&EPA
United States
Environmental Protection
Agency
Office of Water
Program Operations (WH-547)
Washington, DC 20460
December 1973
430/9-74-008
Water
Start-Up of Municipal
Wastewater Treatment
Facilities
MO-8
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NOTES
To order this publication, MO-8, "Start-up of Municipal Wastewater Treatment
Facilities", write to:
GENERAL SERVICES ADMINISTRATION (8BRC)
CENTRALIZED MAILING LIST SERVICES
BUILDING 41, DENVER FEDERAL CENTER
DENVER, COLORADO 80225
Please indicate the MO number and title of publication.
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START-UP
OF
MUNICIPAL WASTEWATER
TREATMENT FACILITIES
MUNICIPAL OPERATIONS BRANCH
OFFICE OF WATER PROGRAM OPERATIONS
U. S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
WASHINGTON, D, C. 20460
CONTRACT NO. 68-01-0341
DECEMBER 1973
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EPA Review Notice
This manual is presented as helpful guidance and source
material only; it is not a regulatory document. Mention of
trade names or commercial products does not constitute EPA
endorsement or recommendation for use.
11
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ABSTRACT
This manual provides guidance for putting into initial operation a new municipal wastewater
treatment plant, a new addition to an existing treatment plant, or a change in the mode of a
treatment plant's operation. Proper operation of the treatment plant or process will ensure
that the wastewater is treated in compliance with the specific conditions and limitations
established for each treatment facility.
Information is provided on preparing for actual treatment plant start-up. Preparation for
start-up includes: staffing the plant, developing standard operating procedures, conducting
dry- and wet-run testing of equipment, providing on-site operator training, conducting
safety training, and establishing procedures when construction is continuing during start-up.
This manual describes start-up procedures for some of the more common pretreatment and
primary treatment units; for the specific secondary treatment processes of activated sludge,
trickling filters, stabilization ponds and aerated lagoons; and for sludge handling units and
the anaerobic digestion process. The start-up procedures for advanced wastewater treatment
units and processes are not within the scope of this manual
References are provided for additional information on administrative and process
considerations; a glossary of pertinent wastewater terms is also included.
This report was submitted in fulfillment of Contract Number 68-01-0341 under the
sponsorship of the Municipal Operations Branch, Office of Water Programs Operations, U. S.
Environmental Protection Agency.
in
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
SECTION PAGE
I INTRODUCTION 1
II ' PREPARATION FOR START-UP 3
Staffing , ; 6
Standard Operating Procedures 8
Site Meetings 10
Inventory of Equipment, Manuals, Tools and Consumables 13
On-Site Operator Start-Up Training 16
Safety 17
Construction Continuing During Start-Up 19
III START-UP OF THE PRETREATMENT, PRIMARY TREATMENT,
AND CHLORINATION FACILITIES ' . 21
Screens 21
Shredding Devices 22
Grit Chambers . . . 23
Flotation Units 25
SettlingTanks 26
Chlorination 28
Summary 29
IV START-UP OF SECONDARY FACILITIES 31
Activated Sludge 31
Trickling Filters ." 49
Stabilization Ponds and Aerated Lagoons 53
V START-UP OF THE SLUDGE HANDLING FACILITIES 57
Anaerobic Digestion 57
Sludge Conditioning 72
Sludge Dewatering 74
Disposal 77
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
(Continued)
SECTION PAGE
VI APPENDICES 79
A Associated EPA Programs 81
B Glossary 83
VII ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 87
VIII REFERENCES 89
VI
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FIGURES
NUMBER PAGE
1 START-UP TIMETABLE OF EVENTS 4
2 SAMPLE PRE-START-UP INSPECTION RECORD 12
3 SEQUENTIAL MECHANISM OF ANAEROBIC
SLUDGE DIGESTION 59
VE
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LIST OF TABLES
NUMBER PAGE
1 MODIFICATIONS OF THE ACTIVATED SLUDGE PROCESS 33
2 INHIBITORY CONCENTRATIONS OF ALKALI AND
ALKALINE-EARTH CATIONS 65
Vlll
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SECTION I
INTRODUCTION
The primary function of municipal wastewater treatment facilities is to collect and treat
municipal wastewaters so as to attain the national "... goal of water quality which provides
for the protection and propagation of fish, shellfish, and wildlife, and provides for
recreation in and on the water." The Federal Water Pollution Control Act Amendments of
19_72 stipulate that this function is to be accomplished by publicly owned treatment works
in a consistent and reliable manner so as to meet effluent limitations based upon secondary
treatment or any more stringent applicable limitations, by July 1,1977, and so as to employ
the best practicable waste treatment technology by July 1, 1983. The specific conditions
and limitations will be identified in a permit issued to each point source discharge under the
"National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System" established by the Act.
Since the discharge of pollutants in excess of the effluent limitations defined in the plant's
discharge permit is prohibited by the Act, municipal wastewater treatment plants, from the
day of initial operation, must begin to effectively increase the degree of treatment of the
wastewater. This manual has been prepared to in the accomplishment of this objective.
Start-up can be defined as a series of events that lead to a stabilized, routinely controlled
plant, process, or unit. The manual provides considerations on preparations prior to start-up,
starting up the pretreatmentj primary treatment and chlorination facilities, and techniques
and considerations on starting up secondary treatment processes and sludge handling
processes and units.
The manual is presented in four major sections. The first major section, Preparation for
Start-Up, applies to all facilities regardless of type or size. It further applies whether starting
up a completely new wastewater treatment plant or starting up a new process or unit that
has been added to an existing wastewater treatment plant.
The following section, Start-Up of the Pretreatment, Primary Treatment, and Chlorination
Facilities, gives considerations for starting up some of the more common physical and
chemical units involved in wastewater treatment plants.
Section IV, Start-Up of the Secondary Facilities, gives considerations and techniques for
starting up the biological processes based upon parameters involved in the design and
recognized techniques used for start-up.
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The fourth major section, Start-Up of the Sludge Handling Facilities, provides
considerations for start-up of the more common sludge handling units and considerations
and techniques for starting up an anaerobic digester based upon the design parameters and
recognized techniques used for start-up.
The manual should be used by anyone involved with the start-up of a waste water treatment
plant, process, or unit. It is intended to be a useful source document for persons preparing
start-up recommendations for the start-up section of the plant's Operation and Maintenance
Manual. The manual is also intended to provide considerations and techniques for starting
up a new plant, process, or unit, or restarting processes or units. Persons using the manual
should exclude only the particular units or processes that the facility does not have;
however, Section II, Preparation for Start-Up, is general and broad enough to provide
information on starting up an entire facility or only a particular unit.
The manual further can be used as a general description or reference to plant operations and
functions.
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SECTION H
PREPARATION FOR START-UP
This section deals with considerations for the administrative and operational procedures that
should be followed before start-up. Following this guidance will eliminate many problems
and the potential for problems often associated with start-up. The considerations can be
used equally as well by experienced or nonexperienced supervisors in their preparation for
start-up.
The following is a list of the topics and activities contained in this section. They are
presented in a sequence that should lead to a successful start-up if proper consideration is
given to the guidance discussed in this section. Figure No. 1, Start-Up Timetable of Events,
is an illustration of the following topics and activities. Although it is for a large plant, it can
be reduced or enlarged to correspond to any size or type of plant, process, or unit.
1. Employ Treatment Plant Supervisor who should:
A. Develop a working relationship with the contractor's project
engineer and equipment suppliers.
B. Study construction schedules and plant layouts.
C. Initiate start-up planning and scheduling.
2. Employ assistant treatment plant supervisor, chief operator, chemist,
and/or other key plant personnel who should:
A. Study plant layouts.
B. Study their individual responsibilities and activities.
C. Assist the Treatment Plant Supervisor with start-up
preparations.
3. Develop Standard Operating Procedures (SOP) to include:
A. Shift schedules.
B. Laboratory sampling and testing schedules.
C. Plant record keeping procedures.
D. Areas of responsibility.
4. Employ plant operators, mechanics and electricians meeting
qualifications based on the Environmental Protection Agency and
State Regulatory Agency criteria.
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EMPLOYMENT OF OTHER
PLANT PERSONNEL
30 DAYS
INVENTORY AND GATHERING
OF EQUIPMENT, MANUALS,
TOOLS, AND CONSUMABLES
gl DAYS
fe8
Z<_1
UJ^O.
>zz
z<(-
E-JUI
>~a—l
co a,
z>>x
OliJO
uxu
FIGURE NO. 1
START-UP TIMETABLE OF EVENTS
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5. Employ custodial, clerical and/ or individual laboratory personnel.
6. Modify SOP for plant start-up and minimize modifications from
normal operating procedures.
7. Hold initial site meeting to coordinate start-up schedule with
construction schedule.
8. Inventory and gather equipment manuals, tools, and consumables
following the plant operation and maintenance manual and the
equipment manufacturer's recommendations.
9. Conduct Dry-Run Inspection to ensure that:
A. The installation of the equipment is checked and corrected if
necessary.
B. , 'The construction of the plant structures is checked and
corrected if necessary.
10. Conduct On-Site Dry-Run Operator Training in:
A. The operation and maintenance of equipment and tools.
B. The laboratory sampling and testing procedures.
C. The "plant layout and start-up responsibilities.
D. The plant safety.
11. Conduct Wet-Run Inspection of:
A. The equipment for proper operation.
B. The piping and valves for leaks.
C. The laboratory testing equipment.
D. The monitoring and flow measuring instruments.
12. Conduct On-Site Wet-Run Operator Training
A. Instruct personnel in:
(1) The operation of the equipment under load.
(2) The capabilities and limitations of the equipment.
B. ' Conduct tours of similar plants.
C. Institute buddy training with other plants in the area.
D. Institute education from Federal and State training programs.
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13. Hold Start-Up Planning Site Meeting to:
A. Review start-up sequence and activities.
B. Discuss responsibilities of all personnel and involved parties.
C. List persons to be present during start-up.
D. List persons to remain on call during start-up.
E. Discuss emergency action procedures.
14. On start-up day, place start-up procedures into action.
The start-up of any municipal treatment facility is a complex operation requiring careful
planning, effective coordination, and detailed preparation to maximize the treatment plant's
efficiency and to minimize problems. The information provided in this section should be
sufficiently general to apply to any wastewater treatment facility process or unit regardless
of type and size. The details of any start-up procedure will, of course, have to be tailored to
a specific facility, process, or unit. Giving consideration to the guidance contained in this
section will help ensure that no important activities are overlooked during preparation for
start-up. This section also contains considerations for organizing productive site meetings
prior to start-up, providing effective on-site operator start-up training, and minimizing
problems that might arise when plant construction is continuing while a portion of the
facility is being started up.
STAFFING
A major consideration before start-up is the selection of personnel to operate the
wastewater treatment facility. To aid in the selection of personnel, the U. S. Environmental
Protection Agency (EPA) has developed two manuals entitled "Estimating Staffing for
Municipal Wastewater Treatment Facilities," Contract No. 68-01-0328, and "Estimating
Costs and Manpower Requirements for Conventional Wastewater Treatment Facilities,"
Contract No. 14-12-462. These manuals discuss the skills required by the plant personnel,
plant staff organization, and the means to determine the necessary number of plant
personnel. One of the most thorough methods for determining the necessary number of
plant personnel presented in the staffing manuals is by task analysis. Briefly, this method
consists of making an analysis of the tasks or jobs that are to be performed in the
wastewater treatment plant and then each task or job is assigned a skill requirement. The
analysis provides information on the skills and qualifications necessary to perform each task.
The supervisor of the treatment system should be selected well in advance of plant start-up
to observe construction of the facility, become familiar with the plant layout and
equipment, and employ and organize the plant personnel. (See Figure No. 1, Page 4) The
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supervisor should review with the project engineer: the engineering drawings, process
concepts, the O & M Manual, and equipment layout. In addition, the supervisor of the
wastewater treatment plant:
1. Has the responsibility for the administration, operation and
maintenance of the entire plant.
2, Exercises direct authority over all plant functions.
3. Develops and initiates changes in plans and procedures of operation.
4. Organizes and directs operating personnel's activities and
responsibilities.
5. Inspects plant regularly.
6. Analyzes and evaluates plant performance.
7. Controls and recommends expenditure of funds.
8. Maintains effective channel of communications and relationships
with employees, public officials, and the general public.
The supervisor should have invested in him the authority to speak for the owner. However,
since the supervisor will have no direct authority over the contractor or manufacturer's
representative, it is very important that he establish good relations with these persons in
order to leam as much as possible about the plant and its equipment.
If possible, the plant operators should be employed well before start-up in order that they
may participate in on-site training. The operator may be called upon to perform any
combination of tasks for controlling operation of the plant. These tasks may include:
1. Controlling flow and processing of wastewater and sludge.
2. Monitoring gages, meters, and control panels.
3. Analyzing meter, gage, and control readings and test results to
determine process requirements.
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4 Operating pumps, gates, valves and engines to control and adjust flow
and treatment processes.
5. Collecting samples and performing laboratory tests,
6. Performing maintenance on equipment.
7. Making operating decisions in the absence of supervisory personnel.
Many states require that the operators of a sewage treatment plant be certified by the state.
The state certifies that the operator is familiar with sewage treatment processes and
operations. As many certified operators as needed should be employed to ensure that the
above considerations and the state requirements are met.
In smaller wastewater treatment plants, the operators may perform mechanical and
electrical maintenance, and laboratory sampling and testing. If the plant staff is divided into
individual positions of operators, mechanics, electricians, and laboratory personnel, these
positions should also be filled before start-up and the personnel properly trained in their
respective duties and responsibilities and familiarized with the plant layout and equipment.
For the purpose of this manual, these individual positions will be termed as operators.
All other staff positions such as custodial and clerical should also be filled before start-up.
STANDARD OPERATING PROCEDURES
Developing proper operating procedures during start-up will help eliminate many of the
problems with processes and equipment that plague poorly operated wastewater treatment
plants. By using the plant's 0 & M Manual, the supervisor, with other key plant personnel
and the project engineer, should develop the standard operating procedures. The standard
operating procedures should include:
1. Each shift schedule and procedures for transferring plant operations
from one shift to another:
A. The number of men required for each shift.
B. The operator's individual responsibilities.
C. The schedule of daily and nondaily to be performed.
2. The schedule of laboratory sampling and testing,
3. The procedure for recording:
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A, The plant operations and maintenance activities,
B. The maintenance schedules.
4. The procedures for changing the operation of the facilities,
5. The plant staff organization.
The standard operating procedure should be reviewed and revised periodically by the
wastewater treatment plant management. To aid in developing the standard operating
procedures, the EPA is presently developing a "Guide for Developing Standard Operating
Job Procedures for Wastewater Treatment Plants," Grant No. 900253.
During start-up, the standard operating procedure may have to be modified. The supervisor
should try to arrange the start-up shift schedule as close to the normal operating schedule as
possible. Key personnel such as the shift foreman, project engineer, and start-up experts
may be called upon to work more than one shift. Extra personnel may also be required for
one or more shifts due to the increased work load that accompanies start-up. In small plants,
where the maintenance force is available on one shift only, the force should be on 24-hour
call during start-up.
The procedure for. shift transfer should not have to be modified a great deal for start-up.
The new shift should be -provided with laboratory test results, process readouts, visual
inspection data, any control action taken, and any other pertinent data needed to evaluate
the condition of the treatment process.
During start-up, the supervisors and shift foremen should meet with their counterparts to
review the shift log and discuss any unusual conditions or problems. They should review all.
new operations and maintenance forms during start-up to ensure the forms are being
completed correctly by the treatment plant personnel. The plant supervisor, acting as the
start-up coordinator, should see that all start-up information or special instructions are
properly transferred from one shift to another.
The standard operating procedures should detail the schedule of laboratory sampling and
testing. These" procedures should be introduced to the operating personnel by the plant
chemist, lab technician, or chief operator. The operator's performance in sampling and
testing should be reviewed in order to prevent any bad practices from developing into
routine operational procedure. The importance of accurate sanipEng and testing as a process
control tool and its importance during start-up should be explained to all the operating
personnel. The schedule of laboratory sampling and testing should provide for: (1) the type
9
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of testing, (2) the time of testing, (3) the quantity of samples, (4) the point from where the
sample is to be obtained, if not a composite sample, and (5) the frequency of sampling and
testing. During start-up, some tests may be run more often than normal, and sampling points
may have to be changed. The supervisor should see that the start-up schedule for sampling
and testing is written and reviewed with the key plant personnel. The EPA has prepared a
manual entitled "Estimating Laboratory Needs for Municipal Wastewater Treatment
Facilities," EPA430/9-74-002, to provide information on what an individual wastewater
treatment plant's laboratory needs are.
Proper plant records during and after start-up are essential to ensure that the treatment
plant will operate efficiently. As mentioned previously, the records should include the
laboratory test results, any control action taken, and any specific tasks performed. All
unusual conditions observed should be recorded for future reference. Figure No. 7 in
"Considerations for Preparation of Operation and Maintenance Manuals," EPA-430/974-001
is a sample of a portion of the standard operating procedure, the daily operating log. The
supervisor should supplement the daily log with the number of men on each shift and their
responsibilities and duties, and provide a schedule for nondaily tasks to be performed.
SITE MEETINGS
The objectives of start-up site meetings are to produce cooperation and understanding
between the different parties involved with start-up by providing a means to: (1) schedule
events, (2) inform all affected parties of any action to be taken, and (3) discuss and solve
problems and conflicts of interest. (See Figure 1, Page 4) The major site meetings are
referred to as the:
1. Initial
2. Dry-Run Inspection
3. Wet-Run Inspection
4, Start-Up Planning
5. Start-Up Day
Initial Site Meetings
The initial site meetings between the plant superintendent, contractor's project engineer,
and the equipment supplier are to coordinate the start-up schedule with the construction
schedule.
The supervisor should request that he be allowed to observe all installation, inspection, and
pretesting of the plant equipment. This procedure will enhance the supervisor's knowledge
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of the facilities and will also allow him to note any discrepancies he feels should be brought
to the attention of the contractor's project engineer, equipment manufacturer's
representative, or owner as he deems appropriate.
When construction is well underway, the supervisor should meet with the above persons and
request that he be allowed to take the treatment plant personnel through the plant and
familiarize them with the treatment plant equipment. This tour will require written approval
from the contractor if he intends to operate the equipment unless that particular piece of
equipment has been turned over to the owner as being "substantially complete." The
supervisor should also request the equipment manufacturer's representatives to assist in
training the plant operators in the maintenance and operation of the equipment. The
supervisor can then arrange a schedule for the training of the plant operators and testing of
the plant facilities. ~"
Dry-Run Inspection Site Meetings
The dry-run inspection site meetings should be attended by the contractor, manufacturer's
- representatives, and the supervisor. The supervisor should record the actions that take place
in the meeting. A form such as Figure No. 2, Sample Pre-Start-Up Inspection Record, will be
of help during the inspection of the facilities and can be used as a permanent record for the
plant's log book. The supervisor should have a copy of the manufacturer's literature on the
installation, inspection and pretesting of their equipment. This information will enable the
supervisor to become more familiar with the plant equipment and help him to notice any
deficiencies that are present.
During these meetings, the supervisor with the project engineer should see that the
manufacturer's representative checks the equipment for proper mounting, direction of
rotation or travel, proper lubrication with the type of lubricants recorded and properly
filed, clearances, alignments', undue noise and vibration, safety devices, and general
operation. The supervisor and project engineer should see that the contractor removes all
rags, stones, paper and other debris; that the piping is inspected for obstructions; that all
piping and line connections are checked for leaks; that all gates and valves are checked for
operation and seating; and that all safety chains and guards are in place.
The supervisor should also see that all equipment is properly broken in, that all equipment
not to be used immediately is properly protected, and that the laboratory-equipment is
inspected for proper operation and calibration.
The inspection party should see' that the malfunctions are scheduled for corrective action
and a time is arranged for the operator's dry-run training and the wet-run testing of the
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PLANT NAME AND LOCATION
EQUIP.
NO.
1001
1057
EQUIP.
)ESCRIPT.
COMMINUTOR
RAW SEWAGE
PUMP # 1
GRIT CHAMBER
#1
CONNECTION
OF PIPE
TO RAW
SEWAGE
PUMP #4
DRY RUN TEST AND
CORRECTIVE ACTION
OK
LOOSE MOUNTINGS -
CONTRACTOR WILL COR
RECT BY 1/24/65
IMPELLER CRACKED -
SUPPLIER WILL REPLACE
BY 2/3/65
OK
OK
DATE
1/23
1/23
1/23
1/23
1/23
WET RUN TEST AND
CORRECTIVE ACTION
OK
UNDUE VIBRATION -
SUPPLIER WILL FIX BY
3/3/65
DEAD SPOT -
CONTRACTOR WILL FIX
BY 2/18/65
PRESSURE LEAK -
SUPPLIER WILL REPAIR
BY 2/19/65
DATE
2/17
2/21
2/17
2/17
CERTI-
FIED OK
2/17/65
3/5/65
2/18/65
2,19/65
FIGURE NO. 2
SAMPLE PRE-START-UP INSPECTION RECORD
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facilities. Note: This manual's section on on-site operator training will present detailed
considerations of the'operator's training.
INVENTORY OF EQUIPMENT, MANUALS, TOOLS, AND CONSUMABLES
Prior to start-up the following items should be on hand, properly inventoried and stored by
the supervisor and his staff:
1. A facility operation and maintenance manual.
2. A complete set of as-built drawings.
3. Construction specifications.
4. An indexed collection of construction photos.
5. The manufacturer's literature on operation and maintenance of his
equipment, including parts list, component specifications sheets and
drawings, and schematic drawings of the components supplied.
. 6. Manuals and literature deemed appropriate for plant operation and
efficiency. (See the plant's O & M Manual for a partial list,)
7. - Laboratory glassware, equipment, and chemicals needed in process
control.
8. All tools and equipment needed for plant operation and
maintenance.
9. All safety equipment.
10. Chemicals needed for process control and operation.
11. Spare parts for each piece of equipment as recommended by manufacturer.
12. Grease and oil needed for maintenance and operation of equipment.
The plant's O & M Manual should contain a list of similar items tailored for a specific plant.
Most of these items should be on hand prior to testing the equipment.
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Wet-Run Inspection Site Meetings
The wet-run inspection site meetings generally should occur after the wastewater treatment
plant's owner has accepted the facility or unit as being "substantially complete."
By accepting the facility or unit, the supervisor and his staff will be free to operate the
equipment on their own schedule. The contract document will call for a warranty period
from the contractor and equipment manufacturer and, therefore, the wet-run inspection and
testing should be done as early as possible to enable corrections to be made promptly and
before actual start-up. If possible, the supervisor should have the equipment manufacturer's
representatives present during the wet-run inspection. His input will be valuable to the
supervisor and his staff.
The equipment manufacturer's instructions should be followed when inspecting and
pretesting his equipment. The wet-run inspection should include:
1. Checking all piping and valves for leaks.
2. Inspecting operation of all gates and valves.
3. Inspecting all pumps.
4. Operating all mechanical devices under hydraulic load.
5. Inspecting chlorination facilities.
6. Observing laboratory sampling and testing procedures.
7. Checking all electronic/pneumatic instrumentation for proper
operation.
8. Inspecting all flow meters, temperature and pressure indicators.
9. Inspecting all weir levels and adjusting for start-up.
All deficiencies found during the inspection and testing should be corrected before start-up.
The supervisor and contractor's project engineer should then schedule a start-up planning
site meeting.
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Start-Up Planning Site Meeting
The supervisor should inform the persons who are to be present at* the start-up planning site
meeting of the date, time, and location of the meeting. The supervisor should provide
persons present with the meeting agenda and any topics that they may be called upon to
discuss. The supervisor, acting as the start-up coordinator, should have discussed with his
staff, and the contractor's project engineer, the procedure for start-up and incorporated
their comments prior to the meeting. The site meeting to prepare plans for plant start-up
should include the contractor's project engineer, the treatment plant owner's representative,
the plant supervisor, start-up consultants, the assistant supervisor, operations supervisor,
maintenance supervisor, chemist, consultant's construction administrator on the project,
contractor's job superintendent, and any representatives from manufacturers of key or
unusual treatment units or processes.
At the meeting the supervisor, again acting as coordinator, should accomplish the following
items:
1. Select a tentative start-up date.
2, List the persons who should be on hand at start-up.
8, Giro the individual responsibilities at start-up,
4. Outline the events for start-up,
5. State who will remain on the site during start-up and who should
remain on call.
The start-up coordinator should develop a timetable of events showing all activities from
initial plant start-up to full operating efficiency. An illustration of a Timetable of Events is
shown in Figure No. 1, Page 4.
Start-Up Day Site Meeting
At the start-up day site meeting, the contractor's project engineer and equipment suppliers
should be on hand not only to ensure that the treatment equipment functions correctly but
also to continue training the operating personnel. Any plant activity during start-up such as
sludge pumping and vacuum filtration, which may not be common to all operating shifts,
should be observed by the key plant personnel from all shifts. All operator functions should
be monitored and critiqued by the supervisor so that bad practices are not allowed to
develop as standard operating procedure. Maintenance support from other municipal
divisions and local repair services for equipment should be alerted when the plant is ready
for start-up.
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ON-SITE OPERATOR START-UP TRAINING
In order to achieve the treatment objectives of the plant, it is necessary to have skilled plant
operators. The supervisor, project engineer, and the appropriate equipment suppliers should
conduct a series of tours through the plant for the operating personnel. The purpose of
these tours is to familiarize the personnel with the plant and train them in their operation
and maintenance responsibilities. The tour party should be tailored according to the
operator's experience or responsibilities in order to keep the group manageable and to
ensure that the training objectives are met. Training should be separated into Dry-Run
Training (without any water or wastewater in the plant) and Wet-Run Training.
The supervisor should be responsible for organizing the different groups, instructors and
timetable. Considerations should be given to the fact that the instructors may be available
for only a few days and, therefore, the supervisor should take steps to organize the
operator's training around the instructor's schedule. An example of the operator's training
program may look something like this:
Tuesday, October 20,1972
First Group - Primary Clarifies
1. N. Royal
2. J. Mohr
3. W. Roberson
Instructor - J. Staples (Equipment Supplier, Inc.)
8:00 - 12:00 - Operation and maintenance; emergency procedures
Second Group - Laboratory
1. A. Ingram
2. J. Ballard
3. G. Mills
4. O. O'Donnel
Instructor - C. West (Chemist)
8:00 - 12:00 - Sampling and testing; operation, calibration and
maintenance of equipment; test results and procedures for
corrective action; log book
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Dry-Run Training
The operator's dry-run training should provide the operator with instruction in all the
various unit operations of the treatment plant, in the performance of his duties, and inform
him of his responsibilities. The supervisor or foreman should have the construction drawings
and the plant's Operation and Maintenance Manual to assist in the explanation of the
operations of the treatment facility. The dry-ran training should also familiarize the
operating personnel with the equipment layouts, piping arrangements, remote monitoring
equipment and process control equipment.
The operator should be provided with instruction in the execution of Ms specific duties. If
possible, the operator should be shown by actual demonstration how to perform preventive
maintenance on the various pieces of equipment he must operate. The importance of
scheduled maintenance to prevent damage to the plant equipment should be emphasized.
Wet-Run Training
The wet-run training will strengthen the operator's understanding of the plant's treatment
processes and will demonstrate how the equipment functions under hydraulic load. The
operating personnel should also receive instruction in the role each piece of equipment has
in the overall treatment objectives of the wastewater treatment plant. If possible, the
supervisor should supplement the on:site training with:
1. A tour of similar plants or processes in the area or a pilot plant.
2. Buddy training, in which the operator is placed in a plant with an
experienced operator performing the same tasks and having the same
responsibilities as he will have.
3. Short courses offered by the state, .federal, or local agencies or by
holding classroom instruction himself.
NOTE: The EPA's "Operation of Wastewater Treatment Plants," Technical
Training Grant No. 5TT1-WP-16-03, is a home study course but is
also a useful reference for classroom training.
SAFETY
Accidents don't just happen — they are caused, and during start-up the potential tor
accidents is increased. Some factors contributing to this potential increase are:
17
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1. Personnel unfamiliar with equipment and operating procedures,
2, Empty tanks and basins.
3. Improperly installed equipment.
4. Inadequate lighting, ladder placement, handrail locations and
equipment layout.
5. Personnel exposed to electrical and mechanical hazards due to initial
operating adjustments.
6. Personnel unfamiliar with proper chemical handling, including
chlorine.
7. Inadequate tools for repairs.
The wastewater treatment facility should have a safety program underway before start-up.
Safety meetings with the plant personnel should be held routinely to discuss hazards in the
i
plant. Some of the hazards within the plant will be exposed during the operator's tour
through the plant and during the dry- and wet-run training. Any hazards identified by the
tours and training should be corrected before start-up. Signs, posters, and physical barriers
should be used to designate hazardous areas of the plant if corrective action is to be delayed.
Some means of motivating the personnel toward safety should be established such as
bonuses, medallions, and time off. Other potential hazards such as diseases, lifting of
equipment, and burns and cuts should be dealt with through the operator's training in
safety, first-aid and health.
The operator's training in the handling of chemicals, especially clorine, should be
thoroughly examined before start-up. A trial run in the connection and the use of the
chlorine facilities should be carefully monitored by the supervisor and a qualified chlorine
expert. The Water Pollution Control Federation's MOP No. 1, "Safety in Wastewater
Works," and the Chlorine Institute's "Chlorine Manual," 4th Edition, should be used in the
•operator's training in the handling of chlorine.
The Safety section of the plant's O & M Manual should contain an in-depth discussion of
safety along with a recommended list of safety equipment for the plant.
18
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The Safety section of the O & M Manual in conjunction with other safety manuals, such as
the Water Pollution Control Federation, MOP No. 1, "Safety in Wastewater Works," should
be thoroughly reviewed with the operators before start-up. The EPA is presently developing
a safety manual entitled "Safety in the Design, Operation and Maintenance of Wastewater
Treatment Works," Contract No. 68-01-0324, to be of assistance in developing and
operating a plant safety program.
Before start-up, all personnel should have a complete physical and be immunized against
waterborne diseases. The safety equipment listed in the plant's O & M Manual such as gas
masks, safety clothing, and first-aid kits should be inventoried and operational. The local
hospitals and police and fire departments should be notified of the chemicals that will be
used at the plant and their telephone numbers posted in a conspicuous place.
The accident report forms and the procedures for treating injuries also should be established
prior to start-up.
CONSTRUCTION CONTINUING DURING START-UP
At the start-up planning site meeting, it may be decided that construction of the entire plant
does not have to be completed before start-up can be initiated. It is not uncommon for
certain construction and equipment installation to be continuing when the plant or a
portion of the plant is placed into operation. Whenever this condition exists, a careful
analysis should be made to ensure that start-up can, in fact, take place.
The importance of the following recommendations is shown by the following case history:
Recently, a failure of communication and understanding between the contractor and the
plant supervisory staff, in conjunction with other complications, resulted in the complete
disruption of plant operations. As a result, the waste into the plant was bypassed into the
receiving waters for a number of days. The pollution of the receiving waters was great
enough to cause pubic officials to forbid public or private use of the water in the area for a
period of some 13 to 14 days. Further study of this situation reveals that it could have been
avoided if caution had been exercised and the lines of communication had been established
prior to starting up the new facilities. From this study, the following recommendations have
been prepared.
The contractor and equipment suppliers should assure the supervisor and his staff that there
will be no unannounced interruption of electrical power due to construction schedules, that
all the necessary equipment is installed correctly and operating properly, and that the plant
personnel will not be subjected to any undue safety hazards.
19
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The contractor and plant supervisor should coordinate all their activities. They should
develop a timetable of events for their projects and coordinate each other's special needs
while construction and start-up are proceeding simultaneously. The contractor and
supervisor must also anticipate contingencies that might occur. The access roads, hallways,
or steps may be blocked due to the unloading of materials; parking problems and traffic
problems might arise due to shifts being changed simultaneously; and storage of supplies
such as paint, gasoline, and chemicals may conflict with access to other supplies.
The supervisor and contractor should define in writing their respective responsibilities for
men, machines, and areas in case an accident to men, machines, or structures should occur.
For example, if the contractor is having equipment and supplies delivered to the site, the
agreement would indicate where deliveries should be made and stored, thus avoiding
possible damage to buried lines or cables from heavy equipment, keeping valves or lines
from being inadvertently covered, and ensuring access to certain areas needed both by the
contractor's and supervisor's personnel. A procedure should be included in the agreement to
clarify responsibilities in cases where problems arise beyond the scope of the agreement.
The contractor and supervisor not only should define their responsibilities but also should
define who is in charge in their absence. It is important that the person in charge be defined
so as to give guidance and answer questions as required. The areas where the contractor's or
supervisor's personnel should not go should be clearly indicated with physical barriers and
signs.
Safety is of the utmost importance when construction is continuing during start-up. Hazards
to personnel as well as the hazards to any biological processes are peatly increased, and the
recommendations in the safety portion of this section should receive added emphasis under
these conditions. Communication between the contractor and his personnel and the
supervisor and his staff is absolutely necessary to help ensure no conflicts of interest will
result and that personnel will not be subjected to any undue hazards.
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SECTION III
START-UP OF THE PRIMARY TREATMENT, ' '
AND CHLORWATION FACILITIES .
Pretreatment and primary treatment facilities are the key to proper operation of
conventional secondary treatment processes and sludge handling facilities. These facilities
screen out debris and remove grit, grease, and settleable solids, all of which are harmful to
the biological treatment processes and can damage plant equipment. Although the start-up
of these facilities is often a "push-button" operation, proper inspection and pretesting of
these units can eliminate many problems that occur during the start-up of wastewater
treatment plants. Proper start-up of the pretreatment, primary treatment, and chlorination
facilities will also help ensure an efficient start-up and maximize overall treatment plant
efficiency.
This section, gives consideration for starting up these facilities in regard to the overall
wastewater treatment plant objective. The guidance is general enough to apply to any of the
units regardless of any particular type of unit, although the guidance does not, nor is it
intended to, replace or dupEeate an individual equipment manufacturer's instructions or
recommendations. The manufacturer's instructions and recommendations should be
consulted whenever installing, inspecting, pretesting, maintaining, or starting his equipment.
It is, assumed that the previous section's considerations concerning preparation for start-up
have been developed. - , .
-i S «*•«*.* ' »
Common operating problems and their solutions not discussed in this manual can be found
in the EPA's "Procedural Manual for Evaluating the Performance of Wastewater Treatment
Plants," Contract No. 68-01-0107, and the WPCF's MOP No. 11, "Operation of Wastewater
Treatment Plants." Each treatment plant's O & M Manual should also contain valuable
information to help solve operating problems.
, , ,
The purpose of the screens is to remove or retain the coarse sewage solids which are likely to
produce nuisances create problems in the operation of pumps, raking mechanisms, or
other mechanical facilities.
The screens are either manually or mechanically cleaned and the debris removed is disposed
of by burial, incineration or, in some cases, by being placed in grinders or shredding devices
and returned to the plant influent. The areas around the screens should be cleaned
periodically of any spillage to help prevent accidents and help eliminate insect and odor
nuisances, - "
21
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Inspection and Pretesting
The manually cleaned bar screens should be inspected for proper installation and a schedule
provided for cleaning of the screens during start-up and normal operation.
The mechanically cleaned bar screen should be checked to ensure that it has been installed
properly and according to the equipment manufacturer's instructions, the operating interval
is suitable for start-up conditions, and the drive mechanism has been properly lubricated and
the lubricant type has been recorded and properly filed.
Once the screen mechanism is ready for pretesting, it should be turned through a complete
cycle either by hand or jogging with electrical power to check for proper clearances and
operation. The overload switch should be tested, if possible, to ensure that it will protect
the drive mechanism if jamming of the screen occurs. The bar screen should then be run
three to four hours to break it in and amperage reading taken and recorded.
Start-Up
During start-up the manually cleaned screens may require frequent attention due to large
amounts of debris that may have accumulated in the collection system. Clogged screens can
cause sewers to surcharge and may create septic wastewater in the collection system. This
condition could result in a shock load on the treatment plant when full flow is resumed.
Extra personnel may be needed to help remove the debris that collects on the screens if an
unusually large quantity is expected.
The mechanically cleaned screens help overcome the problem of screen clogging. However,
the screens may collect debris which the cleaning mechanism is unable to remove and
periodic checks for proper screen operation should be scheduled. Depending on the
direction of travel of the cleaning mechanism, the screen rakes can become jammed due to
the debris that may collect at the base of the screen. Although this occurs infrequently, it
should be especially watched for during start-up. The scraper mechanism that removes the
debris from the rakes should also be inspected. If the scraper does not clean the rakes
properly, the debris will be returned to the wastewater. The scraper mechanism should be
adjusted as soon as possible to correct this problem if it occurs. The screen should also be
inspected at frequent intervals during start-up to see that it is cleaning properly, that all
alignments are maintained, that all bolts are tight, and that there is no undue vibration.
SHREDDING DEVICES
The comminuting or shredding devices overcome the problem of disposal of debris by
cutting up the materials retained on the bar screens until they can pass through the screen
22
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openings and flow into the treatment plant. The comminute cuts up the material fine
enough to prevent it from damaging the pumps or other mechanical equipment. The
comminutor helps reduce odors and other nuisances often associated with bar screens,
although the solids returned to the wastewater may produce more scum in anaerobic
digesters.
Inspection and Pretesting
As mentioned previously (under the discussion of the bar screens), shredding devices should
be installed in accordance with the manufacturer's instructions. The shredding 'devices
should be inspected for proper clearances, alignment, and proper lubrication. The lubricant
types should be recorded and properly filed and all required safety alarms and/or overloads
should be operational.
After the shredding devices have been inspected for proper installation, they should be
" pretested by hand turning or electrically jogging the shredder through one complete cycle to
check for proper clearances and alignment.
The shredder should then be broken in for three or four hours and inspected for tight
mountings, vibration, overheating, and undue noise; and an amperage reading taken and
recorded.
Start-Up
During start-up it is important to inspect the comminuting and shredding equipment to help
protect the unit's cutters. The pre-start-up site meetings should have produced a frequency
of inspection during and after start-up. Most units have placed in front of the
comminutor to catch rocks and other heavy material. These traps should be checked and
cleaned of all stones, sticks, and other unwanted material. The shredding area should be
kept clean to help prevent accidents.
GRIT CHAMBERS
The function of the grit chambers is to remove sand, stones, cinders, and "other heavy
inorganic material. Grit chambeis provide for the early removal of this material, thus
protecting the mechanical equipment from abrasive action; reducing the formation of
deposits in pipelines, channels and conduits; and reducing the amount of inorganics entering
biological process units.
The gravity type grit chambers are usually rectangular in shape and rely on the velocity of
the wastewater through the chamber for grit removal. The flow is usually maintained at
23
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approximately one foot per second by the use of proportional weirs, orifices or flumes. This
velocity allows the heavier inorganics to settle out and be removed, either manually or
mechanically, and the less dense organic material to remain suspended.
A similar grit chamber uses air diff users or impellers to create a controlled velocity spiral roll
in the liquid which allows the heavier inorganics to settle out below the spiral roll and the
organies to remain suspended. The velocity of the roll is controlled by the rate of air
diffusion or by the impellers and the shape of the grit chamber.
Some grit chambers do not rely on velocity control but rely instead on mechanical means of
removal. One type an inclined submerged reciprocating rake to resuspend the lighter
organic material from the inorganic materiaL Another type uses the principal of centrifugal
force to separate the materials. Both of these pit chambers separate and classify the settled
materials more effectively than the velocity-controlled grit chambers.
Inspection and Pretesting
The inspection and pretesting of the chamber will vary according to the mechanical
equipment used.
The inspection of the gravity type pit chamber will be oriented toward inspecting the
construction of the basin and cheeking the flow control device for proper installation.
The spiral roll type of grit chamber should be inspected for construction and any debris left
after construction. The driving equipment such as blowers or motors should be inspected for
proper installation, tight mountings, and lubrication.
The mechanical grit chamber should be inspected for proper installation in accordance with
the manufacturer's instructions. The manufacturer's literature should contain an equipment
inspection checklist. In general, the lubrication should be checked and the lubricant type
recorded and properly filed. AH clearances and alignments should be checked carefully and
the mechanism should be turned by hand, or electrically jogged, through one complete
cycle. The unit should then be run for three to four hours and inspected for motor
overheating, safety devices, proper installation of guards, undue noise and vibration, and
mounting.
Another part of the grit chamber that will require inspection and pretesting is the grit
removal mechanism. The mechanism should be inspected for tight mountings, proper
lubrication, clearances, and alignment. This mechanism should have a short break-in period
24
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before being placed into operation. Any electric motors involved should be inspected,
tested, properly lubricated, and an amperage reading taken and recorded.
Start-Up
During start-up the grit chambers should be inspected periodically to ensure that the grit
removing mechanism is operating properly. The frequency of grit removal may have to be
increased during start-up due to possible large accumulation of grit in the collection system.
FLOTATION UNITS
Flotation is a unit operation which floats dissolved and suspended particles to the water
surface where they are removed, either manually or mechanically. The particles are made to
float by air bubbles that adhere to the particles causing the particles to float to the water
surface. The flotation units have also been used as sludge thickeners. (See Section V, Sludge
Conditioning.)
Flotation tanks are classified as air flotation, dissolved-air flotation, and vacuum flotation.
The end result is the same in any of the units; that is, the release of air bubbles into the
liquid to form a floating scum blanket. The air flotation tanks use air diffusers or impellers
to add air bubbles to the liquid which creates a floating scum blanket.
*.-**'" ' * - ®
The dissolved air flotation unit adds air in the wastewater while the wastewater is under
pressure. The liquid is allowed to become supersaturated with air and then it is released to
another tank at atmospheric- pressure. The decrease in pressure allows minute bubbles to
form throughout the liquid volume, thereby helping to create a scum blanket.
The vacuum flotation unit uses the same principle as the dissolved air unit. However, in this
unit, the air is added to the wastewater in a tank at atmospheric pressure and allowed to
become supersaturated with air. The wastewater is then transported to another tank where a
vacuum is applied, thus reducing the pressure and one'e again allowing minute air bubbles to
form, again resulting in the formation of a scum blanket.
Inspection and Pretesting
The flotation tank should be inspected and cleared of any debris that may have collected
during construction. The tank should be checked for proper installation of the air lines,
valves, and pumps if the flotation unit is a pressure or vacuum flotation tank. The air
flotation tank should be inspected for proper installation of the impeller and motor or air
lines, diffusers, and blower.
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Regardless of the type of flotation tank, the sludge removal mechanism should be inspected
for proper clearances and alignments and the flotation and sludge removal units should be
lubricated according to the manufacturer's instructions and the lubricant types recorded and
properly filed.
Before running the flotation for its three to four hour break-in period, the sludge removal
unit should be electrically jogged through one complete cycle and the depth of the rakes in
the water, the clearance and level of the rakes at the sludge trough, and the alignment of the
rakes and drive mechanism checked. The pressure or vacuum pump should be inspected for
tight mountings, smooth operation, overheating, undue noise or vibration, and proper
clearances and alignments. Pressure and amperage readings should be taken and recorded.
Start-Up
During start-up the unit should be inspected periodically to ensure that the skimming
mechanism is operating properly and that the scum blanket does not become too large or
too thick to handle.
SETTLING TANKS
Settling tanks are commonly used not only in primary treatment of wastewater, but also as
a unit operation in the secondary treatment processes of activated sludge and trickling
filters. The purpose of the primary sedimentation tank is to remove the larger suspended
solids and the floating material from the wastewater prior to discharge to the receiving
waters or to the secondary treatment units. The primary sedimentation tank effectively
removes from 50-65 percent of the suspended solids and from 25-40 percent of the BODp-
from domestic wastewater. The secondary type settling tanks treat the biological unit's
effluent. The operation is the same as the primary except the surface loading and sludge
volume are usually less than the primary. The intermediate settling tank is used between
trickling filters for improved efficiency and operates in the same manner as the primary and
secondary settling tanks.
Inspection and Pretesting
The inspection and pretesting of the primary clarifier is particularly important because it is a
major unit with many mechanical parts submerged during operation. The basin and piping
should be cleared of all debris. All control gates and valves should be checked for smooth
operation and proper seating and the sludge collector mechanism checked for proper
alignments, clearances, and lubrication. The drive mechanism should be inspected for tight
mountings, drive alignment, clearances, safety devices, and proper lubrication; the weirs
26
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should be inspected for level. The manufacturer's literature should be reviewed to see that
the mechanism has been installed, lubricated and is operating according to their instructions.
The mechanism should be run for three to four hours prior to letting wastewater in. The
raking mechanism should be cheeked for proper clearance and smoothness of operation and
the drive motor inspected for any undue noise, vibration, and overheating, and.an amperage
reading taken and recorded. During start-up the scum removal equipment should be checked
to see that it is removing the scum properly.
Start-Up
During start-up of the primary clarifier, the raw sludge should be removed from the clarifier
(settling tank) when it consists of four to eight percent dry solids as indicated by the total
or suspended solids test. Sludge removed two times a day will normally be of this
consistency. The sample of raw sludge is usually taken from a sludge pit before pumping.
The sludge is mixed in the pit and a representative sample taken directly from the well.
Samples are also collected from openings in pipes near the sludge pumps or from the pump
itself. When pumping to digesters, the sludge should be as thick as possible and sludge
withdrawal (pumping) rates should be low in order that water is not drawn into the sludge.
As the sludge is being removed, it should also be checked for the amount of grit present. If
appreciable amounts are present, then more, frequent removal of grit is necessary and the
--x
grit removal equipment should be inspected.
Operating personnel should be trained in the clarifier operation and be provided with a
schedule for .sludge pumping during start-up and normal operation. When the sludge appears
thin (appreciable amount of water) by visual inspection, pumping should be stopped.
Although the total solids test is the only accurate means for determining the density of the
sludge, it is too slow for control of routine pumping operations. Many operators use the
centrifuge test for quick results and most experienced operators can visually determine if
the sludge is the proper density to pump by sounding for the depth of sludge. Sounding for
depth enables the operator to determine the sludge quantity to be removed and thus the
time required for pumping to remove that quantity of sludge. The laboratory test should be
run to.,verify the operator's judgment and tor the plant operating records. Other laboratory
tests should be run for plant operation and control such as the DO, BOD, Suspended Solids
and Settleable Solids. The plant's O & M Manual should contain a list and frequency of the
necessary laboratory tests for the clarifier. The procedures for running these tests are found
in Standard Methods, and the WPCF's Publication No. 18, "Simplified Laboratory
Rrocedures for Wastewater Examination"; these references should be included in the
supervisor's list of necessary books and manuals for plant operation.
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Three of the more common operating problems that may affect the operation of the
sedimentation basins are too thick a sludge, septic sludge, and short circuiting.
1. If the sludge removal equipment operates erratically, it may be
because of a thick sludge. After inspecting to see that some
mechanical failure has not occurred, and a thick sludge has been
identified, steps to remove the sludge should be taken. More frequent
and controlled removal of the sludge should cure and prevent this
condition. It may be necessary to dewater the tanks and remove the
sludge by hand if there is a possibility of damaging the equipment.
2. If the sludge is not removed often enough, it may become septic,
indicated by a "rotten egg" odor and possibly a rising sludge blanket.
In this case, it may be beneficial to chlorinate the clarifier contents
to reduce odors and delay the decomposition of the sewage while
corrective action is being taken. Chlorinating the clarifier contents
should be done with caution because it will affect any following
biological processes. More frequent removal of the sludge will cure or
prevent this condition if it is not the result of a mechanical failure.
3. Short circuiting is another problem that might occur at start-up.
Short circuiting occurs when a high velocity area exists in the basin
and can be indicated by a rising sludge, flow of sludge particles in the
effluent, and septic sewage. Usually, proper baffling, weir type and
elevation, and inlet design can prevent or reduce this problem by
altering the flow regime within the clarifier.
CHLORINATION
Chlorine is a gas, heavier than air, extremely toxic, and corrosive in moist atmospheres. The
gas is irritating to the mucous membranes of the nose, to the throat, to the lungs and heavy
exposure can be fatal. All persons handling chlorine should be aware of these hazardous
properties. The operator's on-site training, the Water Pollution Control Federation's MOP
No. 1, "Safety in Wastewater Works," the Chlorine Institute's "Chlorine Manual," 4th
Edition, the EPA's "Procedural Manual for Evaluating the Performance of Wastewater
Treatment Plants," Contract No. 68-01-0107, and the chlorine equipment supplier can help
familiarize the operators with the hazards of chlorine and with the use of various pieces of
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protective equipment such as oxygen systems. The operator's training should include
instructions in the dangers of chlorine, the use of emergency equipment and repair kits, first
aid, and the methods and procedures for handling chlorine containers.
Although clorine is primarily used as a disinfectant in wastewater plants, it has a variety of
other uses also. In a preehlorination unit, chlorine is added for disinfection and odor
control, but it can also be applied to reduce plant BOD load, to aid in settling, to control
foaming, and to help remove oil. Throughout other points in the plant, chlorine may be
added to wastewater for control and prevention of odors, sludge bulking, filter flies,
corrosion, digester foaming, filter ponding, and as an aid in sludge thickening. Following all
other treatment units and processes, chlorine is added primarily for disinfection.
Disinfection is strictly defined as the destruction of all pathogenic organisms. By destroying
the pathogenic and nonpathogenic organisms, chlorine helps prevent nuisances such as odors
from developing and protects municipal water supplies, bathing beaches, and other
recreational areas from waterborne diseases.
Inspection and Pretesting
As mentioned under On-Site Operator's Training arid the Safety section, an experienced
individual in the use and handling of chlorine should always be on hand prior to start-up to
guide the new operating personnel in the inspection and pretesting of the chlorine
equipment. In general, the chlorination equipment should be inspected for installation and
calibration, and the pressure readings should be recorded. The connections should be
cheeked with ammonia water with the chlorinator only partially open. Having the
chlorinator only partially open will aid the operator if he has to shut down the chlorinator
quickly. All valve positions should be checked and the valves should be inspected for proper
seating. Safety equipment and emergency repair kits should be on hand and inspected. The
"Handbook of Chlorination" by George Clifford White, Chapter 3, discusses start-up of the
chlorination equipment in detail.
Start-Up'
Once the equipment has been inspected and pretested, start-up" should produce few
mechanical problems. The operator should measure the chlorine feed and chlorine residual
and adjust the system to provide the required amount of chlorine residual determined by
the supervisor, state, and/or federal regulatory agencies.
SUMMARY
The preceding sections have provided recommendations and procedures for starting up
pretreatment, primary treatment, and chlorination facilities; however, the procedures are
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not absolute. It cannot be stressed enough that the procedures should be used in
conjunction with the manufacturer's recommendations and instruction and advice from
experts in the field of wastewater treatment plant operation.
Before starting up any of the pretreatment, primary treatment, and chlorination units, they
should be thoroughly inspected, pretested, and made ready for start-up. During start-up, it is
important that the equipment be inspected periodically to ensure that the units are
performing properly and to note any problems or indications of potential problems that
might arise. The electric motors should be properly lubricated and the lubricant type filed;
and readings such as pressure and amperage should be recorded both when the motor is
under load and without load. The plant personnel should try to anticipate any contingencies
that might occur during start-up and to plan for the proper corrective action to handle these
problems.
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" " SECTION IV
START-UP OF SECONDARY FACILITIES
The secondary treatment processes used in municipal wastewater treatment aid in providing
the high degree of treatment required to ensure the protection of the receiving waters.
Secondary treatment processes consist' of complex biological systems that require a delicate
balance of food and environment. Since it is during start-up that the microorganism
population required for proper treatment is being developed, the start-up of secondary
processes is more critical than their normal operation because of the increased need for
process control. A proper start-up of the secondary process ensures maximum treatment
efficiency from the initial day of operation.
This section provides considerations and techniques for starting up secondary treatment
processes. The guidance is general enough to apply to any size or type of secondary
treatment process. It is assumed that the previous sections' considerations on preparing for
start-up and start-up of the pretreatment, primary treatment, and chlorination facilities have
been incorporated into the start-up procedures.
Common operating problems and their solutions not discussed in this manual can be found
in the EPA's "Procedural Manual for Evaluating the Performance of Wastewater Treatment
Plants," and the WPCF's MOP No. 11, "Operation of Wastewater Treatment Plants." Each
treatment plant's O & M Manual should also contain valuable information to help solve
operating problems.
ACTIVATED SLUDGE
The activated sludge process is a biological wastewater treatment process. The activated
sludge, in general, consists primarily of bacteria, protozoa, and rotifers living in the sewage
in the presence of dissolved oxygen. The activated sludge converts organic substances in
finely divided, colloidal, and dissolved form into oxidized products and a settleable floe.
This floe, now as activated sludge, is removed from the wastewater by sedimentation leaving
a high quality effluent. The biological action is accomplished in aeration tanks where the
organisms are maintained in an aerobic environment by introducing oxygen into a mixture
of activated sludge arid sewage. The settling of the floe is accomplished in secondary settling
tanks.
Raw sewage does not contain sufficient organisms to properly stabilize the organics present
in the wastewater; therefore, it is necessary to develop sufficient microbial mass (activated
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sludge) and distribute and maintain the mass throughout the wastewater to accomplish the
designed treatment. As the organisms feed on the organics and increase in number, they are
removed from the aeration basin, and settled in a clarifier; appropriate portion is
recirculated to the aeration basin to provide the desired mass of organisms needed to
efficiently treat the wastewater.
The primary objective of start-up is to develop a proper microbial floe (activated sludge) as
quickly as possible. This development will result in an increase in the reduction of
bipchemical oxygen demand (BODg) and a reduced load on the receiving waters as the
activated sludge floe is settled and removed in the sedimentation tanks. A portion of this
settled floe (activated sludge) is returned to the aeration tanks until a desirable
concentration of organisms, expressed as mixed liquor suspended solids (MLSS), has been
established in the process. Once this concentration is established, excess settled floe
(activated sludge) is wasted to maintain the proper concentration of MLSS in the process.
The activated sludge process has various modifications which provide different approaches
to biological waste treatment depending on the characteristics of the wastewater to be
treated. Table 1 illustrates some of the differences in these process modifications. (Note the
differences in MLSS concentration.)
It is essential that laboratory analysis and control schedules be provided and followed during
start-up. Although the following procedures should apply to starting up any of the process
modifications of the activated sludge process, the supervisor should take advantage of all the
information available to him. The person(s) responsible for start-up should obtain the
process design criteria such as influent flow, BODg loading, sludge age, detention time,
temperature and mixed liquor suspended solids (MLSS) concentration. The use of these
parameters as control parameters should be discussed with the design engineer for his
comment and for any corrections he feels should be made. Once the correct information has
been obtained, the desired Start-Up MLSS concentration can be estimated. Using the design
flow and design MLSS concentration and by measuring the actual flow and calculating the
BODg loading entering the basin, the desired Start-Up MLSS concentration in a single
aeration basin can be determined.
Design MLSS concentration for Actual Flow tothe Basin
aeration basin to be started Design Flow to the Basin
Ac t ua1 BOD Concen t ra t1 on _ Actual "minimum" Start-Up MLSS
Design BOD Concentration Concentration for a Single Basin
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Process
Mod i f i ca t i on
Conventional
Complete - mix
Step-aeration
Mod I f ied-aerat Ion
Contact-stabi ) izat ion
CO
CO
Extended-aeration
Kraus process
High-rate aeration
Pure-oxygen systems
* Contact unit
Sludge
Age
(Pays)
5-15
5-15
5-15
.2-. 5
5-15
20-30
5-15
5-10
8-20
BOD Removal
Efficiency
% '
85-95
85-95
!
85-95
60-75
80-90
75-95
85-95
75-90
85-95
** Solids stabilization unit
(Simi lar
MODIFICATIONS
to Wastewater Engineering
MISS, mg/llter
1,500 - 3,000
3,000 - 6,000
2,000 - 3,500 ,
200 - 500
*(1,000 - 3,000)
**(4,ooo -10,000)
3,000 - 6,000
2,000 - 3,000
4,000 -10,000
6,000 - 8,000
NOTE: The MLSS
TABLE 1
OF THE ACTIVATED SLUDGE
, McGraw-Hill Company, 1
Appl I cat ion
Low-strength domestic wastes, susceptible
to shock loads
General application, reststant to shock
loads
General application to wide range of
'waste
Intermediate degree of treatment where
cell tissue in the effluent Is not
objectionable
Expansion of existing systems, package
plants, flexible
Small communities, package plants,
flexible
Low-nitrogen, high-strength wastes
Use with turbine aerators to transfer
oxygen and control the floe size, general
appl ication
General application, use where limited
volume is available, use near economical
source of oxygen
values are not for use as the design MLSS
PROCESS
nc., 1972, Figure No.' 12-3)
-------
The above equation is for a single aeration basin. If there is more than one basin in the
plant, the design MLSS will have to be varied accordingly to obtain the "minimum"
Start-Up MLSS concentration for any one aeration basin. This proportioning to the basins is
necessary in order to maintain the proper food-to-microorganism ratio (F/M) and sludge age.
By starting only one or two basins, the other basins can be started using the activated sludge
from the others as seed sludge and start-up of these basins should be accomplished more
quickly and efficiently. (See Examples 1 and 2.)
The "minimum" Start-Up MLSS concentration is the concentration that should be built up
before wasting any activated sludge during start-up. (If the flow into the plant is stepped in
increments during start-up, then the Start-Up MLSS concentration will also have to be
incremented accordingly.) It should not be necessary to change the value for the MLSS
concentration obtained due to any temperature fluctuations or minor changes in flow, but
by maintaining the "minimum" MLSS concentration value within plus or minus 10%, a
manageable start-up with good efficiency should be possible. The optimum value for MLSS
concentration will have to be determined by adjusting the return sludge rate and wasting
rate, which changes the MLSS concentration in the basin, and by comparing the BODg
removal efficiency through the secondary process. The optimum value for MLSS
concentration will be when the BODc in the final clarifier effluent is minimized.
Ferric chloride or polymers can help develop the MLSS concentration by concentrating the
solids used for recirculation while minimizing final effluent BODe loading on the receiving
waters. The quantity of chemical or polymer to be added to the settling tank can be
determined in the laboratory by jar tests. Caution should be exercised when adding
chemicals in order that toxic cation levels are not allowed to develop. Adding chemicals as
coagulant aids may give erroneous values for MLSS concentration because some of the
suspended solids may be chemical floes and not biological floes. It will be necessary to test
for mixed liquor volatile suspended solids (MLVSS) concentration which would indicate the
amount of biological suspended solids present and remove the chemical floe error.
Inspection and Pretesting
Before putting the preceding paragraph's information into effect, a responsible person
should inspect and pretest the activated sludge facilities to ensure that:
1. All debris is removed from the basins and piping systems.
2. All gates and valves are opened and closed and checked for
smoothness of operation and seating in the closed position.
34
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3. The effluent weirs are checked for level.
4. All nozzle heads of the froth control system are open and on
securely.
5. The inspection of the air system includes:
A. Checking the air filter and condensation trap.
B. Checking the air lines for leaks.
C. Checking valves for proper and smooth operation.
D. Inspecting the blower for proper lubrication, clearances, and
safety guards.
E. Inspecting the coupling from the motor for proper alignment.
F. Inspecting the mounting of the motor and blower for
tightness.
G. Inspecting air gauges for proper operation and calibration.
6. The air headers are raised and lowered and checked for smooth
operation.
7. The diffusers are inspected to ensure that the air can go through
freely.
NOTE: Figure No. 2, Sample Pre-Start-Up Inspection Record, page 12 will be a useful form
for inspecting and testing the f aeiEties.
If mechanical aerators are used, they should be rotated first by hand to- ensure proper
alignment and smoothness of operation. The mounting of the unit should be carefully
inspected to ensure it is fastened securely. The motor should be lubricated properly and the
lubricant type recorded and properly filed. All electrical motors should be jogged to see that
the wiring is connected correctly and that the motors are turning in the correct direction.
After inspecting the facilities for installation, operation, and calibration in accordance with
the manufacturer's instructions, the facilities are ready for testing. The facilities should be
"wetted down," preferably with domestic water and
1. The piping system should be inspected for leaks of either air or
water.
35
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2. The gates and valves should again be checked for seating.
3. The froth control system should be checked to see that the nozzles
are spraying the correct pattern and in the proper area.
4. The air system and its safety devices should be inspected for proper
operation. (The air pressure and amperage readings should be
recorded and filed.)
5. The motors should be inspected for vibration, noise, and overheating,
and an amperage reading taken and recorded.
After inspecting the air system for proper operation, run the system for three to four hours,
inspecting periodically for any problems.
The inspection and pretesting of the final settling tank is discussed in Chapter III (Start-Up
of the Pretreatment, Primary Treatment, and Chlorination Facilities).
Start-Up Procedure
Prior to start-up, a composite sample of the raw sewage to be treated should be obtained
and a settleable solids test run. From this test, very carefully remove the filtrate and
determine the BODg and the Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD). The filtrate is used to
approximate the primary clarifier effluent characteristics. The BODc and COD tests should
be performed on several samples in order to obtain a BODg to COD relationship. This
relationship allows the COD test to be used for process control in lieu of the much longer
BODg test during start-up. This test will enable a quick measure of the efficiency through
the activated sludge treatment process and a quick means of estimating the ratio of organics
(BODg) to the microbial population (MLSS) usually referred to as the food-to-
microorganisms ratio (F/M). A normally operating plant typically has an F/M ratio of 0.2 to
0.5, except for extended aeration which operates at a lower F/M of 0.1 and less.
The BODg to COD relationship should be used with discretion because there may be a
change in the ratio of the two parameters, possibly caused by an increase in the
nonbiodegradable organics or due to solids carryover, which could prohibit or invalidate
such a relationship. To reduce the error between the COD/BODg ratio, it may be useful to
obtain another COD/BODe ratio by testing the liquid portion of a Suspended Solids test for
BODg and COD (referred to as the Dissolved BODg and Dissolved COD). The Dissolved
COD/BODg relationship will probably be more consistent than the other COD/BODg ratio,
36
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but it will take longer to obtain. Keep in mind that the Dissolved COD/BODc ratio may not
be the same for all areas of the plant; therefore, depending on the circumstances of start-up,"
the COD/BODc ratio may have to be determined at a number of locations in the plant for
start-up control. (Both the COD and BODg tests should continue to be run during start-up
to confirm the COD/BODg relationship.) Once the process becomes operational, the COD
test should be run as a useful process control tool although the BODc is the standard quality
control parameter required by most regulatory agencies.
On the second and third day after the effluent from the primary clarifiers begins entering
the aeration basin, the BODg, COD, MLSS and sludge volume index (SVI) should be
determined on samples from the aeration basin and the final clarifier. (The relationship
between COD and BODg of the influent may not be the same as that of the effluent;
therefore, BODp should be run daily.) The SVI is indicative of the settling characteristic of
the floe in the final clarifier and will indicate the possibility of sludge bulking. Generally, an
SVT in the range of 50-150 indicates a good settling sludge. Visual observation of the
settleable solids test is also beneficial in obtaining information on,the settling characteristics
of the activated sludge in the final clarifier.
The following are examples of the preceding procedures:
EXAMPLE 1: MLSS DETERMINATION: SINGLE BASIN
Conventional Treatment
Single Aeration Basin
"* -f
Design Conditions
Flow =, 1MGD , ._..-." . . ' -
BODg Loading = 37 Ib. BODg/day/1000 ft3 of basin
Temperature = 70° F.
MLSS = 1500 mg/1 _';
' BODg Concentration = 150 mg/1
_ - j
" -Actual Conditions
Flow = .75 MGD
BODg Loading = 28 Ib. BODg/day/1000 ft3 of basin
Temperature = 65° F.
* BODr Concentration =" 150 mg/1
o - , » j. '
*Obtained J!rom analysis on raw sewage, from analysis of clarifier effluent or from
BODr/COD relationship.
37
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"Minimum" MLSS concentration =
EXAMPLE 2: MLSS DETERMINATION: MULTIPLE BASINS
Conventional Treatment
Ten (10) Aeration Basins with 54,000 ft3/basin
(Three to be started)
Design Conditions
Flow = 16 MGD
BOD5 Loading = 37 lb/day/1 000 ft3 of basin
Temperature = 70°F.
MLSS = 1500 mg/1
Total Volume of Basins = 54,000 ft3 x 10 = 540,000ft3
BODg Concentration = 150 mg/1
Actual Conditions
Flow = 4 MGD
BOD5 Loading = 31 lb/day/1000 ft3 of basin
Temperature = 65° F.
BODg Concentration = 150 mg/1
"Minimum" MLSS =
Flow to basin(s) to be started/number or volume of basins
Design flow to basin(s)/total number or volume of basins
BOD Concentration to Basins
x „ . - fTT^r — = - -. - x Design MLSS =
Design BODj. Concentration 3
!!Jn ^/l x 1500 mg/1 - 1250 mg/1
3 - 3
p n
Basins 150
The number of basins required to be started under field conditions is determined by the
flow. The design flow for Example 2 is 16 MGD to ten basins, or 1.6 MGD/basin if all basins
are equal in volume. Therefore, 4 MGD would require 2.5 basins (4 MGD divided by 1.6
MGD/basin). Since it doesn't equal an even number of basins, use the next higher number
38
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(in this example, 3 basins). Therefore, starting up three (3) basins will have a better
f ood-tomieroorganisms (F/M) ratio than if all ten (10) basins were used, or only one basin,
and thus will have a more effective start-up. - -
Hie start-up of the activated sludge process can be accomplished by using seed sludge or raw
waste water to develop a suitable microorganism "population expressed as mixed liquor
suspended solids (MLSS).
1. The use of a seed activated sludge will provide the most reliable
means of start-up. When available, enough seed sludge should be
placed into the aeration basin to provide at least 500 mg/1 of MLSS
in order to handle the plant flow. Maximum aeration should be used
during start-up to provide a minimum Dissolved Oxygen content of 2
mg/1 and to aid mixing. With the seed sludge aerated, flow into the
aeration basin should be introduced at approximately 10 percent of
plant flow if possible and increased in daily increments of 10 percent
if there is no indication of the process deteriorating. This will enable
the treatment process to produce a quality effluent as the MLSS
concentration is increasing.
2. If raw"sewage is used, begin start-up of the activated sludge process
by filling the aeration basin-with the raw sewage, bypassing the
primary clarifier. This will provide the greatest number of available
seed organisms without seed sludge. The aerators should be operating
- before raw sewage is let into the basin to keep the diffusers from
clogging and to provide mixing, and should be operated at a rate to
maintain a minimum Dissolved Oxygen (DO) residual of 2 mg/1. The
aeration basins, if possible, sho.uld then be bypassed for a period of
approximately eight hours during which the raw sewage is being
aerated. After approximately seven hours, the aerators should, be
turned off and the mixture in the basin allowed to settle for thirty to
sixty minutes, after which additional raw sewage should be, allowed
to enter and displace the basin supernatant. The mixture should then
, be reaerated and allowed to settle as before. This practice should be
continued until the MLSS is at least 500 mg/1 at which time the
aeration. basins should be placed on continuous flow and the MLSS
• allowed to build up to the "minimum" MLSS as calculated. As the
MLSS continues to increase, the aeration rate may be reduced if the
39
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DO is peater than 2 mg/1. The DO test should be run frequently
during this period, usually every two hours during start-up, to ensure
that the oxygen requirements of the organisms are met.
Regardless of which of the above methods is used, no return sludge should be wasted during
start-up; the sludge return pumps should be returning at a rate such that no sludge blanket
will develop in the settling tanks. This procedure will ensure the maximum number of
available organisms, as activated sludge will be returned to the aeration basin.
When the proper MLSS concentration is reached for full flow, the return activated sludge
pumping rate should be adjusted. The estimated return sludge pumping rate can be
determined from the settleable solids analysis:
% MLSS in the 6Q-mmute settleable solids test expressed as the decimal equivalent
x (Influent flow rate plus the return sludge flow rate) = Return Activated
Sludge Pumping Rate
EXAMPLE 3: ADJUSTED RETURN SLUDGE PUMPING RATE DETERMINATION
Flow to Aeration Basin = 4 MGD
Return Sludge Flow = 2 MGD
Volume of MLSS in 60-minute settling test = 400 ml in
2 liters = 20% = ,20
Therefore
Adjusted Return Sludge Rate = ,20 x (4+2) MGD = U.MGD
Adjusted Return Sludge Rate = 1.2 MGD x 695
= J35 gallons/minute
Therefore, the return activated sludge pumping will have to be reduced from 2 MGD to 1.2
MGD or 835 gallons/minute. This rate may have to be adjusted to maintain the proper
MLSS in the aeration basin.
When the return sludge pumping rate has been established, sludge should begin to form a
blanket in the settling tank. After the sludge blanket accumulates to approximately 1 foot
above the tank bottom, the excess waste activated sludge pumping rate can be determined.
The waste activated sludge pumping rate will also change the return sludge pumping rate.
40
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EXAMPLE 4: WASTE ACTIVATED SLUDGE PUMPING RATE DETERMINATION
This can be determined in one of two ways:
I. Activated Sludge Plant with all basins operating.
Assume these values were obtained from laboratory analysis:
'MLSS - 2800 mg/1 (Used in Step (1))
Return Sludge, Suspended Solids = 5600 mg/1
(Used in Step (6))
Influent, Suspended Solids = 60 mg/1
(Used in Step (2))
Average Daily Flow = 4 MGD (Used in Step (2))
Volume of Aeration Basin = 0.55 MG
(Used in Step (1))
Design Sludge Age = Mean Cell Residence Time
= • 5 days (Used in Step (4))
' Return Sludge Pumping Rate = 835 GPM
Determine:
— --- Step (1): Ibs of Solids in Aeration-Basin =
r" MLSS (mg/1) x Volume of Aeration Basin
' - (MG) x 8.34
= 2800 mg/1 x 0.55 MG x 8,34
* 12.700 Ibs. of Solids In the Aeration Basin
Step (2); g|^ Solids Added by Primary Clarffier Effluent
Influent Suspended Solids (mg/1} x Avg. Daily Flow (MGD)
x 8.34 jb2/MG
mg/1
lbs/MG
= 60 mg/1 x 4.0 MSD x 8.34
mg/1
= 2,000 Ibs/day Added by Primary Clarifier Effluent
Step (3): Sludge Age (days) =
HISS in Aeration Basin (Ibs)^
Solids Added by PrimaryClarifier Effluent (Ibs/day)
_ 12.700 Ibs
~ 2,000 Ibs/day
» 6.4 days
41
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Step (4): If the Sludge Age was less than the design value of
five days, no wasting should be done. Under
normal conditions, the sludge age will indicate
when to reduce or increase the wasting rate.
The design sludge age
— /
= 5 days; therefore, rearranging
the equation in (3),
Ibs. MLSS
to be maintained = Sludge Age x Solids added by
Primary Effluent
= 5 days x 2,000 Ibs/day
10. OOP Ibs.
Step (5) : Therefore, the proper amount of MLSS to be wasted
- 12,700 Ibs. - 10,000 Ibs. = 2,700_ Ibs.
Step (6): Waste activated sludge pumping rate =
Amount of sol ids to be wasted (Ibs) in a 24-hour period
Return sludge concentration (mg/1) x 8,3^ - n —
mg/ I
- 2.700 "»/d. = 0.058 MGD
5,600 mg/1 x 8.3
0.058 MGD x 695 |gg- - ^O.S 6PH
This waste activated sludge pumping rate will, therefore, change the return sludge pumping
rate from 835 GPM to 794.5 GPM (835 - 40.5 GPM).
The reason the waste activated sludge pumping rate is set for 24 hours is to eliminate any
rapid changes to the sensitive biological cultures.
2. Another means of estimating the wasting rate is to use the desired MLSS
concentration obtained earlier in the start-up proceedings.
Assume these results were obtained from the laboratory tests:
42
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= 2800 mg/1
Return Sludge, Suspended Solids = 5600 mg/1
Primary Effluent, Suspended Solids = 60 mg/1
Average Daily Flow = 4 MGD
,„ Yolume of Aeration Basin = 0.55 MG
and also
- Desired MLSS = ,2720 mg/1 plus or minus 10%
Step (1): Amount of Solids to he wasted ~- =,
" , (Laboratory MLSS - desired MLSS} x Average Daily Flow x B.3k
(2800 - 2720 mg/\) x 4 MSO x 8.31* - 2670 Ibs/day
Step (2); Waste activated sludge pumping rate =
2670 'bs/day m ^^ mQ
5600 mg/J x 8.3^ ""f,^ • = 39.6 GPM
Therefore, the return sludge pumping rate will be 795.4 GPM (835 - 39.6 GPM).
The waste activated sludge pumping rate and the return sludge pumping rate may have to be
adjusted if -the characteristics of the wastewater change thus changing the desired MLSS
concentration. The waste activated sludge pumping rate will have to be increased or
decreased in order to maintain an optimum value for MLSS in the aeration basin in order to
proyide the best possible treatment of the wastewater.
When the plant has stabilized, a good activated sludge should settle rapidly leaving a clear,
odorless and stable supernatant. The floe should appear granular with sharply defined edges,
be golden brown in color, and have a musty odor. However, there are some conditions that
may occur during start-up that will indicate a poorly operating process. The operator should
not expect immediate results from any of the control procedures that are presented. An
experienced operator will be of greatest value when these problems arise in the wastewater
treatment process.
During start-up an unstable effluent will probably result due to the inadequate biological
treatment. Chlorination is often used to reduce health hazards on the receiving water. State
and Federal regulatory agencies should be contacted to ensure that no harm will come to
the wildlife or fish present in the receiving waters as a result of heavily chlorinating the plant
effluent. The use of alum, ferric chloride and polymers as an aid to settling in final settling
tanks will help reduce the BODg loading on the receiving waters. The coagulants should be
thoroughly mixed with the aeration basin contents before being released to the final settling
tank,
43
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During start-up, when the MLSS are low, the aeration basins may experience severe foaming.
Foaming is believed to occur because of synthetic detergents and other surfactants in
conjunction with high aeration and low aeration MLSS, The foam contains sludge solids,
pease, and bacteria and should be brought under control as quickly as possible. Water
nozzles using screened sewage or domestic water have been used successfully to control
foaming. Defoaming agents are also used or possibly used in conjunction with water nozzles
to help control the foaming. The operator may be able to reduce the aeration rate while
maintaining his DO and building up his MLSS to aid in the control of foaming. The foaming
should decrease as the MLSS continues to increase in the aeration basin and the process
approaches stability.
Sludge bulking may occur during start-up due to overloading the basin. Sludge bulking is
indicated by a poorly settling sludge and poor sludge compaction. The sludge blanket in the
final clarifier becomes deeper and rises to overflow the weirs. The sludge settleability
decreases as indicated by a significant rise in the SVI and the sludge appears light and fluffy.
Sludge bulking is associated with the growth of filamentous organisms that attach them-
selves from one floe to another and prevent compaction of the sludge particles and poor
settling results. Another cause of sludge bulking is bound water in which the bacteria,
composing the floe, swell because of the addition of water and thereby decrease in density.
When sludge bulking occurs, it is usually associated with low pH, low DO, low nitrogen
concentration, high F/M, industrial waste, or septic sewage. The primary purpose of control
is to increase the sludge age or decrease the F/M ratio.
Low DO - The DO should be checked initially to see that at least 2 mg/1 of DO exist in the
aeration basin; if not, then inspect the aerating equipment to see that it is functioning
correctly and increase the aeration rate. If the aerators or blowers are operating at capacity,
then additional aerators, diffusers, or blowers may have to be added. The design of the
aeration rate should be investigated if aerators have to be added.
Low pH - Lame is usually added, often with flocculent aids, to raise the pH and control
bulking by improving the settling characteristics of the sludge while corrective action is
being taken.
High F/M (Low Sludge Age) - To reduce the F/M, the organic load (F) on the basin is
decreased by reducing the influent flow to the basin or the MLSS (M) is increased by
increasing the return sludge rate and decreasing the wasting rate. Both of these actions
should increase the sludge age.
44
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The plant records should be reviewed in order to determine what caused the problem and in
order that future operations can take measures to prevent the same conditions from
occurring again.
Rising sludge should not be confused with sludge bulking. In a rising sludge, the settling
characteristics and compaction are good. Rising sludge occurs as a result of too long a
detention time in the clarif ier. The sludge rises in chunks from the size of a pea to as large as
a basketball, usually forming a brown, fine scum or froth on the surface of the settling tank.
The sludge undergoes denitrification with the release of nitrogen gas that becomes
entrapped in the sludge causing it to rise to the surface. By increasing the rate of return of
activated sludge pumping or increasing the sludge wasting rate and decreasing the sludge age,
the problem of rising sludge should be corrected. *
If the start-up of the activated sludge process is in winter, it will take longer to build up the
mixed liquor suspended solids which may produce strain on other operations of the plant.
In winter, the loading and air rates change. The-sewage will require less air and more solids
to bring about efficient treatment. Usually the ambient temperature is not significant unless
it raises or lowers the temperature of the liquor more than 10° F.
The operator should use caution when, changing the mode of operation of this process or
any other. An extreme change or allowing the process to go too far the other way can be
just as detrimental to treatment efficiency as the existing problem. Therefore, make any
changes gradually and in an orderly step-by-step fashion.
ACTIVATED SLUDGE CHECKLIST*
To supplement the preceding recommendations for starting up an activated sludge process,
the following checklist has been provided:
I, literature Review
A. Manufacturer's Literature
B. Facility's Operation and Maintenance Manual
*It is assumed that the previous sections' recommendations concerning Preparation for
Start-Up and Start-Up of the Pretreatment, Primary Treatment and Chlorination Facilities
have been followed and an outline of start-up procedures has been made.
45
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C. "Operation of Wastewater Treatment Plants," Environmental Protection
Agency, Technical Training Grant No. 5TT1-WP-16-03
D. WPCF Manual of Practice No. 11, "Operation of Wastewater Treatment
Hants," 1966
Preparation for Start-Up
A. Meet with consulting engineers and start-up experts.
1. Obtain design parameter values.
a. Flow into aeration basin
b. BODc loading and concentration
-------
4. Volume of basin(s) to be started
C. Calculate "minimum" MLSS concentration for start-up.
IE. Start-Up Procedure
A. With seed sludge
1. Turn aerators on and maintain a minimum DO residual of 2 mg/1.
2. Fill the aeration basin(s) with raw sewage or water.
^
3. Add seed sludge to bring MLSS of basin(s) being started to at least
- 500 mg/1.
4. Let flow into aeration basin(s) at approximately 10% of the design
and increment at 10% a day.
5. Return all activated sludge from the final settling tank.
B. Without seed sludge
1. Turn aerators on and maintain a minimum DO residual of 2 mg/1.
2. Fill basin(s) with raw sewage.
3. Let flow into aeration basin.
4. Bypass flow for eight hours and aerate mixture in the basin for seven
hours. ,
5. Turn off aerators and allow the mixture to settle for thirty to sixty
minutes.
6. Again let flow into the aeration basin, bypass flow for eight hours,
reaerate mixture and allow it to settle; continue until the MLSS is at
least 500 mg/1.
47
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7. Let basin accept continuous flow.
8. Return all activated sludge from the final settling tank.
IV. Process Monitoring During Start-Up
A. Measure operational control and effluent standard parameters to include:
1. MLSS in the aeration basins
2. DO in the aeration basins
3. Influent and effluent BODg and COD
4. SS in the secondary clarifier
5. SVI in the secondary clarifier
6. Calculate F/M
B. Calculate return activated sludge pumping rate when aeration basin MLSS
concentration reaches "minimum" MLSS concentration.
C. Permit sludge blanket to form in final settling tank to approximately one
foot of depth.
D. Calculate activated sludge wasting rate and begin wasting activated sludge.
V. Normal Operation
A. Continue monitoring process by measuring the operational control and
effluent standard parameters to include:
1. Influent and effluent BODg concentration
2. MLSS in the aeration basin
48
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3. SS in the secondary clarifier
. 4. SVI in the secondary clarifier
t
5. DO in the aeration basin
6. " Calculate F/M _
B. Adjust process
1. Return sludge rate
2. Wasting Rate
3. Air Supply
References for Additional Information:
1. "Operation of Wastewater Treatment Plants," Environmental Protection Agency,
Technical Training Grant Np. 5TT1-WP-16-03, Chapter 7.
2. WPCF Manual of Practice No. 11, "Operation of Wastewater Treatment Plants,"
1966, pages 108-122.
3. Wastewater Engineering, Metcalf and Eddy, McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., New
York, 1972, pages 482-533.
4. McKinney, Ross E., Microbiology for Sanitary Engineers, McGraw-Hill Book Com-
pany, Inc., New York, 1962 pages 213-237.
5. Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater, 13th Edition,
APHA, AWWA, WPCF, 1971.
TRICKLING FILTERS
The biological process involved in the trickling filter is essentially the same as with the
activated sludge. In general, the trickling filter removes the dissolved and finely divided
organic solids from sewage and biologically oxidizes the solids to a more stable material. The
.49
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filter media, consisting of rock, redwood slats or synthetic material, provides surface area
for the development of slime growths or zoogloeal mass, containing bacteria, protozoa,
algae, fungi, worms, and insect larvae. As the effluent from the primary clarifiers passes
through the filter, the gelatinous growth retains much of the suspended, colloidal, and
dissolved material contained in the sewage. The material is utilized as food by the organisms,
thereby reducing the organic concentration of the sewage. The excess film that accumulates
from the growth of new organisms is periodically or continually sloughed from the filter and
separated in the final settling tanks. In this manner, a large portion of the BODg loading is
removed from the wastewater.
During start-up, the objective is to build up this slime growth so that the desired removal
efficiency can commence as soon as possible.
Trickling filters may be classified as either standard rate (low rate) or high rate. The
standard rate filter accepts loadings of 25-100 gpd/sq ft of surface area and 5-25 Ibs
BODg/day/1000 cu ft of media. This type filter usually is six to eight feet deep and
rectangular or circular in shape. It is dosed intermittently by automatic or periodic pumping
from the dosing tanks. The dosing rates are sufficient to keep the filter media from drying
out.
The material sloughed or washed -from the filter media is stable, easily settled, humus-like
material, often containing worms, snails, and insect larvae. The effluent from the final
settling tank usually has a BO DC on the order of 20-25 mg/1.
The high rate filter usually has loadings of 100-1000 gpd/sq ft of surface area and 25-300 Ibs
BODg/day/1000 cu ft of media. The high rate filter is normally three to eight feet deep and
rectangular or circular in shape. This type filter has a continuous loading due to
recirculation of the filter effluent. Because of the high loadings, sloughings are more
frequent; therefore, the sloughed material is less stable, lighter and more difficult to settle
than the standard rate filter. The BODg in the effluent of the final settling tank is
commonly in the range of 20-50 mg/1.
If a high rate filter has a loading greater than 300 Ibs BODg/day/1000 cu ft of media, it is
termed a roughing filter or intermediate filter due to the lower efficiency of BODg removal
(50 to 70 percent). This is usually used when high organics loadings are expected and little
treatment is needed at this stage.
50
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Inspection and Pretesting
A responsible person should ensure that:
t-
1. All debris is removed from the underdrain system and basins.
2. All valves and gates have been opened and closed and inspected for
proper seating.
3. The orifice openings are as specified.
4. The proper lubricant has been used and recorded for future refer-
ence.
!
5. AH exposed metal is protected.
After assuring that this has been done, the arm of the filter (if it is a rotating type of filter)
should be rotated by hand and inspected for vibration or roughness. If possible, the filter
should then be loaded hydraulically and the rotation inspected and the orifice openings and
flow checked.
If the filter is a fixed nozzle type, after the inspection, hydraulically load the filter and
check the nozzles for clogging from debris left from construction and inspect the spray
pattern to see that the media is being wetted properly.
The inspection and pretesting of the final settling tank is similar to the inspection and
pretesting of the settling tank in Chapter III (Start-Up of the Pretreatment, Primary Treat-
merit and Chlorination Facilities).
Start-Up Procedure
After pretesting the filter, start the wastewater flow to the distributor arms, observing the
rotation of the arms to see that they are operating smoothly and that the waste is distrib-
uted evenly oVer the filter media. The revolutions per minute should be logged. If the filter
is a fixed nozzle system, after inspection, start the wastewater flow to the nozzles. Inspect
the spray pattern to see that the waste is distributed evenly over the filter media. Debris will
clog some of the nozzles, and it is important that the nozzles be cleaned as soon as possible.
In a high rate filter, the recirculation of the final clarifier effluent helps to prevent odors and
ponding of the filter by flushing the media, reducing the detention time, and keeping a
51
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constant load on the filter. If a standard filter is being started up, it is important that the
filter media be kept as wet as possible. Although a siphon is present to dose the standard
filter, during start-up the flow into the plant may be such that the time interval involved
with an automatic siphon will be so long that the filter will dry out. Some means of
recirculation such as the use of a portable pump should be provided to make sure that the
filter will remain wet and to add recirculated final clarifier effluent to the filter. Recircula-
tion of the high rate and standard rate filter (if possible) should reduce the time required for
growth to develop on the filter media.
It will take several days for growth to develop on the media, depending on the time of year,
weather conditions, and the character and strength of the wastewater. During this time, a
poor effluent may result. Chlorinaion and coagulants are often used to reduce the pollu-
tional load and the health hazard on the receiving waters. Caution should be exercised when
using heavy chlorination in order that no harm will come to any wildlife or fish present in
the receiving waters by a large chlorine loading.
The usual control tests performed on the influent and effluent are BODg or COD, sus-
pended solids, and total solids. These tests will indicate the removal efficiency through the
filter and settling tank; pH and DO tests should also be run to help indicate the condition of
the filter.
The start-up and operation of the trickling filter is one of the most trouble-free types of
secondary treatment. During start-up, most of the problems that may plague trickling filters
such as ponding, odors, and psychoda flies will not occur. If cold weather is present, it will
inhibit biological growth to some degree and, therefore, it may take longer for slime growth
to develop on the filter. Cold weather is usually not a problem, but occasionally the filter
will freeze, especially the standard rate which has intermittent operation. Operate the high
rate filters, if possible, in parallel with little or no recirculation. Standard rate filters should
be operated on a continuous loading if at all possible. This procedure will decrease the time
the wastewater in the filter is exposed to the cold temperature. The orifices or sprays should
be adjusted to reduce the spray effect. The erection of wind screens has also been used
successfully to help reduce the problem of freezing. The filter should not be stopped unless
there is danger to the mechanical facilities. The dosing tank should also be covered to reduce
the effects of freezing. If the supports on a rotary nozzle were adjusted during warm
weather, they will have to be readjusted due to the temperature effects on the expansion
and contraction of the support wires or rods.
52
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References for Additional Information
1. "Operation of Wastewater Treatment Plants," Environmental-Protection Agency,
Technical Training Grant No, 5TT1-WP-16-03, Chapter 6.
2. WPCF Manual of Practice No. 11, "Operation of Wastewater Treatment Plants,"
1966, pages 98-107.
3. Steel, Ernest W., Water Supply and Sewerage, McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc.,
New York, 1960, pages 522-546.
4. MeKiriney, Ross E., Microbiology for Sanitary Engineers, McGraw-Hill Book Com-
pany, Inc., New York, 1962, pages 199-212.
STABILIZATION PONDS AND AERATED LAGOONS
A stabilization pond, or oxidation pond, in general, is a shallow body of water contained in
an earth basin, designed for the purpose of treating wastewater. Stabilization ponds are used
as complete treatment process, or as secondary treatment for settled sewage, or as polishing
for secondary effluents. The ponds are most commonly used for secondary treatment and
are classified .into three groups: aerobic, anaerobic, and facultative (aerobic and anaerobic).
1. An aerobic pond primarily contains algae and bacteria in suspension,
' and aerobic conditions prevail throughout its depth. One type of
aerobic pond depends upon the algae to provide sufficient oxygen to
satisfy the BODg loading applied to the pond. This type of aerobic
pond is usually 6 to 18 inches in depth to provide conditions suitable
for algae growth. This type of aerobic pond is normally used only in
small communities because of the land area required.
A second.type of aerobic pond employs mechanical aeration or air
- diffusers to supply most of the oxygen required^ This pond has a
depth of three to six feet. Both types of aerobic ponds have
additional oxygen transferred to the liquid through surface aeration.
Stabilization of the organic matter in aerobic ponds occurs in two
steps. -First, the carbonaceous matter in sewage is broken down by
the aerobic organisms with the formation of carbon dioxide. This
carbon dioxide is used by the algae during photosynthesis with the
liberation of oxygen. As a result, some of the organic carbon in the
53
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sewage is converted into algal cells which supply the sewage with
additional oxygen to support further aerobic decomposition. It is
important that the algae and microbial floes be separated from the
pond effluent to minimize the pollutional loading on the receiving
waters. The removal of these floes is usually accomplished in
secondary settling tanks.
Aerated lagoons are similar to the aerobic pond, except the algae
growth is replaced by mechanical aerators or diffusers and the lagoon
is usually 6 to 12 feet deep. Although the mixing caused by aeration
keeps most of the lagoon contents in suspension, usually some solids
settle and undergo anaerobic decomposition. Therefore, the aerated
lagoon may be further classified not only as aerobic but also facul-
tative (aerobic and anaerobic) which is similar to the facultative
stabilization pond with the mechanical aerators or air diffusers
replacing the algae growth as the primary source of oxygen for the
bacteria.
2. The anaerobic stabilization pond is loaded to such an extent that
anaerobic conditions exist throughout most of the liquid volume.
Depths up to 20 feet have been used with this type of pond. Stabili-
zation is brought about by the anaerobic decomposition of the
organic solids to organic acids, cell tissues, carbon dioxide, methane
and other gaseous end products similar to an anaerobic digester with-
out external heat.
3. The facultative pond is a combination of the two stabilization ponds
mentioned previously. It is the most common stabilization pond and
ranges in depth from two to six feet. The pond consists of an aerobic
top layer and anaerobic bottom layer. Stabilization comes about
through the aerobic decomposition of the top layer and anaerobic
decomposition of the bottom layer. The top layer, referred to as the
aerobic layer, requires an oxygen source such as surface mechanical
aerators or an algal growth. The maintenance of the aerobic top layer
minimizes the odor problem associated with the anaerobic pond.
54
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Inspection and Pretesting
The earth levees of the pond should be inspected for seepage; erosion,'soil sterilization and
weedicide. The grass cover and type of grass used should be inspected by the supervisor to
see it meets all regulatory agency requirements. If mechanical aerators are being used, the
supervisor should see that they are installed, lubricated, and inspected according to the
manufacturer's instructions. Air diffuser systems should be inspected to see if all areas of
the lagoon are receiving equivalent amounts of oxygen. This can be done visually and with
DO tests. The air blower and motors should be inspected for installation, lubrication, noise
and vibration, clearances, and alignments. "
Start-Up
Since the facultative pond is the most common type of stabilization pond, the start-up
procedure will deal with this type of pond, with algae as the primary source of oxygen.
If possible, start up the pond in the warmer part of the year. Generally, the warmer the
contents of the pond, the more efficient the treatment. At least' one to two feet of water
should be in the pond before waste is introduced in order to reduce the possibility of
offensive odors and aquatic weed growth during the initial operation.
Algal blooms will usually appear in seven to twelve days after waste is introduced. A definite
green color of the pond's contents is evidence of a flourishing algae population. Anaerobic
decomposition of the bottom sludge causes bubbles to come to the surface near the inlet
point of the pond.
Waste should be introduced intermittently to the pond during the initial start-up so that the
pond does not become overloaded. The pH should be monitored and be kept above 7.5, if
possible. A high pH is essential to encourage a balanced anaerobic decomposition of the
bottom sludge. It also indicates high algae activity, since the algae removes the carbon
dioxide from the liquid during metabolism which tends to keep the pH high.
Dissolved Oxygen (DO) tests are also run on the pond contents. The values of DO and pH
should be recorded to help evaluate the condition of the pond. The operator should seek to
correlate his visual observations with control tests to better maintain and operate the pond.
The pond levees should have been seeded before start-up and inspected for any damage due
to boring animals. Typical problems with ponds such as scum or odors should not occur
during start-up. Weeds may occur during the start-up period and should be removed as
quickly as possible. Weeds can hinder circulation and provide areas for mosquito breeding
55
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and, if not removed, will quickly multiply. little trouble can be expected from insects if
weeds or other plant growths are removed. Other minute animals that may hinder the pond
operation can best be handled with approved insecticides or other chemicals. Caution should
always be exercised when using chemicals around the pond because they may be harmful to
the operation of the pond. Another problem that may occur during start-up is freezing.
Mixing the contents and windbreaks have been used to reduce the problem of freezing.
References for Additional Information
1. "Operation of Wastewater Treatment Plants," Environmental Protection Agency,
Technical Training Grant No. 5TT1-WP-16-03, Chapter 9.
2. Manual of Wastewater Operations, Texas Water Utilities Association, Lancaster
Press, Inc., Lancaster, Pennsylvania, 1971, pages 283-301.
3. Wastewater Engineering, Metcalf and Eddy, Inc., McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc.,
New York, 1972, pages 551-569.
56
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SECTION V
START-UP OF THE SLUDGE HANDLING FACILITIES
One of the major objectives of wastewater treatment is solids removal. The handling of this
sludge can be the most time-consuming and expensive operation in the wastewater' treat-
ment plant. Proper start-up of the sludge handling facilities will ensure that efficient treat-
ment and disposal of the sludge is accomplished.
This section provides considerations for starting up the more common chemical condition-
ing and sludge dewatering units, and considerations and techniques for starting up an
anaerobic digester. The guidance is general enough to apply to any type or size of unit and
any size of anaerobic digester. The guidance involved with the units is not intended to
duplicate or replace the individual equipment manufacturer's instructions and recommenda-
tions. The equipment manufacturer's recommendations and instructions should always be
consulted whenever installing, inspecting, pretesting, lubricating, and maintaining his equip-
ment. It is assumed that the previous sections' considerations on preparing for start-up;
start-up of the pretreatment, primary treatment, and chlorination facilities; and start-up of
the secondary facilities have been incorporated into the start-up procedures.
Common operating problems and their solutions not discussed in this manual can be found
in the EPA's "Procedural Manual for Evaluating the Performance of Wastewater Treatment
Plants," Contract No. 68-01-0107, and the WPCF's MOP No. 11, "Operation of Wastewater
Treatment Plants." Each plant's O & M Manual should also contain valuable information to
help solve operating problems.
/
ANAEROBIC DIGESTION
In the anaerobic sludge digester, bacteria decompose the organic solids in the absence of
dissolved oxygen. The organisms break down the complex molecular structure of the solids,
setting free the "bound" water (water that will not separate from the sludge solids) and
obtain molecular oxygen and food for their growth. Anaerobic digestion reduces the waste-
water solids to a mixture that is relatively odor-free, readily dewaterable, and capable of
being disposed of without causing a nuisance.
In the digestion process, organic solids are liquefied, the solids volume is reduced, and
methane gas is produced by the sequential action of two different groups of bacteria living
together in the same environment. One group consists of saprophytic organisms, commonly
57
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referred to as the "acid formers." In the liquefaction step, the saprophytic bacteria attached
to the sludge particles secrete extracellular enzymes which in turn liquefy and hydrolize the
complex molecules of the solids into simpler compounds and give off end products, primari-
ly organic acids. The second group of organisms, which utilize the organic acids produced by
the saprophytic bateria, are the "methane formers." The organic acids (mainly acetic,
propionic, and butyric) produced in the first step are acted on by the "methane formers"
which secrete intracellular enzymes that break down the organic acids and form the
methane and carbon dioxide gas characteristic of the anaerobic digestion process. The
methane formers are not as abundant in raw wastewater as the acid formers and require an
optimum pH range of 6.5 to 7.5 .
Anaerobic digesters are classified according to their loading rates and not their reaction rates
since the rate of biological activity is fixed. They are usually operated at a temperature of
90° - 95° F. provided by heating coils inside the digester tank walls or by external heat
exchangers. The low rate, conventional or standard rate digester has a loading of 0.04 to
0.07 Ibs. of volatile solids/day/cubic foot of digester volume and has an average detention
time of 39 days. The low rate digester uses a single tank and has an active zone where
anaerobic decomposition takes place and a quiescent zone above which solids separation
takes place.
The most common conventional-digester is the two-stage digester and consists of two
separate tanks. In the first tank, digestion occurs and the sludge is withdrawn to a second
tank, usually unheated, where the sludge undergoes solids separation and sludge compac-
tion. The second tank also provides seed sludge in the event the first tank develops operating
problems. The high rate digestion process is similar to the two-stage digester of the conven-
tional process except the loadings are greater, usually 0.15 to 0.4 Ibs. of volatile solids/day/
cubic foot of digester volume with an average detention time of fifteen (15) days. Mixing
and digestion occur in the first tank and the sludge is then removed to a second tank where
solids separation and sludge concentration take place under quiescent conditions.
The object of start-up of any anaerobic digestion process is to provide a suitable
environment for the bacteria to prosper by controlling food supply, volatile acid
concentration, total alkalinity concentration, mixing, temperature and pH. During start-up
of an anaerobic digester, using no seed sludge or chemicals and with no upsets, digestion
should proceed similar to the plot of Figure No. 3. (Summary plot of data observed during
batch digestion studies)
Figure No. 3 shows that the volatile acid production, methane production, and alkalinity are
not stable for a number of days after start-up begins. The use of seed sludge during start-up
58
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places initial start-up on the right side of the graph where the above parameters are more
stable. Therefore, the best means of starting a digester is with the aid of a well-digested
stable seed sludge.
ACCUMULATION.OF VOLATILE ACIDS
IF GAS PRODUCTION IS PROHIBITED
A
VOLATILE
SOLIDS
(LIQUEFACTION
AND ACIDIFICATION)
1.00
• B -
VOLATILE
' ACIDS
( METHANE
FERMENTATION)
TIME (days)
FIGURE NO. 3
SEQUENTIAL MECHANISM OF ANAEROBIC SLUDGE DIGESTION
(Courtesy of Texas Water Utilities Association "Manual of Wastewater Operations" Fig. 18-2)
Inspection and Pretesting
The inspection and pretesting of the sludge digester is complex and involves pumping the
sludge, mixing the sludge, withdrawing the sludge, and withdrawing the gas and liquid.
Because anaerobic digestion involves biological active cultures and explosive gases, start-up is
no time to have^the gas withdrawal system, heat exchanger, sludge pump, or mixer break
down due to an oversight in inspecting and testing the equipment.
59
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Again, it is stressed that the plant supervisor should observe construction of the digester and
installation of all piping, valves, and equipment to ensure that it is installed according to the
manufacturer's recommendations and instructions.
In general, the supervisor should see that:
1, All debris from the piping and tank is removed.
2. All valves are inspected for proper and smooth operation, and the
seating checked.
3. The safety devices such as flame traps and pressure release valves are
checked for proper operation.
4. The sludge pumps are free of debris, properly lubricated, no undue
vibration or noise, and the drive alignments are correct.
5. The heat exchanger (if the plant is so equipped) is inspected to
ensure all water, sludge, and heating connections are correct and no
leaks are present.
6. All gages are inspected and calibrated.
7. The mixers are operating satisfactorily, properly lubricated and
mounted securely.
There should also be some means available to mix a lime slurry and add it to the digester
contents. The equipment should be inspected to see that they will operate properly and the
required chemicals are on hand prior to start-up.
Start-Up Procedure
The start-up of the anaerobic digestion process can be accomplished by using seed sludge or
raw wastewater to begin the biological decomposition of the sludge:
1. The first step in starting up any anaerobic digestion process using
seed sludge is to estimate the proper quantity of seed sludge based
upon the initial digester loading. If the volume of seed sludge avail-
able is limited, it may be necessary to estimate the digester loading
60
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based upon the available seed sludge. Example 5 contains sample
calculations for estimating the volume of seed sludge based upon the
initial loading. If the calculated volume of seed sludge is too large or
otherwise prohibited, the procedures in Example 5 can be reversed to
obtain an estimated digester loading rate for a known volume of seed
sludge. This procedure permits the seed sludge to digest only a
portion of the total sludge feed and uses only a portion of the
digester volume until the digester can be filled with digesting sludge.
However, when starting a digester without using full sludge flow,
provisions for disposing of the remainder of the feed sludge will have
to be made.
EXAMPLE 5: SEED SLUDGE ESTIMATION (Primary sludge as feed)
Assume these sewage characteristics exist in the primary clarifier(s) at
start-up:
Influent, Suspended Solids = 250 mg/1
Effluent, Suspended Solids = 150 mg/1
Influent Flow = 10 MOD ** Effluent Flow
(1) Calculate Ibs. of sludge accumulated in clarifier(s)
Ibs. in Influent = 10 MGD x 250 mq/1 x 8.34 ] bs/l"IG
mg/1
= 20,800 Ibs.
Ibs. in Effluent = 10 MGD x 150 mg/1 x 8.3^
mg/1
= 12/500 Ibs.
Ibs. accumulated in one "day - 20,000 - 12,500 Ibs.
= 8,300 Ibs. of sludge to be ptfrnped to the digester.
Assume that the seed sludge and primary clarifier have been analyzed
and these results obtained:
Primary Clarifier Sludge = 5% total solids (TS) with 70% volatile
solids (VS)
Seed Sludge = 10% total solids (TS) with 60% volatile solids (VS)
at 9 Ibs/gal
61
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Estimate the amount of sludge to be pumped to the digester per day (1%
solids = 10,000 nag/l)
= ^ bg • Q..f. SJ udge to be removed to d I gest er
consistency of sludge x 8.3^ - /•? —
mg/ 1
= 8.300 Ibs/day 8,300 Ibs/day
x 8.34 TT- 50,000 mg/1 x
TT- , . -
mg/ 1 mg/ I
= 0.0199 MGD
= 19,900 GPD
The pumping time can be determined based upon the pump capabilities of
the plant.
For instance, if the plant has a combined pumping capability for sludge
removal of 100 GPM, then the time of pumping equals:
19,900 gallons of sludge to be removed per day
100 gallons per minute
= 19$ minutes of pumping time per day
This time should be divided through as long a period of time as practical in
order to provide as continuous a feeding of sludge as possible to the digester,
in this case possibly one hour and six minutes for each shift.
(3) Determine Ibs/day of volatile solids pumped to the digester:
Ibs/day of volatile solids = (Volume or rate of sludge, GPD) x (% sludge
solids expressed as decimal equivalent)
x (% volatile solids expressed as
decimal equivalent) x (8.34 Ibs/gal)
62
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= (19,900 GPD) x (.05) x
(.7) x (8.34 Ibs/gal)
= 5,808 Ibs/day
(4) The design engineer should be called upon to aid in selecting a suit-
able volatile solids loading ratio.
Normal loading rates undergoing active digestion are 0.03 - 0.10 Ibs.,
-VS/day/ibs of VS undergoing digestion. These values are based upon
the design loading rate of the digester, and the design engineer should
be of help in selecting volatile solids loading rate. ^
. For this example assume: 0.05 Ibs. VS/day
1 ib. VS undergoing digestion
(5) Estimate the amount of seed sludge needed to treat the loading at
5,808 Ibs/day from the clarifier.
0.05 Ibs. VS/day = 5,8p8 Ibs/day
1 Ib. VS undergoing digestion Weight of seed sludge VS
By rearranging terras
f*|lp Ibs. of VS of seed sludge - 116,200 Ibs. of VS
Therefore
116,200 Ibs. VS
(% TS of Seed) x (% VS of Seed) x Density of Seed Sludge"
' 116,200 Ibs. VS
---(.1) x (.60) x 9 Ibs/gal
= 215.185 gals', of Seed Sludge
Fill the digester with the calculated or available volume of seed
•sludge'and the remaining volume with raw sewage until the liquid
flows over the maximum overflow pipe or until the floating cover
lifts 12 inches off the corbels. Heat the contents 90-95° F. and
63
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maintain within plus or minus 1° F. Since the methane bacteria are
upset relatively easily by rapid temperature variations, the
temperature should be maintained above 90° F. and any change in
digestion temperature should be brought about gradually. After the
temperature is stabilized, begin adding the raw sludge at a rate no
greater than the predetermined rate to the digester and circulate and
mix the contents. If a gas mixing device is used, the gas mixer will be
inoperative until gas production occurs and the circulation system on
the heat exchanger will have to be used for mixing. Mixing is
important because it provides intimate contact between the seed
organisms and the raw sludge and distributes the heat evenly
throughout the sludge mass. Feeding from the clarifier or thickener
should be well-controlled to provide a sludge of at least four percent
solids content and to provide as continuous a feeding as possible.
This usually results in almost immediate start-up of the digestion
process. The initial feeding rate may have to be reduced because of
the amount of seed sludge present in order not to overload the seed
sludge. (See Example 5.)
On the second day of start-up, begin determining the control
parameter values. The volatile acids test takes two - three hours,
the alkalinity test (15 minutes), pH test (five minutes), gas analysis
(30 minutes), and the volatile solids test (one hour), assuming the
operator, lab technician, or chemist has experience in running the
tests. The volatile acids, alkalinity, pH and gas analysis should be
determined three times a day and volatile solids daily, assuming
digestion is proceeding without any problems, in which case the tests
should be run more often. The values of the control parameters may
not change peatly in an eight-hour period, but the values obtained
from each shift will give a means of confirming any previous control
action taken.
Initially, the alkalinity and pH may decrease but should stabilize in
four or five days as the methane formers begin to reproduce.
However, the methane formers have a lower rate of reproduction
than the "acid formers," and if the feed rate is too high, the process
may fail because the excess volatile solids produced will inhibit the
methane producing organisms. If the volatile acids begin to increase
64
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beyond twice the buffering alkalinity capacity of the digester, gas
production is decreasing, and the pH is decreasing, seed sludge should,
be added from another digester or the second stage digester and the
sludge feeding rate should be decreased. If these controls are not
available, add chemicals for buffering alkalinity as required. It is
important to maintain a suitable environment in the digester for the
methane formers, that is, a pH of 7.0 to 7.5, alkalinity
approximately twice that of the volatile acids, and a temperature of
90-95° F. The amount of buffering alkalinity to be added can be
determined by taking a sample from the digester and adding the
buffering alkalinity until the sludge has a neutral pH (7.0) and then
adding a proportionate amount, in a slurry, to the digester contents.
It is essential when adding chemical aids to provide adequate mixing
in the digester. The operator, chemist, or lab technician should
exercise caution when adding buffering alkalinity to a digester to
neutralize excess volatile acids and raise the pH. The buffering
alkalinity added may cause the concentration of any cations present
to reach toxic or inhibitory levels. (See Table 2.)
Cation Concentrations (mg/1)
Calci un\ (L i
Sod i urn
Potassium
Magnes ium
Moderately
Inhi bi tory
3500 - 5500
2500 - 4500
2500 - 4500
1000 - 1500
Strongly
1 nh i bi tory
8000
12000
8000
3000
TABLE 2 ;
INHIBITORY CONCENTRATIONS OF ALKALI AND^ ALKALINE-EARTH CATIONS
(McCarty, P. L., and McKinney, R. E., Journal WPCF, April, 1961)
With the use of seed sludge for start-up, the gas analysis and volatile
solids test is a good measure of the digestion process. The CO0 and
&
^ (carbon dioxide and methane) ratio and the volume of volatile
65
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solids destroyed should not change markedly after start-up or
digester upset may be indicated. An increase in volatile acid
production (followed by or with a decrease in alkalinity) will precede
the reduction of gas production in the digester, indicating digester
upset.
2. If seed sludge is not available, fill the digester with raw sewage and
heat the contents to 90-95° F. and add raw sludge mixed with the
buffering alkalinity slurry to the digester.
If seed sludge is not being used for start-up, then the use of chemicals
to control alkalinity and pH is recommended. On the second day of
start-up, begin performing the volatile acids, alkalinity, pH, gas
analysis and volatile solids test as mentioned previously. By taking
the values of the volatile acids and alkalinity test, the amount of
buffering alkalinity to be added can be calculated using a volatile
acids-to-alkalinity ratio of 0.5. During normal digester operation, the
VA/Alk should equal .3 to .4, but for start-up .5 is used as a
conservative figure in order to avoid adding toxic levels of cations to
the digester. The amount of buffering alkalinity to be added should
be adjusted after -each of the tests or during each shift since the
volatile acids and alkalinity will change quickly.
EXAMPLE 6: CHEMICAL ADDITION FOR DIGESTER CONTROL DETERMINATION
Assume these conditions exist in the digester on the 3rd day of start-up:
Volatile Acids (VA) = 1000 mg/1
Alkalinity (Alk) = 500 mg/1
The quantity of alkalinity to ensure a favorable environment for the
methane bacteria =
Volatile MCid Concentration in the sludge _ 1000 mg/1
w'A/A Ik ratio = 0.5 675
= 2000 mg/1
The alkalinity quantity to be added by chemical addition:
Alkalinity quantity for the methane bacteria - Alkalinity in
the sludge = 2000 mg/1 - 500 mg/1 = 3J1QQ mg/1
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If the volume of sludge in the digester is known, the weight of
chemicals to be added can be determined:
Assume the volume of sludge in the digester = .224 MG:
(Ibs.) chemical to be added In a slurry
= Volume of sludge in digester (MG) x alkalinity to be
1 b/MG
added (mg/1) x 8.34
= .224 MG x 1500 mg/1 x 8.34
mg/1
Ib/MG
mg/1
= 2,800 Ifas. of bicarbonate alkalinity
The chemical dosage calculated above is a great deal to add to the
sludge and will be expensive. However, note that in the example, on
the third day of start-up, the volatile acids equal 1000 mg/1 and the
alkalinity is only 500 mg/1. If the digestion process is monitored
closely on the second day of start-up, this amount of chemicals
should not be necessary. Instead, only a small quantity should have
to be added because, initially, the alkalinity should be greater than or
equal to the volatile acids (see Figure No. 3) as can be seen from
Example No. 6. (Note: The time of three days used in Example No.
6 is arbitrary and does not necessarily reflect the true time span
under actual start-up conditions.)
When the volatile acids concentration begins to decrease
(approximately seven days) and the methane production begins to
increase greatly, chemical additions should be decreased. At this
time, the methane formers are beginning to feed and reproduce,
thereby reducing the volatile acids and producing methane gas and
their own buffering alkalinity. If, after 10 to 14 days, the digestion
process shows little sign of stabilizing, decrease the feed rate and stop
chemical addition. Inspect the feed sludge and digester sludge for
cation or industrial toxicity and monitor the control parameters to
see if digestion recovers. If possible, place second stage sludge back
into the primary digester to provide methane producing organisms
and buffering capacity, if toxicity is not present. If, on the other
hand, when raw sludge is added, the volatile acids do not rise or
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decrease sharply, the alkalinity continues to rise, the pH does not
drop further and the volatile solids reduction continues to increase,
then progress is indicated. Gas production should be monitored and
should show an increase in the methane content of the gas. Normal
operation usually is established within 30-40 days, without the use of
seed sludge, as indicated by a methane gas concentration of 60-70%
of the digester gas composition. If foaming occurs, reduce the feed
sludge loading or add well-digested sludge from another digester. If
mechanical mixers are used, reverse their direction to mix the foam
into the sludge mass.
ANAEROBIC DIGESTION CHECKLIST*
To supplement the preceding recommendations for starting up any Anaerobic Digestion
Process, the following checklist has been provided:
I. Literature review to become familiar with the Anaerobic Digestion Process
A. Manufacturer's literature on the digestion process equipment
B. Facility's Operation and Maintenance Manual
C. "Operation of Wastewater Treatment Plants," Environmental Protection
Agency, Technical Training Grant No. 5TT1-WP-16-03, Chapter 8
D. WPCF Manual of Practice No. 11, "Operation of Wastewater Treatment
Plants," 1966, pages 39-62
E. WPCF Manual of Practice No. 16, "Anaerobic Sludge Digestion," 1968
II. Preparation for Start-Up
A. Meet with consulting engineers and start-up experts.
1. Obtain design parameter values.
a. Volume of digester(s)
*It is assumed that the previous sections' recommendations concerning Preparation for
Start-Up and Start-Up of the Pretreatment, Primary Treatment and Chlorination Facilities
have been followed and an outline of start-up procedures has been made.
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b. Volatile solids loading to digester(s)
c. Solids concentration of sludge pumped to digester(s)
B. Estimate actual start-up conditions.
1. Estimate volatile solids and total'solids loading to digester(s).
III. Start-Up Procedure
A. Seed Sludge
1. Estimate the percent total solids and volatile solids and the density
of the seed sludge.
2. Calculate the amount of seed sludge to be added based on estimated
start-up loading.
3. " Add seed sludge to the digester(s) and fill the remaining volume with
raw sewage.
4. Heat contents of the primary digester(s) to 90-95° F. and maintain
within plus or minus 1 F.
5. Mix contents , of the primary digester(s) thoroughly and
continuously.
6. Pump raw sludge to the digester(s) at the estimated solids loading
rate as continuously as possible.
7. Measure the control parameters.
a. Volatile acids approximately three times a day
b. Total alkalinity approximately three times a day
c. pH approximately three times a day
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d. Gas analysis for methane and carbon dioxide approximately
three times a day
e. Volatile solids approximately once a day
f. Calculate VA/Alk
8. Adjust process.
a. Increase feed if volatile solids are lower than desired.
b. Decrease feed if volatile solids are greater than desired.
B. Without seed sludge
1. Fill the digester(s) with raw sewage.
2. Heat the contents of the digester to 90-95° F. and maintain within
plus or minus 1° F.
3. Mix the contents thoroughly.
4. Pump raw sludge to the digester at 10% of design loading.
5. Measure the control parameters.
a. Volatile acids (VA) three times a day
b. Total alkalinity (Alk) three times a day
c. pH three times a day
d. Gas analysis for methane and carbon dioxide once a day
e. Volatile solids (VS) once a day
f. Calculate VA/Alk
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6. , Adjust process.
a. Calculate chemical quantity to be added to digester contents.
b. Add chemical in a slurry to the digester to maintain the pH
and VA/Alk ratio favorable to the methane organisms.
c. Reduce chemical feed as digestion process stabilizes.
d. Increase loading by 10%.
IV. Normal Operation
A, Monitor control parameters of pH, VA/Alk, gas analysis and volatile solids,
B, Adjust feed until the sludge in the digester is in equilibrium.
References for Further Information
1. "Operation of Waste-water, Treatment Plants," Environmental Protection Agency,
Technical Training Grant No. 5TT1-WP-16-03, Chapter 8.
2. WPCF Manual of Practice No. 11, "Operation of Wastewater Treatment Plants,"
1966. " " " . \
3. Wastewater Engineering, Metcalf and Eddy, McGraw-Hill. Book Company, Inc.,
1972. „ _"''_,- •-
- , ., .. :<. , *'.* . t . ' ,, ' , , .-
4. McKinney, Ross E,, Microbiology for Sanitary Engineers, McGraw-Hill Book
Company, Inc., 1962, Chapter 23.
„'"
5. "A Study of Sludge Handling,and Disposal," U. S. Department of the Interior,
Federal Water Pollution Control Administration, Publication WP:20-4, May, 1968.
— - F ••„-. - i ». „ *
6. Standard Methods for the Examination of Wafer and Wastewater, 13th Edition,
APHA, AWWA, WPCF, 1971. : , , , ^ „
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SLUDGE CONDITIONING
A. THICKENING is the process of removing water from the primary or
secondary sedimentation tank sludge. The purpose of sludge thickening is to
reduce the volume of the liquid sludge by increasing the concentration of the
solids. This increases the solids holding capacity of the digester, reduces the
heat requirement, and allows the digester generally to operate more
efficiently. The increase in solids content by thickening may be as much as
100 percent. There are basically two methods for thickening sludge -- by
gravity and by flotation.
The gravity thickener concentrates the sludge by resettling much like the
settling tanks without mechanical rakes. Sludge removed from secondary
settling tanks usually cannot be concentrated sufficiently by gravity
thickening alone.
Gravity thickening with mechanical rakes increases the efficiency of the
dewatering unit. Compaction occurs as a result of the compression due to
the weight of the solids themselves and by the breaking up of the floe by the
rakes, thereby permitting water to escape. This method is often used to
handle sludge from the secondary settling tanks, due to the increase in solids
concentration.
Another method used to thicken sludge is through flotation. This procedure
is basically the same as described in the start-up of the flotation units. (See
Section III, Start-Up of the Pretreatment, Primary Treatment, and
Chlorination Facilities.) The process involves the separation of solids from
sludge by applying air under pressure through the sludge mass. The
flocculated sludge collects at the surface of the aerated liquid where it is
removed by collecting equipment.
Inspection and Pretesting
The basin and piping should be free of all debris. The drive motors, if used,
should be checked for proper rotation, drive alignment, clearances, noise,
vibration, and lubrication. The weir levels should be inspected and made
level. If a flotation thickener is used, the air blower should be inspected and
the air lines checked for leaks. The diffusers should be inspected for any
defects or clogging before installation. The manufacturer's instructions
should be on hand for guidance in inspecting and pretesting the equipment.
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Start-Up
After the sludge has begun to develop a blanket in the thickener, the
suspended solids (SS) and sludge volume index (SVI) should be determined.
The suspended solids will determine the thickener's efficiency and the SVI
will aid in recognizing a bulking sludge. Sludge pumping should be stopped
when the sludge appears thin. The same problems that plague settling tanks
occur in thickeners. The problems of bulking sludge, rising sludge, and
septicity are discussed under the Settling Tanks (Section III) of this manual.
Chemical coagulants also have been used with thickeners to aid in the
densification of the sludge. Sludge should be withdrawn when it consists of
4% - 8% dry solids as indicated by the total or suspended solids test or by
visual observation. The laboratory tests should be performed to verify the
operator's judgment and for the plant's files.
B. ELUTRIATION is a unit operation having the dual function of both
conditioning and thickening. It is a washing process where alkalinity is
removed from the digested sludge thereby reducing chemical coagulant
demand used for conditioning the sludge for dewatering.
The mixing action of the sludge with water is accomplished by mechanical or
diffused air agitation for a period of 1-2 minutes. The mixture of water and
sludge is then settled and the sludge is removed to other dewatering
processes and operations. The supernatant is returned to another plant unit,
usually the primary settling tank. Because this concentration of the solids in
the sludge may be increased, this process is also considered to act as a
thickening unit.
This process may remove up to 80 percent of the alkalinity and reduce the
amount of ferric chloride used for conditioning the sludge by as much as 65
to 80 percent.
Inspection and Pretesting
The basin and piping should be cleared of all debris and the drive motors
inspected for secure mounting, rotation, drive alignment, clearances,
vibration, noise, and lubrication. If an air blower is used, it should also be
inspected and the air lines checked for leaks and the diffusers inspected for
proper operation. The manufacturer's suggestions for inspecting and
pretesting the equipment should be followed also.
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Start-Up
The alkalinity of the sludge before and after elutriation should be
determined. The alkalinity determination will provide a measure of the
efficiency of the process by indicating the amount of alkalinity removed.
This measure can be used to estimate the savings involved in reducing the
amount of chemical conditioning used.
C. CHEMICAL CONDITIONING is usually used in advance of vacuum
filtration or centrifugation as an aid in increasing the solids content of the
sludge. Certain chemicals, alone or in combination, when added to raw or
digested sludge result in the release of bound water and the formation of a
relatively insoluble floe which agglomerates suspended and colloidal
particles. Chemicals used have included sulfuric acid, alum, chlorinated
copper, ferrous sulfate, polymers, and, most commonly, ferric chloride, with
or without lime. Lime with ferric chloride is used to reduce the alkalinity of
the sludge if other means such as elutriation are not used. Lime reduces the
alkalinity by precipitating the bicarbonate alkalinity of the liquid portion of
the sludge, thereby reducing the amount of ferric chloride needed to
condition the sludge. The chemical dosage as determined in the laboratory is
usually mixed with the sludge by mechanical means for 1 to 2 minutes
before the sludge is dewatered.
Inspection and Rretesting
The mixing basin and piping should be cleared of debris. The motors should
be inspected for mounting, rotation, clearances, alignment, noise, vibration,
and lubrication. The mixing action should be checked to see that it is mixing
through the basin. The chemical metering system should be checked for
proper calibration. All recorders should be checked for proper operation.
Start-Up
The mixers and recorders should be inspected periodically during start-up to
see that they are functioning correctly.
SLUDGE DEWATERING
The most common methods of dewatering raw or digested sludge are by the use of drying
beds, vacuum filters and centrifuges.
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A. The SLUDGE DRYING BED dewaters digested sludge through evaporation
and percolation. The bed consists of an underdrain system, a course of
crushed rock and gravel, and a cover of 9 to 12 inches of sand. Some drying
beds have glass covers to reduce environmental effects that would conflict
with the operation of the drying bed and also reduce the required area for
drying beds by reducing the time required for drying.
Inspection and Pretesting
The underdrain system should be cleared of debris. The sand layer should be
inspected for uniformity and raked smooth. The baffle should be placed
correctly to ensure the sand is not washed out.
Start-Up
Before application of the digested sludge, the sand bed should be raked to
loosen the compacted sand. The bed should be leveled and sludge admitted
to a depth of approximately 12 inches.
Sludge from the digester should not be drawn too quickly, or coning may
develop in the digester or the sand bed may be damaged.
The sludge is dry when large cracks appear at the surface .and extend to the
sand bed. The dried sludge may be removed by hand with a tine fork, shovel,
or other appropriate equipment. As sludge is removed, some sand is lost and
must be replaced from time to time. Mechanical equipment, trucks, or any
other equipment that would damage the sand bed should not be permitted
on the beds, unless the design and construction of the beds provide for this
contingency.
B. VACUUM FILTRATION is a unit' operation that usually requires the
addition of chemicals to assist in dewatering the raw or digested sludge.
After the chemical addition and mixing (to aid coagulation by the release of
bound water), the sludge is ready to be withdrawn to the vacuum filter.
Although there are a number of different types, the more common filter is a
cylindrical drum with some filter media covering the outside surface.
Internally the drum is divided into drainage compartments which connect to
the filtrate system. Approximately 20 to 40 percent of the drum is
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submerged in the filter "pan" which contains the sludge. The sludge mat is
formed on the filter surface as a result of a vacuum applied to the drainage
compartments that are in the submerged portion. As the mat rotates out of
the "pan," vacuum and dewatering are continuing. The cake is removed by
releasing the vacuum and applying a light air pressure to the inside of the
filter, lifting the cake away from the filter where, with the aid of a scraper,
the cake is discharged into a hopper or onto a conveyor belt.
Some filters eliminate the scraper and air backblow by using coil springs as
the filter media. The cake is discharged by the lifting action of the coils as
they leave the drum and travel to a discharge roller. The cake is discharged to
a hopper or conveyor belt as the coils pass around a return roller.
The vacuum filter, if operating and maintained correctly, should produce a 4
- 5 Ibs/sq ft/hr of cake with a solids content of 20 to 40 percent for primary
sludge, and varies with the applied solids concentration.
Inspection and Pretesting
The supervisor should be on hand when the unit is installed to see that it is
done according to the manufacturer's instructions and to note any problems
that arise in the installation of the unit. The air and/or water lines should be
checked for leaks and all valves cheeked for smooth and proper operation.
The unit should be lubricated and checked for clearances and alignment. The
motors should be inspected to see that they are rotating correctly, properly
lubricated, aligned and create no undue noise or vibration. The scraper
should be checked for clearance and alignment. Sludge and water withdrawal
system should be checked. The filter media should be carefully checked
before installation and once again as the unit is put into operation to see it is
rotating smoothly without binding.
Start-Up
As the sludge begins entering the vat, the unit should be prepared for
operation. When the sludge is at the proper depth, the unit should be turned
on and inspected frequently for proper operation. The total yield, moisture
content, total solids, and volatile solids of the filtered sludge should be
determined daily. Other tests normally performed are total solids, volatile
solids, alkalinity and pH before the sludge is filtered.
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C. CENTRIFUGATION separates the sludge solids from the liquid through
sedimentation and centrifugal force. Chemical addition and mixing are
sometimes used to render the process more effective in the dewatering of the
sludge.
Centrifuges are various sized cylinders that rotate at high speeds. The sludge
is pumped to the center of the bowl where centrifugal force established by
the rotating drum separates the lighter liquid from the denser solids. A screw
conveyor inside the drum removes the solid portion. The liquid portion is
removed at the opposite end over adjustable weirs and usually returned to
the thickener or primary clarifier. If operated and maintained correctly, the
centrifuge should produce a cake of 30 to 35 percent solids.
Inspection and Pretesting
The installation of the centrifuge should be checked to ensure it has been
done in accordance with the manufacturer's instructions and specifications.
The alignment of the unit's drum and screw conveyor should be inspected
for proper clearances. The drive motor and coupling should be checked for
proper alignment. See that the unit is properly lubricated and the lubricant
recorded. Check the sound and vibration dumping to see that it is installed
correctly.
Jog the mechanism through one revolution listening for any unusual noise
and look for any undue vibration. Check clearances, drive alignment, and
rotation.
Start-Up
As waste begins entering the bowl, inspect the mechanism once again for
proper operation. Run tests on moisture and percent solids before and after
centrifugation in order to determine the efficiency of the centrifuge.
DISPOSAL
The principal methods of sludge disposal are: incineration, where the sludge cake is reduced
to an ash and the ash is spread on the land; lagooning, where the sludge is allowed to
dewater naturally by percolation and evaporation, followed by removal of the residue by
bulldozers or other appropriate methods; burial, where the sludge usually contains
constituents which render other methods impractical; land fill, where the sludge, either wet
or dewatered, is placed on fill and promptly covered with earth; soil conditioner, where the
77
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sludge is spread on top of the surface for agricultural purposes; and ocean barging, where the
sludge is diluted in the ocean or other large bodies of water. For further information on the
subject of disposal see "A Study of Sludge Handling and Disposal," U. S. Department of the
Interior, Federal Water Pollution Control Administration, Publication WP-20-4, May, 1968.
78
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SECTION VI
APPENDICES
APPENDIX PAGE
A ASSOCIATED EPA PROGRAMS 81
B GLOSSARY ' 83
79
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ASSOCIATED EPA PROGRAMS
The Environmental Protection Agency is developing several manuals to assist in the proper
operation and maintenance of municipal wastewater treatment plants. These manuals may
be useful in preparing for start-up.
A Planned Maintenance Management Program, Project No. 1101QGWI
Estimating Staffing for Municipal Wastewater Treatment Facilities, Contract No.
68-01r0328
Estimating Laboratory Needs for Municipal Wastewater Treatment Facilities, Contract No.
68-01-0328
Emergency Operating Procedures for Municipal Wastewater Treatment Facilities, Contract
No. 68-01-0341
Maintenance Management Systems for Municipal Wastewater Facilities, Contract No.
68-01-0341
Emergency Response Program for Municipal Wastewater Treatment Facilities - State and
Local Aspects, Contract No. 68-01-0341
Middle Management Concepts for Municipal Wastewater Operations, Contract No.
68-01-0341 . .
Procedural Manual for Evaluating the Performance of Wastewater Treatment Plants,
Contract No. 68-01-0107
Safety in the Design, Operation and Maintenance of Wastewater Treatment Works, Contract
No. 68-01-0324
»
Design Criteria for Mechanical, Electric, and Fluid System and Component Reliability,
Contract No. 68-01-0001.
Methods for Chemical Analysis of Water and Waste, GPO Stock No. 5501-0067
APPENDIX A
81
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GLOSSARY
AEROBIC - Requiring or not destroyed by, the presence of free elemental oxygen.
AEROBIC BACTERIA -- Bacteria which will live and reproduce only in an environment
containing oxygen which is available for their respiration such as atmospheric
oxygen or oxygen dissolved in water.
ALGAE -- Primitive plants, one or many celled, usually aquatic, and capable of elaborating
their foodstuffs by photosynthesis.
f
ALKALINITY (ALK) -- The capacity of water to neutralize acids, a property imported by
the water's content of carbonates, bicarbonates, hydroxides, and occasionally
borates, silicates and phosphates.
ANAEROBIC -- Requiring, or not destroyed by, the absence of air or free (elemental)
oxygen.
ANAEROBIC BACTERIA - Bacteria which will live and reproduce in an environment
containing no "free" or dissolved oxygen.
BACTERIA - A group of universally distributed, rigid, essentially unicellular microscopic
organisms lacking chlorophyll.
BOD - (1) Abbreviation for biochemical oxygen demand. The quantity of oxygen used in
the«biochemical oxidation of organic matter in a specified time, at a specified
temperature, and under specified conditions. (2) A standard test used in assessing
waste water strength.
BOUND WATER -- Water strongly held on the surface of colloidal particles.
COAGULANTS - Chemicals added to destabilize, aggregate, and bind together colloids and
emulsions to improve settleability, filterability, or drainability.
COD - Abbreviation for chemical oxygen demand. A measure of the oxygen-consuming
capacity of inorganic and organic matter present in water or wastewater. It does not
• differentiate between stable and unstable organic matter and thus does not
necessarily correlate with biochemical oxygen demand.
8g APPENDIX B
Page 1 of 4
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DETENTION TIME -- The time required to fill a tank at a given flow or the theoretical time
required for a given flow of wastewater to pass through a tank.
DO - Abbreviation for dissolved oxygen. The oxygen dissolved in water, waste water, or
other liquid.
EFFLUENT - Wastewater or other liquid which flows out of a basin, treatment process, or
treatment plant.
BLUTRIATION -- A process of sludge conditioning whereby the sludge is washed with
either fresh water or plant effluent to reduce the demand for conditioning chemicals
and to improve settling or filtering characteristics of the solids.
*
ENDOGENOUS - A diminished level of respiration in which materials previously stored by
the cell are oxidized.
ENZYME -- A catalyst produced by living cells.
FACULTATIVE BACTERIA -- Bacteria which can adapt themselves to growth in the
presence, as well as in the absence of, elemental oxygen.
FLOG - Groups of bacteria that have joined together to form a cluster increasing the
density where it will settle.
FUNGI - Small nonehlorophyll-bearing plants which lack roots, stems, or leaves, which
occur (among other places) in water, wastewater, or wastewater effluents and grow
best in the absence of light.
GRIT ~ The heavy suspended mineral matter present in water or wastewater such as sand,
gravel, and cinders.
INFLUENT -- Water, wastewater, or other liquid flowing into a reservoir, basin, treatment
process, or treatment plant.
INORGANIC MATTER ~ Chemical substances of mineral origin which may contain carbon
and oxygen.
APPENDIX B
84 Page 2 of 4
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LIQUEFACTION - Liquefaction as applied to sludge digestion means the transformation of
large solid particles of sludge into either a soluble or finely dispersed state.
MEDIA -- Rocks or other material in a trickling filter over which settled wastewater is
sprinkled and then flows over and around during treatment. Slime organisms grow
on the surface of the media and treat the wastewater.
MESOPHILIC RANGE -- Operationally, the temperature range most conducive to the
maintenance of optimum digestion by mesophilic bacteria, generally accepted as
between 27° and 32° C (80° and 90° F.).
/•
MIXED LIQUOR -- A mixture of activated sludge and organic matter undergoing activated
sludge treatment in the aeration tank.
NITRIFICATION - The biochemical conversion of unoxidized nitrogenous matter
(ammonia and organic nitrogen) to oxidized nitrogen (usually nitrate).
ORGANIC MATTER -- Chemical substances of animal or vegetable origin, or more
correctly, of basically carbon structure, comprising compounds consisting of
hydrocarbons and their derivatives.
ORGANISMS — A form of life composed of mutually dependent parts that maintain various
vital processes.
PATHOGENIC ORGANISMS - Bacteria or viruses which can cause disease (typhoid,
cholera, dysentery).
pH - A measure of the concentration by weight of hydrogen ions, in grams, per liter of
solution. Neutral water, for example, has a pH of 7; acid water has a pH of less than
7; and alkaline water has a pH of greater than 7.
PROPORTIONAL WEIR - A special type of weir in which the discharge through the weir is
directly proportional to the head.
PROTOZOA -- Small one-celled animals.
SAPROPHYTIC -- Living on dead or decaying matter.
APPENDIX B
. . Page 3 of 4
- - 85
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SETTLEABLE SOLIDS - (1) That matter in wastewater which will not stay in suspension
during a preselected settling period, such as one hour, but either settles to the
bottom or floats to the top. (2) In the Imhoff cone test, the volume of matter that
settles to the bottom of the cone in one hour.
SLOUGHINGS -- Trickling filter slimes that have been washed off the filter media.
SLUDGE - (1) The accumulated settleable solids separated from liquids, such as water or
wastewater, during processing. (2) The precipitate resulting from chemical
treatment, coagulation, or sedimentation of water or wastewater.
SLUDGE AGE — In the activated sludge process, a measure of the length of time a particle
of suspended solids has been undergoing aeration, expressed in days.
SLUDGE BLANKET - Accumulation of sludge hydrodynamically suspended within an
enclosed body of wastewater.
SLUDGE BULKING - A phenomenon that occurs in activated sludge plants where the
sludge occupies excessive volumes and will not concentrate readily.
SLUDGE VOLUME INDEX (SVI) -- The ratio of the volume in milliliters of sludge settled
from a 1,000 ml sample in 30 minutes to the dry-weight concentration of the
suspended solids in the mixed liquor in mg/1 and this ratio multiplied by 1,000.
SUSPENDED SOLIDS (SS) -- The quantity of material removed from wastewater in a
laboratory test, as prescribed in "Standard Methods for the Examination of Water
and Wastewater" and referred to as nonfilterable residue.
THERMOPHILIC RANGE - The temperature range most conducive to maintenance of
optimum digestion by thermophilic bacteria, generally accepted as between 120°
and 135° F.
VOLATILE ACIDS (VA) - Fatty acids containing six or less carbon atoms, which are
soluble in water and which can be steam-distilled at atmospheric pressure. Volatile
acids are commonly reported as equivalent to acetic acid.
VOLATILE SOLIDS (VS) - The quantity of solids in water, wastewater, or other liquids,
lost on ignition of the dry solids at 600° C.
ZOOGLEA - A jelly-like matrix developed by bacteria.
APPENDIX B
86 Page 4 of 4
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SECTION VII
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The data received through personal communications with wastewater treatment plant
superintendents and their staff, consulting engineers, start-up experts, the academic
community, manufacturers and suppliers of wastewater treatment plant equipment, and
EPA personnel is gratefully acknowledged.
87
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SECflONVm
REFERENCES
1. Cassell, E. A. and Sawyer, C. N., "A Method for Starting High-Rate Digesters," Sewage
and Industrial Wastes, Vol. 31, No. 2, p. 123 (February, 1959).
2. Caveriy, D.S., "Start-up of New Wastewater Treatment Plants," Journal WPCF, Vol. 40,
No. 4, p. 571 (April, 1968).
3. "Chlorine Manual," 4th edition, The Chlorine Institute, Inc. (December, 1972).
4. Dague, Richard R., "Application of Digestion Theory to Digester Control," Journal
WPCF, Vol. 40, No. 12, p. 2021 (December, 1968).
5. Eckenfielder, A. W. and O'Conner, D. J., Biological Waste Treatment, Pergamon Press,
1961.
6. "Estimating Costs and Manpower Requirements for .Conventional Wastewater
Treatment Facilities," EPA, Contract No. 14-12-462, October, 1971.
7. Filbert, J. W., "Procedures and Problems of Digester Start-Up," Journal WPCF, Vol. 39,
No. 3, p. 367 (March, 1967).
8. "Glossary of Water and Wastewater Control Engineering," APHA, ASCE, AWWA,
WPCF, 1969.
9. Hatfield, W. D., "Operation of the Activated Sludge Process," Journal WPCF, Vol. 38,
No. 6, p. 957 (June, 1966).
10. Hicks, C., "Digester Start-up at Cobourg, Ontario," Sewage and Industrial Wastes, Vol.
31, No. 1, p. 117 (January, 1959).
11. Keteham, L., "Operator Ingenuity at the Tacoma, Washington, Sewage Treatment
Plant," Sewage and Industrial Wastes, Vol. 30, No. 12, p. 1506 (December, 1958).
12. Kfer, L. D., "Start-up Problems at a Metropolitan District Plant," Journal WPCF, Vol.
40, No. 7, p. 1338 (July, 1968).
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13. Kugelman, L J. and McCarty, P. L., "Cation Toxicity in Stimulation in Anaerobic
Waste Treatment," Journal WPCF, Vol. 37, No. 1, p. 97 (January, 1965).
14. Lohmeyer, G. T., "A Review of Sludge Digestion," Journal WPCF, Vol. 31, No. 2, p.
221 (February, 1959).
15. Lynam, B., McDonnell, G., and Rrup, M., "Start-up and Operation of Two New
High-Rate Digestion Systems," Journal WPCF, Vol. 39, No. 4, p. 518 (April, 1967).
16. McCarty, P. L. and McKinney, R. E., "Salt Toxicity in Anaerobic Digestion," Journal
WPCF, Vol. 33, No. 4, p. 399 (April, 1961).
17. McCarty, P. L. and McKinney, R. E., "Volatile Acid Toxicity in Anaerobic Digestion,"
Journal WPCF, Vol. 33, No. 3, p. 223 (March, 1961).
18. McKinney, Ross E., Microbiology for Sanitary Engineers, McGraw-Hill Book Company,
1962.
19. Manual of Instruction for Sewage Treatment Plant Operators, New York State
Department of Health.
20. Manual of Wastewater Operations, Texas Water Utilities Association, 1971.
21. Metcalf & Eddy, Inc., Wastewater Engineering, McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc.,
1972.
22. "Operation and Maintenance Manual, Wastewater Stabilization Lagoon and Lift
Station," Culver Engineering, August 24,1972.
23. "Operations of Wastewater Treatment Plants," Sacramento State College, Department
of Civil Engineering.
24. "Plant Start-Up Procedure," Ontario Water Resources Commission, Division of Plant
Operations, July, 1968.
25. Pohlard, F. G. and Ghosh, S., "Developments in Anaerobic Treatment Processes,"
Biotechnical and Bioengineering, Symposium No. 2, p. 85 (1971).
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26. "Procedural Manual for Evaluating the Performance of Wastewater Treatment Plants,"
EPA, Contract No. 68-01-0107, Standard'Methods, 13th edition, American Public
Health Association, 1971.
" ^ ' ' „ * . ^
27. Recommended Standards for Sewage Works, Great Lakes - Upper Mississippi River
Board of State Sanitary Engineers, Health Education Service, Albany, New York.
28. "Safety Regulations," 3rd edition, Ontario Water Resources Commission, Division of
Plant Operations, 1971.
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38. Wittenburg, John A., "Hlot Study .to Determine Manpower Requirements for
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