United States
Environmental Protection
Agency
Office of Municipal
Pollution Control (WH-595)
Municipal Facilities Division
Washington, DC 20460
September 1987
Office of Water
EPA 430/9-87-006
It's Your Choice
A Guidebook for Local
Officials on Small
Community Wastewater
Management Options
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Office of Water EPA 430/9-87-006
It's Your Choice
A Guidebook for Local
Officials on Small
Community Wastewater
Management Options
September 1987
This document was published by:
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Office of Municipal Pollution Control,
Municipal Facilities Division
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Acknowledgements
Principal Author
Peter E. Shanaghan, U.S. EPA Office of Municipal
Pollution Control
Contributing Authors
John E. Flowers, U.S. EPA Office of Municipal Pollution
Control
Alfred E. Krause, U.S. EPA, Region V
Don C. Niehus, U.S. EPA Office of Municipal Pollution
Control
Kenneth C. Wiswall, P.E., Lombardo and Associates,
Annapolis, MD
Chapter Three was largely adapted from "A Guide to
Selecting Engineers for Rural Water and Wastewater
Projects" by James C. Spencer, Rural Housing Improvement,
Inc., Winchendon, MA.
The principal author and editors wish to acknowledge Irene
Sacks, Progressiv.e Learning Resources, Gillette, NJ for her
assistance with the preparation of this document.
Editors .' ; . '.•.'••.!•".'•
Sheree Romanoff and Virginia Hathaway, JACA Corp.,
Ft. Washington, PA
Peer Reviewers
Lawrence Allen, Hamilton, MO
Patricia Crawford, Gushing, MN
Stephen Dix, National Small Flows Clearinghouse, West
Virginia University
Walter Gills, Virginia State Water Control Board
Thomas R. Halbaeh, Extension Service, U.S. Department
of Agriculture
Robert Hale, Trimble, MO
Jackson Hall, Southeast Rural Community Assistance
Project, Rdanoke, VA
David G. Hanna, New Mexico Environmental Improvement
Agency
Chip Heckathorn, Michigan Department of Natural
Resources r
Dr. Michael Hoover, North Carolina State University
Ancil Jones, U.S. EPA, Region VI
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Vicki R, Keenan, American Consulting Engineers Council
James F, Kreissl, U.S. EPA Water Engineering Research
Laboratory
Kathy Martin, Trimble, MO
Allan Mollenkopf, Grasslake, Ml
Christine Noah-Nichols, U.S. EPA, Region X
Don Owen, California State Water Resources Control
Board
Dr. Robert Rubin, North Carolina State University
Peter Thurston, Lane County, OR
Jane West, Trimble, MO
Robert Bastian, Robert J. Blanco, James Bourne, Haig
Farmer, Charles E. Gross, Alan Hais, Robert Hardaker,
John H. Samson, .and Cleora Scott — US, EPA
0 Office of Municipal Pollution Control
Graphics
Jo-Ann Hockemeier, JACA Corp., Ft. Washington, PA
Publication Layout and Production
Jeffrey Freedman, Jo-Ann Hockemeier, and Sheree
Romanoff — JACA Corp., Ft. Washington, PA
Photo Credits
Dr. Albert R. Jarrett ^- The Pennsylvania State University
(page 19, column 1)
Dr. Michael Hoover — North Carolina State University
(page 64}
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Table Of Contents
Foreword ,, .,,.,, ...,,,,. , 1
In A Nutshell...A Summary Of Key Points .,.,.,.,,.,,.,,,,,.,.,.,. 2
Chapter One - It's Your Choice 5
Chapter Two - Defining The Problem . 7
Making A Start . , 7
What Are Your Problems? 8
Septic System Problems . . . . . .....,,..,.,....,. 8
Centralized Treatment System Problems ..,,,,.,....,.,,,. 9
Who Can Help? . . ... .............. . . 10
You Be The Judge . ................................ , . 11
Chapter Three - Selecting Your Consulting Engineer , . 13
Identifying Potential Engineering Firms 13
Issuing a Request For Proposals .... . . ..... . . . 13
Interviewing"'Candidate Engineering Firms ......... . 14
Checking References . , ... . 15
Selecting A Firm And Contracting For Its Services , . . 15
Chapter Four - Ways To Collect And Treat Wastewater ............ 17
A little History ........ ....... . . . . . .... , . .... . . ...... 17
Onsite Systems .,,...,.. 18
Collection Systems . 20
Cluster Systems 22
Centralized Treatment . . 23
Chapter Five - Planning A Solution To Your Problems .............. 27
Another Look At Your Town's Problem Areas 27
What Wastewater Management Approaches Should Be Considered? ,. .. 28
What Specific Technologies Will Be Used? 28
Who Will Manage The Facilities? 29
Chapter Six - Paying The Bill . .... . . 31
Where Will The Money Come From? . . ., . ........ 31
How Much Should We Charge Users? ,.'. 33
Chapter Seven - In Summary ................................... 37
Appendix A - Choosing The Right Technology . ... ............ ..... 39
Appendix B - Rural Community Assistance Program Network ..... ... . 69
Appendix C - What To Read Next .'...' 71.
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Foreword
This is a booklet about choices. Choices you as a small
community official, have in how your community solves its existing
wastewater problems, or addresses its future wastewater
treatment needs,
The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) prepared this
booklet specifically for local officials like yourself from
communities of less.than. 10,00.0 people to help you become an
educated consumer. Educated consumers generally make good
choices because they learn about the available options and base
their decisions on the facts.
In the past, EPA Construction Grants were available to cover 55
to 85 percent of most project costs. Federal and State grants
together would typically cover the lion's share of a community's
wastewater construction costs. So it's not surprising that some
local officials weren't too concerned with how much their
wastewater systems cost. These local officials were quite willing
to leave decisions to the "experts." However, the Federal Water
Quality Act of 1987 will phase out construction grants and will
create state revolving loan funds from which communities may
borrow some of the money needed for their project. So local
officials like you who are faced with building or upgrading a
wastewater system need to be actively involved in making the
decisions so you will be sure you get a system that will do the job
and is affordable.
This booklet will let you know what your options are and will direct
you to sources of more detailed information. Topics included are:
Q How to get started
Q Who you can turn to for help
Q How to choose the right consulting engineer for your situation .
Q The different ways there are to collect and treat wastewater,
and where each is most appropriate
Q How to work with your engineer to be sure your town gets a
system that's right for you
Q Alternatives for financing your project
Q How to make your wastewater system self-sustaining by
setting up appropriate user fees.
This booklet is part of an ongoing EPA effort to provide local
officials, consulting engineers, and State regulatory agencies with
information on all aspects of wastewater management.
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In A Nutshell...
A Summary Of Key Points
IT'S YOUR CHOICE
A wastewater treatment system may be the biggest investment
your town has ever made. Don't leave decisions to the
"experts." Too much is at stake. You as a local leader must
guide your town in the process of selecting the right wastewater
system and the best way to pay for it.
Selection of a consulting engineer is one of the most important
decisions you will make.
DEFINING THE PROBLEM
A citizens' advisory group can help you define the problem and
find a solution.
You need to determine exactly what types of problems your town
is having and how bad they are.
".©,'-' . .' ' • . '
The National Small Flows Clearinghouse can help. Call them
toll-free at 1-800-624-8301.
Identify other individuals or organizations that can help your
community at little or no cost.
SELECTING YOUR CONSULTING ENGINEER
Consulting engineers are professionals who offer important skills
available nowhere else. Your town should select an engineer with
the same care you would use selecting a surgeon.
Look for an engineer with proven experience solving problems in
communities like yours.
Do not choose your engineer on the basis of cost. It is well worth
spending a little extra to get an engineer who will design a system
which will provide lower cost service for years to come.
KNOWING YOUR OPTIONS
Most likely your town will need to use a combination of onsite
systems, cluster systems, and centralized treatment,
Where lot sizes are 1/2 acre or more, think about installing or
renovating onsite systerns; Many different types are available
which can overcome difficult site conditions.
Establish a management program to make sure that all onsite
systems are properly maintained.
Sewers are very expensive. Don't install them unless absolutely
necessary.
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Conventional sewers may be appropriate where more than 100
houses will be connected to each mile of sewer.
Alternative sewers are less costly and should be considered where
lot sizes range from 1/2 to two acres.
Where onsite systems won't work, consider cluster systems. In a
cluster system, alternative sewers collect wastewater and
transport it a short distance to a neighborhood treatment facility.
Centralized treatment is appropriate in areas of dense
development.
FINDING THE RIGHT SOLUTION
Small communities need simple, low cost wastewater systems.
You and your advisory group need to be involved in:
Q Determining wastewater problem areas
Q Evaluating basic approaches to the problem
Q Selecting specific technologies.
0 . ,
Find out the estimated total costs to the community of proposed
solutions and what that means in terms of annual cost to each
customer.
Hold at least one public meeting before you choose a wastewater
system.
A value engineering study by another engineer during design of
your project will pay for itself many times over by reducing costs.
Your town will also need to decide how your proposed
wastewater system or systems will be managed — such things as
who will operate and maintain the facilities, how the billing will be
done, and who will prepare the budget.
PAYING THE BILL
Investigate all potential types and sources of funding the
construction of your wastewater facilities.
You may need a financial consultant to give you advice on short-
and long-term financing and to prepare a financial plan for your
wastewater system.
You must charge fees to pay for your system's operation,
maintenance, and equipment replacement costs plus debt service
costs.
To make your wastewater facilities self-sustaining, establish a fund
from excess user fees which will pay for new facilities when the
old facilities reach the end of their useful life.
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Chapter One
It's Your Choice
If you are reading this booklet, chances are your
town already has a problem with wastewater.
Perhaps your sewage treatment plant is not
meeting the terms of its discharge permit and the
State has ordered you to correct the problem or
face legal action. Maybe you don't have a
treatment plant but think you might need one
because many of the septic systems in town are
failing and the homeowners are tired of sewage in
their yards. Perhaps local development has been
severely restricted because soils in your area
aren't suited to conventional septic systems.
Maybe you are lucky and don't have a serious
problem yet. You may know of other local
communities that have problems and you want to
plan now to avoid trouble. Whatever the case,
you as a local decision-maker realize that some
You as a local leadef must guide your town in
the process of selecting the right wastewater
system and the best way to pay for it,
decisions need to be made about how your town
is going to deal with its present or future
wastewater problems.
Where, you are wondering, do you begin?
Consultants and government agencies can
help you, but your community has to make
its own decisions about wastewater
management.
Small communities like yours have special
wastewater problems.
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A public meeting.
Before you do anything it's important for you to
understand that your community must make its
own decisions. The decisions you make regarding
wastewater management will have a great effect
on the quality of life in your community for years
to come. These decisions can't be made for you
by consultants or government agencies. Rather,
you as a local leader must guide your town in the
process of selecting the right.wastewater system
and the best way to pay for it.
You must involve the public in the decision-
making process from the beginning, since they
will live with and pay for the system. Remember,
selecting the right system is just the beginning.
Once it's built, your community must not only pay
for the system, but also operate and maintain it
for years to come.
governmental agency (if necessary), and other
matters. You will also need financial advice.
Selection of a consulting engineering firm is
possibly the most important decision you will
make. You will depend on your consultant to help
you make good choices. Not all firms are equally
well qualified to work with small communities.
Chapter Three will provide some detailed
suggestions on how to select the right consulting
firm for your community.
The public must be involved in the
decision-making process from the start.
You may also receive help from your State
.governmental agency, the U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency, and from many other sources
which will be discussed further in Chapter Two.
When all is said and done, however, it is you as a
community leader who must decide what is best
for your town. It's your choice.
Selecting a consulting engineer is possibly
the most important decision you'll make.
Of course you will need help in making your
decisions. You will need to hire a consulting
engineering firm to help you evaluate choices,
design the system you finally select, and
supervise the construction of the system. You will
also need legal advice about contracts, buying
land (If required), forming a special district or
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Chapter Two
Defining the Problem
MAKING A START
You as a local decision maker will have to lead
your community through the process of solving its
wastewater management problems. This is not a
Job that can simply be left to planning or
engineering "experts." Too much is at stake. The
decisions made regarding wastewater
management will affect the quality of life for every
resident, for years to come. So you, as an official
accountable to the people, must lead the
decision-making process. The first step in that
process is defining what problem or problems
need to be solved.
As we saw in Chapter One, it is very important to
have the public involved from the beginning. One
good way to start is to appoint an advisory group
of concerned citizens. They can help you and the
town's governing body to define the problem and
solve it.
If you decide to form an advisory group, it should
have clearly defined roles and objectives. Roles
can range from simply reviewing and commenting
on plans, to helping make preliminary planning
decisions (such as whether to hire an engineering
consultant), to long-term involvement in the
project's management.
Choosing an advisory group is a good way
to start.
concerns and interests. Residents with training or
experience in engineering, planning,
management, or finance should be urged to join.
An advisory group can play an Important role.
If your community is large enough to have a
public works director or a staff person responsible
for wastewater treatment, they too should work
with the advisory group.
Once the group members have agreed to serve,
they need to see a copy of this booklet or other
instructive publications. These will help them to
understand what they will be involved with and can
serve as a starting point for their efforts.
The advisory group should consist of citizens
representing the full range of your community's
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Failing septic systems can be a serious problem.
WHAT ARE YOUR PROBLEMS?
As we mentioned earlier, your problems m^y
range from falling septic systems to a treatment
plant that is violating its permit.
Before you do anything else, you need to
determine exactly what types of problems your
town is having and how bad they are. In this
section we will discuss different types of problems
commonly experienced with small community
wastewater systems. You will need to determine
which of these problems is occurring in your
community and how bad each problem really is.
You will need some help In making these
determinations. On pages 10 and 1.1 we will tell
you about some individuals and organizations
which may be able to help you.
SEPTIC SYSTEM PROBLEMS
Plumbing backups are the most common
evidence of a septic system problem. People
probably first notice this problem when the
plumbing fixtures at the lowest level of their house
don't drain as fast as they should. This problem
may be caused by stopped-up or collapsed pipes
in the septic system or the inability of the soil
beneath the dralnfield to absorb all the wastewater
being discharged from the house.
Surface ponding is a related problem and may be
caused by the same factors as plumbing
backups. Homeowners probably first notice it if
the ground above their drairtfield is regularly damp
or if foul-smelling water pools or "ponds" on top
of the ground. Surface ponding is a health hazard
because of the possibility that people may come
Into contact with untreated wastewater. Additional
hazards are created when rain washes ponded
wastewater into local streams, making them unfit
for drinking or swimming.
Groundwater contamination may be evident from
problems homeowners have with their drinking
water wells or from deterioration of the quality of
nearby streams or lakes. Groundwater
contamination may be caused by poorly operating
or badly sited septic systems.
Replenishment of groundwater is a benefit of a
property functioning septic system. A septic
system depends upon the soil beneath the
dralnfield to treat wastewater before it reaches
the groundwater. The groundwater may become
contaminated with disease-causing
microorganisms or chemicals If the soil Is not of
the proper type or is not deep enough.
Groundwater contamination may also result from
too many septic systems in too small an area.
If groundwater, lakes, or streams are
contaminated, you will probably need some
expert assistance in determining if the
contamination results from septic systems. There
may be many other potential sources of
contamination Including pets, livestock, wildlife,
agricultural or gardening chemicals, and lawn
fertilizers.
You may be able to assemble some important
preliminary information about the nature and
extent of septic system problems in your town
through a windshield survey and mailed
questionnaires. A windshield survey is a brief
visual survey of your area conducted from a car
by someone familiar with the situation. The
objective is to spot and document obvious
problems like surface ponding. More information
may be obtained through mailed questionnaires.
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Unfortunately some residents may choose not to
respond or may not want to-tell-the whole truth
about their.own situation. Try to ask clear, simple
questions about problems that they or their
"neighbors" may be having.
Chapter Four and on pages 55 and 61 In
Appendix A) may be classified as equivalent to
secondary treatment even if they don't remove a
full 85 percent of major pollutants.
CENTRALIZED TREATMENT SYSTEM
PROBLEMS
Permit limit violations at your treatment facility
may be occurring. Generally treatment plants
operate under a permit issued by the State or
EPA. This permit specifies the level of treatment
which must be achieved to protect the stream or
lake into which the plant discharges.
Repeated permit violations are a sure sign that
something is wrong.
Until about 20 years ago, small community
treatment plants were generally required to
remove only about 60 percent of the major
pollutants in sanitary sewage. This is called
primary treatment. In the early 1970s however, it
became clear that our streams and lakes needed
greater protection. Thus, Congress passed the
Clean Water Act.; Under the Clean Water Act, EPA
and the States require most communities to
remove 85 percent of the major pollutants. This Is
known as secondary treatment. Under certain
circumstances, two common types of small
community treatment systems, lagoons and
trickling filters (which are discussed further in
Every treatment plant regardless of how simple it
may appear, requires regular operation and
maintenance attention.
Depending upon the water quality of the stream to
which your town discharges, your plant may be
required to provide an even greater level of
treatment, referred to as advanced treatment.
Your permit will require some routine monitoring
of the treated discharge from the plant (the plant*.
effluent) to be certain that the plant is meeting its
permit limits. Repeated violations of permit limits
are a sure sign that something Is wrong.
Infiltration and inflow (known as 1 and I) is a major
problem in many sanitary sewer systems.
Treatment plant operators will notice I and I if the
flow coming Into the plant greatly increases during
and after a heavy rainfall. These flow Increases
could be due to leaking manhole covers or gutter
downspouts connected to the sanitary sewer.
Such flow increases often greatly overload the
plant's capacity and cause significant upsets.
Sanitary sewers are designed to collect only the
wastewater from homes and businesses and
transport it to a treatment plant. Storm sewers,
on the other hand, are designed to transport only
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surface runoff and street wash directly to streams
or lakes. In older cities, a single combined sewer
leading tojhe treatment plant receives both
sanitary and storm flows.
Improper treatment plant operation and
maintenance may be causing problems. Every
treatment plant, regardless of how simple it may
appear, requires regular systematic operation and
maintenance. The more complex the treatment
plant, the greater its operation and maintenance
needs.
Treatment plant operators need to be
professionals with proper training. Your State will
require the plant operator to be certified at a level
necessary for the complexity of your plant.
You, as a local official, must be certain that your
community is getting the maximum performance
from your existing treatment facility. You must be
sure that the plant operators are qualified and that
they have access to necessary training. They
must be given an adequate budget with which to
run the plant. Every treatment facility will have
some mechanical equipment. Equipment parts will
wear out and will need replacement. Items such
as motors, pumps, valves, and monitoring
equipment must receive regular care. Before you
think about expanding or upgrading your treatment
plant or building a new one,-you should be sure
that your existing plant Is performing up to its
capability. ,'
Treatment plant expansion may be necessary if
more people are trying to use your treatment
plant than It was designed to handle. Engineers,
when designing treatment plants, estimate what
the community's population will be in.20 years.
The plant is generally made big enough to
accommodate this expected population.
However, your town's population may be growing
much faster or much slower than anyone
expected. So, if it's been a long time since your
plant was built or if your population has been
rapidly growing you may need to expand your
plant. Treatment plant expansion involves
increasing the capacity of the treatment
processes you currently have.
A treatment plant upgrade may be necessary if
your discharge has to meet more stringent
discharge limits. An upgrade involves adding
additional treatment processes which enable a
higher quality discharge to be achieved.
WHO CAN HELP?
There are a number of organizations that can help
you, at little or no cost, obtain necessary
background information and evaluate your
problems.
Identify individuals or organizations that can
help your town at little or no cost.
Below are some suggestions about organizations
to contact. When you contact them, be certain to
ask about:
Q Any publications they have available on small
community wastewater management systems
and financing.
Q Recommendations they have about other
organizations you can contact.
Q Recommendations regarding engineering
consultants in your area who specialize in
sntiall community wastewater management.
The State water pollution control agency may be
your most important source of information,
especially if you are building or upgrading a
centralized treatment facility. This agency will
most likely issue your discharge permit and may
need to approve your plans before you do
anything. They may be responsible for ensuring
that you properly operate and maintain your
facility. In addition, they typically administer
treatment plant operator certification programs.
Your State water pollution control agency may
have a program to provide technical assistance to
small communities, and they may also be able to
tell you about grant or loan programs available to
help pay for your project.
State and County health departments may have
some responsibility for septic systems. Health
departments may need to approve plans for
systems and inspect the system's installation.
Sanitarians typically employed by these agencies
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may know a great deal about the age, design,
and current condition of septic systems and
drinking water wells in your area. Some may have
detailed knowledge about current problems, their
causes, and possible remedies,
Other local agencies such as your County
planning staff can help identify the areas of your
community where needs ar^ the greatest. They
can also provide information concerning
development trends and possible future needs.
This information will help you develop a realistic
plan for addressing these needs and will help you
determine which of the community's needs to
address now.
The National Small Rows Clearinghouse at West
Virginia University will be able to help you get
additional information. The Clearinghouse will be
able, to tell you about groups in your State that
might be able to assist you. Case studies of smalf
communities which have used some of the
wastewater treatment systems described in this
booklet are available from the Clearinghouse. It
can also supply information about publications,
slide presentations, movies, and video cassettes
which may be useful to you. The Clearinghouse
can be reached, toll-free, at 1-800-624-8301,
Your local Cooperative Extension Service office
may be able to provide some technical assistance
to your community or may be able to recommend
other sources of help. Your county extension
agent will know about the soils in your area. This
information will be very helpful to you In deciding
about certain types of treatment systems.
Extension agents may also be able to provide
Information on small community wastewater
technologies, facility financing, and financial
management of treatment systems.
The EPA Small Flows Clearinghouse can
help. Gall them toll-free at
1-800-624-8301.
The Rural Community Assistance Program
(RCAP) is a nonprofit network of groups whose
purpose is to assist rural, low-Income
communities in solving water and wastewater
problems. The RCAP network consists of six
regional centers, each serving a specific area of
the country. These centers are listed In Appendix
B. The RCAP center serving your State may be
able to assist your community in a number of
ways including selection of a consulting engineer,
engineering plan review, selection of a financing
option, and system operation.
You as a local official will need to make
judgements about your town's wastewater
problems.
YOU BE THE JUDGE
Eventually you, the local official, will make
judgments about your town's wastewater
problems from all this preliminary information.
Some things, such as a major breakdown at your
treatment plant, obvious widespread failure of
septic systems, and area-wide groundwater
contamination, may require an immediate
response, and probably the retention of a
consulting engineer. Other problems, such as
occasional backup of storm or sanitary sewer Into
basements, isolated septic system problems, or
individual instances of well contamination, may
not.
Your town really needs to take a long hard look at
what the problems really are. Don't make the
mistake of automatically thinking that because
some homes appear to be having trouble with
their septic systems your town needs to install or
11
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extend sewers. Or that because your treatment
plant Is out of compliance you need to build a
new one. Some towns have unnecessarily built
new facilities thinking their old plant was
inadequate, when the problem was actually in the
way they collected or analyzed samples of the
treated wastewater. These actions may eventually
be necessary, but start off by making certain that
you've done everything possible to get the best
performance out of your town's existing septic
systems and treatment plant.
Contact the organizations we discussed earlier.
They may be able to help you better understand
the extent and seriousness of your problem. They
may also be able to assist your town in solving
some of its smaller problems without a lot of
outside help.
It is very important that the response be
proportional to the need. If your car were
to have a flat tire, you would not |
necessarily need to build a railroad. !. •
The State of New York has an active community
"Self Help" program which encourages and
assists communities in solving some of their
problems on their own. The "Self Help Handbook*
(see page 73 in Appendix C) may give you some
good ideas about things you can do to solve
some of your town's problems without spending a
Jot of money. *
Your problems, of course, may be too severe for
you to solve them on your own. If this is so, they
you will probably need the services of a
consulting engineer. Consulting engineers are
professionals who offer important skills available
nowhere else. In the next chapter we will discuss
how to setect the best consulting engineer for
your town's particular circumstances.
12
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Chapter Three
Selecting Your Consulting Engineer
This chapter is intended to serve as a guide for
your community In selecting a professional
engineering firm to Help solve your various
wastewater treatment problems.
Generally, selecting the right engineering firm for
your town will Involve/five steps:
1, Identifying potential engineering firms
2, Issuing a request for proposals
3. Interviewing candidate engineering firms
4. Checking references
5. Selecting a firm and contracting for its
services.
If you anticipate seeking,funding through a State
or Federal agency, contact that agency before
you begin the selection process to insure that you
satisfy the agency's requirements.
IDENTIFYING POTENTIAL ENGINEERING
FIRMS
You should start by drawing up a list of at least
five firms that might be able to meet your needs.
Sources of names for your list include your own
past experience or that of neighboring towns, lists
maintained by your State water pollution control
agency, and suggestions received from your local
Cooperative Extension Service or Rural
Community Assistance Program, Local
professional engineering societies may be able to
provide lists of members who specialize in
wastewater work. The National Society of
Professional Engineers and the American Academy
of Environmental Engineers have lists of their
members available (see page 73 in Appendix C),
An important point to remember is that different
firms may have different areas of expertise. For
example, a firm that is.most experienced with
centralized treatment plants may not be the best
firm to consider if your town does not have
•sewers, • • •- •
Identify engineering firms that might be
interested in your project, and request
proposals from them.
ISSUING A REQUEST FOR PROPOSALS
You now need to notify engineering firms that you
are interested in their services. One good way to
do this is by preparing a Request For Proposals
(RFP). In your RFP, briefly describe your town's
wastewater problem and request proposals from
consultants on how they would solve It. Some of
the organizations you contacted earlier may be
able to help you prepare an RFP.
Depending on your community's size and the
nature of your problem, the RFP may be a letter
to the engineering firms on your list or It may be
a longer, more formal document. You may wish
to advertise your RFP. In any case, it should
include at least the following:
Q A brief description of the problem
Q A statement telling what it is you want the
consulting firm to do
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Q The deadline by which your town must receive
the proposal
Q The person in your town to contact for
additional Information
Q Standards by which the proposals will be
judged
Q The place and time the proposal must be
submitted.
most like your own? Ask for the cost per dwelling
served, the up-front assessments, and monthly
charges for the last few projects of a size and
technology comparable to yours.
INTERVIEWING CANDIDATE ENGINEERING
FIRMS
When you receive the proposals, you should
check to see If they meet your judging standards,
and are within an acceptable cost range. From
those that meet the standards, you should select
three or four that look best. You should then
interview each firm individually.
Be prepared to ask hard questions. Listen
carefully to the answers you receive. Remember
the engineer wi|l be working for you!
Interview the firms that made the best
proposals. Ask hard questions.
The following eight tips may help you interview
the engineering firms and evaluate their
proposals.
Small Town Experience
Does the firm have experience with communities
like yours? Which towns have they worked with in
the recent past?
System Design Experience
Does the firm have experience in designing
systems for small communities? Do they have
experience with septic systems, or is their
experience mostly with sewer systems and
centralized treatment plants?
What types of systems has the firm actually
recommended, designed, and installed? When
were they installed? How are these systems
working? What were the estimated costs? What
are the present operation and maintenance needs
and costs of these systems? What systems has
the firm recommended for communities which are
You must be prepared to pay for good
engineering work.
Experience with Financial Institutions and Funding
Agencies
What experience has the firm had helping
communities get financing from commercial
sources (banks, bond sales)?
What experience has the firm had dealing with
state grant or loan programs? Farmers Home
Administration grant and loan programs? Housing
and Urban Development Community Development
Block Grant Program? What experience has the
firm had in working with lending institutions or
financial consultants?
Experience with State and County Agencies
What experience does the firm have in working
with the State and County environmental
agencies, the health department, etc.?
Willingness to Work with the Community
If your community came up with a range of
acceptable user costs, would the engineer be
willing to use these estimates as a guideline to
design a wastewater system? How does the firm
plan to handle public participation in this project?
14
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Willingness to Work for the Community
Does the firm have any experience using
technologies and maintenance programs that are
different from what the State and County agencies
have traditionally accepted? Does the firm have
the willingness and capability to utilize innovative
or alternative technology where appropriate?
(Some engineers have dealt only with large
centralized treatment systems and may not be
familiar or experienced with other alternatives).
Has the firm ever been active in trying to write or
change State or local wastewater codes or
regulations to make them more appropriate for
small communities or rural areas?
Staff Capabilities and Workload
What projects is the firm now working on and
what new ones may be coming soon? Which
people on their staff will be devoted to your
project? What time schedule does the firm
propose for completing your work? Does the firm
use subcontractors for certain work? If so, which
firms and for what work?
0 . ' • '
Cost of Engineering Work
You must be prepared to pay for good
engineering work.
Do not choose your engineer only on the basis of
cost. It Is well worth spending a little extra to get
an engineer who will design a system which will
provide service at lower cost to you for years to
come.
Ask the engineer to briefly explain the firm's
estimated fee. Make sure you understand exactly
what services will be provided. Is there a
distinction between basic services and additional
services? What circumstances could significantly
change the estimate?
SELECTING A FIRM AND CONTRACTING
FOR ITS SERVICES
The final selection of a firm involves evaluating all
the information you have gathered.
Be sure to talk it over with your advisory group.
Discuss the pros and cons of the good
candidates. Finally, you must use your best
judgment and select the firrn which you believe
will do the best job for your town. It's generally a
good idea to maintain a written record which
documents the basis for your choice.
Once you have selected a firm, you must
negotiate and sign a contract for their services.
The form of this contract and the payment may
be governed by the method your town will use to
finance this part of your project Be sure to
consider this aspect in your evaluation. When that
Is done you are ready to begin working with the
engineer to evaluate and solve your town's
wastewater problems.
CHECKING REFERENCES
Be sure to check references for the firms you
thought were best.
Talk to representatives from communities the firm
has recently worked for. Ask about the overall
experience, problems or special situations that
arose, delays, etc.
15
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Chapter Four
Ways to Collect and Treat Wastewater
A LITTLE HISTORY
In the 1960s and early 1970s, the popular
approach to handling wastewater was to collect It
in sewers and treat it at a central plant. This
method was used because many onsite systems
(septic systems) were falling. Also, it was
believed that it was easier to manage one large
system, which would be less costly to operate,
than several smaller ones, ;
There were good reasons for these beliefs. Many
septic tanks were poorly sited, designed,
installed, and maintained. Large systems were
believed to be less costly per user and to provide
extra capacity in areas that were just developing.
Households in a very small town may pay
three times more for sewers than
households in a larger city.
Experience has shown, however, that this
approach may be inappropriate in small
communities. Rural populations are usually spread
out, requiring longer sewers to serve each house.
As a result, households in a very small town of
500 may pay three times more for sewers than
households in a city of 100,0001 This situation is
worsened because the treatment plants In these
small communities are not large enough to be
cost-effective. The bottom line Is that due to the
size and layout of small communities, the cost per
house of conventional sewers and treatment
plants may be much greater thari In larger cities.
In the past, sewers such as those being installed
here were often used to collect wastewater in
small communities for treatment at a centralized
plant. Experience has shown that this approach
Is not always the best.
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Unfortunately, many small communities that tried
to solve their wastewater problems by installing
conventional sewers and treatment facilities could
not afford them or operate them. Even with large
Federal and State grants to help pay for the
system, some towns have experienced hookup
costs per household of over $5,000, Annual fees
per household to support the debt service and
operation and maintenance of these facilities were
greater than $500. In some cases, the upfront
cost per household for conventional sewers and
treatment facilities has been greater than the
average value of the houses in the community.
In addition to their high cost, conventional
systems are complicated and need skilled people
to properly operate, maintain, and manage them.
Small communities find it difficult to attract and
pay for the necessary staff.
Small communities need simple, low cost
wastewater systems.
These problems led the Environmental Protection
Agency and others concerned with wastewater
treatment to look at alternative wastewater
systems for small communities and to encourage
more appropriate solutions.
It is now widely recognized that small communities
need simple, low cost wastewater systems. A
Variety of systems are appropriate for small
communities. Appendix A contains summaries of
many of these systems.
In this chapter we will look at the three varieties
of systems which may be used in small
communities: onsite systems, cluster systems,
and centralized systems. In addition, we will look
at the different types of collection systems which
are available.
Your town will probably need to use a
combination of these onsite, cluster, and
centralized systems. Perhaps managed onsite
systems can be used in outlying rural areas,
cluster systems in small residential subdivisions,
and centralized systems in more populated areas.
ONSITE SYSTEMS
Many homes, especially in outlying areas of your
town are probably served by septic systems
(typically consisting of a septic or aerobic tank
and a drainfield). Some of these systems may not
be performing properly. Wastewater may be
^bubbling up in people's yards or backing up into
homes. Perhaps some residents'wells are
contaminated. So there may be some folks in
your town who are not too interested in hearing
about septic systems right now.
Well, it doesn't have to be this way. On the right
site, a well designed, installed, and cared for
septic system can provide years of low cost
trouble free service. But many systems installed in
the past were poorly designed, constructed, and
cared for. Homeowners have frequently been
responsible for the maintenance of their systems.
Some homeowners have not been aware of the
necessary maintenance activities or have
neglected to get the work done. No type of
treatment systern will work under those
conditions! Also, mariy septic systems have been
installed in areas where they could never work
properly because the soil is too shallow or of the
wrong type, the site is too small or steep, or
other site conditions are wrong.
Generally, septic systems are best used on large,
relatively level, well-drained lots with deep,
moderately permeable soil.
You are probably wondering if there are any
systems for sites which are not so perfect. Well
take heart! There are many different types of
onsite systems that can accommodate a wide
range of site and soil conditions/For homes
presently served by septic systems, these onsite
systems should be seriously looked at. With
proper management, they may be able to provide
very simple, inexpensive treatment for many
years. A summary of onsite alternatives is
presented in Appendix A.
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A conventional septic system being installed.
Note the large, relatively level, well-drained lot
with deep, moderately permeable soil. Other
onsite systems can be" used on more difficult
.sites, " • • - - ,-•..-
'There are many types of onsite systems for
less than perfect, sites-and soils*
Simplicity of operation is a major advantage of
onsite systems. All that onsite systems need is
periodic inspection and servicing of simple pumps
and pumping out of the septic tank every three to
five years.
Some more sophisticated onsite systems such as
sand filters and low pressure pipe systems may
require a slightly more sophisticated maintenance
approach. However, this maintenance effort is
generally simpler than that needed for centralized
treatment systems.
The material pumped out of septic tanks
(septage) must be properly treated and disposed
of according to State and County regulations.
Your town will need to establish some way to
make certain that onsite systems are properly
installed, repaired, and maintained. The options
for a program of this type are discussed in
Chapter Four.
As part of your management program you may
wish to inform homeowners about how their onsite
systems work and actions they can take to
prolong the system's life. For example,
conserving water and avoiding garbage grinders
will help insure trouble-free operation.
Onsite system maintenance is essential to
long-term operation. Here a septic tank is being
pumped out. This should be done every three to
five years.
you will need to establish a program to
make sure that all onsite systems are
maintained properly.
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COLLECTION SYSTEMS
Of coursexthere will be areas where onsite
systems just will not work. In such areas, you will
need to use some type of sewer system. A sewer
system moves the wastewater from a number of
homes to a treatment facility.
sewer goes down, the amount each household
pays goes up. That's why households in a small
town may pay three times as much for
conventional sewers as households in a eity of
100,000. In fact, the cost of conventional sewers
atone may account.for.70 to 90 percent of the
total cost of a conventional wastewater system
that includes a treatment plant!
Conventional Sewers
Conventional gravity sewers are used in large
cities and highly developed areas. They are costly
to install but where people live close together and
many households share the cost, such systems
are advantageous. Generally, conventional
sewers should only be used if 100 or more
households will be connected to each mile of
sewer. Another way to say this is that
conventional sewers are appropriate where lot
sizes are 1/2 acre or less.
Alternative Sewers
Fortunately there are alternative types of sewers
available for small communities and less .
developed areas. Generally, alternative sewers
are appropriate where 50-to 100 households will
be connected to each mile of sewer (lot sizes are
greater than 1/2 acre). Alternative sewers can
flow directly to a treatment facility or they can
flow into a conventional sewer system.
Conventional gravity sewers may be appropriate
where houses are close together such as in this
photo. About 100 houses would be served by
each mile of sewer.
Conventional sewers may be a poor choice for
areas where people live farther apart. As the
number of households sharing the cost of the
Conventional sewers alone may account for
70 to 90 percent of the total cost of a
conventional wastewater system, including
a treatment plant.
Where!less than 50 households would be
connected to each mile of sewer, you should be
sure that some type of orisite system would not
work. Consider alternative sewers if sewers are
absolutely necessary in such areas.
Less costly alternative sewers are available
for small communities.
Alternative sewers are smaller in size than
conventional sewers and are installed at shallower
depths. There are three main classes of
alternative sewers — small diameter effluent
sewers, grinder pump systems, vacuum sewers.
Generally one or a combination of these will be
20
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more appropriate in a small community than
conventional sewers.
Alternative sewers may be appropriate here.
About 50 houses would be served by each mile
of sewer. I
Small Diameter Effluent Sewers
In this system, a septic tank is used at each
home. Liquid flowing out of the septic tank (septic
tank effluent) Is collected In small diameter plastic
pipe. Small diameter effluent sewers are installed
at shallow depths and may generally follow the
contour of the land. Since almost ail solids are
removed in the septic tank, sewer clogging is not
generally a problem, even in low spots. Costs are
less because expensive manholes are rarely
needed, pipe installation is simpler, and the
system can be built more quickly.
Some houses in very flat or low lying areas may
need a small pump to help move their septic tank
effluent in the effluent sewer. These systems are
referred to as Septic Tank Effluent Pumping
{.STEP) systems. ' •. •
Installation of small diameter effluent sewers is
very simple and flexible! Only shallow narrow
trenches are needed. These can be easily dug
around trees and buildings to minimize disruption
of the landscape.
Another advantage of small diameter effluent
sewers is that a smaller and simpler treatment
facility can be used, since the wastewater is
partially treated in the septic tanks.
Operation and maintenance of small diameter
effluent sewers involves making certain that septic
tanks are inspected and pumped out and that
STEP system pumps receive periodic preventive
maintenance and service as heeded. STEP
system pumps require electrical power but will
add only a very small amount to the average
home electric bill.
Small diameter effluent sewers can be put in
around trees and buildings.
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Grinder Pump Systems
These are very similar to small diameter effluent
sewers but jnstead of using a septic tank at each
home to remove solids, a grinder pump (like a
garbage disposal) is used to grind up the solids
and pump them with the sewage.
Grinder pumps eliminate the need for septic tanks
at individual homes. However, grinder pump
systems may require more sewer line cleaning
than small diameter effluent sewer systems. The
grinder pumps themselves may require slightly
more maintenance than STEP system pumps.
Grinder pumps also require electrical power but,
like STEP system pumps, add only a small amount
to the average home electric bill.
sewers may be the best system. As a result, the
best approach for your town may be conventional
sewers in the central business district and in
densely developed residential areas, and
alternative sewers in less densely developed
residential areas. Your decision regarding which
type of sewer system to use in a particular area
will be based largely on the cost to install the
sewers as well as the cost to maintain them.
These costs will have to be estimated for each
area by your engineer. Your town must
realistically consider its growth expectations;
planning too far ahead, particularly for sewers, will
be very costly to current residents. Summaries of
collection system alternatives are presented in
Appendix A,
Vacuum Sewers
Vacuum sewers are an option for very flat areas
where soils are shallow or where high
groundwater exists. In a vacuum sewer system,
no septic tanks or grinder pumps are used.
Instead, wastewater from each home or group of
homes travels by vacuum through a special valve
into small diameter pipes and then to a central
vacuum station. The wastewater is then pumped
from the central vacuum station to an existing
conventional sewer system or directly to a
treatment facility.
Vacuum sewer systems use smaller pipe and
permit flexible layout. They generally require more
skilled maintenance than other alternative sewers.
A vacuum sewer system requires only a single
electrical power connection (for the central
station) unlike STEP or grinder pump systems
which require a separate electrical connection at
each home. Under certain circumstances,
vacuum sewers may be the best option.
A Final Word About Collection Systems
In heavily developed areas, such as your central
business district, and in residential areas where
the lot sizes are 1/2 acre or smaller and almost all
lots are developed, conventional sewers may be
cost effective. In less developed areas, where lot
sizes are between 1/2 and two acres, alternative
A combination of alternative and
conventional sewers can be used.
CLUSTER SYSTEMS
Perhaps there is a certain neighborhood in your
town whjere onsite systems can't be used. Then
you nee)d not only a low cost sewer system but a
low cost, reliable, and easily operated treatment
facility as well. This area may best be served by
a cluster system. In a cluster system, alternative
sewers collect wastewater and transport it a short
distance to a small neighborhood treatment
facility. Even where land is not suitable for an
onsite system, it is often possible to find a usable
site not too far away. Cluster systems generally
serve two or more homes, but less than an entire
community. They are well suited for subdivisions
of a few dozen homes. Cluster treatment facilities
are generally larger versions of onsite systems
such as soil absorption systems or intermittent
sand filters. They may be a good, low cost
solution for subdivisions that are far from central
facilities and where the hpuses are too close
together to allow onsite systems on each lot.
22
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e.g. large soil
system
sand filter)
In a cluster system, alternative sewers
collect wastewater and transport it a short
distance to a neighborhood
treatment facility*
As with onslte systems, your town will need to
make certain that the cluster systems are
properly maintained. Options for doing this are
discussed In Chapter Four.
centralized treatment facilities are natural systems
and mechanical systems.
Natural systems use soils, vegetation, or aquatic
environments to treat the wastewater. Some
types of natural systems, however, can't operate
well during bad weather. Large holding- ponds may
be necessary to store wastewater during such
periods. The amount of storage required varies
throughout the country and is dependent upon
local weather conditions and site characteristics.
Natural systems generally require larger amounts
of land than mechanical systems, but are simpler
and usually much less costly to operate.
There are two classes of centralized
treatment facilities •— natural systems and
mechanical systems.
Natural systems include applying wastewater to
the land where it interacts with soil and
vegetation. Land application can produce a very
high quality effluent meeting strict treatment
regulations. In some land application methods,
treated wastewater evaporates, percolates to the
groundwater table or is used by vegetation, thus
eliminating any surface water discharge.
CENTRALIZED TREATMENT
Some towns have areas of fairly dense
development. These areas may be unsuitable for
either onsite or cluster systems, or regulatory
agencies may prohibit alternative systems in
certain areas, in such areas, conventional or
alternative sewers combined with centralized
treatment may be the best solution.
There are many different types of centralized
treatment facilities available. The right one for
your town will depend on how strict standards for
wastewater discharge are, and how much land
you have available. The two general kinds of
Various low cost, easily operated and
maintained natural systems
are available.
Other natural systems include lagoons and
constructed wetlands. These systems vary in the
amount of land they require and the degree of
treatment they can give. Often several systems
are used together; for example, lagoons will be
used to treat wastewater before it is applied to
land. Such an arrangement can take advantage of
the best features of each system.
23
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Pictured Is a land treatment system where
partially treated wastewater is sprayed on a golf
course. Land application often transforms the
wastewater into a. valuable resource.
The important thing to remember is that various
low cost, easily operated and maintained natural
systems are available for wastewater treatment.
You should seriously look at these systems both
alone and in combination as possible solutions to
your town's wastewater problems.
Mechanical systems consist of highly engineered
treatment facilities which can treat relatively large
quantities of wastewater in a small amount of
space. Mechanical systems may be used where
sufficient land is not available at a reasonable cost
for a natural system.
Mechanical systems usually need greater operator
attention and often use greater amounts of power
thar: natural systems. However, the operator
generally has much greater control over a
mechanical system. Mechanical systems usually
are not as sensitive to climatic conditions as
natural systems.
Trickling filters, oxidation ditches, and sequencing
batch reactors are examples of mechanical
systems that are usually appropriate for small
communities. Trickling filters provide efficient,
reliable service with a minimum of operator
attention where discharge standards are not too
high. Oxidation ditches may provide a slightly
higher level of treatment. Sequencing batch
reactors can produce a very high quality effluent
but may need greater operator attention.
Mechanical systems produce sludge which must
be treated and disposed of. Therefore where
mechanical systems are used, additional facilities
for sludge treatment must be provided. These
facilities require additional operator skill and
attention.
Many mechanical systems with varying
degrees of complexity are available.
Mechanical systems can also be used in
combination with natural systems. For example, a
land application system may be added to an
existing trickling filter plant if additional treatment
is required.
A lagoon system. If discharge standards aren't
too strict, a direct stream discharge may be
possible. Otherwise, some type df land treatment
system may also be needed.
24
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Where limited land is available, mechanical
systems such as trickling filters can be used.
Mechanical systems usually need greater
operator attention and consume greater amounts
of energy than natural systems.
Mechanical systems can treat large
amounts of wastewater in a small amount
of space.
Again, remember that many mechanical systems,
with varying degrees of complexity are available.
They may be used alone, in combination with
each other, or with natural systems to solve your
town's wastewater problems.
25
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Chapter Five
Planning a Solution to Your Problems
The success of your wastewater project depends
on proper planning. If you carefully consider your
options at every step and fully involve the public,
then you will probably achieve good results.
ANOTHER LOOK AT YOUR TOWN'S
PROBLEM AREAS@
As we discussed in Chapter Two, you need to
clearly define what your problems are. Working
with your consultant you must now identify in
detail the existing and future wastewater
management problems in your town and their
locations.
Your goal is to identify problem areas where
existing wastewater management facilities are
inadequate or where you can expect problems in
the future. You should consider the following
items when deciding if an area has problems;
1. The performance of existing wastewater
management facilities in the area. If there
are onslte systems, how are they working?
How are they maintained? If there is a
treatment plant, does It meet its permit
limits? Can operation and maintenance be
improved thus avoiding costly construction?
Can existing facilities be expanded or
upgraded to meet the needs or is a new
facility required? How adequate is the sewer
system? Is it leaky during heavy rains? Are
the existing facilities currently overloaded by
residential or Industrial wasteflows?
2. The potential for growth and development in
the area. Is there any undeveloped land that
might be developed in the future? Do you
have a land use plan? What kind of
development do you expect or want? Will a
new facility spur development Iri areas that
are not suitable? How can this be controlled?
Based on projected land use, what will future
wasteflows be, and how much will be
industrial, commercial, and residential? If
there is new development, will it be able to
use the same wastewater management
methods as existing development? Your
town must realistically consider when and
how growth may occur. If your town
overestimates future growth, your
wastewater system may not work very well
and may be quite costly.
Identify problem areas where existing
wastewater management facilities are
inadequate or where you can expect
problems in the future.
3. The potential sites for wastewater and
sludge disposal. For new development
where can onsite systems be used? If sites
are not uniformly suitable for onsite systems,
are there enough suitable areas for cluster
systems? Are there potential sites for new
centralized treatment plants? Where and how
can sludge and septage be disposed of?
Can sludge or septage be applied to
farmland nearby?
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WHAT WASTEWATER MANAGEMENT
APPROACHES SHOULD BE CONSIDERED?
Once your engineer has evaluated existing
facilities, identified problems, and looked at future
service needs, he/she needs to look at various
options to solve your problems. He/she should
look at approaches to serve your area as a whole
as well as smaller subareas which may have
varying needs and characteristics. Remember a
variety of solutions throughout your town may be
the best choice. The job of your engineer is to
look at all possible approaches, estimate the
costs of construction, operation, and
maintenance, and recommend the most
cost-effective solution. The engineer also needs
to consider your community's ability to pay.
As the engineer lays out options, he/she should
summarize their costs and features for review by
your townspeople. Work with your engineer, so
that you can identify specific factors and
approaches to be used when comparing the
options. At this point, certain options can be
eliminated while others may be identified. Be sure
that you understand the costs and different
aspects of the proposed alternatives. Be sure that
your engineer considers the low cost technologies
described In this booklet.
Some problem areas may best be served
by managed onsite systems, while in
others cluster or centralized systems
may be best.
Once problem areas have been identified, your
engineer needs to make a preliminary
recommendation about which wastewater
management option is best for each location.
Some problem areas may best be served by
managed onsite systems, while in others cluster
or centralized systems may be best. Chances are
your town has different problems in different
areas, so different solutions may be needed in
each area.
This preliminary recommendation is limited to
identifying which of the three general approaches
should be used in each of the problem areas.
Within each general approach there are numerous
specific technology options. For example, if you
decide to use onsite systems In an area, you then
have many different types of onsite systems to
choose from. These include the standard septic
system, alternative draihfields, sand filters,
constructed wetlands, etc. In large part the
specific characteristics of a problem area, such
as type of soil and lay of the land, determine
which specific technology options can be
considered.
Your consultant may need to collect additional
information about actual physical conditions or
other characteristics of specific problem areas in
order to know which specific technology options
to consider further.
WHAT SPECIFIC TECHNOLOGIES WILL BE
USED?
Once you have agreed on a general approach,
the engineer should sketch out technology options
In more detail. This is often presented in a
facilities plan, which includes detailed information
about the characteristics of your community,
evaluation of service needs, consideration of
technology options, and description of
recommended facilities. Three to five alternative
wastewater management plans should be
evaluated. The results should be summarized so
that non-technical people can understand the
alternatives and the reasons the proposed plan is
recommended. It Is especially important that the
costs to the homeowner for the recommended
plan and the alternatives be clearly compared. An
EPA document, "Financial Capability Summary
Foldout," will help with this. The next step is to
hold a town meeting to receive public comments
on the facilities plan. Based on the planning
information and input from the public meeting,
your funding agency may need to approve your
plan. ..•••
You need to make the final decision on the
specific collection or treatment options for each
problem area. In addition, you must decide how
sludge and/or septage (sludge from septic tanks)
will be handled. When deciding between various
specific options, you should consider the
following:
28
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Q Construction and equipment costs of the
system
Q Operation and maintenance costs of the
system
Q User fees needed to pay for all of the
community's costs to build and operate the
system
Q Ease of operation and maintenance
Q Local environmental impacts of the facilities
such as odor or generation of sludge
Q Public acceptance of the project
Q Performance reliability of the technology
Q Ability to expand to meet future needs
Q Regulatory requirements (I.e., discharge
standards, etc.).
Your State regulatory agency will have to approve
the plan you choose before you can move to the
next step — design.
Before your engineering consultant gets too far
Into the design you should have an independent
consultant perform a value engineering (VE)
study. The ideal time for VE is when the design is
approximately 30 percent complete.
A value engineering study will pay for itself
by identifying ways to reduce the cost of
your wastewater project.
A value engineering study gives you a second
Opinion on your proposed wastewater
management system. The study should be
performed by a qualified team from an
engineering firm which is completely independent
of the firm designing your system. They will take a
detailed look at what you propose to do and how
much It will cost. They will also make sure that
nothing has been overlooked and that there are
not better ways to solve your problems.
The value engineering study will generally pay for
itself by identifying ways to reduce the cost of
your wastewater project.
When completed, the detailed engineering design
will include very specific cost estimates. It can be
used later to obtain bids for construction of the
system.
WHO WILL MANAGE THE FACILITIES?
During the planning process you must keep In
mind that your community will need to supervise
construction of the facility and Its ongoing
operation and maintenance. \Your existing
wastewater agency may not have sufficient staff
or legal authority to carry out the necessary
tasks. You may need to consider hiring new staff,
conducting training, enacting new legislation,
negotiating interageney agreements, or even
establishing a special district.
Centralized facilities are generally operated
by the town, county, or a special
wastewater management district.
As we said earlier, the wastewater treatment
methods may be different for different parts of
your town. Thus your town may have onsite
systems, cluster systems, and a centralized
facility. You need to decide how each of these
will be managed.
Generally the town or wastewater management
district owns, operates, maintains, and manages
centralized facilities. Users of the facility pay an
annual fee for their wastewater service (user fees
are discussed in Chapter Six).
If you are part of a regional system,
responsibilities may be divided. Likewise,
revenues will need to be shared.
Some towns are trying to reduce costs or
operational responsibilities by turning to the
private sector. For example, the town or district
may own the facility, put hire a private firm to
operate and maintain it. This is known as a
contract operation. Private firms become even
more involved in privatization, where the firm may
be involved in facility design and construction
(including the financing) and potentially in its
operation and maintenance. There are many
variations of these approaches. Be sure to
discuss them carefully with your consultant so that
you understand your responsibilities and tr^e
relative advantages and costs of the various
options.
29
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There are a number of options for management of
onsite and cluster systems. They may be owned
and managed by homeowners in compliance with
regulations established by the town, sewer
district, or health department. The homeowners
are responsible either directly or through a
homeowners' association, for the operation and
maintenance of the system they use.
Homeowners pay all costs for maintenance,
septic tank pumping, and system repairs when
necessary.
There are a number of options for
management of onsite and
cluster systems.
Another option is for the town or wastewater
district to assume responsibility for routine
operation and maintenance of systems which are
owned by their user^s. To assure access to the
property for system inspection and servicing,
homeowners either sign a service agreement or
provide an easement. The users pay a fee to the
town or district for this service. Under this
arrangement the cost of system repairs when
necessary, would be the direct responsibility of
the homeowner. At the homeowner's option,
necessary repairs could be performed by the
district or a private contractor.
In the final option, the town or district:owns and
operates the onsite and cluster systems, and
collects user charges to pay for the service. All
construction, operation, and maintenance tasks
are performed by the public agency, or firms
under contract to it.
30
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Chapter Six
Paying the Bill
WHERE WILL THE MONEY COME FROM?
As with any other type of large project, a major
concern is how to pay for your wastewater
system. This concern actually has two parts:
paying for construction of the project and paying
for operation and maintenance of the system after
it is built.
Consequently, a first question to be answered is:
Where will you.get the "upfront" money neejded
to pay for the design and actual construction of
the collection and treatment facilities? These
costs include not only the cost of the materials
and actual construction, but also the project's
administrative, legal, and engineering costs, as
well as other costs such as land acquisition.
Normally you pay for part of the costs
outright, and finance the rest.
There are several approaches to financing upfront
costs. You may obtain a grant or loan for part of
the costs. Normally you will pay for part of the
costs outright, and finance the rest. You may get
the money all from one source or more likely,
from a combination of sources. Potential sources
include:
Q State revolving loans
Q State bond banks
Q State grants
Q Federal loan or grant programs
Q Local bond issues
Q Bond or grant anticipation notes
Q Loans from banks
Q Cash on hand
Q Property assessments ,
Q Cost sharing with major users.
You may need advice from financial consultants
about the best way to finance your project. Your
engineer or some of the organizations such as the
Small Flows Clearinghouse we listed in Chapter
Two may be able to help you find and hire a
financial consultant.
State Revolving Loans
These funds make loans to towns for purposes
such as constructing wastewater treatment
facilities. The loan repayments go directly back
into the fund to be loaned to other communities.
Under the Federal Water Quality Act of 1987, EPA
provides each State with startup money to
establish a revolving loan fund, or with money to
add to an existing loan fund for wastewater
facilities. A few States already have such
programs. Most, however, Will be set up by 1989.
Each existing State revolving fund is a little
different. Some State programs limit assistance to
communities with poor or no credit ratings. Others
base their assistance on such factors as
affordability of the project, public health benefits,
and potential for economic development.
Programs also vary according to maximum loan
amount, percentage of total project cost eligible
for a loan, interest rate, and time for repayment.
Some States simply fund projects on a
first-come, first-served basis, relying on-,the
31
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community's ability to repay. Thus you need to
check with your State to see if its revolving loan
fund Is yetjn operation and If so, how It works.
State Bond Banks
Government bonds are backed either by the
general taxing power of the issuing government
(general obligation bonds) or by continuing
sources of revenue such as sewer user charges
(revenue bonds).
Most State bond programs act as go-betweens
for municipalities and the national bond market.
These programs help many small towns that can't
Issue bonds or, If they can, must pay high
interest rates to attract investors. The State's
usually high credit rating allows it to issue bonds
at relatively low interest rates. Bond banks act in
two ways: they may either guarantee local bond
issues or they may actually buy local bond issues.
Not all States have bond banks, and those that do
have a variety of arrangements. You will need to
check with your State for additional information
about eligibility, how to apply, and terms. EPA's
"State Alternative Financing Programs Report"
contains information about innovative financing
programs and contacts in the States.
State Grants
Your State may provide grants for the
construction of wastewater treatment facilities.
These grants sometimes can be used along with
funds from other sources, while in other cases
they may be restricted to communities not
receiving Federal assistance. Funds for the grant
programs may come from the State's general
fund or from State bond issues. A few States
have more unusual funding sources. For example,
Wyoming funds its revolving loan and grant
program through royalties from the coal and
mineral industries. The specific provisions of State
grant programs vary from State to State.
Of course the major advantage of a grant is that
you don't need to pay it back. However, grants
may contain provisions that limit the way in which
you can spend the money and may impose other
requirements which increase construction costs.
Federal Loan or Grant Programs
The Farmers Home Administration (FHA) provides
loans and grants to build, repair, Improve,
expand, or change wastewater disposal facilities
in rural communities. The loans have a maximum
term of 40 years, and are intended for
communities that are financially sound but that
can't get funds from other sources at reasonable
rates.
Other Federal agencies such as the Economic
Development Administration and the Department
of Housing and Urban Development provide grants
and/or loans to communities for various purposes
which may include wastewater systems. Be sure
to check with your county extension agent or
regional planning agency about what's available.
The Environmental Protection Agency, under the
Water Quality Act of 1987, will continue making
new construction grants for wastewater facilities
into the early 1990s. Grants generally pay for 55
percent of eligible project costs but may cover as
much as 75 percent if innovative or alternative
technologies (especially applicable in small
communities) are used.
Your State maintains a list of wastewater projects
which need to be built. This Project Priority List
indicates the order in which projects qualify to
receive construction grants. Your position on the
list determines the likelihood of receiving a grant.
Because of factors such as population and
pollution impacts, small communities are generally
low on project priority lists. Even if you receive a
grant, it will cover only 55 to 75 percent of
specific eligible project costs. Some things that
are not eligible include excess capacity for future
growth and conventional gravity collector sewers.
Therefore, you will; need to consider one or more
of the other methods discussed in this chapter to
finance the rest of the project.
Local Bond Issues
Like States, towns, counties, and special districts
can Issue either general 'obligation bonds or
revenue bonds. Most jurisdictions have legal
limits, however, on the amount of bonded debt
they can have, particularly for general obligation
32
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bonds. As a result, general obligation bonds are
often used only for schools, libraries, municipal
buildings, and police/fire stations. These bonds
are secured by the taxing power of your town
(usually property taxes). In many areas, voters
must approve the Issuance of general obligation
bonds. Since there is a limit to the amount of
general obligation debt a community can have,
you should be very selective in using them.
EPA's "Financial Capability Guidebook* and
"Financial Capability Summary Foldout" show how
to evaluate your community's overall financial
condition and ability to assume new debt.
Revenue bonds, on the other hand, are secured
by user fees. By issuing revenue bonds for your
wastewater project, you preserve your general
obligation borrowing capacity for those projects
that do not generate revenues. Revenue bonds
are not usually subject to debt limits. However,
interest rates are generally higher on revenue
bonds than on general obligation bonds.
EPA's "Financial Capability Guidebook"
shows how to evaluate your community's
overall financial condition and its ability to
assume new debt.
Issuing bonds is not a simple matter. Your town
will need the help of an outside specialist such as
a bond counsel or financial advisor. Consult the
EPA publication, "Touching All The Bases — A
Financial Management Handbook For Your
Wastewater Treatment Project," for additional
Information.
Bond or Grant Anticipation Notes
These are forms of short term financing used to
"hold you over" until a bond is issued or a grant
is received.
Bond anticipation notes are based on your town's
ability to sell bonds. They may be issued if you
have satisfied ail the legal requirements for issuing
a bond.
Grant anticipation notes may be used if your town
reasonably anticipates receiving a grant.
Loans from Banks
You may need to finance all or part of your
project with a loan from the bank. Shop around!
Compare interest rates and loan terms to be sure
you get the best possible deal.
Cash on Hand
It is a good idea to establish a special fund (called
a capital reserve) in which you save up for the
day when your treatment system needs to be
expanded, upgraded, or replaced. It may be
required depending upon the method of financing
you choose.
If you are lucky, your town has such a reserve
now which can help pay for at least part of your
project. If hot, you should set on© up. The
money to be put in the capital reserve fund
should be included as part of your user fees.
In some towns, a few industries will have a
significant effect on the size or type of facilities
needed. In some cases, the Industries will build
and operate their own waste facilities, or they
may prefer to hook in to the municipal system.
You may need to establish a pretreatment
program to be certain that their wastes are
compatible with your plant. You should determine
the extra costs for treating this waste and
establish cost-sharing agreements with the
selected facilities. This could also include facilities
such as a major college campus, armed service
base, state park, prison, hospital, and so on.
should establish a special fund to save
up for the day when your treatment system
needs to be expanded, upgraded, or
replaced.
HOW MUCH SHOULD WE CHARGE
USERS?
Your goal is to make your wast ewater system
self-supporting. The costs of running your
Wastewater system should be accounted for
separately from other public services such as
drinking water supply. You need to identify reliable
33
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sources of revenue that will match existing and
projected expenses for operation, maintenance,
replacement, and loan repayment costs (debt
service).
Your main revenue source will probably be various
user fees. However, you should not overlook
other possible revenue sources. For example, in
some cases, you may be able to sell your sludge,
crops grown on land application systems, or other
by-products.
Special assessments may be used to recover
capital costs for wastewater facilities which
benefit property owners within a carefully defined
area; for example the costs of installing sewers in
a neighborhood. You can give property owners
the option of paying the entire assessment at
once or paying it in installments at a specific
interest rate. In areas of new development you
may want the developer to fund assessments and
pass the cost on to the new property owners.
Your goal is to make your wastewater
system self-supporting.
User fees, however, will be your financial
lifeblood. User fees must at least cover the
operation and maintenance costs of the
wastewater system. These costs include salaries,
staff training, billing, general administration,
chemicals, electricity, parts and equipment
replacement, and so on. Users should pay
according to the strength and amount of
wastewater they discharge to your system. User
fees can also recover all or part of the debt
service costs for financing construction of the
facilities. A little extra should also be charged to
set up that capital reserve we mentioned earlier,
which can help pay for future "big ticket" work on
your wastewater systems such as major
rehabilitation, expansion, or upgrading costs.
In areas served by onsite or cluster systems, the
user fee will depend on the management system
selected by your town. If homeowners are
responsible for their own systems, the only fee
they may need to pay to the town might be a
permit fee to cover the cost of the town's
regulation of their system, including periodic
inspections. These users would pay the cost of
septic tank pumping and other maintenance
directly to the contractors they hire to do the
work.
For example, the Marin County (California) Health
Department charges homeowners $20 per year
fora permit. Every other year the County
inspects the homeowner's onsite system. If
pumping or repair is necessary, the homeowner is
told and is responsible for getting the work done.
The permit won't be renewed until the
homeowner submits proof that the work was
done.
User fees should cover your facility's
operation, maintenance, replacement, and
debt service costs.
In recognition of the problems regulatory agencies
face in requiring a homeowner to repair or
replace a failing onsite system, the State of
Wisconsin set up a special revolving loan fund.
The fund provides loans to residents through
County regulatory agencies, for individual system
repair and replacement.
i " ;
If your town assumes responsibility for all aspects
of onsite system maintenance, however, a
uniform, periodic fee may be charged to each
user to cover the cost of the services provided.
There are many options to consider for onsite and
cluster systems. The EPA publication,
"Management of Onsite and Small Community
Wastewater Systems," provides additional
information.
In areas served by centralized treatment there are
not as many options. As we said earlier, the town
or a wastewater management district owns and
operates the sewers and treatment plant.
If your centralized systern serves mainly
residential users and small commercial
establishments (such as retail stores and
restaurants), you may be able to set one rate for
individual homes and charge commercial
establishments according to the number of homes
it would take to produce an equal amount of
wastewater. For example a small restaurant may
34
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generate the wastewater of about 10 homes, so It
would be charged 10 times more than a
residence. The nature of the wastewater (e.g.,
high grease content of restaurant wastes causing
sewer blockages) may also be given
consideration in user charge determinations.
If homes and businesses in your area use
metered water supplies, it is possible to base the
user charge on the amount of water used (which
can be an estimate of the amount of wastewater
produced). An approach like this provides a
strong incentive for water conservation. (An even
stronger Incentive is to charge high volume water
users more on a sliding scale.)
Your town may have industrial users or other
users that produce wastewater that is much
stronger than that produced by households. For
those users, you can add a surcharge to the
normal fee assessed for the volume of
wastewater they generate. This Is because
stronger wastewater costs more to treat.
o •
The EPA publication, "User Charge Guidance
Manual for Publicly-Owned Treatment Works,"
presents additional information and examples of
user charge calculations.
35
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Chapter Seven
In Summary
This booklet has told you about the many options
available to solve your existing and future
wastewater problems. Information has been
included on how to define your problem, how to
get help from other sources and where to find it,
how to choose a consulting engineer, making up
a plan to deal .with your situation, various
approaches to wastewater management, and how
to pay for your wastewater system. Of course
you will want to add to the information provided
here with other publications, as well as with
conversations with your consultant and other
wastewater authorities.
The success or failure of your efforts depends on
several important things which should be kept in
mind throughout the entire planning process.
These are:
Q Select the right consultants
Q Involve the public
Q Consider all the options
Q Estimate the project cost
Q Develop a plan for financing the project
Q Determine how the systern will be managed
after its construction.
It cannot be stressed enough that you should hire
consultants who are familiar with the wastewater
problems of small communities, and who have
worked with towns similar to yours. Remember,
one of the best ways to make your system
successful Is to keep it small, simple, and
affordable.
Public participation should be a key part of your
efforts, since the people in your town must be
told about the problems that exist, their possible
solutions, costs of the selected method or
methods, and financing for your wastewater
system. You should ask for the help of any
people in your community who have skills or
knowledge that would help you in your planning
efforts. You have greater chances of getting
public approval of your plan if you keep your
townspeople involved and informed.
Think about the options and answer the questions
presented In this booklet, research them, and talk
about them with your consultant. Check into
combining various methods to come up with the
combination that's right for you.
Don't be talked into large and complex
solutions, when simple ones may work just
as well at a much lower cost.
Carefully investigate all of the financing options
available to come up with a method that's right
for your town. Make certain that what you are
proposing is feasible.
Estimate the total cost of the project, including
operation and maintenance. If you can, speak with
officials in other towns that have already installed
the methods you have selected. Find out if there
were any unexpected costs or problems
associated with the system.
Finally, determine who will be responsible for the
management of the wastewater system after it is
constructed. Can your existing public works
department handle it? Do you need a special
authority or board?
Remember, it's up to you to determine what your
wastewater problems are now and will be in the
future, and their solution. Both technical and
financial assistance are available, but the burden
is on you and your town to select the best
options for your particular situation. ^
37
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-------
Chapter Seven
In Summary
This booklet has told you about the many options
available to solve your existing and future
wastewater problems. Information has been
included on how to define your problem, how to
get help from other sources and where to find it,
how to choose a consulting engineer, making up
a plan to deal with your situation, various
approaches to wastewater management, and how
to pay for your wastewater system. Of course
you will want to add to the information provided
here with other publications, as well as with
conversations with your consultant and other
wastewater authorities.
The success or failure of your efforts depends on
several important things which should be kfept in
mind throughout the entire planning process.
These are:
Q Select the right consultants
Q Involve the public
Q Consider all the options
Q Estimate the project cost
Q Develop a plan for financing the project
Q Determine how the system will be managed
after its construction.
it cannot be stressed enough that you should hire
consultants who are familiar with the wastewater
problems of small communities, and who have
worked with towns similar to yours. Remember,
one of the best ways to make your system
successful is to keep it small, simple, and
affordable.
Public participation should be a key part of your
efforts, since the people in your town must be
told about the problems that exist, their possible
solutions, costs of the selected method or
methods, and financing for your wastewater
system. You should ask for the help of any
people in your community who have skills or
knowledge that would help you in your planning
efforts. You have greater chances of getting
public approval of your plan if you keep your
townspeople involved and informed.
Think about the options and answer the questions
presented in this booklet, research them, and talk
about them with your consultant. Check into
combining various methods to come up with the
combination that's right for you.
Don't be talked into large and complex
solutions, when simple ones may work just
as. well at a much lower cost.
Carefully investigate all of the financing options
available to come up with a method that's right
for your town. Make certain that what you are
proposing is feasible.
Estimate the total cost of the project, including
operation and maintenance. If you can, speak with
officials in other towns that have already installed
the methods you have selected. Find out if there
were any unexpected costs or problems
associated with the system.
Finally, determine who will be responsible for the
management of the wastewater system after it is
constructed. Can your existing public works
department handle it? Do you need a special
authority or board?
Remember, it's up to you to determine what your
wastewater problems are now and will be in the
future, and their solution. Both technical and
financial assistance are available, but the burden
is on you and your town to select the best
options for your particular situation. ^
37
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Appendix A
Choosing the Right Technology
INTRODUCTION
As we've seen, small communities have many choices in how
they treat their wastewater: onsite systems, cluster systems, and
centralized treatment systems. There are many variations of these
three types of systems available,
This appendix will help you better understand your wastewater
treatment options. The information provided here will help you
work with your engineering consultant, You will depend upon your
consultant for a detailed evaluation of the alternatives; however,
the information contained here will make you an informed
consumer. In addition, this information will help you to understand
and ask important questions about the technologies your
consultant is evaluating.
Remember, it's your choice. You must understand the alternatives
if you. are to make an informed decision.
39
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SUMMARY— ONSITE SYSTEMS
Standard Septic System
Q Best where lot sizes are large.
Q Minirnum of 112 to one acre of level land having well-drained soil at
least six feet deep.
Q Uses septic tank (or aerobic tank) and a dralnfield.
Q Septic tank removes solids and grease.
Q Dralnfield absorbs and further treats wastewater from septic tank. Two
drainfields may be Installed and their use alternated periodically.
Q A small pump can be used to more evenly distribute septic tank
effluent to drainfield (dosing).
Q Little maintenance needed (pump out tank every three to five years).
Don't discharge excessive solids to septic tank. Avoid garbage
grinders.
Q Installation of low flow plumbing fixtures may correct or prevent system
failure.
Q Groundwater problems possible if too many systems are installed close
together or if hazardous chemicals are used.
40
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SUMMARY — ONSITE SYSTEMS
Drainfield Alternatives
Flow Reduction
Q Reduces the amount of water used in the house.
Q May improve performance of any onsite system.
Q Detection and repair of leaky faucets and toilets should be the first
step, followed by installation of low flow showerheads, toilet dams, low
flush toilets, and faucet aerators.
Q Efficient toilets (1.5 gal or less), showerheads (1.5 gpm or less), and
front-loading washers may cut the volume of wastewater generated by
.40 to 70 percent. These Items almost always pay for themselves in
energy savings alone.
Q With reduced flows toilet wastes (blackwater) may be handled
separately from other wastes (graywater).
Q Marginal septic systems may be suitable for treating graywater.
41
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SUMMARY— ONSITE SYSTEMS
Drainfield Alternatives
Serial Distribution
Distribution .Pipe
'Absorption Trenches
Fottow Contours
Used on steeply sloping sites. Trenches are installed at different
heights, running parallel to land contours.
Drop boxes allow selective resting of individual trenches.
42
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SUMMARY — ONSJTE SYSTEMS
Drainfield Alternatives
Shallow Trench
Q Used when the soil layer is not deep enough, or the site Is heavily
wooded.
Q Use thus far limited to warmer climates.
Q Pipes are placed just below the soil surface inj the permeable top soil.
Q Low pressure pipe (LPP) version uses a small pump to insure even flow
In all trenches.
43
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SUMMARY — ONSITE SYSTEMS
Drainfield Alternatives
Sand niters
.•.|v=»s-eAH q$r<>&fy%:-srif--.i
J£T;?ife:-!>!-
Q Used when soil is too shallow or too permeable.
Q Bed of sand is built over a drainpipe that collects the wastewater after
it has been filtered.
Q Provides high degree of treatment.
Q Treated wastewater goes to a drainfield or to a stream or lake (after
disinfection).
Q Two types — intermittent (wastewater travels through filter only once)
and recirculating (wastewater goes through filter several times).
Q Periodic maintenance required; may include occasional removal and
replacement of top sand layer.
44
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SUMMARY — ONSITE SYSTEMS
Drainfield Alternatives
Mound System
Q Used when soil is too shallow for standard septic system,
Q Septic tank effluent is pumped into dralnfield built in mound.
Q Sand fill and gravel are mounded on top of natural soil to filter the
septic tank effluent before it reaches the natural soil.
45
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SUMMARY — ONS1TE SYSTEMS
Drainfield Alternatives
Constructed Wetlands
Q Promising experimental system.
Q Performance in different types of climates not yet proven.
Q Used when soil is not deep enough for standard septic system or when
the groundwater level Is high.
Q Marsh plants are grown in beds of soil or gravel through which
wastewater flows.
Q Low cost system needing minimal attention. Periodically check plants
and sometimes harvest at end of growing season.
46
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SUMMARY — ONSiTE SYSTEMS
Drainfield Alternatives
Evapotranspiration
Q Used when there are concerns for groundwater quality.
Q Plants living in a bed of sand reduce the amount of wastewater through
evaporation and transpiration (use by the plants).
Q Can only be used in dry climates.
47
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SUMMARY — ONSITE SYSTEMS
Drainfield Alternatives
Disinfection
v- ;«;-.''i,; •OTS.'^.V' -—"<& J — * \ — ^-t /r.~)* -f • •• .'••'• Vr^ " - ••-K-S
Q May be required if wastewater goes to a stream or lake.
Q Chlorine and iodine tablet feed systems are typically used.
Q Routine maintenance and water testing are needed.
48
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SUMMARY — ONS1TE SYSTEMS
Septage Treatment
Q Septage is the Jiquid and solid material that is pumped out of septic
tanks,
Q Three methods of disposal — direct land application of untreated
septage, land application of treated septage, and treatment of septage
at a sewage treatment plant.
Q Direct land application of untreated septage is often limited by
government regulation intended to control health risks, lack of available
sites, and possible odor,
Q Land application of septage treated by adding lime or other methods is
common,
Q Treatment in a sewage treatment plant is appropriate If it has enough
capacity to handle the septage.
49
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SUMMARY — COLLECTION SYSTEMS
Conventional Gravity Sewers
Treatment
Q Appropriate in densely developed areas (100 or more homes per mile
of sewer; lot sizes 1/2 acre or less),
Q Untreated wastewater travels mainly by gravity through a system of
sewers and pumping stations.
Q Difficult and expensive tp install; must always slope downhill.
Q Costly manholes are required for maintenance.
Q Infiltration and inflow (leaky sewers) may be significant.
Q Used alone or combined with other collection systems.
50
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SUMMARY — COLLECTION SYSTEMS
Small Diameter Effluent Sewers
:'^&^i V Hi^r.:^
Q Appropriate in less densely developed areas (less than 50 to 100
homes per mile of sewer; lot size 112 to two acres).
Q Septic tank effluent (water flowing out of septic tanks) travels through a
small diameter plastic pipe. Some homes may require a pump (STEP
system) to move the effluent.
Q Installed at shallow depths and may follow land contours; can be
"woven" around trees and buildings.
Q Septic tanks remove the solids; sewer clogging is generally not a
problem even In low spots.
Q Less costly cieanouts may be used in place of manholes.
Q Smaller and simpler treatment facility can be used.
Q Septic tanks should be pumped out every three to five years.
Q Less possibility of infiltration and Inflow,
Q Use alone or combined with other collection systems.
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SUMMARY — COLLECTION SYSTEMS
Grinder Pumps
Q Appropriate in same areas as septic tank effluent sewers.
Q Similar to septic tank effluent sewers, except that a grinder pump is
used in place of a septic tank; '"
Q Grinder pumps have built-in cutter mechanisms which grind solids so
they don't clog sewers.
Q Operation and maintenance requirements are slightly higher than for
septic tank effluent sewers,
Q; Power costs $10 to $20 per year,
Q Use alone or combined with other collection systems.
52
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SUMMARY — COLLECTION SYSTEMS
Vacuum Sewers
Central Vacuum
Pump Station
Q An option In areas that are flat.
Q Convey untreated wastewater by vacuum through a small plastic pipe
to a central station. There it is pumped to treatment facility.
Q Each home or group of homes is equipped with a vacuum valve rather
than a septic tank or grinder pump.
Q Require careful Installation and skilled maintenance.
Q Use alone or combined with other collection systems.
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SUMMARY—TREATMENT SYSTEMS
Preliminary And Primary Treatment
Screens
Q Preliminary treatment removes large objects that could damage
mechanical equipment (screening) and grit which causes excessive
wear on pumps (grit removal),
Q Screening is required at most facilities,
O Local conditions determine the need for grit removal,
Q Primary treatment separates out settleable solids and scum from the
wastewater,
Q Primary treatment may not be needed with some systems.
Q Where used, preliminary and primary treatment require daily operator
attention.
Q Grit, sludge, and scum will be generated by these processes, and
must be treated and disposed of.
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SUMMARY—TREATMENT SYSTEMS
Lagoons
Q Low cost and simple treatment method requiring only a part-time
maintenance staff.
P Suitable where there aren't strict discharge regulations.
Q Primary treatment not generally required.
Q May require watertight liners to protect groundwater.
Q Some lagoons may qualify for equivalent secondary discharge
standards.
Q Stabilization ponds are shallow lagoons in which wastewater is treated
entirely by natural processes.
Q. Stabilization ponds require a lot of land, about one acre for every 200
people served.
Q Aerated lagoons are similar except that mechanical equipment is used
to add additional air to the wastewater.
Q Aerated lagoons require only 1/3 to 1/10 the land needed for
stabilization ponds,
Q Regardless of type, it's best to have several smaller lagoons in series
rather than one big one.
Q May avoid need for higher level of treatment by controlling lagoon
discharge.
Q Total containment lagoons never discharge. All wastewater evaporates.
Used only in dry .climates.
Q Controlled release lagoons only discharge when streamfiow Is high.
Q Sludge collects at the bottom of the lagoon and may have to be
removed and properly disposed of every five to 10 years.
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SUMMARY—TREATMENT SYSTEMS
Sand Filters
i&eated Wastewater
;,OralnflfW.,.
,
pr^i^^ijf^^^^S^ T^?"^^ ' r- >:f ^^ifC-i"--• • -'.' '-'.'•:..•.'.-,-..v •'..%... -??.•
Q Ideally suited for populations less than 1,000.
Q Consist of beds of sand built over drainpipes that collect the
wastewater after it has been filtered.
Q Provide high degree of treatment.
Q Preceded usually by primary treatment or septic tanks,
Q Two types—intermittent (wastewater travels through the filter once)
and recireulating (wastewater goes through filter several times),
Q Low cost system requiring minimal operator attention.
Q Need to periodically remove or replace top layer of sand if clogging
occurs.
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SUMMARY—TREATMENT SYSTEMS
Constructed Wetlands
Q Promising new approach to wastewater treatment.
Q Marsh plants (cattails, reeds, etc.) are grown in beds of soil or gravel
through which wastewater flows,
Q Useful! to further treat wastewater from a lagoon.
Q Low cost system needing minimal operator attention. Periodically
check plants and sometimes harvest at end of growing season.
Q Relatively low land requirements compared to many land treatment
systems.
Q May be operated year-round in most climates.
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SUMMARY—TREATMENT SYSTEMS
Overland Flow
Distribution
Pipe
Evapotranspiration
Q Well suited for rural areas with large amounts of pasture or meadow
land having tight soils.
Q Wastewater Is applied at the top of a gently sloping grass-covered hHI
and allowed to flow over the ground surface to the bottom of the hill
where it is collected, disinfected, and discharged.
Q Useful to further treat wastewater from a lagoon.
Q In cold climates a storage lagoon capable of holding flows during
nonoperatlonal periods is needed,
Q Requires minimal operator attention; periodically mow and remove the
grass (may produce marketable hay).
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SUMMARY—TREATMENT SYSTEMS
Spray Irrigation
Q Does not generally result in a surface discharge. Particularly
appropriate where strict discharge regulations would require a costly
facility.
Q Sprinklers apply wastewater to cropland, woodland, golf courses, or
other vegetated areas.
Q Can be used with lagoon effluent.
Q Relatively simple operation. Sprinkler system needs regular
maintenance, and rate at which wastewater is applied must be adjusted
to suit crop needs.
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SUMMARY—TREATMENT SYSTEMS
Rapid infiltration
Q May be appropriate in areas having the right type of deep, well-drained
• • soif. -... ' • ... ' -.'••.•
Q Basins of sandy soils that are very permeable are flooded; wastewater
Is treated as It travels through the soil,
Q Modest maintenance requirements,
Q Generally follows primary treatment.
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SUMMARY—TREATMENT SYSTEMS
Trickling Filter
Q, Simple, reliable process appropriate in areas where large tracts of land
are not available for a treatment system.
Q Made of beds of rock or plastic material.
Q Wastewater is distributed over the bed and trickles down through the
rock or plastic. A layer of slfme that forms on the bed treats the
wastewater.
Q Requires a separate final settling tank to remove the parts of the slime
layer that come off of the bed when the wastewater passes through.
Q Follows primary treatment.
Q May qualify for equivalent secondary discharge standards.
G Additional treatment may be needed to meet strict discharge standards.
Q Generates sludge which must be treated and disposed of.
Q May need to be covered in cold climates.
Q Regular operator attention needed.
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SUMMARY—TREATMENT SYSTEMS
Sequencing Batch Reactors
Wastewater
Q Computer controlled: system appropriate where strict discharge
standards apply and where limited land is available,
Q A tank is filled with a batch of wastewater and that batch is completely
treated. Several tanks are provided so that while one batch is beng
treated, the flow can be directed to another tank.
Q Sludge is formed. Some of this sludge must be removed at the end of
the cycle. Some is left in the tanks to help treat the next batch of
wastewater.
Q ' Aeration (adding air) and mixing are required; greater power
requirements*
G Primary treatment is generally required,
Q Generates sludge that must be treated and disposed of.
Q Knowledgeable operator required.
Q Extremely flexible system allowing a variety of treatment goals to be
met.
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SUMMARY—TREATMENT SYSTEMS
Oxidation Ditch
' ?
Qj Moderately complex system appropriate where strict discharge
standards apply and where limited land is available.
D Wastewater Hows through a looped channel where it Is treated and
sludge is formed.
Q Mixing and aeration are required.
Q Most designs need a separate clarlfier to remove sludge.
Q Generates sludge which must be treated and disposed of.
Q Primary treatment usually not provided.
Q Regular operator attention required.
Q| Most stable of mechanical treatment systems in all climates.
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SUMMARY—TREATMENT SYSTEMS
Package Plants
*'!-*» ,
: / i f 111 i
/tltflf,
i I J! J * I
Q Small, prefabricated mechanical treatment facilities.
Q May be suitable for flows up to 50,000 gallons per day (approximately
200 homes).
Q Generally require close attention of a qualified operator.
Q Usually provide secondary treatment performance when properly
operated.
Q May be subject to operating problems in cold climates,and to
corrosion.
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SUMMARY—TREATMENT SYSTEMS
Advanced Treatment
Chemical
Addition
Seconda
Effluent
Advanced
Quality
Effluent
Sludge to
Treatment
Q Used only where very strict discharge standards exist and land
application is not possible.
Q Usually consists of adding] additional processes to a well operating
treatment system. "
Q May involve addition of chemicals or a filtering process.
Q Very expensive; requires substantial operator attention.
•Q Generates large amounts of sludge that may be difficult to process.
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SUMMARY—TREATMENT SYSTEMS
Disinfection
Q Generally last treatment step before a surface discharge.
Q Goal is the destruction of disease-causing microbes in the wastewater.
Q Chiorination is the most common method; However, removal of
excess chlorine from wastewater before discharge may be necessary
to prevent toxic effects in the receiving waters.
Q Ozone Is effective and leaves no toxic byproducts. However, it must
be generated onsite and is more expensive.
Q Ultraviolet light may also be used. Radiation from this type of light kills
the microbes. No toxic byproducts result. Requires high quality
wastewater feed to unit.
Q Requires operator attention.
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SUMMARY—TREATMENT SYSTEMS
Sludge Treatment
P May represent 20 to 40 percent of the total operation and maintenance
cost of a treatment facility.
Q Generally consists of three steps — stabilization, dewatering, and
disposal.
Q Killing the disease-causing organisms (stabilization) is done by
biological processes or by the addition of lime. Also controls odor.
Q Removing excess water from the sludge (dewatering) is often
accomplished on sand drying beds where water evaporates or drains
away. The beds may be enclosed. This can be a land and labor
intensive process.
Q Vacuum assisted beds use porous plates instead qf sand and a vacuum
to draw off the water. These systems are more costjy to build, but
don't need as much land and require less labor.
Q Land fill and land application are usually the most popular and least
costly disposal options.
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Appendix B
Rural Community Assistance
Program Network
REGIONAL TECHNICAL SERVICES CENTERS
Alabama, Arkansas, Louisiana, Mississippi, Oklahoma, Tennessee,
Texas
Community Resources Group
2705 Chapman Road j
Spn'ngdale, AR 72764
Tel, (501) 756-2900
Arizona, California, Colorado, Idaho, Nevada, New Mexico,
Oregon, Utah, Washington
Rural Community Assistance Corp.
2125 19th Street, Suit© 203
Sacramento, CA 95818
Tel, (916) 447-2854
Connecticut, Delaware, Maine, Massachusetts, New Hampshire,
New Jersey, New York, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, Vermont
Rural Housing Improvement, Inc.
Rural Community Assistance Program
218 Central Street, Box 370
Winchendon, MA 01475
Tel. (617) 297-1376
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Iowa, Kansas, Kentucky, Minnesota, Montana, Nebraska, North
Dakota, South Dakota, Wyoming
Midwest Assistance Project
P.O. Box 81
New Prague, MM 56071
Tel. (612) 758-4334 ;
Illinois, Indiana, Michigan, Missouri, Ohio, West Virginia, Wisconsin
WSOS Community Action Commission, Inc.
109 S, Front Street, BPX 568
Fremont, OH 43420
Tel. (419) 334-8911
Florida, Georgia, Maryland, North Carolina, South Carolina, Virginia
Virginia Water Project
702 Shenandoah Avenue, NW
P.O. Box2868
Roanoke, VA 24001
Tel, (703) 345-6781 . ' i
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Appendix C
What to Read Next
You're probably interested in learning more about some of the things
we've discussed in this booklet. A vast amount of information is available.
The National Small Flows Clearinghouse can provide you with an up-to-date
list of publications you may be interested in receiving, Write to the
Clearinghouse at the following address or call them toll-free:
National Small Flows Clearinghouse
West Virginia University
258 Stewart Street
Morgantown, WV 265(J6
1-800-624-8301
A few publications in which you may be especially Interested are listed
below. Contact the Clearinghouse for ordering information.
Financial Capability Guidebook (March, 1984), 80 pp.
Provides local officials with a method for analyzing their community's
financial management capability to construct, operate, and maintain
proposed wastewater treatment facilities.
Financial Capability Summary Foldout, 7 pp.
A summary of the Financial Capability Guidebook
Touching all the Bases - A Financial Management Handbook for Your
Wastewater Project (EPA 430/9-86-001, September, 1986), 98pp.
Explains how to manage your community's finances during planning and
construction of a wastewater treatment system.
Cost Reduction and Self-Help Handbook (August, 1986),
75 pp.
Presents a detailed discussion of how to reduce the operating costs of
municipal wastewater facilities.
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Reducing the Cost of Operating Municipal Wastewater Facilities, 4 pp.
A summary of ways to reduce operating expenses of Wastewater facilities.
User Charge Guidance Manual for Publicly-Owned Treatment Works (EPA
430/9-84-006, June, 1984.)
This document will assist you in understanding the various procedures
needed to develop a user charge system and other cost recovery
concepts.
Cost-Effective Operation and Maintenance (November, 1986), 14 pp.
Describes various cost-effective operation and maintenance procedures
that have been implemented at various wastewater plants to reduce costs
while maintaining or improving effluent quality.
Contract Operation and Maintenance (January, 1987), 14pp.
Discusses the advantages and disadvantages of contracting with a private
firm to operate and maintain a wastewater facility.
EPA Technology Foldouts.
A series of brochures providing additional information about some of the
collection and treatment systems discussed in this booklet. These
brochures are a good place to start if you want to learn more about
specific technologies.
Clearinghouse Case Studies.
A series of case studies of small communities which have used some of
the collection and treatment systems discussed in this booklet.
Clearinghouse/EPA Videotapes.
A series of videotapes produced for local officials covering various topics
including Small Diameter Effluent Sewers, Upgrading Treatment Facilities,
Sand Filters, and Planning Treatment Facilities. Videotapes are available In
all formats and run for 10-25 mlntues.
Clearinghouse Design Modules.
A series of detailed technical papers which discuss the engineering design
aspects of many onsite systems and alternative sewers.
EPA Design Manuals.
A series of comprehensive engineering design manuals covering onsite and
centralized treatment systems.
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Planning Wastewater Management Facilities for Small Communities (EPA
600/8-80-030, August, 1980), 158 pp.
Presents information and techniques for recognizing and evaluating
wastewater management problems frequently faced by small communities
(10,000 people) and for planning the range of facilities which will solve
those problems.
r • • •
Management of Onsite and Small Community Wastewater Systems (EPA
600/8-82-009, July, 1982), 239 pp.
Provides information and guidance to persons interested in developing and
evaluating programs to manage small wastewater systems. These
management programs involve the application of various types of
institutional arrangements which specify who will design, build, operate,
maintain, and finance these small wastewater systems.
The Self-Help Handbook by Jane W. Schautz.
This manual gives specific guidelines and techniques .for establishing
self-help projects (projects where the community does some of the work
itself to save money). Focus is on improving or creating water and
wastewater systems in small rural communities. For ordering information,
contact:
Rensselaerville Institute Rensselaervitle, NY 12147
(518) 797-3783.
These two publications below may help you identify engineering firms that
might be Interested In working on your project. These publications are not
free. Before you buy them, check with your State Water Pollution Control
Agency or local professional engineers society. They may be able to
provide lists of engineers at no cost.
Directory - Professional Engineers In Private Practice.
Published by the National Society of Professional Engineers. Lists individual
members of the Society and the firms they represent (alphabetically,
geographically, and by specialty). Contact SPE Order Department, 1420
King Street, Alexandria, VA 22314.
Who's Who in Environmental Engineering.
Published by the American Academy of Environmental Engineers. Contains
an alphabetical, geographical, and specialty listing of individual engineers
who meet the Academy's Standards. Contact the American Academy of
Environmental Engineers, 132 Holiday Court, Suite 206, Annapolis, MD
21401.
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v>EPA
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