Unted States
  Environments! Protector)
  Agency
Office Of Water
(WH-547)
430/09-91-010
September 1991
  Hydrogen Sulfide Corrosion
  In Wastewater Collection And
  Treatment Systems
  Report To Congress
         X ,."'
  Technical Report
/
                         Printed on Recycled Paper

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             TECHNICAL REPORT

HYDROGEN SULFIDE CORROSION IN WASTEWATER
    COLLECTION AND TREATMENT SYSTEMS
        U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
            Office of Water (WH-595)
             Washington, DC 20460
                  May, 1991

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                        ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This document was prepared by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)
with.the assistance of J.M, Smith & Associates, PSC, Consulting Engineers (IMS)
under subcontract to HydroQual, Inc. (EPA Contract No. 68-C8-0023).1 IMS
employees who made major contributions to the document included
Robert P.G. Bowker, John M. Smith, Hemang J. Shah, and Peter A. Flaherty.

Previous reports were prepared in 1988 by EPA with the assistance of E.C. Jordan
Co. under EPA Contract No. 68-03-3412. Under subcontract to E.C. Jordan Co.,
Brown and Caldwell  staff, including Perry Schafer, Robert Witzgall, Roy Fedotoff,
and Walt Meyer, prepared five case studies of corrosion.

Many people provided valuable assistance in the preparation of this study.
However, special acknowledgment is appropriate for the staff of the County
Sanitation Districts of Los Angeles County, especially the support from
John Redner and Calvin Jin.

Ms. Irene M. Suzukida [Homer] was the Work Assignment Manager for this report
This report is dedicated to all the individuals who work to preserve the.
wastewater systems of this country, whose contributions are too
numerous to identify.

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                              DISCLAIMER
This report contains discussions of several proprietary products and processes used
for the control and prevention of corrosion induced by hydrogen sulfide. Mention
of trade names or commercial products does not constitute endorsement by EPA or
recommendation for use.

For this report, information was not collected for all products and processes, and
omission of products or trade names from this report does not reflect a position of
EPA regarding product effectiveness or applicability.
                                      11

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                          TABLE OF CONTENTS
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ...............	....... . . ...........      i

DISCLAIMER	..........................................     ii

1.0    BACKGROUND  AND OVERVIEW  ..........		,    1-1

      1.1   Legislative  Charge	•..	..;................    1-1
      1.2   Los Angeles County System History . . . . ... ............ .'. . .    1-1
      1.3   Consequences of Corrosion .	    1-4
      1.4   Mechanism of Hydrogen Sulfide Corrosion	    1-5

2.0    NATIONAL ASSESSMENT OF CORROSION  .'. . . . . ....	... .    2-1

      2.1   Introduction ..... . . .... ...	 .........;....... .    2-1
      2.2   Site Visits to Assess Hydrogen Sulfide
           Corrosion in Sewers	 . . ...	    2-2
      2.3   Site Visits to Assess Hydrogen Sulfide Corrosion at
           Wastewater Treatment Plants and Pump  Stations .............   2-20
      2.4   Site Visits to Investigate Corrosion Mechanism ...............   2-29
      2.5   Other Cities Reporting Hydrogen Sulfide Corrosion ........../   2-32
      2.6   Case Studies . .  .	 .-- . .	....... .V.	   2-46
      2.7   Hydrogen Sulfide Corrosion in Other Countries ....... V	   2-60
      2.8   Conclusions	   2-61
    f        '  - '       -       '            '   -    - - "         '    '  '
3.0    EFFECTS OF INDUSTRIAL PRETREATMENT .......... .^.....    3-1

      3.1   Overview .........	...V.ซ..;	.		    3-1
      3.2   Theoretical Impacts of Sulfide Precipitation
           by Metals .		... .... ......    3-2
      3.3   Biological Inhibition by Metals and Toxic Compounds   .........    3-5
      3.4   Comparison of Metals at LA County with Other Cities
           Before Pretreatment	   3-15
      3.5   Site Visits to IndustriaUzed Cities  .	,.	   3-20
      3.6   Beneficial Effects of Local Industrial Pretreatment Programs .....   3-22
      3-7   Conclusions ......... ... . . . ...	   3-22
                                   m

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                       TABLE OF CONTENTS (cont)
4.0    DETECTION, PREVENTION AND REPAIR OF HYDROGEN SULFIDE
      CORROSION DAMAGE	    4-1

      4.1   Detection and Monitoring of Hydrogen
           Sulfide Corrosion	    4-1
      4.2   Prevention of Hydrogen Sulfide Corrosion
           in Existing Systems	.	    4-2
      4.3   Prevention of Hydrogen Sulfide Corrosion
           in the Design of New Systems	    4-7
      4.4   Repair of Damage Caused by Hydrogen Sulfide Corrosion 	   4-14
      4.5   Conclusions		   4-19
APPENDIX A ANNUAL AVERAGE WASTEWATER CHARACTERISTICS FOR LA
             COUNTY 1971-1986
                                    IV

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                             LIST OF TABLES
1-1   Factors Affecting Sulfide Generation and Corrosion
      in Sewers    ..;...........;.......................	   1-9

2-1   Selected Information from Site Visits	 .   2-4

2-2   Summary of CSDLAC Survey Data . . . . . . . ...	. ..............   2-33

2-3   AMSA Survey Summary  .............	...... . . . .... . . . . . .   2-37

2-4   Summary of Responses to WPCF Survey - Corrosion of
      Wastewater Treatment Systems .	 . ...   2-39

2-5   Selected Information from Thirty-Four Cities	 .   2-41

2-6   Summary of Information from Selected Associations,
      Manufacturers and Contractors	   2-43

3-1 "•• Probable Metal -Sulfide Precipitation Reactions in
      Wastewater Devoid of Oxygen . .....		    3-3

3-2   Theoretical Increase in Dissolved Sulfide Based on Metal
      Precipitation;  LA.County  .... . . . . .... . . ...... . ; ... . . . ..;.......    3-4

3-3   Toxicity of Wastewater Constituents on Sulfate Reducing
      Bacteria	    3-7

3-4   Concentration of Agents Added to Upflow Packed
      Columns     .... '.'	•'-.... . . . . . . ... ..... ... ... ...... . . . . . .   3-10

3-5   Average Influent Sulfide, Total COD, Suspended Solids
      and Effluent Sulfide; Upflow Packed Columns ;	   3-11

3-6   Comparison of Control and Test Columns' Sulfide      .
      Generation Upflow Packed Columns  ............................   3-12
                                  •      .        '                 -"  .     !

3-7   Average Influent and Effluent Sulfide; Pipeline
      Pilot Plant   . . .... ..... . . ... ......... . .	 .	. ...   3-16

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                            LIST OF TABLES (cont)
3-8   Comparison of Control and Test Pipeline Sulfide
      Generation: Pipeline Pilot Plant	   3-16

3-9   Ranking of Cities by Levels of Metals and Cyanide
      in Wastewater	   3-18

3-10  Metals and Cyanide Concentrations in Wastewater
      from 51 Cities .	   3-19

3-11  Beneficial Impacts of Controlling Industrial
      Discharges on Hydrogen Sulfide Corrosion ..	   3*23

4-1   Summary of Sulfide Control Techniques		    4-3

4-2   Approaches to Prevent Hydrogen Sulfide Corrosion During Design	    4-8

4-3   Principal Methods for Pipeline Rehabilitation	   4-15
                                       VI

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                              LIST OF FIGURES
1-1   Processes declining in .Sewers Under Differing Conditions	 .    1-7
2-1   States Having Severe Corrosion Problems in Wastewater
      Systems of Four or More Municipalities .	   2-44

2-2   Use of Proprietary PVC Lining to Prevent Corrosion
      of Concrete Pipe .................... ... ..... ... ... ...'........  2-45

3-1   Sulfide Generation Pilot Plant . . . . . . . .'. ........., . .. .'". . .	....    3-8

3-2   Percent Change in Sulfide Generated Due to Metals
      and Cyanide; Upflow Packed Column Pilot Plant ..................   3-13

3-3   Sulfide Generation Pilot Plant . . . ... ........ ... .... .... . . .  ... . .   3-14

3-4   Percent Change in Sulfide Generated Due to Metals and
      Cyanide	   3-17

4-1   Guide for Estimating Sulfide Generation Potential	    4-9
                                     vu

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1.0   BACKGROUND AND OVERVIEW

1.1   Legislative Charge
                                   '        -                           \
      In the mid 1980's, the County Sanitation Districts of Los Angeles County
(CSDLAC) observed that the rate of corrosion of concrete sewer pipe in their system
had increased dramatically since the early 1970's. Subsequent studies showed a high
correlation between the  reduction in the levels of metals; and other wastewater
constituents and the increase in levels of hydrogen sulfide responsible for the corrosion.
Metals and other constituents of industrial origin had been  reduced through
implementation .of industrial pretreatment standards in 1975-1977 (ocean discharge
requirements) and in 1983 (EPA categorical pretreatment standards).  This raised the
question of whether implementation of industrial pretreatment standards had resulted in
an increase in corrosion rate, which would have significant economic implications.

      Section 522 of the Water Quality Act of 1987 requires the U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency (EPA) to conduct a study and prepare a report on corrosion in
wastewater collection and treatment systems and to coordinate its activities with the City
and County of Los Angeles.  Section 522 of the Act specified that:

      The Administrator shall conduct a study of the corrosive effects of sulfides [sic]
      in collection and  treatment systems, the extent to which the uniform imposition
      of categorical .pretreatment standards will exacerbate such effects, and the range
      of available options to deal with such effects (1).

      The study concentrated on the three areas mandated by the Act  Many factors
influence corrosion besides the implementation of pretreatment requirements, such as
solids deposition, turbulence, temperature, and so on.  The  lack of an accurate
corrosion-measuring technique and the limited data base on hydrogen sulfide corrosion
would have limited the ability of EPA to ascertain the effects of these  factors. In
addition, the study did not explore the impacts of transporting sewage further to
regional treatment plants, constructing separate sewers for sanitary wastewater and
storm water, or implementing water conservation programs. This report does not
discuss the problems caused by the toxicity of hydrogen sulfide gas or the odor nuisance
associated with  its presence, as these issues were not  mandated by the Act

1.2   Los Angeles County System  History

      The County Sanitation Districts of Los Angeles  (CSDLAC) provide wastewater
collection, treatment, and disposal services for approximately four million residents of
Los Angeles County.  The service area covered by CSDLAC, 640 square miles in size,
includes most of metropolitan Los Angeles County with the exception of the City of Los
Angeles. Wastewaters'from residential, commercial, and industrial  sources,  totalling
over 500 million gallons  per day (gpd), are conveyed through 9,000 miles of collection


                                 :      i-i .•'"•,-.  •

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sewers to six wastewater treatment facilities.  Approximately 1,000 miles of these sewers
are owned and maintained by CSDLAC, while the remaining 8,000 miles are owned and
maintained by local cities or Los Angeles County (2).

       Most of the CSDLAC collection sewers, especially the large-diameter lines in the
lower reaches of the tributary system, are constructed of reinforced concrete pipe with
no protective coatings or liners.  These large sewers generally range in size from 54
inches in diameter up to 144 inches hi diameter.  The oldest of these sewers have been
in service for approximately  65 years.

       At the time these sewers were designed, concerns existed about the possibility of
corrosion. To guard against this possibility, the earliest of the large sewers had vitrified
clay liner plates installed on the ulterior sides and crowns.  However, sulfuric acid easily
penetrated the joints between the tiles and destroyed the grouting and cementitious
materials underneath.  By the late 1930's after approximately 10 years of service, enough
of the tiles had fallen off into the bottom of the pipes to create flow obstructions and
necessitate cleaning of the debris from these pipes.

       Because of the problems experienced with the tile liners, CSDLAC looked for
another method  to prevent corrosion damage. The Districts chose to  design sewers  to
induce sufficient wastewater velocities so that natural reaeration would minimize the
growth of the anaerobic slime layers on the submerged pipe walls where the sulfide-
generating bacteria grow.  Such natural reaeration forces would also help oxidize any
sulfide that did form in the wastewater, preventing  its release to the sewer headspace as
hydrogen sulfide gas.

       In the early 1950's, concrete pipe manufacturers began to market internally lined
pipes to protect against hydrogen sulfide corrosion.  However, at that  time, little
information was available to document how well these plastic liners would remain
securely bonded to the concrete  and provide effective protection.  The lined pipe was
expensive when compared to regular, unlined pipe, and CSDLAC decided to rely on
high design velocities to control corrosion, rather than lined pipe.  Consequently, during
the 1950's and 1960's, as the size of the collection system increased dramatically,
CSDLAC continued to install unprotected, reinforced concrete pipe for much of the
sewer system. Current County standards require lined concrete pipe hi all new
installations to prevent corrosion.

       By the mid-1960's, sulfide generation was increasing within CSDLAC major trunk
sewers, especially at locations where depletion of available dissolved oxygen (DO)
occurred.  To protect its substantial capital  investment in unprotected concrete pipe
sewers, CSDLAC undertook a three-year research program in 1968. The objectives of
the research program were to better understand the processes by which sulfide is
generated by the Desulfovibrio bacteria and to develop methods to control these
bacteria.  This research was partially funded by federal agencies that would later be

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merged to form EPA.           ,                                      .
                                                  i       '     .            "
      The research was conducted by Dr. Richard D. Pomeroy, who in the 1940's had
studied sulfide generation in the CSDLAC system. Through measurements made at a
number of monitoring stations throughout the CSDLAC sewerage system, he refined an
empirical formula which predicts sulfide generation rates and resulting concrete
corrosion rates. A final report of the study, entitled "Sulfide Occurrence and Control In
Sewage Collection Systems" was published in  1973 (3). The predictive formula is also
included in more recent design manuals and guidance documents (4)(5)(6)(7).
             i                           -         ?i           '",.',"'••
      In the early to mid-1970's, CSDLAC conducted an inspection of the wastewater
collection system and concluded that actual corrosion matched closely the corrosion
predicted by Pomeroy's formula.  Based on the estimated rates of corrosion, CSDLAC
calculated that the remaining structural lives of most of the sewer pipes ranged from at
least several decades for the oldest  of the sewers, up  to hundreds of years for most of
the post-World War II sewers.

      In the early 1980's, a second inspection of these same sewers was made, with very
different results.  In less than 10 years, reinforcing steel had become exposed in many
sewers.  Based on measurements taken during the inspections, CSDLAC calculated  that
corrosion rates increased from 0.01 inches per year to 0.25 inches per year in some
instances.  A decrease in pipe surface pH levels from 3 to 4 hi the 1970's to 1 to 2 in
1980's accompanied the increase in rate of corrosion.  Total sulfide levels entering the
main wastewater treatment plant increased from  an average of 0.4 mg/1 in 1971 to 3.0
mg/i in 1986.

     , The inspections suggested that the rate of corrosion had increased markedly and
could no longer be predicted with the existing empirical formula. The causes of the
apparent increase of the rate of corrosion are riot understood. However, CSDLAC has
data that show a strong correlation  between an increase in wastewater sulfide levels and
a decrease in levels of cyanide and  certain priority pollutant metals regulated by  EPA
categorical pretreatment standards.  CSDLAC measurements of wastewater constituent
concentrations over the period 1971 through 1986, along with the results of their
statistical correlation analyses, are included in Appendix  A.

      CSDLAC believes that cyanide and these  heavy metals in their system may have
played an important role in inhibiting the biological reduction of wastewater sulfate to
sulfide.  In addition, the metals form insoluble metal-sulfide precipitates that would
reduce the amount of hydrogen sulfide released to the sewer headspace.

      In the past few years, CSDLAC has  implemented an intensive program to control
hydrogen sulfide corrosion by attempting to reduce the growth of the Desulfovibrio
bacteria or to chemically bind the sulfide which is generated using established control
techniques.  Adding hydrogen peroxide to the sewage to oxidize the sulfide was tried,

        •  '."••  "   '                     1-3               '   .     '•"'.'-.'

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but the required dosage of hydrogen peroxide was found to be too high to be cost-
effective.  Both ferrous chloride and liquid sodium hydroxide solutions are now being
routinely added to selected sewer lines at a cost of almost $2 million per year. The
ferrous chloride is added continuously to form an insoluble iron sulfide precipitate that
is carried in suspended form to the main treatment plant  The sodium hydroxide is
added at a weekly frequency to certain other sewers to provide a 30-minute, high pH
shock to the Desulfovibrio bacteria to inhibit their activity.  In addition, pure oxygen has
been added to wastewater in one of the large gravity sewers on an experimental basis.

       CSDLAC monitoring of hydrogen sulfide concentrations in the headspaces of the
sewers has in general shown only modest reductions (i.e., 50 to 60 percent) as a result
of these treatments, even though significant (i.e., 75 to 95 percent) dissolved sulfide
reductions have been obtained in the wastewater.  Measurements taken of the surface
pH on the crowns of corroding sewers which have received these treatments have risen
one half to two pH units compared to untreated conditions. This is expected to slow
the rate of corrosion and extend the life of the pipes.

       CSDLAC has estimated that at least $130 million will be needed to replace OF
repair approximately 25 miles of sewers that are severely corroded.  An additional 16
miles will likely require repair or replacement within five years.

       Approximately 500 miles of sewers show some evidence of sulfide generation but
exhibit no corrosion damage according to CSDLAC. The goal of CSDLAC is to
understand the causes and control of corrosion to prevent damage to these vulnerable
parts of their system.

1.3    Consequences of Corrosion

       Corrosion of wastewater and treatment systems  induced by the presence of
hydrogen sulfide can cause rapid and extensive damage to concrete and metal sewer
pipe, equipment used in the transport and treatment of wastewater, and electrical
controls and instrumentation systems. Such problems are rarely brought to the
attention  of the public until a  catastrophic failure occurs such as with street collapses
resulting from sewer pipe failure.  However, sewer systems suffering from hydrogen
sulfide corrosion generally require costly, premature replacement or rehabilitation of
pipes, manholes,  lift stations, and pump stations.

       Equipment used in treatment of wastewater is often subject to hydrogen sulfide
corrosion, resulting in equipment malfunctions, poor reliability, increased maintenance,
and premature replacement  Electrical components (e.g. brushes, switches, relays)
process instrumentation, air conditioning and ventilation units, and computer systems
are particularly vulnerable to attack by hydrogen sulfide at pumping stations, lift
stations, and treatment plants.  This can cause poor reliability of control systems,
increased maintenance requirements, and  often premature replacement of costly


                                        1-4'

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electrical components and computer equipment

      Hydrogen sulfide corrosion can also compromise structural integrity by corroding
equipment (bar screens, conveyors, etc.), pipe and equipment supports, wastewater and
sludge storage tanks, and guard rails, walkways, and grating at the treatment plant

1.4   Mechanism of Hydrogen Sulfide Corrosion

      Hydrogen sulfide corrosion may result from two mechanisms: 1) acid attack
resulting from the biological conversion of hydrogen sulfide gas to sulfurie acid in the
presence of moisture and 2) the direct attack of metals such as copper, iron, and steel
by hydrogen sulfide gas.  The first mechanism is responsible for corrosion of sewers and
concrete structures used in the conveyance and treatment of sewage.  The second
mechanism is generally responsible for corrosion of electrical contacts, copper pipe, and
metal components in pumping stations and treatment plants.

      First, for hydrogen sulfide to be formed, the wastewater must be anaerobic
(devoid of oxygen). Oxygen is depleted due  to the activity of microorganisms.  In
properly designed gravity sewers the velocity of the sewage is such that natural
reaeration occurs from the atmosphere in the sewer, helping to replenish  any losses of
oxygen due to microbial activity. Certain structures  and flow conditions often create
turbulence of the wastewater, increasing the  rate of reaeration and helping to maintain
aerobic (oxygenated) conditions. Sources of turbulence include manholes with flows
dropping in from the  side, manholes with flows colliding, metering flumes, drops in the
line, sections with steep slopes, and force main discharges.
          ,            '         '            •-        '   - ,   y           •           ='
      Under certain conditions oxygen is depleted faster than it is supplied, causing a
change from aerobic to anaerobic conditions.  Such conditions can occur in  gravity
sewers with low sewage velocities or long detention times, force mains which convey
wastewater through a full pipe under pressure with no opportunity for reaeration, wet
wells of pumping stations having detention times sufficiently long as to cause oxygen
depletion due  to uptake by bacteria, and other structures or processes where wastewater
is detained under near-stagnant conditions with insufficient opportunity for  reaeration.
Under anaerobic conditions, the microbial community shifts to organisms that can
flourish without oxygen.  These may be strict anaerobes  that cannot utilize oxygen and
may be sensitive to its presence,.or facultative anaerobes which can utilize either free
oxygen or other coriipounds in their metabolic cycle.  The process of sulfide generation
and sulfurie acid corrosion is as follows (4)(5)(6)(7)(8):

1.    Under anaerobic conditions, strict anaerobic bacteria of the genus  Desulfovibrio
      colonize the wastewater and attach to the slime layer that coats the submerged
      surfaces of pipes.  The bacteria reduce sulfate (SO^"), one of the most common
      anions in water and wastewater, to sulfide (S2").
                                        1-5

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2.    The sulfide ion combines with hydrogen ions to fonn dissolved hydrogen sulfide
      gas (H2S) and hydrosulfide ion (HS"), depending on pH. At neutral pH of 7, the
      distribution of species is approximately 50 percent H2S and 50 percent HS".  At
      pH 6, the distribution is approximately 90 percent dissolved H2S gas, and 10
      percent HS".

3.    Hydrogen sulfide gas is released from the wastewater to the sewer atmosphere.
      The dissolved gas (H2S) is the only form of sulfide which can be released.  The
      release of H2S from solution is accelerated under turbulent conditions and at
      higher temperatures.  Thus, turbulence may be beneficial in maintaining
      wastewater in an aerobic state, but if the wastewater is anaerobic and dissolved
      sulfide is present, this same turbulence can cause rapid release of the H2S to the
      sewer atmosphere.  The H2S produces the "rotten egg" odor characteristic of
      stagnating  sewage.  Since equilibrium conditions are rarely observed, it is virtually
      impossible to predict atmospheric H2S concentrations based on Henry's Law.

4.    The released H2S combines with moisture on the non-submerged surfaces of the
    .  pipe and is oxidized to sulfuric acid by aerobic bacteria of the genus Thiobacillus.
      which colonize the pipe surfaces above the water level.  There are many species
      of this bacteria which successively colonize the slime layer as sulfuric acid is
      produced and the pH drops.  More  acid-tolerant species then  predominate.
      While new pipe has an alkaline surface pH, weathered pipes have a surface pH
      of about 6, and pipes which are subject to active sulfuric acid  corrosion may have
      a surface pH of 3 to 1.

5.    The hydrogen ions of the acid attack the calcium hydroxide in the hydrated
      Portland cement of the concrete sewer pipes, while the sulfate combines with the
      calcium ions  to form gypsum (CaSO4),  a soft corrosion product In addition,
      calcium sulfoaluminate (3CaO Al2O3CaSO4 31H2O), also known as ettringite,
      may form.  Both gypsum and ettringite occupy considerably greater volume than
      • the compounds they replace. This leads to expansion  and disruption of the
      concrete, and loss of aggregate.  Both products are easily washed away by
      wastewater, thus exposing fresh material to sulfuric acid. In early stages of
      corrosion,  the pipe wall swells, making it difficult to measure concrete loss due to
      corrosion.

      Figure 1-1 summarizes  the processes which occur in sewers under aerobic and
anaerobic conditions.

      H2S directly attacks metals including iron, copper,  and silver.  H2S can cause
blistering and embrittlement of ductile iron pipe.  Even at low  concentrations in the
atmosphere (<1 ppm), H2S can cause extensive damage to electrical contacts and
circuits present in controls, switchgear, and computer equipment
                                        1-6

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  •
  •

  .e
  3 o
  u ~
  • o

                               rxr'2 s a =\ v  >-—\,.N.^r:
                                                                                    s
                                                                                    o
                                                                                    o
                                                                                    u

                                                                                    88
                                                                                    u
                                                                                    
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      The rate of sulfide-induced corrosion is affected generally by the characteristics
of the wastewater and the collection system.  Many variables directly or indirectly affect
sulfide generation, H2S release, and sulfuric acid corrosion.  These variables are
summarized in Table 1-1.
                                         1-8

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                                   TABLE 1-1
                 FACTORS AFFECTING SULFIDE GENERATION
                         AND CORROSION IN SEWERS
        FACTOR

Wastewater Characteristics
            EFFECT
Dissolved oxygen
Biochemical oxygen demand
(organic strength)

Temperature
PH

Presence of .sulfur compounds


Sewer System Characteristics

Slope and velocity
Turbulence

Surcharging
Presence of force mains and  inverted
siphons
            -      •          x
Sewer pipe materials
Concrete alkalinity

Accumulated grit and debris
Low DO favors proliferation of anaerobic
bacteria   and   subsequent   sulfide
generation      ;

High soluble BOD encourages microbial
growth and DO depletion           .

High  temperatures  increase microbial
growth rate and lowers DO solubility

Low pH favors shift to dissolved H2S gas

Sulfur  compounds  required for sulfide
generation
Affects;   degree   of  reaeration,  solids
deposition, H2S release, thickness of slime
layer

Same effect as slope/velocity

Reduces oxygen transfer and  promotes
sulfide generation, will not corrode while
surcharged

Same effect as surcharging, releases H2S
at the turbulent discharge end

Corrosion resistance .of pipe  materials
varies widely

Higher alkalinity reduces corrosion rate

Slows  wastewater flow,  traps organic
solids
                                          1-9

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                                 REFERENCES


1.     Water Quality Act of 1987, Public Law 100-4-Feb.4, 1987, Sec. 522. Sulfide
      Corrosion Study.

2.     Stahl, J.S., Redner, J., and R. Caballero, "Sulfide Corrosion in the Sewer System
      of Los Angeles County," presented at llth U.S./Iapan Conference on Sewage
      Treatment Technology, the Public Works Research Institute, Tsukuba, Japan,
      October, 1987; and ASCE Conference on Sulfide Control in Wastewater
      Collection and Treatment Systems, Tucson, AZ, February, 1989.

3.     Pomeroy, R.D., Parkhurst, J.D., Livingston, J., and H.H.  Bailey, "Sulfide
      Occurrence and Control in Sewage Collection Systems," EPA 600&-85-052,
      Cincinnati, OH, 1973.

4.     "Process Design Manual for Sulfide Control hi Sanitary Sewerage Systems,"
      USEPA, Cincinnati, OH, 1974.

5.     "Odor and Corrosion Control hi Sanitary Sewerage Systems and Treatment
      Plants," EPA/625/1-85/018 USEPA, Cincinnati, OH 1985.

6.     "Sulfide and Corrosion Prediction and Control,"  American Concrete Pipe
      Association, Vienna, VA, 1984

7.     "Sulfide in Wastewater Collection and Treatment Systems," ASCE Manual
      No.69, ASCE, New York, NY,  1989.

8.     Thistlethwayte, D.K.B., The Control of Sulphides in Sewerage Systems," Ann
      Arbor Science, Ann Arbor, MI, 1972.
                                      1-10

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2.0   NATIONAL ASSESSMENT OF CORROSION

2.1   Introduction

      In the spring and again in the fall of 1987, EPA met with representatives of the
County Sanitation Districts of Los Angeles County (CSDLAC) and the City of Los
Angeles to learn about the nature and severity of the corrosion problem in the
wastewater collection system.  CSDLAC presented slides and video recordings that
documented the degree of corrosion and its increase over time. In addition, a field
inspection of a severely corroded sewer line was conducted. It was concluded from the
visits that a national assessment of corrosion was warranted to document the severity of
con-osion problems m other cities and to determine if other municipalities had
experienced increases in corrosion rate upon implementation of industrial pretreatment
standards.

      The national .assessment of corrosion consisted of the following major elements:

      •      site visits in early 1988 to six cities with documented  corrosion problems to
             determine if severe hydrogen sulfide corrosion problems were unique to
             CSDLAC
   V         • "         ;      ,            • '        •          .       ,
      •      site visits in 1989 and 1990 to three cities with hydrogen sulfide corrosion
             problems at wastewater treatment plants and lift stations to document the
             extent of problems and prepare case histories.

      •      site visits in 1988 to three cities with pretreatment programs to assess the
            ,effects of pretreatmenL

      •      compilation of detailed case histories in 1988 for several wastewater
             collection systems to document the history of corrosion in those systems.

      •      collection of samples from two wastewater collection  systems in 1988 for.
             physical, chemical, and microbiological analyses to gain  a better
             understanding; of the mechanisms  of corrosion.

      •      telephone discussions with officials of various cities reported to have
             corrosion problems.

      •      contacts with engineers, sewer rehabilitation contractors, and
             manufacturers of materials used in sewer  rehabilitationor replacement

      •      evaluation of information collected in surveys conducted by CSDLAC,
            municipal associations, and pollution  control organizations.

-------
2.2   Site Visits to Assess Hydrogen Sulfide Corrosion in Sewers

      One of the first efforts of the project was to determine whether severe sulfide-
induced corrosion was unique to the CSDLAC sewer system. To answer this question,
site visits were made to six cities with reported corrosion problems.  To identify
potential cities for site visits, information was reviewed from several sources, including
surveys conducted by the Association of Metropolitan Sewerage Authorities (AMSA) in
1987, CSDLAC in 1984, and the Water Pollution Control Federation (WPCF) in 1984.
In addition, regional EPA offices and literature articles provided supplemental
information.  Based on  this information, a list of 131 candidate cities was compiled.  Of
these 131 cities, 66 were reported to have problems with sewer corrosion. Further
review resulted in preliminary selection of 34 cities expected to yield the most valuable
corrosion data during site visits.

      Six sewer systems were selected for site visits  from the list of 34: Albuquerque,
New Mexico; Baton Rouge, Louisiana; Boise, Idaho; Casper, Wyoming; Forth Worth,
Texas; and Seattle, Washington.  Each city had reported severe corrosion problems.

      In addition, two  other cities, Charlotte, North Carolina and Milwaukee,
Wisconsin, were selected for further study. These two differed from the others in that
they did not have known corrosion problems, and they had certain sewer segments that
carried a large proportion of industrial flow, including pretreated metal finishing wastes,
while other sewer segments carried primarily residential wastewater. It was postulated
that this may allow observation of whether the industrial sewers had been "protected" by
the presence of metals  or other industrial waste constituents compared to those sewer
segments conveying strictly residential waste. All  eight cities had industrial pretreatment
programs in effect

      The primary purpose of the site visit program was to determine  if severe and
high-rate corrosion is unique to the CSDLAC wastewater collection and treatment
system.  Each site visit  typically included one and one-half to two days  in the visited city.
On the  afternoon of the first day, the field team met with representatives of the city or
agency to review the  characteristics of the local collection and treatment system and to
select six to 10 locations for observation the following day.

      Field observations and measurements included monitoring gaseous hydrogen
sulfide in manhole and sewer atmospheres (Industrial Scientific Devices, Model HS
267), measuring sewage pH with a portable  pH meter (Nester Instruments, Model
34100-403), measuring  total sulfide in sewage with a portable test kit (HACK Co., Kit
No. HS-6), and using a screwdriver to probe manhole and sewer walls to evaluate
depth of corrosion and integrity of concrete. Photographs were taken and pH paper
(Color pHast, 0-14) was used to measure surface pH at several locations on sewer and
manhole walls. Additional observations were made of smoothness of sewage flow,
sewage  velocity, and  the presence of sewer laterals,  bends, and drops.  Background

                                       2-2

-------
information (e.g., pipe age, slope, diameter, approximate sewage age, and the presence
of coatings or linings) was also recorded when available.

      To distinguish levels of severity and rates of corrosion, the following arbitrary
definitions were developed for this study:

      Severe corrosion - loss of one inch or more of concrete, loose or missing
      aggregate, exposed reinforcing steel.

      High-rate corrosion - rate of corrosion which would cause a loss of at least one
      inch of concrete in twenty years.  This rate is significant since reinforcing steel is
      generally about one inch below the interior concrete surface of large pipes
      constructed according to industry standards. Exposure of reinforcing steel to
      corrosion can lead to structural impairment

      Accelerated corrosion - an increase in the rate of corrosion with time*

      Corrosion was observed in all eight cities, and was considered severe in at least
one location in each city except Charlotte.  High-rate corrosion was observed in at least
one location in each city except Charlotte and Milwaukee.  During EPA's site
investigations, the estimated depth of corrosion was divided by the age of the pipe to
yield a lifetime average corrosion rate.  However, it is impossible  to determine from
these data whether the corrosion rate has changed with time. Such inspections merely
offer a "snapshot" of the corrosion processes and provide no information  on the history
of corrosion, i.e., whether accelerated corrosion had occurred. A summary of conditions
in each city is presented in the following paragraphs.  A summary of pertinent
information collected during the site visits is shown in Table 2-1.

2.2.1  Albuquerque, New Mexico

      The City of Albuquerque maintains approximately 1,400  miles of sewer which
serve approximately 450,000 people and transport an average of 49 million gallons per
day (mgd) of wastewater to the city's treatment facility.  Separate storm sewers are used
throughout most of the city, but some combined systems do exist

      Albuquerque experiences 90 to 100 collapses per year that are attributed to
hydrogen  sulfide corrosion in its approximately 400 miles of 8-inch-diameter concrete
pipe.  These collapses  are mostly in residential areas, and each typically involves two to
four pipe  sections (20 feet).  The problem of pipe collapse is widespread  in the city, but
seems concentrated in  North Valley, an older part of town that has the most concrete
pipe, and  in pipe 40 to 60 years old. The rest of the collectors are mostly clay pipe.

      Corrosion seems to be worst at locations where a force main discharges to a
manhole,  at lift stations in gravity sewers (the city is beginning to use polyvinyl chloride

-------














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[PVC] liners at those locations), near interceptors where hydrogen sulfide moves back
into laterals, and at locations midway between manholes.  Albuquerque does not have
much industrial discharge, and pipe failures are not related to the presence of industrial
discharges.  There are only about three small electroplaters in the area.

       In the past, Albuquerque has not had a formal program to identify corrosion.
The city now has a television inspection program for small-diameter sewers (8 inches).
The city replaces about 18,000 feet per year of 8- to 10-inch pipe. The goal is to
replace 30,000 feet per year.  The city has replaced up to 12-inch concrete lines with
clay or PVG to prevent further corrosion.  A total of about 40 miles of mostly 8-inch-
diameter pipe has been sliplined since 1978.

      Albuquerque experiences a summertime odor problem, and injects chlorine gas
and hydrogen peroxide at several locations for odor control during the summer.
Untreated wastewater has had total sulfide concentration  of up to 4.3 mg/1.  The city
will be switching some of the chlorine units to hydrogen peroxide in the future, because
of longer lasting effects and safety concerns.

      Sewers 24 inches or less in diameter are cleaned at intervals ranging from three
months to two years. Larger sewerjs are not cleaned.

       Corrosion at the wastewater treatment facility is  limited primarily to metal
components. Ventilation is used to help control corrosion inside the treatment
buildings.                    .

      The city identified six sites scattered throughout  the area to exemplify the
corrosion problem in Albuquerque:  Arno and Wesmeco streets; Marquette Avenue and
Edith Street; Iron and 14th streets; Coors Boulevard and Churchill  Road; Atrisco
Street; and Rossmoor Street
               ^              '.          .               '
      An example of high-rate corrosion exists at the Atrisco Street site.  The site is
seven years old and near the  upstream end of the system.  The slope in this reach of
pipe is very .flat, and sewage velocity was estimated to be 0.5  feet per second (fps).  The
manhole at this site was installed with a bituminous coating that has separated almost-
entirely from the concrete.  In seven years, the concrete on the walls and  soffit of the
manhole has corroded up to an estimated depth of 1.0 inch.  The inlet and outlet pipes
at this manhole are PVC-lined and  in good condition.  Measurements of pH on the
manhole and pipe walls ranged from 1 to 5.

      Three other sites (i.e., Arno and Wesmeco streets, Iron and  14th streets, and
Coors and  Churchill streets) have experienced severe corrosion.  Measurements of pH
on the walls of manholes and pipe ranged from 2 to 5 at Arno Street, and from 1 to 2
at Coors Street, and were 4 at Iron  Street Depth of friable concrete or corrosion
product ranged from 0.50 to 2 inches. However, the pipe and manholes at these sites


         ""•''••••        -      '   2-7   '      ...          •••.••.'.'•'••. .••

-------
are considerably older than the Atrisco Street site, reflecting a lower rate of corrosion
over the life of the installation.  The current rate of corrosion at these sites cannot be
determined from available information.

      The manhole at Marquette Avenue and Edith Street has experienced some cor-
rosion; however, manhole access problems prevented quantification.  The flow in this
manhole is turbulent  The Rossmoor Street site is not corroded badly, although pH
ranged from 2.5 to 4 at this site.

      Except for the Marquette Avenue and Edith Street site, release of hydrogen
sulfide gas is not believed to be accelerated by turbulence or drops at the Albuquerque
sites. Long detention  times, flat slopes, and warm sewage temperatures are thought to
promote hydrogen  sulfide corrosion of concrete system-wide in Albuquerque, as
reflected by low pH readings at all sites.

2.2.2 Baton Rouge, Louisiana

      The City of Baton Rouge maintains approximately 250 miles of sewer which
transport an average of 36 mgd of wastewater to the city's three treatment  facilities.
The sewer system serves the entire East Baton Rouge Parish except for two small
communities.  The system  serves 375,000 people.  Baton Rouge officials estimate that
they have approximately 75 miles of unlined reinforced concrete pipe larger than 24
inches in diameter.

       Industry contributes less than 5 percent of the total sewered flow. The major
industries, including a large oil refinery, treat their own waste and do not discharge
industrial  effluent to the sewers. Those industries that do discharge to the Baton Rouge
system are generally in compliance with the established pretreatment program. Industry
is not concentrated in any one area of the system, and city engineers do not correlate
corrosion  in their system with industrial discharge.

      The Baton Rouge sewer system is completely separate.  Corrosion of concrete
pipe is system-wide. Baton Rouge experienced its first sulfide-related pipe collapse
about five years ago.  This collapse was the first indication to the city of the severity of
Its corrosion problem.  A consultant's report to the city on preventative maintenance of
the system made reference to odor control, but did not focus on corrosion.  The city did
try chlorine  addition in the mid-1970s, but abandoned the program in less  than one year
because of high costs.  The city does some television inspection of the system, but does
not have a system-wide hydrogen  sulfide corrosion prevention program.

       The city has experienced multiple problems in some pipe reaches.  Repairs made
with fiberglass or plastic pipe appear to be holding up well;  however, one repair done
with concrete pipe experienced corrosion and needed subsequent replacement Baton
Rouge acknowledges that  turbulent  flow conditions due to changes in grade or

                                        2-8          '

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direction, pump station discharges, or drop connections are usually prevalent at problem
areas.    '     '    -             '  •    •     ''.-'•'..        ,  ' '  :

      Baton Rouge selected eight sites for EPA to observe: a pump station, the
Central Treatment Plant, and six manholes located throughout the sewer system (two in
the north subsystem, one in the central subsystem, and three in the south subsystem).
The sites ranged in location from one within approximately 1 mile of a treatment plant
and 10 miles from  the upstream end of a reach, to one located near the upstream end
of a reach.  Corrosion was observed at each site, with varying degrees of severity. All
sites visited were constructed in the early 1960s.  Pipe slopes ranged from 0.003 ft/ft to
0.00015 ft/ft                             ,

      Pump Station No. 59, a 27-year-old structure, which is located  1 mile upstream
from the Central Treatment Plant and collects wastewater from about 10 miles
upstream, was the first site visited.  A pH of 6 was measured on the wet well walls;
shallow corrosion, 0.25 to 0.5 inches deep, was observed.  The wet well often surcharges,
washing the walls.

      The  Central Treatment Plant had shallow corrosion of some concrete structures.
The force main discharge structure  at the plant headworks was corroded, and aggregate
was exposed in both the primary  clarifier influent and effluent channels.  Some
corrosion of metal  had also occurred at the plant headworks.  A 0.6 parts per million
(ppm) total sulfide content was measured in wastewater at the plant headworks.   Plant
influent pH was 6.

      The  first manhole visited is located at Front and North streets in the Central
District, about 0.75 miles downstream of a pump station and within 1 mile  of the
Central Treatment Plant Measurements of pH in the manhole and the 30-inch-
diameter pipe  ranged from 4 to 6. Large aggregate, indicating up to  0.5 inches of pipe
loss, was visible in  the pipes above normal water line. Flow at this location was
turbulent due to the pump station upstream, a change in slope about 100 feet
downstream, and a 12-inch-diameter inlet with to 2- to 3-foot drop. The wastewater
had a trace of sulfide and pH of  6.

      The  next two sites are in the North District Devall Lane  off Blount Road, and
Georgia Street at Harding Boulevard.  The Devall Lane site is directly downstream  of a
pump station, and flow is made more turbulent by a 1.5-foot drop across the manhole.
The site is located  at the midpoint of a 12-mile-long drainage area. A total sulfide
concentration of 0.05 mg/1 and a  pH of 6 were measured in the wastewater. Pipe
surface pH measurements ranged from 2 to 5.5.  The pipe at this location was severely
corroded above the normal water surface (during pump discharge). Some mortar is
missing between the bricks in the manhole and some bricks were observed on the floor
of the downstream pipe.  Observations revealed that as/much as 1.5 inches of concrete
may be corroded.

,"••'"'"'•'               ' '       2-9,'     '.,"'''     .   '

-------
      The Georgia Street site is in the upstream third of the same drainage area.  The
wastewater had a sulfide concentration of 0.08 mg/1 and pH of 6.5.  Pipe pH
measurements ranged from 5.5 to 6. Although this site is also less than 0.25 miles
downstream of a pump station, pipe corrosion was estimated to be minor. Only small
aggregate was exposed, indicating 0.25 to 0.50 inches of concrete loss.  Two drop pipes
enter this manhole, and the pipe changes direction about 100 feet downstream.

      The final three sites visited are in the South District Winbourne Street at East
Brookstown Drive, East Contour Drive, and Staring Lane. The Winbourne Street site
had a wastewater pH of 7 and sulfide of 0.17 ppm. Pipe surface pH measurements
ranged from 5 to  6. The  36-inch pipe at this location is corroded severely and
corrugations were visible  at reinforcing steel locations. There is a 2-foot drop across the
manhole. Winbourne Street is located near the  upstream end of a 15-mile-long
drainage reach.

      The Contour Drive and Staring Lane sites are on the same 54-inch pipe in the
middle and near the downstream end of the reach, respectively.  Wastewater sulfide
content was 1.1 ppm at the Contour Drive site; wastewater pH averaged 6 at the two
sites. Pipe surface pH measurements were between 2.5 and 4 at the Contour site,  and
2.5 and 5 at Staring Lane.  Corrosion at these sites was limited to about 0.50 to 1 inch
of concrete loss, exposing only the first layer of aggregate.

      Hydrogen sulfide gas levels of 3 to 4 ppm were measured at the Contour Drive
site.  The Staring Lane site is just downstream from a 36-inch-diameter force main
terminus. In addition, the downstream pipe at the Staring Lane site had a broken invert
near the manhole, which  has created a backwater condition and turbulence at the
manhole.

2.23  Boise, Idaho
                                                       V.i
      The City of Boise  maintains approximately 325 miles of sewer which transport an
average of 24 mgd of wastewater to the city's three treatment facilities. Boise provides
sewer service to three sewer districts and to Garden City.  Boise has recognized a
hydrogen sulfide corrosion problem in its system since 1983. Concrete sewers and
manholes in at least four areas have experienced severe corrosion.  Some of their most
seriously damaged manholes have been coated recently with materials to resist further
sulfide attack.

      Hydrogen  sulfide corrosion in Boise is system-wide.  Boise officials feel their cor-
rosion problem can be correlated to low flows in hydraulically oversized sewers and to
turbulent flows created by force main discharges and drops in manholes. There is very
little industry in the area, and Boise operates  a completely separate sewer system.

      Boise, in consultation with CSDLAC, has tried Polymorphic resin and Zebron
                                                  i     ,  .        •  '
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 coatings and Chrystallok and fiberglass liners in several of their manholes.  Insituform
 and sliplining have been and are presently being used in Boise to rehabilitate corroded
•sewers.  ,* •  ' •  -     •     • ''    :. .   , .   " •-       "

       After Boise discovered its problem in 1983, it realized that the 1977 television
 monitoring tapes indicated previously overlooked signs of corrosion such as concrete
 swelling and spalling. During the visit, Boise displayed over 15 samples of 4-inch-
 diameter cores,  recovered from a 1984 coring program, which showed the extent of
 corrosion in  different pipe sizes, ages, and areas of the system.

       Based on measurements of core thickness and the known age of the  pipe, Boise
 has calculated that lifetime corrosion rates are as high  as 0.12 inches per year in the
 sewer pipe at Glenwood and Chinden streets, and 0.15 inches per year in the sewer pipe
 at Canal and Columbus streets.  Corrosion rates calculated similarly, for pipe in the
 warm springs area was 0.03 inches per year over a 37-year period, and 0.06  inches per,
 year at Protest and Federal streets.

       About 30 homes in the Warm Springs area use a geothermal water source for
 home heating.  The water is extracted from the ground at about 175ฐF and  discharged
 from homes  to the sewer at about 130ฐF.  The sewage in this area of town averages
 between 90 and 100ฐF.  The sulfate concentration of this water source is about 23 mg/1.
 Corroded manholes were observed in this area.

       The maintenance supervisor from the neighboring West Boise Sewer District
 (West Boise) described a serious problem in his system. West Boise replaced six
 manholes after a 5-year-old sewer collapsed due to hydrogen sulfide corrosion in 1983.
 There were 10-foot-drop laterals at some of these spun concrete, Type 2 concrete
 manholes. West Boise feels that hydrogen sulfide conditions are worse at turbulent flow
 areas (e.g., drop manholes).  In  addition, the supervisor cited uneven slope  during
 installation of the system as contributing towards solids deposition in the lines.

       West  Boise previously used chlorine and hydrogen peroxide dosing and
 experimented unsuccessfully with bacterial seeding to control sulfide generation. The
 chemical treatment program was successful once the proper dosing was defined, but very
 expensive. The West Boise maintenance supervisor also feels that hydrogen sulfide
 conditions are worse at turbulent flow areas resulting from  drop manholes.  He noted
 that Garden City, a nearby area with high infiltration and inflow, has little corrosion.

       The West Boise Sewage Treatment Plant, owned and operated by Boise City, has
 had air scrubbing equipment installed to reduce odor emissions.

       A tour of Boise's treatment plant revealed some concrete corrosion.  Influent
 channels covered  for three years at the plant's headworks have experienced corrosion,
 particularly the channel that formerly carried sludge. The covered wet wells had no


             ,.""''.'.     '"        2-ir .•;•'.'..••'-•      :     . •

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corrosion, but the air has been scrubbed since the 1970s to reduce odor complaints.
The remainder of the process tanks at the plant are not covered (except for the
anaerobic digesters), and are not experiencing any concrete corrosion.

      The field team members made observations at 12 sites in Boise.  Of these, five
sites (Le., one at Protest Avenue and Federal Way, and four along a segment of another
sewer between North Gary Street at West Baron Street and Glenwood Street at
Chinden Boulevard) showed a high rate of corrosion.  The remaining sites, although
they often have acidic pH levels on walls, do not yet show evidence of corrosion.

      The Protest Avenue site is located only 2 miles from the upstream end of the
collection area and has a 10-foot-drop inlet The long  drop creates turbulence that is
believed to accelerate release of hydrogen sulfide and corrosion.  A screwdriver could
be pushed up to 2 inches into the remaining concrete of the manhole wall.
Measurements of pH were 2 on the manhole wall. This site is 14 years old.
                                                        ~"i
      Four sites along a single  12-year-old line between North Gary Street at West
Baron Street and Glenwood Street at Chinden  Boulevard also  have high-rate corrosion.
Pipe at the downstream end (Glenwood Street  at Chinden Boulevard) showed deep
corrugations at reinforcing steel, indicating that corrosion had penetrated deeper than
the reinforcement  Surface pH levels were 6 in the pipe and 1 in the manhole at North
Gray Street, 3 in the pipe and 1 in the manhole at Bluebird, and 3 in the manhole at
State Street  The wastewater sulfide concentration was 2.25 mg/1 near the upstream
end.

      A brick manhole and a previously corroded concrete manhole coated with Poly-
morphic resin were inspected in the Warm Springs area of Boise. The surface of the
brick manhole had a pH  of 5, and the coated concrete  manhole had a pH of 2.0 - 3.0.
Both the brick manhole and the resin coating appeared to be in good condition.

      Additional observations at one unlined and two  lined manholes did not reveal
corrosion.  Shallow corrosion, zero to 0.50 inches deep, was observed at a pump station
wet well.

2.2.4 Casper, Wyoming

      Casper officials feel that a severe hydrogen sulfide corrosion problem exists in
that city.  The problem first came to light in 1975 during reconstruction of the
wastewater treatment facility when a severely corroded influent line to the primary
clarifier needed replacement Since that time,  the city has begun looking for corrosion
in manholes as part of its manhole inspection program. In addition, the city tried
sodium  hydroxide dosing once in 1986 and once in 1987 to control the slime layer inside
sewer pipes and has added clean water  to upstream portions of the system to increase
flow rates and decrease detention times. The sodium hydroxide treatments were

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effective for approximately three-week periods., Generation of hydrogen sulfide is only
a problem during summer months. Casper also has a problem with hydrogen sulfide
corrosion of the engines being fueled with digester gas in its cogeneration plant A
$16,000 rebuild was recently completed.  City staff reported that this digester gas
cogeneration problem is shared with Billings, Montana, and Boulder, Colorado.

      Casper officials identified seven manholes for the visit  The first observation was
in a manhole on a 29-year-old 36-inch sewer line about 0.75 miles from the wastewater
treatment facility.  The remaining observations, were along a 10-mile segment of a 6- to
7-yeaF-old sewer that transports wastewater from the western side of Casper to the
wastewater treatment facility.

      Corrosion is clearly evident in the 29-year-old manhole.  Aggregate is exposed
and loose in some instances.  Up to 1.5 inches of pipe wall may have washed away.
Corrosion product was not observed at this location; however, a pH of 3 was measured
on the manhole wall and a pH of 4 to 5 was measured in the crown of the downstream
pipe.  Corrosion is evident at all the manholes observed on the 6- to 7-year-old sewer.
Furthermore, corrosive conditions appear to worsen the farther downstream that
observations were made.  The farthest upstream observation was at a manhole located
about 200 feet below a force main river crossing.  The sewer pipe appeared in very good
condition, except for 0.125 inch of erosion evident along the side  of the outlet  Pipe
and manhole surface pH was  6 at this location; there was no corrosion product

      As the observers progressed to downstream locations, the presence of corrosion
product increased and pH levels on pipe and manhole surfaces decreased.
Measurements at three downstream locations showed pH levels of 2 or less. At the
        . '   •    "    *  " ..         )          .       *    .           ...        r
farthest downstream location, Center and G St, approximately  1.5 inches of soft, mushy
corrosion product was evident on  the walls of the manhole.  Because of the short length
of time that this sewer segment had been installed, it was difficult to estimate the,
amount of concrete that had corroded. However, corrosion was clearly occurring.

      The effluent channel of the primary clarifiers at the wastewater treatment facility
at Casper had severe corrosion. Up to 2  inches of concrete may be missing from parts
of the channel. The facility superintendent believes that a major  contributing factor to
sulfide generation  in that city is excessive sewage detention time.  This results from
hydraulically oversized sewers constructed in anticipation of growth  that did not occur
because of a regional economic downturn. In addition, high sulfate concentrations in
the local drinking water,  180 to 200 mg/1, may aggravate the problem.

2.2.5   Fort Worth, Texas

      The City of Fort Worth maintains  approximately 2,000 miles of sewer which
transport wastewater to a single treatment facility located adjacent to Village  Creek, a
tributary of the Trinity River. A second facility, the Riverside facility, used to treat


   -:           '"'.•'.''•''      '  .  '"  2-13       .  •.,"   ."' •  .. .     •'"          '

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wastewater for the city; however, flow to that facility was diverted to the Village Creek
facility several years ago.                              .                      .

      Fort Worth experiences hydrogen sulfide odor problems during warm weather
and has had a pipe collapse that is attributed to hydrogen sulfide corrosion.  In particu-
lar, one of the Village Creek collectors collapsed.  The city now  injects chlorine into the
two main interceptors (90 and  96 inches) to control sulfide and odor.  The closing of
the Riverside Treatment Facility and concomitant shifting of flow to Village Creek have
decreased detention time and hydrogen sulfide levels in these two interceptors.

      The industrial contribution of wastewater is a fairly uniform 10 to 20 percent
throughout the collection system. The major sources are from electroplating, brewing,
food processing, and aircraft manufacturing.

      The levels of metals in the wastewater have declined  dramatically during the past
five years.  However, levels of aluminum and iron are high because of the discharge of
drinking water treatment sludge to the wastewater collection system at several locations.

      A pipe collapse was reported to have occurred at the end of a force main in the
neighboring City of Grand Prairie. The City of Pantego, also a neighbor,  was said to
have a major problem.

      Field team members entered five manholes in Fort Worth to assess the presence
and effects of corrosion in the city sewer system.  The manholes  are spread out across
the city and represent several sewer main subsystems. Two manholes manifested severe
corrosion.  At Rosedale Street, a section from the crown of a 36-inch pipe is clearly
visible lying on the pipe floor.   The pipe walls have corrugations 1.5 to 2 inches deep;
an estimated 2 to 3 inches of pipe  is missing.  The city is aware of problems in this 30-
plus-year-old line and has rerouted wastewater to allow replacement  of this sewer.  This
sewer has a steep, easily observable slope that increases sewage velocity and could  ac-
celerate the release of hydrogen sulfide gas.  The pH of the pipe surface at this
manhole was approximately 6, indicating that conditions were not as  corrosive at the
time of the visit as in the past, probably because of the rerouting of the wastewater.

      The second location with severe corrosion was a 65-year-old, 54-inch pipe on
Bomar Street At this location, the pipe upstream and downstream of the manhole had
corrugations 1 to 2 inches deep. In addition, a section of pipe wall approximately 1 foot
high by 6 feet long is missing from the right side of the pipe approximately 15 feet
downstream. An estimated 2 inches of concrete has eroded from the lower portion of
the manhole, and the joint between the manhole and outlet pipe has deteriorated.  Two
15-inch laterals enter this manhole, but do not appear to be very active. The upstream
manhole has an active drop  lateral, and flow in the downstream  manhole  is very
turbulent  In both instances, these factors could have contributed to release of
hydrogen sulfide gas and an increased corrosion rate. The pH of the pipe surface  at

                                       2-14

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this manhole was approximately 6.  There is no apparent indication of current or
ongoing corrosion.

      The other three manholes observed in Fort Worth are approximately 30 years
old.  Even though these locations had lower pH levels of 4 to 5, corrosion is not as
severe as at the other two locations.  Drop laterals were not observed at or near these
three locations.                                '

2.2.6  Seattle, Washington

      The Municipality of Metropolitan Seattle (Metro) maintains approximately 247
miles of sewer which transport 186  mgd of wastewater to Metro's treatment facilities.
Metro has had a hydrogen sulfide odor problem for many years.  A large number of its
concrete sewers and sewage structures have experienced extensive corrosion damage.
The most serious identified cases of hydrogen sulfide corrosion have been replaced or
repaired by coatings or liners.
      ' .                         '           .         [y •          '.-'"-,'"
      Construction of Metro's interceptor facilities began in 1963; corrosion is
widespread in this relatively new system.  Local municipalities provide smaller-diameter
sewage collection systems which were not investigated during this study.  The Seattle
area is heavily industrialized, and industrial flow represents about 25 percent of the total
flow; however, industrial discharges have not been correlated with sulfide generation or
concrete corrosion.  Areas served by Metro to the east and north  of Lake Washington
have separate sewer systems for stormwater transport.  Areas to the west of Lake
Washington are served predominantly by a combined sanitary-stonriwater sewer system.

      Metro has an extensive sulfide monitoring  program, and has had full-time staff
working on the problem since early 1987. Metro  personnel look for hydrogen sulfide
damage as part of sewer inspections during which headspace hydrogen sulfide
concentrations and pipe surface pH levels are also measured. Hydrogen sulfide
concentrations from 0.1 to over 50  ppm have been found along with pH readings as low
as 2.  Metro's records indicate lower pH readings occur at sites with higher hydrogen
sulfide gas concentrations.

      Metro has tried various concrete liners and coatings in pipes and on structures to
control corrosion as well as chemical  addition to control sulfide.  Sliplining, epoxy,
polyethylene (PE), PVC, UPC (a polyurethane  polyethylene copolymer), Ameron lining,
polyurethane (Sancon), GT.E. coating, and Aquatapoxy all are being or have been
tested by'Metro since 1974. Both satisfactory and unsatisfactory performances have
been observed. For example, the PE liner on the East Bay Interceptor - Section 8 is in
good shape  and is protecting the concrete behind it, but the UPC coating on the Lake
Sammanish  Interceptor failed and is peeling off.  Hydrogen  peroxide addition to control
sulfide was tried but abandoned for monetary reasons.  However, Metro did find that
once a large shock dose of peroxide was added, subsequent dosages could be reduced to


             "....'       :  '. -   ' ••   ••'' .  2-15.  '   .,    ' :   •.   •"'•   ••     ••••'••   '•

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control sulfide.

      Metro has been involved in other activities related to hydrogen sulfide corrosion
control. Power cleaning of sewers, use of sacrificial concrete in its sewers, and sonar,
radar and ultrasonic measurement of pipe wall thickness have been tried.  Metro has
also tried to monitor corrosion rate with concrete coupons and copper shavings hanging
in pipes; but found  reactions too slow to provide useful data. In addition, the Renton
Treatment Plant has a $5,000,000 odor-control system employing scrubbers, activated
carbon, impregnated carbon, and chlorine addition.  A facilities plan study by a
consultant included sulfide-control recommendations. Concrete corrosion at Metro's
treatment plants is not a problem.

      Seattle Metro personnel recommended five sites for observation.  The  sites are
widely distributed throughout the system and in parts of different subsystems. Three
sites are directly downstream of force main discharges:  a manhole at East Marginal
Way and South 112th Street, downstream of the Renton sludge force main; a manhole
near 15th Avenue W and W Raye streets, downstream of the Interbay Pump  Station
force main; and the Hollywood Pump Station  discharge structure.  One of the remaining
sites,  a manhole at  15th Avenue  NW and 188th Street NW, .is a few blocks downstream
from  a force main.  The fifth site, a manhole on the Lake Sammanish Interceptor at NE
Union Hill and Avondale roads,  is not downstream of a force main.                _

      Concrete pipe downstream of both the Renton and the Interbay force  main dis-
charges has experienced severe corrosion.  Corrosion appears to have penetrated the
second layer of aggregate (1-inch loss) leaving only a short distance to reinforcing steel
in the pipe downstream of the Renton force main.  The surface pH averaged 1.8. The
sewer downstream of the Interbay force main  carries combined flow and occasionally
surcharges.  The 21-year-old sewer pipe was PVC-lined in 1978 for about 200 feet
downstream of the Interbay force main; however, severe corrosion begins where the
liner ends. Assuming that the corrosion all occurred in the seven years following the
lining, the corrosion rate at the Interbay site is over 0.2 inches per year.  Rust spots are
visible on the unlined concrete pipe wall, indicating that reinforcing  steel will likely be
exposed soon.  One and one-half inch is estimated to be missing. Measurements of
surface  pH average 1.3 at Interbay.                          .

      Exposed aggregate and corrosion were observed around the flap gates at the
Hollywood Pump Station discharge and on concrete not protected by a PVC lining.
However, most of this  structure is PVC-lined.  The exposed portions are probably
exposed to erosional forces when the pumps discharge.

      The manhole at Union Hill and Avondale roads showed shallow corrosion, zero
to 0.50 inches deep, and had a surface pH of 3. The inlet and outlet pipes to this
manhole were in good condition, even though  the UPC lining was in poor condition.
The site at 15th Avenue and 188th Street NW also showed only shallow corrosion,

                                       2-16

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which was limited to the outlet pipe.  This sewer carries combined sanitary-stormwater
flows.  The surface pH level averaged 1.2 at this site.  A wastewater total sulfide
concentration of 0.6 mg/1 was measured at the Union Hill Road site.                  .

       The frequent presence of force mains, required to overcome topographic barriers,
appears to increase the hydrogen sulfide corrosion problem in Seattle. Seattle feels
industrial metal bearing discharges have no correlation with corrosion, since that
industry has always had pretreatment standards.
7'    •     •    • _,         '   "   '      . si   .     '                ,  '         '
2.2,7Charlotte, North  Carolina

       In the Charlotte-Mecklenburg Utility District (CMUD) system, EPA compared
corrosion conditions in purely domestic  sewers with conditions in sewers that carry
industrial flow. Approximately 15 metal finishers and a large foundry are permitted for
discharge into the CMUD sewer system. The field team entered six sewers with a large
flow contribution from industry and four sewers with only domestic flow.

       CMUD personnel were not aware of system-wide hydrogen sulfide corrosion
problems, although a failure occurred hi the Briar Creek sewer sometime prior to 1973.
Since that time,  CMUD has been specifying tricalcium phosphorus as an additive to its
concrete pipe. CMUD also currently specifies a 1-inch sacrificial layer of concrete in its
pipe.  In the late 1960s, CMUD had an odor study done on the Briar Creek Sewer; it
implemented a program of hydrogen peroxide addition for odor control in 1974. The
hydrogen peroxide was added to a point about 3 miles upstream of the Sugar Creek
Treatment Plant to which  the Briar Creek sewer is tributary. This action was unrelated
to the prior Briar Creek failure.. Strong odors at the Sugar Creek treatment facility
prompted another odor  study in the late 1970s. The second study lead to the injection
of hydrogen peroxide at a location 0.50 miles upstream in both 54rinch influent lines to
the plant

       The Charlotte water supply is categorized as "soft" by CMUD and has a 8.0- to
9.0-ppm total sulfate concentration.

       Two of the domestic sites (Davidson Street at East 22nd Street, and Myers Street
at East 12th Street) are in the  Sugar Creek drainage area and two (Arborway near
Sedley Road, and Old Providence Road near  Sharonyiew Road) are in the McAlpine
Creek drainage  area.  The Sugar Creek sites are 7 and 6 miles from the treatment plant,
and 5 and 6 miles from the upstream end of the same drainage area, respectively.  The
McAlpine Creek sites are 7 and  8 miles from  the treatment plant, and 3 and 10 miles
from the upstream end of their respective drainage areas.  All pipe  observed in the
CMUD system is 20 to 25 years old.  Wastewater sulfide concentrations at the four sites
ranged from 0.2 to 0.6 mg/1. Wastewater pH measurements were 6 at three sites, and
5.5 at the Old Providence Road site. It was the only site in Charlotte with pipe and
manhole surface pH measurements below 6.  Pipe surface pH measurements were 4.5 to


      '           ••'    ••••'•.   '••'.   2-17        •   '   "    ••-•

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5. Corrosion product extended about 0.25 inches deep, exposing "peastone" aggregate at
this site.

      Two of the four domestic sites experience turbulent flows due to a bend and an
obstruction.  Although the wastewater contained measurable concentrations of sulfide at
each site (0.6 mg/1 and 0.4 mg/1), there was no measurable headspace hydrogen sulfide.
The Old Providence Road site has a 42-inch pipe and was flowing half full at about 2
fps when observed. The three clean pipes ranged hi size from 24 to 54 inches in
diameter.                                                                 ,

      Three of the industrial sewers (Clanton Road at the Irwin Creek Bridge,
Remount Road at the municipal park, and Freedom Drive at Thrift Road) are in the
Irwin Creek drainage area, 1 to 6 miles from the treatment plant, and 5 to 10  miles
from the upstream end of the same drainage area. Two of the industrial sewers (Old
Nations Ford Road near Ervin Lane, and Granite Street near Continental  Boulevard)
are located in the McAlpine Creek drainage area. The remaining industrial site is
located  next to Park Road near Moncure Drive in the Sugar Creek drainage area. The
McAlpine Creek sites are located approximately 10 and 7 miles, respectively, from the
farthest upstream points in their drainage areas. The Granite Street site is about 1 mile
downstream of a 12,000-foot, 24-inch-diameter force main;  the wastewater  pH was 5.5 at
this site. The Park Road site is located about 7 miles from the  farthest upstream point
in-its drainage area.

      Two of the  six industrial sites showed signs of very shallow hydrogen sulfide
corrosion. The Remount Road site had lost just enough concrete to expose aggregate
and also had turbulent flow. The Granite site had turbulent  flow and an observed
velocity of approximately 10 fps.  This site also had four consecutive drop manholes
upstream. Pipe wall and manhole surface pH measurements  were pH 6, and some
corrosion product was observed.  Wastewater pH measurements were 6 at  four of  the
industrial sites, 5.5 at one site, and 10 at the remaining site.  Wastewater sulfide ranged
from 0.0 to 0.3 mg/1. The wastewater sulfide level was 0.05 mg/1 at the site where
wastewater pH was 5.5, and 0.0 mg/1 at the site where wastewater pH was  10.  There
was no  measurable headspace hydrogen sulfide gas at any of  the six industrial sites.

      Pipe diameter at the industrial  sites ranges from 21 to 54 Laches, and all pipes are
approximately 20 years .old. The observed flows range from one-third to two-thirds full,
from smooth to extremely turbulent, with velocities typically 2 to 4 fps.

2.2.8 Milwaukee, Wisconsin

      The Milwaukee Metropolitan Sewerage District (MMSD) maintains
approximately 305 miles of sewer and two treatment facilities which serve approximately
one million people in the Milwaukee area.  The average daily wastewater  flow is 190
mgd, of which industrial flows represent over 25 percent  MMSD estimates that 15

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percent of the area served by its system contributes storm flow.  Wet weather flows at
both treatment plants double dry weather flows. The average,biochemical oxygen
demand (BOD) is 200 mg/1, and total suspended solids (TSS) is 250 mg/1 at the two
plants.

      In the MMSD system, EPA compared corrosion conditions in purely domestic
sewers to conditions in sewers that cany industrial flow. Approximately 90
electroplaters and metal finishers and about 15 tanneries are permitted for discharge
into the MMSD sewer under its pretreatment program.  Some of the permitted
tanneries have waivers to discharge wastewater without pretreatment for sulfide, making
data obtained from the MMSD system particularly pertinent to this study. Observations
covered five sewers with only residential flow and five sewers with a heavy industrial
contribution to the flow.                                      .

      MMSD personnel were not aware of any hydrogen sulfide corrosion problems,
The District recently inspected (by television) 20 percent of its large-diameter pipe.
Annually, it inspects an additional 40,000 feet  MMSD also manually inspects manholes
and sewers during a standard manhole step replacement program and a seasonal
manhole cleaning program.  MMSD has some odor problems; however, these are
located in parts of the system where the odors do riot generate public complaints.
                         ". ,      '      " -'     '  - '  .  \  '  • '               ,'"'•'"
      Three of the residential sites are hi the northern part of the service area, 4  to 6
miles from  the Jones Island Treatment Plant, and 3 to 5 miles from the upstream end of
the system.  Pipe ages at these sites range from 50 to 70 years old.  None of the three  .
sites revealed any wastewater sulfide. Wastewater pHs were all 6.5, and pipe and
manhole surface pHs were all 6.5. (According  to carbonate chemistry* one would  expect
weathered concrete to be about pH 6.3.) No corrosion or signs of corrosion of pipe or
manhole concrete were observed at these sites, even though one site is a junction"
structure and another site is located just downstream of a pump station.  In both cases,
these locations often experience turbulent flow and potential release of hydrogen sulfide
gas.  ••'•''•'.      . '         ;',    ,   '  -      -.-/•    ;•     ••.         '.'•''

      The other two residential sites, located in the South Shore Treatment Plant
basins, are  8 to 10 miles from'the treatment plant, and 3 to 5 miles from the  upstream
end of the basin.  The first site is less than 20 years old, and the second site,
Kinnickinnic, is 50 years old.  Observations at the 20-year-old site were similar to those
at the first  three residential sites.  However, a wastewater,sulfide content of 0.5 mg/1 was
found at the Kinnickinnic  site and pH of 3.5 was measured on the crown of the
downstream pipe. Kinnickinnic had severe corrosion from the water line up the pipe
about 1 foot Up to 1 inch of concrete  appeared lost as estimated by aggregate
exposure hi this 36-inch-diameter pipe,  A black slime growth was observed from 1 inch
above the normal water  line to 2 inches below.

      Five sites had large amounts of industrial flow.  Three sites are about  2 to 3


   '.".''•:•'      •   ..        2-19       ';'  '   '     -."•    '          ••;••'•

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miles north of the Jones Island Treatment Plant and two are immediately upstream of
the plant All five sites are at least six miles from the upstream end of the system and
are at least 40 years old.  Corrosion was not observed at any of these sites.

      Two of the industrial sites had measurable sulfide in the wastewater: Q.18 and
0.40 mg/L Wastewater pH ranged between 6.5 and 7.5.  Pipe and manhole surface pH
measurements ranged between 6.0 and 7.0.  One of the industrial sites was located less
than 0.5 miles downstream from a tannery.  Two sites had initial hydrogen sulfide gas
concentrations of between 0.5 and 0.6 ppm in  the pipe headspace.  One site located in
the downtown industrial area could not be entered because of a photoionization meter
reading of greater than 1,000 ppm. Two sites  had abrupt changes in direction 20 to 30
feet upstream from the manhole and  6 to 8  niches of bottom debris.  Typical at these
sites was a grease buildup on pipe and manhole walls, calcium buildup, and slime, but
solid concrete pipe underneath.

Z2   Site Visits to Assess  Hydrogen Sulfide Corrosion at Wastewater Treatment
      Plants and Pump Stations

      Site investigations were conducted at five wastewater treatment plants in three
cities.  The purpose of these investigations was to document the location, nature and
severity of hydrogen sulfide corrosion problems at these facilities. The wastewater
treatment plants included the Hookers Point facility in Tampa, FL, the East Bank and
West Bank plants in New Orleans, LA, and the Hyperion  and Terminal Island plants in
Los Angeles, CA.  Pump station  corrosion was also investigated as part of these site
visits.

      The type and extent of information available from the various cities varied
widely.  Some cities closely monitored hydrogen sulfide levels in  the wastewater and in
the atmosphere, and maintained  detailed records of corrosion repair and rehabilitation
efforts.  Others had done little to monitor or control corrosion.

      The following provides a summary of the information collected from the site
visits to cities where corrosion was believed to be a problem hi the wastewater treatment
plant and pump stations.

23.1 Tampa, Florida

23.1.1 Wastewater Treatment Plant

      The Hooker's Point Advanced Wastewater Treatment Plant was expanded in
1978 to handle a design flow of 60 mgd. The plant is averaging  approximately 57 mgd,
and employs advanced waste treatment (AWT) for biological nitrogen removal. Unit
processes at the plant include influent screens and grit chambers, primary clarification,
two stage activated sludge treatment, secondary clarification, denitrifying filtration,

                                       2-20

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chlorination and dechlorination. The plant achieves nitrification/denitrification before it
discharges to Tampa Bay. Sludge handling processes are varied, and consist of gravity,
dissolved air flotation, or belt filter thickening of waste activated sludge, anaerobic or
aerobic digestion, and belt press or drying bed dewatering.  A new sludge dryer and
pelletizer will come on-line in the fall of 1990.

       Hydrogen sulfide corrosion at the wastewater treatment plant is very severe.  The
walls of the  influent junction box were constructed with a corrosion-resistant plastic
liner.  H2S corrosion is also severe in the screen and grit building and in the effluent
chamber in the grit building. Dissolved sulfide is approximately 10 mg/1 in the influent
wastewater.  Concrete on the roof of the junction box had also corroded to an extent
that the aggregate was exposed.  All  mechanical equipment showed mild to severe
corrosion. Hand rails, platform, and other structures at the primary  clarifiers were
corroded.

       The plant expends significant  resources to combat hydrogen sulfide corrosion.
All carbon steel parts have been replaced by stainless steel parts wherever possible.
Electrical components have been covered and electrical sockets replaced using plastic
materials.  A very rigorous painting schedule is maintained on all equipment and parts
at the junction chamber.  H2S levels  in the atmosphere of the screen and grit building
are as  high as 20 ppm. A fine-mist scrubber was installed  to treat the H2S-laden air
emissions from  the junction box. Although designed to handle 50 ppm of H2S, levels
entering the scrubber range  from 400 to over 1000 ppm. The capital cost of the
scrubber system was approximately $1,000,000.  Annual operating cost is estimated to be
$400,000/yr.
              !            f •>          ,'                '    '   "  * t         '   i
       The primary clarifiers at the wastewater treatment plant are also at an advanced
stage of corrosion.  Some clarifiers are 40 years old and the others were built during the
expansion.  There is little corrosion at the influent end of the clarifiers but severe
corrosion at the effluent end. The wastewater has a fall of four feet in the effluent
channel thereby creating  turbulence and releasing H2S to,the atmosphere with the result
that the concrete structure at the effluent channel is severely corroded.

       Most of the moving parts on the clarifiers have been replaced by plastic,
including the scraper mechanism. Gear motors and electrical/mechanical components
are covered with corrosive-resistant materials. Approximately 2 to 4  inches of the side
walls at the effluent channel in the primary clarifiers have  been lost due to corrosion.
At some locations, reinforcing steel was visible. The rehabilitation of the clarifiers is
now under contract and includes the  installation of a plastic liner on the walls.
Hydrogen  sulfide corrosion downstream of the clarifiers is very limited.  There is very
little hydrogen sulfide corrosion found at other treatment processes and sludge handling
facilities.                                 /

       Hydrogen sulfide corrosion of instrumentation  and controls at the wastewater
                                                 '—,         .            "         t •
                                       2-21

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treatment plant was severe at the transformer cabinets.  All copper tubing and wiring
corrodes rapidly.  Corrosion of electrical contacts was widely observed.  Switchgear at
the influent junction chamber also corrodes rapidly.  Corrosion prevention measures for
instrumentation and control equipment includes covering the instruments, purging with
clean air, and air conditioning control rooms. All electrical equipment at the plant is on
a preventative maintenance and painting schedule. Contacts and relays are cleaned
regularly. Transformer housings must be replaced periodically.

      Although corrosion of sludge handling components and structures  has been a
problem in the past, such problems have largely been eliminated through gradual
replacement with corrosion resistant materials such as galvanized and stainless steel.
Spare parts are stored in an air-conditioned warehouse to prevent corrosion.  Minor
corrosion problems are still evident where components such as conduit fittings are not
available in corrosion resistant materials.

23.1.2  Lift Stations

      There are 160 lift stations in the sewer system that collect and transport
wastewater to the treatment plant  The more recent pump lift stations are built of
concrete.

      Medium to very high rate corrosion was found at many of the lift stations.  Most
of the manholes, wet wells and interior control room walls in lift stations have sulfur
(yellow) deposits. There was severe corrosion near turbulent areas of the lift stations.
The concrete was corroded and reinforcing  steel was visible.  Most of the lift stations
have mild to severe corrosion present  Steel sound enclosures over wet wells had to be
replaced by fiberglass buildings.  Most of the larger pump stations have fine-mist
scrubber systems. The City tried a hydrogen peroxide dosing system, but it was judged
to be too expensive to operate.  A few lift stations have used a ferrous sulfate dosing
system to control H2S.  The City also tried packed tower air scrubbers. They were very
high in  maintenance. Carbon adsorption systems were also installed on  some lift
stations.

      Corrosion of instrumentation and control systems at the lift stations was not
quite as severe as at the plant  This was primarily due to the active  preventative
maintenance program imposed by the City.  Copper tubing and exposed wiring were
seen to be corroded. All motor control centers and electrical equipment were covered.

23.2 New Orleans, Louisiana

23.2.1  Wastewater Treatment Plants

      The East Bank and West Bank wastewater treatment plants of the City of New
Orleans were visited to document the extent of hydrogen sulfide corrosion at the


                                       2-22

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facilities.  The Bast Bank plant treats the sanitary flows from downtown and the
northeast part of the City. The plant was originally built in  1963 for primary treatment
and was later expanded for secondary treatment in 1980.  The  original design flow at
the plant was 30 mgd but the facility has been, expanded to handle 122 mgd. A total of
1500 miles of collection system comprised of gravity and force  mains collect and convey
sewage to the plant The treatment plant consist of screens  and grit removal, pure
oxygen activated sludge system and secondary settling.  Effluent is discharged to the
Mississippi River.  Secondary sludge is dewatered and then incinerated.  The ash, along
with screenings and grit, are disposed of in a sanitary landfill.

      Plant headworks at the East Bank plant had severe corrosion in the screen and
grit basins. Some parts of the grit basins were built in 1963  and were then expanded to
meet the new design flows. Three force mains feed wastewater to these grit basins.
One force main conveying flows from the City has long detention times, and hence the
wastewater is very septic when it reaches the plant The color of the wastewater was
very dark (black) and was deficient in D.O.

      The side walls of the grit chamber were severely corroded.  Approximately 1 to
V/2 inches of concrete was corroded away at some locations. Severe corrosion was also
observed at the effluent end of the grit box where  the wastewater spills into a channel
which led it to the pure oxygen activated sludge  tanks. The  grit chambers were installed
with screens on each pass. These screens were hi a deteriorated condition.   Many of
the components of the screens had rusted and the metal frames on which they were
attached were corroded along with the concrete  below the frames.

      Corrosion of instrumentation and controls was found  to be severe at the East
Bank plant  Contacts on electrical equipment were oxidized.  The plant personnel
replace small items and clean contacts and equipment on an annual basis. They
sometimes must take equipment off-line for service and maintenance.  As preventative
maintenance, they use  a light coating of oil, and cabinets .purged with cleaned air. The
plant has entered into an annual preventative maintenance contract They allocate two
men 1 to 1-1/2 days/wk for electrical equipment  maintenance.  The electrical contacts on
indicator lights, pump relays,  and contacts operate intermittently because of oxidation
problems at the contacts.  The instrument control room is fully air conditioned.  Air
cleaning is done through permanganate beads which are replaced every month.  The
plant expends significant effort for replacement  and maintenance of the electrical and
instrumentation components.

      The plant does not have any control measures to prevent future corrosion.  No
efforts have been made to rehabilitate the corroded structures. The plant has a limited
budget and does not plan to employ rehabilitation of structures as a corrective action
until there is a failure.

      The West Bank plant serves..the population of the western  side of the City of

.'•'-.          •      .•        •'     '   2-23      ,   :            "',. "•   "   • '

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New Orleans.  The plant was originally built in 1971 for a design maximum flow of 15
mgd.  The average dry weather flow (ADF) to the plant is approximately 7 to 8 mgd.
The plant is now under design for expansion to 40 mgd. The treatment plant consists of
influent bar screens, grit removal, primary sedimentation, high rate trickling filters,
secondary sedimentation, chlorine contact and final discharge to the river. The sludge
from the clarifiers goes to a thickener and a vacuum filter and is then incinerated.  The
ash from the incinerator is disposed of in a  local landfill.

      The West Bank plant also has severe corrosion at the influent head box where
the screens and grit chamber are located. Corrosion has degraded the sidewalls on the
grit chamber to a depth of 1 to 1% inches.  Again, corrosion was found to be severe at
areas of high turbulence i.e. at the influent  and effluent end of the grit basins.  The
metal grating and handrails on the grit basins were also corroded.  The wastewater
entering the plant was septic and the dissolved oxygen was always found to be 0 mg/1
except during heavy rainfalls when the D.O. would increase to 0.2 mg/1. As the plant is
located adjacent to a golf course, there are  plans to cover the plant headworks,  the
sludge thickener and some other tanks  to control odor emissions.

      There are no efforts being taken to rehabilitate the degraded structures.  No
rehabilitative techniques have been employed to correct the odor and corrosion
problems.

      The vacuum filters at the West Bank Plant are located in a building that is
equipped with a passive air ventilation system. The mechanical and support parts of the
vacuum filters are  in a severely corroded state. The plant had to replace grating over
the filter supports. When the filters are operating, high H2S levels are reported in the
building.  There is no corrosion reported at other parts of the plant  Corrosion at
instrumentation  and controls is minimal.  Corrective action at this plant is based
primarily on minimizing odors which are affecting the neighboring golf course.

23.2.2 Lift Stations and Collection Systems

      There are a total of 87 lift stations and 1500 miles of sewers that serve both the
East and West Bank Treatment Plants  in the City of New Orleans. The lift station wet
wells are made of brick and concrete. Force mains range in size from 42 to 52 inches
and are constructed of cast iron, steel or concrete.  Ninety to 95 percent of the
collection system is 8  to 10  inch diameter pipes.  Concrete pipes were laid in  late  1930's.
There are a few older pipes made of clay. Since the  1970's, plastic pipe has been used
where possible.

      All of the 87 lift stations employed in the collection systems for the East Bank
and West Bank plants are in some stage of corrosion. The older lift station wet wells
were built of brick and are  severely deteriorated.  The pump base and supports have
corroded and at some places are on the verge of falling down into the wet well.


                                       2-24

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Rehabilitation of brick wet wells consists of coating by gunite.  The New Orleans
Sewage Board experimented with pump cycle times to minimize detention times and
decrease H2S levels. Continuous ventilation is provided in the lift stations at six air
changes per hour.  At some places the Board has tried  adding ferric chloride but found
that it forms clinkers in the incinerator at the plant  H2S levels in the atmosphere of
the wet wells average approximately 100 ppm. The Board spends around $5.2 million
per year for lift station maintenance.  About 30 percent of total man hours is utilized
for lift station maintenance. Electrical and instrumentation equipment have minor
corrosion problems. New electrical equipment has been installed with clean air supplied
by treatment through potassium permanganate. There  is reported to be more corrosion
in lift station wet wells at the east side of town.

233  City of Los Angeles                                    '                   V

133.1  Hyperion Wastewater Treatment Plant
      .       -' -  ' •  . -   .         ••_'./       -  .'-•.   '     ,"
      The plant is designed for 400 mgd through primary treatment and 150 mgd
through secondary treatment ^Present day  flows are 370 mgd and  200 mgd, respectively.
The ability of the secondary process to handle the additional flow is attributed to the
addition of fine bubble diffusers.  The headworks, primaries, secondaries and anaerobic
digesters are approximately 40 years old. Regulations eliminating  ocean  sludge disposal
and requiring full secondary treatment, along with population growth, have resulted in
i.0 years of construction at the plant  The City foresees at least another 5 to 10 years at
the same pace.  The latter includes replacement of the  existing secondary process with a
pure oxygen process.

      With the exception of the gravity degritter  in the east headworks,  all trash and
grit removal tankage are under cover, making direct observation of corrosion on these
processes difficult without considerable expenditure of staff manpower. The covers on
the west aerated grit chamber effluent channel were small enough to be  managed by
one person and were lifted for observation.  Corrosion  of the concrete sewer at those
points was observed to be severe, with penetration to at least 12 inches at the water line
diminishing to 1 to 2 inches in the closed channel and 0 to  1 inch  at ground level of the
open tank.  The plant carpentry superintendent in charge of all in-house concrete repair
indicated the observed areas were typical of all headworks tankage of the same age.
The cost of these repairs are not segregated from general plant maintenance costs.

      The extent of corrosion below the water line in both tanks and channels was
described as minor (less than1 inch) even in the  oldest tankage.  All covers (tank and
channel) and deck plates are made of aluminum,  as were handrails, conduit and other
hardware (some stainless steel). No corrosion of  these  materials was apparent

      The headworks processes are all contained in buildings. The ambient
atmosphere of the buildings is swept by fans and discharged to a collection point at the

   '   • '  ;   .*''•..,'.• '•  / ••      '   -2-25     ',  •'..'"'

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suction of the secondary process blowers. Thus a slight negative pressure is maintained
in each building.  This prevents noxious odors from escaping the plant and with normal
infiltration plus some outside air intakes, avoids the build up of corrosive gases in the
atmosphere of the process buildings. All windows in the aerated grit chamber building
were sealed in order to reduce escape of hydrogen  sulfide, even though the tanks are
covered.  The few pieces of carbon and galvanized  steel found in the buildings were
severely corroded. This was especially true of steel doors. No maintenance program is
in force for the doors other than repainting when scratched or chipped.  The ambient
air removal system piping is fiberglass and most other piping is PVC. Conduit is
aluminum or PVC.

       A short section of the force main entering the plant collapsed and was replaced
in 1987.  The collapse was  attributed to corrosion-weakened concrete pipe combined
with the ground vibration caused by heavy construction equipment

       The decision to rehabilitate or replace all or part of the  headworks has yet to be
made. There is obvious structural damage in some places and some doubt in the mind
of staff as to the structural  integrity of a rehabilitation effort given the frequency of
earthquakes in the area. In either case, PVC liners with concrete slabs will be used  in
all channels and the inside of all tankage will be at least coated with coal tar or an
alternative coating material.

       The primary clarifiers are covered with concrete slabs so casual inspection was
not possible.  The influent  and effluent channels are covered by aluminum plates which
can be easily removed" for inspection.  Like the headworks, concrete exhibited deep
corrosion penetration from the water line to the surface, with some of the deepest
penetration (6 to 8 inches) at the surface adjacent to the channel covers. Most of the
corrosion at the top has been repaired by cutting back to good  concrete, reforming to
the original geometry and grouting. These repairs  are recent, and are not covered by
any protective coating.  An epoxy-type coating had been applied to the early patches
'and began peeling almost immediately, so coating was discontinued. The channels will
be covered with PVC liners.  The type of coating for the inside of tank walls and covers
is as yet undetermined. They are in the process of converting from steel to plastic chain
and from wood to fiber glass boards for the sludge  rakes.  The  existing primaries will be
rehabilitated once new primary construction is complete.

       With the exception of anaerobic digestion, the sludge handling processes came
on-line in 1985-1986.  Ocean disposal of sludge ceased in 1987, and digested sludge is
now either dried and applied to  power generation (Carver-Greenfield process) or
dewatered by centrifuges and transported to a Yuma, AZ land application site. Due to
safety regulations  for construction at the site, the sludge handling facility was off-limits
to visitors. The addition of ferrous chloride (280 mg/1) for hydrogen sulfide reduction
after sludge digestion is to control sulfur emissions as opposed  to corrosion control.
                                        2-26

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       All instrumentation and control electronic equipment is conformably coated (a
 thin lacquer-like coating applied to circuit boards and components to seal them from
 the atmosphere) in the manufacturing process.  This is standard practice in the industry
 for wastewater treatment equipment suppliers.  In addition, all field mounted
 instrumentation (sensors, transmitters, etc.) are nitrogen purged.  The case of each
 instrument is connected to a low pressure nitrogen supply which maintains a slight
 positive pressure in the instrument housing to prevent exposure of the components to
 ambient air. Inspection of the equipment disclosed no sign of corrosion.  All  circuit
 boards, contacts, wire terminations and other exposed metal was bright and shiny. The
 annual cost of nitrogen is estimated at less than $3,000. The only sensing elements
 immersed in liquid process streams are DO probes. These are newly installed and as
 yet have no track record. The control room is isolated from ambient atmosphere by
 scrubbing, filtering, and air conditioning.  No problems were reported or apparent with
 these systems.                                        '    ,

       Although not as severe, there is ample evidence of concrete corrosion in
 secondary treatment The worst is at the aeration basin influent mixing channel where
 corrosion has penetrated to the reinforcing steel (2  inches).  Other areas of the reactors
 have exposed aggregate.  Steel hand rails and steel  plate on the side of the reactors are
 pitted and rusted where chipped or peeled paint allowed exposure to atmosphere.

       Since a new oxygen activated sludge system is planned, only those repairs
 necessary for the existing system to remain operational will be made.

       The scavenged air recovered from buildings and below tank covers is ducted to
 the aeration basin blowers for scrubbing in the activated sludge mixed liquor.  This air is
 not cleaned by other than conventional blower inlet air filters, nor  are the blowers
 constructed of special corrosion resistant materials.  This has not caused any additional
 blower maintenance of reduced the useful life of the blowers.  The only impact is on the
 carbon steel linkage that moves the internal guide vanes and this impact is considered
 minor by tiie maintenance staff.

 233.2 Terminal Island Wastewater Treatment Plant  ,           ,

       The original plant was constructed in 1935 and completely rehabilitated in 1977.
 The plant is designed for full secondary treatment of 30 mgd.  Present day dry weather
 diurnal flow ranges were modified from 5 to 35 mgd, a 7:1 ratio, to 10 to 30 mgd, a 3:1
 ratio, by requiring (as part of pretreatment enforcement) local industries to shift
, discharges to off-peak hours.  Over 50 percent  of the flow and 70 percent of the  load is
 of industrial origin.                     ,
                                     ' '   '    '         . '     ' -          •  F
       With the exception of the bar screen, all trash and grit removal tankage is under
 cover, making direct observation of corrosion on these processes difficult without
 considerable expenditure of staff manpower.  Corrosion of the concrete at the bar

          -  .   :     ,.••''•.'     •   .  2-27-' •  ".-        .:     '•''.'-.   '.

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screens was negligible at those points observed, with penetration barely to the aggregate
at the water line. The extent of corrosion below the water line in both tanks and
channels was described as minor (less than 1 inch) in the oldest tankage. All covers
(tank and channel)  and deck plates are made of aluminum, as were handrails, conduit
and other hardware (some stainless steel).  No corrosion of this material was apparent
The bar screen frame and sheet metal is of coated (coal tar) carbon steel, which was
severely corroded.  Most of the sheet metal has been replaced with sheet PVC.  The
frame (V4 inch angle iron) will probably be replaced with stainless steel.

      The headworks processes are all contained in buildings.  The ambient
atmosphere of the buildings is collected by the suction of the secondary  process blowers
(no fans).  Thus a slight negative pressure is maintained in each building.  This prevents
noxious odors from escaping the plant and with normal infiltration plus some outside air
intakes, avoids the build up of corrosive gasses in the atmosphere of the process
buildings.  The few pieces of carbon steel  found in the buildings were severely corroded
including galvanized steel hardware. This was especially true of steel doors. No
maintenance program is in force for the doors other than repainting when scratched or
chipped.

      The ambient air removal system piping is fiberglass and most other piping is
PVC. Conduit is aluminum or PVC.

      The primary clarifiers are fitted with aluminum covers.  The influent and effluent
channels are also covered by aluminum  plates which can be easily removed for
inspection.  Plant staff had previously converted from steel to plastic chain and  from
wood to fiberglass boards for the sludge rakes.  Because of problems with the plastic
chain jumping the sprockets, they are converting back to steel chain.

      The egg shaped anaerobic digesters appear to be in good condition externally.
An external pipe that collects gas for mixing has been replaced with a welded stainless
steel pipe.  The sacrificial anodes are replaced routinely as part of the maintenance
program.  The motorized valves located on top of the  digesters are also  being replaced,
but this is because they do not have weather proof housings, although the problem may
have been  exacerbated by hydrogen sulfide.  The  earth,ground bonding  wire (bare
copper) in  this location has almost turned to dust and is being replaced with an
insulated wire.  This location is also exposed to winds  from the sea, and the corrosion
observed may be the result of salt air. The elevator at this location is a high
maintenance item, since it is exposed to both sea  air and ambient hydrogen sulfide.

      The addition of ferrous chloride (450 mg/1) for  hydrogen sulfide reduction (10
fold) after sludge digestion is to control sulfur  emissions as opposed to corrosion
control.

      All instrumentation and  control electronic  equipment is conformably coated.  In

                                        2-28

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addition, all field mounted instrumentation (sensors, transmitters, etc.) are nitrogen
purged. The case of each instrument is connected to a low pressure in the instrument
housing to prevent exposure of the components to ambient air.  Inspection of the
equipment disclosed no sign of corrosion.  All circuit boards, contacts, wire terminations
and other exposed metal was bright and shiny.  The annual cost of nitrogen is estimated
at less than $2,000. The only sensing elements immersed in liquid process streams are
DO probes. These are relatively new yet have performed well to date.  The control
room is isolated from ambient atmosphere by scrubbing, filtering, and air conditioning.
No problems were reported or apparent with this system.

       The scavenged air recovered from buildings and below tank covers is ducted to
the aeration basin blowers for scrubbing in the activated sludge  mixed liquor.  This air is
not cleaned by other than conventional blower inlet air filters, nor are the blowers
constructed of special corrosion resistant materials.  This has not caused any additional
blower maintenance or reduced the useful life of the blowers. The only impact is on the
carbon steel linkage that moves the internal vanes and this impact is considered minor
by the maintenance staff.

2.4    Site Visits to Investigate Corrosion Mechanism

       Although many authors have discussed the role of the sulfate-reducing bacteria
and sulfur-oxidizing bacteria in hydrogen sulfide corrosion, little is known,about these
organisms or the factors that may promote or inhibit their growth.  To confirm existing
theories concerning hydrogen sulfide corrosion, gain additional insight into the
mechanisms of corrosion,  and lay a foundation for future work,  a multidisciplinary field
team was assembled to make observations and collect samples for microbiological,
physical, and chemical analysis from locations in the CSDLAC system and the
Metropolitan Seattle system.  The field team included microbiologists who had studied
sulfate-reducing bacteria,  sulfur-oxidizing bacteria, and microbiologically-induced
corrosion, and a structural consultant who had studied corrosion of concrete.

       The field program  for this work segment involved collecting samples from three
locations  in each of the two sewer systems.  Two of the sites in each system were
locations  where corrosion was well  established and ongoing, A third site in each system
where corrosion had not been observed was selected as a control site. Samples of
surface deposits were collected from the crown, sidewall, and waterline areas of the  pipe
at each location, as well as samples of the wastewater itself for microbial and chemical
analysis.  Samples of concrete were chipped from the  crown arid sidewall areas for
chemical  and physical analysis.

2.4.1  Results of Microbial Analysis
                              '  • •     "               :         •     .  ..  ' >
       The microbial analyses showed that aJarge and complex microbiological
community is present in the wastewater and on the  structure walls and crown at the

     •'  "  '     .'•••'    '•     v  "    2-29   •••'    .     .'•    •- .   .'    .    •"•

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locations sampled- Very high levels of aerobes, anaerobes, acid-producing bacteria, and
sulfate-reducing bacteria were found in most wastewater, sidewall, and submerged
sidewall samples.  Relatively large populations of sulfate-reducing bacteria were found
in the bulk wastewater samples.  However, CSDLAC slug dosing of caustic has been
shown to suppress sulfide generation for 7 to 10 days after treatment,  indicating that the
slime layer is the predominant site for reduction of sulfate to sulfide (1).

      The microbial community of the pipe crown region appears, particularly at
corroded sites, to be significantly different  A much lower level of viable organisms,
including aerobes, organic acid-producing bacteria, and sulfate-reducing bacteria was
found in this region. It is possible that the  low pH of corroding crown regions reduces
the total level of viable organisms and selects for the organisms that do live there.

      The microbial analyses showed, nonetheless, that samples from areas of crown
corrosion in both the CSDLAC and Seattle systems contain large numbers of
acidophilic, sulfur-oxidizing bacteria of the genus Thiobacillus. and probably the species
thiooxidans.  Samples from crown areas in the CSDLAC system where reinforcing steel
was exposed also showed the presence of T. ferrooxidans. an  iron- and sulfur-oxidizing
bacterium. Samples from the location in the CSDLAC system where wastewater was
being treated with ferrous chloride to control hydrogen sulfide showed fewer T.
ferrooxidaps and acidophilic sulfur oxidizers in the crown area than in the corroded
location being slug dosed with NaOH.

      Large numbers of sulfur-oxidizing organisms that grow at neutral pH were also
found in all samples, including the wastewater.  The wastewater could continuously
inoculate these organisms on the concrete surface. These organisms can  oxidize sulfur
and produce sulfuric acid, which would lower the pH of the concrete surface. Lowering
the pH would allow more acidophilic organisms, (e.g., T. thiooxidans.  which has a pH
preference of 4.5  to 1.0) to grow.  Additionally, large numbers of acid-tolerant fungi and
yeasts were present in most samples. The role of these organisms in contributing to
corrosion is not understood.

      All the sites in Seattle appeared to have similar microbial communities which
included high levels of sulfate-reducing bacteria hi the wastewater and in the surface-
associated populations.  More variety of species were observed in the  Seattle sites,
however.  The sites which had high  corrosion rates had very turbulent wastewater flows
which could increase the out-gassing of hydrogen sulfide to the sewer  headspace.  This
is supported by the fact that these sites had high levels of hydrogen sulfide hi the sewer
headspace.

      At CSDLAC, there were major differences between the control site with low
corrosion rate and those sites with high corrosion rates.

      •     The amount of moisture on the crown at the control site was low

                                       2-30

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             compared to the other sites.

      •     The levels of metals in the springline sample were higher at the control   >
             site than  at the other sites.

      •.     The average sewage age (the length of time the sewage is in the sewer
             system) was less at the control site than at the other sites.

      •     The levels of sulfate-reducing bacteria at the control site were 10,000 times
             lower than  at the other sites.

      The low level of moisture on the crown at the control site certainly would inhibit
both growth of bacteria on the crown and the corrosion reaction.  However, even if
moisture was present, the corrosion rate would be low due to the low levels of sulfate-
reducing bacteria and hydrogen sulfide. The temperature differences are not considered
sufficient to affect the  growth of sulfate-redueing bacteria and Thiobacilli.  This leads to
the conclusion  that the low levels of sulfate-reducing bacteria and hydrogen sulfide
production are responsible for the low  rate of corrosion at the control site, and by
implication that the high levels of sulfate-reducing bacteria at the other sites are
responsible for the high rates of corrosion.

      The results of microbial analysis support the accepted theory of hydrogen  sulfide
corrosion:  production of hydrogen sulfide by bacteria in the wastewater and on the
sewer wall, followed by oxidation of the hydrogen sulfide to sulfuric acid by bacteria on
the sewer crown.  However, unanswered questions remain concerning:

       •     The  role of acidophilic heterotrophicorganisms in the corrosion process.

       •     The  minimum sulfide levels needed to sustain the growth of sulfur-
      .       oxidizing bacteria.                                         ,

       •     Whether techniques could be developed to interrupt the microbial
             pathways of sulfide generation and sulfuric acid production.

2.4.2  Results of Physical Analyses

       The samples of concrete collected in the CSDLAC  and Seattle Metro sewer
systems were evaluated using standard petrographic examination techniques and X-ray
diffraction techniques.  In addition, chloride ion content was determined on Selected
samples.

       Petrographic examination revealed the presence of corrosion at all six of the
sampled sites,  including  the "control" sites. Corrosion at the control site in the
CSDLAC system was shallow (0.04 to  0.08 inches) and the high surface pH values

•   "•.'.••  :''  •'      . V  - ' ' '   •-   '••'   2-31 .'-   -'''''''''.•''    '       '.

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measured at this site, as well as observations, indicate that this corrosion may have
occurred in the past At the remaining five sites, petrographic examination and X-ray
diffraction analysis of samples collected above the waterline showed gypsum deposits
covering a zone of deterioration extending up to 0.5 inches beneath the concrete
surface.  Within this zone, the normally crystalline concrete paste showed reduced levels
of crystallinity and an increasingly amorphous nature depending on the extent of
deterioration.  This concrete was soft in comparison to non-deteriorated concrete.
Microcracks in the concrete (typical of most concrete) were usually lined with gypsum
and, in some instances, ettringite also. Below the waterline, the concrete samples were
sound. These conditions are considered typical of classical hydrogen sulfide corrosion
of concrete.

      Determination of chloride ion levels in the concrete samples.indicated that, with
the exception of one location in Seattle, chloride  levels in the concrete of the original
pipe were below the threshold needed to initiate chloride-induced electrochemical
corrosion of reinforcing steel.

      The observations at the two control sites point out the difficulty involved in field
assessment of the presence  and  extent of corrosion. The concrete surface at both
control sites looked smooth and in good condition, and the pipe wall at both sites
produced a sharp  ringing sound indicative of sound concrete when struck with a rock
hammer.  However, the surface  pH at the CSDLAC site was 4.0, and laboratory
examination of samples revealed that shallow corrosion had occurred, perhaps in  the
past  At the Seattle Metro  control site, surface pH levels were between 1.0 and 2.0, and
laboratory examination indicated that corrosion had penetrated up to 0.25 inches  into
the concrete.
                                          •I    •   i
2.5   Other Cities Reporting Hydrogen Sulfide Corrosion

      Information was analyzed from surveys conducted  by the County Sanitation
Districts  of Los Angeles County (CSDLAC), Association of Metropolitan Sewerage
Agencies (AMSA),  and the Water Pollution Control Federation (WPCF).  Results of
the CSDLAC survey are summarized in Table 2-2.  Of the 89 cities responding to this
survey, 32 cities (36%) reported sewer collapses.  Twenty-six cities experienced collapses
that were believed to be due to  hydrogen sulfide corrosion. Thirty cities (34%) reported
taking measures to control sulfide generation in sewers. Fifty-six cities (63%) had taken
steps to protect pipe from corrosion, or had rehabilitated pipe damaged by corrosion.

      The AMSA survey asked if the municipalities experienced hydrogen sulfide
corrosion at the treatment plant Almost 70 percent of the 61 respondents responded
positively. In addition, 34 percent of the respondents indicated that they were currently
employing techniques to control sulfide generation.  Results of the AMSA survey are
summarized in Table 2-3.
                                       2-32

-------
           TABLE 2-2



SUMMARY OF CSDLAC SURVEY DATA

(
City
. IN 1 ป•
Birmingham
Phoenix
Tucson
Little Rock
Pine Bluff
Carlsbad
Cucamonga
Orange County
Whittier
Colorado Springs
Denver
Hartford
Washington
Fort Lauderdale
Jacksonville
Miami
Orlando
Tampa
Atlanta
Honolulu
Boise
Chicago
Downers Grove
Elgin
Kahkakee


State
•^HB^^H^B
f^- L,J •
AZ
AZ
AR
AR
CA
CA
CA
CA
CO
CO
CT
DC
FL
FL
FL -
FL
FL
GA
HI
ID
IL
IL
IL
IL

Sewer
Collapse
x

-

x
- - .-.

X
-X
.'--..



_ -
x

x
• - x :
• x
X /. ^






Sulfide
Control
x
X
x


x

X
X

. ' x


x

.
x '-.

- . ' '• ..
x





Corrosion
Protection/
Rehab.

x
. . , _ - •
X
- • x
X
X
X
- • • x ' ;;





X
X
x
; _ ' _ X
X
x
• ' •" .' ' •.. x




                2-33

-------
        TABLE 2-2 (cont)




SUMMARY OF CSDLAC SURVEY DATA


City
Rockford
Springfield
Urbana
Wichita
Louisville
Jefferson Parish
New Orleans
Baltimore
Glen Burnie
Hyattsville
Boston
Salem
Detroit
Kalamazoo
Duluth
St Paul
Kansas City
SL Louis
Omaha
Bayville
Elizabeth
Little Ferry
Newark
Sayreville
-

State
IL
IL
IL
KS
KY
LA
LA
MD
MD
MD
MA
MA
MI
MI
MN
MN
MO
MO
NE
NJ
NJ
NJ
NJ
NJ

Sewer Sulfide
Collapse Control
X
X

X
X
x
• ' • *

X
X




X
X X
X X
X
X

Corrosion
Protection/
Rehab.
X

X
X
X
x
X

X
X
X
X

X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
              2-34

-------
        TABLE 2-2 (cont)



SUMMARY OF CSDLAC SURVEY DATA

City
Albuquerque
Las Graces
Albany
Buffalo
New York City
Mineola
North Syracuse
Rochester
Greensboro
Akron
Cincinnati
Cleveland
Columbus
Dayton
Toledo
Tulsa

Hillsboro
Portland
Oregon City
Philadelphia
Pittsburgh
Providence
Chattanooga
Knoxville
Memphis
Nashville
. •'•••'-' ' .''"'•', •.
Sewer Sulfide
State Collapse Control
NM X X
NM
NY'- - • -••••'
NY ••• '-.'.. -
"NY . •- • • •
NY X X
: • .NY.- . -x ;••••...,,. • .
NY. . ; ' . X , , _
••-' NC : ."" ' :• : x '"
OH
OH
OH
OH X
OH
OH
OK

OR
OR
OR
.-•'-' PA. ••'•"•' ' . '; V :•' " ' "X
PA " ••• ' V, . • ••••''.' ,' •
•-'•' RI . - • : , '. '
' TN"" '• X •'. .'-.
/ - -TN •'....'.-• X
TN • -. • • : :• - - • •'.
'' TN- X . X
Corrosion
Protection/
Rehab.
• '•'•- x
' :' ':' X . .
. ' ' . ' -'
-• . ' ; x "

, : x ',-•••'
x
X
': ' '- ' '



- . i
' X
• ' , • .

; x
X

. '. X ••'
x ' •
•'-..-"• : x - •"
•••.'.•••.:;. X '
              2-35

-------
         TABLE 2-2 (cont.)




SUMMARY OF CSDLAC SURVEY DATA

-
Cftv
Arlington
Dallas
El Paso
Fort Worth
Houston
San Antonio
Salt Lake City
Fairfax
Virginia Beach
Seattle
Tacoma
Green Bay
Madison
Milwaukee


State
TX
TX
TX
TX
TX
tx
UT
VA
VA
WA
WA
WI
WI
WI

Sewer
Collapse
X
X
X
X
X



X
X
X

X


Sulfide
Control


X
x

X

X
X
X


X

Corrosion
Protection/
Rehab.


X
X
X
X
X

X

• x'
X
X
X

              2-36

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       In 1989, the Water Pollution Control Federation received survey responses from
1003 wastewater treatment plants in the United States.  The survey of "Problem
Technologies and Design Deficiencies at POTWs" was intended to identify information
needed to improve wastewater treatment plant design and operation.  The WPCF Plant
"Survey database was utilized by this study as a means to determine the source of
corrosion problems at wastewater treatment plants. The survey asked the 1003
participants to rate the level of problems in various areas of the plant and also asked
questions about plant age, daily flow, and methods of operation.

       Several questions dealt with the level of corrosion experienced in major portions
of the plant, as well as the incidence of influent H2S and odors.  A summary of the
responses related to corrosion problems is shown in-Table 2-4. The approach taken to
determine the source of corrosion was to develop a matrix of responses in an attempt to
correlate the incidence of corrosion to such factors as influent H2S, odors, age and
recycle streams.

       Overall, it was found that 68 percent of the plants surveyed experienced some
level  of corrosion within the plant  The same level of corrosion is generally experienced
in all portions of the plant  For example, if the respondent classified corrosion
problems at preliminary treatment as major but periodic, then the corrosion problems
experienced at the secondary clarifier tended to be rated the same.

       The  age of the plant does not explain the consistent level of corrosion problems
in all sections of the plant When compared to the level of corrosion at preliminary
treatment, the same age distribution was seen for all levels of corrosion.  The plants
reporting no corrosion at preliminary treatment are generally over 20 years old and have
had major liquid and sludge train expansions in the last 5 years.  The plants showing
some degree of corrosion  are between  1-15 years old but have also had train expansions
in the last 5 years.

       As for plant size, the majority of wastewater treatment plants without corrosion
problems in preliminary treatment handle 0.1 to 1.0 mgd (42%) or 1 to 5 mgd (31%)
average flow. The plants exhibiting corrosion are rather large - 34 percent treat
between 1 and 5 mgd. One interesting finding is that of the largest wastewater
treatment plants (> 10 mgd), those reporting corrosion outnumber those  without
corrosion by almost 7 to 1. The distribution of corrosion severity for each size category
is generally the same, but with a tendency for larger plants to show slightly more severe
corrosion problems.

       The recycle of filtrate or supernatant streams from digesters, thickeners and
dewatering equipment does not  appear to increase the incidence of corrosion at
preliminary treatment The distribution of responses was similar for those plants which
recycled and those which  did not There was  also no tendency for an  increase in
corrosion with a particular recycle stream.  For all recycle streams, the level of corrosion

                                        2-38

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                                         2-39

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is rated as minor periodic.

      The primary relationship of concern to this study is that of influent H2S to
corrosion.  For preliminary treatment the survey participants were asked to rate the
severity of problems with corrosion and hydrogen sulfide.  The matrix of responses
indicates that for any level of corrosion problem most wastewater treatment plants
generally have minor periodic or no troubles with sulfide.  It is also noted, however, that
the majority of plants reporting major continuous problems with H2S  also report the
same level  of severity for corrosion.                 .

      The severity of odor releases was also compared to the level of corrosion
problems in preliminary treatment Of those plants reporting major continuous
corrosion problems, the majority of responses were evenly divided among minor and
major odor problems.  Only a few of these plants reported no odor problems.

      The matrix of responses for corrosion and odor was similar to  that for corrosion
and sulfide. It was found that wastewater treatment plants seem to recognize a
relationship between odor releases and the presence of hydrogen sulfide.  In general,
the same response to the severity of H^ was also given  to the problems with odor
releases. Approximately 30% of the wastewater treatment plants surveyed reported no
problems with either.

      As part of the selection process for site visits, information was analyzed from 34
cities reported to have hydrogen sulfide corrosion problems. This information is
summarized in Table 2-5.

      Other organizations, manufacturers, and contractors were contacted to gain
additional perspective on the  national extent of hydrogen sulfide corrosion.  These
entities  included the Clay Pipe Institute, National Association of Sewer Service
Contractors, Insituform  of North America, Spirolite Corporation, Ameron Corporation,
Sauereisen Cement Co., LaFarge Cement Co., and  Specialty Sewer Services, Inc., and
others.  Highlights of information collected from these sources are briefly summarized
in Table 2-6.

      Figure 2-1  is a map pinpointing locations where severe corrosion problems are
judged to exist in the sewer system or treatment plant This is based on EPA site
investigations, surveys conducted by other organizations and the experiences of
professionals active in the field of hydrogen sulfide.corrosion control. This  does not
represent all the cities experiencing severe corrosion problems.

      Figure 2-2 is a map which shows the frequency of use of a proprietary, corrosion-
resistant liner for concrete pipe.  This type of liner is specified during design for
concrete pipes which may be  subjected  to hydrogen sulfide corrosion. The map does
not represent actual corrosion problems.

                                       2-40

-------
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                                  TABLE 2-6

       SUMMARY OF INFORMATION FROM SELECTED ASSOCIATIONS,
                   MANUFACTURERS, AND CONTRACTORS
      Source
         Comments
Clay Pipe Institute
From 1950 to 1969, over 154 miles of
severely corroded concrete pipe in 57
cities was replaced with clay pipe, with
over 5% of production tonnage used
for this purpose
Spirolite Corporation
From 1986xto 1989, approx. 20 miles
of sewer was sliplined using Spirolite
polyethylene pipe
Insituform of North America
Over  100 miles of  large diameter
sewer was lined using cured-m-place
inversion lining in more than 36 U.S.
cities between 1977 and 1988
Ameron Corporation
From 1947 to 1988, over 900 miles of
sewer pipe  in 500 U.S. projects was
specified with T-lock liners to prevent
crown corrosion
                                     2-43

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                                 2-45

-------
2.6   Case Studies

      To gain further insight into the causes and prediction of hydrogen sulfide
generation  and subsequent hydrogen sulfide corrosion, case histories were prepared
from previous evaluations of five wastewater collection systems located in three cities.
The following systems were investigated:

             Sacramento County,  California, Central Trunk Sewer
             Sacramento, California, Regional Interceptor System
             City of Lakeland, Florida, Western Trunk Sewer
             City of Omaha, Nebraska, Papillion Creek Wastewater System
             City of Omaha, Nebraska, South Interceptor Sewer

A brief summary of each of the five case studies is provided below (2)(3):

2.6.1  Sacramento County, California, Central Truck Sewer

2.6.1.1 Description and History

      The Central Trunk Sewer conveys both domestic and industrial wastewater and,
for several  years, conveyed sludge  from two upstream wastewater treatment plants.  The
trunk is approximately 16 miles long.  About 2 miles of the upper reach is vitrified clay
pipe ranging  from 18 to 24 inches  La diameter. The remaining 14 miles is granitic-
aggregate reinforced concrete pipe 27 to 60 inches in diameter.  The slope varies from
0.18 percent in the upper reaches  to 0.05 percent in the  lower end of the trunk.

      The Central Trunk Sewer was constructed in 1962. The  following is a brief
history of the system:

       •     1964—The entire line was visually inspected by County personnel by
             floating on rafts through each reach. A powder deposit on the inside of
             the pipe was the only evidence of corrosion.

       •     1968—Anaerobically  digested sludge discharge to the Central Truck Sewer
             was initiated.

       •     1968—The entire pipeline was again visually inspected and samples of
             concrete were taken. The pH of the concrete walls was greater than 3.0.
             Maximum corrosion  at that time was estimated to be 1/4 inch, and no
             coarse aggregate was exposed.

       •     1969—Dr. Richard Pomeroy completed an analysis of portions of the
             trunk. Existing corrosion was estimated to be  1/8 or 1/4 inch. The useful
             life of the trunk was estimated to be 100 years.


                                       2-46

-------
   •'•'.•     1972—The County studied the effects of chlorine on sulfide generation in
             the Central Trunk system.

       •     1972-1973-Vitrified clay plugs were installed at the manholes in the trunk.
             Three sulfide control facilities were designed and one was bid. Due to the
             high price of the bid, the sulfide control facilities were not constructed.

       •     1976—The clay plug locations were inspected.  Significant corrosion was
             evident, and a hydrogen  sulfide corrosion study was initiated in September
  .  :    ..•    1976.     '         .'•••';.   '     .,    ,     /   ,   •  -•    "'

       •     1979—Three chlorine  injection stations were placed in service along the
             Central Trunk to reduce sulfide levels and to minimize further corrosion.

       •     1982-83—Slu'dge discharge to the Central Trunk was stopped.

       •     1984—The County completed another field investigation which showed
             continued corrosion, but at a reduced rate.              ,

       •     1984—A 1,800-foot reach of 60-inch-diameter pipe from the  Central Trunk
             Sewer was abandoned primarily due to a new alignment, and partially due
             to concern about the  structural integrity of the pipe.

       •     1987-County inspection  of the Central Trunk showed reduced sulfide  ,
             concentrations and indications of reduced corrosion rates.
                             f   •-       •        _              .,,,.",

2.6.1.2  Summary of Results                             .

       Average annual total sulfide concentrations ranged from approximately 0.5 to 1.5
mg/1 from 1965 to 1976, based on weekly or monthly sampling at 12 noon at one
location. Average 24-hour sulfide concentrations were approximately 40 percent higher.

       Corrosion penetration was as much as 1.5 inches at some locations in the sewer.
Cores taken from the crowns of the pipes showed that the worst corrosion conditions
usually existed in the first 30 ft downstream of the manholes.

       Predicted sulfide concentrations from the Pomeroy-Parkhurst equation were
compared with measured values. When the effect of sewer junctions was  considered,
the predictive equation estimated sulfide concentrations with reasonable accuracy.
Predicted corrosion penetration was also compared with measured values, and showed
an excellent correlation. It was also found that peaking factors of 2 were justified to
account for minor turbulence at manholes.  Higher peaking factors would be required
where  high turbulence levels were encountered to account for the increase in off-gassing
of H2S.
                                       2-47

-------
      Dead load testing was conducted on a 12 ft section of 60 inch diameter pipe in
1984. The pipe was highly corroded, but reinforcing steel was not exposed. Tests
showed that, although concrete loss had occurred, the pipe strength was still significantly
greater than the original specification for dead load.

      Based on inspections  in 1987, the rate of corrosion was reduced from that
observed in the 1970's due to elimination of sludge discharges and installation of
chlorination stations.

2.6.13 Findings and Conclusions

1.    The observed corrosion information from 1976 is in general agreement with
      Pomeroy's corrosion predictive equation, if conservative assumptions are made
      and input data are  based on field measurements and monitoring data.

2.    Valid, positive measurements of the depth of actual corrosion of in-place pipe for
      the Gentral Trunk were difficult Accuracy of all methods used was less than
      desirable.

3.    The discharge of anaerobically digested sludge to the Central Trunk for 14 years
      was partly responsible for the higher corrosion rates over those years. Sludge
      discharges increased the BOD and the temperature of the wastewater in the
      Central Trunk.

4.    With removal of the sludge discharges and installation of chlorination stations
      along the Central Trunk Sewer, the sulfide concentration has been  reduced in the
      1980's, and the rate of corrosion appears to have dropped, significantly.

5.    The Central Trunk is believed to be made from  spun RCP.  It seemed to take
      several years before corrosion penetrated the surface layer of this granitic
      aggregate pipe.  Once the  high-alkalinity surface layer had been corroded, the
      corrosion rate increased, since the alkalinity of the rest of the pipe concrete was
      only 16 percent

6.    The corrosion information on manholes and structures with turbulent flow
      characteristics is particularly interesting.  This information points out the need to
      use conservative corrosion rate peaking factors in predicting hydrogen sulfide
      corrosion rates within close proximity to these locations (within several pipe
      diameters).
                                        2-48

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2.6.2  Sacramento, California Regional Interceptor System

2.6.2.1 Description and History

      The Sacramento terrain is quite flat, and the climate features hot summers and
mild winters. The collection system extends 20 miles east of the Sacramento River, and
for more than 20 miles north to  south. The longest interceptor, nearly 30 miles long,
drops less than 200 feet from end to end.  Several pumping stations are included in the
system.

      The Regional Interceptor System is extensive in scope, with a total capital cost of
about $143 million.  It was constructed during the period 1975 to 1982, and
encompasses about 62 miles of gravity sewer, over 25 miles being pipe in the 60- to 120-
inch diameter range.

      In designing the regional  interceptors, a number of passive measures were
implemented:

1.    County Source Control Ordinance.  Sacramento County  passed an ordinance in
      1977 controlling the quality of industrial waste discharges into the  Regional
      System.

2.    Calcareous Aggregate.  Use of sacrificial calcareous (rather than granitic)
      aggregate was specified for  all concrete pipe construction.

3.    Turbulence Control.  Junction  structures were designed for smooth transitions to
      minimize wastewater turbulence.

4.    Lining of Hydraulic Structures.  Junction structures, and other hydraulic elements
      especially vulnerable to corrosion, were lined with plastic (locking  PVC liners).

5.    Slope/Velocity.  Pipe slope and velocity were carefully evaluated to limit solids
      accumulations within the  system.

      An extensive study to determine needed sulfide  controls  commenced in 1974 and
was completed in 1976. Several  sulfide control measures appeared feasible from this
study for use in the Regional Interceptor System. Except for chlorination, no reliable
performance data existed prior to the  mid-1970's for the control measures being
considered.  To develop this information, a field testing program of several sulfide
control measures was undertaken in the summer of 1974.  Information was obtained for
the following:

      1.     Air injection in a force main (injected at  pumping station)
      2.     Hydrogen peroxide injection in a force, main

  ...'•.      .'     "      •   •       •    2-49      .        '  '   .

-------
      3.     Oxygen injection in a force main
      4.     Chlorination in a force main and gravity sewer
      5.     U-tube aeration (air) at the end of a force main
      6.     U-tube aeration (oxygen) at the end of a force main

      For upstream pumping stations, chlorine was selected to provide control of
hydrogen sulfide generation.  However, for a 60-inch diameter and a 72-inch diameter
force main, injection of high purity oxygen into a fall structure was selected as the most
cost-effective alternative. The injection of high purity  oxygen  enriches the atmosphere
of the fall structure with oxygen  to allow entrainment of oxygen through turbulence
induced by the fall, and elevation of dissolved oxygen levels in the wastewater, thus
allowing oxidation of existing sulfide and prevention of further sulfide generation.

      Attention was also focused on the potential problems of solids deposits,
especially during the early years  of system  operation. Since solids deposits can generate
sulfide, the objective of the design was to eliminate the possibility of solids
accumulation, or otherwise plan  for removal of any such deposition.

      The predicted lack of adequate velocities during early years of operation in
several interceptors led the designers to a decision to construct flushing facilities at two
locations.  In this manner, flows  could be greatly increased for a few hours at a time
during the long periods of low dry weather flows, flushing solids down  the system of
interceptors.                                                       .

      The Pomeroy-Parkhurst sulfide prediction equations and the Pomeroy corrosion
prediction equation were used extensively during design of all regional interceptors.
Many different assumptions were used to determine the best mix of passive and active
sulfide controls to provide assurance of long pipe life (100-year minimum) and lack of
odor problems.

2.6.2.2 Summary of Results

      Chlorine gas is used at upstream pumping stations  and at three  locations along
the Central Trunk. The chlorination stations have been successful in maintaining low
dissolved sulfide levels (generally less than 0.3 mg/1) at the force main  discharge points.

      Solids deposition in the interceptor  system has not  been a problem.  Peak wet
weather flows have provided adequate flushing of the lines, and use of the flushing
stations has not been required in the northern portion of  the system.
                                            *         '                   • .       V;
      Two oxygen injection stations were constructed  and operated at fall structures
(4).  In one system, DO concentrations of 13 mg/1 have been achieved in the wastewater
at a point nearly 4000 ft downstream of the fall structure.   Similar results have been
reported for the other oxygen injection system. Dissolved sulfide concentrations


                                       2-50

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downstream of the fell structures are consistently less than 0.5 mg/1.

      The primary problem with these stations has been that hydrocarbon compounds
are stripped from the wastewater under the turbulent conditions found in these
structures.  Explosion meters that monitor the Lower Explosive Limit (LEL) are used in
each station. When 25 percent LEL is reached, pure oxygen addition is shut down.
This shutdown event occurs often.  In the summer months, 25 percent LEL is reached
on almost a continuous basis.  Investigation by the District into the source of the      '
hydrocarbons has shown that it may be methane gas generated under the anaerobic
conditions in the upstream force mains and gravity sewers, and within the combined
sewer system of the City of .Sacramento.

      Vitrified clay plugs were installed at many locations in the pipe of the Regional
Interceptor System to allow future measurement of the corrosion of the pipe
surrounding the plug.  The District has had difficulty obtaining measurements from
these plugs due to a variety of problems including: problems in finding the plugs in the
dark, uncomfortable environment of the sewers, and, if found, difficulty achieving highly
accurate measurements due to the conditions. Collected data have been analyzed and,
in general, indicate that corrosion to date is very low.

2.6.23 Findings and Conclusions

1.    Although  only a few years of monitoring data are available, the information
      suggests that the Regional Interceptor System design, and its sulfide control
      systems, are providing the level of protection anticipated.

2.    District monitoring work has confirmed the need for PVC, or other type of non-
      corrodible lining material, for all junctions and structures where even limited
      turbulence occurs and where wastewater contains minor amounts  of dissolved
      sulfide.

3.    The lack of accurate measurements on the amount  of corrosion in the early years
      of operation of the Regional Interceptor System has been frustrating.  The level
      of accuracy needed is in the range of hundredths of an inch.  The level of
      accuracy for corrosion measurements needs to be improved.

4.    The stripping of hydrocarbon compounds in the fall structures has caused  ,    ,
      additional safety considerations that were not initially anticipated  during design.
      In the summer, one of the fall structures is now bypassed, and oxygen is injected
      in the bypass. This results in satisfactory oxidation  of sulfide at the ends of the
      two long,  large-diameter force mains.                             ,

5.    Solids deposits have not been a problem, and do not appear to produce any
      significant sulfide.                             '
                                                         1  '   -      - f- :

  .'•','    •'     '  '     '       '     •2-51     '  •    . •   '   , '    ''••".    '.  . •    • '

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6.     Chlorination in upstream force mains has performed satisfactorily to minimize
       sulfide at the discharge points of these force mains.

7.     Data on wastewater sulfide concentrations and sewer atmospheric H2S levels have
       been difficult to correlate at specific locations in the Regional Interceptor
       System.  This is probably due to analytical inaccuracy at low dissolved sulfide
       concentrations  (typically less than 0.3  mg/1), slight wastewater pH variations, and
       the degree of wastewater turbulence, all of which are critical to H2S off-gassing
       rates.

8.     The operating data from the Regional Interceptor System show that careful and
       conservative use of the sulfide and corrosion predictive equations can be of major
       assistance in designing long interceptor systems in warm climates to meet
       stringent corrosion standards.

2.6.3   City of Lakeland,  Florida, Western  Trunk Sewer

2.63.1 Description and History

       The City of Lakeland is a growing community of approximately 66,000
population.  Lakeland has experienced corrosion problems in portions of its sewer
system due to sulfide generation.  An  engineering study was undertaken in early 1988 to
assess the existing conditions and to develop a plan to renovate portions of the Western
Trunk Sewer.

       The Western Trunk Sewer receives  wastewater discharges from food processing,
Other industrial, commercial, and residential  areas.  The collection system  consists of
both force mains and gravity sewers.

       The gravity  portion of the Western Trunk consists of about 27,300 lineal feet
(LF) of primarily reinforced concrete pipe  (RCP) and vitrified clay pipe (VCP) ranging
in size from 24- to 48-inch diameter.  There are variable slopes on most reaches which
cause changes in velocity. Most dry weather velocities are greater than 2 fps, and some
reaches have velocities of 7 fps.

       The Western Trunk Sewer was constructed in 1960 and 1961.  Lakeland has
rehabilitated or replaced  portions of this sewer in recent years because of pipe collapses.
An odor control study conducted by the City of Lakeland in 1987 confirmed high  levels
of H2S gas and high wastewater sulfide concentrations.  The City undertook a sewer
system evaluation study to determine the extent of hydrogen sulfide corrosion and
appropriate solutions to correct the deficiencies.
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2.6.3.2 Sewer System Corrosion Evaluation

      The corrosion evaluation consisted of detailed inspection and analysis of the
conditions of both manholes and truck sewer.  A total of 79 manholes were inspected.
Internal television inspections were conducted on nearly all the gravity portions.of the
trunk sewer.  Core borings of concrete pipe were taken at eight representative locations
along the trunk.

      In general,  the manholes were found to be corroded and in need of
rehabilitation.  Seventy-seven manholes had corroded barrels, and 66 had deteriorated
frames.

      In the trunk sewer system, all reaches of reinforced concrete pipe (RCP) had lost
from one to four niches of concrete due to corrosion. Reinforcing steel was found
exposed or missing in numerous locations, and aggregate was exposed in all reaches of
RCP. A section of 30-inch diameter ductile iron pipe, installed in 1966, was severely
blistered and brittle enough to break by hand. While the vitrified clay pipes did  not
suffer from corrosion damage, there were numerous cracks and leaking joints in the
lower portion of that segment; and manhole corrosion was worse in the  VCP reach.

      Predictive models were utilized to estimate sulfide generation, corrosion fates,
and remaining useful lifetimes of pipes. The  model predicted sulfide build-up of 1.5 to
2.0 mg/1. Recent field data show  levels of 1.0 to 1.5 mg/1. Approximate correlation was
shown by the model.  Similarly, predicted corrosion rates approximated estimated
corrosion rates based on field measurements.  Predicted average corrosion rates were
0.03 to 0.15 inches/year, with  peak rates approximately double these values.  It was
estimated that, at turbulent structures, corrosion rates could be five times predicted
average rates. This underscores the importance of turbulence on  hydrogen sulfide
corrosion, and the difficulty in estimating corrosion rate based on  sulfide levels.

      Based on existing depth of corrosion and estimated corrosion rates, forty-six
percent of the RCP was determined to have no remaining useful life, and 54 percent
was determined to have a useful life of 1 to 8 years.

      Alternatives were analyzed for rehabilitation of the corroded pipe.  The following
five methods of rehabilitation were considered feasible for the Western Trunk sewer:
                                         \             .         :,'•.'      .  .
1.    Slip lining with high density polyethylene pipe (with fusion  joints, or bell and
      spigot joints) or with fiberglass pipe  (filament  wound, or centrifugally cast).

2.    Inversion lining with polyester, resin-impregnated fabric.

3.    Removal of existing pipe and replacement with one of the  following:
      1) reinforced concrete  pipe with PVC liner, 2) fiberglass pipe (centrifugally cast)


       '•..'   '    .'"'.   '        "         '2-53  .'.'-.-'•    "        '..''•

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      designed for direct burial.

4.    Parallel replacement of pipe using the same two options listed above.

5.    Chemical grouting for specific locations (limited on this project to grouting
      structurally sound vitrified clay pipe for infiltration control).

2.63.3 Findings and Conclusions

1.    Conditions which contribute to the high corrosion rates in the Western Trunk
      Sewer include at least the following:  high wastewater BOD, high soluble BOD
      fractions, high wastewater temperature, low wastewater pH, variable slopes,
      formation of deposits, use of drop structures, and existence of upstream force
      mains.                            "

2.    The Pomeroy-Parkhurst sulfide predictive equation and the Pomeroy corrosion
      prediction equations were used with a series of conservative assumptions for the
      Western Trunk evaluation.  In doing so, and by assuming that historical system
      flows, characteristics and operation were similar to current situations, the
      "modeled" corrosion approximated the actual corrosion.  This tends to indicate
      the quantity of sulfide and corrosion expected in similar situations.  However, it
      also points out that the  equations should be used cautiously and with substantial
      conservative assumptions and safely factors.

3.    The velocities in the Western Trunk system are insufficient, in some reaches, to
      transport the grit and heavier solids.  Additional sulfide production can be
      expected in these reaches due to the ability of high soluble organic and sulfate
      concentrations to penetrate  into  these deposits.

4.    The high likelihood of substantial sulfide generation in the Western Trunk in the
      future was judged to preclude the use of corrodible materials, or at least
      minimize use of these materials, in the rehabilitation/replacement of the Western
      Trunk Sewer.

2.6.4  Omaha Nebraska, Papillion Creek Wastewater System

2.6.4.1 Description and History

      Corrosion and odor problems have occurred in Omaha's Papillion Creek
Wastewater System over the past decade. The start-up of the expanded Papillion Creek
Interceptor System in the mid-1970's brought new dischargers into the system, and
substantially increased the. transit time of wastewater to reach treatment facilities.  The
new Papillion Creek Wastewater Treatment  Plant has experienced corrosion and odor
problems which are partly related to interceptor sulfide problems.  Safety has been an

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 additional problem due to high concentrations of hydrogen sulfide in the confined
 spaces of interceptors and treatment facilities.
                                                        -      ',  -                >
        Omaha's Papillion Creek Wastewater System has evolved over several decades of
 growth and urban expansion. It now includes a service area bringing wastewater flows
 over 25 miles to the Papillion Creek Wastewater Treatment Plant (Papio, Plant).

        Only the largest Papillion Creek interceptors were evaluated in the 1984/85
 corrosion and sulfide study because these were the interceptors suspected of corrosion
 damage.  The interceptor downstream from the old Papib Plant was a primary target of
 the study. These interceptors were put into service in the mid-1970's to transport raw
 wastewater to the new Papio Plant This system of interceptors allowed several
 treatment plants in the Papillion Creek drainage area to be abandoned.

        In 1971, a limited study was completed on potential sulfide and corrosion
 problems in this interceptor system, which was then being designed. This report made
 predictions of sulfide levels in the interceptors and confirmed the need for lining the
 sewer with either sacrificial concrete or plastic.

        Between 1973 and the start-up of the new Papio Plant in August,  1977,
t communities and industries were allowed to discharge treated effluent and, in some
 cases, raw wastewater to the new Papio Interceptor System. Many odor complaints
 from residents living near manholes and structures were received during this period.
 The worst odor conditions occurred in the last five miles of the system, where high
 BOD wastes and flows of only.,.a few mgd probably caused very high sulfide  production
 in at least 1974 and 1975.

        Significant corrosion of the unlined outfall portion (last 3,200 feet to  the
 Missouri River) was noted in 1977. This corrosion was evidently a  result of these raw
 and partially treated flows.  The unlined outfall portion of the interceptor was estimated
 to have 1/2-inch of corrosion in August 1977. Extensive corrosion of unlined manhole
 risers in the lower interceptor reaches also occurred prior to 1977, to the extent  that
 some risers were replaced during the mid-1970's.

        Odor problems became a major issue in Sarpy County, arid the City of Omaha
 decided to seal all manhole, covers from the old Papio Plant south to the new Papio
 Plant in 1975.  Little ventilation of the system can occur, and only one siphon has
 ventilation stacks.  The West Branch has little ventilation since manhole covers are
 solid.

        Data collected at the Papio Plant show influent total sulfide  levels of 4 to 5 mg/1
 from July through February, dropping to between 1 and 3 mg/1 during spring months.
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2.6.4.2  Summary of Results
                                             V                         ^
       Inspection of the interceptor was conducted in 1984.  Manhole risers were badly
corroded, in some cases, to over 1 inch.  The risers were constructed of concrete with
non-calcareous aggregate. Measured pipe corrosion in calcareous aggregate reaches
ranged from zero to 0.5 inches.  At points of high turbulence such as discharge
structures, up  to 0.75 inches of calcareous/granitic aggregate concrete had been lost over
a 10 year period.

       Use of predictive models was unsuccessful  hi that actual sulfide concentrations at
the Papio plant were  double those predicted by the model. The reasons are judged to
be 1) high fraction of soluble BOD,  2) low oxygen content in the sewer atmosphere due
to sealing of manhole lids, 3) need for more conservative coefficients in the predictive
equation.

       The Papio plant, commissioned in 1977, was also inspected for corrosion hi 1984.
Corrosion at the headworks was significant, with up to 0.75 inches of concrete lost over
a 6-1/2 year period.  Several locations within  the plant had little or no concrete cover
remaining. Reinforcing steel was exposed hi the sludge storage tank, decant tank, drain
manholes, and trickling filter walls. Hydrogen sulfide corrosion problems were caused by
three basic factors:

       1.     High sulfide concentrations and low pH of influent wastewater

       2.     Long storage times for sludge and recycle streams

       3.     Recycle of streams from anaerobic digestion process

2.6.4.3  Findings and Conclusions

1.     The large Papillion Creek interceptors were designed with attention to sulfide
       and corrosion issues, and based on 1984 inspection work, most of the interceptor
       system was  hi good condition.  Use of sacrificial concrete, coatings, PVC linings,
       and calcareous aggregate prevented serious corrosion problems hi the interceptor
       system.

2.     There have been a few specific corrosion problems hi the interceptor system.
       These include  metal gates and aluminum grating which was subject to destructive
       acid attack. H2S off-gassing from highly turbulent wastewater in certain
       structures has caused corrosion rates that are largely unpredictable. Unprotected
       manholes have been subject to extensive corrosion.

3.     If structural rehabilitation work is required on any of the primary interceptor
       structures, costs could be extensive for diversion and rerouting of raw wastewater

                                        2-56

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      flows.

4.    Assessment of concrete corrosion rates over time is difficult without historical
      sulfide data and/or historical inspection information identifying the depth of
      corrosion from the original surface.

5.    Actual sulfide buildup in the interceptor system seems to be at least twice that
      predicted by the Pomeroy-Parkhurst equation.

6.    Actual concrete corrosion rates are greater than predicted in the design for
      portions of the interceptor system due to:  1) greater sulfide production than
      planned, and 2) reduction in pH of wastewater as it travels down the long
      anaerobic interceptor system.

7.    Concrete, metal, and instrumentation corrosion in the Papio Plant occurred at
      many locations over the period of 1977 to the mid-1980's. The corrosion was
      caused by high wastewater sulfide levels, and high H2S off-gassing rates.  High
      dissolved sulfide levels in the wastewater were partially caused by high influent
      sulfide concentrations, and partially by sulfide produced within the plant

8.    Solutions to plant hydrogen sulfide corrosion problems are now mostly in-place.
      These solutions encompassed rehabilitation, process changes, chemical addition,
      and ventilation improvements.  The solutions implemented thus far appear to be
      working satisfactorily.

9.    There remains an odor problem at the Papio Plant caused in large part by the
      high influent sulfide levels.  High sulfide production hi the interceptor system
      and high plant influent sulfide concentrations constitute the  most significant
      unresolved sulfide issues in the Papillion Creek Wastewater  System.

2.6.5  Omaha, Nebraska, South Interceptor Sewer                                  ,

ฃ6.5.1  Description and History

      In the late 1950's, planning was initiated for collection, diversion, and treatment
of raw waste discharges to the Missouri  River. By 1965, the system of diversion
structures^ interceptors, pumping stations, and primary treatment facilities had been
constructed and placed in operation.  The system involves a series of structures along
the west bank of the Missouri River to intercept flows and pump them to the Missouri
River Wastewater Treatment Plant (MRWTP).  The area served by the MRWTP is the
older and more highly developed portion of Omaha. It contains Omaha's central
business district and industrial centers which are located adjacent to, or near, the
Missouri River.                                    ป                             ,
                                       2-57

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       The South Interceptor Sewer (SIS) is a 4-1/2 mile long force main that brings the
majority of the plant flows to the MRWTP. Flow from the SIS is discharged at the
North Inlet  Dry weather flow in the winter is about 20 million gallons per day (mgd)
from the SIS. This flow increases in the wanner months due to infiltration, runoff from
lawn watering, and discharges to the sewer system from drawdown of Carter Lake.

       Velocities in the 66-inch diameter South Interceptor Sewer are about 0.7 foot per
second (fps) or less at night and typically average 1.2 to 1.6 fps in dry weather.
Deposition of solids is no doubt occurring  under these conditions.  Dissolved sulfide
levels in the plant influent are typically 3 to 6 mg/1 during warm months.

       Additions to the MRWTP completed in 1980 included covering  open tankage at
the North Inlet, as well as other locations throughout the plant  Fans were installed to
exhaust foul air from under most of these covered areas and scrub it in chemical mist
units prior to discharge to the atmosphere.  The City has not found the chemical
scrubber at the North Inlet to be effective, and does not use it Hypochlorites and
permanganate solutions were attempted in the scrubber with little success.  The covers
have remained in place, but the ventilation system is not used, since very high H2S
concentrations would  be discharged to the atmosphere. Corrosion of the concrete is
occurring faster since  installation of the covers, due to high levels of hydrogen sulfide in
the atmosphere of the tanks and channels  of the North Inlet  Gaseous hydrogen sulfide
levels under the North Inlet covers have reached the 50 to 300 ppm range during
summer and fall months.

       In 1984, a study was initiated to evaluate odor and corrosion problems in the
South Interceptor Sewer and at the Missouri River Wastewater Treatment Plant  The
results,are summarized below.

2.6.5.2  Summary of Results

       Hydrogen sulfide corrosion has occurred at a number of locations in the
MRWTP, but the North Inlet is the location where the problem is most apparent at this
time. Besides the  North  Inlet, concrete corrosion has occurred at the South Inlet and in
various wastewater channels and boxes prior to, and following/primary clarification.
Corrosion in  foul air ducts from the biological  filters has also occurred, as well as
corrosion in the anaerobic digestion portion of the plant

       Inspection work in  1984 showed that concrete spalling was occurring above the
water line in  the Parshall flume area and in other channels. The worst corrosion was at
the drop structure  where at least 1/2- to 3/4-inch of concrete was estimated to have
become corroded from walls and structural support members.  Most of this corrosion
probably occurred  in the  1980 to 1984 period after the tanks were covered. No
reinforcing bars were  exposed.  Metal corrosion at gates was also significant  In the bar
screen building, continued corrosive environmental conditions had deteriorated many


                                       2-58

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metal components, and the exposed electrical and instrumentation equipment had
suffered irreparable damage.

      The recommended approach to sulfide control at North Inlet was as follows:

1.    Reduce the high sulfide and H2S concentrations through sulfide control methods
      in the South Interceptor Sewer.

2.    Leave the covers in place at the North Inlet and implement improved ventilation
      and odor scrubbing to reduce corrosive atmospheres and treat residual H2S and
      other odorants more reliably.

3.    Once improved ventilation and H2S control is in place, conduct structural
      rehabilitation and replace equipment as necessary.

      Alternatives evaluated for the SIS included chlorination, iron chloride addition
upstream from the plant, and caustic slugging.  Costs favored caustic slugging, although
the performance was not expected to be as consistent as other alternatives.  Full-scale
testing of caustic slugging was undertaken in late 1984 to confirm its effectiveness and
define costs more accurately.

      The objectives of a caustic injection program is to inactivate sulfide-producing
bacteria which grow hi the slime layer on the walls of the pipe. High pH (12 to 12.5
and above) is toxic to these bacteria, and interim application of a strong alkaline
solution has proven effective in depressing sulfide production within sewers.  The test
program was successful, and the technique has been used on the SIS each summer since
that time.  Caustic slugging is effective for reducing dissolved sulfide levels in the plant
influent from over 3 mg/1 to an average of 0.4 xng/1.  In 1985 the City spent  $44,000 on
17 truckloads of caustic, estimated to eliminate 47,000 pounds of sulfide. In the
summer of 1988, the effectiveness of caustic slugging was reduced. This was believed to
be due to the dry weather conditions which led to higher wastewater strengths,  and
lower velocities and greater solids deposition in the SIS.  Evidently, the caustic  slug is
unable to penetrate sludge deposits and inactivate the bacteria.

      The City  is currently evaluating alternatives to caustic slugging for control of
sulfide generation in the South Interceptor Sewer.

2.6.53 Findings and Conclusions

1.    Significant corrosion and odor problems have occurred at the North Inlet, due to
      sulfide production within the SIS, Attempts to control the odor problem in 1980
      by covering tankage and scrubbing the, foul air resulted in worsening  of the
  •    corrosion problem due  to failure of the odor scrubbing system, and subsequent
      shutdown of the ventilation system.

          •.   ".:   ,   :   '•  :  :       '  •    2-59 ••• •     .     .;.'     •.:."•'   - •

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2.    Rapid rates of corrosion can be expected for concrete and metal exposed to the
      high H2S concentrations (50-300 ppm) and moist environment which exist
      beneath the covers at the North Inlet  The life of some of these facilities appears
      to be 10 years or less under the severe conditions which have existed in the
      1980's. The high H2S concentrations constitute a safety hazard.

3.    Caustic slugging has provided a cost-effective reduction in high sulfide
      concentrations from  the SIS since late 1984 when it was initiated.  Its
      performance is variable, primarily because of the solids deposition problem in the
      SIS, caused by low wastewater velocities. Atmospheric  H2S levels beneath the
      primary clarifier domes have dropped from over 50 ppm to below 10 ppm.

4.    Other sulfide control methods are likely to be more reliable and have better
      overall performance  than caustic slugging; however, the costs for other control
      methods appear to be substantially higher than  caustic slugging.

5.    The low velocity and resulting deposition problem in the SIS is likely to continue
      to plague attempts at reliable sulfide control in this pipeline. Velocities of about
      4 to 5 fps are needed on a regular basis to scour grit deposits from a force main
      of this size. The periodic  scouring of the SIS causes considerable solids loading
      fluctuations to the MRWTP which may affect treatment performance.

6.    The City, with the use of caustic slugging, . has implemented the first phase of a
      program to solve the sulfide problems at the North Inlet Substantially more
      work is needed to restore  the North Inlet to a sound, safe, and acceptable
      condition.
                                           1      •  .           '    .
2.7   Hydrogen Sulfide Corrosion in Other Countries

      Hydrogen sulfide corrosion has been reported in the literature  of many countries
including France, Germany, Italy, United Kingdom,  the Netherlands, Denmark,
Czechoslovakia, Iraq, India, China, the Soviet Union, Japan, Saudi Arabia, Kuwait,
Egypt, South Africa, Venezuela,  Brazil and Australia.  This observation is based on a
series of literature searches conducted for EPA in 1982 and 1988 on the subjects of
odor and corrosion  in wastewater systems.

      Several severe cases of hydrogen sulfide corrosion are briefly summarized below
1.     Venezuela: Reinforced concrete pipe was corroded to a depth of 2.8 inches
       within eighteen months of construction in an area downstream from the
       discharge of a force main.  Vitrified clay pipes used in the same system were not
       affected.
                                       2-60

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2.     Cairo, Egypt As early as 1920, hydrogen sulfide corrosion of sewer pipes was
       recognized as a problem in the Cairo system.  By 1922, in spite of aeration and
       regular flushing,  the crown of the original main outfall sewer, 60 inches in
       diameter and made of local cement concrete, was corroded to a depth of 3.9
       inches over a length of 8 miles.  By 1930, the depth of corrosion  had increased to
       5.9 inches, nearly half the thickness of the pipe.

3.     Baghdad, Iraq: A system of reinforced concrete interceptors was put in
       operation in 1963, and by 1977 the maximum depth of corrosion  in extended
       sections of the interceptors varied from three to  four inches at the crown where
       reinforcing steel,  which was designed to be protected by a two-inch concrete
       cover, was exposed and had corroded away in places.  The walls were also
       damaged to a depth of two inches and the access manholes showed severe
       corrosion.  The rate of internal corrosion was estimated at 0.3 inches per year,
       wiich would have led to a critical situation in approximately 15 years.
       Rehabilitation had begun in certain sections of the system, and new extensions
       have been made  with PVC or fiberglass-reinforced plastic lining.
                                      '    N -    .     ' .     '   ' -     ' ' ,
4.     Singapore:  The sewer of concern was 71 inch diameter concrete pipe internally
       lined with 0.5 inches of high alumina cement mortar.  The line was over 1600 ft
       long with a design capacity,of 81 mgd. The sewer was commissioned in 1961.
       This portion of the line received almost entirely pumped sewage, much of which
       was pumped more than once.                  *

       Inspections  since  1970 revealed extensive and continuing hydrogen sulfide
       corrosion.  The high alumina lining was completely corroded away or reduced to
       a soft past above  the waterline.  Corrosion in some areas had proceeded to  a
       depth of over .1.5 inches, and had gone beyond the reinforcing steel, in less  than
       15 years.

       Several rehabilitation options were under .consideration including slipliningVwith
       glass-reinforced polyester or high-density polyethylene, installation of corrosion-
       resistant panel liners, and cured-in-place inversion liners.

2.8    Conclusions

       Attempts to gain  a thorough understanding of the severity and extent of
hydrogen sulfide corrosion problems in lLS.,were thwarted by the lack of historical data
on sewer corrosion, the  lack of a standardized technique to measure corrosion, and the
poor documentation by municipalities of sewer corrosion and the expenditures for sewer
rehabilitation or replacement  Upon review of information gathered, the following
findings and conclusions are presented:

       •     , Severe hydrogen sulfide corrosion problems are not limited to CSDLAC.


  •  '   '    ." ' '  •      .   .    *    •  ".    2-61 .    '    • -     , ..'-   ,  '    '.'•  .   -  '

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             Extensive corrosion damage requiring immediate repair or rehabilitation
             has been observed in sewers in other cities.  In some cases, corrosion
             damage is so extensive as to compromise the structural integrity of the
             pipe, which could lead to collapse.

       •     Hydrogen sulfide corrosion problems in operating systems are often not
             recognized early enough to take corrective action before considerable
             damage has occurred.

       •     In a 1984 survey, approximately 30 percent of the 89 cities reported sewer
             collapses that were judged to be due to hydrogen sulfide corrosion.

       •     In two independent surveys, 60 to 70 percent of the municipalities
             reported hydrogen sulfide corrosion at their wastewater treatment plants.
             Of those plants experiencing corrosion, about 20 percent are considered to
             have severe problems.

       •     Hydrogen sulfide corrosion problems have been documented in the
             literature of at least 20 foreign countries.

       •     Due to lack of historical data, corrosion rate is estimated based on depth
             of corrosion and age of pipe.  This may not reflect the true corrosion rate,
             which may be substantially higher at a given time and condition.

       •     No entities other than CSDLAC  had sufficient data on corrosion rate to
             establish whether  the rate of corrosion had changed over time.

       •     Due to changing alkalinity in spun vs. cast concrete pipes, corrosion rate
             can change  over time.

       Evidence of severe corrosion may be found in cities throughout the United States
and other countries. Cases of "high rate" corrosion are also common.  However, at this
time EPA has been unable to document other  cases of "accelerated" corrosion of the
type that has been experienced  in the  sewers of CSDLAC.
                                       2-62

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                                 REFERENCES

1.    Jin, Calvin, "Sulfide Control with Sodium Hydroxide in Large Diameter Sewers,"
      internal report, CSDLAC, March 1987.

2.    Witzgall, R.A., Homer, I.S., and P.L. Schafer, "Sulfide Corrosion in Collection
      and Treatment Systems - Case Histories and Evaluation of Predictive Equations,"
      prepared for the 62nd Annual WPCF Conference, San Francisco, CA, October,
      19, 1989.

3.    Witzgall, R. A., Homer, I.S., and P.L. Schafer, "Case Histories of Sulfide  ,
      Corrosion:  Problems and Treatment,"  Water Environment and Technology,
      Water Pollution Control Federation, 42-47, July, 1990.

4.    EPA, "Odor and Corrosion Control in Sanitary Sewerage Systems and Treatment
      Plants," EPA/625/1-85/018, Cincinnati,  OH, October, 1985.

5.    Prevost, R.C., "Corrosion Protection of Pipelines Conveying Water and
      Wastewater - Guidelines," World Bank Technical Paper No. 69, Water Supply
      Operations Management Series, The World Bank, Washington, D.C., 1987.

6.    Nadarajah, A., and J. Richardson, "Prevention and Protection of Sewerage
      Systems Against Sulphide  Attack with Reference to Experience in Singapore,"
      Prog. WaL Tech. Vol 9: 585-598, Pergamon Press, Great Britain, 1977.
                                     2-63

-------

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3.0   EFFECTS OF INDUSTRIAL PRETREATMENT

3.1   Overview

      Section 522 of the Water Quality Act of 1987 requires EPA to study the extent
to which implementation of the categorical pretreatment standards will affect hydrogen
sulfide corrosion in wastewater collection and treatment systems in the United States
(U.S.).  EPA's industrial pretreatment program regulates the discharge of certain
constituents such as metals and toxic materials into municipal sewer systems. The
County  Sanitation Districts of Los Angeles .County (CSDLAC)  implemented industrial
pretreatment  standards in 1975-1977 to meet ocean discharge requirements, and
additional controls starting in 1983 to comply with the EPA-mandated industrial
pretreatment  program.

      Metals and other constituent levels hi CSDLAC wastewater dropped substantially
between the early 1970's and the mid 1980's as a result of implementation of these
industrial pretreatment programs. A concomitant rise hi both total and dissolved sulfide
levels in,the wastewater occurred over this same time period. Further, CSDLAC
observed an increase in the rate of corrosion hi then* concrete sewers.

      Two hypotheses have been set forth to explain increased corrosion rates in
CSDLAC sewers due to the reduction in levels of metals. The first is that at the higher
levels of metals, a significant amount of sulfide was rendered insoluble in metal-sulfide
compounds, reducing the amount of dissolved H2S available for release to the sewer
atmosphere.  The second is that the higher levels of various metals and other
compounds in the wastewater had a toxic effect on the sulfate-reducing bacteria
responsible for the generation of sulfide. When the metal concentrations were
significantly reduced, the sulfate-reducing bacteria flourished, increasing sulfide levels in
the wastewater, which generated more dissolved H2S. Both  phenomenon would increase
the amount of H2S available for release  to the. sewer atmosphere, and subsequent
corrosion of the sewer crown due to increased  sulfuric acid production.

      A thorough search of the literature and contacts with municipalities throughout
the U.S. revealed that no data existed from other cities to show a correlation between
implementation of industrial pretreatment standards and increased sulfide generation
and corrosion. Municipalities simply do not have historical  data on corrosion rates or
sulfide levels  that would allow establishing a correlation such as was  found in CSDLAC.

      Given  the unavailability of full-scale data to support the  theory proposed by
CSDLAC, the study objectives were determined to be as follows:

      1.     Investigate the theoretical  impacts of metals on sulfide  levels.

      2.     Review and analyze research conducted or supported by CSDLAC.

     '   '       .    . .   .   ;-'.   '  ••   '.   3-1- '       ..'.'."     '..    • V   '  .  '

-------
      3.    Compare metals levels of CSDLAC with other cities to assess whether
            other municipal sewerage systems could potentially experience a similar
            phenomenon (decrease in industrial wastewater constituents and increase
            in corrosion).

      4.    Review data from site visits to industrial cities to determine if corrosion
            rates differed in sewers with high industrial contributions vs. those with
            predominately residential contributions.

      5.    Review other potential impacts of implementing pretreatment standards.

3.2   Theoretical Impacts of Sulfide Reaction with Metals

      It is well known that many metals "bind" with sulfide to produce a precipitate
which is insoluble, effectively preventing release of hydrogen  sulfide gas to the sewer
atmosphere and preventing formation  of corrosive sulfuric acid.  As discussed in Section
4, salts of metals such as iron and zinc are routinely added to wastewater to prevent
odors and corrosion associated with hydrogen sulfide.

      The weight of metal required to precipitate a given weight of sulfide can be
predicted theoretically using chemical  reaction equations. Table 3-1 shows the probable
precipitation reactions of metals with sulfide hi wastewater devoid of oxygen.  Based on
the stoichiometry of the reactions, the necessary concentration of each metal required to
precipitate 1 mg/1 of sulfide has been calculated.  The last column shows the inverse of
this value, or the theoretical concentration of sulfide that would be precipitated by 1
mg/1 of metal.  However, in wastewater containing  a complex mix of organic  and
inorganic compounds  which  interfere with such reactions, the amount of metal required
to precipitate a given  weight of sulfide may be much greater  than what would be
predicted from the equations.

      Table 3-2 shows the theoretical stoichiometric increase in dissolved sulfide
concentration based on  the reduction  in metals concentration experienced hi CSDLAC
between the periods 1971-1974 and 1983-1986. The total theoretical increase in
dissolved sulfide due to  reduced availability of metals to precipitate the  sulfide is
approximately 4 mg/1. The measured  increase in dissolved sulfide during that same
period was approximately 1 mg/1.

       Reduction in iron alone accounts for 69 percent of the theoretical increase in
sulfide.  Zinc accounts for 16 percent, and chromium 10 percent The reduction in
these three metals accounts for 95% percent of the theoretical  increase in dissolved
sulfide levels.

       Because of its  toxicity, chromium is not used for sulfide  control.  However, data
are available on dosage requirements  for iron and  zinc to precipitate sulfide that are
                                              i

                                        3-2

-------
                       TABLE 3-1

PROBABLE METAL - SULFTOE PRECIPITATION REACTIONS
          IN WASTEWATER DEVOID OF OXYGEN
Reactions



Fe+2 4- S-2

Zn+2 -H S-2

Nit2 -f s-2 '

Cd+2 4- S'2

Pb*2 4- Sr2

     4- S'2'
                               Theoretical mgfl
                                 of Metal to
                                 Precipitate
                               1 mg/1 of Sulfide
FeS
ZnS
NiS ".
CdS
PbS
Cu.5

CrS
1.74 ;
2.04
1.83
3.51
6,48
3.97 ,
';
1.63
Theoretical mgl
of Sulfide Precipitated
by 1 rng/1 of Metal
                                                            0.57

                                                            0.49

                                                           ..0;55

                                                            0.28

                                                            0.15

                                                            0.25

                                                            0.61
                              3-3

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                               TABLE 3-2

             THEORETICAL INCREASE IN DISSOLVED SULFIDE
              BASED ON METAL PRECIPITATION; LA COUNTY
Metal

Chromium
Copper
Lead
Zinc
Nickel
Iron •
Cadmium
TOTAL
Reduction
in Metals1
mg/1
0.68
0.38
0.17
1.34
0.14
4.92
0.01

Theoretical Expected
Increase hi Dissolved Increase Based
Sulfide Concentration2 on Field Studies3
mg/1 mg/1
0.42
0.10 ~
0.03
0.66 0.06 - 0.1
0.08
2.83 0.1 - 0.7
OQQ ~
4.12 - ' . '
1  Difference in average values for the periods 1971 - 1974 and 1983 - 1986.


2  Based on stoichiometry of chemical precipation reactions


3  Based on field dosages required to precipitate dissolved sulfide;
  LA County research data.
                                   3-4

-------
useful to estimate the actual increase in sulfide levels that might be expected by
reduction in metals.                                     ,         >

       Studies by CSDLAC in 1985-1988 on the use of iron addition to control sulfide
showed that when the dissolved sulfide levels were between 1 and 4 mg/I, a dosage ratio
of six to seven parts iron to 1 part dissolved sulfide was required to achieve 90 percent
removal.  When the dissolved sulfide was less than lmg/L a dosage ratio of 44 to 1 was
required (1). The theoretical dosage ratio is 1.7 to 1.  Thus, four to. 25 times the
theoretical dosage was required for iron. Other studies conducted in 1971-1972 in
CSDLAC have showed that five to seven times the theoretical dosage is required to
remove sulfide using zinc.

       Based on this analysis, it is possible that the reduction in metals experienced by
CSDLAC could account for some portion of the observed increase in dissolved sulfide,
considering that iron and zinc can account for between 0.2 to 0.8 mg/1 of the increase in
dissolved sulfide. However, it is unlikely that precipitation could account for all of the
measured increase in dissolved sulfide (over 1 mg/1) in CSDLAC wastewater.

       During the period 1971 to 1986, total sulfide increased from 0.4 mg/1 to 3.0 mg/1,
and dissolved sulfide from 0.1 mg/1 to 1.4 mg/1. If sulfide precipitation with metals was
the only mechanism, the fraction of dissolved sulfide would  increase, but the total
sulfide level would remain essentially constant as metals were reduced. This is because
the insoluble metal-sulfide precipitates are still detected in the total sulfide test
However, research by Ppmeroy found that when iron was added to wastewater
containing sulfide, a reduction in total sulfide was observed;. Two explanations were
suggested.  The  first is that one of the products of the  reaction is iron disulfide, which
when treated with acid in the sulfide  test, forms H2S and elemental sulfur. Elemental
sulfur is not measured in the  test The second is that the iron may act as a catalyst to
oxidize sulfide to a product which is not detected in the sulfide test (3).  Thus, it is
unlikely that chemical precipitation or the presence or absence of iron could account for
the increase in total sulfide between 1971 and 1986;

33    Biological Inhibition by Metals and Toxic Compounds

     , CSDLAC has conducted in-house experiments to investigate inhibition of
microbial sulfide generation by constituents present in  wastewater. In addition,
CSDLAC is partially funding  research at the University of Arizona to investigate the
toxic effects of metals on the sulfide-oxidizing bacteria Thiobacilli. which are responsible
for the production of sulfuric  acid on the sewer crown.  Other research at the University
of California at Los Angeles funded by CSDLAC has considered the effects of metals
concentrations on both sulfate-reducing bacteria and sulfide-oxidizing bacteria.

      The first in-house experiments conducted by CSDLAC were bench-scale
laboratory studies designed to determine the acute toxicity levels of selected metals and


'    •  ". •         ' '                      3-5        '  •' .'      '               .

-------
cyanide on sulfate-reducing bacteria.  Growth medium for sulfate reducers was dosed
with varying concentrations of metals and cyanide. Tubes were inoculated with primary
effluent containing the sulfate-reducing bacteria and incubated for three weeks. The
tests involved dosing with individual metals and cyanide as well as with a stock solution
containing nickel, chromium, zinc, copper, lead, cadmium, and cyanide in ratios
approximating that in sewage to determine if a synergistic effect existed.

      Table 3-3 shows the results of the experiment with the individual metals and
cyanide. Copper was the most toxic at 6 mg/1, while cyanide was the least toxic at 50-55
mg/l(4).

      The stock solutions containing the mixtures of metals and cyanide were added to
the tubes at various dilutions to simulate total constituent concentrations of 1, 5, 10, 15,
20, and 25 mg/1. The distribution of constituents was as follows: nickel - 6.2%,
chromium - 20.4%, zinc - 44.3%, copper - 13.3%, lead - 6.6%, cadmium - 0.7%, and
cyanide - 8.5%.  The results of this experiment showed that growth was completely
inhibited at a total constituent concentration of 10 mg/1, but was not visibly affected at a
concentration of 1 mg/1. At 5 mg/1, growth was notably retarded. A synergistic effect
apparently existed when the combination  of metals and cyanide were added to the
growth medium.

       CSDLAC performed a second experiment using column tests to determine on a
larger scale how changes in wastewater metal concentrations affect the generation of
sulfide. The testing was carried out at the Joint Water Pollution Control Plant
(JWPCP) in Carson, California.                                            .

       The test apparatus  consisted of three 8-inch diameter, 6-feet high, polyvinyl
chloride (PVC) pipes that functioned as test columns.  The characteristics of the
columns are shown in Figure 3-1.  Each column was filled with 4 feet of hand-cut
polystyrene cubes measuring 1.5  inches on each side.  This provided a substrate for the
attached growth of sulfide-generating bacteria. Primary effluent from the JWPCP was
pumped through each column at a rate of 0.75 liters per minute at a temperature of
80ฐF.  One column was used as a control while solutions with known metal
concentrations were  added to the influent of the other two columns.  Dissolved sulfide
and total sulfide levels were measured at the influent and effluent ends of each column.
After each solution was tested, all the columns were cleaned, the polystyrene was
replaced, and the system was flushed. As of April 1, 1989, seven different metal
solutions had been tested.

       The first of the seven trials was performed with a cocktail of chromium, copper,
zinc, and cyanide. The feed rate of the cocktail was controlled so that the
concentrations  of metals in the wastewater approximated those of the early 1970's. The
second trial was performed with  five  times the concentration of metals and cyanide in
the wastewater. In the remaining trials, chromium,  copper, nickel, and cyanide were

                                        3-6

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                               TABLE 3-3
TOXIGITY OF WASTEWATER CONSTITUENTS ON SULFATE-REDUCING BACTERIA1
         Compound

               %
         Copper

         Nickel

         Chromium

         Lead

         Zinc

         Cyanide
Toxic Cone, mg/1


      6

 ', '•  'i3'   .-:  •'

     23



     25

     50-55
    In-house experiment conducted by CSDLAC
                                  3-7

-------
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-------
each tested separately at wastewater concentrations approximating those of the
early 1970's.  The target concentrations for the trials are listed in Table 3-4.
 .ป               )    • '    ^  .   i         . ' .               .      .        • . -
       Results of the column experiments are summarized in Table 3-5 and 3-6.
Examination  of the data yields several pertinent conclusions.  Clearly, when the
"cocktail" of metals and cyanide were added at five times the 1971-1974 concentration,
sulfide generation .was significantly inhibited.  These results are supported by bench
scale studies  at the  CSDLAC laboratory which showed that inhibition of sulfide-
reducing bacteria requires metals concentrations much higher than that observed in
wastewater. However,  the concentration of metals causing sulfide generation inhibition
in these pilot scale studies cannot be used to predict the increased levels of total and
dissolved sulfide observed by CSDLAC in their sewers.

       Of greater significance is the comparison of performance when the "cocktail"
containing  metals and cyanide was fed to the columns at the 1971-1974 levels.  Total
sulfide concentrations in the effluent from the control column and test column were
16.6 mg/1 and 12.4  mg/1, respectively. Dissolved sulfide  levels were 13.5 mg/1 and 9.7
mg/1 for the control and test columns, respectively. A statistical analysis was conducted
of the data from the experiment in which metals and cyamde were ^ added at the 1971-
1974 levels, assuming identical influent metals concentrations  in both control and test
columns. The analysis indicated that at a 0.01 level of significance (highly significant),
the total and  dissolved  sulfide concentrations in the effluent from the control columns
were higher than the levels in the effluent from the test column.  Further, it was
determined that, at the 90% confidence level, the  actual difference in effluent total
sulfide concentrations was between 2.8 and 5.6 mg/1.  For efflue.nt dissolved sulfide, the
actual difference was between 2.7 and 5.1 mg/1.

      Based  on  the difference in sulfide levels in  the effluent and influent for both the
control column and the test column, CSDLAC staff prepared  Figure 3-2 showing the
percent change in sulfide generation upon addition of metals and cyanide.  At the  Ix
levels (corresponding to the early 1970's),generation of total and dissolved sulfide  was
reduced by 34 percent   At the 5x levels, generation of total and dissolved sulfide was
reduced by 114 and 106 percent, respectively.  Interestingly, addition of zinc alone  at the
1970's levels resulted in reduction of sulfide generation  by approximately one third.

      Another pilot study conducted by CSDLAC involved the construction of two 3/4-
inch, diameter, PVC "force mains," each 150 feet in length.  One served as a control
pipeline,  receiving primary effluent, and the other served as a test pipeline receiving a
"cocktail" of metals  and cyanide similar to that used in the column experiment One
difference in  the feed material to the pipeline pilot system was that iron was also,
included in the metals cocktail at a level approximately that of the early 1970's (10.7
mg/1).  Only the  Ix levels of metals and cyanide were used during the pipeline
experiments.  Figure 3-3 is a diagram of the pipeline pilot plant system.
                                       3-9

-------
                                          TABLE 3-4

           CONCENTRATION OF AGENTS ADDED TO UPFLOW PACKED COLUMNS (5)
                                                        •    •        •  ซ  •


                     1971-74             1987                Ix                 5x
Agent              Concentration       Concentration       Concentration       Concentration
                      mg/1               mg/1               mg/1               mg/I


Chromium             0.92               0.178              1.00               5.00

Copper                0.60               0.18               0.50               2.50

Cyanide               0.32               0.02               0.40               2.00

Nickel                 0.285   '          0.087              0.25               2.25

Zinc                  2.17               0.60               2.00               10.00
                                             3-10

-------









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-------
                         TABLE 3-6

COMPARISON OF CONTROL AND TEST COLUMNS' SULFIDE GENERATION;
                 UPFLOW PACKED COLUMNS (5)
EFFLUENT MINUS INFLUENT SULFIDE
Control Test
Additive DS TS DS TS

Ix Mixture
5x Mixture
Cyanide
Chromium (VI)
Nickel
Copper
Zinc
Chromium (III)
mg/1
6.2
5.1
6.1
5.2
8.6
9.6
8.9
5.8
mg/1
7.1
6.4
6.8
5.8
9.0
9.0
8.8
7.3
mg/1
4.1
-0.3
8.2
5.0
7.7
8.8
6.1
7.9
mg/l
4.7
-0.9
9.8
5.6
7.3
9.4
5.9
8.5
PERCENT CHANGE
Control vs. Test
DS TS
%
-34.0
-106.0
34.0
-4.0
-10.0
2.0
-32.0
36.0
%
-34.0
-114.0
44.0,
-3.0
-19.0
4.0
-33.0
16.0
                            3-12

-------
3-13

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                                        3-14

-------
      Tables 3-7 and 3-8 provide the results of the experiment At the Ix metals and
cyanide dosage without supplemental iron, the generation of total and dissolved sulfide
was reduced by 36 to 25 percent, respectively.  When iron was added to simulate
concentrations in the early 1970's, total dissolved sulfide generation was reduced by 51
and 77 percent, respectively. These results are depicted graphically in Figure 3-4.

      The results of these experiments strongly suggest that the generation of hydrogen
sulfide in the wastewater of CSDLAC was suppressed due to the presence of
constituents associated with industrial discharges of the early 1970's.  Higher levels of
sulfide in the wastewater would be expected to result in higher concentrations of
hydrogen sulfide  gas in the sewer atmosphere and higher sewer concision rates.
However, the relationship between wastewater sulfide levels and corrosion rate is not
well established.

3.4   Comparison of Metals at CSDLAC with Other Cities Before Pretreatment

      Using available data, pre-1975 levels of metals and cyanide entering the main
CSDLAC wastewater treatment plant were compared with levels in the wastewater of
other municipalities across the U.S..  Data were analyzed for 50 cities from the EPA
report, "Fate of Priority Pollutants in Publicly Owned Treatment Works"(6)(7).  These
data were collected hi 1978-1979 prior to any significant implementation of industrial
pretreatment standards.  The fifty cities typically had estimated industrial flow
contributions ranging from ten to fifty percent of the total flow. Analysis of these data
allowed determination of the number of cities with metals and cyanide levels similar to
those of CSDLAC prior to pretreatment, and assessment of whether other cities may
have had the potential to experience suppression of  sulfide generation and corrosion
due to the presence of these constituents.                              .
      • f '.    '        -."•'•;•.   '    '      '      .      ,  •     ••.•':"      ••' '
      Table 3-9  shows a ranking of  the 50 cities plus CSDLAC based on the    ,
concentrations of selected metals and cyanide in the wastewater. This was developed
from the sum of  the equivalent weight concentrations of each of the constituents, and
does not account for the relative toxicity of the constituents  on sulfide-producmg
bacteria.  Of the 50 other municipalities, only three  (six percent) are ranked higher than
CSDLAC, while  47 (94 percent) are  ranked lower. The total concentration of metals
and cyanide in CSDLAC wastewater was approximately three times the' median
concentration for the 51 cities.  Table 3-10 shows the actual constituent concentrations,
in ug/1, for the 51 cities.

      The total  metals levels in CSDLAC wastewater in 1986 are also shown in Table
3-9.  On an equivalent weight basis,  1986 levels were 42 percent of 1971 - 1974 levels.
Comparing 1986  CSDLAC levels with 1978 -  1979 levels of 50 other cities, 16 cities (32
percent) were higher than CSDLAC, and 34 cities (68 percent) were lower.

      Clearly, sulfide generation and corrosion in CSDLAC sewers increased


     •'••'•...•''••'    •''..'  3-15    .             '             '"

-------
                         TABLES-?

          AVERAGE INFLUENT AND EFFLUENT SULFIDE;
                   PIPELINE PILOT PLANT (5)
           CONTROL PIPELINE
        -Influent-       -Effluent-

                      PS   TS
     TEST PIPELINE
 -Influent—       — Effluent-
DS   TS
PS   TS

lx
Ix

Mixture
Mixture -t-Fe
mg/1
. 2.5
2.5
mg/I
3.8
3.9
mg/1
7.9
7.8
mg/1
9.7
9.8
mg/1
- 2.7
2.5
mg/1
3.7
3.6
mg/1
6.4
3.9
mg/1
7.5
6.4
                          TABLE 3-8

COMPARISON OF CONTROL AND TEST PIPELINE SULFIDE GENERATION:
                   PIPELINE PILOT PLANT (5)
EFFLUENT MINUS INFLUENT SULFIDE
Control
Additive

lx Mixture
lx Mixture 4- Fe
DS
rngTl
5.2
5.3
TS
mg/1
5.9
5.9
Test
DS
mg/1
3.8
1.4
TS
mg/1
3.8
2.8
PERCENT CHANGE
Control vs. Test
DS
%
-25
-77
TS
%
-36
-51
                            3-16

-------
CO 
-------
                               TABLE 3-9

      COMPARISON OF CSDLAC METALS LEVELS BEFORE AND AFTER
     PRETREATMENT WITH METALS LEVELS OF 50 CITIES IN 1978-1979

CADMIUM CHROMIUM COPPER
PLANT
1
2
3
U Coonty(A)
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
LA County(B)
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
ueq/l
0.30
17.19
19.14
0.57
1.78
0.07
0.91
0.02
0.04
0.18
0.02
0.04
0.07
0.07
0.04
3.10
0.21
0.25
0.02
0.04
0.09
0.04
0.02
0.04
0.05
1.78
0.07
0.04
0.04
0.27
0.07
0.18
0.04
0.09
0.04
0.14
1.19
0.04
0.16
0.44
0.16
0.04
0.04
0.07
0.05
0.48
0.05
0.04
0.11
0.04
0.02
0.02
ueq/l
33.00
32.04
80.20
52.79
72.24
1.62
9.81
9.17
240.88
13.04
14.77
4.62
24.64
26.54
8.94
23.89
24.17
10.90
13.79
23.66
16.67
3.17
9.40
2.94
2.83
26.43
0.87
2.25
7.21
9.92
4.62
6.17
0.06
6.29
0.06
5.54
7.62
2.65
8.77
4.73
5.77
5.83
1.90
4.10
0.69
6.23
3.17
0.92
5.89
0.06
0.52
0.75
ueq/l
8.40
25.27
23.92
18.76
4.34
8.47
53.63
10.39
3.27
3.87
10.61
1.48
4.78
11.90
9.16
29.02
5.76
5.63
1.86
0.63
7.02
3.68
2.58
3.68
3.21
5.35
0.66
5.82
7.59
5.19
3.37
3.08
0.63
3.30
1.23
7.93
11.27
10.58
7.71
1.95
4.47
6.96
3.46
1.70
3.75
5.82
2.20
2.27
2.20
0.72
1.83
6.23
CYANIDE LEAD MERCURY NICKEL
ueq/l
2.35
4.73
3.81
12.38
3.23
3.85
15.92
0.19
2.08
182.58
0.42
1.42
50.88
5.42
12.96
34.27
0.65
0.85
3.19
60.31
1.62
81.62
67.42
6.50
2.73
1.46
0.08
9.35
1.08
9.81
46.73"
27.46
6.73
17.38
77.04
6.31
10.27
8.23
27.42
7.85
11.12
19.23
14.23
2.96
3.92
10.65
3.15
31.62
0.46
0.77
4.81
4.65
ueq/l
5.63
1.58
1.92
3.01
2.09
0.95
11.81
1.87
2.51
1.31
3.18
1.23
1.27
2.71
0.07
0.56
0.46
1.50
0.48
0.48
0.69
0.56
0.43
1.31
0.34
1.93
1.19
0.25
0.48
1.01
0.53
0.45
0.48
0.49
0.48
1.93
0.88
0.37
1.53
0.09
1.30
0.15
0.48
0.15
0.28
0.78
0.88
0.33
0.65
0.39
0.09
0.23
ueq/l
0.00
0.05
0.03
0.01
0.00
0.01
0.01
0.02
0.02
0.00
0.00
0.01
0.01
0.00
0.00
0.01
0.00
0.00
0.01
0.00
0.01
0.00
0.01
0.01
0.00
0.00
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.00
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.00
0.01
0.00
0.01
0.01
0.00
0.01
0.00
0.00
ueq/l
6.44
14.99
23.89
9.75
7.43
2.08
3.10
1.57
4.77
3.34
14.55
0.68
37.38
10.22
13.43
5.59
3.17
3.37
0.85
1.70
11.76
0.34
0.34
0.82
0.72
5.79
0.37
2.15
1.87
2.35
0.20
1.34
0.34
2.93
0.34
9.03
3.68
2.11
2.18
0.75
2.73
0.17
0.44
1.02
3.99
1.16
1.29
0.14
0.00
0.27
3.27
0.14
ZINC
ueq/l
205.44
119.19
150.94
66.19
28.38
9.70
219.30
24.65
46.49
14.86
52.67
15.11
8.66
28.35
24.44
49.40
7.95
22.98
5.78
84.69
,18.93
7.13
7.98
10.09
11.65
24.25
3.49
11.32
12.08
18.08
5.47
6.85
2.84
7.10
3.15
5.54
10.77
6.91
5.99
8.38
7.40
3.67
3.58
8.50
8.99
8.32
4.89
6.36
7.59
2.72
4.43
3.67
IRON
ueq/l
5440.47
313.00
263.63
383.40
423.55
468.21
110.01
364.28
91.18
152.81
195.53
263.51
" 134.30
170.29
130.60
103.43
190.38
183.99
199.40
45.27
124.02
79.22
34.98
146.94
135.73
73.88
132.50
104.75
96.16
79.57
63.32
72.88
_ 103.50
71.52
25.18
65.50
46.16
60.63
34.42
60.09
49.06
45.34
53.79
58.73
52.36
39.50
53.90
25.50'
42.69
50.14
26.21
24.32
TOTAL
ueq/l
5702.04
578.05
567.54
546.87
543.05
494.94
424.50
412.16
391.24
372.00
291.75
238.09
261.99
255.51
249.63
249.24
233.27
229.47
225.38
216.78
130.31
175.75
173.18
172.33
157.26
140.38
139.24
135.93
126.51
126.22
124.32
118.93
114.62
109.11
107.51
101.92
91.84
91.52
38.19
84.28
32.02
81.39
77.93
77.24
74.04
72.95
69.56
67.17
59.58
55.12
41.18
40.01
LA County (A) - Average levels during 1971 - 1974
LA County (B) - Average levels during 1986
                                   3-18

-------
                          TABLE 3-10

 METALS AND CYANIDE CONCENTRATIONS IN WASTEWATER
                       FROM 51 CITIES1
. CADMIUM
PLANT
1
2^
LACounty2
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
s 14
15
16
17
18
,19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
• 31
32
33
34
35
36
,37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51

ug/l
17
10
32
966
1076
100
4
51
2
1
4
2
1
174
2
2
1
2
2
4
4
1
12
10
2
5
9
3
2
2
5
15
4
• 2
2
100
2
2
67
8
2
9
25
27
3
4
3
6
2
1
1

CADMIUM
AVG:
,STO:
55
198
CHROMIUM
ug/l'
572
226
915
1422
1390
1252
28
170
55
159
427
410
163
414
1
80
256
155
4175
80
460
239
419
107
51
289
152
49
39
,16"
109
172
,15
101
1
458
125
33
132
96
46 .
100
82
108
12
71
55
102
1
9
13-

CHROMIUM
314
638
COPPER
ug/l
267
123
596
803
760
138
'269
1704
117
330
152
20
82
922
39
47
337
291
104
107
378
59
183
98
117
223
245
102
185
72
105
165
21
221
20
170
241
110
358
252
336
142
62
185
119
54
70
70
23
58
198

COPPER
232
284
•- boncencration
CYANIDE LEAD
ug/l
61
4747
322
123
99
84
100
414
2122
5
1323
1568
1753
891
2003
37
11
337
54
1215
141
83
17
714
169
42
713
71
243
822
452
255
2
500
175
38
28
370
267
164
214
289
204
277
102
77
82
12
20
125
121

CYANIDE'
472
799
ug/l
583
136
312
164
199
217
98
1223
58
194
132
50
45
58
-. 50
127
329
7
260
55
281
50
43
47
136
72
158
35
26
34
51
105
123
16
50
200
50
50
91
200
38
135
9
81
29
16
91
67
40
9
24

LEAD
131
187
MERCURY
ng/l
133
333
1400
5000
3233
300
1000
617
67
1667
983
295
1050
517
200
1250
350
333
2000
600
117
900
305
600
517
1000
667
283
767
633
300
933
833
833
67
400
617
533
550
333
683
817
50
350
833
214
999
. 12
1167
483
500

MERCURY
757
812
NICKEL
ug/l
189
98
286
440
701 ซ
218
61
91
.10
46
"1097
50
10
164
10
20
427
394
140
6
300
25
93
54
24
345
64 ,
21
63
4
86
69
11
5
10
170
55
13
108
265
62
80
22
34
117
,30
38

8
96
4
\
NICKEL
. .135
198
ZINC
ug/l
6717
486
2164
3897
4935
928
317
7170
233
806
283
2769
261
1615
103
494
1722
, 799
1520
179
927,
189
260
224
330
619
196
381
370
208
232
591
114
120
93
793
395
117
352
181
226
242
274
272
294
278
160
248
89
145
120

ZINC
911
1539
IRON
- ug/l
151917
4267
10706 : '
8740
7363
11827
13074
3072
2212
10172
3750
1264 . • '
2373
2888
703
7358
' 5460
5043
2546
1768
4755
5568
, 5330
2035
4103 •
3463
961
3790
2925
712
1997
2222
3700 : .
1266
2890
2063
2685
1502
1289
1829
1693
1370
1678 .
1103
1462
1640
1505
1192
1400 - - :
732
679

IRON
6393 .
20791
Without PLANT #1 '
AVG:
STD:
56
200
299
644
226
287
477
805
120
177
,770
816
133
.199
771
1315
3416
2948
Compiled from data contained in Refs. 5,6,7
LA County - average levels during 1971-74.  All
data
1978-79.
                                 3-19

-------
dramatically between 1971 and 1986, and metals and cyanide levels dropped
significantly.  Unfortunately, it is not known what levels of specific metals, cyanide, and
combinations cause suppression of hydrogen sulfide corrosion. Although CSDLAC
appears to have passed a threshold level of metals and cyanide which resulted in
increased sulfide levels and corrosion,  it is difficult to predict whether other cities could
experience a similar increase in sulfide generation and corrosion upon reduction in
metals levels resulting from industrial pretreatment.
                                                                            >
3.5    Site Visits to Industrialized Cities
                                                   \
       EPA conducted site visits to three cities having portions of the sewer system with
high industrial contributions. Initially, it was believed that comparison of corrosion in
residential vs. industrial sewers might show differences attributable to the metals and
other constituents present in the wastewater.  The cities were Charlotte, NC;
Milwaukee,  WI; and Tempe, AZ.

3.5.1  Charlotte, North Carolina (see also Section 2.2.7)

       In the Charlotte sewer system, four sewers conveying primarily residential
wastewater and six  sewers with a large industrial flow contribution were inspected.  All
of the sewers were  20 to 25  years old.

       Total sulfide levels in the residential sewers ranged from 0.2 to 0.6 mg/1.  Pipe
surface pH measurements were generally 6.0, with the exception of one site where
surface pH levels ranged from 4.5 to 6.0.  At  that site, corrosion penetration  was
approximately 0.25  inches, exposing aggregate.  No measurable H2S was detected in the
sewer head  space at any of the four sites.

       Two  of the six industrial sites showed signs of shallow hydrogen sulfide corrosion,
with penetration estimated to be up to 0.12 inches.  Wastewater sulfide levels at the six
sites ranged from 0.0 to 0.3  mg/3. At sites where corrosion was observed, high
turbulence levels were noted.  Wastewater pH measurements were 6.0 at four of the
industrial sites, 5.5  at one site, and 10.0 at the remaining site. No H2S was detected in
the headspace at any of the six industrial sites.

3.5.2  Milwaukee, Wisconsin (see also Section 2.2.8)

       In Milwaukee, observations included five sewers conveying primarily residential
wastewater  and five sewers with a heavy industrial flow contribution.  Three  of the
residential sites were located in  the Jones Island WWTP service area, and were concrete
pipes ranging in age from 50 to 70 years.  No corrosion was observed, and the surface
pH of the concrete was measured to be 6.5.  Two other  residential sites were sewers in
the South Shore WWTP service area.  One site was a sewer less than 20 years old; the
other was 50 years old. The 20 year old sewer was similar to the  first three - no

                                        3-20

-------
corrosion and high surface pH.  However, at the other site wastewater sulfide content
was 0.5 mg/1 and the crown pH was 3.5.  Severe corrosion was observed, with up to one
inch of concrete lost

       All five industrial sites are at least 6 miles downstream from the beginning of the
collection system and at least 40 years old.1 No corrosion was observed at any of these
sites. However, two sites had measurable wastewater sulfide levels of 0.18 and 0.40
mg/1. Crown pH levels were between 6,0 and 7.0 at all of the industrial sites. One site
was less than 0.5 miles downstream of a  tannery.

3.5.3  Tempe, Arizona

       A site visit was made to Tempe because one area of the City generated
wastewater primarily of industrial origin. These industries included four circuit board
manufacturers,  two  electroplaters, two metal  finishers, one coating operation, and two
dry cleaners.  It was believed  that results of detailed monitoring data from industrial vs.
residential areas could provide some  insight as to the  impact of industrial discharges on
the extent of hydrogen sulfide corrosion.

       Data from  previous monitoring by City of Tempe staff were reviewed, and
inspections were made of industrial and  residential sewers. The City had measured     '
sulfide, pH, temperature, ORP, and D.O. of  the wastewater, and had contracted with a
local laboratory-for,  metals analysis. At the industrial  site, dissolved sulfide levels ranged
from 0.05 to 1.9 mg/1 on five separate days (grab samples); Dissolved sulfide levels
averaged 0.6 mg/1. Atmospheric  H2S levels were 1 to 2 ppm.  Wastewater pH ranged
from 8.0 to 8.9. Inspection of a manhole in the 27 inch sewer conveying the majority of
wastewater from the industrialized  area showed no evidence of corrosion.  The sewer
system in this area was approximately 20 years old, and appeared to be in excellent
condition with no sign of deterioration.  On the day of inspection, no atmospheric H2S
was detected  in the  manhole near the liquid  surface.
     ' •   .          •   "    "     '  . i  '    ,      -     ,'.•!.    ('      - -
       A large trunk sewer conveying residential wastewater from the adjoining City of
Mesa was inspected at several locations.  Previous monitoring by the City of Tempe had
indicated dissolved sulfide levels  of up to 9 mg/1, and  atmospheric H2S levels of up to 68
ppm. The concrete manholes which were unprotected exhibited severe corrosibn above
the waterline, with abundant quantities of corrosion product  Several manhole
chambers had been  lined with plastic, and those manholes that were sources of odor
complaints were equipped with carbon canisters to control odor emissions.

       No conclusions could be drawn from existing data regarding the impact of
industrial discharges on hydrogen sulfide corrosion. A further,  detailed monitoring
program was abandoned because of the high  pH (8.0  to 8.9) of the wastewater
emanating from the industrial zone.  This high pH prevents significant  amounts of H2S
from being released from solution,  since  over 90 percent of the dissolved sulfide  is


        ''.-'..   •;•',"••.''••. 3-21.  '   '  '  •'•'•.  '-  •'•  - ;•  '•   "  .  '  '   '

-------
present as the hydrosulfide ion, not as the dissolved gas.  In general, it is believed that
attempts to assess the impacts of metals and other industrial constituents on hydrogen
sulfide corrosion by monitoring industrial vs. residential sewers are futile due to the
many factors which affect sulfide generation and corrosion.

3.6   Beneficial Effects of Local Industrial Pretreatment Programs

      It is important to recognize that several aspects of the industrial pretreatment
standards may actually lower the potential for sulfide generation and corrosion in sewer
systems.  Among the more important of these are 1) reduction of sulfide-bearing wastes,
2) reduction of high strength organic waste  discharges, 3) reduction of high temperature
discharges, 4) reduction in fats, oils, and grease, and 5) reduction in acidic wastes.
Because  of the complex interaction of all the factors that affect sulfide generation,  it  is
very difficult to quantify these effects for a broad base of sewer systems.  Beneficial
impacts of local regulation of industrial waste discharges on sulfide  generation in
municipal sewers are summarized in Table 3-11.  In  this table, sulfide is the only
parameter specifically regulated by the EPA Categorical Pretreatment Standards.

3.7   Conclusions

      The national effects of industrial pretreatment on hydrogen sulfide corrosion are
impossible to ascertain since no municipalities other than CSDLAC were found to have
sufficient data to establish a correlation.  Based on theoretical analysis, review of full
scale and pilot scale research data from CSDLAC, and a series of site investigations,  the
following conclusions are presented.

       •     The reduction  in metals and other industrial constituents in CSDLAC
             wastewater apparently caused an acceleration in corrosion rate,  possibly
             due to biological inhibition  and/or chemical precipitation.

       •     Two pilot studies conducted by CSDLAC demonstrated that sulfide
             generation was reduced when metals were added to the wastewater at
             levels approximating those in  the early 1970's.

       •     When comparing 1970's data  from 50 other cities having 10 to 50 percent
             industrial flow input, total metals and cyanide levels in CSDLAC
             wastewater were higher than levels in 94 percent of 50 U.S. cities.

       •     If current (1986) CSDLAC  data are compared with 1970's data  from 50
             cities, CSDLAC levels would  be lower than 32 percent of the cities.

       •     It is difficult to project how many cities could potentially be adversely
             affected by industrial pretreatment  since it is not known at what levels
             industrial constituents begin to suppress sulfide generation.

                                       3-22

-------
                                  TABLE 3-11
                  BENEFICIAL IMPACTS OF CONTROLLING
             INDUSTRIAL DISCHARGES ON SULFEDE CORROSION
Type of Discharge Controlled

Sulfide-bearing wastes
Benefit

Lowers sulfide levels,
corrosion potential
High organic.strength
(BOD) wastes
Sulfide   generation   rate
proportionalto BOD; reduction in
organic  strength reduces oxygen
uptake and depression of dissolved
oxygen
High temperature wastes
Lower temperature reduces sulfide
generation  rate;     increases
solubility of H2S, reducing release
of  H2S;  increases  solubility of
oxygen
Wastes containing fats,
oils, and grease
Reduces   potential  for  sewer
clogging,  reduced velocities, solids
deposition, and sulfide generation
Low pH wastes
Maintaining   pH   at  or  above
neutral reduces releas
the sewer atmosphere
                                                neutral reduces release of H2S to
                                     3-23

-------
•     Site visits to inspect corrosion in residential vs. industrial sewers were
      inconclusive regarding the impacts of metals and other industrial
      constituents on hydrogen  sulfide corrosion.

•     Local regulation of certain non-toxic constituents in industrial waste
      discharges has likely had a beneficial impact in reducing the potential for
      sulfide  generation and corrosion.

•     Additional  research is necessary to establish the constituents and their
      associated levels at which sulfide generation is suppressed or accelerated.
                                  3-24

-------
                                 REFERENCES
1.    Won, D.L., "Sulfide Control with Ferrous Chloride in Large Diameter Sewers,"
      internal report, County Sanitation Districts of Los Angeles County, November,
      1988.

2.    Pomeroy, R.D., Parkhurst, J.D., Livingston, J,, and H.H. Bailey, "Sulfide
      Occurrence and Control in Sewage Collection Systems," U.S. EPA, EPA 600/X-
      85-052, Cincinnati,  OH, 1985.

3.,   Pomeroy, R.D., and F.D. Bowlus, ^Progress Report on Sulfide Control Research,"
      Sewage Works Journal, Vol. 18, No. 4, pp 597-640, July, 1946.

4.    Internal Monthly Reports, County Sanitation Districts of Los Angeles County,
      1988.

5.    Morton, Rf, Caballero, R., Chen, C.L., and J. Redner, "Study of Sulfide
      Generation and Concrete Corrosion of Sanitary Sewers," prepared for the 62n4
      Annual Conference of the Water Pollution Control Federation, San Francisco,
      October, 1989.
                     ;.            . - '               -      v. •      •          • .  • "'
6.    "Fate of Priority Pollutants in Publicly Owned Treatment Works - Volume L"
      EPA 440/1-82/303, USEPA, Washington, D.C., Sept, 1982.   ,     '   -
                                        •    *v '' •              '          ,
7.    "Fate of Priority Pollutants in Publicly Owned Treatment Works - Volume II,"
      EPA 440/1-82/303, USEPA, Washington, D.C, Sept, 1982.
                                     3-25

-------

-------
 4.0    DETECTION, PREVENTION AND REPAIR OF HYDROGEN SULFIDE
       CORROSION DAMAGE

       Alternatives for the detection and prevention of hydrogen sulfide corrosion in
 both existing and new wastewater systems, and techniques for repairing hydrogen sulfide
 corrosion damage, are summarized in this section.  Additional detailed information may
 be found m pubUcations prepared by the Environmental Protection Agency^ The
 American Society of Civil Engineers, the American Concrete Pipe Association, and the
 U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development  (1)(2)(10)(7).

 4.1    Detection and Monitoring of Hydrogen Sulfide Corrosion

       One of the most useful "early warning1' indicators of potential hydrogen sulfide
 corrosion problems is pH of the pipe crown or structure wall.  This is a simple test using
 color-sensitive pH paper which is applied to the moist crown of the pipe. New pipe has
 a high pH of 10 to 11.  After aging the pH of the crown under non-corrosive  conditions
 may drop to near neutral.  Pipe experiencing severe hydrogen  sulfide corrosion may
 have a pH of 2 or lower.

       Dissolved sulfide levels in the wastewater and hydrogen sulfide levels in sewer
 headspaces can be checked to determine if sulfide is being generated in the sewers and
 where  and to what extent it is being released from solution.  Routine monitoring may be
 justified at the lift stations, junction structures, discharges of force mains, treatment
 plant headworks, or other locations in the collection, and treatment system.  Such tests
 indicate whether conditions are present for hydrogen sulfide corrosion to occur.

       Routine visual inspections are essential. Where  accessible by a worker, this can
 be done by entering manholes or sewers and checking the soundness of the pipe
 material. A screwdriver or other sharp tool can be used to determine the depth of
 penetration into soft  corrosion product  Since corrosion products occupy greater
 volume than the original concrete, depth of penetration is not an accurate measurement
 of concrete lost to corrosion (section 1.4). Concrete loss can be approximated by
 measuring the depth  of aggregate protrusion from the surface. Sewer pipe may  also be
 inspected remotely through the use of television cameras. With improvements in the
 resolution of camera  equipment, TV inspections can often identify  corrosion problems,
 although considerable damage may already have been done.

      A relatively recent development in remote sewer inspections is the use  of "sonic
 caliper" technology to measure the inside dimensions of the pipe. Sonic signals are
 transmitted from a floating raft to the pipe walls, and the signal is detected  after
 reflecting off the wall. Software developed by a proprietor is used to process the signals
 and determine the variation in pipe diameter along its length.  Areas where loss of pipe
material has occurred can thus be detected. The technique was successfully used to
inspect over 40,000 feet of 36 in. to 54 in. diameter pipe in Tampa, Florida (9).

-------
       Core borings of the pipe crown and submerged pipe may be taken to calculate
the extent of the corrosion loss.  Some municipalities only take cores of corroded
'portions of pipes to determine how much pipe remains.  Expandable rods have also
been used to measure the inside pipe diameter, rather than taking core borings,  as a
means of estimating the extent of corrosion, although errors are introduced due  to
variation in wall thickness and pipe "roundness."

       To determine the rate of corrosion, the thickness of corroded pipe must be
compared at two different points in time, since no instantaneous technique has been
proposed for monitoring corrosion rates. CSDLAC is the only entity known that has
determined corrosion rate on a regular basis using core borings.  Some sewers may be
installed with vitrified clay "plugs"  or stainless steel rods in the crown at accessible
locations, providing a direct visual comparison of adjacent corroded and non-corroded
material.

4.2    Prevention  of Hydrogen Sulfide Corrosion in Existing  Systems

       A number of techniques have been used to control corrosion and odors
associated with  hydrogen  sulfide generation in existing systems. The most common
techniques can be divided into the general categories of oxidants, precipitants, or pH
elevators. Oxidants control sulfide by chemically or biologically causing the oxidation of
sulfide to thiosulfate or sulfate.  Such techniques include air or oxygen injection, or
 addition of chemicals such as hydrogen peroxide, chlorine, or potassium permanganate.
 Precipitants control sulfide by precipitation with a metal salt such as ferrous chloride,
 ferrous sulfate,  or zinc salts. The dissolved sulfide is converted to an insoluble
 precipitate, preventing release of gaseous H2S. Elevation of the pH through shock
 dosing of caustic controls sulfide generation by inactivation of sulfide-producing slimes
 present on  the wall of the sewer pipe. A summary of sulfide control techniques is
 provided in Table 4-1.    .

        All of the above control techniques are oriented towards reducing the  levels of
 dissolved sulfide in solution such that less sulfide is released  to the sewer atmosphere.
 Work conducted by CSDLAC indicated that, although significant reductions (75 to
 95%) in dissolved sulfide could be obtained with chemical addition, only modest
 reductions  (50 to 60%) in H2S levels in the sewer atmosphere were realized (4). Thus,
 a 90% reduction in dissolved" sulfide does not necessarily indicate that the rate of
 corrosion will be reduced by 90%. Although  empirical predictive corrosion equations  ซ
 assume that corrosion rate is directly proportional to the rate of H2S flux from the
 wastewater to the sewer walls, this relationship is very difficult to verify with field data.

        No one  sulfide control technique can be generalized as being the most cost-
 effective. Dosages of chemicals to control sulfide vary widely from one wastewater
 system to another, and are  dependent on wastewater characteristics and other site-
 specific factors. Sulfide control options must be considered on a case-by-case basis.

                                         4-2

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Brief descriptions of sulfide control methods applicable to existing wastewater systems >
are provided below. .More detailed information may be found in references (1) and (2).

4.2.1  Air Injection

       Injection of compressed air into the wastewater is most applicable to force mains,
siphons, and pipes flowing under pressure. Often, air is injected on the discharge side
of sewage pumps to provide dissolved oxygen which promotes oxidation of existing
sulfide and prevention of further sulfide build-up.  The pressure in the pipe, being
greater than atmospheric, allows dissolution of greater quantities of oxygen. Air
injection is an economical alternative for sulfide control hi pressurized lines. Because of
the large quantities of air injected, potential exists for gas accumulation and increased
head losses.  Although research  has been conducted on  pressure tank dissolvers and U-
tubes for use in aerating gravity  sewers, such  devices appear to be marginal for this
purpose.

4.2.2  Oxygen Injection

       Oxygen is five times more soluble  in water than air, and thus it is possible to
achieve higher DO  levels in the  wastewater.  As with compressed air injection, oxygen is
most applicable, to sulfide control in force mains and pipes under pressure.  However, it
is currently being used in Sacramento to  oxygenate wastewater in a fall structure, and
CSDLAC has conducted demonstrations  of pressurized sidestream dissolution for
oxygenation of gravity sewers. In the sidestream dissolution system, a portion of the
flow is directed through a pressurized pipe into which oxygen is injected:  The oxygen-
saturated sidestream is then introduced back into  the gravity main.

       Oxygen is generally an economical technique for sulfide control. However, the
annual costs for purchased oxygen are highly  dependent on how efficiently the oxygen is
transferred into  solution.

4.23  Hydrogen Peroxide

       Hydrogen peroxide is widely used  for sulfide control in force mains and gravity
sewers. At neutral  and acidic pH, H2O2 oxidizes H2S to elemental sulfur. Dosage    >
weight ratios of  H2O2 to H2S vary from near stoichiometric (1:1) to over 5:1* depending
on degree of control desired, wastewater  characteristics,  initial sulfide level, and
wastewater travel time  between injection  station and control, point  Costs for sulfide
control using hydrogen peroxide  are competitive with other sulfide control chemicals.

4.2.4  Chlorine

       Chlorine  oxidizes sulfide to sulfate or elemental sulfur.: Chlorine can be
purchased as a gas,or as hypochlorite  solution. In practice, C12:H2S dosage weight ratios
       t          "•'        --         '              - - ,     ,     .             ,.''•'
   '          '    '   '.-'••      ,      .4-5     '     •    •"   '   ..• .    ." .  :

-------
are typically in the range of 10:1 to 15:1.  Although commonly used for sulfide control,
dosage requirements and unit chemical costs often make chlorine uneconomical
compared to other chemicals used for sulfide control The hazardous nature of chlorine
gas make it less attractive for use near residential areas.

4.2JS  Potassium Permanganate

      Potassium permanganate is a powerful oxidant that is effective for sulfide control.
In general, dosage weight of KMnO4 to H2S are approximately 6:1 to 7:1.  Potassium
permanganate is purchased as dry crystals.  Chemical costs are high, and use of KMnO4
for wastewater applications is generally not cost-effective.

4.2.6  Metal Salts

      Iron salts such as ferrous sulfate and ferrous chloride are widely used,
economical chemicals for sulfide control.  Iron reacts with H2S to form an insoluble
precipitate, preventing release of H2S from solution.  In practice, dosage weight ratios of
FeSO4 to H2S are approximately 5:1, although higher dosage ratios may be required
depending on wastewater characteristics, initial sulfide levels, and degree of sulfide
control required.

4.2.7  Sodium Hydroxide

      Sodium hydroxide is added in "shock doses" to sewers for sulfide control.  Caustic
soda (NaOH) is added over a period of 20 to 30 minutes at sufficient dosages to elevate
the pH to between 12.5 and 13.0. The high pH slug temporarily inactivates sulfate
reducing bacteria and greatly reduces hydrogen sulfide generation.  Within a period of
several days to two weeks, the sulfate reducing bacteria become re-established, and
caustic dosing must be repeated.  If this approach is employed in the collection system
near the treatment plant such that dilution of the high pH slug does not occur,
provisions must be made to store the high pH wastewater and gradually release it to the
plant to avoid biological upset

4.2.8   Other Chemicals

       Other chemicals have been used for sulfide control with varying  degrees of
success.  Sodium nitrate has been used for H2S control in lagoons, trickling filters, and
carbon columns, but has not been widely used for sulfide control in sewers.  Nitrate
prevents sulfide generation by acting as a hydrogen  acceptor which is used preferentially
by bacteria over sulfate.

       Several proprietary bacterial cultures and enzyme preparations are claimed to be
effective for sulfide and odor control although their effectiveness has yet to be
demonstrated.

                                        4-6

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4.3    Prevention of Hydrogen Sulfide Corrosion in the Design of New Systems

       Consideration of sulfide generation and corrosion is critical in the design of
wastewater collection systems. While it is possible, and sometimes necessary, to
incorporate chemical addition stations for sulfide control as part of the overall system
design, the most cost-effective and rational engineering approach is to develop a
hydraulic design that minimizes sulfide generation.  In general, such an approach strives
to maintain aerobic conditions in the wastewater by providing adequate wastewater by
providing adequate wastewater velocities, and by minimizing the use of force mains,
inverted siphons, and surcharged sewers in which anaerobic conditions can develop,
resulting in sulfide generation.

       Under certain conditions, sulfide generation may be unavoidable. Empirical
equations have been developed to allow prediction of sulfide build-up  and rates of
corrosion.  Where sulfide generation is anticipated, corrosion resistant materials can be
selected, pr the alkalinity and thickness of concrete pipe can be specified to help reduce
the effects of hydrogen sulfide corrosion.
       ""      •-•..'        ' •                    t              \             -   '
       Table 4-2 summarizes various approaches used to minimize sulfide generation
and corrosion during the design  of wastewater collection and treatment facilities.
Several key design elements are  summarized below. More detailed discussions  of
corrosion prevention during design may be found in references (1),(2), and (10).

4.3.1   Wastewater Velocity

       Wastewater velocity is critical in designing sewer systems to prevent or minimize
sulfide generation. Adequate velocity 1) prevents deposition of solids which can cause
flow obstructions and increase" sulfide generation and 2) provides surface reaeration
which helps to maintain aerobic  conditions and prevent sulfide generation.  Although a
minimum scouring velocity of 2 ft/sec has been historically used by engineers designing
gravity sewers, large diameter sewers require much higher scouring velocities, on the
order of 3 to 4.5 ft/sec.  Minimum scouring velocities for force mains are typically 3 to 5
ft/sec depending on pipe size.                            .

       The  impact of velocity on reaeration rate is significant For a 24 inch diameter
flowing half full, increasing the velocity from 2 to 3 ft/see increases the reaeration rate
by a factor  of 2. The effect is somewhat less dramatic for sewers larger than 36  inches.

       Velocity in sewers is controlled by flowrate, slope, and pipe diameter.  Figure 4-1
is a generalized guide showing the potential for sulfide generation as a function  of flow
and slope.
                                        4-7

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                                    I     I   II   II
       Moderate sulfide
       generation potential
                                                      Severe suifide
                                                      generation potential
                   0  0.10.S1.0    5.0   10 1520 3040
                          ;            ;        • •       ' '

                               Flow, cu ft7s
nGURE 4-1  GUIDE FOR ESTIMATING SULFIDE GENERATION POTENTIAL
                                     4-9

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4.3.2  Design of Junction and Drop Structures

      Turbulence created by junctions and drop structures can have opposite effects on
sulfide build-up and corrosion, depending on the characteristics of the wastewater when
it reaches the structure.  If no sulfide is present, turbulence will increase reaeration
rates, thereby adding dissolved^ oxygen and maintaining aerobic conditions. On the
other hand, if dissolved sulfide is present, turbulence will increase the release of
hydrogen sulfide to the atmosphere and increase the rate of corrosion.  Therefore, if
potential for sulfide generation exists, designs of such structures should  be such that
turbulence is minimized.

433  Force Mains, Siphons, and  Surcharged Sewers

      Force mains, siphons, and surcharged sewers have one thing in common:  the
sewer flows full with no opportunity for reaeration.  This results in anaerobic conditions,
generation of H^S, and often severe corrosion at the outlet  In general, use of force
mains, siphons, and surcharged sewers should be avoided whenever possible.

      Where required, design velocities should be selected to avoid solids deposition,
and detention times should be minimized., Where long force mains or siphons are
necessary, consideration should be given  to positive sulfide control systems (e.g.,
chemical addition) and/or use of corrosion resistant materials such as PVC liners at
discharge points.

43.4  Sewer Ventilation

      Sewers are naturally ventilated through  building vents and manholes, occurring
from factors such as changes in barometric pressure, wind, air density differences, and
flow conditions. Wet wells at pumping stations have 12-30 changes/hour,  and dry wells
have 6-30 changes/hr.   Ventilation is often practiced at wastewater treatment plants,
where air is withdrawn at the headworks  and either treated separately or piped to
existing biological processes (1).

433  Local Control of Industrial  Discharges

      Local control of industrial discharges  as a means of minimizing sulfide generation
is applicable to both existing and new wastewater systems. Beneficial impacts of
controlling industrial discharges  on sulfide generation were summarized in Table 3-11.
Adequate industrial pretreatment to make such wastes compatible with  municipal
wastewater can eliminate their contribution to sulfide generation  potential.
                                       4-10

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4.3.6  Design Considerations When Sulfide Generation is Anticipated
43.6.1 Prediction of Sulfide Generation and Corrosion
      In some cases, it is difficult or not cost-effective to design a wastewater collection
system that will be free of sulfide problems. It is then useful to know what levels of
sulfide can be expected.
      Empirical equations have been developed to allow prediction of sulfide levels.  In
addition, a model has been developed to allow prediction of corrosion rates where H2S
is present                               .
      The Pomerby-Parkhurst equations that predict sulfide build-up are given below:
      Pies Flowin   Less than Full
                 log'1  m(su;>3/8t                          .
      •        '       •-. .-"id.'   ..  .  • '•-     ...  . -   .  -  :;;.
      .where:         •   •        •          ,    .'-,-•      _-    ' f
            S2     = predicted sulfide concentration at time tj
            B!     = sulfide concentration at time tt
            Sjj,,,    == theoretical upper limit of sulfide concentration
            s      = slope of the pipe
            u      = stream 'velocity
            t      = (VM flow time
            m     = empirical coefficient for sulfide loss
            dm     = mean hydraulic depth
      Pipes Flowing Full
      S2 = St + (M)(t)[EBOD  (4/d) > 1.57)]
      where: .     •/   •/•..',    -        /..'..:.'    . -    •  •
              ^      •    '•'•.':'           ''".-"''
            M     = experimentally determined empirical constant
                     representing the sulfide flux            '
            EBOD  = BpD[1.07if?-20>] (T = temperature, ฐC)

-------
The rate of corrosion of concrete pipe can be predicted using the following equation:

      C^ = H-.5 k 0_
                A
      where,

             C^   = average rate of penetration, mrn/yr
             k     — Coefficient of efficiency for acid reaction considering the
                     estimated fraction of acid remaining on the wall. May be as low
                     as 0.3 and will approach 1.0 for a complete acid reaction.

             0W   = flux of H2S to the pipe wall, gm/m2-hr
             A     = Alkalinity of the cement bonded material, expressed as CaCO3
                     equivalent Approximately 0.18 to 0.23 for granitic aggregate
                     concrete, 0.9 for calcareous aggregate, 0.4 for mortar linings,  and
                     0.5 for asbestos cement

             11.5  = constant
             0W   = 0.69(su)3/8j[DS](b/F)


           •  where,
             s     = energy gradient of wastewater stream, m/m

             u     = stream velocity, m/s
             j     = fraction of dissolved sulfide present as H2S as a function of pH

             [DS]  = average annual concentration of dissolved sulfide in the
                     wastewater, mg/1
             b/P*  = ratio of width of wastewater stream at surface to exposed
                     perimeter of the pipe wall above the water surface.

      Peak corrosion rates occur at the sewer crown, and may be higher than the
average corrosion rate by a factor of 1.5 to 2.0. This is the crown corrosion factor
(CCF).  Another factor, the turbulence corrosion factor (TCP) is used to account for
greater flux of H2S to the pipe wall, and may vary from 1 to 2.5 for well-designed
junction  structures or other areas with nonunifonn flow conditions.  At drops or
turbulent junctions, the  turbulence corrosion factor may be 5 to 10.

Thus, the peak crown corrosion rate  is given as follows:

      C^ = Cwg x CCF x TCP
                                       4-12

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4.3.6.2  Selection of Materials

       When it is anticipated that sulfide will be present, consideration must be given to
use of corrosion-resistant materials.  Pipe materials such as PVC, PE, and vitrified clay
are virtually unaffected by sulfuric acid produced by the biological oxidation of hydrogen
sulfide, and should be specified if hydrogen sulfide corrosion is anticipated.  For larger
diameter sewers, PVC or vitrified clay pipes are not available, and concrete pipe is often
used.  However, PE pipe is available in diameters up to 120 inches.  Two alternatives
are frequently used to protect the concrete pipe from corrosion or to extend its useful
design life.  These are 1) use of PVC liners which are imbedded into the concrete pipe
during manufacture, and 2) use of high alkalinity calcareous aggregate and/or additional
sacrificial concrete cover over the reinforcing bars.

       The proprietary "T-lock" PVC liner has been  successfully used for concrete pipe
protection for many years. Although the cost of the pipe is increased, follow-up tests
have shown that the PVC liner provides excellent protection of the underlying concrete.
The PVC is immune to sulfuric acid attack, and proper installation of the liner prevents ~
migration of acid to the concrete. Surface-applied synthetic coatings have yet to
demonstrate the longevity and  acid resistance of PVC liners.

       Use of calcareous aggregate in concrete pipe increases the alkalinity of the
concrete and thus increases the resistance to sulfuric acid attack.  An additional
sacrificial layer of concrete over the reinforcing steel increases the useful design life of
the pipe. An equation has been  developed to assist in proper selection of pipe materials
(alkalinity) and thickness.  This is the "Az" or "life factor" equation, shown below.

       Az. = 0.45k 0W L(CCF)(TCF)

       where,     •. ..     .  ' .    ,  , ••   .-       •. -   i -   .  .        •  ".     •

             Az    — life factor, equal to the product of alkalinity and thickness of
                    allowable concrete loss

     "       L     = desired design lifetime, years

       Thus, assuming a design lifetime of the pipe,  it is possible for the engineer to
specify the desired combination of pipe wall thickness and concrete alkalinity to achieve
the target lifetime.

4.4  Repair of Damage Caused by Hydrogen Sulfide Corrosion

       Once corrosion damage has occurred, it may be necessary to repair a structure to
reduce the potential for failure or collapse.  In the past, excavation and replacement was
a common repair solution to corroded pipes and structures.  However, due to the


"''" '  '"  '•-"•'   ''      ,  '    '• -'    '   4-13     -.•--.  ••'•'-     -           :   ."  '

-------
expense, the disruption to traffic, the potential for damage to other underground
utilities, and the interruption to the service itself, in-line rehabilitation techniques have
become more attractive.  Rehabilitation techniques are those methods and repairs
applied to an existing structure to prolong its useful Me.  With such techniques,
municipalities can repair existing structures at a lower cost than replacement, and
without public inconveniences due to traffic disruptions and service interruptions.  In
many situations, pipelines can be rehabilitated at somewhat less than the cost of
replacement Rehabilitation techniques are not acceptable under the following
conditions:

       •    where significant additional capacity is needed
       •    where rehabilitation methods that are adequate to restore pipeline
             structural integrity would produce an unacceptable  reduction in service
             capacity
       •     for point repair where short lengths of pipeline are too seriously damaged
             to be effectively rehabilitated by any means
       •    where entire reaches of pipeline are too seriously damaged to be
             rehabilitated
       •    where removal and replacement is less costly in dollars and urban
             disruption than other rehabilitation methods

       Numerous rehabilitation techniques  exist, but not all are applicable to corrosion
repair.  The selection of a particular method  of rehabilitation depends on many factors
such as economics, extent of damage and structural integrity, disruption  of traffic and
excavation requirements.  High concentrations of sulfuric acid may be detected on the
walls of sewers where H2S is being generated. Sulfuric acid can quickly  deteriorate
crown and sidewall concrete, thereby exposing aggregate and reinforcing steel,  and
potentially weakening structural integrity.  Therefore,  corrosion rehabilitation techniques
must focus on internal repairs to ensure structural integrity and provide  a protective
barrier against  subsequent acid attack, rather than  on external repairs (e.g., soil
stabilization).  After surveying consulting engineers,.municipal engineers, and
manufacturers,  the following seven generic rehabilitation measures were identified as
appropriate for acid corrosion repair:

             insertion renewal (sliplining)
             deformed pipe insertion
             cured-in-place pipe
             specialty concrete
             coatings
             liners
             spot replacement
      Table 4-3 describes various methods of pipeline rehabilitation, indicating their

                                        4-14

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TABLE 4-3 -
METHODS FOR PIPELINE REHABILITATION
Annllmilon Advantages Disadvantages
Leading method for gas pipe Less time, lower cost than if original pipe is deformed,
rehabilitation. Also used for excavation and replacement, liner pipe may have to be much
cracked or deteriorated sewer minimal disruption. May smaller diameter.Excavation
pipes and, to lesser extent, . improve hydraulics in some required for access pits, service
water distribution pipes. cases. Provides some structural laterals. Only large radius
' reinforcement when properly bends are easily accommodated.
grouted. Bypassing not req'd. May decrease capacity.
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-------
 applications, advantages, and disadvantages.  More detailed information may be found
 in references (5),(6),(7), and (8).     '.--...

       Sliplining or insertion renewal is the most .widely used rehabilitation technique.
 Sliplining involves inserting a new, continuous length of pipe or segments of pipe inside
 an existing pipe.  Pipes are made by joining individual lengths with heat fusion or
 various types of bell and spigot joints. Materials used for sliplining pipes include
 polyethylene (PE), polybutylene, fiberglass-reinforced polyesters, reinforced
 thennosetting resins, and PVC.  Material selection is based on application, design needs,
 economics, and to some extent,  space availability at the installation working area.
 Sliplining is capable of dealing with a variety of serious structural problems if the
 annular space between the existing pipe and  the sliplining pipe has been properly
 grouted. Exceptions are severely crushed or  collapsed pipes.  Installation is done by
 excavating an access pit and pushing  or pulling the slipline pipe into the. existing /pipe.
 It is widely used for cracked or deteriorated sewer pipes and to a lesser extent, water
 pipes.  It takes less time for installation, has  lower cost than excavation and
 replacement, and requires minimal excavation and disruption: It has the ability to
 accommodate large radius bends and may improve hydraulics in spite of the reduction
 in the overall pipe diameter. Most of the sliplining materials available are acid-resistant
 and  provide good hydraulics.

      Deformed pipe insertion  lining is a new process with a limited experience base.
 Several variations exist  In  general, folded or compressed plastic pipe is inserted into
 the existing pipe. Pipe material may  be polyethylene or plasticized PVC.  The  pipe may
 be heated to increase flexibility prior to installation. In one process* the heated pipe is
 pulled through a die to reduce the diameter prior to insertion.  In processes using
 folded pipe, steam is added after insertion and a ball is propelled through the folded
 pipe to expand it to  conform with the existing pipe, or the pipe is expanded
 hydraulically using steam pressure.  In the process using the mechanical die to  reduce
 the diameter, the pipe naturally  reverts to its original diameter within several hours.
 After insertion .and expansion,"rthe ends of the liner are cut off, trimmed, and likely
 sealed.  Proprietors claim that the process results in a tight fit of the liner to the pipe,
 eliminating the need for grouting of the annular space. Mixing of resins and curing, as
 required with cured-in-place systems,  are unnecessary. The folded liner systems are
 supplied in rolls, and insertion pit excavation is not required.  For the system which
 reduces pipe diameter using a die, an insertion pit is apparently required as with
conventional sliplining. Because of the limited experience with deformed pipe  insertion
methods for rehabilitating sewers, little information is available on the  applicable size
ranges, ease of installation,  and cost-effectiveness of these systems.

      Cured-in-place pipe is formed from a resin-impregnated felt tube which  is
inverted into an existing pipe and allowed to  cure.  After curing, the felt tube becomes a
smooth, hard pipe of slightly less diameter and of the same shape as the original pipe.
Cured-in-place  pipe  can be installed in pipes  of all shapes up to diameters of 96 inches.


  ' ',  .'• -  :"-.'   -  ',  '"••'   '       '  ••      4-17      .      '.'-'    ป .   . •"-    "  '•' •••'''.  .

-------
It can also adhere to bends present in the original pipe. Inversion lining is successful in
dealing with a number of structural problems.  Caution must be used in the application
of this method to any structural problems involving major loss of pipe wall, reinforcing
steel, or exterior pipe and bedding support  Within limits, the liners can be designed to
deal with these more serious structural problems. Precautions should be taken hi
determining the selection of an inversion lining method for sewer rehabilitation.
Various resins can be used to provide different degrees of acid resistance.  Standard
polyester resins are suitable for most sewer applications. Cured-in-place inversion
linings have found more acceptance where minimal excavation and traffic disruption is
required.  This technique is one of the most widely used rehabilitation methods.  The
long-term acid resistance of the liner is unknown. Observations made within the past 15
years have not indicated corrosion problems.

       Specialty concretes are sulfate-resistant  cements applied to corroded surfaces
primarily for structural reasons and to resist corrosion. Sulfate resistant cements
include potassium silicate.  Typically, reinforcing steel is added for additional support
Specialty concretes include cement mortar, shotcrete, and cast concrete. Cement mortar
is applied with a hand trowel for spot repairs in man-entry size (i.e., greater than 32-
inch-diameter) sewers or with a centrifugal lining machine for complete coverage within
a stretch of pipe.  Shotcrete is applied with a special nozzle using compressed air.  Cast
concrete is installed using prefabricated or hand-built  ulterior pipe forms.  The
development of mechanical, in-line application methods (e.g., centrifugal and mandrel)
has established .mortar lining as a viable rehabilitation technique. Both shotcrete and .
cast concrete are used hi large-diameter sewers where adequate space is available to
handle materials and equipment The specialty concrete applications depend on the
degree of corrosion present and the structural  integrity of the unit in question.
Generally, thin film concrete will perform best on relatively non-corroded  concrete
whereas an elastic membrane concrete system  will work for all cases.  Testing performed
by CSDLAC revealed that seven out of eight supposedly acid-resistant specialty
concretes failed after submersion from 0.1 to 488 days in a 10-percent sulfuric acid
solution.  Only one concrete has maintained its acid resistance even after 605 days of
testing. Specialty concretes are used mostly for spot repairs such as manhole  barrels,
wet wells, junction chambers, and  sections of pipe.

       Coatings include a myriad of proprietary epoxies, resins, sealers, silicones,
urethanes, and coal tars applied by spray or brush.  Coatings are experiencing rapid
growth with new products being marketed continually. Unfortunately, field testing has
not kept up with the rapid growth. CSDLAC  have been testing  new products, and cities
such as Seattle have been using those products that exhibited good results. Only about
25 percent of coatings tested by CSDLAC exhibited good acid resistance.  The majority
of failures can be attributed to application difficulties (e.g., pinholes and blowholes).
All coating systems require some form of surface preparation.  The surface preparation
and conditions under which coatings material  is applied are extremely critical. The
specification of any. acid resistant epoxy should require the minimum application of 1.5

                                        4-18

-------
mm of material for rehabilitation.  Consideration should be given to the use of coatings
that will cure underwater for projects that require either short down times, or where it
is impractical to completely remove the structure from service, thereby requiring coating
application to an intermittently wet area.

      Liners used for rehabilitation may be prefabricated panels or flexible sheets that
are installed manually with anchor bolts or with concrete-penetrating nails; or
continuous, interlocking strips that are installed in a spiral fashion using a special
machine or manually. Manual methods are applicable only to man-entry sewers.
Common liner materials are fiberglass-reinforced cement, fiberglass-reinforced plastic,
PVC, and PE. The liner materials themselves are aciii-resistant but problems have
occurred due to  poor jointing.  Liners may be susceptible to acid leakage due to
numerous joints.  Some panel  systems are time consuming to install and thus prolonged
bypass is required. Hydrogen  sulfide gases  have been documented  to pass through poor
joints and cause  failure by attacking the concrete substrate behind the liner.  A recent
design introduced to the U.S. involves a continuous, helical, interlocking strip with
unproved joints which may overcome such gas-penetration problems.  Also, a new acid-
resistant urethyiene mastic has shown excellent results in bonding PE and PVC sheets
to concrete surfaces, and may  eliminate problems with mechanical anchoring  and poor
jointing.  Cracking of polyethylene liners has been observed in areas of high turbulence.

4.5    Conclusions

      No material or technique is effective for controlling sulfide generation or sulfide-
induced corrosion in every situation.  The environmental variables that determine the
success of a prevention or repair method (e.g., the characteristics of the wastewater and
the collection system and the severity of corrosion) vary with each system and within
each reach of sewer. It is only after a system has been analyzed that these variables can
be taken into account and an effective measure selected. Often, several different
methods must be used in combination or at different points in the  same system to
combat corrosion under various conditions.  The effectiveness of a method  is deter-
mined by more than just its physical properties and/or theory of operation.  Proper
design, installation, operation,  and maintenance are  required to ensure that the material
or technique is effective.  However, even if  studies indicate  that a method has the best
long-term  cost- effectiveness, initial costs may exceed the budgetary constraints of a
municipality and force it to use a less expensive and less effective method.  Because of
the  variations in effectiveness,  affordability,  availability, convenience, and applicability,
sulfide control techniques and  corrosion rehabilitation methods must be evaluated on a
case-by-case basis.                                                      ,
                                       4-19:

-------
                                 REFERENCES
1.     "Design Manual - Odor and Corrosion Control in Sanitary Sewers and Treatment
      Plants," EPA/625/1-85/018, EPA, Cincinnati, OH, 1985.

2.     "Sulfide in Wastewater Collection and Treatment Systems," ASCE Manuals and
      Reports on Engineering Practice - No. 69, ASCE, New York, 1989.

3.     "Sulfide and Corrosion Prediction and Control." American Concrete Pipe
      Association, Vienna, VA, 1984.

4.     Stahl, J.S., Redner, J., and R. Caballero, "Sulfide Corrosion in the Sewer System
      of Los Angeles County," presented at llth U.S./Japan Conference on Sewage
      Treatment Technology,  the Public Works Research Institute, Tsukuba, Japan,
      October, 1987; and ASCE Conference on Sulfide Control in Wastewater
      Collection and Treatment Systems, Tucson, AZ, February, 1989.

5.     "No-Dig Technology Outline," prepared by National Association of Sewer Service
      Companies, Altamonte, FL, 1989.

6.     Schrock, B J., "Pipeline  Rehabilitation Seminar," Portland, Maine, August 8,
      1988.

7.     U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development, Utility Infrastructure
      Rehabilitation: Office of Policy Development and Research - Building
      Technology, November, 1984.

8.     Redner, John, A., "Evaluation of Protective Coatings for Concrete," presented at
      the 59th Annual Water Pollution Control Federation Conference, Los Angeles,
      CA, October 7, 1986.

9.     Cronberg, Andrew T., Jack P. Morris, Ted Price, "Determination of Pipe Loss
      Due to Hydrogen Sulfide Attack on Concrete  Pipe," prepared for the 62nd
      Annual Water Pollution Control Federation Conference,  San Francisco, October,
      1989.

10.   "Concrete Pipe Handbook," American Concrete Pipe Association, Vienna,
      Virginia.  1988.
                                      4-20

-------
         APPENDIX A

 ANNUAL AVERAGE WASTEWATER
CHARACTERISTICS FOR LA COUNTY
           1971-1986

-------

-------
 •   '•             ••'..  '  .... •   ; , , '   . "               July 1987






            JOINT WATER POLLUTION CONTROL. PLANT



                    RAW SEWAGE PARAMETERS          ,




                1971 - ,1986' YEARLY AVERAGES




(Based on Water Quality Characteristics Monitoring .Program)
Year
1971 :•
1972
1973
1974 "
1975
1976
1977
1978
1979
1980'
1981
1982
1983
1984
1985
1986
'Alkalinity
Total (mg/1)
• 307,
302
-.' ' . 3'16.
298
• 289
, 307
330 _''..'
322 ,
316
• "314
317 '.•
323
340 - , . .
\338
329
' •: ,339 • .'' , '
Arsenic
(rag/1)
0
0
0.0250
0.0354
.0.0155 .''
0.0073
0.0114
0.0135
0.0188
0.0064
0.0067
0.0079
0.0087 (-
0.0257
0.0180
' 0.0 101
Barium
(mg/1)

- . -,
0.53
0.55 ..'.
0.75
.-..:• 1.07 -
, 0.91
, '0.78 '
0.67
1.02
0.80
• .0-82
0.91
0.83 .. .
1.03
0,97
BOD
• Total
(mg/1)
384
319'
357 ;
314
'302
306
. 334.
324
322
335
322
313
',-291 " ' -
317
. ,329
328 !
Boron
(mg/1)
1.03
•• 1.11.
1.14
-. Ti-35
1.49
1.54
.1.51-
1.64
1.50
,1.52
1.41
1.66
1.68
1.76
1.72
: 1/58

-------
JWPCP - Raw Sewage Parameters
1971 - 1986 Yearly Averages
Page 2
Year
1971
1972
1973
1974
1975
1976
1977
1978
1979
1980
1981
1982
1983
1984
1983
1986
Cadmium
(mg/1)
0.0250
0.0320
0.0320
0.0400
0.0390 •
0.0310
0.0343
0.0385
0.0358
0.0343
0.0244
0.0206
0.0337
0.0199
0.0180
0.0140
Chloride
(mg/1)
560
502
423
365
341
345
326
397
387
387
408
434
453
.498
460
461
Chromium
Hexavalent
(mq/i)
0
0
0
o
<0.02
<0.02
<0.02
<0.02
<0.02
<0.02
<0.02
0
0
0
0
0
Chromium
Total
(mg/i)
0.780
1.125
0.877
.0.887
1.020
0.905
0.720
0.502
0.445
0.563
. ' f . •
0.430
0.335
0.278
0.250
0.237
0.189
COD
Soluble
(mg/1)
326
. 250
310
251
252
265
244
263
273
246
230
266
262
259
246
257

-------
JWPCP - Raw Sewage Parameters
1971-1986 Yearly Averages
Page 3


,.Year
1971
"1972
1973
1974
1975
1976"
1977
1978

1979 ,
1980
1981
,1982
1983
'1984
1985
1986
COD
Total
(mg/1)
680
721
925
844
818
1022
863
923

910
813
,759
916
9'04
900
881
879 .
Conductance
MMHO ,
cm
2992
2813
2785
2369
2145
2162
2353 ,
. 2185

'2312
2273
2355
2524
2582
2679
' 2632
2620
Coooer
(mg/1)
0.450
0.736
0.563
0.635
0.580
0.430
0.430
0.'360

0.337 ,
0.334'
0.268
[•".' 0.230
r ' . 0.245
.. Q.240
0.197
0.179
Cyanide
fmg/M.)
0.200
0.293
0.363
0.430
0.280
0.290
0.240 •.
0.180

0 .178
0.118
0.080
0.063 .
0.042
0.040
" 0.020
0^.022
DOT ,
Total
(mg/1)
0.01527
0,02132
0.01802
0.00278
0,00172
, 0.00325
; 0.00211
0.00273
i i
0.00234
0.00177
0.00172
0.00076
0.00049,
0.00096
0.00037
0.00019

-------
JWPCP - Raw Sewage Parameters
1971 - 1986 Yearly Averages-
Page 4
Year
1971
1972
1973
1974
1975
1976
1977
1978
1979
1980
1981
1982
1983
1984
1985
1986
Detergents
(MBAS)
(mg/1)
7.23
7.40
7.49
6.60
6.50
6.74
6.31
8.17
7.62
6.97
5.97
6.20
6.67
6.24
6.44
6.10
Flow
(MGD)
372
351
359
347
342
353
330
345
367
374
364
360
353
352
361
364
Fluoride
(mg/1)
1.05
1.24
1.51
1.40
1.37
1.48 .
1.45'
1.56
1.66
1.56
•' 1.51
1.39
1.99
2.61
2.17
2.01 '
Hardness
Calcium
(mg/1)
273
259
215
215
176
165
197
197
191
191
204
194
210
211
192
183
Hardness
Magnesium
(mg/1)
165
162
143
109
81
79
, 97
105
94
82
97
94
101 -
104
99
98

-------
JWPCP - Raw Sewage Parameters
1971 - 1986 Yearly Averages
Page 5
Year
1971
1972
1973
1974
1975
1976
1977
1978
1979
1980
1981
1982
1983
1984
1985
1986
Hardness .
Total
• (mq/1)
438
' 421
371
350
282 .
259 . ,
. 294
265
298
294
296
289
307
310
292
287
Iron
(mg/1)
13.130
11.340
8.875 ;
9.480
13.950
6.840
8.290
7.562
7.367
6 . 4 29
6.106
t
5.430
7.840
5.290
4.870
5.138
Lead
( mg/ 1 )
0.280
0.306
0.292
0.371
0.370
0.272
0.340
0 .270
0.225
0.212
0.164
0.160
O.IS'O
0.140
0.129
0.155
Lithium
(mg/1)
0.070
0.070 ,
0.060
0.050,
0.042
0.058
0,100
0.059
0.061
0.053
0.063
0.066
0.063
0.071
0.071
0.065
Manganese
(mg/1)
0.11
0.12 ,
0.11
0.12
0.15
0.10
0.12
0.13
0.11
0.10
0.09
0.09
0.12
0.11 ,
o.ii
0.10

-------
JWPCP - Raw Sewage Parameters
1971 - 1986 Yearly Averages
Page 6
Year
1971
1972
1973
1974
1975
1976
1977
1978
1979
1980
1981
1982
1983
1984
1985
1986
Mercury
(mg/1)
0.0022
0.0010
0.0012
0.0012
0.0014
0.0015
0.0014
0.0014
0.0014
0.0011
0.0009
0.0011
0.0013
0.0011
0. 0010
0.0011
Nickel
(mg/1;
0.230
0.310
0.324
0.280
0.280
0.340
0.310
0.342
0.245
0.245
0.210
0.200
0.220
0.150
0.129
0.099
Nitrogen
Ammonia
(mg/1)
80.6
41.3 •
58.5
34.4
33.6
32.9
33.6
34.4
34.2
34.. 2
34.0
34.6
35.0
31.6
31.9
34.1
Nitrogen
Organic
(mg/1)
26.7
17.4
20.8
16.6
18.8 .
18.9
17.9
21.0
19.6
20.2
20.3 -
19.6
23.1
21. 1
. 19.5
21.1
Oil
and Grease
(mg/i)
-
• -
.
.
91
219
124
91
90
76
62
73
69
79
72
64

-------
JWPCP - Raw Sewage Parameters
1971 - 1986 Yearly Averages
Page 7
Year
' 1971 •'_
1972
. 1973

1974

1975
1976

1977
1978 .
1979
1980
1981 ,.
1982
;1983
1984
1985
' 1986
PCS 'Total
(mq/1) oH
0.02126 7,92
0.01077 - 7.61
0.01233 7.65

0.01685 7.55

O.a0531 7.51
0.00061

0.00242 - '
0.00180
0.00098
0.00092
0.00070 -
0. 00081 '
0.00061
0.00064
0.00031 ' '.;' - .
;' , 0 ' .-
Phenols
(mq/1)
3.83
•2.51 ; ''
4.64
t •- ,
3.27 .
• " ' i
3.74
'3.17 ,

3.02
2.69
2.40
2.28
2.51
2.07
2.37
1.93
1.70
2*30
Phosphate
(mq/1)
45.8
59.5
53.9 •

52.2

47.5
38.6

"24.5
13.3 ;
11.5 x .
11.5
10.7
10^6
•'' '-11-6 . '.
•/ 12.6
•12.4
'•MS. 2.
Potassium
(mq/1)
20
20
, .19

,19
• , t
'• .. '. 19 '•
20
1 .
'•". ..'"19 ,:;.
19
'• '.'. 19 ".-'.!
161'."
18
; 18
•18
' ' ' ' 18, ••
18
' " '' 1? '

-------
JWPCP - Raw Sewage Parameters
1971 - 1986 Yearly Averages
       Page 8
                                   Calculated4
                                    Sludge
Calculated4
 Sludge

Year
1971
1972
1973
1974
1975
1976
1977
1978
1979
1980
1981
1982
1983
1984
1985
1986
Selenium •
(mg/1)
-
-
-
-
-
0.015
0.016
0.009
0.012
0.010
0.009
0.014
0.016
0.015
0.013
0.017
Silver
(mg/1)
0.0140
0.0170
0.0126
0.0109
0.0140
0.0140
. 0.0106
0.0191
0.0197
' " 0.0153
0.0150
0.0175
0.0182
0.0170
0.0200
0.0198
Concentration
(mg/1)
ซ
-
.-! ,
58.57
57.57
74.38
76.47
76.61
72.00
78.52
78.39
92.27
115.44
120.99
108.33
107.54.
Mass
(Ibs/d)
-
-
*
169,656
164,320
219,122
210,597
220,572
220,524
245,075
238,127
277,223
340,082
355,420
326,353
326,691
Sodium
(mg/1)
369
381
357
336
308
306
336
357
331
333
338
368
369
407
395
378

-------
JWPCP
1971 -
ป<•
Year
1971
1972
1973
1974
1975
1976
1977
1978
1979
1980
1981 ;
1982
1983
1984
1985
1986
-Raw Sewage
1986 Yearly

Solids
' Total ,
(mg/1)
2112
2040
1975
1828
1681
. ' . • • " - .'•

..,-•.
' • . ..-
; -•
> • • - • :

- •
; -•
-
" . . — -
Parameters
Averages

Sulfate
(mg/1)
347
,330
349 .
320
;258
224
• . , 260.
, .270
275
'' ' ' 275 ; .'
286
240
. :-. ' 282
296
268
'•-. 285

- '..•'-
' Suifide
Total
(mg/1)
0*4
0.5, •
"- '• 0.5
' 0.5
0.5 ,.
0.6
1.0
: 1-2
.•• . ,1.3' .
, - ' 1.3
l'.6;' ;., -
1.6
1.6
•' , 2.'0 -
2.6
. 3,0/2.0
Page

; Suifide
Dissolved
(mg/1)
"- 0.1
0.2
0.2
0.2
0.2
0.3
" 0.5
0.6
0.6
0.7
0.7
0.6.
0.6
0.8
1.2
• 1.4/0.6 ; •:
9
.•-.-.
Suspended
Solids
(mg/1)
397
, 416
518
459
484
424
463
448
; 435
442
442
442
463
455
445
454

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JWPCP - Raw Sewage Parameters
1971 - 1986 Yearly Averages
Page 10
Year
1971
1972
1973
1974
1975
1976
1977
1978
1979
1980
1981
1982
1983
1984
198S
1986
TDS ThJLacyanate
(rag/1) (mg/1)
1716
1624
1458
1368
1199
1191
1300
1404
1262
1259
1338
1318
1474
1523
1522
1426
.

2.76
2.00
1.80
2.00
1.89
2.34
2.11
1.18
1.27
1.53
1.50
jr
1.51
1.09
1.42
TICK
(mg/1)
0.03680
0.01986
0.03032
0.02157
0.00724
0.00456
0.00459
0.00470
0.00316
0.00302 •
0.00281
0.00227
0.00166
, 0.00318
0.00088
0.00040
zฑnc
1.930
2.269
2.470
1.990
1.640
1.420
1.460
1.278
1.000
0.952
; 1.012
0.960
1.011
0.830
. 0.720
0.751

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JWPCP - Raw Sewage .Parameters         .     .                Page  11
1971-1986 Yearly Averages
Notes:
     1.  The values in the tables are based  on  the Water Quality
         Characteristics Monitoring Program  arid Were used  for
         the correlation with dissolved  sulfide.  The values,
         in some cases> do not exactly match the graphs and
         slides previously prepared.  Some of the data for the  ,
         graphs and slides.were from sampling conducted, fbr  the
         Industrial Waste Section.  However,, the industrial  waste
         data is incomplete, so to be consistent, only data  from
         the Water Quality Characteristics Monitoring Program
         were used for the correlation.

     2.  Total solids and pH were not correlated wi.th dissolved
         sulfide because of insufficient data^   '              '•• ,

     3.  Sludge mass was not correlated  with dissolved sulfide
        > because it doesn't account for  anyv  change in flow.
         Sludge concentration was used- instead.

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                                                         February 1988
Rank
  1~
  2
  3
  4 .
.-  .5
  6
  7
  8
  9
' 10
 11
 12
 13
 14  .
• 15
 16
 17
 18-
 19
 20
 21
 22
 23
 24
 25
 26
 2?
 28
 29
 30
 -31' ,
 32
 33
 34
  35
  36
  37
  38
  39
  40
 -41
  42
  43
  44
  45

 Note;
                CORRELATION  OF  JWPCP RAW SEWAGE PARAMETERS
                  WITH  DISSOLVED  SOLFIDE FROM 1971-1987
    Parameters
    Nickel        '  .  •
    Chromium-Total  i
    Sludge-Concentration (theoretical)
    Zinc          .
    Copper   •..   •  •.-..''•  .-..'-''.'..  :
    Cyanide     .  ...  '
   ••Lead '.       -  •  •   :....'.
    Iron  . -  .   •    •;•....-,   , '   '."
    Potassium
    Silver. - ••  "       '     '/"...   '•
    Fluoride
    Phenols
    Alkalinity-Total
    Phosphate
    Sodium
    TICK  .   . :      . .    , '    ."  .  ;.
    PCB-Total'                    ;
    Barium               .
    DDT-Tbtal
    Boron
    Oil  and Grease
    Mercury       ^    ;
    Nitrogen-Ammonia
    Hardness-Calcium
    COD-Soluble     .
    Cadmium
    Detergent (MBAS)  '
    Hardness-Magnesium
    Selenium               ,
    . Sulfate
    Flow        •                •
    Maganese
    Thiocyanate                    ;
    -COD-Total              :
    Hardness-Total
    Chloride
    Chrbmium-Hexavalent
     Lithium
    Nitrogen-Organic    ,
     Suspended Solids
     Conductance
     Temperature
    '
     TDS  ,
     Arsenic
Correlation
Coefficient
  -0.83
  -0.81
   0.78
  -0.78
  -0..77
  -0.77
  -0.76
  -0.70
  -0.69
   0.69
   0.68
  -0.67
   0.67
  -0.6,6
   0.63
  -0.61  -
  -0.60
   0.57   .
  -0.53
   0.51
  -0.49
  -0.48
  -0;.43
  "-0.43
  -.0.42
  -0.40
  -0.39
  -0 .38
   0.37
  -0.33
   0.33
  -0.32
  -0.28
   0.28
  -0.21
 .  0.20  •'
  -0.13  '•
   0.12
   0.11
   0.07.
   0.05
  -0.05
   0.04
,   0.02
  -0.02
All parameters correlated with dissolved sulfide without  sulfide
control except for Iron which was  correlated with dissolved
sulfide with sulfide control in  1986  and 1987.

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