.0
S 1.0
1.00 F 1.0
M 1.0
S 1.0
1.00 F 1.0
M 1.0
S 1.0
Mortal ity
(Bq-1)
4.21E-11
9.94E-11
1.06E-10
7.49E-10
1.58E-09
7.03E-09
1.94E-12
5.82E-12
6.24E-12
2.50E-10
1.41E-09
7.48E-09
5.88E-11
2.93E-10
3.39E-10
6.12E-12
1.28E-10
1.55E-10
3.93E-12
1.25E-10
1.63E-10
8.63E-12
5.30E-11
2.37E-11
6.32E-10
2.58E-09
1.06E-12
2.29E-12
2.42E-12
9.16E-13
2.26E-12
2.41E-12
Morbidity
(Bq-1)
6.95E-11
1.39E-10
1.47E-10
1.08E-09
1.87E-09
7.85E-09
3.03E-12
7.71E-12
8.23E-12
3.83E-10
1.55E-09
7.91E-09
8.00E-11
3.29E-10
3.77E-10
8.91E-12
1.38E-10
1.65E-10
6.28E-12
1.36E-10
1.77E-10
1.34E-11
7.85E-11
3.58E-11
6.76E-10
2.73E-09
1.28E-12
2.54E-12
2.68E-12
1.13E-12
2.53E-12
2.68E-12
23
-------
Table 2.1, continued
Nuclide T^
Potassium
K-40 1.28E9 y
K-42 12.36 h
K-43 22.6 h
K-44 22.13 m
K-45 20 m
Calcium
Ca-41 1.4E5 y
Ca-45 163 d
Ca-47 4.53 d
Scandium
Sc-43 3.891 h
Sc-44 3.927 h
Sc-44m 58.6 h
Sc-46 83.83 d
Sc-47 3.351 d
Chain AMAD
P D (jum)
- - 1.00
- - 1.00
- - 1.00
- - 1.00
Y - 1.00
- - 1.00
- Y 1.00
Y - 1.00
- - 1.00
- Y 1.00
Y - 1.00
- - 1.00
- Y 1.00
Type4 f !
F 1.0
M 1.0
S 1.0
F 1.0
M 1.0
S 1.0
F 1.0
M 1.0
S 1.0
F 1.0
M 1.0
S 1.0
F 1.0
M 1.0
S 1.0
F 0.3
*M 0.1
S 0.01
F 0.3
*M 0.1
S 0.01
F 0.3
*M 0.1
S 0.01
F 0.0001
M 0.0001
S 0.0001
F 0.0001
M 0.0001
S 0.0001
F 0.0001
M 0.0001
S 0.0001
F 0.0001
M 0.0001
S 0.0001
F 0.0001
M 0.0001
S 0.0001
Mortal ity
(Bq-1)
1.77E-10
1.20E-09
5.61E-09
8.00E-12
2.74E-11
2.96E-11
5.66E-12
2.41E-11
2.62E-11
7.72E-13
1.43E-12
1.51E-12
5.34E-13
l.OOE-12
1.06E-12
6.98E-12
5.13E-12
1.27E-11
2.68E-11
2.35E-10
3.22E-10
3.44E-11
1.73E-10
1.96E-10
2.59E-12
7.14E-12
7.65E-12
4.82E-12
1.16E-11
1.24E-11
5.03E-11
1.25E-10
1.35E-10
3.78E-10
4.91E-10
5.79E-10
1.13E-11
6.09E-11
6.74E-11
Morbidity
(Bq-1)
2.78E-10
1.35E-09
6.01E-09
1.17E-11
3.13E-11
3.36E-11
8.34E-12
2.74E-11
2.96E-11
9.15E-13
1.59E-12
1.66E-12
6.30E-13
1.11E-12
1.17E-12
7.42E-12
5.64E-12
1.37E-11
3.23E-11
2.54E-10
3.47E-10
5.37E-11
2.13E-10
2.40E-10
4.05E-12
9.70E-12
1.03E-11
7.60E-12
1.64E-11
1.74E-11
7.95E-11
1.77E-10
1.88E-10
5.12E-10
5.83E-10
6.68E-10
1.80E-11
7.51E-11
8.25E-11
24
-------
Table 2.1, continued
Nuclide T^
Scandium, continued
Sc-48 43.7 h
Sc-49 57.4 m
Titanium
Ti-44 47.3 y
Ti-45 3.08 h
Vanadium
V-47 32.6 m
V-48 16.238 d
V-49 330 d
Chromium
Cr-48 22.96 h
Cr-49 42.09 m
Cr-51 27.704 d
Manganese
Mn-51 46.2 m
Mn-52 5.591 d
Chain AMAD
P D (jum) Type4 ft
- - 1.00 F 0.0001
M 0.0001
S 0.0001
- - 1.00 F 0.0001
M 0.0001
S 0.0001
Y - 1.00 F 0.01
M 0.01
S 0.01
- - 1.00 F 0.01
M 0.01
S 0.01
- - 1.00 F 0.01
M 0.01
S 0.01
- Y 1.00 F 0.01
M 0.01
S 0.01
- Y 1.00 F 0.01
M 0.01
S 0.01
Y - 1.00 F 0.1
M 0.1
S 0.1
Y - 1.00 F 0.1
M 0.1
S 0.1
- Y 1.00 F 0.1
M 0.1
S 0.1
Y - 1.00 F 0.1
M 0.1
S 0.1
- Y 1.00 F 0.1
M 0.1
S 0.1
Mortal ity
3.13E-11
7.32E-11
7.83E-11
8.74E-13
2.29E-12
2.45E-12
3.69E-09
2.96E-09
8.31E-09
2.05E-12
5.86E-12
6.29E-12
7.04E-13
1.40E-12
1.48E-12
5.37E-11
2.02E-10
2.32E-10
1.42E-12
3.27E-12
6.78E-12
5.09E-12
1.44E-11
1.62E-11
7.02E-13
1.62E-12
1.72E-12
1.38E-12
2.98E-12
3.46E-12
9.54E-13
2.18E-12
2.31E-12
4.84E-11
8.96E-11
9.58E-11
Morbidity
4.83E-11
1.01E-10
1.07E-10
1.15E-12
2.72E-12
2.89E-12
5.43E-09
3.79E-09
9.22E-09
3.19E-12
7.83E-12
8.34E-12
9.11E-13
1.61E-12
1.69E-12
8.53E-11
2.51E-10
2.84E-10
1.98E-12
3.96E-12
7.63E-12
8.04E-12
1.83E-11
2.03E-11
9.05E-13
1.89E-12
1.99E-12
2.22E-12
3.98E-12
4.50E-12
1.24E-12
2.58E-12
2.73E-12
7.22E-11
1.19E-10
1.26E-10
25
-------
Table 2.1, continued
Nuclide T^
Manganese, continued
Mn-52m 21.1 m
Mn-53 3.7E6 y
Mn-54 312.5 d
Mn-56 2.5785 h
Iron
Fe-52 8.275 h
Fe-55 2.7 y
Fe-59 44.529 d
Fe-60 1E5 y
Cobalt
Co-55 17.54 h
Co-56 78.76 d
Co-57 270.9 d
Co-58 70.80 d
Co-58m 9.15 h
Chain AMAD
P D (jum)
Y Y 1.00
- - 1.00
- - 1.00
- - 1.00
Y - 1.00
- Y 1.00
- - 1.00
Y - 1.00
Y - 1.00
- Y 1.00
- Y 1.00
- Y 1.00
Y - 1.00
Type4 f !
F 0.1
M 0.1
S 0.1
F 0.1
M 0.1
S 0.1
F 0.1
M 0.1
S 0.1
F 0.1
M 0.1
S 0.1
F 0.1
*M 0.1
S 0.01
F 0.1
*M 0.1
S 0.01
F 0.1
*M 0.1
S 0.01
F 0.1
*M 0.1
S 0.01
F 0.1
*M 0.1
S 0.01
F 0.1
*M 0.1
S 0.01
F 0.1
*M 0.1
S 0.01
F 0.1
*M 0.1
S 0.01
F 0.1
*M 0.1
S 0.01
Mortal ity
(Bq-1)
6.64E-13
1.20E-12
1.26E-12
1.65E-12
4.95E-12
2.43E-11
5.33E-11
1.26E-10
2.67E-10
3.32E-12
8.22E-12
8.76E-12
2.48E-11
4.97E-11
5.40E-11
3.30E-11
1.81E-11
1.59E-11
1.53E-10
3.08E-10
3.48E-10
7.82E-09
3.96E-09
2.29E-09
1.46E-11
3.81E-11
4.21E-11
1.11E-10
4.07E-10
5.74E-10
1.25E-11
4.75E-11
8.74E-11
3.12E-11
1.34E-10
1.81E-10
4.67E-13
1.32E-12
1.64E-12
Morbidity
(Bq-1)
8.06E-13
1.37E-12
1.43E-12
2.34E-12
5.87E-12
2.62E-11
7.55E-11
1.59E-10
3.26E-10
5.09E-12
1.12E-11
1.18E-11
3.72E-11
7.37E-11
8.09E-11
4.00E-11
2.16E-11
1.75E-11
2.15E-10
3.60E-10
3.97E-10
l.OOE-08
4.97E-09
2.63E-09
2.47E-11
5.59E-11
6.19E-11
1.67E-10
5.01E-10
6.91E-10
1.88E-11
5.65E-11
1.01E-10
4.70E-11
1.62E-10
2.15E-10
7.74E-13
1.86E-12
2.26E-12
26
-------
Table 2.1, continued
Nucl ide
Tl/2
Chain AMAD
P D (jm) Type4^
Mortal ity
(Bq-1)
Morbidity
(Bq-1)
Cobalt, continued
Co-60
Co-60m
Co-61
Co-62m
5.271 y
10.47 m
1.65 h
13.91 m
- Y 1.00 F 0.1
*M 0.1
S 0.01
Y Y 1.00 F 0.1
*M 0.1
S 0.01
- - 1.00 F 0.1
*M 0.1
S 0.01
- - 1.00 F 0.1
*M 0.1
S 0.01
3.16E-10
8.02E-10
2.32E-09
5.42E-14
l.OOE-13
1.11E-13
9.99E-13
3.15E-12
3.41E-12
4.66E-13
7.61E-13
7.94E-13
4.62E-10
9.68E-10
2.72E-09
5.87E-14
1.07E-13
1.18E-13
1.44E-12
3.86E-12
4.16E-12
5.55E-13
8.57E-13
8.91E-13
Nickel (particulate)
Ni-56
Ni-57
Ni-59
Ni-63
Ni-65
Ni-66
6.10 d
36.08 h
7.5E4 y
96 y
2.520 h
54.6 h
Y - 1.00 F 0.05
*M 0.05
S 0.01
Y - 1.00 F 0.05
*M 0.05
S 0.01
- - 1.00 F 0.05
*M 0.05
S 0.01
- - 1.00 F 0.05
*M 0.05
S 0.01
- - 1.00 F 0.05
*M 0.05
S 0.01
- - 1.00 F 0.05
*M 0.05
S 0.01
2.37E-11
5.98E-11
7.52E-11
1.20E-11
3.40E-11
3.72E-11
1.05E-11
9.73E-12
3.16E-11
2.52E-11
3.67E-11
9.34E-11
2.40E-12
6.14E-12
6.59E-12
5.09E-11
1.71E-10
1.89E-10
3.63E-11
7.78E-11
9.54E-11
2.02E-11
4.80E-11
5.24E-11
1.55E-11
1.26E-11
3.43E-11
3.72E-11
4.43E-11
1.01E-10
3.85E-12
8.19E-12
8.74E-12
9.03E-11
2.43E-10
2.67E-10
Nickel (vapor)
Ni-56
Ni-57
Ni-59
Ni-63
Ni-65
Ni-66
Copper
Cu-60
6.10 d
36.08 h
7.5E4 y
96 y
2.520 h
54.6 h
23.2 m
Y - - V 0.05
Y - - V 0.05
- - - V 0.05
- - - V 0.05
- - - V 0.05
- - - V 0.05
- - 1.00 F 0.5
M 0.5
S 0.5
7.87E-11
3.03E-11
4.57E-11
1.09E-10
1.72E-11
9.35E-11
7.19E-13
1.29E-12
1.35E-12
1.14E-10
3.97E-11
6.51E-11
1.56E-10
1.91E-11
1.24E-10
8.96E-13
1.50E-12
1.56E-12
27
-------
Table 2.1, continued
Nuclide T^
Copper, continued
Cu-61 3.408 h
Cu-64 12.701 h
Cu-67 61.86 h
Zinc
Zn-62 9.26 h
Zn-63 38.1 m
Zn-65 243.9 d
Zn-69 57 m
Zn-69m 13.76 h
Zn-71m 3.92 h
Zn-72 46.5 h
Gallium
Ga-65 15.2 m
Ga-66 9.40 h
Ga-67 78.26 h
Chain AMAD
P D (jum)
- - 1.00
- - 1.00
- - 1.00
Y - 1.00
- - 1.00
- Y 1.00
- Y 1.00
Y - 1.00
- - 1.00
Y - 1.00
Y - 1.00
- Y 1.00
- Y 1.00
Type4 f !
F 0.5
M 0.5
S 0.5
F 0.5
M 0.5
S 0.5
F 0.5
M 0.5
S 0.5
F 0.5
*M 0.1
S 0.01
F 0.5
*M 0.1
S 0.01
F 0.5
*M 0.1
S 0.01
F 0.5
*M 0.1
S 0.01
F 0.5
*M 0.1
S 0.01
F 0.5
*M 0.1
S 0.01
F 0.5
*M 0.1
S 0.01
F 0.001
M 0.001
S 0.001
F 0.001
M 0.001
S 0.001
F 0.001
M 0.001
S 0.001
Mortal ity
(Bq-1)
1.67E-12
4.70E-12
5.03E-12
2.11E-12
8.59E-12
9.33E-12
7.86E-12
4.93E-11
5.45E-11
1.47E-11
4.71E-11
5.22E-11
7.94E-13
1.75E-12
1.86E-12
1.41E-10
1.20E-10
1.66E-10
4.33E-13
1.46E-12
1.57E-12
5.60E-12
2.45E-11
2.73E-11
3.37E-12
1.04E-11
1.13E-11
3.10E-11
1.11E-10
1.23E-10
3.91E-13
6.92E-13
7.29E-13
1.81E-11
3.82E-11
4.04E-11
4.17E-12
2.13E-11
2.35E-11
Morbidity
(Bq-1)
2.55E-12
6.12E-12
6.51E-12
3.39E-12
1.09E-11
1.17E-11
1.26E-11
5.77E-11
6.34E-11
2.42E-11
7.15E-11
7.95E-11
l.OOE-12
2.04E-12
2.16E-12
2.05E-10
1.57E-10
2.02E-10
5.35E-13
1.65E-12
1.78E-12
9.25E-12
3.45E-11
3.86E-11
5.18E-12
1.44E-11
1.57E-11
4.84E-11
1.48E-10
1.65E-10
4.55E-13
7.68E-13
8.06E-13
3.04E-11
5.89E-11
6.21E-11
6.84E-12
2.58E-11
2.83E-11
28
-------
Table 2.1, continued
Nuclide T^
Gallium, continued
Ga-68 68.0 m
Ga-70 21.15 m
Ga-72 14.1 h
Ga-73 4.91 h
Germanium
Ge-66 2.27 h
Ge-67 18.7 m
Ge-68 288 d
Ge-69 39.05 h
Ge-71 11.8 d
Ge-75 82.78 m
Ge-77 11.30 h
Ge-78 87 m
Arsenic
As-69 15.2 m
Chain AMAD
P D (jm) Type4^
- Y 1.00 F 0.001
M 0.001
S 0.001
- - 1.00 F 0.001
M 0.001
S 0.001
- Y 1.00 F 0.001
M 0.001
S 0.001
- - 1.00 F 0.001
M 0.001
S 0.001
Y - 1.00 F 1.0
M 1.0
S 1.0
Y - 1.00 F 1.0
M 1.0
S 1.0
Y - 1.00 F 1.0
M 1.0
S 1.0
- Y 1.00 F 1.0
M 1.0
S 1.0
- Y 1.00 F 1.0
M 1.0
S 1.0
- - 1.00 F 1.0
M 1.0
S 1.0
Y - 1.00 F 1.0
M 1.0
S 1.0
Y - 1.00 F 1.0
M 1.0
S 1.0
Y - 1.00 F 0.5
M 0.5
S 0.5
Mortal ity
1.14E-12
2.80E-12
2.98E-12
3.43E-13
7.22E-13
7.64E-13
1.72E-11
3.99E-11
4.25E-11
3.95E-12
1.21E-11
1.30E-11
2.33E-12
5.46E-12
5.81E-12
5.97E-13
1.12E-12
1.18E-12
4.41E-11
1.21E-09
2.70E-09
6.39E-12
1.95E-11
2.10E-11
4.01E-13
1.12E-12
1.25E-12
6.03E-13
2.08E-12
2.24E-12
7.56E-12
2.63E-11
2.85E-11
1.93E-12
5.81E-12
6.24E-12
5.73E-13
1.01E-12
1.06E-12
Morbidity
1.58E-12
3.45E-12
3.66E-12
3.94E-13
7.88E-13
8.31E-13
2.86E-11
5.87E-11
6.21E-11
6.46E-12
1.66E-11
1.77E-11
3.80E-12
6.77E-12
7.11E-12
7.08E-13
1.24E-12
1.30E-12
7.80E-11
1.32E-09
2.91E-09
1.07E-11
2.38E-11
2.53E-11
7.13E-13
1.40E-12
1.53E-12
7.72E-13
2.28E-12
2.44E-12
1.25E-11
3.10E-11
3.32E-11
2.87E-12
6.71E-12
7.13E-12
7.18E-13
1.16E-12
1.21E-12
29
-------
Table 2.1, continued
Nuclide T^
Arsenic, continued
As-70 52.6 m
As-71 64.8 h
As-72 26.0 h
As-73 80.30 d
As-74 17.76 d
As-76 26.32 h
As-77 38.8 h
As-78 90.7 m
Selenium
Se-70 41.0 m
Se-73 7.15 h
Se-73m 39 m
Se-75 119.8 d
Se-79 65000 y
Chain AMAD
P D (jum)
- Y 1.00
Y - 1.00
- Y 1.00
- Y 1.00
- - 1.00
- - 1.00
- Y 1.00
- Y 1.00
Y - 1.00
Y Y 1.00
Y - 1.00
- Y 1.00
- - 1.00
Type4 f !
F 0.5
M 0.5
S 0.5
F 0.5
M 0.5
S 0.5
F 0.5
M 0.5
S 0.5
F 0.5
M 0.5
S 0.5
F 0.5
M 0.5
S 0.5
F 0.5
M 0.5
S 0.5
F 0.5
M 0.5
S 0.5
F 0.5
M 0.5
S 0.5
*F 0.8
M 0.1
S 0.01
*F 0.8
M 0.1
S 0.01
*F 0.8
M 0.1
S 0.01
*F 0.8
M 0.1
S 0.01
*F 0.8
M 0.1
S 0.01
Mortal ity
(Bq-1)
1.56E-12
3.00E-12
3.16E-12
1.12E-11
3.18E-11
3.44E-11
4.33E-11
8.00E-11
8.42E-11
8.86E-12
9.36E-11
1.23E-10
3.82E-11
1.92E-10
2.24E-10
4.00E-11
7.72E-11
8.15E-11
1.08E-11
3.75E-11
4.07E-11
2.70E-12
5.71E-12
6.04E-12
1.45E-12
3.78E-12
4.03E-12
3.61E-12
1.47E-11
1.62E-11
3.95E-13
1.38E-12
1.51E-12
7.18E-11
8.90E-11
1.15E-10
6.30E-11
2.25E-10
5.05E-10
Morbidity
(Bq-1)
2.16E-12
3.70E-12
3.87E-12
1.91E-11
4.10E-11
4.38E-11
7.52E-11
1.16E-10
1.21E-10
1.54E-11
1.05E-10
1.35E-10
6.49E-11
2.28E-10
2.61E-10
7.03E-11
1.12E-10
1.16E-10
1.90E-11
4.75E-11
5.08E-11
4.02E-12
7.27E-12
7.63E-12
1.99E-12
4.81E-12
5.12E-12
5.38E-12
2.09E-11
2.30E-11
5.56E-13
1.88E-12
2.06E-12
1.02E-10
1.09E-10
1.35E-10
8.99E-11
2.50E-10
5.39E-10
30
-------
Table 2.1, continued
Nuclide T^
Selenium, continued
Se-81 18.5 m
Se-81m 57.25 m
Se-83 22.5 m
Bromine
Br-74 25.3 m
Br-74m 41.5 m
Br-75 98 m
Br-76 16.2 h
Br-77 56 h
Br-80 17.4 m
Br-80m 4.42 h
Br-82 35.30 h
Br-83 2.39 h
Br-84 31.80 m
Chain AMAD
P D (jm) Type4^
- Y 1.00 *F 0.8
M 0.1
S 0.01
Y - 1.00 *F 0.8
M 0.1
S 0.01
Y - 1.00 *F 0.8
M 0.1
S 0.01
- - 1.00 F 1.0
M 1.0
S 1.0
- - 1.00 F 1.0
M 1.0
S 1.0
Y - 1.00 F 1.0
M 1.0
S 1.0
- - 1.00 F 1.0
M 1.0
S 1.0
- - 1.00 F 1.0
M 1.0
S 1.0
- Y 1.00 F 1.0
M 1.0
S 1.0
Y - 1.00 F 1.0
M 1.0
S 1.0
- - 1.00 F 1.0
M 1.0
S 1.0
- Y 1.00 F 1.0
M 1.0
S 1.0
- - 1.00 F 1.0
M 1.0
S 1.0
Mortal ity
3.04E-13
6.17E-13
6.51E-13
7.46E-13
3.08E-12
3.34E-12
5.82E-13
1.53E-12
1.64E-12
8.42E-13
1.53E-12
1.60E-12
1.36E-12
2.74E-12
2.90E-12
9.72E-13
2.70E-12
2.91E-12
l.OOE-11
2.46E-11
2.63E-11
2.23E-12
4.39E-12
4.67E-12
2.51E-13
4.46E-13
4.68E-13
1.70E-12
5.80E-12
6.25E-12
1.27E-11
3.76E-11
4.06E-11
6.18E-13
3.03E-12
3.29E-12
8.41E-13
1.75E-12
1.84E-12
Morbidity
3.44E-13
6.69E-13
7.05E-13
9.56E-13
3.57E-12
3.86E-12
7.34E-13
1.83E-12
1.95E-12
1.03E-12
1.74E-12
1.82E-12
1.70E-12
3.12E-12
3.28E-12
1.26E-12
3.05E-12
3.27E-12
1.50E-11
2.97E-11
3.14E-11
3.36E-12
5.57E-12
5.85E-12
2.88E-13
4.86E-13
5.07E-13
2.40E-12
6.57E-12
7.03E-12
1.91E-11
4.48E-11
4.79E-11
7.69E-13
3.27E-12
3.55E-12
1.01E-12
1.94E-12
2.04E-12
31
-------
Table 2.1, continued
Nuclide T^
Rubidium
Rb-79 22.9 m
Rb-81 4.58 h
Rb-81m 32 m
Rb-82m 6.2 h
Rb-83 86.2 d
Rb-84 32.77 d
Rb-86 18.66 d
Rb-87 4.7E10 y
Rb-88 17.8 m
Rb-89 15.2 m
Strontium
Sr-80 100 m
Sr-81 25.5 m
Sr-82 25.0 d
Chain AMAD
P D (jum)
- - 1.00
- Y 1.00
Y - 1.00
- - 1.00
- Y 1.00
- - 1.00
- - 1.00
- Y 1.00
- - 1.00
Y - 1.00
- - 1.00
Y - 1.00
- - 1.00
Type4 f !
F 1.0
M 1.0
S 1.0
F 1.0
M 1.0
S 1.0
F 1.0
M 1.0
S 1.0
F 1.0
M 1.0
S 1.0
F 1.0
M 1.0
S 1.0
F 1.0
M 1.0
S 1.0
F 1.0
M 1.0
S 1.0
F 1.0
M 1.0
S 1.0
F 1.0
M 1.0
S 1.0
F 1.0
M 1.0
S 1.0
F 0.3
*M 0.1
S 0.01
F 0.3
*M 0.1
S 0.01
F 0.3
*M 0.1
S 0.01
Mortal ity
(Bq-1)
5.48E-13
1.11E-12
1.17E-12
9.32E-13
4.10E-12
4.45E-12
2.48E-13
9.79E-13
1.06E-12
2.57E-12
5.07E-12
5.34E-12
4.27E-11
9.02E-11
1.19E-10
6.59E-11
1.79E-10
2.12E-10
7.29E-11
3.46E-10
4.06E-10
3.89E-11
4.07E-10
1.09E-09
7.45E-13
1.33E-12
1.40E-12
4.78E-13
8.96E-13
9.66E-13
4.02E-12
9.13E-12
9.76E-12
8.18E-13
1.81E-12
1.93E-12
1.68E-10
8.24E-10
9.97E-10
Morbidity
(Bq-1)
6.41E-13
1.22E-12
1.28E-12
1.25E-12
4.56E-12
4.93E-12
2.98E-13
1.06E-12
1.15E-12
3.64E-12
6.27E-12
6.57E-12
6.26E-11
1.16E-10
1.48E-10
9.69E-11
2.16E-10
2.51E-10
1.08E-10
3.89E-10
4.50E-10
5.78E-11
4.45E-10
1.17E-09
8.58E-13
1.45E-12
1.52E-12
5.64E-13
9.95E-13
1.07E-12
6.02E-12
1.22E-11
1.30E-11
1.07E-12
2.18E-12
2.32E-12
2.53E-10
9.97E-10
1.19E-09
32
-------
Table 2.1, continued
Nuclide T^
Strontium, continued
Sr-83 32.4 h
Sr-85 64.84 d
Sr-85m 69.5 m
Sr-87m 2.805 h
Sr-89 50.5 d
b
Sr-90 29.12 y
Sr-91 9.5 h
Sr-92 2.71 h
Yttrium
Y-86 14.74 h
Y-86m 48 m
Y-87 80.3 h
Y-88 106.64 d
Y-90 64.0 h
Chain AMAD
P D (jum)
Y - 1.00
- Y 1.00
Y - 1.00
Y - 1.00
- Y 1.00
Y - 1.00
Y - 1.00
Y - 1.00
- Y 1.00
Y - 1.00
Y - 1.00
- Y 1.00
- Y 1.00
Type4 f t
F 0.3
*M 0.1
S 0.01
F 0.3
*M 0.1
S 0.01
F 0.3
*M 0.1
S 0.01
F 0.3
*M 0.1
S 0.01
F 0.3
*M 0.1
S 0.01
F 0.3
*M 0.1
S 0.01
F 0.3
*M 0.1
S 0.01
F 0.3
*M 0.1
S 0.01
F 0.0001
M 0.0001
S 0.0001
F 0.0001
M 0.0001
S 0.0001
F 0.0001
M 0.0001
S 0.0001
F 0.0001
M 0.0001
S 0.0001
F 0.0001
M 0.0001
S 0.0001
Mortal ity
8.19E-12
2.39E-11
2.67E-11
2.78E-11
5.55E-11
7.17E-11
8.95E-14
1.75E-13
1.94E-13
4.15E-13
1.15E-12
1.24E-12
7.60E-11
5.52E-10
7.22E-10
1.08E-09
2.65E-09
1.08E-08
l.OOE-11
3.22E-11
3.65E-11
6.61E-12
1.89E-11
2.08E-11
1.49E-11
2.71E-11
2.85E-11
8.70E-13
1.61E-12
1.70E-12
1.21E-11
2.76E-11
2.96E-11
4.00E-10
3.16E-10
3.73E-10
5.77E-11
1.48E-10
1.60E-10
Morbidity
1.32E-11
3.40E-11
3.81E-11
3.97E-11
6.93E-11
8.73E-11
1.27E-13
2.25E-13
2.47E-13
6.31E-13
1.52E-12
1.64E-12
1.08E-10
6.32E-10
8.17E-10
1.17E-09
2.84E-09
1.15E-08
1.65E-11
4.59E-11
5.18E-11
1.11E-11
2.79E-11
3.07E-11
2.41E-11
4.08E-11
4.27E-11
1.40E-12
2.40E-12
2.51E-12
1.90E-11
3.78E-11
4.02E-11
5.50E-10
4.05E-10
4.60E-10
9.65E-11
2.13E-10
2.27E-10
33
-------
Table 2.1, continued
Nucl ide
Yttrium,
Y-90m
Y-91
Y-91m
Y-92
Y-93
Y-94
Y-95
Tl/2
continued
3.19 h
58.51 d
49.71 m
3.54 h
10.1 h
19.1 m
10.7 m
Chain AMAD
P D (jum)
Y - 1.00
- Y 1.00
Y Y 1.00
- Y 1.00
Y - 1.00
- - 1.00
Y - 1.00
Type4 f !
F 0.0001
M 0.0001
S 0.0001
F 0.0001
M 0.0001
S 0.0001
F 0.0001
M 0.0001
S 0.0001
F 0.0001
M 0.0001
S 0.0001
F 0.0001
M 0.0001
S 0.0001
F 0.0001
M 0.0001
S 0.0001
F 0.0001
M 0.0001
S 0.0001
Mortal ity
(Bq-1)
3.44E-12
8.53E-12
9.16E-12
1.98E-10
6.25E-10
8.05E-10
2.37E-13
5.77E-13
6.93E-13
7.66E-12
1.65E-11
1.75E-11
2.07E-11
4.42E-11
4.69E-11
7.20E-13
1.28E-12
1.34E-12
4.31E-13
6.85E-13
7.22E-13
Morbidity
(Bq-1)
5.67E-12
1.22E-11
1.30E-11
2.44E-10
7.15E-10
9.07E-10
3.12E-13
6.90E-13
8.14E-13
1.26E-11
2.39E-11
2.52E-11
3.56E-11
6.78E-11
7.13E-11
8.60E-13
1.43E-12
1.49E-12
4.97E-13
7.51E-13
7.89E-13
Zirconium
Zr-86
Zr-88
Zr-89
Zr-93
Zr-95
Zr-97
16.5 h
83.4 d
78.43 h
1.53E6 y
63.98 d
16.90 h
Y - 1.00
Y Y 1.00
- Y 1.00
Y Y 1.00
Y Y 1.00
Y - 1.00
F 0.002
*M 0.002
S 0.002
F 0.002
*M 0.002
S 0.002
F 0.002
*M 0.002
S 0.002
F 0.002
*M 0.002
S 0.002
F 0.002
*M 0.002
S 0.002
F 0.002
*M 0.002
S 0.002
1.37E-11
2.82E-11
2.99E-11
1.94E-10
1.94E-10
3.04E-10
1.55E-11
3.77E-11
4.05E-11
3.81E-10
1.81E-10
1.53E-10
1.33E-10
3.92E-10
5.06E-10
3.29E-11
8.76E-11
9.37E-11
2.21E-11
4.22E-11
4.45E-11
2.63E-10
2.42E-10
3.65E-10
2.43E-11
5.18E-11
5.52E-11
4.11E-10
1.97E-10
1.64E-10
1.77E-10
4.47E-10
5.70E-10
5.57E-11
1.30E-10
1.38E-10
34
-------
Table 2.1, continued
Nuclide T^
Niobium
Nb-88 14.3 m
Nb-895 122 m
Nb-89a 66 m
Nb-90 14.60 h
Nb-93m 13.6 y
Nb-94 2.03E4 y
Nb-95 35.15 d
Nb-95m 86.6 h
Nb-96 23.35 h
Nb-97 72.1 m
Nb-98 51.5 m
Molybdenum
Mo-90 5.67 h
Mo-93 3.5E3 y
Chain AMAD
P D (jum)
Y - 1.00
Y - 1.00
Y - 1.00
- Y 1.00
- Y 1.00
- - 1.00
- Y 1.00
Y Y 1.00
- - 1.00
- Y 1.00
- - 1.00
Y - 1.00
Y Y 1.00
Type4 f !
F 0.01
*M 0.01
S 0.01
F 0.01
*M 0.01
S 0.01
F 0.01
*M 0.01
S 0.01
F 0.01
*M 0.01
S 0.01
F 0.01
*M 0.01
S 0.01
F 0.01
*M 0.01
S 0.01
F 0.01
*M 0.01
S 0.01
F 0.01
*M 0.01
S 0.01
F 0.01
*M 0.01
S 0.01
F 0.01
*M 0.01
S 0.01
F 0.01
*M 0.01
S 0.01
F 0.8
*M 0.1
S 0.01
F 0.8
*M 0.1
S 0.01
Mortal ity
(Bq-1)
6.54E-13
1.07E-12
1.13E-12
3.46E-12
8.03E-12
8.55E-12
1.64E-12
3.71E-12
3.95E-12
1.85E-11
4.21E-11
4.47E-11
1.38E-11
4.49E-11
1.42E-10
3.89E-10
8.66E-10
3.20E-09
3.55E-11
1.26E-10
1.50E-10
1.47E-11
7.23E-11
8.13E-11
1.71E-11
4.38E-11
4.69E-11
8.52E-13
2.39E-12
2.56E-12
1.24E-12
2.73E-12
2.89E-12
6.09E-12
2.37E-11
2.61E-11
2.96E-11
3.11E-11
1.45E-10
Morbidity
(Bq-1)
7.84E-13
1.22E-12
1.28E-12
5.26E-12
1.10E-11
1.16E-11
2.31E-12
4.71E-12
4.98E-12
2.97E-11
6.14E-11
6.49E-11
1.91E-11
5.14E-11
1.53E-10
5.42E-10
1.02E-09
3.64E-09
5.12E-11
1.47E-10
1.74E-10
2.31E-11
8.84E-11
9.84E-11
2.74E-11
6.16E-11
6.55E-11
1.16E-12
2.88E-12
3.07E-12
1.66E-12
3.32E-12
3.50E-12
9.03E-12
3.36E-11
3.71E-11
3.29E-11
3.43E-11
1.55E-10
35
-------
Table 2.1, continued
Nucl ide
Chain
Ti/2 P D
Molybdenum, continued
Mo-93m 6.85 h Y -
Mo-99
Mo-101
66.0 h Y -
14.62 m Y -
AMAD
(jum)
1.00
1.00
1.00
Type4 f !
F 0.8
*M 0.1
S 0.01
F 0.8
*M 0.1
S 0.01
F 0.8
*M 0.1
S 0.01
Mortal ity
(Bq-1)
2.81E-12
8.33E-12
9.04E-12
1.44E-11
8.75E-11
9.80E-11
4.94E-13
1.05E-12
1.12E-12
Morbidity
(Bq-1)
4.09E-12
1.17E-11
1.27E-11
2.15E-11
1.16E-10
1.30E-10
5.78E-13
1.17E-12
1.23E-12
Technetium
Tc-93
Tc-93m
Tc-94
Tc-94m
Tc-95
Tc-95m
Tc-96
Tc-96m
Tc-97
Tc-97m
2.75 h Y Y
43.5 m Y -
293 m - -
52 m - Y
20.0 h - Y
61 d Y -
4.28 d - Y
51.5 m Y -
2.6E6 y - Y
87 d Y Y
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
F 0.8
*M 0.1
S 0.01
F 0.8
*M 0.1
S 0.01
F 0.8
*M 0.1
S 0.01
F 0.8
*M 0.1
S 0.01
F 0.8
*M 0.1
S 0.01
F 0.8
*M 0.1
S 0.01
F 0.8
*M 0.1
S 0.01
F 0.8
*M 0.1
S 0.01
F 0.8
*M 0.1
S 0.01
F 0.8
*M 0.1
S 0.01
7.65E-13
1.17E-12
1.22E-12
3.70E-13
6.43E-13
6.75E-13
2.96E-12
5.14E-12
5.42E-12
1.33E-12
2.21E-12
2.31E-12
2.97E-12
4.66E-12
4.91E-12
1.35E-11
7.51E-11
1.03E-10
2.22E-11
3.80E-11
4.03E-11
2.30E-13
4.03E-13
4.27E-13
1.89E-12
2.06E-11
1.22E-10
1.57E-11
2.78E-10
3.59E-10
1.28E-12
1.72E-12
1.77E-12
6.18E-13
8.58E-13
8.87E-13
5.17E-12
7.58E-12
7.91E-12
2.51E-12
2.78E-12
2.81E-12
5.00E-12
7.10E-12
7.43E-12
2.16E-11
9.20E-11
1.24E-10
3.58E-11
5.41E-11
5.68E-11
3.84E-13
5.55E-13
5.80E-13
3.16E-12
2.30E-11
1.30E-10
2.67E-11
3.03E-10
3.88E-10
36
-------
Table 2.1, continued
Nucl ide
Chain AMAD
T1/2 P D (urn)
Type4 f !
Mortal ity
(Bq-1)
Morbidity
(Bq-1)
Technetium, continued
Tc-98
Tc-99 2
Tc-99m
Tc-101
Tc-104
Ruthenium
Ru-94
Ru-97
Ru-103
Ru-105
Ru-106
Ruthenium
Ru-94
Ru-97
Ru-103
Ru-105,
h
Ru-106
Rhodium
Rh-99m
4.2E6 y - - 1.00
.13E5 y - Y 1.00
6.02 h Y Y 1.00
14.2 m - Y 1.00
18.2 m - - 1.00
(particulate)
51.8 m Y - 1.00
2.9 d Y - 1.00
39.28 d Y - 1.00
4.44 h Y - 1.00
368.2 d - - 1.00
(vapor)
51.8 m Y - -
2.9 d Y - -
39.28 d Y - -
4.44 h Y - -
368.2 d - - -
4.7 h - - 1.00
F 0.8
*M 0.1
S 0.01
F 0.8
*M 0.1
S 0.01
F 0.8
*M 0.1
S 0.01
F 0.8
*M 0.1
S 0.01
F 0.8
*M 0.1
S 0.01
F 0.05
*M 0.05
S 0.01
F 0.05
*M 0.05
S 0.01
F 0.05
*M 0.05
S 0.01
F 0.05
*M 0.05
S 0.01
F 0.05
*M 0.05
S 0.01
V 0.05
V 0.05
V 0.05
V 0.05
V 0.05
F 0.05
M 0.05
S 0.05
5.18E-11
7.12E-10
2.97E-09
1.86E-11
3.49E-10
9.67E-10
3.63E-13
1.20E-12
1.29E-12
2.66E-13
4.56E-13
4.76E-13
8.28E-13
1.26E-12
1.31E-12
1.06E-12
2.48E-12
2.64E-12
2.71E-12
6.61E-12
7.17E-12
3.28E-11
2.12E-10
2.59E-10
4.01E-12
1.30E-11
1.41E-11
6.13E-10
2.42E-09
5.56E-09
3.77E-12
8.79E-12
8.72E-11
1.47E-11
1.49E-09
8.91E-13
1.80E-12
1.91E-12
8.44E-11
8.14E-10
3.36E-09
3.14E-11
3.81E-10
1.03E-09
6.90E-13
1.54E-12
1.64E-12
3.49E-13
4.99E-13
5.16E-13
1.25E-12
1.44E-12
1.46E-12
1.65E-12
3.32E-12
3.53E-12
4.39E-12
9.08E-12
9.79E-12
5.12E-11
2.41E-10
2.90E-10
6.61E-12
1.75E-11
1.89E-11
9.41E-10
2.77E-09
6.02E-09
5.95E-12
1.47E-11
1.40E-10
2.52E-11
2.33E-09
1.41E-12
2.57E-12
2.70E-12
37
-------
Table 2.1, continued
Nuclide T^
Rhodium, continued
Rh-99 16 d
Rh-100 20.8 h
Rh-101 3.2 y
Rh-lOlm 4.34 d
Rh-102 2.9 y
Rh-102m 207 d
Rh-103m 56.12 m
Rh-105 35.36 h
Rh-106m 132 m
Rh-107 21.7 m
Palladium
Pd-100 3.63 d
Pd-101 8.27 h
Pd-103 16.96 d
Chain AMAD
P D (jum)
- - 1.00
- Y 1.00
- Y 1.00
Y Y 1.00
- Y 1.00
Y - 1.00
- Y 1.00
- Y 1.00
- - 1.00
Y - 1.00
Y - 1.00
Y - 1.00
Y Y 1.00
Type4 f !
F 0.05
M 0.05
S 0.05
F 0.05
M 0.05
S 0.05
F 0.05
M 0.05
S 0.05
F 0.05
M 0.05
S 0.05
F 0.05
M 0.05
S 0.05
F 0.05
M 0.05
S 0.05
F 0.05
M 0.05
S 0.05
F 0.05
M 0.05
S 0.05
F 0.05
M 0.05
S 0.05
F 0.05
M 0.05
S 0.05
F 0.005
M 0.005
S 0.005
F 0.005
M 0.005
S 0.005
F 0.005
M 0.005
S 0.005
Mortal ity
(Bq-1)
1.84E-11
6.64E-11
7.60E-11
1.05E-11
1.78E-11
1.87E-11
8.30E-11
1.87E-10
4.34E-10
4.81E-12
1.39E-11
1.52E-11
4.19E-10
5.06E-10
1.34E-09
1.04E-10
3.50E-10
6.17E-10
5.86E-14
2.05E-13
2.21E-13
7.18E-12
3.09E-11
3.37E-11
2.19E-12
5.30E-12
5.64E-12
3.13E-13
6.74E-13
7.13E-13
3.10E-11
6.03E-11
6.44E-11
1.72E-12
3.57E-12
3.80E-12
6.36E-12
3.56E-11
4.13E-11
Morbidity
(Bq-1)
2.90E-11
7.99E-11
9.00E-11
1.70E-11
2.70E-11
2.81E-11
1.23E-10
2.21E-10
4.90E-10
7.78E-12
1.79E-11
1.93E-11
6.16E-10
6.57E-10
1.62E-09
1.60E-10
4.09E-10
6.91E-10
7.35E-14
2.30E-13
2.47E-13
1.24E-11
3.98E-11
4.30E-11
3.29E-12
6.92E-12
7.32E-12
3.62E-13
7.38E-13
7.79E-13
4.71E-11
7.94E-11
8.39E-11
2.78E-12
5.04E-12
5.32E-12
1.05E-11
4.19E-11
4.79E-11
38
-------
Table 2.1, continued
Nuclide T^
Palladium, continued
Pd-107 6.5E6 y
Pd-109 13.427 h
Silver
Ag-102 12.9 m
Ag-103 65.7 m
Ag-104 69.2 m
Ag-104m 33.5 m
Ag-105 41.0 d
Ag-106 23.96 m
Ag-106m 8.41 d
Ag-108m 127 y
Ag-llOm 249.9 d
Ag-111 7.45 d
Ag-112 3.12 h
Chain AMAD
P D (jum)
- Y 1.00
- - 1.00
- - 1.00
Y - 1.00
- Y 1.00
Y - 1.00
- - 1.00
- - 1.00
- - 1.00
- - 1.00
- - 1.00
- - 1.00
- - 1.00
Type4 f t
F 0.005
M 0.005
S 0.005
F 0.005
M 0.005
S 0.005
F 0.05
*M 0.05
S 0.01
F 0.05
*M 0.05
S 0.01
F 0.05
*M 0.05
S 0.01
F 0.05
*M 0.05
S 0.01
F 0.05
*M 0.05
S 0.01
F 0.05
*M 0.05
S 0.01
F 0.05
*M 0.05
S 0.01
F 0.05
*M 0.05
S 0.01
F 0.05
*M 0.05
S 0.01
F 0.05
*M 0.05
S 0.01
F 0.05
*M 0.05
S 0.01
Mortal ity
1.63E-12
8.56E-12
4.22E-11
1.09E-11
3.45E-11
3.72E-11
3.89E-13
6.06E-13
6.30E-13
5.30E-13
1.34E-12
1.44E-12
7.32E-13
1.27E-12
1.33E-12
5.60E-13
1.09E-12
1.15E-12
3.91E-11
6.20E-11
7.10E-11
3.28E-13
6.49E-13
6.85E-13
6.07E-11
7.04E-11
7.17E-11
4.09E-10
5.82E-10
2.42E-09
3.90E-10
6.22E-10
1.03E-09
3.46E-11
1.45E-10
1.63E-10
5.63E-12
1.38E-11
1.48E-11
Morbidity
2.64E-12
1.01E-11
4.56E-11
1.87E-11
4.69E-11
5.00E-11
4.68E-13
6.93E-13
7.18E-13
7.27E-13
1.64E-12
1.75E-12
1.04E-12
1.69E-12
1.77E-12
7.37E-13
1.33E-12
1.40E-12
5.55E-11
7.66E-11
8.55E-11
3.95E-13
7.34E-13
7.71E-13
8.78E-11
9.58E-11
9.67E-11
5.68E-10
7.21E-10
2.82E-09
5.47E-10
7.65E-10
1.22E-09
5.63E-11
1.80E-10
2.00E-10
8.99E-12
1.96E-11
2.10E-11
39
-------
Table 2.1, continued
Nuclide T^
Silver, continued
Ag-115 20.0 m
Cadmium
Cd-104 57.7 m
Cd-107 6.49 h
Cd-109 464 d
Cd-113 9.3E15 y
Cd-113m 13.6 y
Cd-115 53.46 h
Cd-115m 44.6 d
Cd-117 2.49 h
Cd-117m 3.36 h
Indium
In-109 4.2 h
In-llOb 4.9 h
In-llOa 69.1 m
Chain AMAD
P D (jm) Type4^
Y - 1.00 F 0.05
*M 0.05
S 0.01
Y - 1.00 F 0.05
M 0.05
S 0.05
- - 1.00 F 0.05
M 0.05
S 0.05
- Y 1.00 F 0.05
M 0.05
S 0.05
- - 1.00 F 0.05
M 0.05
S 0.05
- - 1.00 F 0.05
M 0.05
S 0.05
Y Y 1.00 F 0.05
M 0.05
S 0.05
Y Y 1.00 F 0.05
M 0.05
S 0.05
Y - 1.00 F 0.05
M 0.05
S 0.05
Y - 1.00 F 0.05
M 0.05
S 0.05
Y - 1.00 F 0.02
M 0.02
S 0.02
- - 1.00 F 0.02
M 0.02
S 0.02
- Y 1.00 F 0.02
M 0.02
S 0.02
Mortal ity
(Bq-1)
6.68E-13
1.54E-12
1.65E-12
7.31E-13
1.46E-12
1.54E-12
1.08E-12
6.39E-12
6.99E-12
2.83E-10
4.12E-10
5.44E-10
2.18E-09
1.22E-09
1.11E-09
2.51E-09
1.52E-09
1.76E-09
2.69E-11
9.69E-11
1.06E-10
2.10E-10
5.66E-10
6.93E-10
4.03E-12
1.22E-11
1.31E-11
4.09E-12
1.26E-11
1.35E-11
1.07E-12
2.20E-12
2.36E-12
3.10E-12
4.79E-12
4.98E-12
1.15E-12
2.51E-12
2.66E-12
Morbidity
(Bq-1)
8.65E-13
1.84E-12
1.97E-12
1.09E-12
1.97E-12
2.07E-12
1.71E-12
7.72E-12
8.39E-12
3.99E-10
4.78E-10
5.91E-10
3.03E-09
1.60E-09
1.25E-09
3.52E-09
1.97E-09
1.95E-09
4.47E-11
1.29E-10
1.39E-10
3.09E-10
6.62E-10
7.90E-10
6.48E-12
1.65E-11
1.76E-11
6.42E-12
1.66E-11
1.77E-11
1.57E-12
2.99E-12
3.18E-12
4.73E-12
7.16E-12
7.42E-12
1.59E-12
3.16E-12
3.33E-12
40
-------
Table 2.1, continued
Nuclide T^
Indium, continued
In-Ill 2.83 d
In-112 14.4 m
In-113m 1.658 h
In-114m 49.51 d
In-115 5.1E15 y
In-115m 4.486 h
In-116m 54.15 m
In-117 43.8 m
In-117m 116.5 m
In-119m 18.0 m
Tin
Sn-110 4.0 h
Sn-111 35.3 m
Sn-113 115.1 d
Chain AMAD
P D (jum)
- Y 1.00
- - 1.00
- Y 1.00
- - 1.00
- Y 1.00
Y Y 1.00
- - 1.00
Y Y 1.00
Y Y 1.00
Y - 1.00
Y - 1.00
Y - 1.00
Y - 1.00
Type4 f !
F 0.02
M 0.02
S 0.02
F 0.02
M 0.02
S 0.02
F 0.02
M 0.02
S 0.02
F 0.02
M 0.02
S 0.02
F 0.02
M 0.02
S 0.02
F 0.02
M 0.02
S 0.02
F 0.02
M 0.02
S 0.02
F 0.02
M 0.02
S 0.02
F 0.02
M 0.02
S 0.02
F 0.02
M 0.02
S 0.02
F 0.02
M 0.02
S 0.02
F 0.02
M 0.02
S 0.02
F 0.02
M 0.02
S 0.02
Mortal ity
(Bq-1)
6.65E-12
1.66E-11
1.78E-11
1.46E-13
2.75E-13
2.89E-13
3.88E-13
1.13E-12
1.22E-12
5.52E-10
6.84E-10
7.57E-10
9.85E-09
4.29E-09
2.07E-09
1.36E-12
4.37E-12
4.71E-12
8.37E-13
1.97E-12
2.09E-12
4.72E-13
1.34E-12
1.44E-12
1.55E-12
4.98E-12
5.35E-12
4.38E-13
8.25E-13
8.68E-13
6.50E-12
1.20E-11
1.26E-11
2.90E-13
6.39E-13
6.79E-13
4.17E-11
2.36E-10
3.50E-10
Morbidity
(Bq-1)
9.95E-12
2.17E-11
2.32E-11
1.64E-13
2.98E-13
3.13E-13
5.46E-13
1.40E-12
1.49E-12
6.67E-10
8.10E-10
8.84E-10
1.09E-08
4.74E-09
2.23E-09
2.12E-12
5.80E-12
6.20E-12
1.11E-12
2.37E-12
2.51E-12
5.81E-13
1.51E-12
1.61E-12
2.29E-12
6.29E-12
6.73E-12
5.03E-13
9.02E-13
9.47E-13
1.12E-11
1.81E-11
1.89E-11
3.95E-13
7.65E-13
8.07E-13
6.36E-11
2.71E-10
3.92E-10
41
-------
Table 2.1, continued
Nuclide T^
Tin, continued
Sn-117m 13.61 d
Sn-119m 293.0 d
Sn-121 27.06 h
Sn-121m 55 y
Sn-123 129.2 d
Sn-123m 40.08 m
Sn-125 9.64 d
Sn-126 1.0E5 y
Sn-127 2.10 h
Sn-128 59.1 m
Antimony
Sb-115 31.8 m
Sb-116 15.8 m
Sb-116m 60.3 m
Chain AMAD
P D (jum)
- Y 1.00
- Y 1.00
- Y 1.00
Y - 1.00
- - 1.00
- - 1.00
Y - 1.00
Y - 1.00
Y - 1.00
Y - 1.00
- - 1.00
- Y 1.00
- - 1.00
Type4 f !
F 0.02
M 0.02
S 0.02
F 0.02
M 0.02
S 0.02
F 0.02
M 0.02
S 0.02
F 0.02
M 0.02
S 0.02
F 0.02
M 0.02
S 0.02
F 0.02
M 0.02
S 0.02
F 0.02
M 0.02
S 0.02
F 0.02
M 0.02
S 0.02
F 0.02
M 0.02
S 0.02
F 0.02
M 0.02
S 0.02
F 0.1
*M 0.01
S 0.01
F 0.1
*M 0.01
S 0.01
F 0.1
*M 0.01
S 0.01
Mortal ity
(Bq-1)
2.27E-11
2.12E-10
2.46E-10
2.20E-11
1.91E-10
2.97E-10
5.35E-12
2.18E-11
2.37E-11
5.25E-11
3.81E-10
1.10E-09
1.01E-10
7.25E-10
1.14E-09
5.25E-13
1.35E-12
1.45E-12
9.11E-11
2.97E-10
3.37E-10
7.23E-10
2.34E-09
1.02E-08
3.44E-12
9.18E-12
9.90E-12
2.10E-12
5.07E-12
5.40E-12
2.70E-13
5.36E-13
5.65E-13
2.71E-13
4.41E-13
4.59E-13
8.84E-13
1.92E-12
2.03E-12
Morbidity
(Bq-1)
3.66E-11
2.39E-10
2.75E-10
3.28E-11
2.11E-10
3.22E-10
9.28E-12
2.76E-11
2.97E-11
7.30E-11
4.16E-10
1.17E-09
1.58E-10
8.19E-10
1.25E-09
6.60E-13
1.52E-12
1.61E-12
1.51E-10
3.81E-10
4.24E-10
1.02E-09
2.69E-09
1.11E-08
5.48E-12
1.19E-11
1.27E-11
3.01E-12
6.18E-12
6.52E-12
3.45E-13
6.30E-13
6.61E-13
3.33E-13
5.09E-13
5.29E-13
1.22E-12
2.38E-12
2.51E-12
42
-------
Table 2.1, continued
Nucl ide
Antimony,
Sb-117
Sb-118m
Sb-119
Sb-1205
Sb-120a
Sb-122
Sb-124
Sb-124n
b
Sb-125
Sb-126
Sb-126m
Sb-127
Sb-128b
Sb-128a
T
1/2
Chain AMAD
P D (jum)
Type4
fl
Mortal ity
(Bq-1)
Morbidity
(Bq-1)
continued
2.
5.
38
5.
15.
2.
60.
20
2.
12
19
3.
9.
10
80
00
.1
76
89
70
20
.2
77
.4
.0
85
01
.4
h
h
h
d
m
d
d
m
y
d
m
d
h
m
- - 1.00
- - 1.00
- - 1.00
- - 1.00
- - 1.00
- - 1.00
- Y 1.00
Y - 1.00
Y - 1.00
- Y 1.00
Y Y 1.00
Y Y 1.00
- - 1.00
- Y 1.00
F
*M
S
F
*M
S
F
*M
S
F
*M
S
F
*M
S
F
*M
S
F
*M
S
F
*M
S
F
*M
S
F
*M
S
F
*M
S
F
*M
S
F
*M
S
F
*M
S
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
.1
.01
.01
.1
.01
.01
.1
.01
.01
.1
.01
.01
.1
.01
.01
.1
.01
.01
.1
.01
.01
.1
.01
.01
.1
.01
.01
.1
.01
.01
.1
.01
.01
.1
.01
.01
.1
.01
.01
.1
.01
.01
2
8
9
2
4
5
1
2
3
2
6
7
1
2
2
3
1
1
8
5
7
1
2
3
7
3
9
5
2
2
3
7
7
3
1
1
1
2
2
3
5
5
.63E-13
.76E-13
.43E-13
.72E-12
.84E-12
.07E-12
.41E-12
.95E-12
.12E-12
.46E-11
.78E-11
.41E-11
.54E-13
.74E-13
.87E-13
.34E-11
.06E-10
.15E-10
.55E-11
.65E-10
.54E-10
.01E-13
.72E-13
.16E-13
.52E-11
.99E-10
.74E-10
.90E-11
.51E-10
.85E-10
.99E-13
.53E-13
.94E-13
.50E-11
.60E-10
.77E-10
.11E-11
.68E-11
.85E-11
.32E-13
.14E-13
.34E-13
3
1
1
4
7
7
2
4
4
3
8
9
1
3
3
5
1
1
1
6
8
1
3
3
1
4
1
9
3
3
4
8
8
5
2
2
1
3
4
3
5
5
.94E-13
.10E-12
.17E-12
.25E-12
.14E-12
.44E-12
.41E-12
.69E-12
.93E-12
.82E-11
.91E-11
.64E-11
.80E-13
.04E-13
.18E-13
.64E-11
.48E-10
.58E-10
.30E-10
.58E-10
.65E-10
.28E-13
.12E-13
.60E-13
.04E-10
.49E-10
.08E-09
.26E-11
.10E-10
.49E-10
.83E-13
.54E-13
.97E-13
.83E-11
.03E-10
.23E-10
.82E-11
.89E-11
.11E-11
.85E-13
.72E-13
.92E-13
43
-------
Table 2.1, continued
Nucl ide
Antimony
Sb-129
Sb-130
Sb-131
Tellurium
Te-116
Te-121
Te-121m
Te-123
Te-123m
Te-125m
Te-127
Te-127m
Te-129
Te-129m
Tl/2
, continued
4.32 h
40 m
23 m
(particulate)
2.49 h
17 d
154 d
1E13 y
119.7 d
58 d
9.35 h
109 d
69.6 m
33.6 d
Chain AMAD
P D (jum)
Y - 1.00
- - 1.00
Y - 1.00
Y - 1.00
- Y 1.00
Y - 1.00
- Y 1.00
Y Y 1.00
- Y 1.00
- Y 1.00
Y Y 1.00
Y Y 1.00
Y Y 1.00
Type4 f !
F 0.1
*M 0.01
S 0.01
F 0.1
*M 0.01
S 0.01
F 0.1
*M 0.01
S 0.01
F 0.3
*M 0.1
S 0.01
F 0.3
*M 0.1
S 0.01
F 0.3
*M 0.1
S 0.01
F 0.3
*M 0.1
S 0.01
F 0.3
*M 0.1
S 0.01
F 0.3
*M 0.1
S 0.01
F 0.3
*M 0.1
S 0.01
F 0.3
*M 0.1
S 0.01
F 0.3
*M 0.1
S 0.01
F 0.3
*M 0.1
S 0.01
Mortal ity
(Bq-1)
6.54E-12
1.86E-11
2.00E-11
1.06E-12
2.20E-12
2.33E-12
9.24E-13
2.11E-12
2.25E-12
2.44E-12
6.41E-12
6.93E-12
1.22E-11
2.69E-11
3.02E-11
9.62E-11
3.43E-10
4.91E-10
9.22E-11
5.97E-11
1.27E-10
4.48E-11
3.34E-10
4.41E-10
2.54E-11
2.88E-10
3.61E-10
2.98E-12
1.24E-11
1.37E-11
8.65E-11
6.34E-10
8.60E-10
7.77E-13
2.26E-12
2.43E-12
9.13E-11
5.83E-10
7.15E-10
Morbidity
(Bq-1)
1.08E-11
2.60E-11
2.78E-11
1.38E-12
2.63E-12
2.77E-12
2.41E-12
2.63E-12
2.60E-12
3.83E-12
8.66E-12
9.34E-12
1.86E-11
3.52E-11
3.88E-11
1.32E-10
3.88E-10
5.48E-10
1.05E-10
6.77E-11
1.39E-10
6.25E-11
3.67E-10
4.80E-10
3.87E-11
3.16E-10
3.92E-10
5.08E-12
1.65E-11
1.83E-11
1.20E-10
6.97E-10
9.34E-10
1.06E-12
2.69E-12
2.88E-12
1.50E-10
6.72E-10
8.11E-10
44
-------
Table 2.1, continued
Nucl ide
Tellurium
Te-131
Te-131m
Te-132
Te-133
Te-133m
Te-134
Tellurium
Te-116
Te-121
Te-121m
Te-123
Te-123m
Te-125m
Te-127
Te-127m
Te-129
Te-129m
Te-131
Te-131m
Te-132
Te-133
Te-133m
Te-134
Chain
T P n
1 i /o 1 U
(particulate)
25.0
30
78.2
12.45
55.4
41.8
(vapor)
2.49
17
154
1E13
119.7
58
9.35
109
69.6
33.6
25.0
30
78.2
12.45
55.4
41.8
m
h
h
m
m
m
h
d
d
y
d
d
h
d
m
d
m
h
h
m
m
m
AMAD
(jum) Type4
fl
Mortal ity
Morbidity
, continued
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
-
Y
-
Y
-
-
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
-
Y
-
-
-
Y
-
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
-
Y
-
-
1.00 F
*M
S
1.00 F
*M
S
1.00 F
*M
S
1.00 F
*M
S
1.00 F
*M
S
1.00 F
*M
S
V
V
V
V
V
V
V
V
V
V
V
V
V
V
V
V
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
.3
.1
.01
.3
.1
.01
.3
.1
.01
.3
.1
.01
.3
.1
.01
.3
.1
.01
.3
.3
.3
.3
.3
.3
.3
.3
.3
.3
.3
.3
.3
.3
.3
.3
6
1
1
2
7
8
6
1
1
5
9
9
2
4
5
1
3
3
5
3
2
2
1
6
6
2
2
2
2
5
1
1
6
4
.60E-13
.34E-12
.42E-12
.52E-11
.77E-11
.56E-11
.08E-11
.74E-10
.91E-10
.07E-13
.31E-13
.81E-13
.19E-12
.91E-12
.24E-12
.31E-12
.43E-12
.66E-12
.12E-12
.26E-11
.86E-10
.81E-10
.28E-10
.89E-11
.OOE-12
.43E-10
.52E-12
.29E-10
.49E-12
.52E-11
.40E-10
.84E-12
.02E-12
.21E-12
2
1
1
9
1
1
2
2
2
2
1
1
9
7
6
2
4
4
7
4
3
3
1
1
9
3
3
3
6
2
5
5
2
8
.25E-12
.73E-12
.60E-12
.95E-11
.14E-10
.13E-10
.19E-10
.52E-10
.54E-10
.05E-12
.33E-12
.23E-12
.06E-12
.14E-12
.80E-12
.95E-12
.33E-12
.49E-12
.47E-12
.91E-11
.87E-10
.21E-10
.75E-10
.02E-10
.25E-12
.28E-10
.06E-12
.66E-10
.62E-12
.59E-10
.78E-10
.83E-12
.37E-11
.47E-12
Iodine (particulate)
1-120
I -120m
81.0
53
m
m
-
-
-
-
1.00 *F
M
S
1.00 *F
M
S
1
0
0
1
0
0
.0
.1
.01
.0
.1
.01
2
5
6
2
3
4
.92E-12
.82E-12
.11E-12
.10E-12
.94E-12
.13E-12
1
8
7
5
5
5
.05E-11
.17E-12
.94E-12
.36E-12
.19E-12
.18E-12
45
-------
Table 2.1, continued
Nucl ide
T
1/2
Iodine (participate),
1-121
1-123
1-124
1-125
1-126
1-128
1-129
1-130
1-131
1-132
I -132m
1-133
1-134
1-135
2.
13
4.
60.
13.
24.
12 h
.2 h
18 d
14 d
02 d
99 m
1.57E7 y
12.
8.
2.
83
20
52
6.
36 h
04 d
30 h
.6 m
.8 h
.6 m
61 h
Chain
P D
continued
Y -
Y -
-
- Y
-
-
- Y
-
- Y
- Y
Y -
- Y
- Y
Y -
AMAD
(jum)
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
Type4
*F
M
S
*F
M
S
*F
M
S
*F
M
S
*F
M
S
*F
M
S
*F
M
S
*F
M
S
*F
M
S
*F
M
S
*F
M
S
*F
M
S
*F
M
S
*F
M
S
1
0
0
1
0
0
1
0
0
1
0
0
1
0
0
1
0
0
1
0
0
1
0
0
1
0
0
1
0
0
1
0
0
1
0
0
1
0
0
1
0
0
fl
.0
.1
.01
.0
.1
.01
.0
.1
.01
.0
.1
.01
.0
.1
.01
.0
.1
.01
.0
.1
.01
.0
.1
.01
.0
.1
.01
.0
.1
.01
.0
.1
.01
.0
.1
.01
.0
.1
.01
.0
.1
.01
Mortal ity
(Bq-1)
5
1
1
1
3
4
5
6
6
2
2
3
1
1
1
4
9
9
1
2
5
1
2
2
5
1
1
2
6
6
1
4
4
1
4
4
1
2
2
5
1
1
.43E-13
.24E-12
.32E-12
.13E-12
.81E-12
.14E-12
.12E-11
.04E-11
.16E-11
.97E-11
.91E-11
.24E-11
.04E-10
.20E-10
.23E-10
.59E-13
.11E-13
.61E-13
.68E-10
.60E-10
.96E-10
.04E-11
.67E-11
.87E-11
.55E-11
.29E-10
.40E-10
.46E-12
.09E-12
.49E-12
.56E-12
.24E-12
.54E-12
.93E-11
.02E-11
.29E-11
.15E-12
.47E-12
.61E-12
.56E-12
.47E-11
.58E-11
Morbidity
(Bq-1)
2
1
1
8
5
5
4
1
8
2
8
4
1
2
1
8
1
1
1
7
6
7
4
4
5
2
1
1
8
8
7
6
6
1
7
6
2
3
3
3
2
2
.65E-12
.85E-12
.71E-12
.18E-12
.83E-12
.51E-12
.77E-10
.39E-10
.76E-11
.87E-10
.71E-11
.04E-11
.OOE-09
.81E-10
.54E-10
.21E-13
.03E-12
.06E-12
.64E-09
.64E-10
.91E-10
.47E-11
.48E-11
.09E-11
.27E-10
.20E-10
.69E-10
.01E-11
.72E-12
.58E-12
.31E-12
.88E-12
.82E-12
.69E-10
.48E-11
.21E-11
.77E-12
.12E-12
.16E-12
.63E-11
.37E-11
.22E-11
46
-------
Table 2.1, continued
Nucl ide
Chain
T P n
1 i /o 1 U
AMAD
(jum) Type4
fl
Mortal ity
Morbidity
Iodine (vapor)
1-120
I -120m
1-121
1-123
1-124
1-125
1-126
1-128
1-129
1-130.
h
1-131
1-132
I-132m
1-133
1-134
1-135
81.0
53
2.12
13.2
4.18
60.14
13.02
24.99
1.57E7
12.36
8.04
2.30
83.6
20.8
52.6
6.61
m
m
h
h
d
d
d
m
y
h
d
h
m
h
m
h
-
-
Y
Y
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
Y
-
-
Y
-
-
-
-
-
Y
-
-
Y
-
Y
Y
-
Y
Y
-
V
V
V
V
V
V
V
V
V
V
V
V
V
V
V
V
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
1
8
2
4
1
7
2
4
4
3
1
1
8
5
7
1
.02E-11
.05E-12
.52E-12
.OOE-12
.32E-10
.75E-11
.70E-10
.56E-12
.42E-10
.15E-11
.48E-10
.12E-11
.67E-12
.46E-11
.41E-12
.93E-11
3
1
8
2
1
7
2
5
4
1
1
3
2
4
1
9
.01E-11
.67E-11
.05E-12
.22E-11
.23E-09
.48E-10
.59E-09
.69E-12
.32E-09
.97E-10
.36E-09
.12E-11
.37E-11
.39E-10
.19E-11
.86E-11
Iodine (methyl iodide)
1-120
I -120m
1-121
1-123
1-124
1-125
1-126
1-128
1-129
1-130
1-131
1-132
I-132m
1-133
1-134
1-135
Cesium
Cs-125
Cs-127
81.0
53
2.12
13.2
4.18
60.14
13.02
24.99
1.57E7
12.36
8.04
2.30
83.6
20.8
52.6
6.61
45
6.25
m
m
h
h
d
d
d
m
y
h
d
h
m
h
m
h
m
h
-
-
Y
Y
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
Y
-
-
Y
Y
-
-
-
-
-
-
Y
-
-
Y
-
Y
Y
-
Y
Y
-
-
-
V
V
V
V
V
V
V
V
V
V
V
V
V
V
V
V
1.00 *F
M
S
1.00 *F
M
S
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
0
0
1
0
0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.1
.01
.0
.1
.01
4
2
8
2
1
6
2
3
3
1
1
3
2
3
1
1
3
9
9
4
1
2
.41E-12
.77E-12
.84E-13
.08E-12
.02E-10
.03E-11
.08E-10
.69E-13
.43E-10
.93E-11
.10E-10
.88E-12
.40E-12
.76E-11
.38E-12
.01E-11
.61E-13
.26E-13
.85E-13
.73E-13
.94E-12
.11E-12
2
1
5
1
9
5
2
1
3
1
1
2
1
3
5
7
4
1
1
6
2
2
.26E-11
.09E-11
.41E-12
.65E-11
.56E-10
.83E-10
.02E-09
.44E-12
.36E-09
.51E-10
.06E-09
.09E-11
.43E-11
.41E-10
.40E-12
.42E-11
.44E-13
.10E-12
.16E-12
.68E-13
.71E-12
.96E-12
47
-------
Table 2.1, continued
Nuclide T^
Cesium, continued
Cs-129 32.06 h
Cs-130 29.9 m
Cs-131 9.69 d
Cs-132 6.475 d
Cs-134 2.062 y
Cs-134m 2.90 h
Cs-135 2.3E6 y
Cs-135m 53 m
Cs-136 13.1 d
b
Cs-137 30.0 y
Cs-138 32.2 m
Barium
Ba-126 96.5 m
Ba-128 2.43 d
Chain AMAD
P D (jum)
- - 1.00
- - 1.00
- Y 1.00
- - 1.00
- Y 1.00
Y - 1.00
- Y 1.00
Y - 1.00
- - 1.00
- - 1.00
- - 1.00
- - 1.00
- - 1.00
Type4 f t
*F 1.0
M 0.1
S 0.01
*F 1.0
M 0.1
S 0.01
*F 1.0
M 0.1
S 0.01
*F 1.0
M 0.1
S 0.01
*F 1.0
M 0.1
S 0.01
*F 1.0
M 0.1
S 0.01
*F 1.0
M 0.1
S 0.01
*F 1.0
M 0.1
S 0.01
*F 1.0
M 0.1
S 0.01
*F 1.0
M 0.1
S 0.01
*F 1.0
M 0.1
S 0.01
F 0.2
*M 0.1
S 0.01
F 0.2
*M 0.1
S 0.01
Mortal ity
1.37E-12
4.37E-12
4.78E-12
2.82E-13
6.25E-13
6.61E-13
1.36E-12
3.43E-12
3.78E-12
1.09E-11
1.90E-11
2.02E-11
3.05E-10
7.05E-10
1.66E-09
4.41E-13
3.65E-12
4.15E-12
3.40E-11
2.58E-10
6.30E-10
2.63E-13
4.91E-13
5.14E-13
6.39E-11
2.12E-10
2.40E-10
2.19E-10
7.81E-10
2.77E-09
8.94E-13
1.93E-12
2.04E-12
4.61E-12
7.06E-12
7.35E-12
7.15E-11
1.33E-10
1.43E-10
Morbidity
2.01E-12
6.42E-12
7.05E-12
3.36E-13
7.15E-13
7.54E-13
2.03E-12
4.59E-12
5.04E-12
1.60E-11
2.58E-11
2.73E-11
4.45E-10
8.36E-10
1.89E-09
5.38E-13
4.21E-12
4.78E-12
5.03E-11
2.82E-10
6.72E-10
3.56E-13
6.57E-13
6.85E-13
9.44E-11
2.54E-10
2.83E-10
3.21E-10
8.91E-10
3.03E-09
1.08E-12
2.25E-12
2.37E-12
7.39E-12
9.42E-12
9.69E-12
1.25E-10
1.95E-10
2.08E-10
48
-------
Table 2.1, continued
Nuclide T^
Barium, continued
Ba-131 11.8 d
Ba-131m 14.6 m
Ba-133 10.74 y
Ba-133m 38.9 h
Ba-135m 28.7 h
Ba-139 82.7 m
Ba-140 12.74 d
Ba-141 18.27 m
Ba-142 10.6 m
Lanthanum
La-131 59 m
La-132 4.8 h
La-135 19.5 h
La-137 6E4 y
Chain AMAD
P D (jum)
Y Y 1.00
Y - 1.00
- Y 1.00
Y - 1.00
- - 1.00
- - 1.00
Y - 1.00
Y - 1.00
Y - 1.00
Y - 1.00
- - 1.00
- Y 1.00
- Y 1.00
Type4 f !
F 0.2
*M 0.1
S 0.01
F 0.2
*M 0.1
S 0.01
F 0.2
*M 0.1
S 0.01
F 0.2
*M 0.1
S 0.01
F 0.2
*M 0.1
S 0.01
F 0.2
*M 0.1
S 0.01
F 0.2
*M 0.1
S 0.01
F 0.2
*M 0.1
S 0.01
F 0.2
*M 0.1
S 0.01
F 0.0005
M 0.0005
S 0.0005
F 0.0005
M 0.0005
S 0.0005
F 0.0005
M 0.0005
S 0.0005
F 0.0005
M 0.0005
S 0.0005
Mortal ity
(Bq-1)
1.33E-11
6.68E-11
7.63E-11
1.90E-13
4.23E-13
4.52E-13
1.23E-10
2.67E-10
7.74E-10
1.43E-11
4.17E-11
4.57E-11
1.12E-11
3.27E-11
3.57E-11
2.17E-12
3.84E-12
4.03E-12
1.02E-10
4.61E-10
5.30E-10
1.17E-12
2.03E-12
2.15E-12
6.09E-13
9.95E-13
1.04E-12
4.89E-13
1.24E-12
1.33E-12
5.32E-12
1.14E-11
1.21E-11
4.51E-13
8.74E-13
9.22E-13
3.11E-10
1.35E-10
1.27E-10
Morbidity
(Bq-1)
2.17E-11
7.87E-11
8.89E-11
2.17E-13
4.57E-13
4.87E-13
1.69E-10
3.14E-10
8.78E-10
2.51E-11
5.51E-11
6.00E-11
1.96E-11
4.34E-11
4.71E-11
3.39E-12
4.83E-12
5.00E-12
1.70E-10
5.48E-10
6.20E-10
1.77E-12
2.62E-12
2.75E-12
8.70E-13
1.23E-12
1.27E-12
6.57E-13
1.48E-12
1.59E-12
8.51E-12
1.69E-11
1.78E-11
7.25E-13
1.36E-12
1.43E-12
3.77E-10
1.62E-10
1.42E-10
49
-------
Table 2.1, continued
Nucl ide
Tl/2
Chain AMAD
P D (jum)
Type4 f !
Mortal ity
(Bq-1)
Morbidity
(Bq-1)
Lanthanum, continued
La-138
La-140
La-141
La-142
La-143
Cerium
Ce-134
Ce-135
Ce-137
Ce-137m
Ce-139
Ce-141
Ce-143
Ce-144
1.35E11 y
40.272 h
3.93 h
92.5 m
14.23 m
72.0 h
17.6 h
9.0 h
34.4 h
137.66 d
32.501 d
33.0 h
284.3 d
- - 1.00
- Y 1.00
Y Y 1.00
- Y 1.00
Y - 1.00
- - 1.00
Y - 1.00
Y Y 1.00
Y - 1.00
- Y 1.00
- Y 1.00
Y Y 1.00
Y - 1.00
F 0.0005
M 0.0005
S 0.0005
F 0.0005
M 0.0005
S 0.0005
F 0.0005
M 0.0005
S 0.0005
F 0.0005
M 0.0005
S 0.0005
F 0.0005
M 0.0005
S 0.0005
F 0.0005
*M 0.0005
S 0.0005
F 0.0005
*M 0.0005
S 0.0005
F 0.0005
*M 0.0005
S 0.0005
F 0.0005
*M 0.0005
S 0.0005
F 0.0005
*M 0.0005
S 0.0005
F 0.0005
*M 0.0005
S 0.0005
F 0.0005
*M 0.0005
S 0.0005
F 0.0005
*M 0.0005
S 0.0005
6.35E-09
2.65E-09
1.77E-09
3.67E-11
8.98E-11
9.61E-11
5.16E-12
1.43E-11
1.55E-11
2.17E-12
5.05E-12
5.36E-12
5.76E-13
1.28E-12
1.36E-12
5.05E-11
1.31E-10
1.41E-10
1.23E-11
3.42E-11
3.67E-11
3.56E-13
6.94E-13
7.32E-13
9.43E-12
3.97E-11
4.33E-11
8.83E-11
1.34E-10
1.67E-10
4.93E-11
2.76E-10
3.30E-10
2.14E-11
7.50E-11
8.24E-11
1.95E-09
2.65E-09
4.49E-09
8.24E-09
3.39E-09
2.10E-09
5.83E-11
1.29E-10
1.37E-10
8.30E-12
2.01E-11
2.16E-11
3.14E-12
6.54E-12
6.92E-12
7.26E-13
1.53E-12
1.63E-12
8.02E-11
1.88E-10
2.01E-10
1.97E-11
4.74E-11
5.06E-11
5.86E-13
1.11E-12
1.17E-12
1.55E-11
5.24E-11
5.67E-11
1.14E-10
1.53E-10
1.86E-10
6.41E-11
3.07E-10
3.64E-10
3.41E-11
1.01E-10
1.10E-10
2.26E-09
2.96E-09
4.87E-09
50
-------
Table 2.1, continued
Nuclide T^
Praseodymium
Pr-136 13.1 m
Pr-137 76.6 m
Pr-138m 2.1 h
Pr-139 4.51 h
Pr-142 19.13 h
Pr-142m 14.6 m
Pr-143 13.56 d
Pr-144 17.28 m
Pr-145 5.98 h
Pr-147 13.6 m
Neodymium
Nd-136 50.65 m
Nd-138 5.04 h
Nd-139 29.7 m
Chain AMAD
P D (jum)
- Y 1.00
Y - 1.00
- - 1.00
Y Y 1.00
- Y 1.00
Y - 1.00
- Y 1.00
- Y 1.00
- - 1.00
Y - 1.00
Y - 1.00
- - 1.00
Y Y 1.00
Type4 f !
F 0.0005
M 0.0005
S 0.0005
F 0.0005
M 0.0005
S 0.0005
F 0.0005
M 0.0005
S 0.0005
F 0.0005
M 0.0005
S 0.0005
F 0.0005
M 0.0005
S 0.0005
F 0.0005
M 0.0005
S 0.0005
F 0.0005
M 0.0005
S 0.0005
F 0.0005
M 0.0005
S 0.0005
F 0.0005
M 0.0005
S 0.0005
F 0.0005
M 0.0005
S 0.0005
F 0.0005
M 0.0005
S 0.0005
F 0.0005
M 0.0005
S 0.0005
F 0.0005
M 0.0005
S 0.0005
Mortal ity
(Bq-1)
3.14E-13
4.95E-13
5.15E-13
4.87E-13
1.09E-12
1.16E-12
1.67E-12
3.35E-12
3.54E-12
5.69E-13
1.27E-12
1.39E-12
2.28E-11
5.71E-11
6.10E-11
2.90E-13
7.30E-13
7.80E-13
3.86E-11
1.96E-10
2.24E-10
4.60E-13
8.45E-13
8.87E-13
6.22E-12
1.62E-11
1.74E-11
4.04E-13
8.21E-13
8.76E-13
1.18E-12
2.78E-12
2.96E-12
9.55E-12
2.12E-11
2.25E-11
2.35E-13
4.94E-13
5.27E-13
Morbidity
(Bq-1)
3.75E-13
5.61E-13
5.82E-13
7.04E-13
1.42E-12
1.50E-12
2.49E-12
4.55E-12
4.77E-12
8.73E-13
1.75E-12
1.88E-12
3.87E-11
8.60E-11
9.13E-11
4.95E-13
1.10E-12
1.17E-12
5.48E-11
2.32E-10
2.63E-10
5.30E-13
9.24E-13
9.68E-13
1.04E-11
2.36E-11
2.50E-11
4.69E-13
9.11E-13
9.70E-13
1.64E-12
3.43E-12
3.63E-12
1.58E-11
3.18E-11
3.36E-11
3.12E-13
6.05E-13
6.41E-13
51
-------
Table 2.1, continued
Nucl ide
Chain
Ti/2 P D
AMAD
(jum)
Type4 f !
Mortal ity
(Bq-1)
Morbidity
(Bq-1)
Neodymium, continued
Nd-139m
Nd-141
Nd-147
Nd-149
Nd-151
5.5 h Y -
2.49 h - Y
10.98 d Y Y
1.73 h Y -
12.44 m Y -
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
F 0.0005
M 0.0005
S 0.0005
F 0.0005
M 0.0005
S 0.0005
F 0.0005
M 0.0005
S 0.0005
F 0.0005
M 0.0005
S 0.0005
F 0.0005
M 0.0005
S 0.0005
3.84E-12
9.07E-12
9.70E-12
1.10E-13
2.53E-13
2.68E-13
3.76E-11
1.90E-10
2.18E-10
1.93E-12
6.30E-12
6.80E-12
3.96E-13
8.36E-13
8.86E-13
6.04E-12
1.27E-11
1.34E-11
1.67E-13
3.42E-13
3.62E-13
5.24E-11
2.24E-10
2.53E-10
2.89E-12
8.02E-12
8.61E-12
4.99E-13
l.OOE-12
1.06E-12
Promethium
Pm-141
Pm-143
Pm-144
Pm-145
Pm-146
Pm-147
Pm-148
Pm-148m
20.90 m Y Y
265 d - Y
363 d - Y
17.7 y - Y
2020 d Y -
2.6234 y Y Y
5.37 d - Y
41.3 d Y -
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
F 0.0005
M 0.0005
S 0.0005
F 0.0005
M 0.0005
S 0.0005
F 0.0005
M 0.0005
S 0.0005
F 0.0005
M 0.0005
S 0.0005
F 0.0005
M 0.0005
S 0.0005
F 0.0005
M 0.0005
S 0.0005
F 0.0005
M 0.0005
S 0.0005
F 0.0005
M 0.0005
S 0.0005
3.45E-13
6.44E-13
6.77E-13
1.86E-10
1.07E-10
1.21E-10
1.13E-09
5.82E-10
6.19E-10
2.97E-10
1.48E-10
1.60E-10
2.23E-09
1.14E-09
1.29E-09
2.28E-10
2.90E-10
4.06E-10
6.50E-11
1.96E-10
2.15E-10
2.47E-10
4.30E-10
4.98E-10
4.21E-13
7.36E-13
7.70E-13
2.45E-10
1.35E-10
1.45E-10
1.49E-09
7.46E-10
7.47E-10
3.47E-10
1.70E-10
1.78E-10
2.79E-09
1.38E-09
1.46E-09
2.46E-10
3.13E-10
4.34E-10
9.92E-11
2.62E-10
2.84E-10
3.26E-10
5.04E-10
5.74E-10
52
-------
Table 2.1, continued
Nucl ide
Chain
Ti/2 P D
AMAD
(jum)
Type4 f !
Mortal ity
(Bq-1)
Morbidity
(Bq-1)
Promethium, continued
Pm-149
Pm-150
Pm-151
Samarium
Sm-141
Sm-141m
Sm-142
Sm-145
Sm-146
Sm-147 1
Sm-151
Sm-153
Sm-155
Sm-156
53.08 h - Y
2.68 h - -
28.40 h Y Y
10.2 m Y Y
22.6 m Y -
72.49 m - -
340 d Y Y
1.03E8 y - Y
.06E11 y - Y
90 y - Y
46.7 h - -
22.1 m Y -
9.4 h Y -
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
F 0.0005
M 0.0005
S 0.0005
F 0.0005
M 0.0005
S 0.0005
F 0.0005
M 0.0005
S 0.0005
F 0.0005
M 0.0005
S 0.0005
F 0.0005
M 0.0005
S 0.0005
F 0.0005
M 0.0005
S 0.0005
F 0.0005
M 0.0005
S 0.0005
F 0.0005
M 0.0005
S 0.0005
F 0.0005
M 0.0005
S 0.0005
F 0.0005
M 0.0005
S 0.0005
F 0.0005
M 0.0005
S 0.0005
F 0.0005
M 0.0005
S 0.0005
F 0.0005
M 0.0005
S 0.0005
1.92E-11
6.75E-11
7.34E-11
3.54E-12
8.67E-12
9.24E-12
1.31E-11
4.34E-11
4.69E-11
3.68E-13
6.62E-13
6.94E-13
6.95E-13
1.44E-12
1.53E-12
2.03E-12
4.54E-12
4.82E-12
1.35E-10
1.05E-10
1.38E-10
3.37E-07
1.95E-07
2.73E-07
3.06E-07
1.69E-07
2.38E-07
2.31E-10
1.23E-10
1.23E-10
1.42E-11
6.14E-11
6.71E-11
3.61E-13
7.79E-13
8.25E-13
5.98E-12
2.05E-11
2.26E-11
3.15E-11
9.16E-11
9.89E-11
5.50E-12
1.18E-11
1.25E-11
2.16E-11
5.94E-11
6.38E-11
4.47E-13
7.54E-13
7.88E-13
8.95E-13
1.70E-12
1.79E-12
2.88E-12
5.77E-12
6.09E-12
1.61E-10
1.22E-10
1.55E-10
3.76E-07
2.13E-07
2.88E-07
3.41E-07
1.86E-07
2.51E-07
2.48E-10
1.32E-10
1.32E-10
2.32E-11
7.96E-11
8.63E-11
4.15E-13
8.50E-13
8.99E-13
9.13E-12
2.62E-11
2.86E-11
53
-------
Table 2.1, continued
Nucl ide
Europium
Eu-145
Eu-146
Eu-147
Eu-148
Eu-149
Eu-150b
Eu-150a
Eu-152
Eu-152m
Eu-154
Eu-155
Eu-156
Eu-157
Eu-158
Chain AMAD
Tj/2 P D (Vm) Type4 f1
5.94 d
4.61 d
24 d
54.5 d
93.1 d
34.2 y
12.62 h
13.33 y
9.32 h
8.8 y
4.96 y
15.19 d
15.15 h
45.9 m
Y Y 1.00
Y Y 1.00
Y Y 1.00
Y - 1.00
- Y 1.00
- - 1.00
- - 1.00
Y - 1.00
Y - 1.00
- - 1.00
- Y 1.00
- Y 1.00
- - 1.00
- - 1.00
F 0.0005
M 0.0005
S 0.0005
F 0.0005
M 0.0005
S 0.0005
F 0.0005
M 0.0005
S 0.0005
F 0.0005
M 0.0005
S 0.0005
F 0.0005
M 0.0005
S 0.0005
F 0.0005
M 0.0005
S 0.0005
F 0.0005
M 0.0005
S 0.0005
F 0.0005
M 0.0005
S 0.0005
F 0.0005
M 0.0005
S 0.0005
F 0.0005
M 0.0005
S 0.0005
F 0.0005
M 0.0005
S 0.0005
F 0.0005
M 0.0005
S 0.0005
F 0.0005
M 0.0005
S 0.0005
F 0.0005
M 0.0005
S 0.0005
Mortal ity
2.72E-11
3.60E-11
3.81E-11
3.66E-11
5.02E-11
5.22E-11
3.56E-11
8.92E-11
1.02E-10
2.51E-10
2.11E-10
2.29E-10
2.14E-11
2.40E-11
2.93E-11
5.56E-09
2.38E-09
2.03E-09
6.59E-12
1.96E-11
2.11E-11
4.12E-09
2.02E-09
2.15E-09
8.32E-12
2.06E-11
2.20E-11
4.69E-09
2.65E-09
3.43E-09
4.48E-10
3.59E-10
4.67E-10
9.98E-11
3.07E-10
3.48E-10
1.05E-11
2.96E-11
3.18E-11
1.07E-12
2.54E-12
2.70E-12
Morbidity
3.87E-11
4.89E-11
5.13E-11
5.32E-11
7.01E-11
7.25E-11
4.84E-11
1.04E-10
1.18E-10
3.38E-10
2.68E-10
2.83E-10
2.73E-11
2.89E-11
3.43E-11
7.14E-09
3.02E-09
2.41E-09
1.12E-11
2.78E-11
2.96E-11
5.14E-09
2.46E-09
2.45E-09
1.40E-11
3.04E-11
3.22E-11
5.71E-09
3.12E-09
3.81E-09
5.15E-10
4.01E-10
5.08E-10
1.40E-10
3.70E-10
4.15E-10
1.76E-11
4.23E-11
4.50E-11
1.38E-12
2.97E-12
3.14E-12
54
-------
Table 2.1, continued
Nuclide T^
Gadolinium
Gd-145 22.9 m
Gd-146 48.3 d
Gd-147 38.1 h
Gd-148 93 y
Gd-149 9.4 d
Gd-151 120 d
Gd-152 1.08E14 y
Gd-153 242 d
Gd-159 18.56 h
Terbium
Tb-147 1.65 h
Tb-149 4.15 h
Tb-150 3.27 h
Tb-151 17.6 h
Chain AMAD
P D (jum)
Y - 1.00
Y - 1.00
Y Y 1.00
- - 1.00
Y Y 1.00
Y Y 1.00
- Y 1.00
- Y 1.00
- - 1.00
Y - 1.00
Y - 1.00
- - 1.00
Y - 1.00
Type4 f !
F 0.0005
M 0.0005
S 0.0005
F 0.0005
M 0.0005
S 0.0005
F 0.0005
M 0.0005
S 0.0005
F 0.0005
M 0.0005
S 0.0005
F 0.0005
M 0.0005
S 0.0005
F 0.0005
M 0.0005
S 0.0005
F 0.0005
M 0.0005
S 0.0005
F 0.0005
M 0.0005
S 0.0005
F 0.0005
M 0.0005
S 0.0005
F 0.0005
M 0.0005
S 0.0005
F 0.0005
M 0.0005
S 0.0005
F 0.0005
M 0.0005
S 0.0005
F 0.0005
M 0.0005
S 0.0005
Mortal ity
(Bq-1)
4.87E-13
8.22E-13
8.62E-13
2.83E-10
5.32E-10
6.30E-10
1.27E-11
2.66E-11
2.87E-11
2.99E-07
2.39E-07
3.92E-07
1.80E-11
6.28E-11
7.08E-11
3.85E-11
6.90E-11
8.88E-11
2.16E-07
1.30E-07
2.20E-07
1.03E-10
1.57E-10
2.09E-10
9.31E-12
2.83E-11
3.04E-11
2.17E-12
4.58E-12
4.87E-12
3.45E-11
4.20E-10
4.63E-10
3.61E-12
7.30E-12
7.71E-12
5.68E-12
1.56E-11
1.68E-11
Morbidity
(Bq-1)
6.25E-13
9.80E-13
1.02E-12
3.75E-10
6.13E-10
7.15E-10
1.94E-11
3.62E-11
3.86E-11
3.41E-07
2.61E-07
4.13E-07
2.58E-11
7.47E-11
8.33E-11
4.73E-11
7.89E-11
9.97E-11
2.46E-07
1.44E-07
2.32E-07
1.25E-10
1.77E-10
2.32E-10
1.59E-11
3.94E-11
4.21E-11
3.26E-12
6.11E-12
6.45E-12
4.22E-11
4.45E-10
4.90E-10
5.77E-12
1.05E-11
1.10E-11
9.04E-12
2.09E-11
2.24E-11
55
-------
Table 2.1, continued
Nuclide T^
Terbium, continued
Tb-153 2.34 d
Tb-154 21.4 h
Tb-155 5.32 d
Tb-156 5.34 d
Tb-156m 24.4 h
Tb-156n 5.0 h
Tb-157 150 y
Tb-158 150 y
Tb-160 72.3 d
Tb-161 6.91 d
Dysprosium
Dy-155 10.0 h
Dy-157 8.1 h
Dy-159 144.4 d
Chain AMAD
P D (jum)
Y - 1.00
- - 1.00
- Y 1.00
- Y 1.00
Y - 1.00
Y - 1.00
- Y 1.00
- - 1.00
- - 1.00
- - 1.00
Y Y 1.00
Y Y 1.00
- Y 1.00
Type4 f !
F 0.0005
M 0.0005
S 0.0005
F 0.0005
M 0.0005
S 0.0005
F 0.0005
M 0.0005
S 0.0005
F 0.0005
M 0.0005
S 0.0005
F 0.0005
M 0.0005
S 0.0005
F 0.0005
M 0.0005
S 0.0005
F 0.0005
M 0.0005
S 0.0005
F 0.0005
M 0.0005
S 0.0005
F 0.0005
M 0.0005
S 0.0005
F 0.0005
M 0.0005
S 0.0005
F 0.0005
M 0.0005
S 0.0005
F 0.0005
M 0.0005
S 0.0005
F 0.0005
M 0.0005
S 0.0005
Mortal ity
(Bq-1)
5.94E-12
1.70E-11
1.89E-11
1.06E-11
2.16E-11
2.29E-11
5.34E-12
1.96E-11
2.17E-11
3.30E-11
9.08E-11
9.91E-11
6.17E-12
1.87E-11
2.05E-11
2.07E-12
8.45E-12
9.23E-12
7.82E-11
3.55E-11
3.68E-11
3.77E-09
1.87E-09
2.00E-09
2.39E-10
5.83E-10
7.23E-10
1.99E-11
1.15E-10
1.29E-10
2.06E-12
4.78E-12
5.12E-12
8.54E-13
1.52E-12
1.59E-12
2.16E-11
2.93E-11
3.94E-11
Morbidity
(Bq-1)
9.11E-12
2.21E-11
2.42E-11
1.67E-11
3.07E-11
3.23E-11
8.13E-12
2.43E-11
2.66E-11
4.90E-11
1.14E-10
1.23E-10
9.09E-12
2.29E-11
2.49E-11
3.12E-12
1.02E-11
1.11E-11
8.65E-11
3.95E-11
4.02E-11
4.63E-09
2.24E-09
2.26E-09
3.07E-10
6.63E-10
8.11E-10
3.06E-11
1.36E-10
1.52E-10
3.29E-12
6.62E-12
7.03E-12
1.37E-12
2.25E-12
2.35E-12
2.70E-11
3.45E-11
4.52E-11
56
-------
Table 2.1, continued
Nucl ide
Dysprosium,
Dy-165 2
Dy-166
Holmium
Ho-155
Ho-157
Ho-159
Ho-161
Ho-162
Ho-162m
Ho-164
Ho-164m
Chain
Ti/2 P D
continued
.334 h - -
81.6 h Y -
48 m Y -
12.6 m Y -
33 m Y -
2.5 h - Y
15 m - Y
68 m Y -
29 m - Y
37.5 m Y -
Ho-166 26.80 h - Y
Ho-166m 1.
Ho-167
20E3 y - -
3.1 h - -
AMAD
(jum)
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
Type4 f !
F 0.0005
M 0.0005
S 0.0005
F 0.0005
M 0.0005
S 0.0005
F 0.0005
M 0.0005
S 0.0005
F 0.0005
M 0.0005
S 0.0005
F 0.0005
M 0.0005
S 0.0005
F 0.0005
M 0.0005
S 0.0005
F 0.0005
M 0.0005
S 0.0005
F 0.0005
M 0.0005
S 0.0005
F 0.0005
M 0.0005
S 0.0005
F 0.0005
M 0.0005
S 0.0005
F 0.0005
M 0.0005
S 0.0005
F 0.0005
M 0.0005
S 0.0005
F 0.0005
M 0.0005
S 0.0005
Mortal ity
(Bq-1)
1.52E-12
4.45E-12
4.77E-12
4.37E-11
1.80E-10
1.99E-10
5.52E-13
1.15E-12
1.21E-12
9.92E-14
1.65E-13
1.72E-13
1.33E-13
2.88E-13
3.05E-13
1.92E-13
3.91E-13
4.12E-13
6.79E-14
1.34E-13
1.42E-13
4.02E-13
1.18E-12
1.27E-12
1.59E-13
4.10E-13
4.38E-13
2.41E-13
8.33E-13
8.98E-13
3.79E-11
7.14E-11
7.53E-11
1.56E-08
6.42E-09
3.53E-09
1.53E-12
4.89E-12
5.26E-12
Morbidity
(Bq-1)
2.35E-12
5.68E-12
6.05E-12
6.89E-11
2.26E-10
2.47E-10
7.73E-13
1.43E-12
1.51E-12
1.26E-13
1.99E-13
2.07E-13
1.68E-13
3.29E-13
3.47E-13
2.94E-13
5.34E-13
5.60E-13
7.64E-14
1.46E-13
1.53E-13
5.50E-13
1.40E-12
1.49E-12
1.84E-13
4.46E-13
4.75E-13
3.14E-13
9.41E-13
1.01E-12
6.07E-11
1.04E-10
1.09E-10
2.06E-08
8.34E-09
4.15E-09
2.30E-12
6.09E-12
6.51E-12
57
-------
Table 2.1, continued
Nuclide T^
Erbium
Er-161 3.24 h
Er-165 10.36 h
Er-169 9.3 d
Er-171 7.52 h
Er-172 49.3 h
Thulium
Tm-162 21.7 m
Tm-166 7.70 h
Tm-167 9.24 d
Tm-170 128.6 d
Tm-171 1.92 y
Tm-172 63.6 h
Tm-173 8.24 h
Tm-175 15.2 m
Chain AMAD
P D (jum)
Y - 1.00
- - 1.00
- - 1.00
Y - 1.00
Y - 1.00
- Y 1.00
- Y 1.00
- Y 1.00
- - 1.00
- Y 1.00
- Y 1.00
- - 1.00
Y - 1.00
Type4 f !
F 0.0005
M 0.0005
S 0.0005
F 0.0005
M 0.0005
S 0.0005
F 0.0005
M 0.0005
S 0.0005
F 0.0005
M 0.0005
S 0.0005
F 0.0005
M 0.0005
S 0.0005
F 0.0005
M 0.0005
S 0.0005
F 0.0005
M 0.0005
S 0.0005
F 0.0005
M 0.0005
S 0.0005
F 0.0005
M 0.0005
S 0.0005
F 0.0005
M 0.0005
S 0.0005
F 0.0005
M 0.0005
S 0.0005
F 0.0005
M 0.0005
S 0.0005
F 0.0005
M 0.0005
S 0.0005
Mortal ity
(Bq-1)
1.17E-12
2.62E-12
2.78E-12
2.88E-13
5.54E-13
5.83E-13
1.17E-11
9.08E-11
1.04E-10
6.30E-12
1.86E-11
2.00E-11
2.52E-11
1.03E-10
1.13E-10
3.42E-13
6.42E-13
6.75E-13
4.11E-12
1.01E-11
1.08E-11
1.75E-11
1.01E-10
1.15E-10
2.20E-10
5.92E-10
8.21E-10
7.51E-11
8.14E-11
1.09E-10
3.57E-11
1.12E-10
1.22E-10
5.23E-12
1.51E-11
1.62E-11
3.70E-13
7.86E-13
8.35E-13
Morbidity
(Bq-1)
1.84E-12
3.62E-12
3.81E-12
4.80E-13
8.46E-13
8.87E-13
1.77E-11
1.04E-10
1.18E-10
1.05E-11
2.54E-11
2.71E-11
3.94E-11
1.28E-10
1.40E-10
4.21E-13
7.36E-13
7.70E-13
6.56E-12
1.39E-11
1.47E-11
2.60E-11
1.18E-10
1.33E-10
2.54E-10
6.57E-10
8.99E-10
8.53E-11
9.00E-11
1.18E-10
5.86E-11
1.52E-10
1.63E-10
8.74E-12
2.09E-11
2.23E-11
4.38E-13
8.81E-13
9.33E-13
58
-------
Table 2.1, continued
Nuclide T^
Ytterbium
Yb-162 18.9 m
Yb-166 56.7 h
Yb-167 17.5 m
Yb-169 32.01 d
Yb-175 4.19 d
Yb-177 1.9 h
Yb-178 74 m
Lutetium
Lu-169 34.06 h
Lu-170 2.00 d
Lu-171 8.22 d
Lu-172 6.70 d
Lu-173 1.37 y
Lu-174 3.31 y
Chain AMAD
P D (jum)
Y - 1.00
Y - 1.00
Y - 1.00
- Y 1.00
- Y 1.00
Y - 1.00
Y - 1.00
Y - 1.00
- Y 1.00
- - 1.00
- Y 1.00
- Y 1.00
- Y 1.00
Type4 f !
F 0.0005
M 0.0005
S 0.0005
F 0.0005
M 0.0005
S 0.0005
F 0.0005
M 0.0005
S 0.0005
F 0.0005
M 0.0005
S 0.0005
F 0.0005
M 0.0005
S 0.0005
F 0.0005
M 0.0005
S 0.0005
F 0.0005
M 0.0005
S 0.0005
F 0.0005
M 0.0005
S 0.0005
F 0.0005
M 0.0005
S 0.0005
F 0.0005
M 0.0005
S 0.0005
F 0.0005
M 0.0005
S 0.0005
F 0.0005
M 0.0005
S 0.0005
F 0.0005
M 0.0005
S 0.0005
Mortal ity
(Bq-1)
2.84E-13
6.53E-13
6.93E-13
1.98E-11
5.52E-11
5.97E-11
1.41E-13
3.83E-13
4.15E-13
3.91E-11
2.18E-10
2.61E-10
1.12E-11
6.02E-11
6.68E-11
1.46E-12
4.67E-12
5.06E-12
1.65E-12
4.92E-12
5.28E-12
9.19E-12
2.51E-11
2.79E-11
1.85E-11
4.17E-11
4.46E-11
1.97E-11
7.01E-11
7.81E-11
3.45E-11
1.21E-10
1.34E-10
1.38E-10
1.41E-10
2.09E-10
2.62E-10
2.41E-10
3.46E-10
Morbidity
(Bq-1)
3.80E-13
7.68E-13
8.11E-13
3.21E-11
7.31E-11
7.82E-11
1.71E-13
4.28E-13
4.62E-13
5.42E-11
2.47E-10
2.92E-10
1.85E-11
7.26E-11
7.98E-11
2.23E-12
5.75E-12
6.18E-12
2.51E-12
6.04E-12
6.43E-12
1.44E-11
3.27E-11
3.59E-11
2.95E-11
5.76E-11
6.09E-11
2.98E-11
8.59E-11
9.46E-11
5.25E-11
1.49E-10
1.63E-10
1.69E-10
1.63E-10
2.35E-10
3.14E-10
2.74E-10
3.84E-10
59
-------
Table 2.1, continued
Nuclide T^
Lutetium, continued
Lu-174m 142 d
Lu-176 3.60E10 y
Lu-176m 3.68 h
Lu-177 6.71 d
Lu-177m 160.9 d
Lu-178 28.4 m
Lu-178m 22.7 m
Lu-179 4.59 h
Hafnium
Hf-170 16.01 h
Hf-172 1.87 y
Hf-173 24.0 h
Hf-175 70 d
Hf-177m 51.4 m
Chain AMAD
P D (jum)
Y - 1.00
- - 1.00
- - 1.00
- Y 1.00
Y - 1.00
- Y 1.00
- - 1.00
- - 1.00
Y - 1.00
Y Y 1.00
Y Y 1.00
- Y 1.00
- - 1.00
Type4 f t
F 0.0005
M 0.0005
S 0.0005
F 0.0005
M 0.0005
S 0.0005
F 0.0005
M 0.0005
S 0.0005
F 0.0005
M 0.0005
S 0.0005
F 0.0005
M 0.0005
S 0.0005
F 0.0005
M 0.0005
S 0.0005
F 0.0005
M 0.0005
S 0.0005
F 0.0005
M 0.0005
S 0.0005
F 0.002
M 0.002
S 0.002
F 0.002
M 0.002
S 0.002
F 0.002
M 0.002
S 0.002
F 0.002
M 0.002
S 0.002
F 0.002
M 0.002
S 0.002
Mortal ity
1.20E-10
2.83E-10
3.73E-10
4.12E-09
2.51E-09
3.48E-09
2.98E-12
8.77E-12
9.42E-12
1.51E-11
9.63E-11
1.08E-10
4.04E-10
1.05E-09
1.40E-09
5.49E-13
1.22E-12
1.30E-12
6.10E-13
1.36E-12
1.44E-12
3.72E-12
9.52E-12
1.02E-11
8.84E-12
2.39E-11
2.57E-11
1.47E-09
1.27E-09
2.00E-09
3.75E-12
1.21E-11
1.32E-11
4.34E-11
9.84E-11
1.25E-10
1.37E-12
4.32E-12
4.65E-12
Morbidity
1.42E-10
3.14E-10
4.09E-10
4.74E-09
2.83E-09
3.80E-09
4.86E-12
1.15E-11
1.23E-11
2.37E-11
1.13E-10
1.26E-10
5.04E-10
1.17E-09
1.54E-09
6.62E-13
1.36E-12
1.43E-12
7.13E-13
1.49E-12
1.58E-12
6.20E-12
1.31E-11
1.39E-11
1.41E-11
3.23E-11
3.44E-11
1.87E-09
1.50E-09
2.28E-09
5.98E-12
1.60E-11
1.73E-11
5.86E-11
1.16E-10
1.45E-10
1.71E-12
4.89E-12
5.24E-12
60
-------
Table 2.1, continued
Nuclide T^
Hafnium, continued
Hf-178m 31 y
Hf-179m 25.1 d
Hf-180m 5.5 h
Hf-181 42.4 d
Hf-182 9E6 y
Hf-182m 61.5 m
Hf-183 64 m
Hf-184 4.12 h
Tantalum
Ta-172 36.8 m
Ta-173 3.65 h
Ta-174 1.2 h
Ta-175 10.5 h
Ta-176 8.08 h
Chain AMAD
P D (jum)
- - 1.00
- - 1.00
- - 1.00
- - 1.00
Y Y 1.00
Y - 1.00
Y - 1.00
Y - 1.00
Y - 1.00
Y - 1.00
- - 1.00
Y - 1.00
- Y 1.00
Type4 f !
F 0.002
M 0.002
S 0.002
F 0.002
M 0.002
S 0.002
F 0.002
M 0.002
S 0.002
F 0.002
M 0.002
S 0.002
F 0.002
M 0.002
S 0.002
F 0.002
M 0.002
S 0.002
F 0.002
M 0.002
S 0.002
F 0.002
M 0.002
S 0.002
F 0.001
M 0.001
S 0.001
F 0.001
M 0.001
S 0.001
F 0.001
M 0.001
S 0.001
F 0.001
M 0.001
S 0.001
F 0.001
M 0.001
S 0.001
Mortal ity
(Bq-1)
8.12E-09
4.35E-09
5.17E-09
6.49E-11
3.26E-10
3.84E-10
2.42E-12
8.71E-12
9.41E-12
7.85E-11
4.26E-10
5.19E-10
7.72E-09
3.50E-09
3.74E-09
7.42E-13
2.48E-12
2.71E-12
1.06E-12
3.74E-12
4.07E-12
8.12E-12
2.73E-11
2.95E-11
6.64E-13
1.57E-12
1.70E-12
2.79E-12
8.32E-12
8.96E-12
7.68E-13
2.37E-12
2.55E-12
3.11E-12
7.95E-12
8.63E-12
4.38E-12
1.10E-11
1.17E-11
Morbidity
(Bq-1)
l.OOE-08
5.21E-09
5.88E-09
9.26E-11
3.72E-10
4.34E-10
3.78E-12
1.12E-11
1.20E-11
1.07E-10
4.77E-10
5.75E-10
9.22E-09
4.12E-09
4.19E-09
9.45E-13
2.82E-12
3.06E-12
1.49E-12
4.46E-12
4.83E-12
1.34E-11
3.72E-11
3.99E-11
8.33E-13
1.80E-12
1.95E-12
4.46E-12
1.12E-11
1.20E-11
1.03E-12
2.80E-12
2.99E-12
4.95E-12
1.10E-11
1.18E-11
6.95E-12
1.52E-11
1.61E-11
61
-------
Table 2.1, continued
Nuclide T^
Tantalum, continued
Ta-177 56.6 h
Ta-178b 2.2 h
Ta-179 664.9 d
Ta-180 1.0E13 y
Ta-180m 8.1 h
Ta-182 115.0 d
Ta-182m 15.84 m
Ta-183 5.1 d
Ta-184 8.7 h
Ta-185 49 m
Ta-186 10.5 m
Tungsten
W-176 2.3 h
W-177 135 m
Chain AMAD
P D (jum)
- Y 1.00
- - 1.00
- Y 1.00
- - 1.00
- - 1.00
- Y 1.00
Y - 1.00
- Y 1.00
- Y 1.00
Y - 1.00
- - 1.00
Y - 1.00
Y Y 1.00
Type4 f t
F 0.001
M 0.001
S 0.001
F 0.001
M 0.001
S 0.001
F 0.001
M 0.001
S 0.001
F 0.001
M 0.001
S 0.001
F 0.001
M 0.001
S 0.001
F 0.001
M 0.001
S 0.001
F 0.001
M 0.001
S 0.001
F 0.001
M 0.001
S 0.001
F 0.001
M 0.001
S 0.001
F 0.001
M 0.001
S 0.001
F 0.001
M 0.001
S 0.001
F 0.3
M 0.3
S 0.3
F 0.3
M 0.3
S 0.3
Mortal ity
2.09E-12
8.74E-12
9.57E-12
1.06E-12
3.72E-12
4.01E-12
7.78E-12
1.94E-11
4.85E-11
1.19E-10
5.49E-10
1.76E-09
8.61E-13
3.60E-12
3.91E-12
1.38E-10
6.59E-10
9.05E-10
3.52E-13
7.93E-13
8.59E-13
3.28E-11
1.79E-10
2.00E-10
1.02E-11
3.19E-11
3.43E-11
8.72E-13
2.61E-12
2.83E-12
3.94E-13
6.39E-13
6.66E-13
1.99E-12
4.14E-12
4.38E-12
1.03E-12
2.58E-12
2.76E-12
Morbidity
3.43E-12
1.11E-11
1.20E-11
1.53E-12
4.52E-12
4.85E-12
1.15E-11
2.34E-11
5.55E-11
1.75E-10
6.23E-10
1.96E-09
1.41E-12
4.66E-12
5.02E-12
2.06E-10
7.49E-10
1.01E-09
3.89E-13
8.51E-13
9.21E-13
5.36E-11
2.16E-10
2.38E-10
1.68E-11
4.38E-11
4.68E-11
1.09E-12
2.97E-12
3.20E-12
4.46E-13
7.00E-13
7.28E-13
3.34E-12
5.60E-12
5.86E-12
1.62E-12
3.24E-12
3.42E-12
62
-------
Table 2.1, continued
Nuclide T^
Tungsten, continued
W-178 21.7 d
W-179 37.5 m
W-181 121.2 d
W-185 75.1 d
W-187 23.9 h
W-188 69.4 d
Rhenium
Re-177 14.0 m
Re-178 13.2 m
Re-181 20 h
Re- 1825 64.0 h
Re-182a 12.7 h
Re- 184 38.0 d
Re- 184m 165 d
Chain AMAD
P D (jum)
- Y 1.00
Y - 1.00
- Y 1.00
- Y 1.00
Y - 1.00
Y - 1.00
Y - 1.00
Y - 1.00
Y Y 1.00
- - 1.00
- Y 1.00
- Y 1.00
Y - 1.00
Type4 f t
F 0.3
M 0.3
S 0.3
F 0.3
M 0.3
S 0.3
F 0.3
M 0.3
S 0.3
F 0.3
M 0.3
S 0.3
F 0.3
M 0.3
S 0.3
F 0.3
M 0.3
S 0.3
F 0.8
M 0.8
S 0.8
F 0.8
M 0.8
S 0.8
F 0.8
M 0.8
S 0.8
F 0.8
M 0.8
S 0.8
F 0.8
M 0.8
S 0.8
F 0.8
M 0.8
S 0.8
F 0.8
M 0.8
S 0.8
Mortal ity
5.93E-12
5.74E-11
6.80E-11
3.57E-14
6.05E-14
6.44E-14
2.14E-12
1.58E-11
2.47E-11
1.43E-11
2.60E-10
3.40E-10
1.69E-11
3.82E-11
4.07E-11
7.02E-11
9.86E-10
1.37E-09
3.49E-13
6.86E-13
7.24E-13
3.35E-13
5.66E-13
5.94E-13
7.69E-12
1.57E-11
1.67E-11
3.06E-11
9.73E-11
1.06E-10
4.85E-12
1.13E-11
1.21E-11
2.21E-11
1.57E-10
1.94E-10
3.41E-11
5.49E-10
8.56E-10
Morbidity
1.04E-11
6.53E-11
7.66E-11
4.94E-14
7.34E-14
7.73E-14
3.65E-12
1.88E-11
2.88E-11
2.53E-11
2.85E-10
3.68E-10
2.99E-11
5.19E-11
5.45E-11
1.25E-10
1.10E-09
1.50E-09
5.14E-13
8.03E-13
8.35E-13
4.39E-13
6.31E-13
6.54E-13
1.45E-11
2.15E-11
2.24E-11
5.37E-11
1.20E-10
1.28E-10
8.94E-12
1.49E-11
1.56E-11
3.61E-11
1.82E-10
2.23E-10
5.65E-11
6.11E-10
9.48E-10
63
-------
Table 2.1, continued
Nuclide T^
Rhenium, continued
Re- 186 90.64 h
Re- 186m 2.0E5 y
Re-187 5E10 y
Re- 188 16.98 h
Re- 188m 18.6 m
Re- 189 24.3 h
Osmium
Os-180 22 m
Os-181 105 m
Os-182 22 h
Os-185 94 d
Os-189m 6.0 h
Os-191 15.4 d
Os-191m 13.03 h
Chain AMAD
P D (jum)
- Y 1.00
Y - 1.00
- Y 1.00
- Y 1.00
Y - 1.00
Y - 1.00
- - 1.00
Y - 1.00
Y Y 1.00
- Y 1.00
- Y 1.00
- Y 1.00
Y - 1.00
Type4 f t
F 0.8
M 0.8
S 0.8
F 0.8
M 0.8
S 0.8
F 0.8
M 0.8
S 0.8
F 0.8
M 0.8
S 0.8
F 0.8
M 0.8
S 0.8
F 0.8
M 0.8
S 0.8
F 0.01
M 0.01
S 0.01
F 0.01
M 0.01
S 0.01
F 0.01
M 0.01
S 0.01
F 0.01
M 0.01
S 0.01
F 0.01
M 0.01
S 0.01
F 0.01
M 0.01
S 0.01
F 0.01
M 0.01
S 0.01
Mortal ity
3.28E-11
9.07E-11
9.85E-11
5.45E-11
1.04E-09
4.23E-09
1.20E-13
5.71E-13
2.96E-12
2.41E-11
4.02E-11
4.20E-11
5.58E-13
9.82E-13
1.03E-12
1.49E-11
3.47E-11
3.70E-11
2.61E-13
5.93E-13
6.30E-13
1.40E-12
3.78E-12
4.05E-12
9.93E-12
2.70E-11
2.90E-11
7.91E-11
1.06E-10
1.38E-10
2.88E-13
5.67E-13
5.97E-13
2.01E-11
1.47E-10
1.71E-10
2.17E-12
1.30E-11
1.45E-11
Morbidity
6.03E-11
1.15E-10
1.22E-10
8.73E-11
1.13E-09
4.49E-09
2.04E-13
6.78E-13
3.19E-12
4.98E-11
6.01E-11
6.12E-11
1.06E-12
1.37E-12
1.41E-12
2.96E-11
4.68E-11
4.88E-11
3.19E-13
6.70E-13
7.08E-13
2.18E-12
4.96E-12
5.27E-12
1.63E-11
3.67E-11
3.91E-11
1.13E-10
1.32E-10
1.66E-10
4.95E-13
8.86E-13
9.29E-13
3.21E-11
1.68E-10
1.92E-10
3.62E-12
1.55E-11
1.72E-11
64
-------
Table 2.1, continued
Nuclide T^
Osmium, continued
Os-193 30.0 h
Os-194 6.0 y
Iridium
Ir-182 15 m
Ir-184 3.02 h
Ir-185 14.0 h
Ir-186a 15.8 h
Ir-186b 1.75 h
Ir-187 10.5 h
Ir-188 41.5 h
Ir-189 13.3 d
Ir-190 12.1 d
Ir-190n 3.1 h
Ir-190m 1.2 h
Chain AMAD
P D (jum)
- - 1.00
Y - 1.00
Y - 1.00
- - 1.00
Y - 1.00
- - 1.00
- Y 1.00
- - 1.00
- Y 1.00
Y Y 1.00
- Y 1.00
Y - 1.00
Y Y 1.00
Type4 f !
F 0.01
M 0.01
S 0.01
F 0.01
M 0.01
S 0.01
F 0.01
M 0.01
S 0.01
F 0.01
M 0.01
S 0.01
F 0.01
M 0.01
S 0.01
F 0.01
M 0.01
S 0.01
F 0.01
M 0.01
S 0.01
F 0.01
M 0.01
S 0.01
F 0.01
M 0.01
S 0.01
F 0.01
M 0.01
S 0.01
F 0.01
M 0.01
S 0.01
F 0.01
M 0.01
S 0.01
F 0.01
M 0.01
S 0.01
Mortal ity
(Bq-1)
1.57E-11
4.95E-11
5.35E-11
6.09E-10
1.79E-09
6.45E-09
5.63E-13
1.10E-12
1.16E-12
2.46E-12
6.40E-12
6.84E-12
4.81E-12
1.35E-11
1.46E-11
7.73E-12
1.96E-11
2.09E-11
8.54E-13
2.26E-12
2.41E-12
1.94E-12
5.33E-12
5.71E-12
1.15E-11
2.57E-11
2.74E-11
8.92E-12
4.78E-11
5.47E-11
4.89E-11
1.80E-10
2.03E-10
1.70E-12
4.13E-12
4.41E-12
2.31E-13
7.92E-13
8.91E-13
Morbidity
(Bq-1)
2.72E-11
6.84E-11
7.32E-11
8.77E-10
2.02E-09
6.88E-09
7.10E-13
1.30E-12
1.36E-12
3.81E-12
8.41E-12
8.92E-12
7.90E-12
1.82E-11
1.96E-11
1.26E-11
2.70E-11
2.86E-11
1.25E-12
2.83E-12
3.01E-12
3.20E-12
7.31E-12
7.77E-12
1.84E-11
3.53E-11
3.73E-11
1.41E-11
5.58E-11
6.31E-11
7.43E-11
2.13E-10
2.38E-10
2.61E-12
5.47E-12
5.79E-12
3.49E-13
9.47E-13
1.05E-12
65
-------
Table 2.1, continued
Nuclide T^
Iridium, continued
Ir-192 74.02 d
Ir-192m 241. y
Ir-194 19.15 h
Ir-194m 171 d
Ir-195 2.5 h
Ir-195m 3.8 h
Platinum
Pt-186 2.0 h
Pt-188 10.2 d
Pt-189 10.87 h
Pt-191 2.8 d
Pt-193 50 y
Pt-193m 4.33 d
Pt-195m 4.02 d
Chain AMAD
P D (jum)
- Y 1.00
Y - 1.00
- Y 1.00
- - 1.00
- Y 1.00
Y - 1.00
Y - 1.00
Y - 1.00
Y - 1.00
- - 1.00
- Y 1.00
Y - 1.00
- - 1.00
Type4 f !
F 0.01
M 0.01
S 0.01
F 0.01
M 0.01
S 0.01
F 0.01
M 0.01
S 0.01
F 0.01
M 0.01
S 0.01
F 0.01
M 0.01
S 0.01
F 0.01
M 0.01
S 0.01
F 0.01
M 0.01
S 0.01
F 0.01
M 0.01
S 0.01
F 0.01
M 0.01
S 0.01
F 0.01
M 0.01
S 0.01
F 0.01
M 0.01
S 0.01
F 0.01
M 0.01
S 0.01
F 0.01
M 0.01
S 0.01
Mortal ity
(Bq-1)
1.31E-10
4.52E-10
5.80E-10
3.24E-10
4.50E-10
2.49E-09
2.45E-11
5.77E-11
6.14E-11
3.92E-10
7.51E-10
1.08E-09
1.44E-12
4.80E-12
5.18E-12
3.45E-12
1.17E-11
1.26E-11
1.38E-12
3.28E-12
3.49E-12
3.19E-11
1.50E-10
1.71E-10
2.16E-12
6.79E-12
7.41E-12
7.49E-12
2.38E-11
2.59E-11
1.86E-12
9.56E-12
4.95E-11
1.22E-11
7.92E-11
8.84E-11
1.66E-11
9.49E-11
1.05E-10
Morbidity
(Bq-1)
1.93E-10
5.18E-10
6.52E-10
4.57E-10
5.41E-10
2.77E-09
4.28E-11
8.69E-11
9.18E-11
5.62E-10
8.92E-10
1.24E-09
2.21E-12
6.03E-12
6.45E-12
5.54E-12
1.50E-11
1.61E-11
2.23E-12
4.53E-12
4.79E-12
5.09E-11
1.76E-10
1.98E-10
3.58E-12
8.94E-12
9.64E-12
1.25E-11
3.08E-11
3.31E-11
3.01E-12
1.11E-11
5.31E-11
2.09E-11
9.33E-11
1.03E-10
2.84E-11
1.13E-10
1.25E-10
66
-------
Table 2.1, continued
Nuclide T^
Platinum, continued
Pt-197 18.3 h
Pt-197m 94.4 m
Pt-199 30.8 m
Pt-200 12.5 h
Gold
Au-193 17.65 h
Au-194 39.5 h
Au-195 183 d
Au-198 2.696 d
Au-198m 2.30 d
Au-199 3.139 d
Au-200 48.4 m
Au-200m 18.7 h
Au-201 26.4 m
Chain AMAD
P D (jum)
- Y 1.00
Y - 1.00
Y - 1.00
Y - 1.00
Y Y 1.00
- Y 1.00
- Y 1.00
- Y 1.00
Y - 1.00
- Y 1.00
- Y 1.00
Y - 1.00
- - 1.00
Type4 f !
F 0.01
M 0.01
S 0.01
F 0.01
M 0.01
S 0.01
F 0.01
M 0.01
S 0.01
F 0.01
M 0.01
S 0.01
F 0.1
M 0.1
S 0.1
F 0.1
M 0.1
S 0.1
F 0.1
M 0.1
S 0.1
F 0.1
M 0.1
S 0.1
F 0.1
M 0.1
S 0.1
F 0.1
M 0.1
S 0.1
F 0.1
M 0.1
S 0.1
F 0.1
M 0.1
S 0.1
F 0.1
M 0.1
S 0.1
Mortal ity
(Bq-1)
8.19E-12
3.13E-11
3.39E-11
1.50E-12
5.52E-12
5.98E-12
5.24E-13
1.51E-12
1.62E-12
2.30E-11
6.01E-11
6.43E-11
2.06E-12
8.75E-12
9.52E-12
5.93E-12
1.41E-11
1.51E-11
4.70E-12
9.91E-11
1.58E-10
1.70E-11
7.52E-11
8.25E-11
2.15E-11
1.58E-10
1.76E-10
7.53E-12
6.42E-11
7.15E-11
7.58E-13
1.87E-12
1.99E-12
1.58E-11
5.17E-11
5.58E-11
3.27E-13
7.70E-13
8.19E-13
Morbidity
(Bq-1)
1.41E-11
4.09E-11
4.40E-11
2.34E-12
6.88E-12
7.38E-12
6.70E-13
1.71E-12
1.84E-12
4.01E-11
8.66E-11
9.18E-11
3.47E-12
1.14E-11
1.23E-11
9.63E-12
2.02E-11
2.14E-11
7.97E-12
1.11E-10
1.75E-10
2.93E-11
9.89E-11
1.08E-10
3.66E-11
1.91E-10
2.10E-10
1.29E-11
7.63E-11
8.44E-11
9.91E-13
2.18E-12
2.31E-12
2.65E-11
7.09E-11
7.60E-11
3.83E-13
8.42E-13
8.92E-13
67
-------
Table 2.1, continued
Nucl ide
Chain AMAD
Tj/2 P D (Vm) Type4 f1
Mercury (inorganic particulate)
Hg-193 3.5 h Y Y 1.00
Hg-193m
Hg-194
Hg-195
Hg-195m
Hg-197
Hg-197m
Hg-199m
Hg-203
11.1 h Y - 1.00
260 y Y Y 1.00
9.9 h Y Y 1.00
41.6 h Y - 1.00
64.1 h - Y 1.00
23.8 h Y - 1.00
42.6 m - - 1.00
46.60 d - - 1.00
Mercury (organic particulate)
Hg-193 3.5 h Y Y 1.00
Hg-193m
Hg-194
Hg-195
11.1 h Y - 1.00
260 y Y Y 1.00
9.9 h Y Y 1.00
F 0.02
M 0.02
S 0.02
F 0.02
M 0.02
S 0.02
F 0.02
M 0.02
S 0.02
F 0.02
M 0.02
S 0.02
F 0.02
M 0.02
S 0.02
F 0.02
M 0.02
S 0.02
F 0.02
M 0.02
S 0.02
F 0.02
M 0.02
S 0.02
F 0.02
M 0.02
S 0.02
F 0.4
M 0.4
S 0.4
F 0.4
M 0.4
S 0.4
F 0.4
M 0.4
S 0.4
F 0.4
M 0.4
S 0.4
Mortal ity
1.30E-12
5.41E-12
5.87E-12
5.97E-12
1.85E-11
2.00E-11
4.21E-10
4.14E-10
1.49E-09
1.53E-12
5.87E-12
6.45E-12
1.05E-11
4.97E-11
5.49E-11
4.63E-12
2.79E-11
3.08E-11
8.54E-12
4.97E-11
5.46E-11
4.97E-13
1.55E-12
1.66E-12
3.35E-11
2.08E-10
2.56E-10
1.08E-12
5.02E-12
5.47E-12
4.69E-12
1.63E-11
1.77E-11
5.04E-10
5.88E-10
1.70E-09
1.24E-12
5.35E-12
5.91E-12
Morbidity
2.07E-12
6.85E-12
7.39E-12
9.87E-12
2.54E-11
2.71E-11
6.07E-10
5.28E-10
1.73E-09
2.51E-12
7.67E-12
8.35E-12
1.77E-11
6.29E-11
6.88E-11
7.78E-12
3.39E-11
3.72E-11
1.45E-11
6.16E-11
6.71E-11
5.93E-13
1.71E-12
1.83E-12
5.24E-11
2.34E-10
2.83E-10
1.67E-12
6.14E-12
6.64E-12
7.58E-12
2.14E-11
2.29E-11
7.28E-10
7.78E-10
2.04E-09
1.99E-12
6.71E-12
7.35E-12
68
-------
Table 2.1, continued
Nucl ide
Tl/2
Chain AMAD
P D (jm) Type4^
Mortal ity
(Bq-1)
Morbidity
(Bq-1)
Mercury (organic particulate), continued
Hg-195m
Hg-197
Hg-197m
Hg-199m
Hg-203
Mercury
Hg-193
Hg-193m
Hg-194
Hg-195
Hg-195m
Hg-197
Hg-197m
Hg-199m
Hg-203
Thallium
Tl-194
Tl-194m
Tl-195
Tl-197
Tl-198
41.6 h
64.1 h
23.8 h
42.6 m
46.60 d
(vapor)
3.5 h
11.1 h
260 y
9.9 h
41.6 h
64.1 h
23.8 h
42.6 m
46.60 d
33 m
32.8 m
1.16 h
2.84 h
5.3 h
Y - 1.00 F 0.4
M 0.4
S 0.4
- Y 1.00 F 0.4
M 0.4
S 0.4
Y - 1.00 F 0.4
M 0.4
S 0.4
- - 1.00 F 0.4
M 0.4
S 0.4
- - 1.00 F 0.4
M 0.4
S 0.4
Y Y - V 1.0
Y - - V 1.0
Y Y - V 1.0
Y Y - V 1.0
Y - - V 1.0
- Y - V 1.0
Y - - V 1.0
- - - V 1.0
- - - V 1.0
Y - 1.00 F 1.0
M 1.0
S 1.0
Y - 1.00 F 1.0
M 1.0
S 1.0
Y Y 1.00 F 1.0
M 1.0
S 1.0
Y - 1.00 F 1.0
M 1.0
S 1.0
- Y 1.00 F 1.0
M 1.0
S 1.0
8.10E-12
4.57E-11
5.07E-11
3.56E-12
2.62E-11
2.91E-11
6.39E-12
4.60E-11
5.08E-11
4.93E-13
1.54E-12
1.66E-12
3.80E-11
2.14E-10
2.62E-10
9.70E-11
2.64E-10
1.41E-09
1.21E-10
6.96E-10
3.71E-10
4.92E-10
1.51E-11
5.94E-10
1.06E-13
1.76E-13
1.84E-13
5.50E-13
1.19E-12
1.26E-12
4.13E-13
1.17E-12
1.27E-12
4.57E-13
2.24E-12
2.46E-12
1.49E-12
2.49E-12
2.60E-12
1.33E-11
5.54E-11
6.09E-11
5.82E-12
3.07E-11
3.38E-11
1.05E-11
5.47E-11
5.99E-11
5.85E-13
1.70E-12
1.82E-12
5.81E-11
2.42E-10
2.91E-10
1.02E-10
2.79E-10
1.95E-09
1.28E-10
7.36E-10
3.92E-10
5.19E-10
1.59E-11
6.61E-10
1.38E-13
2.13E-13
2.21E-13
6.75E-13
1.35E-12
1.42E-12
5.63E-13
1.35E-12
1.45E-12
6.47E-13
2.50E-12
2.72E-12
2.14E-12
3.17E-12
3.29E-12
69
-------
Table 2.1, continued
Nuclide T^
Thallium, continued
Tl-198m 1.87 h
Tl-199 7.42 h
Tl-200 26.1 h
Tl-201 3.044 d
Tl-202 12.23 d
Tl-204 3.779 y
Lead
Pb-195m 15.8 m
Pb-198 2.4 h
Pb-199 90 m
Pb-200 21.5 h
Pb-201 9.4 h
Pb-202 3E5 y
Pb-202m 3.62 h
Chain AMAD
P D (jum)
Y - 1.00
- Y 1.00
- Y 1.00
- Y 1.00
- Y 1.00
- - 1.00
Y - 1.00
Y - 1.00
Y - 1.00
Y Y 1.00
Y Y 1.00
Y Y 1.00
Y Y 1.00
Type4 f !
F 1.0
M 1.0
S 1.0
F 1.0
M 1.0
S 1.0
F 1.0
M 1.0
S 1.0
F 1.0
M 1.0
S 1.0
F 1.0
M 1.0
S 1.0
F 1.0
M 1.0
S 1.0
F 0.2
*M 0.1
S 0.01
F 0.2
*M 0.1
S 0.01
F 0.2
*M 0.1
S 0.01
F 0.2
*M 0.1
S 0.01
F 0.2
*M 0.1
S 0.01
F 0.2
*M 0.1
S 0.01
F 0.2
*M 0.1
S 0.01
Mortal ity
(Bq-1)
9.92E-13
3.03E-12
3.26E-12
5.51E-13
2.62E-12
2.85E-12
4.57E-12
8.24E-12
8.68E-12
2.55E-12
1.50E-11
1.66E-11
1.08E-11
2.64E-11
2.94E-11
3.99E-11
5.60E-10
1.53E-09
4.82E-13
1.04E-12
1.11E-12
1.24E-12
2.94E-12
3.15E-12
6.42E-13
1.57E-12
1.68E-12
6.82E-12
2.41E-11
2.64E-11
2.27E-12
7.01E-12
7.70E-12
4.73E-10
3.08E-10
7.70E-10
1.82E-12
4.56E-12
4.92E-12
Morbidity
(Bq-1)
1.33E-12
3.45E-12
3.69E-12
7.81E-13
2.93E-12
3.17E-12
6.82E-12
1.05E-11
1.10E-11
4.02E-12
1.69E-11
1.85E-11
1.66E-11
3.32E-11
3.63E-11
6.62E-11
6.13E-10
1.64E-09
5.79E-13
1.18E-12
1.25E-12
1.84E-12
3.87E-12
4.14E-12
9.36E-13
2.01E-12
2.14E-12
1.06E-11
3.14E-11
3.45E-11
3.55E-12
9.47E-12
1.04E-11
6.23E-10
3.86E-10
8.91E-10
2.71E-12
6.08E-12
6.55E-12
70
-------
Table 2.1, continued
Nuclide T^
Lead, continued
Pb-203 52.05 h
Pb-205 1.43E7 y
Pb-209 3.253 h
Pb-210 22.3 y
Pb-211 36.1 m
Pb-212 10.64 h
Pb-214 26.8 m
Bismuth
Bi-200 36.4 m
Bi-201 108 m
Bi-202 1.67 h
Bi-203 11.76 h
Bi-205 15.31 d
Bi-206 6.243 d
Chain AMAD
P D (jum)
- Y 1.00
- Y 1.00
- Y 1.00
Y Y 1.00
- Y 1.00
Y Y 1.00
Y Y 1.00
Y - 1.00
Y - 1.00
Y - 1.00
Y Y 1.00
Y Y 1.00
- - 1.00
Type4 f !
F 0.2
*M 0.1
S 0.01
F 0.2
*M 0.1
S 0.01
F 0.2
*M 0.1
S 0.01
F 0.2
*M 0.1
S 0.01
F 0.2
*M 0.1
S 0.01
F 0.2
*M 0.1
S 0.01
F 0.2
*M 0.1
S 0.01
F 0.05
M 0.05
S 0.05
F 0.05
M 0.05
S 0.05
F 0.05
M 0.05
S 0.05
F 0.05
M 0.05
S 0.05
F 0.05
M 0.05
S 0.05
F 0.05
M 0.05
S 0.05
Mortal ity
(Bq-1)
4.26E-12
1.55E-11
1.72E-11
1.31E-11
1.54E-11
5.96E-11
8.81E-13
4.18E-12
4.58E-12
1.82E-08
6.84E-08
4.06E-07
2.08E-10
9.51E-10
1.03E-09
3.83E-10
1.48E-08
1.64E-08
1.13E-10
9.31E-10
1.02E-09
8.60E-13
1.60E-12
1.68E-12
2.15E-12
3.81E-12
4.00E-12
1.50E-12
2.25E-12
2.33E-12
8.98E-12
1.54E-11
1.62E-11
2.03E-11
6.75E-11
7.73E-11
4.21E-11
1.22E-10
1.34E-10
Morbidity
(Bq-1)
6.69E-12
2.04E-11
2.26E-11
1.53E-11
1.74E-11
6.37E-11
1.31E-12
5.13E-12
5.62E-12
2.47E-08
7.48E-08
4.28E-07
2.24E-10
l.OOE-09
1.09E-09
5.42E-10
1.56E-08
1.73E-08
1.24E-10
9.81E-10
1.08E-09
1.31E-12
2.04E-12
2.12E-12
3.48E-12
5.14E-12
5.33E-12
2.30E-12
3.02E-12
3.09E-12
1.49E-11
2.22E-11
2.30E-11
3.32E-11
8.77E-11
9.89E-11
7.00E-11
1.58E-10
1.71E-10
71
-------
Table 2.1, continued
Nucl ide
Bismuth,
Bi-207
Bi-210
Bi-210m
Bi-212
Bi-213
Bi-214
Polonium
Po-203
Po-205
Po-207
Po-210
Astatine
At-207
At-211
Francium
Fr-222
^1/2
continued
38 y
5.012 d
3.0E6 y
60.55 m
45.65 m
19.9 m
36.7 m
1.80 h
350 m
138.38 d
1.80 h
7.214 h
14.4 m
Chain AMAD
P D (jum)
- Y 1.00
Y Y 1.00
- - 1.00
- Y 1.00
Y Y 1.00
Y Y 1.00
Y - 1.00
Y - 1.00
Y Y 1.00
- Y 1.00
Y - 1.00
Y - 1.00
Y Y 1.00
Type4 f !
F 0.05
M 0.05
S 0.05
F 0.05
M 0.05
S 0.05
F 0.05
M 0.05
S 0.05
F 0.05
M 0.05
S 0.05
F 0.05
M 0.05
S 0.05
F 0.05
M 0.05
S 0.05
F 0.1
*M 0.1
S 0.01
F 0.1
*M 0.1
S 0.01
F 0.1
*M 0.1
S 0.01
F 0.1
*M 0.1
S 0.01
F 1.0
M 1.0
S 1.0
F 1.0
M 1.0
S 1.0
F 1.0
M 1.0
S 1.0
Mortal ity
(Bq-1)
3.35E-11
4.82E-10
2.60E-09
5.85E-11
8.10E-09
1.16E-08
1.61E-09
3.00E-07
7.50E-07
3.71E-10
1.99E-09
2.17E-09
3.95E-10
1.75E-09
1.90E-09
2.86E-10
7.45E-10
7.96E-10
7.71E-13
1.60E-12
1.72E-12
1.27E-12
3.97E-12
4.28E-12
2.00E-12
3.71E-12
4.03E-12
1.97E-08
2.76E-07
3.71E-07
2.63E-11
1.98E-10
2.17E-10
5.79E-10
9.11E-09
1.01E-08
6.14E-10
1.42E-09
1.51E-09
Morbidity
(Bq-1)
5.62E-11
5.68E-10
2.97E-09
9.92E-11
8.56E-09
1.23E-08
2.43E-09
3.17E-07
7.90E-07
4.06E-10
2.10E-09
2.28E-09
4.28E-10
1.85E-09
2.01E-09
3.05E-10
7.84E-10
8.38E-10
1.10E-12
2.09E-12
2.24E-12
1.76E-12
4.66E-12
5.00E-12
3.08E-12
5.37E-12
5.83E-12
2.69E-08
2.93E-07
3.91E-07
3.02E-11
2.10E-10
2.30E-10
7.28E-10
9.67E-09
1.07E-08
6.54E-10
1.50E-09
1.59E-09
72
-------
Table 2.1, continued
Nuclide T^
Francium, continued
Fr-223 21.8 m
Radium
Ra-223 11.434 d
Ra-224 3.66 d
Ra-225 14.8 d
b
Ra-226 1600 y
Ra-227 42.2 m
Ra-228 5.75 y
Actinium
Ac-224 2.9 h
Ac-225 10.0 d
Ac-226 29 h
Ac-227 21.773 y
Ac-228 6.13 h
Thorium
Th-226 30.9 m
Chain
P D
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
-
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
AMAD
(jum)
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
Type4
F
M
S
F
*M
S
F
*M
S
F
*M
S
F
*M
S
F
*M
S
F
*M
S
F
M
S
F
M
S
F
M
S
F
M
S
F
M
S
F
M
*s
1
1
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
fl
.0
.0
.0
.2
.1
.01
.2
.1
.01
.2
.1
.01
.2
.1
.01
.2
.1
.01
.2
.1
.01
.0005
.0005
.0005
.0005
.0005
.0005
.0005
.0005
.0005
.0005
.0005
.0005
.0005
.0005
.0005
.0005
.0005
.0005
Mortal ity
5
8
1
3
6
7
2
2
2
2
5
6
8
2
7
5
7
1
2
1
1
2
9
1
1
6
7
2
9
1
2
1
3
2
7
1
1
3
3
.52E-11
.81E-10
.02E-09
.91E-09
.42E-07
.50E-07
.60E-09
.56E-07
.90E-07
.43E-09
.39E-07
.70E-07
.11E-09
.93E-07
.23E-07
.12E-12
.41E-12
.55E-11
.34E-08
.26E-07
.12E-06
.43E-10
.21E-09
.04E-08
.90E-08
.32E-07
.34E-07
.39E-09
.97E-08
.11E-07
.21E-06
.92E-06
.82E-06
.45E-10
.60E-10
.25E-09
.03E-09
.70E-09
.99E-09
Morbidity
8.
9.
1.
5.
6.
7.
3.
2.
3.
3.
5.
7.
1.
3.
7.
6.
8.
1.
3.
1.
1.
2.
9.
1.
2.
6.
7.
3.
1.
1.
2.
2.
4.
3.
8.
1.
1.
3.
4.
26E-11
46E-10
09E-09
40E-09
76E-07
90E-07
61E-09
70E-07
06E-07
33E-09
67E-07
05E-07
14E-08
10E-07
61E-07
92E-12
47E-12
65E-11
28E-08
40E-07
18E-06
90E-10
71E-09
10E-08
29E-08
66E-07
73E-07
03E-09
05E-07
17E-07
71E-06
16E-06
04E-06
04E-10
22E-10
33E-09
10E-09
90E-09
21E-09
73
-------
Table 2.1, continued
Nuclide T^
Thorium, continued
Th-227 18.718 d
Th-228 1.9131 y
Th-229 7340 y
Th-230 7.7E4 y
Th-231 25.52 h
b
Th-232 1.41E10 y
Th-234 24.10 d
Protactinium
Pa-227 38.3 m
Pa-228 22 h
Pa-230 17.4 d
Pa-231 3.276E4 y
Pa-232 1.31 d
Pa-233 27.0 d
Chain
P D
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
-
-
-
Y
-
Y
AMAD
(jum)
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
Type4 f !
F
M
*s
F
M
*s
F
M
*s
F
M
*s
F
M
*s
F
M
*s
F
M
*s
F
M
S
F
M
S
F
M
S
F
M
S
F
M
S
F
M
S
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
.0005
.0005
.0005
.0005
.0005
.0005
.0005
.0005
.0005
.0005
.0005
.0005
.0005
.0005
.0005
.0005
.0005
.0005
.0005
.0005
.0005
.0005
.0005
.0005
.0005
.0005
.0005
.0005
.0005
.0005
.0005
.0005
.0005
.0005
.0005
.0005
.0005
.0005
.0005
Mortal ity
1
7
9
4
2
3
2
2
4
6
5
7
6
2
3
8
5
1
1
6
7
1
4
5
5
4
5
1
5
6
1
8
1
2
6
1
5
2
3
.20E-08
.23E-07
.OOE-07
.25E-07
.03E-06
.40E-06
.04E-06
.07E-06
.47E-06
.70E-07
.28E-07
.23E-07
.OOE-12
.95E-11
.23E-11
.09E-07
.18E-07
.10E-06
.73E-10
.06E-10
.11E-10
.02E-09
.98E-09
.44E-09
.78E-10
.01E-09
.96E-09
.24E-09
.13E-08
.63E-08
.52E-06
.83E-07
.15E-06
.38E-11
.70E-11
.64E-10
.54E-11
.92E-10
.45E-10
Morbidity
1
7
9
5
2
3
2
2
4
9
6
7
9
3
4
1
6
1
2
7
8
1
5
5
7
4
6
1
5
6
2
1
1
3
8
1
7
3
3
.63E-08
.62E-07
.48E-07
.86E-07
.18E-06
.58E-06
.70E-06
.39E-06
.73E-06
.20E-07
.36E-07
.70E-07
.96E-12
.78E-11
.10E-11
.12E-06
.45E-07
.17E-06
.25E-10
.16E-10
.31E-10
.10E-09
.25E-09
.73E-09
.99E-10
.29E-09
.29E-09
.77E-09
.41E-08
.98E-08
.06E-06
.10E-06
.23E-06
.60E-11
.23E-11
.84E-10
.28E-11
.27E-10
.84E-10
74
-------
Table 2.1, continued
Nuclide T^
Chain AMAD
P D (jm) Type4^
Mortal ity
Morbidity
Protactinium, continued
Pa-234 6.70 h
Uranium
U-230 20.8 d
U-231 4.2 d
U-232 72 y
U-233 1.585E5 y
a
U-234 2.445E5 y
U-235 703. 8E6 y
U-236 2.3415E7 y
U-237 6.75 d
U-238 4.468E9 y
U-239 23.54 m
U-240 14.1 h
Neptunium
Np-232 14.7 m
Y Y 1.00 F 0.0005
M 0.0005
S 0.0005
Y Y 1.00 F 0.02
*M 0.02
S 0.002
Y Y 1.00 F 0.02
*M 0.02
S 0.002
Y Y 1.00 F 0.02
*M 0.02
S 0.002
Y Y 1.00 F 0.02
*M 0.02
S 0.002
Y Y 1.00 F 0.02
*M 0.02
S 0.002
Y Y 1.00 F 0.02
*M 0.02
S 0.002
Y Y 1.00 F 0.02
*M 0.02
S 0.002
Y Y 1.00 F 0.02
*M 0.02
S 0.002
Y Y 1.00 F 0.02
*M 0.02
S 0.002
Y - 1.00 F 0.02
*M 0.02
S 0.002
Y Y 1.00 F 0.02
*M 0.02
S 0.002
Y - 1.00 F 0.0005
*M 0.0005
S 0.0005
7.80E-12
2.80E-11
3.02E-11
9.88E-09
1.17E-06
1.40E-06
5.01E-12
4.09E-11
4.70E-11
7.11E-08
4.86E-07
2.37E-06
1.23E-08
2.96E-07
7.27E-07
1.20E-08
2.90E-07
7.14E-07
1.12E-08
2.57E-07
6.42E-07
1.13E-08
2.68E-07
6.63E-07
1.38E-11
1.50E-10
1.71E-10
1.09E-08
2.38E-07
6.07E-07
4.44E-13
1.33E-12
1.43E-12
1.76E-11
5.60E-11
6.07E-11
9.05E-13
7.09E-13
1.24E-12
1.25E-11
3.67E-11
3.94E-11
1.46E-08
1.23E-06
1.48E-06
8.45E-12
4.86E-11
5.54E-11
9.96E-08
5.26E-07
2.50E-06
1.74E-08
3.13E-07
7.65E-07
1.70E-08
3.08E-07
7.51E-07
1.59E-08
2.73E-07
6.77E-07
1.61E-08
2.83E-07
6.98E-07
2.33E-11
1.74E-10
1.97E-10
1.54E-08
2.52E-07
6.39E-07
5.93E-13
1.54E-12
1.65E-12
3.08E-11
7.99E-11
8.62E-11
1.21E-12
8.58E-13
1.34E-12
75
-------
Table 2.1, continued
Nuclide T^
Neptunium, continued
Np-233 36.2 m
Np-234 4.4 d
Np-235 396.1 d
Np-236a 115E3 y
Np-236b 22.5 h
Np-237 2.14E6 y
Np-238 2.117 d
Np-239 2.355 d
Np-240 65 m
Plutonium
Pu-234 8.8 h
Pu-235 25.3 m
Pu-236 2.851 y
Pu-237 45.3 d
Chain
P D
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
-
Y
Y
Y
Y
-
Y
-
Y
Y
AMAD
(jum)
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
.00
.00
.00
.00
.00
.00
.00
.00
.00
.00
.00
.00
.00
Type4
F
*M
S
F
*M
S
F
*M
S
F
*M
S
F
*M
S
F
*M
S
F
*M
S
F
*M
S
F
*M
S
F
*M
S
F
*M
S
F
*M
S
F
*M
S
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
fl
.0005
.0005
.0005
.0005
.0005
.0005
.0005
.0005
.0005
.0005
.0005
.0005
.0005
.0005
.0005
.0005
.0005
.0005
.0005
.0005
.0005
.0005
.0005
.0005
.0005
.0005
.0005
.0005
.0005
.00001
.0005
.0005
.00001
.0005
.0005
.00001
.0005
.0005
.00001
Mortal ity
(Bq-1)
2
5
6
1
3
3
2
2
4
4
1
3
7
1
3
3
4
7
3
8
1
1
8
9
1
4
4
7
1
2
2
5
6
4
5
7
1
2
3
.72E-14
.67E-14
.01E-14
.75E-11
.64E-11
.90E-11
.16E-11
.78E-11
.84E-11
.61E-08
.97E-08
.06E-08
.71E-11
.97E-10
.28E-10
.48E-07
.18E-07
.32E-07
.97E-11
.86E-11
.19E-10
.48E-11
.75E-11
.66E-11
.36E-12
.62E-12
.99E-12
.77E-11
.75E-09
.05E-09
.85E-14
.67E-14
.06E-14
.92E-07
.60E-07
.56E-07
.23E-11
.99E-11
.58E-11
Morbidity
(Bq-1)
3
6
7
2
5
5
2
3
5
6
2
3
1
2
3
4
4
7
5
1
1
2
1
1
1
5
5
9
1
2
3
6
6
5
6
7
1
3
4
.54E-14
.72E-14
.08E-14
.66E-11
.04E-11
.36E-11
.50E-11
.11E-11
.25E-11
.33E-08
.64E-08
.30E-08
.04E-10
.18E-10
.49E-10
.72E-07
.79E-07
.75E-07
.83E-11
.13E-10
.43E-10
.44E-11
.08E-10
.18E-10
.75E-12
.27E-12
.66E-12
.91E-11
.85E-09
.16E-09
.49E-14
.47E-14
.88E-14
.91E-07
.16E-07
.99E-07
.61E-11
.43E-11
.03E-11
76
-------
Table 2.1, continued
Nuclide T^
Plutonium, continued
Pu-238 87.74 y
b
Pu-239 24065 y
Pu-240 6537 y
Pu-241 14.4 y
Pu-242 3.763E5 y
Pu-243 4.956 h
Pu-245 10.5 h
Pu-246 10.85 d
Americium
Am-237 73.0 m
Am-238 98 m
Am-239 11.9 h
Am-240 50.8 h
Am-241 432.2 y
Chain AMAD
P D (jum) Type4
Y Y 1.00 F
*M
S
Y Y 1.00 F
*M
S
Y Y 1.00 F
*M
S
Y Y 1.00 F
*M
S
Y Y 1.00 F
*M
S
Y Y 1.00 F
*M
S
Y - 1.00 F
*M
S
Y Y 1.00 F
*M
S
Y - 1.00 F
*M
S
Y Y 1.00 F
*M
S
Y - 1.00 F
*M
S
Y - 1.00 F
*M
S
Y Y 1.00 F
*M
S
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
fl
.0005
.0005
.00001
.0005
.0005
.00001
.0005
.0005
.00001
.0005
.0005
.00001
.0005
.0005
.00001
.0005
.0005
.00001
.0005
.0005
.00001
.0005
.0005
.00001
.0005
.0005
.0005
.0005
.0005
.0005
.0005
.0005
.0005
.0005
.0005
.0005
.0005
.0005
.0005
Mortal ity
(Bq-1)
1
8
9
1
7
8
1
7
8
1
7
3
1
7
7
1
6
6
1
4
4
1
3
4
3
1
1
1
2
2
4
1
1
1
2
3
7
6
9
.19E-06
.04E-07
.06E-07
.26E-06
.94E-07
.45E-07
.26E-06
.95E-07
.47E-07
.98E-08
.67E-09
.51E-09
.19E-06
.46E-07
.88E-07
.49E-12
.31E-12
.85E-12
.16E-11
.06E-11
.38E-11
.12E-10
.87E-10
.35E-10
.69E-13
.38E-12
.50E-12
.98E-12
.11E-12
.69E-12
.OOE-12
.77E-11
.92E-11
.19E-11
.83E-11
.05E-11
.98E-07
.59E-07
.04E-07
Morbidity
(Bq-1)
1
9
9
1
8
8
1
9
8
2
9
3
1
8
8
2
7
8
1
5
6
1
4
5
4
1
1
2
2
3
6
2
2
1
3
4
1
7
9
.41E-06
.07E-07
.60E-07
.49E-06
.99E-07
.96E-07
.50E-06
.OOE-07
.98E-07
.34E-08
.02E-09
.82E-09
.42E-06
.46E-07
.36E-07
.33E-12
.94E-12
.57E-12
.97E-11
.59E-11
.OOE-11
.58E-10
.68E-10
.20E-10
.70E-13
.56E-12
.68E-12
.59E-12
.57E-12
.07E-12
.50E-12
.27E-11
.45E-11
.80E-11
.82E-11
.08E-11
.02E-06
.60E-07
.58E-07
77
-------
Table 2.1, continued
Nuclide T^
Americium, continued
Am-242 16.02 h
Am-242m 152 y
Am-243 7380 y
Am-244 10.1 h
Am-244m 26 m
Am-245 2.05 h
Am-246 39 m
Am-246m 25.0 m
Curium
Cm-238 2.4 h
Cm-240 27 d
Cm-241 32.8 d
Cm-242 162.8 d
Cm-243 28.5 y
Chain
P D
Y Y
Y -
Y Y
Y -
Y -
Y Y
Y -
Y Y
Y -
Y Y
Y -
Y Y
Y -
AMAD
(jum)
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
Type4 f !
F 0.0005
*M 0.0005
S 0.0005
F 0.0005
*M 0.0005
S 0.0005
F 0.0005
*M 0.0005
S 0.0005
F 0.0005
*M 0.0005
S 0.0005
F 0.0005
*M 0.0005
S 0.0005
F 0.0005
*M 0.0005
S 0.0005
F 0.0005
*M 0.0005
S 0.0005
F 0.0005
*M 0.0005
S 0.0005
F 0.0005
*M 0.0005
S 0.0005
F 0.0005
*M 0.0005
S 0.0005
F 0.0005
*M 0.0005
S 0.0005
F 0.0005
*M 0.0005
S 0.0005
F 0.0005
*M 0.0005
S 0.0005
Mortal ity
(Bq-1)
1.99E-10
1.28E-09
1.72E-09
7.26E-07
3.41E-07
4.76E-07
7.88E-07
6.33E-07
8.58E-07
4.35E-11
6.97E-11
9.14E-11
1.91E-12
2.48E-12
3.34E-12
9.20E-13
3.52E-12
3.81E-12
1.08E-12
3.23E-12
3.47E-12
4.55E-13
9.52E-13
1.01E-12
3.61E-11
3.45E-10
3.80E-10
1.96E-08
2.44E-07
2.97E-07
3.55E-10
2.56E-09
3.12E-09
5.77E-08
3.84E-07
5.15E-07
6.50E-07
6.43E-07
9.38E-07
Morbidity
(Bq-1)
2.37E-10
1.36E-09
1.81E-09
9.30E-07
4.21E-07
5.08E-07
l.OOE-06
7.31E-07
9.11E-07
5.72E-11
8.34E-11
1.04E-10
2.36E-12
2.76E-12
3.56E-12
1.30E-12
4.21E-12
4.54E-12
1.28E-12
3.55E-12
3.80E-12
5.46E-13
1.07E-12
1.12E-12
4.06E-11
3.65E-10
4.01E-10
2.37E-08
2.57E-07
3.13E-07
4.44E-10
2.73E-09
3.31E-09
6.80E-08
4.07E-07
5.42E-07
8.18E-07
7.27E-07
9.93E-07
78
-------
Table 2.1, continued
Nuclide T^
Curium, continued
Cm-244 18.11 y
Cm-245 8500 y
Cm-246 4730 y
Cm-247 1.56E7 y
Cm-249 64.15 m
Berkelium
Bk-245 4.94 d
Bk-246 1.83 d
Bk-247 1380 y
Bk-249 320 d
Bk-250 3.222 h
Californium
Cf-244 19.4 m
Cf-246 35.7 h
Cf-248 333.5 d
Chain AMAD
P D (jum)
Y Y 1.00
Y Y 1.00
Y Y 1.00
Y Y 1.00
Y Y 1.00
Y - 1.00
Y - 1.00
Y Y 1.00
Y Y 1.00
Y Y 1.00
Y - 1.00
Y - 1.00
Y Y 1.00
Type4 f !
F 0.0005
*M 0.0005
S 0.0005
F 0.0005
*M 0.0005
S 0.0005
F 0.0005
*M 0.0005
S 0.0005
F 0.0005
*M 0.0005
S 0.0005
F 0.0005
*M 0.0005
S 0.0005
F 0.0005
M 0.0005
S 0.0005
F 0.0005
M 0.0005
S 0.0005
F 0.0005
M 0.0005
S 0.0005
F 0.0005
M 0.0005
S 0.0005
F 0.0005
M 0.0005
S 0.0005
F 0.0005
M 0.0005
S 0.0005
F 0.0005
M 0.0005
S 0.0005
F 0.0005
M 0.0005
S 0.0005
Mortal ity
(Bq-1)
5.68E-07
6.10E-07
9.09E-07
8.05E-07
6.49E-07
8.80E-07
7.97E-07
6.47E-07
8.81E-07
7.40E-07
5.83E-07
7.86E-07
7.43E-13
1.71E-12
1.87E-12
1.79E-11
1.74E-10
1.96E-10
9.78E-12
1.75E-11
1.86E-11
1.07E-06
7.75E-07
9.47E-07
2.58E-09
1.17E-09
1.27E-09
1.91E-11
2.42E-11
3.28E-11
2.55E-10
7.60E-10
8.30E-10
1.32E-09
3.76E-08
4.28E-08
1.19E-07
4.58E-07
6.57E-07
Morbidity
(Bq-1)
7.11E-07
6.84E-07
9.61E-07
1.03E-06
7.50E-07
9.33E-07
1.02E-06
7.48E-07
9.35E-07
9.43E-07
6.75E-07
8.34E-07
9.51E-13
1.96E-12
2.11E-12
2.60E-11
1.95E-10
2.18E-10
1.47E-11
2.50E-11
2.63E-11
1.29E-06
8.80E-07
l.OOE-06
3.13E-09
1.39E-09
1.35E-09
2.36E-11
2.79E-11
3.61E-11
2.72E-10
8.01E-10
8.74E-10
1.60E-09
3.96E-08
4.51E-08
1.42E-07
4.88E-07
6.92E-07
79
-------
Table 2.1, continued
Nuclide T^
Californium, continued
Cf-249 350.6 y
Cf-250 13.08 y
Cf-251 898 y
Cf-253 17.81 d
Einsteinium
Es-250 2.1 h
Es-251 33 h
Es-253 20.47 d
Es-254 275.7 d
Es-254m 39.3 h
Fermium
Fm-252 22.7 h
Fm-253 3.00 d
Fm-254 3.240 h
Fm-255 20.07 h
Chain AMAD
P D (jum)
Y Y 1.00
Y Y 1.00
Y Y 1.00
Y Y 1.00
Y - 1.00
Y - 1.00
Y Y 1.00
Y Y 1.00
Y - 1.00
Y - 1.00
Y - 1.00
Y Y 1.00
Y - 1.00
Type4 f !
F 0.0005
M 0.0005
S 0.0005
F 0.0005
M 0.0005
S 0.0005
F 0.0005
M 0.0005
S 0.0005
F 0.0005
M 0.0005
S 0.0005
F 0.0005
M 0.0005
S 0.0005
F 0.0005
M 0.0005
S 0.0005
F 0.0005
M 0.0005
S 0.0005
F 0.0005
M 0.0005
S 0.0005
F 0.0005
M 0.0005
S 0.0005
F 0.0005
M 0.0005
S 0.0005
F 0.0005
M 0.0005
S 0.0005
F 0.0005
M 0.0005
S 0.0005
F 0.0005
M 0.0005
S 0.0005
Mortal ity
(Bq-1)
1.08E-06
8.10E-07
l.OOE-06
6.11E-07
6.52E-07
9.42E-07
1.10E-06
8.10E-07
9.95E-07
5.48E-09
1.08E-07
1.39E-07
1.14E-11
1.23E-11
1.77E-11
1.14E-11
1.61E-10
1.79E-10
6.77E-09
2.27E-07
2.70E-07
1.09E-07
4.70E-07
6.65E-07
8.64E-10
3.92E-08
4.40E-08
1.08E-09
2.64E-08
2.98E-08
9.90E-10
3.28E-08
3.93E-08
4.35E-10
5.06E-09
5.58E-09
7.11E-10
2.26E-08
2.51E-08
Morbidity
(Bq-1)
1.31E-06
9.18E-07
1.06E-06
7.34E-07
7.20E-07
9.95E-07
1.33E-06
9.18E-07
1.05E-06
6.50E-09
1.14E-07
1.46E-07
1.38E-11
1.37E-11
1.88E-11
1.51E-11
1.73E-10
1.92E-10
8.08E-09
2.39E-07
2.85E-07
1.30E-07
5.00E-07
7.00E-07
1.09E-09
4.14E-08
4.64E-08
1.31E-09
2.79E-08
3.14E-08
1.18E-09
3.46E-08
4.13E-08
4.91E-10
5.34E-09
5.88E-09
8.60E-10
2.39E-08
2.65E-08
80
-------
Table 2.1, continued
Nuclide
Chain AMAD
P D (jm) Type4^
Mortality Morbidity
Fermium, continued
Fm-257 100.5 d
Mendelevium
Md-257 5.2 h
Md-258 55 d
Y Y 1.00 F 0.0005
M 0.0005
S 0.0005
Y - 1.00 F 0.0005
M 0.0005
S 0.0005
Y - 1.00 F 0.0005
M 0.0005
S 0.0005
5.95E-08
5.21E-07
7.14E-07
1.67E-10
1.97E-09
2.46E-09
3.98E-08
4.29E-07
5.55E-07
7.06E-08
5.51E-07
7.51E-07
1.97E-10
2.08E-09
2.59E-09
4.73E-08
4.53E-07
5.84E-07
aAn asterisk indicates the default absorption type recommended by the ICRP for
environmental exposure to paniculate forms of the element (see Table 4.1).
The uncertainty in the risk coefficient for a form of this radionuclide is addressed
in Table 2.4.
81
-------
-------
Table 2.2a. Mortality and morbidity risk coefficients for ingestion of tap water and food.
Explanation of Entries
Risk coefficients for ingestion of radionuclides in tap water or food are expressed as the
probability of radiogenic cancer mortality or morbidity per unit intake, where the intake is averaged
over all ages and both genders. A risk coefficient for ingestion applies to all forms of the
radionuclide, except that separate risk coefficients are given for 3H as tritiated water and organically
bound tritium, and for inorganic and organic forms of radioisotopes of sulfur, mercury, and
polonium. The indicated // values apply to the adult and, as explained in Chapter 4, may differ from
values for infants and children.
The entries under the heading "Chain" indicate whether the radionuclide is in the same decay
chain as other radionuclides addressed in the table (see Appendix G for details concerning decay
chains). An entry "Y" (yes) under the subheading "P" (parent) indicates that the radionuclide is the
parent of a decay chain containing at least one other radionuclide in the table. An entry "Y" under
the subheading "D" (daughter) indicates that the radionuclide is formed in the decay chain of at least
one other radionuclide in the table. These entries are included as an aid in the estimation of cancer
risk from intake of decay chain members that form in the environment. The risk coefficient for
intake of a radionuclide already includes the contribution to dose from production of decay chain
members in the body after intake of the parent.
To facilitate application of the risk coefficients, including conversion to other units, the
coefficients are tabulated to three decimal places. No indication of the level of uncertainty is
intended or should be inferred from this practice. A calculated risk should be rounded appropriately.
To express a risk coefficient in conventional units (MCi"1), multiply by S./xlO4 Bq uCf1.
To express a risk coefficient for intake of tap water in terms of a constant activity concentration
in tap water (Bq L"1), multiply the coefficient by 2.75X104 Uw, where Uw\s the lifetime average
rate of ingestion of tap water (for example, 1.11 L d"1 in Table 3.1) and 2.75X104 d is the
average life span. To express a risk coefficient for intake of food in terms of a constant activity
concentration in food (Bq kg"1), multiply by 2.75*104 UF, where UF is the lifetime average intake
rate of food in terms of mass (for example, 1.2 kg d"1, suggested in Chapter 3), and 2.75X104
d is the average life span. To express a risk coefficient in terms of activity per unit energy (Bq
kcal"1), multiply by 2.75X104 UE, where UE is the lifetime average intake rate of food energy (for
example, 2048 kcal d"1 in Table 3.1). Note that the relative age- and gender-specific intake
rates of tap water or food indicated in Table 3.1 are inherent in the risk coefficients.
83
-------
Table 2.2a. Mortality and morbidity risk coefficients for ingestion of water and food.
Tap Water
Nuclide T1/2
Chain
P D
Mortal ity
f1 (Bq~ )
Intakes
Morbidity
(Bq~ )
Dietary
Mortal ity
(Bq~ )
Intakes
Morbidity
(Bq" )
Hydrogen (tritiated water)
H-33 12.35
y
Hydrogen (organically
H-3 12.35
Beryllium
Be-7 53.3
Be-10 1.6E6
Carbon
C-ll 20.38
C-14b 5730
Fluorine
F-18 109.77
Sodium
Na-22 2.602
Na-24 15.00
Magnesium
Mg-28 20.91
Aluminum
Al-26 7.16E5
Silicon
Si-31 157.3
Si -32 450
Phosphorus
P-32 14.29
P-33 25.4
Sulfur (inorganic)
S-35 87.44
Sulfur (organic)
S-35 87.44
Chlorine
Cl-36 3.01E5
Cl-38 37.21
Cl-39 55.6
Potassium
K-40 1.28E9
K-42 12.36
K-43 22.6
K-44 22.13
K-45 20
y
d
y
m
y
m
y
h
h
y
m
y
d
d
d
d
y
m
m
y
h
h
m
m
- - 1
bound)
- - 1
- - 0
- - 0
- - 1
- - 1
- - 1
- - 1
- - 1
Y - 0
- - 0
- - 0
Y - 0
- Y 0
- - 0
- - 1
- - 1
- - 1
- - 1
Y - 1
- - 1
- - 1
- - 1
- - 1
Y - 1
.0
.0
.005
.005
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.5
.01
.01
.01
.8
.8
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
9
2
1
1
9
2
2
1
2
1
2
1
5
1
1
8
4
5
4
3
4
2
1
3
2
.44E-13
.09E-12
.39E-12
.07E-10
.34E-13
.89E-11
.20E-12
.80E-10
.35E-11
.77E-10
.68E-10
.05E-11
.28E-11
.68E-10
.73E-11
.87E-12
.99E-11
.94E-11
.45E-12
.42E-12
.30E-10
.40E-11
.45E-11
.23E-12
.08E-12
1
3
2
1
1
4
2
2
3
3
4
1
9
2
2
1
7
8
5
4
6
3
2
3
2
.37E-12
.03E-12
.34E-12
.90E-10
.10E-12
.20E-11
.63E-12
.60E-10
.33E-11
.07E-10
.67E-10
.75E-11
.31E-11
.42E-10
.65E-11
.39E-11
.36E-11
.92E-11
.21E-12
.11E-12
.68E-10
.41E-11
.13E-11
.76E-12
.42E-12
1
2
1
1
1
3
2
2
3
2
3
1
7
2
2
1
6
7
6
4
5
3
1
4
2
.20E-12
.66E-12
.91E-12
.56E-10
.27E-12
.68E-11
.91E-12
.34E-10
.12E-11
.56E-10
.83E-10
.52E-11
.65E-11
.25E-10
.37E-11
.21E-11
.72E-11
.93E-11
.09E-12
.66E-12
.89E-10
.28E-11
.96E-11
.42E-12
.84E-12
1
3
3
2
1
5
3
3
4
4
6
2
1
3
3
1
1
1
7
5
9
4
2
5
3
.76E-12
.89E-12
.25E-12
.77E-10
.51E-12
.40E-11
.50E-12
.41E-10
.45E-11
.46E-10
.72E-10
.54E-11
.35E-10
.32E-10
.68E-11
.90E-11
.OOE-10
.20E-10
.13E-12
.61E-12
.26E-10
.70E-11
.89E-11
.15E-12
.31E-12
84
-------
Table 2.2a, continued
Tap Water
Nucl ide
Calcium
Ca-41
Ca-45
Ca-47
Scandium
Sc-43
Sc-44
Sc-44m
Sc-46
Sc-47
Sc-48
Sc-49
Titanium
Ti -44
Ti-45
Vanadium
V-47
V-48
V-49
Chromium
Cr-48
Cr-49
Cr-51
Chain
Tl/2 P D fl
1.4E5
163
4.53
3.891
3.927
58.6
83.83
3.351
43.7
57.4
47.3
3.08
32.6
16.238
330
22.96
42.09
27.704
y
d
d
h
h
h
d
d
h
m
y
h
m
d
d
h
m
d
-
-
Y
-
-
Y
-
-
-
-
Y
-
-
-
-
Y
Y
-
-
Y
-
-
Y
-
-
Y
-
-
-
-
-
Y
Y
-
-
Y
0.3
0.3
0.3
0.0001
0.0001
0.0001
0.0001
0.0001
0.0001
0.0001
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.1
0.1
0.1
Mortal ity
(Bq"1)
8
4
1
1
2
2
9
5
1
3
4
1
2
1
1
1
2
2
.58E-12
.74E-11
.19E-10
.31E-11
.50E-11
.09E-10
.59E-11
.24E-11
.13E-10
.96E-12
.11E-10
.05E-11
.65E-12
.27E-10
.83E-12
.18E-11
.72E-12
.87E-12
Intakes
Morbidity
(Bq"1)
9.55E-12
6.68E-11
2.04E-10
2.21E-11
4.22E-11
3.74E-10
1.68E-10
9.44E-11
1.98E-10
5.54E-12
6.93E-10
1.74E-11
3.38E-12
2.22E-10
3.30E-12
2.01E-11
3.64E-12
5.01E-12
Dietary
Mortal ity
(Bq"1)
1
6
1
1
3
3
1
7
1
5
5
1
3
1
2
1
3
4
.04E-11
.27E-11
.69E-10
.87E-11
.58E-11
.03E-10
.36E-10
.67E-11
.62E-10
.59E-12
.78E-10
.50E-11
.67E-12
.80E-10
.68E-12
.65E-11
.79E-12
.10E-12
Intakes
Morbidity
(Bq"1)
1.18E-11
9.10E-11
2.92E-10
3.18E-11
6.09E-11
5.44E-10
2.40E-10
1.38E-10
2.84E-10
7.89E-12
9.84E-10
2.52E-11
4.71E-12
3.16E-10
4.83E-12
2.83E-11
5.10E-12
7.19E-12
Manganese
Mn-51
Mn-52
Mn-52m
Mn-53
Mn-54
Mn-56
Iron
Fe-52
Fe-55
Fe-59
Fe-60
Cobalt
Co-55
Co-56
Co-57
Co-58
Co -58m
46.2
5.591
21.1
3.7E6
312.5
2.5785
8.275
2.7
44.529
1E5
17.54
78.76
270.9
70.80
9.15
m
d
m
y
d
h
h
y
d
y
h
d
d
d
h
Y
-
Y
-
-
-
Y
-
-
Y
Y
-
-
-
Y
-
Y
Y
-
-
-
-
Y
-
-
-
Y
Y
Y
_
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
4
1
2
2
3
1
1
1
1
3
7
1
1
4
1
.20E-12
.04E-10
.79E-12
.46E-12
.94E-11
.70E-11
.10E-10
.81E-11
.36E-10
.75E-09
.16E-11
.67E-10
.70E-11
.85E-11
.94E-12
5.66E-12
1.74E-10
3.42E-12
4.21E-12
6.16E-11
2.78E-11
1.91E-10
2.33E-11
2.13E-10
4.86E-09
1.25E-10
2.74E-10
2.81E-11
7.97E-11
3.40E-12
5
1
3
3
5
2
1
2
1
4
1
2
2
6
2
.86E-12
.44E-10
.84E-12
.52E-12
.30E-11
.44E-11
.59E-10
.39E-11
.91E-10
.94E-09
.03E-10
.35E-10
.43E-11
.82E-11
.82E-12
7.97E-12
2.45E-10
4.73E-12
6.07E-12
8.40E-11
4.01E-11
2.78E-10
3.14E-11
3.01E-10
6.47E-09
1.81E-10
3.87E-10
4.03E-11
1.13E-10
4.95E-12
85
-------
Table 2.2a, continued
Tap Water
Nucl ide
Chain
T P n f
1 17 1
Mortal ity
Intakes
Morbidity
Dietary
Mortal ity
Intakes
Morbidity
Cobalt, continued
Co-603
Co-60m
Co-61
Co-62m
Nickel
Ni-56
Ni-57
Ni-59
Ni-63
Ni-65
Ni-66
Copper
Cu-60
Cu-61
Cu-64
Cu-67
Zinc
Zn-62
Zn-63
Zn-65
Zn-69
Zn-69m
Zn-71m
Zn-72
Gallium
Ga-65
Ga-66
Ga-67
Ga-68
Ga-70
Ga-72
Ga-73
5.271
10.47
1.65
13.91
6.10
36.08
7.5E4
96
2.520
54.6
23.2
3.408
12.701
61.86
9.26
38.1
243.9
57
13.76
3.92
46.5
15.2
9.40
78.26
68.0
21.15
14.1
4.91
y
m
h
m
d
h
y
y
h
h
m
h
h
h
h
m
d
m
h
h
h
m
h
h
m
m
h
h
-
Y
-
-
Y
Y
-
-
-
Y
-
-
-
-
Y
-
-
-
Y
-
Y
Y
-
-
-
-
-
-
Y
Y
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
Y
Y
-
-
-
-
Y
Y
Y
-
Y
-
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.001
0.001
0.001
0.001
0.001
0.001
0.001
2.
6.
4.
1.
4.
6.
4.
1.
1.
3.
2.
7.
1.
3.
7.
3.
2.
1.
2.
1.
1.
1.
9.
1.
5.
1.
8.
2.
75E-10
30E-14
26E-12
87E-12
54E-11
01E-11
44E-12
08E-11
15E-11
OOE-10
95E-12
74E-12
OOE-11
04E-11
77E-11
38E-12
16E-10
43E-12
88E-11
60E-11
05E-10
44E-12
84E-11
58E-11
25E-12
19E-12
58E-11
16E-11
4.25E-10
7.19E-14
6.56E-12
2.23E-12
7.66E-11
1.05E-10
7.41E-12
1.81E-11
1.88E-11
5.41E-10
3.70E-12
1.25E-11
1.73E-11
5.25E-11
1.34E-10
4.36E-12
3.15E-10
1.95E-12
5.04E-11
2.61E-11
1.78E-10
1.71E-12
1.73E-10
2.81E-11
7.64E-12
1.41E-12
1.51E-10
3.76E-11
3.
8.
6.
2.
6.
8.
6.
1.
1.
4.
4.
1.
1.
4.
1.
4.
2.
2.
4.
2.
1.
1.
1.
2.
7.
1.
1.
3.
88E-10
67E-14
08E-12
56E-12
29E-11
58E-11
26E-12
53E-11
65E-11
40E-10
04E-12
11E-11
45E-11
41E-11
13E-10
70E-12
82E-10
02E-12
19E-11
29E-11
50E-10
98E-12
43E-10
28E-11
40E-12
64E-12
24E-10
15E-11
6.03E-10
9.90E-14
9.42E-12
3.06E-12
1.07E-10
1.50E-10
1.05E-11
2.57E-11
2.73E-11
7.95E-10
5.10E-12
1.81E-11
2.52E-11
7.65E-11
1.96E-10
6.10E-12
4.15E-10
2.78E-12
7.37E-11
3.77E-11
2.55E-10
2.36E-12
2.52E-10
4.08E-11
1.09E-11
1.95E-12
2.18E-10
5.48E-11
Germanium
Ge-66
Ge-67
Ge-68
Ge-69
Ge-71
Ge-75
Ge-77
Ge-78
2.27
18.7
288
39.05
11.8
82.78
11.30
87
h
m
d
h
d
m
h
m
Y
Y
Y
-
-
-
Y
Y
-
-
-
Y
Y
-
-
_
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
6.
2.
1.
1.
9.
1.
2.
5.
21E-12
46E-12
07E-10
60E-11
94E-13
87E-12
03E-11
79E-12
9.99E-12
2.86E-12
1.88E-10
2.66E-11
1.75E-12
2.34E-12
3.30E-11
8.34E-12
8.
3.
1.
2.
1.
2.
2.
7.
25E-12
36E-12
51E-10
19E-11
41E-12
53E-12
75E-11
62E-12
1.32E-11
3.91E-12
2.67E-10
3.65E-11
2.48E-12
3.15E-12
4.46E-11
1.09E-11
86
-------
Table 2.2a, continued
Tap Water
Nucl ide
Arsenic
As-69
As-70
As-71
As-72
As-73
As-74
As-76
As-77
As-78
Selenium
Se-70
Se-73
Se-73m
Se-75
Se-79
Se-81
Se-81m
Se-83
Bromine
Br-74
Br-74m
Br-75
Br-76
Br-77
Br-80
Br-80m
Br-82
Br-83
Br-84
Rubidium
Rb-79
Rb-81
Rb-81m
Rb-82m
Rb-83
Rb-84
Rb-86
Rb-87
Rb-88
Rb-89
Chain
Tl/2 P D fl
15.2
52.6
64.8
26.0
80.30
17.76
26.32
38.8
90.7
41.0
7.15
39
119.8
65000
18.5
57.25
22.5
25.3
41.5
98
16.2
56
17.4
4.42
35.30
2.39
31.80
22.9
4.58
32
6.2
86.2
32.77
18.66
4.7E10
17.8
15.2
m
m
h
h
d
d
h
h
m
m
h
m
d
y
m
m
m
m
m
m
h
h
m
h
h
h
m
m
h
m
h
d
d
d
y
m
m
Y
-
Y
-
-
-
-
-
-
Y
Y
Y
-
-
-
Y
Y
-
-
Y
-
-
-
Y
-
Y
-
Y
Y
Y
-
Y
-
-
-
-
Y
-
Y
-
Y
Y
-
-
Y
Y
-
Y
-
Y
-
Y
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
Y
-
-
Y
-
-
Y
-
-
Y
-
-
Y
-
_
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.8
0.8
0.8
0.8
0.8
0.8
0.8
0.8
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
Mortal ity
2
6
3
1
2
1
1
3
1
5
1
1
1
1
9
2
2
3
5
3
2
5
1
5
3
1
3
1
2
4
6
1
1
1
9
3
1
.29E-12
.27E-12
.54E-11
.56E-10
.39E-11
.04E-10
.47E-10
.80E-11
.15E-11
.70E-12
.37E-11
.53E-12
.56E-10
.38E-10
.99E-13
.55E-12
.12E-12
.40E-12
.54E-12
.38E-12
.67E-11
.45E-12
.12E-12
.65E-12
.10E-11
.83E-12
.41E-12
.93E-12
.61E-12
.33E-13
.82E-12
.06E-10
.64E-10
.82E-10
.54E-11
.33E-12
.82E-12
Intakes
Morbidity
2.83E-12
8.66E-12
6.15E-11
2.75E-10
4.22E-11
1.81E-10
2.61E-10
6.76E-11
1.71E-11
7.97E-12
2.15E-11
2.24E-12
2.20E-10
1.97E-10
1.16E-12
3.52E-12
2.77E-12
4.06E-12
6.66E-12
4.23E-12
3.91E-11
8.14E-12
1.27E-12
7.63E-12
4.62E-11
2.28E-12
3.99E-12
2.26E-12
3.47E-12
5.55E-13
9.48E-12
1.54E-10
2.38E-10
2.67E-10
1.41E-10
3.78E-12
2.13E-12
Dietary
Mortal ity
3.
8.
5.
2.
3.
1.
2.
5.
1.
7.
1.
2.
2.
1.
1.
3.
2.
4.
7.
4.
3.
7.
1.
7.
4.
2.
4.
2.
3.
5.
9.
1.
2.
2.
1.
4.
2.
16E-12
69E-12
08E-11
27E-10
48E-11
50E-10
15E-10
56E-11
63E-11
91E-12
92E-11
14E-12
04E-10
82E-10
38E-12
59E-12
93E-12
63E-12
55E-12
60E-12
60E-11
23E-12
54E-12
74E-12
13E-11
51E-12
66E-12
64E-12
52E-12
87E-13
03E-12
39E-10
15E-10
44E-10
28E-10
56E-12
49E-12
Intakes
Morbidity
3.94E-12
1.21E-11
8.88E-11
4.01E-10
6.16E-11
2.62E-10
3.83E-10
9.93E-11
2.44E-11
1.11E-11
3.06E-11
3.16E-12
2.91E-10
2.62E-10
1.60E-12
5.00E-12
3.86E-12
5.54E-12
9.09E-12
5.77E-12
5.33E-11
1.09E-11
1.75E-12
1.05E-11
6.21E-11
3.13E-12
5.47E-12
3.09E-12
4.71E-12
7.56E-13
1.27E-11
2.03E-10
3.17E-10
3.63E-10
1.91E-10
5.19E-12
2.92E-12
87
-------
Table 2.2a, continued
Tap Water
Nucl ide
Strontium
Sr-80
Sr-81
Sr-82
Sr-83
Sr-85
Sr-85m
Sr-87m
Sr-89fl
ri
Sr-90
Sr-91
Sr-92
Yttrium
Y-86
Y-86m
Y-87
Y-88
Y-90
Y-90m
Y-91
Y-91m
Y-92
Y-93
Y-94
Y-95
Zirconium
Zr-86
Zr-88
Zr-89
Zr-93
Zr-95
Zr-97
Niobium
Nb-88
Nb-89b
Nb-89a
Nb-90
Nb-93m
Nb-94
Nb-95
Nb-95m
Nb-96
Nb-97
Nb-98
Tl/2
100 m
25.5 m
25.0 d
32.4 h
64.84 d
69.5 m
2.805 h
50.5 d
29.12 y
9.5 h
2.71 h
14.74 h
48 m
80.3 h
106.64 d
64.0 h
3.19 h
58.51 d
49.71 m
3.54 h
10.1 h
19.1 m
10.7 m
16.5 h
83.4 d
78.43 h
1.53E6 y
63.98 d
16.90 h
14.3 m
122 m
66 m
14.60 h
13.6 y
2.03E4 y
35.15 d
86.6 h
23.35 h
72.1 m
51.5 m
Chain
P D ft
Y
Y
Y
Y
-
Y
Y
_
Y
Y
Y
-
Y
Y
-
-
Y
-
Y
-
Y
-
Y
Y
Y
-
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
-
-
-
-
Y
-
-
_
-
-
-
-
Y
-
Y
Y
-
-
-
Y
-
-
Y
Y
-
Y
Y
Y
-
-
-
-
Y
Y
Y
Y
-
-
-
-
Y
Y
-
Y
Y
-
Y
_
0.3
0.3
0.3
0.3
0.3
0.3
0.3
0.3
0.3
0.3
0.3
0.0001
0.0001
0.0001
0.0001
0.0001
0.0001
0.0001
0.0001
0.0001
0.0001
0.0001
0.0001
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
Mortal ity
(Bq~ )
1.
3.
5.
3.
4.
3.
1.
2.
1.
5.
3.
6.
3.
3.
6.
2.
1.
2.
6.
3.
1.
3.
1.
5.
2.
5.
2.
7.
1.
2.
1.
7.
8.
1.
1.
3.
5.
7.
3.
5.
92E-11
44E-12
02E-10
46E-11
09E-11
09E-13
79E-12
10E-10
34E-09
02E-11
46E-11
34E-11
69E-12
94E-11
68E-11
70E-10
57E-11
39E-10
29E-13
92E-11
09E-10
13E-12
71E-12
93E-11
61E-11
54E-11
26E-11
09E-11
89E-10
53E-12
75E-11
28E-12
86E-11
21E-11
22E-10
81E-11
49E-11
80E-11
60E-12
44E-12
Intakes
Morbidity
2.
4.
8.
5.
6.
4.
2.
3.
1.
8.
6.
1.
6.
6.
1.
4.
2.
4.
9.
6.
1.
3.
1.
1.
4.
9.
3.
1.
3.
3.
2.
1.
1.
2.
2.
6.
9.
1.
5.
7.
94E-11
61E-12
45E-10
98E-11
12E-11
51E-13
88E-12
47E-10
51E-09
71E-11
07E-11
10E-10
34E-12
96E-11
13E-10
88E-10
80E-11
33E-10
50E-13
69E-11
94E-10
71E-12
96E-12
04E-10
26E-11
72E-11
01E-11
24E-10
38E-10
06E-12
82E-11
08E-11
54E-10
17E-11
10E-10
63E-11
88E-11
36E-10
29E-12
56E-12
Dietary
Mortal ity
(Bq~ )
2.
4.
7.
4.
5.
4.
2.
2.
1.
7.
5.
9.
5.
5.
9.
3.
2.
3.
8.
5.
1.
4.
2.
8.
3.
7.
2.
1.
2.
3.
2.
1.
1.
1.
1.
5.
8.
1.
5.
7.
73E-11
79E-12
13E-10
94E-11
56E-11
23E-13
53E-12
97E-10
62E-09
24E-11
01E-11
02E-11
24E-12
65E-11
26E-11
96E-10
29E-11
51E-10
77E-13
70E-11
60E-10
31E-12
35E-12
47E-11
57E-11
93E-11
83E-11
01E-10
76E-10
46E-12
50E-11
02E-11
27E-10
77E-11
73E-10
41E-11
03E-11
12E-10
08E-12
58E-12
Intakes
Morbidity
(Bq~ )
4.20E-11
6.45E-12
1.21E-09
8.58E-11
8.41E-11
6.23E-13
4.09E-12
4.96E-10
1.86E-09
1.26E-10
8.81E-11
1.57E-10
9.06E-12
l.OOE-10
1.58E-10
7.16E-10
4.09E-11
6.36E-10
1.34E-12
9.77E-11
2.85E-10
5.13E-12
2.70E-12
1.50E-10
5.90E-11
1.40E-10
3.90E-11
1.78E-10
4.95E-10
4.20E-12
4.07E-11
1.53E-11
2.22E-10
3.17E-11
3.01E-10
9.45E-11
1.45E-10
1.96E-10
7.53E-12
1.06E-11
88
-------
Table 2.2a, continued
Tap Water
Nucl ide
Chain
T P n f
1 i /o 1 U 11
Mortal ity
Intakes
Morbidity
Dietary
Mortal ity
Intakes
Morbidity
Molybdenum
Mo-90
Mo-93
Mo-93m
Mo-99
Mo-101
5.67 h
3.5E3 y
6.85 h
66.0 h
14.62 m
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
-
Y
-
-
-
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.
8.
6.
3.
1.
27E-11
21E-11
28E-12
12E-11
60E-12
1.
9.
8.
4.
1.
78E-11
06E-11
66E-12
33E-11
86E-12
1.
1.
8.
4.
2.
67E-11
01E-10
29E-12
06E-11
18E-12
2.36E-11
1.13E-10
1.15E-11
5.71E-11
2.55E-12
Technetium
Tc-93
Tc-93m
Tc-94
Tc-94m
Tc-95
Tc-95m
Tc-96
Tc-96m
Tc-97
Tc-97m
Tc-98
Tc-99 2
Tc-99m
Tc-101
Tc-104
Ruthenium
Ru-94
Ru-97
Ru-103
Ru-105
a
Ru-106
Rhodium
Rh-99
Rh-99m
Rh-100
Rh-101
Rh-lOlm
Rh-102
Rh-102m
Rh-103m
Rh-105
Rh-106m
Rh-107
2.75 h
43.5 m
293 m
52 m
20.0 h
61 d
4.28 d
51.5 m
2.6E6 y
87 d
4.2E6 y
.13E5 y
6.02 h
14.2 m
18.2 m
51.8 m
2.9 d
39.28 d
4.44 h
368.2 d
16 d
4.7 h
20.8 h
3.2 y
4.34 d
2.9 y
207 d
56.12 m
35.36 h
132 m
21.7 m
Y
Y
-
-
-
Y
-
Y
-
Y
-
-
Y
-
-
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
-
-
-
-
Y
-
Y
-
-
-
Y
Y
-
-
Y
Y
-
Y
-
Y
Y
-
Y
Y
Y
-
-
-
-
_
-
-
-
Y
Y
Y
Y
-
Y
Y
-
_
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.05
2.
1.
1.
4.
9.
2.
5.
6.
4.
3.
1.
4.
1.
7.
3.
5.
9.
5.
2.
6.
3.
3.
4.
3.
1.
1.
9.
1.
3.
9.
9.
71E-12
21E-12
04E-11
47E-12
25E-12
96E-11
59E-11
07E-13
25E-12
67E-11
14E-10
28E-11
22E-12
07E-13
09E-12
17E-12
85E-12
88E-11
10E-11
45E-10
44E-11
94E-12
20E-11
52E-11
46E-11
33E-10
42E-11
82E-13
52E-11
31E-12
42E-13
4.
1.
1.
6.
1.
4.
9.
9.
7.
6.
1.
7.
2.
8.
3.
8.
1.
1.
3.
1.
5.
6.
7.
5.
2.
2.
1.
2.
6.
1.
1.
29E-12
84E-12
72E-11
39E-12
56E-11
87E-11
23E-11
70E-13
31E-12
42E-11
92E-10
44E-11
15E-12
28E-13
72E-12
27E-12
72E-11
04E-10
64E-11
14E-09
97E-11
54E-12
17E-11
80E-11
54E-11
08E-10
64E-10
54E-13
33E-11
48E-11
13E-12
3.
1.
1.
6.
1.
4.
7.
8.
6.
5.
1.
6.
1.
9.
4.
7.
1.
8.
3.
9.
4.
5.
5.
4.
2.
1.
1.
2.
5.
1.
1.
72E-12
67E-12
44E-11
23E-12
28E-11
09E-11
66E-11
37E-13
09E-12
30E-11
61E-10
17E-11
73E-12
72E-13
25E-12
35E-12
40E-11
48E-11
05E-11
35E-10
88E-11
54E-12
91E-11
89E-11
07E-11
78E-10
35E-10
57E-13
16E-11
31E-11
30E-12
5.94E-12
2.55E-12
2.40E-11
8.98E-12
2.17E-11
6.79E-11
1.28E-10
1.35E-12
1.05E-11
9.31E-11
2.73E-10
1.08E-10
3.07E-12
1.14E-12
5.14E-12
1.18E-11
2.45E-11
1.50E-10
5.30E-11
1.65E-09
8.52E-11
9.25E-12
1.01E-10
8.13E-11
3.63E-11
2.82E-10
2.36E-10
3.61E-13
9.27E-11
2.09E-11
1.57E-12
89
-------
Table 2.2a, continued
Tap Water
Nucl ide
Palladium
Pd-100
Pd-101
Pd-103
Pd-107
Pd-109
Silver
Ag-102
Ag-103
Ag-104
Ag-104m
Ag-105
Ag-106
Ag-106m
Ag-108m
Ag-llOm
Ag-111
Ag-112
Ag-115
Cadmium
Cd-104
Cd-107
Cd-109
Cd-113
Cd-113m
Cd-115
Cd-115m
Cd-117
Cd-117m
Indium
In-109
In-llOb
In-llOa
In-Ill
In-112
In-113m
In-114m
In-115
In-115m
In-116m
Chain
Tl/2 P D fl
3.63
8.27
16.96
6.5E6
13.427
12.9
65.7
69.2
33.5
41.0
23.96
8.41
127
249.9
7.45
3.12
20.0
57.7
6.49
464
9.3E15
13.6
53.46
44.6
2.49
3.36
4.2
4.9
69.1
2.83
14.4
1.658
49.51
5.1E15
4.486
54.15
d
h
d
y
h
m
m
m
m
d
m
d
y
d
d
h
m
m
h
d
y
y
h
d
h
h
h
h
m
d
m
h
d
y
h
m
Y
Y
Y
-
-
-
Y
-
Y
-
-
-
Y
Y
-
-
Y
Y
-
-
-
-
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
-
-
-
-
-
Y
-
Y
_
-
-
Y
Y
-
-
-
Y
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
Y
-
-
Y
Y
-
-
-
-
Y
Y
-
Y
-
Y
Y
_
0.005
0.005
0.005
0.005
0.005
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.02
0.02
0.02
0.02
0.02
0.02
0.02
0.02
0.02
0.02
Mortal ity
6.
6.
1.
3.
5.
1.
2.
3.
2.
2.
1.
7.
1.
1.
1.
3.
2.
2.
5.
8.
4.
5.
1.
2.
2.
1.
4.
1.
5.
1.
3.
1.
3.
7.
6.
3.
21E-11
59E-12
87E-11
74E-12
28E-11
62E-12
21E-12
03E-12
42E-12
88E-11
30E-12
82E-11
42E-10
68E-10
24E-10
20E-11
78E-12
93E-12
39E-12
65E-11
34E-10
36E-10
30E-10
62E-10
16E-11
96E-11
02E-12
26E-11
20E-12
99E-11
87E-13
65E-12
85E-10
87E-10
90E-12
09E-12
Intakes
Morbidity
1.09E-10
1.14E-11
3.38E-11
6.77E-12
9.46E-11
1.96E-12
3.23E-12
4.47E-12
3.26E-12
4.79E-11
1.60E-12
1.30E-10
2.20E-10
2.67E-10
2.22E-10
5.39E-11
3.78E-12
4.65E-12
9.46E-12
1.35E-10
6.17E-10
7.77E-10
2.34E-10
4.60E-10
3.70E-11
3.31E-11
6.66E-12
2.05E-11
7.59E-12
3.48E-11
4.55E-13
2.56E-12
6.70E-10
9.13E-10
1.19E-11
4.38E-12
Dietary
Mortal ity
8.
9.
2.
5.
7.
2.
3.
4.
3.
4.
1.
1.
1.
2.
1.
4.
3.
4.
7.
1.
5.
6.
1.
3.
3.
2.
5.
1.
7.
2.
5.
2.
5.
9.
1.
4.
83E-11
44E-12
74E-11
49E-12
74E-11
21E-12
11E-12
17E-12
35E-12
02E-11
80E-12
08E-10
92E-10
30E-10
81E-10
64E-11
90E-12
08E-12
86E-12
14E-10
48E-10
72E-10
90E-10
76E-10
12E-11
80E-11
67E-12
74E-11
30E-12
84E-11
32E-13
34E-12
55E-10
94E-10
OOE-11
27E-12
Intakes
Morbidity
1.56E-10
1.64E-11
4.96E-11
9.93E-12
1.39E-10
2.69E-12
4.56E-12
6.19E-12
4.55E-12
6.73E-11
2.22E-12
1.82E-10
3.03E-10
3.71E-10
3.26E-10
7.84E-11
5.34E-12
6.52E-12
1.38E-11
1.81E-10
7.85E-10
9.84E-10
3.42E-10
6.64E-10
5.37E-11
4.75E-11
9.47E-12
2.85E-11
1.08E-11
5. OOE-11
6.27E-13
3.66E-12
9.73E-10
1.17E-09
1.73E-11
6.11E-12
90
-------
Table 2.2a, continued
Tap Water
Nucl ide
Chain
T P n f
1 i /o 1 U 11
Mortal ity
Intakes
Morbidity
Dietary
Mortal ity
Intakes
Morbidity
Indium, continued
In-117
In-117m
In-119m
Tin
Sn-110
Sn-111
Sn-113
Sn-117m
Sn-119m
Sn-121
Sn-121m
Sn-123
Sn-123m
Sn-125
Sn-126
Sn-127
Sn-128
Antimony
Sb-115
Sb-116
Sb-116m
Sb-117
Sb-118m
Sb-119
Sb-120b
Sb-120a
Sb-122
Sb-124
Sb-124n
a
Sb-125
Sb-126
Sb-126m
Sb-127
Sb-128b
Sb-128a
Sb-129
Sb-130
Sb-131
43.8
116.5
18.0
4.0
35.3
115.1
13.61
293.0
27.06
55
129.2
40.08
9.64
1.0E5
2.10
59.1
31.8
15.8
60.3
2.80
5.00
38.1
5.76
15.89
2.70
60.20
20.2
2.77
12.4
19.0
3.85
9.01
10.4
4.32
40
23
m
m
m
h
m
d
d
d
h
y
d
m
d
y
h
m
m
m
m
h
h
h
d
m
d
d
m
y
d
m
d
h
m
h
m
m
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
-
-
-
Y
-
-
Y
Y
Y
Y
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
Y
Y
-
Y
Y
-
-
Y
-
Y
Y
Y
-
-
-
-
Y
Y
Y
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
Y
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
Y
_
Y
Y
Y
Y
-
Y
-
-
_
0.02
0.02
0.02
0.02
0.02
0.02
0.02
0.02
0.02
0.02
0.02
0.02
0.02
0.02
0.02
0.02
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
1
7
1
2
1
6
6
3
2
3
2
1
3
3
1
7
1
1
3
1
1
7
7
5
1
2
3
7
1
1
1
5
1
3
4
3
.40E-12
.40E-12
.75E-12
.87E-11
.08E-12
.56E-11
.59E-11
.33E-11
.25E-11
.58E-11
.10E-10
.65E-12
.01E-10
.96E-10
.35E-11
.97E-12
.06E-12
.09E-12
.29E-12
.10E-12
.16E-11
.21E-12
.04E-11
.62E-13
.60E-10
.OOE-10
.48E-13
.27E-11
.72E-10
.46E-12
.52E-10
.41E-11
.27E-12
.41E-11
.15E-12
.28E-12
1.
1.
2.
5.
1.
1.
1.
5.
4.
6.
3.
2.
5.
6.
2.
1.
1.
1.
4.
1.
1.
1.
1.
6.
2.
3.
4.
1.
3.
1.
2.
9.
1.
5.
5.
6.
90E-12
20E-11
04E-12
05E-11
49E-12
17E-10
18E-10
98E-11
05E-11
33E-11
78E-10
15E-12
43E-10
91E-10
23E-11
17E-11
39E-12
34E-12
77E-12
78E-12
89E-11
29E-11
20E-10
70E-13
87E-10
48E-10
51E-13
18E-10
OOE-10
80E-12
72E-10
33E-11
49E-12
93E-11
59E-12
91E-12
1.95E-12
1.06E-11
2.41E-12
4.16E-11
1.50E-12
9.54E-11
9.63E-11
4.87E-11
3.30E-11
5.19E-11
3.07E-10
2.31E-12
4.41E-10
5.69E-10
1.94E-11
1.12E-11
1.46E-12
1.49E-12
4.53E-12
1.55E-12
1.61E-11
1.05E-11
9.83E-11
7.73E-13
2.34E-10
2.86E-10
4.80E-13
1.01E-10
2.46E-10
2.01E-12
2.22E-10
7.74E-11
1.73E-12
4.95E-11
5.73E-12
4.56E-12
2.66E-12
1.74E-11
2.82E-12
7.33E-11
2.08E-12
1.71E-10
1.73E-10
8.75E-11
5.95E-11
9.21E-11
5.53E-10
3.03E-12
7.96E-10
9.98E-10
3.22E-11
1.66E-11
1.92E-12
1.84E-12
6.62E-12
2.55E-12
2.65E-11
1.88E-11
1.68E-10
9.23E-13
4.20E-10
5.01E-10
6.26E-13
1.66E-10
4.29E-10
2.49E-12
3.97E-10
1.34E-10
2.04E-12
8.62E-11
7.78E-12
9.71E-12
91
-------
Table 2.2a, continued
Tap Water
Nucl ide
Tellurium
Te-116
Te-121
Te-121m
Te-123
Te-123m
Te-125m
Te-127
Te-127m
Te-129
Te-129m
Te-131
Te-131m
Te-132
Te-133
Te-133m
Te-134
Iodine
1-120
I -120m
1-121
1-123
1-124
1-125
1-126
1-128
1-129
1-130
a
1-131
1-132
I -132m
1-133
1-134
1-135
Cesium
Cs-125
Cs-127
Cs-129
Cs-130
Cs-131
Chain
Tl/2 P D fl
2.49
17
154
1E13
119.7
58
9.35
109
69.6
33.6
25.0
30
78.2
12.45
55.4
41.8
81.0
53
2.12
13.2
4.18
60.14
13.02
24.99
1.57E7
12.36
8.04
2.30
83.6
20.8
52.6
6.61
45
6.25
32.06
29.9
9.69
h
d
d
y
d
d
h
d
m
d
m
h
h
m
m
m
m
m
h
h
d
d
d
m
y
h
d
h
m
h
m
h
m
h
h
m
d
Y
-
Y
-
Y
-
-
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
-
-
Y
Y
-
-
-
-
-
_
Y
-
Y
Y
-
Y
Y
Y
-
-
_
-
Y
-
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
-
Y
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
Y
-
-
Y
_
Y
Y
-
Y
Y
-
-
-
-
-
Y
0.3
0.3
0.3
0.3
0.3
0.3
0.3
0.3
0.3
0.3
0.3
0.3
0.3
0.3
0.3
0.3
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
Mortal ity
1
2
1
9
7
5
1
1
3
2
2
9
1
1
7
4
9
7
1
2
1
7
2
1
4
2
1
6
3
4
3
1
1
1
3
1
3
.11E-11
.43E-11
.20E-10
.59E-11
.28E-11
.42E-11
.54E-11
.51E-10
.21E-12
.39E-10
.08E-12
.04E-11
.94E-10
.60E-12
.62E-12
.29E-12
.51E-12
.36E-12
.46E-12
.70E-12
.21E-10
.14E-11
.45E-10
.58E-12
.07E-10
.53E-11
.31E-10
.87E-12
.79E-12
.63E-11
.68E-12
.39E-11
.35E-12
.27E-12
.44E-12
.09E-12
.40E-12
Intakes
Morbidity
1.82E-11
3.94E-11
1.73E-10
1.11E-10
1.12E-10
8.99E-11
2.71E-11
2.33E-10
4.62E-12
4.14E-10
5.86E-12
2.23E-10
4.60E-10
5.20E-12
2.36E-11
8.13E-12
2.44E-11
1.36E-11
6.14E-12
1.88E-11
1.12E-09
6.87E-10
2.36E-09
2.20E-12
3.99E-09
1.72E-10
1.23E-09
2.28E-11
1.65E-11
3.90E-10
6.76E-12
8.24E-11
1.61E-12
1.76E-12
5.00E-12
1.28E-12
5.02E-12
Dietary
Mortal ity
1
3
1
1
9
7
2
2
4
3
2
1
2
2
1
5
1
9
1
3
1
9
3
2
5
3
1
9
5
6
4
1
1
1
4
1
4
.58E-11
.30E-11
.56E-10
.18E-10
.72E-11
.51E-11
.25E-11
.03E-10
.55E-12
.39E-10
.89E-12
.30E-10
.78E-10
.22E-12
.07E-11
.90E-12
.28E-11
.94E-12
.97E-12
.72E-12
.71E-10
.64E-11
.44E-10
.16E-12
.31E-10
.47E-11
.85E-10
.21E-12
.19E-12
.51E-11
.97E-12
.90E-11
.84E-12
.69E-12
.56E-12
.49E-12
.51E-12
Intakes
Morbidity
2.60E-11
5.43E-11
2.30E-10
1.38E-10
1.53E-10
1.27E-10
3.99E-11
3.23E-10
6.60E-12
5.95E-10
8.25E-12
3.21E-10
6.60E-10
7.37E-12
3.36E-11
1.13E-11
3.38E-11
1.87E-11
8.45E-12
2.66E-11
1.58E-09
9.28E-10
3.31E-09
3.03E-12
5.21E-09
2.44E-10
1.75E-09
3.17E-11
2.34E-11
5.58E-10
9.28E-12
1.17E-10
2.21E-12
2.36E-12
6.69E-12
1.75E-12
6.73E-12
92
-------
Table 2.2a, continued
Tap Water
Nucl ide
Cesium,
Cs-132
Cs-134
Cs-134m
Cs-135
Cs-135m
Cs-136
a
Cs-137
Cs-138
Barium
Ba-126
Ba-128
Ba-131
Ba-131m
Ba-133
Ba-133m
Ba-135m
Ba-139
Ba-140
Ba-141
Ba-142
Chain
T P n f
1 i /o 1 U 11
continued
6.475 d
2.062 y
2.90 h
2.3E6 y
53 m
13.1 d
30.0 y
32.2 m
96.5 m
2.43 d
11.8 d
14.6 m
10.74 y
38.9 h
28.7 h
82.7 m
12.74 d
18.27 m
10.6 m
-
-
Y
-
Y
_
Y
-
Y
Y
Y
Y
-
Y
-
-
Y
Y
Y
-
Y
-
Y
-
_
-
-
-
-
Y
-
Y
-
-
-
-
-
-
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
0.2
0.2
0.2
0.2
0.2
0.2
0.2
0.2
0.2
0.2
0.2
Mortal ity
2.
7.
8.
8.
9.
1.
5.
3.
1.
2.
3.
2.
1.
4.
3.
6.
2.
3.
1.
70E-11
91E-10
65E-13
72E-11
36E-13
60E-10
66E-10
61E-12
49E-11
31E-10
15E-11
01E-13
27E-10
82E-11
87E-11
67E-12
30E-10
86E-12
75E-12
Intakes
Morbidity
3
1
1
1
1
2
8
4
2
4
5
2
1
8
6
9
4
5
2
.95E-11
.14E-09
.12E-12
.28E-10
.22E-12
.34E-10
.22E-10
.26E-12
.30E-11
.12E-10
.41E-11
.50E-13
.84E-10
.62E-11
.91E-11
.99E-12
.03E-10
.78E-12
.51E-12
Dietary
Mortal ity
3.
9.
1.
1.
1.
2.
6.
4.
2.
3.
4.
2.
1.
7.
5.
9.
3.
5.
2.
51E-11
57E-10
16E-12
07E-10
26E-12
05E-10
88E-10
93E-12
13E-11
38E-10
50E-11
78E-13
73E-10
06E-11
66E-11
51E-12
34E-10
50E-12
46E-12
Intakes
Morbidity
5.17E-11
1.39E-09
1.50E-12
1.59E-10
1.64E-12
3.04E-10
1.01E-09
5.83E-12
3.31E-11
6.04E-10
7.76E-11
3.48E-13
2.55E-10
1.26E-10
1.01E-10
1.44E-11
5.86E-10
8.30E-12
3.54E-12
Lanthanum
La-131
La-132
La-135
La-137
La-138
La-140
La-141
La-142
La-143
Cerium
Ce-134
Ce-135
Ce-137
Ce-137m
Ce-139
Ce-141
Ce-143
Ce-144
59 m
4.8 h
19.5 h
6E4 y
1.35E11 y
40.272 h
3.93 h
92.5 m
14.23 m
72.0 h
17.6 h
9.0 h
34.4 h
137.66 d
32.501 d
33.0 h
284.3 d
Y
-
-
-
-
-
Y
-
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
-
-
Y
Y
-
-
Y
Y
-
Y
Y
Y
-
-
-
Y
-
Y
Y
Y
_
0.0005
0.0005
0.0005
0.0005
0.0005
0.0005
0.0005
0.0005
0.0005
0.0005
0.0005
0.0005
0.0005
0.0005
0.0005
0.0005
0.0005
1.
2.
2.
5.
5.
1.
2.
1.
2.
2.
5.
2.
5.
2.
6.
1.
5.
74E-12
82E-11
23E-12
46E-12
82E-11
67E-10
95E-11
02E-11
53E-12
39E-10
86E-11
02E-12
20E-11
05E-11
93E-11
07E-10
27E-10
2
4
3
9
9
2
5
1
3
4
1
3
9
3
1
1
9
.52E-12
.82E-11
.94E-12
.40E-12
.55E-11
.96E-10
.07E-11
.56E-11
.41E-12
.31E-10
.03E-10
.55E-12
.37E-11
.65E-11
.25E-10
.92E-10
.52E-10
2.
4.
3.
7.
8.
2.
4.
1.
3.
3.
8.
2.
7.
2.
1.
1.
7.
43E-12
05E-11
22E-12
79E-12
05E-11
41E-10
29E-11
44E-11
56E-12
50E-10
41E-11
92E-12
62E-11
96E-11
02E-10
56E-10
73E-10
3.55E-12
6.96E-11
5.70E-12
1.35E-11
1.34E-10
4.30E-10
7.41E-11
2.22E-11
4.82E-12
6.31E-10
1.48E-10
5.15E-12
1.37E-10
5.28E-11
1.83E-10
2.81E-10
1.40E-09
93
-------
Table 2.2a, continued
Tap Water
Nucl ide
Chain
T P n f
1 i /o 1 U 11
Mortal ity
Intakes
Morbidity
Dietary
Mortal ity
Intakes
Morbidity
Praseodymium
Pr-136
Pr-137
Pr-138m
Pr-139
Pr-142
Pr-142m
Pr-143
Pr-144
Pr-145
Pr-147
13.1
76.6
2.1
4.51
19.13
14.6
13.56
17.28
5.98
13.6
m
m
h
h
h
m
d
m
h
m
-
Y
-
Y
-
Y
-
-
-
Y
Y
-
-
Y
Y
-
Y
Y
-
-
0.0005
0.0005
0.0005
0.0005
0.0005
0.0005
0.0005
0.0005
0.0005
0.0005
1.
2.
7.
2.
1.
1.
1.
1.
3.
1.
33E-12
21E-12
17E-12
32E-12
29E-10
66E-12
18E-10
88E-12
53E-11
30E-12
1.59E-12
3.38E-12
1.13E-11
3.96E-12
2.32E-10
2.98E-12
2.14E-10
2.19E-12
6.20E-11
1.58E-12
1
3
1
3
1
2
1
2
5
1
.81E-12
.13E-12
.OOE-11
.34E-12
.90E-10
.43E-12
.73E-10
.60E-12
.15E-11
.79E-12
2.18E-12
4.82E-12
1.60E-11
5.73E-12
3.41E-10
4.38E-12
3.14E-10
3.03E-12
9.08E-11
2.19E-12
Neodymium
Nd-136
Nd-138
Nd-139
Nd-139m
Nd-141
Nd-147
Nd-149
Nd-151
50.65
5.04
29.7
5.5
2.49
10.98
1.73
12.44
m
h
m
h
h
d
h
m
Y
Y
Y
Y
-
Y
Y
Y
-
-
Y
-
Y
Y
-
-
0.0005
0.0005
0.0005
0.0005
0.0005
0.0005
0.0005
0.0005
5.
5.
9.
1.
5.
1.
8.
1.
02E-12
31E-11
51E-13
72E-11
14E-13
04E-10
90E-12
43E-12
7.31E-12
9.24E-11
1.34E-12
2.93E-11
8.35E-13
1.88E-10
1.47E-11
1.99E-12
7
7
1
2
7
1
1
2
.03E-12
.72E-11
.33E-12
.45E-11
.31E-13
.53E-10
.29E-11
.01E-12
1.03E-11
1.35E-10
1.88E-12
4.21E-11
1.19E-12
2.76E-10
2.14E-11
2.81E-12
Promethium
Pm-141
Pm-143
Pm-144
Pm-145
Pm-146
Pm-147
Pm-148
Pm-148m
Pm-149
Pm-150
Pm-151
Samarium
Sm-141
Sm-141m
Sm-142
Sm-145
Sm-146
Sm-147 1
Sm-151
20.90
265
363
17.7
2020
2.6234
5.37
41.3
53.08
2.68
28.40
10.2
22.6
72.49
340
1.03E8
.06E11
90
m
d
d
y
d
y
d
d
h
h
h
m
m
m
d
y
y
y
Y
-
-
-
Y
Y
-
Y
-
-
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
-
-
-
Y
Y
Y
Y
-
Y
Y
-
Y
-
Y
Y
-
-
Y
Y
Y
Y
0.0005
0.0005
0.0005
0.0005
0.0005
0.0005
0.0005
0.0005
0.0005
0.0005
0.0005
0.0005
0.0005
0.0005
0.0005
0.0005
0.0005
0.0005
1.
1.
5.
8.
6.
2.
2.
1.
9.
1.
6.
1.
2.
9.
1.
8.
7.
8.
46E-12
37E-11
32E-11
63E-12
49E-11
55E-11
58E-10
23E-10
95E-11
77E-11
78E-11
57E-12
88E-12
86E-12
77E-11
69E-10
89E-10
46E-12
1.80E-12
2.36E-11
9.02E-11
1.51E-11
1.13E-10
4.57E-11
4.65E-10
2.16E-10
1.80E-10
2.92E-11
1.22E-10
1.92E-12
3.79E-12
1.45E-11
3.16E-11
1.11E-09
1.01E-09
1.50E-11
2
1
7
1
9
3
3
1
1
2
9
2
3
1
2
1
9
1
.02E-12
.93E-11
.40E-11
.24E-11
.25E-11
.72E-11
.77E-10
.76E-10
.46E-10
.54E-11
.90E-11
.16E-12
.99E-12
.40E-11
.57E-11
.09E-09
.89E-10
.23E-11
2.50E-12
3.34E-11
1.26E-10
2.18E-11
1.62E-10
6.70E-11
6.80E-10
3.10E-10
2.64E-10
4.22E-11
1.78E-10
2.65E-12
5.28E-12
2.08E-11
4.60E-11
1.42E-09
1.29E-09
2.18E-11
94
-------
Table 2.2a, continued
Tap Water
Nucl ide
Chain
T P n f
1 17 1
Mortal ity
Intakes
Morbidity
Dietary
Mortal ity
Intakes
Morbidity
Samarium, continued
Sm-153
Sm-155
Sm-156
Europium
Eu-145
Eu-146
Eu-147
Eu-148
Eu-149
Eu-150b
Eu-150a
Eu-152
Eu-152m
Eu-154
Eu-155
Eu-156
Eu-157
Eu-158
Gadolinium
Gd-145
Gd-146
Gd-147
Gd-148
Gd-149
Gd-151
Gd-152 1.
Gd-153
Gd-159
Terbium
Tb-147
Tb-149
Tb-150
Tb-151
Tb-153
Tb-154
Tb-155
Tb-156
Tb-156m
Tb-156n
Tb-157
46.7
22.1
9.4
5.94
4.61
24
54.5
93.1
34.2
12.62
13.33
9.32
8.8
4.96
15.19
15.15
45.9
22.9
48.3
38.1
93
9.4
120
08E14
242
18.56
1.65
4.15
3.27
17.6
2.34
21.4
5.32
5.34
24.4
5.0
150
h
m
h
d
d
d
d
d
y
h
y
h
y
y
d
h
m
m
d
h
y
d
d
y
d
h
h
h
h
h
d
h
d
d
h
h
y
-
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
-
-
-
Y
Y
-
-
-
-
-
Y
Y
Y
-
Y
Y
-
-
-
Y
Y
-
Y
Y
-
-
-
Y
Y
-
-
-
-
Y
Y
Y
-
Y
-
-
-
-
-
Y
Y
-
-
-
-
Y
-
Y
Y
Y
Y
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
Y
Y
-
-
Y
0.0005
0.0005
0.0005
0.0005
0.0005
0.0005
0.0005
0.0005
0.0005
0.0005
0.0005
0.0005
0.0005
0.0005
0.0005
0.0005
0.0005
0.0005
0.0005
0.0005
0.0005
0.0005
0.0005
0.0005
0.0005
0.0005
0.0005
0.0005
0.0005
0.0005
0.0005
0.0005
0.0005
0.0005
0.0005
0.0005
0.0005
7.
1.
2.
4.
7.
3.
6.
7.
7.
3.
9.
4.
1.
2.
1.
5.
4.
1.
7.
3.
8.
3.
1.
6.
2.
4.
9.
1.
1.
2.
1.
4.
1.
7.
1.
6.
2.
25E-11
12E-12
26E-11
29E-11
15E-11
11E-11
80E-11
80E-12
03E-11
60E-11
50E-11
53E-11
59E-10
88E-11
91E-10
59E-11
28E-12
87E-12
64E-11
84E-11
53E-10
40E-11
71E-11
03E-10
31E-11
80E-11
08E-12
73E-11
75E-11
31E-11
96E-11
04E-11
64E-11
69E-11
29E-11
21E-12
84E-12
1.31E-10
1.34E-12
4.02E-11
7.38E-11
1.23E-10
5.47E-11
1.16E-10
1.39E-11
1.17E-10
6.44E-11
1.64E-10
8.05E-11
2.79E-10
5.13E-11
3.42E-10
9.99E-11
5.78E-12
2.41E-12
1.36E-10
6.65E-11
1.14E-09
6.02E-11
3.07E-11
8.02E-10
4.12E-11
8.62E-11
1.44E-11
2.92E-11
2.92E-11
4.02E-11
3.47E-11
6.94E-11
2.91E-11
1.34E-10
2.28E-11
1.09E-11
5.02E-12
1.
1.
3.
6.
1.
4.
9.
1.
9.
5.
1.
6.
2.
4.
2.
8.
5.
2.
1.
5.
1.
4.
2.
7.
3.
7.
1.
2.
2.
3.
2.
5.
2.
1.
1.
8.
4.
06E-10
55E-12
30E-11
02E-11
OOE-10
45E-11
49E-11
12E-11
76E-11
28E-11
35E-10
62E-11
29E-10
19E-11
77E-10
17E-11
98E-12
57E-12
10E-10
43E-11
08E-09
89E-11
49E-11
64E-10
35E-11
04E-11
29E-11
47E-11
51E-11
30E-11
83E-11
70E-11
37E-11
09E-10
85E-11
97E-12
12E-12
1.92E-10
1.86E-12
5.88E-11
1.04E-10
1.73E-10
7.85E-11
1.63E-10
2.00E-11
1.64E-10
9.45E-11
2.35E-10
1.18E-10
4.03E-10
7.48E-11
4.97E-10
1.46E-10
8.14E-12
3.33E-12
1.97E-10
9.46E-11
1.49E-09
8.69E-11
4.47E-11
1.04E-09
6.00E-11
1.26E-10
2.05E-11
4.21E-11
4.21E-11
5.76E-11
5.03E-11
9.85E-11
4.22E-11
1.92E-10
3.29E-11
1.58E-11
7.31E-12
95
-------
Table 2.2a, continued
Tap Water
Nucl ide
Chain
T P n f
1 17 1
Mortal ity
Intakes
Morbidity
Dietary
Mortal ity
Intakes
Morbidity
Terbium, continued
Tb-158
Tb-160
Tb-161
150
72.3
6.91
y
d
d
-
-
-
-
-
-
0.0005
0.0005
0.0005
7.
1.
7.
67E-11
32E-10
16E-11
1.32E-10
2.35E-10
1.29E-10
1.
1.
1.
09E-10
91E-10
05E-10
1.89E-10
3.42E-10
1.90E-10
Dysprosium
Dy-155
Dy-157
Dy-159
Dy-165
Dy-166
Holmium
Ho-155
Ho-157
Ho-159
Ho-161
Ho-162
Ho-162m
Ho-164
Ho-164m
Ho-166
Ho-166m
Ho-167
Erbium
Er-161
Er-165
Er-169
Er-171
Er-172
Thulium
Tm-162
Tm-166
Tm-167
Tm-170
Tm-171
Tm-172
Tm-173
Tm-175
Ytterbium
Yb-162
Yb-166
Yb-167
Yb-169
10.0
8.1
144.4
2.334
81.6
48
12.6
33
2.5
15
68
29
37.5
26.80
1.20E3
3.1
3.24
10.36
9.3
7.52
49.3
21.7
7.70
9.24
128.6
1.92
63.6
8.24
15.2
18.9
56.7
17.5
32.01
h
h
d
h
h
m
m
m
h
m
m
m
m
h
y
h
h
h
d
h
h
m
h
d
d
y
h
h
m
m
h
m
d
Y
Y
-
-
Y
Y
Y
Y
-
-
Y
-
Y
-
-
-
Y
-
-
Y
Y
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
Y
Y
Y
Y
_
Y
Y
Y
-
-
-
-
-
Y
Y
-
Y
-
Y
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
Y
Y
Y
-
Y
Y
-
-
-
-
-
Y
0.0005
0.0005
0.0005
0.0005
0.0005
0.0005
0.0005
0.0005
0.0005
0.0005
0.0005
0.0005
0.0005
0.0005
0.0005
0.0005
0.0005
0.0005
0.0005
0.0005
0.0005
0.0005
0.0005
0.0005
0.0005
0.0005
0.0005
0.0005
0.0005
0.0005
0.0005
0.0005
0.0005
8.
3.
8.
6.
1.
1.
3.
3.
8.
1.
1.
3.
7.
1.
1.
5.
5.
1.
3.
3.
9.
1.
1.
5.
1.
1.
1.
2.
1.
1.
6.
3.
6.
25E-12
62E-12
05E-12
83E-12
66E-10
91E-12
01E-13
58E-13
20E-13
33E-13
36E-12
83E-13
95E-13
38E-10
31E-10
88E-12
11E-12
39E-12
78E-11
11E-11
03E-11
21E-12
78E-11
19E-11
34E-10
05E-11
61E-10
65E-11
12E-12
04E-12
69E-11
11E-13
05E-11
1.42E-11
6.11E-12
1.43E-11
1.12E-11
3.01E-10
2.85E-12
4.15E-13
4.80E-13
1.34E-12
1.61E-13
2.02E-12
4.74E-13
1.12E-12
2.49E-10
2.17E-10
9.83E-12
8.52E-12
2.42E-12
6.84E-11
5.47E-11
1.62E-10
1.53E-12
3.03E-11
9.35E-11
2.41E-10
1.89E-11
2.91E-10
4.66E-11
1.41E-12
1.41E-12
1.18E-10
4.21E-13
1.08E-10
1.
5.
1.
9.
2.
2.
4.
4.
1.
1.
1.
5.
1.
2.
1.
8.
7.
2.
5.
4.
1.
1.
2.
7.
1.
1.
2.
3.
1.
1.
9.
4.
8.
17E-11
09E-12
16E-11
87E-12
43E-10
68E-12
15E-13
92E-13
17E-12
82E-13
90E-12
32E-13
12E-12
03E-10
84E-10
46E-12
24E-12
OOE-12
55E-11
52E-11
32E-10
66E-12
52E-11
59E-11
96E-10
54E-11
36E-10
85E-11
55E-12
44E-12
57E-11
32E-13
78E-11
2.02E-11
8.65E-12
2.08E-11
1.63E-11
4.41E-10
4.04E-12
5.76E-13
6.64E-13
1.93E-12
2.21E-13
2.84E-12
6.62E-13
1.59E-12
3.65E-10
3.07E-10
1.42E-11
1.22E-11
3.50E-12
l.OOE-10
7.99E-11
2.37E-10
2.10E-12
4.31E-11
1.37E-10
3.54E-10
2.77E-11
4.25E-10
6.81E-11
1.96E-12
1.97E-12
1.70E-10
5.90E-13
1.58E-10
96
-------
Table 2.2a, continued
Tap Water
Nucl ide
Ytterbium,
Yb-175
Yb-177
Yb-178
Lutetium
Lu-169
Lu-170
Lu-171
Lu-172
Lu-173
Lu-174m
Lu-174
Lu-176 3
Lu-176m
Lu-177
Lu-177m
Lu-178
Lu-178m
Lu-179
Hafnium
Hf-170
Hf-172
Hf-173
Hf-175
Hf-177m
Hf-178m
Hf-179m
Hf-180m
Hf-181
Hf-182
Hf-182m
Hf-183
Hf-184
Tantalum
Ta-172
Ta-173
Ta-174
Ta-175
Ta-176
Ta-177
Ta-178b
Ta-179
Chain
T P n f
1 17 1
Mortal ity
Intakes
Morbidity
Dietary
Mortal ity
Intakes
Morbidity
continued
4.19
1.9
74
34.06
2.00
8.22
6.70
1.37
142
3.31
.60E10
3.68
6.71
160.9
28.4
22.7
4.59
16.01
1.87
24.0
70
51.4
31
25.1
5.5
42.4
9E6
61.5
64
4.12
36.8
3.65
1.2
10.5
8.08
56.6
2.2
664.9
d
h
m
h
d
d
d
y
d
y
y
h
d
d
m
m
h
h
y
h
d
m
y
d
h
d
y
m
m
h
m
h
h
h
h
h
h
d
-
Y
Y
Y
-
-
-
-
Y
-
-
-
-
Y
-
-
-
Y
Y
Y
-
-
-
-
-
-
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
-
Y
-
-
-
_
Y
-
-
-
Y
-
Y
Y
-
Y
-
-
Y
-
Y
-
-
-
Y
Y
Y
-
-
-
-
-
Y
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
Y
Y
-
Y
0.0005
0.0005
0.0005
0.0005
0.0005
0.0005
0.0005
0.0005
0.0005
0.0005
0.0005
0.0005
0.0005
0.0005
0.0005
0.0005
0.0005
0.002
0.002
0.002
0.002
0.002
0.002
0.002
0.002
0.002
0.002
0.002
0.002
0.002
0.001
0.001
0.001
0.001
0.001
0.001
0.001
0.001
4.
5.
6.
3.
6.
5.
8.
2.
5.
2.
1.
1.
5.
1.
1.
1.
1.
3.
7.
1.
3.
3.
2.
9.
1.
9.
1.
2.
4.
4.
2.
1.
2.
1.
1.
8.
4.
5.
30E-11
80E-12
57E-12
01E-11
45E-11
OOE-11
65E-11
06E-11
07E-11
23E-11
42E-10
35E-11
27E-11
42E-10
90E-12
56E-12
75E-11
37E-11
83E-11
63E-11
01E-11
88E-12
51E-10
96E-11
14E-11
62E-11
01E-10
09E-12
22E-12
45E-11
33E-12
43E-11
97E-12
37E-11
99E-11
93E-12
22E-12
22E-12
7.76E-11
9.36E-12
1.05E-11
5.24E-11
1.12E-10
8.84E-11
1.51E-10
3.66E-11
9.14E-11
3.95E-11
2.51E-10
2.31E-11
9.53E-11
2.53E-10
2.33E-12
1.92E-12
3.04E-11
5.91E-11
1.34E-10
2.87E-11
5.30E-11
5.44E-12
4.09E-10
1.77E-10
1.94E-11
1.72E-10
1.45E-10
3.01E-12
6.46E-12
7.86E-11
3.08E-12
2.44E-11
4.38E-12
2.35E-11
3.38E-11
1.59E-11
6.72E-12
9.30E-12
6.
8.
9.
4.
9.
7.
1.
2.
7.
3.
2.
1.
7.
2.
2.
2.
2.
4.
1.
2.
4.
5.
3.
1.
1.
1.
1.
2.
5.
6.
3.
2.
4.
1.
2.
1.
5.
7.
30E-11
34E-12
45E-12
28E-11
12E-11
19E-11
23E-10
97E-11
42E-11
22E-11
06E-10
96E-11
73E-11
05E-10
63E-12
14E-12
55E-11
82E-11
11E-10
34E-11
31E-11
38E-12
48E-10
44E-10
62E-11
40E-10
34E-10
91E-12
99E-12
47E-11
22E-12
06E-11
19E-12
94E-11
81E-11
30E-11
95E-12
54E-12
1.14E-10
1.36E-11
1.51E-11
7.48E-11
1.59E-10
1.27E-10
2.17E-10
5.30E-11
1.34E-10
5.74E-11
3.64E-10
3.37E-11
1.40E-10
3.67E-10
3.25E-12
2.66E-12
4.44E-11
8.48E-11
1.93E-10
4.12E-11
7.64E-11
7.60E-12
5.75E-10
2.57E-10
2.78E-11
2.50E-10
1.96E-10
4.24E-12
9.25E-12
1.15E-10
4.30E-12
3.54E-11
6.22E-12
3.35E-11
4.80E-11
2.32E-11
9.55E-12
1.35E-11
97
-------
Table 2.2a, continued
Tap Water
Nucl ide
Tantalum,
Ta-180
Ta-180m
Ta-182
Ta-182m
Ta-183
Ta-184
Ta-185
Ta-186
Tungsten
W-176
W-177
W-178
W-179
W-181
W-185
W-187
W-188
Rhenium
Re-177
Re-178
Re-181
Re-182b
Re-182a
Re- 184
Re- 184m
Re- 186
Re- 186m
Re- 187
Re- 188
Re- 188m
Re- 189
Osmium
Os-180
Os-181
Os-182
Os-185
Os -189m
Os-191
Os-191m
Os-193
Os-194
Chain
T P n f
1 i /o 1 U 11
Mortal ity
Intakes
Morbidity
Dietary
Mortal ity
Intakes
Morbidity
continued
1.0E13
8.1
115.0
15.84
5.1
8.7
49
10.5
2.3
135
21.7
37.5
121.2
75.1
23.9
69.4
14.0
13.2
20
64.0
12.7
38.0
165
90.64
2.0E5
5E10
16.98
18.6
24.3
22
105
22
94
6.0
15.4
13.03
30.0
6.0
y
h
d
m
d
h
m
m
h
m
d
m
d
d
h
d
m
m
h
h
h
d
d
h
y
y
h
m
h
m
m
h
d
h
d
h
h
y
-
-
-
Y
-
-
Y
-
Y
Y
Y
Y
-
-
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
-
-
-
Y
-
Y
-
-
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
-
-
-
Y
-
Y
-
-
Y
-
Y
Y
-
-
-
Y
Y
-
Y
Y
-
-
-
-
Y
-
Y
Y
-
Y
-
Y
Y
-
-
-
-
Y
Y
Y
Y
-
-
-
0.001
0.001
0.001
0.001
0.001
0.001
0.001
0.001
0.3
0.3
0.3
0.3
0.3
0.3
0.3
0.3
0.8
0.8
0.8
0.8
0.8
0.8
0.8
0.8
0.8
0.8
0.8
0.8
0.8
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
6.
4.
1.
4.
1.
5.
3.
1.
6.
3.
1.
1.
6.
4.
5.
2.
8.
9.
2.
7.
1.
5.
7.
8.
1.
2.
6.
1.
4.
7.
5.
3.
3.
1.
5.
9.
7.
2.
76E-11
64E-12
21E-10
50E-13
25E-10
44E-11
12E-12
27E-12
55E-12
39E-12
83E-11
47E-13
07E-12
40E-11
57E-11
10E-10
94E-13
58E-13
07E-11
68E-11
31E-11
20E-11
95E-11
27E-11
23E-10
84E-13
77E-11
43E-12
03E-11
60E-13
75E-12
97E-11
05E-11
57E-12
46E-11
20E-12
94E-11
33E-10
1.20E-10
8.18E-12
2.15E-10
5.39E-13
2.25E-10
9.54E-11
4.24E-12
1.49E-12
1.11E-11
5.42E-12
3.26E-11
1.95E-13
1.07E-11
7.91E-11
9.92E-11
3.78E-10
1.23E-12
1.15E-12
3.81E-11
1.34E-10
2.35E-11
8.54E-11
1.32E-10
1.51E-10
1.98E-10
4.83E-13
1.32E-10
2.68E-12
7.74E-11
9.81E-13
9.57E-12
7.00E-11
5.19E-11
2.76E-12
9.83E-11
1.65E-11
1.43E-10
4.14E-10
9.
6.
1.
6.
1.
7.
4.
1.
9.
4.
2.
2.
8.
6.
8.
3.
1.
1.
2.
1.
1.
7.
1.
1.
1.
4.
9.
2.
5.
1.
8.
5.
4.
2.
7.
1.
1.
3.
77E-11
76E-12
75E-10
19E-13
82E-10
88E-11
38E-12
74E-12
28E-12
77E-12
65E-11
04E-13
72E-12
43E-11
11E-11
07E-10
23E-12
31E-12
91E-11
07E-10
82E-11
18E-11
12E-10
18E-10
74E-10
04E-13
68E-11
04E-12
76E-11
04E-12
17E-12
69E-11
27E-11
30E-12
99E-11
35E-11
16E-10
38E-10
1.74E-10
1.19E-11
3.11E-10
7.45E-13
3.29E-10
1.38E-10
6.01E-12
2.04E-12
1.59E-11
7.68E-12
4.73E-11
2.72E-13
1.54E-11
1.16E-10
1.45E-10
5.53E-10
1.71E-12
1.58E-12
5.40E-11
1.89E-10
3.30E-11
1.19E-10
1.88E-10
2.17E-10
2.83E-10
6.92E-13
1.91E-10
3.84E-12
1.11E-10
1.35E-12
1.37E-11
1.01E-10
7.31E-11
4.05E-12
1.44E-10
2.42E-11
2.10E-10
6.03E-10
98
-------
Table 2.2a, continued
Tap Water
Nucl ide
Iridium
Ir-182
Ir-184
Ir-185
Ir-186a
Ir-186b
Ir-187
Ir-188
Ir-189
Ir-190
Ir-190n
I r- 190m
Ir-192
Ir-192m
Ir-194
I r- 194m
Ir-195
Ir-195m
Platinum
Pt-186
Pt-188
Pt-189
Pt-191
Pt-193
Pt-193m
Pt-195m
Pt-197
Pt-197m
Pt-199
Pt-200
Gold
Au-193
Au-194
Au-195
Au-198
Au-198m
Au-199
Au-200
Au-200m
Au-201
Chain
Tl/2 P D fl
15 m
3.02 h
14.0 h
15.8 h
1.75 h
10.5 h
41.5 h
13.3 d
12.1 d
3.1 h
1.2 h
74.02 d
241. y
19.15 h
171 d
2.5 h
3.8 h
2.0 h
10.2 d
10.87 h
2.8 d
50 y
4.33 d
4.02 d
18.3 h
94.4 m
30.8 m
12.5 h
17.65 h
39.5 h
183 d
2.696 d
2.30 d
3.139 d
48.4 m
18.7 h
26.4 m
Y
-
Y
-
-
-
-
Y
-
Y
Y
-
Y
-
-
-
Y
Y
Y
Y
-
-
Y
-
-
Y
Y
Y
Y
-
-
-
Y
-
-
Y
_
-
-
-
-
Y
-
Y
Y
Y
-
Y
Y
-
Y
-
Y
-
-
-
-
-
Y
-
-
Y
-
-
-
Y
Y
Y
Y
-
Y
Y
-
_
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
Mortal ity
2.
1.
2.
3.
3.
8.
3.
2.
8.
7.
5.
1.
1.
1.
1.
6.
1.
6.
5.
9.
2.
3.
4.
6.
3.
6.
1.
1.
1.
2.
2.
9.
1.
4.
3.
8.
9.
05E-12
06E-11
03E-11
26E-11
48E-12
96E-12
94E-11
28E-11
71E-11
04E-12
14E-13
12E-10
76E-11
30E-10
39E-10
48E-12
63E-11
28E-12
76E-11
15E-12
67E-11
16E-12
54E-11
18E-11
94E-11
40E-12
77E-12
16E-10
13E-11
61E-11
27E-11
48E-11
12E-10
18E-11
11E-12
37E-11
64E-13
Intakes
Morbidity
2
1
3
5
5
1
6
4
1
1
8
1
2
2
2
1
2
1
1
1
4
5
8
1
7
1
2
2
1
4
4
1
2
7
4
1
1
.69E-12
.74E-11
.56E-11
.63E-11
.41E-12
.56E-11
.81E-11
.09E-11
.53E-10
.15E-11
.57E-13
.99E-10
.65E-11
.33E-10
.40E-10
.07E-11
.79E-11
.06E-11
.02E-10
.60E-11
.75E-11
.70E-12
.20E-11
.11E-10
.08E-11
.08E-11
.39E-12
.09E-10
.99E-11
.49E-11
.06E-11
.70E-10
.01E-10
.51E-11
.20E-12
.47E-10
.17E-12
Dietary
Mortal ity
2.
1.
2.
4.
4.
1.
5.
3.
1.
9.
7.
1.
2.
1.
1.
9.
2.
8.
8.
1.
3.
4.
6.
9.
5.
9.
2.
1.
1.
3.
3.
1.
1.
6.
4.
1.
1.
84E-12
50E-11
92E-11
63E-11
90E-12
29E-11
57E-11
32E-11
24E-10
91E-12
34E-13
62E-10
34E-11
90E-10
97E-10
37E-12
36E-11
95E-12
29E-11
32E-11
86E-11
63E-12
66E-11
05E-11
78E-11
27E-12
48E-12
70E-10
63E-11
68E-11
30E-11
38E-10
63E-10
11E-11
36E-12
21E-10
34E-12
Intakes
Morbidity
3.75E-12
2.49E-11
5.16E-11
8.05E-11
7.68E-12
2.25E-11
9.68E-11
5.97E-11
2.19E-10
1.63E-11
1.23E-12
2.89E-10
3.56E-11
3.41E-10
3.41E-10
1.56E-11
4.06E-11
1.52E-11
1.47E-10
2.31E-11
6.88E-11
8.36E-12
1.20E-10
1.63E-10
1.04E-10
1.57E-11
3.37E-12
3.06E-10
2.90E-11
6.38E-11
5.92E-11
2.48E-10
2.93E-10
1.10E-10
5.94E-12
2.13E-10
1.63E-12
99
-------
Table 2.2a, continued
Tap Water
Nucl ide
Chain
T P n f
1 i /o 1 U 11
Mortal ity
Intakes
Morbidity
Dietary
Mortal ity
Intakes
Morbidity
Mercury (inorganic)
Hg-193
Hg-193m
Hg-194
Hg-195
Hg-195m
Hg-197
Hg-197m
Hg-199m
Hg-203
3.5
11.1
260
9.9
41.6
64.1
23.8
42.6
46.60
h
h
y
h
h
h
h
m
d
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
-
Y
-
-
Y
-
Y
Y
-
Y
-
-
-
0.02
0.02
0.02
0.02
0.02
0.02
0.02
0.02
0.02
6
3
4
7
5
2
4
1
4
.44E-12
.03E-11
.98E-11
.81E-12
.07E-11
.15E-11
.51E-11
.37E-12
.67E-11
1.11E-11
5.32E-11
7.80E-11
1.37E-11
9.09E-11
3.86E-11
8.10E-11
1.81E-12
8.32E-11
9.
4.
6.
1.
7.
3.
6.
1.
6.
31E-12
36E-11
74E-11
13E-11
39E-11
14E-11
60E-11
91E-12
78E-11
1.62E-11
7.68E-11
1.07E-10
1.99E-11
1.33E-10
5.65E-11
1.19E-10
2.55E-12
1.21E-10
Mercury (methyl)
Hg-193
Hg-193m
Hg-194
Hg-195
Hg-195m
Hg-197
Hg-197m
Hg-199m
Hg-203
3.5
11.1
260
9.9
41.6
64.1
23.8
42.6
46.60
h
h
y
h
h
h
h
m
d
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
-
Y
-
-
Y
-
Y
Y
-
Y
-
-
-
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
1
6
1
1
1
5
7
1
1
.56E-12
.74E-12
.52E-09
.77E-12
.19E-11
.37E-12
.69E-12
.09E-12
.03E-10
2.10E-12
9.61E-12
2.18E-09
2.50E-12
1.76E-11
7.96E-12
1.12E-11
1.28E-12
1.54E-10
2.
8.
1.
2.
1.
7.
1.
1.
1.
11E-12
97E-12
98E-09
38E-12
59E-11
19E-12
03E-11
49E-12
37E-10
2.86E-12
1.29E-11
2.87E-09
3.37E-12
2.37E-11
1.07E-11
1.52E-11
1.75E-12
2.06E-10
Mercury (organic)
Hg-193
Hg-193m
Hg-194
Hg-195
Hg-195m
Hg-197
Hg-197m
Hg-199m
Hg-203
Thallium
Tl-194
Tl-194m
Tl-195
Tl-197
Tl-198
Tl-198m
Tl-199
Tl-200
Tl-201
Tl-202
Tl-204
3.5
11.1
260
9.9
41.6
64.1
23.8
42.6
46.60
33
32.8
1.16
2.84
5.3
1.87
7.42
26.1
3.044
12.23
3.779
h
h
y
h
h
h
h
m
d
m
m
h
h
h
h
h
h
d
d
y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
-
Y
-
-
Y
Y
Y
Y
-
Y
-
-
-
-
-
Y
-
Y
Y
-
Y
-
-
-
-
-
Y
-
Y
-
Y
Y
Y
Y
-
0.4
0.4
0.4
0.4
0.4
0.4
0.4
0.4
0.4
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
4
2
6
5
3
1
3
1
6
3
1
1
1
3
2
1
1
6
2
9
.93E-12
.20E-11
.29E-10
.80E-12
.60E-11
.54E-11
.14E-11
.34E-12
.95E-11
.85E-13
.72E-12
.32E-12
.21E-12
.96E-12
.64E-12
.41E-12
.12E-11
.22E-12
.64E-11
.58E-11
8.33E-12
3.78E-11
9.07E-10
9.98E-12
6.32E-11
2.70E-11
5.54E-11
1.75E-12
1.12E-10
4.89E-13
2.11E-12
1.73E-12
1.69E-12
5.56E-12
3.51E-12
1.99E-12
1.66E-11
9.76E-12
4.03E-11
1.58E-10
7.
3.
8.
8.
5.
2.
4.
1.
9.
5.
2.
1.
1.
5.
3.
1.
1.
8.
3.
1.
13E-12
16E-11
22E-10
39E-12
23E-11
24E-11
59E-11
87E-12
58E-11
18E-13
33E-12
78E-12
64E-12
26E-12
55E-12
90E-12
49E-11
52E-12
52E-11
34E-10
1.21E-11
5.46E-11
1.19E-09
1.45E-11
9.21E-11
3.94E-11
8.12E-11
2.47E-12
1.56E-10
6.62E-13
2.87E-12
2.35E-12
2.31E-12
7.43E-12
4.74E-12
2.70E-12
2.22E-11
1.35E-11
5.43E-11
2.23E-10
100
-------
Table 2.2a, continued
Tap Water
Nucl ide
Lead
Pb-195m
Pb-198
Pb-199
Pb-200
Pb-201
Pb-202
Pb-202m
Pb-203
Pb-205
Pb-209
Pb-210
Pb-211
Pb-212
Pb-214
Bismuth
Bi-200
Bi-201
Bi-202
Bi-203
Bi-205
Bi-206
Bi-207
Bi-210
Bi-210m
Bi-212
Bi-213
Bi-214
Polonium
Po-203
Po-205
Po-207
Po-210
Polonium
Po-203
Po-205
Po-207
Po-210
Astatine
At-207
At-211
Chain
Tl/2 P D fl
15.8
2.4
90
21.5
9.4
3E5
3.62
52.05
1.43E7
3.253
22.3
36.1
10.64
26.8
36.4
108
1.67
11.76
15.31
6.243
38
5.012
3.0E6
60.55
45.65
19.9
m
h
m
h
h
y
h
h
y
h
y
m
h
m
m
m
h
h
d
d
y
d
y
m
m
m
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
-
-
-
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
-
-
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
-
-
-
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
-
-
-
Y
Y
-
Y
Y
-
Y
Y
Y
0.2
0.2
0.2
0.2
0.2
0.2
0.2
0.2
0.2
0.2
0.2
0.2
0.2
0.2
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.05
Mortal ity
1.
4.
2.
2.
9.
4.
7.
1.
1.
3.
1.
8.
4.
6.
2.
7.
4.
3.
5.
1.
8.
1.
8.
1.
9.
4.
15E-12
40E-12
52E-12
49E-11
51E-12
51E-10
11E-12
61E-11
37E-11
92E-12
75E-08
39E-12
22E-10
82E-12
73E-12
03E-12
67E-12
04E-11
22E-11
21E-10
76E-11
34E-10
63E-10
35E-11
85E-12
34E-12
Intakes
Morbidity
1.48E-12
7.03E-12
3.83E-12
4.26E-11
1.60E-11
5.99E-10
1.13E-11
2.77E-11
1.71E-11
6.51E-12
2.38E-08
1.11E-11
6.76E-10
9.31E-12
4.10E-12
1.14E-11
7.15E-12
5.19E-11
8.96E-11
2.09E-10
1.53E-10
2.41E-10
1.49E-09
1.92E-11
1.38E-11
5.19E-12
Dietary
Mortal ity
1.
6.
3.
3.
1.
5.
9.
2.
1.
5.
2.
1.
5.
9.
3.
9.
6.
4.
7.
1.
1.
1.
1.
1.
1.
5.
57E-12
09E-12
47E-12
52E-11
34E-11
90E-10
83E-12
29E-11
73E-11
64E-12
31E-08
17E-11
95E-10
51E-12
80E-12
96E-12
46E-12
29E-11
32E-11
71E-10
25E-10
95E-10
21E-09
88E-11
38E-11
98E-12
Intakes
Morbidity
2.04E-12
9.80E-12
5.33E-12
6.05E-11
2.26E-11
7.93E-10
1.58E-11
3.95E-11
2.23E-11
9.43E-12
3.18E-08
1.57E-11
9.58E-10
1.31E-11
5.75E-12
1.63E-11
9.97E-12
7.37E-11
1.26E-10
2.97E-10
2.20E-10
3.52E-10
2.10E-09
2.70E-11
1.94E-11
7.17E-12
(organic)
36.7
1.80
350
138.38
m
h
m
d
Y
Y
Y
-
-
-
Y
Y
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
2.
3.
6.
3.
45E-12
15E-12
66E-12
53E-08
3.63E-12
4.71E-12
1.07E-11
4.79E-08
3.
4.
9.
4.
38E-12
32E-12
27E-12
44E-08
5.07E-12
6.51E-12
1.50E-11
6.09E-08
(inorganic)
36.7
1.80
350
138.38
1.80
7.214
m
h
m
d
h
h
Y
Y
Y
-
Y
Y
-
-
-
-
-
_
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
1.0
1.0
2.
3.
8.
7.
1.
6.
84E-12
17E-12
45E-12
40E-09
29E-11
10E-10
4.40E-12
4.90E-12
1.40E-11
1.02E-08
1.88E-11
9.10E-10
3.
4.
1.
9.
1.
8.
95E-12
38E-12
19E-11
38E-09
75E-11
32E-10
6.17E-12
6.84E-12
1.98E-11
1.31E-08
2.57E-11
1.25E-09
101
-------
Table 2.2a, continued
Tap Water
Nucl ide
Chain
T P n f
1 i /o 1 U 11
Mortal ity
Intakes
Morbidity
Dietary
Mortal ity
Intakes
Morbidity
Francium
Fr-222
Fr-223
Radium
Ra-223
Ra-224
Ra-225
a
Ra-226
Ra-227
Ra-228
Actinium
Ac-224
Ac-225
Ac-226
Ac-227
Ac-228
Thorium
Th-226
Th-227
Th-228
Th-229
Th-230
Th-231
a
Th-232
Th-234
14.4
21.8
11.434
3.66
14.8
1600
42.2
5.75
2.9
10.0
29
21.773
6.13
30.9
18.718
1.9131
7340
7.7E4
25.52
1.41E10
24.10
m
m
d
d
d
y
m
y
h
d
h
y
h
m
d
y
y
y
h
y
d
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
-
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
1.0
1.0
0.2
0.2
0.2
0.2
0.2
0.2
0.0005
0.0005
0.0005
0.0005
0.0005
0.0005
0.0005
0.0005
0.0005
0.0005
0.0005
0.0005
0.0005
2.
1.
4.
2.
2.
7.
2.
2.
9.
2.
1.
4.
3.
1.
7.
1.
4.
1.
3.
1.
3.
85E-11
32E-10
OOE-09
74E-09
20E-09
17E-09
15E-12
OOE-08
02E-11
94E-09
03E-09
43E-09
10E-11
45E-11
21E-10
82E-09
39E-09
67E-09
31E-11
87E-09
46E-10
4. OOE-11
1.97E-10
6.44E-09
4.50E-09
3.09E-09
1.04E-08
2.85E-12
2.81E-08
1.51E-10
5.10E-09
1.87E-09
5.43E-09
5.38E-11
1.80E-11
1.28E-09
2.90E-09
6.05E-09
2.46E-09
5.96E-11
2.73E-09
6.25E-10
3.
1.
5.
3.
2.
9.
2.
2.
1.
4.
1.
5.
4.
2.
1.
2.
5.
2.
4.
2.
5.
88E-11
80E-10
63E-09
88E-09
93E-09
56E-09
96E-12
74E-08
28E-10
20E-09
52E-09
34E-09
49E-11
02E-11
05E-09
46E-09
65E-09
16E-09
86E-11
45E-09
07E-10
5.47E-11
2.71E-10
9.15E-09
6.42E-09
4.15E-09
1.39E-08
3.95E-12
3.86E-08
2.17E-10
7.33E-09
2.74E-09
6.63E-09
7.82E-11
2.52E-11
1.87E-09
3.99E-09
7.85E-09
3.22E-09
8.75E-11
3.60E-09
9.18E-10
Protactinium
Pa-227
Pa-228
Pa-230
Pa-231
Pa-232
Pa-233
Pa-234
Uranium
U-230
U-231
U-232
U-233
a
U-234
U-235
U-236 2
U-237
38.3
22
17.4
3.276E4
1.31
27.0
6.70
20.8
4.2
72
1.585E5
2.445E5
703. 8E6
.3415E7
6.75
m
h
d
y
d
d
h
d
d
y
y
y
y
y
d
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
-
-
-
Y
-
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
0.0005
0.0005
0.0005
0.0005
0.0005
0.0005
0.0005
0.02
0.02
0.02
0.02
0.02
0.02
0.02
0.02
2.
5.
5.
3.
5.
8.
4.
3.
2.
5.
1.
1.
1.
1.
7.
OOE-11
53E-11
79E-11
30E-09
32E-11
34E-11
OOE-11
24E-09
63E-11
52E-09
26E-09
24E-09
21E-09
17E-09
31E-11
2.62E-11
9.72E-11
1.02E-10
4.67E-09
9.41E-11
1.50E-10
6.93E-11
5.65E-09
4.73E-11
7.88E-09
1.94E-09
1.91E-09
1.88E-09
1.81E-09
1.32E-10
2.
7.
8.
4.
7.
1.
5.
4.
3.
7.
1.
1.
1.
1.
1.
81E-11
96E-11
29E-11
29E-09
68E-11
22E-10
77E-11
59E-09
84E-11
22E-09
69E-09
66E-09
62E-09
57E-09
07E-10
3.70E-11
1.40E-10
1.46E-10
6.11E-09
1.36E-10
2.20E-10
l.OOE-10
8.05E-09
6.91E-11
1.04E-08
2.62E-09
2.58E-09
2.55E-09
2.44E-09
1.93E-10
102
-------
Table 2.2a, continued
Tap Water
Nucl ide
Chain
T P n f
1 i /o 1 U 11
Mortal ity
Intakes
Morbidity
Dietary
Mortal ity
Intakes
Morbidity
Uranium, continued
U-238 4.
U-239
U-240
Neptunium
Np-232
Np-233
Np-234
Np-235
Np-236a
Np-236b
Np-237 2
Np-238
Np-239
Np-240
Plutonium
Pu-234
Pu-235
Pu-236
Pu-237
Pu-238
a
Pu-239
Pu-240
Pu-241
Pu-242 3.
Pu-243
Pu-245
Pu-246
Americium
Am-237
Am-238
Am-239
Am-240
Am-241
Am-242
Am-242m
Am-243
Am-244
Am-244m
Am-245
Am-246
Am-246m
468E9
23.54
14.1
14.7
36.2
4.4
396.1
115E3
22.5
.14E6
2.117
2.355
65
8.8
25.3
2.851
45.3
87.74
24065
6537
14.4
763E5
4.956
10.5
10.85
73.0
98
11.9
50.8
432.2
16.02
152
7380
10.1
26
2.05
39
25.0
y
m
h
m
m
d
d
y
h
y
d
d
m
h
m
y
d
y
y
y
y
y
h
h
d
m
m
h
h
y
h
y
y
h
m
h
m
m
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
-
Y
-
Y
Y
Y
-
Y
Y
Y
Y
-
Y
-
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
-
Y
-
Y
-
-
Y
Y
-
Y
-
-
Y
-
Y
0.02
0.02
0.02
0.0005
0.0005
0.0005
0.0005
0.0005
0.0005
0.0005
0.0005
0.0005
0.0005
0.0005
0.0005
0.0005
0.0005
0.0005
0.0005
0.0005
0.0005
0.0005
0.0005
0.0005
0.0005
0.0005
0.0005
0.0005
0.0005
0.0005
0.0005
0.0005
0.0005
0.0005
0.0005
0.0005
0.0005
0.0005
1.
1.
1.
4.
1.
5.
5.
1.
1.
1.
8.
7.
4.
1.
9.
1.
8.
2.
2.
2.
3.
2.
7.
6.
2.
9.
1.
2.
4.
2.
2.
1.
2.
3.
1.
3.
2.
1.
13E-09
40E-12
06E-10
21E-13
01E-13
27E-11
18E-12
78E-10
68E-11
10E-09
14E-11
70E-11
18E-12
31E-11
16E-14
44E-09
73E-12
75E-09
85E-09
85E-09
94E-11
71E-09
33E-12
75E-11
60E-10
26E-13
70E-12
10E-11
OOE-11
01E-09
71E-11
47E-09
OOE-09
86E-11
14E-12
73E-12
54E-12
43E-12
1.73E-09
2.00E-12
1.90E-10
5.33E-13
1.36E-13
9.19E-11
9.34E-12
2.83E-10
3.01E-11
1.67E-09
1.46E-10
1.39E-10
6.04E-12
2.32E-11
1.18E-13
2.02E-09
1.56E-11
3.55E-09
3.64E-09
3.65E-09
4.77E-11
3.46E-09
1.28E-11
1.21E-10
4.68E-10
1.37E-12
2.60E-12
3.73E-11
6.99E-11
2.81E-09
4.83E-11
1.91E-09
2.79E-09
6.80E-11
1.38E-12
6.01E-12
3.33E-12
1.78E-12
1
1
1
5
1
7
7
2
2
1
1
1
5
1
1
1
1
3
3
3
5
3
1
9
3
1
2
3
5
2
3
1
2
5
1
5
3
1
.51E-09
.98E-12
.55E-10
.73E-13
.39E-13
.49E-11
.59E-12
.42E-10
.46E-11
.44E-09
.19E-10
.13E-10
.86E-12
.90E-11
.26E-13
.87E-09
.27E-11
.50E-09
.63E-09
.63E-09
.07E-11
.45E-09
.07E-11
.87E-11
.80E-10
.30E-12
.36E-12
.06E-11
.71E-11
.56E-09
.96E-11
.80E-09
.54E-09
.60E-11
.58E-12
.37E-12
.53E-12
.97E-12
2.34E-09
2.86E-12
2.79E-10
7.29E-13
1.89E-13
1.31E-10
1.37E-11
3.90E-10
4.41E-11
2.24E-09
2.13E-10
2.03E-10
8.55E-12
3.37E-11
1.63E-13
2.68E-09
2.27E-11
4.58E-09
4.70E-09
4.71E-09
6.17E-11
4.47E-09
1.87E-11
1.77E-10
6.84E-10
1.94E-12
3.64E-12
5.44E-11
l.OOE-10
3.63E-09
7.08E-11
2.37E-09
3.61E-09
9.89E-11
1.92E-12
8.71E-12
4.67E-12
2.46E-12
103
-------
Table 2.2a, continued
Tap Water
Nucl ide
Curium
Cm-238
Cm-240
Cm-241
Cm-242
Cm-243
Cm-244
Cm-245
Cm-246
Cm-247 1
Cm-249
Berkelium
Bk-245
Bk-246
Bk-247
Bk-249
Bk-250
Californium
Cf-244
Cf-246
Cf-248
Cf-249
Cf-250
Cf-251
Cf-253
Chain
Tl/2 P D fl
2.4
27
32.8
162.8
28.5
18.11
8500
4730
.56E7
64.15
4.94
1.83
1380
320
3.222
19.4
35.7
333.5
350.6
13.08
898
17.81
h
d
d
d
y
y
y
y
y
m
d
d
y
d
h
m
h
d
y
y
y
d
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
-
Y
-
Y
-
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
-
-
Y
Y
Y
-
-
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
0.0005
0.0005
0.0005
0.0005
0.0005
0.0005
0.0005
0.0005
0.0005
0.0005
0.0005
0.0005
0.0005
0.0005
0.0005
0.0005
0.0005
0.0005
0.0005
0.0005
0.0005
0.0005
Mortal ity
5
5
7
6
1
1
2
1
1
1
5
3
2
1
9
2
3
7
2
1
2
6
.28E-12
.34E-10
.33E-11
.15E-10
.81E-09
.59E-09
.02E-09
.98E-09
.92E-09
.59E-12
.16E-11
.13E-11
.54E-09
.82E-11
.20E-12
.75E-12
.16E-10
.47E-10
.60E-09
.70E-09
.67E-09
.73E-11
Intakes
Morbidity
8.86E-12
9.42E-10
1.31E-10
1.04E-09
2.56E-09
2.26E-09
2.82E-09
2.76E-09
2.69E-09
2.27E-12
9.27E-11
5.44E-11
3.36E-09
3.00E-11
1.53E-11
3.37E-12
5.69E-10
1.20E-09
3.44E-09
2.33E-09
3.56E-09
1.15E-10
Dietary
Mortal ity
7.
7.
1.
8.
2.
2.
2.
2.
2.
2.
7.
4.
3.
2.
1.
3.
4.
1.
3.
2.
3.
9.
55E-12
71E-10
06E-10
65E-10
30E-09
02E-09
57E-09
51E-09
44E-09
25E-12
53E-11
45E-11
22E-09
55E-11
32E-11
81E-12
63E-10
03E-09
28E-09
15E-09
40E-09
56E-11
Intakes
Morbidity
1.27E-11
1.37E-09
1.90E-10
1.48E-09
3.33E-09
2.93E-09
3.64E-09
3.55E-09
3.50E-09
3.25E-12
1.35E-10
7.78E-11
4.32E-09
4.25E-11
2.21E-11
4.71E-12
8.35E-10
1.68E-09
4.41E-09
3.02E-09
4.59E-09
1.65E-10
Einsteinium
Es-250
Es-251
Es-253
Es-254
Es-254m
Fermium
Fm-252
Fm-253
Fm-254
Fm-255
Fm-257
2.1
33
20.47
275.7
39.3
22.7
3.00
3.240
20.07
100.5
h
h
d
d
h
h
d
h
h
d
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
-
-
Y
Y
-
-
-
Y
-
Y
0.0005
0.0005
0.0005
0.0005
0.0005
0.0005
0.0005
0.0005
0.0005
0.0005
1
1
5
9
4
2
7
3
2
6
.03E-12
.54E-11
.25E-10
.01E-10
.08E-10
.55E-10
.74E-11
.42E-11
.49E-10
.98E-10
1.61E-12
2.75E-11
9.42E-10
1.49E-09
7.37E-10
4.58E-10
1.39E-10
5.80E-11
4.47E-10
1.19E-09
1.
2.
7.
1.
5.
3.
1.
4.
3.
9.
43E-12
24E-11
67E-10
26E-09
97E-10
73E-10
13E-10
97E-11
65E-10
89E-10
2.26E-12
4.02E-11
1.38E-09
2.11E-09
1.08E-09
6.71E-10
2.03E-10
8.47E-11
6.55E-10
1.70E-09
Mendelevium
Md-257
Md-258
5.2
55
h
d
Y
Y
-
-
0.0005
0.0005
9
6
.18E-12
.76E-10
1.59E-11
1.17E-09
1.
9.
33E-11
69E-10
2.32E-11
1.69E-09
The uncertainty in the risk coefficient for this radionuclide is addressed in Table 2.4.
Risk coefficients are based on a biokinetic model designed mainly for 14C-labeled metabolites and
may substantially overestimate risk from ingestion of some forms of 14C (see p. 18).
104
-------
Table 2.2b. Mortality and morbidity risk coefficients for
ingestion of iodine in food, based on usage of cow's milk.
Explanation of Entries
This table provides additional risk coefficients for intake of radioisotopes of iodine in diet.
In this tabulation, the rate of intake of a radioisotope of iodine is assumed to be proportional to the
ingestion rate of cow's milk.
Risk coefficients for ingestion of radioisotopes of iodine in cow's milk are expressed as the
probability of radiogenic cancer mortality or morbidity per unit intake, where the intake is averaged
over all ages and both genders.
To facilitate application of the risk coefficients, including conversion to other units, the
coefficients are tabulated to three decimal places. No indication of the level of uncertainty is
intended or should be inferred from this practice. A calculated risk should be rounded appropriately.
To express a risk coefficient in conventional units (MCi"1), multiply by S./xlO4 Bq uCf1.
To express a risk coefficient in terms of a constant activity concentration in milk (Bq L"1), multiply
the coefficient by 2.75*104 UM, where UM is the lifetime average rate of ingestion of milk (for
example, 0.243 L d"1 in Table 3.1) and 2.75X104 d is the average life span. Note that the relative
age- and gender-specific energy intake rates specified in Table 3.1 are inherent in the risk
coefficient.
105
-------
Table 2.2b. Mortality and morbidity risk coefficients for
ingestion of iodine in food, based on usage of cow's milk.
Mortality Morbidity
Isotope T^ f1 (Bq'1) (Bq"1)
1-120
81
I -120m
1-121
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
-123
-124
-125
-126
-128
-129
-130
-1313
-132
-132m
-133
-134
-135
2.
13
4.
60.
13.
24.
.0
53
12
.2
18
14
02
99
1.57E7
12.
8.
2.
83
20
52
6.
36
04
30
.6
.8
.6
61
m
m
h
h
d
d
d
m
y
h
d
h
m
h
m
h
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
.OE+00
.OE+00
.OE+00
.OE+00
.OE+00
.OE+00
.OE+00
.OE+00
.OE+00
.OE+00
.OE+00
.OE+00
.OE+00
.OE+00
.OE+00
.OE+00
2
1
3
7
3
1
6
3
8
6
3
1
9
1
8
3
.29E-11
.73E-11
.51E-12
.27E-12
.51E-10
.76E-10
.92E-10
.83E-12
.86E-10
.77E-11
.78E-10
.65E-11
.74E-12
.34E-10
.64E-12
.63E-11
6
3
1
5
3
1
6
5
8
5
3
6
4
1
1
2
.66E-11
.50E-11
.63E-11
.53E-11
.29E-09
.70E-09
.70E-09
.57E-12
.69E-09
.08E-10
.61E-09
.33E-11
.82E-11
.19E-09
.74E-11
.43E-10
a
The uncertainty in the risk coefficient for this radionuclide is
addressed in Table 2.4.
106
-------
Table 2.3. Mortality and morbidity risk coefficients
for external exposure from environmental media.
Explanation of Entries
Risk coefficients are provided for each of three external exposure scenarios: submersion in
contaminated air, exposure from contamination on the ground surface, and exposure from soil
contaminated to an infinite depth. It is assumed that the contaminated ground surface is an infinite
plane and the contaminated air or soil occupies an infinite half-space. Risk coefficients are
expressed as the probability of radiogenic cancer mortality or morbidity per unit time-integrated
activity concentration in air, on the ground surface, or in soil. These risk coefficients are based on
the dosimetric data of Federal Guidance Report No. 12 (EPA, 1993).
A risk coefficient for a radionuclide does not include any contribution to dose from chain
members that form in the environmental medium. To allow the user to assess the risks from
ingrowth of radionuclides, a separate risk coefficient is provided for each decay chain member of
potential dosimetric significance, and entries are provided under the heading "Chain" to indicate
whether a radionuclide is in the same chain as other radionuclides listed in the table. An entry "Y"
(yes) under the subheading "P" (parent) indicates that the radionuclide is the parent of a decay chain
containing at least one other radionuclide in the table, and "Y" under the subheading "D" (daughter)
indicates that the radionuclide is in the decay chain of at least one other radionuclide in the table.
To facilitate application of the risk coefficients, including conversion to other units, the
coefficients are tabulated to three decimal places. No indication of the level of uncertainty is
intended or should be inferred from this practice. A calculated risk should be rounded appropriately.
To express a risk coefficient in terms of a constant activity concentration of the radionuclide in
the environmental medium, multiply the coefficient by 2.37*109 s.
To express a risk coefficient in conventional units of activity, multiply the coefficient by
3.7x104BquCi~1.
To express a risk coefficient in time units of year (y), multiply the coefficient by 3.16><107 s y1.
To express a risk coefficient for submersion in volume units of cm3, multiply the coefficient by
1xicrcm3rrT3.
To express a risk coefficient for ground plane in area units of cm2, multiply the coefficient by
1xio4cm2rrT2.
To express a risk coefficient for soil in mass units of g, multiply the coefficient by 1 *103 g kg"1.
107
-------
Table 2.3. Mortality and morbidity risk coefficients
for external exposure from environmental media.
Mortality
Morbidity
Nuclide
T
Ground
Chain Submersion PJane
Soil
Ground
Submersion Plane
f J In \ I £- lv\
Soil
1/2
P D (m/Bq-s) (m/Bq-s) (kg/Bq-s) (m/Bq-s) (m/Bq-s) (kg/Bq-s)
Hydrogen
H-33 12.35 y - -
Beryllium
Be-7 53.3 d - -
Be-10 1.6E6 y - -
Carbon
C-ll 20.38 m - -
C-14 5730 y - -
Nitrogen
N-13 9.965 m - -
Oxygen
0-15 122.24 s - -
Fluorine
F-18 109.77 m - -
Neon
Ne-19 17.22 s - -
Sodium
Na-22 2.602 y - -
Na-24 15.00 h - -
Magnesium
Mg-28 20.91 h Y -
Aluminum
AT-26 7.16E5 y - -
AT-28 2.240 m - Y
Silicon
Si-31 157.3 m - -
Si-32 450 y Y -
Phosphorus
P-30 2.499 m - -
P-32 14.29 d - Y
P-33 25.4 d - -
Sulfur
S-35 87.44 d - -
Chlorine
Cl-36 3.01E5 y - -
Cl-38 37.21 m - -
Cl-39 55.6 m Y -
Argon
Ar-37 35.02 d - -
Ar-39 269 y - Y
Ar-41 1.827 h - -
Potassium
K-38 7.636 m - -
K-40 1.28E9 y - -
0.00 0.00 0.00
1.19E-16 2.58E-18 1.24E-16
1.78E-18 4.81E-20 4.32E-19
2.48E-15 5.37E-17 2.59E-15
3.23E-20 5.30E-22 4.46E-21
2.48E-15 5.39E-17 2.59E-15
2.49E-15 5.44E-17 2.60E-15
2.48E-15 5.36E-17 2.60E-15
2.49E-15 5.48E-17 2.61E-15
5.57E-15 1.12E-16 6.02E-15
1.15E-14 1.96E-16 1.28E-14
0.00 0.00 0.00
1.76E-16 3.80E-18 1.82E-16
2.02E-18 5.70E-20 6.36E-19
3.65E-15 7.90E-17 3.81E-15
3.66E-20 8.24E-22 6.71E-21
3.65E-15 7.92E-17 3.81E-15
3.66E-15 7.98E-17 3.82E-15
3.65E-15 7.89E-17 3.81E-15
3.67E-15 8.03E-17 3.83E-15
8.19E-15 1.66E-16 8.84E-15
1.70E-14 2.88E-16 1.88E-14
3.50E-15 6.93E-17 3.83E-15 5.15E-15 1.02E-16 5.62E-15
7.06E-15 1.34E-16 7.73E-15
4.88E-15 8.88E-17 5.43E-15
9.45E-18 8.32E-19 6.62E-18
1.02E-19 1.10E-21 1.25E-20
2.51E-15 5.55E-17 2.62E-15
9.11E-18 9.63E-19 5.74E-18
1.70E-19 1.63E-21 2.14E-20
1.04E-14 1.97E-16 1.14E-14
7.17E-15 1.30E-16 7.98E-15
1.22E-17 9.03E-19 9.47E-18
1.13E-19 1.68E-21 1.87E-20
3.69E-15 8.11E-17 3.85E-15
1.14E-17 1.03E-18 8.06E-18
1.86E-19 2.49E-21 3.19E-20
3.79E-20 5.60E-22 5.00E-21 4.27E-20 8.68E-22 7.51E-21
2.50E-18 1.37E-19 1.02E-18
4.15E-15 7.40E-17 4.62E-15
3.78E-15 7.35E-17 4.14E-15
0.00 0.00 0.00
1.46E-18 3.67E-20 3.46E-19
3.38E-15 6.54E-17 3.73E-15
8.55E-15 1.58E-16 9.37E-15
4.23E-16 8.50E-18 4.66E-16
3.00E-18 1.52E-19 1.49E-18
6.10E-15 1.08E-16 6.79E-15
5.56E-15 1.08E-16 6.07E-15
0.00 0.00 0.00
1.66E-18 4.39E-20 5.09E-19
4.96E-15 9.60E-17 5.47E-15
1.26E-14 2.32E-16 1.38E-14
6.20E-16 1.22E-17 6.83E-16
108
-------
Table 2.3, continued
MortalIty
Morbidity
Nucl ide
Potassium
K-42
K-43
K-44
K-45
Calcium
Ca-41
Ca-45
Ca-47
Ca-49
Scandium
Sc-43
Sc-44
Sc-44m
Sc-46
Sc-47
Sc-48
Sc-49
Titanium
Ti-44
Ti-45
Vanadium
V-47
V-48
V-49
Chromium
Cr-48
Cr-49
Cr-51
Tl/2
Chain
P D
Submersion
(m7Bq-s)
Ground
Plane
(mz/Bq-s)
Ground
Soil Submersion Plane Soil
(kg/Bq-s) (m7Bq-s) (m2/Bq-s) (kg/Bq-s)
, continued
12.36 h
22.6 h
22.13 m
20 m
1.4E5 y
163 d
4.53 d
8.716 m
3.891 h
3.927 h
58.6 h
83.83 d
3.351 d
43.7 h
57.4 m
47.3 y
3.08 h
32.6 m
16.238 d
330 d
22.96 h
42.09 m
27.704 d
-
-
-
Y
-
-
Y
Y
-
-
Y
-
-
-
-
Y
-
-
-
-
Y
Y
-
-
-
-
-
-
Y
-
-
-
Y
-
-
Y
-
Y
-
-
-
Y
Y
-
-
Y
7
2
6
5
0
1
2
9
2
5
6
5
2
8
1
2
2
2
7
0
1
2
7
.72E-16
.36E-15
.27E-15
.06E-15
.00
.79E-19
.78E-15
.23E-15
.65E-15
.39E-15
.73E-16
.14E-15
.46E-16
.66E-15
.48E-17
.40E-16
.11E-15
.43E-15
.49E-15
.00
.01E-15
.53E-15
.49E-17
1.57E-17
5.08E-17
1.12E-16
9.25E-17
0.00
1.69E-21
5.41E-17
1.44E-16
5.75E-17
1.11E-16
1.43E-17
1.03E-16
5.39E-18
1.71E-16
1.22E-18
6.27E-18
4.59E-17
5.32E-17
1.49E-16
0.00
2.20E-17
5.55E-17
1.62E-18
8.50E-16
2.47E-15
6.92E-15
5.56E-15
0.00
2.28E-20
3.06E-15
1.02E-14
2.75E-15
5.80E-15
6.68E-16
5.62E-15
2.11E-16
9.50E-15
1.15E-17
1.39E-16
2.21E-15
2.54E-15
8.16E-15
0.00
9.44E-16
2.58E-15
7.45E-17
1
3
9
7
0
1
4
1
3
7
9
7
3
1
1
3
3
3
1
0
1
3
1
.13E-15
.48E-15
.21E-15
.44E-15
.00
.97E-19
.09E-15
.36E-14
.90E-15
.93E-15
.91E-16
.56E-15
.63E-16
.27E-14
.93E-17
.57E-16
.11E-15
.57E-15
.10E-14
.00
.49E-15
.72E-15
.10E-16
2.25E-17
7.47E-17
1.63E-16
1.35E-16
0.00
2.59E-21
7.95E-17
2.11E-16
8.46E-17
1.63E-16
2.11E-17
1.52E-16
7.92E-18
2.52E-16
1.33E-18
9.26E-18
6.75E-17
7.79E-17
2.19E-16
0.00
3.24E-17
8.15E-17
2.39E-18
1.25E-15
3.62E-15
1.02E-14
8.16E-15
0.00
3.39E-20
4.49E-15
1.50E-14
4.05E-15
8.52E-15
9.81E-16
8.25E-15
3.10E-16
1.39E-14
1.63E-17
2.05E-16
3.25E-15
3.73E-15
1.20E-14
0.00
1.39E-15
3.79E-15
1.09E-16
Manganese
Mn-51
Mn-52
Mn-52m
Mn-53
Mn-54
Mn-56
Iron
Fe-52
Fe-55
Fe-59
Fe-60
Cobalt
Co-55
Co-56
Co-57
Co-58
46.2 m
5.591 d
21.1 m
3.7E6 y
312.5 d
2.5785 h
8.275 h
2.7 y
44.529 d
1E5 y
17.54 h
78.76 d
270.9 d
70.80 d
Y
-
Y
-
-
-
Y
-
-
Y
Y
-
-
-
-
Y
Y
-
-
-
-
Y
-
-
-
Y
Y
Y
2
8
6
0
2
4
1
0
3
2
5
9
2
2
.44E-15
.89E-15
.19E-15
.00
.10E-15
.48E-15
.77E-15
.00
.09E-15
.32E-20
.01E-15
.55E-15
.63E-16
.43E-15
5.35E-17
1.77E-16
1.24E-16
0.00
4.34E-17
8.59E-17
3.84E-17
0.00
6.05E-17
4.79E-22
1.04E-16
1.77E-16
5.86E-18
5.07E-17
2.55E-15
9.72E-15
6.72E-15
0.00
2.27E-15
4.93E-15
1.79E-15
0.00
3.40E-15
3.62E-21
5.38E-15
1.05E-14
2.07E-16
2.62E-15
3
1
9
0
3
6
2
0
4
2
7
1
3
3
.58E-15
.31E-14
.10E-15
.00
.08E-15
.58E-15
.61E-15
.00
.54E-15
.70E-20
.37E-15
.40E-14
.89E-16
.58E-15
7.83E-17
2.60E-16
1.82E-16
0.00
6.39E-17
1.26E-16
5.65E-17
0.00
8.90E-17
7.48E-22
1.52E-16
2.61E-16
8.63E-18
7.46E-17
3.74E-15
1.43E-14
9.86E-15
0.00
3.33E-15
7.23E-15
2.63E-15
0.00
4.99E-15
5.46E-21
7.89E-15
1.54E-14
3.04E-16
3.84E-15
109
-------
Table 2.3, continued
Mortal ity
Nucl ide
Tl/2
Chain
P D
Sub
(m
mersion
/Bq-s)
Ground
PJane
(mz/Bq-s)
Morbidity
Ground
Soil Submersion Plane Soil
(kg/Bq-s) (lifVBq-s) (m2/Bq-s) (kg/Bq-s)
Cobalt, continued
Co -58m
Co-60
Co-60m
Co-61
Co-62m
Nickel
Ni-56
Ni-57
Ni-59
Ni-63
Ni-65
Ni-66
Copper
Cu-60
Cu-61
Cu-62
Cu-64
Cu-66
Cu-67
Zinc
Zn-62
Zn-63
Zn-65
Zn-69
Zn-69m
Zn-71m
Zn-72
Gallium
6a-65
6a-66
6a-67
6a-68
6a-70
6a-72
6a-73
9.15
5.271
10.47
1.65
13.91
6.10
36.08
7.5E4
96
2.520
54.6
23.2
3.408
9.74
12.701
5.10
61.86
9.26
38.1
243.9
57
13.76
3.92
46.5
15.2
9.40
78.26
68.0
21.15
14.1
4.91
h
y
m
h
m
d
h
y
y
h
h
m
h
m
h
m
h
h
m
d
m
h
h
h
m
h
h
m
m
h
h
Y
-
Y
-
-
Y
Y
-
-
-
Y
-
-
-
-
-
-
Y
-
-
-
Y
-
Y
Y
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
Y
Y
-
-
-
Y
-
-
-
-
-
-
Y
-
Y
-
-
-
Y
Y
-
-
-
-
Y
Y
Y
-
Y
-
2.
6.
1.
1.
7.
4.
5.
0.
0.
1.
1.
1.
2.
2.
4.
2.
2.
1.
2.
1.
2.
1.
3.
3.
2.
6.
3.
2.
2.
7.
7.
25E-21
55E-15
08E-17
84E-16
15E-15
27E-15
03E-15
00
00
45E-15
24E-19
03E-14
02E-15
47E-15
62E-16
36E-16
59E-16
04E-15
70E-15
50E-15
77E-18
OOE-15
80E-15
27E-16
85E-15
75E-15
47E-16
32E-15
74E-17
23E-15
39E-16
2.35E-22
1.27E-16
2.30E-19
4.89E-18
1.37E-16
8.85E-17
9.67E-17
0.00
0.00
2.84E-17
1.25E-21
1.96E-16
4.35E-17
5.45E-17
9.92E-18
5.86E-18
5.71E-18
2.26E-17
5.87E-17
2.97E-17
2.34E-19
2.18E-17
8.16E-17
7.23E-18
6.21E-17
1.21E-16
7.69E-18
5.07E-17
1.26E-18
1.35E-16
1.64E-17
5.21E-22
7.23E-15
1.08E-17
1.44E-16
7.89E-15
4.51E-15
5.50E-15
0.00
0.00
1.60E-15
1.54E-20
1.12E-14
2.12E-15
2.58E-15
4.84E-16
2.53E-16
2.23E-16
1.09E-15
2.84E-15
1.64E-15
9.94E-19
1.03E-15
3.99E-15
2.72E-16
2.94E-15
7.37E-15
3.12E-16
2.43E-15
2.58E-17
7.94E-15
7.30E-16
3.80E-21
9.63E-15
1.59E-17
2.72E-16
1.05E-14
6.29E-15
7.39E-15
0.00
0.00
2.14E-15
1.37E-19
1.51E-14
2.97E-15
3.63E-15
6.79E-16
3.44E-16
3.82E-16
1.54E-15
3.97E-15
2.20E-15
3.25E-18
1.48E-15
5.59E-15
4.84E-16
4.20E-15
9.92E-15
5.13E-16
3.42E-15
3.85E-17
1.06E-14
1.09E-15
3.83E-22
1.87E-16
3.37E-19
7.00E-18
2.01E-16
1.30E-16
1.42E-16
0.00
0.00
4.15E-17
1.92E-21
2.88E-16
6.39E-17
7.96E-17
1.46E-17
8.07E-18
8.40E-18
3.34E-17
8.60E-17
4.37E-17
2.49E-19
3.20E-17
1.20E-16
1.06E-17
9.10E-17
1.77E-16
1.13E-17
7.43E-17
1.51E-18
1.98E-16
2.40E-17
8.59E-22
1.06E-14
1.59E-17
2.12E-16
1.16E-14
6.63E-15
8.08E-15
0.00
0.00
2.35E-15
2.29E-20
1.65E-14
3.11E-15
3.79E-15
7.11E-16
3.70E-16
3.28E-16
1.60E-15
4.17E-15
2.41E-15
1.43E-18
1.52E-15
5.86E-15
4.01E-16
4.32E-15
1.08E-14
4.59E-16
3.57E-15
3.76E-17
1.17E-14
1.07E-15
Germanium
6e-66
6e-67
6e-68
6e-69
6e-71
6e-75
6e-77
6e-78
2.27
18.7
288
39.05
11.8
82.78
11.30
87
h
m
d
h
d
m
h
m
Y
Y
Y
-
-
-
Y
Y
-
-
-
Y
Y
-
-
-
1.
3.
3.
2.
3.
8.
2.
6.
63E-15
48E-15
OOE-21
18E-15
04E-21
51E-17
70E-15
59E-16
3.52E-17
7.44E-17
9.59E-22
4.52E-17
9.71E-22
2.19E-18
5.66E-17
1.43E-17
1.66E-15
3.63E-15
2.58E-22
2.34E-15
2.60E-22
8.03E-17
2.81E-15
6.43E-16
2.40E-15
5.12E-15
4.89E-21
3.21E-15
4.96E-21
1.24E-16
3.97E-15
9.71E-16
5.19E-17
1.09E-16
1.44E-21
6.65E-17
1.46E-21
3.04E-18
8.30E-17
2.11E-17
2.45E-15
5.34E-15
4.02E-22
3.44E-15
4.06E-22
1.18E-16
4.13E-15
9.45E-16
110
-------
Table 2.3, continued
Mortal ity
Nucl ide
Arsenic
As-69
As-70
As-71
As-72
As-73
As-74
As-76
As-77
As-78
Selenium
Se-70
Se-73
Se-73m
Se-75
Se-77m
Se-79
Se-81
Se-81m
Se-83
Bromine
Br-74
Br-74m
Br-75
Br-76
Br-77
Br-80
Br-80m
Br-82
Br-83
Br-84
Krypton
Kr-74
Kr-76
Kr-77
Kr-79
Kr-81
Kr-81m
Kr-83m
Kr-85
Kr-85m
Kr-87
Kr-88
Tl/2
15.2 m
52.6 m
64.8 h
26.0 h
80.30 d
17.76 d
26.32 h
38.8 h
90.7 m
41.0 m
7.15 h
39 m
119.8 d
17.45 s
65000 y
18.5 m
57.25 m
22.5 m
25.3 m
41.5 m
98 m
16.2 h
56 h
17.4 m
4.42 h
35.30 h
2.39 h
31.80 m
11.50 m
14.8 h
74.7 m
35.04 h
2.1E5 y
13 s
1.83 h
10.72 y
4.48 h
76.3 m
2.84 h
Chain
P D
Y
-
Y
-
-
-
-
-
-
Y
Y
Y
-
-
-
-
Y
Y
-
-
Y
-
-
-
Y
-
Y
-
Y
Y
Y
-
-
Y
-
-
Y
Y
Y
-
Y
-
Y
Y
-
-
Y
Y
-
Y
-
Y
-
-
Y
-
-
Y
-
-
Y
Y
Y
-
-
Y
-
-
-
Y
Y
Y
-
Y
Y
-
-
-
Submersion
(m7Bq-s)
2.48E-15
1.05E-14
1.37E-15
4.49E-15
7.57E-18
1.85E-15
1.10E-15
2.24E-17
3.27E-15
2.38E-15
2.58E-15
5.91E-16
9.02E-16
1.93E-16
4.80E-20
2.99E-17
2.85E-17
6.24E-15
1.25E-14
1.08E-14
2.94E-15
6.95E-15
7.60E-16
1.97E-16
1.04E-17
6.67E-15
2.10E-17
4.95E-15
2.81E-15
1.01E-15
2.43E-15
6.09E-16
1.32E-17
2.97E-16
4.44E-20
7.23E-18
3.61E-16
2.15E-15
5.37E-15
Ground
PJane
(mz/Bq-s)
5.
2.
2.
9.
2.
3.
2.
5.
6.
5.
5.
1.
1.
4.
6.
1.
6.
1.
2.
2.
6.
1.
1.
4.
5.
1.
6.
8.
6.
2.
5.
1.
3.
6.
1.
2.
8.
4.
9.
47E-17
10E-16
94E-17
44E-17
58E-19
99E-17
37E-17
22E-19
54E-17
22E-17
67E-17
29E-17
97E-17
22E-18
94E-22
29E-18
64E-19
24E-16
19E-16
05E-16
38E-17
32E-16
63E-17
45E-18
94E-19
36E-16
32E-19
75E-17
16E-17
20E-17
34E-17
31E-17
06E-19
45E-18
07E-20
15E-19
OOE-18
06E-17
45E-17
Morbidity
Ground
Soil Submersion Plane Soil
(kg/Bq-s) (rnVBq-s) (m2/Bq-s) (kg/Bq-s)
2.58E-15
1.15E-14
1.38E-15
4.79E-15
3.32E-18
1.96E-15
1.17E-15
2.09E-17
3.57E-15
2.45E-15
2.63E-15
6.17E-16
8.41E-16
1.66E-16
6.25E-21
2.75E-17
2.07E-17
6.74E-15
1.36E-14
1.17E-14
3.04E-15
7.54E-15
7.81E-16
2.07E-16
3.33E-18
7.22E-15
2.02E-17
5.45E-15
2.86E-15
1.01E-15
2.46E-15
6.29E-16
1.27E-17
2.68E-16
6.99E-21
6.15E-18
3.18E-16
2.34E-15
5.94E-15
3
1
2
6
1
2
1
3
4
3
3
8
1
2
5
4
4
9
1
1
4
1
1
2
1
9
3
7
4
1
3
8
1
4
7
1
5
3
7
.64E-15
.55E-14
.02E-15
.60E-15
.14E-17
.72E-15
.61E-15
.25E-17
.81E-15
.50E-15
.81E-15
.69E-16
.33E-15
.84E-16
.39E-20
.23E-17
.22E-17
.18E-15
.84E-14
.58E-14
.33E-15
.02E-14
.12E-15
.89E-16
.63E-17
.81E-15
.01E-17
.27E-15
.13E-15
.49E-15
.58E-15
.97E-16
.94E-17
.38E-16
.61E-20
.OOE-17
.33E-16
.16E-15
.89E-15
8. OOE-17
3.08E-16
4.33E-17
1.38E-16
3.83E-19
5.86E-17
3.43E-17
7.43E-19
9.56E-17
7.66E-17
8.33E-17
1.89E-17
2.89E-17
6.21E-18
1.08E-21
1.57E-18
9.80E-19
1.82E-16
3.21E-16
3.01E-16
9.37E-17
1.93E-16
2.41E-17
6.44E-18
9.09E-19
2.01E-16
8.34E-19
1.28E-16
9.03E-17
3.24E-17
7.83E-17
1.92E-17
4.54E-19
9.49E-18
1.76E-20
2.79E-19
1.17E-17
5.92E-17
1.39E-16
3.79E-15
1.68E-14
2.03E-15
7.03E-15
4.95E-18
2.87E-15
1.72E-15
3.07E-17
5.23E-15
3.61E-15
3.87E-15
9.06E-16
1.24E-15
2.44E-16
9.40E-21
4.01E-17
3.05E-17
9.89E-15
1.99E-14
1.71E-14
4.46E-15
1.11E-14
1.15E-15
3.04E-16
5.10E-18
1.06E-14
2.96E-17
8.01E-15
4.20E-15
1.48E-15
3.61E-15
9.24E-16
1.87E-17
3.94E-16
1.15E-20
9.02E-18
4.68E-16
3.43E-15
8.72E-15
111
-------
Table 2.3, continued
Mortal ity
Nucl ide
Rubidium
Rb-79
Rb-80
Rb-81
Rb-81m
Rb-82
Rb-82m
Rb-83
Rb-84
Rb-86
Rb-87
Rb-88
Rb-89
Strontium
Sr-80
Sr-81
Sr-82
Sr-83
Sr-85
Sr-85m
Sr-87m
Sr-89
a
Sr-90
Sr-91
Sr-92
Yttrium
Y-86
Y-86m
Y-87
Y-88
a
Y-90
Y-90m
Y-91
Y-91m
Y-92
Y-93
Y-94
Y-95
Zirconium
Zr-86
Zr-88
Zr-89
Zr-93
Zr-95
Zr-97
Tl/2
22.9 m
34 s
4.58 h
32 m
1.3 m
6.2 h
86.2 d
32.77 d
18.66 d
4.7E10 y
17.8 m
15.2 m
100 m
25.5 m
25.0 d
32.4 h
64.84 d
69.5 m
2.805 h
50.5 d
29.12 y
9.5 h
2.71 h
14.74 h
48 m
80.3 h
106.64 d
64.0 h
3.19 h
58.51 d
49.71 m
3.54 h
10.1 h
19.1 m
10.7 m
16.5 h
83.4 d
78.43 h
1.53E6 y
63.98 d
16.90 h
Chain
P D
Y
-
Y
Y
-
-
Y
-
-
-
-
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
-
Y
Y
_
Y
Y
Y
-
Y
Y
_
-
Y
-
Y
-
Y
-
Y
Y
Y
-
Y
Y
Y
-
Y
Y
-
Y
-
Y
-
-
Y
Y
-
-
-
-
-
Y
-
Y
Y
-
-
-
Y
-
-
Y
Y
-
Y
Y
Y
-
-
-
-
Y
Y
Y
Y
_
Sub
(m
3.
3.
1.
8.
2.
7.
1.
2.
2.
3.
1.
5.
1.
3.
1.
1.
1.
5.
7.
7.
1.
1.
3.
9.
5.
1.
7.
1.
1.
1.
1.
6.
2.
2.
2.
6.
9.
2.
0.
1.
4.
mersion
/Bq-s)
29E-15
09E-15
48E-15
33E-18
69E-15
34E-15
21E-15
28E-15
52E-16
87E-19
77E-15
55E-15
81E-19
37E-15
78E-19
97E-15
22E-15
10E-16
64E-16
30E-18
24E-18
78E-15
53E-15
27E-15
16E-16
08E-15
17E-15
53E-17
50E-15
69E-17
29E-15
78E-16
55E-16
91E-15
53E-15
29E-16
41E-16
91E-15
00
84E-15
68E-16
Ground
PJane
(mz/Bq-s)
7.16E-17
6.80E-17
3.21E-17
2.35E-19
5.91E-17
1.50E-16
2.60E-17
4.76E-17
5.75E-18
3.36E-21
3.37E-17
1.04E-16
4.78E-20
7.34E-17
4.70E-20
4.11E-17
2.64E-17
1.10E-17
1.66E-17
7.72E-19
2.60E-20
3.69E-17
6.75E-17
1.82E-16
1.11E-17
2.35E-17
1.33E-16
1.31E-18
3.25E-17
9.84E-19
2.78E-17
1.49E-17
6.08E-18
5.89E-17
4.45E-17
1.38E-17
2.05E-17
6.02E-17
0.00
3.85E-17
1.01E-17
Morbidity
Ground
Soil Submersion Plane Soil
(kg/Bq-s) (lifVBq-s) (m2/Bq-s) (kg/Bq-s)
3.41E-15
3.24E-15
1.51E-15
5.28E-18
2.83E-15
7.92E-15
1.27E-15
2.46E-15
2.73E-16
5.25E-20
1.96E-15
6.11E-15
2.54E-20
3.48E-15
2.50E-20
2.10E-15
1.28E-15
4.78E-16
7.77E-16
4.37E-18
2.80E-19
1.93E-15
3.91E-15
1.01E-14
4.87E-16
1.13E-15
7.94E-15
1.16E-17
1.50E-15
1.48E-17
1.37E-15
7.35E-16
2.69E-16
3.18E-15
2.80E-15
6.06E-16
9.60E-16
3.14E-15
0.00
1.98E-15
5.03E-16
4
4
2
1
3
1
1
3
3
4
2
8
3
4
3
2
1
7
1
9
1
2
5
1
7
1
1
1
2
2
1
9
3
4
3
9
1
4
0
2
6
.84E-15
.54E-15
.18E-15
.24E-17
.96E-15
.08E-14
.78E-15
.36E-15
.69E-16
.25E-19
.60E-15
.15E-15
.19E-19
.96E-15
.13E-19
.89E-15
.80E-15
.53E-16
.13E-15
.04E-18
.40E-18
.61E-15
.19E-15
.36E-14
.61E-16
.60E-15
.05E-14
.96E-17
.21E-15
.31E-17
.90E-15
.93E-16
.71E-16
.28E-15
.72E-15
.28E-16
.39E-15
.28E-15
.00
.71E-15
.87E-16
1.05E-16
9.95E-17
4.73E-17
3.53E-19
8.64E-17
2.21E-16
3.83E-17
7.00E-17
8.10E-18
5.11E-21
4.88E-17
1.53E-16
8.00E-20
1.08E-16
7.86E-20
6.05E-17
3.89E-17
1.62E-17
2.44E-17
8.25E-19
3.20E-20
5.39E-17
9.92E-17
2.68E-16
1.64E-17
3.47E-17
1.96E-16
1.43E-18
4.78E-17
1.12E-18
4.09E-17
2.13E-17
8.37E-18
8.60E-17
6.49E-17
2.04E-17
3.03E-17
8.86E-17
0.00
5.68E-17
1.45E-17
5.01E-15
4.76E-15
2.22E-15
7.78E-18
4.15E-15
1.16E-14
1.87E-15
3.61E-15
4.00E-16
7.80E-20
2.88E-15
8.97E-15
4.35E-20
5.11E-15
4.28E-20
3.08E-15
1.88E-15
7.03E-16
1.14E-15
6.16E-18
4.13E-19
2.83E-15
5.73E-15
1.48E-14
7.15E-16
1.66E-15
1.17E-14
1.64E-17
2.21E-15
2.15E-17
2.00E-15
1.08E-15
3.94E-16
4.67E-15
4.11E-15
8.91E-16
1.41E-15
4.61E-15
0.00
2.91E-15
7.38E-16
112
-------
Table 2.3, continued
Mortal ity
Nucl ide
Niobium
Nb-88
Nb-89b
Nb-89a
Nb-90
Nb-93m
Nb-94 2
Nb-95
Nb-95m
Nb-96
Nb-97
Nb-97m
Nb-98
Tl/2
14.3 m
122 m
66 m
14.60 h
13.6 y
.03E4 y
35.15 d
86.6 h
23.35 h
72.1 m
60 s
51.5 m
Chain
P D
Y
Y
Y
-
-
-
-
Y
-
-
Y
-
-
-
-
Y
Y
-
Y
Y
-
Y
Y
-
Sub
(m
1.
3.
4.
1.
1.
3.
1.
1.
6.
1.
1.
6.
mersion
/Bq-s)
03E-14
60E-15
70E-15
13E-14
07E-19
94E-15
91E-15
44E-16
23E-15
62E-15
81E-15
21E-15
Ground
PJane
(mz/Bq-s)
2.15E-16
7.16E-17
1.02E-16
2.07E-16
2.08E-20
8.18E-17
3.99E-17
3.17E-18
1.28E-16
3.48E-17
3.80E-17
1.26E-16
Morbidity
Ground
Soil Submersion Plane Soil
(kg/Bq-s) (lifVBq-s) (m2/Bq-s) (kg/Bq-s)
1.11E-14
3.88E-15
4.94E-15
1.24E-14
1.89E-20
4.25E-15
2.06E-15
1.35E-16
6.72E-15
1.73E-15
1.95E-15
6.75E-15
1
5
6
1
1
5
2
2
9
2
2
9
.52E-14
.30E-15
.91E-15
.66E-14
.92E-19
.79E-15
.81E-15
.12E-16
.16E-15
.39E-15
.67E-15
.13E-15
3.16E-16
1.05E-16
1.49E-16
3.05E-16
3.55E-20
1.21E-16
5.88E-17
4.68E-18
1.89E-16
5.10E-17
5.60E-17
1.85E-16
1.62E-14
5.69E-15
7.26E-15
1.82E-14
3.28E-20
6.24E-15
3.02E-15
1.99E-16
9.86E-15
2.54E-15
2.86E-15
9.90E-15
Molybdenum
Mo-90
Mo-93
Mo-93m
Mo-99
Mo-101
Technetium
Tc-93
Tc-93m
Tc-94
Tc-94m
Tc-95
Tc-95m
Tc-96
Tc-96m
Tc-97
Tc-97m
Tc-98
Tc-99 2
Tc-99m
Tc-101
Tc-104
Ruthenium
Ru-94
Ru-97
Ru-103
Ru-105
a
Ru-106
Rhodium
Rh-99
Rh-99m
Rh-100
5.67 h
3.5E3 y
6.85 h
66.0 h
14.62 m
2.75 h
43.5 m
293 m
52 m
20.0 h
61 d
4.28 d
51.5 m
2.6E6 y
87 d
4.2E6 y
.13E5 y
6.02 h
14.2 m
18.2 m
51.8 m
2.9 d
39.28 d
4.44 h
368.2 d
16 d
4.7 h
20.8 h
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
-
-
-
Y
-
Y
-
Y
-
-
Y
-
-
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
-
-
-
-
Y
-
-
-
Y
-
-
Y
Y
-
Y
-
Y
Y
-
Y
Y
Y
-
-
-
-
_
-
-
-
Y
1.
6.
5.
3.
3.
3.
1.
6.
4.
1.
1.
6.
1.
7.
1.
3.
3.
2.
8.
5.
1.
5.
1.
1.
0.
1.
1.
7.
97E-15
06E-19
83E-15
71E-16
55E-15
85E-15
95E-15
66E-15
72E-15
96E-15
63E-15
26E-15
14E-16
89E-19
43E-18
50E-15
38E-19
79E-16
02E-16
24E-15
28E-15
33E-16
14E-15
94E-15
00
43E-15
67E-15
33E-15
4.19E-17
1.18E-19
1.14E-16
8.16E-18
6.97E-17
7.26E-17
3.48E-17
1.38E-16
9.62E-17
4.10E-17
3.45E-17
1.30E-16
2.40E-18
1.41E-19
1.43E-19
7.38E-17
2.98E-21
6.15E-18
1.78E-17
1.01E-16
2.73E-17
1.17E-17
2.45E-17
4.12E-17
0.00
3.07E-17
3.49E-17
1.37E-16
1.99E-15
1.07E-19
6.36E-15
3.87E-16
3.87E-15
4.26E-15
2.11E-15
7.20E-15
5.08E-15
2.12E-15
1.71E-15
6.78E-15
1.24E-16
1.45E-19
5.80E-19
3.76E-15
4.69E-20
2.29E-16
7.97E-16
5.69E-15
1.35E-15
5.03E-16
1.19E-15
2.05E-15
0.00
1.46E-15
1.76E-15
8.05E-15
2
1
8
5
5
5
2
9
6
2
2
9
1
1
2
5
3
4
1
7
1
7
1
2
0
2
2
1
.90E-15
.09E-18
.57E-15
.45E-16
.22E-15
.65E-15
.86E-15
.80E-15
.94E-15
.89E-15
.40E-15
.22E-15
.68E-16
.42E-18
.34E-18
.15E-15
.72E-19
.12E-16
.18E-15
.71E-15
.89E-15
.86E-16
.67E-15
.85E-15
.00
.10E-15
.46E-15
.08E-14
6.17E-17
2.02E-19
1.67E-16
1.18E-17
1.02E-16
1.07E-16
5.12E-17
2.04E-16
1.41E-16
6.04E-17
5.08E-17
1.91E-16
3.55E-18
2.42E-19
2.41E-19
1.09E-16
4.53E-21
9.06E-18
2.59E-17
1.48E-16
4.02E-17
1.72E-17
3.61E-17
6.06E-17
0.00
4.53E-17
5.14E-17
2.01E-16
2.92E-15
1.86E-19
9.34E-15
5.69E-16
5.67E-15
6.26E-15
3.10E-15
1.06E-14
7.45E-15
3.11E-15
2.51E-15
9.96E-15
1.82E-16
2.52E-19
8.93E-19
5.52E-15
6.97E-20
3.37E-16
1.17E-15
8.35E-15
1.98E-15
7.39E-16
1.75E-15
3.01E-15
0.00
2.14E-15
2.59E-15
1.18E-14
113
-------
Table 2.3, continued
Mortal ity
Nucl ide
Rhodium,
Rh-101
Rh-lOlm
Rh-102
Rh-102m
Rh-103m
Rh-105
Rh-1063
Rh-106m
Rh-107
Palladium
Pd-100
Pd-101
Pd-103
Pd-107
Pd-109
Silver
Ag-102
Ag-103
Ag-104
Ag-104m
Ag-105
Ag-106
Ag-106m
Ag-108
Ag-108m
Ag-109m
Ag-110
Ag-llOm
Ag-111
Ag-112
Ag-115
Cadmium
Cd-104
Cd-107
Cd-109
Cd-113
Cd-113m
Cd-115
Cd-115m
Cd-117
Cd-117m
Indium
In-109
In-llOb
Tl/2
Chain
P D
Sui^
mersion
/Bq-s)
Ground
PJane
(mz/Bq-s)
Morbidity
Ground
Soil Submersion Plane Soil
(kg/Bq-s) (lifVBq-s) (m2/Bq-s) (kg/Bq-s)
continued
3.2
4.34
2.9
207
56.12
35.36
29.9
132
21.7
3.63
8.27
16.96
6.5E6
13.427
12.9
65.7
69.2
33.5
41.0
23.96
8.41
2.37
127
39.6
24.6
249.9
7.45
3.12
20.0
57.7
6.49
464
9.3E15
13.6
53.46
44.6
2.49
3.36
4.2
4.9
y
d
y
d
m
h
s
m
m
d
h
d
y
h
m
m
m
m
d
m
d
m
y
s
s
d
d
h
m
m
h
d
y
y
h
d
h
h
h
h
-
Y
-
Y
-
_
_
-
Y
Y
Y
Y
-
-
-
Y
-
Y
-
-
-
-
Y
-
-
Y
-
-
Y
Y
-
-
-
-
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
-
Y
Y
Y
-
Y
Y
Y
-
-
-
-
Y
Y
-
-
-
Y
-
-
-
-
Y
-
-
Y
-
-
-
-
-
-
Y
-
-
Y
Y
-
-
-
-
5.
7.
5.
1.
2.
1.
5.
7.
7.
2.
7.
1.
0.
1.
8.
1.
6.
2.
1.
1.
7.
5.
3.
7.
9.
6.
6.
1.
1.
5.
2.
1.
2.
1.
5.
6.
2.
5.
1.
7.
80E-16
OOE-16
30E-15
17E-15
17E-19
85E-16
36E-16
40E-15
50E-16
04E-16
70E-16
97E-18
00
25E-17
63E-15
86E-15
76E-15
99E-15
23E-15
72E-15
09E-15
06E-17
96E-15
59E-18
81E-17
97E-15
59E-17
73E-15
87E-15
65E-16
53E-17
01E-17
99E-19
14E-18
65E-16
39E-17
81E-15
45E-15
62E-15
61E-15
1.29E-17
1.53E-17
1.11E-16
2.52E-17
2.85E-20
4.02E-18
1.26E-17
1.50E-16
1.66E-17
5.38E-18
1.66E-17
2.46E-19
0.00
6.64E-19
1.71E-16
3.93E-17
1.38E-16
6.01E-17
2.66E-17
3.77E-17
1.45E-16
1.74E-18
8.44E-17
3.07E-19
3.27E-18
1.42E-16
1.67E-18
3.52E-17
3.65E-17
1.26E-17
9.56E-19
6.08E-19
2.67E-21
2.65E-20
1.24E-17
1.93E-18
5.54E-17
1.02E-16
3.39E-17
1.58E-16
5.15E-16
6.94E-16
5.67E-15
1.23E-15
4.75E-20
1.84E-16
5.64E-16
7.98E-15
7.46E-16
1.29E-16
8.06E-16
6.11E-19
0.00
7.40E-18
9.33E-15
1.94E-15
7.31E-15
3.21E-15
1.25E-15
1.80E-15
7.64E-15
5.01E-17
4.19E-15
4.42E-18
9.97E-17
7.57E-15
6.38E-17
1.88E-15
2.01E-15
5.66E-16
2.02E-17
4.96E-18
4.24E-20
2.59E-19
5.89E-16
6.61E-17
3.05E-15
6.01E-15
1.69E-15
8.24E-15
8.57E-16
1.03E-15
7.79E-15
1.72E-15
3.78E-19
2.73E-16
7.85E-16
1.09E-14
1.10E-15
3.04E-16
1.13E-15
3.39E-18
0.00
1.78E-17
1.27E-14
2.74E-15
9.95E-15
4.40E-15
1.81E-15
2.53E-15
1.04E-14
7.27E-17
5.82E-15
1.16E-17
1.41E-16
1.03E-14
9.61E-17
2.55E-15
2.75E-15
8.33E-16
3.84E-17
1.59E-17
3.29E-19
1.29E-18
8.31E-16
9.22E-17
4.14E-15
8.02E-15
2.39E-15
1.12E-14
1.90E-17
2.26E-17
1.63E-16
3.71E-17
4.79E-20
5.91E-18
1.80E-17
2.21E-16
2.42E-17
8.02E-18
2.45E-17
4.15E-19
0.00
8.75E-19
2.52E-16
5.78E-17
2.03E-16
8.83E-17
3.92E-17
5.53E-17
2.13E-16
2.23E-18
1.24E-16
4.83E-19
4.22E-18
2.09E-16
2.33E-18
5.12E-17
5.32E-17
1.86E-17
1.50E-18
9.84E-19
4.06E-21
3.21E-20
1.81E-17
2.52E-18
8.13E-17
1.50E-16
5.00E-17
2.32E-16
7.57E-16
1.02E-15
8.33E-15
1.81E-15
7.97E-20
2.70E-16
8.27E-16
1.17E-14
1.10E-15
1.90E-16
1.18E-15
9.82E-19
0.00
1.09E-17
1.37E-14
2.85E-15
1.07E-14
4.71E-15
1.84E-15
2.64E-15
1.12E-14
7.33E-17
6.15E-15
6.56E-18
1.45E-16
1.11E-14
9.37E-17
2.77E-15
2.95E-15
8.31E-16
2.98E-17
7.48E-18
6.30E-20
3.81E-19
8.65E-16
9.68E-17
4.48E-15
8.83E-15
2.48E-15
1.21E-14
114
-------
Table 2.3, continued
Mortal ity
Nucl ide
Tl/2
Chain
P D
Sub
(m
mersion
/Bq-s)
Ground
PJane
(mz/Bq-s)
Morbidity
Ground
Soil Submersion Plane Soil
(kg/Bq-s) (lifVBq-s) (m2/Bq-s) (kg/Bq-s)
Indium, continued
In-llOa
In-Ill
In-112
In-113m
In-114
In-114m
In-115
In-115m
In-116m
In-117
In-117m
In-119
In-119m
Tin
Sn-110
Sn-111
Sn-113
Sn-117m
Sn-121
Sn-121m
Sn-119m
Sn-123
Sn-123m
Sn-125
Sn-126
Sn-127
Sn-128
Antimony
Sb-115
Sb-116
Sb-116m
Sb-117
Sb-118m
Sb-119
Sb-120b
Sb-120a
Sb-122
Sb-124
Sb-124n
Sb-124m
Sb-1253
Sb-126
Sb-126m
Sb-127
69.1 m
2.83 d
14.4 m
1.658 h
71.9 s
49.51 d
5.1E15 y
4.486 h
54.15 m
43.8 m
116.5 m
2.4 m
18.0 m
4.0 h
35.3 m
115.1 d
13.61 d
27.06 h
55 y
293.0 d
129.2 d
40.08 m
9.64 d
1.0E5 y
2.10 h
59.1 m
31.8 m
15.8 m
60.3 m
2.80 h
5.00 h
38.1 h
5.76 d
15.89 m
2.70 d
60.20 d
20.2 m
93 s
2.77 y
12.4 d
19.0 m
3.85 d
-
-
-
-
-
Y
-
Y
-
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
-
-
Y
-
-
-
Y
Y
Y
Y
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
Y
Y
Y
-
Y
Y
Y
Y
-
Y
Y
-
Y
Y
-
Y
Y
Y
-
-
-
-
Y
Y
-
Y
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
Y
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
Y
-
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
3.
9.
6.
6.
7.
2.
8.
3.
6.
1.
2.
1.
3.
6.
1.
1.
3.
4.
1.
2.
2.
3.
8.
9.
4.
1.
2.
5.
7.
3.
6.
5.
6.
1.
1.
4.
1.
8.
1.
7.
3.
1.
90E-15
01E-16
40E-16
05E-16
46E-18
08E-16
07E-19
67E-16
48E-15
66E-15
07E-16
92E-15
68E-17
74E-16
25E-15
52E-17
22E-16
68E-19
83E-18
64E-18
37E-17
15E-16
23E-16
25E-17
96E-15
49E-15
19E-15
60E-15
94E-15
81E-16
54E-15
66E-18
22E-15
08E-15
09E-15
74E-15
73E-20
62E-16
02E-15
OOE-15
81E-15
69E-15
8.08E-17
1.99E-17
1.40E-17
1.32E-17
1.44E-19
4.60E-18
9.47E-21
8.10E-18
1.25E-16
3.59E-17
4.96E-18
4.08E-17
1.92E-18
1.49E-17
2.62E-17
6.61E-19
7.39E-18
4.16E-21
1.39E-19
2.67E-19
1.01E-18
7.37E-18
1.70E-17
2.46E-18
9.72E-17
3.34E-17
4.74E-17
1.09E-16
1.60E-16
8.70E-18
1.31E-16
5.61E-19
1.25E-16
2.37E-17
2.38E-17
9.22E-17
1.80E-21
1.85E-17
2.22E-17
1.48E-16
8.16E-17
3.61E-17
4.
8.
6.
6.
7.
2.
1.
3.
7.
1.
1.
2.
3.
6.
1.
1.
2.
7.
4.
6.
2.
2.
8.
5.
5.
1.
2.
6.
8.
3.
7.
1.
6.
1.
1.
5.
4.
9.
1.
7.
4.
1.
16E-15
30E-16
71E-16
15E-16
90E-18
08E-16
57E-19
65E-16
13E-15
69E-15
95E-16
06E-15
34E-17
57E-16
33E-15
17E-17
73E-16
50E-20
79E-19
30E-19
27E-17
69E-16
96E-16
78E-17
40E-15
52E-15
29E-15
11E-15
59E-15
37E-16
10E-15
35E-18
69E-15
13E-15
15E-15
18E-15
04E-21
14E-16
06E-15
47E-15
05E-15
79E-15
5.74E-15
1.33E-15
9.42E-16
8.91E-16
1.09E-17
3.07E-16
9.02E-19
5.41E-16
9.53E-15
2.44E-15
3.05E-16
2.82E-15
5.11E-17
9.94E-16
1.84E-15
2.32E-17
4.77E-16
5.17E-19
2.92E-18
4.44E-18
3.34E-17
4.64E-16
1.21E-15
1.38E-16
7.29E-15
2.20E-15
3.22E-15
8.22E-15
1.17E-14
5.63E-16
9.62E-15
9.47E-18
9.16E-15
1.59E-15
1.60E-15
6.97E-15
2.93E-20
1.27E-15
1.50E-15
1.03E-14
5.61E-15
2.49E-15
1.19E-16
2.93E-17
2.06E-17
1.95E-17
2.11E-19
6.81E-18
1.32E-20
1.20E-17
1.84E-16
5.28E-17
7.14E-18
5.97E-17
2.30E-18
2.21E-17
3.85E-17
1.04E-18
1.09E-17
6.29E-21
2.21E-19
4.34E-19
1.21E-18
1.06E-17
2.46E-17
3.66E-18
1.43E-16
4.94E-17
6.98E-17
1.61E-16
2.36E-16
1.29E-17
1.93E-16
9.12E-19
1.84E-16
3.49E-17
3.47E-17
1.35E-16
2.93E-21
2.72E-17
3.27E-17
2.18E-16
1.20E-16
5.31E-17
6.11E-15
1.22E-15
9.85E-16
9.03E-16
1.16E-17
3.06E-16
2.31E-19
5.37E-16
1.05E-14
2.48E-15
2.87E-16
3.03E-15
4.82E-17
9.66E-16
1.96E-15
1.73E-17
4.02E-16
1.11E-19
7.58E-19
1.03E-18
3.32E-17
3.96E-16
1.31E-15
8.53E-17
7.92E-15
2.24E-15
3.36E-15
8.97E-15
1.26E-14
4.95E-16
1.04E-14
2.21E-18
9.82E-15
1.66E-15
1.69E-15
7.61E-15
6.65E-21
1.34E-15
1.55E-15
1.10E-14
5.94E-15
2.63E-15
115
-------
Table 2.3, continued
Mortal ity
Nucl ide
Antimony,
Sb-128b
Sb-128a
Sb-129
Sb-130
Sb-131
Tellurium
Te-116
Te-121
Te-121m
Te-123m
Te-123
Te-125m
Te-127
Te-127m
Te-129
Te-129m
Te-131
Te-131m
Te-132
Te-133
Te-133m
Te-134
Iodine
1-120
I -120m
1-121
1-122
1-123
1-124
1-125
1-126
1-128
1-129
1-130
I-1313
1-132
I-132m
1-133
1-134
1-135
Xenon
Xe-120
Xe-121
Xe-122
Tl/2
continued
9.01 h
10.4 m
4.32 h
40 m
23 m
2.49 h
17 d
154 d
119.7 d
1E13 y
58 d
9.35 h
109 d
69.6 m
33.6 d
25.0 m
30 h
78.2 h
12.45 m
55.4 m
41.8 m
81.0 m
53 m
2.12 h
3.62 m
13.2 h
4.18 d
60.14 d
13.02 d
24.99 m
1.57E7 y
12.36 h
8.04 d
2.30 h
83.6 m
20.8 h
52.6 m
6.61 h
40 m
40.1 m
20.1 h
Chain
P D
-
-
Y
-
Y
Y
-
Y
Y
-
-
-
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
-
-
Y
-
Y
-
-
-
-
-
_
Y
-
Y
Y
-
Y
Y
Y
Y
-
Y
-
-
-
-
Y
-
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
-
Y
-
-
Y
-
Y
Y
Y
-
Y
-
-
Y
_
Y
Y
-
Y
Y
-
-
-
_
Sub
(m
7.
4.
3.
8.
4.
1.
1.
4.
3.
5.
1.
1.
4.
1.
7.
1.
3.
4.
2.
5.
2.
7.
1.
9.
2.
3.
2.
1.
1.
2.
1.
5.
9.
5.
7.
1.
6.
4.
9.
4.
1.
mersion
/Bq-s)
68E-15
94E-15
68E-15
19E-15
85E-15
02E-16
36E-15
83E-16
08E-16
84E-18
32E-17
32E-17
49E-18
41E-16
83E-17
03E-15
59E-15
97E-16
35E-15
88E-15
14E-15
15E-15
37E-14
62E-16
32E-15
44E-16
76E-15
48E-17
09E-15
14E-16
17E-17
29E-15
14E-16
73E-15
73E-16
50E-15
68E-15
15E-15
69E-16
73E-15
16E-16
Ground
PJane
(mz/Bq-s)
1.61E-16
1.05E-16
7.40E-17
1.69E-16
9.50E-17
2.92E-18
2.97E-17
1.06E-17
7.04E-18
5.31E-19
1.04E-18
3.22E-19
3.30E-19
3.63E-18
2.03E-18
2.24E-17
7.31E-17
1.13E-17
4.86E-17
1.19E-16
4.58E-17
1.38E-16
2.70E-16
2.11E-17
5.07E-17
8.04E-18
5.60E-17
1.22E-18
2.36E-17
5.45E-18
8.05E-19
1.12E-16
1.98E-17
1.19E-16
1.66E-17
3.21E-17
1.36E-16
7.96E-17
2.15E-17
9.04E-17
3.03E-18
Morbidity
Ground
Soil Submersion Plane Soil
(kg/Bq-s) (lifVBq-s) (m2/Bq-s) (kg/Bq-s)
8.21E-15
5.26E-15
4.00E-15
8.78E-15
5.30E-15
7.78E-17
1.44E-15
4.57E-16
2.61E-16
1.45E-18
3.77E-18
1.22E-17
1.51E-18
1.43E-16
8.05E-17
1.04E-15
3.86E-15
4.57E-16
2.50E-15
6.35E-15
2.21E-15
7.74E-15
1.48E-14
9.54E-16
2.43E-15
2.97E-16
2.98E-15
3.89E-18
1.15E-15
2.18E-16
3.34E-18
5.64E-15
9.28E-16
6.18E-15
8.15E-16
1.58E-15
7.25E-15
4.57E-15
9.91E-16
5.09E-15
1.07E-16
1
7
5
1
7
1
2
7
4
9
2
1
7
2
1
1
5
7
3
8
3
1
2
1
3
5
4
2
1
3
1
7
1
8
1
2
9
6
1
6
1
.13E-14
.27E-15
.41E-15
.20E-14
.13E-15
.52E-16
.01E-15
.12E-16
.55E-16
.64E-18
.14E-17
.89E-17
.18E-18
.06E-16
.15E-16
.51E-15
.28E-15
.35E-16
.46E-15
.64E-15
.15E-15
.05E-14
.01E-14
.42E-15
.41E-15
.09E-16
.06E-15
.41E-17
.61E-15
.13E-16
.85E-17
.78E-15
.35E-15
.43E-15
.14E-15
.20E-15
.83E-15
.10E-15
.43E-15
.95E-15
.72E-16
2.37E-16
1.53E-16
1.09E-16
2.49E-16
1.40E-16
4.40E-18
4.38E-17
1.57E-17
1.04E-17
8.53E-19
1.65E-18
4.50E-19
5.21E-19
5.10E-18
2.91E-18
3.26E-17
1.08E-16
1.68E-17
7.11E-17
1.75E-16
6.74E-17
2.03E-16
3.97E-16
3.12E-17
7.43E-17
1.19E-17
8.24E-17
1.94E-18
3.47E-17
7.63E-18
1.26E-18
1.64E-16
2.92E-17
1.75E-16
2.45E-17
4.71E-17
2.00E-16
1.17E-16
3.17E-17
1.33E-16
4.54E-18
1.20E-14
7.73E-15
5.87E-15
1.29E-14
7.78E-15
1.15E-16
2.11E-15
6.71E-16
3.84E-16
2.34E-18
5.95E-18
1.80E-17
2.34E-18
2.10E-16
1.18E-16
1.53E-15
5.66E-15
6.71E-16
3.67E-15
9.32E-15
3.24E-15
1.14E-14
2.18E-14
1.40E-15
3.57E-15
4.37E-16
4.37E-15
6.20E-18
1.68E-15
3.20E-16
5.22E-18
8.28E-15
1.36E-15
9.08E-15
1.20E-15
2.33E-15
1.06E-14
6.71E-15
1.46E-15
7.48E-15
1.57E-16
116
-------
Table 2.3, continued
Mortal ity
Nucl ide
Tl/2
Chain
P D
Sub
(m
mersion
/Bq-s)
Ground
PJane
(mz/Bq-s)
Morbidity
Ground
Soil Submersion Plane Soil
(kg/Bq-s) (lifVBq-s) (m2/Bq-s) (kg/Bq-s)
Xenon, continued
Xe-123
Xe-125
Xe-127
Xe-129m
Xe-131m
Xe-133
Xe-133m
Xe-135
Xe-135m
Xe-138
Cesium
Cs-125
Cs-126
Cs-127
Cs-128
Cs-129
Cs-130
Cs-131
Cs-132
Cs-134
Cs-134m
Cs-135
Cs-135m
Cs-136
a
Cs-137
Cs-138
Barium
Ba-126
Ba-128
Ba-131
Ba-131m
Ba-133
Ba-133m
Ba-135m
Ba-137ma
Ba-139
Ba-140
Ba-141
Ba-142
Lanthanum
La-131
La-132
La-134
La-135
2.08 h
17.0 h
36.41 d
8.0 d
11.9 d
5.245 d
2.188 d
9.09 h
15.29 m
14.17 m
45 m
1.64 m
6.25 h
3.9 m
32.06 h
29.9 m
9.69 d
6.475 d
2.062 y
2.90 h
2.3E6 y
53 m
13.1 d
30.0 y
32.2 m
96.5 m
2.43 d
11.8 d
14.6 m
10.74 y
38.9 h
28.7 h
2.552 m
82.7 m
12.74 d
18.27 m
10.6 m
59 m
4.8 h
6.67 m
19.5 h
Y
Y
-
-
-
-
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
-
Y
-
-
-
-
-
-
Y
-
Y
_
Y
-
Y
Y
Y
Y
-
Y
_
-
-
Y
Y
Y
Y
-
-
_
-
Y
Y
-
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
-
-
Y
-
Y
-
-
Y
-
Y
-
Y
-
_
-
Y
-
-
Y
-
Y
-
_
Y
-
-
-
-
-
-
Y
Y
1.
5.
6.
4.
1.
6.
6.
5.
1.
3.
1.
2.
9.
2.
6.
1.
9.
1.
3.
4.
1.
3.
5.
1.
6.
3.
1.
1.
1.
8.
1.
1.
1.
1.
4.
2.
2.
1.
5.
1.
3.
53E-15
79E-16
01E-16
06E-17
47E-17
59E-17
30E-17
87E-16
03E-15
01E-15
63E-15
66E-15
64E-16
19E-15
09E-16
24E-15
73E-18
70E-15
86E-15
OOE-17
12E-19
97E-15
44E-15
20E-18
31E-15
44E-16
34E-16
04E-15
37E-16
70E-16
25E-16
10E-16
47E-15
10E-16
32E-16
12E-15
64E-15
57E-15
16E-15
70E-15
84E-17
3.20E-17
1.31E-17
1.37E-17
1.82E-18
6.88E-19
1.96E-18
1.74E-18
1.29E-17
2.24E-17
5.61E-17
3.55E-17
5.87E-17
2.13E-17
4.81E-17
1.40E-17
2.73E-17
7.24E-19
3.64E-17
8.11E-17
1.11E-18
1.18E-21
8.25E-17
1.11E-16
3.96E-20
1.19E-16
8.00E-18
3.45E-18
2.31E-17
3.46E-18
1.99E-17
3.09E-18
2.76E-18
3.12E-17
3.36E-18
9.57E-18
4.43E-17
5.39E-17
3.46E-17
1.02E-16
3.73E-17
1.41E-18
1.59E-15
5.46E-16
5.54E-16
2.44E-17
8.11E-18
3.83E-17
5.38E-17
5.66E-16
1.09E-15
3.28E-15
1.70E-15
2.77E-15
9.81E-16
2.29E-15
6.11E-16
1.30E-15
2.67E-18
1.81E-15
4.14E-15
2.92E-17
1.35E-20
4.30E-15
5.86E-15
3.14E-19
6.93E-15
3.39E-16
1.22E-16
1.04E-15
9.70E-17
8.37E-16
1.14E-16
9.90E-17
1.57E-15
9.65E-17
4.44E-16
2.21E-15
2.83E-15
1.60E-15
5.55E-15
1.78E-15
3.02E-17
2
8
8
6
2
9
9
8
1
4
2
3
1
3
9
1
1
2
5
5
1
5
8
1
9
5
1
1
2
1
1
1
2
1
6
3
3
2
7
2
5
.26E-15
.56E-16
.88E-16
.19E-17
.24E-17
.86E-17
.34E-17
.65E-16
.52E-15
.42E-15
.40E-15
.91E-15
.42E-15
.22E-15
.OOE-16
.82E-15
.56E-17
.50E-15
.68E-15
.97E-17
.23E-19
.84E-15
.01E-15
.37E-18
.27E-15
.08E-16
.99E-16
.53E-15
.03E-16
.28E-15
.85E-16
.62E-16
.16E-15
.60E-16
.36E-16
.12E-15
.88E-15
.32E-15
.59E-15
.50E-15
.80E-17
4.71E-17
1.94E-17
2.02E-17
2.80E-18
1.06E-18
2.93E-18
2.61E-18
1.89E-17
3.30E-17
8.22E-17
5.22E-17
8.59E-17
3.15E-17
7.04E-17
2.07E-17
4. OOE-17
1.14E-18
5.36E-17
1.19E-16
1.67E-18
1.81E-21
1.21E-16
1.64E-16
4.57E-20
1.75E-16
1.18E-17
5.15E-18
3.41E-17
5.13E-18
2.95E-17
4.59E-18
4.12E-18
4.60E-17
4.47E-18
1.40E-17
6.47E-17
7.92E-17
5.09E-17
1.50E-16
5.46E-17
2.14E-18
2.33E-15
8.03E-16
8.15E-16
3.64E-17
1.21E-17
5.67E-17
7.92E-17
8.31E-16
1.59E-15
4.81E-15
2.50E-15
4.06E-15
1.44E-15
3.36E-15
8.98E-16
1.90E-15
4.20E-18
2.66E-15
6.08E-15
4.30E-17
2.02E-20
6.31E-15
8.60E-15
4.56E-19
1.02E-14
4.99E-16
1.80E-16
1.52E-15
1.43E-16
1.23E-15
1.68E-16
1.46E-16
2.30E-15
1.41E-16
6.52E-16
3.25E-15
4.15E-15
2.36E-15
8.15E-15
2.61E-15
4.46E-17
117
-------
Table 2.3, continued
Mortal ity
Nucl ide
Tl/2
Chain
P D
Submersion
(m7Bq-s)
Ground
PJane
(mVBq-s)
Morbidity
Ground
Soil Submersion Plane Soil
(kg/Bq-s) (lifVBq-s) (m2/Bq-s) (kg/Bq-s)
Lanthanum, continued
La-137
La-138
La-140
La-141
La-142
La-143
Cerium
Ce-134
Ce-135
Ce-137
Ce-137m
Ce-139
Ce-141
Ce-143
Ce-144
6E4
1.35E11
40.272
3.93
92.5
14.23
72.0
17.6
9.0
34.4
137.66
32.501
33.0
284.3
y
y
h
h
m
m
h
h
h
h
d
d
h
d
-
-
-
Y
-
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
-
-
Y
Y
Y
-
Y
Y
Y
-
-
-
Y
-
Y
Y
Y
-
1.27E-17
3.22E-15
6.10E-15
1.30E-16
7.58E-15
2.77E-16
1.51E-17
4.32E-15
3.57E-17
9.18E-17
3.15E-16
1.62E-16
6.40E-16
3.90E-17
8.28E-19
6.22E-17
1.17E-16
3.50E-18
1.34E-16
6.52E-18
9.26E-19
9.25E-17
1.38E-18
2.40E-18
7.52E-18
3.69E-18
1.46E-17
9.61E-19
3.71E-18
3.54E-15
6.70E-15
1.39E-16
8.38E-15
2.99E-16
4.56E-18
4.52E-15
2.57E-17
8.04E-17
2.64E-16
1.32E-16
6.36E-16
2.92E-17
2
4
8
1
1
4
2
6
5
1
4
2
9
5
.01E-17
.73E-15
.96E-15
.88E-16
.11E-14
.04E-16
.38E-17
.36E-15
.40E-17
.36E-16
.66E-16
.39E-16
.43E-16
.78E-17
1.28E-18
9.15E-17
1.71E-16
4.64E-18
1.96E-16
8.97E-18
1.43E-18
1.36E-16
2.09E-18
3.58E-18
1.11E-17
5.44E-18
2.14E-17
1.42E-18
5.78E-18
5.20E-15
9.83E-15
2.03E-16
1.23E-14
4.38E-16
7.06E-18
6.63E-15
3.82E-17
1.18E-16
3.89E-16
1.94E-16
9.34E-16
4.30E-17
Praseodymium
Pr-136
Pr-137
Pr-138
Pr-138m
Pr-139
Pr-142
Pr-142m
Pr-143
Pr-144
Pr-144m
Pr-145
Pr-147
13.1
76.6
1.45
2.1
4.51
19.13
14.6
13.56
17.28
7.2
5.98
13.6
m
m
m
h
h
h
m
d
m
m
h
m
-
Y
-
-
Y
-
Y
-
-
Y
-
Y
Y
-
Y
-
Y
Y
-
Y
Y
Y
-
-
5.31E-15
1.19E-15
1.99E-15
6.18E-15
2.55E-16
1.70E-16
0.00
2.70E-18
1.09E-16
1.01E-17
4.15E-17
2.11E-15
1.08E-16
2.60E-17
4.40E-17
1.28E-16
5.99E-18
4.01E-18
0.00
2.31E-19
3.27E-18
4.75E-19
1.60E-18
4.50E-17
5.68E-15
1.25E-15
2.09E-15
6.62E-15
2.57E-16
1.84E-16
0.00
9.72E-19
1.14E-16
4.99E-18
4.08E-17
2.21E-15
7
1
2
9
3
2
0
3
1
1
5
3
.81E-15
.75E-15
.93E-15
.09E-15
.76E-16
.47E-16
.00
.16E-18
.56E-16
.56E-17
.91E-17
.10E-15
1.59E-16
3.82E-17
6.43E-17
1.88E-16
8.86E-18
5.47E-18
0.00
2.46E-19
4.22E-18
7.23E-19
1.99E-18
6.58E-17
8.34E-15
1.83E-15
3.06E-15
9.72E-15
3.78E-16
2.69E-16
0.00
1.40E-18
1.66E-16
7.48E-18
5.95E-17
3.24E-15
Neodymium
Nd-136
Nd-138
Nd-139
Nd-139m
Nd-141
Nd-141m
Nd-147
Nd-149
Nd-151
50.65
5.04
29.7
5.5
2.49
62.4
10.98
1.73
12.44
m
h
m
h
h
s
d
h
m
Y
Y
Y
Y
-
Y
Y
Y
Y
-
-
Y
-
Y
Y
Y
-
-
6.16E-16
5.32E-17
9.58E-16
3.89E-15
1.37E-16
1.89E-15
3.01E-16
8.94E-16
2.28E-15
1.44E-17
1.81E-18
2.10E-17
8.04E-17
3.49E-18
3.97E-17
7.07E-18
2.00E-17
4.75E-17
5.89E-16
3.89E-17
l.OOE-15
4.16E-15
1.33E-16
2.03E-15
2.84E-16
8.72E-16
2.39E-15
9
8
1
5
2
2
4
1
3
.10E-16
.OOE-17
.41E-15
.73E-15
.04E-16
.78E-15
.44E-16
.32E-15
.35E-15
2.13E-17
2.72E-18
3.09E-17
1.18E-16
5.19E-18
5.84E-17
1.04E-17
2.93E-17
6.95E-17
8.66E-16
5.76E-17
1.47E-15
6.11E-15
1.95E-16
2.98E-15
4.17E-16
1.28E-15
3.51E-15
Promethium
Pm-141
Pm-142
Pm-143
Pm-144
Pm-145
20.90
40.5
265
363
17.7
m
s
d
d
y
Y
-
-
-
-
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
1.84E-15
2.14E-15
7.33E-16
3.79E-15
2.50E-17
3.92E-17
4.70E-17
1.60E-17
8.13E-17
1.20E-18
1.94E-15
2.25E-15
7.73E-16
4.02E-15
9.11E-18
2
3
1
5
3
.70E-15
.15E-15
.08E-15
.58E-15
.86E-17
5.74E-17
6.87E-17
2.37E-17
1.20E-16
1.82E-18
2.85E-15
3.31E-15
1.14E-15
5.91E-15
1.38E-17
118
-------
Table 2.3, continued
Mortal ity
Nucl ide
Tl/2
Chain
P D
Submersion
(m7Bq-s)
Ground
PJane
(mz/Bq-s)
Morbidity
Ground
Soil Submersion Plane Soil
(kg/Bq-s) (rnVBq-s) (m2/Bq-s) (kg/Bq-s)
Promethium, continued
Pm-146
Pm-147 2
Pm-148
Pm-148m
Pm-149
Pm-150
Pm-151
Samarium
Sm-141
Sm-141m
Sm-142
Sm-145
Sm-146 1
Sm-147 1.
Sm-151
Sm-153
Sm-155
Sm-156
Europium
Eu-145
Eu-146
Eu-147
Eu-148
Eu-149
Eu-150b
Eu-150a
Eu-152
Eu-152m
Eu-154
Eu-155
Eu-156
Eu-157
Eu-158
Gadolinium
6d-145
6d-146
6d-147
6d-148
6d-149
6d-151
6d-152 1.
6d-153
6d-159
2020 d
.6234 y
5.37 d
41.3 d
53.08 h
2.68 h
28.40 h
10.2 m
22.6 m
72.49 m
340 d
.03E8 y
06E11 y
90 y
46.7 h
22.1 m
9.4 h
5.94 d
4.61 d
24 d
54.5 d
93.1 d
34.2 y
12.62 h
13.33 y
9.32 h
8.8 y
4.96 y
15.19 d
15.15 h
45.9 m
22.9 m
48.3 d
38.1 h
93 y
9.4 d
120 d
08E14 y
242 d
18.56 h
Y
Y
-
Y
-
-
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
-
-
-
-
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
-
-
-
Y
Y
-
-
-
-
-
Y
Y
Y
-
Y
Y
-
-
_
-
Y
Y
-
Y
-
Y
Y
-
-
Y
Y
Y
Y
-
-
-
Y
Y
Y
-
Y
-
-
-
-
-
Y
Y
-
-
-
-
Y
-
Y
Y
Y
Y
_
1
1
1
4
2
3
7
3
4
1
5
0
0
8
9
2
2
3
6
1
5
1
3
1
2
7
3
1
3
5
2
5
4
3
0
9
9
0
1
1
.82E-15
.09E-19
.50E-15
.93E-15
.89E-17
.70E-15
.49E-16
.51E-15
.95E-15
.82E-16
.81E-17
.00
.00
.65E-22
.90E-17
.18E-16
.58E-16
.72E-15
.29E-15
.16E-15
.38E-15
.01E-16
.62E-15
.12E-16
.89E-15
.27E-16
.15E-15
.10E-16
.51E-15
.76E-16
.72E-15
.99E-15
.46E-16
.26E-15
.00
.44E-16
.56E-17
.00
.57E-16
.08E-16
3.91E-17
1.26E-21
3.02E-17
1.04E-16
8.86E-19
7.34E-17
1.65E-17
7.30E-17
1.02E-16
4.55E-18
2.59E-18
0.00
0.00
1.14E-22
2.85E-18
5.64E-18
5.90E-18
7.37E-17
1.29E-16
2.50E-17
1.12E-16
2.87E-18
7.72E-17
2.64E-18
5.86E-17
1.57E-17
6.35E-17
2.81E-18
6.68E-17
1.35E-17
5.51E-17
1.13E-16
1.15E-17
6.86E-17
0.00
2.11E-17
2.81E-18
0.00
4.65E-18
2.69E-18
1.92E-15
1.85E-20
1.63E-15
5.24E-15
2.69E-17
4.01E-15
7.44E-16
3.73E-15
5.27E-15
1.74E-16
2.17E-17
0.00
0.00
1.81E-22
6.17E-17
1.64E-16
2.21E-16
4.05E-15
6.78E-15
1.19E-15
5.74E-15
8.27E-17
3.78E-15
1.14E-16
3.09E-15
7.74E-16
3.40E-15
7.22E-17
3.86E-15
5.59E-16
2.95E-15
6.57E-15
3.23E-16
3.43E-15
0.00
9.23E-16
6.95E-17
0.00
9.37E-17
1.01E-16
2
1
2
7
4
5
1
5
7
2
8
0
0
1
1
3
3
5
9
1
7
1
5
1
4
1
4
1
5
8
3
8
6
4
0
1
1
0
2
1
.68E-15
.23E-19
.20E-15
.25E-15
.16E-17
.44E-15
.10E-15
.16E-15
.29E-15
.69E-16
.90E-17
.00
.00
.52E-21
.47E-16
.21E-16
.82E-16
.48E-15
.25E-15
.71E-15
.92E-15
.50E-16
.33E-15
.65E-16
.25E-15
.07E-15
.63E-15
.64E-16
.16E-15
.49E-16
.99E-15
.80E-15
.63E-16
.81E-15
.00
.39E-15
.43E-16
.00
.34E-16
.59E-16
5.76E-17
1.93E-21
4.40E-17
1.54E-16
1.17E-18
1.08E-16
2.43E-17
1.07E-16
1.50E-16
6.75E-18
3.92E-18
0.00
0.00
1.92E-22
4.20E-18
8.03E-18
8.69E-18
1.08E-16
1.89E-16
3.69E-17
1.66E-16
4.27E-18
1.14E-16
3.78E-18
8.63E-17
2.29E-17
9.34E-17
4.15E-18
9.81E-17
1.98E-17
8.06E-17
1.65E-16
1.71E-17
1.01E-16
0.00
3.12E-17
4.19E-18
0.00
6.92E-18
3.90E-18
2.82E-15
2.75E-20
2.40E-15
7.69E-15
3.94E-17
5.88E-15
1.09E-15
5.47E-15
7.74E-15
2.56E-16
3.28E-17
0.00
0.00
3.08E-22
9.11E-17
2.41E-16
3.25E-16
5.95E-15
9.95E-15
1.75E-15
8.43E-15
1.22E-16
5.56E-15
1.67E-16
4.54E-15
1.14E-15
4.99E-15
1.06E-16
5.67E-15
8.22E-16
4.33E-15
9.64E-15
4.76E-16
5.03E-15
0.00
1.36E-15
1.03E-16
0.00
1.39E-16
1.49E-16
119
-------
Table 2.3, continued
Mortal ity
Nucl ide
Terbium
Tb-147
Tb-149
Tb-150
Tb-151
Tb-153
Tb-154
Tb-155
Tb-156
Tb-156m
Tb-156n
Tb-157
Tb-158
Tb-160
Tb-161
Tl/2
1.65
4.15
3.27
17.6
2.34
21.4
5.32
5.34
24.4
5.0
150
150
72.3
6.91
Chain
P D
h
h
h
h
d
h
d
d
h
h
y
y
d
d
Y
Y
-
Y
Y
-
-
-
Y
Y
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
Y
Y
-
-
Y
-
-
-
Submersion
(m7Bq-s)
3.98E-15
4.12E-15
4.24E-15
2.10E-15
4.70E-16
6.30E-15
2.51E-16
4.57E-15
3.01E-17
4.71E-18
2.50E-18
1.95E-15
2.84E-15
4.12E-17
Ground
PJane
(mz/Bq-s)
8.25E-17
8.16E-17
8.65E-17
4.55E-17
1.11E-17
1.15E-16
6.50E-18
9.26E-17
1.10E-18
1.57E-19
1.05E-19
4.07E-17
5.77E-17
1.42E-18
Morbidity
Ground
Soil Submersion Plane Soil
(kg/Bq-s) (lifVBq-s) (m2/Bq-s) (kg/Bq-s)
4.26E-15
4.43E-15
4.55E-15
2.13E-15
4.21E-16
6.91E-15
1.89E-16
4.88E-15
1.24E-17
2.34E-18
9.30E-19
2.08E-15
3.05E-15
1.98E-17
5
6
6
3
6
9
3
6
4
7
3
2
4
6
.85E-15
.06E-15
.23E-15
.09E-15
.96E-16
.26E-15
.73E-16
.73E-15
.55E-17
.07E-18
.81E-18
.88E-15
.17E-15
.18E-17
1.21E-16
1.20E-16
1.27E-16
6.71E-17
1.64E-17
1.68E-16
9.63E-18
1.36E-16
1.63E-18
2.34E-19
1.58E-19
6.00E-17
8.49E-17
2.12E-18
6.25E-15
6.51E-15
6.67E-15
3.13E-15
6.20E-16
1.01E-14
2.79E-16
7.17E-15
1.85E-17
3.48E-18
1.40E-18
3.06E-15
4.48E-15
2.95E-17
Dysprosium
Dy-155
Dy-157
Dy-159
Dy-165
Dy-166
Holmium
Ho-155
Ho-157
Ho-159
Ho-161
Ho-162
Ho-162m
Ho- 164m
Ho-164
Ho-166
Ho- 166m
Ho-167
Erbium
Er-161
Er-165
Er-169
Er-171
Er-172
Thulium
Tm-162
Tm-166
Tm-167
Tm-170
Tm-171
10.0
8.1
144.4
2.334
81.6
48
12.6
33
2.5
15
68
37.5
29
26.80
1.20E3
3.1
3.24
10.36
9.3
7.52
49.3
21.7
7.70
9.24
128.6
1.92
h
h
d
h
h
m
m
m
h
m
m
m
m
h
y
h
h
h
d
h
h
m
h
d
d
y
Y
Y
-
-
Y
Y
Y
Y
-
-
Y
Y
-
-
-
-
Y
-
-
Y
Y
-
-
-
-
-
Y
Y
Y
-
-
-
-
-
Y
Y
-
-
Y
Y
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
Y
Y
Y
-
Y
1.39E-15
7.97E-16
4.70E-17
6.08E-17
5.95E-17
8.88E-16
1.10E-15
7.62E-16
6.78E-17
3.60E-16
1.38E-15
5.09E-17
3.62E-17
7.39E-17
4.28E-15
8.56E-16
2.25E-15
4.30E-17
3.53E-19
8.74E-16
1.24E-15
4.67E-15
4.83E-15
2.81E-16
1.13E-17
8.71E-19
2.92E-17
1.80E-17
1.87E-18
1.79E-18
1.78E-18
2.00E-17
2.47E-17
1.78E-17
2.48E-18
8.17E-18
2.88E-17
1.91E-18
1.35E-18
2.29E-18
9.04E-17
1.88E-17
4.67E-17
1.59E-18
3.14E-21
1.96E-17
2.71E-17
8.84E-17
9.34E-17
6.94E-18
4.83E-19
2.82E-20
1.42E-15
7.70E-16
1.82E-17
5.54E-17
3.49E-17
8.87E-16
1.07E-15
6.73E-16
3.17E-17
3.51E-16
1.44E-15
2.08E-17
1.59E-17
6.89E-17
4.49E-15
8.45E-16
2.39E-15
1.75E-17
5.25E-20
8.31E-16
1.28E-15
5.07E-15
5.24E-15
2.31E-16
5.86E-18
4.01E-19
2
1
7
8
8
1
1
1
1
5
2
7
5
1
6
1
3
6
3
1
1
6
7
4
1
1
.05E-15
.18E-15
.14E-17
.86E-17
.89E-17
.31E-15
.62E-15
.13E-15
.03E-16
.31E-16
.04E-15
.71E-17
.43E-17
.07E-16
.30E-15
.26E-15
.31E-15
.51E-17
.89E-19
.29E-15
.83E-15
.87E-15
.10E-15
.17E-16
.61E-17
.31E-18
4.31E-17
2.66E-17
2.80E-18
2.44E-18
2.65E-18
2.94E-17
3.65E-17
2.63E-17
3.72E-18
1.21E-17
4.25E-17
2.85E-18
1.97E-18
3.01E-18
1.33E-16
2.77E-17
6.88E-17
2.38E-18
4.76E-21
2.88E-17
3.99E-17
1.30E-16
1.37E-16
1.03E-17
6.14E-19
4.18E-20
2.09E-15
1.13E-15
2.73E-17
8.13E-17
5.16E-17
1.30E-15
1.58E-15
9.90E-16
4.73E-17
5.16E-16
2.11E-15
3.11E-17
2.38E-17
1.01E-16
6.59E-15
1.24E-15
3.50E-15
2.61E-17
7.79E-20
1.22E-15
1.88E-15
7.44E-15
7.69E-15
3.40E-16
8.62E-18
5.97E-19
120
-------
Table 2.3, continued
Mortal ity
Nucl ide
Tl/2
Chain
P D
Submersion
(m7Bq-s)
Ground
PJane
(mz/Bq-s)
Morbidity
Ground
Soil Submersion Plane Soil
(kg/Bq-s) (rnVBq-s) (m2/Bq-s) (kg/Bq-s)
Thulium, continued
Tm-172
Tm-173
Tm-175
Ytterbium
Yb-162
Yb-166
Yb-167
Yb-169
Yb-175
Yb-177
Yb-178
Lutetium
Lu-169
Lu-170
Lu-171
Lu-172
Lu-173
Lu-174
Lu-174m
Lu-176 3
Lu-176m
Lu-177
Lu-177m
Lu-178
Lu-178m
Lu-179
Hafnium
Hf-170
Hf-172
Hf-173
Hf-175
Hf-177m
Hf-178m
Hf-179m
Hf-180m
Hf-181
Hf-182
Hf-182m
Hf-183
Hf-184
Tantalum
Ta-172
Ta-173
Ta-174
63.6 h
8.24 h
15.2 m
18.9 m
56.7 h
17.5 m
32.01 d
4.19 d
1.9 h
74 m
34.06 h
2.00 d
8.22 d
6.70 d
1.37 y
3.31 y
142 d
.60E10 y
3.68 h
6.71 d
160.9 d
28.4 m
22.7 m
4.59 h
16.01 h
1.87 y
24.0 h
70 d
51.4 m
31 y
25.1 d
5.5 h
42.4 d
9E6 y
61.5 m
64 m
4.12 h
36.8 m
3.65 h
1.2 h
-
-
Y
Y
Y
Y
-
-
Y
Y
Y
-
-
-
-
-
Y
-
-
-
Y
-
-
-
Y
Y
Y
-
-
-
-
-
-
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
-
Y
-
-
-
-
-
Y
Y
-
-
-
Y
-
Y
Y
Y
-
-
-
Y
-
Y
-
-
-
Y
Y
Y
-
-
-
-
-
Y
-
-
-
-
-
-
1
9
2
2
1
4
5
9
4
8
2
6
1
4
2
2
9
1
2
7
2
3
2
7
1
1
8
8
5
5
2
2
1
5
2
1
5
3
1
1
.25E-15
.27E-16
.62E-15
.56E-16
.16E-16
.93E-16
.88E-16
.24E-17
.70E-16
.40E-17
.60E-15
.69E-15
.63E-15
.73E-15
.29E-16
.64E-16
.30E-17
.13E-15
.82E-17
.75E-17
.27E-15
.69E-16
.58E-15
.66E-17
.23E-15
.71E-16
.87E-16
.27E-16
.21E-15
.56E-15
.07E-15
.34E-15
.31E-15
.57E-16
.21E-15
.84E-15
.52E-16
.87E-15
.37E-15
.48E-15
2.45E-17
2.04E-17
5.49E-17
6.41E-18
3.76E-18
1.25E-17
1.47E-17
2.04E-18
9.97E-18
1.85E-18
5.22E-17
1.21E-16
3.55E-17
9.63E-17
6.07E-18
6.00E-18
2.74E-18
2.49E-17
1.12E-18
1.73E-18
5.05E-17
7.99E-18
5.70E-17
2.09E-18
2.77E-17
5.06E-18
2.01E-17
1.87E-17
1.14E-16
1.21E-16
4.58E-17
5.16E-17
2.86E-17
1.22E-17
4.78E-17
3.93E-17
1.25E-17
7.92E-17
2.99E-17
3.21E-17
1.37E-15
9.43E-16
2.79E-15
1.89E-16
5.45E-17
3.61E-16
4.51E-16
8.98E-17
4.87E-16
8.38E-17
2.76E-15
7.35E-15
1.69E-15
5.07E-15
1.69E-16
2.49E-16
5.72E-17
1.07E-15
1.62E-17
6.63E-17
2.12E-15
3.95E-16
2.48E-15
6.94E-17
1.19E-15
9.41E-17
7.83E-16
7.91E-16
5.00E-15
5.58E-15
1.99E-15
2.29E-15
1.31E-15
5.30E-16
2.23E-15
1.93E-15
5.03E-16
4.10E-15
1.39E-15
1.48E-15
1
1
3
3
1
7
8
1
6
1
3
9
2
6
3
3
1
1
4
1
3
5
3
1
1
2
1
1
7
8
3
3
1
8
3
2
8
5
2
2
.84E-15
.36E-15
.85E-15
.80E-16
.74E-16
.32E-16
.72E-16
.36E-16
.91E-16
.23E-16
.82E-15
.83E-15
.41E-15
.96E-15
.40E-16
.91E-16
.39E-16
.67E-15
.08E-17
.14E-16
.35E-15
.41E-16
.80E-15
.12E-16
.82E-15
.55E-16
.31E-15
.22E-15
.68E-15
.20E-15
.05E-15
.45E-15
.93E-15
.22E-16
.26E-15
.71E-15
.14E-16
.70E-15
.02E-15
.18E-15
3.58E-17
2.99E-17
8.07E-17
9.48E-18
5.59E-18
1.84E-17
2.17E-17
3.00E-18
1.45E-17
2.71E-18
7.69E-17
1.78E-16
5.23E-17
1.42E-16
8.97E-18
8.85E-18
4.06E-18
3.66E-17
1.45E-18
2.55E-18
7.44E-17
1.14E-17
8.38E-17
2.86E-18
4.08E-17
7.51E-18
2.97E-17
2.75E-17
1.69E-16
1.79E-16
6.75E-17
7.60E-17
4.21E-17
1.79E-17
7.04E-17
5.77E-17
1.84E-17
1.16E-16
4.39E-17
4.72E-17
2.01E-15
1.39E-15
4.09E-15
2.79E-16
8.10E-17
5.32E-16
6.64E-16
1.32E-16
7.15E-16
1.23E-16
4.05E-15
1.08E-14
2.48E-15
7.45E-15
2.50E-16
3.65E-16
8.46E-17
1.57E-15
2.38E-17
9.75E-17
3.11E-15
5.79E-16
3.65E-15
1.02E-16
1.75E-15
1.39E-16
1.15E-15
1.16E-15
7.35E-15
8.20E-15
2.93E-15
3.37E-15
1.92E-15
7.79E-16
3.28E-15
2.83E-15
7.40E-16
6.03E-15
2.04E-15
2.18E-15
121
-------
Table 2.3, continued
Mortal ity
Nucl ide
Tantalum,
Ta-175
Ta-176
Ta-177
Ta-178b
Ta-178a
Ta-179
Ta-180
Ta-180m
Ta-182
Ta-182m
Ta-183
Ta-184
Ta-185
Ta-186
Tungsten
W-176
W-177
W-178
W-179
W-181
W-185
W-187
W-188
Rhenium
Re-177
Re-178
Re- 180
Re-181
Re-182b
Re-182a
Re- 184
Re- 184m
Re- 186m
Re- 186
Re- 187
Re- 188
Re -188m
Re- 189
Osmium
Os-180
Os-181
Os-182
Os-185
Os -189m
Tl/2
Chain
P D
Submersion
(m7Bq-s)
Ground
PJane
(mz/Bq-s)
Morbidity
Ground
Soil Submersion Plane Soil
(kg/Bq-s) (lifVBq-s) (m2/Bq-s) (kg/Bq-s)
continued
10.5
8.08
56.6
2.2
9.31
664.9
1.0E13
8.1
115.0
15.84
5.1
8.7
49
10.5
2.3
135
21.7
37.5
121.2
75.1
23.9
69.4
14.0
13.2
2.43
20
64.0
12.7
38.0
165
2.0E5
90.64
5E10
16.98
18.6
24.3
22
105
22
94
6.0
h
h
h
h
m
d
y
h
d
m
d
h
m
m
h
m
d
m
d
d
h
d
m
m
m
h
h
h
d
d
y
h
y
h
m
h
m
m
h
d
h
Y
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
Y
-
-
Y
-
Y
Y
Y
Y
-
-
Y
Y
Y
Y
-
Y
-
-
-
Y
Y
-
-
-
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
-
_
-
Y
Y
-
Y
Y
-
-
Y
-
Y
Y
-
-
-
Y
Y
-
Y
Y
-
-
-
-
Y
Y
-
Y
Y
-
-
Y
Y
Y
-
-
-
-
Y
Y
Y
2.32E-15
5.66E-15
1.10E-16
2.32E-15
2.19E-16
4.46E-17
1.26E-15
7.08E-17
3.28E-15
5.23E-16
6.27E-16
3.94E-15
4.20E-16
3.79E-15
3.06E-16
2.12E-15
1.90E-17
7.37E-17
5.78E-17
6.81E-19
1.15E-15
4.66E-18
1.49E-15
3.13E-15
2.91E-15
1.83E-15
4.63E-15
2.95E-15
2.18E-15
9.00E-16
2.05E-17
4.41E-17
0.00
1.47E-16
1.30E-16
1.57E-16
9.99E-17
3.02E-15
9.87E-16
1.73E-15
3.94E-21
4.65E-17
1.06E-16
3.05E-18
5.18E-17
5.12E-18
1.40E-18
2.82E-17
2.15E-18
6.56E-17
1.21E-17
1.44E-17
8.35E-17
1.03E-17
8.18E-17
8.10E-18
4.56E-17
5.83E-19
2.47E-18
1.77E-18
7.95E-21
2.49E-17
9.87E-20
3.12E-17
6.07E-17
6.09E-17
3.93E-17
9.48E-17
5.93E-17
4.57E-17
1.95E-17
6.45E-19
1.26E-18
0.00
3.96E-18
3.54E-18
3.67E-18
2.78E-18
6.18E-17
2.20E-17
3.72E-17
1.21E-21
2.43E-15
6.19E-15
6.99E-17
2.20E-15
1.92E-16
2.09E-17
1.18E-15
3.54E-17
3.52E-15
4.29E-16
5.47E-16
4.09E-15
3.63E-16
3.90E-15
1.86E-16
2.12E-15
9.17E-18
3.46E-17
2.80E-17
1.69E-19
1.19E-15
4.09E-18
1.53E-15
3.29E-15
3.08E-15
1.85E-15
4.79E-15
3.14E-15
2.30E-15
8.83E-16
1.01E-17
3.20E-17
0.00
1.39E-16
7.44E-17
1.41E-16
6.28E-17
3.16E-15
9.55E-16
1.81E-15
3.85E-22
3
8
1
3
3
6
1
1
4
7
9
5
6
5
4
3
2
1
8
7
1
6
2
4
4
2
6
4
3
1
3
6
0
2
1
2
1
4
1
2
6
.41E-15
.32E-15
.64E-16
.43E-15
.24E-16
.69E-17
.86E-15
.06E-16
.83E-15
.74E-16
.26E-16
.80E-15
.18E-16
.58E-15
.55E-16
.12E-15
.85E-17
.11E-16
.66E-17
.96E-19
.70E-15
.75E-18
.20E-15
.60E-15
.28E-15
.69E-15
.82E-15
.34E-15
.20E-15
.33E-15
.08E-17
.44E-17
.00
.14E-16
.94E-16
.31E-16
.49E-16
.44E-15
.46E-15
.55E-15
.54E-21
6.84E-17
1.56E-16
4.52E-18
7.63E-17
7.55E-18
2.08E-18
4.15E-17
3.18E-18
9.64E-17
1.79E-17
2.12E-17
1.23E-16
1.48E-17
1.20E-16
1.20E-17
6.71E-17
8.64E-19
3.68E-18
2.62E-18
1.19E-20
3.66E-17
1.45E-19
4.58E-17
8.91E-17
8.97E-17
5.79E-17
1.39E-16
8.72E-17
6.73E-17
2.87E-17
9.58E-19
1.74E-18
0.00
5.41E-18
5.23E-18
5.31E-18
4.12E-18
9.10E-17
3.25E-17
5.47E-17
1.88E-21
3.56E-15
9.09E-15
1.03E-16
3.24E-15
2.82E-16
3.10E-17
1.74E-15
5.25E-17
5.17E-15
6.32E-16
8.05E-16
6.01E-15
5.34E-16
5.73E-15
2.74E-16
3.11E-15
1.36E-17
5.15E-17
4.16E-17
2.50E-19
1.75E-15
6.01E-18
2.24E-15
4.84E-15
4.53E-15
2.72E-15
7.04E-15
4.60E-15
3.37E-15
1.30E-15
1.50E-17
4.70E-17
0.00
2.04E-16
1.10E-16
2.07E-16
9.28E-17
4.63E-15
1.40E-15
2.66E-15
6.17E-22
122
-------
Table 2.3, continued
Mortal ity
Nucl ide
Tl/2
Chain
P D
Submersion
(m7Bq-s)
Ground
PJane
(mz/Bq-s)
Morbidity
Ground
Soil Submersion Plane Soil
(kg/Bq-s) (rnVBq-s) (m2/Bq-s) (kg/Bq-s)
Osmium, continued
Os-190m
Os-191
Os-191m
Os-193
Os-194
Iridium
Ir-182
Ir-184
Ir-185
Ir-186a
Ir-186b
Ir-187
Ir-188
Ir-189
Ir-190
Ir-190n
Ir-190m
Ir-191m
Ir-192
Ir-192m
Ir-194
Ir-194m
Ir-195
Ir-195m
Platinum
Pt-186
Pt-188
Pt-189
Pt-191
Pt-193
Pt-193m
Pt-195m
Pt-197
Pt-197m
Pt-199
Pt-200
Gold
Au-193
Au-194
Au-195
Au-195m
Au-198
Au-198m
Au-199
9.9 m
15.4 d
13.03 h
30.0 h
6.0 y
15 m
3.02 h
14.0 h
15.8 h
1.75 h
10.5 h
41.5 h
13.3 d
12.1 d
3.1 h
1.2 h
4.94 s
74.02 d
241. y
19.15 h
171 d
2.5 h
3.8 h
2.0 h
10.2 d
10.87 h
2.8 d
50 y
4.33 d
4.02 d
18.3 h
94.4 m
30.8 m
12.5 h
17.65 h
39.5 h
183 d
30.5 s
2.696 d
2.30 d
3.139 d
-
-
Y
-
Y
Y
-
Y
-
-
-
-
Y
-
Y
Y
-
-
Y
-
-
-
Y
Y
Y
Y
-
-
Y
-
-
Y
Y
Y
Y
-
-
Y
-
Y
_
-
Y
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
Y
-
Y
Y
Y
-
Y
-
Y
-
Y
-
Y
-
-
-
-
-
Y
-
-
Y
-
-
-
Y
Y
Y
-
Y
-
Y
3
1
1
1
1
3
4
1
4
2
8
4
1
3
3
4
1
1
3
2
5
1
9
1
4
7
6
1
1
1
4
1
4
1
3
2
1
4
9
1
1
.82E-15
.44E-16
.16E-17
.68E-16
.01E-18
.28E-15
.78E-15
.50E-15
.11E-15
.36E-15
.34E-16
.14E-15
.43E-16
.43E-15
.70E-15
.54E-21
.36E-16
.96E-15
.65E-16
.34E-16
.67E-15
.04E-16
.51E-16
.78E-15
.18E-16
.21E-16
.43E-16
.36E-20
.80E-17
.24E-16
.68E-17
.66E-16
.93E-16
.19E-16
.17E-16
.71E-15
.39E-16
.57E-16
.75E-16
.27E-15
.94E-16
8.24E-17
3.58E-18
3.32E-19
4.00E-18
4.42E-20
6.99E-17
9.68E-17
2.92E-17
8.28E-17
4.94E-17
1.83E-17
7.81E-17
3.69E-18
7.43E-17
8.03E-17
1.39E-21
3.36E-18
4.24E-17
7.98E-18
5.76E-18
1.22E-16
2.88E-18
2.12E-17
3.82E-17
9.77E-18
1.61E-17
1.50E-17
4.09E-21
4.86E-19
3.25E-18
1.15E-18
3.90E-18
1.11E-17
2.83E-18
7.59E-18
5.34E-17
3.71E-18
l.OOE-17
2.13E-17
2.84E-17
4.32E-18
3.94E-15
9.62E-17
6.04E-18
1.56E-16
3.73E-19
3.41E-15
5.05E-15
1.57E-15
4.32E-15
2.46E-15
8.30E-16
4.48E-15
9.83E-17
3.49E-15
3.78E-15
4.58E-22
9.18E-17
1.98E-15
3.14E-16
2.38E-16
5.89E-15
6.48E-17
9.17E-16
1.87E-15
3.51E-16
6.79E-16
5.70E-16
1.45E-21
9.77E-18
7.34E-17
3.27E-17
1.39E-16
5.06E-16
9.16E-17
2.50E-16
2.88E-15
8.01E-17
4.30E-16
9.96E-16
1.10E-15
1.62E-16
5
2
1
2
1
4
7
2
6
3
1
6
2
5
5
7
2
2
5
3
8
1
1
2
6
1
9
2
2
1
6
2
7
1
4
3
2
6
1
1
2
.63E-15
.13E-16
.73E-17
.47E-16
.54E-18
.83E-15
.04E-15
.21E-15
.04E-15
.47E-15
.23E-15
.10E-15
.13E-16
.06E-15
.45E-15
.61E-21
.02E-16
.88E-15
.39E-16
.42E-16
.34E-15
.54E-16
.40E-15
.63E-15
.18E-16
.06E-15
.50E-16
.30E-20
.68E-17
.84E-16
.90E-17
.45E-16
.25E-16
.75E-16
.69E-16
.99E-15
.07E-16
.74E-16
.43E-15
.88E-15
.86E-16
1.21E-16
5.28E-18
4.91E-19
5.77E-18
6.66E-20
1.03E-16
1.42E-16
4.29E-17
1.22E-16
7.26E-17
2.69E-17
1.15E-16
5.45E-18
1.09E-16
1.18E-16
2.18E-21
4.96E-18
6.24E-17
1.17E-17
8.05E-18
1.79E-16
4.13E-18
3.12E-17
5.63E-17
1.44E-17
2.38E-17
2.21E-17
6.48E-21
7.18E-19
4.81E-18
1.68E-18
5.75E-18
1.61E-17
4.16E-18
1.12E-17
7.85E-17
5.47E-18
1.48E-17
3.13E-17
4.18E-17
6.36E-18
5.79E-15
1.42E-16
8.95E-18
2.30E-16
5.63E-19
5.01E-15
7.42E-15
2.30E-15
6.34E-15
3.61E-15
1.22E-15
6.58E-15
1.45E-16
5.13E-15
5.55E-15
7.44E-22
1.35E-16
2.91E-15
4.62E-16
3.50E-16
8.66E-15
9.55E-17
1.35E-15
2.74E-15
5.16E-16
9.98E-16
8.38E-16
2.38E-21
1.44E-17
1.08E-16
4.82E-17
2.04E-16
7.44E-16
1.35E-16
3.68E-16
4.22E-15
1.18E-16
6.31E-16
1.46E-15
1.62E-15
2.39E-16
123
-------
Table 2.3, continued
Mortal ity
Nucl ide
Tl/2
Chain
P D
Submersion
(m7Bq-s)
Ground
PJane
(mz/Bq-s)
Morbidity
Ground
Soil Submersion Plane Soil
(kg/Bq-s) (rnVBq-s) (m2/Bq-s) (kg/Bq-s)
Gold, continued
Au-200
Au-200m
Au-201
Mercury
Hg-193
Hg-193m
Hg-194
Hg-195
Hg-195m
Hg-197
Hg-197m
Hg-199m
Hg-203
Thallium
Tl-194
Tl-194m
Tl-195
Tl-197
Tl-198
Tl-198m
Tl-199
Tl-200
Tl-201
Tl-202
Tl-204
Tl-206
Tl-207
Tl-2083
Tl-209
Lead
Pb-195m
Pb-198
Pb-199
Pb-200
Pb-201
Pb-202
Pb-202m
Pb-203
Pb-205
Pb-209
Pb-210
Pb-211
Pb-212
Pb-214a
48.4
18.7
26.4
3.5
11.1
260
9.9
41.6
64.1
23.8
42.6
46.60
33
32.8
1.16
2.84
5.3
1.87
7.42
26.1
3.044
12.23
3.779
4.20
4.77
3.07
2.20
15.8
2.4
90
21.5
9.4
3E5
3.62
52.05
1.43E7
3.253
22.3
36.1
10.64
26.8
m
h
m
h
h
y
h
h
h
h
m
d
m
m
h
h
h
h
h
h
d
d
y
m
m
m
m
m
h
m
h
h
y
h
h
y
h
y
m
h
m
-
Y
-
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
-
Y
-
-
Y
Y
Y
Y
-
Y
-
-
-
-
-
-
_
_
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
-
-
-
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
-
-
Y
-
Y
Y
-
Y
-
-
-
-
-
Y
-
Y
-
Y
Y
Y
Y
-
Y
Y
Y
Y
-
-
-
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
7.05E-16
5.07E-15
1.31E-16
4.04E-16
2.55E-15
2.18E-20
4.50E-16
4.71E-16
1.15E-16
1.88E-16
3.98E-16
5.57E-16
1.86E-15
5.62E-15
3.27E-15
9.62E-16
5.21E-15
2.86E-15
5.47E-16
3.27E-15
1.68E-16
1.08E-15
3.66E-18
6.47E-18
1.11E-17
9.33E-15
5.30E-15
3.88E-15
l.OOE-15
3.75E-15
4.31E-16
1.82E-15
1.60E-20
5.08E-15
6.93E-16
1.77E-20
1.29E-18
2.11E-18
1.29E-16
3.31E-16
5.85E-16
1.49E-17
1.08E-16
3.19E-18
9.58E-18
5.29E-17
6.30E-21
9.98E-18
1.05E-17
3.05E-18
4.36E-18
9.03E-18
1.21E-17
4.01E-17
1.21E-16
6.33E-17
2.05E-17
l.OOE-16
6.18E-17
1.23E-17
6.67E-17
4.23E-18
2.40E-17
1.64E-19
6.82E-19
7.10E-19
1.62E-16
1.03E-16
8.24E-17
2.21E-17
7.44E-17
9.99E-18
3.87E-17
4.88E-21
1.06E-16
1.55E-17
5.37E-21
4.21E-20
9.43E-20
3.15E-18
7.35E-18
1.28E-17
7.59E-16
5.27E-15
1.33E-16
3.23E-16
2.65E-15
2.58E-21
4.28E-16
4.47E-16
6.63E-17
1.45E-16
3.36E-16
5.37E-16
1.90E-15
5.87E-15
3.52E-15
9.57E-16
5.64E-15
2.94E-15
4.99E-16
3.46E-15
1.09E-16
1.07E-15
1.61E-18
3.68E-18
8.95E-18
1.03E-14
5.74E-15
4.03E-15
9.49E-16
4.00E-15
3.48E-16
1.85E-15
1.63E-21
5.44E-15
6.33E-16
1.84E-21
3.13E-19
8.06E-19
1.34E-16
2.97E-16
5.72E-16
1
7
1
5
3
3
6
6
1
2
5
8
2
8
4
1
7
4
8
4
2
1
4
7
1
1
7
5
1
5
6
2
2
7
1
2
1
3
1
4
8
.04E-15
.46E-15
.92E-16
.98E-16
.76E-15
.74E-20
.65E-16
.95E-16
.72E-16
.79E-16
.88E-16
.22E-16
.73E-15
.27E-15
.81E-15
.42E-15
.66E-15
.21E-15
.07E-16
.81E-15
.50E-16
.60E-15
.85E-18
.98E-18
.49E-17
.37E-14
.79E-15
.71E-15
.47E-15
.51E-15
.37E-16
.68E-15
.68E-20
.48E-15
.02E-15
.97E-20
.46E-18
.22E-18
.89E-16
.89E-16
.62E-16
2.15E-17
1.59E-16
4.52E-18
1.41E-17
7.78E-17
1.02E-20
1.47E-17
1.54E-17
4.50E-18
6.43E-18
1.33E-17
1.79E-17
5.91E-17
1.77E-16
9.31E-17
3.01E-17
1.47E-16
9.10E-17
1.81E-17
9.81E-17
6.24E-18
3.53E-17
1.97E-19
7.28E-19
8.01E-19
2.37E-16
1.50E-16
1.21E-16
3.25E-17
1.10E-16
1.47E-17
5.69E-17
7.64E-21
1.56E-16
2.29E-17
8.41E-21
4.85E-20
1.43E-19
4.42E-18
1.08E-17
1.89E-17
1.11E-15
7.74E-15
1.96E-16
4.75E-16
3.89E-15
4.32E-21
6.29E-16
6.58E-16
9.79E-17
2.14E-16
4.94E-16
7.89E-16
2.78E-15
8.62E-15
5.16E-15
1.41E-15
8.28E-15
4.32E-15
7.33E-16
5.08E-15
1.61E-16
1.57E-15
2.36E-18
5.18E-18
1.30E-17
1.51E-14
8.42E-15
5.91E-15
1.39E-15
5.88E-15
5.11E-16
2.72E-15
2.65E-21
7.98E-15
9.31E-16
3.00E-21
4.60E-19
1.21E-18
1.96E-16
4.36E-16
8.41E-16
124
-------
Table 2.3, continued
Mortal ity
Nucl ide
Bismuth
Bi-200
Bi-201
Bi-202
Bi-203
Bi-205
Bi-206
Bi-207
Bi-210
Bi-210m
Bi-211
Bi-212
Bi-213
Bi-2143
Polonium
Po-203
Po-205
Po-207
Po-210
Po-211
Po-212
Po-213
Po-214
Po-215 0.
Po-216
Po-218
Astatine
At-207
At-211
At-215
At-216
At-217
At-218
Radon
Rn-218
Rn-219
Rn-220
Rn-222
Francium
Fr-219
Fr-220
Fr-221
Fr-222
Fr-223
Tl/2
36.4
108
1.67
11.76
15.31
6.243
38
5.012
3.0E6
2.14
60.55
45.65
19.9
36.7
1.80
350
138.38
0.516
0.305
4.2
164.3
001780
0.15
3.05
1.80
7.214
0.10
0.30
0.0323
2
35
3.96
55.6
3.8235
21
27.4
4.8
14.4
21.8
Chain
P D
m Y
m Y
h Y
h Y
d Y
d -
y -
d Y
y Y
m Y
m Y
m Y
m Y
m Y
h Y
m Y
d -
s -
us -
us Y
us Y
s Y
s Y
m Y
h Y
h Y
ms Y
ms Y
s Y
s Y
ms Y
s Y
s Y
d Y
ms Y
s Y
m Y
m Y
m Y
-
-
-
Y
Y
-
Y
Y
-
Y
Y
Y
Y
-
-
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
-
-
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Sub
(m
5.
3.
6.
6.
4.
8.
3.
3.
6.
1.
4.
3.
3.
4.
4.
3.
2.
1.
0.
0.
2.
4.
4.
2.
3.
7.
4.
2.
7.
4.
1.
1.
9.
9.
8.
2.
7.
1.
1.
mersion
/Bq-s)
87E-15
32E-15
79E-15
20E-15
39E-15
27E-15
85E-15
79E-18
04E-16
10E-16
78E-16
24E-16
98E-15
16E-15
OOE-15
33E-15
13E-20
95E-17
00
00
09E-19
24E-19
24E-20
30E-20
34E-15
12E-17
62E-19
78E-18
43E-19
74E-18
86E-18
33E-16
40E-19
67E-19
29E-18
32E-17
08E-17
03E-17
06E-16
Ground
PJane
(mz/Bq-s)
1.23E-16
6.90E-17
1.39E-16
1.20E-16
8.46E-17
1.68E-16
7.90E-17
3.89E-19
1.31E-17
2.41E-18
1.01E-17
7.38E-18
7.65E-17
8.36E-17
8.04E-17
6.81E-17
4.43E-22
4.06E-19
0.00
0.00
4.34E-21
9.21E-21
8.82E-22
4.74E-22
6.71E-17
1.76E-18
l.OOE-20
6.86E-20
1.60E-20
1.73E-19
3.96E-20
2.89E-18
2.02E-20
2.09E-20
1.80E-19
5.27E-19
1.55E-18
l.OOE-18
2.94E-18
Morbidity
Ground
Soil Submersion Plane Soil
(kg/Bq-s) (lifVBq-s) (m2/Bq-s) (kg/Bq-s)
6.17E-15
3.53E-15
7.25E-15
6.76E-15
4.78E-15
8.87E-15
4.13E-15
1.66E-18
5.87E-16
1.10E-16
5.18E-16
3.30E-16
4.37E-15
4.46E-15
4.29E-15
3.55E-15
2.30E-20
2.09E-17
0.00
0.00
2.26E-19
4.36E-19
4.59E-20
2.48E-20
3.56E-15
4.61E-17
4.72E-19
1.79E-18
7.66E-19
2.05E-18
1.97E-18
1.31E-16
9.91E-19
1.01E-18
8.35E-18
1.89E-17
6.48E-17
6.94E-18
8.16E-17
8
4
9
9
6
1
5
4
8
1
7
4
5
6
5
4
3
2
0
0
3
6
6
3
4
1
6
4
1
7
2
1
1
1
1
3
1
1
1
.65E-15
.88E-15
.99E-15
.12E-15
.46E-15
.22E-14
.67E-15
.52E-18
.90E-16
.62E-16
.02E-16
.75E-16
.85E-15
.12E-15
.88E-15
.89E-15
.13E-20
.86E-17
.00
.00
.07E-19
.24E-19
.24E-20
.38E-20
.91E-15
.06E-16
.81E-19
.13E-18
.09E-18
.14E-18
.73E-18
.96E-16
.38E-18
.42E-18
.22E-17
.43E-17
.04E-16
.29E-17
.57E-16
1.82E-16
1.01E-16
2.05E-16
1.76E-16
1.24E-16
2.47E-16
1.16E-16
4.13E-19
1.93E-17
3.54E-18
1.46E-17
1.07E-17
1.12E-16
1.23E-16
1.18E-16
l.OOE-16
6.52E-22
5.98E-19
0.00
0.00
6.39E-21
1.36E-20
1.30E-21
6.99E-22
9.88E-17
2.60E-18
1.48E-20
1.01E-19
2.35E-20
2.59E-19
5.83E-20
4.25E-18
2.97E-20
3.08E-20
2.66E-19
7.77E-19
2.28E-18
1.08E-18
4.23E-18
9.06E-15
5.18E-15
1.06E-14
9.92E-15
7.01E-15
1.30E-14
6.06E-15
2.36E-18
8.62E-16
1.61E-16
7.60E-16
4.84E-16
6.41E-15
6.55E-15
6.30E-15
5.21E-15
3.38E-20
3.07E-17
0.00
0.00
3.31E-19
6.41E-19
6.74E-20
3.65E-20
5.23E-15
6.80E-17
6.93E-19
2.64E-18
1.13E-18
3.06E-18
2.90E-18
1.93E-16
1.46E-18
1.49E-18
1.23E-17
2.78E-17
9.53E-17
9.75E-18
1.20E-16
125
-------
Table 2.3, continued
Mortal ity
Nucl ide
Radium
Ra-222
Ra-223
Ra-224
Ra-225
Ra-2263
Ra-227
Ra-228
Actinium
Ac-223
Ac-224
Ac-225
Ac-226
Ac-227
a
Ac-228
Thorium
Th-226
Th-227
Th-228
Th-229
Th-230
Th-231
Th-2323
Th-234
Tl/2
38.0
11.434
3.66
14.8
1600
42.2
5.75
2.2
2.9
10.0
29
21.773
6.13
30.9
18.718
1.9131
7340
7.7E4
25.52
1.41E10
24.10
Chain
P D
s
d
d
d
y
m
y
m
h
d
h
y
h
m
d
y
y
y
h
y
d
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
-
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Sub
(m
2.
2.
2.
9.
1.
3.
0.
1.
4.
3.
2.
2.
2.
1.
2.
4.
1.
7.
2.
3.
1.
mersion
/Bq-s)
18E-17
91E-16
30E-17
98E-18
51E-17
69E-16
00
OOE-17
25E-16
35E-17
92E-16
67E-19
45E-15
69E-17
37E-16
24E-18
76E-16
46E-19
25E-17
51E-19
50E-17
Ground
PJane
(mz/Bq-s)
4.73E-19
6.55E-18
5.00E-19
4.84E-19
3.32E-19
8.45E-18
0.00
2.32E-19
9.58E-18
7.82E-19
6.57E-18
6.91E-21
4.99E-17
3.86E-19
5.30E-18
1.07E-19
4.17E-18
2.69E-20
7.05E-19
1.73E-20
3.86E-19
Morbidity
Ground
Soil Submersion Plane Soil
(kg/Bq-s) (lifVBq-s) (m2/Bq-s) (kg/Bq-s)
2.17E-17
2.53E-16
2.17E-17
3.33E-18
1.33E-17
3.63E-16
0.00
9.08E-18
3.52E-16
2.62E-17
2.60E-16
2.02E-19
2.64E-15
1.38E-17
2.20E-16
3.25E-18
1.31E-16
4.74E-19
1.42E-17
1.97E-19
9.52E-18
3.21E-17
4.30E-16
3.40E-17
1.53E-17
2.23E-17
5.43E-16
0.00
1.48E-17
6.28E-16
4.96E-17
4.30E-16
3.96E-19
3.61E-15
2.50E-17
3.50E-16
6.29E-18
2.61E-16
1.12E-18
3.36E-17
5.35E-19
2.23E-17
6.97E-19
9.64E-18
7.35E-19
7.35E-19
4.89E-19
1.23E-17
0.00
3.43E-19
1.41E-17
1.16E-18
9.59E-18
1.04E-20
7.33E-17
5.70E-19
7.81E-18
1.60E-19
6.16E-18
4.17E-20
1.08E-18
2.74E-20
5.74E-19
3.18E-17
3.72E-16
3.19E-17
5.06E-18
1.96E-17
5.33E-16
0.00
1.33E-17
5.19E-16
3.85E-17
3.82E-16
2.98E-19
3.88E-15
2.02E-17
3.24E-16
4.79E-18
1.93E-16
7.01E-19
2.10E-17
2.93E-19
1.40E-17
Protactinium
Pa-227
Pa-228
Pa-230
Pa-231
Pa-232
Pa-233
Pa-234
Pa-234m
Uranium
U-230
U-231
U-232
U-233
U-2343
U-235
U-236 2
U-237
U-238
U-239
U-240
38.3
22
17.4
3.276E4
1.31
27.0
6.70
1.17
20.8
4.2
72
1.585E5
2.445E5
703. 8E6
.3415E7
6.75
4.468E9
23.54
14.1
m
h
d
y
d
d
h
m
d
d
y
y
y
y
y
d
y
m
h
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
-
-
-
Y
-
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
-
Y
3.
2.
1.
8.
2.
4.
4.
4.
2.
1.
5.
7.
2.
3.
1.
2.
9.
1.
1.
82E-17
82E-15
59E-15
41E-17
33E-15
58E-16
77E-15
17E-17
36E-18
33E-16
66E-19
24E-19
79E-19
45E-16
66E-19
77E-16
95E-20
01E-16
53E-18
9.50E-19
5.75E-17
3.31E-17
1.96E-18
4.82E-17
1.01E-17
9.81E-17
1.73E-18
7.04E-20
3.29E-18
2.97E-20
2.51E-20
2.01E-20
7.60E-18
1.65E-20
6.54E-18
1.34E-20
2.83E-18
1.10E-19
2.54E-17
2.98E-15
1.67E-15
8.09E-17
2.50E-15
4.32E-16
5.08E-15
4.04E-17
1.78E-18
9.32E-17
3.45E-19
5.70E-19
1.44E-19
3.02E-16
7.03E-20
2.19E-16
2.70E-20
7.05E-17
4.07E-19
5.67E-17
4.15E-15
2.34E-15
1.24E-16
3.43E-15
6.75E-16
7.02E-15
5.88E-17
3.51E-18
1.98E-16
8.67E-19
1.09E-18
4.37E-19
5.09E-16
2.67E-19
4.11E-16
1.66E-19
1.48E-16
2.29E-18
1.41E-18
8.47E-17
4.88E-17
2.92E-18
7.10E-17
1.49E-17
1.44E-16
2.11E-18
1.08E-19
4.89E-18
4.78E-20
3.91E-20
3.29E-20
1.12E-17
2.73E-20
9.67E-18
2.25E-20
4.01E-18
1.81E-19
3.74E-17
4.37E-15
2.45E-15
1.19E-16
3.67E-15
6.36E-16
7.46E-15
5.88E-17
2.63E-18
1.37E-16
5.12E-19
8.41E-19
2.16E-19
4.44E-16
1.07E-19
3.22E-16
4.27E-20
1.04E-16
6.28E-19
126
-------
Table 2.3, continued
Mortal ity
Nucl ide
Neptunium
Np-232
Np-233
Np-234
Np-235
Np-236a
Np-236b
Np-237 2
Np-238
Np-239
Np-240
Np-240m
Plutonium
Pu-234
Pu-235
Pu-236
Pu-237
Pu-238
a
Pu-239
Pu-240
Pu-241
Pu-242 3.
Pu-243
Pu-245
Pu-246
Americium
Am-237
Am-238
Am-239
Am-240
Am-241
Am-242
Am-242m
Am-243
Am-244
Am-244m
Am-245
Am-246
Am-246m
Curium
Cm-238
Cm-240
Cm-241
Cm-242
Tl/2
14.7 m
36.2 m
4.4 d
396.1 d
115E3 y
22.5 h
.14E6 y
2.117 d
2.355 d
65 m
7.4 m
8.8 h
25.3 m
2.851 y
45.3 d
87.74 y
24065 y
6537 y
14.4 y
763E5 y
4.956 h
10.5 h
10.85 d
73.0 m
98 m
11.9 h
50.8 h
432.2 y
16.02 h
152 y
7380 y
10.1 h
26 m
2.05 h
39 m
25.0 m
2.4 h
27 d
32.8 d
162.8 d
Chain
P D
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
-
Y
Y
Y
-
Y
Y
Y
Y
-
Y
Y
-
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
-
Y
-
Y
-
-
Y
Y
-
Y
-
-
Y
-
Y
-
Y
-
Y
Sub
(m
2.
1.
3.
2.
2.
9.
4.
1.
3.
3.
8.
1.
1.
1.
9.
1.
1.
1.
3.
1.
4.
1.
2.
8.
2.
4.
2.
3.
2.
1.
9.
1.
5.
7.
1.
2.
1.
1.
1.
1.
mersion
/Bq-s)
93E-15
78E-16
77E-15
01E-18
48E-16
99E-17
56E-17
40E-15
67E-16
20E-15
28E-16
30E-16
81E-16
87E-19
19E-17
34E-19
65E-19
31E-19
29E-21
12E-19
70E-17
OOE-15
83E-16
34E-16
21E-15
89E-16
55E-15
33E-17
86E-17
12E-18
45E-17
96E-15
81E-18
12E-17
65E-15
59E-15
50E-16
51E-19
14E-15
50E-19
Ground
PJane
(mz/Bq-s)
6.14E-17
4.14E-18
7.17E-17
1.04E-19
5.81E-18
2.31E-18
1.24E-18
2.84E-17
8.24E-18
6.71E-17
1.80E-17
3.05E-18
4.23E-18
2.33E-20
2.21E-18
1.95E-20
9.99E-21
1.88E-20
8.44E-23
1.57E-20
1.16E-18
2.15E-17
6.56E-18
1.83E-17
4.51E-17
1.11E-17
5.23E-17
1.11E-18
7.23E-19
7.80E-20
2.51E-18
4.12E-17
6.32E-19
1.69E-18
3.56E-17
5.26E-17
3.47E-18
2.40E-20
2.51E-17
2.20E-20
Morbidity
Ground
Soil Submersion Plane Soil
(kg/Bq-s) (lifVBq-s) (m2/Bq-s) (kg/Bq-s)
3.07E-15
1.33E-16
4.12E-15
1.22E-18
1.89E-16
7.81E-17
3.11E-17
1.52E-15
3.15E-16
3.38E-15
8.82E-16
9.39E-17
1.38E-16
6.56E-20
6.54E-17
3.88E-20
1.15E-19
3.76E-20
2.39E-21
3.38E-20
3.20E-17
1.03E-15
2.35E-16
7.87E-16
2.34E-15
4.03E-16
2.74E-15
1.59E-17
2.02E-17
5.97E-19
5.49E-17
2.09E-15
3.09E-18
6.07E-17
1.71E-15
2.82E-15
1.10E-16
3.17E-20
1.13E-15
4.10E-20
4
2
5
3
3
1
6
2
5
4
1
1
2
3
1
2
2
2
4
1
6
1
4
1
3
7
3
5
4
1
1
2
7
1
2
3
2
2
1
2
.32E-15
.63E-16
.54E-15
.09E-18
.67E-16
.48E-16
.79E-17
.06E-15
.42E-16
.72E-15
.22E-15
.93E-16
.69E-16
.13E-19
.36E-16
.28E-19
.56E-19
.24E-19
.89E-21
.91E-19
.95E-17
.48E-15
.18E-16
.23E-15
.25E-15
.23E-16
.76E-15
.OOE-17
.22E-17
.77E-18
.41E-16
.89E-15
.16E-18
.05E-16
.43E-15
.81E-15
.22E-16
.64E-19
.68E-15
.59E-19
9.05E-17
6.11E-18
1.05E-16
1.69E-19
8.62E-18
3.41E-18
1.86E-18
4.18E-17
1.22E-17
9.88E-17
2.62E-17
4.51E-18
6.25E-18
3.92E-20
3.28E-18
3.30E-20
1.63E-20
3.17E-20
1.27E-22
2.64E-20
1.71E-18
3.15E-17
9.69E-18
2.70E-17
6.65E-17
1.64E-17
7.70E-17
1.68E-18
1.07E-18
1.28E-19
3.71E-18
6.07E-17
6.85E-19
2.43E-18
5.23E-17
7.72E-17
5.13E-18
4.06E-20
3.71E-17
3.71E-20
4.50E-15
1.96E-16
6.05E-15
1.82E-18
2.78E-16
1.15E-16
4.59E-17
2.24E-15
4.63E-16
4.97E-15
1.29E-15
1.38E-16
2.03E-16
1.02E-19
9.63E-17
6.18E-20
1.71E-19
5.98E-20
3.52E-21
5.35E-20
4.71E-17
1.52E-15
3.46E-16
1.16E-15
3.44E-15
5.92E-16
4.02E-15
2.36E-17
2.98E-17
8.96E-19
8.11E-17
3.07E-15
4.36E-18
8.92E-17
2.51E-15
4.14E-15
1.63E-16
5.30E-20
1.66E-15
6.62E-20
127
-------
Table 2.3, continued
Mortal ity
Nucl ide
Tl/2
Chain
P D
Submersion
(m7Bq-s)
Ground
PJane
(mz/Bq-s)
Morbidity
Ground
Soil Submersion Plane Soil
(kg/Bq-s) (rnVBq-s) (m2/Bq-s) (kg/Bq-s)
Curium, continued
Cm-243
Cm-244
Cm-245
Cm-246
Cm-247 1
Cm-249
Berkelium
Bk-245
Bk-246
Bk-247
Bk-249
Bk-250
Californium
Cf-244
Cf-246
Cf-248
Cf-249
Cf-250
Cf-251
Cf-253
Einsteinium
Es-250
Es-251
Es-253
Es-254
Es-254m
Fermium
Fm-252
Fm-253
Fm-254
Fm-255
Fm-257
28.5 y
18.11 y
8500 y
4730 y
.56E7 y
64.15 m
4.94 d
1.83 d
1380 y
320 d
3.222 h
19.4 m
35.7 h
333.5 d
350.6 y
13.08 y
898 y
17.81 d
2.1 h
33 h
20.47 d
275.7 d
39.3 h
22.7 h
3.00 d
3.240 h
20.07 h
100.5 d
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
-
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
-
-
Y
Y
Y
-
-
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
-
-
Y
Y
-
-
-
Y
-
Y
2
1
1
1
7
4
4
2
2
6
2
1
1
1
7
1
2
2
9
1
8
7
1
1
1
1
4
2
.81E-16
.22E-19
.83E-16
.12E-19
.50E-16
.88E-17
.92E-16
.34E-15
.22E-16
.89E-21
.26E-15
.69E-19
.51E-19
.16E-19
.87E-16
.11E-19
.64E-16
.07E-19
.58E-16
.92E-16
.20E-19
.53E-18
.15E-15
.24E-19
.65E-16
.88E-19
.11E-18
.19E-16
6.31E-18
2.00E-20
4.25E-18
1.79E-20
1.63E-17
1.16E-18
1.11E-17
4.85E-17
5.06E-18
2.13E-22
4.57E-17
2.58E-20
1.84E-20
1.76E-20
1.72E-17
1.67E-20
6.00E-18
2.21E-21
1.99E-17
4.43E-18
2.80E-20
3.72E-19
2.45E-17
1.74E-20
3.78E-18
1.97E-20
2.31E-19
5.02E-18
2.44E-16
2.46E-20
1.39E-16
2.33E-20
7.62E-16
4.96E-17
4.12E-16
2.48E-15
1.80E-16
1.49E-21
2.46E-15
3.45E-20
5.03E-20
2.39E-20
7.93E-16
2.27E-20
2.19E-16
2.79E-20
9.87E-16
1.48E-16
7.28E-19
4.92E-18
1.22E-15
2.59E-20
1.31E-16
6.72E-20
2.21E-18
1.78E-16
4
2
2
1
1
7
7
3
3
8
3
2
2
2
1
1
3
2
1
2
1
1
1
2
2
3
6
3
.16E-16
.15E-19
.71E-16
.97E-19
.11E-15
.11E-17
.26E-16
.44E-15
.28E-16
.48E-21
.32E-15
.98E-19
.56E-19
.04E-19
.16E-15
.94E-19
.90E-16
.29E-19
.41E-15
.84E-16
.23E-18
.16E-17
.69E-15
.16E-19
.44E-16
.14E-19
.36E-18
.24E-16
9.31E-18
3.39E-20
6.29E-18
3.03E-20
2.41E-17
1.65E-18
1.63E-17
7.14E-17
7.47E-18
3.35E-22
6.71E-17
4.36E-20
3.09E-20
2.97E-20
2.53E-17
2.83E-20
8.87E-18
3.42E-21
2.92E-17
6.55E-18
4.37E-20
5.95E-19
3.60E-17
2.92E-20
5.59E-18
3.29E-20
3.72E-19
7.43E-18
3.59E-16
4.15E-20
2.04E-16
3.91E-20
1.12E-15
7.29E-17
6.07E-16
3.64E-15
2.65E-16
2.25E-21
3.62E-15
5.85E-20
7.92E-20
4.05E-20
1.17E-15
3.84E-20
3.22E-16
4.16E-20
1.45E-15
2.18E-16
1.07E-18
7.32E-18
1.80E-15
4.36E-20
1.92E-16
1.05E-19
3.30E-18
2.62E-16
Mendelevium
Md-257
Md-258
5.2 h
55 d
Y
Y
-
-
2
1
.41E-16
.70E-18
5.42E-18
1.18E-19
2.11E-16
7.36E-19
3
2
.56E-16
.69E-18
8.01E-18
1.92E-19
3.10E-16
1.12E-18
The uncertainty in the risk coefficient for this radionuclide in soil is addressed in Table 2.4.
128
-------
Table 2.4. Uncertainty categories for selected risk coefficients.
Explanation of entries
This table gives subjective judgments concerning the precision with which risk coefficients
for selected radionuclides are determined by current information on the biological behavior of
radionuclides in the human body, conversion from internally or externally distributed radioactivity
to absorbed doses to tissues, and extrapolation from tissue dose to cancer risk. These judgments
were made by the authors of this report and were based on the results of a sensitivity analysis in
which various combinations of substantially different but equally plausible biokinetic and dosimetric
models and radiation risk model coefficients were used to generate alternative risk coefficients. The
analysis did not include consideration of uncertainties associated with the use of a linear, no-
threshold model for estimating radiogenic cancer at low doses, absorbed dose as a measure of
radiogenic cancer risk, or idealized representations of the population and exposure.
Judgments are given in terms of relatively broad, semi-quantitative "uncertainty categories"
identified by letters A-E, with Category A representing the most narrowly determined risk
coefficients, Category E representing the least well characterized coefficients, and Categories B, C,
and D representing intermediate, declining levels of uncertainty. The uncertainty in a risk coefficient
was first characterized in terms of reasonable lower and upper bounds, X and Y, as judged from the
results of the sensitivity analysis. The values X and Y were then used to assign the risk coefficient
to one of the five categories A-E as indicated by the following table:
•j
Uncertainty category Definition
A Y/X<15
B Y/X ~ 25
C Y/X ~ 50
D Y/X-100
E Y/X > 150
a
A derived value Y/X in the range 15-35, 35-65, or 65-150 was considered to
be approximately 25, 50, or 100, respectively.
129
-------
Category A is intended to represent those cases in which the risk coefficient is "established"
within a factor of 4, in the sense that application of any reasonable alternative biokinetic and
dosimetric models, risk model coefficients (based on a linear, no-threshold model), dose and dose
rate effectiveness factor (DDREF), and relative radiobiological effectiveness (RBE) for alpha
particles would be expected to change the risk coefficient by less than a factor of 4. Categories B,
C, and D are intended to represent cases in which the risk coefficient is established within a factor
of roughly 5, 7, and 10, respectively. Category E is intended to represent cases in which the risk
coefficient could change by more than a factor of 10 if plausible alternative models were used in the
derivation. The factors 4, 5, 7, and 10 indicated above are rounded square roots of the values 15, 25,
50, and 100 shown in the second column of the table. The interpretation is that all values in the
interval from X to Y are within a factor of roughly (Y/X)1/2 of the risk coefficient, provided the risk
coefficient is near the geometric mean of X and Y. Although a risk coefficient is not always
centrally located in its assigned uncertainty interval, either as a geometric mean or an arithmetic
mean, this provides a convenient, concise, uniform way of summarizing the authors' subjective
judgments.
For purposes of the sensitivity analysis, it was necessary to make general assumptions
concerning the type of information that may be available for assessment of a given exposure. For
consideration of risk coefficients for ingestion, it was assumed that the radionuclide is known to be
incorporated in food. For consideration of risk coefficients for inhalation of particulates, it was
assumed that the particle size is known to be approximately 1 um (AMAD) and that the absorption
type indicated in the table is known in the sense that there is sufficient general information on the
form of the inhaled radionuclide to establish with reasonable confidence that this is the most nearly
accurate absorption type (see Appendix D). For example, it may be known that the radionuclide is
in a readily soluble form indicative of "Type F" material or a highly insoluble form indicative of
"Type S" material. It was considered in the analysis, however, that a given absorption type is
intended to represent a relatively wide range of absorption rates (ICRP, 1995b) and that the actual
absorption rate could be substantially different from the baseline parameter values specified by the
ICRP for that absorption type. For consideration of inhaled gases or vapors, it was assumed that
deposition is complete and that absorption to blood is rapid and complete.
The last column of Table 2.4 summarizes the authors' conclusions regarding the relative
contributions of various sources to the uncertainty in the risk coefficient. In this column, the term
"Biokinetics" refers to the biological behavior of the parent radionuclide and any radioactive progeny
in the human body after acute deposition in the stomach or respiratory tract; "Dosimetry" refers to
conversion of activity distributed in the human body or the environment (in the case of external
130
-------
exposure) to absorbed dose to tissues; "Deposition" refers to fractional deposition of inhaled material
in the respiratory tract; and "Risk model" refers to the risk model as described in Chapter 7,
including the risk model coefficients (RMCs), DDREF for low-LET radiation, and RBE for high-
LET radiation. The absence of one of the four main sources (Biokinetics, Dosimetry, Deposition,
or Risk model) indicates that the source was judged to be only a minor contributor to the uncertainty
in the risk coefficient, or was not applicable to the given coefficient (such as Deposition for an
ingested radionuclide or Biokinetics for external exposure). Although some of the sources of
uncertainty addressed here are assumed to be independent of the radionuclide (e.g., fractional
deposition in the respiratory tract), the relative contributions of these sources to the total uncertainty
may change from one radionuclide to another due to differences in radionuclide-dependent
uncertainties such as biokinetic or dosimetric estimates.
In the last column of the table, the notation "SI ~ S2" for sources of uncertainty SI and S2
(for example, "Risk model ~ Biokinetics") indicates that SI and S2 contribute comparably to the
total uncertainty, and "SI > S2" indicates that SI is a more important contributor than S2.
"Dominant sites" refers to a small number of cancer sites that dominate the projected cancer risk as
well as the uncertainty in that projection for the given radionuclide and exposure mode. The notation
"Cl » C2" for dominant cancer sites Cl and C2 indicates that Cl is projected to be a considerably
more important cancer site than C2 under most plausible alternative models. The abbreviations RW,
MW, and NW in parentheses following an organ indicate that the risk model coefficient for that
organ is judged to be reasonably well established, moderately well established, or not well
established, respectively.
131
-------
Table 2.4. Uncertainty categories for selected risk coefficients.
Case
Category
Main sources of uncertainty and comments
Inhalation :
H-3 (HTO vapor)
Co-60, Type M
Sr-90, Type M
Ru-106, Type M
Sb-125, TypeM
1-131 (Vapor)
Cs-137, Type F
Ra-226, Type M
A Risk model > Biokinetics. Rapid and nearly complete absorption expected.
Absorbed tritium known to be fairly uniformly distributed. Systemic biokinetics well
understood except for long-term component that contributes little to dose.
Projected cancer risk distributed over several tissues with risk model coefficients
( RMCs) having varying degrees of uncertainty.
C Biokinetics ~ Risk model > Deposition. Dominant sites are lung (MW) » colon
(MW). Lung dose varies considerably as absorption rate varies within the range
associated with Type M. Typical Gl uptake moderately well established. Whole-
body retention of absorbed cobalt reasonably well known but distribution less well
characterized.
D Biokinetics ~ Risk model > Deposition. Dominant sites are lung (MW) » leukemia
(RW). Lung dose varies widely as absorption rate varies within the range
associated with Type M. Gl uptake and skeletal biokinetics reasonably well
characterized. Potential migration of Y introduces some uncertainty.
D Biokinetics ~ Risk model > Deposition. Dominant sites are lung (MW) » colon
(MW). Lung dose varies considerably as absorption rate varies within the range
associated with Type M. Gl uptake and systemic biokinetics understood only
broadly, but risk estimate relatively insensitive to associated uncertainties.
D Biokinetics ~ Risk model > Deposition. Dominant sites are lung (MW) » colon
(MW). Lung dose varies considerably as absorption rate varies within the range
associated with Type M. Gl uptake and systemic biokinetics not well established,
but risk estimate relatively insensitive to associated uncertainties.
C Risk model > Biokinetics. Rapid and nearly complete absorption expected.
Dominant site is thyroid (NW). Typical thyroidal uptake and half-time cannot be
closely determined due to scatter in reported data. Risk estimate insensitive to
half-time in thyroid but sensitive to fractional uptake by thyroid.
B Risk model ~ Biokinetics > Deposition. Data indicate high absorption and fairly
uniform distribution of absorbed cesium. Systemic biokinetics of cesium well
established by data for man, but potentially rapid migration of Ba from Cs
yields moderate uncertainty in dose to some tissues. No dominant cancer sites.
E Risk model > Biokinetics > Deposition. Dominant site is lung (MW). Gl uptake and
systemic biokinetics of radium reasonably well understood. Risk estimate
moderately sensitive to uncertainties in behavior of chain members produced in the
body.
132
-------
Table 2.4, continued
Case
Category
Main sources of uncertainty and comments
Inhalation, continued
Th-232, Type S D
U-234, Type M
D
Pu-239, Type M C
Risk model > Biokinetics > Deposition. Dominant site is lung (MW). Lung dose
sensitive to uncertainty in risk apportionment factors for lung regions. Lung dose
varies moderately as absorption rate varies within the range associated with Type
S. Risk estimate insensitive to uncertainties in biokinetics, dose, RMCs for
systemic tissues.
Risk model > Biokinetics > Deposition. Dominant site is lung (MW). Lung dose
varies widely as absorption rate varies within the range associated with Type M.
Risk estimate not highly sensitive to uncertainties in biokinetics, dose, RMCs for
systemic tissues.
Risk model > Deposition > Biokinetics. Dominant sites are lung (MW) ~ liver (NW)
> bone (NW). Lung dose varies widely as absorption rate varies within the range
associated with Type M. Initial distribution between liver and skeleton is uncertain
but has little effect on risk estimate. Long-term systemic distribution and retention
reasonably well established. Residence time on bone surfaces known within broad
bounds.
Ingestion:
H-3 (HTO)
Co-60
Sr-90
Ru-106
Risk model > Biokinetics > Dosimetry. Known that Gl uptake is virtually complete
and absorbed activity is fairly uniformly distributed. Systemic biokinetics well
understood except for long-term component that contributes little to dose.
Dosimetry for colon as target and colon contents as source not well established.
No dominant cancer sites.
Biokinetics ~ Risk model. Dominant site is colon (MW) due to dose from
unabsorbed activity. Typical Gl uptake moderately well established. Whole-body
retention reasonably well known but distribution less well characterized.
Biokinetics of ingested environmental forms may differ from forms used in
biokinetic studies.
Biokinetics ~ Risk model. Dominant sites are leukemia (RW) » colon (MW). Gl
uptake and skeletal biokinetics reasonably well characterized. Some information
90 90
available on migration of Y from Sr; risk estimate for leukemia relatively
insensitive to remaining uncertainties concerning Y.
Risk model > Biokinetics. Dominant site is colon (MW) due to dose from
1 Afi 1 Afi
unabsorbed activity. Gl uptake and systemic biokinetics of Ru- Rh known
only broadly, but risk estimate relatively insensitive to associated uncertainties.
133
-------
Table 2.4, continued
Case
Category
Main sources of uncertainty and comments
Ingestion, continued
Sb-125 B
1-131
Cs-137
A
Ra-226
Th-232
U-234
Pu-239
Risk model > Dosimetry > Biokinetics. Dominant sites are colon (MW) »
leukemia (RW). Dosimetry for colon as target and colon contents as source not
well established. Gl uptake and systemic biokinetics poorly established, but risk
estimate relatively insensitive to associated uncertainties.
Risk model > Biokinetics. Dominant site is thyroid (NW). Typical thyroidal uptake
and half-time cannot be closely determined due to scatter in reported data. Risk
estimate insensitive to half-time in thyroid but sensitive to fractional uptake by
thyroid.
Risk model > Biokinetics. Known that Gl uptake virtually complete and absorbed
Systemic biokinetics of cesium well
established, but potentially rapid migration of Ba from Cs yields moderate
cesium fairly uniformly distributed.
established, but potentially rapid migral
uncertainty in dose to some tissues. No dominant cancer sites.
Risk model > Biokinetics > Dosimetry. Dominant sites are bone (NW) ~ colon
(MW). Gl uptake and systemic biokinetics of radium reasonably well understood.
Risk estimate moderately sensitive to uncertainties regarding migration of chain
members from parent. Dosimetry for colon as target and colon contents as source
not well established for this chain.
Risk model > Biokinetics > Dosimetry. Dominant sites are bone (NW) ~ colon
(MW) > liver (NW). Typical Gl uptake apparently low but not known with much
precision. Systemic biokinetics of parent reasonably well understood but dose
arises mainly from ingrowing chain members, whose behavior is only broadly
understood. Dosimetry for colon as target and colon contents as source not well
established for this chain.
Risk model > Biokinetics ~ Dosimetry. Dominant sites are colon (MW) > kidney
(NW). Gl uptake moderately well established. Short-term systemic biokinetics
understood but less known about long-term retention in skeleton and soft tissues.
Dosimetry for colon as target and colon contents as source not well established.
Risk model > Biokinetics ~ Dosimetry. Dominant sites are liver (NW) > colon (MW)
~ bone (NW). Typical Gl uptake known to be low but not determined with much
precision. Initial distribution between liver and skeleton uncertain but has little
effect on risk estimate. Long-term distribution reasonably well established.
Residence time on bone surfaces known only within broad bounds. Dosimetry for
colon as target and colon contents as source not well established.
134
-------
Table 2.4, continued
Case
Category
Main sources of uncertainty and comments
External exposure
(Soil)b
H-3
Co-60
Sr-90
(Y-90)
Ru-1066
(Rh-106)
Sb-125
1-131
Cs-137e
(Ba-137m)
Ra-226e
(Pb-214)
N/A
A
A
A
Risk model > Dosimetry. Beta emitter - Epmax = 1.55 MeV, mean photon energy
1.25 MeV - kerma constant = 8.50E-17 Gy m2 (Bq-s)"1. All tissues receive similar
absorbed doses. No dominant sites.
Dosimetry > Risk model. Beta emitter- Epmax= 0.546 MeV, tissue absorbed dose
excluding skin ranges over a factor of 6. No dominant sites. Uncertainty in
bremsstrahlung yield and in transport of, and dose from, low energy photons.
Dosimetry > Risk model. No dominant sites. Beta emitter - E3max= 2.28 MeV,
tissue absorbed dose (excluding skin) range over a factor of 3. Uncertainty in
bremsstrahlung yield and in transport of, and dose from, low energy photons.
Risk model ~ Dosimetry. Beta emitter - Epmax = 3.54 MeV, mean photon energy
0.60 MeV - kerma constant = 7.62E-18 Gy m2 (Bq-s)"1. All tissues except skin
receive similar absorbed doses. No dominant sites. Uncertainty in transport of,
and dose from, low energy photons.
Risk model > Dosimetry. Beta emitter- Epnax= 0.622 MeV, mean photon energy
0.46 MeV- kerma constant = 1.89E-17 Gy m2 (Bq-s)"1. All tissues receive similar
absorbed doses. No dominant sites.
Risk model > Dosimetry. Beta emitter- Epmax= 0.807 MeV, mean photon energy
0.38 MeV- kerma constant = 1.45E-17 Gy m2 (Bq-s)"1. All tissues receive similar
absorbed doses. No dominant sites.
Dosimetry > Risk model. No dominant sites. Beta emitter - Epmax= 1.17 MeV,
tissue absorbed doses excluding skin range over a factor of 4. Uncertainty in
bremsstrahlung yield and in transport of, and dose from, low energy photons.
Risk model > Dosimetry. Isomeric transition, mean photon energy 0.66 MeV -
kerma cons tant = 2.26E-17 Gy m (Bq-s)~ . All tissues receive similar absorbed
doses. No dominant sites.
Dosimetry ~ Risk model. Alpha emitter, mean photon energy 0.18 MeV- kerma
constant = 4.65E-19 Gy m2 (Bq-s)"1. Tissue absorbed doses range over a factor
of 3. No dominant sites. Uncertainty in transport of, and dose from, low energy
photons.
Risk model > Dosimetry. Beta emitter - EBmax= 1.02 MeV, mean photon energy
2 1
0.33 MeV- kerma constant = 1.42E-17 Gy m (Bq-s)~ . All tissues receive similar
absorbed doses. No dominant sites.
135
-------
Table 2.4, continued
Case Category Main sources of uncertainty and comments
External exposure, continued
(Bi-214) A pig^ moc|e| > Dosimetry. Beta emitter - £pmax= 3.27 MeV, mean photon energy
MeV- kerma constant = 5.07E-
absorbed doses. No dominant sites.
1.12 MeV- kerma constant = 5.07E-17 Gy m2 (Bq-s)"1. All tissues receive similar
Th-232 D Dosimetry > Risk model. Alpha emitter, mean photon energy 0.07 keV - kerma
constant = 2.24E-18 Gy m2 (Bq-s)"1. Tissue absorbed doses range over a factor
of 3. No dominant sites. Uncertainty in transport of, and dose from, low energy
photons.
(Ac-228) A Risk model > Dosimetry. Beta emitter - £3max= 2.08 MeV, mean photon energy
0.77 MeV- kerma constant = 4.46E-17 Gy m2 (Bq-s)"1. All tissues receive similar
absorbed doses. No dominant sites.
(TI-208) A Risk model > Dosimetry. Beta emitter-£pmax= 1.79 MeV, mean photon energy
1.46 MeV - kerma constant = 1.03E-'
absorbed doses. No dominant sites.
1.46 MeV- kerma constant = 1.03E-16 Gy m2 (Bq-s)"1. All tissues receive similar
U-234 D Dosimetry > Risk model. No dominant sites. Alpha emitter, mean photon energy
0.08 MeV- kerma constant = 2.63E-18 Gy m2 (Bq-s)"1. Tissue absorbed doses
range over a factor > 10. Uncertainty in transport of, and dose from, low energy
photons.
Pu-239 E Dosimetry > Risk model. No dominant sites. Alpha emitter, mean photon energy
0.016 MeV- kerma constant = 9.37E-19 Gy m2 (Bq-s)"1. Tissue absorbed doses
range over a factor > 10. Uncertainty in transport of, and dose from, low energy
photons.
The absorption type addressed for a given radionuclide in paniculate form is the default type recommended
in ICRP Publication 72 (1996).
For external exposure, the radionuclides in parentheses following the parent radionuclide Sr-90, Ru-106,
Cs-137, Ra-226, or Th-232 are the most important radioactive progeny of that parent radionuclide present
in the environment at secular equilibrium.
c
Categories A-E are based on quotients of maximum and minimum plausible values and are not applicable
(N/A) to radionuclides for which estimated external dose (EPA, 1993) is zero.
Short for air kerma-rate constant (see Glossary).
G
In most situations, the cancer risk from external exposure to this radionuclide is likely to be negligible
compared with the risk from external exposure to its radioactive progeny.
136
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CHAPTER 3. EXPOSURE SCENARIOS
The risk coefficients developed in this report are gender-averaged values based on biokinetic,
dosimetric, and radiation risk models that represent typical or "reference" male and female members
of the U.S. population, from infancy through old age. Although the coefficients may be interpreted
in terms of either acute or chronic exposure, computations are based on the assumption that these
persons are exposed throughout life, beginning at birth, to a constant concentration of a radionuclide
in a given environmental medium. In utero exposures are not considered in this document.
Characteristics of the exposed population
The physical characteristics of the reference male and reference female at different ages are
described in reports by Cristy and Eckerman (1987, 1993). The vital statistics for these reference
persons are based on the 1989-91 U.S. decennial life table (NCHS, 1997) and U.S. cancer mortality
data for the same period (NCHS, 1992, 1993a, 1993b). That is, it is assumed that the exposed male
and female are subject to the risk of dying from a competing cause (any cause other than a cancer
produced by the radiation exposure hypothesized here) indicated by the 1989-91 U.S. decennial life
table and are subject to the risk of experiencing or dying from cancer at a specific site indicated by
U.S. cancer mortality data for the same period. Gender-specific survival functions (fractions of live-
born individuals surviving to different ages) for the stationary population are shown in Fig. 3.1.
Methods of extending or smoothing the U.S. vital statistics for use in this report are described in
Appendix A.
Growth of decay chain members
For each of the internal exposure scenarios, the risk coefficient for a radionuclide includes
the contribution to dose from production of decay chain members in the body after intake of the
parent radionuclide. However, for either an internal or external exposure scenario, the risk
coefficient for a given radionuclide is based on the assumption that this is the only radionuclide
present in the environmental medium. Growth of chain members in the environment is not
considered because this would require the assumption of a temporal pattern of contamination and
environmental behavior of decay chain members and thus would limit the applicability of the risk
coefficients. For each radionuclide addressed in this report, however, a separate risk coefficient is
137
-------
1.00
w 0.75
"o
2*0.50
0.25
O
l_
a.
0.00
Males\
XFemales
20 40 60 80
Age (y)
100 120
Fig. 3.1. Gender-specific survival functions for the stationary population.
provided for any subsequent chain member that is of potential dosimetric significance. This enables
the user to assess the risks from ingrowth of radionuclides in the environment.
Inhalation of radionuclides
Risk coefficients (Bq~ ) for inhalation of radionuclides in air are expressed as risk of cancer
mortality or morbidity per unit activity intake. The age- and gender-specific inhalation rates used
in this report (Table 3.1, Fig. 3.2) are taken from ICRP Publication 66 (1994a). These inhalation
rates are based on breathing rates measured during periods of rest, light activity, or heavy activity.
The average 24-h ventilation rate is estimated as a time-weighted average of ventilation rates for rest
periods and periods of light and heavy activity.
Recently, Layton (1993) proposed a different approach for the estimation of average
inhalation rates at different ages. Estimates are based on typical oxygen consumption associated
with energy expenditure and are derived using the equation VE = E x H x VQ, where VE is the
ventilation rate (L min" ), E is the average rate of energy expenditure (kilojoules min" ), His the
volume of oxygen (at standard temperature and pressure) consumed in the production of 1 kilojoule
138
-------
Table 3.1. Age- and gender-specific usage rates of environmental media, for selected ages."
Airb
(m3
-------
.30
25
•210
« 5
c
~ 0
Male
Female
0
10 15 20 25
Age (y)
30
2.0
1.5
Q>
1.0
0)
4-1
CO
0.5
0.0
Male
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Age (y)
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 10C|
Age (y)
0.6
-To.5
TJ
dO.4
-------
a mean value for VQ of about 36 and suggest a slight increase with age, from about 35 at age 7 y to
about 37 at age 17 y. Because reliable age- and gender-dependent central values for VQ have not
been established, the ICRP's recommended age- and gender-specific inhalation rates, rather than
rates derived from Layton's method, are applied in the present study.1
Risk coefficients for inhalation are based on an activity median aerodynamic diameter
(AMAD) of 1 um. This particle size is recommended by the ICRP for consideration of
environmental exposures in the absence of specific information about the physical characteristics
of the aerosol (ICRP, 1994a).
The form of the inhaled material is classified in terms of the rate of absorption from the lungs
to blood, using the classification scheme of ICRP Publication 66 (ICRP, 1994a). Type F, Type M,
and Type S represent fast, medium, and slow rates, respectively, of absorption of material inhaled
in particulate form. Although the ICRP recommends default absorption types of many of the
radionuclides considered in this document, the information underlying the selection of an absorption
type is often very limited and in many cases reflects occupational rather than environmental
experience. Due to the uncertainties in the form of a radionuclide likely to be inhaled by members
of the public, risk coefficients for inhalation of a radionuclide in particulate form are derived for all
three absorption types.
Inhalation of a radionuclide in the form of a vapor or gas is also considered for selected cases.
In particular, risk coefficients are provided for inhalation of tritium as a vapor (HTO) or gas (HT),
carbon in gaseous form as carbon monoxide (CO) or carbon dioxide (CO2), sulfur as a vapor (SO2
or CS2), nickel as a vapor, ruthenium as a vapor (RuO4), iodine as a vapor or gas (methyl iodide,
CH3I), tellurium as a vapor, and mercury as a vapor. Material-specific deposition and absorption
models are used for vapors and gases (ICRP, 1995b).
Intake of radionuclides in food
Risk coefficients (Bq"1) for ingestion of radionuclides in food are expressed as risk of cancer
mortality or morbidity per unit activity intake. The intake rate of a radionuclide in food is assumed
to be proportional to food energy usage (kcal per day). Age- and gender-specific values for food
The problem also arises that fractional deposition in different regions of the respiratory tract depends on
the tidal volume and respiratory frequency associated with the various daily activities (ICRP, 1994a). Layton's
method does not address these individual components of the inhalation rate, and it is not evident how these two
parameters should be adjusted for application of Layton's estimates of daily air intake.
141
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energy usage (Table 3.1) are based on data from the Third National Health and Nutrition
Examination Survey (NHANES III), Phase 1, 1989-91 (McDowell et al, 1994).
Food usage is usually expressed in terms of mass rather than energy. Based on a 1994-95
food-intake survey by the U.S. Department of Agriculture, the lifetime average intake rate of food
is approximately 1.2 kg per day (Wilson et al., 1997). This value and the lifetime average energy
intake of 2048 kcal per day given in Table 3.1 imply an average energy density for the U.S. diet of
about 1700 kcal per kg food.
For radioiodine, a second set of risk coefficients is derived under the assumption that the
intake rate is proportional to usage of cow's milk, typically the dominant source of radioiodine in
diet (UNSCEAR, 1982). Age- and gender-specific values for average daily usage of cow's milk
(Table 3.1) are based on data tabulated by the EPA (EPA, 1984b).
For 3H in diet, separate risk coefficients are given for tritiated water and organically bound
tritium because different systemic biokinetic models are applied to these different forms of 3H.
Similarly, separate risk coefficients are given for inorganic and organic forms of radioisotopes of
sulfur, mercury, and polonium because different systemic biokinetic models and/or/; values are used
for the different forms.
Intake of radionuclides in tap water
Risk coefficients (Bq"1) for ingestion of radionuclides in tap water are expressed as risk of
cancer mortality or morbidity per unit activity intake. Age-specific usage rates for tap water
(Table 3.1) are based on results of the 1977-1978 Nationwide Food Consumption Survey of the U.S.
Department of Agriculture as analyzed by Ershow and Cantor (1989). The data for usage of tap
water in Table 3.1 include drinking water, water added to beverages, and water added to foods during
preparation but do not include usage of water intrinsic in food as purchased. The reported data for
tap water usage (Ershow and Cantor, 1989) were not divided by gender. Gender-specific values
were derived by assuming (before the intake rate curves were smoothed) that the male-to-female
intake rate ratio at a given age is the same as that observed for food energy intake (McDowell et al.,
1994).
As is the case for intake in food, separate risk coefficients for tap water usage are given for
tritiated water and organically bound tritium, and for inorganic and organic forms of radioisotopes
of sulfur, mercury, and polonium.
142
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External exposure to radionuclides in air
Risk coefficients (m3 Bq"1 s"1) for submersion are expressed as risk of cancer mortality or
morbidity per unit integrated exposure to a radionuclide in air. The external dose rates used in the
calculations (EPA, 1993) were calculated for a reference adult male, standing outdoors with no
shielding. No adjustments are made in this exposure scenario to account for potential differences
with age and gender in the external doses received or for potential reduction in dose due to shielding
by buildings during time spent indoors.
External exposure to radionuclides in soil
Risk coefficients are tabulated for two different scenarios for exposure to contaminated soil:
(1) external exposure to radiations from the ground surface, and (2) external exposure to radiations
from soil contaminated to an infinite depth. In both cases the contamination is assumed to be of
infinite lateral extent. The risk coefficients are expressed as risk of cancer mortality or morbidity
per unit integrated exposure to a radionuclide. The units are m2 Bq" s" for contaminated ground
surface and kg Bq" s" for soil contaminated to an infinite depth.
The tabulations of dose coefficients in Federal Guidance Report No. 12 (EPA, 1993) for
cases of external exposure to radiations from contaminated soil were calculated for a reference adult
standing on the contaminated soil. No adjustments are made in this exposure scenario to account
for potential differences with age in the external doses received or for potential reduction in dose due
to shielding by buildings during time spent indoors.
Recommendations concerning cleanup of contaminated soil are sometimes based on the
radionuclide concentration in soil to a depth of 15 cm (NRC, 1977). As indicated by the tabulations
of dose coefficients in Federal Guidance Report No. 12, dose rates from soil contaminated to a depth
of 15 cm generally differ by only 0-20% from dose rates from soil contaminated to an infinite depth
(that is, to several meters below the surface) due to shielding provided by the top 15 cm of soil
against radiations emitted at lower depths (EPA, 1993). Because risk coefficients for external
exposure to soil contaminated to 15 cm would differ only slightly from those for contamination to
an infinite depth, it would not be useful to provide tabulations of risk coefficients for both situations.
143
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-------
CHAPTER 4. BIOKINETIC MODELS FOR RADIONUCLIDES
In the dose-computation scheme of the ICRP, information on the behavior of radionuclides
in the body is condensed into three main types of biokinetic models: a respiratory tract model, a
gastrointestinal tract model, and element-specific systemic models. The generic respiratory tract
model is used to describe the deposition and retention of inhaled material in the respiratory tract and
its subsequent clearance to blood or to the gastrointestinal tract. The generic gastrointestinal tract
model is used to describe the movement of swallowed or endogenously secreted material through
the stomach and intestines, and, together with element-specific gastrointestinal absorption fractions
(f/ values), to describe the rate and extent of absorption of radionuclides from the small intestine to
blood. Element-specific systemic biokinetic models are used to describe the time-dependent
distribution and excretion of radionuclides after their absorption into blood.
The model of the respiratory tract
The ICRP recently introduced a new respiratory tract model that involves considerably
greater detail and physiological realism than previous models of the respiratory system (ICRP,
1994a). The model structure is shown in Fig. 4.1. The model divides the respiratory system into
extrathoracic (ET) and thoracic regions. The airways of the ET region are further divided into two
categories: the anterior nasal passages, in which deposits are removed by extrinsic means such as
nose blowing, and the posterior nasal passages including the nasopharynx, oropharynx, and the
larynx, from which deposits are swallowed. The airways of the thorax include the bronchi
(compartments labeled BB^), bronchioles (compartments labeled bb^), and alveolar region
(compartments labeled AI). Material deposited in the thoracic airways may be cleared into blood
by absorption, to the GI tract by mechanical processes (that is, transported upward and swallowed),
and to the regional lymph nodes via lymphatic channels.
The number of compartments in each region was chosen to allow duplication of the different
kinetic phases observed in humans or laboratory animals. In Fig. 4.1, particle transport rates shown
beside the arrows are reference values in units of d"1. For example, particle transport from bb, to BB,
is assumed to occur at a fractional rate of 2 d"1, and particle transport from ET2 to the gastrointestinal
tract is assumed to occur at a fractional rate of 100 d"1.
For an inhaled compound, the mechanical clearances of particles indicated in Fig. 4.1 are in
addition to dissolution rates and absorption to blood, which depend on the element and the chemical
145
-------
Sequestered in tissue I Surface transport
Anterior
nasal
Naso-oro-
pharynx
larynx
Extrathoracic
0.001
Alveolar
interstitium
Fig. 4.1. Structure of the ICRP's respiratory tract model (ICRP,
1994a). Except for transfer from ETj to environment, each of the
indicated mechanical clearances of particles is in addition to
dissolution and absorption to blood. Abbreviations: AI = alveolar
interstitium, BB = bronchi, bb = bronchioles, ET = extrathoracic,
LN = lymph nodes, SEQ = sequestered, and TH = thoracic.
and physical form in which it is inhaled. Although the model permits consideration of
compound-specific dissolution rates, a particulate is generally assigned to one of three default
absorption types: Type F (fast dissolution and a high level of absorption to blood), Type M (an
intermediate rate of dissolution and an intermediate level of absorption to blood), and Type S (slow
dissolution and a low level of absorption to blood). The fractional rate of absorption (d~ ) assigned
to the default types are
Type F: 100 ,
Type M: 10.0 e "10° ' + S.QxlO'3
Type S: 0.1 e "10° ' + l.OxlO'4 e™001 ' ,
where t is time (days) since deposition.
146
-------
The absorption types for particulate forms of an element considered in the ICRP's
compilation of dose coefficients for members of the public (ICRP, 1996) are listed in Table 4.1. For
each of the 31 elements that were critically reviewed with regard to forms likely to be inhaled by
members of the public (ICRP, 1995a), the ICRP recommended a default absorption type for
application when no specific information is available. The default types are identified in Table 4.1.
The information underlying the selection of an absorption type is often very limited. In many
cases, selection must be based on occupational rather than environmental experience. Due to the
uncertainties in the form of a radionuclide likely to be inhaled by members of the public, risk
coefficients for inhalation of particulate aerosols are provided in the present document for all three
absorption types. Where appropriate, risk coefficients are also provided for inhalation of
radionuclides in the form of a gas or vapor.
The model of the gastrointestinal tract
The model of the gastrointestinal (GI) tract applied in this report was originally developed
for application to occupational intakes of radionuclides (ICRP, 1979) but has also been applied to
environmental intakes of radionuclides by members of the public (ICRP, 1989,1993,1995a, 1995b).
The model, shown in Fig. 4.2, divides the GI tract into four segments or compartments: stomach
(Si), small intestine (SI), upper large intestine (ULI), and lower large intestine (LLI), and depicts
first-order transfer of material from one segment to the next. Material is assumed to transfer from
St to 57 at the fractional rate of 24 d"1, from 57 to ULI at 6 d"1, from ULI to LLI at 1.8 d"1, and from
LLI to the compartment Feces at 1 d"1.
Absorption of ingested material to blood generally is assumed to occur only in 57.
Absorption to blood is described in terms of a fraction/;. In the absence of radioactive decay, the
fraction/; of ingested material moves from 57 to BLOOD and the fraction \-fl moves from 57 to ULI
and eventually is excreted in feces. The transfer coefficient from 57to BLOOD is 6// / (I-/;) d" .
With two modifications explained below (see the discussions regarding chromium and
polonium), the// values used in this report are those applied in ICRP Publication 72 (1996), which
is a compilation of the ICRP's ingestion and inhalation dose coefficients for members of the public.
Values for the adult are given in Chapter 2, in the tabulations of risk coefficients for inhalation
(Tables 2.1) and ingestion of tap water or food (Table 2.2a). Modifications of the// values for adults
for application to infants and (in some cases) children are summarized below.
For 31 of the elements considered in this report, // values for ingestion were developed
specifically for members of the public, as described in the ICRP's series of documents on doses to
147
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Table 4.1. Absorption types considered in ICRP Publication 72 (1996) for particulate aerosols.
Element
Lung absorption
type(s)a
Element
Lung absorption
type(s)a
Element
Lung absorption
type(s)a
Hydrogen
Beryllium0
Carbon
Fluorine0
Sodium0
Magnesium0
Aluminum0
Silicon0
Phosphorous0
Sulfur
Chlorine0
Potassium0
Calcium
Scandium0
Titanium0
Vanadium0
Chromium0
Manganese0
Iron
Cobalt
Nickel
Copper0
Zinc
Gallium0
Germanium0
Arsenic0
Selenium
Bromine0
Rubidium0
Strontium
Yttrium0
F,
M,
F,
F,
F
F,
F,
F,
F,
F,
F,
F
F,
S
F,
F,
F,
F,
F,
F,
F,
F,
F,
F,
F,
M
Fb
F,
F
F,
M,
Mb
S
Mb
M,
M
M
M,
M
Mb
M
Mb
M,
M
M,
M
Mb
Mb
Mb
M,
Mb
M
M
,M
M
Mb
S
,S
,s
S
S
,s
, S
S
S
,s
, S
, S
S
, S
,s
, S
Zirconium
Niobium
Molybdenum
Technetium
Ruthenium
Rhodium0
Palladium0
Silver
Cadmium0
Indium0
Tin0
Antimony
Tellurium
Iodine
Cesium
Barium
Lanthanum0
Cerium
Praseodymium0
Neodymium °
Promethium °
Samarium0
Europium °
Gadolinium0
Terbium0
Dysprosium0
Holmium0
Erbium0
Thulium0
Ytterbium0
F,
F,
F,
F,
F,
F,
F,
F,
F,
F,
F,
F,
F,
Fb
Fb
F,
F,
F,
M,
M,
M,
M
M
F,
M
M
M
M
M
M,
Mb
Mb
Mb
Mb
Mb
M,
M,
Mb
M,
M
M
Mb
Mb
,M
,M
Mb
M
Mb
S
S
S
M
S
,s
,s
,s
,s
,s
S
S
,s
S
,s
,s
, S
,s
,s
,s
Lutetium0
Hafnium0
Tantalum0
Tungsten0
Rhenium0
Osmium0
Iridium0
Platinum0
Gold0
Mercury0
Thallium0
Lead
Bismuth0
Polonium
Astatine0
Francium0
Radium
Actinium0
Thorium
Protactinium0
Uranium
Neptunium
Plutonium
Americium
Curium
Berkelium0
Californium0
Einsteinium0
Fermium0
Mendelevium0
M,
F,
M,
F
F,
F,
F,
F
F,
F,
F
F,
F,
F,
F,
F
F,
F,
F,
M,
F,
F,
F,
F,
F,
M
M
M
M
M
S
M
S
M
M, S
M, S
M, S
M
Mb, S
M
Mb, S
M
Mb, S
M, S
M, Sb
S
Mb, S
Mb, S
Mb, S
Mb, S
Mb, S
aAbsorption types defined in ICRP Publication 66 (I994a); F is fast, M is moderate, and S is slow absorption.
Recommended default absorption type when no specific information is available (ICRP, 1995b, 1996).
Inhalation data for this element were not critically reviewed in the ICRP document on inhalation dose coefficients for
members of the public (ICRP, I995b). The listed absorption types are based on lung clearance categories assigned in
earlier ICRP documents on occupational exposure.
148
-------
Ingestion
Fig. 4.2. Model of transit of material through
the gastrointestinal tract (ICRP, 1979).
members of the public from intake of
radionuclides (ICRP, 1989, 1993, 1995a,
1995b). These elements are hydrogen, carbon,
sulfur, calcium, iron, cobalt, nickel, zinc,
selenium, strontium, zirconium, niobium,
molybdenum, technetium, ruthenium, silver,
antimony, tellurium, iodine, cesium, barium,
cerium, lead, polonium, radium, thorium,
uranium, neptunium, plutonium, americium,
and curium. For most of these elements, the
following rules were applied by the ICRP in
the assignment of age-specific// values, based
on patterns of changes with age indicated by
the collective experimental and environmental
data:
(1) The// value for adults is assigned to ages > 1 y.
(2) If/; for adults is <0.001, then/; for infants is 10 times the value for adults.
(3) If/; for adults is in the range 0.01-0.5, then/; for infants is 2 times the value for adults.
(4) If/; for adults is greater than 0.5, then complete absorption is assumed for the infant.
These rules were not applied by the ICRP to ingested calcium, iron, cobalt, strontium,
barium, lead, or radium (ICRP 1993, 1995a, 1995b). For these seven elements, separate/; values
were assigned to infants, children of ages 1-15 y, and adults, respectively, based on indications that
gastrointestinal absorption of these elements is elevated in young children and adolescents as well
as infants. For calcium and strontium, the/; values applied to these three age groups are 0.6, 0.4,
and 0.3, respectively; for barium and radium, the values are 0.6, 0.3, and 0.2, respectively; for iron,
the values are 0.6, 0.2, and 0.1, respectively; for cobalt, the values are 0.6, 0.3, and 0.1, respectively;
and for lead, the values are 0.6, 0.4, and 0.2, respectively.
For elements not addressed in the ICRP's series of documents on doses to members of the
public, the/; values for ingestion by the adult used in ICRP Publication 72 (1996) and in the present
document were taken from ICRP Publication 30 (1979, 1980, 1981) and ICRP Publication 68
(1994b) on occupational exposures. The/; values for the adult were extended to other age groups
using Rules (l)-(4) given above, with three exceptions: for palladium, values of 0.005 and 0.05 are
applied to the adult and infant, respectively; for beryllium, values of 0.005 and 0.02 are applied to
149
-------
the adult and infant, respectively; and for hafnium, values of 0.002 and 0.02 are applied to the adult
and infant, respectively (ICRP Publication 72, 1996).
In ICRP Publication 72, two different sets of age-dependent// values are considered for
radioisotopes of chromium. Because chromium is not addressed in the ICRP documents on intake
of radionuclides by members of the public,// values for ingestion of chromium by the adult were
carried over from ICRP documents on occupational intakes and extended to younger age groups
using the rules listed above. The different// values for the adult, 0.1 and 0.01, reflect expected
differences in absorption of hexavalent compounds and trivalent compounds, respectively, of
chromium encountered in the work place. The present document considers only the set of age-
specific// values from ICRP Publication 72 that applies to hexavalent chromium because this seems
appropriate for consideration of environmental chromium.
The set of age-specific// values for polonium used in ICRP Publication 72 is taken from
ICRP Publication 67 (1993) on environmental intake of radionuclides by members of the public and
is based on data for ingestion of organically bound polonium. The authors of ICRP Publication 67
point out that gastrointestinal absorption of inorganic forms of polonium appears to be much lower
than that of polonium that is biologically incorporated into food. Because there are situations in
which environmental polonium seems more likely to be in inorganic than organic form (for example,
in tap water), separate sets of age-specific // values for inorganic and organic polonium are
considered in this report. For polonium ingested in inorganic form, the// value for the adult is taken
as 0.1 (ICRP 1979, 1994b). Based on Rules (l)-(4) listed above, this value is applied to ages > 1 y,
and the value 0.2 is applied to infants.
In the calculation of doses from inhalation of radionuclides, allowance is made for the
absorption of material passing through the gastrointestinal tract after clearance from the respiratory
tract. However, it is considered that radionuclides cleared from the respiratory tract may typically
be present as minor constituents of the inhaled particles and that absorption from the gastrointestinal
tract may depend on dissolution of the particle matrix as well as the elemental form of the
radionuclide (ICRP 1996). In ICRP Publication 72 and hence in the present document, the element-
specific// values applied to ingestion generally are applied to inhalation of Type F compounds; the
most important exception is polonium, for which an// value of 0.5 is applied to ingestion in food
and a value of 0.1 is applied to polonium inhaled as a Type F compound (in ICRP Publication 72 as
well as in the present report). For inhaled material of Type M or S, a default// value of 0.1 or 0.01,
respectively, is applied unless a lower// value for that absorption type, or a more soluble type, was
used in the ICRP's most recent document on occupational exposures (ICRP Publication 68, 1994b).
In the latter case, the lower// value is applied.
150
-------
The// values as well as other biokinetic parameter values for "infant" apply to ages 0-100
days. Biokinetic parameter values are assumed to vary with age up to age 20 y for some elements
(e.g., iron, cesium, and iodine) and up to age 25 y for others (e.g., calcium, radium, and plutonium)
and to be constant thereafter. Parameter values for ages not explicitly addressed in a biokinetic
model are determined by linear interpolation with age between parameter values for the nearest ages.
Systemic biokinetic models
With two exceptions described below, the systemic biokinetic models used in this report are
those applied in ICRP Publication 72 (1996). The systemic biokinetic models for 31 of the elements
considered here were developed specifically for members of the public and, in many cases, involve
parameter values that vary with age (ICRP, 1989, 1993, 1995a, 1995b). The models for the
remaining elements were originally intended for application to adults exposed in the work place
(ICRP, 1989, 1993, 1995a, 1995b) but are applied in ICRP Publication 72 and in the present report
to all age groups. The 31 elements for which systemic biokinetic models were developed specifically
for members of the public are listed above in the discussion of// values.
In ICRP Publication 72 (1996), a generic model structure (see Appendix C of this report) was
applied to the "plutonium-like" or "bone-surface-seeking" actinide elements thorium, neptunium,
plutonium, americium, and curium. This model structure, introduced in ICRP Publication 67 (1993),
describes a gradual translocation of activity from bone surface to bone volume and marrow as a
result of bone restructuring, and it explicitly depicts recycling of activity that returns to blood from
bone and soft tissues. By contrast, the models applied in ICRP Publication 72 (1996) to other bone-
surface seeking actinide elements (ICRP 1979, 1980, 1981) assign all skeletal activity to bone
surface and depict one-directional flow of material from blood to organs to excreta. In this report,
the generic model structure introduced in ICRP Publication 67 is extended to the actinide elements
actinium and protactinium. Specifically, parameter values for americium are assigned to actinium
and parameter values for thorium are assigned to protactinium, due mainly to similarities in the
biokinetics of these element pairs in laboratory animals (Durbin, 1960; Taylor, 1970; Ralston et al.,
1985). External measurements as well as bioassay measurements on a worker accidentally exposed
to isotopes of actinium and protactinium also provide some support for the models selected here for
these two elements (Newton and Brown, 1974).
The above discussion regarding models for actinide elements illustrates two different types
of systemic biokinetic models currently applied by the ICRP. These are referred to here as "retention
models" and "physiologically based models".
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Blood
Bone
Surface
Other
Urinary Bladder
Contents
Gl tract
Contents
A retention model is not intended to depict actual paths of movement of a radionuclide in the
body. Rather, it is a mathematically convenient representation of the estimated inventories of the
radionuclide in its major repositories as a function of time after its initial entry into blood. The initial
distribution of activity leaving blood is represented by compartment-specific deposition fractions,
and subsequent time-dependent inventories in the compartments are described in terms of
compartment-specific biological removal half-times. Material leaving a tissue compartment is
assumed either to move directly to excretion or to move to excretion via an excretion pathway such
as the contents of the urinary bladder or the gastrointestinal tract.
An example of the type of retention
models used by the ICRP is the model for
zirconium originally described in ICRP
Publication 30 (1979) and updated in ICRP
Publications 56 (1989) and 67 (1993). The
structure of this model is shown in Fig. 4.3.
Parameter values were based largely on
observations of the behavior of zirconium in
rats and mice. For all age groups, 50% of
zirconium leaving blood is assumed to deposit
on bone surfaces and the remainder is assumed
to be uniformly distributed in the rest of the
body, referred to as Other. For the adult,
zirconium is assumed to be removed to
excretion with a biological half-time of 10,000 days. In the absence of age-specific data on
zirconium in humans, the removal half-time from bone in children is assumed to be proportional to
the bone turnover rate, which is considerably greater in children than in adults; for example, a
removal half-time from bone to excretion pathways of 1000 days is applied to the 10-year-old child.
For all age groups, zirconium is assumed to be removed from Other to excretion pathways with a
biological half-time of 7 days. Of zirconium going to excreta, five-sixths is assigned to the urinary
bladder contents and one-sixth is assigned to the contents of the upper large intestine. Generic
models are used to describe removal from the contents of the urinary bladder and the gastrointestinal
tract to excretion (ICRP, 1993).
In the ICRP's documents on age-dependent dosimetry (ICRP, 1989, 1993, 1995a, 1995b,
1996), physiologically based models were used for radioisotopes of calcium, iron, strontium, iodine,
barium, lead, radium, thorium, uranium, neptunium, plutonium, americium, and curium. The model
Urine
Feces
Fig. 4.3. Structure of the ICRP's biokinetic
model for zirconium (ICRP, 1993).
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Uptake
frameworks applied to these elements depict loss of material by specific excretion pathways,
feedback of material from organs to blood plasma, and certain physiological processes that are
known to influence the distribution and translocation of the elements in the body. Clearly, the degree
of biological realism incorporated into each of the models is limited by practical considerations
regarding the amount and quality of information available to determine actual paths of movement
and parameter values for specific elements.
The model for iodine (Fig. 4.4) is
essentially the same as that used in ICRP
Publication 30 (1979), except that parameter
values were extended to pre-adult ages. The
model structure is relatively simple compared
with the other physiologically based models
used in the ICRP Publication 56 series.
According to this model, iodine entering blood
is taken up by the thyroid or excreted in urine.
It leaves the thyroid in organic form and is
metabolized by the tissues in the rest of the
body. A portion of iodine leaving these
tissues is excreted in feces and the remainder
is returned to blood in inorganic form and behaves the same as the original input to blood.
The model structure for iron is shown in Fig. 4.5. The model describes three main aspects
of iron metabolism: (1) the hemoglobin cycle, including uptake of transferrin-bound iron by the
erythroid marrow for incorporation into hemoglobin, subsequent appearance of iron in red blood
cells, uptake of old and damaged red blood cells by the reticuloendothelial system, and eventual
return of iron to plasma; (2) removal of transferrin-bound iron from plasma to the extravascular
spaces and return to plasma via the lymphatic system; and (3) uptake and retention of iron by the
parenchymal tissues. The soft tissues include a pool of extravascular iron that exchanges rapidly
with plasma iron. Storage iron is divided among liver, spleen, red marrow, and other soft tissues.
Destruction of red blood cells is viewed as occurring in the red marrow. The liver is viewed as
consisting of two pools: a transit pool representing parenchymal tissues that exchange iron with
plasma, and a storage pool associated with the reticuloendothelial system. Excretion of iron is
depicted as occurring through exfoliation of skin, losses of plasma iron in urine, and leakage of red
blood cells into the intestines and subsequent removal in feces.
Fig. 4.4. Structure of the ICRP's biokinetic
model for iodine (ICRP, 1989).
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The ICRP's physiologically based models for bone-seeking elements were developed within
one of two generic model frameworks (Leggett 1992a, 1992b; ICRP, 1993), one designed for
application to a class of "calcium-like" or bone-volume-seeking elements such as strontium, radium,
and lead (Fig. 4.6), and, as described earlier, the other designed for application to a class of
"plutonium-like" or bone-surface-seeking elements such as americium, neptunium, and thorium (see
Appendix C). In contrast to the treatment of bone-seeking radionuclides in ICRP Publication 30
(1979), the new bone models account for the facts that bone-surface seekers are buried to a large
extent in bone volume, bone-volume seekers may have a significant residence time on bone surfaces,
and elements from both groups may be recycled to tissues to a significant extent after removal from
their initial repositories to blood plasma. The physiologically based systemic biokinetic model for
thorium, which is typical of bone-surface seekers, is described in detail in Appendix C.
RAPID
TURNOVER
SOFT TISSUE
Fig. 4.5. Structure of the ICRP's biokinetic model for iron (ICRP, 1995a).
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Treatment of decay chain members formed in the body
Assumptions concerning the behavior of decay chain members formed in vivo are consistent
with those used in the ICRP's series on age-dependent doses from intake of radionuclides (ICRP,
1989, 1993, 1995a, 1995b, 1996) or, for elements not addressed in that document, assumptions used
in ICRP Publication 30 (1979, 1980, 1981, 1988). In most cases, decay chain members produced
in vivo are assigned the systemic biokinetic model of the parent (that is, the radionuclide taken into
the body). However, the following exceptions are made:
1. Iodine produced from decay of tellurium is assumed to be translocated at a fractional rate
of 1000 d" to the transfer compartment in inorganic form and then to follow the same
kinetics as iodine introduced into the transfer compartment as a parent radionuclide.
Fig. 4.6. The ICRP's generic model structure for calcium-like elements
(ICRP, 1993). Abbreviations: RBC = red blood cells, EXCH = exchangeable
bone volume, NONEXCH = nonexchangeable bone volume.
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2. If the parent is an isotope of lead, radium, actinium, thorium, protactinium, or uranium,
then a radionuclide other than a noble gas formed in soft tissues or on bone surfaces is
assigned the characteristic biokinetics of that radionuclide. That is, a radionuclide born
either in soft tissues or on bone surfaces is assumed to have the same biokinetics as if the
radionuclide had been taken in as a parent radionuclide. A radionuclide other than a noble
gas formed in bone volume is assigned the biokinetics of the parent. Noble gases produced
in soft tissues and bone surfaces are assumed to migrate from the body with a transfer
coefficient of 100 d"1. Noble gases produced in exchangeable and non-exchangeable bone
volume are assumed to migrate from the body at rates of 1.5 d"1 and 0.36 d"1, respectively.
Appendix C describes in detail the treatment of decay chain members produced in the body
after absorption of the parent radionuclide, 232Th, to blood.
Radionuclides produced in the respiratory tract are assumed to have the same kinetics as the
parent radionuclide while in the respiratory tract. The rate of dissolution of the carrier of the
radionuclide is assumed to control the rate of migration of inhaled radionuclides and their radioactive
progeny. An exception is made for 222Rn, which is assumed to escape from the body at a fractional
rate of 100 d" after its production in any segment of the respiratory tract.
Chain members produced in, or migrating to, the gastrointestinal tract after intake of the
parent radionuclide are assigned the gastrointestinal absorption fraction (/)) of the parent in most
cases. For consistency with the treatment of the systemic biokinetics of radionuclides formed in
vivo, exceptions are made if the parent radionuclide is an isotope of lead, radium, actinium, thorium,
protactinium, or uranium. In these cases, fractional absorption of a chain member produced in vivo
is assumed to be the same as if that chain member had been taken in as a parent radionuclide.
Solution of the biokinetic models
The solver used in the DCAL computational system (Eckerman et al., 1999) to track the
time-dependent distribution of activity of the parent and the decay chain members in the body is
described by Leggett et al. (1993).
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CHAPTER 5. DOSIMETRIC MODELS FOR INTERNAL EMITTERS
The dosimetric methodology used in this report is that of the ICRP and is generally consistent
with the schema of the Medical Internal Radiation Dose Committee (MIRD) of the U.S. Society of
Nuclear Medicine (Loevinger et al., 1988). The methodology considers two sets of anatomical
regions within the body. A set of "source regions" is used to specify the location of radioactivity
within the body. A set of "target regions" consists of those organs and tissues for which the radiation
dose may be calculated.
Both the ICRP and MIRD consider the mean absorbed dose to a target region as the
fundamental dosimetric quantity. The principal biological effect of interest in radiation protection,
cancer induction, is cellular in origin, and the mean dose in a target is relevant to the extent that dose
is representative of the dose to the cells at risk. The cells at risk are assumed to be uniformly
distributed in the target region. Thus, the mean dose is assumed to be the relevant quantity.
The source regions selected for a given application consist of explicitly identified anatomical
regions and an implicit region, referred to as Other, defined as the complement of the set of
explicitly identified regions. The radioactivity in each source region is assumed to be uniformly
distributed. For most regions the distribution is by volume, but for mineral bone regions and the
airways of the respiratory tract the distribution may be by surface area. For all target regions, the
relevant quantity is the mean energy absorbed in the target volume averaged over the mass of the
target.
A full list of source and target regions currently used by the ICRP is given in Table 5.1. The
names of most source or target regions adequately identify the associated organs or tissues of the
body, but additional explanation is needed for some regions, such as Body Tissues, Other, and Bone
Surface. These and other special source and target regions are defined in Appendix B.
The esophagus is a radiosensitive tissue but has not yet been incorporated explicitly into the
mathematical phantom used for internal dosimetric calculations. At present, the dose calculated for
the target region Thymus is used as a surrogate for the dose to the esophagus.
Age-dependent masses of source and target regions
With the exception of Urinary Bladder Contents, masses of source and target regions in
children are taken from the phantom series of Cristy and Eckerman (1987), and values for the adult
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Table 5.1. Source and target organs used in internal dosimetry methodology.
Organ or Tissue
Adrenals
Blood
Brain
Breasts
Gall Bladder Contents
Gall Bladder Wall
Heart Contents
Heart Wall
Kidneys
Liver
Muscle
Ovaries
Pancreas
Skin
Spleen
Testes
Thymus
Thyroid
Urinary Bladder Contents
Urinary Bladder Wall
Uterus
Body Tissues
Soft Tissues of Body Tissues
Other
Source Region
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Target
Region
Yes
No
Yes
Yes
No
Yes
No
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
No
Yes
Yes
No
No
No
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Table 5.1, continued
Organ or Tissue Source Region Target
Region
Skeleton:
Bone Surface No Yes
Cortical Bone Surface Yes No
Cortical Bone Volume Yes No
Trabecular Bone Surface Yes No
Trabecular Bone Volume Yes No
Red Marrow Yes Yes
Gastrointestinal Tract:
Stomach Contents Yes No
Stomach Wall Yes Yes
Small Intestine Contents Yes No
Small Intestine Wall Yes Yes
Upper Large Intestine Contents Yes No
Upper Large Intestine Wall Yes Yes
Lower Large Intestine Contents Yes No
Lower Large Intestine Wall Yes Yes
Respiratory Tract:
Extrathoracic Region 1 - Surface Yes No
Extrathoracic Region 1 - Basal Cells No Yes
Extrathoracic Region 2 - Surface Yes No
Extrathoracic Region 2 - Bound Yes No
Extrathoracic Region 2 - Sequestered Yes No
Extrathoracic Region 2 - Basal Cells No Yes
Lymph Nodes - Extrathoracic Region Yes Yes
Bronchial Region - Gel (Fast Mucus) Yes No
Bronchial Region - Sol (Slow Mucus) .
Bronchial Region - Bound Y j^j0
Bronchial Region - Sequestered •., Y
Bronchial Region - Basal Cells *, Yes
Bronchial Region - Secretory Cells yes No
Bronchiolar Region - Gel (Fast Mucus) yes No
Bronchiolar Region - Sol (Slow Mucus) yes |\j0
Bronchiolar Region - Bound Yes No
Bronchiolar Region - Sequestered NO Yes
Bronchiolar Region - Secretory Cells Yes Yes
Alveolar-Interstitial Region Yes Yes
Lymph Nodes - Thoracic Region
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male are taken from the Reference Man document (ICRP Publication 23, 1975). Masses of Urinary
Bladder Contents are based on data assembled for the revision of Reference Man and are intended
to represent the contents of the bladder averaged over the filling and voiding cycles (Cristy and
Eckerman, 1993).
For the adult female, regional masses are mostly reference values from ICRP Publication 23
(1975) but, where none are given, are scaled from those for the reference adult male. Masses for the
target region Bone Surface or for source regions within mineral bone of the adult female are taken
as 75% of the values for males. For Urinary Bladder Contents and Urinary Bladder Wall, values
for the 15-y-old male are applied to the adult female.
Age-specific masses of source and target regions are listed in Appendix B.
Dosimetric quantities
The mean energy absorbed in the target region depends on the nature of the radiations emitted
in the source regions, the spatial relationships between the source and target regions, and the nature
of the tissues between the regions. The details of these considerations are embodied in a
radionuclide-specific coefficient called the specific energy or SE.
For any radionuclide, source organ S, and target organ T, the specific energy at age t is
defined as
(5.1)
where Y, is the yield of radiations of type i per nuclear transformation, E, is the average or unique
energy of radiation type i, AF, (T<-S;f) is the fraction of energy emitted in source region S that is
absorbed within target region T at age t, and Mj(t) is the mass of target region T at age t. The age
dependence in SE arises from the age dependence of the absorbed fraction and the mass of the target
region. The quantity AF, (T<-S;t) is called the absorbed fraction (AF), and when divided by the mass
of the target region, MT, is called the specific absorbed fraction (SAP).
Whether one is interested in equivalent dose to a region, effective dose, or assessment of risk,
the basic quantity to be computed is the absorbed dose rate at various times. The dose rate in target
region T includes contributions from each radionuclide in the body and from each region in which
radionuclides are present. The absorbed dose rate at age t in region T of an individual of age ta at
the time of intake, D T(t,t0), can be expressed as
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= c Y, E
(5>2)
where <7S/^ is the activity of radionuclidey present in source region S at age t, SE(T^S;t) ^s the
specific energy deposited in target region Tper nuclear transformation of radionuclidey in source
region S at age t, and c is any numerical constant required by the units of q and SE.
The following shorthand terminology is sometimes used: "photons" for x radiation, gamma
radiation, and annihilation quanta; "electrons" for p+ particles, p- particles, internal conversion
electrons, and Auger electrons; and "alphas" for alpha particles and alpha recoil nuclei.
Nuclear decay data
In Eq. 5.1, there are two terms from the nuclear decay data: Y/ is the yield of radiations of
type i per nuclear transformation, and E, is the average or unique energy of radiation type i. The
radiations that contribute the overwhelming majority of the energy per nuclear transformation are
tabulated in ICRP Publication 38 (1983) and in a MIRD publication (Weber et al, 1989).
The decay data files in the DCAL computational system include the beta spectra (Eckerman
et al., 1994). The beta spectra files are used in the dosimetry for the ICRP's new respiratory tract
model. For other organs, only the average energy of each beta transition is used.
The nuclear decay data files include the kinetic energies of each emitted alpha particle but
not the corresponding kinetic energies of the recoiling nucleus. The recoil energy Er for an alpha
transition is computed as
4.0026 E
A
A - 4
where E is the kinetic energy of the alpha particle, A is the mass number of the nuclide, and 4.0026
is the atomic mass of an alpha particle.
Specific absorbed fractions for photons
Photon SAFs are derived from radiation transport calculations in anthropomorphic phantoms
representing newborn, 1 y, 5 y, 10 y, 15-y-old male, and adult male (with breasts, ovaries, and uterus
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'
Fig. 5.1. Illustration of phantoms used to derive age-dependent
specific absorbed fractions for photons.
added). These phantoms are illustrated in Fig. 5.1. In this report, the specific absorbed fractions for
the adult male are also applied to the adult female.
The specific absorbed fractions are tabulated for 12 energies between 10 keV and 4 MeV.
SAFs at intermediate energies are calculated by interpolating linearly between energies. Photons of
energy below 10 keV are treated as nonpenetrating radiations for most regions and are considered
to be absorbed in the source region. For bone dosimetry and for sources in the contents of walled
organs (e.g., stomach), the dosimetry for photons is analogous to that described below for electrons.
The most commonly applied method of computing specific absorbed fractions for photon
emissions is the Monte Carlo method, which is a computer simulation of photon interactions within
target organs after emission from a source organ. This method is carried out for all combinations
of source and target organs and for several photon energies. The body is represented by an idealized
phantom in which the internal organs are assigned masses, shapes, positions, and attenuation
coefficients based on their chemical composition. Hypothetical interactions of numerous photons
emanating in randomly chosen directions from points in the source organ are recorded as the photon
travels through tissues and escapes from the body or loses its energy. This approach can result in
significant statistical errors in situations where few interactions are expected to occur, such as cases
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involving low initial energies or target organs that are relatively small or remote from important
sources of activity.
An alternate method of estimating specific absorbed fractions for photon emissions involves
integration of a point-source kernel $(x), where x is the distance from the point source. The function
(j) is composed of inverse-square and exponential attenuation factors that reflect the loss of energy
from photon interactions and a buildup factor that reflects the contribution of scattered photons to
dose. The point-source kernel method technically is valid only for a homogeneous, unbounded
medium and may involve substantial errors (a factor of two or more) in cases involving significant
variations in composition or density of body tissue or smaller errors (up to about 10%) in cases
where target organs or important sources of activity lie near a boundary of the body.
Maximal differences between the Monte Carlo and classical point-kernel method are
expected to occur for widely separated organ pairs and for large coefficients of variation for the
Monte Carlo estimates. A comparison of the two methods was made for such situations in phantoms
representing children of ages 1-15 y (Cristy and Eckerman, 1987). The results of this comparison
indicate that the two approaches agree within a factor of two at all energies and within about 20%
at energies greater than 500 keV. The largest differences between the methods occur at very low
energies (10 keV or less) and at energies near 100 keV. The disagreement at 10 keV or less probably
results from some combination of poor statistics for the Monte Carlo values and poor data underlying
the point-source kernel at these energies. The disagreement at energy levels near 100 keV probably
is due largely to the inability of the point-source kernel method to account properly for the effects
of scattering. Comparisons of the Monte Carlo and point-kernel methods have been used to
determine correction factors for values generated by the point-kernel method (Cristy and Eckerman,
1987). It appears that errors in estimates of photon absorbed fractions can be minimized in most
situations by applying a weighted average of the specific absorbed fraction SAF(T,S) and the
reciprocal SAF(T,S) produced by the Monte Carlo method. In cases where the Monte Carlo values
are statistically unreliable, however, a better estimate may be obtained by applying the corrected
point-kernel method.
Absorbed fractions for beta particles and discrete electrons
The kinetic energy of beta particles or discrete electrons is assumed to be absorbed entirely
in the source region, except when the source is in the contents of a walled organ or in certain regions
of the respiratory tract or skeleton. Thus, for solid regions,
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, ifT=S
,ifT*SandS*BT (5.4)
MT I MBT, if S =BT
where BT (Body Tissues) indicates the systemic tissues of the body. If the source region is Body
Tissues of mass MBT, then the fraction of the activity in Body Tissues present in the target region is
MT/MBT, to which an absorbed fraction of 1 is applied.
For contents of walled organs, it is assumed that the dose to the wall is the dose at the surface
of a half-space, or half the equilibrium dose to the contents. Thus, the specific absorbed fraction is
SAF(wall~cont;t) = 0.5 / Mcont (5.5)
where Mcmt is the mass of the contents of the walled organ.
In the respiratory tract, there are narrow layers of radiosensitive basal and secretory cells in
the epithelium. These are irradiated to some extent by beta particles and discrete electrons
emanating from nearby "source organs", including the gel layer, the sol layer, and other identified
compartments within the epithelium.
The skeleton is generally represented as a uniform mixture of its component tissues: cortical
bone, trabecular bone, fatty marrow, red marrow, and connective tissues. Tissues of interest for
dosimetric purposes are the red marrow, which lies within the generally tiny cavities of trabecular
bone, and osteogenic cells adjacent to the surfaces of both cortical and trabecular bone. For the red
marrow the pertinent dose is assumed to be the average dose to the marrow space within trabecular
bone. For the osteogenic tissue, the ICRP recommends that the equivalent dose be calculated as an
average over tissues up to a distance of 10 um from the relevant bone surface.
Appendix B lists absorbed fractions for beta emitters for cases in which the source organ and
target organ are both in bone (ICRP, 1979). The values are assumed to be independent of age.
Absorbed fractions for alpha particles and recoil nuclei
For alpha particles and alpha recoil nuclei, the radiation is assumed to be absorbed entirely
in the source region, except when the source is in part of the skeleton or when the source is in the
contents of a walled organ. Equation 5.4 applies to all solid regions.
The assumptions of ICRP Publication 30 (1979, 1980, 1981) are applied to contents of walled
organs. That is, for application to alpha particles, the right side of Eq. 5.5 is multiplied by 0.01 to
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account for the reduced alpha dose to radiosensitive cells in the wall, and an absorbed fraction of
zero is applied to alpha recoil nuclei. The value 0.01 is not based on calculations of energy
deposition but is a cautiously high value based on comparative studies of radiogenic effects from
alpha and beta emitters in the gastrointestinal tracts of rats.
If an alpha emitter is uniformly distributed on the surface of trabecular bone then, by simple
geometric considerations, the absorbed fraction in the marrow space is one half. Lacking
information on the location of the hematopoietic stem cells, the ICRP assumes that the cells are
uniformly distributed within the marrow space.
For an alpha emitter uniformly distributed in the mineral of trabecular bone, the absorbed
fraction in the red marrow depends on the energy of the alpha particle. Calculations for alpha
emitters ranging in energy from 5 to 8 MeV indicate that the absorbed fraction in the marrow space
ranges between 0.041 and 0.087, which bracket the value of 0.05 recommended by the ICRP.
For an alpha emitter uniformly distributed in bone mineral, estimates of the absorbed fraction
in bone surface ranges from less than 0.02 to more than 0.03, depending on the energy of the alpha
particle. The nominal value recommended by the ICRP is 0.025.
Appendix B lists absorbed fractions for alpha emitters for cases in which the source and
target organ are both in bone (ICRP, 1979). The values are assumed to be independent of age. For
a source in a bone surface or bone volume compartment and a target consisting either of Bone
Surface or Red Marrow, there is assumed to be no contribution to SE from alpha recoils.
Spontaneous fission
Spontaneous fission occurs in the decay of some isotopes of uranium, plutonium, curium,
berkelium, californium, and einsteinium and results in the emission of photons, electrons, and
neutrons, as well as fission fragments. Spontaneous fission products have not yet been incorporated
into the internal dosimetry methodology. Therefore, radionuclides for which spontaneous fission
is an important transformation process, including 244Pu, 248Cm, 2:>()Cm, 2:>2Cf, and 2>4Cf, are not
addressed in this report.
Computation ofSE
Within the DCAL computational system (Eckerman et al., 1999), the SEs are computed by
the module SEECAL (Cristy and Eckerman, 1993). These SE calculations are based on nuclear
decay data files, libraries of specific absorbed fractions for non-penetrating radiations and photons,
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and age-specific organ masses. The nuclear decay data files and specific absorbed fractions are those
currently used by the ICRP (Cristy and Eckerman 1987, 1993). Organ masses for adults are taken
from ICRP Publication 23 (1975). For children, age-specific organ masses are taken from the
phantoms of Cristy and Eckerman (1987), which are based on data from ICRP Publication 23.
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CHAPTER 6. DOSIMETRIC MODELS FOR EXTERNAL EXPOSURES
Three external exposure scenarios are considered in this report: submersion in a semi-infinite
cloud, exposure to ground surface contamination, and exposure to soil contaminated to an infinite
depth. Persons are assumed to be exposed throughout their lifetimes to a unit concentration of the
radionuclide in air, on the ground surface, or in soil.
Dose rate coefficients from external exposure are taken from Federal Guidance Report No. 12
(EPA, 1993), which tabulates coefficients for external exposure to photons and electrons. The
coefficients are based on state-of-the-art methods for calculating the energy and angular distribution
of the radiations incident upon the body and the transport of these radiations within the body.
Tabulations in Federal Guidance Report No. 12 are for a reference adult, as defined in ICRP
Publication 23 (1975). Calculations were based on the 70-kg phantom of Cristy (Cristy and
Eckerman, 1987), with two modifications: the head region was made more realistic by including a
neck and shortening the right elliptical cylinder comprising the lower portion of the head, and a
model of the esophagus was added.
Although there is expected to be some age dependence in organ dose rates from external
exposures, comprehensive tabulations of age-specific external dose coefficients are not yet available.
Therefore, the tabulations for the reference adult in Federal Guidance Report No. 12 are applied to
all age groups. As discussed in Appendix D to this report, the application of these external dose
coefficients to other age groups appears to result in relatively small errors (usually <30%) in most
cases. In extreme cases, such as for external irradiation of deep organs (e.g., ovaries or colon) of
infants at energies less than 100 keV energies, 2- to 3-fold errors may arise. In applications of the
derived risk coefficients, however, errors arising from application of age-independent external dose
rates are likely to be negligible compared with errors associated with the simplified exposure
scenarios used here (e.g., constant placement and position, no shielding, and infinite or semi-infinite
source regions). Simplified exposure scenarios are used because it is not feasible to develop an
external dosimetric methodology that applies to arbitrary distributions of contamination or to
differences in life styles.
Interpretation of dose coefficients from Federal Guidance Report No. 12
Dose coefficients for external exposure relate the dose to organs and tissues of the body to
the concentration of radionuclides in environmental media. The term "external exposure" is used
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to indicate that the radiations originate outside the body. The radiations of concern are those that
are sufficiently penetrating to traverse the overlying tissues of the body and thus are limited to
photons, including bremsstrahlung, and electrons.
Because it is not feasible to develop an external dosimetric methodology that applies to
arbitrary distributions of radionuclides in environmental media, it has become common practice to
consider simplified and idealized exposure geometries. In particular, a semi-infinite source region
generally is assumed for submersion in contaminated air, and an infinite source region generally is
assumed for exposure to contaminated soil.
If one assumes an infinite or semi-infinite source region with a uniform concentration C(t)
of a radionuclide at time t, then the equivalent dose in tissue T, HT, can be expressed as
HT = hT C(0 dt (6.1)
where hT denotes the time-independent dose coefficient for external exposure. The coefficient hT
represents the dose to tissue T of the body per unit time-integrated exposure (integrated concentration
of the radionuclide). That is,
Alternatively, one may interpret hT as representing the instantaneous dose rate in organ T per unit
activity concentration of the radionuclide in the environment. Furthermore, since only low-LET
radiations are considered in the derivation of external dose coefficients, equivalent and absorbed
doses are numerically equal.
In Federal Guidance Report No. 12, hT is interpreted as the dose per unit time-integrated
exposure. In this report, however, hT is interpreted as a dose rate because dose rates are required as
input into the radiation risk methodology applied here.
Nuclear data files used
The energies and intensities of the radiations emitted in spontaneous nuclear transformations
of radionuclides have been reported in Publication 38 of the International Commission on
Radiological Protection (ICRP, 1983). That publication is a report of the Task Group on Dose
Calculations of ICRP Committee 2 and was assembled at Oak Ridge National Laboratory (ORNL)
168
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during the preparation of ICRP Publication 30 (ICRP, 1979). The nuclear decay data of ICRP
Publication 38 are based on the Evaluated Nuclear Structure Data Files (ENSDF) (Ewbank and
Schmorak, 1978) of the Department of Energy's Nuclear Data Project as processed by the EDISTR
code (Dillman, 1980). The processed data files retained in the ICRP/ORNL dosimetric data base
include full tabulations of the average or unique energies and intensities of the radiations and also
the beta spectra (Eckerman et al., 1994). The dose coefficients for external irradiation given in
Federal Guidance Report No. 12 are based on these data files.
Radiations considered
For external exposures, the radiations of concern are those that are sufficiently penetrating
to traverse the overlying tissues of the body and deposit ionizing energy in radiosensitive organs and
tissues. Photons and electrons are the most important penetrating radiations produced by
radionuclides in the environment.
Some radionuclides produce bremsstrahlung that is sufficiently penetrating to be of potential
importance in the estimation of external dose. Bremsstrahlung, from the German for "braking
radiation", is produced when deceleration of electrons in a medium results in conversion of a small
fraction of their initial kinetic energy into energy in the form of photons. Bremsstrahlung energy is
distributed from zero up to the initial electron energy. The bremsstrahlung yield is small (about
0.5% at 1.0 MeV in tissue) but for pure beta emitters is sometimes the only source of radiation of
sufficiently penetrating nature to irradiate some radiosensitive tissues.
The types of radiations considered in Federal Guidance Report No. 12 are photons, including
bremsstrahlung, and electrons. The energy spectrum of emitted radiations can be characterized as
either (1) discrete emissions of a unique energy (e.g, gamma radiation), and (2) continuous energy
distribution of electrons as in the case of beta particles and bremsstrahlung. The beta spectra are used
in Federal Guidance Report No. 12 to evaluate the contribution of the beta particles to the skin dose
and to determine the yield of bremsstrahlung.
Spontaneous fission occurs in the decay of several radionuclides in the actinide series and
results in the emission of photons, electrons, and neutrons, as well as fission fragments. However,
spontaneous fission is an important decay mode for only a few radionuclides, including 244Pu, 248Cm,
23°Cm, 2:>2Cf, and 2:4Cf. For these cases, the dose coefficients given in Federal Guidance Report
No. 12 may underestimate true doses considerably due to neglect of the contribution to dose from
spontaneous fission. These five radionuclides are not addressed in this report, either in the external
or the internal exposure scenarios.
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Effects of indoor residence
The dose coefficients for air submersion and exposure to contaminated soil are taken from
Federal Guidance Report No. 12 (EPA, 1993). These dose coefficients assume that exposed
individuals spend all of the time outdoors. Depending on such factors as photon energy, type of
structure, fraction of time spent indoors, and degree of disequilibrium in the concentration of a
radionuclide in indoor and outdoor air, there could be a substantial reduction in the equivalent dose
from external exposures during indoor residence due to shielding by structures.
For noble-gas radionuclides, air submersion is the only external exposure mode of concern.
The effects of indoor residence on equivalent doses to skin due to electrons should be negligible
during chronic releases, unless the range of the emitted electrons in air is somewhat greater than the
interior dimensions of building rooms, because the indoor and outdoor air concentrations for noble
gases will be about the same.
A radionuclide-independent dose reduction factor is sometimes applied to external dose
coefficients to account for the effects of indoor residence (e.g., NRC, 1977). However, the average
reduction in external dose due to indoor residence depends on the radionuclide as well as other
factors indicated above and generally cannot be quantified with much certainty. In the present
document, the external dose coefficients given in Federal Guidance Report No. 12 are not reduced
to account for the effects of indoor residence.
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CHAPTER 7. RADIOGENIC CANCER RISK MODELS
Calculations of radiogenic risk are based on risk projection models for specific cancer sites.
The age- and gender-specific radiation risk models used in this report are taken from a recent EPA
report (EPA, 1994) that provides a methodology for calculation of radiogenic cancer risks based on
a critical review of data on the Japanese atomic bomb survivors and other study groups. Parameter
values in the models have been modified in some cases in the present report to reflect the use of
updated vital statistics for the U.S. and to achieve greater consistency in the assumptions made for
different age groups and genders. The following age-at-exposure groups are considered in the
models: 0-9, 10-19, 20-29, 30-39, and 40+ y.
Types of risk projection models
One of two basic types of radiogenic cancer risk projection models is used for a given cancer
site: an absolute risk model or a relative risk model. An absolute risk model is based on the
assumption that the age-specific excess force of mortality or morbidity (that is, the mortality or
morbidity rate for a given cancer type) due to a radiation dose is independent of cancer mortality or
morbidity rates in the population. A relative risk model is based on the assumption that the
age-specific excess force of mortality or morbidity due to a radiation dose is the product of an
exposure-age-specific relative risk coefficient and baseline cancer mortality or morbidity rate. In this
report, risk models for bone, skin, and thyroid cancer are based on an absolute risk hypothesis, and
risk models for other sites are based on a relative risk hypothesis.
In the absolute risk models used in this report, the absolute risk e(x,xe) at age x due to a unit
absorbed dose received at an earlier age xe (xe < x) is calculated as
e(x,xe) = a(xe) C(f), (7.1)
where:
a(jce) is a non-negative number, called a "risk model coefficient", that depends on gender as
well as age at exposure; and
C(0 is either 0 or 1, depending on the time since exposure, t = x - xe.
Ill
-------
The function a defines the potential level of risk of dying from or experiencing a given type of
cancer at any given age (and hence time) after the dose is received, and C defines the plateau period,
that is, the time period during which the risk is expressed.
In the relative risk models used in this report, e(x,xe) is calculated as e(x,xe) = u(x) x r\(x,xe),
where u(x) is the baseline force of cancer mortality or morbidity at age x and T\(x,xe) is the relative
risk at age x due to a unit absorbed dose received at age xe (xe < x); r\(x,xe) is calculated as
Ti(x,xe) = P(xe) C(Ue), (7.2)
where
/ = T - T °
I A, A.g,
P(xe) is a non-negative number, called a "risk model coefficient", that depends on gender as
well as age at exposure; and
£(t,xe) is the relative magnitude of the response at different times after exposure at age xe.
For all cancers except leukemia, it is assumed that C is independent of the exposure age xe
and has a value of either 0 or 1, depending on the time since exposure, t = x - xe. The
time-since-exposure response function £(t,xe) for either chronic granulocytic leukemia or for acute
leukemia is given by £(t,xe) = 0 if t< 2 y and £(t,xe) = §(t,E,(x^),a ) if t > 2 y, where
exp(-0.5(ln(/^2) - £(*e))2 / a2)
In this expression, the function £(xe) and the value a depend on the type of leukemia. For chronic
granulocytic leukemia, £(xc) = 2.68 and a =1.51. For acute leukemia, E,(xe) = 1.61 + 0.0\5xe +
0.0005jce and u = 0.65 (EPA, 1994). The total leukemia time-since-response function is a weighted
mean of the response function for chronic granulocytic leukemia, which is given a weight of 0.32,
and the response function for acute leukemia, which is given a weight of 0.68 (EPA, 1994).
The function p in Eq. 7.2 times the baseline force of cancer mortality or morbidity, \JL(X), at
a given age defines the potential level of risk of dying from or experiencing a given type of cancer
at that age, and C defines the period during which the risk is expressed and, in the case of leukemia,
the changes in the level of response during that period. Because the time-since-response function
for leukemia is scaled differently from the time-since-response functions for other cancers and has
a maximum value much less than 1, the risk model coefficients (age- and gender-specific values of
P) for leukemia are not directly comparable with the risk model coefficients for other cancers.
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The term "risk coefficient" used in the EPA report on radiation risk models (EPA, 1994) has
been replaced here with the term "risk model coefficient" to avoid confusion with the radionuclide
risk coefficients tabulated in Chapter 2. The risk coefficients given in Chapter 2 refer to risk per unit
intake or external exposure to a specific radionuclide in a specific environmental medium.
Epidemiological studies used in the development of risk models
The risk model coefficients given in the EPA report (EPA, 1994) were based in large part on
information from the Radiation Effects Research Foundation (RERF) Life Span Study (LSS) cohort
of Hiroshima and Nagasaki atomic bomb survivors (Shimizu et al., 1989, 1990). The LSS has the
advantages that it includes a large, relatively healthy population at the time of exposure, a wide range
of reasonably well established doses to individual subjects (although some important dosimetric
issues remain), a large, well matched control group (that is, people who were present in Hiroshima
or Nagasaki at the time of bombing but who received only small doses of radiation), and a detailed,
long-term epidemiological follow-up. A statistically significant excess cancer mortality associated
with radiation has been found among the bomb survivors for the following types of cancer:
leukemia, esophagus, stomach, colon, liver, lung, breast, ovary, urinary tract, and multiple myeloma.
Results of other epidemiological studies on radiation-exposed populations were used for
development of risk models for a few sites for which the A-bomb survivor do not appear to provide
best available information on radiogenic risk. For example, risk models for the thyroid and breast
were based primarily on results of epidemiological studies of medical exposures of these organs.
For two other sites, bone and liver, low-LET risk estimates were extrapolated from results of
epidemiological studies of humans exposed to Ra and thorotrast, respectively (EPA, 1994),
together with data on comparative biological effectiveness of alpha and low-LET radiations in
laboratory animals. There are additional important epidemiological studies of persons exposed either
to low-LET or high-LET radiation, but results of these additional studies were used mainly for
comparison with results for the A-bomb survivors.
Modification of epidemiological data for application to low doses and dose rates
All of the epidemiological studies used in the development of the radiation risk models
involve subjects who experienced high radiation doses delivered in a relatively short time. Available
evidence indicates that the response per unit dose at low doses and low dose rates from low-LET
173
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radiation may be overestimated if one extrapolates from observations made at high, acutely delivered
doses (NCRP, 1980). The degree of overestimation is commonly expressed in terms of a dose and
dose rate effectiveness factor (DDREF). For example, a DDREF of 2 means that the risk per unit
dose observed at high acute doses should be divided by 2 before being applied to low doses or low
dose rates. "Low dose" and "low dose rate" are defined here in terms of the range of applicability
of a DDREF of 2; "low dose" is defined as <0.2 Gy and "low dose rate" is defined as <0.1 mGy
min' (UNSCEAR, 1993; EPA, 1994). For comparison, the ICRP (1991) used a DDREF of 2 in the
calculation of probability coefficients for all equivalent doses below 0.2 Gy and from higher doses
resulting from absorbed dose rates less than 0.1 Gy h" (about 1.7 mGy min" ).
In the EPA report on radiation risk models (EPA, 1994) and hence in the present report,
low-LET radiogenic cancer risks for sites other than the breasts are assumed to be reduced by a
DDREF of 2 at low doses and low dose rates compared to risks at high acute dose exposure
conditions. The DDREF assumed for breast cancer is 1. Risks from high-LET (alpha particle)
radiation are assumed to increase linearly with dose and to be independent of dose rate.
Relative biological effectiveness factors for alpha particles
Except for breast cancer and leukemia, the EPA has followed the ICRP's recommendation
(ICRP, 1991) and assumed that the relative biological effectiveness (RBE) for alpha particles is 20,
in comparison to low-LET radiation at low doses and dose rates (EPA, 1994). For leukemia, an
effective alpha particle RBE of 1 is used. For breast cancer, an alpha particle RBE of 10 is used.
Where comparison was made in the EPA report (EPA, 1994) against acute high doses of
low-LET radiation, a value of 10 was assumed for the alpha particle RBE. This is consistent with
the RBE of 20 relative to acute, low-dose, low-LET radiation, given the assumption of a DDREF of
2 for low-LET radiation at low doses and dose rates.
Risk model coefficients for specific organs
Age- and gender-specific risk model coefficients used in this report are summarized in Table
7.1 for cancers other than leukemia and in Table 7.2 for leukemia. Risk model coefficients for
esophagus, stomach, colon, lung, ovary, bladder, leukemia, and "residual" are based on updated
information on the Japanese atomic bomb survivors and are derived using a slightly modified version
of a model of Land and Sinclair (1991). The risk model coefficients for these sites are obtained by
taking the geometric mean of model coefficients derived from two equally plausible methods used
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Table 7.1. Revised mortality risk model coefficients3' for cancers other than
leukemia, based on the EPA radiation risk methodology (EPA, 1994).
Cancer type
Male:
Esophagus
Stomach
Colon
Liver
Lung
Bone
Skin
Breast
Ovary
Bladder
Kidney
Thyroid
Residual
Female:
Esophagus
Stomach
Colon
Liver
Lung
Bone
Skin
Breast
Ovary
Bladder
Kidney
Thyroid
Residual
Risk
model
typec
R
R
R
R
R
A
A
R
R
R
R
A
R
R
R
R
R
R
A
A
R
R
R
R
A
R
0-9 y
0.2877
1.223
2.290
0.9877
0.4480
0.09387
0.06597
0.0
0.0
1.037
0.2938
0.1667
0.5349
1.805
3.581
3.265
0.9877
1.359
0.09387
0.06597
0.7000
0.7185
1.049
0.2938
0.3333
1.122
10-19 y
0.2877
1.972
2.290
0.9877
0.4480
0.09387
0.06597
0.0
0.0
1.037
0.2938
0.1667
0.5349
1.805
4.585
3.265
0.9877
1.359
0.09387
0.06597
0.7000
0.7185
1.049
0.2938
0.3333
1.122
Age group
20-29 y
0.2877
2.044
0.2787
0.9877
0.0435
0.09387
0.06597
0.0
0.0
1.037
0.2938
0.08333
0.6093
1.805
4.552
0.6183
0.9877
0.1620
0.09387
0.06597
0.3000
0.7185
1.049
0.2938
0.1667
0.8854
(*e)
30-39 y
0.2877
0.3024
0.4395
0.9877
0.1315
0.09387
0.06597
0.0
0.0
1.037
0.2938
0.08333
0.2114
1.805
0.6309
0.8921
0.9877
0.4396
0.09387
0.06597
0.3000
0.7185
1.049
0.2938
0.1667
0.3592
40+ y
0.2877
0.2745
0.08881
0.9877
0.1680
0.09387
0.06597
0.0
0.0
1.037
0.2938
0.08333
0.04071
1.805
0.5424
0.1921
0.9877
0.6047
0.09387
0.06597
0.1000
0.7185
1.049
0.2938
0.1667
0.1175
aThe tabulated risk model coefficients are the precise values derived from the epidemiological data and used in the
calculations. The use of four significant digits should not be interpreted as indicating a low level of uncertainty in the
risk model coefficients.
Age-specific risk model coefficients were used to derive composite risk coefficients representing averages over all ages.
Application of these risk model coefficients to a specific age group is not recommended due to the high sampling
variability in the underlying epidemiological data for some age groups.
CA indicates that an absolute risk model is used (coefficient units, 10" Gy" y" ), and R indicates that a relative risk
model is used (Gy" ). K(JQ,) is given for absolute risk model (Eq. 7.1) and P(JQ,) for a relative risk model (Eq. 7.2).
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Table 7.2. Revised mortality risk model coefficients (Gy" ) for leukemia,
based on the EPA radiation risk methodology (EPA, 1994).
Age group (xe)
Gender
Male
Female:
0-9 y
982.3
1176
10-19 y
311.3
284.9
20-29 y
416.6
370.0
30-39 y
264.4
178.8
40+ y
143.6
157.1
A relative risk model is used (coefficient units, Gy"). Risk model coefficients for leukemia are not directly comparable
to those for other types of cancer (Table 7.1) due to differences in the scales of the time-since-exposure response
functions for leukemia and other cancers (see the discussion following Eq. 7.2).
by Land and Sinclair for transporting risk from one population to another. Both methods assume a
constant excess relative risk coefficient beginning 10 y after an exposure and continuing throughout
the rest of life for each cancer site, excluding leukemia. One method (multiplicative) assumes that
the relative risk estimator is the same across populations. The other (NIH, for National Institutes of
Health) assumes that the relative risk model coefficients for the target population should yield the
same risks as those calculated with the additive risk model coefficients from the original population
over the period of epidemiological follow-up, excluding the minimal latency period. These excess
relative risk model coefficients are then used to project the risk over the remaining years of life. The
data considered in deriving risk model coefficients consisted of cancers observed 10-40 y after
exposure for solid tumors and 5-40 y after exposure for leukemia.
As described below, some modifications in the method of calculation of the NIH model
coefficients have been made to remove inconsistencies in the derived coefficients. Some but not all
of these changes were made in the EPA report on radiation risk models (EPA, 1994); therefore,
some of the risk coefficients in Tables 7.1 and 7.2 differ from values given in that report.
An examination of the coefficients for the additive and multiplicative models of Land and
Sinclair (1991) reveals that in several instances data for exposures of two or more age groups were
combined to calculate a single risk coefficient. In such cases, a single NIH model coefficient has
been calculated for use in the present report by combining the risks calculated for the corresponding
groups. This was done in the EPA report (EPA, 1994) for model coefficients for lung and colon
cancer for two exposure age groups (0-9 y and 10-19 y), and the same principle has been extended
in the present report to the coefficients for esophagus, ovary, and bladder cancer. For these three
sites, the age-group-specific additive coefficients of Land and Sinclair were based on a
single-coefficient multiplicative risk model. For the present report, an NIH model excess relative
176
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risk coefficient has been calculated corresponding to the combined risk for exposure for all
age-groups, expressed 10-40 years after exposure for the additive risk model.
EPA (1994) noted inconsistencies between ages and between genders in the additive and
multiplicative risk models of Land and Sinclair (1991) with regard to coefficients for the residual
site for age groups 0-9 y and 10-19 y. These inconsistencies may be the result of uncertain
differences between the total observed excess cancers and the sum of those attributed to specific
sites. In the EPA report (EPA, 1994), risk model coefficients for the residual site for age group
10-19 y were applied to age group 0-9 y. For the present report, the additive model risks for these
two age groups have been combined to calculate gender-specific, single coefficients for the NIH risk
model. Single risk coefficients equivalent to the risks projected by the multiplicative model for
10-40 y following exposure of those in this age group were also calculated. These values were used
to calculate gender-specific risk model coefficients for these two age groups for the EPA risk model.
For kidney, the LSS data are suggestive of a radiogenic risk but the number of excess cancers
is not statistically significant. The existence of a radiogenic kidney cancer risk is indicated by an
epidemiological study of subjects receiving radiation treatments for cervical cancer (NAS, 1990;
Boice et al., 1988). Given the importance of the kidney as a possible target organ for uranium and
some other radionuclides, the EPA (1994) has developed a risk model for this site based on the LSS
data. A constant relative risk model independent of age at exposure and sex is used, and a 10-y
latency period is assumed.
Risk model coefficients for the liver are based on epidemiological data on patients injected
with Thorotrast, an x-ray contrast medium containing isotopes of thorium (NAS, 1980, 1988). To
develop risk model coefficients for high-dose, low-LET radiation, an RBE of 10 is assumed for alpha
particles. A constant relative risk model independent of age at exposure and sex is used, and a 10-y
latency period is assumed.
Estimates of skin cancer risks are highly uncertain, but the mortality risk is known to be
relatively low. For acute exposures, the EPA has adopted the mortality risk estimate given in ICRP
Publication 60 (1991) but, in contrast to ICRP, has applied a DDREF of 2 in estimating the skin
cancer risk at low doses and dose rates. Non-fatal skin cancers, which represent perhaps 99.99% of
basal cell carcinomas and about 99% of squamous cell carcinomas, are excluded from the risk model
coefficients. A 10-y latency period is assumed.
Thyroid risk estimates are based on NCRP Report 80 (NCRP, 1985). The Nuclear
Regulatory Commission (NRC) and the ICRP have also adopted this approach (NRC, 1991, 1993;
ICRP, 1991). The mortality risk is assumed to be one-tenth the morbidity risk. The estimated
morbidity and mortality risks are each reduced by a factor of 3 in the case of exposures to
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iodine-125, -129, and -131. This reduction includes the effect of lowered dose rate on the risk, as
well as other possible factors. Hence, the DDREF of 2 applied to organ specific risk estimates is not
applied in the case of exposure to these radionuclides. A latency period of 5 y is assumed for
radiogenic thyroid cancers.
As a basis for estimating radiation-induced bone sarcomas, the EPA has adopted BEIR IV's
risk estimate based on alpha irradiation by 224Ra (NAS, 1988). However, this risk estimate refers to
average skeletal dose and has previously been applied incorrectly as endosteal cell dose. For
example, bone cancer risk appears to be substantially overestimated in ICRP Publication 60 (1991)
due to a confusion between endosteal and average skeletal doses (Puskin et al., 1992). Because the
bone seeker 224Ra decays quickly, the endosteal dose from injected224Ra is estimated to be an order
of magnitude higher than the average skeletal dose. Thus, a risk model coefficient derived in terms
of average skeletal dose, if applied to average endosteal dose, would overestimate the radiation-
related risk of bone cancer. Risk model coefficients for high-dose, low-LET radiation are derived
by dividing values based on alpha irradiation by a factor of 10 and reducing the risk model
coefficients by another 30% to account for the fact that about 70% of bone sarcomas are fatal.
Following BEIR III (NAS, 1980), a constant absolute risk model is used to project risk, with an
expression period extending from 2 to 27 y after exposure.
For breast cancer, the EPA has adopted a model of Gilbert developed for the U.S. Nuclear
Regulatory Commission (NRC, 1991, 1993) and based on data for persons receiving medical
exposures to radiation. A major issue with regard to breast cancer is in the transport of risk from
Japan to the U.S., where the baseline rates are much higher. The model of Gilbert for breast cancer
avoids this problem because it is based on North American data.
Site-specific cancer mortality risk estimates from low-dose, low-LET uniform irradiation of
the whole body, based on the risk model coefficients in Tables 7.1 and 7.2, are given in Table 7.3.
These estimates are age-averaged values for the hypothetical stationary population described in
Chapter 3. The method of computation is described in a later section.
Association of cancer type with dose location
The dose locations associated with the different cancer types are shown in Table 7.4. When
more than one dose location is associated with a given cancer type, risks are calculated for a
weighted mean of the doses at these locations using the weights shown in the table. For specific
cancer types, the association of cancer type with dose location follows recommendations in ICRP
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Table 7.3. Age-averaged site-specific cancer mortality risk estimates (cancer
deaths per person-Gy) from low-dose, low-LET uniform irradiation of the body.
Site
Esophagus
Stomach
Colon
Liver
Lung
Bone
Skin
Breast
Ovary
Bladder
Kidney
Thyroid
Leukemia
Residual3
Total
Males
7.30x1 0"4
3.25x1 0"3
8.38x1 0~3
1.84x10"3
7.71 x10"3
9.40x1 0~5
9.51 x10~5
—
—
3.28x1 0"3
6.43x1 0~4
2.05x1 0~4
6.48x1 0"3
1.35x10"2
4.62x1 0~2
Females
1.59x10"3
4.86x1 0"3
1.24x10"2
1.1 7x1 0~3
1.1 9x1 0~2
9.60x1 0"5
1.05x10"4
9.90x1 0"3
2.92x1 0"3
1.52x10"3
3.92x1 0"4
4.38x1 0"4
4.71 x1Q'3
1.63x10"2
6.83x1 0"2
Combined
genders
1.17X10"3
4.07x1 0"3
1.04x10"2
1.50x10"3
9.88x1 0"3
9.50x1 0"5
1.00x10"4
5.06x1 0"3
1.49x10"3
2.38x10"3
5.15x10"4
3.24x1 0"4
5.57x1 0"3
1.49x10"2
5.75x1 0"2
Residual is a composite of all radiogenic cancers that are not explicitly identified by site in the model.
Publication 60 (1991), except that the weights assigned to regions within the colon and lung are
based on more recent recommendations in ICRP Publication 66 (1994a) and 67 (1993), respectively.
The residual cancer category represents a composite of primary and secondary cancers that are not
otherwise considered in the model. The three dose locations associated with these cancers (skeletal
muscle, pancreas, and adrenals) were chosen to be generally representative of doses to soft tissues
and are not considered to be the sites where all residual neoplasms originate.
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Table 7.4. Dose regions associated with cancer types.
Cancer type
Esophagus
Stomach
Colon
Liver
Lung
Bone
Skin
Breast
Ovary
Bladder
Kidney
Thyroid
Leukemia
Residual
Dose region
Esophagus
Stomach Wall
Upper Large Intestine Wall
Lower Large Intestine Wall
Liver
Bronchial Region - Basal Cells
Bronchial Region - Secretory Cells
Bronchiolar Region - Secretory Cells
Alveolar-Interstitial Region
Bone Surface
Skin
Breasts
Ovaries
Urinary Bladder Wall
Kidney
Thyroid
Red Marrow
Muscle
Pancreas
Adrenals
Weighting factor
1.0
1.0
0.568
0.432
1.0
0.1667
0.1667
0.3333
0.3333
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
0.3334
0.3333
0.3333
For intakes of radionuclides, the estimated dose to the thymus is applied to the esophagus, which is not
represented explicitly in the mathematical phantoms used for internal dosimetric calculations. The
esophagus is represented explicitly in the phantom used for external dose calculations (EPA, 1993).
Relation between cancer mortality and morbidity
To obtain estimates of radiation-induced cancer morbidity, each site-specific mortality risk
estimate is divided by its respective lethality fraction, that is, the fraction of radiogenic cancers at
that site which are fatal. Aside from thyroid cancer, the lethality fraction is generally assumed to
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Table 7.5. Lethality data for cancers by site in adults."
Cancer site
Esophagus
Stomach
Colon
Liver
Lung
Bone
Skinb
Breast
Ovary
Bladder
Kidney
Thyroid
Leukemia (acute)
Residual
Lethality fraction k
0.95
0.90
0.55
0.95
0.95
0.70
0.002
0.50
0.70
0.50
0.65
0.10
0.99
0.71
Lethality fractions (mortality-to-morbidity ratios) are from Tables B-l 9
and B-20 of ICRP Publication 60 (ICRP, 1991).
At least 83% of skin cancers are basal cell carcinomas (—0.01%
lethality) and the remainder are squamous cell carcinomas (—1%
lethality). The morbidity estimates for skin cancer given in this report
reflect only fatal cases and omit the much larger number of nonfatal
cases, most of which are easily curable and result in little trauma for the
patient (ICRP, 1992). Left untreated, however, non-fatal skin cancers
may require intensive medical treatment or be disfiguring.
be the same for radiogenic cancers as for the totality of other cancers at that site. A list of lethality
fractions recommended in ICRP Publication 60 (1991) and adopted by the EPA (1994) is reproduced
in Table 7.5.
Site-specific cancer morbidity risk estimates from low-dose, low-LET uniform irradiation
of the whole body, based on the data in Tables 7.5, are given in Table 7.6. These estimates are age-
181
-------
Table 7.6. Age-averaged site-specific cancer morbidity risk estimates (cancer
cases per person-Gy) from low-dose, low-LET uniform irradiation of the body.
Site
Esophagus
Stomach
Colon
Liver
Lung
Bone
Skin3
Breast
Ovary
Bladder
Kidney
Thyroid
Leukemia
Residualb
Total
Male
7.69x1 0"4
3.61 xlO"3
1.52x10"2
1.94x10"3
8.12x10"3
1.34x10"4
9.51 x10"5
—
—
6.55x1 0"3
9.88x1 0"4
2.05x1 0"3
6.54x1 0"3
1.91x10"2
6.51 x10"2
Female
1.68x10"3
5.40x1 0"3
2.25x10"2
1.23x10"3
1.26x10"2
1.37x10"4
1.05x10"4
1.98x10"2
4.17x10"3
3.04x1 0"3
6.03x1 0"4
4.38x1 0"3
4.75x1 0"3
2.29x1 0"2
1.03x10"1
Combined
genders
1.23x10"3
4.53x1 0"3
1.89x10"2
1.58x10"3
1.04x10"2
1.36x10"4
LOOxlO"4
1.01x10"2
2.13x10"3
4.76x1 0"3
7.91 x10"4
3.24x1 0"3
5.63x1 0"3
2.11x10'2
8.46x1 Q-2
aSkin cancer morbidity risk coefficients include fatal cancer risks only. See text.
Residual is a composite of all radiogenic cancers that are not explicitly identified by site in the model.
averaged values for the hypothetical stationary population described in Chapter 3. The method of
computation is described in a later section.
Based on the methods of this report, skin is projected to contribute most of the nonfatal
cancers induced by uniform whole body irradiation. At least 83% of all skin cancers are basal cell
carcinomas and the remainder are squamous cell carcinomas. Approximately 99.99% of the former
and 99% of the latter are non-fatal. The morbidity estimates for skin cancer given in the present
report reflect only fatal cases.
182
-------
Treatment of discontinuities in risk model coefficients
The radiogenic cancer models described in the preceding sections are discontinuous at some
times. For example, the function £(/) that describes the period of expression of risk for solid cancers
typically has a value of zero for times between exposure and 10 y after exposure but suddenly jumps
to a value of 1 starting at 10 y after exposure.
To calculate a risk coefficient for a given radionuclide and environmental medium, it is
necessary to integrate functions that include such discontinuous risk model functions as factors. The
integration is accomplished by fitting a smoothly varying spline function to the integrand and
performing a straightforward integration of the spline function. The difficulty arises that the integral
of the spline function may include unintended contributions to the risk. For example, suppose that
the function to be integrated (the integrand) includes the function £(/) described above as a factor,
and suppose the integrand is evaluated at one-year increments. Fitting a spline to the integrand
provides a continuous transition from the value at 9 y to the value at 10 y but includes an unintended
contribution from this interval. The problem is resolved by replacing the value of the discontinuous
function at the discontinuity with the average of the values immediately above and below it. For this
case, the value of the function £(/) at t =10 y is changed from 1 to(0+ 1)/2 = 0.5.
Computation of radionuclide risk coefficients
The calculations of radiogenic risk in this report account for the possibility that an exposed
person who may have eventually died from, or developed, a radiogenic cancer will die at an earlier
age from a competing cause of death. It is assumed that the survival function is not significantly
affected by the exposures being assessed, that is, that the number of radiogenic cancer deaths at any
age is small compared with the number of deaths at that age from competing causes. Therefore, the
risk coefficients tabulated in this document should not be applied to exposure levels that are
sufficiently high to cause a substantial increase in the mortality rate at any age.
The age-specific cancer risk attributable to a unit intake of a radionuclide is calculated from
the absorbed dose rate due to a unit intake of the radionuclide and the age-specific risk per unit dose
model coefficients. The calculation is specific for each cancer and associated absorbed dose site in
the risk model. The complete calculation may involve the sum of contributions from more than one
target tissue and from both low-and high-LET absorbed doses.
The age-specific lifetime risk coefficient (LRC), r(x), is the risk per unit absorbed dose of a
subsequent cancer death (Gy"1) due to radiation received at age x. In the EPA report on radiation risk
183
-------
models (EPA, 1994), r(x) is referred to as an attributable lifetime risk (ALR) coefficient, but the
terminology has been changed for use in this report because the term attributable risk is defined
differently by different authors.
For an absolute risk model, the LRC for a given contribution is
fa(x)t(z-x)S(z)dz
(7.4)
r(x) =
S(x)
where x,. The cancer risk ra(jc,-) resulting from a unit intake
of a radionuclide at age x, is calculated from the continuously varying absorbed dose rate D (x) as
follows:
fD(x)r(x)S(x)dx
_
r x
where r(x) is the cancer risk due to a unit absorbed dose (Gy"1) at the site at age x. The absorbed dose
rate is the absorbed dose rate for low-LET radiation, plus the product of the high-LET absorbed dose
rate and the RBE applicable to the cancer type.
184
-------
Age-specific male and female risk coefficients are combined by calculating a weighted mean:
l.OSr (JC.)M (x)S (x.) + r, (x)utx) Sf(x)
, •* _ mav !' mv i' m^ v fav i' r- i' ;v i' ._
r (jc.) (7
• ' 1.05 Sm (*.)«„,(*,.) + S/*,.) */*,.) '
where
ra(x,.) is the combined cancer risk coefficient for a unit intake of activity at age x,,
1.05 is the presumed sex ratio at birth (male-to-female),
rma(xi) i§ me male risk per unit activity at age x,,
rfa(x^) is the female risk per unit activity at age x,,
-------
The above description applies to a stationary population that is subject to fixed
gender-specific survival functions and fixed cancer mortality rates. In such a population, the age
distribution of a given gender is proportional to the survival function for that gender. The derived
risk coefficients may be interpreted either as risk per unit exposure to a typical member of the
population exposed throughout life to a constant concentration of a radionuclide in an environmental
medium, or as average risk per unit exposure to members of the population due to acute exposure
to that radionuclide in that environmental medium. As discussed in Appendix E, a similar analysis
may be applied to the case of acute exposure of a population with an arbitrary age distribution, if it
is assumed that the exposed population is subject to fixed gender-specific survival functions and
fixed cancer mortality rates at all times after the exposure. In this case, the survival function S(x)
in Eq. 7.8 is replaced by a function P(x) representing the age distribution of the population at the
time of acute exposure.
Lifetime risks for external radionuclide exposures are calculated in a manner similar to that
for radionuclide intakes. Since the external exposure is not considered to be age dependent, the
calculation is simpler. Given the age-specific cancer risk per unit dose, r(x), and the corresponding
dose per unit exposure coefficient, de, the lifetime risk is simply
re(x) = der(x) (7.9)
for an external exposure at age x. Age-specific male and female risk coefficients are combined by
calculating a weighted mean as in Eq. 7.7, but with the usage rates wm(x,.) and ufx^) removed from
that equation. For lifetime external exposure at a constant exposure rate, de, the average lifetime risk
is
fre(x)S(x)dx
~ (7-10)
where re(x) is given in Eq. 7.9 and S(x) is the gender-weighted survival function. This equation
applies to a specific cancer site. The total risk is the sum over all cancer sites.
186
-------
APPENDIX A. MODELS FOR MORTALITY RATES
FOR ALL CAUSES AND FOR SPECIFIC CANCERS
The life tables used in this report are based on data prepared by the National Center for
Health Statistics for the U.S. Decennial Life Tables for 1989-91 (NCHS, 1997). The data are given
in terms of q(x), the probability of death in the age interval beginning at age x (NCHS, 1997, Tables
2 and 3). For each gender, tabulations are for age intervals from 0-1, 1-7, 7-28, and 28-365 days, and
from 0-1 through 109-110 y in one-year increments. For purposes of this report, these values of q(x)
were extended in one year intervals to ages 110 y and above using the same methods that had been
used to calculate the values for ages 100 to 109 y (Bell et al., 1992). Briefly, it is assumed that for
x > 109 y, q(x) for males is the minimum of 1.05q(x-l) and 1.0, and q(x) for females is the minimum
of l.06q(x-l) and the value q(x) for males. The completed set of values of q(x) were then used to
calculated S(x), the probability of survival to age x [that is, S(x) = (l-q(x-l))S(x-l)] and e(x), the
expected life time remaining at age x. Values of S(x) and e(x) for a combined population were
calculated for a male-to-female live birth ratio of 1.050. The derived values of S(x) and e(x) are
shown in Table A.I.
For consistency with the survival data, age- and gender-specific cancer mortality rates (force
of mortality) were calculated using NCHS data for reported deaths during 1989-91 (NCHS, 1992,
1993a, 1993b). Because of the small numbers of deaths for specific cancer sites at some ages,
reasonably smooth force of mortality curves cannot be obtained by simply fitting the death data in
one-year intervals. The method used here combines the one-year interval death data, starting with
the first age with at least one death, into intervals of one or more years that contain at least five
deaths. Above age 95 y, the one-year intervals are combined into a single group ending at the last
age with any reported deaths. Cumulative deaths, expressed as a fraction of the total number of
deaths in the interval in a stationary population defined by the gender-specific survival functions,
are calculated at the end of each age interval. A third-order hermite polynomial spline (Fritsch and
Carlson, 1980) is then fitted to these values. The "force of mortality" associated with a given cancer
site and age is calculated as the quotient of the first derivative (with respect to age) of the spline fit
to the cumulative deaths and the value of the survival function at that age.
The force of mortality estimate at the maximum reported age is applied to subsequent ages,
and a value of zero is applied to ages below the minimum reported age. Finally, the calculated force
of mortality data are smoothed by convolution with a gaussian response function with a
full-width-half-maximum value of 3 years. Although the reported death data are discrete values for
one-year intervals, the derived forces of mortality are continuous functions of age.
A-l
-------
Table A.I. Gender- and age-specific values for the survival function, S(x),
and the expected remaining lifetime, e(x), used in this report.
Age (y)
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
Combined
1 .0000
9.9064E-01
9.8992E-01
9.8944E-01
9.8908E-01
9.8878E-01
9.8851 E-01
9.8826E-01
9.8804E-01
9.8784E-01
9.8766E-01
9.8750E-01
9.8735E-01
9.8713E-01
9.8682E-01
9.8636E-01
9.8574E-01
9.8498E-01
9.8410E-01
9.8315E-01
9.8217E-01
9.8114E-01
9.8008E-01
9.7897E-01
9.7785E-01
9.7671 E-01
9.7556E-01
9.7440E-01
9.7321 E-01
9.7197E-01
9.7067E-01
9.6930E-01
9.6786E-01
9.6636E-01
9.6479E-01
9.6314E-01
9.6140E-01
9.5958E-01
9.5767E-01
9.5567E-01
9.5358E-01
9.5140E-01
9.4910E-01
9.4668E-01
9.4409E-01
9.4132E-01
9. 3831 E-01
9.3502E-01
9.3145E-01
9.2758E-01
9.2339E-01
9.1884E-01
9.1387E-01
9.0844E-01
9.0253E-01
8.9610E-01
8.8913E-01
8.8157E-01
8.7334E-01
8.6437E-01
8.5460E-01
S(x)
Male
1.0000
9.8961 E-01
9.8884E-01
9.8830E-01
9.8789E-01
9.8754E-01
9.8723E-01
9.8696E-01
9.8670E-01
9.8647E-01
9.8628E-01
9.8611 E-01
9.8594E-01
9.8570E-01
9.8528E-01
9.8465E-01
9.8377E-01
9.8267E-01
9.8140E-01
9.8000E-01
9.7855E-01
9.7703E-01
9.7546E-01
9.7383E-01
9.7218E-01
9.7050E-01
9.6881 E-01
9.6710E-01
9.6536E-01
9.6356E-01
9.6167E-01
9.5970E-01
9.5763E-01
9.5549E-01
9.5325E-01
9.5092E-01
9.4847E-01
9.4591 E-01
9.4324E-01
9.4048E-01
9.3762E-01
9.3467E-01
9.3160E-01
9.2840E-01
9.2501 E-01
9.2140E-01
9.1752E-01
9.1333E-01
9.0880E-01
9.0392E-01
8.9868E-01
8.9301 E-01
8.8686E-01
8.8017E-01
8.7288E-01
8.6494E-01
8.5634E-01
8.4701 E-01
8.3687E-01
8.2583E-01
8. 1381 E-01
Female
1 .0000
9.9173E-01
9.9106E-01
9.9064E-01
9.9033E-01
9.9008E-01
9.8984E-01
9.8963E-01
9.8944E-01
9.8928E-01
9.891 2E-01
9.8897E-01
9.8882E-01
9.8864E-01
9.8843E-01
9.881 5E-01
9.8780E-01
9.8740E-01
9.8694E-01
9.8646E-01
9.8597E-01
9.8545E-01
9.8492E-01
9.8437E-01
9.8381 E-01
9.8324E-01
9.8266E-01
9.8207E-01
9.8146E-01
9.8081 E-01
9.801 3E-01
9.7939E-01
9.7861 E-01
9.7778E-01
9.7690E-01
9.7597E-01
9.7498E-01
9.7394E-01
9.7282E-01
9.7162E-01
9.7034E-01
9.6896E-01
9.6748E-01
9.6587E-01
9.641 3E-01
9.6223E-01
9.601 3E-01
9.5780E-01
9.5524E-01
9.5242E-01
9.4933E-01
9.4595E-01
9.4223E-01
9.3814E-01
9.3367E-01
9.2882E-01
9.2356E-01
9.1785E-01
9.1164E-01
9.0485E-01
8.9744E-01
Combined
75.24
74.94
74.00
73.03
72.06
71.08
70.10
69.12
68.13
67.15
66.16
65.17
64.18
63.20
62.22
61.24
60.28
59.33
58.38
57.44
56.49
55.55
54.61
53.67
52.73
51.79
50.86
49.92
48.98
48.04
47.10
46.17
45.23
44.30
43.38
42.45
41.52
40.60
39.68
38.76
37.85
36.93
36.02
35.11
34.21
33.31
32.41
31.52
30.64
29.77
28.90
28.04
27.19
26.35
25.52
24.70
23.89
23.09
22.30
21.53
20.77
e(x)
Male
71.83
71.58
70.64
69.68
68.70
67.73
66.75
65.77
64.78
63.80
62.81
61.82
60.83
59.85
58.87
57.91
56.96
56.03
55.10
54.17
53.25
52.34
51.42
50.51
49.59
48.68
47.76
46.84
45.93
45.01
44.10
43.19
42.28
41.37
40.47
39.57
38.67
37.77
36.88
35.98
35.09
34.20
33.31
32.43
31.54
30.66
29.79
28.93
28.07
27.22
26.37
25.54
24.71
23.89
23.09
22.30
21.52
20.75
19.99
19.25
18.53
Female
78.81
78.47
77.52
76.55
75.58
74.60
73.61
72.63
71.64
70.65
69.67
68.68
67.69
66.70
65.71
64.73
63.75
62.78
61.81
60.84
59.87
58.90
57.93
56.96
56.00
55.03
54.06
53.09
52.12
51.16
50.19
49.23
48.27
47.31
46.35
45.40
44.44
43.49
42.54
41.59
40.65
39.70
38.76
37.83
36.89
35.97
35.04
34.13
33.22
32.31
31.42
30.53
29.65
28.77
27.91
27.05
26.20
25.36
24.53
23.71
22.90
A-2
-------
Table A.I, continued
Age (y)
61
62
63
64
65
66
67
68
69
70
71
72
73
74
75
76
77
78
79
80
81
82
83
84
85
86
87
88
89
90
91
92
93
94
95
96
97
98
99
100
101
102
103
104
105
106
107
108
109
110
111
112
113
114
115
116
117
118
119
120
Combined
8.4405E-01
8.3274E-01
8.2064E-01
8.0770E-01
7.9390E-01
7.7922E-01
7.6370E-01
7.4729E-01
7.2989E-01
7.1140E-01
6.9173E-01
6.7085E-01
6.4873E-01
6.2547E-01
6.0118E-01
5.7598E-01
5.4988E-01
5.2292E-01
4.9505E-01
4.6622E-01
4.3643E-01
4.0583E-01
3.7468E-01
3.4339E-01
3.1230E-01
2.8153E-01
2.5117E-01
2.2156E-01
1.9307E-01
1.6604E-01
1.4063E-01
1.1706E-01
9.5685E-02
7.6820E-02
6.0582E-02
4.6893E-02
3.5553E-02
2.6410E-02
1.9215E-02
1.3686E-02
9.5253E-03
6.4653E-03
4.2700E-03
2.7372E-03
1.6982E-03
1.0164E-03
5.8477E-04
3.2202E-04
1.6891E-04
8.3912E-05
3.9216E-05
1.7103E-05
6.8928E-06
2.5380E-06
8.5432E-07
2.5924E-07
6.9636E-08
1.6159E-08
3.1292E-09
4.7981E-10
S(x)
Male
8.0086E-01
7.8701E-01
7.7224E-01
7.5649E-01
7.3974E-01
7.220 1E-01
7.0334E-01
6.8369E-01
6.6298E-01
6.4109E-01
6.1797E-01
5.9359E-01
5.6801E-01
5.4137E-01
5.1387E-01
4.8565E-01
4.5679E-01
4.2742E-01
3.9763E-01
3.6750E-01
3.3706E-01
3.0647E-01
2.7609E-01
2.4650E-01
2.1816E-01
1.9116E-01
1.6550E-01
1.4140E-01
1.1910E-01
9.8784E-02
8.0549E-02
6.444 1E-02
5.0524E-02
3.8824E-02
2.9266E-02
2.1656E-02
1.5693E-02
1.1151E-02
7.7620E-03
5.2851E-03
3.5144E-03
2.2780E-03
1.4365E-03
8.7932E-04
5.2121E-04
2.9833E-04
1.6438E-04
8.6882E-05
4.3873E-05
2.1069E-05
9.5701E-06
4.0859E-06
1.6274E-06
5.9920E-07
2.0170E-07
6.1205E-08
1.6441E-08
3.8150E-09
7.3878E-10
1.1328E-10
Female
8.8940E-01
8.8076E-01
8.7147E-01
8.6148E-01
8.5076E-01
8.3930E-01
8.2708E-01
8.1406E-01
8.0014E-01
7.8522E-01
7.6919E-01
7.5197E-01
7.3349E-01
7.1377E-01
6.9286E-01
6.7082E-01
6.4764E-01
6.232 1E-01
5.9734E-01
5.6987E-01
5.4077E-01
5.1017E-01
4.782 1E-01
4.4512E-01
4.1115E-01
3.7643E-01
3.4113E-01
3.0573E-01
2.7074E-01
2.3666E-01
2.0372E-01
1.7231E-01
1.4310E-01
1.1672E-01
9.3463E-02
7.3392E-02
5.6407E-02
4.2432E-02
3.1241E-02
2.2507E-02
1.5837E-02
1.0862E-02
7.2452E-03
4.6879E-03
2.9340E-03
1.7705E-03
1.0262E-03
5.6892E-04
3.0020E-04
1.4990E-04
7.0343E-05
3.077 1E-05
1.2422E-05
4.5737E-06
1.5396E-06
4.6717E-07
1.2549E-07
2.9120E-08
5.639 1E-09
8.6466E-10
Combined
20.02
19.29
18.57
17.86
17.16
16.47
15.79
15.13
14.48
13.84
13.22
12.62
12.03
11.46
10.90
10.36
9.82
9.31
8.80
8.31
7.85
7.40
6.97
6.56
6.17
5.79
5.43
5.09
4.76
4.46
4.17
3.92
3.68
3.47
3.26
3.08
2.90
2.74
2.59
2.44
2.30
2.16
2.03
.90
.78
.66
.55
.44
.34
.24
.14
.05
0.97
0.89
0.82
0.75
0.68
0.62
0.55
0.49
e(x)
Male
17.82
17.13
16.44
15.78
15.12
14.48
13.85
13.23
12.63
12.05
11.48
10.93
10.40
9.89
9.39
8.90
8.44
7.98
7.54
7.12
6.72
6.34
5.98
5.64
5.30
4.98
4.68
4.39
4.12
3.87
3.63
3.42
3.23
3.06
2.90
2.74
2.60
2.47
2.34
2.22
2.10
.99
.88
.77
.67
.57
.47
.38
.29
.21
.12
.05
0.97
0.89
0.82
0.75
0.68
0.62
0.55
0.49
Female
22.11
21.32
20.54
19.77
19.02
18.27
17.53
16.80
16.09
15.38
14.69
14.02
13.36
12.71
12.08
11.46
10.85
10.26
9.68
9.12
8.59
8.07
7.58
7.10
6.65
6.22
5.81
5.42
5.06
4.72
4.40
4.11
3.85
3.61
3.39
3.18
2.99
2.81
2.65
2.49
2.34
2.20
2.06
.93
.80
.68
.56
.45
.35
.24
.15
.05
0.97
0.89
0.82
0.75
0.68
0.62
0.55
0.49
A-3
-------
-------
APPENDIX B. ADDITIONAL DETAILS OF THE DOSIMETRIC MODELS
Definitions of special source and target regions
The source region Body Tissues (formerly called Whole Body) consists of the entire body,
minus the contents of the gastrointestinal (GI) tract, the urinary bladder, the gall bladder, and the
heart. Thus, Body Tissues consists essentially of the "living tissues" of the body. The source region
Blood is assumed to be uniformly distributed in Body Tissues.
The source region Soft Tissues represents Body Tissues minus cortical and trabecular bone.
This source region is used to describe the distribution of some radionuclides that are distributed
throughout the soft tissues of the body but have little deposition in mineral bone.
The target region historically referred to as Bone Surface represents radiosensitive endosteal
tissue that actually is neither bone in its composition nor a surface of bone. This target region is
defined as the volume of soft tissue within 10 //m of the endosteal surface of bone. The target region
Bone Surface should not be confused with the source regions Cortical Bone Surface and Trabecular
Bone Surface, which refer to radioactivity assumed to be associated with infinitely thin surfaces of
cortical and trabecular bone, respectively.
Within mineral bone, activity may be distributed within the volume of cortical or trabecular
bone as well as on the surfaces of mineral bone. The four source regions Cortical Bone Surface,
Cortical Bone Volume, Trabecular Bone Surface, and Trabecular Bone Volume are not used as target
regions because mineral bone is not radiosensitive.
Following long-term usage in radiation dosimetry, the source or target region Red Marrow
is identified with the hematopoietically active marrow. The percentage of active marrow cells
(cellularity) within a volume of marrow varies from site to site in the skeleton. The age-specific
distribution of marrow within the body and relative cellularity at different sites have been taken into
account in the dosimetry.
For a given biokinetic model, the source region Other consists of Body Tissues, minus the
source organs identified explicitly in the biokinetic model. The contribution of radiations emitted
in Other to the energy deposition in a target region T is derived by assuming that the radioactivity
is distributed uniformly by mass in Other.
Only source regions that are regarded as "volume sources" (that is, that have non-zero
volume) may be considered as part of Other. Because the source regions Cortical Bone Surface and
Trabecular Bone Surface are considered as infinitely thin surfaces of bone, they are not volume
B-l
-------
sources and hence cannot be part of Other. However, Cortical Bone Volume and Trabecular Bone
Volume are volume sources and may be part of Other. If no source regions in the volume of mineral
bone or on its surfaces are explicitly identified in the biokinetic model, then Other includes
radioactivity uniformly distributed by mass in Cortical Bone Volume and Trabecular Bone Volume.
If any source region in the volume or on the surfaces of mineral bone is explicitly identified in the
biokinetic model, then Other does not include any activity in mineral bone, that is, neither Cortical
Bone Volume nor Trabecular Bone Volume. The entire mineral bone (Cortical Bone Volume plus
Trabecular Bone Volume) is either included in Other or the entire mineral bone is excluded. It is
never separated. Red Marrow will always be part of Other unless it is explicitly identified as a
source region in the biokinetic model.
The esophagus is a radiosensitive tissue but has not yet been incorporated explicitly into the
mathematical phantom used for internal dosimetric calculations. At present, the dose calculated for
the target region Thymus is used as a surrogate for the dose to the esophagus.
Age-dependent masses of source and target regions
Age-specific masses of source and target regions are given in Table B.I. With the exception
of Urinary Bladder Contents, values for children are taken from the phantom series of Cristy and
Eckerman (1987), and those for the adult male are taken from ICRP Publication 23 on Reference
Man (ICRP, 1975). Masses of Urinary Bladder Contents are based on data assembled for the
revision of Reference Man and represent average contents (Cristy and Eckerman, 1993).
For the adult female, regional masses are mostly reference values from ICRP Publication 23
(1975) but, where none are given, are scaled from those for the reference adult male. Masses for the
target region Bone Surface or for source regions within mineral bone of the adult female are taken
as 75% of the values for males. For Urinary Bladder Contents and Urinary Bladder Wall, values
for the 15-y-old male are applied to the adult female.
Absorbed fractions for radiosensitive tissues in bone
For electrons, the radiation is usually assumed to be absorbed entirely in the source region.
Exceptions are made for alpha and beta emitters when the source and target regions are parts of the
skeleton. The absorbed fractions in Table B.2 are taken from ICRP Publication 30, Part 1 (1979),
and are applied to all ages.
B-2
-------
Table B.I. Age-specific masses (g) of source and target organs.
Organ
Adrenals
Brain
Breasts
Gallbladder Contents
Gallbladder Wall
Lower Large Intestine Contents
Lower Large Intestine Wall
Small Intestine Contents
Small Intestine Wall
Stomach Contents
Stomach Wall
Upper Large Intestine Contents
Upper Large Intestine Wall
Heart Contents
Heart Wall
Kidneys
Liver
Muscle
Ovaries
Pancreas
Red Marrow
Cortical Bone Volume
Trabecular Bone Volume
Bone Surface
Skin
Spleen
Testes
Thymus
Thyroid
Urinary Bladder Contents
Newborn
5.83
35.2
0.107
2.12
0.408
6.98
7.96
20.3
32.6
10.6
6.41
11.2
10.5
36.5
25.4
22.9
121
760
0.328
2.80
47.0
0.0
14.0
15.0
118
9.11
0.843
11.3
1.29
10.4
1y
3.52
88.4
0.732
4.81
0.910
18.3
20.6
53.1
84.9
36.2
21.8
28.7
27.8
72.7
50.6
62.9
292
2500
0.741
10.3
150
299
20.0
26.0
271
25.5
1.21
22.9
1.78
26.0
5y
5.27
1260
1.51
19.7
3.73
36.6
41.4
106
169
75.1
49.1
57.9
55.2
134
92.8
116
584
5000
1.73
23.6
320
875
219
37.0
538
48.3
1.63
29.6
3.45
67.6
10y
7.22
1360
2.60
38.5
7.28
61.7
70.0
179
286
133
85.1
97.5
93.4
219
151
173
887
11,000
3.13
30.0
610
1580
396
68.0
888
77.4
1.89
31.4
7.93
78.0
15y
10.5
1410
360
49.0
9.27
109
127
322
516
195
118
176
168
347
241
248
1400
22,000
11.0
64.9
1050
3220
806
120
2150
123
15.5
28.4
12.4
88.4
Adult
female3
14.0
1200
360
50.0
8.00
135
160
375
600
230
140
210
200
410
240
275
1400
17,000
11.0
85.0
1300
3000
750
90.0
1790
150
0.0
20.0
17.0
88.4
Adult
male3
14.0
1400
a
62.0
10.0
135
160
400
640
250
150
220
210
500
330
310
1800
28,000
a
100
1500
4000
1000
120
2600
180
35.0
20.0
20.0
120
B-3
-------
Table B.I, continued
Organ
Urinary Bladder Wall
Uterus
Body Tissues
Extrathoraclc 1 - Basal Cells
Extrathoraclc 2 - Basal Cells
Lymph Nodes - Extrathoraclc
Bronchial - Basal Cells
Bronchial - Secretory Cells
Bronchlolar - Secretory Cells
Alveolar-Interstitial
Lymph Nodes - Thoracic
Newborn
2.88
3.85
3535.7
0.00173
0.0389
0.701
0.0938
0.187
0.385
51.4
0.701
1y
7.70
1.45
9543.1
0.00413
0.0930
2.05
0.155
0.310
0.596
151
2.05
5y
14.5
2.70
19,458
0.00828
0.186
4.11
0.234
0.469
0.946
301
4.11
10y
23.2
4.16
32,620
0.0126
0.284
6.78
0.311
0.622
1.30
497
6.78
15y
35.9
80.0
55,825
0.0185
0.416
11.7
0.408
0.816
1.76
859
11.7
Adult
female3
35.9
80.0
56,912
0.0170
0.390
12.3
0.390
0.780
1.90
904
12.3
Adult
male3
45.0
80.0
68,831
0.0200
0.450
15.0
0.432
0.864
1.94
1100
15.0
aln this report, dosimetric calculations are not performed separately for adult males and females but are based on a
reference adult formed by adding the breasts, ovaries, and uterus of the adult female phantom to the adult male phantom.
Table B.2. Absorbed fractions for alpha and beta emitters in bone (ICRP, 1979,1980).
P-emitter, average p-emitter, average
Source Region Target Region a-emitter energy < 0.2 MeV energy > 0.2 MeV
Cortical Bone Surface
Cortical Bone Volume
Trabecular Bone Surface
Trabecular Bone Volume
Cortical Bone Surface
Cortical Bone Volume
Trabecular Bone Surface
Trabecular Bone Volume
Red Marrow
Red Marrow
Red Marrow
Red Marrow
Red Marrow
Red Marrow
Bone Surface
Bone Surface
Bone Surface
Bone Surface
Red Marrow
Bone Surface
0.0
0.0
0.5
0.05
0.25
0.01
0.25
0.025
1
(fraction
• (mass
0.0
0.0
0.5
0.35
0.25
0.015
0.25
0.025
1
0.0
0.0
0.5
0.35
0.015
0.015
0.025
0.025
1
endosteal tissue associated with Red Marrow)
of endosteal tissue) •*• (mass of Red Marrow)8
aThis equation corresponds to the assumption that the specific absorbed fraction in endosteal tissue is the same as that
in Red Marrow itself. The fraction of endosteal tissue in whole skeleton associated with Red Marrow is assumed to be
1.0, 0.83, 0.65, 0.65, 0.65, and 0.5 for ages newborn, l-y, 5-y, 10-y, 15-y, and adult, respectively. Adult value is from
ICRP Publication 30, and other values are from Cristy and Eckerman (1987).
B-4
-------
APPENDIX C. AN ILLUSTRATION OF THE MODELS AND METHODS
USED TO CALCULATE RISK COEFFICIENTS FOR INTERNAL EXPOSURE
This appendix provides a detailed example to illustrate the models and computational steps
involved in the derivation of a risk coefficient for ingestion or inhalation of a radionuclide. A
secondary purpose is to illustrate some recent changes in the ICRP's biokinetic and dosimetric
models (ICRP, 1989, 1993, 1994a, 1995a, 1995b)
The radionuclide selected for detailed consideration is Th because this radionuclide
represents nearly all of the different types of changes that have been made recently in the ICRP's
biokinetic and dosimetric models. For example, age-dependent// values have been introduced for
thorium and the// value for the adult has been changed (ICRP, 1995a); a new, age-specific systemic
biokinetic model has been adopted for thorium (ICRP, 1995a); the treatment of ingrowing
radioactive progeny of Th and other thorium isotopes has been revised (ICRP, 1995a); and a new
model of the biokinetics of inhaled radionuclides, including Th, has been adopted (ICRP, 1994a).
To keep the analysis to a reasonable length, the discussion focuses on estimating the risk, per
TOO
unit intake of Th, of dying from a single cancer type. Leukemia is considered because of the
relatively high degree of sophistication and detail provided in the risk model for this type of cancer.
Because radiogenic leukemia is assumed to arise from irradiation of the bone marrow, discussion
of the dosimetric models focuses on this tissue.
Gastrointestinal tract model and// values
The ICRP's model for transit of material through the gastrointestinal tract is described in
Chapter 4. This model has not been changed since its appearance in ICRP Publication 30 (1979).
However, applications of the model have changed in recent ICRP publications in the following ways:
the model is now applied to all age groups; some of the ICRP's updated systemic biokinetic models
depict secretion of activity from the systemic tissues and fluids into compartments of the
gastrointestinal tract model; new// values have been adopted for several elements, for application
to environmental intakes by the adult; and age-specific// values have been adopted for several
elements, for application to environmental intakes.
In ICRP Publication 69 (1995a), an/; value of 5X10"4 is recommended for calculation of
doses from ingestion of environmental thorium by persons of age > 1 y. This// value, which is 2.5
times the value recommended in ICRP Publication 30 (1979) for consideration of occupational
C-l
-------
exposures to thorium, is based on experimental data on gastrointestinal absorption of thorium,
neptunium, plutonium, americium, and curium in human subjects. On the basis of experimental
results indicating that gastrointestinal absorption of actinide elements typically is several times
higher in newborn than adult animals, an/; value of 5X10"3 is assigned to infants (ICRP, 1995a).
Respiratory tract model
The ICRP's new respiratory tract model is described in Chapter 4. The present discussion
focuses on predictions of the model for three hypothetical forms (absorption types) of inhaled
thorium, including the distribution of thorium in the respiratory tract, its absorption to blood, and
its movement from the respiratory tract to excreta, as a function of time after inhalation.
Although the respiratory tract model was designed to allow consideration of
compound-specific kinetics, parameter values have been developed for only a few general situations.
In current applications of the model, a given compound of an element usually is assigned to one of
three default absorption types: Type F, representing fast dissolution and a high level of absorption
to blood; Type M, representing an intermediate rate of dissolution and an intermediate level of
absorption to blood; and Type S, representing slow dissolution and a low level of absorption to
blood. Ideally, the user bases an absorption type on data on the form of material expected to be
encountered. In practice, the form of the inhaled material often cannot be characterized with much
confidence.
Predictions of the fate of inhaled Th of Type F, M, or S based on the ICRP's new
respiratory tract model are shown on the left side of Fig. C.I. The assumed particle size is 1 um
(AMAD). Because it is assumed in the model that the behavior of material in the respiratory tract
depends only on particle size and absorption type, the predictions apply to all long-lived
radionuclides whose gastrointestinal absorption is negligible compared with the indicated levels of
absorption from the respiratory tract to blood. For short-lived radionuclides, the curves for the
extrathoracic (ET), alveolar-interstitial (AI), bronchial (BB), and bronchiole (bb) regions may
decline faster and those for Gastrointestinal (GI) excretion, Nasal excretion, and Absorption may
have lower maximum values than the curves shown in Fig. C.I due to radioactive decay in the
respiratory tract. Here, GI excretion represents the cumulative activity transferred from the
respiratory tract to the GI Tract, and Nasal excretion refers to removal of material from the ET region
directly to the environment by such mechanisms as nose blowing.
C-2
-------
>~
•*" 0 50
^>
>
^>
<8 0.40
T3
.
>
T>
-
>
<8 0.40
-o
*
>
t3
"-C...T.B\ \.
u- ' 0.01 0.1 1 10 100 1000
Time after inhalation (d)
>>
*~ 0 50
>
i
a 0.40
T3
-------
The three absorption types, F, M, and S, correspond roughly to the three lung clearance
classes D (days), W (weeks), and Y (years) used in the ICRP's previous respiratory tract model
(ICRP, 1979). Predictions of the previous model for inhaled Th of particle size 1 um and
clearance classes D, W, and Y are shown on the right side of Fig. C.I for comparison with
predictions of the new model. Although there is not an exact correspondence between the different
regions of the two models, the nasal-pharyngeal (NP) region may be compared with the ET region,
the tracheobronchial (TE) region with the bronchi (BE) plus bronchioles (bb), and the pulmonary
(P) region with the alveolar-interstitial (AI) region of the new model. Compared with the new
model, the previous model predicts higher total deposition in the respiratory tract, greater deposition
in the lower lungs, faster removal from the extrathoracic regions, and greater absorption to blood.
Biokinetics of absorbed thorium
Structure of the systemic biokinetic model for thorium
A new biokinetic model for thorium was introduced in ICRP Publication 69 (ICRP, 1995a).
The model is developed within a generic model framework adopted by the ICRP for application to
a class of "bone-surface-seeking" radionuclides (Fig. C.2). To this point, the generic model
framework has been applied by the ICRP to thorium, plutonium, americium, curium, and neptunium.
While the model structure is generic, many of the transfer coefficients are not. Some transfer
coefficients associated with compartments within the skeleton are expressed in terms of bone
remodeling rates and thus are independent of the bone-surface seeker, but element-specific transfer
coefficients are required for most of the paths shown in Fig. C.2.
The generic model structure divides systemic tissues and fluids into six main parts: BLOOD,
SKELETON, LIVER, KIDNEYS, GONADS, and OTHER SOFT TISSUES. BLOOD and GONADS
are treated as uniformly mixed pools, but each of the other major parts is further divided into a
minimal number of compartments needed to explain available biokinetic data on thorium and
chemically similar elements.
SKELETON is divided into cortical and trabecular fractions, and each of these is subdivided
into fractions associated with bone surface, bone volume, and bone marrow. Activity entering
SKELETON initially deposits in compartments of bone surface but is transferred gradually to bone
marrow by bone resorption or to compartments of bone volume by bone formation. Activity in bone
volume compartments is transferred gradually to bone marrow compartments by resorption. Activity
C-4
-------
I OTHER
Fig. C.2. The ICRP's generic framework for modeling the systemic biokinetics of
a class of bone-surface-seeking elements, including thorium.
moves from bone marrow compartments to BLOOD over a few months and is subsequently
redistributed in the same pattern as the original input to blood.
LIVER is viewed as consisting of two compartments, called LIVER I and LIVER 2. LIVER I
represents relatively short-term retention and LIVER 2 represents relatively long-term retention in
the liver. Activity entering the liver is assigned to LIVER L Activity removed from LIVER I by
biological processes is divided among blood, LIVER 2, and the contents of the GI tract. Activity
leaving LIVER 2 is assigned to blood.
KIDNEYS consists of two compartments, one that loses activity to urine and another that
returns activity to blood. URINARY BLADDER CONTENTS is considered as a separate pool that
receives all material destined for urinary excretion.
C-5
-------
Compartment STO is a soft-tissue pool that includes the extracellular fluids and exchanges
material with blood over a period of hours or days. Soft-tissue compartments ST1 and ST2 represent
intermediate-term retention (up to a few years) and tenacious retention (many years), respectively,
in the massive soft tissues (for example, muscle, skin, and subcutaneous fat).
Parameter values for the systemic model for thorium
Movement of material in the body is depicted as a system of first-order processes. Parameter
values are expressed as transfer coefficients (fractional transfer per day) between compartments.
Age-specific transfer coefficients for thorium are listed in Table C.I for the six ages considered in
the ICRP series on age-dependent dosimetry (ICRP, 1989, 1993, 1995a, 1995b, 1996). Rates for
intermediate ages are obtained by interpolating linearly with age between the listed values. For
example, a given transfer coefficient for age 4 y is calculated as 0.25 times the rate given for age 1 y
plus 0.75 times the rate given for age 5 y. For consideration of the biokinetics of thorium, the age
of the mature adult is assumed to be >25 y.
Transfer coefficients for the adult were based largely on experimental, occupational, and
environmental data on the behavior of thorium in humans, but it was necessary to use data on
laboratory animals to fill gaps in the data base for man. For example, the model was required to be
consistent with data on early retention, excretion, and blood clearance of thorium in healthy, elderly
human subjects who received radiothorium by intravenous injection (Maletskos et al., 1966, 1969),
but the early distribution of thorium in the body was based mainly on experimental data on the early
distribution of thorium in beagles (Stover et al., 1960) in the absence of such information for human
subjects. Parameter values controlling predictions of the long-term distribution and retention of
thorium were developed mainly on the basis of bioassay or autopsy measurements on occupationally
or environmentally exposed humans (Rundo, 1964; Newton et al., 1981; Wrenn et al., 1981; Singh
et al., 1983; Ibrahim et al., 1983; Dang et al., 1992), together with consideration of bone
restructuring rates in humans (ICRP, 1995c).
Due to the paucity of age-specific data on the biokinetics of thorium, default assumptions
concerning the relative kinetics of bone seekers in children and adults were used in ICRP Publication
69 (1995a) to extend parameter values from adults to children. These assumptions are based on
numerous observations of the age-specific biokinetics of various bone seekers in laboratory animals
and, to a lesser extent, human subjects (Leggett, 1992a, 1992b; ICRP, 1993, 1995b). It is postulated
that differences with age in the biokinetics of a bone-seeking radionuclide is determined largely by
three factors: (1) increased fractional transfer from plasma to bone in children in association with
C-6
-------
Table C.I. Age-specific transfer coefficients (d"1) in the systemic
biokinetic model for thorium (ICRP, 1995a).
Age (y)
Pathway3
Blood to Liver 1
Blood to Cort Surf
Blood to Trab Surf
Blood to UBC
Blood to Urinary Path
Blood to OKI
Blood to LI Contents
Blood to Testes
Blood to Ovaries
Blood to STO
Blood to ST1
Blood to ST2
STO to Blood
Urinary Path to UBC
OKI to Blood
ST1 to Blood
ST2 to Blood
Trab Surf to Trab Vol
Trab Surf to Bone Marrow
Cort Surf to Cort Vol
Cort Surf to Bone Marrow
Trab Vol to Bone Marrow
Cort Vol to Bone Marrow
Bone Marrow to Blood
Liver 1 to Liver 2
Liver 1 to SI Contents
Liver 1 to Blood
Liver 2 to Blood
Testes/Ovarles to Blood
Infant
(100 d)
0.0647
0.7763
0.7763
0.0711
0.0453
0.0129
0.00647
0.000039
0.000023
0.832
0.162
0.0259
0.462
0.0462
0.00038
0.00095
0.000019
0.00822
0.00822
0.00822
0.00822
0.00822
0.00822
0.0076
0.00095
0.000475
0.000475
0.000211
0.00019
1y
0.0647
0.7763
0.7763
0.0711
0.0453
0.0129
0.00647
0.000058
0.000030
0.832
0.162
0.0259
0.462
0.0462
0.00038
0.00095
0.000019
0.00288
0.00288
0.00288
0.00288
0.00288
0.00288
0.0076
0.00095
0.000475
0.000475
0.000211
0.00019
5y
0.0647
0.7763
0.7763
0.0711
0.0453
0.0129
0.00647
0.000066
0.000076
0.832
0.162
0.0259
0.462
0.0462
0.00038
0.00095
0.000019
0.00181
0.00181
0.00153
0.00153
0.00181
0.00153
0.0076
0.00095
0.000475
0.000475
0.000211
0.00019
10y
0.0647
0.7763
0.7763
0.0711
0.0453
0.0129
0.00647
0.000077
0.00013
0.832
0.162
0.0259
0.462
0.0462
0.00038
0.00095
0.000019
0.00132
0.00132
0.000904
0.000904
0.00132
0.000904
0.0076
0.00095
0.000475
0.000475
0.000211
0.00019
15y
0.0647
0.7763
0.7763
0.0711
0.0453
0.0129
0.00647
0.00062
0.00023
0.832
0.162
0.0259
0.462
0.0462
0.00038
0.00095
0.000019
0.000959
0.000959
0.000521
0.000521
0.000959
0.000521
0.0076
0.00095
0.000475
0.000475
0.000211
0.00019
Adult
0.0970
0.6793
0.6793
0.1067
0.0679
0.0194
0.00970
0.00068
0.00021
0.832
0.243
0.0388
0.462
0.0462
0.00038
0.00095
0.000019
0.000247
0.000493
0.0000411
0.0000821
0.000493
0.0000821
0.0076
0.00095
0.000475
0.000475
0.000211
0.00019
aCort = Cortical, Trab = Trabecular, Surf = Surface, Vol = Volume, UBC = Urinary Bladder Contents, OKT
= Other Kidney Tissue, LI = Large Intestine, SI = Small Intestine.
elevated bone formation rates in the maturing skeleton; (2) decreased fractional transfer from plasma
to soft tissues and excreta in children due to relatively greater competition from immature bone; and
(3) an elevated rate of transfer from bone to plasma in children due to an elevated rate of bone
turnover. For actinide elements, the additional assumption is made that fractional deposition in the
gonads at a given age depends on the mass of the gonads at that age. Except where there is evidence
to the contrary, removal half-times from soft tissues, bone surfaces, and exchangeable bone volume
are assumed to be independent of age.
C-7
-------
In the model for thorium, the deposition fraction on all bone surfaces combined is set at 0.8
for ages < 15 y compared with 0.7 for adults, and the deposition fractions in soft tissues and excretion
pathways are reduced by one-third for application to ages <15 y to maintain mass balance. Of
greater importance for dose estimates for thorium isotopes in children, however, is the generic
assumption that the removal rate of thorium from bone surfaces, its rate of burial in bone volume,
and its rate of removal from bone volume to blood (via bone marrow) are all directly related to the
bone remodeling rate, which is estimated to be several-fold higher in children than in adults. For
example, ICRP Publication 70 (1995c) gives reference values for the remodeling rate of trabecular
bone of more than 100% y"1 for ages < 1 y, 48% y"1 for age 10 y, and an average of 18% y"1 for ages
>25y.
Predicted differences with age in the systemic biokinetics of thorium
so
-.40
30
20
10
Age 10 y
10 100 1000 10000
Time after injection (d)
Predicted differences with age in the
biokinetics of thorium are illustrated in Fig.
C.3, which shows the estimated retention of
Th on trabecular surfaces as a function of
time after intravenous injection at each of three
injection ages: infancy (100 d), age 10 y, and
age 25 y. The model predicts that there is
greater deposition on trabecular surfaces in
children than adults but that the bone surface
activity declines at a considerably higher rate
in children than in adults due to elevated bone
turnover rates in children. Part of the activity
removed from bone surfaces is assumed to be
buried in bone volume. The remainder is
assumed to be removed to bone marrow and
then to blood, after which a small fraction is excreted and the remainder is recycled to bone surfaces
and soft tissues. Activity in bone volume is also assumed to be recycled in the same manner after
its gradual release due to bone remodeling.
TOO
Table C.2 gives model predictions of the 50-y integrated activity of Th in different regions
fyr\fy
of the body after injection of a unit activity of Th into blood at age 100 d (infant), 10 y, or 25 y.
The indicated differences with age at injection result from some combination of three assumptions:
elevated uptake of thorium by immature bone, an elevated rate of remodeling of immature bone, and
Fig. C.3. Retention of Th on trabecular surfaces
for three ages at injection, as predicted by the
updated model for thorium (ICRP, 1995a).
Co
-o
-------
Table C.2. Predictions of 50-y integrated activity of Th (nuclear transformations
per Bq injected), following injection into blood at age 100 d, 10 y, or 25 y.
Compartment
Trabecular surfaces
Cortical surfaces
Trabecular volume
Cortical volume
100 d
9.8x107
2.8x10®
8.8x107
1.8x108
Age at Injection
10y
1.2x10®
4.3x108
9.3x107
2.7xl08
25 y
1.4x10®
6.3x10®
6.4x107
1.6x108
Red marrow 3.1x107 2.0x107 1.3x107
Liver 5.7x107 4.2x107 3.8x107
Kidneys 1.1 xio7 8.4x106 7.5x106
Testes 2.9x105 4.3x105 4.6x105
Ovaries 1.5x1Q5 1.8x1Q5 1.4x1Q5
an age-independent removal half-time for soft tissues. For example, cumulative activity in red
marrow decreases with age at injection, mainly as a result of rapid recycling of activity from
trabecular bone to red marrow in children and an age-independent removal half-time from bone
marrow. For gonads, elevated feedback of activity from bone at younger ages is offset by relatively
low deposition in the gonads, resulting in little change with age at injection in cumulative activity.
Treatment of Th chain members produced in systemic tissues
In ICRP Publication 30 (1979), decay chain members produced in the body after intake of
a parent radionuclide generally were assigned the biokinetic model of the parent; this is the so-called
assumption of "shared kinetics" of decay chain members. In a subsequent critical review of
experimental data on the fate of radionuclides formed in vivo, it was suggested that the following
assumption of "independent kinetics" of chain members may be more realistic than the assumption
of shared kinetics in most cases (Leggett et al., 1984): (1) a radionuclide born in soft tissues or on
bone surfaces behaves as if taken into the body as a parent radionuclide; (2) a radionuclide born in
bone volume has the same kinetics as the parent until removed from bone volume and then behaves
as if taken into the body as a parent radionuclide.
There is some experimental evidence to support the assumption of independent kinetics for
TO/I OOS
thorium chains (Leggett et al., 1984). For example, activity ratios Ra: Th in tissues and excreta
C-9
-------
TOO OOA
of beagles injected with Th are consistent with the assumption that Ra born on bone surfaces
OOQ
migrated from Th over a period of days and then behaved as if injected directly into blood (Van
Dilla and Stover, 1956; Van Dilla et al, 1957; Stover et al., 1965a, 1965b). Time-dependent activity
OOR
ratios of subsequent members of the Th chain also suggest redistribution consistent with the
characteristic biokinetic models of individual members, although the extent of migration of these
chain members and hence the interpretation of the data are limited by the short half-lives of the chain
members (Stover et al., 1965a, 1965b).
The assumption of independent kinetics was applied in ICRP Publication 69 (1995a) to chain
members produced in vivo after absorption of thorium isotopes to blood, except that some
simplifying assumptions were made in cases where there was little difference, in effect, between the
assumptions of shared and independent kinetics. Parameter values for individual chain members can
be found in Appendix C of ICRP Publication 71 (ICRP, 1995b). The models for members of various
thorium chains are summarized in the following:
1. Radium isotopes formed in vivo are assumed to follow the model for radium as a parent
(Leggett, 1992a; ICRP, 1993). This requires that the model structure for thorium (Fig. C.2)
be expanded to include compartments that are in the radium model (see Chapter 4, Fig. 4.6)
but not in the thorium model. For example, each bone volume compartment in the thorium
model must be divided into exchangeable and nonexchangeable bone volume compartments
to describe the behavior of radium after its movement from plasma to bone surfaces to bone
volume. According to the radium model, bone contains about 30%, soft tissues about 15%,
and excreta plus excretion pathways (mainly intestinal contents) about 55% of the injected
amount at 1 d after injection of long-lived radium into blood of an adult. Most radium atoms
entering bone or soft tissues return to plasma within a few days. By 100 d after injection, bone
retains less than 5% and soft tissues less than 1% of the injected amount, the rest having been
lost in excreta.
2. Radon produced in soft tissues or bone surfaces is assumed to be removed to plasma at a
fractional rate of 100 d"1. Radon produced in the exchangeable and nonexchangeable bone
volume compartments is assumed to migrate to plasma at rates of 1.5 and 0.36 d"1,
respectively. Radon entering plasma is assumed to be removed from the body by exhalation
at a fractional rate of 1 min"1.
3. Lead isotopes formed in vivo are assumed to follow the model for lead as a parent (Leggett,
1993; ICRP, 1993). Therefore, the model structure used to address a thorium chain that
includes lead as a daughter must include compartments such as red blood cells and
exchangeable and nonexchangeable bone volume that are in the lead model (Fig. 4.6) but are
C-10
-------
not identified separately in the thorium model. According to the lead model, the approximate
contents of various regions at 1 d after injection of long-lived lead into blood of an adult are
as follows: red blood cells, 59% (of the injected amount); bone, 15%; liver, 11%; kidneys,
5%; other soft tissues, 3%; and excreta plus excretion pathways, 7%. Over the next few weeks
there is a gradual shift of lead from red blood cells to bone, soft tissues, and excreta. After 100
d, the predicted contents of the regions are as follows: red blood cells, 4% (of the injected
amount); bone, 22%; liver, 5%; kidneys, 2%; other soft tissues, 5%; and excreta, 62%.
4. The model for polonium as a decay chain member is based on the non-recycling model for
polonium as a parent given in ICRP Publication 67 (1993), but the latter model is converted
into a recycling model to fit into the framework used for thorium, radium, and lead. Removal
of polonium from all tissues except bone volume is assumed to occur at a fractional rate of
0.1 d"1, with activity going to plasma. Removal from bone volume to plasma is assumed to
occur at the rate of bone turnover. Of polonium reaching plasma, 10% goes to the
gastrointestinal tract contents and subsequently to feces and 5% goes to the urinary bladder
contents and then to urine. The unexcreted amount is divided as follows: 30% to liver, 10%
to kidneys, 5% to spleen, 10% to red marrow, and 45% to other tissues.
5. Bismuth is assumed to be removed from all tissues except bone volume at a fractional rate of
0.035 d"1, with activity going to plasma. From plasma, 35% goes to urine, 7% to feces via the
intestines, 35% to the kidneys, 5% to the liver, and 18% to other tissues.
6. Isotopes of thallium appearing in important thorium chains are short-lived and are assumed
to decay at their point of origin, and isotopes of actinium, protactinium, and thorium produced
in vivo are assigned the model for thorium.
The treatment of decay chain members is a particularly important consideration in the internal
dosimetry of Th due to the fact that the radioactive progeny of Th emit substantially more alpha
energy than the parent over a period of a few years. The estimated alpha activity of the total chain
is reduced substantially if it is assumed, as indicated by available experimental data, that 228Ra and
subsequent chain members migrate over a period of hours or days from sites of production on bone
surfaces and in soft tissues and then behave as if injected directly into blood (Table C.3).
Comparison of updated and previous systemic models for thorium
The ICRP's new systemic biokinetic model for thorium differs substantially from its previous
model (ICRP, 1979) with regard to basis, structure, and predictions. The previous model consists
of three tissue compartments fed by a transfer compartment (Fig. C.4). On the basis of observations
C-ll
-------
Table C.3. Comparison of estimated 50-y integrated activities of 232Th and its
decay chain members, assuming (A) independent or (B) shared kinetics of
decay chain members, for the case of injection of 232Th into blood of an adult3.
Ratio of integrated activities, A:B
Radionuclide
232Th
228Ra, 228Ac
228Th
224Ra through 208TI
Cortical
bone
surface
1.0
0.001
0.02
-0.005
Trabecular
bone
surface
1.0
0.003
0.06
-0.02
Cortical
bone
volume
1.0
0.9
0.8
-0.8
Trabecular
bone
volume
1.0
0.7
0.5
-0.5
Red
bone
marrow
1.0
0.08
0.2
-0.1
Liver
1.0
0.04
0.06
-0.05
Testes
,
ovaries
1.0
0.05
0.05
-0.05
232n
The biokinetic model for thorium given in ICRP Publication 69 (ICRP, 1995a) is applied to J Th. For the case of
independent kinetics, the models and assumptions of ICRP Publication 69 are applied to the radioactive progeny of
232Th.
. 228n
TR^
EXC
VNSFER COMPARTMENT (BLOOD)
70% 4?
V V
BONE LIVER
8000 d 70
V V
:RETION
3 16%
V
OTHER
Od 700
V
d
i
10%
Fig. C.4. Biokinetic model for thorium
given in ICRP Publication 30 (1979).
of the fate of Th in beagles (Stover et al.,
1960), it is assumed in that model that activity
leaves the transfer compartment with a
half-time of 0.5 d, with 70% depositing on
bone surfaces, 4% depositing in the liver, 16%
depositing in other soft tissues, and 10% lost in
excreta. Thorium is assumed to be removed
from bone surfaces to excretion with a
biological half-time of 8000 d and from liver
and other soft tissues to excretion with a
biological half-time of 700 d. The assumption
that skeletal deposits remain on bone surfaces
until removed to excretion is generally applied
in ICRP Publication 30 to actinide elements.
Compared with the model of ICRP Publication 30, the new model predicts considerably
longer retention of thorium in the skeleton, liver, and other soft tissues, and consequently much
longer retention in the total body of the adult. For example, the model of Publication 30 predicts that
C-12
-------
about 75% of an amount injected into blood at time zero will be excreted in 10,000 days, compared
with a prediction of about 30% based on the new model (Fig. C.5).
In the model of ICRP Publication 30, the time-dependent concentration of thorium in kidneys
and gonads is assumed to be the same as that in all soft tissues other than liver. In the new model,
the kidneys and gonads are addressed separately from other soft tissues and are depicted as relatively
important repositories for thorium. This is demonstrated in Table C.4, where comparisons are made
of the updated and previous models as predictors of the 50-y cumulative activity of Th and Ra
in selected organs of an acutely exposed adult. Three types of acute intake are considered in this
table: injection of Th into blood, ingestion of Th, and inhalation of a moderately soluble form
of Th (Type M or class W, respectively, in the updated and previous respiratory tract models).
The assumption of independent kinetics of decay chain members is used in conjunction with the
updated systemic model, and the assumption of shared kinetics is used with the systemic model of
ICRP Publication 30.
Conversion of activity to estimates of dose rates to tissues
SE values
The dose rate to a target region Tdue to activity in a source region S depends on the amount
of activity in S, the nature of the radiations emitted in the source region, the spatial relationships
between the source and target regions, the nature of the tissues lying between the source and target
regions, and the mass of T. As discussed in Chapter 5, the details of these considerations are
embodied in a coefficient called the specific energy or SE.
The ICRP's updated SE values for the adult male generally do not differ substantially from
those applied to Reference Man in ICRP Publication 30 (1979), but there are notable exceptions.
The most important exception is for the lung as a target region. In ICRP Publication 30, the dose
to the lung is an average dose over the entire lung tissue. In ICRP Publication 66 (1994a), the dose
to the lung is redefined as a weighted average of doses to sensitive cells of the bronchi, bronchioles,
and alveolar-interstitium, with the relatively small mass of cells of the bronchi and bronchioles
receiving greater weight per unit mass that the relatively large mass of the alveolar-interstitium. The
two definitions of lung dose can result in substantially different estimates for some radionuclides that
emit mainly non-penetrating radiations. This is because the new definition assigns much greater
importance to the generally small fraction of the total activity in the lungs that is associated with the
radiosensitive cells of the bronchi and bronchioles. For example, for the case of acute inhalation of
C-13
-------
MOO
o 80
c
® 60
2? 40
_L 20
ICRP Pub. 69
ICRP Pub. 30
5000 10000 15000 20000 25000
Time after injection (d)
jf? 100
o 80
5
5 60
«
'- 40
c
o
'c 20
d>
-------
Table C.4. Comparison of ICRP's updated (ICRP, 1995a) and previous (ICRP, 1979)
models as predictors of 50-y integrated activity after acute intake of 232Th by an adult.
Ratio of
integrated activities (updated models : previous models)
Injection
Ingestion
Inhalation
Compartment Th Raa Th Raa Th Raa
Trabecular surfaces
Cortical surfaces
Liver
Kidneys
Gonads
Other systemic activity
0.49
2.3
11
110
60
25
0.0014
0.0026
1.4
9.0
8.9
56
1.2
5.7
27
280
150
62
0.0036
0.0064
3.5
23
22
140
0.39
1.8
8.4
86
47
19
0.0011
0.0020
1.0
7.0
7.0
42
228
232n
Refers to Ra produced in the body after intake of Th.
masses of target organs and, in some cases, in
the relative geometries of the source and target
organs during growth.
fyr\fy
Changes with age in SE values for Th
are illustrated in Fig. C.6 for the red marrow as
a target organ and for each of three source
organs: Trabecular Bone Surface (TS), Red
Marrow (RM), and Trabecular Bone Volume
(TV}. In Fig. C.6, SE(T,S) indicates the SE
value for target organ T and source organ S.
The indicated SE values are for high-LET
(alpha) radiation, which is the dominant
radiation type for Th. The decrease with age
in the SE values result from an increase with age
in the mass of Red Marrow (Fig. C.7).
c
£io"
O)
0> 1Q-'2
(ft
o
it 10-'3
o
SE(RMJS)
10 15 20
Age (y)
25
30
Fig. C.6. Age-specific SE values (high-LET) for
232Th. RM = Red Marrow, TS = Trabecular
Bone Surface, TV = Trabecular Bone Volume.
C-15
-------
Use of SE values to calculate dose rates
The calculation of dose rates is illustrated
for the case of high-LET (alpha) irradiation of
TOO
Red Marrow from internally deposited Th.
Due to the short range of the alpha particles, the
contributing source organs in this case are those
in intimate contact with Red Marrow, namely,
Red Marrow, Trabecular Bone Surface, and
Trabecular Bone Volume.
Recall that for a given type of radiation,
the absorbed dose rate, D T(t), at age t in target
region T can be expressed as:
10 15 20
Age (y)
25
30
Fig. C.7. Estimated weight of red
marrow as a function of age.
(C.I)
where qsj(t) is the activity of radionuclidey present in source region S at age t and SE(T^S;t)j is the
specific energy deposited in target region Tper nuclear transformation of radionuclidey in source
232n
region S at age t. Therefore, the high-LET dose rate D RM(t) to Red Marrow from Th (excluding
232r-
radioactive progeny) at age t due to intake of Th at age t0 is the sum
qRM(t) SE(RM~RM;t) + qTS(t) SE(RM~TS;t)
+ qTV(t) SE(RM~TV;t),
(C.2)
where the three SE values are as indicated (with shortened notation) in Fig. C.6. As predicted by the
biokinetic and dosimetric models used here, the right side of Eq. C.2 usually is dominated by the
term involving Trabecular Bone Surface as a source organ (second term). Although all alpha
particles emitted in Red Marrow are assumed to be absorbed by Red Marrow, the contribution to
D RM(t) from Red Marrow typically is much smaller than the contribution from Trabecular Bone
Surface for the case of Th because the predicted number of thorium atoms contained in Red
C-16
-------
Marrow at a given time typically is much
smaller than the number of thorium atoms in
Trabecular Bone Surface. Although the
predicted number of thorium atoms in
Trabecular Bone Volume may be larger than that
in Trabecular Bone Surface at some ages, me
contribution toDRM(t) from Trabecular Bone
Volume (third term in Eq. C.2) typically is
smaller than the contribution from Trabecular
Bone Surface because SE(RM+-TV;t) is much
smaller than SE(RM~TS;t) (Fig. C.6). The
relationship between the three terms on the right
side of Eq. C.2 as a function of time after acute
injection of Th is illustrated in Fig. C.8 for
the adult. It is emphasized that the curves in
Fig. C.8 represent only the contribution of the
parent, Th, to the high-LET dose rate to Red
Marrow. The total high-LET dose rate to Red
Marrow will also include contributions from the
radioactive progeny of Th contained in the
Red Marrow, Trabecular Bone Surface, and
Trabecular Bone Volume.
Calculated high-LET dose rates to Red
Marrow for the cases of acute ingestion and
acute inhalation of 1 Bq of Th are shown in
Figs. C.9 and C.10, respectively, for three ages
at intake: infancy (100 d), 10 y, and 25 y. The
dose rates indicated in these figures include
fyr\fy
contributions from radioactive progeny of Th
as well as from the parent radionuclide. Due to
TOO
migration of Ra and subsequent chain
members from the parent, however, Th is the
major contributor to the indicated dose rates.
o
5 io-3
10-
10-
§ 10
"O
> 10"
From Trabecular Bone Surface
t
'From Red Marrow ,.--""""
I,--"
/"f
^X x''"From Trabecular Bone
X* Volume
« 1 10 100 1000 10000 100000
©
a: Time after injection (d)
f)'\f)
Fig. C.8. Contributions of Th in Trabecular Bone
Surface, Trabecular Bone Volume, and Red Marrow to
the high-LET dose rate to Red Marrow in the adult.
^ 10"s
cr
CO
T 10-10
TS
:x
Sio-"
' 10-'
o
Q
ifant
0.1 1 10 100 1000 10000100000
Time since ingestion (d)
Fig. C.9. Estimated dose rates to Red Marrow
following acute ingestion of Th,
for three ages at ingestion.
^ 10-"
'cr
CQ
"D -| Q-S
2
ID
a 10-10
O
Q
nfant
0.1 1 10 100 1000 10000100000
Time sine© inhalation (d)
Fig. C. 10. Estimated dose rates to Red Marrow
following acute inhalation of moderately soluble
Th, for three ages at inhalation.
C-17
-------
Conversion of dose rates to estimates of radiogenic cancers
The age-specific cancer risk attributable to a unit intake of a radionuclide is calculated from
the absorbed dose rate due to a unit intake of the radionuclide and the age-specific risk per unit dose
model coefficients. The calculation is specific for each cancer and associated absorbed dose site in
the risk model. The complete calculation for each cancer and associated dose site may involve the
sum of contributions from more than one target tissue and from both low-and high-LET absorbed
doses.
In the following, attention is focused on the problem of estimating the risk of dying from
radiogenic leukemia following intake of Th. That is, the problem is one of deriving a mortality
risk coefficient for leukemia for ingestion or inhalation of Th. In this case, the target organ of
interest is red marrow. The risk model used in this report for leukemia is a relative risk model, with
age- and gender-specific risk model coefficients.
Recall that the age-specific lifetime risk coefficient (LRC), r(x), is the risk per unit dose of
a subsequent cancer death (Gy"1) due to radiation received at age x. For a relative risk model, the
LRC for a given contribution is
\i(u) S(u) du
where r\(u,x) is the relative risk at age u due to a dose received at age x, u(w) is the force of mortality
at age u for the given cancer type, and S(x) is the survival function. Because the LRC for a given
cancer type is independent of the radionuclide and exposure scenario, the LRCs need not be
recalculated in each derivation of a radionuclide risk coefficient but can be calculated once, stored,
and used as input data in the calculation of all radionuclide risk coefficients.
The excess relative risk, r\(u,x), is the product of a risk model coefficient, p(jc), and a
time-since-exposure response function, C,(t,x), that defines the period during which the risk is
expressed and, in the radiogenic risk model for leukemia, changes with time in the level of response
during that period. The age- and gender-specific risk model coefficients P(JC) for leukemia are given
in Table 7.2, and the time-since-exposure response function (,(t,x) for leukemia is described in
Eq. 7.3 and the text accompanying that equation.
C-18
-------
Relative risk functions r\(u,x) for
radiogenic leukemia in males are shown in Fig.
C. 11 for three ages at irradiation: infancy (100
d), 10 y, and 25 y. The functions for females
are similar to those for males but are not
identical because the risk model coefficients,
P(x), differ slightly for the two genders (Table
7.2).
The gender-specific force of mortality
functions for leukemia are shown in Fig. C.I2
(NCHS, 1992, 1993a, 1993b), and the
gender-specific survival functions S(x) (all
causes of death) are shown in Fig. C.I3
(NCHS, 1997). The LRC functions r(x) for
radiogenic leukemia in males and females,
calculated by integrating the product of the
functions r\(u,x), U(M), and S(x) from age x to
infinity (age 120 y), are shown in Fig. C.14.
The sharp changes in direction in the LRC
functions at some ages stem mainly from
jumps in the risk model coefficients p(3c) for
leukemia at those ages (Table 7.2).
The LRC function r(x) is based on a
unit dose received at age x. Following intake
of a radionuclide at age x,, the absorbed dose
rate D (x) to a given target tissue varies
continuously with age x > x,. The cancer risk ra(x^
age x, is calculated from the continuously varying
CO
to
II
o
m °'10 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Time since exposure (y)
Fig. C.I 1. Relative risk functions, r\(u,x), for
leukemia in males for three ages at irradiation.
3103
10-
r 10-'
s 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90100110120
Age (y)
Fig. C.I2. Age- and gender-specific mortality
rates for leukemia, based on U.S. data for
1989-91 (NCHS, 1992, 1993a, 1993b).
resulting from a unit intake of a radionuclide at
absorbed dose rate D (x) using the equation:
(C.4)
S(xt)
C-19
-------
°'°°0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90100110120
Age (y)
Fig. C.I3. Gender-specific survival functions based
on U.S. life tables for 1989-91 (NCHS, 1997).
-0.015
where r(x) is the cancer risk due to a unit
absorbed dose (Gy"1) at the site at age x. The
functions S(x) and r(x) in the integrand are
shown in Figs. C.13 and C.14, respectively.
The dose rate function D (x) in the integrand is
illustrated in Fig. C.9 for ingestion of Th
and in Fig. C.10 for inhalation of moderately
soluble Th at age 100 d, 10 y, or 25 y.
Derived gender-specific risks ra(xj) of
dying from radiogenic leukemia due to acute
fjr\fy
ingestion of Th are shown in Fig. C.I5 for
ingestion ages from birth through old age.
Model predictions for the case of acute
inhalation of Th are shown in Fig. C.I6.
The derived values rjx/) for males and females
are combined into a risk estimate for the total
population of age xt by calculating a weighted
mean that accounts for the proportion of each
sex in a stationary combined population at the
desired age of intake (see Chapter 7, Eq. 7.7).
For a given gender, the average lifetime
leukemia risk coefficient for ingestion or
inhalation of Th is calculated from the
derived age- and gender-specific values, ra(x).
Because ra(x) is based on acute intake of 1 Bq
of Th at age x, ra(x) must be scaled by (that
is, multiplied by) the age-specific intake rate, C u(x), where C is the constant radionuclide
concentration in the environmental medium and u(x) is the usage rate at age x as specified in the
usage scenario. The product u(x)ra(x) must be further scaled by the value of the survival function at
x, S(x), to account for the possibility that the exposed person will die from a competing cause before
reaching age x. Therefore, for a given gender, the estimated risk of dying from leukemia due to
lifetime intake of Th is the integral over age from birth to the maximum possible value of x
(assumed here to be 120 y) of the product C u(x) ra(x) S(x). Because a risk coefficient is expressed
as a risk per unit intake, the integral of C u(x) ra(x) S(x) must be divided by the probable lifetime
•| 0.010
ID
0.005
o
cc
1 0.000
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90100110120
Age at irradiation (y)
Fig. C.14. Gender-specific lifetime risk coefficient
(LRC) functions for radiogenic leukemia.
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20 40 60 80 100 120
Age at ingestion (y)
Fig. C.I5. Derived gender-specific risk ra(x-)
of dying from leukemia due to ingestion
-232
of 1 Bq of Th in food at age x,
io-7
£ 1Q-8
o
E
-------
ICHP 69 models
ICRP 30 models
bone leukemia colon other total
Fig. C.I7. Gender-weighted average lifetime
risk coefficients for ingestion of Th in food,
using updated (ICRP, 1995a) and previous
(ICRP, 1979) biokinetic models for thorium.
ICRP 69 models
ICRP 30 models
nhalation of moderately
soluble 232Th compound
bone leukemia lung other total
Fig. C.I8. Gender-weighted average lifetime risk
coefficients for inhalation of moderately soluble
232Th, using updated (ICRP, 1995a) and previous
(ICRP, 1979) biokinetic models for thorium.
Comparison with risk estimates based on effective dose
As a measure of the risk from intake of radionuclides, the ICRP uses a quantity called the
effective dose. The effective dose is a weighted sum of equivalent doses (that is, integrated
equivalent dose rates) to radiosensitive tissues, with tissue weighting factors representing the relative
contribution of each tissue to the total detriment for the case of uniform irradiation of the whole
body. The effective dose is based on an integration period of 50 years for intake by adults and to age
70 years for intake by children.
The ICRP relates the effective dose to the probability of a fatal cancer through a
multiplicative factor called a "nominal fatality probability coefficient". This coefficient is referred
to as "nominal" because of the uncertainties inherent in radiation risk estimates and because the
ICRP's estimated relation of effective dose and fatal cancers is based on an idealized population
receiving a uniform equivalent dose over the whole body. A nominal fatality probability coefficient
of 0.05 Sv" is given in ICRP Publication 60 (1991) for all cancer types combined. According to
ICRP Publication 60, "If the equivalent dose is fairly uniform over the whole body, it is possible to
obtain the probability of fatal cancer associated with that effective dose from the nominal fatality
probability coefficient. If the distribution of equivalent dose is non-uniform, this use of the nominal
coefficient will be less accurate because the tissue weighting factors include allowances for non-fatal
and hereditary conditions." Another difficulty with the effective dose as a measure of risk is that
C-22
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it cannot accurately reflect the contribution of competing risks for the many different temporal
patterns of dose rates to tissues that occur for various long-lived, tenaciously retained radionuclides.
Despite such limitations in the effective dose, it is common practice to use the nominal
fatality probability coefficient to convert effective doses from internally deposited radionuclides to
estimates of fatal radiogenic cancers. The effective dose is taken by some analysts as the effective
dose equivalent of ICRP Publication 30 (1979, 1980, 1981, 1988) as tabulated in Federal Guidance
Report No. 11 (1988), and is taken by others from tabulations in the ICRP's recent series of
documents on doses to the public from intake of radionuclides (see summary report, ICRP
Publication 72, 1996). Because the latter documents provide the effective dose as a function of age
at acute intake, the effective dose may be represented by a weighted average of age-specific effective
doses, where the weights reflect assumed levels of intake at different ages. Because such weighted
effective doses typically differ by <30% from the effective dose for intake by the adult, the latter is
generally applied.
fyr\fy
Cancer mortality risk for ingestion of Th in food and for inhalation of a moderately soluble
form (Type M) of Th of particle size 1 um (AMAD), as derived by the methods of this report, are
compared in Table C.5 with estimates derived from the effective dose, E (that is, as e x 0.05 Sv" ).
Two different estimates of effective dose are considered, one derived using the committed effective
dose coefficient from Federal Guidance Report No. 11 (1988) and the other derived using the
effective dose coefficient from ICRP Publication 72 (1996). The latter document is a compilation
of age-dependent doses to members of the public based on the ICRP's most recent biokinetic and
dosimetric models. Both estimates are based on an intake of 1 Bq. The two estimates are
abbreviated as 0.05 Sv"1 x E(FGR11) and 0.05 Sv"1 x E(ICRP72\ respectively. For simplicity,
E(ICRP72) is taken to be the effective dose for intake by the adult.
For the case of ingestion of Th in food, 0.05 Sv" x E(FGR11) is about three-fold higher
than 0.05 Sv" x E(ICRP72), and 15-fold higher than the risk based on the coefficient derived here
(Table C.5). The discrepancies between 0.05 Sv"1 x E(FGR11) and 0.05 Sv"1 x E(ICRP72) result
in part from differences in the new and previous biokinetic models for thorium (discussed earlier),
and in part from recent changes in the ICRP's tissue weighting factors (ICRP, 1991). The
discrepancies between 0.05 Sv" x E(ICRP72) and the risk coefficient are the net result of a variety
of factors, including the limitations of the effective dose as a measure of risk for non-uniformly
distributed radionuclides such as Th and its radioactive progeny, differences between the
high-LET RBEs for leukemia and breast cancer used in the present methodology and those used by
the ICRP, and the failure of the effective dose to account adequately for competing risks when the
organ doses are received over several decades.
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Table C.5. Comparison of cancer mortality risk coefficients with risk estimates based on
effective dose, for ingestion or inhalation of Th.
Method
0.05Sv"1 x E(FGR11)a
0.05 Sv 1 x E(/CRP72)b
This report
Ingestion
Cancer mortality
risk(Bq"1)
3.69E-08
1.15E-08
2.45E-09
of232Th
Multiple of value
derived in this
report
15
4.7
-
Inhalation
Type M
Cancer mortality
risk(Bq"1)
2.22E-05
2.25E-06
5.18E-07
of232Th,
, 1 |jm
Multiple of value
derived in this
report
43
4.3
-
AE(FGRl I) is the effective dose given in Federal Guidance Report No. 11 (1988), which is based on models and
methods of ICRP Publication 30 (1979).
E(ICRP72) is the effective dose for intake by the adult, based on models and methods of the ICRP's recent series of
documents on age-dependent dosimetry (ICRP, 1989, 1993, I995a, I995b, 1996). Use of intake-weighted average of
age-dependent effective doses typically yields <30% difference from indicated values for commonly used age-specific
intake scenarios.
The discrepancies in the three methods of estimation of fatal cancers are even greater for the
case of inhalation of moderately soluble Th, for which 0.05 Sv" x E(FGR11) is 10-fold higher
than 0.05 Sv" x E(ICRP72) and about 40-fold higher than the risk coefficient. The reasons for these
discrepancies are essentially the same as those described above for the ingestion case. The main
reason that relative differences between 0.05 Sv" x E(FGR11) and the other two estimates are
smaller in the ingestion case than in the inhalation case is that the new, higher// values for thorium
TOO
offset part of the reduction in the estimate of effective dose for ingestion of Th implied by other
recent changes in the biokinetic models and tissue weighting factors. By contrast with model
revisions concerning the level of absorption of ingested thorium, the new respiratory tract model
predicts slightly lower absorption of inhaled material to blood than does the previous respiratory tract
model.
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APPENDIX D: UNCERTAINTIES IN ESTIMATES OF CANCER RISK
FROM ENVIRONMENTAL EXPOSURE TO RADIONUCLIDES
Purposes of this appendix
Characterization of the uncertainties in estimates of cancer risk from environmental exposure
to radionuclides is a complex problem that has received little attention in the literature. The problem
is particularly complicated for internally deposited radionuclides because each radionuclide presents
a unique combination of issues associated with deposition and retention in the respiratory tract, the
rate and level of absorption from the respiratory or gastrointestinal tract to blood, the time-dependent
distribution and retention of the parent radionuclide and any radioactive progeny in systemic tissues,
and the types and energies of emitted radiations. Conclusions drawn for a given radionuclide may
not apply to other radioisotopes of the same element due to differences in the types of radiation
emitted and differences in radiological half-lives that may result in changes in the time-frame over
which the dose is received. Conclusions drawn for intake of a certain chemical form of a
radionuclide may not apply to other chemical forms due to differences in retention properties in the
respiratory tract or in the level of absorption to blood from the respiratory or gastrointestinal tract.
For such reasons, a relatively complete and detailed characterization of the uncertainties in
risk coefficients for a comprehensive set of radionuclides is not a feasible task. In fact, the
"uncertainty in a risk coefficient" is not a well defined concept because the level of confidence that
can be placed in a risk coefficient may vary considerably from one application to another. For
example, the uncertainty associated with an inhalation risk coefficient for a radionuclide may depend
strongly on the level of information concerning the physical and chemical form of the inhaled
radionuclide because the dose to lungs and other radiosensitive tissues depends strongly on the form
of the radionuclide. Also, a risk coefficient that is considered to be a reasonably reliable predictor
for a relatively high, acute external exposure to a radionuclide may be appreciably less certain for
a lower, prolonged exposure due to uncertainty in the shape of the dose-response curve at low doses.
The purposes of this appendix are to discuss the sources and extent of uncertainties in the
biokinetic, dosimetric, and radiation risk models used in this report and to examine how these
uncertainties may be propagated in the calculation of risk coefficients. A systematic procedure is
proposed for determining nominal uncertainty intervals for risk coefficients. These intervals are
referred to as nominal because they are intended to reflect only major uncertainties that are largely
independent of the exposure scenario. They do not reflect uncertainties associated with the use of
a linear, no-threshold model for radiogenic cancer (except for consideration of the differences in the
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reported dose and dose-rate effectiveness factors), absorbed dose as a measure of radiogenic cancer
risk, or idealized representations of the population and exposure. Essentially, a nominal uncertainty
interval is intended to reflect the precision with which an estimate of radiogenic cancer mortality can
be made for an ideal population and exposure scenario, assuming that the probability of inducing a
radiogenic cancer is proportional to absorbed dose.
General sources of uncertainty in biokinetic estimates
Uncertainties associated with the structure of a biokinetic model
The confidence that can be placed in predictions of a biokinetic model for an element
depends not only on uncertainties associated with parameter values of the model but also on
uncertainties associated with the model structure. Such uncertainties may arise because the structure
provides an oversimplified representation of the known processes, because unknown processes have
been omitted from the model, or because part or all of the model formulation is based on
mathematical convenience rather than consideration of processes. Some combination of these
limitations in model structure is associated with each of the biokinetic models used in this document.
These limitations hamper the assignment of meaningful uncertainty statements to the parameter
values of a model because they cast doubt on the physical interpretation of the parameter values. For
purposes of assessing the uncertainties associated with predictions of a biokinetic model for an
element, it is often more illuminating to examine the range of values generated by a limited number
of alternative modeling approaches than to produce large numbers of predictions based on variation
of parameter values within a fixed but uncertain model structure.
Types of information used to construct biokinetic models for elements
Regardless of the model formulation or modeling approach, a biokinetic model for an
element usually is based on some combination of the following sources of information:
HI: direct information on humans, i.e., quantitative measurements of the element in human
subjects;
H2: observations of the behavior of chemically similar elements in human subjects;
Al: observations of the behavior of the element in non-human species;
A2: observations of the behavior of one or more chemically similar elements in non-human
species.
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Data types H2, Al, and A2 serve as surrogates for HI, which is the preferred type of information on
which to base a biokinetic model.
The sources HI, H2, Al, and A2 are sometimes supplemented with various other types of
information or constraints, such as quantitative physiological information (e.g., rates of bone
restructuring); considerations of mass balance; predictions of theoretical models based on
fundamental physical, chemical, and mathematical principles (e.g., a theoretical model of deposition
of inhaled particles in the different segments of the lung); experimental data derived with
anatomically realistic physical models (e.g., hollow casts of portions of the respiratory tract used to
measure deposition of inhaled particles); and in vitro data (e.g., dissolution of compounds in
simulated lung fluid). Among these supplemental sources of information, mass balance and
quantitative physiological data (P) have particularly wide use.
Sources of uncertainty in applications of human data
Clearly it is desirable to base a biokinetic model for an element on observations of the time-
dependent distribution and excretion of that element in human subjects ("HI data"). Some degree
of this type of direct information is available for most essential elements, as well as for some
important non-essential elements, such as cesium, lead, radium, uranium, americium, and plutonium.
Depending on the degree of biological realism in the model formulation, it may be possible to
supplement element-specific information for human subjects with quantitative physiological
information on the important processes controlling the biokinetics of the element of interest. For
example, in ICRP Publication 67 (1993), 69 (1995a), and 71 (1995b), long-term removal of certain
radionuclides from bone volume is identified with bone turnover.
Although it is the preferred type of information for purposes of model construction, HI data
often have one or more of the following limitations: small study groups, coupled with potentially
large inter-subject variability in the biokinetics of an element; short observation periods, coupled
with potentially large intra-subject variability; use of unhealthy subjects whose diseases may alter
the biokinetics of the element; paucity of observations for women and children; collection of small,
potentially non-representative samples of tissue; inaccuracies in measurement techniques;
uncertainty in the pattern or level of intake of the element; atypical study conditions; and
inconsistency in reported values. In some cases, inconsistency in reported values may provide some
of the best evidence of the uncertain nature of the data.
An important tool in the development of biokinetic models for radionuclides has been the
use of reference organ contents of stable elements, as estimated from autopsy measurements on
D-3
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subjects chronically exposed at environmental levels or at elevated levels encountered in
occupational exposures (ICRP, 1975). Such data are commonly used to adjust parameter values of
biokinetic models or introduce new model components to achieve balance between reported values
of intake, total-body content, and excretion of stable elements. Such balance considerations can
provide useful constraints on model parameters, provided the data have been collected under
carefully controlled conditions. However, such balance considerations often have been based on data
from disparate sources of information and unreliable measurement techniques and in some cases may
have led to erroneous models or parameter values.
A confidence statement based on HI data would reflect a variety of factors, such as the
reliability of the measurement technique(s), the number and state of health of the subjects,
representativeness of the subjects and biological samples, consistency in data from different studies,
knowledge concerning the level and pattern of intake, and the relevance of the information to the
situation being modeled. For example, high confidence usually would not be placed in a parameter
value based on HI data for any one of the following study populations: several seriously ill subjects
with known intakes, several healthy subjects with poorly characterized intakes, or one healthy
subject with known intake.
Uncertainty in interspecies extrapolation of biokinetic data
Interspecies extrapolation of biokinetic data is based on the concept of a general biological
regularity across the different species with regard to cellular structure, organ structure, and
biochemistry. Mammalian species, with cell structure, organ structure, biochemistry, and body
temperature regulation particularly close to those of man, are expected to provide better analogies
to man that do non-mammalian species with regard to biokinetics of contaminants.
Despite the broad structural, functional, and biochemical similarities among mammalian
species, interspecies extrapolation of biokinetic data has proven to be an uncertain process.
Similarities across species often are more of a qualitative than quantitative nature, in that two species
that handle an internally deposited radionuclide in the same qualitative manner may exhibit
dissimilar kinetics with regard to that substance. Moreover, there are important structural,
functional, and biochemical differences among the mammalian species, including differences in
specialized organs, hepatic bile formation and composition, level of biliary secretion, urine volume
and acidity, the amount of fat in the body, the magnitude of absorption or secretion in various regions
of the digestive tract, types of bacteria in the digestive tract, and microstructure and patterns of
remodeling of bones.
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In general, the choice of an animal model will depend strongly on the processes and
subsystems of the body thought to be most important in the biokinetics of the radionuclide in
humans, because a given species may resemble humans with regard to certain processes and
subsystems and not others. For example, data on monkeys or baboons may be given relatively high
weight for purposes of modeling the distribution of a radionuclide in the skeleton due to the close
similarities in the skeletons of non-human primates and humans. Data on dogs may be given
relatively high weight for purposes of modeling the rate of loss of a radionuclide from the liver due
to broad quantitative similarities between dogs and humans with regard to hepatic handling of many
radionuclides. Because the skeleton of the dog shows many qualitative similarities to that of man,
data for dogs might be given relatively high weight for purposes of modeling the biokinetics of
radionuclides that show considerable exchange between the skeleton and liver.
A physiologically based model provides the proper setting in which to extrapolate data from
laboratory animals to man, in that it helps to focus interspecies comparisons on specific
physiological processes and specific subsystems of the body for which extrapolation may be valid,
even if whole-body extrapolations are invalid. Depending on the process being modeled, it may be
preferable to limit attention to data for a single species or small number of species, or to appeal to
average or scaled data for a collection of species.
The degree of confidence that can be placed in a model value based on animal data depends
on the quality and completeness of the data and the expected strength of the animal analogy for the
given situation. Thus, one must consider potential experimental and statistical problems in the data
as well as the logical basis for extrapolation of those particular data to humans. Relatively high
confidence might be placed in a model value based on animal data if fairly extensive interspecies
comparisons have been made and include observations on the species expected to be most human-
like (usually non-human primates, dogs, and/or pigs, but this varies with the quantity of interest);
these comparisons suggest a strong basis for interspecies extrapolation, either because the data are
species-invariant or because the physiological processes governing the biokinetics of the element in
different species have been reasonably well established; the model structure allows meaningful
extrapolation to man, usually on the basis of physiological processes; and such processes have been
well quantified in humans (i.e., the central value for humans has been reasonably well established).
A fairly wide uncertainty interval is indicated if data are available only for species that frequently
exhibit qualitative differences from man (e.g., if data were available only for rats) or if no
meaningful basis for extrapolation to man has been established with regard to the quantity of interest.
Whatever the quality of the animal data, the uncertainty interval should reflect the fact that some
confidence in the predictive strength of the data is lost when the data are extrapolated across species.
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Uncertainty in inter-element extrapolation of biokinetic data
Biokinetic models for elements often are constructed partly or wholly from data for
chemically similar elements, on the basis of empirical evidence that chemical analogues often exhibit
close physiological similarities. For example, the alkaline earth elements, calcium, strontium,
barium, and radium, exhibit many physiological as well as chemical similarities (ICRP 1993, 1995a),
and the alkali metals rubidium and cesium closely follow the movement of their chemical analogue,
potassium.
There are, however, counterexamples to the premise that chemical analogues are also
physiological analogues. For example, the alkali metals potassium and sodium share close physical
and chemical similarities but exhibit diametrically opposite behaviors in the body, with potassium
being primarily an intracellular element and sodium being primarily an extracellular element.
Moreover, chemically similar elements that behave in a qualitatively similar fashion in the
body may exhibit quite different kinetics. For example, cesium appears to follow the behavior of
potassium in the body in a qualitative sense but is distributed somewhat differently from potassium
at early times after intake and exhibits a substantially longer whole-body retention time.
The level of confidence that can be placed in a model value based on human data for a
chemically similar element depends on the quality and completeness of the data for the analogue,
as well as the expected strength of the analogy for the given situation. Whatever the quality of the
data for the chemical analogue, the confidence interval should reflect the fact that some confidence
in the predictive strength of the data is lost when the data are extrapolated across elements.
The strength of the chemical analogy for a given element depends largely on the extent to
which the chemically similar elements have also been found to be physiologically similar. That is,
the analogy would be considered strong for a pair of elements if a relatively large set of experimental
data indicate that these elements have essentially the same qualitative behavior in the body and their
quantitative behavior either is similar or differs in a predictable fashion. In view of counterexamples
to the premise that chemically similar elements are necessarily physiologically similar, the chemical
analogy does not provide high confidence if the elements in question have not been compared in
animals or man.
If a chemical analogue has been shown to be a good physiological analogue, then application
of human data on the chemical analogue (H2 data) may be preferable to application of animal data
on the element of interest (Al data). For example, for purposes of constructing or evaluating a
biokinetic model for americium in humans, use of quantitative human data on the physiological
analogue curium seems preferable to use of the best quantitative animal data on americium. Similar
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statements can be made for radium and barium, rubidium and potassium, or other pairs of close
physiological analogues. On the other hand, if two chemically similar elements show only broad
physiological similarities, the animal analogy may be preferred to the chemical analogy, particularly
if element-specific data are available for a variety of animal species. In general, lower confidence
would be placed in animal data for a chemical analogue than in animal data for the element of
interest.
Uncertainty in central estimates stemming from variability in the population
In this report, "uncertainty" refers to lack of knowledge of a central value for a population,
and "variability" refers to quantitative differences between different members of a population.
Although uncertainty and variability are distinct concepts, the variability in biokinetic characteristics
within a population is often an important factor contributing to the uncertainty in a central estimate
of a biokinetic quantity. This is because such variability complicates the problem of identifying the
central tendency of these characteristics in the population due to the small number of observations
generally available and the fact that subjects usually are not randomly selected.
Variability in the biokinetics of radionuclides, pharmaceuticals, or chemicals in human
populations appears to result from many different physiological factors or modulating host factors
of an environmental nature, including age, gender, pregnancy, lactation, exercise, disease, stress,
smoking, and diet. Large inter-individual biokinetic variations sometimes persist in the absence of
appreciable environmental differences and suggest that these variations may be genetically
controlled. In real-world situations, genetic and environmental factors may interact dynamically,
producing sizable variations in the behavior of substances taken into the human body.
Examples of data sources for some specific biokinetic models
Model of the respiratory tract
The respiratory tract model used in this report is described in Chapter 4. The model depicts
air intake (ventilation), deposition of airborne material in compartments within the extrathoracic
(ET) and thoracic regions of the respiratory tract, and clearance of material from these compartments
by mechanical processes and absorption to blood. The airways of the ET region are divided into the
anterior nasal passages, in which deposits are removed by extrinsic means such as nose blowing, and
the posterior nasal passages including the nasopharynx, oropharynx, and the larynx, from which
D-7
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deposits are swallowed. The airways of the thorax include the bronchi, bronchioles, and alveolar
region. Material deposited in the thoracic airways may be cleared into blood by absorption, to the
gastrointestinal tract by mechanical processes (that is, transported upward and swallowed), and to
the regional lymph nodes via lymphatic channels. The rates of movement by mechanical processes
are based on different kinetic phases observed in humans or laboratory animals. The mechanical
clearances are the same for all radionuclides, but the rate of absorption to blood depends on the
dissolution rate of the inhaled material, which in turn depends on the chemical and physical form in
which a radionuclide is inhaled. Although the model permits consideration of compound-specific
dissolution rates, a particulate is generally assigned to one of three default absorption types: Type F
(fast dissolution and high absorption to blood), Type M (an intermediate rate of dissolution and
intermediate absorption to blood), and Type S (slow dissolution and low absorption to blood).
Most parameter values of the respiratory tract model are based on data from human studies,
but data derived from laboratory animals and in vitro studies are often used to assign an absorption
type to a given form of a radionuclide. Some of the parameter values of the respiratory tract model
are independent of the chemical properties of the inhaled material (e.g., total and regional deposition
fractions). In such cases, H2 data are as valuable as HI data, and A2 data are as valuable as Al data.
Uncertainties in the integrated activity of an inhaled radionuclide and the distribution of that
activity in the respiratory tract arise from incomplete knowledge of the ventilation rate, total and
regional deposition of inhaled material, the rate of mucociliary clearance of particles from the
tracheobronchial region, the extent of long-term retention of material in the airway walls in the
tracheobronchial region, the retention time for insoluble particles in the alveolar region, the rate of
dissolution of particles and absorption of the radionuclide to blood, the rate of movement of material
to the lymph nodes, and the retention time of material in the lymph nodes. Some of these quantities
have been studied extensively in human subjects and are known within narrow bounds. For
example, the average ventilation rate may be known within about 30-40%. Total deposition in the
respiratory tract and in specific regions of the tract have not been determined with such high
precision, although there are fairly extensive human data for some ranges of particles size (e.g., for
particle sizes near 1 um AMAD). With regard to estimates of dose or cancer risk, the uncertainty
in total deposition in the respiratory tract tends to be more important than uncertainties in regional
deposition fractions because the latter tend to offset one another to some extent in estimates of dose
to the lungs or systemic organs. Knowledge of mechanical clearance rates varies with the region and
time frame considered. For example, the authors of ICRP Publication 66 (1994a) concluded that the
mean clearance rate from the alveolar-interstitial region up to 100 d may be known within about
20%, the rate at 200-300 d within a factor of 2, and the long-term removal rate from the alveolar
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interstitium to the bronchioles (0.0001 d"1, corresponding to a half-time of almost 7000 d) within a
factor of 3. Particle clearance from the tracheobronchial region has not been characterized with
much precision, but there is convincing evidence that most of the deposit will clear in several hours.
The lung dose is defined as a weighted average of the doses to three radiosensitive regions
of the lungs: the bronchial region (BB), the bronchiolar region (bb), and the alveolar-interstitial (AI)
region. The ICRP (1994a) recommends the use of equal weights, or detriment apportionment
factors, for these three regions but points out the possibility, in view of the regional distribution of
spontaneous lung cancers in the general non-smoking population, that uniform irradiation of the
lungs may be more likely to lead to the induction of cancer in the bronchial region than in the
alveolar and bronchiolar regions. Estimates of lung dose are relatively insensitive to the choice of
regional apportionment factors for radionuclides that emit penetrating radiation because the three
regions are in close proximity to one another, but estimates depend strongly on the choice of regional
apportionment factors for some radionuclides that emit mainly alpha or low-energy beta particles.
In many cases, a major uncertainty in the estimated doses to lungs as well as systemic tissues
is the rate of absorption to blood. This rate depends strongly on the physicochemical form of the
radionuclide. The form of an airborne particulate usually is not known with much certainty and, if
known, may not be unambiguously associated with a given absorption type (Type F, M, or S) on the
basis of available studies. Even if there is sufficient information to assign the inhaled material to a
general absorption type, each type represents a wide range of absorption rates to blood. According
to recommendations of the ICRP (1995b), a material would be assigned to Type F if available
information suggests that the rate of absorption to blood is 0.069 d"1 or greater, to Type S if the
absorption rate is 0.001 d"1 or less, and to Type M is the absorption rate is between 0.069 d"1 and
0.001 d"1. Depending on the half-life of the radionuclide, the range of absorption rates for any given
absorption type could correspond to a wide range of potential doses to the lung or systemic organs.
Although the ICRP recommends that material-specific rates of absorption should be applied
whenever reliable data exist for human subjects or laboratory animals, such data seldom exist.
Gastrointestinal tract model and f( values
The ICRP's current model of transit of material through the segments of the gastrointestinal
tract is described in Chapter 4. The model divides the contents of the gastrointestinal tract into four
segments: stomach, small intestine, upper large intestine, and lower large intestine. Transit of
material through the gastrointestinal tract and absorption to blood are described by first-order
kinetics. Absorption is assumed to occur in the small intestine and is represented by an element-
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specific uptake fraction, called an f, value, that is converted to a transfer coefficient from the small
intestine contents to blood. The transfer coefficients for movement of intestinal contents are equal
to the reciprocal of the mean residence times, taken to be 1 h for the stomach, 4 h for the small
intestine, 13 h for the upper large intestine and 24 h for the lower large intestine. The model was
originally intended for application to radiation workers but is broadly consistent with data for women
and children (NCRP, 1998). Moreover, the transit times used in the ICRP's model seem reasonably
consistent with newer data. It appears that incomplete knowledge of typical transit times through
the gastrointestinal tract, or inaccurate representation of these transit times in the ICRP's model, do
not contribute greatly to uncertainties in cancer risk estimates for intake of radionuclides.
The uncertainty in fractional uptake from the gastrointestinal tract to blood (f, value) varies
considerably from one element to another. In a relative sense (that is, when expressed as a multiple
of the ICRP's value), uncertainties in the f, values are smallest for elements that are known to be
nearly completely absorbed, including hydrogen (as tritium), carbon, sodium, chlorine, potassium,
bromine, rubidium, molybdenum, iodine, cesium, thallium, fluorine, sulfur, and germanium.
Average uptake from the gastrointestinal tract is also reasonably well established for several
frequently studied elements whose absorption is incomplete but represents at least a few percent of
intake, such as copper, zinc, magnesium, technetium, arsenic, calcium, strontium, barium, radium,
lead, iron, manganese, cobalt, and uranium. Relative uncertainties generally are greater for the
remaining elements, usually due to some combination of the following problems: (1) there is little
direct information on man (e.g., ruthenium, silver, aluminum); there are substantial inconsistencies
in reported absorption fractions (e.g., beryllium, antimony, silicon); and (3) absorption is too low to
be determined with much precision under most conditions (e.g., most actinide and lanthanide
elements). Absorption of a few poorly absorbed elements such as thorium, plutonium, americium,
and curium has been studied under controlled conditions in human subjects, and average uptake in
the adult may be established within a factor of about 5 for these elements. Relative uncertainties
may be greatest for several elements whose absorption has not been studied in man but for which
Al data or other indirect evidence indicates absorption on the order of at most a few hundredths of
a percent, such as samarium, gadolinium, dysprosium, erbium, thulium, actinium, yttrium, and
scandium. The f, values for these elements are, at best, order-of-magnitude estimates.
Systemic biokinetic models for parent radionuclides
The quantity and quality of information available to model the time-dependent distribution
of an element after its absorption to blood varies considerably from one element to another. For
D-10
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several essential elements and a few non-essential elements such as cesium and strontium, a
reasonably detailed biokinetic data base has been derived from studies involving human subjects
(HI). For some other elements, such as zirconium, hafnium, antimony, and cerium, development
of a systemic biokinetic model must be based almost entirely on surrogate information such as Al
and A2 data. Information for most elements falls somewhere between these extremes, in that the
systemic biokinetics has been studied to a limited extent in human subjects, and some supplementary
information is available in the form of Al, H2, and/or A2 data.
The following paragraphs summarize available information on the systemic biokinetics of
each of eleven elements: hydrogen (as tritiated water), cobalt, strontium, ruthenium, antimony,
iodine, cesium, radium, thorium, uranium, and plutonium. These elements were chosen for
consideration because of their environmental importance and because they illustrate different levels
of knowledge of the systemic biokinetics of elements in the human body. The discussions of
tritium, cobalt, strontium, ruthenium, antimony, cesium, radium, and thorium were taken from a
paper by Leggett et al. (1998); the discussion of iodine was extracted from reviews by Dunning and
Schwarz (1981) and ICRP (1989); and discussions of thorium and uranium were extracted from
reviews by Leggett (1994, 1997).
Tritium, as tritiated water (HTO): There is a large data base on whole-body retention of
tritium in adult humans exposed to HTO (HI data), and there have been several detailed studies of
the behavior of HTO in laboratory animals (Al
data). It has been established that tritium is
fairly uniformly distributed in the body and that
retention can be described as a sum of two or
three exponential terms. The dominant, short-
term component closely approximates the
turnover of body water, and the longer-term
components, accounting for only a small
percentage of the cumulative activity, appear to
represent other forms of molecularly bound
tritium. The consistency in reported means of
the short-term half-time in largely adult male
study groups (Fig. D. 1) indicate that the typical
short-term half-time — and hence the typical
cumulative activity — is reasonably well
1 D
-a
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established for this portion of the population. The equivalence of the short-term component with
the turnover of body water, as supported by observations on adult male humans and laboratory
animals of various ages, provides a means of extending the model to children and adult females with
some confidence. Thus, a combination of three different types of data (HI, P, and Al) leads to
reasonably high confidence in age- and gender-specific estimates of cumulative activity of tritium
in the body after intake of HTO.
Cobalt: Whole-body retention of inorganic cobalt by the adult can be estimated with
reasonably high confidence from HI data, but considerable uncertainties remain with regard to the
time-dependent distribution in the human body. Information on the internal distribution of cobalt
comes mainly from studies on laboratory animals (Al data), and these data cannot be extrapolated
to humans with high confidence because of apparent species differences in the behavior of cobalt.
For example, the long-term retention component is considerably larger in human subjects than other
studied species, and the difference cannot be explained by metabolic rate or body size. Limited
comparisons of data for man and laboratory animals suggest that the liver may be a more important
long-term repository for cobalt in humans than in other studied species. Development of a biokinetic
model is complicated by the fact that environmental cobalt may have substantially different
biokinetic properties from the inorganic forms of cobalt generally used in experimental studies. Age-
specific data for cobalt are available only for rats, which is not a preferred species for age-specific
modeling.
Strontium: Relatively plentiful HI data exist for strontium, but the heterogeneity of these
data complicates the modeling process. A large data base related to the transfer of Sr from food
and milk to the human skeleton was developed in the 1950s and 1960s, but interpretation of these
environmental HI data is complicated by the facts that measured skeletal burdens were accumulated
over an extended period and fractional uptake of Sr from the gastrointestinal tract at a given age
is not known with much precision. More easily interpreted age-specific HI data on the systemic
biokinetics are available from controlled HI studies, but such data are limited for children. Age-
specific data on retention of strontium in beagles (Al) help to clarify the behavior of strontium at
early times after intake as well as relative patterns of buildup and decline of strontium in bone at
different stages of bone development. Because strontium is a close physiological analogue of
calcium, data from controlled studies of calcium in humans (H2) provide supporting information for
selection of age-specific parameter values for strontium. The use of a biologically meaningful model
framework allows the strontium data to be superimposed on information concerning addition and
D-12
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turnover of skeletal calcium and restructuring of bone (type P data). The collective data provide high
confidence in model predictions of cumulative activity in bone of adults and reasonably high
confidence for children. Overall, the systemic biokinetics of strontium is reasonably well understood
but cannot be estimated as accurately as that of cesium or tritium, for example.
Ruthenium: The systemic biokinetics of ruthenium is slightly less well understood than that
of cobalt, for example. Knowledge of the systemic biokinetics of ruthenium comes mainly from Al
data, including studies on mice, rats, guinea pigs, rabbits, cats, dogs, and monkeys. Reported long-
term retention half-times range from about 200 d to about 1600 d and show no trend with body mass.
HI data consist mainly of whole-body retention measurements on one healthy human subject who
ingested different chemical forms of 103Ru or 106Ru on different occasions. The estimated long-term
half-time in this subject is within the broad range of values indicated by the animal data. Data on
the systemic distribution of ruthenium comes mainly from studies on rodents and suggest a
somewhat uniform distribution, the main exception being an elevated concentration in the kidneys
in the early weeks after injection. Information on age-related changes in the biokinetics of ruthenium
is available only for rodents (Al).
Antimony: Despite the availability of Al data for several species as well as some scattered
HI data, only order-of-magnitude estimates can be made for the cumulative activity of absorbed
Sb in most organs. Al data are available from studies on mature mice, rats, hamsters, rabbits,
cows, dogs, and monkeys, and some age-specific data are available for rats. HI data come from
measurements of excretion following accidental or controlled exposure to antimony and a few
autopsy measurements in occupationally or environmentally exposed persons. Both the Al and HI
data are complicated by a sizable variability with chemical form of antimony administered and with
route of exposure. The Al data are further weakened by a species dependence in the internal
distribution of antimony. The HI data are suspect due to the questionable reliability of reported
measurements of low-level environmental antimony in food and human tissues. H2 data are of little
use because the nearest neighbors in the periodic chart, arsenic and bismuth, do not appear to be
close physiological analogues of antimony.
Iodine: The systemic biokinetics of iodine is well understood in a qualitative sense, but it
is difficult to define "typical" systemic biokinetics of this element. There is a large body of age-
specific data on uptake and retention of iodine by the human thyroid. Reported thyroidal uptake
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Table D.I. Summary of reported data on uptake and retention of iodine by
the human thyroid (Dunning and Schwarz, 1981).
Age (y)
Newborn
0.5-2
6-16
>18
Uptake by thyroid (%)
N
67
25
114
565
Median Mean
37 47
37 39
43 47
17 19
Range
6-97
18-66
17-88
8-46
Apparent biological
N Median Mean
4 13 16
9 10 13
17 44 50
47 72 85
T1/2 (d)
Range
6-23
4-39
19-118
21-372
fractions and biological half-times are highly variable, probably due in large part to a high inter-
subject variability in the biokinetics of iodine resulting from a strong dependence on the level of
stable iodine in the thyroid. The scatter in reported values is an important source of uncertainty in
typical thyroidal uptake fractions and half-times for iodine because it complicates the problem of
identifying the central tendency of these values in the population. In an investigation of the
imprecision in age-specific estimates of dose to the thyroid from intake of 131I, Dunning and Schwarz
(1981) examined the variation in reported age-specific values for uptake and retention of iodine by
the thyroid. Medians and ranges of the collected values are summarized in Table D.I. For each age
group, wide ranges of reported values were found for each parameter. Particularly extensive data
were found for the biological half-time in the adults (18-fold difference between maximum and
minimum values) and uptake in the newborn (16-fold difference). For 131I, uncertainty in the
biological half-time in the thyroid is not an important source of uncertainty in the integrated activity
in the thyroid, because the estimated lower bound of the retention time is long compared with the
radiological half-life of 131I. A more important consideration is the level of thyroidal uptake of
absorbed 131I, which may be increased substantially in persons with low intake of iodine in food.
Cesium: With regard to systemic biokinetics, cesium is among the best understood elements.
There is an enormous literature on the biological behavior of cesium in human subjects exposed
under natural or controlled conditions. These HI data indicate that cesium is fairly uniformly
distributed in the body and that whole-body retention can be approximated reasonably well by a
single biological half-time, although one or two additional short-term half-times have been identified
in several studies. The consistency of reported mean half-times for groups of healthy adult males
D-14
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from different regions of the world leads to
high confidence in a central estimate for this
portion of the population (Fig. D.2).
Comparative data for healthy adult males and
females reveal that the mean half-time for
females is consistently 15-30% lower than that
for males. The pattern of change with age in
the retention half-time during growth is also
well established. Thus, there is sufficient high-
quality HI data on cesium to characterize
typical whole-body retention of this element
within narrow bounds, for children as well as
for adults of both genders.
1 DU
1 120
1 90
E
03
O5
o
5 30
CO
03
n
Study size shown 3
•
-
-
9
13
s
26
• V
3
FT-
2
^
3
'":
!
2
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^:
5
s
23
f
'
-
24
s
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i
1
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ABCDEFGH I JKLMN
Study
Fig. D.2. Reported biological half-times for cesium
in adult male humans (from Leggett et al., 1998).
Radium: The systemic biokinetics of radium is slightly less well understood than that of
strontium, for example. A relatively large but incomplete HI data base for radium can be
supplemented with various types of surrogate data for purposes of constructing a systemic biokinetic
model. Measurements of whole-body retention of radium are available for many human subjects,
but the data are scattered and many of the subjects were unhealthy, elderly, or received relatively
high doses that may have affected the bone turnover rate. Whole-body retention data for radium can
be supplemented with H2 data from controlled studies on its close chemical and physiological
analogue, barium. The systemic distribution of radium at times soon after exposure has been
determined in a few seriously ill human subjects and can also be estimated from Al data, although
species differences in endogenous fecal excretion of radium must be taken into account. Limited
age-specific HI data for radium indicate that retention at early times after injection is proportional
to the rate of addition of calcium to the skeleton, and this is supported by Al and H2 data. Available
HI, H2, and Al data for radium can be superimposed on a biologically meaningful model of calcium
addition and turnover and bone restructuring (see Fig. 4.6 of the main text). The combined
information can be used to characterize the biological behavior of radium in man in reasonable
detail, although the surrogate information provides less confidence than equally detailed HI data
would provide.
Thorium: The biokinetics of thorium is reasonably well understood on the basis of
extensive data on beagles and other laboratory animals (Al), together with limited data on human
subjects (HI). For some of the most important isotopes of thorium, however, tissue doses are due
D-15
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mainly to radioactive progeny produced in the body, and the biokinetics of ingrowing chain members
is generally less well understood than the biokinetics of the thorium parent. Useful HI data on
thorium as a parent come from a controlled study involving elderly human subjects, long-term
measurements of 227Th or 228Th in the bodies and excreta of occupationally exposed persons, and
measurements of thorium isotopes in autopsy samples from non-occupationally exposed subjects.
Additionally, there have also been several studies of the biokinetics of thorium isotopes in laboratory
animals, including a particularly detailed study on dogs. The animal studies also provide some
information on the migration of chain members from 228Th or 232Th, for example. The collective HI
and Al data establish that thorium is cleared very slowly from the body and has a much higher
affinity for bone than for other tissues. It is reasonably well established that thorium deposits on
bone surfaces and is removed by bone restructuring processes over a period of years. There is little
direct information on changes with age in the biokinetics of thorium, but it is expected that the
turnover of skeletal thorium will be elevated at younger ages due to a high rate of bone restructuring.
Results of studies on laboratory animals suggest that members of the 228Th or 232Th chains produced
in soft tissues and on bone surfaces migrate from the parent and behave as if injected into blood.
Uranium: Collective HI and Al data provide a reasonably good picture of the behavior of
uranium in the human body during the first few months after its entry into blood but cannot be used
to characterize the long-term retention of uranium in bone and soft tissues with much certainty. The
most direct information on the biokinetics of uranium, particularly its rate of urinary excretion as a
function of time after injection, comes from three studies on human subjects who were intravenously
injected with uranium isotopes and followed for periods varying from a few days to 1.5 y after
injection. In one of these studies, several bone biopsy samples were taken during the first day or two
after injection, and autopsy samples of bone and soft tissues were collected at times up to 1.5 y after
injection, but the usefulness of these postmortem data is limited by the poor physical conditions of
the subjects at the time of administration of uranium. Best available information on the long-term
distribution of uranium in the human body comes from postmortem measurements of uranium in
tissues of occupationally and environmentally exposed subjects, but the usefulness of these data is
limited by the small numbers of subjects, the small samples of tissue collected in most cases,
uncertain exposure histories, and technical difficulties in measuring the typically low concentrations
of uranium in tissues of environmentally exposed subjects. Various aspects of the biokinetics of
uranium have been examined in baboons, dogs, rabbits, rats, mice, monkeys, sheep, and other animal
species (Al data). The animal studies yield much information not provided by the human studies,
including some indication of changes with age in the biokinetics of uranium.
D-16
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Plutonium: Although there have been many studies of the biological behavior of plutonium
in human subjects exposed either occupationally or under controlled conditions, these HI data do
not fully characterize the relatively complex behavior of plutonium in the body. The rate of urinary
excretion of plutonium as a function of time after intake is now reasonably well established from HI
data, and there is some information on the time-dependent urinary-to-fecal excretion ratio. Recently
reported injection data for healthy volunteers suggest a gender dependence in the rate of excretion
of plutonium in adults. HI as well as Al data indicate that most of the body's plutonium is
sequestered in skeleton and liver at all times after exposure. HI data on the division between liver
and skeleton soon after exposure are contradictory, with generally small samples of autopsy data
from unhealthy subjects indicating that skeleton contains more than liver and external measurements
on healthy subjects suggesting the opposite. Most but not all Al data indicate greater initial uptake
in the skeleton than the liver. The long-term division between liver and skeleton is reasonably well
established by HI data. The qualitative behavior of plutonium after deposition on bone surfaces,
including burial in bone volume and removal to bone marrow or plasma, is understood from
observations of plutonium and related elements in laboratory animals (Al, A2) and, to a lesser
extent, humans (HI, H2). However, the rates of removal of plutonium from bone surfaces and burial
in bone volume are not well established and are important sources of uncertainty in estimates of
cumulative activity of isotopes of plutonium on bone surface. Predictions of uptake and retention
of plutonium by the gonads must be based largely on Al data. Information on changes with age in
the biokinetics of plutonium and related elements comes from studies on dogs and other laboratory
animals. These Al and A2 data indicate that fractional deposition of actinide elements in the
skeleton is much greater in immature than mature animals.
Models for radionuclides produced in the body by radioactive decay
Dose and risk estimates for ingestion or inhalation of a radionuclide are sometimes strongly
influenced by assumptions concerning the biokinetics of radioactive chain members produced in the
body. For example, risk coefficients for inhalation or ingestion of 60Fe, 210Pb, or 232Th depend
strongly on assumptions concerning the extent of migration of chain members from the parent,
because the parent represents only a small portion of the total energy of the chain in each case. For
210Pb, 232Th, and several other important radionuclides, some information on the fate of ingrowing
radioactive progeny is available from observations on laboratory animals and occupationally exposed
subjects (Leggett et al., 1984). For 60Fe and many other radionuclides, however, lack of information
on the biological fate of radioactive progeny represents a major source of uncertainty in cancer risk
D-17
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estimates. The ICRP's assumptions concerning the behavior of decay chain members produced in
the body are discussed in Chapter 4 of this report.
Uncertainties in internal dosimetric models
Specific energy (SE) for photons
There are two principal computational procedures available for estimating specific absorbed
fractions (SAF) for photon emissions: the Monte Carlo method of simulation of radiation transport
and the point-source kernel method. Both of these methods may involve non-trivial errors,
depending on the photon energy and the organs under consideration. An examination of the
advantages and disadvantages of these two very different methods, together with a comparison of
predictions of the two methods for various situations, provides insight into the uncertainties in SEs
for photons and ways to minimize those uncertainties.
The Monte Carlo method is a computerized approach for estimating the probability of a
photon interaction within target organ T after emission from source organ S. This method is carried
out for all combinations of source and target organs and for several photon energies. The body is
represented by an idealized phantom in which the internal organs are assigned masses, shapes,
positions, and attenuation coefficients based on their chemical composition. Hypothetical
interactions of numerous photons emanating in randomly chosen directions from points in the source
organ are recorded as the photon travels through tissues and escapes from the body or loses its
energy. This approach can produce significant statistical errors in situations where few interactions
are expected to occur, such as cases involving low initial energies or target organs that are relatively
small or remote from important sources of activity.
The second procedure for estimating specific absorbed fractions for photon emissions
involves integration of a point-source kernel
-------
uncertainties in SAFs are greater for children than adults due to greater uncertainties concerning
typical sizes and shapes of organs of children.
Maximal differences between the Monte Carlo and classical point-kernel methods are
expected to occur for widely separated organ pairs and for large coefficients of variation for the
Monte Carlo estimates. A comparison of the two methods was made for such situations in phantoms
representing children of ages 1-15 y (Cristy and Eckerman, 1987). The results of this comparison
indicate that the two approaches agree within a factor of two at all energies and within about 20%
at energies greater than 500 keV. The largest differences between the methods occur at very low
energies (10 keV or less) and at energies near 100 keV. The disagreement at 10 keV or less probably
results from some combination of poor statistics for the Monte Carlo values and poor data underlying
the point-source kernel at these energies. The disagreement at energy levels near 100 keV probably
is due largely to the inability of the point-source kernel method to account properly for the effects
of scattering. Comparisons of the Monte Carlo and point-kernel methods have been used to
determine correction factors for values generated by the point-kernel method (Cristy and Eckerman,
1987). It appears that, for most situations, uncertainties associated with photon absorbed fractions
can be minimized by applying a weighted average of the specific absorbed fraction SAF(T,S) and the
reciprocal SAF(T,S) produced by the Monte Carlo method. In cases where the Monte Carlo values
are statistically unreliable, however, it is preferable to apply the corrected point-kernel method.
SEs for beta particles and discrete electrons
Beta particles and discrete electrons usually are not sufficiently energetic to contribute
significantly to cross-irradiation doses of targets separated from a source organ. Thus, for these
radiation types it is generally assumed that SAF(S,S) is the inverse of the mass of organ S, and if
source S and target T are separated, SAF(T,S) = 0. Exceptions occur when the source and target are
in close proximity, which can occur in the respiratory tract or in the skeleton.
In the respiratory tract, there are narrow layers of radiosensitive basal and secretory cells in
the epithelium. These are irradiated to some extent by beta particles and discrete electrons
emanating from nearby "source organs", including the gel layer, the sol layer, and other identified
compartments within the epithelium.
The skeleton is generally represented as a uniform mixture of its component tissues: cortical
bone, trabecular bone, fatty marrow, red marrow, and connective tissues. Tissues of interest for
dosimetric purposes are the red marrow, which lies within the generally tiny cavities of trabecular
D-19
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bone, and osteogenic cells adjacent to the surfaces of both cortical and trabecular bone. For the red
marrow the pertinent dose is assumed to be the average dose to the marrow space within trabecular
bone. For the osteogenic tissue, the ICRP recommends that the equivalent dose be calculated as an
average over tissues up to a distance of 10 um from the relevant bone surface.
In the vicinity of discontinuities in tissue compositions such as that between bone mineral
and soft tissues, the assumption that the skeleton is a uniform mixture of its component tissues can
lead to sizable errors in estimates of dose from beta particles and discrete electrons, as well as
photons. For example, neglect of energy transferred to electrons by photon interactions in these
regions can result in overestimates of dose to bone marrow by as much as 300-400% for photon
energies less than 100 keV. Similarly, conventional methods for treating beta emissions in the
skeleton may substantially overestimate the dose to soft tissues of the skeleton. With regard to the
ICRP's SE values, this problem was recently addressed for photons (Cristy and Eckerman, 1993),
but conventional methods are still used for treatment of beta emissions.
SEs for alpha particles
The energy of alpha particles and their associated recoil nuclei is generally assumed to be
absorbed in the source organ. Therefore, for alpha particles, SAF(S,S) is taken to be the inverse of
the mass of the source organ S, and SAF(T,S) = 0 if S and Tare separated.
If an alpha emitter is uniformly distributed on the surface of trabecular bone then, by simple
geometric considerations, the absorbed fraction in the marrow space is 0.5. Lacking information on
the location of the hematopoietic stem cells, the ICRP assumes that the cells are uniformly
distributed within the marrow space. If the sensitive cells were located more than 10 um from the
bone mineral surface, the relevant absorbed fraction would be reduced to 0.23-0.34 for an alpha
emitter with energy in the range 5-8 MeV.
For an alpha emitter uniformly distributed in the mineral of trabecular bone, the absorbed
fraction in the red marrow depends on the energy of the alpha particle. Calculations for alpha
emitters ranging in energy from 5 to 8 MeV indicate that the absorbed fraction in the marrow space
ranges between 0.041 and 0.087, which bracket the value of 0.05 recommended by the ICRP. If the
sensitive cells were located more than 10 um from the bone mineral surface, the relevant absorbed
fraction would be reduced to 0.015-0.055. Thus, dose estimates to skeletal tissues for alpha emitters
are sensitive to assumptions regarding the spatial relationship between the source and target regions.
It seems likely that the ICRP's nominal SE values for alpha emissions from bone surface or volume
may overestimate the dose to red marrow by a factor of 2 or more in many cases.
D-20
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For an alpha emitter uniformly distributed in bone mineral, estimates of the absorbed fraction
in bone surface ranges from less than 0.02 to more than 0.03, depending on the energy of the alpha
particle. The nominal value recommended by the ICRP is 0.025.
Special dosimetric problems presented by walled organs
The so-called "walled organs" of the body are the parts of the gastrointestinal tract and the
bladder in which the radionuclide may be present in the contents of the organ. In the case of beta
radiation, it is assumed that the dose to the wall of the organ is equivalent to the dose at the surface
of the contents. For beta particles of low energy, this approach seems likely to overestimate the dose
to the wall and to the cells associated with maintaining the epithelial lining of the wall (Poston et al.
1996a, 1996b). For alpha radiations the dose to the wall is taken as 1% of the dose at the surface of
the contents. This value is not based on calculations of energy deposition but is a cautiously high
value based on an acute toxicity study on rats (Sullivan et al., 1960). In that study, the LD50 for
ingested Y was estimated as about 12 Gy while a more than 100-fold greater dose to the mucosal
surface from Pu had no effect. Although there may be essentially no dose to radiosensitive cells
of walled organs from alpha particles in the organ contents, the cautious assumption indicated above
continues to be used due to concerns that some radionuclides may be retained in the walls of these
organs to a greater extent than commonly modeled. Also, for the intestines, considerable difficulties
are encountered in defining the appropriate geometry of the convoluted wall and the contents of this
organ.
Uncertainties in external dosimetric models
Transport of radiation from the environmental source to humans
In Federal Guidance Report No. 12 (EPA, 1993), the problem of estimating external dose
rates from contaminated air, soil, or ground surfaces was divided into two steps: (1) the calculation
of the radiation field incident on the surface of the body and (2) calculation of organ dose rates due
to a body surface source. The uncertainties associated with the second step are essentially the same
as those discussed above with regard to internal radiation sources.
The method of calculation of the external radiation field was checked as far as practical
against other theoretical methods or experimentally determined values (EPA, 1993). The results of
the comparisons suggest that the external radiation fields can be determined with reasonably high
D-21
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accuracy, at least for the idealized geometries generally considered. For example, derived values for
the case of a contaminated ground source were checked by comparing the energy and angular
dependence of the air kerma above a 1.25-MeV plane source at the air-ground interface with
calculations of Beck and de Plaque (1968) based on another method and with the calculations and
measurements given in the Shielding Benchmark Problems report (Garrett, 1968). Agreement was
within a few percent in both cases.
The greatest uncertainties in the modeled external radiation fields as predictors of real-world
situations generally arise from oversimplifications in the exposure scenarios rather than from
inadequacies in the dosimetric models per se. For example, there will often be considerable
differences between the simplified, infinite exposure geometries and real, finite exposure geometries.
An important example is exposure to contaminated ground surface, for which the source region is
assumed to be a smooth plane. In the real world, external dose rates from sources on the ground
surface generally are reduced by shielding provided by "ground roughness", including irregularities
in the terrain and surface vegetation. Dose-reduction factors for a photon spectrum representative
of fallout following releases from nuclear reactors are given by Burson and Profio (1977). The
recommended values range from essentially unity for paved areas to about 0.5 for a deeply plowed
field, and a representative value is about 0.7. Such dose-reduction factors for ground roughness
should overestimate equivalent doses due to external exposure to contaminated ground surfaces if
the radionuclides emit mostly low-energy photons (Kocher, 1980).
The dose coefficients for air submersion and exposure to contaminated soil assume that
exposed individuals spend all of the time outdoors and have no shielding from the radiation (EPA,
1993). For the typical adult male considered in Federal Guidance Report No. 12, one of the largest
uncertainties in the external dose rates as applied in the present report is the question of whether a
uniform reduction factor, or possibly radionuclide-specific reduction factors, should be used to
account for shielding during indoor residence. In the present document, no reduction factors are
applied. This approach may be appropriate for some radionuclides (e.g., for some radioisotopes of
noble gases) but probably leads to a substantial overestimate of actual dose rates for external
exposures in many cases. It is left to the user to decide whether a reduction factor is appropriate for
a given application.
For acute releases of radionuclides into the atmosphere, the relationship between indoor and
outdoor airborne concentrations of radionuclides will vary with time during and after a release and
will also depend strongly on the air exchange rate inside a building (Wallace, 1996). For such
releases, a fixed reduction of external dose rates to account for indoor residence would not appear
to be appropriate.
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Effects of age and gender
The dose coefficients tabulated in Federal Guidance Report No. 12 were calculated for an
anthropomorphic model of the adult body derived by Cristy (Cristy and Eckerman, 1987) from ICRP
Reference Man data (ICRP, 1975). For all calculations, the phantom is upright at the air-ground
interface. The phantom is a hermaphrodite of design similar to that used in the dosimetric evaluation
of ICRP Publication 30 (Part 1, 1979).
Age- and gender-specific aspects of external dose have been considered by Drexler et al.
(1989) and Petoussi et al. (1991). Limited calculations indicate that the dose to organs of the body
from external radiation increases with decreasing body size. This effect is more pronounced at low
photon energy than at high energy and is also more pronounced for organs located deep in the body
than for more shallow organs with less shielding by overlying tissues.
Calculated effects of age on the
effective dose per unit photon fluence
are indicated in Fig. D.3 for the case of
photons uniformly distributed in angle
(isotropic field). Estimates for
intermediate ages fall between the curves
for the adult and infant. Similar effects
of age were calculated for the case of a
broad parallel horizontal beam uniformly
distributed about the phantom (rotational
normal beam). The isotropic field
corresponds to a photon source
uniformly distributed in the air
(submersion) and the rotational normal
beam is similar to the situation in which
the photon source is distributed on the
ground surface. For both cases, the
dependence of the effective dose on age increases at low photon energies and exceeds a factor of two
at energies less than about 0.050 MeV. It is for low photon energies that the reduction in dose by
shielding by structures during indoor residence becomes increasingly effective. Uncertainties
associated with the use of age-independent external dose rates appear to be overshadowed in most
cases by uncertainties associated with shielding and exposure geometries.
E
o
CO
Q.
-------
Uncertainties in risk model coefficients
Sampling variability
Epidemiologic data on an irradiated population generally can be organized and modeled in
many different ways. For example, choices can be made regarding the grouping of cancer sites, the
extent of division of the study population by age and gender, the mathematical form of the
dose-response, and the general form of the age and temporal dependence. Although interesting
features of the data may be revealed by considering small subgroups, there is a concomitant increase
in statistical variability that may preclude any meaningful improvement in the model.
For the statistical analysis of the Life Span Study (LSS) data, the deaths and person-years of
survival were aggregated by city, gender, six age groups, seven follow-up intervals, and 10 radiation
dose intervals (Shimizu et al. 1989). Site-specific risk coefficients were calculated with a maximum
likelihood estimation method that assumes that the numbers of deaths in each group are independent
Poisson variates. Based on this analysis, Shimizu and coworkers derived excess relative risk
estimates with associated 90% confidence intervals, (A,E), for a number of cancer sites. Their
analysis indicates that sampling variability could lead to sizable errors in estimates of excess relative
risk, particularly for sites showing relatively small numbers of excess cancer deaths. For example,
the analysis indicates a quotient B/A of about 3 for stomach or lung, 4 for breast, colon, or urinary
tract, 8 for ovary, and 10 for esophagus. For leukemia and combined cancers excluding leukemia,
B/A is about 1.9 and 1.6, respectively. The implications of the results of Shimizu and coworkers
with regard to sampling errors are discussed in greater detail in a recent EPA report on uncertainties
in estimates of radiogenic cancer risk (EPA, 1999).
Diagnostic misclassification
Two types of diagnostic misclassification of cancer can occur: classification of cancers as
non-cancer cases (detection error) and erroneous classification of non-cancer cases as cancer
(confirmation error). Detection errors lead to an underestimate of the excess absolute risk but do not
affect the estimated excess relative risk. Confirmation errors lead to an underestimate of the excess
relative risk but do not affect the excess absolute risk (NCRP, 1997; EPA, 1999).
Based on results from an RERF autopsy study, Sposto and coworkers (1992) estimated that,
due to diagnostic misclassification between cancer and noncancer causes of death, the estimated
excess relative risk of induced cancers in the LSS population should be corrected upward by 13%.
D-24
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Following the approach outlined by Sposto and coworkers, Pierce et al. (1996) estimated that the
excess absolute risk estimate should be adjusted upward by about 16% to reflect errors in diagnostic
misclassification. However, misclassification errors vary considerably by cancer site, both with
respect to proper identification of cancer as the cause of death and with respect to the primary site
(EPA, 1999).
Errors in dosimetry
In epidemiological studies of irradiated populations, organ doses generally cannot be
determined with high accuracy. For internally exposed subjects, the level or pattern of intake may
not be well established, and there is always incomplete information concerning the time-dependent
distribution and excretion of the internally deposited radionuclide(s) and any radioactive progeny
of those radionuclides produced in vivo. For externally exposed subjects, uncertainties in organ doses
may arise because the radiation source or the position, shielding, or exposure times of the subjects
are not well established.
Random errors in the individual dose estimates for the atomic bomb survivor population have
been estimated as 25-45% (Jablon, 1971; Pierce et al., 1990; Pierce and Vaeth, 1991). These random
errors are likely to result in an overestimate of the average dose in the high dose groups and,
assuming a linear dose response function, a slight underestimate of the dose response (Pierce et al.,
1990; Pierce and Vaeth, 1991). More significantly, perhaps, the shape of the dose response will be
distorted towards a convex (downward) curvature; hence, a true linear-quadratic dependence may
be distorted to look linear (Pierce and Vaeth, 1991).
Measurements of neutron activation products in Hiroshima indicate that neutron doses for
Hiroshima survivors may have been underestimated and that the relative magnitude of the error
increased with distance from the epicenter (Straume et al., 1992). If neutron doses have been
underestimated, then a larger fraction of the radiogenic cancers would be attributable to neutrons,
and the estimate of risk from gamma rays should be reduced. Using the tentatively revised estimates
of neutron flux derived by Straume and coworkers, Preston et al. (1993) have calculated that the
estimated risk from gamma rays for all cancers other than leukemia could be as much as 25% too
high, with the calculated overestimate depending on the neutron RBE assumed.
An NCRP committee identified three additional sources of uncertainty relating to the current
dosimetry for the Japanese atomic bomb survivors: (1) bias in gamma ray estimates; (2) uncertainty
in the characterization of radiation shielding by buildings; and (3) uncertainty in neutron RBE
(NCRP, 1997). Altogether, the dosimetric uncertainties were judged to result in roughly a 15%
overestimate of risk model coefficients for combined cancers other than leukemia.
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Uncertainties in the effects of radiation at low dose and dose rate
For purposes of radiation protection, it is generally assumed that the probability of inducing
radiogenic cancers in a human population is proportional to the radiation dose received, even for
extremely low doses and dose rates. This "linear, no-threshold" model is a major source of
uncertainty, and controversy, in radiogenic cancer risk estimation.
Carcinogenesis is understood to be a multistage process in which a single cell gives rise to
a tumor, with mutation of DNA required in one or more of the steps leading to malignancy. Since
cancer is a common disease, the background rates for each of these steps must be greater than zero,
and any filtration mechanism for removing precancerous cells must be imperfect. Traversal of a
single ionizing track through a cell appears to be capable of causing DNA damage that cannot always
be faithfully repaired. Thus, it seems reasonable to assume that any exposure that increases the rate
of mutation of DNA has a nonzero probability of causing cancer (EPA, 1999). On the other hand,
scientific evidence does not rule out the possibility that the risk per unit dose is effectively zero at
environmental exposure levels or that there may be a net beneficial effect of low dose radiation
(Luckey 1990, Jaworowski 1995, Goldman 1996).
Arguments for and against the existence of an effective threshold for radiation effects have
been made on the basis of epidemiological data, but conclusions appear to depend on the population
and cancer type considered, the nature of the exposure, and the assumptions underlying the analysis.
It is doubtful that human epidemiological data can be used to determine the existence or absence of
a threshold for radiogenic cancer, due to the statistical uncertainties inherent in such data. Data for
laboratory animals can furnish important information but cannot confirm or refute the existence of
thresholds for radiogenic cancer in man.
Evidence that low dose radiation may induce or activate cellular DNA repair mechanisms
through an adaptive response or some stimulatory mechanism has led to speculation that low doses
may be protective against cancer. The stimulatory effects seen to date have been short term and may
not provide a significant reduction in cancer risk (Puskin 1997). A detailed review of possible
radiation induced adaptive responses can be found in the UNSCEAR (1994) report.
Primarily on the basis of laboratory studies of cells, plants, and animals, the authors of NCRP
Report 64 (NCRP, 1980) advocated a linear-quadratic dose response for acute doses up to about
2.5-4 Gy, above which the dose response begins to turn over due to cell killing. At low doses, the
quadratic term is negligible compared with the linear term.
A theoretical framework for the linear-quadratic dose response model has been developed
by Kellerer and Rossi (1972). In this theory of "dual radiation action", events leading to "lesions"
or permanent changes in cellular DNA require the formation of interacting pairs of "sublesions".
D-26
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The interacting pairs can be produced by a single track (traversing particle) or by two tracks, giving
rise, respectively, to a linear and a quadratic term in the dose response relationship. According to
the theory, a sublesion may be repaired before it can interact to form a lesion, with the probability
of such repair increasing with time. As the dose rate is reduced, the formation of lesions from
sublesions caused by separate tracks becomes less important, and the magnitude of the quadratic
term decreases. The theory predicts that at sufficiently low doses or dose rates, the response should
be linear and, in either limit, should have the same slope.
The dual action theory has been challenged on experimental grounds, and observed variations
in response with dose, dose rate, and LET can also be explained by other plausible theories. For
example, the data are consistent with a mechanism involving only single lesions and a "saturable"
repair process that decreases in effectiveness at high dose rates on the microscopic scale (Goodhead,
1982). One property of such a theory is that, in principle, the effectiveness of repair — and therefore
the shape of the dose response curve — can vary widely with cell type, organ system, and species.
Hence, results obtained on laboratory animals might not be entirely applicable to humans.
According to either the dual action theory or the saturable repair theory, the dose response
should be linear at low doses or low dose rates, and with equal slopes. At higher doses and dose
rates, multiple track events become important, and the dose response should bend upward. As a
result, the response per unit dose at low doses and dose rates will be overestimated if one
extrapolates linearly from observations made at high, acutely delivered doses (NCRP, 1980).
A linear dose response below about 0.2 Gy is consistent with an assumption of maximal
DNA repair in that dose range. Repair of radiation-induced DNA damage has been found to be
largely complete within a few hours of an acute exposure (Wheeler and Wierowski, 1983; Ullrich
et al., 1987). This suggests that maximal repair persists at higher doses, provided the dose received
within any time span of a few hours does not exceed 0.2 Gy. Further protraction should have little
or no effect on the risk of cancer induction. Thus, the current mechanistic explanations suggest that
the dose and dose-rate effectiveness factor (DDREF) is constant at any dose below about 0.2 Gy and
for higher doses received at a low dose rate. EPA (1994) adopted the recommendation of
UNSCEAR (1993) that an hourly averaged dose rate less than 0.1 mGy min" may be regarded as
low in this context.
Until recently, it appeared that the LSS data could not be explained by a linear-quadratic
model because there were inconsistencies for solid tumors or leukemia and also inconsistencies
between models developed separately for Hiroshima and Nagasaki. With the revised "DS86"
dosimetry, however, these inconsistencies were largely removed (Shimizu et al., 1990; NAS, 1990).
The data from the two cities are now in reasonable agreement. The combined leukemia data can be
fitted by a linear-quadratic dose response function, with the slope of the function at low doses being
D-27
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about half that obtained by a linear fit to the data. On the other hand, the data for solid tumors are
reasonably consistent with a linear dose response from low doses up to about 4 Gy. Using a
linear-quadratic model to fit the data reduces the linear term by, at most, a factor of 2 compared to
a simple linear model. Interpretation of these results on the basis of the model used in NCRP 64
(1980) indicates a best estimate of the DDREF of about 2 for leukemia and 1 for solid tumors, and
an upper bound of about 2 for solid tumors. Errors in dose estimation may introduce a negative bias
in the dose-squared dependence of the response. This has a relatively minor effect on the best
estimate of the DDREF but could increase the upper bound to about 3 or 4. When compared with
observed lung cancer risks in the atomic bomb survivors, results of clinical studies suggest that the
DDREF could be large for lung cancer induction (Howe, 1995).
Results for solid tumors in humans differ from those obtained through laboratory studies,
including studies of radiation-induced tumorigenesis in mice and rats. Most laboratory studies
suggest a DDREF of about 2 or 3, and sometimes higher, depending on the end point.
Taken together, current scientific
data are generally indicative of a DDREF
between 1 and 3 for human cancer induction,
except for a possibly higher value for lung.
The authors of EPA (1994) concluded that a
value of 2.0 provides a reasonable central
estimate. The Agency's Radiation Advisory
Committee agreed "that this choice is
reasonable and ... consistent with current
scientific judgment" (Loehr and Nygaard,
1992). A DDREF of 2 has recently been
adopted by the ICRP (1991), as well as by
other organizations (NCRP, 1993; CIRRPC,
1992). The authors of NCRP Report 126
(1997) assigned a piecewise linear
uncertainty distribution to the DDREF by assuming that 2 is the most likely value, 1 is one-quarter
as likely as 2, 3 is half as likely as 2, and a value less than 1 or greater than 5 is unlikely (Fig. D.4).
The authors of a recent EPA report (EPA, 1999) made similar assumptions for values between 2 and
5 but placed more weight on values close to 1 and assigned a non-zero probability to all values
greater than 5 (Fig. D.4).
XI
ffl
o
0.
ID
>
NCHP
345
DDREF
Fig. D.4. Uncertainty distributions assigned to the
DDREF in recent reports (NCRP, 1997; EPA, 1999).
D-28
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Uncertainties in the RBE for alpha particles
Radiobiological data indicate that high-LET alpha radiation has a larger biological effect than
an equal absorbed dose of low-LET radiation. However, ranges of estimated values for alpha
particle RBE are wide, depending on both the biological system and the observed endpoint. The
uncertainty in the RBE estimate from an individual study is also usually large, primarily due to the
uncertainty in extrapolation of low-LET data to low doses. At relatively high doses, the
effectiveness of alpha emitters has been found to be 15 to 50 times that of beta emitters for the
induction of bone sarcomas, liver chromosome aberrations, and lung cancers (NCRP, 1990). Since
the LET of secondary protons produced by fission neutrons in living tissue is comparable to that for
alpha particles, data on the RBE of fission neutrons provides ancillary information relevant to the
estimation of alpha particle RBE. Where the dose response data on carcinogenic endpoints are
adequate to derive an estimate, fission neutrons have been found to have an RBE between 6 and 60
times that of low dose gamma rays (NCRP, 1990). Overall, experimental data for solid tumor
induction with alpha particles and fission neutrons suggest a central value of about 10-30 and a range
of roughly 5 to 60 for the RBE relative to low-dose, low-LET radiation (NCRP, 1990; NRC-CEC,
1997).
The data are generally suggestive of a linear no-threshold dose response for high-LET
radiation, except for a possible fall-off in effectiveness at high doses. Under some conditions the
effects of high-LET radiation appear to increase with fractionation or with a decrease in dose rate.
Site-specific cancer risk estimates for high-LET radiation (neutrons or alpha particles) are
often calculated using human epidemiological data on low-LET radiation (e.g., from the LSS) and
laboratory data on the relative biological effectiveness (RBE) of the high-LET radiation compared
to a reference low-LET radiation (NCRP, 1990). Since the dose response relationship obtained for
low-LET radiation typically is linear or concave upward while that for high-LET radiation is linear
or concave downward, the RBE is dose dependent. The present report is concerned with risks at
relatively low doses and dose rates, where the acute high dose risk for low-LET radiation is reduced
by the DDREF. The dose responses for both low and high LET radiations are assumed to be linear
in this range, and the RBE takes on a constant (maximum) value: RBEM.
With the exception of radiation-induced breast cancer and leukemia, the authors of the EPA
report (EPA, 1994) followed the ICRP's recommendation (ICRP 1991) and assumed that the RBE
for alpha particles is 20, in comparison to low-LET radiation at low doses and dose rates. Where
the comparison was made against acute high doses of low-LET radiation, however, a value of 10 was
D-29
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assumed for the alpha particle RBE. Thus the low-LET radiation DDREF of 2 used for these cancers
was incorporated implicitly into the RBE value for alpha radiation.
For breast cancer induction, a DDREF of 1 was adopted. It was assumed was that the acute
high dose RBE of 10 is also applicable to breast cancer at low doses and dose rates.
There is evidence that alpha particle leukemia risks estimated on the basis of an RBE of 20
are too high (EPA, 1991, 1999). For this reason, an alpha particle leukemia risk estimate of
5.0x10" Gy" was employed, consistent with the available high-LET epidemiological data (NAS,
1988; EPA, 1991). Quantitatively, this would correspond to an RBE of 1 for this site (relative to low
dose, low-LET radiation). This should not be interpreted as implying that alpha radiation is no more
carcinogenic than low-LET radiation in inducing leukemia. At least in part, the lower than expected
leukemia risk produced by alpha emitters may result from a nonuniform distribution of dose within
the bone marrow. That is, average doses to sensitive target cells of bone marrow may be
substantially lower than calculated average marrow doses, to an extent that may vary from one alpha-
emitting radionuclide to another. The RBE of 1 for alpha particles is regarded as an "effective RBE"
that reflects factors other than just the relative biological sensitivity to high- and low-LET radiations.
Uncertainties in transporting risk estimates across populations
Baseline rates for specific cancer types vary from population to population and also vary
over time within a population. For example, stomach cancer rates are substantially higher in Japan
than in the U.S., while the reverse is true for lung, colon, and breast cancer. Moreover, the morbidity
rates for lung and breast cancer have been increasing in both populations during recent years.
Despite the observed rough proportionality between radiation risk and baseline cancer rates by age,
it should not be inferred that excess relative risk will be the same as one goes from one population
to another.
Information on how to transport risk estimates across populations is limited by the quality
of data available on irradiated populations other than the atomic bomb survivors. Two cancer types
for which comparative data exist are thyroid and breast. Data on the thyroid suggest that the risk
increases with the baseline rate, but this does not appear to be true for breast. Some insight into the
problem might be gained by looking at subgroups of an irradiated population. For example, lung
cancer rates in Japanese males are several times higher than in Japanese females, presumably due
in part to the higher smoking rate in males. Nevertheless, the excess absolute risk for lung cancer
attributable to radiation does not differ significantly between the male and female bomb survivors.
This suggests that, for lung cancer, absolute risk may be more transportable than relative risk.
D-30
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Land and Sinclair (1991) present two relative risk models, differing in the method of
transporting risk estimates from the LSS population to other populations. Both models assume a
constant excess relative risk coefficient beginning 10 y after an exposure and continuing throughout
the rest of life for each cancer site, excluding leukemia. One model (multiplicative) assumes that
the relative risk coefficient is the same across populations. The other (NIH, for National Institutes
of Health) assumes that the relative risk model coefficients for the target population should yield the
same risks as those calculated with the additive risk model coefficients from the original population
over the period of epidemiological follow-up, excluding the minimal latency period. These excess
relative risk model coefficients are then used to project the risk over the remaining years of life.
Projections made for the U.S. using the NIH model are much less sensitive to differences in site
specific baseline rates between Japan and the U.S. than are those using the multiplicative model.
Data on North American women irradiated for medical purposes indicate about the same risk
of radiogenic breast cancer per unit dose as the LSS data, despite the substantially higher breast
cancer rates found in the U.S. or Canada, compared to Japan. For breast cancer, therefore, the NIH
model projection agrees with observation better than the multiplicative model projection.
Comparative data on other radiation-induced cancers are generally lacking or are too weak to draw
any conclusions regarding the transportation of risk estimates from the LSS population to the U.S.
population.
Both transportation models have a degree of biological plausibility. For example, the
multiplicative model is consistent with the hypothesis that radiation acts as an "initiator" while the
factors responsible for differences in baseline rates act as "promoters" of cancer. Alternatively, if
both radiation and these factors act independently but at the same stage in the carcinogenesis process,
their effects should be additive and radiation risks should be similar between populations despite
differences in baseline rates. It seems likely that the actual situation is more complex than either of
these alternatives and that some mixture of multiplicative and additive effects of radiation and non-
radiogenic carcinogens may be involved.
Given the uncertainty in the transportation of risk across populations, the EPA recommends
the use of geometric means of the age- and site-specific risk model coefficients derived from the
multiplicative and NIH models of Land and Sinclair (EPA, 1994). The use of a geometric mean
coefficient tends to de-emphasize extreme values that may reflect large extrapolations based on a few
excess cancers observed among those exposed as children.
D-31
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Uncertainties in age and time dependence of risk per unit dose
Information on the variation of risk of site-specific radiogenic cancers among the atomic
bomb survivors with age and time is limited by sampling uncertainties and by the incomplete period
of epidemiological follow-up. For a given age at time of the bomb, the excess solid tumor mortality
has generally been found to increase with the age at death, roughly in proportion to the age-specific
baseline rate for the site of interest. Consequently, models for most tumor sites are now generally
framed in terms of relative risk.
For the period of epidemiological follow-up, the highest relative risks are found in the
youngest exposure categories. However, the lifetime risks of solid tumors due to exposures before
age 20 y remain highly uncertain. Individuals exposed as children are only now entering the years
of life where the risk of cancer is concentrated, and the observed excess effects represent a small
number of cancer deaths. Hence, the sampling error for most types of cancers is large for the
younger age cohorts. Moreover, it is not known whether observed high relative risks will persist.
Theoretical considerations, arising from carcinogenesis modeling, suggest that the relative risks may
decrease over time. Recent epidemiological evidence indicates such a temporal fall-off in groups
irradiated as children (UNSCEAR, 1988; Little et al, 1991).
In assigning uncertainties associated with temporal projection, three classes of cancer sites
should be considered (EPA, 1999):
(1) Sites for which follow-up is essentially complete, with relatively few additional radiation
induced cancers expected. For this group, which might include bone sarcomas and leukemia,
the uncertainty in lifetime risk associated with temporal projection outside the period of
follow-up would be small.
(2) Sites for which a constant relative risk model has been used to project risk beyond the
period of follow-up, but for which the risk coefficients are dependent on the age at exposure.
This group includes stomach, colon, lung, breast, thyroid, and residual cancers. Most of the
projected lifetime risk for these sites is associated with exposures before age 20 y. The
contribution of childhood exposures is highly uncertain in view of the statistical limitations
and possible decreases in relative risk with time after exposure. For this group of sites, the
model could overestimate cancer risk by as much as a factor of 2-2.5 but seems unlikely to
underestimate risk.
(3) Sites for which a constant relative risk projection has been used but for which the risk
coefficient reflects a single age-averaged value. This group includes esophagus, liver,
bladder, kidney, ovary, and skin. The data available on these sites are generally sketchy and
D-32
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heavily weighted towards adult exposures. It is plausible that childhood exposures may
convey a higher risk than adult exposures for these sites, as they appear to do for other sites.
Consequently, the model used to project risk may tend to understate the population risk in
this case. Typically, the relative risks for childhood exposures are found to be 2 to 3 times
the average for adults (Shimizu et al. 1990). If risks for childhood exposures are similarly
elevated for the sites in question, the population risks would be increased by roughly 50%.
On the other hand, a fall-off of 20% or more in relative risk conceivably could occur for
these sites even in the case of adult exposures.
Uncertainties in site-specific cancer morbidity risk estimates
The cancer lethality fractions used in this report (see Chapter 7) reflect only cancers
appearing in adults. Even for adults, the selection of these values relied in part on subjective
judgment because there is no completely reliable way to determine long-term survival based on
current (or future) treatment modalities. Moreover, lethality fractions derived for adults may not
always be appropriate for children.
It appears that leukemia is now often curable in children. However, most radiogenic
leukemias in the atomic bomb survivors occurred before successful treatment became available.
Hence, the leukemia mortality risks derived from the Japanese may more properly reflect morbidity
than mortality for children.
Imprecision in risk model coefficients as indicated by differences in expert judgments
The U.S. NRC and the Commission of European Communities (CEC) recently conducted
a joint study aimed at characterizing the uncertainties in predictions of the consequences of
accidental releases of radionuclides into the environment (NRC-CEC, 1997, 1998). As part of the
exercise, experts on health effects of radiation were asked to provide 5%, 50%, and 95% quantiles
of subjective probability distributions for the total number of radiation-induced cancer deaths and
for the numbers of tissue-specific cancer deaths over a lifetime in a typical population of 100 million
persons, each receiving a whole body dose of 1 Gy low LET radiation at a uniform rate over 1 min.
Median values provided by the nine experts are given in Table D.2. Comparison of the
conclusions of the different experts provides some indication of the precision with which risk model
coefficients can be determined on the basis of current epidemiological and radiobiological
information. Reasonably consistent central estimates were made by the nine experts for leukemia
and colon, for example, but there was less agreement for liver, stomach, bone, skin, and thyroid.
D-33
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Table D.2. Age-averaged site-specific cancer morbidity risk estimates (cancer cases per
person-Gy *10~2) from low-LET uniform irradiation of the body at high dose and dose rate,
as estimated by nine experts on health effects of radiation (NRC-CEC, 1997).
Expert
Cancer site
Colon
Stomach
Liver
Lung
Bone
Skin
Breast
Thyroid
Leukemia
All cancers
A
0.72
0.50
0.29
1.83
0.018
0.031
0.37
0.19
0.81
10.7
B
0.92
0.17
0.055
3.4
0.1
0.056
1.1
0.041
1.0
8.8
C
1.1
0.25
0.065
3.5
0.1
0.08
1.1
0.05
1.1
9.85
D
0.886
0.405
0.073
2.057
0.012
0.038
0.994
0.024
0.851
9.726
E
0.92
0.172
0.055
3.373
0.087
0.056
1.135
0.041
1.001
8.832
F
0.7
2.5
1.3
1.8
0.05
0.05
0.62
0.19
1.05
13.3
G
1.5
0.63
0.049
1.0
0.022
0.0025
0.34
0.092
0.66
7.3
H
1.1
0.1
0.08
3.8
0.1
0.055
1.4
0.06
1.5
7.5
I
0.92
0.172
0.055
3.37
0.087
0.056
0.568
0.041
1.0
8.83
Proposed procedure for assigning nominal uncertainty intervals to risk coefficients
A standard method of assessing the uncertainty associated with a model prediction is to
investigate the effect of propagation of uncertainties associated with components of the model that
correspond to observable phenomena. It is difficult to apply such an approach to the computational
model used in this report (see Chapter 7) because of its relatively complex formulation involving
numerous parameters that depend on time, age, and gender. It is possible, however, to formulate a
simpler model whose predictions are consistently close to the risk coefficients tabulated in Chapter 2
and whose components are easier to assess. For inhalation or ingestion of a radionuclide, the simpler
model is
Cancer Mortality Risk = £ (d, IDDREF,. + D, x RBE,) R, (D.I)
where d, and D, are, respectively, low- and high-LET integrated absorbed doses for tissue i, assuming
acute intake of the radionuclide by an average adult; R, is the age- and gender-averaged site-specific
cancer mortality risk estimate for tissue i for low-LET uniform irradiation of the body at high dose
D-34
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-52.0
Drinking water
'0.5
and dose rate; DDREF, is the dose and dose rate effectiveness factor for tissue i; and RBE ,is the
high-LET relative biological effectiveness assumed for tissue i. The risk estimates Rj in Eq. D.I
have not been reduced by a DDREF, because the DDREF is considered in this equation as a separate,
uncertain component of the risk model. Thus, the high-LET RBEj values in the equation are relative
to a high dose and dose rate risk; that is, the nominal RBE values are 0.5 for leukemia and 10 for all
other tissues including breast. An integration period of 20 y was chosen on the basis of empirical
considerations, in that substantially shorter periods were found to underestimate risk coefficients for
some tenaciously retained radionuclides and substantially longer periods were found to overestimate
the cancer risk from doses received late in life. For external exposure scenarios, the right side of
Eq. D.I reduces to £ (d, I DDREF,) x R, because the dose is due entirely to low-LET radiation.
For the external exposure scenarios
considered in this report, it can be shown that
cancer risk estimates based on Eq. D.I are
nearly identical to the risk coefficients given in
Chapter 2. As illustrated in Fig. D.5 for the
case of intake of tap water, predictions of the
simplistic model represented by Eq. D.I
provide a reasonable approximation to risk
coefficients for intake of radionuclides,
although some systematic differences may arise
for a given mode of intake. In Fig. D.5,
comparisons are in terms of the quotient A/B,
where A is the cancer mortality risk for acute
ingestion of a radionuclide by an average adult
as predicted by Eq. D. 1, and B is the risk coefficient for that radionuclide ingested in drinking water,
as given in Table 2.2a.
Due to the general agreement of predictions of Eq. D.I and the computational model used
to generate the risk coefficients in Chapter 2, the uncertainty analysis may be based on the simpler
model represented by Eq. D.I. In theory, uncertainty distributions could be assigned to the
parameter values R,, RBEj, DDREF,, d,, and D,, and random simulation techniques could be applied
to the model represented by Eq. D.I to generate a range of possible values of each risk coefficient.
Even with this simpler model, a full-scale parameter uncertainty analysis for each of the risk
coefficients tabulated in Chapter 2 is not a feasible task, due to the large number of radionuclides
and exposure modes addressed and the lack of published expert judgments on uncertainties in tissue
§0.
tn
0 50 100 150 200 250
Atomic weight
Fig. D.5. Comparison of predictions of cancer
mortality based on simplistic estimate with risk
coefficients for intake of radionuclides in tap water.
D-35
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dose estimates for radionuclides. It seems possible, however, to generate a nominal uncertainty
interval for each risk coefficient tabulated in Chapter 2 on the basis of results of a systematic,
computerized analysis of the sensitivity of predictions of Eq. D.I to dominant uncertainties in the
underlying biokinetic, dosimetric, and radiation risk models. Assignment of uncertainties to the
values Rj could be based, for example, on a recent expert elicitation exercise described earlier
(NRC-CEC, 1998); uncertainty distributions for the the values DDREFj could be patterned after the
tissue-independent uncertainty distribution for the DDREF given in recent reports by the NCRP
(1997) and EPA (1999) (see Fig. D.4); and uncertainties in the alpha RBEs could be assessed on the
basis of the range of values determined in experimental and epidemiological studies, as summarized
earlier in this appendix. The most difficult and time-consuming part of the exercise would be the
characterization of uncertainties in the tissue-specific dose estimates d, and D, because these
uncertainties depend strongly on the radionuclide as well as the exposure mode and because
uncertainties in tissue dose estimates have rarely been addressed in the literature. Derivation of
uncertainty intervals for the values d, and D, would require a separate sensitivity analysis in which
the typically dominant components of the ICRP's dosimetric scheme are varied within plausible
ranges of values, as determined by experts on the biokinetics and dosimetry of radionuclides.
In many cases, it would suffice to focus attention on a small number of the terms in Eq. D. 1.
This is because there is a small set of sites in the body that generally dominate cancer risk estimates
due to their relatively high radiosensitivity and their importance as sites of deposition, transfer, or
retention of radionuclides, and one or two of these sites often dominate the risk estimate as well as
the uncertainty in that estimate for any given radionuclide. The typically dominant sites may be
divided into two groups: "portal of entry" sites, meaning sites of deposition or transfer in the
respiratory tract and gastrointestinal tract; and storage sites, meaning sites of relatively long-term
retention.
The lung falls into both groups because it is a site of transfer of activity from the environment
into the systemic circulation, and it may retain relatively insoluble forms of some radionuclides for
months or years. Lung cancer is projected to be the dominant cancer type in a substantial portion
of cases involving inhalation of radionuclides in moderately soluble or insoluble form. In terms of
the default absorption types used by the ICRP, this would correspond to Type M or Type S material.
For example, for inhalation of Type S material, lung cancer is projected to represent 50-99.9% of
the total cancers for each of about five-sixths of the radionuclides addressed in Table 2.1. For
radionuclides inhaled in relatively soluble form, the projected number of deaths from lung cancer
is often substantially less than that for other types of cancer.
Colon cancer is projected to be the dominant cancer type for many ingested radionuclides.
For example, for dietary intake, colon cancer represents 50-99.9% of the total projected cancer
D-36
-------
mortality for nearly two-thirds of the radionuclides addressed in Table 2.2a. Colon cancer may also
represent a substantial portion of the total projected cancers for radionuclides inhaled in relatively
soluble form (Type F). Although there are various combinations of factors that result in a large
number of decays in the colon compared with other tissues, this most often occurs for radionuclides
with a low gastrointestinal absorption fraction and a half-life of a year or less.
Stomach cancer may represent a substantial portion of the total projected cancers for cases
involving ingestion of radionuclides with half-lives of at most a few hours due to the relatively large
portion of nuclear transformations in the body that occur in the stomach. For example, for dietary
intake, stomach cancer represents at least half of the total projected cancer mortality for about
one-sixth of the radionuclides addressed in Table 2.2a. However, these short-lived radionuclides
generally are of limited importance with regard to environmental exposure assessments.
Certain systemic storage sites may represent a large portion of the total projected cancer risk
for inhaled material of Type F or for ingested radionuclides that are readily absorbed from the
gastrointestinal tract. For example, thyroid cancer is projected to be the dominant cancer type for
inhalation or ingestion of many forms of radioiodine, and leukemia is projected to be the dominant
cancer type for intake of some relatively well absorbed radionuclides that accumulate to a large
extent in bone (for example, 4:>Ca, 90Sr) or bone marrow (for example, 55Fe).
Systemic organs may also represent most of the projected cancer risk in cases in which an
ingested radionuclide is poorly absorbed but is long-lived and tenaciously retained in systemic
tissues. This occurs most often for actinide elements, for which liver and bone may be important
cancer sites.
Exceptions to the above generalizations occur for several radionuclides that show both high
absorption to blood and fairly uniform distribution among tissues (for example, 3H or 137Cs). For
such cases, the projected cancer risk is fairly uniformly distributed among several tissues.
D-37
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-------
APPENDIX E. ADJUSTMENT OF RISK COEFFICIENTS FOR
SHORT-TERM EXPOSURE OF THE CURRENT U.S. POPULATION
A risk coefficient given in Chapter 2 may be interpreted in terms of either chronic or acute
(short-term) exposures. That is, a coefficient may be viewed as the average risk per unit exposure
to persons exposed throughout life to a constant concentration of a radionuclide in an environmental
medium, or as the average risk per unit exposure in populations exposed over a short period of time
to the radionuclide in the environmental medium.
The assumed gender and age distributions in the exposed population are those that would
eventually occur in a closed, steady-state population with male-to-female birth ratios characteristic
of recent U.S. data and with time-invariant survival functions defined by the 1989-91 U.S. decennial
life tables. Because of the uncertainty in the future composition of the U.S. population, the use of
a stationary or steady-state population based on recent U.S. vital statistics is judged to be appropriate
for consideration of long-term, chronic exposures to the U.S. population. However, these age
distributions differ substantially from those of the current U.S. population (Fig. E.I). Hence, the
question arises as to the applicability of the risk coefficients to short-term exposures of the U.S.
population that might occur in the near future.
The purpose of this appendix is to compare the risk coefficients tabulated in Chapter 2 with
coefficients derived for a short-term exposure of a hypothetical population with demographics based
on the current U.S. population and, on the basis of this comparison, develop scaling factors for
conversion of risk coefficients between the steady-state and current populations. As is the case for
the stationary population considered in the main body of the report, total mortality rates in this
hypothetical current population are defined by the 1989-91 U.S. decennial life table, and cancer
mortality rates are defined by U.S. cancer mortality rates for the same period. In contrast to the
stationary population, however, it is assumed that the gender-specific age distribution at the time of
exposure is the same as that of the U.S. population of 1996 (U.S. Bureau of the Census, Population
Division, 1997).
Computation of risk coefficients for the hypothetical current population
Short-term exposures are treated in the calculations as instantaneous exposures. For
example, in the solution of the biokinetic models, ingestion or inhalation of a radionuclide is
represented as an initial activity in the stomach compartment or in appropriate compartments of the
E-l
-------
co
1
M
Z!
CL
O
0.
2500
2000
1500
1000
500
0
Wl(ss)
F(88)
M(1996)
F(1996)
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90100110120
Age (y)
Fig. E.I. Comparison of gender-specific age-distributions in 1996 U.S.
population with hypothetical stationary (ss, for steady-state) distributions
based on 1989-91 U.S. life table. Normalized to values for age 0 y in 1996
U.S. population. M = males, F = females. Average age: M(l996) = 34.2 y;
M(ss) = 38.1 y; F(1996) = 36.9 y; F(ss) = 41.1 y. Average life expectancy:
M(1996) = 41.3 y; M(ss) = 38.1 y; F(1996) = 44.7 y; F(ss) = 41.1 y.
respiratory tract, respectively. However, the derived risk coefficients are applicable to any short-term
exposure period (e.g., several days, weeks, or months) over which there are only small changes in
the gender and age distributions in the population. The coefficients for the hypothetical current
population should not be applied to exposure periods longer than a few years because of substantial
changes in the age distribution over long periods.
As described in Chapter 7, the average lifetime risk coefficient, r , for continuous intake of
a radionuclide is calculated from the age- and gender-specific cancer risk coefficient, ra(x), by the
equation:
(E.I)
u(x) S(x) dx
E-2
-------
where u(x) is the gender-weighted usage rate, and S(x) is the gender-weighted survival function. This
equation was derived for a stationary population that is subject to fixed gender-specific survival
functions and cancer mortality rates. In such a population, the age distribution of a given gender is
proportional to the survival function S(x) for that gender. The derived risk coefficients may be
interpreted either in terms of lifetime exposure or acute exposure of this population to a radionuclide.
A similar analysis may be applied to the case of acute exposure of a population with an
arbitrary age distribution, if it is assumed that the exposed population is subject to fixed
gender-specific survival functions and fixed cancer mortality rates at all times after the exposure.
In this case, the relative age distribution, S(x), in Eq. E. 1 is replaced by a function P(x) representing
the age distribution of the population at the time of acute exposure. This change is needed because
usage of an environmental medium by members of age x in the hypothetical current population is
proportional to u(x)P(x) rather than u(x)S(x). The equation for the current population corresponding
to Eq. E.I for the stationary population is then
fu(x)ra(x)P(x)dx
(E.2)
fu(x)P(x)
dx
In applications of risk coefficients, it is sometimes necessary to estimate the average usage of
environmental media by the population (see Appendix F). Average daily usage values for the
hypothetical current population are given in Table E. 1 for the four environmental media considered
Table E.I. Average daily usage of environmental media by the two hypothetical populations.
Males
Medium
Air (m3)
Tap water (L)
Diet (kcal)
Cow's milk (L)
Stationary
19.2
1.29
2418
0.282
Current
19.8
1.25
2450
0.292
Females
Stationary
16.5
0.93
1695
0.207
Current
16.3
0.90
1717
0.214
Combined
Stationary
17.8
1.11
2048
0.243
Current
18.0
1.07
2075
0.252
E-3
-------
in the internal exposure scenarios. Corresponding values for the stationary population are provided
for comparison.
Lifetime risks for acute external exposures are calculated in a manner similar to that for
radionuclide intakes. Since the external exposure is not considered to be age dependent, the
calculation is simpler. As described in Chapter 7, the average lifetime risk, re, to members of a
stationary population from external exposure at a constant exposure rate can be calculated by
removing the usage function from Eq. E.I. That is,
frt(x)S(x)dx
~ (E-3)
where re(x) is the cancer risk coefficient at age x and S(x) is the survival function and hence the
relative age distribution in the stationary population. For the hypothetical current population, the
relative age distribution, S(x), is replaced by the function P(x) representing the age distribution of
the population at the time of acute exposure. This change is needed because the total exposure to
members of the current population of age x is proportional to P(x) rather than S(x). The equation for
the current population corresponding to Eq. E.3 for the stationary population is then
fp(x)dx
Comparison of coefficients for the current and stationary populations
For each type of exposure considered in the main text, risk coefficients for short-term
exposure of the hypothetical current (1996) population were derived for more than 100 radionuclides
representing a wide range of half-lives, radiation types, and energies. These coefficients were
compared with the values tabulated in Chapter 2. Risk coefficients for the current population were
consistently greater than the corresponding coefficients for the stationary population, with a
E-4
-------
maximum difference of 16%. (Table E.2). For a given exposure scenario, the ratios of risk
coefficients for the current and stationary populations did not depend strongly on the radionuclide.
All ratios fell within 3%, and most fell within 1%, of the mean ratio (Table E.2).
Therefore, the risk coefficients for the stationary population appear to be reasonably good
approximations of the corresponding risk coefficients for short-term exposure of the current
population. A closer approximation may be obtained by scaling the coefficients for the stationary
population by the exposure-specific mean ratio given in Table E.2. For example, for consideration
of short-term inhalation of a radionuclide by the current population, the risk coefficient given in
Table 2.1 should be multiplied by 1.11, the mean ratio of inhalation risk coefficients for the current
and stationary populations (Table E.2).
Table E.2. Comparison of risk coefficients for the two hypothetical populations.
Environmental medium
Air (inhalation)
Tap water (ingestion)
Food (ingestion)
Milk (ingestion of radioiodine)
External exposure by submersion
Ratio of risk coefficients for acute exposure
current population : stationary population
Mean
1.11
1.14
1.10
1.09
1.11
Standard
deviation
0.008
0.013
0.008
0.006
0.007
Range
1.08-1.13
1.11-1.16
1.08-1.11
1.08-1.10
1.10-1.14
in contaminated air
External exposure to contaminated 1.11
ground plane
External exposure to soil contaminated to 1.11
infinite depth
0.008
0.005
1.10-1.13
1.10-1.13
E-5
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APPENDIX F. SAMPLE CALCULATIONS
This appendix provides several sample calculations that illustrate how the tabulated risk
coefficients may be applied to different types of exposure. The simplistic exposure scenarios
considered here were selected for didactic purposes and are not intended to suggest or endorse
assumptions regarding the behavior of radionuclides in the environment.
The risk coefficients in this report represent estimated radiogenic cancer risk, either to a
stationary population defined by the 1989-91 U.S. decennial life tables (see Chapter 3) or (when
scaled as described in Appendix E) to a hypothetical current population with gender and age
distributions based on the total U.S. population in 1996. Risk coefficients for the stationary
population are intended mainly to apply to lifetime exposures to radionuclides but, as explained in
Chapters 1 and 3, may also be interpreted in terms of acute exposures. Because risk coefficients for
the hypothetical current population reflect actual age and gender distributions in the U.S. population
in 1996, these coefficients may be appropriate for consideration of short-term exposures (1 y or less)
to the current U.S. population or to a representative subpopulation.
For a selected exposure scenario, the computation of risk R involves multiplication of the
applicable risk coefficient r by ihsper capita intake / or (external) exposure Xfor external exposure.
That is, R = r -I for intake by inhalation or ingestion and R = r • Xfor external exposures, where /
is the activity inhaled or ingested per capita and X is the time-integrated concentration of the
radionuclide in air, on the ground surface, or within the soil. A risk coefficient r is specific to the
radionuclide and the mode of exposure or intake. Usage rates for the examples in this appendix are
taken from Table E. 1.
Some radionuclides considered in this report form radioactive progeny, or daughter products,
when undergoing radioactive decay. A series of radionuclides formed by successive radioactive
decays is referred to as a decay chain, and the first member of the chain is referred to as the parent.
A risk coefficient given in this document does not include the contribution to dose from exposure
or intake of other radionuclides that might be present as daughter products in the environment.
However, for each radionuclide considered in this document, separate risk coefficients are provided
for all radioactive progeny that are considered to be of potential dosimetric significance. Thus, the
user may combine risk coefficients for different members of a radionuclide chain to derive a risk
coefficient that reflects growth of radioactive progeny in the environment over a user-selected time
period.
F-l
-------
For example, when considering external exposure to Cs on the ground surface, it should
be assumed that its short-lived radioactive daughter, mBa (T1/2 = 2.552 m) is also present.
Although the risk coefficient for external exposure to Cs on the ground surface does not consider
the presence of mBa, a separate risk coefficient is provided for external exposure to mBa on the
ground surface. As illustrated later in this appendix, an estimate of the risk from the mixture of
Cs and mBa present on the ground surface may be obtained as a linear combination of the
separate risk coefficients for the two radionuclides.
For intake of a relatively long-lived radionuclide, the contribution to dose from intake of its
short-lived radioactive progeny (defined here as radioactive progeny with a half-life shorter than 1 h)
present in the environment usually is insignificant compared with the dose from the parent. For this
reason, separate risk coefficients for ingestion and inhalation are not given for short-lived radioactive
progeny of the radionuclides considered in the internal exposure scenarios. For example, risk
coefficients are given for ingestion and inhalation of Cs but not for ingestion or inhalation of
137mBa.
On the other hand, after intake of a parent radionuclide, the production and decay of
short-lived radioactive progeny in the body may contribute significantly to tissue doses. For this
reason, risk coefficients for ingested or inhaled radionuclides include all contributions to dose from
growth of chain members in the body.
OS
Example 1. Suppose the concentration of Kr in the atmosphere in the environs of a fuel
reprocessing plant is 10 Bq m" . Compute the average cancer risk (mortality and morbidity)
associated with lifetime external exposure to this level of airborne activity, assuming no
shielding by structures.
o c
From Table 2.3, the mortality and morbidity risk coefficients for external exposure to Kr
in air (submersion) are 7.23* 1(T18 and LOOxlO"17 m3 Bq"1 s"1. The years of life lived (the life
expectancy at birth) in the stationary population is about 75.2 y (Table A. 1). The lifetime exposure
resulting from this airborne concentration is
• 75.2y • 3.15 x 107- =2.37 x
m3 y m3
Therefore, the estimated lifetime risks from the external exposure are
F-2
-------
Mortality: 2.37 x 1Q12 4 • 7.23 x 1Q"18 —— = 1.7 x 1Q"5
m3 BqTi
•3
Morbidity: 2.37 x 1Q12 q^ • 1.00 x 1Q"17 —— = 2.4 x 1Q"5 .
m
3
Bq-s
Off
Example 2. As in Example 1, suppose the concentration of Kr in the atmosphere in the
environs of a fuel reprocessing plant is 10 Bq m" . Compute the average cancer risk
(mortality and morbidity) associated with a one-year (3.15x10 s) external exposure to this
level of airborne activity, assuming no shielding by structures and that the age distribution of
the population is similar to that of the 1996 U.S. population.
Because the age distribution of the population is similar to that of the 1996 U.S. population,
risk coefficients for the stationary population given in Table 2.3 will be scaled as indicated in
Appendix E for application to the hypothetical current population. From Table 2.3 the mortality and
morbidity risk coefficients for external exposure to Kr in air are 7.23x10" and 1.00X10"
m Bq" s" , respectively. From Table E.2, the scaling factor (mean ratio of risk coefficients for
hypothetical current and stationary populations) for this exposure scenario is 1.11. The scaled
Or 1 O
mortality and morbidity risk coefficients for external exposure to Kr in air are 8. 03 x 10" and
1.11x10" m Bq" s" , respectively. The exposure (time-integrated concentration) is
3.15 x I07s =3.15 x
m3 m3
The estimated lifetime risks to the population as a consequence of the 1-y external exposure are
3
Mortality: 3.15 x io10M^ • 8.03 x IQ'18 —— =2.5 x 1Q'7
m3 BqT5
Morbidity: 3.15 x 1Q10 q^ • 1.11 x 1Q"17 —— =3.5 x 1Q"7 .
m3 BqT,
F-3
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-I'S'J
Example 3. Suppose the ground surface was uniformly contaminated at time zero with Cs
at a level of 2 Bq m" . Assume that radioactive decay is the only mechanism by which
contamination is reduced. (Reduction of the time-integrated exposure due to weathering is
ignored here for simplicity.) Compute the average lifetime cancer risk (mortality and
morbidity) resulting from external exposures during the first year following the initial
deposition, assuming no shielding and assuming that the age distribution of the exposed
population is similar to that of the 1996 U.S. population.
Cesium-137 (T1/2 = 30 y) forms 137mBa (T 1/2 = 2.552 m) in 94.6% of its decays (see
Table G.I). Due to the short half-life of mBa, the concentration of mBa on the ground surface
"~) "")
will reach 1 .89 Bq m" (0.946 • 2 Bq m" ) within a half hour after time zero and will decline with the
half-life of 137Cs.
From Table 2.3 the mortality and morbidity risk coefficients for external exposure to Cs
distributed on the ground surface are 3.96* 10"20 and 4.57* 10"20 m2 Bq"1 s"1. For 137mBa the
corresponding coefficients are 3.12x10" and4.60x10" m Bq" s" , respectively. From Table E.2,
the scaling factor (mean ratio of risk coefficients for hypothetical current and stationary populations)
for external exposure from ground surface contamination is 1.11. The scaled mortality and
morbidity risk coefficients for Cs are4.40x10" and5.07x10" m Bq" s , respectively, and the
scaled values for mBa are 3.46x10" and 5.1 1x10" m Bq" s" , respectively. The exposures
(time-integrated concentration) for each radionuclide during the first year are
P „ _i -i 7 .
Rsi -1^7m-
r
M'
0
m 2
1 CO
n
-In2t -ln2T
r,n ,^0^1/2!. „ rm I
ut vie i
In 2
-jf)v .-Jicxift75/ \
JU? _>.13 ^ 1U / -0.693 ly\
^ 1 1 — 30y I ~
0.693
Jq • 30v • 3 15 x in7"5 /
, JU? J.1D 1U ^ _0693 lj(
-^ 1 — _ 30v
= 5.89
0.693
The lifetime risks resulting from external exposures during the first year are
F-4
-------
Mortality:
f\
6.23 x lo7:8-^ • 4.40 x 10'20 ——
m2 BqT,
f\
+ 5.89 x 1Q7 q^ • 3.46 x 10~17 —— =2.0 x 10"9
m2 Bqns
Morbidity:
6.23 x io7^O..s.(
m2 oq-s
+ 5.89 x I07^i^--5.11 x lO'17-^— =3.0 x IQ'9 .
m2 BqT5
The radiations emitted by mBa are the main contributors to risk.
Example 4. Assume that measurements of the photon radiation field indicate an average
exposure rate of 4 jiR/h and that no information is available regarding the energy of the
radiation or its origin. Compute the average lifetime risk to a population living in this
radiation field, assuming no shielding by structures.
Although defined differently, the quantities exposure and air kerma may be considered to be
equivalent for most practical purposes. That is, an exposure of 1 roentgen (R) corresponds to an air
kerma of 0.01 Gy.
The relation between effective dose and air kerma depends on the environmental medium
involved, the distribution of the radionuclide in the medium, and the age of the exposed individual.
For naturally occurring radionuclides distributed uniformly in the soil, Saito et al. (1998) estimated
effective dose per unit air kerma at 1 m for different age groups as tabulated below. For the purpose
of estimating risk to a large population, it is reasonable to use their value for the adult, which is
approximately 0.7 Sv Gy" . For infants and small children, reduced self-shielding of the body results
in values closer to 1. In the absence of information on the exposure source, the value 0.7 Sv Gy"
will be used here.
F-5
-------
Effective dose per air kerma (Sv Gy" )
Age
Adult
Child
Infant
238TT .
U senes
0.672
0.766
0.899
232
Th series
0.695
0.798
0.907
4°K
0.709
0.803
0.926
f\ I
Table 7.3 gives a mortality risk of 5.75x10" Gy" for uniform irradiation of the body by
low-LET radiation. Assuming the average lifetime is 75.2 y (Table A.I), the expected lifetime dose
due to this radiation field is
4xl(T6 —-0.01-^-0.7 —-8.76 xlO3--75.2 y « 1.84xlO"2Gy
h R Gy y
and the mortality risk is estimated as
1.84xlO"2Gy
Example 5. Calculate the average lifetime risk to the stationary population associated with
ingestion of Pb and its radioactive progeny, assuming that the per capita dietary intake rates
of 210Pb and 210Po are 1.4 and 1.8 pCi d"1, respectively.
Lead-210 decays to 210Bi (T1/2 = 5.012 d), which decays to 210Po (T1/2 = 138.8 d). Because
of the relatively short half-life of Bi, it is reasonable to assume that Bi is in equilibrium with
210Pbindiet.
From Table A. 1, the average life expectancy is 27,448 d (75.2 y). Therefore, lifetime intakes
of 210Pb, 210Bi, and 210Po in the diet are estimated to be
F-6
-------
: 1.4 2— • 3.7 x 1Q-2 —i- • 27,448 d = 1.4 x 1Q3 Bq
d pCi
Po-210: 1.8 2^-3.7 x 10"2 -^L • 27,448 d = 1.8 x 103Bq
d pCi
The following mortality and morbidity risk coefficients for Pb, Bi, and Po in diet are taken
from Table 2.2a: 21°Pb, 2.31xlO"8 and 3.18xlO"8, respectively; 21°Bi, 1.95x10"'° and 3.52x10"'°,
710 S &
respectively; and Po, 4.44x10" and 6.09x 10" , respectively. The estimated risks are
Mortality: 1.4 x 1Q3 Bq • 2.31 x 1Q"8 — +
Bq
1.4 x 103Bq- 1.95 x 10"10 — +
Bq
1.8 x If)3 Bq • 4.44 x 1(T8 — = 1.1 x 10"4
Bq
Morbidity: 1.4 x 1Q3 Bq • 3.18 x l(T8 — +
1.4 x IQ3 Bq • 3.52 x 1Q"10 — +
Bq
1.8 x IQ3 Bq • 6.09 x 1Q"8 — = 1.5 x 1Q'4
Bq
Note that Bi makes an insignificant contribution to the total risk and that Po accounts for about
two-thirds of the risk.
Example 6. Assume a concentration of tritium in tap water of 10 pCi L" . Compute the
average lifetime risk (mortality and morbidity) associated with use of tap water at this
concentration, assuming that all tritium in tap water is in the form of tritiated water.
The average intake of tap water is 1.11 L d" (Table E.I), and the average life expectancy is
27,448 d (75.2 y, Table A.I), giving a lifetime intake of tap water of 3.Qx 104 L. From Table 2.2a,
the mortality and morbidity coefficients for H (as tritiated water) in tap water are 9.44x 10" and
1.37x10" Bq" , respectively. Therefore, the estimated risks are
F-7
-------
Mortality: 10 ^ • 0.037 -5^- • 3.0 x 1Q4 L -9.44 x IQ'13 — = 1.0 x 10"8
L pCi Bq
Morbidity: 10 ^ • 0.037 ^- • 3.0 x 1Q4 L • 1.37 x IQ'12 — = 1.5 x IQ'8
L pCi Bq
Example 7. Suppose there is a short-term release of 40 mCi of ' 'l as a vapor from a reactor
and that observed atmospheric conditions indicate an atmospheric dispersion factor of about
1x10" s m" for a nearby population. Compute the risk associated with inhalation of I as
the cloud passes over the population, assuming that the age distribution of the population is
similar to that of the stationary population considered in the main text.
The time integrated airborne concentration in the cloud is
"6 =
40 mCi • 3.7 x 107 - . I.Q x 1Q"6 — = 1.48 x 103
mCi m3 m3
The average inhalation intake rate is 17.8 m d" (Table E.I). The mortality and morbidity
coefficients for inhalation of 131I in vapor form are 1.48x10"'° and 1.36xlO"9 Bq"1 (Table 2.1).
Therefore, the estimated risks are
Mortality: 1.48 x 103 ^i^ • 17.8 — • — • 1.48 x IQ'10 — = 4.5 x IQ'11
m
3 8.64xl04s Bq
Morbidity: 1.48 x 103 MH . 17.8 — — 1.36 x 10'9 — = 4.1 x 1Q-10
m
3 d 8.64xio4s Bq
F-8
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APPENDIX G. NUCLEAR DECAY DATA
The risk coefficients in Tables 2.1-2.3 are listed by radionuclide. In those tables, the entries
in the column with the heading "Chain" indicate whether the radionuclide is in the same decay chain
as other radionuclides addressed in the table. An entry "Y" (for "yes") under the subheading "P" (for
"parent") indicates that the radionuclide is the parent of a decay chain containing at least one other
radionuclide in the table. An entry "Y" under the subheading "D" (for "daughter") indicates that
the radionuclide is formed in the decay chain of at least one other radionuclide in the table. In the
compilation of this information, no consideration was given to the radiological significance of either
the daughters or the possible parents of the radionuclide. This appendix provides a summary of
information on the nuclear decay characteristics of each radionuclide and gives details of its decay
chain when indicated. Table G. 1 of this appendix was adapted from Appendix A of Federal
Guidance Report No. 12 (EPA, 1993).
In some instances a radionuclide is not uniquely identified by its atomic number (or chemical
symbol) and mass number. Nuclei of the same atomic and mass numbers, but with distinguishable
nuclear properties, are referred to as isomers. Identification of an isomer requires reference to its
physical half-life. The nuclide designations of Tables 2.1- 2.3 involve some nonstandard notation
needed to reference isomers to data in Table G.I of this appendix.
To differentiate isomers, when neither isomer has been designated as a metastable state, an
"a" and "b" have been added to the chemical symbol and mass number notation. For example, the
entry Nb-89a in Table G.I indicates the isomer of 89Nb with half-life 66 m. The "a" and "b"
notations were arbitrarily assigned to the 89Nb isomers. To identify multiple metastable states, the
"m" notation of one isomer is shown as "n". For example, Sb-124m in Table G.I refers to the
metastable state with a half-life of 93 s, and Sb-124n refers to the state with half-life 20.2 m.
Additional examples can be seen in entries of Tables 2.1- 2.3 and Table G.I for indium (In),
europium (Eu), terbium (Tb), rhenium (Re), iridium (Ir), and neptunium (Np).
Table G.I contains the following information, intended to aid in the proper use of the risk
coefficients tabulated in this report. The physical half-life of the radionuclides is given in the second
column of the table. The time units are abbreviated as follows: y for year, d for day, h for hour, m
for minute, s for second, ms for millisecond, and us for microsecond. The modes of nuclear
transformation applicable to the radionuclide are given in the column headed "Decay Mode". The
modes are abbreviated as follows: B- for beta minus decay, B+ for beta plus decay, EC for electron
capture, A for alpha decay, IT for isomeric transition, and SF for spontaneous fission. The nuclear
G-l
-------
transformations of a radionuclide (the parent) may form a nucleus which is also radioactive
(radioactive decay product). The entries in the columns headed by "Radioactive Decay Products and
Fractional Yield" identify radioactive nuclei formed by nuclear transformations of the radionuclide
and give the fraction of the parent's transformations forming each decay product (the branching
fraction). No attempt is made to identify the radioactive nuclei formed by spontaneous fission. The
notation "SF" simply indicates the accompanying branching fraction of spontaneous fission. The
three columns on the extreme right give the total energy per nuclear transformation of emitted alpha
particles, electrons, and photons2. The entry for alpha particles represents the kinetic energy of the
alpha particles and does not include the recoil energy of the newly formed nucleus. The entry for
electrons includes the kinetic energy of all beta particles (negatron or positron), internal conversion
electrons, and Auger electrons emitted in the nuclear transformations. Similarly, the photon entry
encompasses gamma rays, x rays, and annihilation photons. If the nuclear transformations of the
radionuclide do not result in emission of a particular radiation, then a dash, "-", is shown in the
appropriate column. If radiations of a particular type are emitted, but the total energy per nuclear
transformation is less than 1 keV, then the symbol "<" appears in the column.
The risk coefficients for intakes of radionuclides by inhalation and ingestion (Tables 2.1,
2.2a, and 2.2b) are based on the radiations emitted by the indicated radionuclide and all its decay
products formed within the body following the intake. The risk coefficients for external exposure
to radionuclides in the environment, Table 2.3, are based on the radiations emitted by the indicated
radionuclide and do not include consideration of the radiations emitted by radioactive decay
products. Radioactive decay products of a radionuclide are identified in Table G. 1. For example,
the entries for 144Ce in Table G.I indicate that 144Ce has a half-life of 284.3 d and forms 144Pr in
98.22% of its transformations and 144mPr in 1.78% of its transformations. The entries for 144mpr,
which has a half-life of 7.2 m, indicate that it decays (in 99.9% of its transformations) by internal
The total energy of radiation type R, ETR, is computed as
yi.it Ei,R ••
1=1
where yiR is the mean number of radiations of type R emitted per nuclear transformation with unique or mean energy
EiR. The quantity should not be confused with the mean energy of radiation type R, which is
n
£ yt.i
G-2
-------
transition to 144Pr; the remaining transformations form the stable nucleus 144Nd. Transformation of
144Pr, which has a half-life of 17.28 m, also forms the stable nucleus 144Nd. By repeated entry into
Table G.I, one can follow the serial nuclear transformations (decay chain) associated with a
radionuclide. For nuclides with multiple modes of nuclear transformation, the branch formed by
each mode must be traced. In some instances the branches may converge. The branching fractions
may not always add to one because only those branches leading to radioactive decay products are
tabulated.
The serial transformation by radioactive decay of each member of a radioactive series is
described by the Bateman equations (EPA, 1993). Assume that at time zero the activity of the parent
nuclide is A° and that of all daughters is zero. The activity at time t of a chain member i, i = 1, 2,
..., can be expressed as
A, 5 the activity of the daughters (i =2 to n) can be
approximated as
A.(t) =Al(t) H f.J+l . (G.2)
7=1
Under these conditions the activity of the decay products is in secular equilibrium with the parent's
activity. For example, application of Eq. G.2 to 137Cs and its daughter 137mBa indicates that the
activity of 137mBa at time t is
= °'946 « '
G-3
-------
where 0.946 is the fraction of the 137Cs nuclear transformations forming 137Ba, as indicated in
Table G.I. If a decay chain member is not short-lived relative to the parent, then it is necessary to
apply Eq. G.I. In many instances, the mathematical models describing the fate of radionuclides in
the environment (for example, their dispersion following release to the atmosphere) includes an
evaluation of the growth of decay chain members. The information in Table G.I should be useful
to those implementing such models.
G-4
-------
Table G.I. Summary information on the nuclear transformation of radionuclides
Radioactive Decay Products and Fractional Yield
Decay
Nuclide Ti Mode Nuclide Fraction Nuclide Fraction
Hydrogen
H-3 12.35y B-
Beryllium
Be-7 53.3d EC
Be-10 1.6E6y B-
Carbon
C-ll 20.38m ECB+
C-14 5730y B-
Nitrogen
N-13 9.965m ECB+
Oxygen
0-15 122.24s ECB+
Fluorine
F-18 109.77m ECB+
Neon
Ne-19 17.22s ECB+
Sodium
Na-22 2.602y ECB+
Na-24 15.00h B-
Magnesium
Mg-28 20.91h B- Al-28 l.OOOE+00
Aluminum
Al-26 7.16E5y ECB+
Al-28 2.240m B-
Silicon
Si-31 157.3m B-
Si-32 450y B- P-32 l.OOOE+00
Phosphorus
P-30 2.499m ECB+
P-32 14.29d B-
P-33 25. 4d B-
Sulfur
S-35 87.44d B-
Chlorine
Cl-36 3.01E5y ECB+B-
Cl-38 37.21m B-
Cl-39 55.6m B- Ar-39 l.OOOE+00
Argon
Ar-37 35.02d EC
Ar-39 269y B-
Ar-41 1.827h B-
Potassium
K-38 7.636m ECB+
K-40 1.28E9y B-EC
K-42 12.36h B-
K-43 22. 6h B-
K-44 22.13m B-
K-45 20m B- Ca-45 l.OOOE+00
Calcium
Ca-41 1.4E5y EC
Energy (MeV
Nuclide Fraction Alpha Elect
0.006
<
0.252
0.385
0.049
0.491
0.734
0.250
0.963
0.194
0.554
0.163
0.445
1.242
0.595
0.065
1.436
0.695
0.077
0.049
0.274
1.529
0.823
0.002
0.219
0.464
1.209
0.523
1.430
0.309
1.491
0.984
0.002
nt-1)
Photon
0.049
-
1.020
-
1.020
1.021
1.022
1.022
2.193
4.121
1.371
2.676
1.779
<
-
1.022
-
-
-
<
1.488
1.438
<
-
1.284
3.187
0.156
0.276
0.970
2.267
1.866
<
G-5
-------
Table G.I, continued
Radioactive Decay Products and Fractional Yield
Decay
Nuclide Ti Mode
Calcium, continued
Ca-45 163d B-
Ca-47 4.53d B-
Ca-49 8.716m B-
Scandium
Sc-43 3.891h ECB+
Sc-44m 58. 6h ECIT
Sc-44 3.927h ECB+
Sc-46 83.83d B-
Sc-47 3.351d B-
Sc-48 43. 7h B-
Sc-49 57.4m B-
Titanium
Ti-44 47. 3y EC
Ti-45 3.08h ECB+
Vanadium
V-47 32.6m ECB+
V-48 16.238d ECB+
V-49 330d EC
Chromium
Cr-48 22.96h ECB+
Cr-49 42.09m ECB+
Cr-51 27.704d EC
Manganese
Mn-51 46.2m ECB+
Mn-52m 21.1m ECB+IT
Mn-52 5.591d ECB+
Mn-53 3.7E6y EC
Mn-54 312. 5d EC
Mn-56 2.5785h B-
Iron
Fe-52 8.275h ECB+
Fe-55 2.7y EC
Fe-59 44.529d B-
Fe-60 lE5y B-
Cobalt
Co-55 17.54h ECB+
Co-56 78.76d ECB+
Co-57 270. 9d EC
Co-58m 9.15h IT
Co-58 70.80d ECB+
Co-60m 10.47m ITB-
Co-60 5.271y B-
Co-61 1.65h B-
Co-62m 13.91m B-
Nickel
Ni-56 6.10d EC
Ni-57 36.08h ECB+
Ni-59 7.5E4y EC
Ni-63 96y B-
Nuclide Fraction Nuclide Fraction
Sc-47 l.OOOE+00
Sc-49 l.OOOE+00
Sc-44 9.863E-01
Sc-44 l.OOOE+00
V-48 l.OOOE+00
V-49 l.OOOE+00
Cr-51 l.OOOE+00
Mn-52 1.750E-02
Mn-52m l.OOOE+00
Co-60m l.OOOE+00
Fe-55 l.OOOE+00
Co-58 l.OOOE+00
Co-60 9.975E-01
Co-56 l.OOOE+00
Co-57 l.OOOE+00
Energy (MeV
Nuclide Fraction Alpha Elect
0.077
0.345
0.870
0.313
0.033
0.597
0.112
0.163
0.229
0.822
0.013
0.373
0.803
0.149
0.004
0.008
0.602
0.004
0.934
1.132
0.075
0.004
0.004
0.830
0.194
0.004
0.118
0.049
0.429
0.124
0.019
0.023
0.034
0.058
0.097
0.463
1.051
0.007
0.143
0.005
0.017
nr1)
Photon
<
1.063
3.165
1.096
0.280
2.137
2.009
0.108
3.349
0.001
0.135
0.870
0.995
2.914
<
0.436
1.055
0.033
0.998
2.409
3.458
0.001
0.836
1.692
0.740
0.002
1.189
-
1.994
3.580
0.125
0.002
0.976
0.007
2.504
0.091
2.698
1.721
1.922
0.002
-
G-6
-------
Table G.I, continued
Nucl ide
T
Decay
i Mode
Radioactive Decay Products and Fractional Yield
Nucl ide Fraction Nucl ide Fraction Nucl ide
tnergy (
Fraction Alpha El
MeV
ect
nr1)
Photon
Nickel, continued
Ni-65
Ni-66
Copper
Cu-60
Cu-61
Cu-62
Cu-64
Cu-66
Cu-67
Zinc
Zn-62
Zn-63
Zn-65
Zn-69m
Zn-69
Zn-71m
Zn-72
Gallium
Ga-65
Ga-66
Ga-67
Ga-68
Ga-70
Ga-72
Ga-73
2.520h B-
54. 6h B-
23
.2m
3.408h
9.
74m
12.701h
5.
61.
9.
38
243
13.
3.
46
15
9.
78.
68
21.
14
4.
10m
86h
26h
.1m
.9d
76h
57m
92h
.5h
.2m
40h
26h
.Om
15m
.lh
91h
ECB+
ECB+
ECB+
B-ECB+
B-
B-
ECB+
ECB+
ECB+
ITB-
B-
B-
B-
ECB+
ECB+
EC
ECB+
B-EC
B-
B-
Cu-66 l.OOOE+00
Cu-62 l.OOOE+00
Zn-69 9.997E-01
Ga-72 l.OOOE+00
Zn-65 l.OOOE+00
0.
0.
0.
0.
1.
0.
1.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
632
067
895
311
285
123
068
155
033
918
007
022
321
548
102
831
970
036
739
644
497
494
0
3
0
1
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
1
0
1
2
0
0
0
2
0
.549
-
.898
.829
.007
.191
.085
.115
.439
.100
.584
.417
<
.552
.152
.176
.473
.158
.951
.008
.711
.316
Germanium
Ge-66
Ge-67
Ge-68
Ge-69
Ge-71
Ge-75
Ge-77
Ge-78
Arsenic
As-69
As-70
As-71
As-72
As-73
As-74
As-76
As-77
As-78
Selenium
Se-70
Se-73m
Se-73
Se-75
Se-77m
2.
18
27h
.7m
288d
39.
11
82.
11.
15
52
64
26
80.
17.
26.
38
90
41
7.
119
17.
05h
.8d
78m
30h
87m
.2m
.6m
.8h
.Oh
30d
76d
32h
.8h
.7m
.Om
39m
15h
.8d
45s
ECB+
ECB+
EC
ECB+
EC
B-
B-
B-
ECB+
ECB+
ECB+
ECB+
EC
B-ECB+
B-
B-
B-
ECB+
ECB+IT
ECB+
EC
IT
Ga-66 l.OOOE+00
Ga-67 l.OOOE+00
Ga-68 l.OOOE+00
As-77 l.OOOE+00
As-78 l.OOOE+00
Ge-69 l.OOOE+00
Ge-71 l.OOOE+00
As-70 l.OOOE+00
As-73 2.700E-01 Se-73 7.300E-01
As-73 l.OOOE+00
0.
1.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
1.
0.
0.
1.
0.
0.
1.
0.
1.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
102
297
005
179
005
420
648
238
274
865
119
026
060
268
064
229
356
489
178
386
015
072
0
1
0
0
0
0
1
0
1
4
0
1
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
1
0
0
.687
.406
.004
.873
.004
.034
.086
.278
.013
.095
.574
.794
.016
.759
.430
.009
.252
.999
.244
.087
.394
.088
G-7
-------
Table G.I, continued
Radioactive Decay Products and Fractional Yield
Nucl ide
Selenium,
Se-79
Se-81m
Se-81
Se-83
Bromine
Br-74m
Br-74
Br-75
Br-76
Br-77
Br-80m
Br-80
Br-82
Br-83
Br-84
Krypton
Kr-74
Kr-76
Kr-77
Kr-79
Kr-81m
Kr-81
Kr-83m
Kr-85m
Kr-85
Kr-87
Kr-88
Rubidium
Rb-79
Rb-80
Rb-81m
Rb-81
Rb-82m
Rb-82
Rb-83
Rb-84
Rb-86
Rb-87
Rb-88
Rb-89
Strontium
Sr-80
Sr-81
Sr-82
Sr-83
Sr-85m
Sr-85
Sr-87m
Sr-89
Decay
Tj, Mode
Nucl ide
Fraction Nucl ide Fraction
Energy (MeV
Nucl ide Fraction Alpha Elect
nr1)
Photon
continued
65000y
57.25m
18.5m
22.5m
41.5m
25.3m
98m
16. 2h
56h
4.42h
17.4m
35.30h
2.39h
31.80m
11.50m
14. 8h
74.7m
35.04h
13s
2.1E5y
1.83h
4.48h
10.72y
76.3m
2.84h
22.9m
34s
32m
4.58h
6.2h
1.3m
86. 2d
32.77d
18.66d
4.7E10y
17.8m
15.2m
100m
25.5m
25d
32. 4h
69.5m
64.84d
2.805h
50. 5d
B-
ITB-
B-
B-
ECB+
ECB+
ECB+
ECB+
ECB+
IT
B-ECB+
B-
B-
B-
ECB+
EC
ECB+
ECB+
IT
EC
IT
ITB-
B-
B-
B-
ECB+
ECB+
IT
ECB+
ECB+
ECB+
EC
ECB+B-
B-
B-
B-
B-
EC
ECB+
EC
ECB+
ITEC
EC
ECIT
B-
Se-81
Br-83
Se-75
Br-80
Kr-83m
Br-74
Br-76
Br-77
Kr-81
Kr-85
Rb-87
Rb-88
Kr-79
Rb-81
Kr-81
Kr-83m
Sr-89
Rb-80
Rb-81
Rb-82
Rb-83
Sr-85
Rb-87
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
2
1
1
1
1
1
7
1
1
1
1
1
8
3
.OOOE+00
.OOOE+00
.OOOE+00
.OOOE+00
.OOOE+00
.OOOE+00
.OOOE+00
.OOOE+00
.OOOE+00
.110E-01
.OOOE+00
.OOOE+00
.OOOE+00
.OOOE+00
.OOOE+00
.620E-01
.OOOE+00
.OOOE+00
.OOOE+00
.OOOE+00
.OOOE+00
.790E-01
.OOOE-03
0
0
0
0
1
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
2
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
2
1
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
.056
.085
.611
.508
.412
.115
.524
.691
.009
.060
.724
.139
.321
.229
.792
.015
.642
.024
.059
.005
.039
.255
.251
.324
.364
.820
.011
.074
.197
.095
.407
.015
.155
.668
.111
.066
.013
.005
.000
.005
.149
.012
.009
.067
.583
0
0
2
4
4
1
2
0
0
0
2
0
1
1
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
1
1
0
0
2
1
0
0
0
0
2
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
-
.018
.009
.429
.082
.549
.216
.633
.321
.024
.080
.642
.008
.788
.169
.435
.016
.257
.131
.012
.003
.158
.002
.793
.955
.358
.246
.010
.623
.910
.093
.504
.919
.095
-
.629
.071
.008
.386
.008
.801
.220
.512
.320
<
-------
Table G.I, continued
Nucl ide
Strontium,
Sr-90
Sr-91
Sr-92
Yttrium
Y-86m
Y-86
Y-87
Y-88
Y-90m
Y-90
Y-91m
Y-91
Y-92
Y-93
Y-94
Y-95
Zirconium
Zr-86
Zr-88
Zr-89
Zr-93
Zr-95
Zr-97
Niobium
Nb-88
Nb-89b
Nb-89a
Nb-90
Nb-93m
Nb-94
Nb-95m
Nb-95
Nb-96
Nb-97m
Nb-97
Nb-98
Decay
Tj, Mode
Radioactive Decay Products and Fractional Yield
Nucl ide
Fraction Nucl ide Fraction Nucl ide
Fraction Alpha E'
(MeV
lect
nt-1)
Photon
continued
29.12y
9.5h
2.71h
48m
14.74h
80. 3h
106. 64d
3.19h
64. Oh
49.71m
58.51d
3.54h
10. Ih
19.1m
10.7m
16. 5h
83. 4d
78.43h
1.53E6y
63.98d
16.90h
14.3m
122m
66m
14.60h
13. 6y
2.03E4y
86. 6h
35.15d
23.35h
60s
72.1m
51.5m
B-
B-
B-
ECB+IT
ECB+
ECB+
ECB+
IT
fi-
ll
B-
B-
B-
B-
B-
EC
EC
ECB+
B-
B-
B-
ECB+
ECB+
ECB+
ECB+
IT
fi-
ll
B-
B-
IT
B-
B-
Y-90
Y-91m
Y-92
Y-86
Sr-87m
Y-90
Y-91
Zr-93
Zr-95
Y-86
Y-88
Nb-93m
Nb-95m
Nb-97m
Zr-88
Zr-89
Zr-89
Nb-95
Nb-97
1.
5.
1.
9.
9.
9.
1.
1.
1.
1.
1.
1.
7.
9.
1.
1.
1.
1.
1.
OOOE+00
780E-01 Y-91 4.220E-01
OOOE+00
931E-01
990E-01
920E-01
OOOE+00
OOOE+00
OOOE+00
OOOE+00
OOOE+00
OOOE+00
OOOE-03 Nb-95 9.930E-01
470E-01 Nb-97 5.300E-02
OOOE+00
OOOE+00
OOOE+00
OOOE+00
OOOE+00
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
1
1
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
.196
.656
.196
.025
.226
.007
.007
.047
.935
.027
.602
.446
.174
.675
.528
.030
.016
.101
.020
.116
.700
.237
.115
.834
.403
.028
.168
.166
.044
.253
.015
.468
.887
0.
1.
0.
3.
0.
2.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
1.
0.
0.
0.
1.
0.
0.
4.
1.
1.
4.
0.
1.
0.
0.
2.
0.
0.
2.
-
697
339
221
589
457
692
629
<
530
004
252
089
110
894
288
403
165
-
739
179
126
391
925
224
002
574
068
766
472
728
655
426
Molybdenum
Mo-90
Mo-93m
Mo-93
Mo-99
Mo-101
5.67h
6.85h
3.5E3y
66. Oh
14.62m
ECB+
IT
EC
B-
B-
Nb-90
Mo-93
Nb-93m
Tc-99m
Tc-101
1.
1.
1.
8.
1.
OOOE+00
OOOE+00
OOOE+00
760E-01 Tc-99 1.240E-01
OOOE+00
0
0
0
0
0
.204
.097
.006
.392
.589
0.
2.
0.
0.
1.
827
250
Oil
150
368
Technetium
Tc-93m
Tc-93
Tc-94m
Tc-94
Tc-95m
Tc-95
Tc-96m
43.5m
2.75h
52m
293m
61d
20h
51.5m
ITEC
EC
ECB+
ECB+
ECB+IT
EC
ITEC
Mo-93
Mo-93
Tc-95
Tc-96
1.
1.
4.
9.
820E-01 Tc-93 8.180E-01
OOOE+00
OOOE-02
800E-01
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
.079
.006
.756
.049
.016
.007
.027
0.
1.
1.
2.
0.
0.
0.
724
459
859
671
675
796
052
G-9
-------
Table G.I, continued
Radioactive Decay Products and Fractional Yield
Nucl ide
Decay
Ti Mode Nucl ide
Fraction Nucl ide Fraction Nucl ide
Energy (MeV
Fraction Alpha Elect
nt-1)
Photon
Technetium, continued
Tc-96
Tc-97m
Tc-97
Tc-98
Tc-99m
Tc-99 2
Tc-101
Tc-104
Ruthenium
Ru-94
Ru-97
Ru-103
Ru-105
Ru-106
Rhodium
Rh-99m
Rh-99
Rh-100
Rh-lOlm
Rh-101
Rh-102m
Rh-102
Rh-103m
Rh-105
Rh-106m
Rh-106
Rh-107
Palladium
Pd-100
Pd-101
Pd-103
Pd-107
4.28d
87d
2.6E6y
4.2E6y
6.02h
.13E5y
14.2m
18.2m
51.8m
2.9d
39.28d
4.44h
368. 2d
4.7h
16d
20. 8h
4.34d
3.2y
207d
2.9y
56.12m
35.36h
132m
29.9s
21.7m
3.63d
8.27h
16.96d
6.5E6y
EC
IT
EC
fi-
ll
B-
B-
B-
EC
EC
B-
B-
B-
ECB+
ECB+
ECB+
ECIT
EC
ECB+ITB-
ECB+
IT
B-
B-
B-
B-
EC
ECB+
EC
B-
Tc-97
Tc-99
Tc-94m
Tc-97m
Rh-103m
Rh-105
Rh-106
Rh-101
Rh-102
Pd-107
Rh-100
Rh-lOlm
Rh-103m
1
1
1
7
9
1
1
7
5
1
1
9
1
.OOOE+00
.OOOE+00
.OOOE+00
.550E-04 Tc-97 9.992E-01
.970E-01
.OOOE+00
.OOOE+00
.200E-02
.OOOE-02
.OOOE+00
.OOOE+00
.970E-01 Rh-101 3.000E-03
.OOOE+00
Pd-109 13.427h B-
Silver
Ag-102
Ag-103
Ag-104m
Ag-104
Ag-105
Ag-106m
Ag-106
Ag-108m
Ag-108
Ag-109m
Ag-llOm
Ag-110
Ag-111
Ag-112
Ag-115
12.9m
65.7m
33.5m
69.2m
41. Od
8.41d
23.96m
127y
2.37m
39.6s
249. 9d
24.6s
7.45d
3.12h
20.0m
ECB+
ECB+
ECB+IT
ECB+
ECB+
EC
ECB+
ECIT
ECB+B-
IT
ITB-
B-EC
B-
B-
B-
Pd-103
Ag-104
Ag-108
Ag-110
Cd-115m
1
3
8
1
6
.OOOE+00
.300E-01
.900E-02
.330E-02
.600E-02 Cd-115 9.340E-01
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
1
1
.009
.087
.006
.159
.016
.101
.478
.601
.008
.013
.075
.400
.010
.032
.042
.070
.020
.032
.168
.012
.038
.154
.313
.413
.445
.044
.039
.006
.009
.437
.819
.259
.509
.091
.019
.013
.508
.016
.610
.077
.072
.182
.354
.384
.042
2
0
0
1
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
2
0
0
0
2
0
0
2
0
0
0
0
0
0
3
0
1
2
0
2
0
1
0
0
2
0
0
0
0
.506
.010
.011
.413
.126
-
.334
.981
.535
.240
.469
.784
-
.685
.608
.767
.307
.269
.486
.140
.002
.078
.915
.205
.312
.129
.337
.014
-
.012
.353
.765
.174
.683
.525
.822
.711
.627
.018
.011
.751
.031
.026
.657
.707
G-10
-------
Table G.I, continued
Nucl ide
Cadmium
Cd-104
Cd-107
Cd-109
Cd-113tn
Cd-113
Cd-115tn
Cd-115
Cd-117tn
Cd-117
Indium
In-109
In-llOb
In-llOa
In-Ill
In-112
In-113tn
In-114m
In-114
In-115tn
In-115
In-116tn
In-117tn
In-117
In-119tn
In-119
Tin
Sn-110
Sn-111
Sn-113
Sn-117tn
Sn-119tn
Sn-121m
Sn-121
Sn-123m
Sn-123
Sn-125
Sn-126
Sn-127
Sn-128
Antimony
Sb-115
Sb-116tn
Sb-116
Sb-117
Sb-118tn
Sb-119
Sb-1205
Sb-120a
Sb-122
Sb-124n
Decay
Tj, Mode
57.7m
6.49h
464d
13. 6y
9.3E15y
44. 6d
53.46h
3.36h
2.49h
4.2h
4.9h
69.1m
2.83d
14.4m
1.658h
49.51d
71.9s
4.486h
5.1E15y
54.15m
116.5m
43.8m
18.0m
2.4m
4. Oh
35.3m
115. Id
13.61d
293. Od
55y
27.06h
40.08m
129. 2d
9.64d
1.0E5y
2.10h
59.1m
31.8m
60.3m
15.8m
2.80h
5.00h
38. Ih
5.76d
15.89m
2.70d
20.2m
ECB+
ECB+
EC
B-
B-
B-
B-
B-
B-
ECB+
ECB+
ECB+
EC
B-ECB+
IT
ECIT
B-ECB+
ITB-
B-
B-
B-IT
B-
B-IT
B-
EC
ECB+
EC
IT
IT
B-IT
B-
B-
B-
B-
B-
B-
B-
ECB+
ECB+
ECB+
ECB+
ECB+
EC
EC
ECB+
ECB-
IT
Radioactive Decay Products and Fractional Yield
Nucl ide
Ag-104
In-115
In-115m
In-117m
In-117m
Cd-109
In-114
In-115
In-117
Sn-117m
In-119
Sn-119m
In-llOa
In-Ill
In-113m
Sn-121
Sb-125
Sb-126m
Sb-127
Sb-128a
Sb-124m
Fraction Nucl ide Fraction Nucl ide
1
1
1
1
9
1
9
9
4
3
2
1
1
1
1
7
1
1
1
1
1
.OOOE+00
.OOOE+00
.OOOE+00
.OOOE-02 In-117 9.900E-01
.200E-01 In-117 8. OOOE-02
.OOOE+00
.570E-01
.500E-01
.710E-01
.200E-03
.500E-02
.090E-01
.OOOE+00
.OOOE+00
.OOOE+00
.760E-01
.OOOE+00
.OOOE+00
.OOOE+00
.OOOE+00
.OOOE+00
Fraction Alpha E'
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
(MeV
lect
.032
.087
.083
.185
.093
.607
.303
.229
.439
.047
.012
.626
.034
.243
.134
.143
.771
.172
.152
.312
.434
.267
.065
.634
.014
.221
.006
.161
.078
.035
.114
.475
.520
.811
.172
.534
.255
.238
.153
.424
.029
.040
.026
.045
.308
.565
.025
nr1)
Photon
0
0
0
0
0
2
1
0
3
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
2
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
3
2
0
2
0
2
0
0
.259
.034
.026
-
-
.022
.233
.044
.087
.672
.049
.557
.405
.268
.258
.094
.003
.161
-
.473
.091
.692
.011
.769
.301
.510
.023
.158
.011
.005
-
.140
.007
.313
.057
.910
.666
.909
.143
.158
.185
.585
.023
.469
.452
.441
<
G-ll
-------
Table G.I, continued
Radioactive Decay Products and Fractional Yield
Nucl ide
Antimony,
Sb-124m
Sb-124
Sb-125
Sb-126m
Sb-126
Sb-127
Sb-128b
Sb-128a
Sb-129
Sb-130
Sb-131
Tellurium
Te-116
Te-121m
Te-121
Te-123m
Te-123
Te-125m
Te-127m
Te-127
Te-129m
Te-129
Te-131tn
Te-131
Te-132
Te-133m
Te-133
Te-134
Iodine
I- 120m
1-120
1-121
1-122
1-123
1-124
1-125
1-126
1-128
1-129
1-130
1-131
I- 132m
1-132
1-133
1-134
1-135
Xenon
Xe-120
Xe-121
Xe-122
T
Decay
i Mode
Nucl ide
Fraction Nucl ide Fraction Nucl ide
Energy (MeV
Fraction Alpha Elect
nr1)
Photon
continued
60.
2.
19
12
3.
9.
10
4.
2.
93s
20d
77y
.Om
.4d
85d
Olh
.4m
32h
40m
23m
49h
154d
119
17d
.7d
lE13y
58d
109d
9.
33
69
25
78
55
12.
41
81
2.
3.
13
4.
60.
13.
24.
35h
.6d
.6m
30h
.Om
.2h
.4m
45m
.8m
53m
.Om
12h
62m
.2h
18d
14d
02d
99m
ITB-
B-
B-
ITB-
B-
B-
B-
B-
B-
B-
B-
EC
ECIT
EC
IT
EC
IT
ITB-
B-
ITB-
B-
ITB-
B-
B-
ITB-
B-
B-
ECB+
ECB+
ECB+
ECB+
EC
ECB+
EC
ECB+B-
ECB+B-
Sb-124
Te-125m
Sb-126
Te-127m
Te-129m
Te-131m
Sb-116
Te-121
Te-123
Te-127
1-129
1-129
1-131
1-131
1-132
1-133
1-133
1-134
Te-121
Te-123m
8
2
1
1
2
9
1
8
1
9
3
1
7
1
1
8
1
1
1
5
.OOOE-01
.280E-01
.400E-01
.760E-01 Te-127 8.240E-01
.250E-01 Te-129 7.750E-01
.930E-02 Te-131 9.007E-01
.OOOE+00
.860E-01
.OOOE+00
.760E-01
.500E-01 Te-129 6.500E-01
.OOOE+00
.780E-01 Te-131 2.220E-01
.OOOE+00
.OOOE+00
.700E-01 Te-133 1.300E-01
.OOOE+00
.OOOE+00
.OOOE+00
.OOOE-05 Te-123 9.999E-01
1.57E7y B-
12.
8.
83
2.
20
52
6.
40
20
36h
04d
.6m
30h
.8h
.6m
61h
40m
.1m
.lh
B-
B-
ITB-
B-
B-
B-
B-
ECB+
ECB+
EC
Xe-131m
1-132
Xe-133m
Xe-135m
1-120
1-121
1-122
1
8
2
1
1
1
1
.110E-02
.600E-01
.900E-02 Xe-133 9.710E-01
.540E-01 Xe-135 8.460E-01
.OOOE+00
.OOOE+00
.OOOE+00
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
1
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
.092
.387
.100
.591
.283
.316
.438
.935
.408
.722
.553
.053
.080
.010
.099
.006
.109
.082
.223
.260
.544
.202
.719
.102
.705
.819
.300
.244
.423
.083
.055
.028
.194
.019
.157
.748
.064
.297
.192
.159
.495
.411
.622
.367
.055
.569
.010
0
1
0
1
2
0
3
1
1
3
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
2
0
0
5
2
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
2
0
0
2
0
2
1
0
1
0
.352
.817
.431
.548
.834
.688
.093
.986
.437
.264
.864
.073
.217
.577
.148
.020
.036
.011
.005
.038
.059
.425
.420
.234
.313
.929
.886
.297
.729
.419
.946
.172
.098
.042
.455
.085
.025
.139
.382
.322
.280
.607
.625
.576
.432
.815
.068
G-12
-------
Table G.I, continued
Radioactive Decay Products and Fractional Yield
Nucl ide
Decay
Tj, Mode
Nucl ide
Fraction Nucl ide Fraction Nucl ide
Energy (MeV
Fraction Alpha Elect
nr1)
Photon
Xenon, continued
Xe-123
Xe-125
Xe-127
Xe-129m
Xe-131tn
Xe-133m
Xe-133
Xe-135m
Xe-135
Xe-138
Cesium
Cs-125
Cs-126
Cs-127
Cs-128
Cs-129
Cs-130
Cs-131
Cs-132
Cs-134m
Cs-134
Cs-135m
Cs-135
Cs-136
Cs-137
Cs-138
Barium
Ba-126
Ba-128
Ba-131tn
Ba-131
Ba-133m
Ba-133
Ba-135m
Ba-137m
Ba-139
Ba-140
Ba-141
Ba-142
Lanthanum
La-131
La-132
La-134
La-135
La-137
La-138 1.
2.08h
17. Oh
36.41d
8.0d
11. 9d
2.188d
5.245d
15.29m
9.09h
14.17m
45m
1.64m
6.25h
3.9m
32.06h
29.9m
9.69d
6.475d
2.90h
2.062y
53m
2.3E6y
13. Id
30. Oy
32.2m
96.5m
2.43d
14.6m
11. 8d
38. 9h
10.74y
28. 7h
2.552m
82.7m
12.74d
18.27m
10.6m
59m
4.8h
6.67m
19. 5h
6E4y
35Elly
ECB+
ECB+
EC
IT
IT
IT
B-
ITB-
B-
B-
ECB+
ECB+
ECB+
ECB+
ECB+
ECB+
EC
ECB+B-
IT
ECB-
IT
B-
B-
B-
B-
ECB+
EC
IT
ECB+
IT
EC
IT
IT
B-
B-
B-
B-
ECB+
ECB+
ECB+
ECB+
EC
B-EC
1-123
1-125
Xe-133
Cs-135
Cs-135
Cs-138
Xe-125
Xe-127
Cs-134
Cs-135
Ba-137m
Cs-126
Cs-128
Ba-131
Cs-131
Ba-133
La-140
La-141
La-142
Ba-131
l.OOOE+00
l.OOOE+00
l.OOOE+00
4.500E-05 Xe-135 9.999E-01
l.OOOE+00
l.OOOE+00
l.OOOE+00
l.OOOE+00
l.OOOE+00
l.OOOE+00
9.460E-01
l.OOOE+00
l.OOOE+00
l.OOOE+00
l.OOOE+00
l.OOOE+00
l.OOOE+00
l.OOOE+00
l.OOOE+00
l.OOOE+00
La-140 40.272h B-
La-141
La-142
La-143
3.93h
92.5m
14.23m
B-
B-
B-
Ce-141
Ce-143
l.OOOE+00
l.OOOE+00
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
.184
.034
.033
.185
.144
.192
.136
.098
.317
.673
.347
.464
.029
.846
.018
.401
.007
.014
.112
.164
.036
.067
.139
.187
.207
.020
.009
.109
.046
.221
.054
.208
.065
.898
.313
.901
.440
.208
.522
.739
.007
.007
.037
.537
.948
.846
.324
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
1
2
2
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
2
0
0
0
1
2
0
2
0
.634
.271
.280
.051
.020
.041
.046
.429
.249
.125
.678
.086
.420
.900
.282
.517
.023
.705
.027
.555
.586
-
.166
-
.361
.163
.076
.077
.459
.067
.402
.060
.597
.043
.183
.845
.047
.671
.011
.698
.036
.024
.236
.315
.043
.753
.094
G-13
-------
Table G.I, continued
Radioactive Decay Products and Fractional Yield
Nucl ide
Cerium
Ce-134
Ce-135
Ce-137m
Ce-137
Ce-139
Ce-141
Ce-143
Ce-144
Decay
Tj, Mode
72. Oh
17. 6h
34. 4h
9. Oh
137. 66d
32.501d
33. Oh
284.3d
EC
ECB+
ECIT
EC
EC
B-
B-
B-
Nucl ide
La-134
La-135
La-137
La-137
Pr-143
Pr-144m
Fraction Nucl ide Fraction Nucl ide
1
1
5
1
1
1
.OOOE+00
.OOOE+00
.900E-03 Ce-137 9.941E-01
.OOOE+00
.OOOE+00
.780E-02 Pr-144 9.822E-01
Energy (MeV
Fraction Alpha Elect
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
.007
.244
.203
.017
.036
.171
.433
.092
nt-1)
Photon
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
.026
.776
.053
.036
.160
.076
.282
.021
Praseodymium
Pr-136
Pr-137
Pr-138m
Pr-138
Pr-139
Pr-142m
Pr-142
Pr-143
Pr-144m
Pr-144
Pr-145
Pr-147
13.1m
76.6m
2.1h
1.45m
4.51h
14.6m
19.13h
13.56d
7.2m
17.28m
5.98h
13.6m
ECB+
ECB+
ECB+
ECB+
ECB+
IT
B-EC
B-
ITB-
B-
B-
B-
Ce-137
Ce-139
Pr-142
Pr-144
Nd-147
1
1
1
9
1
.OOOE+00
.OOOE+00
.OOOE+00
.990E-01
.OOOE+00
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
.743
.198
.224
.159
.046
.004
.808
.314
.047
.208
.677
.807
2
0
2
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
.101
.501
.478
.813
.122
<
.058
<
.013
.032
.013
.863
Neodymium
Nd-136
Nd-138
Nd-139m
Nd-139
Nd-141m
Nd-141
Nd-147
Nd-149
Nd-151
50.65m
5.04h
5.5h
29.7m
62.4s
2.49h
10.98d
1.73h
12.44m
ECB+
EC
ECB+IT
ECB+
ECIT
ECB+
B-
B-
B-
Pr-136
Pr-138
Pr-139
Pr-139
Nd-141
Pm-147
Pm-149
Pm-151
1
1
8
1
9
1
1
1
.OOOE+00
.OOOE+00
.800E-01 Nd-139 1.200E-01
.OOOE+00
.996E-01
.OOOE+00
.OOOE+00
.OOOE+00
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
.093
.008
.111
.201
.068
.016
.270
.506
.649
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
.293
.043
.572
.406
.759
.075
.140
.384
.916
Promethium
Pm-141
Pm-142
Pm-143
Pm-144
Pm-145
Pm-146
Pm-147
Pm-148m
Pm-148
Pm-149
Pm-150
Pm-151
Samarium
Stn-141m
Stn-141
Sm-142
Sm-145
Sm-146
20.90m
40.5s
265d
363d
17. 7y
2020d
2.6234y
41.3d
5.37d
53.08h
2.68h
28.40h
22.6m
10.2m
72.49m
340d
1.03E8y
ECB+
ECB+
EC
EC
EC
B-EC
B-
B-IT
B-
B-
B-
B-
ITECB+
ECB+
ECB+
EC
A
Nd-141m
Sm-146
Sm-147
Pm-148
Stn-151
Pm-141
Pm-141
Pm-142
Pm-145
9
3
1
4
1
9
1
1
1
.680E-04 Nd-141 9.990E-01
.590E-01
.OOOE+00
.600E-02
.OOOE+00
.969E-01 Stn-141 3.100E-03
.OOOE+00
.OOOE+00
.OOOE+00
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
2.474
.632
.365
.008
.017
.014
.097
.062
.170
.724
.366
.807
.306
.435
.706
.034
.032
-
0
0
0
1
0
0
2
0
0
1
0
1
1
0
0
.744
.868
.315
.563
.031
.753
<
.000
.575
.011
.431
.321
.984
.405
.094
.065
-
G-14
-------
Table G.I, continued
Radioactive Decay Products and Fractional Yield
Nucl ide
Samarium,
Sm-147 1.
Stn-151
Sm-153
Sm-155
Sm-156
Europium
Eu-145
Eu-146
Eu-147
Eu-148
Eu-149
Eu-150b
Eu-150a
Eu-152m
Eu-152
Eu-154
Eu-155
Eu-156
Eu-157
Eu-158
Gadolinium
Gd-145
Gd-146
Gd-147
Gd-148
Gd-149
Gd-151
Gd-152 1.
Gd-153
Gd-159
Terbium
Tb-147
Tb-149
Tb-150
Tb-151
Tb-153
Tb-154
Tb-155
Tb-156m
Tb-156n
Tb-156
Tb-157
Tb-158
Tb-160
Tb-161
Decay
Tj, Mode
Nucl ide
Fraction Nucl ide Fraction Nucl ide
continued
06Elly A
90y B-
46. 7h
22.1m
9.4h
5.94d
4.61d
24d
54. 5d
93. Id
34. 2y
12.62h
9.32h
13.33y
8.8y
4.96y
15.19d
15.15h
45.9m
22.9m
48.3d
38. Ih
93y
9.4d
120d
08E14y
242d
18.56h
1.65h
4.15h
3.27h
17. 6h
2.34d
21. 4h
5.32d
24. 4h
5. Oh
5.34d
150y
150y
72.3d
6.91d
B-
B-
B-
ECB+
ECB+
A ECB+
A ECB+
EC
EC
B-ECB+
ECB+B-
B-ECB+
ECB-
B-
B-
B-
B-
ECB+
EC
ECB+
A
EC
A EC
A
EC
B-
ECB+
ECB+A
ECB+
ECB+A
ECB+
ECB+
EC
IT
IT
EC
EC
B-EC
B-
B-
Eu-155
Eu-156
Sm-145
Sm-146
Pm-143
Pm-144
Gd-152
Gd-152
Eu-145
Eu-146
Eu-147
Eu-149
Sm-147
Gd-147
Eu-145
Eu-147
Gd-153
Tb-156
Tb-156
1
1
1
1
2
9
7
2
1
1
1
1
8
1
2
9
1
1
1
.OOOE+00
.OOOE+00
.OOOE+00
.OOOE+00
.200E-05 Sm-147 l.OOOE+00
.400E-09
.200E-01
.792E-01
.OOOE+00
.OOOE+00
.OOOE+00
.OOOE+00
.OOOE-09
.OOOE+00
.OOOE-01 Gd-149 8.000E-01
.500E-05 Gd-151 l.OOOE+00
.OOOE+00
.OOOE+00
.OOOE+00
Energy (MeV
Fraction Alpha Elect
2.248
0
0
0
0
0
0
< 0
< 0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
3.183
0
< 0
2.148
0
0
0
0.793 0
0
< 0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
.020
.273
.566
.206
.029
.048
.042
.023
.011
.044
.312
.507
.139
.292
.063
.423
.395
.963
.549
.130
.060
-
.059
.034
-
.044
.304
.564
.186
.546
.080
.049
.081
.034
.024
.084
.103
.005
.116
.257
.197
nr1)
Photon
0
0
0
1
2
0
2
0
1
0
0
1
1
0
1
0
1
2
0
1
0
0
0
0
1
1
1
0
0
2
0
0
0
1
0
0
1
0
<
.062
.103
.121
.458
.504
.497
.177
.063
.496
.047
.293
.155
.242
.061
.329
.262
.057
.257
.250
.337
-
.420
.064
-
.106
.050
.590
.614
.679
.892
.229
.352
.140
.025
.004
.826
.003
.798
.124
.035
Dysprosium
Dy-155
Dy-157
Dy-159
Dy-165
Dy-166
10. Oh
8.1h
144. 4d
2.334h
81. 6h
ECB+
EC
EC
B-
B-
Tb-155
Tb-157
Ho-166
1
1
1
.OOOE+00
.OOOE+00
.OOOE+00
0
0
0
0
0
.028
.013
.013
.449
.159
0
0
0
0
0
.582
.357
.045
.026
.040
G-15
-------
Table G.I, continued
Radioactive Decay Products and Fractional Yield
Nucl ide
Holmium
Ho-155
Ho-157
Ho-159
Ho-161
Ho-162m
Ho-162
Ho-164m
Ho-164
Ho-166m
Ho-166
Ho-167
Erbium
Er-161
Er-165
Er-169
Er-171
Er-172
Thulium
Tm-162
Tm-166
Tm-167
Tm-170
Tm-171
Tm-172
Tm-173
Tm-175
Ytterbium
Yb-162
Yb-166
Yb-167
Yb-169
Yb-175
Yb-177
Yb-178
Lutetium
Lu-169
Lu-170
Lu-171
Lu-172
Lu-173
Lu-174m
Lu-174
Lu-176m
Lu-176 3
Lu-177m
Lu-177
Lu-178m
Lu-178
Lu-179
T
12
2
37
Decay
i Mode
48m
.6m
33m
.5h
68m
15m
.5m
29m
ECB+
ECB+
ECB+
EC
ITEC
ECB+
IT
ECB-
Nucl ide
Dy-155
Dy-157
Dy-159
Ho-162
Ho-164
Fraction Nucl ide Fraction
l.OOOE+00
l.OOOE+00
l.OOOE+00
6.100E-01
l.OOOE+00
1.20E3y B-
26.
3
3.
10.
9
7.
49
21
7.
9.
128
1.
63
8.
15
18
56
17
32.
4.
1
34.
2.
8.
6.
1.
80h
.lh
24h
36h
.3d
52h
.3h
.7m
70h
24d
.6d
92y
.6h
24h
.2m
.9m
.7h
.5m
Old
19d
.9h
74m
06h
OOd
22d
70d
37y
142d
3.
3.
3iy
68h
B-
B-
ECB+
EC
B-
B-
B-
ECB+
ECB+
EC
ECB-
B-
B-
B-
B-
EC
EC
ECB+
EC
B-
B-
B-
ECB+
ECB+
EC
ECB+
EC
ECIT
ECB+
B-
Ho-161
Tm-171
Tm-172
Yb-175
Tm-162
Tm-166
Tm-167
Lu-177
Lu-178
Yb-169
Lu-174
l.OOOE+00
l.OOOE+00
l.OOOE+00
l.OOOE+00
l.OOOE+00
l.OOOE+00
l.OOOE+00
l.OOOE+00
l.OOOE+00
l.OOOE+00
9.930E-01
.60E10y B-
160
6.
22
28
4.
.9d
71d
.7m
.4m
59h
B-IT
B-
B-
B-
B-
Lu-177
2.100E-01
Energy (MeV
Nucl ide Fraction Alpha Elect
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
.241
.081
.052
.033
.078
.062
.092
.148
.132
.695
.219
.051
.008
.104
.422
.129
.370
.103
.128
.331
.026
.530
.319
.555
.031
.042
.092
.125
.130
.430
.191
.054
.094
.084
.119
.036
.116
.042
.477
.296
.272
.148
.591
.773
.464
nr1)
Photon
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
1
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
2
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
1
0
0
.387
.493
.366
.062
.576
.168
.047
.030
.747
.029
.365
.914
.038
<
.381
.522
.781
.870
.146
.005
<
.477
.388
.053
.137
.086
.267
.310
.040
.187
.035
.041
.484
.697
.888
.130
.063
.126
.014
.491
.003
.035
.109
.140
.031
G-16
-------
Table G.I, continued
Radioactive Decay Products and Fractional Yield
Nucl ide
Hafnium
Hf-170
Hf-172
Hf-173
Hf-175
Hf-177tn
Hf-178tn
Hf-179tn
Hf-180tn
Hf-181
Hf-182m
Hf-182
Hf-183
Hf-184
Tantalum
Ta-172
Ta-173
Ta-174
Ta-175
Ta-176
Ta-177
Ta-178b
Ta-178a
Ta-179
Ta-180m
Ta-180
Ta-182m
Ta-182
Ta-183
Ta-184
Ta-185
Ta-186
Tungsten
W-176
W-177
W-178
W-179
W-181
W-185
W-187
W-188
Rhenium
Re-177
Re-178
Re-180
Re-181
Re-182b
Re-182a
Re -184m
Re-184
Re -186m
Decay
Tj, Mode
16.01h
1.87y
24. Oh
70d
51.4m
3iy
25. Id
5.5h
42. 4d
61.5m
9E6y
64m
4.12h
36.8m
3.65h
1.2h
10. 5h
8.08h
56. 6h
2.2h
9.31m
664. 9d
8.1h
1.0E13y
15.84m
115. Od
5. Id
8.7h
49m
10.5m
2.3h
135m
21. 7d
37.5m
121. 2d
75. Id
23. 9h
69. 4d
14.0m
13.2m
2.43m
20h
64. Oh
12. 7h
165d
38. Od
2.0E5y
EC
EC
ECB+
EC
IT
IT
IT
IT
B-
ITB-
B-
B-
B-
ECB+
ECB+
ECB+
ECB+
ECB+
EC
EC
EC
EC
ECB-
EC
IT
B-
B-
B-
B-
B-
EC
ECB+
EC
EC
EC
B-
B-
B-
ECB+
ECB+
ECB+
ECB+
EC
ECB+
ITEC
EC
IT
Nucl ide
Lu-170
Lu-172
Lu-173
Ta-182
Ta-182
Ta-183
Ta-184
Hf-172
Hf-173
Hf-175
Ta-182
W-185
Ta-176
Ta-177
Ta-178a
Ta-179
Re- 187
Re- 188
W-177
W-178
W-181
Re-184
Re- 186
Fraction Nucl ide Fraction Nucl ide
l.OOOE+00
l.OOOE+00
l.OOOE+00
5.400E-01 Hf-182 4.600E-01
l.OOOE+00
l.OOOE+00
l.OOOE+00
l.OOOE+00
l.OOOE+00
l.OOOE+00
l.OOOE+00
l.OOOE+00
l.OOOE+00
l.OOOE+00
l.OOOE+00
l.OOOE+00
l.OOOE+00
l.OOOE+00
l.OOOE+00
l.OOOE+00
l.OOOE+00
7.470E-01
l.OOOE+00
Energy (MeV
Fraction Alpha Elect
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
.091
.118
.053
.046
.500
.297
.188
.139
.203
.235
.083
.451
.477
.505
.358
.367
.064
.104
.024
.155
.034
.008
.055
.123
.251
.217
.345
.547
.725
.992
.073
.104
.007
.027
.011
.127
.312
.100
.361
.578
.156
.137
.213
.088
.141
.056
.124
nr1)
Photon
0
0
0
0
2
2
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
2
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
1
0
1
1
0
0
0
.549
.118
.408
.369
.252
.358
.901
.008
.555
.933
.239
.752
.251
.550
.585
.627
.933
.145
.067
.023
.109
.032
.049
.560
.252
.294
.293
.612
.193
.560
.177
.903
.014
.060
.040
<
.481
.002
.620
.218
.183
.771
.886
.179
.390
.891
.019
G-17
-------
Table G.I, continued
Radioactive Decay Products and Fractional Yield
Nucl ide
Rhenium,
Re-186
Re-187
Re -188m
Re-188
Re-189
Osmium
Os-180
Os-181
Os-182
Os-185
Os-189m
Os-190m
Os-191m
Os-191
Os-193
Os-194
Iridium
Ir-182
Ir-184
Ir-185
Ir-186a
Ir-186b
Ir-187
Ir-188
Ir-189
Ir-190n
I r- 190m
Ir-190
Ir-191m
Ir-192m
Ir-192
I r- 194m
Ir-194
I r- 195m
Ir-195
Platinum
Pt-186
Pt-188
Pt-189
Pt-191
Pt-193m
Pt-193
Pt-195m
Pt-197m
Pt-197
Pt-199
Pt-200
Gold
Au-193
Au-194
T
Decay
i Mode
Nucl ide
Fraction Nucl ide Fraction Nucl ide
continued
90.64h B-EC
5E10y
18.6m
16.
24
98h
.3h
22m
105m
6
9
13.
15
30
6
3.
14
15
1.
10
41
13
3
1
12
4.
22h
94d
.Oh
.9m
03h
.4d
.Oh
• Oy
15m
02h
.Oh
.8h
75h
.5h
.5h
.3d
.lh
.2h
.Id
94s
241y
74.
02d
B-
IT
B-
B-
ECB+
ECB+
EC
EC
IT
IT
IT
B-
B-
B-
ECB+
ECB+
ECB+
ECB+
ECB+
EC
ECB+
EC
ITEC
IT
EC
IT
IT
B-EC
Re-188
Os- 189m
Re- 180
Re- 181
Re-182a
Os-191
Ir-194
Os-182
Os-185
Os-189m
I r- 190m
Ir-190
Ir-192
1
2
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
8
5
1
1
.OOOE+00
.410E-01
.OOOE+00
.OOOE+00
.OOOE+00
.OOOE+00
.OOOE+00
.OOOE+00
.OOOE+00
.300E-02
.OOOE-02
.OOOE+00
.OOOE+00
171d B-
19.
3
2
2
10
10.
2
4.
4.
94
18
30
12
17.
39
15h
.8h
.5h
.Oh
.2d
87 h
.8d
33d
50y
02d
.4m
.3h
.8m
.5h
65h
.5h
B-
ITB-
B-
A EC
EC
ECB+
EC
IT
EC
IT
B-IT
B-
B-
B-
EC
ECB+
Ir-195
Os-182
Ir-188
Ir-189
Pt-193
Pt-197
Au-199
Au-200
Pt-193
4
1
1
1
1
9
1
1
1
.OOOE-02
.400E-06 Ir-186b l.OOOE+00
.OOOE+00
.OOOE+00
.OOOE+00
.670E-01
.OOOE+00
.OOOE+00
.OOOE+00
Energy (MeV
Fraction Alpha Elect
0
-
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
-
0
0
0
0
0
< 0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
.345
<
.098
.780
.340
.028
.108
.056
.019
.029
.116
.065
.135
.373
.034
.935
.279
.115
.113
.203
.060
.058
.049
.126
.024
.129
.096
-
.217
.156
.812
.480
.380
.012
.080
.055
.064
.137
.007
.183
.324
.254
.535
.243
.064
.043
nr1)
Photon
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
1
1
0
1
0
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
0
0
2
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
.021
-
.080
.058
.069
.065
.222
.435
.719
.002
.588
.009
.080
.073
.002
.340
.908
.601
.641
.964
.363
.584
.081
.555
.002
.443
.075
.161
.818
.335
.090
.432
.059
.740
.202
.325
.304
.013
.002
.076
.083
.025
.202
.061
.160
.067
G-18
-------
Table G.I, continued
Radioactive Decay Products and Fractional Yield
Nucl ide
Decay
Tj, Mode
Nucl ide
Fraction Nucl ide Fraction Nucl ide
Energy (MeV
Fraction Alpha Elect
nt-1)
Photon
Gold, continued
Au-195m
Au-195
Au-198m
Au-198
Au-199
Au-200m
Au-200
Au-201
Mercury
Hg-193m
Hg-193
Hg-194
Hg-195m
Hg-195
Hg-197m
Hg-197
Hg-199m
Hg-203
Thallium
Tl-194m
Tl-194
Tl-195
Tl-197
Tl-198m
Tl-198
Tl-199
Tl-200
Tl-201
Tl-202
Tl-204
Tl-206
Tl-207
Tl-208
Tl-209
Lead
Pb-195m
Pb-198
Pb-199
Pb-200
Pb-201
Pb-202m
Pb-202
Pb-203
Pb-205
Pb-209
Pb-210
Pb-211
Pb-212
Pb-214
30.5s
183d
2.30d
2.696d
3.139d
18. 7h
48.4m
26.4m
11. Ih
3.5h
260y
41. 6h
9.9h
23. 8h
64. Ih
42.6m
46.60d
32.8m
33m
1.16h
2.84h
1.87h
5.3h
7.42h
26. Ih
3.044d
12.23d
3.779y
4.20m
4.77m
3.07m
2.20m
15.8m
2.4h
90m
21. 5h
9.4h
3.62h
3E5y
52.05h
1.43E7y
3.253h
22. 3y
36.1m
10.64h
26.8m
IT
EC
IT
B-
B-
B-IT
B-
B-
ECB+IT
ECB+
EC
ITEC
EC
ECIT
EC
IT
B-
ECB+
EC
ECB+
ECB+
ECB+IT
ECB+
ECB+
ECB+
EC
ECB+
ECB-
B-
B-
B-
B-
ECB+
EC
ECB+
EC
ECB+
ITEC
EC
EC
EC
B-
B-
B-
B-
B-
Au-195
Au-198
Au-200
Au-193
Au-193
Au-194
Au-195
Au-195
Hg-197
Hg-194
Hg-194
Hg-195
Hg-197
Tl-198
Pb-209
Tl-195
Tl-198
Tl-199
Tl-200
Tl-201
Tl-202
Tl-202
Bi-210
Bi-211
Bi-212
Bi-214
1
1
1
9
1
1
4
1
9
1
1
1
1
4
1
1
1
1
1
1
9
1
1
1
1
1
.OOOE+00
.OOOE+00
.800E-01
.200E-01 Hg-193 8.000E-02
.OOOE+00
.OOOE+00
.580E-01 Hg-195 5.420E-01
.OOOE+00
.300E-01
.OOOE+00
.OOOE+00
.OOOE+00
.OOOE+00
.700E-01
.OOOE+00
.OOOE+00
.OOOE+00
.OOOE+00
.OOOE+00
.OOOE+00
.500E-02 Pb-202 9.050E-01
.OOOE+00
.OOOE+00
.OOOE+00
.OOOE+00
.OOOE+00
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
.117
.051
.289
.327
.143
.276
.740
.422
.139
.125
.007
.150
.065
.215
.066
.352
.099
.342
.030
.096
.061
.201
.041
.056
.040
.043
.023
.238
.537
.493
.598
.688
.302
.079
.054
.099
.058
.076
.006
.052
.007
.198
.038
.456
.176
.293
0
0
0
0
0
2
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
2
0
1
0
1
2
0
1
0
0
0
0
3
2
1
0
1
0
0
2
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
.201
.085
.577
.405
.089
.087
.272
.053
.046
.203
.003
.214
.204
.094
.070
.186
.238
.319
.779
.271
.409
.195
.006
.249
.311
.093
.468
.001
<
.002
.375
.032
.599
.439
.476
.209
.758
.043
.002
.312
.002
-
.005
.051
.148
.250
G-19
-------
Table G.I, continued
Radioactive Decay Products and Fractional Yield
Nucl ide
Bismuth
Bi-200
Bi-201
Bi-202
Bi-203
Bi-205
Bi-206
Bi-207
Bi-210m
Bi-210
Bi-211
Bi-212
Bi-213
Bi-214
Polonium
Po-203
Po-205
Po-207
Po-210
Po-211
Po-212
Po-213
Po-214
Po-215 0
Po-216
Po-218
Astatine
At-207
At-211
At-215
At-216
At-217
At-218
Radon
Rn-218
Rn-219
Rn-220
Rn-222
Francium
Fr-219
Fr-220
Fr-221
Fr-222
Fr-223
Radium
Ra-222
Ra-223
Ra-224
Ra-225
Ra-226
Decay
Tj, Mode
36.4m
108m
1.67h
11.76h
15.31d
6.243d
38y
3.0E6y
5.012d
2.14m
60.55m
45.65m
19.9m
36.7m
1.80h
350m
138. 38d
0.516s
0.305^:
ECB+
EC
ECB+
ECB+
ECB+
EC
ECB+
A
B-
A B-
B-A
B-A
B-
ECB+
A ECB+
ECB+
A
A
;A
4.2^s A
164.3jU!
.00178s
0.15s
3.05m
1.80h
7.214h
;A
A
A
A B-
ECA
ECA
0.1 Oms A
O.SOmsA
0.0323s
2s
A
A
35msA
3.96s
55.6s
3.8235d
A
A
A
21msA
27.4s
4.8m
14.4m
21.8m
38.0s
11.434d
3.66d
14. 8d
1600y
A
A
B-
B-
A
A
A
B-
A
Nucl ide
Pb-200
Pb-201
Pb-202m
Pb-203
Pb-205
Tl-206
Po-210
Tl-207
Tl-208
Tl-209
Po-214
Bi-203
Pb-201
Bi-207
Pb-209
Pb-210
Pb-211
Pb-212
Pb-214
Bi-203
Bi-207
Bi-211
Bi-212
Bi-213
Bi-214
Po-214
Po-215
Po-216
Po-218
At-215
At-216
At-217
Ra-222
Ra-223
Rn-218
Rn-219
Rn-220
Ac-225
Rn-222
Fraction Nucl ide Fraction Nucl ide
1
1
2
1
1
1
1
9
3
2
9
9
1
1
1
1
1
1
9
1
4
1
1
1
9
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
9
1
1
1
1
1
.OOOE+00
.OOOE+00
.500E-03 Pb-202 9.975E-01
.OOOE+00
.OOOE+00
.OOOE+00
.OOOE+00
.972E-01 Po-211 2.800E-03
.593E-01 Po-212 6.407E-01
.160E-02 Po-213 9.784E-01
.998E-01
.989E-01
.400E-03 Bi-205 9.986E-01
.OOOE+00
.OOOE+00
.OOOE+00
.OOOE+00
.OOOE+00
.998E-01 At-218 2.000E-04
.OOOE-01 Po-207 9.000E-01
.170E-01 Po-211 5.830E-01
.OOOE+00
.OOOE+00
.OOOE+00
.990E-01
.OOOE+00
.OOOE+00
.OOOE+00
.OOOE+00
.OOOE+00
.OOOE+00
.OOOE+00
.OOOE+00
.999E-01
.OOOE+00
.OOOE+00
.OOOE+00
.OOOE+00
.OOOE+00
Energy (MeV
Fraction Alpha Elect
4
6
2
0
0
5
7
8
8
7
7
6
6
0
2
8
7
7
6
7
6
6
5
7
6
6
6
5
5
4
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
.913
-
.550
.174
.126
-
-
.007
-
.297
.442
.785
.376
.687
.386
.779
.001
.576
.446
.026
.799
.067
.697
.132
.757
.288
.489
.313
.637
.304
-
-
.546
.667
.674
-
.774
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
.190
.258
.109
.080
.034
.136
.117
.047
.389
.010
.472
.442
.659
.164
.060
.052
<
<
-
-
<
<
<
<
.080
.006
<
<
<
.040
<
.006
<
<
<
.028
.010
.731
.400
<
.076
.002
.107
.004
nt-1)
Photon
2
1
2
2
1
3
1
0
0
0
0
1
1
1
1
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
.393
.339
.713
.384
.690
.278
.540
.257
-
.047
.186
.133
.508
.644
.581
.331
<
.008
-
-
<
<
<
<
.325
.039
<
.002
<
.007
<
.056
<
<
.003
.012
.031
-
.059
.009
.134
.010
.014
.007
G-20
-------
Table G.I, continued
Radioactive Decay Products and Fractional
Nucl ide
Decay
Tj, Mode
Radium, continued
Ra-227 42.2m B-
Ra-228 5.75y B-
Actinium
Ac-223
Ac-224
Ac-225
Ac-226
Ac-227
Ac-228
Thorium
Th-226
Th-227
Th-228
Th-229
Th-230
Th-231
Th-232 1
Th-234
2.2m
2.9h
10. Od
29h
21.773y
6.13h
30.9m
18.718d
1.9131y
7340y
7.7E4y
25.52h
.405E10y
24.10d
A
A EC
A
A B-EC
B-A
B-
A
A
A
A
A
B-
A
B-
Nucl ide
Ac-227
Ac-228
Fr-219
Fr-220
Fr-221
Th-226
Fr-223
Th-228
Ra-222
Ra-223
Ra-224
Ra-225
Ra-226
Pa-231
Ra-228
Pa-234m
Fraction
l.OOOE+00
l.OOOE+00
l.OOOE+00
l.OOOE-01
l.OOOE+00
8.280E-01
1.380E-02
l.OOOE+00
l.OOOE+00
l.OOOE+00
l.OOOE+00
l.OOOE+00
l.OOOE+00
l.OOOE+00
l.OOOE+00
9.980E-01
Nucl ide
Ra-224
Ra-226
Th-227
Pa-234
Yield
Energy (MeV
Fraction Nucl ide Fraction Alpha Elect
9
1
9
2
.OOOE-01
.720E-01 Fr-222
.862E-01
.OOOE-03
6
0
5
6.000E-05
0
6
5
5
4
4
3
-
.553
.611
.787
<
.068
-
.308
.884
.400
.873
.671
-
.996
-
0.439
0.017
0.015
0.040
0.022
0.289
0.016
0.475
0.021
0.053
0.021
0.116
0.015
0.165
0.012
0.060
nt-1)
Photon
0.167
<
0.006
0.200
0.018
0.130
<
0.971
0.009
0.110
0.003
0.096
0.002
0.026
0.001
0.009
Protactinium
Pa-227
Pa-228
Pa-230
Pa-231
Pa-232
Pa-233
Pa-234m
Pa-234
Uranium
U-230
U-231
U-232
U-233
U-234
U-235
U-236 2
U-237
U-238
U-239
U-240
38.3m
22h
17. 4d
3.276E4y
l.Sld
27. Od
1.17m
6.70h
20. 8d
4.2d
72y
1.585E5y
2.445E5y
703.8E6y
.3415E7y
6.75d
4.468E9y
23.54m
14. Ih
ECA
A ECB+
A ECB-
A
B-
B-
B-IT
B-
A
EGA
A
A
A
A
A
B-
SFA
B-
B-
Ac-223
Ac-224
U-230
Ac-227
U-232
U-233
U-234
U-234
Th-226
Th-227
Th-228
Th-229
Th-230
Th-231
Th-232
Np-237
Th-234
Np-239
Np-240m
8.500E-01
2.000E-02
9.500E-02
l.OOOE+00
l.OOOE+00
l.OOOE+00
9.987E-01
l.OOOE+00
l.OOOE+00
5.500E-05
l.OOOE+00
l.OOOE+00
l.OOOE+00
l.OOOE+00
l.OOOE+00
l.OOOE+00
l.OOOE+00
l.OOOE+00
l.OOOE+00
Th-227
Th-228
Th-230
Pa-234
Pa-231
SF
1
9
9
1
1
5
.500E-01
.800E-01
.050E-01 Ac-226
.300E-03
.OOOE+00
.400E-05
5
0
3.200E-05
4
5
5
4
4
4
4
4
.468
.120
<
.969
-
-
-
-
.864
<
.302
.817
.758
.396
.505
-
.187
-
-
0.016
0.165
0.068
0.065
0.175
0.196
0.822
0.494
0.022
0.071
0.017
0.006
0.013
0.049
0.011
0.196
0.010
0.412
0.138
0.022
1.141
0.652
0.048
0.939
0.204
0.012
1.919
0.003
0.082
0.002
0.001
0.002
0.156
0.002
0.143
0.001
0.053
0.008
Neptunium
Np-232
Np-233
Np-234
Np-235
Np-236a
Np-236b
Np-237
Np-238
Np-239
14.7m
36.2m
4.4d
396. Id
115E3y
22. 5h
2.14E6y
2.117d
2.355d
ECB+
EC
ECB+
EGA
ECB-
B-EC
A
B-
B-
U-232
U-233
U-234
Pa-231
Pu-236
Pu-236
Pa-233
Pu-238
Pu-239
l.OOOE+00
l.OOOE+00
l.OOOE+00
1.400E-05
8.900E-02
4.800E-01
l.OOOE+00
l.OOOE+00
l.OOOE+00
U-235
U-236
U-236
9
9
5
.999E-01
.110E-01
.200E-01
4
-
-
-
<
-
-
.769
-
-
0.106
0.014
0.069
0.010
0.208
0.087
0.070
0.264
0.260
1.203
0.091
1.442
0.007
0.136
0.051
0.035
0.553
0.173
G-21
-------
Table G.I, continued
Radioactive Decay Products and Fractional Yield
Nucl ide
Neptunium,
Np-240m
Np-240
Plutonium
Pu-234
Pu-235
Pu-236
Pu-237
Pu-238
Pu-239
Pu-240
Pu-241
Pu-242 3.
Pu-243
Pu-244 8
Pu-245
Pu-246
Americium
Am-237
Am-238
Am-239
Am-240
Am-241
Am-242m
Am-242
Am-243
Am-244m
Am-244
Am-245
Am-246m
Am-246
Curium
Cm-238
Cm-240
Cm-241
Cm-242
Cm-243
Cm-244
Cm-245
Cm-246
Cm-247 1
Cm-248 3
Cm-249
Cm-250
Berkelium
Bk-245
Bk-246
Bk-247
Bk-249
Bk-250
Decay
Tj, Mode
continued
7.4m B-
65m B-
8.8h
25.3m
2.851y
45.3d
87.74y
24065y
6537y
14. 4y
763 E5y
4.956h
•26E7y
10. 5h
10.85d
73.0m
98m
11. 9h
50. 8h
432. 2y
152y
16.02h
7380y
26m
10. Ih
2.05h
25.0m
39m
2.4h
27d
32. 8d
162. 8d
28. 5y
18.11y
8500y
4730y
.56E7y
.39E5y
64.15m
6900y
4.94d
1.83d
1380y
320d
3.222h
A EC
EGA
SFA
A EC
SFA
A
SFA
A B-
SFA
B-
SFA
B-
B-
A EC
ECA
A EC
A EC
A
A IT
ECB-
A
B-
B-
B-
B-
B-
ECA
A
A EC
SFA
A EC
SFA
A
SFA
A
SFA
B-
SFA B-
A EC
EC
A
SFB-A
B-
Nucl ide
Pu-240
Pu-240
U-230
U-231
U-232
U-233
U-234
U-235
U-236
U-237
U-238
Am-243
U-240
Am-245
Am-246m
Np-233
Np-234
Np-235
Np-236b
Np-237
Np-238
Cm-242
Np-239
Cm-244
Cm-244
Cm-245
Cm-246
Cm-246
Pu-234
Pu-236
Pu-237
Pu-238
Pu-239
Pu-240
Pu-241
Pu-242
Pu-243
Pu-244
Bk-249
Pu-246
Am-241
Cm-246
Am-243
Am-245
Cf-250
Fraction
9.989E-01
l.OOOE+00
6.000E-02
2.700E-05
l.OOOE+00
5.000E-05
l.OOOE+00
l.OOOE+00
l.OOOE+00
2.450E-05
l.OOOE+00
l.OOOE+00
l.OOOE+00
l.OOOE+00
l.OOOE+00
2.500E-04
l.OOOE-06
l.OOOE-04
1.900E-06
l.OOOE+00
4.800E-03
8.270E-01
l.OOOE+00
l.OOOE+00
l.OOOE+00
l.OOOE+00
l.OOOE+00
l.OOOE+00
l.OOOE-01
l.OOOE+00
l.OOOE-02
l.OOOE+00
9.980E-01
l.OOOE+00
l.OOOE+00
9.997E-01
l.OOOE+00
9.174E-01
l.OOOE+00
2.500E-01
1.200E-03
l.OOOE+00
l.OOOE+00
1.450E-05
l.OOOE+00
Nucl ide
Np-234
Np-235
SF
Np-237
SF
SF
Am-241
SF
SF
Pu-237
Pu-238
Pu-239
Pu-240
Am-242
Pu-242
Am-238
Am-241
SF
Am-243
SF
SF
SF
Bk-250
Cm-245
Cf-249
Fraction Nucl
9
1
8
1
1
4
1
5
1
9
1
9
1
9
1
9
9
6
2
1
2
8
1
9
1
.400E-01
.OOOE+00
.100E-10
.OOOE+00
.840E-09
.950E-08
.OOOE+00
.500E-06
.250E-03
.997E-01
.OOOE+00
.999E-01
.OOOE+00
.952E-01
.730E-01
.OOOE-01
.900E-01
.800E-08
.400E-03
.350E-06
.610E-04
.260E-02
.400E-01 SF
.988E-01
.OOOE+00 SF
Energy (MeV
ide Fraction Alpha Elect
0
5
5
5
5
4
4
0
5
0
5
0
6
0
6
5
5
5
5
4
4
6.100E-01 1
0
5
4.700E-10
-
.371
<
.753
<
.487
.148
.156
<
.891
-
.575
-
-
.002
<
<
<
.479
.025
-
.270
-
-
-
-
-
.652
.247
.059
.102
.797
.795
.363
.376
.949
.651
-
.296
.007
-
.610
<
_
0.683
0.528
0.011
0.021
0.013
0.016
0.011
0.007
0.011
0.005
0.009
0.173
0.007
0.350
0.125
0.077
0.052
0.168
0.075
0.052
0.044
0.179
0.022
0.509
0.342
0.288
0.498
0.655
0.010
0.011
0.133
0.010
0.138
0.009
0.065
0.008
0.021
0.006
0.284
0.002
0.133
0.054
0.061
0.033
0.293
nr1)
Photon
0.337
1.313
0.069
0.095
0.002
0.052
0.002
<
0.002
<
0.001
0.026
0.001
0.417
0.140
0.370
0.891
0.239
1.029
0.033
0.005
0.018
0.056
0.002
0.807
0.032
1.018
0.699
0.077
0.002
0.502
0.002
0.134
0.002
0.096
0.002
0.316
0.001
0.019
-
0.234
0.951
0.105
<
0.887
G-22
-------
Table G.I, continued
Radioactive Decay Products and Fractional Yield
Nucl ide
Decay
Tj, Mode
Nucl ide
Fraction
Nucl ide
Fraction Nucl ide
Energy (MeV
Fraction Alpha Elect
nt-1)
Photon
Californium
Cf-244
Cf-246
Cf-248
Cf-249
Cf-250
Cf-251
Cf-252
Cf-253
Cf-254
19.4m
35. 7h
333. 5d
350. 6y
13.08y
898y
2.638y
17.81d
60. 5d
A
SFA
SFA
A SF
SFA
A
SFA
B-A
SFA
Cm-240
Cm-242
Cm-244
Cm-245
Cm-246
Cm-247
Cm-248
Cm-249
Cm-250
l.OOOE+00
9.997E-01
l.OOOE+00
l.OOOE+00
9.992E-01
l.OOOE+00
9.691E-01
3.100E-03
3.100E-03
SF
SF
SF
SF
SF
Es-253
SF
2
2
5
7
3
9
9
.OOOE-06
.900E-05
.200E-09
.700E-04
.092E-02
.969E-01
.969E-01
7
6
6
5
6
5
5
0
0
.200
.747
.253
.831
.019
.784
.922
.019
.018
0.009
0.006
0.006
0.044
0.006
0.198
0.006
0.079
<
0.002
0.001
0.001
0.335
0.001
0.132
0.001
<
<
Einsteinium
Es-250
Es-251
Es-253
Es-254m
Es-254
Fermium
Fm-252
Fm-253
Fm-254
Fm-255
Fm-257
2.1h
33h
20.47d
39. 3h
275. 7d
22. 7h
S.OOd
3.240h
20.07h
100. 5d
EC
ECA
SFA
A B-
A
A
ECA
A
A
A
Cf-250
Bk-247
Bk-249
Bk-250
Bk-250
Cf-248
Cf-249
Cf-250
Cf-251
Cf-253
l.OOOE+00
5.000E-03
l.OOOE+00
3.200E-03
l.OOOE+00
l.OOOE+00
1.200E-01
l.OOOE+00
l.OOOE+00
9.979E-01
Cf-251
SF
Fm-254
Es-253
9
8
9
8
.950E-01
.700E-08
.800E-01
.800E-01
0
6
0
6
7
0
7
7
6
-
.032
.628
.020
.423
.034
.822
.182
.019
.511
0.022
0.052
0.004
0.256
0.071
0.005
0.022
0.006
0.098
0.121
0.397
0.098
0.001
0.470
0.019
0.001
0.083
0.001
0.014
0.111
Mendelevium
Md-257
Md-258
5.2h
55d
A EC
A
Es-253
Es-254
l.OOOE-01
l.OOOE+00
Fm-257
9
.OOOE-01
0
7
.707
.232
0.015
0.047
0.114
0.006
G-23
-------
-------
GLOSSARY
Absolute risk hypothesis: The assumption that the excess risk from radiation exposure adds to the
underlying (baseline) risk by an increment dependent on dose but independent of the underlying risk.
Absorbed dose (D): The microscopic quantity is the differential de/dm, where deis the mean energy
imparted by ionizing radiation to matter of mass dm. The macroscopic quantity used in internal
dosimetry is tissue-averaged; that is, the absorbed dose to a tissue is the total energy absorbed by the
tissue, divided by the mass of the tissue. The special name for the SI unit of absorbed dose (J kg")
is gray (Gy). The conventional unit of absorbed dose is the rad. 1 rad = 0.01 Gy.
Absorption type: In the ICRP's respiratory tract model introduced in 1994, a classification scheme
for inhaled material according to its rate of absorption from the deep lungs to blood. Three main
absorption types are considered: Type F (fast rate), Type M (moderate rate), and Type S (slow rate).
Absorbed fraction (AF): The fraction of energy emitted as a specified radiation type in a specified
source region that is absorbed in a specified target region.
Activity: The quantity of a radioactive nuclide present at a particular time, expressed in terms of
the mean rate of nuclear transformations. The special name for the SI unit of activity (s~ ) is
becquerel (Bq). The conventional unit of activity is the curie (Ci). 1 Ci =3.7x10 Bq.
Activity Median Aerodynamic Diameter (AMAD): The diameter of a unit density sphere with the
same terminal settling velocity in air as that of an aerosol particle whose activity is the median for
the entire aeroso.
Acute exposure: For purposes of computing risk coefficients, an instantaneous exposure. For
practical applications of risk coefficients, any relatively short-term exposure period over which there
are numerically trivial changes in the body mass, biokinetic parameters, usage functions, and
mortality rates of all, or nearly all, members of the population.
Air kerma-rate constant: For a radionuclide emitting photons, the air kerma rate at 1 m in vacuum
from a point source of the nuclide of unit activity. The unit is m Gy (Bq s)~ .
GL-1
-------
Alpha particle: Two neutrons and two protons bound as a single particle (helium nucleus), emitted
from the nucleus of certain radionuclides during nuclear transformations.
Baseline cancer rate: The observed cancer mortality (or morbidity) rate in a population in the
absence of the specific radiation exposure being studied.
Becquerel (Bq): The special name for the SI unit of activity. 1 Bq = 1 s" .
Beta particle: A particle having the charge and mass of an electron, emitted from the nucleus of
certain radionuclides.
Biokinetic model: A mathematical description of the time-dependent distribution and translocation
of a substance in the body.
Body Tissues (BT): The entire body, minus the contents of the gastrointestinal tract, the urinary
bladder, the gall bladder, and the heart. Formerly called Whole Body (WB).
Bone Surface: The soft tissues within 10 //m of the endosteal (interior) surfaces of bone.
Bremsstrahlung: Electromagnetic radiation produced when deceleration of electrons in a medium
results in conversion of a fraction of their initial kinetic energy into photons.
Chain members: The sequence of radionuclides formed by successive nuclear transformations,
beginning with a radionuclide referred to as the parent.
Chronic exposure: In this report, protracted exposure to a constant concentration of a radionuclide
in a given environmental medium.
Committed equivalent dose: The time integral of the equivalent dose rate.
Committed effective dose: Sometimes shortened to "effective dose"; the time integral of the
effective dose rate.
Competing cause of death: Any cause of death other than radiogenic cancers attributed to the
radionuclide intake or external radiation exposure under consideration.
GL-2
-------
Cortical bone, compact bone: Bone with a surface-to-volume ratio less than 60 cm2 cm"3.
Curie (Ci): The conventional unit of activity. 1 Ci = 3.7xlO'°Bq.
Daughter radionuclide: A radionuclide formed by the nuclear transformation of another
radionuclide referred to, in this context, as its parent.
DCAL: Acronym for DOSE CALCULATION System, the software used to compute the risk
coefficients tabulated in this document.
DDREF: A factor used to account for an apparent decrease of the risk of cancer per unit dose at low
doses or low dose rates for most cancer sites compared with observations made at high, acutely
delivered doses.
Dose coefficient, dose factor: The committed equivalent dose to a tissue, or the committed effective
dose, per unit intake of a radionuclide.
DOE: U.S. Department of Energy.
Effective dose (£): The sum over specified tissues of the products of the equivalent dose in a tissue
or organ (T) and the weighting factor for that tissue, WT, that is, E -I, WT Hr Lower-case e is
used in ICRP documents to denote an effective dose coefficient, that is, effective dose per unit intake
of a radionuclide at a given age. The special name for the SI unit of effective dose (J kg" ) is sievert
(Sv). The conventional unit of effective dose is the rem. 1 rem = 0.01 Sv.
EPA: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.
Equivalent dose (H): The product of the absorbed dose (D) and the radiation weighting factor (WR).
Lower-case h is used in ICRP documents to denote a dose coefficient, that is, a committed equivalent
dose per unit intake of a radionuclide at a given age. The special name for the SI unit of equivalent
dose (J kg" ) is sievert (Sv). The conventional unit of equivalent dose is the rem. 1 rem = 0.01 Sv.
External exposure: Exposure to radiations emitted by radionuclides outside the body.
GL-3
-------
ff. The fraction of a radionuclide reaching the stomach that would be absorbed to blood during
passage through the gastrointestinal tract without radiological decay.
Federal Guidance: Principles, policies, and numerical primary guides, approved by the President
upon recommendation of the Administrator of EPA, for use by Federal agencies as the basis for
developing and implementing regulatory standards.
Force of mortality: The age- and gender-specific mortality (or hazard) rate coefficient, u (y" ), for
a cause of death. The probability that an individual alive at age x will die of that cause before
attaining age x + dx is equal to \idx.
FRC: The former U.S. Federal Radiation Council, whose functions now reside with the
Administrator of EPA.
Gamma radiation, gamma rays: Short wavelength electromagnetic radiation of nuclear origin,
similar to x rays but usually of higher energy.
Gastrointestinal tract model: A model of the translocation of swallowed material through the
stomach and intestines.
Gray (Gy): The special name for the SI unit of absorbed dose. 1 Gy = 1 J kg"1.
Half-time, biological: Time required for the quantity of a radionuclide in a compartment
representing all or a portion of the body to diminish by 50% without radiological decay or any
additional input to the compartment.
Half-life, radioactive: Time required for a radionuclide to lose 50% of its activity by spontaneous
nuclear transformations (radiological decay).
HTO: Tritiated water.
ICRP: International Commission on Radiological Protection.
GL-4
-------
Independent kinetics of decay chain members: The assumption that each decay chain member
produced in the body may have biokinetic behavior that is different from that of the radionuclide
taken into the body.
Internal exposure: Exposure to radiations emitted by radionuclides distributed within the body.
Ionizing radiation: Any radiation capable of removing electrons from atoms or molecules, thereby
producing ions.
In utero exposure: Radiation exposure received in the womb, that is, before birth.
In vivo: In the living organism.
I-S: Inorganic sulfur.
Isotopes: Nuclides that have the same number of protons in their nuclei and hence the same atomic
number but differ in the number of neutrons and therefore in mass number.
Kerma: The kinetic energy transferred to charged particles per unit mass of irradiated medium when
indirectly ionizing (uncharged) particles such as photons or neutrons traverse the medium. The
special name for the SI unit of kerma (J kg" ) is gray (Gy).
LET: Average amount of energy lost per unit track length of an ionizing charged particle. Low LET
refers to radiation characteristic of light charged particles such as electrons produced by x rays and
gamma rays where the distance between ionizing events is large on the scale of a cellular nucleus.
High LET refers to radiation characteristic of heavy charged particles such as protons and alpha
particles where the distance between ionizing events is small on the scale of a cellular nucleus.
Lethality fraction: The fraction of radiogenic cancers of a given type that are fatal.
Life Table: A table showing the number of persons who, for a given number of live born, survive
to successively higher ages.
Lifetime risk coefficient (LRC): The risk per unit dose of a subsequent cancer death due to
radiation received at a given age.
GL-5
-------
Linear model, Linear dose-effect relationship: A model describing a radiogenic effect as a linear
function of dose.
Linear-quadratic model, Linear-quadratic dose-effect relationship: A model describing a
radiogenic effect as a quadratic function of dose, D (that is, as a -D + b -D2, where a and b are
constants).
Low dose rate: In this report, an hourly averaged absorbed dose rate less than 0.1 mGy min"1.
Low dose: In this report, an acute absorbed dose less than 0.2 Gy.
Minimal latency period: The minimal time following a radiation dose before expression of a
radiogenic cancer.
Mortality rate: The age- and gender-specific or total rate at which people die from a specified cause
of death, or all causes combined.
MIRD: Medical Internal Radiation Dose; a committee of the Society of Nuclear Medicine.
Morbidity: The age- and gender-specific or total incidence of a specified disease in the population.
Multiplicative transport model: The assumption that the excess relative risk coefficient for a
radiogenic cancer is the same across populations.
NCHS: U.S. National Center for Health Statistics.
NCRP: U.S. National Council on Radiation Protection and Measurements.
Neutron: Uncharged subatomic particle capable of producing ionization in matter by collision with
protons and through nuclear reactions.
NHANES III: A national dietary, health, and nutrition survey conducted by the National Center for
Health Statistics (NCHS) during the period 1988-1994.
GL-6
-------
NIH: U. S. National Institutes of Health.
NIH transport model: The assumption that the relative risk model coefficients for the target
population should yield the same risks as those calculated with the additive risk model coefficients
from the original population over the period of epidemiological follow-up, excluding the minimal
latency period.
Nominal uncertainty: A lower bound on the uncertainty in a given quantity, based on consideration
of selected sources of uncertainty. As applied in this document to the uncertainty associated with
a risk coefficient, the term "nominal" reflects the fact that the statement of uncertainty is based on
an idealized population and exposure scenario and does not include the uncertainty associated with
the assumption that the probability of inducing a radiogenic cancer is proportional to absorbed dose.
NRC: U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission.
Nuclear transformation: The spontaneous transformation of one radionuclide into a different
nuclide or into a different energy state of the same nuclide.
OBT: Organically bound tritium.
OBS: Organically bound sulfur.
Other: In internal radiation dosimetry, an implicit source region, defined as the complement of the
set of explicitly identified regions, that is, Body Tissues minus the explicit source organs identified
in the biokinetic model.
Parent radionuclide: The first member of a chain of radionuclides. In an internal exposure
scenario, the radionuclide assumed to be taken into the body.
Per capita: Averaged over the population.
Phantom: A mathematical model of the human body, used in radiation dosimetry to derive specific
absorbed fractions for penetrating radiations.
GL-7
-------
Plateau period: The time period following a radiation dose during which radiogenic cancers are
likely to occur.
Probability coefficient (for radiological risk): A multiplicative factor used to convert a measure
of cumulative dose to a probability of a detrimental effect of radiation. As used by the ICRP, an
estimate of the radiation risk per unit effective dose. A probability coefficient is generally based on
an idealized population receiving a uniform dose over the whole body.
Rad: The conventional unit for absorbed dose of ionizing radiation. 1 rad = 0.01 Gy.
Radiation risk model: A mathematical model used to estimate the probability of experiencing a
radiogenic cancer as a function of time after a radiation dose is received.
Radiation weighting factor (WR): The principal modifying factor employed in deriving equivalent
dose, H, from absorbed dose, D; chosen to account for the relative biological effectiveness (RBE)
of the radiation in question, but to be independent of the tissue or organ under consideration, and of
the biological endpoint.
Radioisotope: A radioactive atomic species of an element with the same atomic number and usually
identical chemical properties.
Radionuclide: A radioactive species of atom characterized by the number of protons and neutrons
in its nucleus.
RBE: The relative biological effectiveness of a given type of radiation in producing a specified
biological effect, compared with 200-kV x rays.
Reference Man: A hypothetical average adult person with the anatomical and physiological
characteristics defined in the report of the ICRP Task Group on Reference Man (ICRP Publication
23).
Relative risk hypothesis: The assumption that the age-specific force of mortality or morbidity due
to a radiation dose is the product of an exposure-age-specific excess relative risk coefficient and the
corresponding baseline cancer mortality or morbidity rate.
GL-8
-------
Rem: The conventional unit of equivalent dose. 1 rem = 0.01 Sv.
RERF: Radiation Effects Research Foundation; a bi-nationally funded Japanese foundation
chartered by the Japanese Welfare Ministry under an agreement between the U.S. and Japan.
Residual cancers: A composite of all primary and secondary cancers not explicitly identified in a
radiogenic risk model.
Respiratory tract model: A model of the deposition, retention, and translocation of particles in the
respiratory tract.
Risk model coefficient: An age- and gender-specific multiplicative factor appearing in a radiogenic
risk model and indicating the magnitude of the risk of dying from or experiencing a given type of
cancer at any given time after the dose is received.
Risk coefficient: For a given radionuclide, environmental medium, and mode of exposure, the
estimated probability of radiogenic cancer mortality or morbidity, per unit activity intake for internal
exposures or per unit exposure for external exposures.
SEECAL: A computer code used to calculate age-dependent specific energies based on standard
nuclear decay data files, libraries of specific absorbed fractions for photons and non-penetrating
radiations, and organ masses of reference humans of different ages.
Shared kinetics of decay chain members: The assumption that decay chain members produced
in the body have the same biokinetic behavior as the radionuclide taken into the body.
Shielding: Material between a radiation source and a potentially exposed person that reduces the
radiation field incident on the exposed person.
Short-lived radionuclide: In this report, a radionuclide having a half-life less than 1 h.
Sievert (Sv): The special name for the SI unit of equivalent dose. 1 Sv = 1 J kg" .
Soft Tissues: Body Tissues minus cortical and trabecular bone.
GL-9
-------
Source organ, source region, source tissue (5): Any tissue or organ of the body, or the contents
of any organ, which contains a sufficient amount of a radionuclide to irradiate a target tissue (7)
significantly.
Specific energy SE(T^S)R: The energy per unit mass of target tissue (I), deposited in that tissue as
a consequence of the emission of a specified radiation (R) per nuclear transformation of a specified
radionuclide occurring in a source tissue (S).
Stationary population, Steady-state population: A hypothetical closed population whose
gender-specific birth rates and survival functions remain invariant over time.
Submersion: External exposure to a radionuclide uniformly distributed in the air surrounding the
exposed person.
Surface-seeking radionuclides: Radionuclides that deposit on and remain for a considerable period
on the surface of bone structure.
Survival function: The fraction S(x) of live-born individuals in an unexposed population expected
to survive to age x.
Systemic biokinetic model: A model describing the distribution and translocation of a substance
after its absorption or injection into the systemic circulation.
Tap water: Drinking water, water added to beverages, and water added to foods during preparation
but not including water intrinsic in food as purchased.
Target organ, target region, target tissue (7): Any tissue or organ of the body in which radiation
is absorbed.
Threshold hypothesis: The assumption that no radiation injury occurs below a specified dose.
Time-since-exposure (TSE) function: A function that defines the period during which radiogenic
risk is expressed and any changes in the level of response during that period.
GL-10
-------
Tissue (organ) weighting factor (WT): A factor indicating the relative level of risk of cancer
induction or heredity defects from irradiation of a given tissue or organ; used in calculation of
effective dose and committed effective dose.
Trabecular bone, cancellous bone: Bone with a surface-to-volume ratio greater than 60 cm2 cm"3.
Transportation of risk estimates: Extrapolation of radiogenic dose-response data from one
population to another.
Transfer coefficient: In the context of a compartmental model, fractional flow per unit time from
one compartment to another.
Time-since-response function: A function describing the likely pattern of response as a function
of time after irradiation of a large population.
Usage rate: The age- and gender-specific average intake rate of a specified environmental medium
(air, food energy, tap water, or milk).
Volume-seeking radionuclides: Radionuclides that enter bone and exchange with bone mineral
over the entire mass of bone.
Volume source: Relative to a given biokinetic model, a source region that has non-zero volume.
x radiation, x rays: Penetrating electromagnetic radiation, usually produced by bombarding a
metallic target with fast electrons in a high vacuum, or emitted during rearrangement of the electrons
about the nucleus following nuclear transformation of a radionuclide.
GL-11
-------
-------
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R-l
-------
H. S. Dang, D. D. Jaiswal, K. B. S. Murthy, R. C. Sharma, P. P. V. J. Nambiar, and C. M. Sunta
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FGR-13 QUALITY ASSURANCE EFFORTS
K. F. Eckerman and R. W. Leggett
Oak Ridge National Laboratory
Introduction
This document briefly summarizes some of the quality assurance efforts undertaken with respect to
the computation of the cancer risk coefficients of Federal Guidance Report 13. The coefficients
were derived using the DCAL System software developed by ORNL for the Environmental
Protection Agency. DCAL is an integration on personal computers of the dosimetric software and
numerical data bases developed at ORNL over the past twenty years. The system has been one of
three computer codes used to produce the dosimetric data in recent publications of the International
Commission on Radiological Protection (ICRP) and hence its dosimetric aspects have been subject
to considerable QA efforts. This report begins with a brief reflection on the QA aspects included in
the design of the DCAL System and those followed in assembling the numerous data files that reside
within the system. Following that discussion some numerical examples are presented, and the report
concludes with a detailed comparison of dosimetric and risk coefficients derived in various manners.
The DCAL System
DCAL is a software system for the computation of dose and risk coefficients associated with the
intake of and exposure to radionuclides. The system makes extensive use of data files to limit the
amount of information the user must provide, thus reducing the potential for input errors. All data
files have been subjected to extensive review and verification not only by the authors but also by
others who have used various modules (e.g., SEECAL) and associated data files (e.g., nuclear decay
data). To reduce the occurrence of "user errors," the system was designed in a manner that
minimizes the amount of information to be provided by the user. For example, information on the
half-lives of the radionuclides, the identity of radioactive decay products (possible decay chains), the
masses of organs, etc. is provided by the system. All such files are constructed so that they can be
"read" and, in many instances, the DCAL System contains utility routines to facilitate the resolution
of any questions or issues regarding the validity of data elements. Where possible, the system
includes graphical presentation of the data and the results of the computation to enable visual
confirmation. These features are necessary, but of course are not sufficient, to ensure quality.
A schematic of the DCAL System is shown in Fig. 1. The software runs within a DOS "box"
provided by Windows 95/98/NT operating systems. The numerical calculations are carried out within
the modules shown as rectangles. These modules are written in FORTRAN. A BASIC module
provides the interactive driver for the FORTRAN modules. The system can be operated in both the
interactive and batch mode.
-------
(Bioklnetic J f Anatomical J f Cancer Risk J f U.S. Vital Statistic J
Data ) V Data ) V Coefficients ) V Data )
Kinetic
Model
Half-lives
: Nuclear Decay A
Data )
Radiations
L
ACTACAL
,
SEECAL
,
SE(T<-S)
EPACAL
«—
Organ
masses
&
SAP
A(t)
Ep
Da
demiologic |_
ta
MORTVIEW
Force of
, , Mortality
ALRCAL
-|
Lifetime Risk
, , Coefficients
Absorbed Dose Rates
RISKCAL
-
Natural
Cancer
Rates
Survival
Function
Usage
Data
Dose
Coefficients
Risk
Coefficients
Fig. 1 Schematic of the DCAL System used in production of FGR-13 .
DCAL's Biokinetic Module
A detailed description of DCAL's numerical solver for the biokinetic models (i.e., the system of
differential equations characterizing the biokinetic behavior) has been described by Leggett et al.
(1993). This solver has been used at ORNL for more than 10 years and has been subjected to
hundreds of checks against other solvers. The ORNL solver was selected because of its numerical
simplicity and its ability to handle the large systems of differential equations encountered in internal
dosimetry. For example, more than 600 simultaneous differential equations are involved in addressing
the inhalation of Th-232 as Type S material when each decay product is assigned independent
kinetics.
Example 1. This example illustrates the type of comparisons that have been made between the
DCAL solver and other solvers with regard to solving models with time-varying parameter values.
In this example, a comparison is made with a modification of a method developed by A. Birchall
(1989). The model considered is the ICRP' s age-specific biokinetic model for americium as published
by Leggett (1992). It is assumed that americium is injected into blood at age 1 y and that there is no
radiological decay. The modification of the Birchall method was necessary to consider changes with
2
-------
age in the biokinetics. Results of the comparison are tabulated below.
DCAL
modified Birchall
DCAL
modified Birchall
DCAL
modified Birchall
DCAL
modified Birchall
DCAL
modified Birchall
Time After
Injection
(d)
1
10
100
1000
10,000
Contents (Fraction of Injected Americium)
Liver
0.08777
0.08778
0.09942
0.09942
0.09583
0.09586
0.1379
0.1383
0.02621
0.02610
Skeleton
0.6149
0.6150
0.7071
0.7072
0.7353
0.7356
0.5330
0.5346
0.1949
0.1958
Gonads
2.262E-5
2.263E-5
2.590E-5
2.590E-5
2.754E-5
2.755E-5
4.580E-5
4.595E-5
7.65 1E-5
7.650E-5
Urine
0.06296
0.06297
0.08316
0.08316
0.1016
0.1016
0.2255
0.2262
0.5506
0.5528
Feces
0.004342
0.004344
0.01309
0.01309
0.01517
0.01517
0.03816
0.03828
0.1174
0.1180
Example 2. As a second example of the types of checks to which the DCAL solver has been
subjected, we consider a case in which there is ingrowth of radioactive progeny in the body. Lee and
O'lO^^
coworkers (1997) have published a biokinetic model for Th and radioactive progeny in adults. The
model assumes independent kinetics of 228Ra produced by decay of 232Th in the body. As a check
QQQ
of the DCAL solver, four different methods were used to solve for the integrated activities of Th
99k
and Ra in the main compartments of the Lee model: (1) DCAL; (2) derivation of analytical
solutions using the computer software for eigen-system analysis (Killough and Eckerman, 1984); (3)
a computer algorithm based on a simplification of the eigen-analysis method (Birchall and James,
1989); and (4) Laplace transforms (as solved by Lee and coworkers). Methods 2-4 are virtually
exact methods, but are slow and cumbersome to use and for practical purposes are limited in their
applicability to age-independent models with relatively small numbers of compartments. In the
following table, results are rounded to three digits. Before rounding, the differences in solutions by
the four methods were less than 0.3% in all cases.
-------
Compartment
blood, 232Th
bone surf, 232Th
liver, 232Th
soft tissue, 232Th
blood, 228Ra
soft tissue, 228Ra
liver, 228Ra
Gl tract, 228Ra
bone surf, 228Ra
STa trab, 228Ra
LTa trab, 228Ra
ST cort, 228Ra
LT cort, 228Ra
a ST = short-term,
DCAL
5.32E5
4.10E8
3.21 E7
1.28E8
5.00E3
6.04E5
8.12E4
2.06E5
7.880E5
1.38E6
2.03E5
7.21 E5
1.48E6
LT = long-term
DIFSOL
5.33E5
4.11E8
3.21 E7
1.29E8
5.01 E3
6.05E5
8.12E4
2.07E5
7.90E5
1.38E6
2.03E5
7.23E5
1.48E6
Birchall
5.33E5
4.11E8
3.21 E7
1.29E8
5.01 E3
6.05E5
8.12E4
2.07E5
7.90E5
1.38E6
2.03E5
7.23E5
1.48E6
Lee et al.
5.33E5
4.11E8
3.21 E7
1.29E8
5.0103
6.05E5
8.12E4
2.07E5
7.90E5
1.38E6
2.03E5
7.23E5
1.48E6
Dosimetric Module
Within DCAL the dosimetric aspects of internal emitters are embodied in the SEECAL module, which
has been described in an ORNL/TM report (Cristy and Eckerman 1993). The current version of
SEECAL within the DCAL System directly accesses the nuclear decay data files. SEECAL uses the
full set of nuclear decay data, including the beta spectra, and not just the abridged tabulations given
in ICRP Publication 38 (ICRP 1983). The nuclear decay data files have been documented in an
ORNL/TM report (Eckerman et al. 1993) and a Health Physics paper (Eckerman et al. 1994). The
results of hand calculations are compared below with the SEECAL' s output for some radonuclides
having relatively simple emissions. The relevant formulation is
L6°2 10
MT
E
t
-------
where yi is the number of radiation /' of unique or average energy E'.(MeV) emitted per nuclear
transformation of the radionuclide, and AF(T^S)i is the fraction in energy of radiation /' emitted in
S that is absorbed in target tissue T of mass MT (kg). The constant 1.602 l(T13is the number of
joules per MeV. Using the above units for energy and mass, the units of SE are Gy per Bq s.
Example 3. Po-210 emits an alpha particle of kinetic energy 5.297 MeV. Compute the SE for bone
surface (BS) assuming Po is distributed either on the surface or within the volume of cortical bone
(CB) and trabecular bone (TB). The mass of bone surface is 0.12 kg. Also compute the SE for self
dose of the liver (mass 1.8 kg). The absorbed fraction in the liver, AF(Liver <=> Liver), is one. The
relevant AFs for bone surface are:
AF(BS^CB)V = 0.01 AF(BS^ TB)V = 0.025
AF(BS^CB)S = 0.25 AF(BS^ TB)S = 0.25.
From the above we have:
1.6023 10~13 5.297 0.25
SE(BS <= CB\ = SE(BS <= TB\ =
s s 0.12
= 1.768 10"12 Gylnt
1.6023 IP'13 5.297 0.01
- — -
= 7.072 10~12 Gylnt
TON 1-6023 10~13 5.297 0.025
ID)-,, = -
K 0.12
= 1.768 10~13 Gylnt
The 5.297 MeV noted above is the kinetic energy of the alpha particle. The nuclei formed in the
alpha decay process shares the available energy by its recoil. The mass of the recoiling nuclei is 4
mass units less than the parent nuclei since the alpha particle is the He nucleus. The recoil energy is
assumed to be absorbed in the bone mineral and not available to irradiate bone surface. However,
for self-dose the recoiling nucleus is considered. The total kinetic energy T available for absorption
is given by:
-------
A - 4
where Ma is the mass of the alpha particle (4.0026 amu), Eais the kinetic energy of the alpha particle,
and^4 is the atomic number of the parent nuclei. The SE for self dose of the liver is thus
1.6023
SE(Liver <= Liver) =
206
1.8
= 4.806 10~1J Gylnt
The above numerical values correspond exactly to the Po-210 SEs computed by SEECAL. Many
other example calculations have been carried out. DCAL provides the user with access to all the
numerical values used by SEECAL in calculating SE, thus enabling the user to verify SEECAL's
values at any time.
Lung Model Formulation
Often the implementation of submodels in DCAL is verified by formulating special calculations. For
example, the implementation of the ICRP lung model (ICRP 1994) can be verified by examining the
total amount of inhaled material absorbed directly from the lung and that entering the gastrointestinal
tract. The lung model is shown in schematic form in Fig. 2.
Anterior
Nasal
Naso-
Oropharynx/
Larynx
LNET
LN
0001
AOL
£01
«
ET
seq
Jft
BB
Jj
W
bb
003/ *
BB2
QV3/J,
w
bb
4
*
«
ET
10 <$
BB
t2 j.
f
bb
Consider Type F materials which are characterized by
fast absorption; the absorption rate, Xa, is 100 d"1 from
all compartments except ETj. No absorption occurs
from ETj. The bold arrows in Fig. 2 denote the sites
(compartments) into which inhaled materials are
deposited, and the thin arrows denote the routes of
mechanical clearance of particles. The numerical
values are the mechanical clearance rates, Am(d"1).
The fractional absorption to blood from a
compartment is Xa I (Xa + Xm). The fraction
transferred to the receiving compartment is, of course,
1 minus the fractional absorption, or Xm I (Xa + Xm) .
For all compartments except ET2 and BBj, the
mechanical removal rates are insignificant relative to the absorption rate; that is, Xa I (Xa + Xm) ~ 1.
For the reference worker (aerosol AMAD of 5 jim) the deposition in the AI region is 5.319% and that
in the bb region is 1.103%. These deposits will be absorbed from the lung. The deposition in BBseq
Alveolar
Interstitium
ig. 2. Structure of the ICRP's respiratory
ract model.
-------
and BB2 (0.605%) will also be absorbed. A fraction of the material deposited in BBj (1.171%) is
absorbed from that compartment, (1.171 100) / (100 + 10) or 1.065%, and the remainder [(1.171 10)
/ (100 + 10)] is transferred to ET2, where the fraction 1007(100+100) of the transferred material is
absorbed; total absorption is thus 0.053%. Absorption of material deposited in ET2 (39.89%) is
(39.89 100) / (100 + 100) or 19.945%. The total absorption is thus 5.319 + 1.103 + 0.605 + 1.065
+ 0.053 + 19.945 or 28.09%. Material entering the Gl-tract is largely that deposited in ET2 or
transferred to ET2 from BBj. Since the transfer rate into the Gl-tract is equal to the absorption rate
(both 100 d"1) the transfer to the Gl-tract is 19.945 + 0.053 or 20%.
DCAL can simulate the above by defining a special biokinetic model where the material in "Blood"
is removed to "Excreta" with an extremely small transfer coefficient (e.g., l.OE-30). This, in effect,
results in the "Blood" compartment acting as an integrator. Similarly, changing the transfer
coefficient from the stomach to the small intestine in the kinetics of Type F material (ICRP66F.LNG)
to an extremely small value results in the "St Cont" acting as an integrator. The results calculated
by DCAL (by the ACTACAL module) are in agreement with the above values. The DCAL's results
for all absorption Types are:
Fate of Inhaled Activity in Reference Worker
(AMAD = 5 |im)
Type
F
M
S
To Blood (%)a
28.1
6.1
0.6
To GI-Tract (%)a
20.0
42.0
47.5
a Percent of inhaled activity in absence of decay.
Checks on External Dose Estimates
Extensive QA efforts were undertaken during the calculations of the external dose coefficients that
were published in FGR-12. As discussed in Chapter 2 of FGR-12, extensive comparisons were made
with published works, including ICRP Publication 53. In addition, various investigators were
contacted to resolve any remaining numerical differences. These investigators were included among
the external reviewers of FGR-12. The computations of the cancer risk coefficients in FGR-13
directly accesses external dose coefficient files generated during the preparation of FGR-12. That
is, no new calculations of external doses are undertaken in FGR-13.
-------
Checks on Internal Dose Estimates
1. A large number of comparisons of integrated doses have been made by the ICRP dose calculation
task group (DOCAL) using three unrelated computer codes.
2. As a further check, effective dose coefficients for acute exposure were generated for all
radionuclides considered in the internal exposure scenarios and were compared with coefficients from
the ICRP Dose Coefficient CD-ROM. Some of these coefficients were derived using the DCAL
System but most were derived by the NRPB using a considerably different method of solution.
Effective dose coefficients were generated and checked for each of the six ages at exposure
considered by the ICRP: infant (100 d), 1 y, 5 y, 10 y, 15 y, and mature adult (age 20 y or 25 y,
depending on the definition of mature adult in the specific biokinetic model applied). These results
for inhalation intakes are shown graphically in Figs 3-6 and for ingestion in Figs 7-10.
Inhalation Dose Coefficient: Infant
lip" 10-" 10- 10" 10'° 10° 10"
ICRP
ig. 3. Comparison of effective
lose coefficients for inhalation
ntakes by an infant.
Inhalation Dose Coefficient: 10 y old
iff12 iff11 iff10 icr9 icr8 iff7 icr6 icr5 iff4 iff3
ICRP
ig.6. Comparison of effective
lose coefficients for inhalation
ntakes by a 10 y old.
Inhalation Dose Coefficient: 1 y old
10" 10" 10" 10" 10" 10" 10" 10" 10" 10" 10"
ICRP
Fig. 4. Comparison of effective
dose coefficients for inhalation
ntakes by a 1 y old.
Inhalation Dose Coefficient: 15 y old
iff12 iff11 io10 io9 iff8 iff7 iff6 iff5 io"4 iff3
ICRP
ig. 7. Comparison of effective
lose coefficients for inhalation
ntakes by a 15 y old.
Inhalation Dose Coefficient: 5 y old
ig. 5. Comparison of effective
dose coefficients for inhalation
ntakes by a 5 y old.
Inhalation Dose Coefficient: Adult
iolz icr11 io10 icr9 icr8 icf7 icf6 io5 icr4 icr3
ICRP
ig. 8. Comparison of effective
dose coefficients for inhalation
ntakes by an adult.
-------
Ingestion Dose Coefficients: Infant
ICRP
Fig. 9. Comparison of effective
dose coefficients for ingestion
ntakes by an infant.
Ingestion Dose Coefficients: 10 y old
O ID'8
10 To'12 lo'11 lo'10 ID'' lo'8 ID'' lo'6 io':
ig.12. Comparison of effective
lose coefficients for ingestion
ntakes by a 10 y old.
Ingestion Dose Coefficients: 1 y old
10-n l» I
10"11 10"10 10"' 10"8 10"7 10"6 10"
ICRP
Fig. 10. Comparison of effective
dose coefficients for ingestion
ntakes by a 1 y old.
Ingestion Dose Coefficient: 15 y old
10'" 10-" 10"" 1
-------
DCAL and subsequently verified by DCAL's calculations. Because the external dose rates used in
the external exposure scenarios are assumed to be independent of age and time, the external risk
coefficients given in the Federal Guidance Report No. 13 draft document should be the same as the
53. d. r, where di is the age- and time-independent external dose rate for cancer site /' and r. is the
mortality risk estimate given in Table 6.2 for site /'. Comparison of an external risk coefficient
generated by DCAL with this sum provides a useful check on the DCAL-generated coefficient,
because the latter is calculated in the considerably more detailed fashion described in the draft
document, i.e., by calculating radiogenic risk on a year-by-year basis following the dose and
considering the likelihood of death from competing causes during each year based on the U.S. life
table. The results of this comparison are shown graphically in Fig 15-17 and listed in Appendix B.
10"*
IO"15
> io-16
IO"17
io-18
io-19
io-20
Submersion Exposures
A-17 ...-16 ...-15 ...-14
10'" 10"° 10"' 10"° 10"J 10"
Estimated Risk
7ig. 15. Check of submersion
isk coefficients.
10"
io-1
10"1
2 io-1
io-2
IO"2
1C'2
Ground Plane Exposures
ID'23 ID'22 ID'21 IO-20 ID'19 ID'18 ID'17 IO-16
Estimated Risk
Fig. 16. Check of ground plane
risk coefficients.
io-22io-21io-20io-19io-18io-17io-16io-15io-14
Estimated Risk
7ig. 17. Check of soil (volume
source) risk coefficients.
Checks on Internal Risk Coefficients
Table 6.2 of the draft FGR-13 cannot be used to check the risk coefficients for internal exposures in
a precise way because the internal doses are not constant with time and are not independent of age.
However, for radionuclides whose doses are delivered over a relatively short time following acute
intake, a check similar to that described above for the external risk module can be made for the
internal risk module of DCAL by considering the simpler situation in which the usage of
environmental media as well as the biokinetics and internal dosimetry are independent of age (use the
dose estimates for the adult). Results of such comparisons will be tabulated in the final QA report for
several radionuclides with relatively short retention times and/or radiological half-lives. Results of
a few such comparisons are summarized below.
Example 4 Ingestion of organically bound tritium by the adult results in a dose of about 4.2 x IO"11
Gy/Bq to all tissues. Although H-3 is not a short-lived radionuclide, it is retained only briefly in the
body. From Table 6.2 the age-averaged total cancer mortality risk estimate is 5.75% per Gy. Thus,
an estimate of the risk is 4.2 x IO"11 x 5.75 x IO"2 or 2.4 x IO"12 Bq"1. Table 7.2a of the draft of FGR-
13 indicates values of 2.09 and 2.66 x IO"12 for water and diet, respectively.
Example 5. Inhalation of tritiated water vapor by the adult results in a dose of about 1.8 x 10
,-n
10
-------
11 7
Gy/Bq to all tissues. Thus, the inhalation risks are estimated to be 1.8 x 10" x 5.75 x 10" or
1.0 x 10"12 Bq"1. FGR-13's Table 7.2a gives a value of 1.04 x 10"12 Bq"1.
Example 6. From Table 6.2, the age-averaged thyroid cancer mortality estimate is 3.24 x 10" Gy" .
For ingestion of 132I by the adult, the thyroid absorbed dose coefficient is 5.4 x 10"9 Gy/Bq. The
estimated thyroid cancer risk for I is thus 5.4 x 10" x3.24x10" or 1.7x10" Bq" . Comparison
cannot be made directly with the tabulated risk coefficient in Table 7.2a in this case because much
132
of the decay of the short-lived I occurs outside the thyroid; for example, Table 7.2a indicates that
stomach cancer rather than thyroid cancer is the highest contributor (38.1%) to the risk coefficient
12 132
of 6.87 x 10" for ingestion of water. The thyroid cancer risk estimates for I in the detailed CD-
ROM tables are 2.30 and 2.97 x 10"12 Bq"1 for water and diet, respectively, compared with the crude
estimate of 1.7 x lO'^Bq"1.
1 Q 1 i-l
Example 7. For ingestion of I by the adult, the thyroid absorbed dose coefficient is 4.3 x 10"
Gy/Bq. From Table 6.2, the age-averaged thyroid cancer mortality estimate is 3.24 x 10" Gy" .
Therefore, the estimated thyroid cancer risk for 131I is 4.3 x 10"7 x 3.24 x 10"4 / 1.5 or 9.3 x 10"11
Bq" ; note that 1.5 is the additional dose rate reduction factor applied to long-lived radioiodines. The
total mortality for water intakes of I listed in Table 7.2a is 1.31 x 10" Bq" with thyroid cancer
being the highest contributor to the risk (93.2%). The thyroid cancer risk coefficient is 1.22 x 10"
Bq"1 for water intakes. For dietary intakes the total mortality listed in Table 7.2a is 1.85 x 10"10 Bq"1
with thyroid cancer being the highest contributor to the risk (93.7%); thus, the thyroid cancer risk
coefficient is 1.73 x 10" Bq" .
Further checks can be carried out for the following radionuclides:
Dose Coefficient (Sv/Bq)
Nuclide
Cs-137
Tc-99m
Tc-99m
1-135
Tissue
All
Colon
Stomach
Thyroid
Ingestion
1.3E-08
6.6E-11
6.0E-11
Inhalation
F: 4.6E-09
F:2.1E-11
V: 1.5E-08
F: 5.7E-09
More detailed checking is possible for other radionuclides, but it can be best carried out by writing
small computer programs to read the ALR and dose rate files. Such checking has being pursued at
ORNL.
11
-------
References
A. Birchall and A. C. James (1989). "A Microcomputer Algorithm for Solving First-Order
Compartmental Models Involving Recycling," Health Phys. 56, 857-868.
K. F. Eckerman, R. J. Westfall, J. C. Ryman, and M. Cristy (1994). Nuclear Decay Data Files of the
Dosimetry Research Group, ORNL/TM-12350 (Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, TN)..
K. F. Eckerman, R. J. Westfall, J. C. Ryman, and M. Cristy (1994). "Availability of Nuclear Decay
Data in Electronic Form, Including Beta Spectra Not Previously Published," Health Phys. 67, 338-
345.
ICRP (1983). International Commission on Radiological Protection, Radionuclide Transformations:
Energy and Intensity of Emissions, ICRP Publication 38 (Pergamon Press, Oxford).
ICRP (1994). International Commission on Radiological Protection, Human Respiratory Tract Model
for Radiological Protection, ICRP Publication 66 (Pergamon Press, Oxford).
G. G. Killough and K. F. Eckerman (1984). "A Conversational Eigen Analysis Program for Solving
Differential Equations." In: Kathren, R.L.; Higby, D.P; McKinney, M. A., eds. Computer Application
in Health Physics, Proceedings of the 17th Midyear Topical Symposium of the Health Physics Society,
Pendleton, OR: Office Power, p4.49-4.58.
D. Lee, K. W. Skrable, and C. S. French (1997). "Reevaluation of the Committed Dose Equivalent
from 232Th and its Radioactive Progeny," Health Phys. 72, 579-593.
R.W. Leggett, K. F. Eckerman, andL. R. Williams (1993). "An Elementary Method for Implementing
Complex Biokinetic Models," Health Phys. 64, 260-278.
R. W. Leggett (1992). "A Retention-Excretion Model for Am in Humans," Health Phys. 62, 288-
310.
12
-------
Appendix A
Comparison of Effective Dose Coefficients
13
-------
Comparison of age-specific effective dose coefficients for ingestion
generated during FGR-13 computations (for QA purposes only) with values
published by the ICRP. Comparisons marked with an "ok" differ by less than
5% while those marked by "-->" differ by greater than 5%. Comparisons
involving different fls are enclosed in the bracket "««".
ok
ok
ok
ok
ok
ok
ok
ok
ok
ok
ok
ok
ok
ok
ok
ok
ok
ok
ok
ok
ok
ok
ok
ok
ok
ok
ok
ok
ok
ok
ok
ok
ok
ok
ok
ok
ok
ok
ok
ok
ok
ok
ok
ok
ok
ok
H-3
H-3
H-3
H-3
H-3
H-3
C-14
C-14
C-14
C-14
C-14
C-14
S-35
S-35
S-35
S-35
S-35
S-35
Ca-45
Ca-45
Ca-45
Ca-45
Ca-45
Ca-45
Ca-47
Ca-47
Ca-47
Ca-47
Ca-47
Ca-47
Sc-47
Sc-47
Sc-47
Sc-47
Sc-47
Sc-47
Fe-55
Fe-55
Fe-55
Fe-55
Fe-55
Fe-55
Fe-59
Fe-59
Fe-59
Fe-59
Age
1
2
3
4
5
6
1
2
3
4
5
6
1
2
3
4
5
6
1
2
3
4
5
6
1
2
3
4
5
6
1
2
3
4
5
6
1
2
3
4
5
6
1
2
3
4
fl
1.00000
1.00000
1.00000
1.00000
1.00000
1.00000
1.00000
1.00000
1.00000
1.00000
1.00000
1.00000
1.00000
1.00000
1.00000
1.00000
1.00000
1.00000
0.60000
0.40000
0.40000
0.40000
0.40000
0.30000
0.60000
0.40000
0.40000
0.40000
0.40000
0.30000
0.00100
0.00010
0.00010
0.00010
0.00010
0.00010
0. 60000
0.20000
0.20000
0.20000
0.20000
0.10000
0.60000
0.20000
0.20000
0.20000
e
1.
1.
7 ,
5 .
4.
4.
1.
1.
9.
8.
5.
5 .
1.
8.
4.
2.
1.
1.
1.
4.
1.
1.
7 ,
1.
9,
4.
3 .
1.
1.
6 .
3 .
1.
1.
6 .
5 .
7 ,
2.
1.
1.
7 ,
3.
3.
1.
7 ,
4.
3(Sv/Bq)
. 186E-10
. 180E-10
.265E-11
. 692E-11
. 170E-11
. 192E-11
.435E-09
.614E-09
. 953E-10
.002E-10
. 761E-10
.805E-10
.274E-09
.667E-10
.437E-10
.683E-10
.627E-10
. 315E-10
. 121E-06
.894E-09
.571E-09
.818E-09
.313E-09
. 101E-10
.271E-08
.373E-09
.898E-09
.014E-09
.841E-09
.582E-09
.054E-09
. 914E-09
. 974E-09
.183E-09
.806E-10
.465E-10
.487E-09
.354E-09
.744E-09
.117E-09
.704E-10
.312E-10
. 931E-08
.290E-08
.495E-09
.731E-09
1.
1.
1.
1.
1.
1.
1.
1.
1.
1.
1.
1.
1.
1.
1.
1.
1.
1.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
fl
.00000
.00000
.00000
.00000
.00000
.00000
.00000
.00000
.00000
.00000
.00000
.00000
.00000
.00000
.00000
.00000
.00000
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.60000
.40000
.40000
.40000
.40000
.30000
.60000
.40000
.40000
.40000
.40000
.30000
.00100
.00010
.00010
.00010
.00010
.00010
.60000
.20000
.20000
.20000
.20000
.10000
.60000
.20000
.20000
.20000
e(Sv/Bq)
1.200E-10
1.200E-10
7.200E-11
5.700E-11
4.200E-11
4.200E-11
1.400E-09
1.600E-09
9.900E-10
8.000E-10
5.700E-10
5.800E-10
1.300E-09
8.700E-10
4.400E-10
2.700E-10
1.600E-10
1.300E-10
1.100E-08
4. 900E-09
2.600E-09
1.800E-09
1.300E-09
7.100E-10
1.300E-08
9.300E-09
4 . 900E-09
3. OOOE-09
1.800E-09
1.600E-09
6.100E-09
3. 900E-09
2. OOOE-09
1.200E-09
6.800E-10
5.400E-10
7.500E-09
2.400E-09
1.700E-09
1.100E-09
7.700E-10
3.300E-10
3.900E-08
1.300E-08
7.500E-09
4.700E-09
ok
ok
ok
ok
ok
ok
ok
ok
ok
ok
ok
ok
ok
ok
ok
ok
ok
ok
ok
ok
ok
ok
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ok
ok
ok
ok
ok
ok
ok
ok
ok
ok
ok
ok
ok
ok
ok
ok
ok
ok
ok
ok
Fe-59
Fe-59
Co-57
Co-57
Co-57
Co-57
Co-57
Co-57
Co-58
Co-58
Co-58
Co-58
Co-58
Co-58
Co-60
Co-60
Co-60
Co-60
Co-60
Co-60
Ni-59
Ni-59
Ni-59
Ni-59
Ni-59
Ni-59
Ni-63
Ni-63
Ni-63
Ni-63
Ni-63
Ni-63
Zn-65
Zn-65
Zn-65
Zn-65
Zn-65
Zn-65
Se-7 5
Se-75
Se-75
Se-75
Se-7 5
Se-75
Se-7 9
Se-79
Se-7 9
Se-79
Se-7 9
Se-79
Sr-90
Sr-90
Sr-90
Sr-90
Sr-90
20000
10000
60000
30000
30000
30000
30000
10000
60000
30000
30000
30000
30000
10000
60000
30000
30000
30000
30000
10000
10000
05000
05000
05000
05000
05000
10000
05000
05000
05000
05000
05000
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50000
50000
50000
50000
50000
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80000
80000
80000
80000
80000
00000
80000
80000
80000
80000
80000
60000
40000
40000
40000
40000
3.071E-09
1.789E-09
2.861E-09
1.580E-09
8. 924E-10
5.781E-10
3.734E-10
2.108E-10
7.350E-09
4.461E-09
2.584E-09
1.697E-09
1.128E-09
7.492E-10
5.425E-08
2.677E-08
1.692E-08
1.116E-08
7. 943E-09
3.418E-09
6.347E-10
3.426E-10
1.874E-10
1.135E-10
7.265E-11
6.295E-11
1.545E-09
8.355E-10
4.562E-10
2.758E-10
1.758E-10
1.520E-10
3.633E-08
1.570E-08
9. 757E-09
6.444E-09
4.527E-09
3.935E-09
1. 974E-08
1.314E-08
8.383E-09
6.060E-09
3.167E-09
2.612E-09
4.061E-08
2.782E-08
1.889E-08
1.362E-08
4.019E-09
2.893E-09
2.271E-07
7.240E-08
4.685E-08
5.973E-08
7 . 892E-08
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
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. 900E-09
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. 900E-10
.800E-10
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. 100E-10
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.400E-09
.600E-09
.700E-09
.100E-09
.400E-10
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.400E-09
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.400E-10
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. 100E-10
. 300E-11
. 300E-11
.600E-09
.400E-10
.600E-10
.800E-10
.800E-10
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.600E-08
.600E-08
.700E-09
.400E-09
.500E-09
.900E-09
.OOOE-08
.300E-08
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.OOOE-09
.100E-09
.600E-09
.100E-08
.800E-08
. 900E-08
.400E-08
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.300E-07
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14
-------
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Y-90
Y-90
Y-90
Y-90
Y-90
Y-90
Zr-95
Zr-95
Zr-95
Zr-95
Zr-95
Zr-95
Nb-94
Nb-94
Nb-94
Nb-94
Nb-94
Nb-94
Nb-95m
Nb-95m
Nb-95m
Nb-95m
Nb-95m
Nb-95m
Nb-95
Nb-95
Nb-95
>Nb-95
Nb-95
Nb-95
Mo- 9 9
Mo- 9 9
Mo- 9 9
Mo- 9 9
Mo- 9 9
Mo- 9 9
Tc-95m
Tc-95m
Tc-95m
Tc-95m
Tc-95m
Tc-95m
Tc-95
Tc-95
Tc-95
Tc-95
Tc-95
Tc-95
Tc-99m
Tc-99m
Tc-99m
Tc-99m
Tc-99m
Tc-99m
6
1
2
3
4
5
6
1
2
3
4
5
6
1
2
3
4
5
6
1
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5
6
1
2
3
4
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6
1
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6
1
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3
4
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0.30000
0.00100
0.00010
0.00010
0.00010
0.00010
0.00010
0 02000
0.01000
0.01000
0.01000
0.01000
0.01000
0.02000
0.01000
0.01000
0.01000
0.01000
0.01000
0.02000
0.01000
0.01000
0.01000
0.01000
0.01000
0.02000
0.01000
0.01000
0.01000
0.01000
0.01000
1.00000
1.00000
1.00000
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1.00000
1.00000
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0.50000
0.50000
0.50000
0.50000
0.50000
1.00000
0.50000
0.50000
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.687E-09
. 539E-09
.659E-09
.059E-09
. 931E-09
.195E-09
. 612E-10
.500E-08
.766E-09
.354E-09
.433E-09
.164E-09
.737E-09
.384E-09
.125E-09
.070E-09
.235E-09
. 071E-10
.662E-10
.635E-09
.202E-09
.787E-09
.162E-09
.438E-10
. 908E-10
.458E-09
. 493E-09
.768E-09
.080E-09
.597E-10
.052E-10
.752E-09
.830E-09
.599E-09
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.035E-10
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.005E-09
.837E-10
.143E-10
.371E-10
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0.
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2.800E-08
3.100E-08
2.000E-08
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5. 900E-09
3.300E-09
2.700E-09
8 . 500E-09
5.600E-09
3.000E-09
1. 900E-09
1.200E-09
9.500E-10
1.500E-08
9.700E-09
5.300E-09
3.400E-09
2.100E-09
1.700E-09
6.400E-09
4.100E-09
2.100E-09
1.200E-09
7.100E-10
5.600E-10
4.600E-09
3.200E-09
1.800E-09
1.100E-09
7.400E-10
5.800E-10
5.500E-09
3.500E-09
1.800E-09
1.100E-09
7.600E-10
6.000E-10
4.700E-09
2.800E-09
1.600E-09
l.OOOE-09
6. 900E-10
5.600E-10
9. 900E-10
8.700E-10
5.000E-10
3.300E-10
2.300E-10
1.800E-10
2.000E-10
1.300E-10
7.200E-11
4.300E-11
2.800E-11
2.200E-11
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Tc-99
Tc-99
Tc-99
Tc-99
Tc-99
Tc-99
Ru-103
Ru-103
Ru-103
Ru-103
Ru-103
Ru-103
Ru-106
Ru-106
Ru-106
Ru-106
Ru-106
Ru-106
Ag-108m
Ag-108m
Ag-108m
Ag-108m
Ag-108m
Ag-108m
Ag-llOm
Ag-llOm
Ag-llOm
Ag-llOm
Ag-llOm
Ag-llOm
Sb-124
Sb-124
Sb-124
Sb-124
Sb-124
Sb-124
Sb-125
Sb-125
Sb-125
Sb-125
Sb-125
Sb-125
Sb-126
Sb-126
Sb-126
Sb-126
Sb-126
Sb-126
Sb-127
Sb-127
Sb-127
Sb-127
Sb-127
Sb-127
Te-125m
1
2
3
4
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6
1
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3
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6
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1.033E-08
4.771E-09
2.303E-09
1.310E-09
8.236E-10
6.418E-10
7.092E-09
4.633E-09
2.444E-09
1.517E-09
9.177E-10
7.339E-10
8.389E-08
4. 966E-08
2.519E-08
1.498E-08
8 . 639E-09
7.010E-09
2 . 068E-08
1.122E-08
6.552E-09
4.315E-09
2.864E-09
2.361E-09
2.408E-08
1.369E-08
7.898E-09
5.218E-09
3.437E-09
2.790E-09
2.454E-08
1.596E-08
8.406E-09
5.217E-09
3.171E-09
2.545E-09
1.074E-08
6.091E-09
3.401E-09
2.112E-09
1.355E-09
1.134E-09
1. 999E-08
1.409E-08
7 . 699E-09
4.922E-09
3.092E-09
2.463E-09
1. 676E-08
1.159E-08
5. 913E-09
3.575E-09
2.087E-09
1.671E-09
1.285E-08
1
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15
-------
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Te-125m
Te-125m
Te-125m
Te-125m
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Te-127m
Te-127m
Te-127m
Te-127m
Te-127m
Te-127m
Te-127
Te-127
Te-127
Te-127
Te-127
Te-127
1-123
1-123
1-123
1-123
1-123
1-123
1-125
1-125
1-125
1-125
1-125
1-125
1-129
1-129
1-129
1-129
1-129
1-129
1-131
1-131
1-131
1-131
1-131
1-131
1-132
1-132
1-132
1-132
1-132
1-132
1-133
1-133
1-133
>I-133
1-133
1-133
1-134
1-134
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0.30000
0.30000
0.30000
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0.60000
0.30000
0.30000
0.30000
0.30000
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1.00000
1.00000
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1.00000
1.00000
1.00000
1.00000
1.00000
1.00000
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1.00000
1.00000
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.246E-09
. 184E-10
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. 116E-10
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. 973E-09
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. 177E-10
.246E-08
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.191E-08
.175E-08
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.539E-08
.840E-07
.153E-07
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.880E-07
.395E-07
.057E-07
.842E-07
.790E-07
.036E-07
.237E-08
.424E-08
.175E-08
.027E-09
.388E-09
.262E-09
.221E-10
. 169E-10
.870E-10
.927E-08
.397E-08
.325E-08
.050E-08
.794E-09
.279E-09
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0.
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6.300E-09
3.300E-09
1. 900E-09
1.100E-09
8.700E-10
4.100E-08
1.800E-08
9.500E-09
5.200E-09
3. OOOE-09
2.300E-09
1.500E-09
1.200E-09
6.200E-10
3.600E-10
2.100E-10
1.700E-10
2.200E-09
1. 900E-09
1.100E-09
4. 900E-10
3.300E-10
2.100E-10
5.200E-08
5.700E-08
4.100E-08
3.100E-08
2.200E-08
1.500E-08
1.800E-07
2.200E-07
1.700E-07
1. 900E-07
1.400E-07
1.100E-07
1.800E-07
1.800E-07
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5.200E-08
3.400E-08
2.200E-08
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2.400E-09
1.300E-09
6.200E-10
4.100E-10
2. 900E-10
4.900E-08
4.400E-08
2.300E-08
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6.800E-09
4.300E-09
1.100E-09
7.500E-10
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30000
20000
01000
00100
00100
00100
00100
00100
00500
00050
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00050
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00050
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3.875E-10
2.108E-10
1.443E-10
1.076E-10
1.036E-08
8. 943E-09
4.741E-09
2.192E-09
1.440E-09
9.348E-10
2.579E-08
1.574E-08
1.318E-08
1.409E-08
1.897E-08
1. 924E-08
1.454E-08
9.611E-09
6.121E-09
4.381E-09
3.437E-09
3.074E-09
2.105E-08
1.238E-08
9.685E-09
1.014E-08
1.337E-08
1.356E-08
2.134E-08
6.234E-09
3.879E-09
4.678E-09
7.235E-09
1.531E-09
3.183E-08
1.790E-08
9.181E-09
5.826E-09
3.719E-09
2.598E-09
1. 948E-08
1.299E-08
6. 779E-09
4.201E-09
2.522E-09
2.022E-09
8.121E-09
5.150E-09
2.591E-09
1.547E-09
8.855E-10
7.113E-10
6. 618E-08
3.880E-08
1. 937E-08
1
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0
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16
-------
Ce-144
Ce-144
Ce-144
Bi-210
Bi-210
Bi-210
Bi-210
Bi-210
Bi-210
Bi-212
Bi-212
Bi-212
Bi-212
Bi-212
Bi-212
Po-210
Po-210
Po-210
Po-210
Po-210
Po-210
XAc-228
XAc-228
XAc-228
XAc-228
XAc-228
XAc-228
XPa-233
XPa-233
XPa-233
XPa-233
XPa-233
XPa-233
XPa-234
XPa-234
XPa-234
XPa-234
XPa-234
XPa-234
Np-236L
Np-236L
Np-236L
Np-236L
Np-236L
Np-236L
Np-236S
Np-236S
Np-236S
Np-236S
Np-236S
Np-236S
Np-237
Np-237
Np-237
Np-237
4
5
6
1
2
3
4
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0.00100
0.00100
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0.00100
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. 319E-10
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.159E-09
. 900E-09
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.793E-10
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.734E-09
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.546E-10
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. 906E-07
.473E-08
.860E-08
.780E-08
.817E-08
.739E-08
.520E-09
.316E-09
.684E-10
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.378E-10
. 937E-10
.997E-06
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1.100E-08
6.500E-09
5.200E-09
1.500E-08
9.700E-09
4.800E-09
2. 900E-09
1.600E-09
1.300E-09
3.200E-09
1.800E-09
8.700E-10
5.000E-10
3.300E-10
2.600E-10
2.600E-05
8 . 800E-06
4.400E-06
2 . 600E-06
1.600E-06
1.200E-06
7.400E-09
2.800E-09
1.400E-09
8.700E-10
5.300E-10
4.300E-10
9.600E-09
6.200E-09
3.200E-09
1. 900E-09
1.100E-09
8.700E-10
5.000E-09
3.200E-09
1.700E-09
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6.400E-10
5.100E-10
1.900E-07
2.400E-08
1.800E-08
1.800E-08
1.800E-08
1.700E-08
2.500E-09
1.300E-09
6.600E-10
3. 900E-10
2.300E-10
1. 900E-10
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2.100E-07
1.400E-07
1.100E-07
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Np-237
Np-237
Np-239
Np-239
Np-239
Np-239
Np-239
Np-239
Pu-236
Pu-236
Pu-236
Pu-236
Pu-236
Pu-236
Pu-238
Pu-238
Pu-238
Pu-238
Pu-238
Pu-238
Pu-239
Pu-239
Pu-239
Pu-239
Pu-239
Pu-239
Pu-240
Pu-240
Pu-240
Pu-240
Pu-240
Pu-240
Pu-241
Pu-241
Pu-241
Pu-241
Pu-241
Pu-241
Pu-242
Pu-242
Pu-242
Pu-242
Pu-242
Pu-242
Am-241
Am-241
Am-241
Am-241
Am-241
Am-241
Am-243
Am-243
Am-243
Am-243
Am-243
00050
00050
00500
00050
00050
00050
00050
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00050
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00050
00050
00050
00050
00050
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00050
00050
00050
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1.083E-07
1.070E-07
8.893E-09
5.754E-09
2.898E-09
1.734E-09
9. 967E-10
7.986E-10
2.095E-06
2.158E-07
1.451E-07
1.038E-07
8.561E-08
8.694E-08
3. 974E-06
3.998E-07
3.060E-07
2.443E-07
2.205E-07
2.280E-07
4.190E-06
4.217E-07
3.326E-07
2.710E-07
2.455E-07
2.507E-07
4.191E-06
4.219E-07
3.327E-07
2.710E-07
2.455E-07
2.507E-07
5.632E-08
5.802E-09
5.491E-09
5.053E-09
4.795E-09
4.746E-09
3. 981E-06
4.008E-07
3.161E-07
2.576E-07
2.334E-07
2.383E-07
3.725E-06
3.752E-07
2.741E-07
2.223E-07
2.043E-07
2.040E-07
3. 658E-06
3.699E-07
2.715E-07
2.211E-07
2.033E-07
0
0
0
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.700E-07
.400E-07
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.200E-06
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.700E-07
.400E-07
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.600E-08
.700E-09
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.600E-06
.700E-07
.700E-07
.200E-07
.OOOE-07
17
-------
2.026E-07
5.846E-07
7.603E-08
3.932E-08
2.360E-08
1.460E-08
1.171E-08
3.218E-06
3.257E-07
2.204E-07
1.658E-07
2.000E-07
5.900E-07
7.600E-08
3.900E-08
2.400E-08
1.500E-08
1.200E-08
3.200E-06
3.200E-07
2.200E-07
1.600E-07
-------
Comparison of age-specific effective dose coefficients, e (Sv/Bq)
for inhalation intakes of radionuclides generated during FGR-13 computations
(for QA purposes only) with values published by the ICRP. Values marked with
"ok" differ by less than 5%. If the values differ by more that 5% they
are marked by "-->". If the difference resulted from use of a
different f 1 values the comparison is marked by "««".
ok
ok
ok
ok
ok
ok
ok
ok
ok
ok
ok
ok
ok
ok
ok
ok
ok
ok
ok
ok
ok
ok
ok
ok
ok
ok
ok
ok
ok
ok
ok
ok
ok
ok
ok
ok
ok
ok
ok
ok
ok
ok
ok
ok
H-3
H-3
H-3
H-3
H-3
H-3
C-14
C-14
C-14
C-14
C-14
C-14
3 —
3-
3 —
3-
3 —
3-
3 —
3-
3 —
3-
3 —
3-
3 —
3-
3 —
3-
3 —
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
S-35
Ca-45
Ca-45
Ca-45
Ca-45
Ca-45
Ca-45
Ca-45
Ca-45
Ca-45
Ca-45
Ca-45
Ca-45
Ca-45
Ca-45
Age
100
365
1825
3650
5475
7300
100
365
1825
3650
5475
7300
100
365
1825
3650
5475
7300
100
365
1825
3650
5475
7300
100
365
1825
3650
5475
7300
100
365
1825
3650
5475
9125
100
365
1825
3650
5475
9125
100
365
AMAD
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
Type / fl
V
V
v
V
V
V
v
V
V
V
v
V
F
F
F
F
F
F
M
M
M
M
M
M
3
s
3
s
s
s
F
F
F
F
F
F
M
M
M
M
M
M
3
s
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
8
8
8
8
8
2
1
1
1
1
1
2
1
1
1
1
1
6
4
4
4
4
3
2
1
1
1
1
1
2
1
OE+00
OE+00
OE+00
OE+00
OE+00
OE+00
OE+00
OE+00
OE+00
OE+00
OE+00
OE+00
OE+00
OE-01
OE-01
OE-01
OE-01
OE-01
OE-01
OE-01
OE-01
OE-01
OE-01
OE-01
OE-02
OE-02
OE-02
OE-02
OE-02
OE-02
OE-01
OE-01
OE-01
OE-01
OE-01
OE-01
OE-01
OE-01
OE-01
OE-01
OE-01
OE-01
OE-02
OE-02
6
4
3
2
1
1
1
1
1
8
6
6
5
3
1
1
6
5
5
4
1
1
1
7
5
3
2
1
5
2
1
1
7
4
1
8
5
3
3
2
1
1
e
347E-11
857E-11
074E-11
275E-11
800E-11
834E-11
877E-11
906E-11
141E-11
899E-12
283E-12
243E-12
433E-10
947E-10
764E-10
088E-10
024E-11
152E-11
862E-09
487E-09
747E-09
979E-09
786E-09
432E-09
638E-09
892E-09
610E-09
580E-09
313E-09
862E-09
616E-09
948E-09
410E-09
047E-09
520E-10
663E-10
189E-08
727E-09
259E-09
834E-09
454E-09
715E-09
464E-08
163E-08
Type / fl
V
V
V
V
V
V
v
V
V
V
V
V
F
F
F
F
F
F
M
M
M
M
M
M
3
s
3
s
s
s
F
F
F
F
F
F
M
M
M
M
M
M
3
s
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
Q
a
8
8
8
2
1
1
1
1
1
2
1
1
1
1
1
6
4
4
4
4
3
2
1
1
1
1
1
2
1
OE+00
OE+00
OE+00
OE+00
OE+00
OE+00
OE+00
OE+00
OE+00
OE+00
OE+00
OE+00
OE+00
OE-01
OE-01
OE-01
OE-01
OE-01
OE-01
OE-01
OE-01
OE-01
OE-01
OE-01
OE-02
OE-02
OE-02
OE-02
OE-02
OE-02
OE-01
OE-01
OE-01
OE-01
OE-01
OE-01
OE-01
OE-01
OE-01
OE-01
OE-01
OE-01
OE-02
OE-02
6
4
3
2
1
1
1
1
1
8
6
6
5
3
1
1
6
5
5
4
2
1
1
7
5
3
2
1
5
3
1
1
7
4
1
8
5
3
3
2
1
1
e
400E-11
800E-11
100E-11
300E-11
800E-11
800E-11
900E-11
900E-11
100E-11
900E-11
300E-11
200E-10
500E-10
900E-10
800E-10
100E-10
OOOE-11
100E-11
900E-09
500E-09
800E-09
OOOE-09
800E-09
400E-09
700E-09
900E-09
600E-09
600E-09
300E-09
900E-09
700E-09
OOOE-09
400E-09
OOOE-09
600E-10
600E-10
200E-08
800E-09
300E-09
900E-09
500E-09
700E-09
500E-08
200E-08
ok
ok
ok
ok
ok
ok
ok
ok
ok
ok
ok
ok
ok
ok
ok
ok
ok
ok
ok
ok
ok
ok
ok
ok
ok
ok
ok
ok
ok
ok
ok
ok
ok
ok
ok
ok
ok
ok
ok
ok
ok
ok
ok
ok
ok
ok
ok
ok
ok
— >
ok
ok
ok
ok
ok
Ca-45
Ca-45
Ca-45
Ca-45
Ca-47
Ca-47
Ca-47
Ca-47
Ca-47
Ca-47
Ca-47
Ca-47
Ca-47
Ca-47
Ca-47
Ca-47
Ca-47
Ca-47
Ca-47
Ca-47
Ca-47
Ca-47
Sc-47
Sc-47
Sc-47
Sc-47
Sc-47
Sc-47
Fe-55
Fe-55
Fe-55
Fe-55
Fe-55
Fe-55
Fe-55
Fe-55
Fe-55
Fe-55
Fe-55
Fe-55
Fe-55
Fe-55
Fe-55
Fe-55
Fe-55
Fe-55
Fe-59
Fe-59
Fe-59
Fe-59
Fe-59
Fe-59
Fe-59
Fe-59
Fe-59
1825
3650
5475
9125
100
365
1825
3650
5475
9125
100
365
1825
3650
5475
9125
100
365
1825
3650
5475
9125
100
365
1825
3650
5475
7300
100
365
1825
3650
5475
7300
100
365
1825
3650
5475
7300
100
365
1825
3650
5475
7300
100
365
1825
3650
5475
7300
100
365
1825
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
3
s
3
s
F
F
F
F
F
F
M
M
M
M
M
M
3
S
3
s
3
S
3
s
3
S
3
s
F
F
F
F
F
F
M
M
M
M
M
M
3
S
3
s
3
S
F
F
F
F
F
F
M
M
M
1.
1.
1.
1.
6.
4.
4.
4.
4.
3.
2.
1.
1.
1.
1.
1.
2.
1.
1.
1.
1.
1.
1.
1.
1.
1.
1.
1.
6.
2 ,
2.
2.
1.
2.
1.
1.
1.
1.
1.
2.
1.
1.
1.
1.
1.
6.
2.
2 ,
2.
1.
2.
1.
1.
.OE-02
.OE-02
.OE-02
.OE-02
.OE-01
.OE-01
.OE-01
.OE-01
.OE-01
.OE-01
.OE-01
.OE-01
.OE-01
.OE-01
.OE-01
.OE-01
.OE-02
.OE-02
.OE-02
.OE-02
.OE-02
.OE-02
.OE-03
.OE-04
.OE-04
.OE-04
.OE-04
.OE-04
.OE-01
.OE-01
.OE-01
.OE-01
.OE-01
.OE-01
.OE-01
.OE-01
.OE-01
.OE-01
.OE-01
.OE-01
.OE-02
.OE-02
.OE-02
.OE-02
.OE-02
.OE-02
.OE-01
.OE-01
.OE-01
.OE-01
.OE-01
.OE-01
.OE-01
.OE-01
.OE-01
7.107E-09
5.065E-09
4.515E-09
3.641E-09
4.874E-09
3.588E-09
1.712E-09
1.058E-09
6.132E-10
5.577E-10
1.035E-08
7.651E-09
4.161E-09
2. 923E-09
2.350E-09
1.889E-09
1.160E-08
8.439E-09
4.612E-09
3.252E-09
2 . 636E-09
2.108E-09
3. 931E-09
2.813E-09
1.540E-09
1.101E-09
9.179E-10
7.243E-10
4.120E-09
3.201E-09
2.194E-09
1.408E-09
9.427E-10
7.810E-10
1. 908E-09
1.442E-09
9.888E-10
6.230E-10
4.391E-10
3.877E-10
9. 904E-10
8.400E-10
4. 977E-10
2.926E-10
2.030E-10
1.839E-10
2.042E-08
1.308E-08
7.095E-09
4.433E-09
2.652E-09
2.226E-09
1.837E-08
1.327E-08
7.863E-09
3
S
3
s
F
F
F
F
F
F
M
M
M
M
M
M
3
S
3
s
3
s
3
s
3
S
3
s
F
F
F
F
F
F
M
M
M
M
M
M
3
S
3
s
3
S
F
F
F
F
F
F
M
M
M
1.
1.
1.
1.
6.
4.
4.
4.
4.
3.
2.
1.
1.
1.
1.
1.
2.
1.
1.
1.
1.
1.
1.
1.
1.
1.
1.
1.
6.
2 ,
2.
2.
1.
2.
1.
1.
1.
1.
1.
2.
1.
1.
1.
1.
1.
6.
2.
2 ,
2.
1.
2.
1.
1.
.OE-02
.OE-02
.OE-02
.OE-02
.OE-01
.OE-01
.OE-01
.OE-01
.OE-01
.OE-01
.OE-01
.OE-01
.OE-01
.OE-01
.OE-01
.OE-01
.OE-02
.OE-02
.OE-02
.OE-02
.OE-02
.OE-02
.OE-03
.OE-04
.OE-04
.OE-04
.OE-04
.OE-04
.OE-01
.OE-01
.OE-01
.OE-01
.OE-01
.OE-01
.OE-01
.OE-01
.OE-01
.OE-01
.OE-01
.OE-01
.OE-02
.OE-02
.OE-02
.OE-02
.OE-02
.OE-02
.OE-01
.OE-01
.OE-01
.OE-01
.OE-01
.OE-01
.OE-01
.OE-01
.OE-01
7.100E-09
5.100E-09
4.600E-09
3.700E-09
4. 900E-09
3.600E-09
1.700E-09
1.100E-09
6.100E-10
5.500E-10
l.OOOE-08
7.700E-09
4.200E-09
2. 900E-09
2.400E-09
1.900E-09
1.200E-08
8.400E-09
4.600E-09
3.300E-09
2.600E-09
2.100E-09
3. 900E-09
2.800E-09
1.500E-09
1.100E-09
9.200E-10
7.300E-10
4.100E-09
3.200E-09
2.200E-09
1.400E-09
9.400E-10
7.700E-10
1. 900E-09
1.400E-09
9. 900E-10
6.200E-10
4.400E-10
3.800E-10
1. OOOE-09
8.500E-10
5.000E-10
2.900E-10
2.000E-10
1.800E-10
2.000E-08
1.300E-08
7. OOOE-09
4.200E-09
2.600E-09
2.200E-09
1.800E-08
1.300E-08
7. 900E-09
19
-------
ok
ok
ok
ok
ok
ok
ok
ok
ok
ok
ok
ok
ok
ok
ok
ok
ok
ok
ok
ok
ok
ok
ok
ok
ok
ok
ok
ok
ok
ok
ok
ok
ok
ok
ok
ok
ok
ok
ok
ok
ok
ok
ok
ok
ok
ok
ok
ok
ok
ok
ok
ok
ok
ok
ok
Fe-59
Fe-59
Fe-59
Fe-59
Fe-59
Fe-59
Fe-59
Fe-59
Fe-59
Co-57
Co-57
Co-57
Co-57
Co-57
Co-57
Co-57
Co-57
Co-57
Co-57
Co-57
Co-57
Co-57
Co-57
Co-57
Co-57
Co-57
Co-57
Co-58
Co-58
Co-58
Co-58
Co-58
Co-58
Co-58
Co-58
Co-58
Co-58
Co-58
Co-58
Co-58
Co-58
Co-58
Co-58
Co-58
Co-58
Co-60
Co-60
Co-60
Co-60
Co-60
Co-60
Co-60
Co-60
Co-60
Co-60
3650
5475
7300
100
365
1825
3650
5475
7300
100
365
1825
3650
5475
7300
100
365
1825
3650
5475
7300
100
365
1825
3650
5475
7300
100
365
1825
3650
5475
7300
100
365
1825
3650
5475
7300
100
365
1825
3650
5475
7300
100
365
1825
3650
5475
7300
100
365
1825
3650
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
M
M
M
g
g
g
s
s
s
F
F
F
F
F
F
M
M
M
M
M
M
g
S
g
g
g
s
F
F
F
F
F
F
M
M
M
M
M
M
g
g
g
S
s
s
F
F
F
F
F
F
M
M
M
M
1
1
1
2
1
1
1
1
1
6
3
3
3
3
1
2
1
1
1
1
1
2.
1
1
1
1
1
6
3
3
3
3
1
2.
1
1
1
1
1
2
1
1
1
1
1
6
3
3
3
3
1
2
1
1
1
.OE-01
.OE-01
.OE-01
.OE-02
.OE-02
.OE-02
.OE-02
.OE-02
.OE-02
.OE-01
.OE-01
.OE-01
.OE-01
.OE-01
.OE-01
.OE-01
.OE-01
.OE-01
.OE-01
.OE-01
.OE-01
.OE-02
.OE-02
.OE-02
.OE-02
.OE-02
.OE-02
.OE-01
.OE-01
.OE-01
.OE-01
.OE-01
.OE-01
.OE-01
.OE-01
.OE-01
.OE-01
.OE-01
.OE-01
.OE-02
.OE-02
.OE-02
.OE-02
.OE-02
.OE-02
.OE-01
.OE-01
.OE-01
.OE-01
.OE-01
.OE-01
.OE-01
.OE-01
.OE-01
.OE-01
5 .
4.
3 .
1.
1.
8.
5 .
5.
4.
1.
1.
5.
3.
2 ,
1.
2.
1.
8.
6 .
5 .
4.
3 .
1.
1.
1.
3.
3.
1.
1.
6 .
5 .
7 ,
6.
3.
2.
1.
1.
9.
7 ,
4.
3 .
2.
3.
2.
1.
8.
6 .
5 .
4.
3.
2 ,
1.
.495E-09
.577E-09
.697E-09
.712E-08
.340E-08
.100E-09
.785E-09
.040E-09
.030E-09
.452E-09
.086E-09
.657E-10
.685E-10
.300E-10
.876E-10
.745E-09
.166E-09
.265E-09
.504E-10
.674E-10
.488E-10
.345E-09
.706E-09
.270E-09
.506E-09
. 191E-09
.OOOE-09
.992E-09
.045E-09
.607E-09
.026E-09
. 416E-10
.355E-10
.284E-09
.512E-09
.485E-09
.408E-09
.958E-09
. 592E-09
.021E-09
.461E-09
.566E-09
.154E-09
.603E-09
.115E-09
.004E-08
.339E-08
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4.300E-06
4.300E-06
4.300E-06
4.300E-06
4.300E-06
4.300E-06
4.300E-06
4.300E-06
4.300E-06
4.300E-06
4.300E-06
4.300E-06
4.300E-06
27
-------
:Np-239
Np-239
Np-239
Np-239
Np-239
Np-239
Np-239
Np-239
Np-239
Np-239
Np-239
Np-239
Np-239
Np-239
Np-239
Np-239
Np-239
Pu-236
Pu-236
Pu-236
Pu-236
Pu-236
Pu-236
Pu-236
Pu-236
Pu-236
Pu-236
Pu-236
Pu-236
Pu-236
Pu-236
Pu-236
Pu-236
Pu-236
Pu-236
Pu-238
Pu-238
Pu-238
1825
3650
5475
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100
365
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3650
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100
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1.00
1.00
1.00
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6.085E-05
5.020E-05
4.823E-05
4. 971E-05
4.412E-05
4.058E-05
2.798E-05
2.196E-05
2.225E-05
2.270E-05
3.659E-05
3.192E-05
2.129E-05
1.440E-05
1.265E-05
1.189E-05
2.586E-09
1.767E-09
6.363E-10
3.860E-10
2.097E-10
1.736E-10
5.864E-09
4.179E-09
2.027E-09
1.433E-09
1.177E-09
9.333E-10
5.643E-09
4.009E-09
2 . 199E-09
1.562E-09
1.296E-09
1.026E-09
1.034E-04
9.436E-05
6.112E-05
4.458E-05
3.732E-05
3.981E-05
4.763E-05
4.253E-05
2. 913E-05
2.092E-05
1. 917E-05
1.955E-05
3.604E-05
3.083E-05
2.002E-05
1.351E-05
1.171E-05
1.047E-05
1. 987E-04
1. 910E-04
1.384E-04
F
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6.000E-05
5.000E-05
4.700E-05
4.800E-05
4.400E-05
4.000E-05
2.800E-05
2.200E-05
2.200E-05
2.200E-05
3.700E-05
3.200E-05
2.100E-05
1.400E-05
1.300E-05
1.200E-05
2.600E-09
1.400E-09
6.300E-10
3.800E-10
2.000E-10
1.700E-10
5.800E-09
4.200E-09
2.000E-09
1.400E-09
1.200E-09
9.300E-10
5.600E-09
4.000E-09
2.200E-09
1.600E-09
1.300E-09
l.OOOE-09
l.OOOE-04
9.500E-05
6.100E-05
4.400E-05
3.700E-05
3.800E-05
4.800E-05
4.300E-05
2. 900E-05
2.100E-05
1. 900E-05
1.900E-05
3.600E-05
3.100E-05
2.000E-05
1.400E-05
1.200E-05
l.OOOE-05
2.000E-04
1. 900E-04
1.400E-04
-------
ok
ok
ok
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3650
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1.441E-04
1.185E-04
1.068E-04
1.133E-04
7.581E-05
7.326E-05
5.729E-05
4.557E-05
4.472E-05
4.756E-05
4.016E-05
3.622E-05
2.501E-05
1.743E-05
1.570E-05
1.503E-05
1.860E-04
1.775E-04
1.228E-04
1.010E-04
9.278E-05
9.640E-05
7.373E-05
6.967E-05
5.106E-05
4.055E-05
4.027E-05
4.171E-05
4.585E-05
4.013E-05
2.725E-05
1.894E-05
1.702E-05
1.604E-05
1.825E-04
1.745E-04
1.214E-04
1.003E-04
9.230E-05
F
F
M
M
M
M
M
M
g
S
3
s
3
S
F
F
F
F
F
F
M
M
M
M
M
M
3
s
3
S
3
s
F
F
F
F
F
F
M
M
M
M
M
M
3
S
3
s
3
S
F
F
F
F
F
5 .
5.
5 .
5.
5 .
5.
5 .
5.
1.
1.
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1.
1.
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5.
5 .
5.
5 .
5.
5 .
5.
5 .
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1.
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5.
5 .
5.
5 .
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5.
5 .
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5 .
5.
5 .
5.
5 .
5.
5 .
5.
5 .
5.
5 .
.OE-04
.OE-04
.OE-03
.OE-04
.OE-04
.OE-04
.OE-04
.OE-04
.OE-04
.OE-05
.OE-05
.OE-05
.OE-05
.OE-05
.OE-03
.OE-04
.OE-04
.OE-04
.OE-04
.OE-04
.OE-03
.OE-04
.OE-04
.OE-04
.OE-04
.OE-04
.OE-04
.OE-05
.OE-05
.OE-05
.OE-05
.OE-05
.OE-03
.OE-04
.OE-04
.OE-04
.OE-04
.OE-04
.OE-03
.OE-04
.OE-04
.OE-04
.OE-04
.OE-04
.OE-03
.OE-04
.OE-04
.OE-04
.OE-04
.OE-04
.OE-03
.OE-04
.OE-04
.OE-04
.OE-04
2.200E-06
2.300E-06
9.100E-07
9.700E-07
9.200E-07
8.300E-07
8 . 600E-07
9.000E-07
2.200E-07
2.400E-07
2.000E-07
1.700E-07
1.700E-07
1.700E-07
2. OOOE-04
1. 900E-04
1.400E-04
1.200E-04
1.100E-04
1.100E-04
7.600E-05
7.300E-05
5.700E-05
4.500E-05
4.500E-05
4.800E-05
4. OOOE-05
3.600E-05
2.500E-05
1.700E-05
1.600E-05
1.500E-05
1.800E-04
1.800E-04
1.200E-04
1. OOOE-04
9.200E-05
9.600E-05
7.300E-05
6.900E-05
5.100E-05
4. OOOE-05
4. OOOE-05
4. OOOE-05
4.600E-05
4. OOOE-05
2.700E-05
1.900E-05
1.700E-05
1.600E-05
1.800E-04
1.700E-04
1.200E-04
1. OOOE-04
9.100E-05
29
-------
•243
•243
•243
•243
•243
•243
•243
•243
•243
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•243
•243
•243
•242
•242
•242
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9125
100
365
1825
3650
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100
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100
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3650
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1.00
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1.00
1.00
1.00
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1.00
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M
M
M
M
M
M
3
s
3
s
s
s
F
F
F
F
F
F
M
M
M
M
M
M
3
S
3
s
3
s
F
F
F
F
5.0E-04
5.0E-03
5.0E-04
5.0E-04
5. OE-04
5.0E-04
5. OE-04
5.0E-03
5. OE-04
5. OE-04
5. OE-04
5. OE-04
5. OE-04
5.0E-03
5. OE-04
5. OE-04
5. OE-04
5. OE-04
5. OE-04
5.0E-03
5. OE-04
5. OE-04
5. OE-04
5. OE-04
5. OE-04
5.0E-03
5. OE-04
5. OE-04
5. OE-04
5. OE-04
5. OE-04
5.0E-03
5. OE-04
5. OE-04
5. OE-04
9,
7 ,
6.
5.
^
3.
4.
4.
3.
2 ,
1.
1.
1.
2 ,
2.
1.
6.
3.
3 .
1.
1.
7 ,
6 .
5 .
2 ,
1.
1.
8.
7 ,
5 .
1.
1.
9.
7 ,
.569E-05
.185E-05
.805E-05
.016E-05
QQQE-05
.976E-05
. 118E-05
.403E-05
.856E-05
.625E-05
.824E-05
.637E-05
.548E-05
.680E-05
.070E-05
.016E-05
.137E-06
.995E-06
.308E-06
.232E-05
.749E-05
.061E-05
.302E-06
.341E-06
.200E-06
.352E-05
.843E-05
.158E-05
.125E-06
.233E-06
. 922E-06
.599E-04
.493E-04
.599E-05
.340E-05
F
M
M
M
M
M
M
3
s
3
s
s
s
F
F
F
F
F
F
M
M
M
M
M
M
3
S
3
s
3
s
F
F
F
F
5. OE-04
5.0E-03
5. OE-04
5. OE-04
5. OE-04
5. OE-04
5. OE-04
5.0E-03
5. OE-04
5. OE-04
5. OE-04
5. OE-04
5. OE-04
5.0E-03
5. OE-04
5. OE-04
5. OE-04
5. OE-04
5. OE-04
5.0E-03
5. OE-04
5. OE-04
5. OE-04
5. OE-04
5. OE-04
5.0E-03
5. OE-04
5. OE-04
5. OE-04
5. OE-04
5. OE-04
5.0E-03
5. OE-04
5. OE-04
5. OE-04
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7 ,
6.
5.
4 ,
3.
4.
4.
3.
2 ,
1.
1.
1.
2 ,
2.
1.
6.
4.
3 .
1.
1.
7 ,
6 .
5 .
2 ,
1.
1.
8.
7 ,
5 .
1.
1.
9.
7 ,
.600E-05
.200E-05
.800E-05
.OOOE-05
. OOOE-05
. 900E-05
.100E-05
.400E-05
. 900E-05
.600E-05
.800E-05
.600E-05
.500E-05
.700E-05
.100E-05
.OOOE-05
.100E-06
.OOOE-06
.300E-06
.200E-05
.800E-05
.100E-05
.300E-06
.400E-06
.200E-06
.400E-05
. 900E-05
.200E-05
.100E-06
.300E-06
. 900E-06
.600E-04
.500E-04
.500E-05
.300E-05
243
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243
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243
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243
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243
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243
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243
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244
•244
244
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1.00
1.00
1.00
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1.00
1.00
1.00
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1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
F
F
M
M
M
M
M
M
g
S
3
s
g
S
F
F
F
F
F
F
M
M
M
M
M
M
3
S
g
S
3
s
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5.
5 .
5.
5 .
5.
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5.
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5.
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5.
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5.
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5.
5 .
5.
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5.
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5.
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5.
5 .
5.
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5.
5 .
5.
.OE-04
.OE-04
.OE-03
.OE-04
.OE-04
.OE-04
.OE-04
.OE-04
.OE-03
.OE-04
.OE-04
.OE-04
.OE-04
.OE-04
.OE-03
.OE-04
.OE-04
.OE-04
.OE-04
.OE-04
.OE-03
.OE-04
.OE-04
.OE-04
.OE-04
.OE-04
.OE-03
.OE-04
.OE-04
.OE-04
.OE-04
.OE-04
6.548E-05
6.938E-05
6.659E-05
6.135E-05
4.214E-05
3.145E-05
3.033E-05
3.150E-05
4.585E-05
3.970E-05
2.626E-05
1.785E-05
1.578E-05
1.462E-05
1.456E-04
1.346E-04
8.371E-05
6.154E-05
5.364E-05
5.702E-05
6.186E-05
5.636E-05
3.767E-05
2.724E-05
2.572E-05
2.659E-05
4.418E-05
3.805E-05
2.491E-05
1.674E-05
1.464E-05
1.345E-05
F
F
M
M
M
M
M
M
g
S
3
s
g
S
F
F
F
F
F
F
M
M
M
M
M
M
3
S
g
S
g
s
5 .
5.
5 .
5.
5 .
5.
5 .
5.
5 .
5.
5 .
5.
5 .
5.
5 .
5.
5 .
5.
5 .
5.
5 .
5.
5 .
5.
5 .
5.
5 .
5.
5 .
5.
5 .
5.
.OE-04
.OE-04
.OE-03
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.OE-04
.OE-04
.OE-04
.OE-04
.OE-03
.OE-04
.OE-04
.OE-04
.OE-04
.OE-04
.OE-03
.OE-04
.OE-04
.OE-04
.OE-04
.OE-04
.OE-03
.OE-04
.OE-04
.OE-04
.OE-04
.OE-04
.OE-03
.OE-04
.OE-04
.OE-04
.OE-04
.OE-04
6.500E-05
6.700E-05
6.700E-05
6.100E-05
4.200E-05
3.100E-05
3. OOOE-05
3.100E-05
4.600E-05
4. OOOE-05
2.600E-05
1.800E-05
1.600E-05
1.400E-05
1.500E-04
1.300E-04
8.300E-05
6.100E-05
5.300E-05
5.600E-05
6.200E-05
5.600E-05
3.700E-05
2.700E-05
2.600E-05
2.600E-05
4.400E-05
3.800E-05
2.500E-05
1.700E-05
1.500E-05
1.300E-05
30
-------
Appendix B
Checks on external risk coefficients
31
-------
Checks on external risk coefficients
Results of the comparison are summarized in the following table in the form of ratios A : B , where
A is the risk coefficient for a given radionuclide and external exposure scenario as given in the Federal
Guidance 13 draft document, and B is the corresponding risk coefficient generated from Table 6.2.
Zero entries for a given radionuclide indicate that the external dose rate from that radionuclide is
assumed to be zero.
Radionuclide
H-3
C-14
S-35
Ar-37
Ar-39
Ar-41
Ca-45
Ca-47
Sc-47
Fe-55
Fe-59
Co-57
Co-58
Co-60
Ni-59
Ni-63
Zn-65
Se-75
Se-79
Kr-74
Kr-76
Kr-77
Kr-79
Kr-81m
Kr-81
Kr-83m
Kr-85m
Kr-85
Kr-87
Kr-88
Br-74
Br-76
Br-77
Rb-87
Rb-88
Sr-89
Sr-90
Submersion
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
.000
.009
.008
.000
.007
.006
.011
.004
.004
.000
.003
.004
.004
.003
.000
.000
.007
.002
.008
.004
.000
.004
.003
.003
.000
.985
.003
.004
.005
.004
.000
.004
.003
.008
.006
.007
.008
Ground plane
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
.000
.998
.998
.000
.008
.005
.000
.006
.004
.000
.003
.003
.004
.000
.000
.000
.003
.005
.999
.003
.005
.004
.000
.003
.003
.991
.004
.005
.005
.003
.000
.000
.000
.000
.003
.009
.008
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
Soil
.000
.000
.002
.000
.003
.003
.000
.003
.000
.000
.003
.000
.004
.004
.000
.000
.000
.004
.002
.003
.010
.004
.003
.004
.008
.989
.003
.003
.004
.003
.000
.004
.003
.002
.000
.005
.004
32
-------
Y-90
Zr-95
Nb-94
Nb-95m
Nb-95
Mo-99
Tc-95m
Tc-95
Tc-99m
Tc-99
Ru-103
Ru-106
Rh-103m
Rh-106
Ag-108m
Ag-108
Ag-llOm
Ag-110
Sb-124
Sb-125
Sb-126
Sb-127
Te-121
Te-123m
Te-123
Te-125m
Te-127m
Te-127
Te-129m
Te-129
Te-131m
Te-131
Te-132
1-120
1-121
1-122
1-123
1-125
1-129
1-131
1-132
1-133
1-134
1-135
Xe-120
Xe-121
Xe-122
Xe-123
Xe-125
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
.006
.000
.005
.000
.000
.003
.006
.005
.004
.009
.000
.000
.986
.004
.003
.004
.003
.004
.004
.010
.004
.000
.000
.000
.993
.993
.996
.000
.003
.007
.003
.010
.002
.004
.003
.004
.003
.993
.000
.003
.003
.000
.003
.005
.003
.002
.000
.000
.002
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
.008
.003
.004
.003
.005
.004
.006
.005
.003
.000
.004
.000
.990
.008
.004
.006
.007
.006
.004
.004
.007
.003
.003
.003
.994
.991
.997
.003
.000
.003
.004
.004
.009
.007
.005
.004
.002
.000
.999
.000
.000
.006
.000
.004
.005
.004
.000
.003
.000
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
.009
.000
.002
.007
.005
.003
.006
.000
.004
.002
.000
.000
.990
.004
.002
.004
.003
.000
.004
.000
.004
.000
.000
.000
.993
.995
.993
.008
.004
.007
.003
.000
.002
.004
.004
.004
.003
.995
.997
.003
.003
.000
.004
.002
.001
.004
.000
.006
.004
33
-------
Xe-127
Xe-129m
Xe-131m
Xe-133m
Xe-133
Xe-135m
Xe-135
Xe-138
Cs-134
Cs-135
Cs-136
Cs-137
Cs-138
Ce-141
Ce-144
Pr-144m
Pr-144
Ba-133
Ba-137m
Ba-140
La-140
Tl-207
Tl-208
Tl-209
Pb-210
Pb-211
Pb-212
Pb-214
Bi-210
Bi-211
Bi-212
Bi-214
Po-210
Po-211
Po-212
Po-214
Po-215
Po-216
Po-218
Rn-218
Rn-219
Rn-220
Rn-222
Ra-224
Ra-226
Ra-228
Ac-228
Pa-233
Pa-234m
1.002
1.000
1.000
1.002
1.002
1.010
1.003
1.003
1.003
1.009
1.004
1.008
1.003
1.000
1.000
1.000
1.000
1.003
1.007
1.002
1.003
1.000
1.003
1.004
1.000
1.008
1.003
1.003
1.008
1.009
1.004
1.005
1.000
1.005
.000
1.005
1.002
1.002
1.000
1.005
1.000
1.003
1.003
1.004
1.007
.000
1.004
1.002
1.005
1.000
1.000
1.000
1.006
1.000
1.004
1.000
1.004
1.004
1.000
1.009
1.008
1.008
1.003
1.003
1.000
1.006
1.005
1.003
1.003
1.009
1.008
1.006
1.010
1.000
1.003
1.004
1.008
1.010
1.000
1.010
1.004
1.004
1.005
.000
1.002
1.003
1.003
1.004
1.005
1.003
1.000
1.000
1.004
1.003
.000
1.004
1.000
1.006
1.004
1.000
1.001
1.004
1.003
1.009
1.002
1.003
1.002
1.000
1.003
1.003
1.003
1.000
1.000
1.000
1.000
1.004
1.006
1.002
1.004
1.003
1.000
1.003
1.000
1.000
1.003
1.003
1.000
1.009
1.004
1.002
1.004
1.005
.000
1.004
1.002
1.002
1.004
1.005
1.008
1.001
1.000
1.005
1.007
.000
1.004
1.005
1.002
34
-------
Pa-234
Th-228
Th-230
Th-231
Th-232
Th-234
U-232
U-233
U-234
U-235
U-236
U-238
Np-236a
Np-236b
Np-237
Np-239
Pu-236
Pu-238
Pu-239
Pu-240
Pu-241
Pu-242
Am-241
Am-243
Cm-242
Cm-243
Cm-244
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
.002
.002
.001
.000
.997
.007
.000
.001
.000
.003
.994
.990
.004
.000
.002
.003
.990
.985
.000
.993
.003
.991
.000
.002
.993
.004
.984
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
.004
.000
.000
.000
.994
.003
.993
.996
.995
.004
.988
.993
.002
.004
.008
.004
.987
.990
.990
.990
.001
.988
.000
.004
.987
.003
.990
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
.004
.003
.002
.007
.000
.002
.003
.003
.000
.003
.999
.996
.000
.003
.003
.003
.997
.995
.000
.995
.004
.994
.000
.004
.993
.004
.988
35
-------
36
------- |