EPA/430/K94/023
MONTREAL PROTOCOL
ON SUBSTANCES THAT DEPLETE
THE OZONE LAYER
UNEP
1994 Report of the
Technology and Economics Assessment Panel
1995 Assessment
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UNEP
1994 Report of the
Technology and Economics
Assessment Panel
1995 Assessment
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Montreal Protocol
On Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer
UNEP
1994 Report of the
Technology and Economics
Assessment Panel
1995 Assessment
The text of this report is composed in Times Roman.
Composition and co-ordination: Technology and Economics Assessment Panel
Stephen O. Andersen
Suely Carvalho
Lambert Kuijpers (co-chairs)
Gary Taylor
UNEP Nairobi, Ozone Secretariat
Ministry of Housing,
Spatial Planning
and the Environment,
the Netherlands
30 November 1994
Layout:
Reprinting:
Funding of reproduction:
Date:
No copyright involved.
Printed in Kenya; 1994.
ISBN 92-807-1450-3
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1994 Report of the
Technology and Economics Assessment Panel
for the
1995 Assessment
of the
U N E P
MONTREAL PROTOCOL
ON SUBSTANCES THAT DEPLETE
THE OZONE LAYER
pursuant to
Article 6
of the Montreal Protocol;
Decision IV/13 (1993)
by the Parties to the Montreal Protocol
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Disclaimer
The United Nations Environment Program (UNEP), the Technology and Economic
Assessment Panel co-chairs and members, the Technology and Economic Options Committee
chairs and members and the companies and organisations that employ them do not endorse the
performance, worker safety, or environmental acceptability of any of the technical options
discussed. Every industrial operation requires consideration of worker safety and proper
disposal of contaminants and waste products. Moreover, as work continues - including
additional toxicity testing and evaluation - more information on health, environmental and
safety effects of alternatives and replacements will become available for use in selecting among
the options discussed in this document.
UNEP, the Technology and Economic Assessment Panel co-chairs and members, and the
Technology and Economic Options Committee chairs and members, in furnishing or
distributing this information, do not make any warranty or representation, either express or
implied, with respect to the accuracy, completeness, or utility; nor do they assume any liability
of any kind whatsoever resulting from the use or reliance upon, any information, material, or
procedure contained herein, including but not limited to any claims regarding health, safety,
environmental effects or fate, efficacy, or performance, made by the source of the information.
Mention of any company, association, or product in this document is for information purposes
only and does not constitute a recommendation of any such company, association, or product,
either express or implied by UNEP, the Technology and Economic Assessment Panel co-chairs
or members, the Technology and Economic Options Committee chairs or members or the
companies and organisations that employ them.
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A
cknowledgements
The Technology and Economic Assessment Panel and its Technical Options Committees
acknowledges, with thanks, the outstanding contributions from all of the individuals and
organizations who provided technical support to Panel and Committee members.
The opinions expressed are those of the Panel and the Committees and do not necessarily
reflect the views of any sponsoring or supporting organizations.
The Technology and Economic Assessment Panel and its Technical Options
Committees
The Technology and Economic Assessment Panel is chaired by Dr. Stephen O. Andersen
(United States of America), Dr. Suely Carvalho (Brazil), and Dr. Lambert Kuijpers
(Netherlands). Mr. Laszlo Dobo (Hungary), Mr. Yuichi Fujimoto (Japan) and Ms.
Carmelina Lombard! (Venezuela) are Senior Advisors. The seven Technology and
Economic Options Committees are: Aerosol Products, Sterilants, Miscellaneous Uses and
Carbon Tetrachloride (chaired by Ms. Andrea Hinwood-Australia, Mr. Jose Pons Pons-
Venezuela, and Dr. Helen Tope—Australia; Economic Options (chaired by Dr. Robert Van
Slooten~UK); Flexible and Rigid Foams (chaired by Ms. Jean Lupinacci—USA and Ms.
Sally Rand-USA); Halons (chaired by Mr. Gary Tsiylor-Canada and Major Thomas
Morehouse—USA); Methyl Bromide (chaired by Dr. Jonathan Banks—Australia and Dr.
Rodrigo Rodriguez-Kabana-USA); Refrigeration, Air Conditioning and Heat Pumps
(chaired by Dr. Lambert Kuijpers-Netherlands); and Solvents, Coatings and Adhesives
(chaired by Dr. Stephen O. Andersen—USA and Mr. Jorge Corona—Mexico).
Members of the Committees are from Argentina, Australia, Austria, Bahamas, Bangladesh,
Belgium, Brazil, Canada, Chile, China, Denmark, Egypt, France, Germany, Hungary,
India, Israel, Italy, Japan, Jordan, Kenya, Malaysia, Mexico, Netherlands, New Zealand,
Norway, Poland, Russia, Singapore, Republic of South Africa, Spain, Sweden,
Switzerland, Thailand, United Kingdom, United States, Venezuela, and Zimbabwe.
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ii
Contact Information
Technology and Economic Assessment Panel Co-Chairs and Advisors
Dr. Stephen O. Andersen (Penel Co-Chair)
Deputy Director
Stratospheric Protection Division
United States Environmental Protection Agency
Mail Code 6205J
401 M Street, SW
Washington, DC 20460
U.S.A.
Telephone: 1 202 233 9069
Telefax: 1 202 233 9576; 233 9577
Dr. Suely M. Carvalho (Panel Co-Chair)
Coordinator/Ozone Group-IEE
Universidade de Sao Paulo
Av. Prof. Almeida Prado 925
05508-900, Sao Paulo
S.P., Brazil
Telephone: 55118184720
Telefax: 55112107750
Telefax: 55118185031
E-mail: suely@iee.usp.br
Mr. Laszlo Dpbo (Senior Advisor)
Hungarian Ministry for Environment and Regional Policy
F6U 44-50
H-1011 Budapest
Hungary
Telephone: 36 1 201 2325
Telefax: 36 1 201 3056
Mr. Yuicbi Fujimoto (Senior Advisor)
Director, Planning and International
Japan Electrical Manufacturer's Association
4-15, Nagata-cho
2-Chome
Chiyoda-ku
Tokyo 100, Japan
Telephone: 81 3 35814845
Telefax: ' 81335060475
Dr. I-ambert Kuijpers (Panel Co-Chair)
c/o Technical University
W&S/4 Building
P.O. Box 513
ML - 5600 MB Eindhoven
The Netherlands
Telephone: 3140 47 2487
Telefax: 3140466627
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Contact Information (continued)
Technology and Economic Assessment Panel Co-Chairs and Advisors
Sra. Carmelina Flores Lombard! (Senior Advisor)
Directora de Normas y Asesoria Legal
Ministerio del Ambiente y de los Recursos Naturales Renovables
Torre sur-Piso 19
Centre Simon Bolivar
Caracas
Venezuela
Telephone: 58 2 408 1497 98
Telefax: 58 2 408 1210
Aerosols, Sterilants, Miscellaneous Uses and Carbon tetrachloride
Ms. Andrea Hinwood (Co-Chair)
Department of Social and Preventive Medicine
Monash University
Caulfield General Medical Centre
260 - 294 Kooyong Road
Caulfield 3162
Victoria
Australia
Phone: 61 3 276 6168
Fax: 6132766160
Mr. Jose Pons Pons (Co-Chair)
Spray Quimica C.A.
URB.IND.SOCO
CalleSur#14
Edo Aragua
La Victoria
Venezuela
Telephone: 58 44 223297; 214079; 223891
Telefax: 58 44 220192
Telex: 44155
Dr. Helen Tope (Co-Chair)
Environment Protection Authority
GPOBox4395QQ
Melbourne, Victoria 3001
Australia
Telephone: 61 3 628 5292
Telefax: 61 3 628 5945
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IV
Contact Information (continued)
Economics
Dr. Robert van Slooten (Chair)
Department of Trade and Industry
151 Buckingham Palace Road
SW1 9SS London
United Kingdom
Telephone: 44 71 215 1829
Telefax: 44 71 215 2909
E-Mail: 100135.2746@compuserve.com
Halon Fire Extinguishing Agents
Major T. Morehouse (Co-Chair)
Institute for Defence Analyses
1801 North Beauregard St.
Alexandria, VA 22311-1772
U.S.A.
Phone: 1 703 845 2442
Fax: 1703 845 6722
E-Mail: Emorehou@ida.org
Mr. Gary M. Taylor (Co-Chair)
Taylor/Wagner Inc.
19 Pleasant Avenue
Willowdale, Ontario M2M 1L8
Canada
Telephone: 1 416 222 9715
Telefax: . 14162500967
E-Mail: 73130.1004@compuserve.com
Methyl Bromide
Dr. Jonathan Banks (Chair)
CSIRO
Division of Entomology
GPO Box 1700
Canberra ACT 2601
Australia
Telephone: 61 6 246 4207
Telefax:. 6162464202
E-mail: jb@ento.csiro.au
Dr. Rodrigo Rodriguez-Kabana (Vice-Chair)
Department of Plant Pathology
Auburn University
Auburn, Alabama 36849-5409
U.S.A.
Telephone: 1205 844 4714
Telefax: 1 205 844 1948
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Contact Information (continued)
Refrigeration, Air Conditioning and Heat Pumps
Dr. Lambert Kuijpers (Chair)
c/o Technical University
W&S/4 Building
P.O. Box 513
NL - 5600 MB Eindhoven
The Netherlands
Telephone: 3140472487
Telefax: 3140466627
Rigid and Flexible Foams
Ms. Jean Lupinacci (Co-Chair)
Chief, Technology and Substitutes Branch
United States Environmental Protection Agency
Mail Code 6202J
401 M Street, SW
Washington, DC 20460, U.S.A.
Telephone: 1 202 233 9137
Telefax: 1 202 233 9579
Ms. Sally Rand (Co-Chair)
Substitutes Analysis Branch
United States Environmental Protection Agency
Mail Code 6205J
401M Street, SW
Washington, DC 20460; U.S.A.
Telephone: 1 202 233 9739
Telefax: 1 202 233 9577
Solvents, Coatings and Adhesives
Dr. Stephen O. Andersen (Chair)
Deputy Director
Stratospheric Protection Division
United States Environmental Protection Agency
Man Code 6205J
401 M Street, SW
Washington, DC 20460, U.S.A.
Telephone: 1 202 233 9069
Telefax: 1 202 233 9576; 233 9577
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VI
Contact Information (continued)
Solvents, Coatings and Adhesives
Mr. Jorge Corona (Vice chair)
Environmental Commission
Cto. Misioneros G-8, dep. 501
Cd. Satelite
53100,EdodeMex.
Mexico
Phone: 52 5 393 3649 or 399 9130
Fax: 52 5 572 9346
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Vll
Report of the 1994
Technology and Economic Assessment Panel
Table of Contents
Section
1
2
3
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
Title Page
Executive Summary 1
Introduction 15
Historical global HCFC consumption - future demand 23
The technical feasability of the phaseout schedule 45
for HCFCs in Article 5 countries
Application of Trade Measures under Article 4 49
to HCFCs and Methyl Bromide
Article 5, Paragraph 1 - Country aspects 53
Summary of the Report of the Aerosols, Sterilants, 63
Miscellaneous Uses and Carbon tetrachloride Technical
Options Committee
Summary of the Report of the Flexible and Rigid 71
Foams Technical Options Committee
Summary of the Report of the Halon Fire Extinguishing 81
Agents Technical Options Committee
Summary of the Report of the Methyl Bromide 87
Technical Options Committee
Summary of the Report of the Refrigeration, 95
Air Conditioning and Heat Pumps Technical
Options Committee
Summary of the Report of the Solvents, Coatings 111
and Adhesives Technical Options Committe
Summary of the Report of the Economics Committee 125
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viii
Table of Contents (cont.)
Section
Title
Appendix A Panel and Options Committee Members
Appendix B Decisions of the Parties Pertaining to the
Assessment Panels
Appendix C Global Warming
Appendix D Glossary
Page
131
145
155
161
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Executive Summary
Progress and challenges in the phaseout of ozone depleting substances in
developed countries
Developed countries, except for a number of Countries with Economies In Transition
(CEIT), are generally on schedule to phase out chlorofluorocarbon (CFC), 1,1,1-
trichloroethane, and carbon tetrachloride by January 1,1996.
The halon phaseout took effect January 1,1994 with little disruption because the fire
protection industry had established global information networks and coordinated halon
banks. Halons are in surplus in some countries while in short supply in others. Halon
1301 banking is fully functional in many countries and being organized in others. There is
increasing interest in the conservation and banking of halon 1211. Halon banks are
important because environmentally acceptable alternatives have not been commercialized for
some important fire protection applications.
For CFCs, individual countries with aggressive early phaseout goals are best prepared for
their approaching deadlines. The European Union (EIJ) countries are approaching their
internal January 1,1995 CFC phaseout without alarm. Since the 1995 EU phaseout relies
heavily on stockpiling by users, experts wonder whether the transition will be smooth after
ozone-depleting substance (ODS) stockpiles are depleted late in 1995/1996. Most other
developed countries are on schedule for the January 1,1996 phaseout with greatest concern
for refrigeration and air conditioning servicing and for 1,1,1-trichloroethane solvent use
among small and medium-sized industry. The pace of retrofit and replacement has in fact
been too slow given the impending production phaseout.
The phaseout is virtually complete in most developed countries for manufacture of
automobile air conditioners, refrigerators, foams (except limited use for rigid polyurethane
(PU) foams for home appliance insulation), electronics and aerospace products, and non-
medical aerosol products.
The most difficult remaining manufacturing challenges; are for metered dose inhalers,
precision cleaning of sophisticated aerospace equipment (rocket motors, oxygen systems,
and deep-space guidance systems), and for laboratory and analytical applications. Many
laboratory tests are required by government agencies which currently rely on ODSs.
Altering those test requirements will therefore require regulatory change.
A new, and apparently increasing, challenge that needs to be resolved soon is the fraudulent
smuggling of newly produced CFC and halon often described as recycled. These
shipments could be primarily from Eastern Europe and developing countries where
production facilities are still operating. Such smuggling is in contravention of the Protocol,
harms the ozone layer, reduces the incentive for phaseout in developed countries, and
diverts ODS supplies from developing country users. Measures that could reduce this
illegal activity could be designed in a way to certify that quantities and procedures are
proper, rather than to prohibit trade. This approach would facilitate continued recycling
which often depends on the ability to ship substances to recycle facilities or to markets
where recycling is economic.
Implementation of methyl bromide alternatives and substitutes is virtually complete in the
Netherlands with the exception of some quarantine uses, and at an advanced stage in
countries such as Denmark and Italy that have stringent and immediate domestic controls. .
Implementation efforts are intensifying in countries like the United States, Canada, and the
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European Union that have controls proposed or scheduled for future years. However,
despite the clear findings of the Science Assessment, persistent criticism of the science' of
ozone depletion by advocates of continued methyl bromide use discourages investment in
alternatives.
It is documented that between 1981 and 1991 the Netherlands eliminated its use of methyl
bromide in soil fumigation through the use of chemicals and non-chemical alternatives such
as improved steam sterilization techniques, artificial and natural growth substrates, resistant
plant species, crop rotation, and chemical substitutes. Research and demonstration projects
are investigating whether these successful strategies will work outside of the Netherlands.
Progress and challenges of developing countries
Many developing countries are making phaseout progress in a variety of application areas,
however, some developing countries have actually increased their use of ODSs. ODS
solvent use is rapidly decreasing in cases where cooperation exists from multi-national
companies and organizations like International Cooperative for Ozone Layer Protection
(ICOLP), Japan Electrical Manufacturers' Association (JEMA), Japan Industrial
Conference on Ozone Layer Protection (JICOP), and North Atlantic Treaty Organization
(NATO) and with strong market incentives. Where private or Multilateral Fund financing
has been available progress appears to be underway in refrigeration and in reducing ODS
uses in the manufacture of flexible foam, electronics, and aerosol products. The banking of
recycled halons in both the developed and developing countries is growing sufficiently to
provide maintenance quantities for existing equipment. Developing countries have also
made substantial progress in preparing the way for accelerating ODS phaseout. This is
being accomplished by institutional strengthening such as establishing National Ozone
Units, information exchange, preparation of country programs, and cooperation with the
Implementing Agencies over investment project proposals.
The progress achieved by the developing countries is encouraging, but many challenges
remain. Progress has not always been made even in cases where ODS substitutes and
alternatives are cost effective with rapid payback of investment; such cases could be
indicative of a lack of capital for investment. The ODS supply may be uncertain at
affordable prices in some regions once developed countries phase out production. Obsolete
infrastructure from uses in developed countries may be marketed to developing countries
unless discouraged by the Parties. Technology cooperation may lose momentum when
developed country partners complete their own phaseout and are less willing to sponsor
technical experts. This situation could be improved through continued strengthening of the
institutions and personal networking and through further implementation of investment
projects under the Multilateral Fund. Developing countries also face challenging decisions
on the timing of their ODS phaseouts having regard to the differing implications for costs
and environmental consequences.
Progress and challenges of countries with economies in transition (CEIT)
Since the signing of the Montreal Protocol and its London Amendment substantial changes
occurred in the countries of the Central and Eastern European region and on the territory of
the former Soviet Union. The transition from the "planned economy" political regime to
market economies has begun, but it is taking much more time than originally thought and
hoped for. As a consequence of the dissolution of the former Soviet Union, as well as the
former Yugoslavia, a number of new independent states emerged.
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Legislation and institutions
In many of the successor states there is no legislative basis for either ratifying or
implementing the Montreal Protocol and there are no institutions and authorities to
manage the phaseout of ODSs or even to report consumption data and to establish
the baseline consumption level. In a number of states (e.g. the Baltic republics) the
accession to the Protocol as amended in London is difficult because these countries
are classified as non-Article 5(1) which includes the obligation to contribute to the
Multilateral Fund. Fortunately, the Central European states, probably including
Slovenia, have both the necessary legislation and administrative capabilities to
govern the phaseout of ODSs.
Status of countries with economies in transition
All states of the Central and Eastern European region as well as Commonwealth of
Independent States (CIS) states are struggling with the difficulties of the transition
from a planned economy to market economy, world-wide recession, market
discrimination and exclusion, high inflation rates and chronic lack of capital, even
for investments with short pay-out time. Their resources are mostly inadequate for
a timely ODS phaseout. The phaseout of the production in the Russian Federation
is an additional problem. A substantial part of the reduction of the consumption of
ODSs in the Central European states has been a consequence of the decrease in
industrial output due to the factors referred to earlier, and only partly as a result of
actual phaseout activities/investments.
It seems inevitable that non-compliance will occur in several states. The disruption
to industry caused by political changes, coupled with lack of finance and
appropriate infrastructure means that transition to non-ODS will not occur by 1996.
The Technology and Economic Assessment Panel (TEAP) wishes to draw the
attention of the Parties to the problems of countries with economies in transition,
which did not exist when the Montreal Protocol and its London Amendment were
signed.
In the 1995 March TEAP Report a more detailed description of the problems and
possible approaches to solve those problems will be presented.
The current importance of Hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs) to the CFC
phaseout
HCFCs remain critical for meeting the near-term CFC phaseout goals. They are less
important for new equipment available in the mid and long-term period. HCFCs are
currently necessary for certain new refrigeration and air conditioning applications, for
servicing already installed HCFC equipment, for some rigid thermal insulating and
automotive safety foam products, and for several important small uses such as sterilization,
where some existing equipment cannot be converted to non-ODS alternatives.
The Parties had in 1993 requested by Decision V/8 that tide TEAP and its Technical Options
Committees (TOCs) investigate alternatives and substitutes to HCFCs with elaboration and
report its findings in November 1994. They also requested investigation of potential
control strategies for HCFCs and methyl bromide for developing countries. However, at
the sixth Meeting of the Parties, these requests were updated with Decision VI/13, which
requested an evaluation of feasibility and implications of the available alternatives and
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substitutes to HCFCs and methyl bromide. As a result of the 1994 request by the Parties,
the TEAP will make summary of alternatives and substitutes to HCFCs and methyl bromide
in this Report but the March 1995 Report will be more detailed and will respond to both
Decision V/8, V/19, and W13.
The TEAP has already concluded that it is technically and economically feasible to reduce
the HCFC cap due to the rapid development of alternatives and substitutes to HCFCs.
Furthermore, if the Essential Use Process were applied to HCFCs, it could facilitate an
early HCFC phaseout for new applications (while continuing to depend principally on the
allowable production of controlled substances until 2030 for servicing) by providing the
possibility that critical HCFC uses could be authorized by the Parties. The expanded 1995
evaluation will further elaborate the technical and economic feasibility of reducing the
HCFC cap and/or shortening the "tail" of use in developed countries at reduced levels. If
possible, the TEAP will investigate several scenarios such as "business as usual" with
aggressive marketing and exaggerated new uses versus a "maximum feasible protection
strategy" with balanced incentives for rapid CFC elimination and controlled HCFC
dependence for new equipment.
The TEAP will also describe the history of technical development in applications where
HCFCs were the first feasible alternatives to CFCs but may no longer be required. In some
cases the investigation of HCFC substitutes to CFCs was a necessary intermediate step that
later enabled the introduction of non-ODS alternatives. This discussion will also explore
the consequences of requiring new investment by the industry leaders who took early
actions to protect the ozone layer by switching to HCFCs from CFCs when no other
alternatives were available.
The 1994 essential use process
The 1994 Essential Use Process was successful despite problems of unclear instructions,
incomplete applications, and difficult communication. These problems are being resolved
with the publication of the.Essential Use Handbook, the experience gained in the 1994
Assessment, and through other efforts.
In 1994 the TEAP and its TOCs undertook a cooperative and collaborative review of
essential use nominations on a challenging time-table and without budget. In many cases,
the volunteer experts identified suitable alternatives or substitutes or helped guide applicants
through rapid identification and development.
The Parties generally agreed with the TEAP and TOC consensus conclusions but chose to
grant the initial exemptions for a maximum of two years.
In the case of Metered-Dose Inhalers (MDIs) the Panel and the Aerosol Products TOC had
recommended initial exemptions for all MDI applications but the Parties decided to only
grant exemption for oral inhaled drugs for asthma and Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary
Disease (COPD) and for a single category of anti-cancer medicine (leuprolide) which is
proposed-but not yet commercialized-rby a single manufacturer. The Panel and TOC had
. recommended an initial exemption for the broader category of drugs based on the lack of
detailed information provided which is necessary to ascertain the essentiality of non-
pulmonary drug use. The Panel and TOC will further investigate these issues in the March
1995 Report and provide additional guidance for the Parties. However, micro-management
of such issues by either the Panel or the Parties may not further protect the ozone layer if it
distracts work from more significant uses and topics. It will be particularly important to
ensure that nominations follow the evaluation process and meet requirements of essentiality
decided by the Parties.
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Sector Progress: Non-Medical Aerosol Products
A significant reduction in CFC use for non-medical aerosol products has occurred since
1986 with current global use less than 80,000 tonnes.
A large majority of non-medical aerosol products use hydrocarbon propellants. Other
alternative flammable propellants are dimethyl ether and hydrofluorocarbon (HFC) 152a.
Non-flammable alternatives include CO2, N2, HFC-134a, and HFC-227. HCFCs have
limited and temporary applications that are expected to decrease significantly over the next
few years. Non-propellant alternatives such as pumps and roll-ons can also be used to
apply or administer some products.
Despite this global progress, CFCs are still used in significant volume for non-medical
products in some developing countries and in countries with economies in transition. In
some countries serious problems exist in obtaining quality hydrocarbon propellant
feedstock.
Sector Progress: Medical Aerosol Products
Metered Dose Inhalers (MDIs) will continue to use CFCs under terms of the Essential Use
Decision. CFCs are most difficult to eliminate for treatment of pulmonary diseases. These
diseases are rapidly increasing world wide and inhaled medications are increasingly
recommended for the treatment of asthma and Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease
(COPD). Inhaled medications include MDIs and Dry Powder Inhalers (DPIs). DPIs are
suitable for some patients but are not adequate for children, elderly or very sick patients
who cannot strongly inhale. In 1992, approximately 15% of inhaled medicines were DPIs.
HFC-134a and HFC-227 appear to be suitable substitutes for CFCs in MDIs. However,
these products will not be commercialized until 1996 due to extensive lexicological and
clinical studies necessary to ensure safety. It is envisioned that the transition will occur in
the late 1990s. •
Sector Progress: Sterilization
Ethylene oxide (EO) is particularly useful for sterilizing heat and moisture sensitive
products. It can be diluted with 88% CFC-12 to inert its flammability. EO can also be
inerted with CO2 or HCFCs or can be used in explosion-proof facilities. It is technically
feasible to phaseout CFC-12 in developed countries by 1995. The high cost of HCFC
drop-in replacements and lack of access to technology and training could increase the time
scale of phaseout in developing countries.
Sector Progress: Miscellaneous Uses
There are applications ,such as tobacco expansion, food freezants, linear accelerators,
thermostats, and thermometers which use CFCs, globally in small quantities. All should be
able to be converted to the use of alternatives or other teclinologies that do not use CFCs.
Sector Progress: Carbon tetrachloride
Carbon tetrachloride use as a feedstock is allowed to contimue after the phaseout and can
continue in 1996 as a process agent while the TEAP investigates uses and alternatives.
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Carbon tetrachlpride is still used in large amounts as a solvent in Eastern Europe and Asia
despite its.toxicity. Alternatives to this dangerous application are widely available.
Sector Progress: Rigid and Flexible Foams
In 1993 the foam plastics industry reduced CFC consumption by 50% since 1986, despite a
45% market growth rate over that period. The CFC phaseout for developing countries is
technically feasible around the year 2000 provided that Multilateral Fund projects are
implemented without delay.
Zero ozone depletion potential (ODP) alternatives are the substitutes of choice in many
applications, for example, in packaging, in cushioning and in certain rigid thermal
insulation foams. The main zero-ODP solutions still to be proven are liquid HFCs. In
addition, broader qualification and regulatory approval of hydrocarbons is also required.
This situation is likely to be resolved around the year 2000. Once zero ODP solutions have
been proven, and are commercially available, the implementation can be relatively rapid (3-
5 years) for foam manufacturing in developed countries.
In several markets and for certain applications HCFCs are necessary for rigid thermal
insulating and automotive integral skin foams (used for.,padding) until zero ODP solutions
are proven to have similar performance including high energy efficiency and properties
required for safety.
Full recovery and recycling of CFCs from the existing stock of foam is logistically and
technically difficult. .
Sector Progress: Halons
Halon production in all developed countries, except for the Russian Federation, phased out
on January 1,1994. There are a few fire/explosion risk scenarios for which current fire
protection technology cannot provide adequate protection without the use of halons or
halon-like replacement extinguishants. These risk scenarios involve an unacceptable threat
to human life, the environment, or national security, or an unacceptable impairment of the
ability to provide essential services to society. With proper management, the future needs
of the majority of these risk scenarios can be satisfied by redeployment of existing, banked
halons until such time, beyond the turn of the century, as the bank expires and alternatives
become available.
Application-specific replacement extinguishing agents and alternative technologies are now
commercially available, although environmental and lexicological concerns have limited the
acceptability of some replacements. The primary environmental factors to be considered for
these agents are ODP, global wanning potential (GWP), and atmospheric lifetime.
Comparison of halocarbqn replacements with other alternatives should be based on
consideration of the environmental impact of each alternative.
While GWP and atmospheric lifetime are potentially important environmental factors of
halon replacement agents, the objective of replacing halons with non-ozone depleting
substances is paramount to the goals of the Protocol. Therefore, the use of controlled, non-
zero ODP compounds, including HCFCs and hydrobromofluorocarbons (HBFCs), as
hjdon replacements is not a wise decision if it can be avoided, especially for Article 5(1)
countries. ,
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Recognizing persuasive environmental concerns, the Halons Technical Options Committee
does not endorse the widespread use of HCFCs and HBFCs or perfluorinated carbons
(PFCs), in preference to other, effective, new or existing technological alternatives for fire
protection. The use of any synthetic compound that accumulates in the atmosphere carries
some potential risk with regard to atmospheric equilibrium changes, with consequences to
long-term availability of the compound and subsequent support for installed fire protection
systems.
International cooperation on the movement of recycled halons facilitates access to a bigger
market for the sale or purchase of halons, and provides (the ability to recharge critical halon
systems, such as on board ships and aircraft, while in a foreign territory. It is therefore
important that the Parties ensure that national regulations that were implemented to restrict
imports and exports of newly produced halons do not impede the international trade in
recycled halons or their premature destruction.
Sector Progress: Methyl Bromide
Methyl bromide is principally used as a fumigant, controlling a wide spectrum of pests,
including pathogens, insects and nematodes. It has sufficient phytotoxicity to control many
weeds and seeds in soils.
Of the 1992 global sale of methyl bromide of 75,625 tonnes, 3.2% was used as a feedstock
for chemical synthesis. It is estimated that the remainder was used for soil treatment (70%);
fumigation of durables (16%) fumigation of perishables (8.0%), and fumigation of
structures and transportation (2.7)%. The proportions for 1991, the base year, are similar
to those for 1992. The Methyl Bromide Technical Options Committee (MBTOC) noted
that, in the absence of controls some developing countries expect to expand uses of methyl
bromide substantially. Global consumption, excluding feedstock uses, has increased about
3,700 tonnes per year since 1984.
Under the current usages pattern, the proportions of applied methyl bromide emitted
eventually to atmosphere globally were estimated by MBTOC to be 30-85%, 48-88%, 85-
95% and 90-95% of applied dosage for soil, durables, perishables and structural
treatments, respectively. These figures, weighted for proportion of use and particular
treatments, correspond to a range of 47-81% overall emission from agricultural and related
uses (34,000-59,000 tonnes, based on 1992 sales data).
There is active research into the development of recovery and recycling equipment for
methyl bromide. A few special examples of recovery equipment are in use and it is
anticipated that prototype systems capable of recycling recaptured gas for some use areas
will be evaluated by the end of 1995. Most development work is directed at recovery from
enclosures used for structure or commodity fumigation (about 24% of global production).
Some preliminary work on recovery for soil fumigation is in progress.
If recovery is to be recognized as an acceptable method of reducing methyl bromide
emissions to the atmosphere, it will be necessary to set specifications on aspects of
fumigation, such as equipment efficiency and tolerable levels for emissions.
There is no single alternative to methyl bromide in all of its wide range uses. However,
technically, alternatives do already exist for a number of current applications.
MBTOC estimates that by using known technology it is technically, possible for Parties
operating under Article 2 to significantly reduce usage of methyl bromide. Estimates of the
magnitude of the reduction and its time scale varied widely amongst MBTOC members.
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Opinions ranged from a reduction of 50% feasible by 1998, to decreases of only a few
percent by 2001. Reductions should be achievable through a combination of implementing
alternatives and use of better containment technology, together with longer exposure times
and lower dosages for methyl bromide treatment, particularly in soil fumigation.
Achievement of such reductions may entail use of some alternatives which may have
potential to cause environmental and health effects. Some alternatives, notably those
leading ,to residues in products, while technically effective, may not be acceptable to
regulatory authorities, markets, or end users.
It was noted that there are specific constraints on rapid implementation of some alternatives
associated with the time taken to gain registration and regulatory acceptance of some
procedures. The problem is particularly acute in some cases relating to treatment of exports
to meet quarantine standards where extensive trials and protracted bilateral negotiations may
While alternatives are available for the majority of current uses, the MBTOC did not
identify technically feasible alternatives, either currently available or at an advanced stage of
development, for less than 10% of 1991 methyl bromide use.
Developing countries currently use about 18% of methyl bromide produced globally for
agricultural and related uses. The main uses are for soil fumigation (about 70% of total)
and disinfestation of durables (about 20%). ,
Soil fumigation is mainly carried out in Article 5(1) countries for pest and disease control in
the production and export of certain high value cash crops (e.g., tobacco, cut flowers,
strawberries, vegetables). It is used particularly for fumigation of nursery and seed beds
Methyl bromide is not used during production of staple foodstuffs. Where used on
durables, the main application is the protection of local stocks of food grains and for
disinfestation of imported and exported cereal grains and timber.
Potential trade restrictions relating to methyl bromide use are of great concern to those
Article 5(1) countries dependent on certain exports now produced with the aid of methyl
bromide. Such restrictions, which could be applied by developed, importing countries and
regions, as a result of their own or international restriction on methyl bromide, are seen as
an issue of substantial importance. They could nullify the effect of any grace period.
Sector Progress: Refrigeration and Air Conditioning (AC)
In 1993, the global refrigeration, air conditioning and heat pumps sector in developed
countries reduced from 1986 levels its CFC consumption by about 35%, despite a 30%
market growth. However progress was not achieved in every region. The European
Union actually increased its use while the United States decreased use by 50%.
Zero-ODP substitutes (HFC, HFC blends, ammonia, and hydrocarbons) are the
substitutes-of-choice in many new equipment applications. Hydrocarbons have made a
remarkable penetration in the domestic refrigeration market, partly because of their support
and promotion by Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs).
The largest share of zero-ODP substitutes is the HFC blends with increasing use of
ammonia and hydrocarbons. Hydrocarbons are currently used in about 5% of new
refrigerators but are expected to increase to 30% over the next 3-5 years for application in
both developed and developing countries. In large systems, ammonia is expected to
dominate but with substantial use of HFC and HFC-based blends. Ammonia is not
available-new for smaller units, but product development is underway.
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In servicing a variety of refrigeration and AC equipment, including retrofits, the use of
HCFC or HCFC based blends is currently necessary. No non-HCFC substitute has been
identified so far for small (HCFC-22), and very large sized commercial and industrial
chiller systems. However, the HCFC chemicals will be increasingly replaced in new
refrigeration and air conditioning equipment by other chemicals such as HFC mixtures or
blends. HFC retrofits are becoming feasible with increased application anticipated in 1995-
1997. HCFC use in refrigeration is expected to stabilize at 1989 levels in 1995 and 1996
and then decrease from 1996 to 2000.
The automotive sector in all developed countries and in some developing countries has
changed from CFC-12 to HFC-134a for all new equipment. Retrofits are increasingly
available and being implemented in developed countries, but usually at higher cost than
servicing with CFCs.
Recycling and recovery is most successful in developed countries with high CFC costs and
where regulation is in place. Without such incentives, CFC conservation is likely to be
minimal. In developing countries it can often be cost-effective to improve maintenance and
to recycle from large systems.
Sector Progress: Solvents
Most developed country suppliers and consumers of ozone depleting solvents are halting
production and use earlier than mandated or expected. A few enterprises have made unwise
first choices of alternatives and substitutes and are changing to better options. However,
significant problems exist in the European Union (EU) where many companies began their
investments too late and may not be able to halt their use prior to the January 1,1995 EU
phaseout of production.
Furthermore, some large companies in developed countries may have been over-confident
that their uses would qualify as essential and consequently may not have allowed enough
time for a smooth transition. Varying sizes of enterprises, but especially small and
medium-sized enterprises are identified in many developed countries as possibly being
unaware, unprepared, and financially unable to make necessary investments in time to
avoid chemical shortages and price increases that could jeopardize their businesses.
Procrastination in implementing alternatives and substitutes could lead to significant price
increases for stockpiled and recycled ODSs manufactured prior to the phaseout. Dramatic
price increases could stimulate illegal markets in imported solvents. In the immediate
future, shortages of ODS solvents could cause compani.es to switch to chlorinated and/or
HCFC solvents, if allowed, because these solvents can often be used in existing
equipment.
In January 1994 the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) held its 2nd international
conference on "The Role of the Military in Protecting the Ozone Layer". NATO members
reported that they are meeting or exceeding the production phaseout goals of the Montreal
Protocol and EU members reported that they are meeting their more stringent goals. Part of
the reason for this progress has been the leadership of policy makers in some ministries of
defence who realized that global environmental protection is part of national security and
also recognized that they cannot continue to depend on chemicals that will be unavailable or
increasingly expensive. ,
The Solvents Committee cautions that manufacturers may eliminate ODSs from products
without notifying customers. There is the possibility that the manufacturer may not
appreciate that their product is used in a particular application where the ozone-depleting
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substance provided a necessary performance characteristic that is not duplicated by the
reformulated product. Use of such reformulated materials and products under these
circumstances could be costly or dangerous to life and health. The solution is to better
communicate changes in product ingredients and to cooperate on performance testing of the
new products.
In some cases technology cooperation with developing countries has already been highly
successful or has prepared countries to take prompt action once incentives and financing are
in place. Examples include Mexico, Thailand, Turkey, and Malaysia. An important
conclusion from investigations of solvent use in developing countries is that enterprises
must be motivated and prepared to accept new technology. This motivation can result from
government regulation, a clearly articulated industry phaseout strategy, price increases,
product shortages, or supply uncertainty for ozone-depleting substances. Some technology
cooperation efforts have been prematurely attempted in countries where enterprises and
national governments were not prepared, and as a consequence little actual investment
progress has been made.
Solvent HCFC
Few large scale current uses of HCFCs has been reported for solvents, coatings, or
••adhesiyes. In the near term HCFCs may be necessary as transition substances in
some limited and unique applications. In countries where HCFCs are prohibited,
enterprises may, in certain specific cases, select perfluorinated carbons (PFCs) as
an adjunct to specialized cleaning systems. PFCs have extremely long atmospheric
lifetimes and have potent global warming potentials (GWPs) and should therefore
be avoided where possible.
It is estimated that HCFC-141b and HCFC-225 together will not replace more than
1 percent of global CFC-113 uses unless HCFC-225 becomes a substitute for CFC-
113 in dry cleaning, which could increase use to approximately 5 percent.
Progress in eliminating ODS from rocket motors
Ozone Depleting Substances (ODSs) have been routinely used globally for decades
in the manufacture of space launch vehicle solid rocket motors (SRMs). The
primarily ODS solvents used are 1,1,1-trichloroethane (TCA or methyl chloroform)
and CFC-113.
Since 1989, the four US manufacturers of large SRMs have eliminated over 1.6
million pounds of ODS use per year. Current (1994) ODS usage is less than 48
percent of the use in 1989. Usage in 1995 is estimated to be less than 22 percent of
1989, and manufacturers have committed to complete elimination of ODSs within
the next few years.
Update on the Essential Use for Rocket Applications
National Space and Aeronautics Administration (NASA)/Thiokol was granted an
essential use production exemption for 1996 and 1997. NASA/Thiokol have
proceeded with their phaseout and are ahead of schedule for eliminating non-
essential uses and investigating additional alternatives and substitutes. However, at
this time NASA/Thiokol has not identified any acceptable substitutes that would
reduce their essential use below the previously calculated amounts.
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The Committee has confirmed that other U.S. "and European solid rocket motors use
these substances and that these organizations are expected to nominate additional
essential uses by January 1,1995 for decision in 1995.
The U.S. Titan program is working to completely eliminate the use of ODS and has
invested substantial resources hi successfully developing alternatives to ODS use.
The prime contractor and the major manufacturers of Titan IV vehicle components
will reduce all ODS use by 99 percent, from 1.33 million kg in 1989 to 9,200 kg in
1996. Four small-quantity ODS uses are critical to the success of the Titan SRMU.
Both CFC-113 and TCA are used in the Ariane Espace Program. Efforts to find
substitutes for these programs concern CRYOSPACE for liquid rocket engines and
Societe Europ6enne de Propulsion (S.E.P.) for solid motors.
The Japanese space rocket industry currently uses CFC-113 and TCA but expects to
phase out the uses by the end of 1995.
Cleaning of Oxygen Systems
-In January 1994 NATO identified the cleaning of oxygen systems as one of the
most difficult challenges facing military and aerospace applications. Oxygen
systems include: life support systems such as diving, totally encapsulated suits,
emergency breathing devices, fire & rescue bacl:packs, submarine, aircraft, manned
spacecraft, and medical applications; propulsion systems such as liquid oxygen
rocket motors; industrial systems such as chemical production; and other unique
systems and customer products such as welding equipment.
Case Studies
The Solvents TOC Report includes case studies of successful elimination of ozone-
depleting solvents: Allied Signal, AT&T Bell Labs, Beck Electronics, Ford Motor
Company, Hitachi, Honeywell, IBM Corporation, Japan Industrial Conference on
Cleaning, Lockheed Sanders Company, Miljoministeriet, Minebea Company,
National Semiconductor, Naval Aviation Depot Cherry Point, Northern Telecom,
Robert Bosch Corporation, Rockwell International, Seiko Epson Corporation,
Singapore Institute of Standards and Industrial Research, Swedish EPA, Toshiba
Corporation, U.S. Air Force Aerospace Guidance and Metrology Center, and
Vibro-Meter.
Total Equivalent Warming Impact (TEWI) of Solvent Uses
The Solvent TOC report includes a summary of the key findings of the AFEAS
TEWI report. Solvent losses from cleaning equipment are potentially lower than
assumed hi the 1991 study resulting in lower calculated contributions to TEWI.
The no-clean systems, used for the manufacture of printed wire assemblies, have
the potential for the lowest TEWI. For metal cleaning, chlorocarbon-based systems
(e.g., perchloroethylene, trichloroethylene) have the potentially lowest TEWI. The
PFC system studied has the highest TEWI. Semi-aqueous and alcohol systems
generally have been shown to have a lower TEWI than HCFC and HFC-based
systems.
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Sector Progress: Laboratory and Analytical Uses
Carbon tetrachloride, CFCs, 1,1,1-trichloroethane and other ozone-depleting substances
are currently necessary for a number of important laboratory and analytical applications.
These uses are allowed in 1996 and 1997 under terms of the Essential Use Exemption as
granted by the Parties at their 1994 Meeting. The government of Canada hosted a
workshop in November 1994 to begin to coordinate efforts to reduce such uses.
•Sector Progress: Economic Issues
The transition from the ODS phaseout in developed countries to the early stages of the
phaseout process in the developing countries has seen evidence of a re-thinking of
priorities, mechanisms and resourcing of the Montreal Protocol process. The Economic
Options Committee (EOC) Report develops the transition theme by pointing out the
remarkable achievements recorded so far and calling attention to the scope for
improvements through addressing the concerns of the developing countries. The record of
achievement and the capacity for future progress is largely enabled by the network of
experts (e.g. industrialists, scientists, technologists, policy-makers, economists, NGOs)
with a common interest in ozone layer protection.
A number of policy issues remain to be resolved, such as matching the global phaseout
schedules of ODSs not already scheduled for phaseout tb the most recent scientific and
environmental assessments of the risks those substances pose to the ozone layer; ensuring
the adequacy of the Multilateral Fund to fulfil its mandate; appropriately regulating
transitional chemicals; managing the stock of existing ODSs to minimize premature
obsolescence of ODS-using equipment; and the design of ozone layer protection policies
that will encourage innovation and productivity growth as well as meeting the
environmental imperative to protect the ozone layer.
The major specific concerns of the Article 5(1) countries that were brought to the attention
of the EOC are (1) whether the political and financial support for the institutions of the
Montreal Protocol will be adequate for them to fulfil their mandates; (2) whether the
cooperative approach to the transfer of technology to the Article 5(1) countries will be
sustained; and (3) whether supplies of ODSs and ODS alternatives will be available at
affordable prices. Success in responding to these concerns will depend largely on the
capacities and resourcing of the network of experts working on ozone layer protection.
International Trade and the Basel Convention
The Basel Convention has the potential to be a serious impediment to the transshipment of
recycled CFCs/halons or CFCs/halons to be recycled across international boundaries.
Whilst the Montreal Protocol allows unrestricted trade in recycled CFCs/halons between
signatories, as described below, the Basel Convention could be used to restrict trade. This
is further complicated by the fact that not all signatories to the Montreal Protocol are
signatories to the Basel Convention, and that technically, signatories cannot trade with non-
signatories unless a bilateral agreement exists which is no less stringent than the Basel
Convention requirements.
The Halons Technical Options Committee is working in cooperation with the Basel
Technical Working Group to ensure that if recycled CFC or halon is uncontaminated, or
has already been reprocessed to service specification, then it will not be considered a
hazardous waste or waste at all, and hence exports of the material would be unaffected by
the Basel Convention. For this reason, the Halons Technical Options Committee
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recommends that the Parties to the Montreal Protocol consider:
a) Adopting a decision that recycled CFCs/halons that are certified to the usable
purity specifications (in the case of halons ISO 7201 or ASTM ES 24-93)
are considered recycled materials and not a waste.
b) Adopting a decision that international transfers of CFCs/halons that cannot
meet the purity specifications (in the case of halons ISO 7201 or ASTM ES
24-93) should only be allowed if the recipient country has recycling facilities
that can process the received halon to either of these standards.
A separate decision of the Basel Convention will ban exports of hazardous wastes from the
Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) to non-OECD countries
after 1997. Again, if the Parties to the Montreal Protocol accept recommendations a) and b)
above, this will greatly assist non-OECD countries in meeting their needs with recycled
CFCs/halons instead of with new production.
Reorganizing the TEAP and its TOCs for sustainable operation
As a result of the remarkable success of the Montreal Protocol, the TEAP and its TOCs
need to continue to evolve and undergo revitalization in order to serve the needs of the
Parties. As the phaseout is successfully completed in developed countries, there is less
support from companies and organizations that have solved their own technical problems
and many environment ministries are withdrawing staff and resources from ozone layer
protection. Furthermore, the needs of the developing countries are increasing as their
phaseout progresses.
The character of the work has shifted from evaluation of the substitutes and alternatives to
the ODSs scheduled for 1994 and 1996 phaseout to the assessment of alternatives and
substitutes to HCFCs and methyl bromide. The assessment of Essential Use Nominations
may continue to be important. Additional work involves new and temporary issues which
require the contribution of experts not typically found on the Panel and its TOCs.
Examples of this recent specialization of work include investigations of Destruction
Technologies, Inadvertent Production, Laboratory and Analytical Uses, and Process
Agents.
In 1995 the Panel will refocus, simplify, and consolidate the Panel and Committees. It is
possible that the Solvents, Coatings, and Adhesives Teclinical Options Committee will be
merged with the Aerosol Products, Sterilants, Miscellaneous Uses and Carbon
Tetrachloride Technical Options Committee and consideration is being given to merging the
Economic Options Corrimittee functions into the Panel itself. Committees will be adjusted
with improvements in geo-political balance. Participation by organizations that market
ozone-depleting substances but do not offer alternatives and substitutes will be reevaluated.
Every Committee will be asked to reduce participation of developed country experts with a
goal of forty or fewer participants per Committee, but with an increase in the number of
developing country participants.
These changes will increase developing country participation, reduce Committee
management and logistical expenses, and will improve technical efficiency.
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Introduction
i.
1.1
Introduction - Montreal Protocol Process
Ozone depletion and other environmental considerations
The concentration of ozone in the earth's atmosphere varies with altitude, latitude and
seasons. The maximum concentrations are found in the stratosphere at altitudes of 25-40
kilometres. Ozone is created by the action of ultraviolet (UV) radiation from the sun on
oxygen molecules (O2) creating ozone (O3). Ozone has the ability to reduce harmful UV-B
radiation from the sun reaching the surface of the earth.
Chlorine and bromine containing compounds, that are stable, migrate to the stratosphere
where over time the high energy radiation from the sun causes them to decompose,
releasing the chlorine and bromine. The chlorine or bromine then reacts with the other
gases in the stratosphere. The result is a reduction in the concentration of stratospheric
ozone. Each chlorine or bromine atom can participate in 10,000-100,000 destruction
reactions before being fixed as hydrochloric or hydrobromic acid, and washed out of the
atmosphere. The Ozone Depletion Potential (ODP) provides a useful yardstick for
estimating the relative destruction potential of various chemicals.
Chemicals which contain only chlorine, fluorine and carbon are called fully halogenated
chlorofluorocarbons or simply CFCs. Similar compounds, which contain one or more
hydrogen atoms, are not fully halogenated and are called hydrochlorofluorocarbons or
HCFCs. The presence of the hydrogen atom reduces their stability in the atmosphere and
hence their adverse impact on the ozone layer. Chemicals containing fluorine, carbon and
hydrogen, but no chlorine or bromine, are referred to as hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs).
The halons, primarily used as fire extinguishing agents, consist of carbon, fluorine,
bromine and possibly chlorine and deplete the ozone layer in a similar manner to the CFCs,
only more severely (this is reflected by the ODP value, see Table 1.1). Other
anthropogenic chemicals, such as 1,1,1-trichloroethane (methylchloroform, CHsCCls),
carbon tetrachloride (CCU), and methyl bromide also contribute to ozone depletion.
An additional property of the CFCs, halons, methyl bromide, and fluorinated compounds,
including those that are under consideration as substitutes for CFCs, is their ability to
absorb infra-red radiation at wavelengths that make them potential contributors to an
enhanced greenhouse effect Similar to the ODP, the global warming potential (GWP) is
used to provide a measure of the relative contribution of an atmospheric gas to global
warming and climate change. Three major factors determine the relative contribution of the
gas to radiative forcing: the position and strength of the absorption bands of the gas, its
lifetime in the atmosphere, and the time period over which the climate effects are of
concern. Across the ODSs and their chemical substitutes there is a wide variation in
GWPs. Greenhouse gases are already controlled by voluntary agreements under the
Climate Convention, while legally binding controls are being negotiated.
Since the ozone depletion potential and the global warming potential are ways of comparing
the adverse environmental impacts of chemicals, both need to be taken into account when
assessing environmental acceptability. The use of any compound that accumulates in the
atmosphere carries some potential risk with regard to atmospheric, human health and
environmental effects. It is also important to consider other environmental, health, and
safety considerations such as consumer and worker safety, toxicity, flammability, energy
efficiency, air pollution, and others, when evaluating alternatives. A summary of estimated
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values for ozone depletion and global warming potentials is given in Appendix B.
1.2
Montreal Protocol
In 1981, in response to the growing scientific consensus that CFCs and halons would
ultimately deplete the ozone layer, the United Nations Environment Program (UNEP)
began negotiations to develop multilateral protection of the ozone layer. These negotiations
resulted in the Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer, in March 1985
The convention provided a framework for international cooperation in research,
environmental monitoring and information exchange.
In September 1987,24 nations, including the United States, Japan, the Soviet Union the
European Community (EC) and country members of the EC, signed the Montreal Protocol
on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer. The Montreal Protocol entered into force on
January 1,1989. By April 1991, 68 nations had ratified the Protocol. These countries
represented over 90 percent of the world's production of CFCs and halons The 1987
Protocol limited production of CFCs to 50 percent of 1986 levels by the year 1998 and
limited production of specified halons at 1986 levels starting in 1992. The Protocol also
contains the requirement of technical and scientific assessments, to be undertaken at least
every four years.
As of 30 September 1994 the Montreal Protocol has been.ratified by 139 countries The
London Amendment has been ratified by 93 Parties and entered into force on 8 October
1992, and the Copenhagen Amendment has been ratified by 34 Parties and entered into
force on 14 June 1994.
A list of CFCs, halons and other substances controlled under the Montreal Protocol is
shown in Table 1.1.
Shortly after the 1987 Protocol was negotiated, new scientific evidence conclusively linked
CFCs to depletion of the ozone layer and confirmed that depletion had already occurred
Consequently, many countries called for further actions to protect the ozone layer by
expanding and strengthening the original control provisions of the Montreal Protocol.
In June 1990, the Parties to the Montreal Protocol met in London and agreed to Protocol
adjustments requiring more stringent controls on the CFCs and halons that were specified
m the original agreement and amendments placing controls on other ozone depleting
substances, including carbon tetrachloride and 1,1,1-trichloroethane. The Parties were
informed by three Panel reports, one on the science of ozone layer depletion, one on its
effects, and a third one on technology and economics. The latter report, of the Technology
and Economic Assessment Panel, was based upon six Technical Options Committees that
undertook assessments of the technology available to reduce the dependence on ozone
depleting substances.
In London, a new assessment was proposed, which was endorsed during the Meetine of
the Parties in Nairobi, 1991 (Decision JU/12).
In 1991 there was a complete assessment of CFC, halon, 1,1,1-Trichloroethane Carbon
tetrachloride, and HCFCs. Li 1992 a supplemental Atmospheric Science, Technology and
Economic Assessment reported the consequence of ozone layer depletion from
anthropogenic emissions from methyl bromide and the technical and economic feasibility of
reducing methyl bromide users and emissions. Based upon this information, the Parties at
Copenhagen controlled methyl bromide and HCFC and decided new phaseout schedules
for the substances already controlled. A seventh Technical Options Committee was set up
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to deal with issues relating to methyl bromide. The consequence of the Copenhagen
Amendment is shown in Table 1.2.
The 1992 Copenhagen Meeting of the Parties to the Montreal Protocol directed the
Scientific, Environmental Effects, and Technology and Economics Assessment Panels to
report on:
(a) the scientific findings and observations regarding stratospheric ozone
depletion and related phenomena and issues (e.g. Ozone Depletion and Global
Wanning Potentials);
(b) the environmental and public health effects of stratospheric ozone depletion;
(c) the technical feasibility and earliest possible date in each of the major use
sectors, of reducing emissions and phasing out production and consumption
of controlled (ozone depleting) substances and the related anticipated
economic concerns.
The 1994 Technical and Economic Assessment study lias been carried out by the Panel and
its seven Options Committees:
(1) Aerosols, Sterilants, Miscellaneous Uses, and Carbon Tetrachloride
Technical Options Committee
(2) Rigid and Flexible Foams Technical Options Committee
(3) Halons Technical. Options Committee
(4) Refrigeration, AC, and Heat Pumps Technical Options Committee
(5) Solvents, Coatings, and Adhesives Technical Options Committee
(6) Methyl Bromide Technical Options Committee
(7) Economic Options Committee ;
The Panel's seven current Committees consist of more than 300 experts from 38 countries
(for a list see Appendix A).
The 1994 Technical Options Committees consist of some members of the 1989 and 1991
Committees and additional new experts. Experts from industry, government, academic
institutions and non-government organizations prepared comprehensive and technically
specific "Options Reports." Producers, equipment manufacturers, trade associations,
users, research institutions, standards making organizations and others provided
comprehensive technical input. The reports will be distributed internationally by UNEP.
This Report is part of the work of the Technology and Economic Assessment Panel under
Decision IV/13. This report, as well as the reports of the two Panels on Science and
Environmental Effects, will be considered by the Parties for further decisions to be taken at
their 7th Meeting in Vienna, 1995.
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1.3
Decisions of the Parties to the Montreal Protocol relevant to
TEAP
There are a number of Decisions of the Parties to the Montreal Protocol which direct the
work of the Technology and Economic Assessment Panel and its Technical Options
Committees. Those that are current relate to Decisions from the fourth, fifth, and sixth
meetings of the Parties. These Decisions are:
IV/13 Assessment Panels
IV/23 Methyl bromide
TV/25 Essential uses
IV/30 HCFCs
V/8 Consideration of alternatives
V/18 Timetable for the submission and consideration of essential use
nominations
V/19 Control Measures to be applicable to Parties operating under
paragraph 1 of Article 5 of the Protocol with respect to the controlled
substances in Group 1 of Annex C,i Group n of Annex C,
and Annex E
V/20 Extension of application of trade measures under Article 4 to
controlled substances listed in Group 1 of Annex C and in Annex E
VI/10 Use of controlled substances as process agents
VF11 Clarification of the "quarantine" and "pre-shipment" applications for
control of methyl bromide
Vl/13 Assessment Panels
• VJ/19 Trade in previously used ozone-depleting substances
Full texts of these Decisions are given in Appendix B.
In 1993 and 1994, the Technology and Economic Assessment Panel issued a progress
report on the success in reducing the use and emissions of controlled substances. In 1994,
the report, in response to Decision IV/13, contained information on essential use
recommendations, on recovery and recycling, on inadvertent losses during production and
handling, and also on HCFCs. The latter requirement was according to Decision IV/30 on
"HCFCs." Th&Parties also decided a new assessment was to be carried out in 1994
according to Decision IV/13.
As a part of the continuing concern of the Parties over appropriate controls on HCFCs,
Decision V/8 requested the TEAP in its report for 1994 to consider technical feasibility,
technical availability, country-specific circumstances, and environmental, health and
economic aspects when considering HCFCs and alternatives to HCFCs. Decision V/19
and V/20 requested the TEAP, in collaboration with the Science Panel and the Secretariat
and Executive Committee, to consider control schedules for HCFCs in Article 5(1)
countries and the feasibility and implications of extending trade measures to trade hi
HCFCs as a part of method of control of HCFCs.
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At the 4th Meeting, the Parties took Decision IV/23 relating to methyl bromide, which
provides the basis for setting up the seventh Technical Options Committee, called the
Methyl Bromide Technical Options Committee. This TOC is to report to the Parties
through the TEAP on methodologies to control emissions of methyl bromide and their
feasibility, and availability of alternatives to methyl bromide. Additional information
relating to the control of methyl bromide (the only substance in Annex E of the Protocol)
was requested in Decision V/19, V/20, and W13. This, in particular, related to the
feasibility and possible base years for the control of methyl bromide in Article 5(1)
countries. Decision VUl 1 clarified some important definitions relating to the control of
methyl bromide and requested further information on the subject.
Decision VI/10 concerned the use of ODSs as process agents and their control. This was to
clarify the status of materials which were used during chemical manufacturing but did not
strictly fall within the definition of feedstock under the Protocol. Decision IV/25 and V/18
allow Parties to continue to use ODS as process agents in 1996 and requests an assessment
of such applications.
Decision VI/19 clarifies exemptions in relation to trade in recycled material and requests
further data on the impact of this trade.
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Group I
CFG- 11
CFC-12
CFC-113
CFC-114
CFC - 115
Table 1-1
Substances Controlled by the Montreal Protocol
(ODP values are relative to CFC-11)
Annex A
Trichlorofluoromethane
Dichlorodifluoromethane
l,l,2-TricWoro-l,2,2-trifluoroethane
1,2-Dichlorotetrafluoroethane
Chloropentafluoroethane
ODP
1.00
1.00
0.80
1.00
0.60
Group II
Halon 1211
Halon 1301
Halon 2402
Bromochlorodifluoromethane
Bromotrifluoromethane
Dibromotetrafluoroethane
3.0
10.0
6.0
Group I
CFC-13
CFC-111
CFC-112
CFC - 211
CFC - 212
CFC - 213
CFC - 214
CFC-215
CFC - 216
CFC - 217
Group II
CC14
Group III
1,1,1-Trichloroethane
Annex B
f
Chlorotrifluoromethane 1.00
Pentachlorofluoroethane 1.00
Tetrachlordifluoroethane 1.00
Heptachlorofluoropropane 1.00
HexachloFodifluoropropane 1.00
Pentachlorotrifluoropropane 1.00
Tetrachlorotetrafluoropropane 1.00
Trichloropentafluoropropane 1.00
DicWorohexafluoropropane 1.00
Chloroheptafluoropropane 1.00
Carbon Tetrachloride (TetracWoromethane) 1.10
Methyl CMoroform (1,1,1-Trichloroethane) 0.10
Annex C
Under Annex C, the Montreal Protocol defines partially halogenated fluorocarbons, (including HCFCst
Group I Hydrochlorofluorocarbons(HCFCs)
Group II
Hydrobromofluorocarbons
MeBr
Annex E
Methyl Bromide
0.6
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21
Table 1-2
Control Measures Status 1994
Annex A - Group I
Chlorofluorocarbons: CFC-11, CFC-12, CFC-113, CFC-114 and CFC-115
Reference year: 1986
75 percent reduction by January 1,1994
100 percent reduction by January 1,1996 ;
Annex A - Group II
Halons: halon 1211, halon 1301 and halon 2402
Reference year: 1986
100 percent reduction by January 1,1994 (with possible exemptions for essential uses)
Annex B - Group I
Other fully halogenated CFCs
CFC-13, CFC-111, CFC-112, CFC-211, CFC-212, CFC-213, CFC-214, CFC-215,
CFC-216, CFC-217
Reference year: 1986
Freeze at 1986 levels by July 1992
85 percent reduction by January 1,1994
100 percent reduction by January 1,1996
Annex B - Group II
Carbon Tetrachloride
Reference year: 1989
85 percent reduction by January 1,1994
100 percent reduction by January 1,1996
Annex B - Group III
1,1,1-trichIoroethane . \
Reference year: 1989
50 percent reduction by January 1,1994
100 percent reduction by January 1,1996
Annex C - Group I
HCFCs
Reference year: 1989
Freeze in 1996 based on 3.1% of 1989 CFC QDP Consumption PLUS Calculated level of 1989 HCFC
Consumption
35 percent reduction by January 1,2004
65 percent reduction by January 1,2010
90 percent reduction by January 1,2015
99.5 percent reduction by January 1,2020
100 percent reduction by January 1,2030
HBFCs
100 percent reduction by 1996
Annex C, Group II
Annex E
Methyl Bromide
Reference year: 1991
Freeze at 199.1 levels by January 1,1995, with exemptions for quarantine and pre-shipment applications
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22
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23
Recent global CFC and HCFC consumption
(1986 to 1993) and estimates for near future
usage (1994 to 2000)
2.1
Introduction
This chapter provides estimates on the global CFC and HCFC consumption over the period
1986-1993. These data have been largely assembled from chemical manufacturer sources to
depict total CFC and HCFC use (mainly HCFC-22, and HCFC-142b) since 1986. The
CFC use has been allocated between developed countries (separated with respect to
CEITs), Article 5 countries and countries that are not Parties to the Montreal Protocol. This
separation was made because the data available for the CEITs and Article 5(1) countries are
not as detailed and for some years data are lacking.
Data has been obtained from several sources (confidential information from fluorocarbon
manufacturers, implementing agencies and from Multilateral Fund Executive Committee
reports); using this data, preliminary estimates are given for the use of CFCs and HCFCs in
the developed countries (including CEITs) and hi the Article 5(1) countries over the period
1994-2000.
The data assembled here provides insight into the remaining challenge to reduce and phase
out global CFC use after 1993/1994. Amongst the different types of usages, the
refrigeration and air conditioning sector has been and remains a dominant user of CFCs and
other fluorocarbons worldwide. Specific data on the consumption by this sector are
therefore presented.
This chapter presents estimated data that could not be critically analyzed by the TEAP and
are therefore for information purposes only. The TEAP will report in its March 1995 report
in a more elaborate form, after having developed own scenarios for future HCFC
consumption.
Section 2.2 describes the data sources for CFC consumption, section 2.3 deals with the
data collection and makes some observations regarding the use of CFC chemicals over the
period 1986-1993, as well as for HCFCs over the same period. Section 2.4 deals with
estimates for the future use of chemicals, in section 2.4,1 for CFCs in refrigeration, in
section 2.4.2 for HCFCs and in section 2.4.3 for other chemical uses in refrigeration.
Section 2.5 presents some concluding remarks.
2.2
Data sources for CFC use
It is difficult to obtain current accurate figures for CFC use or production. CFC data have
been accumulated by an independent audit of production and sales from the twelve
companies that comprise the AFEAS group (Alternative Fluorocarbon Environmental
Acceptability Study). This effort builds on the original data gathering exercise started by the
fluorochemicals producers under the U.S. Chemical and Manufacturers Association (CMA)
Fluorochemical Program Panel (FPP). The CMA and AFEAS group also report an
estimation of their share of the total world CFC production; this allows the estimation off
global CFC production and sales (use).
The Japan Flon Gas Association (JFGA) provides market data and production figures for
the combined Japanese fluorocarbon producers. Similar data are gathered by CEFIC, the
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24
Western-European fluorocarbon industry trade group.
UNEP data are incomplete but significant information exists in the UNEP document
UNEP/ OzL/Pro 5/5, published in 1993 (Bangkok 17-19 November 1993), as well as in
the same type of UNEP document (UNEP/ OzL. Pro 6/5,15 July 1994) published in 1994
Data in these reports permit verification of the U.S., Japan and Western European
information as well as a few benchmarks for other important producers and users of CFCs.
U.S. data have not been made public by the U.S. government or trade groups beyond what
appears in the above mentioned UNEP document. Data from a large global fluorocarbon
supplier of CFCs, which has a reasonably comprehensive data base, have been used to
quantify the U.S. as well as other markets. A report by the U.S. Congressional Research
Service (April) and several trade magazine articles were examined.tq verify or fill in data
gaps. It would appear that the aforementioned data sources seem to be the source of all
other published numbers; hence it is easy to fall into a circular verification trap.
UNEP/OzL.Pro/ExCom/8/25 (21 September 1992) presents estimates of the total ODS
usage for Article 5(1) countries only. Data presented in this chapter are consistent with that
in the 1992 UNEP publication.
UNEP/O2JLJPro/ExCom/14/5 (7 September 1994) is a preliminary document that gives an
overview of the costs of various phaseout strategies in the developing countries. This
document mentions a total use of 225,000 OOP tonnes in the Article 5(1) countries in 1993
derived using a specific analysis of data available (this figure includes halons, CTC and
methylchloroform). Data in this chapter are in good agreement with the above document
since it assumes a consumption of CFCs in. the Article 5(1) countries in the order of
175,000 tonnes in the year 1993.
Information also exists from country programmes that have been approved by the Executive
Committee of the Multilateral Fund. By mid 1994,40 country programmes had been
approved which are assumed to reflect a significant proportion of the use of CFCs in
developing countries (accumulated data from these country programmes amount to roughly
130,000 ODP tonnes).
In summary, building on the information available from chemical companies for the use of
CFCs in different parts in the world, together with other information, reasonably accurate
data are provided for both the developed and the Article 5(1) countries' consumption over
theperiod'1986-1993.
2.3
2.3.1
Data analysis
CFC Consumption 1986-1993
Table 2.1 (see also Fig. 2.1) presents a summary of the best available information for
global consumption or sales of CFCs in the years 1986 through 1993, from CMA/AFEAS
sources, as well as from separate manufacturer data. It builds upon data as given in Table
2.2 (AFEAS and CMA estimates). In Table 2.2, quantities of CFCs sold by AFEAS
companies are given, as well as estimates by AFEAS for global consumption. Table 2.2
also gives the CMA reported data for the different application sectors over the period 1986-
1992 (these data are only for CFC-11/-12 and totals are equal to the CFC-11/12 data
reported to AFEAS, 198671992).
Table 2.1 gives consumption data for the developed countries (excluding CEITs), sales
from the CIS, and consumption in Article 5(1) countries as reported to UNEP. Using the
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25
AFEAS data for global consumption, data for the CEITs and Article 5(1) countries are
derived. Assuming that consumption in CEITs is mainly from sales by the CIS, Article
5(1) country consumption data are derived.
Some important observations from Table 2.1 are:
1. Total CFC use in the developed countries (excluding CEITs) has declined
by 65% over the period 1986-1993, from 862 kt in 1986 to 302 kt in 1993.
2. In the same time frame, it appears that CTC consumption in the CEITs and
Article 5(1) countries has remained in tide 250 to 270 kt/year range
(reduction in the CEITs, growth in Article 5(1) countries).
3. CFC consumption in the Article 5(1) countries hi 1993 is expected to be in
the range of 160-180 kt (value of 170 kt for 1992, given in Table 2.1).
4. In 1994, it is expected that CFC consumption in developed countries
(excluding CEITs) will be comparable to the use in the CEITs and Article
5(1) countries, (in 1993, the consumption was about 300 kt and about 270
kt in the developed countries and in the CEITs plus Article 5(1) countries,
respectively). It can also be anticipated that the use of CFCs in the Article
5(1) countries will be comparable to the use of CFCs in the developed
countries (excluding CEITs) by the end of 1994.
2.3.2
CFC Consumption in refrigeration 1986-1993
Table 2.3 gives data for the global refrigerant sales, derived by AFEAS from the total
global consumption as given in Table 2.2 (using extrapolation from CMA/AFEAS data for
the different application sectors over the period 1986-1993). Table 2.3 also gives an
estimate from the industry on CFC consumption in refrigeration over the period 1986-
1994. Differences between the two sets of data are thought to be found in the build-up of
global inventories (not charged into equipment but available for future use somewhere in
the distribution chain).
Some inventory build up can be inferred from the refrigeration sales peaks in the 1987 to
1989 time frame (30 to 70 kt).. Based on various government actions and trade comments it
is likely that an additional CFC inventory could be accumulated in 1994 and 1995, as
production and consumption allowances may exceed near term demand. This latter CFC
inventory could be 80 to 170 kt, or 35 to 65% of a year's demand for global consumption
hi all sectors (as the footnotes in Table 2.3 explain, significant changes in refrigeration
market dynamics are shrinking the CFC and CFC alternatives markets). The combination of
smaller refrigerant charges hi new equipment, no venting regulations, high excise taxes
(U.S. market primarily), higher CFC prices and a concerted effort to eliminate CFC waste
has reduced the total global refrigerant market by about 25% from historical volumes and
has also reversed the 2.9%/year global growth rate that existed in the decade preceding the
1987 Montreal Protocol. :
The best estimate of future fluorocarbon (CFC) demand for refrigeration, (see Table 2.3)
will be met by a combination of:
• smaller charges hi new equipment,
• improvement hi containment,
. • recycle and recovery of CFCs from old equipment,
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26
• recycle of CFCs equipment retrofitted to HFCs and or HCFCs,
• replacement of CFCs in the new equipment market (OEM), by the use of
CFC alternatives, hydrocarbons and not-in-kind methods, and
1 • continued use of CFCs in the developing nations.
Global experience in curtailing CFC use has occurred under a wide range of government
and private sector activities. The following observations apply to the use in the refrigeration
market:
• in the U.S., the combination of no venting or other application prohibitions,
a rapidly accelerating excise tax, several national solvent and refrigerant
recycle programs and a rapidly growing retrofit market have not only
reduced overall CFC use by about 65% but cut refrigerant use by 50% from
1986 to 1993.
• the European Union (E.U.), has relied heavily on volume reduction
schedules to meet their year end 1994 total phaseout date. However, despite
progress in other sectors, in the 1986 to 1993 time frame total refrigerant
use has remained constant or even increased slightly (by 19% in the year
1993 compared to the 1986 reference year) in the E.U.
• Japan has used a strong industry/government partnership and annual
reduction schedules to accomplish its total CFC reduction that includes
about a 25% cut in refrigerant use between 1986 and 1992 (latest year for
which data are officially available).
Table 2.4 (see also Fig. 2.2) summarises refrigerant use in the developed countries
(excluding CEITs) and infers the use by the other countries (CEITs and Article 5(1)
countries). Global refrigerant use over the 1986-1993 period is also given in Table 2.4. The
data suggest that, while a 38% reduction in developed country (excluding CEITs)
refrigerant use has occurred since 1986, there was still CFC refrigerant use in these
developed countries of 130 kt in 1993.
The use of Tables 2.4 provides a good summary of the developed, the CEIT and the total
world refrigerant markets. As of 1993, the global CFC refrigerant use was about 240-250
kt with 60-65%, used in developed countries (including CEITs) but also 35-40% used in the
Article 5(1) countries. Although the figure for the Article 5(1) countries results from a
subtraction of consumption values for small developed countries and CEITs (where no very
accurate data are available) from the global consumption, the estimates for 1989-1993 have
a 6-7 kt/year uncertainty. The assumption used in Table 2.4, in order to derive Article 5(1)
consumption, i.e. that the CEITs consume in the order of 18-22 kt/year, appears very
reasonable (information from UNEP data reporting, preliminary country programmes).
In summary, the following observations can be made, for the period 1986-1993:
1. CFC refrigerant use in the developed countries has been reduced by 38%,
with different figures for different developed countries (reduction in the
U.S.A by 51%, in Japan by an estimated 30%, whilst there was an increase
intheE.U.by!9%);
2. CFC refrigerant use in the Article 5(1) countries has increased by about 50%
over the period 1989-1993;
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2.3.3
27
3. Global CFC refrigerant use has remained more or less constant when
comparing the years 1986 and 1993 (there has been a somewhat lower
global refrigerant consumption over the period 1990-1992);
4. Values for CFC refrigerant use in the developed countries (excluding
CEITs) are expected to be comparable to the values for refrigerant use in the
CEITs and Article 5(1) countries by 1994.
CFC Consumption in other sectors 1986-1993
In other sectors CFC consumption has reduced substantially since 1986. In the U.S., Japan
and the E.U., the percentage of CFCs used in sectors other than refrigeration amounted to
76% in 1986, and had decreased to 56% in the year 1993 (derived from Table 2.4), which
implies that the other sectors had decreased from 584 kt to 151 kt over the period 1986-
1993, a consumption reduction of more than 70%.
Sectors that have achieved the largest reductions are the aerosol products sector, the
solvents and, to a lesser degree, the foam blowing agents sector, halons are not considered
here.
From CMA data, a reduction in the use of CFC-11/-12 of 95% for aerosol products in
developed countries of 95% can be observed, over the period 1986-1993. However, since
these data do not involve all CFCs used as propellants, however, and since these data do
not consider CEU and Article 5(1) countries, the only conclusion can be that the global use
of CFCs for aerosol products has decreased substantially (presumably by 70-80%).
Comparable values will be made available in the relevant Technical Options Committee
Report. . i
From CMA data, a reduction in the use of CFCs as blowing agent over the period 1986-
1992 can be derived for the developed countries. This reduction is about 33% over this
period; it is estimated that the reduction will beln the order of 50% over the 1986-1993
period (see for more detailed data the Foams Technical Options Committee report).
However, the large reductions hold specifically for a number of developed countries. If the
total, global CFC consumption over the years 1986-1993 is taken for all developed
countries (including CEITs) then the values are 982 kt and 473 kt for the years 1986 and
1992, a reduction by roughly 50% (see Table 2.1, global AFEAS estimate minus Article
5(1) country consumption). This smaller reduction is mainly due to phaseout problems in
the CEITs, in all application sectors.
i
2.3.4 HCFC Consumption 1986-1993
There are few published sources of HCFC production. There are no UNEP data since the
materials do not come under control until 1996. The most reliable and complete data source
is the AFEAS publication, "Production, Sales, and Atmospheric Release of Fluorocarbons
Through 1992". This document covers the CFCs and HCFC-22 (AFEAS has also
published data on the production of HCFC-142b over the last ten year period). Data from
1993 and later will be reported for other CFC fluorocarbon alternatives when three or more
producers report a combined production often thousand or more metric tonnes per
compound in any year. The AFEAS report on 1993 data is not expected to be available until
sometime in 1995. <
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28
In a first instance, AFEAS HCFC-22 data and a single global producer's estimate for
HCFC-22 have been taken; these data have been separated to refrigerants and propellants/
blowing agents. It is believed that the AFEAS data cover more than 95% of the global
HCFC-22 production for the world through 1992. The producer's data appear to represent
about 80% of the total global amount (this could be judged from visual comparison of the
data between 1987 and 1992).
Table 2.5 (see also Fig. 2.3) is a factoring of the AFEAS and producer's data to
approximate the total global volumes; the AFEAS figures were increased by 5% and the
producer's figures were increased by 20%. These "factored" figures suggest that the global
HCFC-22 refrigerant use has been in the 200 kt range for the last five years (industry
estimate for the period 1989-1993). Over the period 1987-1992, according to AFEAS data
the global use of HCFC-22 refrigerant has increased by 27% (and the global use of HCFC-
22 for refrigeration, blowing agents and propellants has increased by 42%).
The HCFC-22 refrigerant demand in the world's largest "HCFC-22 segment", the U.S
has or will decline by about 25% from traditional levels due to smaller charges in new
equipment and no venting regulations. It also is expected that this decline will lead to a
rather flat HCFC-22 type refrigerant demand for the rest of this decade, since HFC blends
and other non-ODSs will likely displace some HCFC-22 use.
2.4
Estimates for future use of refrigerants
Tables attached to this section will give estimates concerning the future consumption of
CFCs and HCFCs, and their consumption for refrigeration by using:
• extrapolated data from fluorocarbon manufacturers,
• information from implementing agencies,
•• information from UNEP on current and future consumption in Article 5(1)
countries,
data from the 1994 UNEP TOC Refrigeration report and earlier TOC
reports,
• assumptions on the replacement of CFCs and HCFCs,
• assumptions on the use of non-fluorocarbons and other alternative methods,
• assumptions on the application of recycling to CFCs, HCFCs and HFCs.
Data could not be critically analyzed by the TEAP and are for information purposes only;
the TEAP will report in a more elaborate form in its March 1995 report.
2.4.1
CFC use over the period 1993-2000
Table 2.9 (see also Fig. 2.5) gives an estimate of the total use of CFCs in the developed
and the Article 5(1) countries for all uses. Data for this table were derived from data in
earlier tables (AFEAS/CMA based estimates and other data), from manufacturer estimates
for the future market, as well as from the assumed consumption of HCFCs (average of
manufacturers estimates, see section 2.4.2) given in Table 2.9 as well. In the case of
refrigeration and air conditioning, the use of recycled and stockpiled material is not
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29
considered.
Table 2.8 presents an estimate of CFC production from /urticle 5 paragraph 1 country
production facilities and the 15% allowance potentially available from developed country
plants. The potential supply could be 338 kt/year for all application sectors assuming the
15% allowances are all produced. There is concern in developing countries on whether
producers will consolidate these production rights or whether they will halt CFC
production. On the other hand, market demand for CFC refrigerant is expected to be
around 200 kt globally in 1994-1995. These estimates suggest substantial excess supply.
However, if the global demand for CFCs for aerosol products, foam blowing etc. remain
significant in the Article 5(1) countries, the estimated excess supply could be much more
modest.
2.4.1.1
CFC use in refrigeration and air conditioning
It is clear that the use of CFCs in refrigeration and air conditioning will rapidly decline in
developed countries (including CEITs) over the period 1993-2000. However, phaseout
problems in a number of countries will lead to a consumption of about 10-40 kt over the
period 1996-1999. In the Article 5(1) countries, CFC consumption is estimated to slightly
increase in the refrigeration and air conditioning sector over the years 1993-1997 (reduction
and phaseout in certain applications, together with a market growth); both effects will lead
to a global consumption of about 100 kt of CFCs for refrigeration in 2000, which will
mainly be in the Article 5(1) countries.
Refrigeration, air conditioning and heat pumps are the only significant users of CFCs and
HCFCs for servicing (other small servicing uses, of CFCs include heat transfer and
pneumatic fluids).
Recycling and recovery plays an important role in refrigeration and air conditioning. In the
developed countries, servicing amounts are expected to be 155-170 kt in the year 1994.
They will have decreased hi the year 2000 to somewhere between 125 kt (if 5% of the CFC
equipment is retrofitted or replaced per year) and 35 kt (if 25% of the CFC equipment is
retrofitted or replaced per year).
The above estimates do not deal with the Article 5(1) CFC refrigerant use for refrigeration
servicing; it is very likely to be 65-75 kt/yr as of 1994 with growth rather than reduction in
consumption in the above time frame.
The extent to which this quantity can be supplied from recycled amounts in developed
countries remains uncertain, but it can be assumed that it could be covered by amounts
recovered (on-site and centrally) and stockpiled (80-170 kt), from 1996 onwards.
The volumes of CFCs available for recycling depend on the equipment inventory or "bank"
of refrigerants in these systems. The "bank" can be used as internal recycle when
equipment is serviced, and be made available for other uses when equipment is retrofitted
or replaced. In other cases, contamination could make refrigerants unusable.
European experience suggests that 50% of CFC refrigerant sales are for servicing installed
or existing equipment (the U.S. figure is 75% which may be influenced by the large fleet of
automotive air conditioners). Europeans also suggest using an average equipment life often
years. By using Table 2:4 for refrigerant consumption in the U.S.A., Japan, and the E.U.,
and adding an estimated quantity of 355 kt for the years 1985 and 1984, it would yield a
refrigerant use for these three regions of 1624 kt over the last ten years (1984-1994).
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30
Assuming that 50% was for service and 50% for new equipment, the bank would be 50%
of the 1624 kt, or 812 kt. On an annual basis, it is possible that 1/10 or 81 kt is potentially
available for recovery. Using the U.S. experience of 25% for new equipment would
suggest about 400 kt rather than 812 kt would be inventoried in existing equipment.
Therefore, the potential available for recovery could well be about 40 kt.
Another approach is to examine actual recovery experience. European Union data for 1993
indicates that about 1 kt or 3% of the 1991-1992 sales volume was recovered in central
facilities. Applying this 3% figure to the 1993 sales in the U.S.A., Japan and the E.U.
would suggest a recovery potential of about 9 kt per year (3% of 302 kt). This central
facility recovery rate seems very low compared to the annual recovery potential of 40-80 kt
mentioned above, but it must be recognised that internal recycle or storage at the users' sites
is likely to be quite significant. U.S. experience is similar to the E.U. in terms of refrigerant
tendered to recovery stations for purification and resale. Based on this very limited
experience of recovery plus the fact that the U.S.A. and Japan markets for CFC refrigerants
have declined significantly, it can be assumed that internal recycling is possibly an order of
magnitude larger than the amount returned to the open market for general use.
2.4.2
HCFC use over the period 1993-2000
Efforts have been undertaken to estimate the HCFC consumption for 1994-2000. Several
manufacturers submitted (on a confidential basis) their best estimates for the sales of
HCFCs over the next four to six years, split up over the different application areas. Data on
the future sales of HFCs were also submitted (on a confidential basis). Both data have been
used to derive a best guess scenario for the future global consumption of HCFCs in the
developed (including the CEITs) and hi Article 5(1) countries; these are also given in Table
2.9 (see also Fig. 2.4).
Table 2.7 contains a forecast of the HCFC-22 market and other HCFC refrigerant markets.
In this table, the global consumption is given, as well as an estimate for the Article 5(1)
countries. Global consumption for HCFC-22 refrigerants is expected to decrease over the
1996-2000 period. Other HCFCs for refrigeration (HCFC-123, -124 and possibly others)
are expected to see a relatively small growth during the rest of the decade, both in the
developed and Article 5(1) countries. Use of these HCFC refrigerants hi the developed
countries is expected to decline after the end of the 1990 decade.
The March 1995 TEAP report will provide further updated and elaborated estimates on
HCFC refrigerant consumption and HCFC consumption in other application sectors.
2.4.3
Other chemical uses during the period 1993-2000
HFC and HFC based blends will take a certain portion of the refrigeration market, in this
way reducing the dependence on HCFCs over the period 1994-2000. In 1989, chemical
manufacturers forecasted that HFCs would take 8% of the reference 1986 CFC market; this
percentage has increased over the last 5 years to about 25%, where it is also assumed that
non-fluorocarbon and not-in-kind solutions, together with conservation measures, will take
50% of the reference 1986 CFC market.
HFCs, HFC based blends, ammonia and hydrocarbons are expected to play an important
role in reducing the dependence on HCFCs (and CFCs, without the intermediate HCFC
step), mainly hi refrigeration. No data exist on the use of hydrocarbons in sectors that relied
on CFCs in 1986. A significant volume can be assumed hi the aerosol propellant and
certain foam blowing applications hi the second half of the 1990 decade. Although
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31
relatively minor, compared to the above uses, hydrocarbons are expected to be used in
volumes of 2-5 kt in the refrigeration sector (mainly domestic appliances in the near future,
according to estimates from the TOC Report Refrigeration). Volume data on the use of
ammonia in refrigeration could so far not be determined.
2.5
Concluding remarks.
Table 2.9 (see also Figs. 2.4 and 2.5) presents estimated future consumption values,
separated to the use of CFCs and HCFCs, and summarised over the different application
sectors, both globally, and for the developed (including CEITs) and Article 5(1) countries.
Values have been derived from different estimates (manufacturers, UNEP/ExCom reports),
where also Tables 2.6 and 2.7 were used, which give the estimates for the refrigeration
sector.
It can be observed that the total global consumption of CFCs is estimated to decrease
steadily over the period 1993-2000, however, consumption could still be significant in the
year 2000.
Therefore the world still envisages a substantial challenge to reduce the CFC consumption
in both the developed and me Article 5(1) countries:
1. In refrigeration and air conditioning, the use in developed countries
(including CEITs) is estimated to gradually decrease over the period 1994-
2000; the use of new CFC material is estimated to be in the 0-10 kt range by
the end of the decade (mainly due to phaseout problems in certain countries
in the period 1996-1999).
•• - «
2. For all other sectors, it is expected that CFCs will have been phased out by
the end of the 1990 decade, in the developed countries (possibly including
CEITs).
3. CFC consumption in developed countries has decreased substantially over
the years 1990-1994, but there are considerable differences per region,
especially in refrigeration, where e.g. the E.U. has increased its
consumption. Large amounts are believed to be stockpiled, and considerable
efforts are still required to manage the CFC phaseout.
4. Total world CFC consumption is estimated to be in the order of 100-120 kt
by the year 2000 (mainly in Article 5(1) countries).
Concerning the use of HCFCs:
1. In 1989, the estimated total world HCFC consumption was about 250 kt,
mainly consisting of HCFC-22 (and HCFC-142b) for refrigeration and air
conditioning. This level has increased to about 300 kt/year by the year 1993,
due to consumption in other application sectors as well.
2. Based on preliminary chemical manufacturer's estimates, the total world
consumption of HCFCs is estimated to grow to a level of about 350-420
kt/year by the years 1995-1997, after which it will decrease. Developed
country use of HCFCs will increase from about 250 kt (1989 value) to
about 340 kt in 1996 which represents continued use of HCFC-22 and -
• 142b and the use of other HCFCs to replace CFCs in the short term
(HCFC-123, -124, and -141b).
-------
32
The UNEP Technology and Economic Assessment Panel will elaborate on
the technical and economical feasibility of reducing the HCFC cap and/or
shortening the tail, established in the Montreal Protocol, as amended in
Copenhagen. The TEAP report will give thorough estimates for future
HCFC consumption in the separate application sectors. The TEAP will
investigate several use scenarios to estimate future HCFC quantities in
necessary applications.
Table 2.1
Total CFCS consumed or sold in different countries or regions, and global
use (kt), compare Table 2.2; (sources: AFEAS/CMA, UNEP, preliminary
country programmes, some 1993 data not available)
U.S.A. Gov Dat +
Industry Est
Japan - Flon Gas Data
Eur Union CEHC
Data
Other Developed
UNEPDatab
Developed world (non
CETTS) total
CIS -UNEP Data
China - UNEP
Other Art 5 - as far as
reported to UNEP
Non-Parties
Global sales AFEAS
producers (see Table
2.2)
AFEAS + estimate for
non-reported
production
Unidentified to make
total balance
Use by Article 5(1)
countries
1986
327
133
310
92
862
120
19
53
10
976
1133
69
151
1987
350
156
325
—
—
—
— .
—
—
1063
1233
, —
—
1988
344
159
307
—
—
_
—
—
—
1074
1245
—
—
1989
323
161
232
68
784
110
26
48
—
962
1137
169
243
1990
206
111
184
58
559
110
35.5
46
2
659
802
49
.133
1991
182
96
163
38
479
43
34
7
605
736
173
—
1992
153
61
137
35a
386a
87
(est.)
—
14
3
526
643
240
170
1993
105
46
118
33a
302a
—
—
—
__
—
& - U.Syiapan/E.U. reduced 1993 use to 36% of 1986 base; assumed other developed countries did the
same - 1993 value estimated at 33 kt. Estimated 1992 for other developed countries at 35 kt.
b - UNEP data is taken from UNEP/OzL Pro 5/5, August '93, Bangkok 17-19 Nov. '93.
-------
33
Tables 2.2
Table 2.2(a) ,
CMA reported sales and AFEAS reported and estimated global production for sale (kt)
AFEAS Companies3
CFC-11
CFC-12
CFC-113
CFC-114
CFC-115
Total
1986
350
398
197
19
12
976
1987
382
425
226
17
13
063
1988
376
421
247
16.5
13.5
074
1989
302
380
251
15
14
962
1990
233
231
175
8.5
11.5
659
1991
213
225
148
6.5
12.5
605
1992 1993
186
216
108 —
5
11 —
526 ~-
Table 2.2(b)
AFEAS Est. for World>>
CFC-11
CFC-12
CFC-113
CFC-114
CFC-115
Total
1986
412
469
218
21
13
1133
1987
449
500
251
, 19
14
1233
1988
442
495
275
18
15
1245
1989
356
469
279
17
16
1137
1990
27'4
312
194
9
13.
802
1991
251
300
164
7.5
13.5
736
1992 i 1993
219
288
119
5
12
643
—
—
—
—
—
-------
34
CMA reported data for CFC 11/12 sales
C .art Thor. to .-eport 1993
Refrigeration
and AC
Blowing
Agents
Aerosol
Products
Others
Totals
1986
224
253
224
47
748
1987
247
291
225
44
807
1988
—
—
—
—
797
- -—
=========
1989
272
277
96
48
682
—
1990
—
—
—
—
464
=====
1991
195
195
31
17
438
=====
1992
195
170
23
15
403
=====
1993
—
—
—
Footnotes to Tables 2.2
a - AFEAS Companies report actual production and sales by product type (CFC 11-12, etc.) and by
industry segment to an Auditor that assembles and publishes the results.
b - AFEAS experts on atmospheric CFC measurements examine all available data and make estimates
on the reporting fraction of global productions included in the AFEAS report. Dividing by these
factors provides a reasonable estimate of total world productions and sales.
Table 2.3
Global refrigerant sales (CFCs only) 1986 - 1992 in thousand tonnes (kt)
Year
86
87
88
89
90
91
92
93
94
95
96
97
98
99
00
Global8
253
277
302
312
215
231
230
IndEstb
265
270
295
210
220
215
225
200
Prod for
Inven-
tory
30 kt to 70 kt
50 kt to 100 kt
Best
estimate
250
250 240 230 210 230 230
230
200
160
140 130 120 110 100
Footnotes to Table 2.3
a - Global AFEAS (Line 1) are sales figures factored to cover rest of world; see line 10, Table 3.
b- Industry global estimate based on global producers'sales estimates.
-------
35
ute 2.4
Trends in CFC refrigerant use only for different parts of the world (kt)
U.S.a
Japan*
E.U.
Sub-total
US/Japan/EUb
Total CFCsc
U.S./Japan/E.U.
%ofTotaldCFCs
used in refrigeration
U.S./Japan/E.U.
Estimate of other8
developed (non CEIT)
country refrigerant use
Estimate of total?
developed (non CEIT)
country refrigerant use
"Rough" estimate of
refrigerant use for
Article 5(1) and CEIT
countries
Rough estimate of
refrigerant use in
Article 5 countries
Total CFC refrigerant
use
1986
132
24.3
29.9
186
770
24%
22
208
45
253
1987
132
26.1
30.2
188 .
831
23%
"
"
—
1988
128
23.7
31
183
810
23%
~~
""""
1989
145
28.5
32.6
206
716
29%
17
223
89
64-70
312
1990
80
21.7
30.2
132
501
26%
15
147
68-
43-49
215
1991
81
18.3
31.2
131
441
30%
11
142
89
65-71
231
1992
76
17.7
31.5
125
351
36%
11
136
101
77-83
237
1993
65
17a
35.6
118
269
44%
11
130
117
(prelim
est)
93-99
247
Footnotes to Table 2.4
a - Refrigerant data from Japan, U.S. and E.U. based on government, UNEP and trade group reports;
(good agreement). Estimated U.S. 1986 figure based on 1987 & 1988. Estimated 1993 figure for
Japan.
b - Sum of lines (1), (2) & (3); Japan, U.S., and E.U. CFC refrigerants only.
c - See total CFCs from Table 2.1.
d- Line (1), (2) & (3) divided by line (5).
e - Line (4) Table 2.1 x line (6) fraction of other developed countries total CFC use (25 - 30%).
f- Sum of line (1), (2), (3) and (7).
-------
36
Table 2.5
Estimated HCFC-22 total world demand for dispersive or non-feedstock applications
(kt)
Refrigerants*
Other Uses8
Totals*
Refrigerants15
1987
171
11
182 '
—
1988
196
17
213,
—
1989
204
26
230
206
1990 , 1991
189 ; 212
35 j 37
224
194
249
206
1992
218
41
259
216
1993
—
—
—
220
Footnotes to Table 2.5
a AFEAS data as reported, multiplied by 1.05 to approximate total global production. This accounts
for material produced primarily in the C.I.S. states and China.
b The single global producer figures available have been multiplied by 1.2 to approximate total
global HCFC-22 for refrigerants.
Table 2.6
Use of CFCs in refrigeration in developed countries and Article 5(1) countries,
consumption estimates for the period 1993 to 2000 (kt), (excludes the use of recycled
CFCs for service, e.g. assumed in section 2.4, this table does not contain estimates of
CFC quantities applied for essential use).
Developed
countries
Article 5(1)
countries
Global
1993
120-140
95-100
215-240
1994
80-100
100-105
180-205
1995
30-40
105-110
135-150
1996
25-40
105-110
130-150
1997
20-40
100-105
120-145
1998
10-20
100-105
110-125
1999
5-10
95-105
100-115
2000
5-10
90-100
95-110
Table 2.7(a)
Use of HCFC-22 for refrigeration, global, developed and Article 5(1) consumption,
estimates for the period 1993 to 2000 (kt)
Developed
countries
Article 5(1)
countries
Global
1993
210-220
10-20
220-240
1994
200-215
15-20
215-235
1995
180-195
20-25
200-220
1996
180-195
20-30
200-220
1997
165-180
25-30
190-210
1S98
150-165
30-35
180-200
1999
140-160
30-35
170-195
2000
130-140
25-35
155-175
-------
37
Table 2.7(a)
Use of other HCFCs (123, 124 and 141b) for refrigeration, global, developed and
Article 5(1) consumption, estimates for the period 1993 to 2000 (kt)
Developed
countries
Article 5(1)
countries
Global
1993
2-5
<2
3-6
1994
7-10
<2
8-11
1995
9-13
<2
10-14
1996
15-19
<2
16-20
1997
17-19
2-6
19-25
1998
18-20
2-6
20-26
1999
20-22
2-6
22-28
2000
20-22
4-8
24-30
Table 2.8
Potential CFC production after 1995, for Article 5(1) countries domestic needs (kt)
E.U.
Japan
U.S.A.
Eastern Europe
C.I.S.
South Africa
Republic of Korea
Subtotal for columns
(1/2)
Potential supply
(total of col's 1 &2)
1986 Production"
429
132
354
unknown
120
-------
38
Table 2.9(a)
Use of CFCs, in developed countries and global, estimates for the period 1993 to 2000
(kt), derived from estimates (as well as from Tables 2.6 and 2.7)
.
Developed
countries
Article 5(1)
countries
Global
1993
360-420
180-205
540-635
1994
260-330
160-185
420-515
1995
145-195
155-175
300-370
1996
90-130
140-165
230-295
1997
55-95
115-145
170-240
1998
25-55
110-135
135-190
1999
5-15
100-125
105-140
2000
5-10
95-110
100-120
Table 2.9(b)
Use of HCFCs, in developed countries and global, estimates for the period 1993 to
2000 (kt), derived from estimates (as well as from Tables 2.6 and 2.7)
Developed
countries
Article 5(1)
countries
Global
1993
300-325
15-35
315-360
1994
315-345
25-40
340-385
1995
315-345
35-50
350-395
1996
325-350
35-60
360-410
1997
300-330
45-65
345-395
1998
285-315
45-65
330-380
1999
270-305
45-65
315-370
2000
240-270
40-60
280-330
-------
Figure 2.1
Global consumption of CFCs 1986 to 1992
(see Table 2.1)
39
1400
1986
1987
| Article 5(1) countries |
1988 1989
1990
1991
1992
-------
40
Figure 2.2
Global Consumption of CFC refrigerants 1986 to 1993
(see Table 2.4)
250
1986 19S7 1988 ' 1989 1990 1991
1992 1993
-------
Figure 2.3
Global Consumption of HCFC-22 - 1987 to 1992
(see Table 2.5)
41
300
1987
1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1996 1998 2000
-------
42
Figure 2.4
Estimates for future HCFC consumption - 1993 to 2000
400
-------
Figure 2.5
Estimates for future CFC consumption - 1993 to 2000
(see Table 2.5)
43
1200
1000
Article 5(1) countries
gjfH Developed countries (incl
CETTS)
86 89 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 00
-------
44
-------
45
The technical feasibility of the phaseout
schedule for Hydrochlorofluorocarbons
(HCFCs) and Methyl Bromide in Article 5
Countries
This Chapter addresses requirements of Decision V/19. Further information will be
presented by the Technology and Economic Assessment Panel (TEAP) in the March 1995
report because Decision V/19 has been superseded by Decision VT/13.
3.1
HCFCs
When the London Adjustments and Amendments were negotiated in 1990 it was believed
that HCFCs would play an essential interim role in the chlorofluorocarbon (CFC) and halon
phaseouts. It was estimated that many HCFC technologies would be investigated and
commercialized as "transition chemicals" for the phaseout but later themselves replaced as
other non-ozone-depleting technologies proved more cost effective. Accordingly, in
London, only reporting was prescribed without controls for HCFCs. In Copenhagen, they
were given a long phaseout schedule in developed countries. Due to uncertainty regarding
their ultimate use, any decisions on a control schedule for Article 5 Parties was postponed
until 1995.
HCFCs are currently extensively used worldwide for air conditioning, retail refrigeration,
rigid thermal insulating and automotive safety foam, and in certain circumstances, as a
drop-in substitute for existing sterilization equipment in hospitals and other small-scale
uses. Since 1990 developed country use of HCFCs has not been as extensive as was
initially thought necessary. Because of the early development of superior alternatives and
substitutes, HCFCs are not generally used as substitutes in non-insulating foams,
solvents, fire protection, domestic refrigeration, and many cold storage facilities. Just as
with CFCs and halons, industrial innovation occurred far more rapidly than anticipated and
the magnitude of HCFC use has fallen well below earlier expectations.
Part of the reasoning for the original 10-year grace period for developing countries was to
allow them to take advantage of new technologies, tried and perfected in developed
countries and to take advantage of lower prices achieved through subsequent economies of
scale. When the decision on the grace period was taken, only a reduction of ozone-
depleting substance (ODS) consumption was scheduled. Experts took the view that non-
CFC technologies would be adopted more slowly in the developing countries. This
strategy assumed that investors in the developed countries would take the larger part of the
risks and costs of sequential technical choices regarding ODS alternatives. CFC users in
developed countries were expected to shift to HCFCs in the near term, recognizing that they
were transitional substances, and subsequently to bear the cost of eliminating HCFCs.
Developing countries could take advantage of the experience in developed countries and
select technologies that were most cost effective and suitable to their special circumstances.
Fortunately, there has been much more rapid progress man predicted in commercializing
non-HCFC replacements for CFCs and halons. This has reduced the added expense of the
phaseout by allowing many CFC users to move directly to ozone-safe solutions without a
transition use of HCFCs and has thus dramatically reduced the originally anticipated
demand for HCFCs. This technical and commercial experience, the availability of superior
non-ODS alternatives and substitutes, and the cost of a two step move to non-ODS, also
-------
46
calls to question whether there is any advantage of a grace period.
Some of the disadvantages of an HCFC grace period are presented below, pending the
further consideration of this issue in the March 1995 TEAP Report:
A grace period could lead to investments in HCFC technology that could
become obsolete if chemical producers choose to concentrate on markets for
new chemicals.
The costs of the Multilateral Fund could increase if two transitions are
financed.
Owners of HCFC equipment will face increasing difficulty in finding parts
for equipment that is only marketed in a few locations.
Developing country manufacturers will lose access to export markets
because HCFC equipment import restrictions or because HCFC prices
become prohibitive as the phaseout approaches.
Obsolete HCFC equipment may be dumped in developing countries,
increasing the difficulty of the ultimate phaseout.
The implications of this rapid technical progress are that developing countries can already
replace CFC hi many applications without resorting to HCFCs. Of course, there are
sometimes significant constraints including lack of infrastructure, regulation, application
engineers and scientists, and local data.
The Technology and Economic Assessment Panel and its Technical Options Committees
expect that the technical feasibility of replacing ODS applications with non-HCFC
alternatives will progressively reduce the demand for HCFC use in developing countries.
In addition, HCFCs should only be replacements for CFCs where other, more economic
and environmentally acceptable choices are not available. The evaluation of the technical
and economic feasibility of HCFC controls in developing countries will be further
discussed in the March 1995 report.
The TEAP has concluded that it is technically and economically feasible to reduce the
HCFC cap in the developed countries due to the rapid development of alternatives and
substitutes to HCFCs. Furthermore, if the Essential Use Process were applied to HCFCs,
it could facilitate an early HCFC phaseout for new applications by providing the possibility
that critical HCFC uses could be authorized by the Parties. The expanded 1995 evaluation
will elaborate the technical and economic feasibility of reducing the HCFC cap and/or
shortening the tail. If possible, the TEAP will investigate several scenarios such as
jjbusiness-as-usual" with aggressive marketing and exaggerated new uses versus a
"maximum feasible protection strategy" with balanced incentives for rapid CFC elimination
and controlled HCFC dependence, for new equipment.
The TEAP will also describe the history of technical development hi applications where
HCFCs were the first feasible alternatives to CFCs but are now no longer required. In
some cases investigation of HCFC substitutes to CFCs was a necessary stepping stone that
later enabled introduction of non-ODS alternatives. This discussion will also explore the
consequences of requiring new investment by industry leaders who took early actions to
protect the ozone layer by switching tc HCFCs from CFCs when no other alternatives were
available. ' ..-•'•• "• ,
-------
47
3.2
Methyl Bromide
A number of developing countries use methyl bromide as an aid to the production of certain
high value cash crops for export to developed countries (e.g. cut flowers, strawberries,
tobacco and some vegetables). Additionally, some developing countries use methyl
bromide for disinfestation of cereal grain stocks.
In general, the alternatives to methyl bromide are, technically, the same in developed and
developing countries. Therefore, with adequate financing of infrastructure for extension,
local adaption trials, and incremental costs, developing countries could be subject to phase-
out schedules and other restrictions similar to those for developed countries. Some
temporary disruption to trade may be expected in any changeover to alternatives unless
there is adequate time to plan. An exemption for pre-shipment and quarantine uses is
appropriate until alternatives are developed and accepted by regulatory authorities.
In Decision V/19 the Parties asked the Technology and Economic Assessment Panel
(TEAP) and its Methyl Bromide Technical Options Committee (MBTOC) to recommend a
technically and economically feasible base year and grace period for possible control of
methyl bromide in Article 5 countries. Among the concerns considered by the MBTOC and
the TEAP are:
To ensure consistency with economic structural adjustment programs and other
economic development issues.
To address the need to sustain food security.
. To permit time for the transfer and effective implementation of appropriate
alternative technologies.
To consider the potential for increased use of methyl bromide for export products
due to methyl bromide restrictions in importing countries.
One option is to select a future base year and a grace period for developing country
controls. Based on the above concerns, the MBTOC recommends that the Parties consider
an average of consumption for the years of 1997,1998 and 1999 as the base year and a
nine (9) year grace period with technical option reviews conducted every three years to
assess progress towards development and implementation of alternatives. Adjustment of
the grace period could be made, if merited.
A disadvantage of a future base year is that chemical producers may aggressively market
methyl bromide and new methyl bromide production facilities may be built in developing
countries. This could result in unnecessary methyl bromide use and emissions, higher risk
of poisoning farm workers in developing countries, and increased dependence on methyl
bromide. It may further jeopardize access to export markets if markets in developed
countries are resistant to products made with substances that deplete the ozone layer.
The TEAP recommends that Parties also consider other approaches to limiting unnecessary
use of methyl bromide by developing countries.
«
Choice of a 1991 base year for developing countries would be consistent with that for
developed countries and would eliminate the incentive to increase production in order to
maximize consumption allowances in the future.
A second alternative is to exempt pre-shipment and quarantine uses but to cap the quantity
of other uses in developing countries. For example, establish a 1998 freeze at base-year
-------
48
use with exemptions for pre-shipment and quarantine. Selection of a base year prior to
1995 would prevent sudden increases in production and use in order to increase the future
allocation.
Another alternative is to prohibit the construction of new facilities so that global methyl
bromide use cannot exceed existing levels as the developed Parties phase down or phase
out. This option would avoid over-investment in methyl bromide production facilities that
will soon be obsolete as alternatives and substitutes are commercialized and implemented.
Recommendation concerning Decision V/20
In Decision V/20 the Parties asked for recommendations on possible trade measures. The
Methyl Bromide Technical Options Committee (MBTOC) and the TEAP recommends that
the Parties consider:
1) As of January 1,1996, each Party shall ban the import of methyl bromide from
non-Parties (at this time, methyl bromide is only produced in countries Party to the
Protocol).
2) As of January 1,1998, each Party shall ban the export of methyl bromide to non-
Parties.
/•
3) By January 1,1997, the Parties shall determine the feasibility of banning or
restricting the import of products containing methyl bromide from non-Parties. If
determined feasible, the Parties shall, following the procedures in Article 10 of the
Vienna Convention, elaborate in an annex a list of such products. Parties that have
not objected to the annex, in accordance with those procedures, shall ban,
beginning one year of the annex having become effective, the import of these
products from non-Parties.
4) By January 1,1998, the Parties shall determine the feasibility of banning or
restricting the imports of products made-with, but not containing methyl bromide
from non-Parties. At the present time, the TEAP is not able to recommend any
restrictions on products made-with but not containing methyl bromide, because of
technical difficulties in detecting whether or not methyl bromide was used in their
production or storage. If determined feasible, the Parties shall, following the
procedures in Article 10 of the Vienna Convention, elaborate in an annex a list of
such products. Parties that have not objected to the annex, in accordance with those
procedures, shall ban, beginning one year of the annex having become effective, the
import of these products from non-Parties.
Justification:
In fixing the time periods, the Methyl Bromide Technical Options Committee took into
account the time needed by many countries for completing their ratification processes of the
Copenhagen Amendment.
-------
49
Feasibility of application of trade measures
under article 4 to Hydrochlorofluorocarbons
(HCFCs) and Methyl Bromide
The Panel and its Technical Options Committees considered the technical and economic
aspects of possible trade measures for HCFCs and methyl bromide and for products made-
with or containing HCFCs and methyl bromide, as requested under Decision V/20.
Controls on HCFCs and methyl bromide have only recently been applied under the
Protocol and it is thus difficult to estimate the full implications of possible trade measures.
This essay should be considered preliminary and can be periodically updated if the Parties
so desire.
4.1.
Technical and administrative feasibility of possible trade
measures to HCFCs
4.1.1
HCFCs
Because HCFCs are transitional controlled substitutes for chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) in
many applications, restrictions of trade of HCFCs could prolong dependence on CFCs and
therefore result in greater harm to the ozone layer. Such uses include room air
conditioning, a large part of commercial refrigeration applications, and most insulation
foam applications and automobile safety foam. Education, technical assistance and
financing could directly discourage the use of HCFCs in those cases where HCFCs are not
necessary to eliminate CFCs. Such cases include typical solvent uses, virtually all aerosol
uses, packaging, cushioning, and certain rigid insulating foam applications.
The Parties could save money by avoiding unnecessary dependence on HCFCs when
financing the CFC phaseout because HCFCs will also have to be phased out.
The Parties may wish to reconsider trade measures in subsequent meetings when more
Parties have ratified the Copenhagen Amendment, the phaseout is further along in
developed countries, and preferred alternatives are more certain.
4.1.2
Products Containing HCFCs
It is technically feasible and administratively possible to identify products that potentially
contain HCFCs. A list of such products which currently contain HCFCs would include:
commercial refrigeration, cold storage, unitary and central air conditioning equipment
(refrigerated cabinets, air conditioners, heat pumps); fire extinguishing equipment (fixed
and portable fire extinguishers); insulating foam (including refrigerators with HCFC
insulation); and solvents, coatings, and inks. In the case of refrigeration, air conditioning,
and fire extinguishing equipment it is likely that products are accurately labelled, although
there may be cases when the accuracy or correctness of the labels would be doubtful.
There is no existing international labelling of products containing HCFC insulating foam or
solvent ingredients.
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50
A list of products potentially containing significant quantities of HCFC solvents includes:
adhesives,
aerosol cleaners used for electronics and precision cleaning
coatings, inks, and paints,
pesticides,
printer ink cartridges, and
numerous other products.
It will be very difficult to make a comprehensive list of products containing these
substances, particularly if it includes products containing trace quantities since many
products in trade potentially contain these substances. There is no possibility of using a
product code or other simplifying practice for customs agents.
Customs officials could also identify products through laboratory testing of chemical
content.
It will be no more difficult to control products containing HCFCs than it has been to control
trade in listed products containing CFCs. The Protocol Secretariat may wish to report on
the success of those CFC trade measures. The Panel and its Technical Options Committees
(TOCs) have no information on whether CFC trade measures have been enforced or on
whether trade measures helped reduce consumption of CFCs. In addition, in view of the
slow pace of ratification of the Copenhagen Amendment, trade restrictions on products
containing HCFCs could lead to increased trade among'non-Parties in products containing
CFCs.
4.1.3
Products Made-With But Not Containing HCFCs
Products that can be "made-with but not containing" HCFCs include: electronic
components and assemblies; aerospace, aviation, audio, computer, medical, video,
telecommunications, and weapons electronics equipment; and products and machinery
containing electronics equipment (aircraft, automobiles, manufacturing equipment, and
ships).
HCFCs are also used as a "feedstock" or as a "process agent" and may be "contained" in
finished products. A list of products that may contain trace quantities of HCFCs might
include: non-stick coatings-used for cook ware., lubricating products, and miscellaneous
uses; geotextiles used in building construction; and various chemical specialty products. It
is technically feasible although potentially costly to identify trace impurities in virtually all
such products. Residual HCFCs are likely to be below detection limits.
HCFCs are also used as diluents to reduce explosion risk in ethylene oxide mixtures for
sterilization of medical instruments and medical products. It is not technically feasible to
identify these products as made with HCFCs through laboratory analysis, as residual levels
are likely to be below detection levels.
4.2
4.2.1
Technical and administrative feasibility of possible trade
measures to Methyl Bromide
Methyl Bromide
Trade restrictions on methyl bromide between Parties and non-Parties could lead to adverse
economic effects on trade, given the small number of countries which have ratified the
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Copenhagen Amendment and the regulations in many countries which mandate use of
methyl bromide for fumigation. These restrictions may be useful after methyl bromide
controls are widespread and after most countries ratify the Copenhagen Amendment.
4.2.2
Products Containing Methyl Bromide
The only products containing methyl bromide are canisters and tanks used to transport and
store the chemical prior to use as a fumigant or in industrial transformation processes
where methyl bromide is used as a feedstock. The Panel has asked the Parties to clarify the
definition of "bulk" shipments to avoid possible evasion of the intent of those Protocol
provisions. Trade restrictions may be considered after ratification of the Copenhagen
Amendment by most countries.
4.2.3
Products Made-With But Not Containing Methyl Bromide
There are four major uses of methyl bromide, apart from feedstock uses. These are as a
soil treatment, as a fumigant for durables, for treatment of perishable commodities, and as a
fumigant of structures and transport vehicles. These account for approximately, 70%,
16%, 8% and 3% of global use respectively.
It is not technically possible to determine conclusively if a product has been grown in
methyl bromide-treated soil. However, substantially raised bromide content compared with
normal levels indicate that methyl bromide may have been used at some stage on the soil,
though not necessarily in the same growing season as the product in question. The
situation is confounded by the presence of high natural bromide levels in some soils (e.g.
some volcanic soils, some soils close to the sea), the substantial variability of natural
bromide content within and between products, and the practice of leaching of soils to
remove bromide ion prior to planting in many cultural systems. There is very little chance
that unchanged methyl bromide, even in trace quantities will be present in products arising
from soil fumigation.
Durable commodities react with the methyl bromide applied as a fumigant. If analyzed
soon after fumigation, typically not more than a few days, trace quantities of methyl
bromide may remain at sufficient levels to be detectable directly. After this, methyl bromide
can be detected in the form of fixed bromide ion residues and methylated materials in the
commodity. Elevated bromide ion levels above normal levels are indicative, though not
conclusive, of methyl bromide treatment. Detection of high levels of methylated products
(e.g. S-methyl methionine) in addition to high bromide levels would confirm the use of
methyl bromide, but standard tests are not available for these methylated materials.
Perishable products are normally treated as part of quarantine or pre-shipment procedures.
It is technically and administratively feasible to identify products that are fumigated with
methyl bromide to meet quarantine requirements since such shipment requires an official
verification of how pests are eradicated.
In summary, there are likely to be few occasions where the use of methyl bromide can be
conclusively proven in "products made with, but not containing methyl bromide".
However, unusually high levels of bromide ion in product are indicative that methyl
bromide may have been used.
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Developing countries and countries with
economies in transition (CEIT)
5.1
Developing Country Aspects
5.1.1
Introduction
As the phaseout approaches in developed countries, the implementation process in
developing countries is becoming more relevant. This chapter presents information to help
in the discussion of developing country issues related to the implementation process and
informs the Parties of the aspects that may hinder the implementation effort.
The points of concern include:
availability of ozone-depleting substance (ODS) to supply developing
country basic domestic needs at affordable prices;
the impact of developed country phaseout: on the cooperative approach to
the transfer of technology to developing countries;
the importance of maintaining the developed countries' commitment to
achieve global phaseout of ODS in developing countries;
the adequacy of the political and financial support for the Multilateral Fund
of the Montreal Protocol;
the importance of coordination among implementing agencies;
the need of developing countries to be prepared to accept new technologies
and having an institutional framework that will not delay access to the
Multilateral Fund;
the barriers to information exchange;
feasibility of an early phase out of ODS in developing countries; and
the need to regain the impetus towards phaseout that was discouraged by the
granting of the 10 year grace period to implement the control measures.
5.1.2
Availability of Supplies
Developing countries that are currently producing ODS are Brazil, Argentina (distillation
only), People's Republic of China, India, Mexico, Republic of Korea, Romania and
Venezuela. In most cases production occurs through directly owned subsidiaries of
American, European and Japanese chemical firms.
Total consumption of controlled substances in Article 5(1) countries, covered by the 40
approved country programs submitted to the Multilateral Fund as of July 1994, amounts to
about 130,000 ozone depletion potential (ODP) tonnes which is a significant proportion of
the total consumption of ODS in developing countries. The total Article 5(1) ODS
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production amounted to approximately 71,000 tonnes, therefore a clear deficit situation is
envisaged if developed countries halt production. There will be no shortage if producers in
developed countries rationalize their production and continue production to supply
developing countries as provided for by the Protocol. In order to produce
chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), producers need carbon tetrachloride (CTC) as feedstock
(80,000 tonnes were estimated, to be needed to cover 1991 production figures in developing
countries).
China, India and Brazil plan to continue to produce CFCs (mainly 11 and 12). Producers
in Brazil have made a voluntary agreement with the industry associations to supply for the
country's basic domestic needs during the implementation phase. Brazil also produces
HCFC-22 and HFC-134a. The.price of CFCs in India is still low and there is no incentive
to recycle them. China has plans to introduce HFC production, funded by the Multilateral
Fund and convert CFC to HCFC production. All current CFC producers can convert to
HCFC production (such as CFC-12 to HCFC-22) provided the relevant feedstocks are
available.
The refrigerants needed by Article 5(1) countries in 1995, will probably not be supplied
from the recycled substances from developed Parties. Therefore, shortages may occur in
developing countries. Exports of recovered refrigerants would change the retrofit and
replacement pattern in the developed world. Reinvestigation of recovery and recycling hi
1995 and 1996 is-recommended.
Full recovery and recycling of CFCs from existing stodc of foam is logistically and
technically difficult.
One aspect that can divert ODS supplies from developing country users is the fraudulent
smuggling of newly produced CFC described as recycled. These shipments are primarily
from Eastern Europe and developing countries where production facilities are still
operating.
CFC-113 is produced primarily as a solvent with small amounts sold as feedstock for
production of HFC-134a and some plastics. When CFC-113 sales for solvent use stop in
the European Union (EU) in 1995 and in all developed countries by 1996, the market may
not be sufficient for developed country manufacturers to continue to supply developing
country markets. CFC-113 is currently manufactured in two developing countries, China
and Lidia; the production faculties in the Republic of Korea and Taiwan are believed to be
inactive at present.
At least 20 percent of 1,1,1-trichloroethane is produced as feedstock for HCFC-141b and
HCFC-142b. Therefore, it will be more readily available than CFC-113 after 1996 for
export to developing countries for their domestic needs, subject to Protocol restrictions.
Quality grades of CFC-113 and 1,1,1-trichloroethane will be in uncertain supply after 1996
and it will be prudent for enterprises in developing countries to move quickly to reduce and
eliminate dependence on these chemicals when cost-effective options are available. Some
developed countries may have residual chemical supplies produced under national Protocol
quotas or under Basic Domestic Needs quotas that may be marketed to developing
countries, if sales are less than expected in their developed country markets. This
oversupply is less likely in the United States where taxes on'stored ozone-depleting
substances discourages oversupply: It would be useful for UNEP to survey chemical
manufacturers to better estimate possible sources of supply to developing countries.
Banks of halon 1211 should be sufficient to maintain critical existing equipment using
recycled halon. However, for some early years after production phaseout some equipment
may have to be taken out of service to provide maintenance quantities of halon 1211. It is
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estimated that the bank of halon 1301 will be adequate to supply existing equipment for at
least 40 years after production ceases. Also it appears that recycled halon 1301 could be
provided for new critical applications even after production is restricted.
5.1.3 Implementation Aspects
Country Programs
The Article 5(1) country programs are important in helping the country organize the
implementation phase. They address the specific needs of each country and the actions to
be taken by the various sectors and institutions in the country, as the government, the Non-
Governmental Organizations (NGOs) and industry. By 1994, the Executive Committee has
approved disbursements of more than US$4.8 million for the preparation of the country
programs of 73 Article 5 Parties. As of July 1994, the Executive Committee has approved
40 country programs (covering 127,000 ODP tonnes, which is a significant proportion of
the total consumption of ODS in Article 5(1) countries). Two more were submitted for
consideration at the Fourteenth Meeting of the Executive Committee.
Projects, Training and Technical Assistance
By 1994, preparation of ODS phaseout investment projects has been completed in 17
Article 5(1) countries, which has resulted in submission and approval of 187 investments
projects. Six for the foam sector(3 in Egypt, 2 in Malaysia and 1 in Venezuela), one projo-ct
for the refrigeration sector (Egypt), and one for the solvent sector( Malaysia) have become
operational. In total, 951 tonnes ODP of the controlled substances have been phased out.
Implementation of the other 178 approved investment projects will lead to the elimination of
about 41,000 additional ODP tonnes of controlled substances.
Even though the last two years have been very active as far as project preparation is
concerned, remaining challenges are:
the definition of projects in a format that can be handled efficiently by the
implementing agencies;
the levels of detail required in feasibility studies (that have proven to be a
stumbling block for some Article 5 (1) countries where central government
funding has traditionally been provided under less stringent conditions);
the understanding that the Multilateral Fund is a mechanism dealing with
incremental costs incurred in phaseout and not a form of general
development aid;
the mistaken idea of some governments that the estimated cost of
implementing their Country Programs would be made available to them with
very limited individual project definition; and
the uncertainties over the replenishment of the Multilateral Fund in view of
rising demand for funding.
Training is particularly important when introducing flammable propellants (hydrocarbons
and DME) for aerosol products. Handling of these substances involves substantial risks
that the workers with experience in the manufacture of CFC based aerosol products are
frequently not prepared to face. The case of aerosol products illustrates how health and
safety issues have to be addressed by training and technical assistance directed to
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developing countries. When changing to new technology, technical specifications can not
always be met without proper expert assistance.
In order to have successful projects, companies must also be motivated and prepared to
accept the new technology. This motivation can result from government regulation a
clearly articulated industry phaseout strategy, price increases, product shortages, or'supply
uncertainty for ODS. vv J
Some technology cooperation efforts have been prematurely attempted in countries where
companies and national governments were not prepared, and as a consequence little actual
investment progress has been made.
Industrial Initiatives and Challenges
Industrial initiative has been responsible for a large number of successful programs to
phase out ODS in developing countries. In cases with the cooperation from multi-national
companies and organizations like International Cooperation for Ozone Layer Protection
(ICOLP), The Japan Electrical Manufacturers' Association (JEMA), Japan Industrial
S??£™ncelor Ozone ^^ Protecti011 (JICOP), and North Atlantic Treaty Organization
(NATO) and with strong market incentives, ODS solvent use is rapidly decreasing.
Multinational corporations and trade associations have been key players in the Protocol
implementation process. Since technology transfer, training and information need to be
targeted to meet specific needs, the identification of such needs through industry initiatives
has proven very efficient. Several Article 5(1) countries are part of the Protocol and
phaseout process due to the pressure exerted by their local industry.
Progress has not always been made even in cases where ODS substitutes and alternatives
are cost effective with rapid payback of investment, for instance in packaging foam, solvent
elimination and aerosol products. One explanation for this is that capital is not always
available even when investment is promising. Despite its toxicity, carbon tetrachloride use
as a solvent remains widespread in India, Eastern Europe and Southeast Asia. Additional
concern is that the manufacturers will adopt chlorinated solvents without proper
occupational and environmental safety precautions. Training and information is a
necessity.
Unless provided, there is no.mechanism for the dissemination of alternative technologies
and substances to replace methyl bromide. They are the same for developing and
developed countries, but the transition to their use may be less readily carried out. Reasons
are the lack of proper infrastructure, including inadequate training and extension services
and appropriate staff.
Ozone Units
The motivation and involvement of government in the country program, project preparation
and the implementation process that follows is of utmost importance to a speedier phaseout
and overall success.
In many countries government focal points or ozone units have not been, and some still are
not, properly organized and have lacked adequate institutional support. Even now,
although government participation is stronger, lack of local capacity to prepare and'
implement projects is delaying the implementation process. ,
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By July 1994, funds amounting to US$8.8 million had been provided to 42 Article 5
countries for institutional strengthening to facilitate the implementation of country action
plans for the phaseout of controlled substances. All of the ozone units that have been
supported so far by funds made available to them from the Multilateral Fund (MF), are
either operating or at the final stages of becoming operational.
Ozone units must have sufficient dedicated staff, funding, and regulation authority to
accomplish their objectives. The resource requirements depend on the special
circumstances of the particular country.
Multilateral Fund assistance is necessary for coordination and monitoring purposes but may
not be efficiently used if governmental institutions do not provide sufficient priority and
support to their work.
Awareness and Information Exchange
It is a necessary prerequisite mat both industry and government be prepared before real
progress in phasing out ODS can be achieved. Information is important, but it must be cost
effective, streamlined, and targeted to meet the needs of users in developing countries.
Government Ozone Units have a coordination role and must have information to fulfil their
needs. It is important that information is supplied in their own language to avoid delays
and misinterpretation. They have to understand the main issues under discussion in the
international scenario and be prepared to act in the decision making process. They have to
be linked to the various industry sectors, NGOs and key pilayers in the Protocol
implementation process.
Enterprises need an increased understanding of the requirements of the Montreal Protocol
and the time scale that they have in which to convert to non-ODS. They need to be able to
identify and take advantage of local expertise and leverage the expertise of the Implementing
Agencies consultants when they come to their country for project development purposes.
The general public needs simple, direct information on the science and effects and
technology aspects of ozone layer protection, on how the Protocol will effect their everyday
life, and how they can join the global commitment to save the ozone layer.
As we move forward with the implementation of the Protocol, adequate information is even
more important. The TEAP encourages increased attention to the challenges facing the
information exchange services of the Montreal Protocol institutions. Changing information
needs and innovation in information systems will provide opportunities to improve
performance. It will be important in this context to build consensus regarding:
the proper role of information exchange services, and
the capabilities to identify and meet changes in user demand.
5.1.4
Possibilities for Shorter Grace Periods.
If funding remains available, the main barriers to rapid phaseout in developing countries are
largely informational and administrative, rather than technical and economic. Industrial
innovation has occurred more rapidly than anticipated and. there has been much more rapid
progress than predicted in commercializing replacements, including non-HCFC, for CFCs
and halons. Technical and commercial experience, availability of non-ODS alternatives and
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substitutes, cost of investments in technologies, difficulties in servicing, loss of export
market access, are key points to consider. It is critical to a successful phaseout that:
the financial mechanism succeeds;
the implementing agencies operate in a coordinated way to avoid duplication
of efforts;
technologies available are supported by adequate technical assistance
and training; and
channels for the collection and distribution of information operate to reach
domestic small and medium size enterprises that use ODSs (they are often
difficult to identify, may not welcome government officers and may not be
easy to convince mat a.change is necessary. It is likely that many users will
be willing to make changes when the price increases, when shortages
develop, when domestic regulations are in place, or when multinational
companies require suppliers to phase out).
For methyl bromide, there is the need to evaluate whether a ten year long grace period for
developing countries is advisable, in view of the trade implications and possible dumping
this would cause.
/•
There is a possibility that markets in-developed! countries will be resistant to products that
are produced with the aid of methyl bromida. Those Article 5 countries with export
earnings at risk already have strong market incentives to accelerate phaseouts of export-
related methyl bromide uses- In view of the potential for trade restrictions and availability
of alternatives it may, be- argued that only a short grace period is required for methyl
bromide for developing countries.
However, a grace period should be sufficiently long to make the necessary changes to
disseminate and support alternatives and to allow continued uninterrupted production of
those cash crops and other exports currently dependent on methyl bromide. Developed
countries may wish to assure that national environmental protection legislation permits
continued importation of produce grown with the aid of methyl bromide. In the end, the
allowable grace period may be irrelevant if market forces and technical innovation prevail.
Progress in the different sectors has occurred at different rates. Even in those cases where
ODS substitutes and alternatives are cost effective with rapid payback of investment such
as aerosols, solvents, and packaging foam, progress has not always been made at the rate
expected. One explanation for this is that capital is not always available even when
investment is promising.
CFG phaseout for developing countries in foams will be technically feasible around the year
2000 provided that the Multilateral Fund projects are implemented without delay. It is
technically feasible to manufacture aerosol products without using CFCs. Phaseout has
been successful in a number of developing countries in some cases in the same time-frame
as developed countries. The main reasons for continued reliance on CFCs is the lack of
suitable hydrocarbon aerosol propellants and the fragmentation of the aerosol products
industry in many small producers that are unable to comply with the safety precautions
needed to use flammable propellants. Some industry rationalization may be necessary in
these cases and some countries with very small markets will have to do without a national
aerosol products industry.
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Early phaseout of halons is feasible provided that critical needs of developing countries are
supplied from the existing banks and from the future banks being organized in developing
countries, and that suitable import and export regulations are in place.
Early phaseout of CFC chemicals in refrigeration, which are used to service existing
equipment, may imply the involvement of higher costs, unless there are proven procedures
for retrofit, and/or stockpiled CFC material is available for service. If this is not the case,
the remaining service life of the equipment (that may be up to 25-30 years) will, for a large
part, determine the costs involved. In certain cases, where equipment with considerably
higher efficiency is available, compared to 10-20 years ago, early replacements may be
cost-effective and positive with regard to chlorine emissions.
Methyl bromide is produced in small (less than 1,500 tonnes) quantities in both India and
China. There is concern that supplies of methyl bromide to developing countries may be
curtailed if phaseout or other restrictions are imposed in developing countries. Since there
is no possibility of significant supplies from recycled material, it will be necessary to secure
newly produced material during any agreed transition period. Developing countries used
about 14,000 tonnes (18%) of the 75,000 tonnes of methyl bromide supplied globally in
1992. Most of this was used for soil fumigation (about 70%), almost entirely for
production of cash crops for export. About 20% of use in developing countries is for in-
country protection of grain stocks and also for treatment of some exports (eg. rice, timber).
With shortage of supply of methyl bromide it can be expected that its price will eventually
rise significantly, though historically the price of ODS temporarily falls after phaseout or
restriction is agreed in developed countries. The voluntary Food and Agriculture
Organization (FAO) Code of Practice for Producers of Pesticides states that pesticides
severely restricted or banned in a producing country should not be exported to developing
countries. Application of this principle could restrict supply to developing countries,
independent of Protocol requirements.
5.2
Countries with Economies in Transition Aspects
Since the signing of the Montreal Protocol and its London Amendment substantial changes
occurred in the countries of the Central and Eastern European region and on the territory of
the former Soviet Union. As a consequence of the dissolution of the former Soviet Union,
as well as the former Yugoslavia, a number of new independent states emerged. The
transition from the "planned economy" political regime to market economies has begun, but
is taking much more time than thought and hoped for.
The Montreal Protocol had been ratified by the following states by 1991 when the transition
began:
1988 Belarus
1990 Bulgaria
1989 Czech and Slovak Republic
1989 German Democratic Republic
1989 Hungary
1990 Poland
1988 Soviet Union
1988 Ukraine
1991 Yugoslavia
Romania ratified the Protocol in 1993, Albania (Central and Eastern Europe) and Mongolia
(Asia) as former planned economy countries have not signed the Protocol.
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All the countries of this region—with the exception of Romania and Yugoslavia—were
classified as non-Article 5 countries. Since 1991, some of these countries requested a new
categorization of countries, i.e. those non-Article 5 countries with economies in transition
but, in the context of the Montreal Protocol, have not succeeded. Similar efforts have been
partially acknowledged by the Rio UN Conference on Environment and Development in
1992.
By 1992 the following states existed in the region:
Successor States to the former Soviet Union:
Armenia, Azerbaijan, Belarus, Georgia, Kazachstan, Kyrgizistan, Moldova,
Russian Federation (continuing the membership of the former Soviet
Union), Tadjikistan, Turkmenistan, Ukraine, Uzbekistan;
Baltic States:
Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania;
Central and Eastern European States:
Bulgaria, Czech Republic, Hungary, Poland, Romania, Slovakia;
Successor States to the former Yugoslavia:
Bosnia-Herzegovina, Croatia, Slovenia, the former Yugoslav Republic of
Macedonia, Yugoslavia (Serbia and Montenegro).
Of all of these states, Belarus, the Russian Federation, Turkmenistan, Ukraine,
Uzbekistan, and all the Central and Eastern European states as well as the successor states
to the former Yugoslavia are Parties to the Montreal Protocol; the London Amendment has
been ratified by the Russian Federation, Turkmenistan, Hungary, Romania, Croatia and
Slovenia; the Copenhagen Amendment by Hungary.
Production and consumption data in CETT
The production of ozone-depleting substances in Central and Eastern Europe has been
concentrated in the former Soviet Union (CFCs and halons), now in the Russian
Federation, with minor CFC production in the Czech Republic (approx. 2000 tonnes per
year ) and Romania. It is reported that there was production of methyl bromide in the
Ukraine of about 2000 tonnes in 1992. All other countries are consumers, but not
producers of ODSs.
No official production and consumption data are available for the successor states to the
former Soviet Union and the Baltic republics; the former Soviet Union reported the
production and consumption data for the years 1986,1989, and 1990. An assessment of
the consumption is being done in the framework of the Country Programme for the Russian
Federation, as well as in the Country Programmes for the Baltic Republics. The baseline
level of consumption of CFCs and halons was in the order of about 150,000 tonnes per
year.
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Legislation and institutions
In many of the successor states there is no legislative basis to ratify and implement the
Montreal Protocol and there are no institutions/authorities to manage the phaseout of ODSs
or even to report consumption data and to establish the baseline consumption level. In a
number of states (e.g. the Baltic republics) the accession to the Protocol as amended in
London is difficult because of the country's classification as non-Article 5 which includes
the obligation to contribute to the Multilateral Fund. Fortunately, the Central European
states, probably including Slovenia, have both the necessary legislation and administrative
capabilities to govern the phaseout of ODSs.
Status of countries with economies in transition (CEIT)
All states of the Central and Eastern European region as well as Commonwealth of
Independent States (CIS) states are struggling with the difficulties of the transition from a
planned economy to market economy, the world-wide recession, market discrimination and
exclusion, and with high inflation rates and chronic lack of capital, even for investments
with short payback time. Their resources are mostly inadequate for a timely ODS phaseout.
The phaseout of the production in the Russian Federation is an additional problem. The
reduction of the consumption of ODSs in the Central European states has been a
consequence of decrease in industrial output due to the factors referred to earlier, and only
partly as a result of actual phaseout activities and investments.
Possible cases of non-compliance
It seems inevitable that non-compliance will occur in several states. The interruption to
industry caused by political changes, coupled with lack of finance and appropriate
infrastructure means that transition to non-ODS use will not occur by 1996.
The TEAP wishes to draw the attention of the Parties to the problems of countries with
economies in transition, which did not exist when the Montreal Protocol and its London
amendment were signed.
In the 1995 March Report a more detailed description of the problems and possible
approaches to solve those problems will be presented.
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Summary of the Report of the Aerosols,
Sterilants, Miscellaneous Uses and Carbon
tetrachloride Technical Options Committee
6.1
Aerosol Products
Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) have been used extensively in aerosol products as a propellant
but also as the solvent or active ingredient. In 1989 some 180,000 tonnes of CFCs were
used worldwide in aerosol products. It is believed that in 1992, this volume probably
dropped below 80,000 tonnes, a reduction of some 220,000 tonnes since 1986.
Substantial work is being carried out to reformulate the products which still use CFCs. In
countries which have implemented phase out programs, the remaining aerosol product uses
are principally in the pharmaceutical sector.
There are a variety of alternatives available to substitute CFCs in virtually all aerosol
products. The optimal alternative depends on the specific product under consideration.
Each alternative has its own unique set of properties which need to be taken into account.
These include toxicity, environmental impact, flammability, solvency, performance
characteristics and cost. The alternatives currently available include hydrocarbons
(hydrocarbon aerosol propellants, HAPs), dimethyl ether, compressed gases, HCFCs,
HFCs, non-aerosol delivery systems and product substitutes.
A large majority of non-medical aerosol products have already or are likely to be replaced
with hydrocarbons. This requires reformulation, retrofitting and sometimes relocation of
the manufacturing facility. The use of hydrocarbons requires precautionary measures to be
taken during production, storage and transportation to prevent fire and explosion.
Generally it has taken about one to three years to convert plant and formulations. In some
countries this process is well under way. In others, serious problems exist in obtaining the
quality of hydrocarbon feedstock required to be purified as HAPs. The de-stenching
purification process is costly and may require sophisticated technology.
Dimethyl ether is another alternative propellant. It is flammable, is more expensive than
hydrocarbons and requires care when formulating aqueous products in tin plate cans to
avoid corrosion problems. It is an excellent solvent which is soluble in water up to 35%
which provides interesting formulation possibilities, however, because of its solvency it
requires special seals and gaskets for filling equipment and aerosol valves.
HFC 152a is another flammable propellant which has been used in mousses because it
produces an excellent foam and as a non volatile organic compound (VOC) its use is
increasing, particularly in the USA.
Currently available non-flammable propellant substitutes include compressed gases (such as
COa and Na), HCFC 22, alone or in mixtures and HFC 134a. It must be noted that the use
of a non-flammable propellant may not yield a non-flammable aerosol product.
Compressed gases have been used as propellants for a long time and currently comprise
nine percent of the aerosol product market. They produce poor quality sprays and
therefore, their use is, therefore, limited to crawling insect insecticides and other products
for which a wet spray is acceptable.
Because of their price and potential for ozone depletion, HCFCs have found limited and
temporary application. HCFCs, therefore, have not made a significant contribution to the
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reduction of CFCs in this sector. The volume of HCFCs currently in use is expected to
decrease significantly over the next few years.
HFC 134a is commercially available and is used principally in aerosols where product
flammability is a concern. Other new fluorine based chemicals such as HFC 227 and 125
are under consideration and development. Their cost will be higher than that of HFC 134a
which may limit applications. Additional toxicological studies of these substances must
also be completed.
Non-propellant alternatives can also be used to apply or administer some products which
currently utilize CFCs. These include devices such as ringer pumps, trigger pumps and
mechanical pressure dispensers.
There are a number of products in the non-inhalant medical aerosol and technical specialty
area where CFCs are still used and are classified essential under legislation in many
countries. The quantity and likelihood of these products requiring continued use of CFCs
is limited in developed countries.
A few essential use production/consumption exemption nominations for non-inhalant
medical aerosol products were forwarded to this committee for review. At the time of
writing the committee was unable to recommend that these uses be exempted from the I
January 1996 ban on production of CFCs.
s
In conclusion, in developed countries (excluding eastern European countries), the use of
CFCs in non-medical aerosols has been reduced to less than 20,000 tonnes per year. A
significant volume of CFCs is still used in a range of aerosol products in some developing
and eastern European countries. The major impediment to conversion in these countries is
a lack of availability of hydrocarbons, lack of technology awareness and lack of adequate
financial assistance to complete the conversion process. In developing countries, the speed
of conversion has; therefore, not been as fast as was indicated in the 1991 assessment.
Therefore, the expected reduction of total CFC use in aerosol products to some 15,000
tonnes worldwide by 1995 is unlikely to be achieved.
6.2
Medical Aerosol Products
Within the category of aerosol products, specific oral inhalants for pulmonary diseases are
recognized as the most difficult to substitute. Other medical aerosol products include nasal
preparations, anti-anginal sprays, local anaesthetics, wound sprays, antibiotics, antiseptics
and ancillary products.
These products do not require the properties considered necessary for oral inhalers,
therefore they could be reformulated either through the use of alternative propellants,
mechanical pump sprays or the use of powders, creams and other liquids.
The prevalence of asthma and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) is increasing
worldwide. It is estimated there are at least 300 million people with asthma world wide and
may be as many again with COPD. The prevalence of asthma in children is at least 10% in
developed countries. In adults, asthma affects at least 6% of the population. Asthma
deaths are largely preventable and related to undertreatment.
There is international consensus that primary treatment of these diseases should be by the
inhaled route. This permits treatment to be delivered quickly and efficiently to the lower
airways, with minimal risk of adverse reactions. Therapy necessitates regular treatment,
often with more than one drug. Inhaled therapy can be administered to airways by a variety
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65
of means such as nebulisers, metered dose inhalers and dry powder inhalers.
As a consequence of the above factors, there is an existing and increasing requirement for
inhaled medications.
This is largely met by CFC driven metered dose inhalers (MDIs), which are cheap, reliable
and effective therapy. MDIs currently use CFC 12 as a propellant and most use CFC 11
and 114 either alone or in mixture to suspend or dissolve medication.
Alternatives to MDIs include tablet therapy (cheap, easy to use but with greater potential for
side effects than MDIs) nebulised therapy, (expensive, not easily portable, requires an
external power source) and dry powder inhalers. Dry powder inhalers (DPIs) are effective,
easy to use, portable and available in multi-dose formulations but may need special
packaging in humid climates and are dependent on adequate inspiratory flow.
Available dry powder inhalers are not suitable for all young children or certain adults. Dose
for dose they may also be more expensive than MDIs and not all products are available as
DPIs in all countries.
An intense technical development of dry powder inhalers is going on, which might further
enhance the possibilities for this non-CFC alternative. There was a relative increase ki the
global use of dry powder inhalers of about 5% between 1990 and 1992, reaching
approximately 15% of inhaled medicines in 1992.
Compressed gases, hydrocarbons, HCFCs and HFCs have been evaluated as potential
alternatives to CFCs for inhalant drug products. All alternative propellants have proved
unsuitable other than HFCs. HFCs 134a and 227 appeal' suitable for use in MDIs.
Toxicological studies have .reached an advanced stage and will, in the case of HFC 134a be
complete during the first half of 1994 and for HFC 227, the first half of 1995. Concurrent
with this work, pharmaceutical product development programs are proceeding and early
dosing of humans is under way. Clinical studies on the more easily reformulated drug
products have commenced and a succession of new formulations will follow as technical
difficulties are resolved.
Given the duration of the clinical studies required to demonstrate equivalent efficacy and
safety, the time required for review of the extensive documentation needed to describe these
findings and to confirm product quality by each national regulatory authority, it is unlikely
that alternative MDIs will be available until 1996. It is envisaged that the bulk of the
transition to non CFC inhalation products will occur in the late 1990s.
In 1992 use of CFCs for MDIs was estimated to be 7,000-8,000 tonnes. Essential use
production exemption nominations for 1996 total 13,000 tonnes. These figures are
compatible with the 1991 predictions. This predicted increase in MDI / CFC usage is due
to the following;
• data for 1992 were likely to be incomplete.
• there has been a significant increase in the detection and prevalence of airway
diseases, and
• international guidelines have accentuated the change from tablet treatment to inhaled
therapy, and encouraged the greater use of regularly used inhaled treatment.
In developing countries the current use of inhalant drug products is comparatively small;
but there is likely to be an increasing need for these products over the rest of the decade.
The use of these inhaled drugs will be increased by a number of factors including the
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widespread adoption of international guidelines on asthma management by physicians,
increasing disease prevalence and economic factors. The likely extent of increased use of
these products is substantial but unpredictable.
Prediction of use of inhaled drug products over the next 10 years is compounded by several
variables. The two major diseases necessitating use of inhaled drugs are both increasing in
frequency. Medical management of those diseases is also increasingly favouring the
inhaled route of administering drugs. It may be appropriate for some of that usage to be
provided by an increased use of dry powder inhalers, but for reasons of availability, drug
choice, storage and cost, the CFC driven metered dose inhalers are likely to remain the
commonest method of inhaling medicines for at least the next 3 years. Toxicological testing
of CFC replacement propellants, clinical trials and approval in many different countries is a
time consuming process. It may be possible for regulatory authorities to expedite some
aspects of the review process.
Patient requirement for CFC driven MDIs is likely to increase on current estimates by about
10-20% per annum for the next 3 years. Thereafter a decline can be anticipated consequent
to the introduction of CFC free MDIs and wider use of DPIs. If these predictions are an
underestimate and production of CFCsis limited as a result, undesirable health impacts are
likely for the percentage of patients with asthma and COPD unable to use alternative
therapies. Adequate CFC supplies should therefore be maintained during this transition
period.
6.3
Sterilants
A mixture of CFC 12 and ethylene oxide (EO) is widely used for gas sterilization of
medical equipment and devices. EO (the sterilizing agent) can be used in a one hundred
percent form (termed 100% EO) or diluted with other gases. EO has the ability to penetrate
a wide variety of packaging materials. This attribute is vital to the handling, storage and
transport of medical equipment and devices prior to use. EO is especially useful for
sterilizing heat and moisture sensitive products such as plastic catheters, electrical devices
and non metallic implants. EO is toxic, mutagenic, a suspected carcinogen, flammable and
explosive. The use of 100% EO, therefore requires stringent safety precautions.
To reduce flammability and explosion risks, EO is diluted with CFC 12 to form a mixture
of 12% (by weight) EO and 88% CFC 12 (commonly known as 12/88) which due to its
potential health hazards must also be used with great care.
The total use of CFC 12 worldwide for sterilization was estimated to be approximately
18,000-20,000 tonnes in 1991. In 1992/93 there was an estimated volume of 8,000-
10,000 tonnes used.
Many medical device manufacturers and contract sterilization services have elected to invest
in the equipment necessary to use the explosive and flammable mixtures or radiation
sterilization facilities. These users strive to optimize economically their processes because
they process many identical items either serially or together, and can customize the process
to the product Health care faculties (hospitals) batch process many different re-usable
items in the same sterilizer load. This requires a broadly effective sterilant tolerant of
processing error by personnel.
Alternatives available to health care facilities include: small volume 100% EO sterilizers
operating with sub-atmospheric conditions, pressure vessel rated chambers using a mixture
of EO/CO2, and a newly developed mixture of 8.6% EO and 91.4% HCFC 124. These are
all commercially available to the health care community on a world-wide basis. Some
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existing 12/88 equipment can be converted to the EO/CO;2 mixture. Most existing
equipment can convert to the EO/HCFC 124 mixture. (100% EO in large sterilizers in USA
hospitals is not possible due to extreme risks of flammability and explosion. All regulatory
agencies prohibit such use since the sterilizer must be located near the operating rooms or
central supply).
Industrial options include the use of 100% EO, mixtures of CO2 or nitrogen and EO,
mixtures of EO and HCFC 124 and radiation sterilization. At this time most industrial
users have already eliminated 12/88 in the developed countries. Many industrial and
commercial users of 12/88 have converted existing sterilization chambers to 100% EO.
Such a conversion, however, requires extensive and costly retrofitting for safety, possible
relocation within the plant or construction of a new facility.
In countries where formaldehyde is accepted, heat and moisture tolerant devices can be
sterilized with formaldehyde, leaving a small number of devices requiring EO sterilization.
These can be sterilized either at hospitals with 100% EO in small sterilizers; or, by the
manufacturer; or, a third party sterilizing facility.
Devices which are heat and moisture sensitive such as catheters and some fibre optics
require EO, alone or in mixtures with CO2 or HCFC 124. HCFC 124/EO, a drop in
substitute, will allow hospitals to keep in operation their existing sterilization units. The
material cost of the HCFC 124/EO may be considerably higher than 12/88, particularly in
those countries where CFCs are not being taxed.
Systems available for recovery and recycling of CFC 12/EO can also be used for the
recovery and recycling of HCFC/EO mixtures. These systems are quite complex and
expensive, however, with the higher prices of substitute diluents, recovery systems may
offer an attractive economic payback for industrial or large hospital users.
12/88 is used to some extent in at least 60 countries. Many countries have scheduled the
phase-out of 12/88 or have accomplished the ban of CFCs for sterilant use. There are some
countries where CFCs have already been banned in the hospital environment, for example
Chile has banned CFCs and has converted .to EO/COa.
In conclusion, by using a combination of existing techniques, the current use of CFC 12
for sterilization can be phased out not later than 1995 in developed countries. The high cost
of the drop-in replacements and availability of technology, appropriate expertise and
training could increase the timescale of conversion of 12/88 equipment in developing
countries.
6.4
Miscellaneous Uses
CFCs are or have been used for a variety of miscellaneous uses such as food freezing,
tobacco expansion, leak detection, graphite purification, solar tracking systems and as a
dielectric fluid in linear accelerators for cancer treatment. CFCs are used in laboratory
procedures, for example, standard methods for analyzing oil require the use of CFCs or
carbon tetrachloride (CTC). New standard methods are therefore required to avoid the use
of ozone depleting substances.
The miscellaneous uses mentioned in this report are believed to consume, on a global basis,
only a very small volume of CFCs. It is important, however, to be aware of these and
other miscellaneous uses when considering the new Montreal Protocol phase out schedule
and whether any of these areas are critical to health, safety and the functioning of society.
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Other than most laboratory uses of ODS, many of the identified miscellaneous uses should
be able to be substituted by alternative fluorocarbons or other available technologies.
6.5
Carbon Tetrachloride
The primary use of carbon tetrachloride (CTC) is as a feedstock for the production of CFC
11 and 12. As the use of CFCs is phased out, the production of CTC will also be
progressively reduced by means of plant closure and in many cases by switching
production units to other uses.
There are some other feedstock uses of CTC which are allowed under the Montreal
Protocol and are regarded by industry as essential. These include its use as a feedstock
material for production of key pharmaceutical and agricultural chemicals, and as a catalyst
promoter (sweetener) in oil refineries. Some key research and development applications
use CTC as a reagent. In these applications CTC is destroyed.
Inadvertent production of CTC will continue to a limited extent, as CTC is a by-product in
many chlorohydrocarbon production complexes. The majority of this material is recycled
or consumed within the production complex.
It is essential to understand the distinction between allowable feedstock uses (where CTC is
chemically transformed or destroyed) and dispersive uses (such as use as a process solvent
where CTC remains unchanged). CTC is toxic and is 'designated as a 'possible' human
carcinogen in many countries and its dispersive use is limited.
The main dispersive use is as a solvent for materials undergoing chlorination, the majority
being used hi the production of chlorinated rubber and small quantities being used as a
process solvent in pharmaceutical manufacture. In order to find alternatives, each
chlorination reaction has to be evaluated.
In many cases the use of best practicable control technology, recovery and recycling and the
destruction of residues can reduce emissions to insignificant levels and render the process
virtually non-dispersive.
Where CTC is used as a process solvent in the pharmaceutical industry, alternatives could
require extensive approval over a 5-7 year time frame. In cases where alternatives cannot
be found or the time frame for approval is lengthy, continued use may be required with
appropriate recovery/recycling controls.
There are a number of important laboratory applications which will be difficult to replace,
for example, as a solvent for infra-red analysis of oil samples. There are many standard
analytical methods which specify the use of CTC and will require the identification of
alternatives and the alteration of the standard by the relevant national or international
authority.
The committee has found there has been limited effort into evaluating and developing
alternatives, largely because there are a large number of small users who are difficult to
identify. Of the analytical uses recently identified, few alternatives have been found. This
is an area which requires education and information dissemination.
A number of essential use production/consumption exemption nominations were forwarded
to the committee for review. These include the use of CTC in the production of chlorinated
rubber, chlorine and terephthaloyldichloride as well as'analytical uses. For further
information on the committee's review of these nominations see the Technology and
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Economic Assessment Panel Report March 1994, or the relevant Technical Options Report.
It is recognized CTC is used in some countries as a cleaning solvent. Alternatives for this
application are widely available. Reference should be made to the UNEP Solvents
Technical Options Report for clarification of its use and options for substitution.
6.6
Summary of technical options either under consideration or
currently used
ector
Aerosols
These options for reduction or substitution of controlled substances will be dependent on
the specific application.
Options
Hydrocarbons (HAPs)
Dimethyl Ether(DME)
Compressed Gases, CO2, N2, N2O, Air
HCFC 142b/ 22
HFC152a/134a/227ea
Pump Sprays
Solid Sticks
Roll-ons
Brushes/Pads/Shakers/Powder
Nebulizers
HFC 134a/HFC 227
Dry Powder Inhalers
Steam Sterilization
100% Ethylene Oxide
COa/EO (10/90) and other CO2 mixtures
Formaldehyde
HCFC 124/EO
Gas plasma
Vapour phase hydrogen peroxide
Gaseous Ozone
Chlorine Dioxide
Gamma and Electron Beam Radiation
Off-site Sterilisation
Recovery/Recycling
Recovery/Recycling
Other Solvents (eg. trichloroethylene, methylene
chloride and perchloroethylene)
Inhalant Drug Products
Sterilants
Carbon Tetrachloride
Miscellaneous Uses
Tobacco Expansion
Freezants
Analysis of Hydrocarbons
Dielectric Medium
Liquid CO2
Propane
Cryogenic methods (liquid N2, CO2)
Air blast freezing
Different approach
Other Solvents
Hexane
Sulphur Hexafluoiide
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Summary of the Report of the Flexible and
Rigid Foams Technical Options Committee
7.1
Key Conclusions
In 1993, the foam plastics industry reduced CFC consumption by 50%
since 1986, despite a 45% increase in the size of the foam market over that
period.
Zero ODP alternatives are the substitutes of choice in many applications
including packaging, cushioning and certain rigid thermal insulation foams.
In several markets and for certain applications HCFCs are necessary for
rigid thermal insulating foams and automotive integral skin foams until zero
ODP solutions are proven including high energy efficiency or properties
required for safety.
CFC phaseout for developing countries is technically feasible around the
year 2000 provided that Multilateral Fund projects are implemented without
delay.
The main zero ODP solutions still to be proven are liquid HFCs. In
addition, broader qualification of hydrocarbons is also required. This
situation is likely to be resolved around the year 2000.
Once zero ODP solutions have been proven, and are commercially available,
the implementation can be relatively rapid (3-5 years) for foam
manufacturing in developed countries.
Full recovery and recycling of CFCs from the existing stock of foam is
logistically and technically difficult.
7.2
Summary of CFC Reduction in Foams Sector Since 1986
Historically, the fully halogenated chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) used by the foam plastics
manufacturing industry have been extremely varied. An assortment of CFCs, such as
CFC-11, CFC-12, CFC-113 and CFC-114, and methyl chloroform, have been used in
numerous foam plastic product applications. The types and major applications of foams
which used CFCs are summarised in Table ES-1.
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Table ES-1 Major Applications and Types of Foam Which Used CFCs
Polystyrene
Construction
INSULATION
iBoardstock
J
Polyolefin
[Pipe
Rigid Polvurethane
Boardstock/Flexible Faced
Laminates
Sandwich Panels
Spray/Pour-in-Place
Slabstock
Pipe-in-Pipe
Phenolic
Board
Pipe
Appliance Rigid'Polyuretfaane
Refrigerators/Freezers
Picnic Boxes/Other
Transport
Rigid Polyurethane |Sandwich Panels
Polystyrene
[Sandwich Panels
Sheet
PACKAGING
Polystyrene
Single Service Uses
Food Packaging
Misc. Packaging
Polyolefin
Non-Insulation -
Rigid
Furniture
Cushion Packaging
I Polyurethane
Moulded
Polyolefin
Boards tock
Polyolefin
Slabstock
CUSHIONING
Flexible Polyurethane
Carpet Underlay
Furniture
Moulded
Flexible Polvurethane
Furniture
Carpet Underlay
Automotive Cushioning
Auto Bumper Systems
[Cushion Packaging
[Cushion Packaging
Moulded
Polyolefin
SAFETY
Integral Skin
Sheet
Board
Polyurethane
Polyolefin
Polyolefin
Polystyrene
[Steering Wheels/Headrests I
(Flotation - Life Vests I
(Flotation |
[Flotation |
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This report details the available technical options that can be implemented by each foam type
to eliminate CFC usage as of 1994. Updates on the progress of each product in reducing
CFC consumption since 1986 (summarised in Figure ES-1) are also provided.
It should be noted that specific technical options and the extent of CFC reduction achieved
to date vary depending upon the foam application, market sector and applicable energy
efficiency requirements. Consequently, key factors affecting the total elimination of ozone
depleting substances from the foam plastics manufacturing industry are also discussed.
Overall, significant progress has been made in phasing-out CFCs in the foams sector. The
foam plastics industry has reduced total CFC consumption by 50% since 1986, from
267,000 tonnes in 1986 to 133,000 tonnes in 1993. Globally, CFC consumption has
either been reduced or eliminated in every market sector since 1986, despite a 45% increase
in the size of the industry over the last eight years.
Reductions have been achieved by CFC conservation, product reformulation, direct
substitution of CFCs with other blowing agents, not-in-kind substitutes or the use of new
manufacturing technologies. In general, the greatest reductions in CFC consumption have
been achieved by developed nations. For the developed countries the transition out of
Annex A, Group I substances will essentially be completed in 1994, except limited use for
rigid polyurethane foams for home appliance insulation. As discussed later, developing
countries also are working to achieve similar CFC reductions and may not require the
additional time to phaseout that the Montreal Protocol allows.
There was only one essential use nomination in the sector for 1996 relating to CFC use for
analytical/laboratory uses in alternative blowing agent research. The Foams Technical
Options Committee, the Technology and Economic Assessment Panel and the Open-Ended
Working Group were unable to recommend this nomination to the Parties of the Protocol.
The Parties decided at their October 1994 meeting not to grant an essential use for foams.
Given the availability of CFC substitutes for blowing agents, few or no additional essential
use nominations are anticipated in the foam plastics sector.
HCFCs are the major current alternative for rigid thermal insulation foam and certain other .
applications. It is estimated that 60,000 tonnes of HCFCs were used in 1993. The 1993
CFC and HCFC use estimates fail to reflect the current progress being made by the foam
industry to eliminate CFCs. The real transition year for phasing out CFCs in the foam
sector is 1994.
7.3 Phaseout Status in Developed Countries
Packaging foams have completed the phaseout of CFCs.
However, in developing countries there is still over 12,000 tonnes of CFCs used for
extruded polystyrene packaging products despite the widescale availability of alternatives.
Elimination of CFCs in cushioning foams nears completion.
By end of 1994 worldwide use of CFCs in this application will have been eliminated.
Continued use of CFCs are likely in developing countries and Eastern Europe.
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Figures ES-1
CFC Consumption by Foam Sector
(tonnes)
Extruded Polystyrene
(37,600)
Phenolic (1,400)
Polyolefln (19,000)
Poyurethane
(209,400)
1986
(Total = 267,400 tonnes)
_ . . _ Phenolic
Extruded Polystyrene (2,700)
Polyolefin
(12,350)
Polyurethane
(147,100)
(Total =
1990
174,150 tonnes)
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Figures ES-1 (continued)
CFC Consumption by Foam Sector
(tonnes)
Extruded Polystyrene
(14,400)
Polyolefin
(900)
Polyurethanc
(117,300)
1993
(Total = 133,250 tonnes)
Rigid thermal insulation foam has reduced CFC use by 45% in 1993.
By the end of 1994, CFC use will be essentially phased out, with limited use in the
appliance foam sector until mid-1995.
Automotive Foams for Safety (Integral Skin) is near complete in phasing out CFCs.
Foams used for automotive safety will have virtually eliminated CFCs by the end of 1994.
Although significant progress has been made in the replacement of CFCs in foam
manufacture, no single solution has emerged from the transition process. Choices must be
retained to allow optimal solutions for given applications, producer-specific and country-
specific circumstances. Table ES-2 outlines currently available and long-term alternatives
undergoing testing.
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7.4
Zero-ODP Alternatives
Zero-ODP alternatives are currently the substitutes of choice in many foam types and
applications. The major zero-ODP applications are:
• polystyrene, polyolefin and polyurethane for packaging with CC>2 (injected
and water), hydrocarbons and HFC-152a;
• flexible polyurethane for cushioning with methylene chloride, CC>2 (water
and injected), hydrocarbons, acetone and alternative technologies;
• polyurethane and polystyrene rigid insulation foams where energy efficiency
and fire safety requirements can be met with hydrocarbons, and COa (water
and injected);
• polyurethane integral skin for non-automotive safety applications with CC>2
(water), HFC-134a and hydrocarbons.
7.5
Transitional Substances
In several markets and for certain applications HCFCs are necessary for rigid thermal
insulating foams and automotive safety integral skin foams until other long term zero-ODP
solutions are proven. Given the availability of zero-ODP substitutes for other foam
applications, it is unlikely that there will be expanding use of HCFCs in developing or
developed countries beyond the insulation or safety foam applications.
The selection of an HCFC depends on the foam type and application. The major HCFC
applications are: •
Rigid polyurethane for appliance and construction with preferred use of HCFC-
141b and minor use of HCFC-22/- 142b blends;
Integral skin polyurethane for interior automotive safety components with use of
HCFC-22;
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CFC Alternatives Available to the Foam Industry
Table ES-l(A) Polyurethane Foams
Foam Type
Rigid:
Domestic Refrigerators and
Freezers
Other appliances
Boardstock/Flex-Faced Lamination
Sandwich Panels
Spray
Slabstock
Pipe
Flexible:
Slab
Moulded
Integral Skin
Current
CFC Alternative
Reduced CFC-1 1, cyclopentane,
HCFC-141b
Reduced CFC-11, HCFC-141b,
HCFC-22, HCFC-22/HCFC-142b
blend, pentane, CO2 (water)
HCFC-141b, pentanes, HCFC-22
Reduced CFC-11, HCFC-141b,
HCFC-22, HCFC-22/HCFC-142b
blend, pentane, HCFC-134a
Reduced CFC-1 1, pentanes,
HCFC-l4lb
Reduced CFC-1 1, pentane, HCFC-
141b
CO2 (water), HCFC-22, HCFC-
22/HCFC-142b blends, HCFC-
141b, pentanes
extended-range polyols, CO2
(water and injected), softening
agents, methylene chloride, methyl
chloroform, acetone, AB
Technology, increased density,
HCFC-141b, pentane, MDI
Technology, alternative
technologies (E-Max, accelerated
cooling, variable pressure)
Increased density, methyl
chloroform, extended range
polyols, CC>2 (water), HCFC-141b
HCFC-22, hydrocarbons, LBL2,
HCFC-22/HCFC-142b blends
Long Term
CFC Alternative
HFCs (-245, -356, -365), vacuum
panels, hydrocarbons
HFCs (-245, -356, -365),
pentanes, CO2 (water), AB
Technology
HFCs (-245, -356, -365), pentanes
HFC (-245, -356, -365), pentanes,
CO2 (water)
HFC (-245, -356, -365), CO2
(water)
HFC (-245, -356, -365), CO2
(water or injected)
HFC (-245, -356, -365), CO2
(water)
COz (injected), alternative
technologies
CO2 (water), HFCs (-245, -356, -
365)
HFCs (-245, -356, -365),
hydrocarbons
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CFC Alternatives Available to the Foam Industry (cont.)
Table ES-1(B) Phenolic Foams
Current
CFC Alternative
HCFC-22, hydrocarbons, LBL2, HCFC-22/HCFC-
142b blends
Long Term
CFC Alternative
MFCs (-245, -356, -365), hydrocarbons
Table ES-l(C) Extruded Polystyrene Foams
Foam Type
Sheets
Boardstock
Current
CFC Alternative
HCFC-22, hydrocarbons, CO2
(injected), HFC-152a
HCFC-22, HCFC-142b, CO2
Long Term
CFC Alternative
CO2 (injected), hydrocarbons,
atmospheric gases, HFCs (-134a,
-152a)
HFCs
Table ES-l(D) Polyolefin Foams
1 Current
CFC Alternative
Hydrocarbons, HCFC-22, HCFC-142b, COa
(injected), HFC-152a
Long Term
CFC Alternative
Hydrocarbons, COa (injected)
Extruded polystyrene board for construction with preferred use of HCFC-142b and
some use of HCFC-22;
Phenolic foam for building and pipe insulation with use of HCFC-141b; and
Polyolefin foam for pipe insulation with use of HCFC- 142b.
In 1993, it was estimated that 60,000 tonnes of HCFCs were used to help achieve the CFC
reductions of 50% since 1986.
7.6
Developing Countries
Technology needs of developing countries are similar to those in developed countries
except that climatic conditions can be severe and enterprises may be small.
Ozone depleting substances used in the foams sector are often devoted toward fulfilling
basic societal needs such as food preservation.
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The strong growth of industry in many countries makes a CFC phaseout in as short a time
as is practicable, for example about 2000, a high priority so as to not increase significantly
atmospheric chlorine loading. Achieving a phaseout target year of about 2000 depends on:
• quick development of country programmes
• rapid generation of individual enterprise projects which are as cost effective
as possible so as to make best use of the MLF
• avoiding the use of intermediate technologies which can result hi costly
replacement
• making most efficient use of national institutes.
• using local alternatives where possible and provided that they are of
acceptable quality
• ensuring the support of governments,
• availability of sufficient experts to speed training and technology transfer,
and
• availability of equipment to handle flammable and low boiling blowing
agents.
ODS replacement programmes, however, should not compromise health or safety.
7.7
Long Term Zero-ODP Alternatives
The main zero-ODP solutions still to be proven are liquid HFC isomers. There also needs
to be a broader qualification of hydrocarbons. This situation is likely to be resolved around
2000. In addition to technical feasibility, qualification of these blowing agents at a
minimum includes:
Safety - Uncertainties associated with the toxicity of new substitute blowing
agents and exposure to possible decomposition products formed in foams must be
narrowed to ensure worker and consumer safety. Safe handling procedures
required for substitutes of varying degrees of flammability must also be evaluated.
Environment — Risks to the environment must be controllable to meet local,
regional and national standards. Environmental issues include restrictions on the
emissions of volatile organic compounds, such as hydrocarbons, and global
warming concerns.
Product Performance - Thermal insulation and safety products must meet
market and regulatory requirements including building and fire codes,
consumer/market needs, and energy efficiency requirements. It is particularly
important to further qualify hydrocarbons. This is particularly important if
hydrocarbons are to qualify for all products hi all regions.
Cost and Availability of Alternatives - Substitutes must be sufficiently
available and affordable to allow for an orderly transition and to allow for products
to be manufactured and sold competitively.
National & Regional Legislation (new or proposed) — Transition efforts
will be affected by differing national and regional legislation regulating the use of
various substitutes. Legislative diversity and inconsistency can create obstacles that
impede the implementation of substitutes particularly for companies serving
multinational markets.
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Once these zero-ODP alternatives have been proven, and are commercially available then
full implementation can be relatively rapid (3-5 years) for the foams sector.
7.8
Recovery/Recycling/Destruction
Full recovery and recycling of CFCs from the existing stock of foam is logistically and
technically difficult Where the foam can be separated from other materials, destruction of
CFC and HCFC by the incineration of the foam (a destruction technology approved bv
UNEP) is currently the most effective option.
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Summary of the Report of the Halon Fire
Extinguishing Agents Technical Options
Committee
8.1
Alternatives to halon fixed systems
New and existing alternatives exist for most halon 1301 total flooding applications. Where
replacement of halon 1301 is especially difficult (ground combat vehicle crew bays and
certain aviation applications) substantial research and development is underway.
8.2
Alternatives to halon portable fire extinguishers
Although halons provided excellent characteristics as fire extinguishing agents for use in
portable fire extinguishers, the use of alternatives for this application has been less
problematic than use of alternatives in fixed fire protection systems. In general portable fire
extinguishing agents -are only applied to actual fires and they can be easily directed at the
burning object. As such secondary damage concerns are somewhat less in recognition that
fire damage to the object has already occurred. For most applications, multipurpose dry
chemical has been the agent of choice, however there are important applications where
visibility concerns during firefighting operations and/or ability to permeate are of vital
importance.
8.3
Environmental Considerations for Halocarbon Alternative
Agents
The primary environmental factors to be considered for these agents are ODP, GWP, and
atmospheric lifetime. Comparison of halocarbon replacements with other alternatives
should be based on consideration of the environmental impact of each alternative. This
should include the impact of production of the agent and hardware, transportation, and
storage as well as other factors which determine the total impact of a technology on the
environment.
While GWP and atmospheric lifetime are potentially important environmental factors of
halon replacement agents, the objective of replacing halons with non-ozone depleting
substances is paramount to the goals of the Protocol. Therefore, the use of controlled, non-
zero ODP compounds, including HCFCs and HBFCs, as halon replacements is not a wise
decision if it can be avoided. As controlled substances, these agents are unlikely to be
produced in sufficient quantities that recycled material would be available for long-term
support of fire protection systems.
The impact of high atmospheric lifetime, and related high GWP, should be evaluated in the
context of the use quantity and emission pattern of chemicals used as halon replacement fire
extinguishants. When used only as fire suppressants, there is no likely emission scenario of
these compounds which results in measurable environmental impact. However, fire
protection represents only one of the potential uses for these substances, and therefore total
usage could exceed environmentally acceptable levels. As a result, several governments
have already restricted or banned the use of HFCs and PFCs. Such actions may restrict the
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commercial availability of these agents, and cause shortfalls in the availability of recycled
material necessary for the long-term support of fire protection systems.
Recognizing persuasive environmental concerns, the Halons Technical Options Committee
does not endorse the widespread.use of HCFCs and HBFCs, or promote the indiscriminate
use of PFCs, in preference to other, effective, new or existing technological alternatives for
fire protection, which are discussed later hi this chapter. The use of any synthetic
compound that accumulates in the atmosphere carries some potential risk with regard to
atmospheric equilibrium changes, with consequences to long-term availability of the
compound and subsequent support for installed fire protection systems.
8.4
Explosion Protection
Halons have been widely used to suppress deflagrations, a class of combustion events
characterized by rapid flameball growth.and high rates of energy release. Explosions are
events resulting in personal injury or destruction of property. Explosion protection is
achieved through methods to prevent or mitigate deflagrations. Effective protection of
systems and personnel at risk from such events requires operating systems which:
• Create inerted atmospheres, or
* Respond automatically to the incipient event and achieve extinguishing agent
, concentrations to suppress a deflagration in time scales of the order of 100
milliseconds, and which require agent concentrations much higher than
typically employed in total flooding fire suppression applications.
Halons have been specified in industrial, commercial, and military explosion protection
applications where either "clean" or people-safe agents were essential. Halon 1301 has the
unique property of being able to inert an enclosed space or suppress deflagrations at vapour
concentrations which are safe for brief human exposures. Replacement of halon 1301 in
such applications presents a significant challenge in fire or explosion protection situations
involving human life safety for at present there are no approved alternative agents which
have this property. Work is in progress to identify alternative agents which may be
approved for these applications. Progress has been made in some applications in designing
new explosion protection systems with out specifying halons. Retrofitting of some halon
based deflagration suppression systems with environmentally benign agents is occurring
though in some cases an unclassified lower ODP clean agent (Halon 1011) is being
specified.
8.5
Halon emission reduction strategies
Avoidable halon releases account for greater halon emissions than those needed for fire
protection and explosion prevention. Clearly such releases can be minimised, as quantified
in Appendix B, if a concerted effort is made by the fire protection community, with support
from national governments. In reviewing reduction strategies, the Committee recommends
the following:
• Reduce halon usage to essential applications only.
• Discontinue protection system discharge testing using halon as the test gas.
• Discontinue the discharge of portable halon fire extinguishers for training
purposes.
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Discontinue the discharging to the atmosphere of portable halon
extinguishers and system cylinders during; equipment servicing.
Introduce the use of halon recycling equipment to recover all surplus or
reusable material.
Encourage users of automatic detection/release equipment to take advantage
of the latest technology.
Encourage the application of risk management strategies and good
engineering design to take advantage of alternative protection schemes.
8.6
Halon recycling and bank management
The phase out of halon production in the developed countries took place before substitutes
and alternatives became available for all critical halon uses. This has been a positive
motivation to achieve best use of existing halons and has encouraged the establishment of
halon banks and bank management procedures to wisely manage the remaining stocks. Past
experience has also shown mat 'recycled' halon cannot compete with newly produced
material, and thus a prerequisite of any national bank management programme is a
commitment to cease production first.
An increasing number of countries, both developed and developing, have initiated or are
operating bank management programmes. These programmes take different forms in
different countries but, whilst similarities exist, the Halons Technical Options Committee
has concluded that no universal template for a bank programme can be produced. This is
primarily because the key element of the banking process is the reversal of the original
supply/distribution process and this varied from country to country.
Of the bank programmes reviewed, the majority resemble an information clearinghouse.
That is, the operators maintain lists of halon users who no longer require halon and those
who do but have or will have insufficient stocks to meet their needs. This information is
traded between the users who then make the necessary arrangements for 'recycling' of the
halon and its sale/purchase. Physical banks that require warehouses and storage tanks are a
minority, although it is apparent that large private and military users are forming strategic
banks on these lines.
For any banking scheme to work, the fire equipment industry, users and/or government
have to agree that a need for a halon bank exists, otherwise there is unlikely to be enough
energy, enthusiasm and finance to get a bank started. Governments are also uniquely placed
to act as facilitators and to provide a non-commercial foram for discussion and the
development of strategies.
Users who obtain 'recycled1 halon have to be assured that what they buy is fit for use in
fire protection applications. This can best be provided by requiring material to be 'recycled'
to a certain agreed standard, or by knowing its provenance. This is particularly import
when international trade is involved, as the requirements of the Basel Convention have the
potential to be a serious impediment to the transshipment of 'recycled' halons across
international boundaries. For this reason, the Halons Technical Options Committee
recommends that the Parties to the Montreal Protocol consider:
a) Adopting a decision that international transfers of halons that cannot meet
the purity specifications of ISO 7201 or ASTM ES 24-93 should only be
allowed if the recipient country has 'recycling' facilities that can process the
received halon to either of these standards.
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b) Recommending to the Technical Working Group of the Basel Convention
that the Basel Convention adopt a decision that, inter alia, halons that are
certified to the usable purity specifications ISO 7201 or ASTM ES 24-93
should not be considered hazardous wastes under the Basel Convention.
International cooperation on the movement of 'recycled' halons facilitates access to a bigger
market for the sale or purchase of halons, and provides the ability to recharge critical halon
systems, such as onboard ships and aircraft, while in a foreign territory. It is therefore
important that Parties insure that national regulations that were implemented to restrict
imports and exports of newly produced halons do not impede the international trade in
'recycled1 halons or their premature destruction.
8.7
Review of industry case studies
The review of these case studies recognised the need to obtain opinions of industry on the
strategies developed internally to protect their business interests prior to the cessation of
halon production and how they see a future without this media.
The response to the survey request in terms of returns received was excellent. This
highlighted the level of responsibility exercised by a large number of industries, by
ensuring they have put in place strategies that are achievable in terms of short, medium and
long goals to meet the objectives of the Montreal Protocol.
Life without halon can be described hi terms of a baby taking its first steps to walk without
the aid of its guardian. Some industries have moved very quickly in declaring they can
protect.their risks scenarios without halons. Consequently they have developed alternative
strategies, by way of improving their internal housekeeping practices, and introducing
alternative fire protection measures such as improved passive protection, early smoke
detection, water and gaseous systems. Other industries are moving a little slower in this
process, but the ground rules to progress this route are in place and will continue to gain
speed in the foreseeable future.
It is very obvious that there is a current and future need for halons in areas that involve an
unacceptable threat to human life, the environment or national security, or an unacceptable
impairment of the ability to provide essential services to society. However, it has also been
determined by the results of this industry survey that with well planned fire protection
strategies in place it is possible to conserve and make available surplus stocks of halons that
can be recycled, banked and made available for areas that fall within the essential use
criteria.
8.8 Eliminating halon dependency in developing countries
The elimination of halon dependency is a logical, step by step procedure, that should be
implemented in the following order
1) Build awareness of the problem of ozone depletion
2) Commit to phase out of halons
3) Reduce unnecessary emissions and uses of halons
4) Switch to alternative fire protection methods
5) Develop halon bank management and recycling - eliminate need for newly
manufactured halons
6) End halon production
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8.9
Essential uses and their needs
The Committee recognises that there are a few fire/explosion risk scenarios for which
current fire protection technology cannot provide adequate protection without the use of
halons or halon-like replacement extinguishants. These risk scenarios involve an
unacceptable threat to human life, the environment or mttional security, or an unacceptable
impairment of the ability to provide essential services to society. At the same time, the
Committee is of the qualified opinion that with proper management, the future needs of the
majority of these risk scenarios can be satisfied by redeployment of existing, banked halons
until such time, beyond the turn of the century, as the bank expires. The Committee also
notes that application specific, replacement extinguishing agents and alternative
technologies are now commercially available, and research and development efforts are
continuing. In the long term, use of these replacements and alternatives and the others that
will be developed in the future, will likely restore the capability to provide fire protection
with similar desirable characteristics to those of the present halons for all risk scenarios.
With the possible exception of halon 2402 applications in countries whose economies are in
transition, the requirement to produce new halons for critical applications can be avoided by
use of halon recycling and banking schemes, and by the early introduction of halon
replacements and alternative technologies. Although it may be necessary to reconsider this
issue again in the future, the combination of successful bank management, the proper
utilisation of lower and zero ODP halon replacements, and the acceptance of alternative
technologies, offers the best potential to eliminate the need for a production exemption for
essential uses in the foreseeable future.
Establishing a fixed list of risk scenarios that would qualify for a production exemption is
neither appropriate or necessary at this time. Continued use of the criteria detailed in this
section is the best option at this time and for the foreseeable future. Co-operation at the
international level is necessary to ensure that one nation's surplus halon is exported to meet
the needs of another nation, rather than destroyed. Parties are encouraged to co-operate
with the international fire protection community on bank management, emission reduction
and the wise future allocation of the banked halons.
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9
Summary of the Report of the Methyl
Bromide Technical Options Committee
9.1
Committee Mandate
The Methyl Bromide Technical Options Committee (MBTOC) was established by the
Parties to the Protocol to review technical issues concerning methyl bromide, the material
listed in Annex E of the Protocol.
MBTOC and this report in particular, address the technical availability of chemical and
non-chemical alternatives for the current uses of methyl bromide, apart from its use as a
chemical feedstock. It covers the methodologies to control emissions of methyl bromide
into the atmosphere, potential for recovery, reclamation and recycling and the issues of
special relevance to Parties operating under Article 5. It also provides an estimate ot
emissions to the atmosphere from present uses.
The Committee currently consists of 68 members, with representation from 23 countries
drawn from a wide range of expertise and interests associated with methyl bromide,
including scientists, end users, manufacturers, NGOs, and government representatives
from Parties including 8 from Article 5 countries.
9.2 Existing uses of methyl bromide
Methyl bromide is principally used as a fumigant, controlling a wide spectrum of pests,
including pathogens, insects and nematodes. It has sufficient phytotoxicity to control many
weeds and seeds in soils.
It has features which make it a versatile and convenient material with a wide range of
applications. In particular, it is quite penetrative, usually effective at low concentrations and
leaves residues which have generally been found acceptable. Its action is usually
sufficiently fast and it airs rapidly enough from treated systems to cause relatively little
disruption to commerce or crop production.
Methyl bromide is normally supplied and transported as a liquid in pressurised cylinders
but at ambient temperature and pressure, the material is a gas. These containers are typically
cylinders of about 10 to 200 kg in content, though there is also trade in larger containers
and also small pressurised disposable steel cans typically of 0.5 to 1 kg capacity each.
Methyl bromide is normally used directly from these cylinders or containers, but may
sometimes be transferred to smaller units.
Of the 1992 global sale of methyl bromide of 75,625 tonnes, 3.2% was used as a feedstock
for chemical synthesis. It is estimated that the remainder was used for soil treatment (70%),
fumigation of durables (16%), fumigation of perishables (8.0%), and fumigation of
structures and transportation 2.7%. The proportions for 1991, the base year are similar to
those for 1992 The Committee noted that, in the absence of controls, some developing
countries expect to expand uses of methyl bromide substantially. Global consumption,
excluding feedstock uses, has increased about 3700 tonnes per year since 1984.
Although methyl bromide is clearly a most useful tool in specific instances, there are a
number of issues not related to the ozone depletion, which have led countries to impose
restrictions on its use. Concerns include toxicity to humans and associated operator safety
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f!r££!£iSal1% and^Si^in S0me ?ountries> Pollution of surface and ground water
by methyl bromide and derived bromide ion is also of concern.
9.3
also of concern.
Emissions from methyl bromide use, and their reduction
including recovery
intentionally while venting at the end of treatments, le quantity of methylbe emitted
from a treatment varies on an individual case basis as a result of the use pattern the
igf ld ™*ti?s> *e degree of seal of the enclosure, and
Methyl bromide is a reactive material: it is incorrect to
local
terns, the proportions of applied methyl bromide emitted eventually
n/Tr^r*'r— ?""TJ were estunated by MBTOC to be 30-85%, 48-88%, 85-95% and
90-95% of applied dosage for soil, durables, perishables and structural treatments
respectively. These figures, weighted for proportion of use and particular treatments
SflvK*^0/££!?ge of 4J"81J° Ov5ral1 emission from agricultural and related uses'
(J4.000 - 59,000 tonnes, based on 1992 sales data).
Available containment techniques for decreasing methyrbromide leakage are in limited use
worldwide. Lack of adoption is constrained particularly by poor dissemination of
information and perceived or real increases in costs and logistical problems. A high degree
of containment is aprerequisite for efficient recovery of th! used methyl bromkte *
Better sealing of enclosures and the use of less permeable sheeting were identified as an
immediately applicable, technically proven means of reducing emissions from soil durable
commodity and structural fumigations, with the largest improvement coming from'soil
ftimigation. These measures, combined with longer exposure times may permit reduced
dosage levels while still achieving the required degree of pest control Many facilities used
Sfo?^31111? P^shables>,Particularly for quarantine, already have a high standard of
gastightaess, leading to very low leakage rates (often less than 2% of dosage).
There is active research into the development of recovery and recycling equipment for
methyl bromide. A few special examples of recovery equipment are in use and it is
anticipated that prototype systems capable of recycling recaptured gas for some use areas
will be evaluated by the end of 1995. Most development work is directed at recoverTfrom
enclosures used for structure or commodity fumigation (about 24% of global production)
Some preliminary work on recovery for soil fumigation is in progress. Proaucuon>>-
It is unlikely that significant demand from developing countries can be met with recycled
material. There is, however, potential for some recycling in some specialised applications
including in Article 5 countries, when commodities, notably perishables, are treated in '
gasugnt cnambers.
Most of the potential recovery and recycling systems are complex and may be expensive to
rnstall compared with the cost of the fumigation facility itself. Some systems would have
high running costs associated with energy requirements. Many would require a level of
•techrucal competence to operate that would not normally be found at many fumigation
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If recovery is to be recognised as an acceptable method of reducing methyl bromide
emissions to the atmosphere, it will be necessary to set: specifications on aspects of
fumigation, such as equipment efficiency and tolerable levels for emission.
9.4
Alternatives to methyl bromide
There is no single alternative to methyl bromide in all of its wide range of uses. However,
technically, alternatives do already exist for a number of current applications.
A number of potential alternative chemicals have been identified. They include fumigants
and non-fumigants. However, the environment and health considerations, which may limit
the use of any pesticide, including methyl bromide, need to be taken into account when
selecting alternatives.
Furthermore, it is very likely that regulatory restrictions on use of agrochemicals will
increase, resulting in higher costs of use and increasing inconvenience. Additionally, costs
of achieving full commercial registration of unregistered materials are high, and the process
is slow.
It was noted that there are specific constraints on rapid implementation of some alternatives
associated with the time taken to gain registration and regulatory acceptance of some
procedures. The problem is particularly acute in some cases relating to treatment of exports
to meet quarantine standards where extensive trials and protracted bilateral negotiations may
be required.
Many of .the alternatives identified by MBTOC were of the 'not-in-kind' type. In a number
of cases a rational combination of procedures, including non-chemical measures, can be
used to avoid creating the circumstances where methyl bromide is currently regarded as
irreplaceable. This approach, known as Integrated Pest Management (IPM), utilises pest
monitoring techniques, establishment of pest injury thresholds, and a mix of tactics selected
to prevent or manage pest problems. Emphasis is placed on producing a marketable crop
using safe, environmentally sound and cost-effective procedures. Chemical intervention, at
present possibly including use of methyl bromide, is employed only on the basis of need
rather than by routine. The ability to design IPM depends on a thorough knowledge of the
pest or disease complex to be controlled.
In general, the effect on production and profitability will vary widely and may lead to
increases, or decreases, depending on local circumstances. In the only instance of methyl
bromide phaseout for soil fumigation throughout a country (the Netherlands) it is reported
that adoption of some alternatives have increased yields in specific crops.
MBTOC estimates that by using known technology it is technically possible for Parties
operating under Article 2 to significantly reduce usage of methyl bromide. Estimates of the
magnitude of the reduction and its time scale varied widely amongst MBTOC members.
Opinions ranged from a reduction of 50% feasible by 1998, to decreases of only a few
percent by 2001. Reductions should be achievable through a combination of implementing
alternatives and use of better containment technology, together with longer exposure times
and lower dosages for methyl bromide treatment, particularly in soil fumigation.
Achievement of such reductions may entail use of some alternatives which may have
potential to cause adverse environmental and health effects. Some alternatives, notably
those leading to residues in products, while technically effective, may not be acceptable to
regulatory authorities, markets or end users.
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MBTOC did not identify a technically feasible alternative, either currently available or at an
advanced stage of development, for less than 10% of 1991 methyl bromide use. These
include control of some soilborne viruses and other pathogens and some quarantine
procedures.
MBTOC assumed that the most energy intensive alternative to methyl bromide was use of
steam heating for soil treatment. The indirect Global Warming Potential of methyl bromide,
in terms of COz produced, with energy required supplied electrically, was 20 kg CO2 per
tonne for synthesis and vaporisation. Using equivalent energy sources, steaming at 4-7 m3
per m2 and methyl bromide at 25-100 g per m2 were equivalent to 21-37 and 5-20 kg CC>2
perm2. The atmospheric lifetimes of all gaseous potential alternatives to methyl bromide
were too short to give appreciable direct GWP..
9.5
9.5.1
Alternatives on a sector basis
Soils
On a global basis, the largest single use of methyl bromide is as a soil fumigant (70% of
global production). It is used as a pre-plant soil fumigant to maintain or enhance crop
productivity in locations where a broad complex of soilborne pests, including diseases,
limit economic production of certain crops, and particularly where they are repeatedly
grown on the same land. Methyl bromide has been successfully used under a wide variety
of cropping systems. The major current categories of use include some nursery crops,
vegetables, fruits, ornamentals and tobacco.
Soil fumigation with methyl bromide has been successfully replaced in diverse areas by
methods and techniques that have been available for many years, by adapting or modifying
them to suit local requirements. None of the specific alternative methods discussed, except
steam, when used alone, have the broad spectrum of activity, efficacy or consistency of
methyl bromide. For some situations there may not be existing alternatives for methyl
bromide^ The development of a comparable agricultural system without the use of methyl
bromide, in many cases, may require the integration of multiple alternative techniques
(BPM). A commitment to research and technology transfer will be required to achieve a
similar spectrum of efficacy and reliability, and adoption by growers.
An IPM approach to managing pests and diseases will be needed in order to avoid future
environmental problems associated with soilborne pest control. Each individual tactic in an
IPM strategy may have constraints, but the package of approaches can often be tailored to
specific sites and situations to provide effective pest management. In this context,
constraints should be viewed as indicating research gaps. Research to overcome these
constraints needs to focus not only on biophysical systems, but also socio-economic and
political parameters, and generation of registration data.
A number of non-chemical alternatives are currently in use and other potential alternatives
are under investigation. These are not equally effective for all pests, cropping systems or
locations and may have a narrow spectrum of activity. Non-chemical alternatives include:
Cultural practices such as crop rotation, planting time, artificial plant growth
substrates, 'deep ploughing, flooding/water management, fallowing, cover
crops, living mulches, fertilization/plant nutrition, and plant breeding and
grafting.
Biological control and organic amendments
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Physical methods such as soil solarization, steam treatments, superheated or
hot water treatments and wavelength-selective plastic mulches.
Non-chemical alternatives generally do not require extensive regulatory approval.
There are a number of available and potential replacement furnigants, including
methylisothiocyanate (MTTC), compounds which generate MTTC, and halogenated
hydrocarbons. Mixtures of soil fumigants may provide a spectrum of control approaching
that of methyl bromide. These combination products may represent the most efficacious
short term alternatives to methyl bromide in certain situations, provided they are acceptable
to regulatory agencies.
Control of individual soilborne pests and diseases approximating that of methyl bromide
may be achieved in some cases through the use of combinations of non-fumigant materials
(e.g. nematicides, fungicides, herbicides and insecticides).
There are additional chemicals which would require further research to determine their
potential as alternatives for methyl bromide. Some were previously used with varying
degrees of success (e.g. anhydrous ammonia, formaldehyde, carbon bisulphide, inorganic
azides). Renewed interest and research may lead to re-establishment of some of these
pesticides.
9.5.2
Durables
Durables include dry agricultural and forestry products, such as cereal grains, dried fruits
and nuts, timber and artifacts. Approximately 16% of the annual global production of
methyl bromide is used for disinfestation of durable commodities. Generally, methyl
bromide is not widely used on durables but a few economically important industries have a
tradition of use of methyl bromide fumigation as their principal means of pest control.
These include the dried fruit and nut industry, some major importers and exporters of cereal
grains, and export trade in un-sawn timber. Methyl bromide is particularly useful where a
rapid treatment is needed, such as at import or prior to shipment, and for quarantine
purposes. It is effective down to low commodity temperatures (5°C).
There are potential or existing alternatives for most uses of methyl bromide on durable
commodities. However, there is no general in-kind replacement. All alternatives will
require some changes in practice. Of the alternatives, only phosphine is extensively used,
principally for cereals and legumes. Insect resistance to phosphine is an emerging problem,
particularly in developing countries, but resistant pests can, at present, be controlled using
currently used phosphine-based technology.
Some alternatives are already in industrial use for some classes of durable. Those identified
include other fumigants, controlled and modified atmospheres, contact insecticides,
physical methods and biological control methods.. Many are limited in particular
circumstances by speed of action, regulatory constraints, temperature, consumer
acceptance, and lack of research data.
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9.5.3
Perishables
Perishable commodities include fresh fruits and vegetables, cut flowers, ornamental plants,
fresh root crops and bulbs. Methyl bromide fumigation is the predominant treatment when'
disinfestation is required for perishable commodities, using about 8% of global methyl
bromide production, with about half of that for disinfestation of fruit for quarantine
purposes. A minor quantity of methyl bromide, less than 0.2% of global use, is used to
help prevent the spread of pests within countries.
Alternative treatments to methyl bromide include pest-free zones, inspection, physical
removal, the systems approach; and disinfestation based on chemical treatments, cold-
storage, heat, controlled and modified atmospheres, irradiation and a combination of these
treatments. Although these are approved for disinfestation of specific commodities, very
few are in use relative to the number of different commodities treated with methyl bromide.
Their widespread application is limited in some cases by their commodity and pest
specificity. There are also very few examples of alternative treatments developed for
commodities routinely treated with methyl bromide because few people recognised the need
to develop them until now.
For each alternative, MBTOC identified a number of specific approvals in various
countries. For example, heat treatments are approved for 14 applications, chemical
fumigants for 12, cold treatments for nine, pest-free zones for four, and irradiation for two.
Currently, there are no existing alternatives, meeting quarantine standards, for five groups
of economically important exports: apples and pears infested with codling moth; stonefruit
infested with codling moth; grapes potentially infested with a certain mite (from Chile to the
USA); berryfruit infested with various insects; and certain root vegetables where soil is not
removed.
Some promising alternatives require further research to determine their suitability for
control of pests in specific commodities. MBTOC identified twelve potential alternative
treatments.
MBTOC noted that there are constraints on use of chemical treatments for disinfestation of
perishables and that they have very limited application. They are difficult to apply, have a
narrow pest spectrum of activity, can damage many commodities, and are not approved for
use in some countries. Many consumers have indicated preference for foods with less or
without chemical residues, provided they are of good quality and value.
Perishable commodities absorb relatively little methyl bromide, leaving 85-95% available
for recovery. Many perishable commodity fumigations are carried out using well-sealed
solid-wall faculties, that restrict leakage. There is thus opportunity for efficient recovering
and recycling. Where alternatives are not feasible for quarantine treatments, minimising
methyl bromide released using recapture technology could be used to maintain national and
international trade in perishables.
9.5.4
Structures and transportation vehicles
Treatment of structures and transport vehicles uses-about 2.7% of global methyl bromide
production.
Fumigation is used as a structural pest management technique on either an entire structure
or a significant portion of a structure. It is utilized whenever the infestation is so
widespread that localized treatments may result in reinfestation or when the infestation is
within the walls or other inaccessible areas.
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Structures that are fumigated are classified as food production and storage facilities (mills,
food processing, distribution warehouses); non-food facilities (dwellings, museums), and
transport vehicles (trucks, ships, aircraft, railcars).
Pest management in these facilities is best achieved through IPM procedures. These may
include periodic full site treatments. Reduction or elimination of the use of methyl bromide
can be accomplished with IPM programs in some situations, including some full site
treatments. Structural IPM relies on good construction and maintenance with modification,
where required, to remove pest harbourages, and sanitation to remove pests and their food
sources. Pest detection serves as a quality assurance for the pest management program, and
indicator of need for treatment.
There are significant opportunities to reduce methyl bromide dosage through better
containment and monitoring, and combining methyl bromide with carbon dioxide.
Presently, there is no single substitute fumigant for methyl bromide for all treatments of
structures against pest infestation. Phosphine and hydrogen cyanide are alternative
fumigants in some situations, including full site treatments. Sulphuryl fluoride is used as a
direct substitute for methyl bromide to eradicate wood destroying insects in some countries.
Non-fumigant pesticides and non-chemical methods are also being used as local treatments.
Heat treatment is probably the most useful non-chemical fullsite technique. Other
alternative pest management strategies incorporate the use of non-fumigant pesticides and
non-chemical procedures.
Transport vehicles pose particularly difficult pest management problems because they often
contain sensitive equipment, innumerable harbourages and it is economically difficult to
keep them out of operation for more than a brief period. Furthermore, methyl bromide is
the only fumigant currently allowed for quarantine treatments on ships in many countries.
Presently there are no established alternatives to methyl bromide for rapid rodent and insect
elimination aboard aircraft.
9.6
Concerns relating to Article 5 counltries
Developing countries currently use about 18% of methyl bromide produced globally for
agricultural and related uses. The main uses are for soil fumigation (about 70% of total) and
disinfestation of durables (about 20%).
Soil fumigation is mainly carried out in Article 5 countries for pest and disease control in
the production of certain high value cash crops (e.g., tobacco, cut flowers, strawberries,
vegetables). It is used particularly for fumigation of nursery and seed beds. Methyl bromide
is not used during production of staple foodstuffs. Where used on durables, the main
application is the protection of local stocks of food grains and for disinfestation of imported
and exported cereal grains. Some perishables, important to particular economies, are
fumigated on export to developed countries.
Alternatives to methyl bromide in developing countries and potential constraints on their use
are the same as in developed countries, but some chemical treatments, not permitted in
some developed countries, may still be acceptable. Application is generally further
constrained by the social conditions, level of infrastructure and other conditions typical of
many Article 5 countries.
At present there is no single in-kind alternative for all uses of methyl bromide in developing
countries. For some quarantine applications (e.g. certain berryfruit infested with thrips or
aphids, certain unwashed root vegetables infested with soil pests) there are currently no
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technically feasible alternatives.
It may be possible to use alternative treatments and/or production methods, including IPM
strategies, to substitute for most of the pest control uses of methyl bromide. However, the
varied and special conditions in Article 5 countries require that the alternatives be
appropriately adapted to the climatic conditions, particular cropping techniques, resource
availability and specific target pests. Different alternatives will have to be used for different
crops, commodities and situations. This is likely to involve significant effort to select
appropriate alternatives, adaptive research, field testing, technology transfer, user
education, institutional capacity building and training, among other factors. It is critical that
those Article 5 countries which utilize methyl bromide receive technical and financial
assistance to introduce or adapt alternative materials and methods to manage the pests
currently controlled by methyl bromide.
The Committee noted that the specified incremental costs eligible for funding under the
Multilateral Fund and items on the indicative list may need revision in order to
accommodate the special needs associated with methyl bromide, if phaseout is considered.
Potential trade restrictions relating to methyl bromide use are of great concern to those
Article 5 countries dependent on certain exports now produced with the aid of methyl
bromide. Such restrictions, which could be applied by developed, importing countries and
regions, as a result of their own or international restrictions on methyl bromide, are seen as
an issue of substantial importance. They could nullify the effect of any grace period.
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10
Summary of the Report of the Refrigeration,
Air Conditioning and Heat Pumps Technical
Options Committee
10.1
Refrigerant data
This section considers the properties of refrigerants for use in the vapour compression
cycle. Namely, the vast majority of present equipment utilises the vapour compression
cycle because of its simplicity and good efficiency. The dominance of this cycle is not
likely to change simply due to the need to replace the chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and
hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs); it will prevail even after the phaseout of the latter
substances.
The ideal refrigerant will satisfy a set of criteria, including chemical stability, non-
flammability, and low toxicity, the need for favourable thermophysical properties, and
other, more practical, considerations such as materials compatibility. Although many types
of fluids have been used as refrigerants hi the past, the halocarbons dominate today because
their unique combination of properties proved to best satisfy these sometimes conflicting
requirements. Experience with the CFCs has shown, however, that substances possessing
the chemical stability desirable in a refrigeration system can, when emitted, accumulate in
the atmosphere and cause unacceptable environmental harm.
Because of the success of the CFC refrigerants, most of the efforts to develop replacement
refrigerants have focused on a set of hydrogen containing, but otherwise similar,
compounds. At present, hydrocarbons and other simple inorganic compounds (the so
called natural refrigerants) are receiving increased interest. This choice is confirmed by
theoretical studies which indicate that simple molecules of relatively low molecular mass
and with normal boiling points similar to present working fluids would be excellent
refrigerants. These fluids include HFCs -134a, -152a, -125, -32, -143a and -23, and
HCFCs -22, -123, -124, and -142b. These fluids are the popular choices for the immediate
replacement of the CFCs; some of these fluids are also acceptable long term replacements.
Mixtures of these fluids are also good candidates.
The light hydrocarbons such as propane, butane, and isobutane will likely see increased
use; since they have excellent environmental and thermophysical properties. However, they
are flammable, and must only be used in systems which operate safely with flammables.
Ammonia, a refrigerant that currently dominates certain applications, is being considered
for a broader range of uses; it is, however, flammable and toxic. Water, carbon dioxide,
and air may also be used as refrigerants, but require different types of equipment.
Additional classes of fluids, such as the fluorinated propanes and fluorinated ethers, show
some promise as refrigerants; such fluids, however, are in the very early stages of
development and would not be available in large quantities for many years.
Data of a variety of types are required to evaluate a potential alternative refrigerant. The
thermophysical (i.e., thermodynamic and transport) properties of a fluid determine its
energy efficiency and heating or cooling capacity in equipment and are essential for
equipment design. Properties related to health and safely (toxicity and flammability) can
determine whether a fluid is suitable for a particular application. Data on materials
compatibility are required to design reliable equipment. The environmental characteristics
of ozone depletion potential (ODP), atmospheric life, and the greenhouse warming potential
(GWP) taken together with the coefficient of performance of the refrigeration system and
emissions due to leakage, servicing, and disposal (that is, the total equivalent warming
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impact, or TEWI, concept) will determine whether a fluid should be considered an
acceptable alternative to the CFCs.
Only simple parameters such as normal boiling point and molecular structure are needed to
conduct a coarse screening among many candidates, while widespread commercial use
requires extensive, accurate data of all types. In section 2 of the Report of the Refrigeration
Air Conditioning and Heat Pumps Technical Committee, the needed data are described and '
categorised, and the available data are summarised for the leading candidate refrigerants.
The greatest impediment, however, to selecting, developing, and commercialising
alternative refrigerants is the uncertainty regarding the relative weight to be given to ozone x
depletion potential, global warming potential, energy efficiency, and safety factors such as
tiammability.
10.2
Domestic refrigeration
Approximately 64 million refrigerator-freezers are manufactured worldwide each year
Hundreds of millions are currently in use. The majority of these units employ the vapour
compression cycle with CFC-12 as the working fluid, typically containing between 20 and
600 grams of CFC-12 refrigerant, globally. The efficient use of energy by refrigerator-
freezers has assumed more importance due to the emphasis on reducing global wanning.
Advanced vapour compression cycles employing separate evaporators in the fresh food and
treezer compartments are receiving significant research attention. A circuit employing
zeotropic mixtures and configured in the manner prescribed by Lorenz and Meutzner has
been predicted to^yield efficiency gains up to 26%; gains of 15% have been experimentally
realised to date. Several patents have been issued on alternative two-evaporator
o^P^°nS for us? with constant boiling refrigerants. Efficiency gains of the order of
/u% to JU% are predicted. Continuous compressor capacity modulation is another
modification estimated to provide efficiency improvement of the order of 10% to 20%.
As new equipment alternatives to CFC-12, candidates have been assessed versus criteria
encompassing environmental acceptability, safety, reliability, efficiency, process capability
availability and cost. Regional differences in refrigerant choice are driven by variations in
consumer lifestyles and preference, government regulations, and industry offerings Two
refrigerants dominate current implementation efforts throughout the world HFC-134a is
the preferred alternative in the Americas, Asia/Oceania and selective applications in every
region of the world. It is nonflammable and has zero ozone depletion potential HC-600a is
•the alternate being widely adopted in Europe. It is flammable, has zero ozone depletion
potential and a greenhouse warming potential approaching zero. Other alternative
refrigerants receiving regional or niche product consideration are: HFC-152a HC-290/HC-
600a blends and the R-401A/B and R-409A blends (HCFOHFC ternary blend).
Product configuration is a critical parameter for assessing risks. The safety aspects of each
unique product configuration must be rigorously assessed. Substantive product redesign
possibly including new concept introductions, will be required to alleviate safety concerns
with the use of flammable refrigerants for no-frost refrigerator-freezers.
Proof of concept demonstration with resonating piston, Stirling coolers indicate efficiencies
comparable to current refrigerator-freezers. High entry investment, no long term reliability
information and no demonstrated efficiency advantages over conventional systems
constrain interest. Thermoacoustic refrigeration, sonic compression and linear compressor
technology are promising new technologies. Broadened general insight is necessary for
informed decisions regarding applicability. Absorption cycle refrigeration is not expected
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to penetrate beyond its historic niche segment.
Manufacturers will continue to service existing refrigerator-freezers with CFC-12 as long as
it is available and less expensive than other retrofit candidates. Since retrofit options are
limited, the HCFC/HFC ternary blends could achieve significant usage. HC-290/HC-600a
hydrocarbon blends would function well, but must be carefully assessed for application for
each unique configuration from a safety perspective. Appliances that have not been
designed for their use should not apply flammables in servicing if not the appropriate safety
measures have been taken. HFC-134a is not a practical alternate for retrofitting. Part of the
CFC-12 service demand will be satisfied by recovered CFC-12 during field service or by
recovery at disposal and reclamation to acceptable purity standards.
CFC-12 usage for domestic refrigerator/freezers was 9,100 metric tonnes in 1990,75% of
this amount consumed in the developed countries. It is estimated that 70% of the
production units will be converted to HFC-134a, and 30% will be converted to isobutane.
Further use of isobutane will be mainly determined by the fact whether - compared to other
non ozone depleting options- high energy efficiencies can be achieved. HCFC usage is not
expected to exceed 3% of total refrigerant demand. Regarding transition timings, it is
currently estimated that 85% of the developing (Article 5(1)) countries new unit production
and 15% of developed countries new unit production vail be using CFC-12 in 1995. By
1997,70% of Article 5(1) countries' new production will still be using CFC-12 while other
countries will be CFC free. Article 5(1) countries new production usage is expected to be
down to 10% by 2000 and CFC free by 2005.
Categorising Article 5(1) countries by their apparent strategic intents toward domestic
refrigerator-freezers - i.e., in finished product import only, finished product manufacture
for domestic use and/or export, and/or hermetic component manufacture for domestic use
and/or export- provides insight toward their technology and timings needs as well as
probable technology access options. Significant product or component import/export
activities with developed countries will require accelerated CFC phaseout timing, consistent
with the needs of the trading partners). Service, retrofit and reclamation technologies are
viewed to be particularly acute needs for Article 5(1) countries.
Considering processing technology considerations, the compatibility of materials,
chemicals and components processes must be understood to maintain quality and reliability
standards. Heightened discipline for manufacturing cleanliness and process control are
essential for the successful application of HFC-134a. Required purity levels for
hydrocarbon refrigerants are still being debated.
10.3
Commercial refrigeration
Commercial refrigeration encompasses equipment and systems ranging from a fraction of
one kW to many hundreds of kWs extending across the food industry applications to
hospitals, hotels, corner shops through to engineering quality control applications.
CFC consumption, primarily R-12 and R-502, has been reduced in the last 3 years in most
industrialised nations primarily by switching over to HCFC-22 and HCFC-22 containing
blends and to a much lesser extent to HFC blends. There is still a reluctance to make
changes until it is seen that there is a freedom from sen/ice related problems and that reliable
and sound engineering procedures exist, thereby minimising risks and costs.
Areas of uncertainty do exist especially with the small unitary equipment utilising hermetic
compressors. This is particularly the case where high temperature or tropical operating
conditions exist and where the scope for retrofitting is limited.
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The phaseout of CFCs by 1996 appears feasible and more experience with the use of HFCs
is needed to prepare for the eventual phaseout of HCFCs within the allotted time scale
For new equipment the move out of CFCs has generally been more pronounced, especially
to HCFCs, however the subsequent use of HFCs for many operators is dependent oiT
equipment manufacturers development and testing to produce a price competitive product
and reliable procedures. ., v «««wi
Advice for those facing the decision to move from CFCs to HCFCs and/or directly to
HFCs, is available from various sources and free exchange of such information should be
encouraged to accelerate the conversion progress.
Technology transfer to developing countries, particularly in respect to the sharing of
practical experience identified in this section could be expanded by communicating
successful retrofit and new applications case histories, to facilitate the phaseout of CFCs.
Of equal mportance is the international acceptance of HFCs as the logical successor of
CbC and HCFC for the majority of commercial applications, notwithstanding the progress
in many areas to investigate the use of non-fluorocarbon and not in kind alternatives.
Reduction of leakage, recovery of refrigerants coupled with a general reduction from
service/breakdown related activities continue to improve in commercial refrigeration This
is of considerable significance when applying the TEWI concept to the selection of '
refrigerants due to the contribution of high leakage rates on the direct effect of global
wanning. With reduced emissions currently evaluated HFCs are most viable when used at
higher system efficiency levels, making the TEWI favourable.
Future trends include designs with reduced refrigerant charge, an increase in self-contained
(unitary) display cases, more efficient compressors, improved electronics for diagnostics
and efficiency improvements plus encouraging moves to secondary refrigerants for some
applications. ,
The use of primary refrigerants such as ammonia and HFCs require experienced skilled
engineers. To provide the training to produce engineers with such skills presents a maio
challenge which must be addressed, if progress is to be maintained.
10.4
Cold storage and food processing
Cold storage and food processing is one of society's most important applications of modern
refrigeration techniques. Cold storage and food processing include a wide variety of
applications especially if cold storage is not restricted to the simple storage of foods and
indeed when food processing is extended to cover such fields as the freezing dairy and
brewing industries. 5 y
Foods such as dairy products, fish, meat, fruit and vegetables are stored and distributed in
huge quantities in a chilled condition. Frozen foods are generally stored in the temperature
range -18 to -30°C. Some fish products intended to be eaten raw are stored at temperatures
even lower than -50°C. Food processing, which includes freezing, may take place at air
and refrigeration temperatures down to -40°C and lower.
The industrial cold storage and food processing sector is a vital element in the safety and
health of the world population. The preservation of the world food supply is vital to
iS??^ and economic growth throughout the world. The world frozen food production in
1992 was approximately 27.5 million metric tonnes but represents only a small part of the
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total food volume preserved by refrigeration. As the transportation and distribution
infrastructure of the developing countries improves, significant increases in the need for
cold storage is likely to occur. This will probably follow the same patterns as in the
developed countries and will eventually stabilize where the chilled food is about 10 to 12
times that of the frozen products.
Since the 1991 assessment the world has seen a return to the use of ammonia in the large
scale chilling, freezing and cold storage systems. Simultaneously, strenuous efforts have
been made to reduce the size of the ammonia charge in large systems by using plate-type
heat exchangers and secondary refrigerants or by using low charge, low pressure receiver
ammonia systems which avoids using circulation pumps that require a large refrigerant
volume.
In countries where there are severe restrictions on using ammonia, other refrigerants are
being examined as replacements. One of the past alternatives to ammonia has been HCFC-
22. However, because it is slated for phaseout, HCFC-22 will eventually become
unavailable requiring the current systems to either be replaced or retrofitted with other
alternatives. One of the current replacements for CFC-12 is HFC-134a. However, R-134a
has only limited use as a replacement in this application because R-12 is not widely used in
cold storage and food processing. Another widely used refrigerant in this application is R-
502 which has a series of alternatives on the market in the form of blends. However, the
"blends" that replicate the properties of R-502 are slightly more expensive, many contain
HCFC-22, and many have been criticised for their global warming potential, which is still
well below R-502.
While other refrigerants such as hydrocarbons, carbon dioxide and water may have a role in
cold storage and food processing they are currently not expected to become a significant
portion of the refrigerants being used in these applications.
Currently, there are no alternative technologies available 'that will play an important role in
the replacement of the existing equipment used in this sector.
Retrofits in this sector while possible are difficult to actually implement. Generally
speaking ammonia can not be used as a direct substitute in equipment not specifically
designed for its use. The current halocarbons being extensively used (HCFC-22 and R-
502) do have suitable direct "drop-in" alternatives, however, may require redesigned
systems for truly effective, efficient operation. These factors tend to mitigate against
retrofits and move the users toward other approaches (such as extending the life of the
system by recovery and recycle of refrigerant, stockpiling, and refrigerant conservationMeak
prevention activities). Currently, replacement systems must be specially designed and
produced for the specific situation.
Currently, ammonia is the most readily available, environmentally acceptable refrigerant for
food processing, chilling, freezing and cold storage. However, a major problem is finding
ways of using ammonia acceptably in countries that have severe restrictions on its use
based on safety concerns and legal liability precedents. A reasonable approach to general
acceptance of ammonia would seem to be system re-designs to reduce refrigerant charge,
produce automatic oil return and allow operation of unoccupied engine-rooms. Significant
progress has already been achieved in this area but general acceptance of ammonia in the
USA and Japan may continue to be slow. The old-fashioned style of large charge, pump
circulated ammonia systems will always play a role in industrial size for large Food
Processors and Cold Storage. However, non-pump circulation overfeed systems will play
an increasing role. Indirect systems with low charge ammonia circuits (50 - 100 kg) placed
outside buildings and on the roofs of buildings will also become more common. These
small charges can be easily handled in the event of a leak and ammonia, one of the very few
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refrigerants lighter than air, will disperse upwards when released.
10.5 Industrial refrigeration
Industrial refrigeration covers a wide range of uses and operating conditions, primarily
within the chemical, petrochemical and pharmaceutical industries, the oil and gas industry,
the metallurgical industry, industrial ice making and sports and leisure facilities. Most
systems are situated in industrial areas without public access. Therefore, toxic and
flammable refrigerants, like ammonia and hydrocarbons, can often be safely used.
In developed countries CFCs are already virtually phased out in new industrial systems,
only some 2500-3000 tonnes/year is required for service purposes. This demand will
decline gradually, and is expected to die completely out in 10-15 years. Many Article 5
countries have decided to accelerate CFC phaseout, and CFC consumption is expected not
to increase above current level of 500-1000 tonnes/year. After the year 2000, CFC use is
likely to fall off also in these countries.
Annual HCFC consumption for industrial purposes in the developed countries is believed
to be in the order of 13000 tonnes/year, or five times current use of CFCs, while Article 5
countries are expected to consume equally much HCFCs and CFCs. HFC consumption
worldwide is currently believed to be less than 1000 tonnes per year.
The trend with respect to selection of replacement fluids for the CFCs varies markedly. In
response to the outlook for more stringent HCFC regulations in Europe, many European
countries have turned to ammonia, which has gained up to 70-80% market share for new
installations.
In the United States and Japan, HCFC-22 has been the most common CFC alternative so
far, and will most probably continue to be the first choice. Ammonia is expected to gain
shares also in these markets, but less than the hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), which are
expected to remain significant in the long term. While technology with HFC-134a is
considered to be mature for new industrial applications, HFC blends may still require a
certain period to reach full maturity.
Technically, ammonia can be used for most industrial applications (ref. current
development in some European countries), and it should always be considered a candidate;
however it may-imply that national regulations may need to be updated to permit its use.
New technological developments have enabled strong reductions in system charge, and
furthermore, made ammonia technology cost competitive in more applications.
Existing CFC systems, containing some 30,000 tonnes of chemicals, represent the greatest
challenge in the short term. In principle, most installations can be retrofitted to use a non-
regulated fluid. On the other hand, -systems using BFC-13 (which is, in fact, halon-1301)
make an important exception, since no fluid with similar properties exists.
Technology to retrofit CFC-12 industrial systems to use HFC-134a is fully mature in 1994
while change-over from R-502 to an HFC blend, e.g. HFC-404A, will be available by the '
mid 1990s. Proven HFC blend technology may be available towards the end of the decade.
Retrofit to use ammonia may be feasible in some cases.
Restricted availability of qualified service engineers to do the retrofit work may become a
serious limiting factor in the short term.
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Reduced emissions and recovery and reuse will play an Important role in the short term to
keep existing systems in operation. Nonetheless, shortage of refrigerant may force
premature decommissioning. Possible reductions in energy consumption and improved
flexibility with modern technology may reduce the cost effects for the end users.
A "most likely" scenario regarding the state of current stock of systems by the year 2000
implies an even distribution among retirement (natural and premature), retrofit and
operation on recycled/stockpiled fluid.
HCFCs will be required to meet refrigerant demand in an interim period, since neither
technology nor supply of chlorine free alternatives will be available in the near term. It is
believed that up to 10 years may be required to enable industrial refrigeration to cope
completely without HCFCs.
In the industrialised countries, HCFC consumption is likely to fall slightly off during the
rest of the nineties, while a strong acceleration in the reduction is foreseen thereafter. By
2005, HCFC demand is believed to be only half of current consumption. A certain portion
Will be covered by reuse.
During the next decade, HCFC consumption in Article 5 countries is expected to nearly
double, but will still be comparatively low by 2005 (1500-2000 tonnes/year). To minimise
costs and ensure that best technology is identified for all applications, HCFCs should be
available 5-10 years longer in Article 5 countries compared to developed countries.
HFCs will gain increased importance both for retrofit and new installations towards the
year 2000. Consumption figures world wide will most probably exceed those of HCFCs
by 2005 or shortly thereafter.
Change-over to ammonia will normally imply improved energy efficiency, while reference
cycle efficiency will be lower with some of the new fluids. This may be compensated for
by system optimisation and computer based regulation and control. On average, and in a
first instance, energy consumption is expected to remain practically unchanged.
10.6
Air conditioning & heat pumps (air cooled systems)
The product categories included within the unitary (air cooled) product group are ducted
and non-ducted split systems, single package room air conditioners and commercial single
and multi-zone packaged air conditioners (the term air conditioners is assumed to include
heat pumps). Nearly all of these products utilize HCFC-22 as the refrigerant. Globally,
unitary (air .cooled) air conditioners account for approximately 32% of the total world
consumption of HCFC-22.
The estimated quantity of refrigerant contained in the installed population (approximately
214,000,000 units) of these products is estimated to be 364,000 metric-tonnes. The 1994
HCFC-22 demand to manufacture and service this category of products is estimated to be
85,000 metric-tonnes.
Several promising HCFC-22 alternatives are currently under investigation. These
alternatives include hydrofiuorocarbons (HFCs), hydrocarbons (HCs) and a few naturally
occurring compounds (ammonia). The majority of the HCFC-22 replacement candidates
has zero ozone depletion potential. At this time the most promising HCFC-22 replacement
candidates for this class of products are the HFC compounds. The HFC compounds have
been extensively evaluated through the ARIAREP program and through many other
research programs within the international community. The results of this research indicate
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that several HFC compounds could be suitable replacements for HCFC-22.
The HFC compounds have been criticised because of their direct global warming potentials.
However, it is important to consider both the direct (portion caused by the refrigerant) and
indirect (portion resulting from the energy required to operate the appliance during its
lifetime) of the global wanning impact when comparing different refrigerant options. For
unitary equipment, the indirect effect can represent over 90 percent of the total global
wanning impact. The Total Equivalent Warming Impact (TEWI) is a factor which
combines these two terms for a refrigerant. The TEWI values for the HFC refrigerants are
equal or lower than for most of the other alternative refrigerants.
Equipment using alternative refrigerants is expected to be available in the 1996-1998 time
period. Widespread availability is not expected to occur until 2000-2005.
An analysis of the demand for HCFC-22 was made assuming three different conversion
rates: pessimistic, optimistic and most likely. The peak demand for HCFC-22 for this
category of products was calculated to be approximately 95,000 metric tonnes with the peak
occurring between 1998 and 2005. The demand for new HCFC-22 for these products
should decline to between 10,000-30,000 metric-tonnes by the year 2015 versus the 1994
demand of 85,000 metric-tonnes. This analysis used to generate this estimate assumed a
fairly aggressive recovery/recycling effort on the part of the world community. Should the
world community fail to adopt aggressive refrigerant recycling programs shortages of
HCFC-22 could occur during the next decade.
The primary technical concerns of the developing countries are: adequate supplies of
HCFCs to service existing equipment and equipment manufactured before the HCFC
phaseout date dictated by the Protocol, adequate supplies of alternative substances and
technologies and concerns over the cost and safety of the alternative refrigerants and
technologies.
Data on the cost of these refrigerants and the redesigned systems in which they would be
applied are just now being evaluated by researchers. Some of these technologies are ideally
suited to developing countries. Technologies which are complex and in their early stages of
development will probably be too costly or complex for consideration by developing
countries.
Equipment and operating costs are real barriers to the entry of larger residential and
commercial unitary products into a country. If the benefits of air conditioning are to be
experienced on a wide scale, incremental costs must be kept to a minimum. It is therefore
important to develop alternative refrigerants and technologies which are both
environmentally safe and cost effective. Technologies which are environmentally safe but
also expensive and complex to implement would be a detriment to rapid conversion in
developing countries.
10.7
Air conditioning (water chillers)
HCFC-22 has been used in small chillers employing positive displacement compressors
and in very large chillers employing centrifugal compressors. CFC-11 and CFC-12 have
been used in large centrifugal chillers. Due to the CFC phaseout, CFC-11 and -12 have
been essentially replaced hi new equipment production by HCFC-123 and HFC-134a,
respectively. To date, no alternate has displaced HCFC-22 in the small and very large
chillers.
HFC-134a is sometimes used in positive displacement water chillers. HCFC-123 is an
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energy efficient refrigerant that meets the basic design requirements for low pressure
centrifugal compressors. This accounts for its use in centrifugal chillers in the 350 to 5000
kW range. HCFC-22 is used in the largest centrifugal chillers, from 1000 kW up to 35000
kW.
CFC-114 has been used in some centrifugal chillers, particularly those in naval vessels.
These applications are expected to be converted to HCFC-124 or HFC-236fa, or replaced
by HFC-134a chillers.
New equipment and refrigerants
Positive Displacement Compressor Chillers
The planned HCFC-22 phaseout has led to intense activity to find and characterize
appropriate alternates. The refrigerants which appear to be most promising in terms of their
ability to satisfy the performance and safety criteria are the blends of the HFCs.
Azeotropic mixtures are under consideration as HCFC-22 replacements because they tend
to act as single component refrigerant, i.e. the vapour and liquid composition at a given
temperatuf e and pressure is constant. However, based on a very extensive search of
alternatives, it is clear that there is no drop-in replacement for HCFC-22 in chillers with
flooded evaporators today, nor is one foreseen. One implication of this is that any further
acceleration of the phaseout of HCFC-22 would have serious consequences for the stock of
HCFC-22 chillers in service at the time of the phaseout.
HFC-134a is being used in positive displacement water chillers as a zero-ODP substitute
for CFC-12. A number of other zero, or near-zero, ODP refrigerants with volumetric flow
rates in the range suitable for positive displacement chillers have been suggested. Examples
are HFC-32, HFC-125, HFC-152a, HC-290 (propane) and R-717 (ammonia). These
refrigerants are not attractive to designers of water chillers for commercial buildings.
Centrifugal compressors are the most efficient technology in their range of applications,
500 to perhaps 35000 kW (200 to several thousand tonnes capacity). The CFCs have been
replaced by HCFC-123 and HFC-134a, respectively, but HCFC-22 is expected to be used
in new equipment for at least another decade. Other refrigerants suggested for centrifugal
chillers are HFC-143a (and maybe HFC-152a), and the fluoroethers E-134, E-143, and E-
245ca. These compounds are either flammable or have no toxicity assessments at this time
and in some cases have very limited thermodynamic data available. HFC-245ca is a
potential long-term alternative to HCFC-123. More work is necessary to determine the
efficiency of HFC-245ca as a refrigerant and to define any fire risks associated with its use
in chillers. Nonflammable azeotropes containing HCFC-123 are another alternative for
reducing the amounts of HCFC-123 used in chillers. Two isomers [ea and fa] of HFC-236.
are being considered as replacements for CFC-114 which is used in specialty applications
such as naval vessels.
Absorption is a tried and proven technology that is mass produced and well supported with
a cadre of experienced technicians. This past decade, two-stage absorption chillers have
been developed and produced with primary-energy-based efficiencies that approach 50% to
60% of those of vapour compression systems. Three-stage absorption systems are being
developed to achieve efficiencies even closer to vapour compression systems. However,
absorption chillers are inherently larger and considerably more expensive than vapour-
compression chillers so absorption systems have had only limited market success in the
western world. However one should emphasize that they are used to take advantage of
waste heat so that they can be very economical in spite of the higher cost.
Retrofits
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No substitute refrigerant can be used as a "drop-in" for CFCs with the exception of HFC-
134a in some R-500 systems. HCFC-123 became available in 1989 to retrofit existing
CFC-11 chillers. It is a more aggressive solvent than CFC-11. Non-metallic materials may
have to be replaced with materials which are compatible with HCFC-123. HFC-134a
became available in 1989 for retrofit in centrifugal chillers. Its use requires about 15%
higher tip speeds than CFC-12, so impeller and/or gearbox replacement may be necessary
HCFC-124 has been suggested as an alternative to CFC-114 in centrifugal chillers such as
those used in Naval applications, as has HFC-236fa. There are currently no satisfactory
replacement refrigerants for use'in existing equipment designed for HCFC-123 or HFC-
134a, nor are any needed in the near future. For equipment now using HCFC-22,
zeotropic and azeotropic mixtures of HFCs are being developed.
The HCFCs are required as transition and long term refrigerants respectively until at least
the 2020-2030 period. HCFCs are needed to allow the most rapid phaseout of CFCs in
those critical applications such as air conditioning and refrigeration where the HCFCs are
the best alternatives available. Improved design and maintenance of systems to reduce
leakage, design to minimise refrigerant charge quantities in systems, improved service
practices, and reclaiming of refrigerant during servicing are practical and reasonable ways
to reduce the emissions of HCFCs into the atmosphere, thus minimising adverse
environmental effects.
s
HFC-134a will play an important role in the transition away from CFCs, particularly as a
replacement for CFC-12. However, HFC-134a is not able to overcome the need for
HCFC-123 and HCFC-22. There are no other good near-term alternatives to the continued
use of HCFCs.
10.8
Transport refrigeration
Transport refrigeration includes refrigeration in ships, railcars, containers, swap bodies and
road transport equipment, and also relates to transport air conditioning. New. equipment and
retrofit options have been identified, as have servicing needs and the impact of HCFC
phaseout.
use some
There are ap
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number about 1,500. HCFC-22 is virtually universal as the refrigerant for new cargo
refrigeration equipment, but 1993 marked the return of ammonia in a few new ships. This
has yet to be demonstrated as a commercially viable option for widespread use.
At the end of 1993 there were 252,000 integral refrigerated containers in use, of which
about half were less than 5 years old. Since 1991 there has been an almost universal
acceptance of HFC-134a for new units, and there have been moves to HCFC-22 and
various blends such that there is no need for CFCs for new container equipment. Retrofit
options for existing plant have been developed but have yet to be adopted on a large scale.
Manufacturing rates for road transport refrigeration equipment are around 100,000 per
year, and new equipment from major producers is moving rapidly away from CFCs
including R-500 and R-502.
The currently available options for both retrofits and new equipment are bewilderingly
large, and there is a need for much more application-specific testing to determine optimum
solutions. This situation appears likely to become even more complex whilst manufacturers
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compete for the future refrigerants market.
There are no proven direct alternatives to HCFC-22, and HCFCs are likely to be required
as components in economically viable retrofit blends.
10.9
Automotive air conditioning
The accelerated phaseout of CFCs has brought about a corresponding acceleration in the
introduction of HFC-134a in new vehicles to the extent that full conversion in the
developed countries was completed during 1994. Accelerated phaseout also created the
need to address retrofitting existing CFC-12 vehicles (in the order of 290 million world-
wide). This report deals principally with the technology and costs associated with servicing
CFC-12 vehicles in the face of a dwindling CFC-12 supply and includes information from
(and recommendations for), both developed and developing countries.
OEM vehicle manufacturers unanimously selected HFC-134a as their recommended retrofit
refrigerant, although other refrigerants may exist and find use in the global marketplace.
Refrigerants other than HFC-134a have not been supported by vehicle OEM's for several
reasons: (1) they offer no advantage over HFC-134a; (2) there is essentially no time to
adequately test and commercialise additional refrigerants; (3) they create the need for all
service outlets to purchase yet another set of tools and equipment; and (4) they represent
additional refrigerants with which the service industry must deal, thereby posing the real
threat of contaminating existing CFC-12 and HFC-134a supplies, service equipment and
MAC systems. The notion that a "drop-in" refrigerant may one day magically appear is not
realistic and may even delay the application of retrofit technology currently developed while
users wait for such a refrigerant to appear in the marketplace.
Refrigerant availability in any given use sector is difficult to forecast. Historically, the
mobile air conditioning service industry has required a significant amount of refrigerant,
which it will continue to require until the fleet is retrofitted or no longer in service. The
CFC production phaseout will likely find those service industries requiring CFC-12
competing for the same limited supply.
Developing cost-effective and timely retrofit technology is a formidable task. A least-cost
incremental retrofit is estimated to be about US $ 120. Higher cost scenarios, involving
additional component replacements and/or additions are likely to be necessary for a
significant percentage of vehicles to maintain acceptable durability and/or performance. It
should be emphasised that these costs are exclusive of, and in addition to, the cost of
repairing the problems that originally brought the system, in for service. These repairs are
estimated to average US $ 260. MAC system manufacturers and component suppliers are
expected to provide retrofit information and components to the service industry in a timely
manner.
Recycling CFC-12 and HFC-134a at the job site is a currently available technology and is a
reality in many developed countries, and should be encouraged globally. The value of
refrigerant recycling and proper servicing cannot be over-emphasised. The "gas-and-go"
type of service, wherein leaks are not repaired and refrigerant is vented directly to the
atmosphere during service, must be eliminated. Technicians that repair MAC systems
should be technically qualified in basic diagnostic and servicing procedures.
The Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE) has developed technical documents covering
equipment requirements for containment and recycling refrigerants used in mobile A/C
systems. SAE'documents also include technician service and retrofit procedures that can
provide guidance for Article 5 countries.
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AFEAS and the U.S. Department of Energy has recently collaborated on evaluating the
technology status of carbon dioxide, zeolite/water, the air cycle, and Stirling cycle for
potential use in mobile A/C systems. These technologies are currently in their infancy and
face significant technical hurdles which must be overcome before they can be considered to
be commercialisable.
10.10
Heat pumps (heating only and heat recovery)
Heating-only heat pumps are used for space and water heating in residential,
commercial/ institutional and industrial buildings. In industry, heat pumps are used for
heating of process streams, heat recovery and hot water/steam production. They are often
an integrated part of industria^ processes, such as drying, evaporative concentration and
distillation. Virtually all heating-only heat pumps are electric closed-cycle compression type
systems.
The vast majority of heating-only heat pumps hi buildings are located hi Western Europe,
as most heat pump installations in Japan, USA and Canada are reversible air conditioners.
It is estimated that the total number of heating-only heat pumps in these market sectors
(including district heating) is roughly 1.4 million units, with a total heating capacity of
about 11,000 MW and an annual heat supply of 25 TWh/year. The corresponding figures
for industrial heat pumps are 7,000 units, 2,500 MW and 12 TWh/year.
HCFCs are generally accepted as a part of the solution for a rapid CFC phaseout, and
HCFC-22 is the most important refrigerant in this category. Many European countries are
discussing regulations on HCFCs with a view to phasing them out more rapidly than has
already been agreed under the Montreal Protocol, (e.g., Germany, Sweden and maybe Italy
will ban the use of HCFCs in new equipment from the year 2000).
HFC-134a is currently applied for retrofitting of existing heat pumps using CFC-12 and for
charging of new installations. HFC-134a heat pump technology is considered fully mature
for new systems. The demand for HFC-134a is expected to increase substantially in the
next years. Moreover, other HFCs as well as HFC blends are expected to be available
towards the end of the decade, thus resulting hi a further increase in HFC consumption.
Ammonia has recently seen an increasing number of experimental applications for large
capacity heat pump systems in Europe. Halt hi CFC production and further technology
development are expected to accelerate its commercialisation and market penetration in
Europe, as well as hi Japan and the United States. Ammonia technology for small capacity
heat pumps is expected to be available by the turn of the century.
Propane is currently used hi experimental, residential, heat pumps in Europe. Technology
development and unproved safety measures are assumed to reduce safety hazards and
improve public acceptability. Hence, propane, other hydrocarbons as well as hydrocarbon
blends are expected to play an increasingly important role hi the mid to long term, especially
hi small and medium capacity heat pumps.
Carbon dioxide is a promising long-term natural refrigerant, but is not expected to become
of much commercial importance until the late 1990s.
Heat pumps for heating only purposes have a negligible impact on total refrigerant
consumption volumes worldwide (<1%). The estimated refrigerant volume is
approximately 11,000 tonnes, with 60% CFCs and 40% HCFCs (1993). Assessments
indicate that the total annual refrigerant demand for heat pumps will be about 2,300 tonnes
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in the year 2000, of which 70-80% are HFCs and the rest HCFCs and "natural
refrigerants".
If 60% of the refrigerants in scrapped and retrofitted equipment can be recovered,
approximately 2,300 tonnes of CFC and 1,150 tonnes of HCFC will be made available for
reuse between the year 1995 and 2000. This is about 20% more than the expected demand
for CFCs for servicing of existing heat pump installations.
10.11
Refrigerant conservation
Until a few years ago, refrigerant conservation was considered to be important only for
proper system functioning. Venting refrigerants during service was a usual practice. The
ozone layer depletion and the need to limit environmental effect of refrigerant emission
changed this. As well, the 1991 revision of the Montreal Protocol that included a phaseout
schedule for HCFC refrigerants extended the interest of conservation. To avoid any direct
impact of refrigerants on environment through their emission, refrigerant conservation is a
major consideration in refrigerating system design, installation, and service. Conservation
deals also with the needs for servicing existing equipment for both developed and Article 5
countries.
As the most direct way to reduce emissions to the atmosphere, refrigerant conservation
should be promoted by governments which are Parties to the Protocol. Tools may include
research and development, information dissemination, financial incentives, and direct
regulations. It should start, anyhow, with regulations making recovery compulsory.
Without this basic regulation, experience shows that refrigerant recovery will not be carried
out.
Refrigerant conservation has three basic elements:
to properly design and install new equipment so as to minimise actual or
potential leaks;
to leak-tighten existing systems so as to reduce emissions, in case of
continued use of CFCs or retrofit to HCFCs or HFCs;
to improve service practices, including recovery, permitting continued
system operation with reduced need to add refrigerant.
Good service practice can significantly reduce refrigerant loss by regularly checking the
systems to find and repair leaks and by recovering the refrigerant each time the system has
to be opened. Training of installers, operators, and service operators is required to
accomplish proper cooling system operation and containment.
Availability of recovery equipment has significantly increased over the last three years.
Standards have been written in order to measure the performances of equipment, and
methods have been developed to make recovery more efficient.
Refrigerant removed from a refrigerating system may be returned to the same system after
recycling. It may be required that refrigerant be reclaimed before it can be reused in another
system to make sure that the contaminant level is consistent with the system operation. In
all cases, refrigerant reuse requires taking measures to avoid mixing refrigerants.
Refrigerant which is too contaminated for reuse will ultimately have to be destroyed. At
present, high temperature incineration is about the only practical method of destroying CFC
and HCFC refrigerants, but other technologies may emerge in the future.
In Article 5 countries, priorities should be given to maintaining systems in proper operating
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condition including tightening up systems by finding and repairing leaks and recovering
refrigerant for reuse before servicing systems. Strong government incentives will be
necessary in order to reach effectiveness.
10.12 Developing country aspects
During the last couple of years, many projects have been launched in the Article 5(1)
countries. These projects cover both technology, reclaim and training projects. The effort
ahead shall concentrate on training, as this subject requires highest priority. Parallel with
that effort, changes to new technology, collection and reclaim of CFC, HCFC, etc. are to
be continued.
It is worth noting that considerations are extremely essential on which new technology will
be utilised, especially the issue of the new types of refrigerants and also the utilisation of
flammable refrigerants. The background of this consideration is that if the change in
technology does not correspond to a specific Article 5(1) country's situation, in relation to
both the home market and export, it may result in an additional change in technology within
a few years.
Further more, it is considered desirable that a more stringent legislation in the Article 5(1)
countries is implemented within the fields of refrigerants, refrigerating plants and related
leakage rates. This is necessary in order to complete the essential changes in refrigeration
technology in a successful way.
10.13
Research coordination and information dissemination
This section enumerates the types of information required to ensure that the phaseout of
CFCs and HCFCs proceeds in an orderly and cost effective manner, provides a discussion
of where this type of information may be obtained, and provides a listing of some of the
key areas in which co-operative research and developmental efforts are needed. Both short-
and long-term approaches to CFC and HCFC phaseout are being developed. This section
points out the importance for ensuring that available information includes a discussion of
both the problems associated with the near-term ban on CFC consumption (conservation,
recycling, transitional replacements), as well as information on long-range alternatives. It
also highlights the need for information to address the needs of both Article 5 and
developed countries.
The audience for this section includes anyone responsible for policy development and
equipment replacement decisions, such as government environmental officials, equipment
and refrigerant manufacturers, installation and maintenance personnel, building owners and
managers, consulting engineers, and faculty operators. This section emphasises the need
for reliable and unbiased information that includes success stories as well as analyses of
programs that have been unsuccessful.
The types of information addressed in this section include:
basis scientific information on stratospheric ozone depletion, global
warming, and the role of ozone depleting substances (ODS) in these two
processes;
data on basic refrigerant properties, as described in section 2: system
engineering, and equipment design and manufacturing;
retrofitting of existing equipment, service requirements, and training;
regulations, and
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financing mechanisms.
The section also provides a listing of where some of this information may be obtained,
from both governmental and non-governmental sources. Some of the issues associated
with information dissemination are discussed in the framework of providing
recommendations for how information should be compiled, formatted, catalogued,
abstracted and simplified for optimal use. Finally, the section presents a listing of some
sources of current research on alternative refrigerants, energy efficiency and refrigerant
safety.
10.14 Historical global CFC consumption future demand and supply
from new production and recycle
This sections provides historical data for CFC use, as well as potential demand for CFCs
through the year 2000.
It is estimated that the developed world's use of CFCs has declined from 862 thousand
metric tonnes (kt) to 302 kt between 1986 and 1993; or 65%. Total global CFC use is
estimated to have declined from 1133 kt to 643 kt between 1986 and 1992; or 43%. In this
same time-frame, CFC use by developing countries, and countries with economies in
transition, appears to be fairly constant at 250-270 kt/year.
From 1986 through 1992, global CFC refrigerant use has declined slightly; from 250-275
kt/year (after peaking at about 300 kt in 1988-1989) to about 230 kt/year. The developed
world's CFC refrigerant use was 208 kt/year in 1992 and declined to 130 kt/year in 1992, a
drop of 38%. In a comparable time-frame, the non-developed or rest of the world's use of
CFC refrigerants essentially doubled to about 100 kt in 1992. It seems likely that total CFC
use, and particularly CFC refrigerant use in the "rest of the world", will be essentially equal
to or greater than the developed world in 1994. See Figure 2 for a graphical picture. The
change in CFC refrigerant use within the developed world between 1986 and 1993 is an
interesting statistic:
o U.S. use declined by 1/2; 132 kt to 65 kt
o Japan use declined by about 1/3; 24.3 kt to 17 kt
o The E.U. use increased from 29.9 kt to 35.6 kt
The significant difference in reductions in three regional markets (U.S., Japan, and the
E.U.) may be the result of the significant differences in government programs. The most
aggressive efforts included: large excise taxes, "no venting" regulations, limits on supply
that were below Protocol limits, as well as encouragement to use all available safe
alternatives.
The total global CFC refrigerant use in 1994 is about 230 kt/year, with the developed
world's declining use offset by increasing use in the "rest of the world". Over 85% of this
continued CFC refrigerant use is for servicing existing equipment; with more than one-half
involved in the vast array of CFC-12 food storage lockets, perishable food dispensers,
domestic appliances, commercial food or perishable food storage, etc.
Experience to-date suggests that refrigerants tendered for recycle at central collection
facilities are less than 3% of the annual refrigerant sales volume. The fact that overall
refrigerant demand in several large markets has fallen 20-50% suggests that internal
recovery and recycle is being practiced by mechanics servicing the equipment.
The potential world supply of CFCs after 1995 when all developed world new production
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will cease except as required by Article 5 countries has been estimated at 338 kt/year more
than adequate for refrigeration and air conditioning needs serviced by CFCs 11 and 12.
Shortages of specialty CFCs (i.e., CFC-13, 113, 114, and 115) are likely, unless users
have inventories purchased in advance of most of the developed world plants' shutdown.
10.15 Historical global HCFC consumption - future demand
This section provides historical data for HCFC use, as well as potential demand for HCFCs
through the year 2000.
Non-feedstock HCFC-22 use has been in the 230 kt to 260 kt range for the last 5 years.
HCFC-22 refrigerant use in this time-frame has been 205 kt to 220 kt. National no-venting
regulations in the world's largest HCFC-22 market has blunted HCFC-22 growth and it is
projected that there will be flat or even negative growth globally as recycling and
conservation become common practice globally in the traditional large HCFC-22 markets.
Miscellaneous uses of other HCFCs (123,124,141b, 142b) as refrigerants ares expected
to be very modest, primarily as retrofitting fluids in existing equipment; 15-25 kt/year is a
reasonable estimate for the balance of the decade.
HCFC-22,141b, and 142b as blowing agents, propellants, and cleaning agents are
estimated to be about 127 kt in 1994, peaking at about 150 kt over the next four years and
then gradually declining as users perfect technologies that provide desired performance
without use of HCFCs.
The global demand for all HCFCs is projected at about 335 kt/year in 2000, comparable to
1993-1994 and '10% below the peak that will occur in the next 2-4 years. The peak is
associated with the CFC phaseout, and the late 1990's decline is due to greater use of non-
ozone depleting technologies; primarily HFCs.
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i I Summary of the Report of the Solvents,
Coatings and Adhesives Technical Options
Committee
11.1
Developed country progress in eliminating ozone-depleting
solvents
Most developed country suppliers and consumers of ozone depleting solvents are halting
production and use earlier than mandated or expected. A few enterprises have made unwise
first choices of alternatives and substitutes and are changing to better options.
However, significant problems exist in the European Union (EU), where many companies
began their investments too late and may not be able to halt their use prior to the 1 January
1995 EU phaseout of production. Furthermore, some large companies in developed
countries may have been over-confident that their uses would qualify as essential and
consequently may not have allowed enough time for a smooth transition. Varying sizes of
enterprises, but especially small- and medium-sized ones, are identified in many developed
countries as possibly being unaware, unprepared, and financially unable to make necessary
investments in time to avoid chemical shortages and price increases that could jeopardize
their businesses.
Procrastination in implementing alternatives and substitutes could lead to significant price
increases for stockpiled and recycled ODSs manufactured prior to the phaseout. Dramatic
price increases could stimulate illegal markets in imported solvents. In the immediate
future, shortages of ozone-depleting substances (ODSs) for solvent applications could
cause companies to switch to chlorinated solvents and/or HCFCs, if allowed, because
these solvents can often be used in existing equipment.
11.2
Military progress
In January 1994 the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) held its 2nd international
conference on "The Role of the Military in Protecting the Ozone Layer". Participants from
Algeria, Belarus, Belgium, Brazil, Canada, Denmark, France, Germany, Hungary, India,
Italy, Japan, Kenya, Latvia, Lithuania, Norway, Pakistan, Poland, Portugal, Romania,
Russia, Spain, Slovakia, Sweden, Taiwan, Thailand, Netherlands, Turkey, Ukraine,
United Kingdom, United States, and Uruguay attended the meeting. NATO members
reported that they are meeting or exceeding the-production phaseout goals of the Montreal
Protocol and EU members reported that they are meeting their more stringent goals. Part of
the reason for this progress has been the leadership of policy makers in some ministries of
defence who realized mat global environmental protection is part of national security and
also recognized that they cannot continue to depend on chemicals that will be unavailable or
increasingly expensive.
Germany, Norway, and Sweden reported that they have virtually eliminated the use of
ozone-depleting solvents in military applications.
German, Swedish, UK, and US participants reported comparable progress in identifying
and documenting alternatives and substitutes for civilian aircraft maintenance including
options that provide equal or improved cleaning, surface preparation, and bonding. The
International Cooperative for Ozone Layer Protection (ICOLP) announced plans to invite
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and the National Aeronautics and Space
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Administration (NASA) to join their global project to phase out ODSs in aerospace
operations. NASA and U.S. EPA are considering the proposal.
The meeting resulted in several recommendations being made to NATO:
• Share information on critical uses (e.g. gaseous and liquid oxygen systems,
guidance systems, rocket motors) via electronic data-bases, publications,
workshops and informal working groups.
• Foster and support streamlined universal qualification processes and
procedures.
• Revise the existing military documentation.
• Further investigation, certification, and publication of alternatives and
substitutes for unresolved applications including critical adhesive bonds in
rocket motor manufacturing, cleaning and verification of gaseous and liquid
oxygen systems, and other specific precision cleaning such as gyroscope
bearings in space systems that must operate for many years without
maintenance.
• Speed awareness and introduction of proven technologies by utilizing "tiger
teams" of experienced engineers and scientists to help implement these
technologies in military applications.
11.3
Developing country progress
In some cases, technology cooperation with developing countries has already been highly
successful or has prepared countries to take prompt action once incentives and financing are
in place. Examples include Mexico, Thailand, Turkey, and Malaysia. An important
conclusion from investigations of solvent use in developing countries is that enterprises
must be motivated and prepared to accept new technology. This motivation can result from
government regulation, a clearly articulated industry phaseout strategy, price increases,
product shortages, or supply uncertainty for ozone-depleting substances. Some technology
cooperation efforts have been prematurely attempted in countries where enterprises and
national governments were not prepared, and as a consequence little actual investment
progress has been made.
Some regional and national conferences and workshops have not been as successful as they
could have been because the preconditions for change had not been met. The Committee
recommends that conference planners more completely involve local industry, industry
associations, and chambers of commerce in the planning and that they determine whether
the preconditions for change are in place. If it is determined that a conference is useful,
conferences should be organized and announced far in advance. It has been the experience
of the Committee in developed and developing countries that representatives of small- and
medium-sized solvent-using enterprises do not travel long distances for meetings based on
general presentations. They are short of funds and their manufacturing engineers are very
busy. This makes ensuring the presence of a motivational framework all the more
important
One problem common to all countries, but especially developing countries, is that domestic
small- and medium-sized enterprises that use ODSs are difficult to identify, may not
welcome government officials, and may not be easy to convince that a change is necessary.
It is likely that many of such users will only make changes when the price increases, when
shortages develop, when domestic regulations are in place, or when multinational
companies require suppliers to phaseout.
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11.4 Concerns of unannounced changes in speciality products
The Committee cautions that manufacturers may eliminate ODSs from products without
notifying customers. There is the possibility that the manufacturer may not appreciate that
then- product is used in a particular application where the ODSs provided a necessary
performance characteristic that is not duplicated by the reformulated product. Use of such
reformulated materials and products under these circumstances could be costly or
dangerous to life and health. The solution is for manufacturers of speciality products to
better communicate to end-users, changes in product ingredients and to cooperate with end-
users on performance testing of the new products.
Some Parties may have interpreted process agent use of controlled substances as subject to
phaseout. Other Parties may have interpreted such use as feedstock not subject to the
phaseout. In 1994 the Committee was unable to recommend exemptions for process aeent
use under the Essential Use Criteria.
At the October 6-7,1994 Meeting of the Parties to the Protocol, it was decided:
"...for an interim period of 1996 only, (Parties may) treat chemical process agents
in a manner similar to feedstock, as recommended by the Technology and Economic
Assessment Panel, and take a final decision on such treatment at their Seventh
Meeting;"(Decision W10)
The Parties requested the Technology and Economic Assessment Panel (TEAP):
To identify uses of controlled substances as chemical process agents, to estimate
emissions and ultimate fate, and to evaluate control technologies;
To evaluate alternative process agents or technologies or products available to
replace controlled substances in such uses; and to
To report findings not later than March 1995. The Panel has asked the government
of Sweden to organize and finance a special working group to complete this work.
11.5
1994 Nominations for Essential Uses
The Committee reviewed nominations from Austria, Belgium, Canada, Denmark,
European Commission (EC), Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Ireland, Italy Japan
Netherlands, Norway, Sweden, Switzerland, United Kingdom, and the United States ' In
all but laboratory and analytical uses and Space Shuttle rocket motor manufacturing the
Committee was unable to recommend the nominations because there are technically and
economically feasible alternatives and substitutes and/or because controlled substances are
available in sufficient quantity and quality from existing sources. The Committee also
found that many requests were insufficiently supported with technical data.
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11.6
HCFC
Few large scale current uses of HCFCs have been reported for solvents, coatings, or
adhesives. In the near term HCFCs may be necessary as transition substances in some
limited and unique applications including:
cleaning delicate materials such as cultural heritage and archival property
cleaning assemblies or components with sensitive materials or particular
soils
cleaning certain oxygen systems
cleaning where explosive or flammable conditions are possible
as a carrier of oil in precision applications.
In countries where HCFCs are prohibited, enterprises may, in certain specific cases, select
perfluorinated carbons (PFCs) as an adjunct to specialized cleaning systems. PFCs have
extremely long atmospheric lifetimes and have potent global warming potentials (GWPs)
and should therefore be avoided where possible.
The Committee does not recommend the use of HCFC-141b to replace 1,1,1-
trichloroethane as a solvent. A recommendation is not possible because HCFC-14 Ib has
an ozone-depletion potential (ODP) comparable to 1,1,1-trichloroethane and is not
technically suitable for many cleaning applications.
It is estimated that HCFC-141b and HCFC-225 together will not replace more than 1
percent of global CFC-113 uses unless HCFC-225 becomes a substitute for CFC-113 in
dry cleaning, which could increase use to approximately 5 percent. In some countries with
active HCFC sales efforts, approximately 5 percent of CFC-113 solvent use (excluding
dry-cleaning which may increase use) may be replaced with HCFC-141b. It is estimated
that HCFCs may replace 1-5 percent of 1986 CFC-113 and 1,1,1-trichloroethane use as
transitional substances and where no alternatives or substitutes are currently available.
The Committee cautions that there may be essential uses of very small quantities of ozone-
depleting solvents that are not yet identified by the Committee, national governments,
product distributors, and possibly the manufacturers themselves. However, it is expected
that these uses will be identified as the accelerated phaseout in the EU is implemented and
as production is halted. Stockpiled and recycled sources may be adequate to supply these
uses.
11.7
Price increases and shortages of ozone-depleting solvents
CFC-113 is produced primarily as a solvent with certain amounts sold as a feedstock for
production of HFC-134a and some plastics. When CFC-113 sales in solvent uses are
halted in the EU in 1995, and in all developed countries by 1996, the market may not be
sufficient-for developed country manufacturers to supply developing country markets.
CFC-113 is currently manufactured in two developing countries — China and India — and
production facilities in South Korea and Taiwan are believed to be currently inactive.
Since 1,1,1-trichloroethane is produced as a feedstock for HCFC-141b and HCFC-142b, it
will be more readily available than CFC-113 after 1996 for export to developing countries
for their domestic needs, subject to Protocol restrictions.
It is the consensus of the Solvent, Coatings and Adhesives Technical Options Committee
that quality grades of CFC-113 and 1,1,1-trichloroethane will be in uncertain supply after
1996 and that it will be prudent for enterprises in developing countries to move quickly to
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reduce and eliminate dependence on these chemical substances when cost-effective options
are available. European, Japanese, and U.S. chemical manufacturers, distributors, and
customers may have residual chemical supplies produced under national Protocol quotas or
under Basic Domestic Needs quotas that may be marketed to developing countries if sales
are less than expected in their developed country markets. This oversupply is less likely m
the United States where taxes on stored ozone-depleting substances discourage oversupply.
A variety of alternative substances and technologies are currently in use or under
development to facilitate the phaseout of CFC-113 and 1,1,1-trichloroethane. These
alternatives include no-clean technologies, aqueous and semi-aqueous cleaning, other
hydrocarbon solvents, non-ozone-depleting chlorinated solvents, HCFCs,
perfluorocarbons, and a growing number of non-solvent cleaning processes.
No-clean technologies represent the optimum alternative and have been applied in an
increasingly large number of electronics manufacturing applications in recent years.
Nevertheless, research and testing of no-clean manufacturing processes is ongoing in the
hope of making them viable alternatives in a wider variety of uses. Second to no-clean with
respect to environmental protection is aqueous or semi-aqueous cleaning. The major
drawbacks of these alternatives may be high energy consumption and wastewater treatment
costs, depending on the process, requirements, and legislation.
HCFCs though their use is transitional, are important alternatives to CFC-113 and 1,1,1-
trichloroethane solvent use in applications for which no other viable alternative exists.
Because of their lower ozone-depletion potential (ODP), HCFCs with a short lifetime are
preferred to those with longer lifetimes. The ODP of all HCFCs is lower than the QDP ot
CFC-113 However, HCFCs should be used as substitutes for 1,1,1-trichloroethane only
if the ODP of the HCFC substitute is lower than 0.10 and if their emissions are controlled
using the best available technology. In addition, the 1992 Copenhagen Amendments to the
Montreal Protocol require that production and consumption of HCFCs, as defined m the
Protocol (Annex IE' G. Article 2F of UNEP/OzL. Pro. 4/15), must be reduced by 99.5%
by 2020 and completely phased out by 2030. Thus, HCFCs are a valid alternative in
certain limited applications while other, long term alternatives are being developed.
11.8 Sector progress
11.8.1 Electronics Cleaning
The electronics industry, which was heavily dependent on ozone-depleting solvents until
recently is fortunate to have the widest range of substitute materials and processes -
available There is no technical reason why any company, large or small, m a developed or
developing nation, should not be able to move away from such solvents immediately
Economic considerations, reported in previous editions (UNEP 1989,1991), have shown
that most substitute processes for this industry are less costly to run and, most often, give
improved technical quality. On the other hand, relatively large investment capital is
sometimes required to obtain the required results and this could be an obstacle, especially
for small companies manufacturing "hi-tech" electronics.
To substitute for CFC-113 in defluxing, there is a large choice of processes, equipment,
and materials commercially available for production units of all sizes. Where there are no
technical specifications that require post-solder cleaning, "no-clean" techniques are often the
most economical. This technique is recommended where the reliability catena can be met
Where cleaning is a requirement, the use of water-soluble chemistry has generally proved to
be preferable to most other processes, although it is not. a universal solution. There is an
adequate choice of other techniques where neither of these can be applied.
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The Solvents, Coating and Adhesive* Technical Options Committee do not recommend the
• HCFC-141bfor defluxing printed circuits
• Vapour-phase reflow soldering
• Vapour-phase drying of heavy organic solvents using PFCs
• Vapour-phase drying of water using HFCs or PFCs.
11.8.2 Precision Cleaning
Precision cleaning applications are characterized by the high level of cleanliness required to
maintain low-clearance or high-reliability components in working order. They areused in a
variety of manufacturing industries, such as in aerospace, microelectronics, automotive
and medical. Several factors define the applications where a precision cleaning process is
required. Some of these factors are: v
• high standards for the removal of particulates or organic residue
• components constructed of chemically-sensitive materials
components with physical limitations, such as geometry or porosity, which
limit the ability to remove entrapped fluids like water
• high-cost components or components requiring high-reliability
- *' V-^0106*3?6 have evolved as the preferred solvent cleaning method
m precision cleaning because of their chemical inertness, low toxicity, non-flammabilitv
low surface tension, and low water solubility. However, to eliminate CFC-1 13 and 1 1 1-
tnchloroethane use, a number of companies have tested and' implemented alternative ' '
cleaning methods. Possible alternatives include solvent and non-solvent options Solvent
options include other organic solvents (such as alcohols and aliphatic hydrocarbons)
perfluorocarbons, HCFCs and their blends, and aqueous and semi-aqueous cleaners Non-
solvent options include supercritical fluid cleaning, UV/Ozone cleamng, pressurized gases
^^
11.8.3 Metal Cleaning
Metal cleaning is a surface preparation process that removes organic compounds such as
oris and greases, parbculate matter, and inorganic soils from metal surfaces. Metal cleaning
prepares parts for subsequent operations such as further machining and fabrication
The control approaches available for metal cleaning operations include solvent conservation
and recovery practices and the use of alternative cleaning such as solvent blends, aqueous
c eaners, emulsion cleaners, mechanical cleaning, thermal vacuum de-oiling, and no-clean
alternatives. Alternatives to CFC-113 and 1,1,1-trichloroethane must be selected and
optimized for each application given the varying substrate materials, soils, cleanliness
requirements, process specifications, and end uses encountered in metal cleaning.
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11.8.4
Dry Cleaning
Dry cleaning enables the cleansing and reuse of fabrics that cannot be cleaned by alternative
methods. The inherent environmental friendliness of restoring freshness to soiled articles
and garments is matched by extreme efficiency in terms of solvent and energy use in the dry
cleaning process itself. Organic solvents are used to clean fabrics because, unlike water,
they do not distort some natural and synthetic fibres. Water cleaning of many materials can
affect the stability of fabric, lining, and interlining and may cause stretching or shrinkage.
A number of solvents can be used as alternatives to CFC-113 and 1,1,1-trichloroethane in
dry cleaning operations. Perchloroethylene, the most widely used dry cleaning solvent, has
been used in this application for over 30 years, during which time the systems for its safe
use have become highly developed. The flammability of petroleum solvents effectively
precludes their use in shops, although with proper precautions, they can be a substitute for
CFC-113 on many fabrics. Petroleum solvents include white spirit, Stoddard solvent,
hydrocarbon solvents, isoparaffins, n-paraffin, etc. A number of HCFCs and HCFC
blends are currently available commercially for use in solvent applications. These include
HCFC-123, HCFC-141b, and HCFC-225. These HCFCs have good stability, appropriate
solvency, and non-flammability and some HCFCs are suitable for cleaning those delicate
fabrics that currently depend on CFC-113. It should be noted, however, that HCFCs are
transitional alternatives subject to a phaseout under the Montreal Protocol by the year 2030.
Other classes of chemicals such as isoparaffins, solvents derived from sugar cane, and
hydrocarbon/surfactant blends are theoretically possible alternative dry cleaning solvents.
More research, however, is necessary to determine their feasibility for dry cleaning.
11.8.5
Adhesives
1,1,1-Trichloroethane is used as an adhesive solvent because it is non-flammable, dries
rapidly, does not contribute to local air pollution, and performs well in many applications,
particularly foam bonding. The rubber binders used in 1,1,1-trichloroethane adhesives are
soluble in other solvents, such as acetone, ethyl acetate, heptane, and toluene. Although
there has been a general trend in the U.S. and Western European adhesives industries to
replace organic solvent-based adhesives with solvent-free types, one alternative is to return
to earlier solvent formulations.
Some adhesives use water, in lieu of organic solvents, as the primary solvent. Recent
literature on water-based adhesives suggests that there is still much debate about the overall
effectiveness of water-based adhesives for many end uses.
The Committee D-14 of the American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) defines a
hot melt adhesive as one that is applied in a molten state and forms a bond upon cooling to a
solid state. Hot melt Pressure-Sensitive Adhesives (PSAs) now compete with water-based
acrylics in outdoor applications. They have been used on paper labels for indoor
applications since 1978.
Radiation curing is a production technique for drying and curing adhesives through the use
of radiant energy such as ultraviolet (UV), infrared (IR), electron beam (EB), gamma, and
x-rays. Radiation cured adhesives are especially well adapted for pressure sensitive tapes.
One drawback is that adhesive curing is only possible in the "line of sight" of the radiant
energy.
One way to lower volatile organic compound (VOC) emissions when using solvent-based
adhesives is to increase the percent solids in the formulation. High solids adhesives have
good performance characteristics, including initial bond strength comparable to that of 30
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percent solids adhesives in medium and high demand applications and can be applied using
existing equipment at normal line speeds with minor modifications. In other application
areas, such as bonding rubber assemblies, high solids adhesives have not been as
successful.
One-part epoxies, urethanes, and natural resins are often supplied as powders that require
heat to cure. Powders are only used for non-pressure-sensitive applications. One
advantage of the powder form is that no mixing or metering is necessary. However
powders must be refrigerated to maximize shelf life.
Moisture cure adhesives and reactive liquids can be applied as 100 percent non-volatile
solid and liquid systems. These adhesives are composed entirely of binding substances,
modifiers, and fillers (i.e., they have no carrier or solvent). Moisture cure adhesives cure
upon exposure to the humidity in the ambient air; this type of adhesive requires application
in a, humid environment and might not work well in dry climates. Some two-component
adhesives use reactive solvents which form part of the cured mass and thus do not depend
on evaporation. In use, one solution consisting of an elastomer colloidally dispersed in a
monomer is cured by a second solution through a free radical chemical polymerisation
thereby creating the bond.
11.8.6
Coatings and Inks
1,1,1-Trichloroethane is used by manufacturers, printers, and users of protective and
decorative coatings and inks. CFC-113 use in the production of coatings or inks is
negligible. In coatings, 1,1,1-trichloroethane is used alone or combined with other
solvents to solubilize the binding substance which is usually composed of resin systems
such as alkyd, acrylic, vinyl, polyurethane, silicone, and nitrocellulose resin. Inks are used
to print items ranging from wallpaper to dog food bags to beverage bottles and cartons.
Many of these uses involve the application of coloured ink to a film (or laminate) in the
flexible packaging industry.
Some coatings contain water rather than organic solvents. Recent advances in water-based
coating technology have improved the dry-time, durability, stability, adhesion, and
application of water-based coatings. Primary uses of these coatings include furniture,
electronics in automobiles, aluminum siding, hardboard, metal containers, appliances,
structured steel, and heavy equipment. Water-based inks for flexographic and rotogravure
laminates have been successfully developed and have overcome technical hurdles such as
substrate wetting, adhesion, colour stability, and productivity.
Although high-solid coatings resemble conventional solvent coatings in appearance and
use, high-solid coatings contain less solvent and a greater percentage of resin. High-solid
coatings are currently used for appliances, metal furniture, and a variety of construction
equipment. The finish of high-solid coatings is often superior to that of solvent-based
coatings, despite the fact that high-solid coatings require much less solvent than do solvent-
based coatings.
Powder coatings contain the resin only in powder form and thus have no solvent. While
powder coatings were first used only for electrical transformer covers, they are now used in
a large number of applications, including underground pipes, appliances, and automobiles.
Ultraviolet lightfElectron beam (UV/EB)-cured coatings and inks have been used in very
limited applications over the last 20 years, but their use has seen a dramatic increase in
recent years. Several of the markets in which UV/EB-cured coatings and inks have been
used more frequently in recent years are flexographic inks and coatings, wood furniture and
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cabinets, and automotive applications. One major limitation to the use of UVmB-cured
coatings and inks is outdoor durability. This is an especially important consideration in
automotive applications.
11.8.7
Aerosols Solvent Products
1 1 1-Trichloroethane functions as either an active ingredient (e.g., degreaser or cleaner) or
as a solvent in aerosol product formulations. Though most of the aerosol apphcations
ttaditionaUy used 1,1,1-trichloroethane as their solvent, tee are a small number of
n^Scfswrnch made use of CFC-113 as well. Most aerosol products currently employing
CFC-113and 1 1 1-trichloroethane can be reformulated with alternative compounds.
Except for water, some HCFCs, and non-ozone-depleting chlorinated so vents (e.g.
SoroeSne perchloroethylene, methylene chloride), all of the substitute solvents
Sntiy avSe are more flaUable than 1,1,1-trichloroethane. The flammabmty is also
a toction offte propeUant; butane and propane being more flammable than carbon dioxide,
nitrous oxide or the traditional CFC-1 l/CFC-12 mixture.
Alternative solvents currently exist for virtually all aerosol solvent applications of CFC-113
and U i^to?cWoroethane. However, while some of these alternatives are functional, they
to te less than optimal for a variety of reasons. For example in applications
solvent is required, but the use of a flammable solvent would pose serious
Ses mayqinclude only HFCs, HCFCs, and chlorinated solvents While
solvents would be functional, HCFCs contribute to °^ePjf °£f£ chlonnaU 1
solvents are toxic and may pose health risks to workers and users of a product.
CFC-113 and 1,1,1-trichloroethane use in aerosols can also be reduced if alternative means
riS the product are developed. Two examples of these alternative methods are:
"wet-brush" (recirculatmg liquid) system, as a substitute for aerosol brake
fa repair shops, and (2) increased use of professional dry cleaning services as
a substitute for the use of aerosol spot removers.
11.8.8 Other Solvent Uses of CFC-113, 1,1,1-Trichloroethane, and
Carbon Tetrachloride
Some amount in most cases relatively small quantities, of CFC-113 1,1,1-trichloroethane,
SSSSSSZide are employed" in a number of industry and f °rf^P^atlons-
The application areas include drying of components film cleaning, fabric protection,
manufacture of solid rockets, laboratory testing and analyses, process solvents,
semiconductor manufacturing, and others.
The Committee consensus is that by 1996, in accordance with the Montreal Protocol, most
of me aSi13,!UU-tricliloroemane, and carbon tetrachloride used for these applications
can be replaced by the alternatives.
the abdications of laboratory analyses and in the manufacture of a specific large scale
S rSeSor tiie Pities have granted an exemption for continued use of specified
ozone dSeSolv^nts for 1996 and 1997. The exemptions are subject to review and
alternatives are being investigated.
In the case of use of ozone-depleting substances as process chemicals there are also a
Mmbe^fStematives identified in this report. In addition, an in-depth review of
totivesls%££% for completion and presentation by the Technical and Economic
Assessment Panel to the Parties by early 1995.
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11.9
Progress in eliminating ods from rocket motors
In the United States, large solid rocket motors (SRMs) are used to launch intn c™
11.9.1
Update on the Essential Use Applications
W°^king to comPletely eliminate the use of ODSs and has
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11.10
Cleaning of oxygen systems
In January 1994 NATO identified the cleaning of oxygen systems as one of the most
difficult challenge facing military and aerospace applications. In Fall 1994, the
International Cooperative for Ozone Layer Protection (ICOLP), Aerospace Industry
Association (AIA), U.S. EPA, National Aeronautical and Space Administration (NASA)
and the U.S. Air Force convened a special workshop on cleaning of oxygen systems
without ozone-depleting solvents.
Oxygen systems include: life support systems such as diving, totally encapsulated suits,
emergency breathing devices, fire & rescue backpacks, submarine, aircraft, manned
spacecraft, and medical applications; propulsion systems such as liquid rocket motors;
industrial systems such as chemical production; and other unique systems and customer
products such as welding equipment.
Oxygen systems must be kept clean because organic compound contamination, such as
hydrocarbon oil, can ignite easily and provide a kindling chain to ignite surrounding
materials Contamination can also consist of particles that could ignite or cause ignition
when impacting other parts of the system. Risk is increased by the typical proximity of
oxygen systems to very large quantities of fuel materials, and the common necessity of
locating oxygen systems in confined spaces with difficult or impossible access and egress
(e.g. space ships, submarines, aircraft, and surface ships).
Examples of the challenges presented by these applications include the cleaning of the space
shuttle external fuel tank, cleaning of aircraft carrier liquid oxygen plants, cleaning of
installed submarine and transport aircraft high pressure oxygen systems, and the gauges
and instrumentation associated with each. Examples of devices typically cleaned in these
systems include tubing, gauges, regulators, valves, and metering devices. It is usually
most effective to clean oxygen equipment at the piece part level in a proper facility. It is
more difficult to clean oxygen equipment in aircraft and ship equipment in place with
difficult accessibility and temperature extremes. Additional challenges occur in many other
industrial oxygen systems such as those used in production and transfer of both gaseous
and liquid oxygen, in medical applications, and in welding. Cleaning of equipment used in
the oxygen production industry involves unique challenges such as compatibility with
aluminum heat exchangers.
Solvents such as non-ozone depleting chlorinated solvents and hydrocarbons often clean
satisfactorily, but all have environmental or toxicity concerns, and some have flammability
concerns.
Aqueous cleaning options have been successfully developed and implemented for many
oxygen system cleaning situations. For example, Lockheed uses aqueous processes in the
manufacturing and maintenance of aircraft and missile oxygen systems, the Air Force uses
aqueous cleaning for some aircraft oxygen system maintenance, NASA/Kennedy Space
Center uses aqueous solutions for cleaning oxygen bulk storage and transfer systems for
rocket motors, and the U.S. Navy uses aqueous cleaning processes for cleaning the tubing
in oxygen systems on ships and submarines.
Isopropyl alcohol (IPA) is being used by Lufthansa German Airlines to clean the oxygen
systems in their commercial aircraft fleet. Sweden has reported using a solvent blend for
oxygen system cleaning consisting of 95% ethanol.
Some parts of oxygen systems can be changed to simplify or avoid the necessity of
cleaning or they can be adapted to allow aqueous cleaning.
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Some oxygen system components still depend on CFC or chlorinated solvent cleaning
because current alternatives and substitutes are not technically suitable. In other cases rigid
specifications and requirements may need to be changed from prescriptive to performance^
standards to allow technically feasible solutions to be used.
This Report includes case studies of successful elimination of ozone-depleting solvents
which discuss the evaluation and implementation of materials, alternative technologies, and
processes. The following are included in Chapter 11: Allied Signal (evaluation of aqueous
saponifiers) AT&T Bell Labs (non-ODS alternatives including no-clean soldering)? BeT
Hectronics (alternative solvents and design of cleaning equipment), Ford Motor Company
(no-clean soldering), Hitachi (non-ODS alternatives), Honeywell (non-ODS alternatives)
IBM Corporation (no-clean soldering), Japan Industrial Conference on Cleaning
(information dissemination), Lockheed Sanders Company (company phaseout efforts),
Miljoministenet (hydrocarbon dry cleaning), Minebea Company (aqueous cleaning of ball
bearings), National Semiconductor (company phaseout efforts), Naval Aviation Depot
Cherry Point (hand-wipe cleaning), Northern Telecom (company phaseout efforts), Robert
Bosch Corporation (aqueous cleaning), Rockwell International (low-residue flux) Seiko
Epson Corporation (alternatives to ODSs), Singapore Institute of Standards and Industrial
5^ V Pu"^ cettiGf:ah-^ of businesses), Swedish EPA (country-wide phaseout
rtXj^TS SP01^011 (^-eopdymer masking agent), U.S. Air Force Aerospace
Guidance and Metrology Center (aqueous & non-aqueous alternatives), Vibro-Meter SA
(water-based cleaning).
s
11.11 Total Equivalent Warming Impact (TEWI)
Total Equivalent Warming Impact (TEWI) provides an important tool in the selection
procedure for alternative cleaning and drying technologies. However, TEWI but must not
be toe only criterion when selecting the cleaning or drying system or technology for a
3 ^cS"1^ Pr°?f !Jr The Ate™^ Fhiorocarbons Environmental Acceptability Study
(AFEAS) has provided a methodology to calculate TEWI for wide range of available
systems.
omn - to ^P1306 CFC-1 13 or U,l-trichloroethane (methyl
chloroform) must be specific to the intended applications and will represent a trade-off or
balancing of several key parameters: worker safety (toxicity or flammabilitv concerns)
investment, operating costs, energy efficiency and reliability as well as a series of
environmental issues; e.g., discharges to water or landfill, local environmental air quality
(smog) and global impact (ozone depletion or climate change).
pis report has evaluated one of the selection parameters, TEWI, for a number of systems
A summary of the key findings follows.
• Solvent losses from the cleaning equipment are assumed to be potentially lower than
assumed in the 1991 study, resulting in lower calculated contributions to TEWI
This reduction in emissions is possible through the adoption of enhanced vapour
recovery and unproved/novel approaches to materials handling (e.g., freeboard
dwell). In some cases, the above technologies can be retrofitted to very modern
existing equipment, with results almost comparable to new equipment. However
such equipment will require careful operation and maintenance to sustain low
emission rates.
• The no-clean systems used for the manufacture of printed wiring assemblies have
the potential for the lowest TEWI. For metal cleaning, chlorocarbon-based systems
(e.g., PCE, TCE) have been estimated to have the potentially lowest TEWI
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However, these chlorinated solvent systems may be subject to various national,
regional and/or local regulations or emission limits that may severely limit the use of
these chemicals for cleaning applications.
• The PFC system studied has the highest TEWI.
• While they use more energy per unit of work (throughput), aqueous, semi-aqueous
and alcohol systems generally have been shown to have a lower TEWI than HCFC
and HFC-based systems because emissions from, aqueous, semi-aqueous, and
alcohol systems do not contribute to global warming.
In the case of HCFC/HFC/PFC-based systems, the direct effect caused by emission
of the chemical, represents from 40 percent to over 90 percent of the calculated
contribution to potential global warming.
Future study should assess the effects of variations in equipment and practices on TEWI
and estimate implementation time for alternative systems in developing countries.
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Summary of the Report of the Economic
Options Committee
12.1 Introduction
12.1.1 The EOC Report describes the transition from developed country ODS
phaseout ("Phase 1") to concentration on progressing the developing
country phaseout ("Phase 2") under the Montreal Protocol.
12.1.2 Phase 1 is defined in the EOC Report as that part of the implementation
process through to the ODS phaseout in the developed countries at the end
of 1995. The focus of Phase 1 has been on the urgency of protecting the
ozone layer eg establishment of the Protocol; building consensus and
institutions; promoting development of ODS alternatives and their use in
developed countries.'Phase 1 provided examples of the critical importance
of individual leadership hi securing "lift-off1 for the Protocol process.
Following the launch of the institutions of the Protocol, the varying
adequacy of their performance and of the implementing agencies became
increasingly apparent.
12.1.3 Phase 2, in broad terms, is defined as the ODS phaseout in the Article 5( 1)
countries as of the beginning of 1996 plus the continuing controls on
HCFCs and methyl bromide in the developed countries. We are now in the
early stages of the transition to Phase 2 with the approaching phaseout in the
developed countries and evidence of a review and re-thinking of priorities,
mechanisms and resourcing by developed countries. For example,
some institutional initiatives need to work better;
the increasing prominence being given to compliance issues eg trade
hi newly produced ODS misrepresented as "recycled" material; and
the influence of new people and new perspectives on the evolution
of the Protocol process.
12.1.4 The EOC Report develops the transition theme by (1) reminding the reader
of the remarkable achievements recorded during Phase 1; (2) identifying and
substantiating the scope for improvements in those institutions and
processes that are essential to the successful implementation of the Montreal
Protocol; (3) identifying and assessing the key concerns regarding the
implementation process as it moves into Phase 2; (4) addressing some
salient aspects of these concerns; and concludes with general and specific
lessons of the Protocol process that might be transferable to the design of
other international environmental agreements.
12.1.5 This summary does not follow the chapter sequence of the Report ie each
. element of the transition theme draws on more than one chapter of the
Report.
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12.2
12.2.1
12.2.2
12.2.3
12.2.4
12.2.5
Achievements
i,
The achievements realized during Phase 1 have progressed more rapidly,
and at lower economic cost, than had been expected at the signing of the'
Montreal Protocol. Economists have referred to the unexpected
achievements of the Protocol given the initial resistance of powerful
economic, corporate and regulatory forces to the technical and economic
feasibility of its objectives. The ratifications of the Montreal Protocol
(1990), the London Amendment (1992), and the Copenhagen Amendment
(1994) were highly important and substantial achievements. Yet perhaps
even more impressive has been the way scarce talents and resources have
been mobilised to forge the progress that has been achieved in ODS
reduction.
The EOC Report explores possible explanations for these surprising
achievements of the Protocol during Phase 1. This is not a matter of
speculative or historical interest; it conditions the EOC's interpretation of the
major risks facing the Protocol during the transition to Phase 2.
The success of Phase 1 was not inevitable. The first step required that the
stratospheric ozone-depletion problem be identified and credible. To do this,
the scientific community had to document both the existence and
anthropogenic sources of the problem as,well as the seriousness of the
potential effects. Second, industry and the research and development
community had to be mobilised. Third, the international political and policy-
making communities had to negotiate, design and implement the Montreal
Protocol; and fourth, public and private enterprises had to implement the
new technology. Without credible science neither the industrial nor the
political communities could have been mobilised; nor could this have
happened without the contribution of the policy-making community to the
design of cost-effective-policy regimes created the market incentives needed
to mobilize industry's resources in support of ODS reduction. Whilst
consumer responses to the use of ozone-depleting substances, especially hi
aerosols, provided an early market incentive to producers, industry's
powerful contribution to the achievements of Phase 1 were firmly based on
the market incentives provided by the regulatory regimes that were designed
to implement the ODS phaseout schedules of the Montreal Protocol.
Companies developed a wide range of technologies ranging from non-ozone
depleting chemical substitutes to not-in-kind methods (including product
redesign) to replace ODS applications. In non-Article 5(1) countries, the
need to phase out ODSs led to both technological and organizational
innovation across the industrial spectrum. In some cases the new methods
have been profitable in the narrow economic sense as well as being
beneficial for the environment. Focused innovation and increased
management attention have produced cost-saving and product-improving
opportunities. Case studies in the refrigeration and electronics sectors attest
to the success of the conversions to non-ozone depleting methods.
Article 5(1) countries are also contributing to the phaseout. Ozone-friendly
technologies are being developed and diffused in these countries through the
transfer of equipment and expertise by multinational corporations, individual
and joint national research programs, industry organizations (such as
ICOLP, JICOP, and JEMA), and international government-industry
partnerships. The Multilateral Fund, agreed at the London Meeting of the
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Parties in 1990, is playing an important role in facilitating the transfer of
ozone-friendly technologies to Article 5(1) countries.
12.2.6 This record of achievement is largely the product of an informal network or
"community" amongst a broad span of experts (eg industrialists, scientists,
technologists, policy-makers, economists, NGOs) with a common interest
in the objectives of the Montreal Protocol ie the "Protocol community".
12.3 Improvements are necessary
12.3.1 The achievements of Phase 1 have been impressive, but the "Protocol
community" should not relax its efforts during the transition to Phase 2 -
there remains much important work to be done. There are obstacles
remaining. Some ODSs, such as the pesticide methyl bromide, are not as far
along in the replacement process as the ODSs originally controlled under the
Protocol. Although ODSs in some critical uses (such as solvents in
electronics manufacture) have all but been eliminated, in other industries it is
likely that the easier substitutions were undertaken first/Complete
elimination of ODSs in all sectors will continue to challenge management,
engineering, and production staffs.
12.3.2 A number of policy issues also remain to be resolved. These include:
matching the global phaseout schedule of all significant ODSs to the most
recent scientific and environmental assessments of the risks those
substances pose to the ozone layer; ensuring the adequacy of the Multilateral
Fund to fulfil its mandate of covering the incremental costs of the phaseout
to Article 5(1) countries; appropriately regulating transitional chemicals such
as HCFCs: intelligently managing the stock of already produced ODSs to
minimize premature obsolescence of existing ODS-using equipment; and
designing and implementing policies that will encourage innovation and
productivity growth while meeting the environmental imperative to protect
the ozone layer.
12.3.3 Whilst seeking to overcome obstacles and to resolve key policy issues, the
"Protocol community" play important roles in bringing expertise to bear on
recurrent efforts to weaken the critical underpinnings of the commitment to
implement the Montreal Protocol eg (1) the science base; (2) the availability
and cost of ODS alternatives; (3) the net benefits of the ODS phaseout; (4)
the political commitment to the Article 5(1) countries; (5) the capacity to
resolve operational shortcomings eg of non-compliance; inadequate
institutional performance; gaps in management controls; public confidence in
and political commitment to the Protocol process. In practice, the capacity
both to resolve real uncertainties and to provide the advice needed to
discriminate between constructive criticism and "de-bunking" efforts lies
within the "Protocol community".
12.4 Concerns regarding continued progress
12.4.1 The successful, transition from Phase 1 to Phase 2 will require continuing
support for the phaseout process in the Article 5(1) countries. Although
some Article 5(1) countries have successfully accelerated their phaseout
' schedules, it is not possible for the Article 5(1) countries, as a whole, to
take the full burden of responsibility for their own phaseouts. The
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12.4.2
12.4.3
12.4.4
12.4.5
preparation of the EOC Report exposed a widely-based concern over
whether and to the extent to which the developed countries might reduce
their commitments to the Article 5(1) countries during the transition to Phase
The major concerns of the Article 5(1) countries brought to the attention of
the EOC were as follows:
whether political support to stratospheric ozone protection will be
sufficient to sustain the transition to Phase 2 and the subsequent
phase-out process;
the adequacy of political and financial support for the institutions of
the Montreal Protocol; and
the extent to which a cooperative approach of industry to the transfer
of technology to the Article 5(1) countries can be sustained.
Concern was also expressed over the potential for bilateral assistance to
increase relative to multilateral assistance. Whilst bilateral assistance might
bring quicker disbursement, concern over cost-effectiveness led to
suggestions that bilateral projects should be subject to the same degree of
scrutiny as that applied to multilateral projects.
The transition from Phase 1 to Phase 2 has revealed a perceived risk that
supplies of ODS and ODS alternatives might not be adequate to meet market
demand on terms acceptable to the Article 5(1) countries. The consequences
could be unexpectedly large increases hi ODS prices and higher than
expected adjustment costs during the phase-out process.
Chapter 6 of the Report raises concerns regarding the compatibility of the
Protocol with (1) the trade provisions of the GATT/WTO; and (2) the
potential for trade restrictions to be imposed on recycled ODS either for
reclaiming or redistribution under the Basel Convention on the Trans- '
boundary Movement of Hazardous Wastes and Their Disposal. It remains to
be seen how the WTO Trade and Environment Committee will review the
world trade implications of the Protocol's trade measures, especially with
respect to trade in products that are made with but not containing ODSs. The
UNEP Ozone Secretariat and the Basel Convention Secretariat are keeping
in close contact over these matters. So far, no specific cases of
incompatibility between the Montreal Protocol and the Basel Convention
have been reported.
12.5 Addressing the concerns of the article 5(1) countries.
12.5.1 Success in responding to these concerns is likely to be variable. The
capacity to manage them lies, largely, with the "Protocol community". This
capacity cannot be sustained without adequate resourcing. Signals to the
effect that the donor countries are re-thinking the extent of their resource
commitments to the Protocol process as the transition from Phase 1 to Phase
2 progresses are raising raise concern over the future capacity of the
"Protocol community" to help secure the success of Phase 2 of the
implementation process.
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129
12.5.2 Concerns over the supplies of ODSs and ODS alternatives during the
transition to Phase 2 could be reduced by establishing broadly-based
recovery, recycling and banking operations. The work of the EOC indicates
that the economic incentives to recycle and reclaim CFCs, and to repair and
retrofit CFC-using equipment, would strongly influence the amount of
CFCs available to service existing equipment. The adequacy of the current
stock of CFCs (including stockpiles and the material contained in
functioning equipment) for future service needs will depend on leakage
rates, retrofit rates, and recovery rates, which are all variables that are
responsive to prices, as well as on the costs of cleaning, storing, and
ensuring the quality of the recycled CFCs. With intelligent bank
management, it should be possible to avoid shortages over the normal
lifetimes of existing CFC-using equipment. The EOC Report describes
specific government policies that could increase the effectiveness of
recycling and banking operations.
12.5.3 The EOCs review of policy regimes for ODS phaseouts in Chapter 4
highlights the following key findings that could help Article 5(1) countries
to increase the efficiency of their phaseout regimes:
voluntary initiatives are more effective in generating publicity and
momentum for ODS phaseouts where there is an aware public group
or NGOs capable of monitoring progress;
most countries opt for some sort of quantitative restrictions (eg
quotas) managed through import and, in some cases, production
permit or licensing systems;
permit systems have been used as a relatively simple way of
generating efficiency gains during the phaseout; and
excise taxes have been used to discourage ODS use, reduce "excess
profits" generated by rising ODS prices due to regulatory controls,
and to raise revenue eg to help finance ODS phaseouts.
12.5.4 The EOC took note of the concerns facing the information-exchange
services of the Montreal Protocol institutions during the transition to Phase
2. The EOC takes the view that user demand for these services will continue
at a high level. It noted that changing Mormation needs and innovation in
information systems will provide opportunities to improve performance.
Responses should focus on building consensus regarding (1) the proper role
of information exchange services, and (2) the capacity to identify and meet
the evolution of user demand in a cost-effective manner. The view of the
EOC is that information exchange is an essential element of the "package of
inputs" required to achieve ODS reduction.
12.5.5 The supply of information regarding ODSs and the global response to their
phaseout is now overwhelming. The capacity to identify, organize, retrieve
and use the most pertinent scientific and technical information is a key
resource in the ODS phaseout process. The information exchange services
provided under the Protocol are well-placed to meet the need for an up-to-
date repository and locus for dissemination of the ever-expanding wealth of
scientific, technological and organizational information pertinent to the
phaseout process. There are three particular areas of information exchange
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130
that appear to be highly promising ie
the community of relevant "experts" from industry, government and
academia;
local or regional networks of those involved in the implementation
of the Protocol; and
"smart" global communication networks enabling the Unking of
databases via eg INTERNET.
All of these areas are being addressed by the Ozone Action Information
Clearinghouse. However, the performance of these programmes has been
questioned sufficiently for EOC to suggest that a formal performance
evaluation should be undertaken of all information exchange activities
carried out by the institutions of the Montreal Protocol and their
implementing agencies.
12.6
12.6.1
12.6.2
Transferability
The EOC concluded its Report with an attemptto identify general and
specific lessons that might be transferable to the design of other international
environmental agreements (EEAs). It addresses the structural design features
> of the Protocol; performance within these structures is not addressed.
.u.
'The distinctive aspect of the Montreal Protocol is that it was the first IEA to
strike a politically feasible working balance between the scientific,
technological and economic factors relevant to the achievement of an explicit
global environmental objective. It is argued in Chapter 8 that many of the
elements of the Montreal Protocol process might usefully be incorporated in
the design of new lEAs. Even so, the selection of the specific elements to
transfer must be evaluated with respect to the experience already gained and
also have regard to the specific characteristics, needs and constraints of the
new lEAs in the making. In this way, steady progress can be made up the
"learning curve" that applies to the design of BEAs and hence to more
efficient instruments for managing risks to the global environment.
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131
Appendix A
Panel and Options Committee Members
(as of 30 November 1994)
Technology and Economic Assessment Panel
Chairs
Stephen O. Andersen
Suely Carvalho
Lambert Kuijpers
Senior Advisors
Laszlo Dobo
Yuichi Fujimoto
Carmelina Lombard!
Other Panel Members
Jonathan Banks
Andrea Hinwood
Jean Lupinacci
Tom Morehouse
Jose Pons Pons
Sally Rand
Gary Taylor
Helen Tope
Robert Van Slooten
Affiliation Country
Environmental Protection Agency USA
University of Sao Paulo Brazil
Technical University Eindhoven Netherlands
Ministry for Environment and Hungary
Japan Electrical Manufacturers' Association Japan
Environment Ministry, Regional Planning Venezuela
Commonwealth Scientific & Australia
Industrial Research Organization
Monash University Australia
Environmental Protection Agency USA
Institute for Defense Analyses USA
Spray Quimica C.A. Venezuela
Environmental Protection Agency USA
Taylor/Wagner Inc. Canada
Environment Protection Authority, Victoria . Australia
Department of Trade & Industry UK
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132
Aerosols, Sterilants, Miscellaneous Uses and
Carbon Tetrachloride Technical Options Committee
Chairs
Andrea Hinwood
Jose Pons Pons
Helen Tope
Members
A J. Barnes
Nick Campbell
S. W. Clarke
XR. Claude*
Francis M. Cuss
Donald Dunn
Charles Hancock
Anders Hansson
Katsuo Imazeki*
Montfort Johnsen*
R. C. Knollys*
Shigeo Kojima*
P. Kumarasamy
Hiroshi Kurita
Rob Layet*
Robert F. Morrissey*
Gcno Nardini
DickNusbaum
Martyn Partridge
AbeRubinfeld
Birgitta Schmekel
Albert L.Sheffer
Greg Simpson
Ian Smith
Robert Suber
Ian P. Tansey
Adam Wanner
Ashley Woodcock
HuaZhangxi
Affiliation ' Country
Monash University Australia
Spray Quimica C.A. Venezuela
Environmental Protection Authority, Victoria Australia
Affiliation Country
Boehringer Ingelheim Germany
ICIKLEA UK
The Royal Free Hospital UK
Universit Descartes - France
Schering-Plough Research USA
DuPont Chemicals USA
MDT Corporation USA
Astra Draco AB Sweden
Tokyo Aerosol Industry Co. Japan
Montfort A. Johnson & Assoc' USA
FEA Environment Committee UK
National Institute of Hygenic Sciences Japan
Kontrak Manufacturing Svcs. Malaysia
JAHCS Japan '
Ensign Laboratories Australia
Johnson & Johnson USA
Inst. International del Aerosol Mexico
Pennsylvania Engineering Co. USA
Whipps Cross Hospital UK
Royal Melbourne Hospital Australia
University Hospital Sweden
Brigham & Women's Hospital USA
CSIRO Australia
Glaxo Group R&D Ltd. UK
RJR-Nabisco USA
3M Health Care Ltd. UK
, University of Miami USA
Wythenshawe Hospital UK
Ministry of Light Industry China
* corresponding members
-------
Economic Options Committee
133
Chair
Robert Van Slooten
Members
Yusuf Ahmad
Penelope Canan
Suely Carvalho
Stephen DeCanio
Mavis Holmes-Hanek
Ahmed Amin Ibrahim
Peter Landymore
Anil Markandya
Mesahiro Miyazaki
David O'Connor
Sergio Oxman
Bai Xianhong
Affiliation Country
Department of Trade & Industry UK
Affiliation Country
Consultant Bangledesh
University of Denver USA
University of Sao Paulo Brazil
University of California USA
Ministry of Health & Environment Bahamas
Academy of Science Research & Technology Egypt
Overseas Development Administration UK
Harvard Institute for Int'l Development USA
MITI Japan
OECD Development Centre France
The World Bank
China International Science Centre China
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134
Flexible and Rigid Foams Technical Options Committee
Chairs
Jean Lupinacci
Sally Rand
Members
Godfrey Abbott
Paul Ashford
Lorraine Aulisio
Marion Axmith
Craig Barkhouse
GcitBaumann
TcdBiermann
Michael J. Cartmell
John Clinton
Hubert Creyf
Shi Jia Fan
Alan Hne
Ryoichi Fujimoto
Reg Kurd
Mike Jeffs
Robert Johnson
Fran Lkhtenberg
YehiaLotfi
John Minsker
Muncharu Sanoh
M. Sarangapani
Ian Shankland •
Sodario Souto
BertVeenendaal
UdoWcnning
Takao Yamamoto
Affiliation
Environmental Protection Agency
Environmental Protection Agency
Dow Europe/Exiba
BP Chemicals Ltd/EPFA
Celotex Corporation/PJMA
The Society of the Plastics Industry, Inc.
Foamex Canada/CFFMA
Miles Inc.
BASF Corporation
ICI Polyurethanes
NRG Barriers/PIMA
Recticel/Europur
Qindao Haier Group Co.
Environmental Protection Agency
Hitachi Limited /•
British Rubber Manufacturers Assn.
ICI Polyurethanes
Whirlpool
The Society of the Plastics Industry, Inc.
Technocom
Dow Chemical
Japanese Electrical Manufacturers' Association
Polyurethane Council of India
AlliedSignal
Brastemp S.A.
RAPPA, Inc.
Bosch-Siemens Hausgerate
Japan Urethane Foam Industrial Association
Country
USA
USA
Switzerland
UK
USA
Canada
Canada
USA
USA
USA
USA
Belgium
China
USA
Japan
UK
Belgium
USA
USA
Egypt
USA
Japan
India
USA
Brazil
USA
Germany
Japan
-------
Halons Technical Options Committee
135
Chairs
Tom Morehouse
Gary Taylor
Members
David Ball
nerve" Bineau
Walter Brunner
David Catchpole
Tom Cortina
Robert Darwin
Philip DiNenno
Ding Kangsheng
Chris Hanauska
H.S. Kaprwan
Maj. Gen. Kataria
Takaaki Konno
Nikolai Kopylov
Barbara Kucnerowicz-Polak
Arthur Lim
Yvon Marty
Michelle Maynard
Marion McQuaide
Mohamad Rodzi Sulaiman
John CTSullivan
Erik Pedersen
Gennadi Ryzhov
Joseph Senecal
Ronald Sheinson
Robert E. Tapscott
Tony Thornhill
Daniel Verdonik
Brian Ward
Michael Wilson
Roy Young
Zhu Hailin
Affiliation Country
Institute for Defense Analyses USA
Taylor/Wagner Inc. Canada
Affiliation Country
Kidde Graviner Limited UK
CTFHE France
envico AG Switzerland
BP Exploration (Alaska) USA
Halon Alternatives Research Corp. USA
Department of the Navy USA
Hughes Associates USA
Zhejiang Chemical Industry Research Institute China
Hughes Associates USA
Defence Institute of Fire Research India
Defence Institute of Fire Research India
Fenwal Controls of Japan Japan
All Russian Research Inst. for Fire Protection Russia
State Fire Sevices Headquarters Poland
Institute of Fire Engineers Singapore
CTFHE France
NASA USA
Ministry of Defence UK
Fire Services Department Malaysia
British Airways UK
Danish Fire Protection Association Denmark
All Russian Research Inst. for Fire Protection Russia
Fenwal Safety Systems USA
Naval Research Laboratory USA
NMERI USA
Department of National Defence Canada
Department of the Army USA
Kidde Fire Protection UK
Wormald Fire Systems Australia
Loss Prevention Council UK
Tianjin Fire Research Inst. China
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136
Methyl Bromide Technical Options Committee
Chak
Jonathan Banks
Vice Chair
Affiliation
csmo
RodrigoRodriguez-KabanaAuburn University
Members Affiliation
Joel arap-Lelei
Mohd. Azmi Ab Rahim
Thomas A. Batchelor
Antonio Bello
Barry Blair
Richard C. Bruno
Adrian Carter
Vicent Cebolla
Bishu Chakrabarti
Chamlong Chettanachitara
Patricia Clary
Jorge Corona
Miguel Costilla
Jennifer Curtis
Tom Duafala
Patrick Ducom
JoeEger
Juan Francisco Fernandez
Michael Graber
Avi Grinstein
Doug Gubler
'Joop van Haasteren
Thorkil E. Hallas
Toshihiro Kajiwara
Jaacov Katan
Richard Kramer
Laurent Lenoir •
Maria Ludovica Gullino
Michelle Marcotte
Melanie Miller
Takamitsu Muraoka
Maria Nolan
Joe Noling
HenkNuyten
Gary Ofaenauf
Mary O'Brien
David Okioga
William Olkowski
Sergio Oxman
Santiago Pocino
Embassy of Kenya, Netherlands
Ministry of Agriculture
ENZA N.Z. (Intl.)
Centra de Ciencias Medioambientales
Tobacco Research Board
Sun Diamond Growers of California
Agriculture Canada
Institute Valenciana de Investigations Agrarias
Central Science Laboratory
Dept. of Agriculture ,
Californians for Alternatives to
Toxics/SAFE Alliance
Canacintra
Agro-Industrial Obispo Colombres
Natural Resources Defense Council
TriCal
Ministere de I'Agriculture et de la Peche
Dow Blanco
Ministero de Agricultura
Ministry of the Environment
Laboratory for Pesticide Application
University of California
Ministry of Housing, Physical
Planning and Environment
Danish Technological Institute
Japan Plant Protection Assoc.
Hebrew University
National Pest Control Assoc.
UCBSA
University of Turin
Nordion International Inc.
S.A.F.E. Alliance
Sanko Chemical Co.
Department of the Environment
University of Florida
Experimental Garden Breda
Agricultural Research Committee
University of Montana
Agricultural Research Institute
Bio-Integral Resource Center
The World Bank
FMC Foret SA
Country
Australia
USA
Country
Kenya
Malaysia
New Zealand
Spain
Zimbabwe
USA
Canada
Spain
UK
Thailand
USA
Mexico
Argentina
USA
USA
France
USA
Chile
Israel
Israel
USA
Netherlands
Denmark
Japan
Israel
USA
Belgium
Italy
Canada
UK
Japan
UK
USA
Netherlands
USA
USA
Kenya
USA
Spain
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137
Methyl Bromide Technical Options Committee (cont.)
Members Ccont.)
Michael Host Rasmussen
A. Nathan Reed
Christoph Reichmuth
Ralph Ross
Tsuneo Sakurai
John Sansone
Colin Smith
Don Smith
Michael Spiegelstein
Morfcyl Steyn
Robert Suber
Akio Tateya
Robert Taylor
Bill Thomas
Gary Thompson
Torn Tidow
Patrick Vail
Etienne van Wambeke
Kenneth Vick
Chris Watson
Robert Webb
Rene Weber
James Wells
Wang Wenliang
Frank V. Westerlund '
Affiliation Country
Ministry of Environment ' Denmark
Stemlit Growers Inc. USA
Federal Biology & Research Center for Germany
Agriculture & Forestry
Department of Agriculture USA
Tiejin Chemicals Ltd. Japan
SCC Products USA
Rentokil Ltd. UK
Industrial Research Ltd. New Zealand
Bromine Compounds Ltd. Israel
Department of National Health and South Africa
Population Development
RJR Nabisco USA
Agricultural Chemicals Inspection Station, MAFF Japan
Natural Resources Institute UK
Environmental Protection Agency USA
Quaker Oats USA
BASF Germany
Department of Agriculture-ARS USA
Katholieke Universiteit Leuven Belgium
Department of Agriculture USA
IGROXLtd. UK
Driscoll Strawberry Associates Inc. USA
Great Lakes Chemical Co. USA
California Environmental Protection Agency USA
Zhejiang Chemical Industry Research Institute China
California Strawberry Advisory Board USA
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138
Refrigeration, Air Conditioning and Heat Pumps
Technical Options Committee
Chair
Lambert Kuijpers
Section Chairs
RuncAarlien
R,S. Agarwal
Ward Atkinson
James A. Baker
Jos W. Bouma
Peter Cooper
David Didion
Robert Heap
Hans Haukas
Kenneth Hickman
Fred Keller
Louis Lucas
Kenneth W.Manz
Edward J. Mclnerney
Mark O. McLinden
MarkMenzer
S. Forbes Pearson •
Frcdcrique Sauer
Erik Schau
Sonny Sundaresan
Paulo Vodianitskaia
Lau Vors
Affiliation
Technical University
SINTEF
Indian Institute of Technology
Sun Test Engineering
General Motors
IEA Heat Pump Center
Adtec Services
NIST
SRCRA
Refrigeration Consultant
York International Co.
Carrier Corp.
HR
SPX Corporation
General Electric
NIST
ARI
Star Refrigeration
Dehon Service SA
UNTTOR Ships Service
Copeland Co.
Consul SA
L&E Teknik og Management
Country
Netherlands
Norway
India
USA
USA
Netherlands
UK
USA
UK
Norway
USA
USA
France
USA
USA
USA
USA
UK
France
Norway
USA
Brazil
Denmark
Members
Kent Anderson
Gianfranco Angelino
David Bateman
Russell Benstead
Angclo Bertu
S.C. Bhaduri
Donald B. Bivens
Paul Brauch
James M. Calm
Douglas Cane
Terry Chadderton
Denis Clodic
Jim Crawford
Joel Crespin
Mark Cy wilko
Per O. Danig
M. Z.Dean
Sukumar Devotta
Jan Duiven
Affiliation
Int. Inst. of Ammonia Refrigeration
Politecnico di Milano
DuPont
EA Technology
Whirlpool
Indian Institute of Technology
E.I. DuPont de Nemours
Vilter Manufacturing Corp.
Engineering Consultant
Caneta Research Inc.
Meat Industry Research Inst
Ecole des Mines
Trane Co.
Unite Hermetique
Carrier Transicold
Technical University
Remco Ltd.
National Chemical Lab.
AEER
Country
USA
Italy
USA
UK
Italy
India
USA
USA
USA
Canada
New Zealand
France
USA
France
USA
Denmark
Kenya
India
Belgium
-------
Refrigeration, Air Conditioning and Heat Pumps
Technical Options Committee (cont.)
139
Members (cont.)
Richard Ertinger
Yu Bing Feng
David Gibson
Herbert T. Gilkey
Poul-Erik Hansen
Laercio Hardt
John Hatton
Ulrich Hesse
Shunya Hisashima
Sachio Hotani
Glen Hourahan
Michael Hughes
Y. Igarashi
Yukinobo Ikemoto
Martien Janssen
Werner Jensen
Ren Jinlu
James F. Kanyua
Yasuhiro Kawanishi
Pieter Koelet
Bill Kopko
Erik Korfitsen
Horst Kruse
Haw En Kwi
Harold Lamb
HJ. Laue
Laurent Legin
Peter Likes
Anders Lindborg
Hugh McDonald
Katharine Miller
Yoshiyuki Morikawa
Peter Moser
Roland Mottal
Gale Myers
M. Narodoslawsky
M. Nonnenmann
Lars Nordell
Richard Oas
Tomishige Oizumi
Robert Orfeo
Deborah Ottinger
Cristophe Petitjean
E. Preisegger
Chuck Purcell
K. Rao
George Redden .
Wilhelm Ritter
Lindsey Roke
Affiliation
Carrier Corp.
Zi'an Jiaotong Univ.
W.S. Atkins Energy Ltd.
Engineering Consultant
Danfoss GmbH
Embrace S/A
Sea Containers
Spauschuss Association
JRAIA
Japanese Assoc. of Refrig.
ARI
Allied Signal, Inc.
Heat Pump Technology Center
Mitsubishi Heavy Industries
Regent Co.
Integral Technologic
GMRI
University of Nairobi
Sanyo
NV Schatten SA
Environmental Protection Agency
Sabroe Refrigeration A/A
University of Hannover
Nippon Denso
Atochem North America
Fachinform. Karlsruhe GmbH
Societe Trane
Hussman Co.
Frigoscandia AB
Ministry of Defence
Battelle PNL Labs
Matsushita Electric Ltd.
Sulzer Friotherm Ltd.
JJH
•Gas Research Institute
Graz University of Technology
Behr & Co. GmbH
LGN - Energikonsult
Safeway Inc.
Toshiba Corp.
Allied Signal, Inc.
Environmental Protection Agency
VALEO
HOECHST AG
Battelle PNL Labs
Kelvinator of India
Dunhan-Bush Inc.
Upper-Austrian Electric Power Co.
Fisher & Paykel
Country
USA
China
UK
USA
Germany
Brazil
UK
USA
Japan
Japan
USA
USA
Japan
Japan
Netherlands
Germany
China
Kenya
Japan
Belgium
USA
Denmark
Germany
Malaysia
USA
Germany
France
USA
Sweden
UK
USA
Japan
Switzerland
France
USA
Austria
Germany
Sweden
USA
Japan
USA
USA
France
Germany
USA
India
USA
Austria
New Zealand
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140
Refrigeration, Air Conditioning and Heat Pumps
Technical Options Committee (cont.)
Members fcont.~t
Affiliation
Country
Kazuo Sahara
PerSamuelsen
Norio Sawada
Rajcndra Shende
Arnon Simakulthom
John Smale
Leong Kam Son
Rich Sweetser
Alan Tang
Reiner Tillner-Roth
LennertVamling
Ed Vineyard
Tony Vogelsberg
Tom Waltz
Koichi Watanabe
Pcirre Weiss
A. Wilson
Kiyoshige Yokoi
Ming Shan Zu
Daikin Ind. Ltd.
Finsam Int. Ltd.
Sanyo Co.
UNEPIE/PAC
Thai Compressor Ltd
Environment Canada
York International
Gas Cooling Center
Sanden AC
University of Hannover
Chalmers University
Oak Ridge National Lab
El. DuPont de Nemours
The World Bank
Keio University
Elf-Atochem
Lloyds Register of Shipping
Matsushita
Tsinghua University
Japan
Norway
Japan
France
Thailand
Canada
Malaysia
USA
Malaysia
Germany
Sweden
USA
USA
Japan
France
UK
Japan
China
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141
Solvents, Coatings and Adhesives Technical Options Committee
Chair Affiliation Country
Stephen O. Andersen Environmental Protection Agency USA
Vice-Chair
Jorge Corona
Members
Husamuddin Ahmadzai
Lorenzo Alvarez
David Andrews
Jay Baker
Bryan Baxter
Charles Carpenter
Pakasit Chanvinij
Mike Clark
Brian Ellis
Stephen Evanoff
Joe Felty
John Fisher
ArtFitzGerald
Yuichi Fujimoto
G. Gabelmann
Leslie Guth
Don Hunt
Yoshiyuki Ishii
Peter Johnson
William Kenyon
Sudhakar Kesavan
Hiroshi Kurita
Stephen Lai
Leo Lambert
Milton Lubraico
Shigeo Matsui
Annie Maurel-Groleau
James Mertens
Hank Osterman
Fritz Powolny
Cynthia Pruett
Patrice Rollet
Wolf-Eberhard Schiegl
John Schirtz
Hussein Shafa'amri
Barrel Staley
John Stemniski
John Wilkinson
Masaaki Yamabe
XTAvierHKYoong
Canacintra Mexico
Environmental Protection Agency Sweden
South America Electronics Operation Brazil
GEC Marconi Hirst UK
Ford USA
British Aerospace UK
Waste Policy Institute USA
Thai Airways Thailand
Sketchley UK
Protonique Switzerland
Lockheed Fort Worth USA
Texas Instruments USA
AT&T USA
Northern Telecom Canada
Japan Electrical Manufacturers' Association Japan
ITTTeves Germany
AT&T USA
Air Force USA
Hitachi Japan
European Chlorinated Solvents Association UK
Global Centre for Process Change USA
ICF USA
Japan Association for Hygiene Japan
of Chlorinated Solvents
Singapore Inst. of Standards Singapore
and Industrial Research
Digital Equipment Corp. USA
Ford Brazil
Japan Audit & Certification Oirg. Japan
Telemecanique France
Dow USA
AlliedSignal Inc. USA
OXTTENO Brazil
IBM USA
Promosol France
Siemens Germany
Air Force USA
Ministry of Planning Jordan
Boeing USA
Charles Stark Draper Labs USA
Vulcan Materials ' USA
Asahi Glass Japan
National Semiconductor Malaysia
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142
Destruction Technology Sub-Committee
Chair
Abe Knkelstein
Affiliation .
Environment Canada
Country
Canada
Sab-Committee Members Affiliation
Godfrey Abbott
Stephen Andersen
Tom Bell
Jcny Brown
Nick Campbell
Paul Cammer
Don Colley
Brent Davey
Dave Davis
James DeAngelis
Connie Deford
Vinci Felix
Howard Greene
Robert Hall
Kirk Hummel
Chun Wai Lee
Karen Metchis
Koichi Mizuno
Maurice Oubre
KashRam
Rosemary Townsend
EXIBA
Environmental Protection Agency
Simon Eraser University
Allied Defense Industries
ICI Chemicals
Cammer & Associates
Bovarlnc.
Centre for Environmental Mgt.
Vulcan Chemicals
Commodore Environmental Services
Dow Chemical
DuPont
University of Akron /•
Environmental Protection Agency
Radian Corp.
Environmental Protection Agency
Environmental Protection Agency
MTTI
Dow Chemical
Environment Canada
Commonwealth EPA
Country
Switzerland
USA
Canada
USA
UK '
USA
Canada
Australia
USA
USA
USA
USA
USA
USA
USA
•USA
USA.
Japan
USA
Canada
Australia
-------
143
Inadvertent Losses Sub-Committee
Chairs
Nick Campbell
Lambert Kuijpers
Affiliation
ICI Chemicals and Polymers Ltd
Technical University Eindhoven
Country
UK
Netherlands
Sub-Committee Members Affiliation
Kathi Anderson
Sandip Bhatia
Connie Deford
Kevin Fay
Jean Lament
Paul Horwitz
Hiroshi Kurita
Vivian Mclntire
Wolfgang Scholten
YUmeki
John Wilkinson
Xiao Xu Pei
Country
DuPont Canada
Navin Fluorine Industries India
Dow Chemicals (North America) USA
Alliance for Responsible Atmospheric Policy USA
Department of Trade and Industry UK
Environmental Protection Agency USA
Japanese Association for the Japan
Hygiene of Chlorinated Solvents
Eastman Chemical Company USA
Hoechst AG Germany
Mitsui-DuPont Japan
Vulcan Chemicals USA
Shanghai Institute of Organo Fluorine China
Materials
-------
144
-------
A
ppendix
145
B
Decisions of the Parties
Relating to the Technology and Economic Assessment Panel
Decision TV/13. Assessment panels
1. To note with appreciation on work done by the Panels for Ozone Scientific
Assessment, Environmental Effects Assessment, and Technology and Economic
Assessment in their reports of November-December 1991;
2. To request the Technology and Economic Assessment Panel and its Technical and
Economic Options Committees to report annualijr to the Open-ended Working
Group of the Parties to the Montreal Protocol the technical progress in reducing the
use and emissions of controlled substances and assess the use of alternatives,
particularly their direct and indirect global-warming effects;
3. To request the three assessment panels to update their reports and submit them to
the Secretariat by 30 November 1994 for consideration by the Open-ended Working
Group and by the Seventh Meeting of the Parties to the Montreal Protocol. These
assessments should cover all major facets discussed hi the 1991 assessments with
enhanced emphasis on methyl bromide. The scientific assessment should also
include an evaluation of the impact of sub-sonic aircraft on ozone;
4. To encourage the panels to meet once a year to enable the co-chairpersons of the
panels to bring to the notice of the meetings of the Parties to the Montreal Protocol,
through the Secretariat, any significant developments which, in their opinion,
deserve such notice;
Decision IV/23. Methyl bromide
1. To request the Scientific Assessment Panel and the Technology and Economic
Assessment Panel to assess the following, in accordance with Article 6 of the
Protocol, and to submit their combined report, through the Secretariat, by 30
November 1994 at the latest, to the Seventh Meeting of the Parties:
(a) Abundance of methyl bromide in the atmosphere and the proportion of
anthropogenic emissions within this abundance of methyl bromide and the
ozone-depleting potential of methyl bromide;
(b) Methodologies to control emissions into the atmosphere from the various
current uses of methyl bromide and the technical and economic feasibility
and the likely results of such controls;
(c) Availability of chemical and non-chemical substitutes for the various current
uses of methyl bromide; their cost-effectiveness; the incremental costs of
• such substitutes, technological and economic feasibility of substitution for
various uses and the benefits to the protection of the ozone layer by such
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2.
substitution, taking into account the particular social, economic, geographic
and agricultural conditions of different regions and, specifically, the
developing countries;
To request the Open-ended Working Group of the Parties to the Montreal Protocol
to consider this report and submit its recommendations to the Seventh Meeting of
the Parties in 1995;
Decision IV/25. Essential uses
1. To apply the following criteria and procedure in assessing an essential use for the
purposes of control measures in Article 2 of the Protocol:
(a) That a use of a controlled substance should qualify as "essential" only if:
(i) It is necessary for the health, safety or is critical for the functioning
of society (encompassing cultural and intellectual aspects); and
(ii) There are no available technically and economically feasible
alternatives or substitutes that are acceptable from the standpoint of
environment and health;
(b) That production and consumption, if any, of a controlled substance
for essential uses should be permitted only if:
(i) All economically feasible steps have been taken to minimize
the essential use and any associated emission of the
controlled substance; and
(ii) . The controlled substance is not available in sufficient
quantity and quality from existing stocks of banked or
recycled controlled substance, also bearing in mind the
developing countries' need for controlled substances;
(c) That production, if any, for essential use, will be in addition to
production to supply the basic domestic needs of the Parties
operating under paragraph 1 of Article 5 of the Protocol prior to the
phase-out of the controlled substance in those countries;
2.
3.
To request each of the Parties to nominate, in accordance with the criteria approved
in paragraph 1 (a) of the present decision, any use it considers "essential", to the
Secretariat at least six months for halons and nine months for other substances prior
to each Meeting of the Parties that is to decide on this issue;
To request the Technology and Economic Assessment Panel and its Technical and
Economic Option Committee to develop, in accordance with the criteria in
paragraphs 1 (a) and 1 (b) of the present decision, recommendations on the
nominations, after consultations with experts as necessary, regarding:
(a) The essential use (substance, quantity, quality, expected duration of
essential use, duration of production or import necessary to meet such
essential use);
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(b) Economically feasible use and emission controls for the proposed essential
use;
(c)
Sources of already produced controlled substances for the proposed
essential use (quantity, quality, timing); and
(d) Steps necessary to ensure that alternatives and substitutes are available as
soon as possible for the proposed essential use;
4. To request the Technology and Economic Assessment Panel, while making its
recommendations to take into account the environmental acceptability, health
effects, economic feasibility, availability, and regulatory status of alternatives and
substitutes;
5. To request the Technology and Economic Assessment Panel to submit its report,
through the Secretariat, at least three months before the Meeting of the Parties in
which a decision is to be taken. The subsequent reports will also consider which
previously qualified essential uses should no longer qualify as essential;
6. To request the Open-ended Working Group of the Parties to consider the report of
the Technology and Economic Assessment Panel and make its recommendations to
the Fifth Meeting of the Parties for halpns and at the Sixth Meeting for all other
substances for which an essential use is proposed;
7. That essential use controls will not be applicable to Parties operating under
paragraph 1 of Article 5 of the Protocol until the phase-out dates applicable to those
Parties;
Decision IV/30. Hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs)
1. To request the Technology and Economic Assessment Panel:
(a) To evaluate alternative substances and technologies to the application for
HCFCs as refrigerant and as insulation gas in rigid foam;
(b) To identify other applications for HCFCs, if any, where other more
environmentally suitable alternatives or technologies are not available; and
(c) To submit its findings to the Open-ended Working Group of the Parties to
the Montreal Protocol no later than 31 March 1994;
2 To request the Open-ended Working Group to consider the report of the
Technology and Economic Assessment Panel with respect to HCFCs; to consider
the possible need for specific provisions for the implementation of the regulation oh
the applications for HCFCs, taking into account the special circumstances of the
Parties operating under paragraph 1 of Article 5 of the Protocol; and to make any
appropriate recommendations for consideration by the Parties at their Meeting hi
1994 and following subsequent reviews taking place under Article 6 of the Protocol;
3 To ensure that, notwithstanding the new status of HCFCs as controlled substances,
the incremental costs to Parties operating under paragraph 1 of Article 5 of the
Protocol of making the transition from CFCs to HCFCs consistent with the
regulation on the applications for HCFCs will continue to be met by the Fund and to
request the Executive Committee to function in the light of this decision;
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4.
To request the Executive Committee to estimate, on an ongoing basis, the amount of
HCFCs required by Parties operating under paragraph 1 of Article 5 of the Protocol
and to recommend the methods of meeting such needs in full, simultaneously with
the exercise to estimate the amounts of controlled substances needed, as well as to
estimate the production available to meet those needs, as requested by the Open-
ended Working Group at its seventh meeting.
Decision V/8. Consideration of alternatives
1. That each Party is requested, as far as possible and as appropriate, to give
consideration in selecting alternatives and substitutes, bearing in mind, inter alia,
Article 2F, paragraph 7, of the Copenhagen Amendment regarding
hydrochlorofluorocarbons, to:
(a) Environmental aspects;
• (b) Human health and safety aspects;
(c) The technical feasibility, the commercial availability and performance;
(d) Economic aspects, including cost comparisons among different technology
options taking into account:
(i) All interim steps leading to final ODS elimination;
(ii) Social costs;
(iii) Dislocation costs, etc.
(e) Country-specific circumstances and due local expertise;
To note that the Executive Committee is taking the above considerations into
account as far as information is available;
To request the Technology and Economic Assessment Panel and its Technical
Options Committees in the context of finalizing its report, to provide information on
which alternatives and substitutes best satisfied the above considerations, and to
update this information on an annual basis;
2.
3.
Decision V/18. Timetable for the submission and consideration of essential
use nominations
1. To request the Parties to submit their nominations for each production and
consumption exemption for substances other than halon for 1996 in accordance
with Decision IV/25, with the presumption that the Meeting of the Parties will be
held on 1 September;
2. To modify the timetables in- Decision IV/25 for nominations for halon production
and consumption exemptions for 1995 and subsequent years, and for nominations
for production and consumption exemptions for substances other than halon for
1997 and subsequent years as follows: to set .1 January of each year as the last date
for nominations for decisions -taken in that year for any subsequent year;
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3.
4.
5.
To request the Technology and Economic Assessment Panel and its relevant
Technical Options Committees to develop recommendations on the nominations and
submit their.report through the Secretariat by 31 March of that year;
To request the Open-ended Working Group of the Parties to consider the report of
the Technology and Economic Assessment Panel and make its recommendations to
the subsequent meeting of the Parties;
To request the Technology and Economic Assessment Panel to assemble and
distribute a handbook on essential uses nominations including copies of relevant
decisions, nomination instructions, summaries of past recommendations, and
copies of nominations to illustrate possible formats and levels of technical detail;
Decision V/19. Control measures to be applicable to Parties operating
under paragraph 1 of Article 5 of the Protocol with respect to the controlled
substance in Group I of Annex C, Group II of Annex C, and Annex E
1 To request the Scientific Assessment Panel and the Technology and Economic
Assessment Panel in collaboration with the Secretariat and the Executive Committee
to assess the following, in accordance with Article 6 and taking into account the
reoort required by decision V/l 1 of the Protocol and to submit their combined
report, Sough the Secretariat, by 30 November 1994 at the latest, to the Seventh
Meeting of the Parties:
(a) What base year, initial levels, control schedules and phase-out date for
consumption of controlled substances in Group I of Annex C are feasible
for application to Parties operating under paragraph 1 of Article 5 of the
Protocol;
(b) What base year, initial levels and control schedules for consumption and
production of the controlled substances in Group H of Annex C are feasible
for application to Parties operating under paragraph 1 of Article 5 of the
Protocol;
(c) What base year, initial levels and control schedules for consumption and
production of the controlled substances in Annex E are feasible for
application to Parties operating under paragraph 1 of Article 5 of the
, Protocol;
2 To request the Open-ended Working Group of the Parties to the Montreal Protocol
to consider the combined report of the two Assessment Panels and submit its
recommendation to the Seventh Meeting of the Parties, in 1995;
Decision V/20, Extension of application of trade measures under Article 4
to controlled substances listed in Group I Annex C and in Annex E
1.
To request the Technology and Economic Assessment Panel to assess the feasibility
and implications of extending the application of trade measures under Article 4 or
the Protocol to trade in the controlled substances listed in Group I of Annex C and
in Annex E and report through the Secretariat by 30 November 1994 at the latest to
the Open-ended Working Group;
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2.
To request the Open-ended Working Group to make recommendations on the
subject, as appropriate, with a view to their consideration by the Seventh Meeting of
the Parties, in 1995;
Decision VI/10. Use of controlled substances as process agents
Taking into account:
That some Parties may have interpreted use of controlled substances in some applications
where they are used as process agents as feedstock application;
That other Parties have interpreted similar applications as use and thereby subject to phase-
out;
That the Technology and Economic Assessment Panel has been unable to recommend
exemption, under the essential use criteria, to Parties submitting applications of such uses
nominated in 1994; and
The pressing requirement for elaboration of the issue and the need for appropriate action by
all Parties;
1. To request the Technology and Economic Assessment Panel:
(a) To identify uses of controlled substances as chemical process agents;
(b) To estimate emissions of controlled substances when used as chemical
process agents and the ultimate fate of such emissions and to evaluate
emissions associated with the different control technologies and other
process conditions under which chemical process agents are used;
(c) To evaluate alternative process agents or technologies or products available
to replace controlled substances in such uses; and
(d) To submit its findings to the Open-ended Working Group of the Parties to
• the Montreal Protocol not later than March 1995, and to request the Open-
ended Working Group to formulate recommendations, if any, for the
consideration of the Parties at their Seventh Meeting;
2. That Parties, for an interim period of 1996 only, treat chemical process agents in a
manner similar to feedstock, as recommended by the Technology and Economic
Assessment Panel, and take a final decision on such treatment at their Seventh
Meeting;
Decision VI/11. Clarification of "quarantine" and "pre-Shipment"
applications for control of methyl bromide
1. Recognizing the heed for non-Article 5 Parties to have, before 1 January 1995,
common definitions of "quarantine" and "pre-shipment" applications for methyl
bromide, for purposes of implementing Article 2H of the Montreal Protocol, and
that non-Article 5 Parties have agreed on the following:
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(a) Quarantine applications, with respect to methyl bromide, are applications to
prevent the introduction, establishment and/or spread of quarantine pests
(including diseases), or to ensure their official control, where:
(i) Official control is that performed by, or authorized by a national
plant, animal or environmental protection, or health authority;
(ii) Quarantine pests are pests of potential importance to the areas
endangered thereby and not yet present there, or present but not
widely distributed and being officially controlled;
(b) Pre-shipment applications are those treatments applied directly preceding
and in relation to export, to meet the phytosanitary or sanitary requirements
of the importing country or existing phytosanitary or sanitary requirements
of the exporting country;
(c) In applying these definitions, non-Article 5 countries are urged to refrain
from use of methyl bromide and to use non-ozone-depleting technologies
wherever possible. Where methyl bromide is used, Parties are urged to
minimize emissions and use of methyl bromide through containment and
recovery and recycling methodologies to the extent possible;
2. Acknowledging that Article 5 Parties have agreed to identify the following:
(a) That definitions relating to pre-shipment applications affect Article 5
countries and that new non-tariff barriers to trade should be avoided;
(b) That the Article 5 countries still need to have more consultations and further
. approaches to the quarantine and pre-shipment application definitions related
to methyl bromide;
(c) That the Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations should
play a fundamental role in the establishment of common definitions
concerning quarantine and pre-shipment applications related to methyl
bromide use;
(d) That it is anticipated that the use of methjd bromide by Article 5 countries
may increase in the forthcoming years;
(e) That adequate resources from the Multilateral Fund for the Implementation
of the Montreal Protocol and other sources are needed to facilitate the
transfer of non-ozone-depleting technologies for quarantine and pre-
shipment applications related to methyl bromide to the Article 5 countries;
3. Further recognizing that containment, recovery and recycling methodologies relating
to methyl bromide should be given a wider application among all Parties;
4. TO request the open-ended working group of the Parties at its eleventh and twelfth
meetings;
(a) To further study the most suitable definition for "quarantine" and"pre-
shipment" applications relating to methyl bromide use, taking into
consideration:
(i) The Methyl Bromide Technical Options Committee report;
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(ii) The Methyl Bromide Scientific Assessment Report;
(iii) The FAO guidelines on Pests Risk Analysis; and,
(iv) The development of lists of injurious pests;
(b) To consider jointly the definitions issues along with the methyl bromide
issues contained in Decision VI/13;
(c) To provide the necessary elements to be included for a decision of the
Seventh Meeting of the Parties to the Montreal Protocol on all the above
issues;
Decision VI/13. Assessment panels
To request the Panels, as an inclusion in their ongoing work, to evaluate, without prejudice
to Article 5 of the Montreal Protocol, the technical and economic feasibility, and the
environmental, scientific, and economic implications for non-Article 5 countries, as well as,
Article 5 countries, bearing in mind Article 5, paragraph 1 bis, of the Copenhagen
Amendment, of:
(a) The alternative to hydrochlorofluorocarbons in so doing, the Technology and
Economic Assessment Panel is requested to consider the ozone-depleting substance
substitution potential of not-in-kind alternatives, in-kind alternatives, and alternative
technologies. In assessing this matter, the Technology and Economic Assessment
Panel should consider how available alternative compare with
hydrochlorofluorocarbons with respect to such factors as energy efficiency, total
global warming impact, potential flammability, and toxicity, and the potential
impacts on the effective use and phase-out of chlorofluorocarbons and halons; in
time for consideration by the Open-ended Working Group at its Eleventh Meeting;
(b) Alternatives to methyl bromide, in time for consideration by the Open-ended
Working Group at its eleventh meeting;
In considering these matters, the Scientific Assessment Panel shall consider, if possible,
atmospheric chlorine and bromine loadings and their impact on ozone depletion. The
Technology and Economic Assessment Panel and Scientific Assessment Panel evaluations
shall be solely for the purpose of discussions by the Parties and shall in no way be
construed as recommendations for action.
Decision VI/19. Trade in previously used ozone-depleting substances
1. To reaffirm the Parties' intent embodied in decision IV/24;
2. To restate that only used controlled substances may be excluded from the calculated
level of consumption of countries importing or exporting such substances;
3.. To note further that, as required by decision IV/24, such exclusions from a Party's
calculated level of consumption is made contingent on reporting of such imports and
exports to the Secretariat and Parties should make their best efforts to report this
formation in a timely manner;
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4. To request all Parties with reclamation facilities to submit to the Secretariat prior to
the Seventh Meeting of the Parties and on an annual basis thereafter a list of the
reclamation facilities and their capacities available in their countries;
5. To request all Parties that export previously used substances to take, where
appropriate, steps to ensure that such substances are labelled correctly and are of the
nature claimed and to report any related activities through the Secretariat to the
seventh meeting of the Parties;
6. To request such exporting Parties to make best efforts to require their companies to
include in documentation accompanying such exports, the name of the source firm
of the used controlled substance and whether it was recovered, recycled or
reclaimed and any further information available to allow for verification of the
nature of the substance;
7. To request the Ozone Secretariat, drawing on the experience of the Technology and
Economic Assessment Panel and the Parties, to study and report on trade in
used/recycled/reclaimed ozone-depleting substances, taking particular account of
Parties' experience in the control of such trade and the concerns -and interests of all
Parties that have facilities for the production of ozone-depleting substances, in time
for the issues to be considered by the Open-ended Working Group at its twelfth
meeting;
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Appendix \^
Global Warming Issues
Based on total emissions, the major greenhouse gases are carbon dioxide (CO2) and
methane (OH*). However, a substantial contribution is made in the aggregate by other
gases including chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), batons, and other halocarbons. These minor
or trace gases are important for two reasons. First, although these gases are currently
emitted in smaller quantities than COi and CHj, their effectiveness in influencing climate
tends to be greater. Second, while individual use of these gases may add little to the overall
burden, the rising concentration of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere cannot be controlled
without addressing the aggregate effect of the trace gases.
As the transition away from the ozone-depleting compounds proceeds, a growing concern
is that this shift does not also result in a significant rise in contributions, to global warming •'»
due to an increased reliance on substitutes that are strong greenhouse gases. Alternatives
identified by the Technology and Economic Assessment Panel (TEAP) and its Technical
Options Committees (TOCs) to date have varying potential to contribute to global wanning.
Their contribution depends on many factors including radiative properties and persistence in
the atmosphere.
This appendix describes the context of the climate change problem and the general
properties of greenhouse gases.
The Nature of the Global Warming Problem
The Earth's stable average temperature is maintained by a radiative balance in which the
amount of energy, absorbed from the sun is equal to the amount of energy radiated back into
space by the Earth and atmosphere. If a factor is introduced into the atmosphere that
changes this balance, the climate must warm or cool until the radiative fluxes are equal and
the balance is restored. A change of this kind is known as a change in radiative forcing (or
warming commitment). Radiative forcing, expressed in watts per square meter (W/m2), is
a measure of the downward radiation flux received by the climate system. Concerns about
global warming stem from observed increases in the concentrations of certain gases that
may be able to alter the climate by causing an increase in radiative forcing.
A characteristic that these.gases share is that they absorb radiation in the infrared (or
thermal) part of the electromagnetic spectrum.: Most of the energy that-the Earth receives
from the sun is in the form of shortwave radiation in the visible and ultraviolet parts of the
spectrum. The energy emitted from the Earth to space is in the form of longwave radiation"
in the infrared part of the spectrum. These gases absorb some of the outgoing infrared (or
thermal) radiation and re-emit it both up into space and back down to the Earth. The net
result is a decrease in the heat radiation escaping to space and an increase in the heat
radiation falling to the Earth (an increase in radiative forcing). Because this process tends
to concentrate heat in the troposphere, it is known as the greenhouse effect. The gases
responsible for the greenhouse effect are known as greenhouse gases. Greenhouse gases
include carbon dioxide, methane, and nitrous oxide, as well as chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)
and some CFC substitutes.
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Properties of Greenhouse Gases
All organic compounds that can volatilize into the atmosphere share the property that they
absorb energy in the infrared portion of the electromagnetic spectrum. However these
gases do not all absorb infrared radiation equally well, and thus some have greater impacts
than others on global warming. The following factors determine the global warming impact
of emissions of a particular gas: F
* Atmospheric lifetime. Various physical and chemical processes tend to
remove and break down chemicals in the atmosphere. Atmospheric lifetime
is a measure of how long a gas stays in the atmosphere before it is removed
by these processes. 1 The lifetimes of the greenhouse gases are determined
by their sources and sinks in the oceans, atmosphere, and biosphere. In
general, the most effective greenhouse gases are those with long lifetimes
since the impact of long-lived gases is more persistent than the impact of
short-lived gases. In some cases this persistence may be cause for concern.
With very-long-lived gases it may take thousands of years for
ri concentrations to decline significantly after emissions have stopped. Thus,
the impacts these emissions have are essentially irreversible.
• Molecular weight. Emissions are typically measured according to their mass
(in kilograms). However, the increase in atmospheric concentration (by
volume) resulting from an emission is proportional to the number of
molecules in the emission, not the total mass of the emission. The number
of molecules in an emission of a given mass is inversely proportional to the
molecular weight of the gas emitted. As a result, the molecular weight is
needed to determine the increase in concentration resulting from an emission
of a given mass. The lower the molecular weight of the gas, the greater the
increase in concentration resulting from a given emission.
• . Radiative forcing per molecule. This is a measure of the effectiveness of the
gas at absorbing infrared radiation emitted by the Earth. It is proportional to
the increase in radiative forcing resulting from a given increase in
concentration.
Of these factors, only molecular weight is an irreducible characteristic of a gas.
Atmospheric lifetime depends on other characteristics such as solubility in water, rates of
reaction with other components of the atmosphere, and susceptibility to photolysis.
Radiative forcing per molecule depends on a number of characteristics that are relevant to
greenhouse gas behaviour. These include the following:
• Integrated infrared band strength. Each kind of molecule absorbs energy at
a unique set of wavelengths. The wavelengths at which a molecule absorbs
l Atmospheric lifetimes are commonly modeled as e-folding lifetimes. This means
that the concentration of a gas is assumed to decay exponentially. Concentration through
time is given by the following equation:
,=Cne
where Q is the concentration at time t, Co is the initial concentration, and L is the
atmospheric life of the gas. If the initial concentration of a gas is 1 ppb, its concentration
after one lifetime is 1/e (about 0.37) ppb. After two lifetimes the concentration is l/e2
(about 0.14) ppb. In theory this means that the concentration is never truly zero.
However, after a few lifetimes it does become vanishingly small.
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energy are in patterns of contiguous regions in the electromagnetic spectrum
which are referred to as absorption bands. A molecule's absorption bands
together make up its absorption spectrum. The strength of the gas's infrared
absorption spectrum is a measure of how well molecules of the gas absorb
radiation at their characteristic wavelengths (i.e., the stronger the absorption
band, the more energy that is absorbed by the molecule).
• Location of infrared absorption bands. The location of the gas's infrared
absorption bands is important for two reasons: First, the energy radiated
from the earth is not evenly distributed across the infrared spectrum. More
energy is radiated at some wavelengths than at others. Molecules with
absorption bands at wavelengths of high infrared radiation will tend to be
more effective greenhouse gases than molecules with absorption bands at
wavelengths of low infrared radiation. Second, the impact of a greenhouse
gas may be reduced if its absorption bands overlap with those of other gases
present in the atmosphere in. significant quantities. For example, if a gas has
absorption bands that overlap with those of an abundant greenhouse gas like
carbon dioxide, the relative impact of the gas on radiative forcing is reduced
since much of the energy at these wavelengths is already absorbed.
• Initial concentration of the gas. If the initial atmospheric concentration of a
gas is high enough so that a significant portion of the energy at relevant
wavelengths is already absorbed, the impact of additional increases in
concentration is reduced. This effect is significant for carbon dioxide. It is
not significant for CFCs and CFC substitutes since they are present in much
smaller quantities than carbon dioxide. Radiative forcing scales linearly
with concentration for these chemicals.
A useful index for comparing emissions that incorporates all of these factors is the Global
Wanning Potential (GWP). The GWP depends on the position and strength of the
absorption bands of the gas, its lifetime in the atmosphere, its molecular weight, and the
time period over which the climate effects are of concern. Specifically, the GWP is defined
as the tune-integrated change in radiative forcing resulting from a kilogram of emissions of
a given chemical relative to the time-integrated change in radiative forcing resulting from a
kilogram of emissions of a reference gas, typically carbon dioxide.2
Because different gases have different lifetimes, the period of integration has an important
impact on relative GWPs. This point is illustrated by the example of two different gases,
each with an initial concentration of 1 ppb. If the lifetime of the first gas is 10 years, its
concentration will be 1/eio (0.00005) ppb after 100 years (ten lifetimes). A 100-year GWP
captures the entire impact of this gas since the concentration of the gas is effectively zero at
the end of the period of integration, and it can no longer influence radiative forcing. If the
lifetime of the second gas is 100 years, its concentration will be 1/e (about 0.37) ppb after
100 years (one lifetime). A 100-year GWP does not capture the entire impact of this gas
since the gas is still present in significant quantities at the end of the period of integration,
and it still affects radiative forcing. If the period of integration were lengthened, the ratio of
GWPs between the long-lived and the short-lived gases would increase because the value
of the integral in the numerator would increase, while the value of the integral in the
denominator would remain the same.
2 Climate Change: The IPCC Scientific Assessment. Intergovernmental Panel on
Climate Change. 1990.
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Properties of Ozone-Depleting Substances (ODSs) and ODS Substitutes
Table # presents atmospheric lifetime, molecular weight, integrated infrared band strength
and GWPs for a number of class I and E chemicals, and their substitutes. Although there
is overlap between categories (with the highest GWP substances in a generally lower
category exceeding the GWP of the lowest GWP substances in a generally higher
category), in general the PFCs have the highest GWPs among ODS substitutes.
Hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) are next, followed by hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs)
which have generally lower GWPs. Perfluorinated carbons (PFCs) have high GWPs '
because of their high integrated band strengths and their extremely long atmospheric
hfettmes. HCFCs generally have low GWPs because of their short atmospheric lifetimes
HFCs typically fall in the middle because of strong integrated band strengths and moderate
atmospheric lifetimes. However, some HFCs have substantially higher GWPs than others
For example, HFC-152a has a 1.5 year atmospheric lifetime and a GWP of 44 for the 500-
year time horizon; while HFC-23 has a 250 year atmospheric lifetime and a GWP of 9900
for the 500-year time horizon. In examining this table the following issues should be
considered:
Although the GWPs of ODSs and ODS substitutes may be thousands of
times the GWP of the reference gas, carbon dioxide, this is offset by the fact
that emissions of these compounds are orders of magnitude smaller than
emissions of carbon dioxide.3
If the lifetime of a chemical is short compared to the lifetime of the reference
gas, the GWP of the chemical declines as the period of integration increases
If the lifetime of the chemical is long compared to the lifetime of the
reference gas, the GWP of the chemical rises as the period of integration
increases.4
• In practice a high GWP does not necessarily mean a large impact on global
warming. If chemicals are never emitted they cannot cause a direct
contribution to global warming even if they have high GWPs. For example,
if good service practices are in place, emissions from hermetically sealed
household refrigerators are very small. If the material is recovered for
recycling or destruction after the useful life of the equipment, the refrigerant
is never released to affect the atmosphere. In contrast, mobile air
conditioners tend to be leaky. Substitutes used in this end use are more
likely to be released to the atmosphere and, thus, impact global warming.
Indirect Effects from Changes in Energy Efficiency
In addition to direct and indirect atmospheric effects, ODS substitutes may also have
indirect energy effects that can influence global warming. Use of alternative chemicals may
3 This does not account for the indirect atmospheric effect of CFC emissions on
radiative forcing. CFCs play a role in the depletion of stratospheric ozone, which is itself a
radiatively active gas. Ozone depletion may reduce the net increase in radiative forcing that
would otherwise occur as a result of CFC emissions. This indirect effect does not apply to
HFC and PFC emissions, which are not ozone depleting.
4 Because carbon dioxide is removed from the atmosphere through complex
processes that cannot be modeled as simple exponential decay, this relationship is not
always monotonic.
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change the energy efficiency of equipment and products currently using CFCs. Because
most energy is derived from burning fossil fuels, changes in energy efficiency may result in
changes in carbon dioxide, nitrous oxide, and methane emissions, which will impact
radiative forcing and global warming. The two major end use categories in which the use
of alternatives can impact the energy efficiency of equipment or products are refrigeration
and air conditioning applications and foam insulation applications.
The Total Equivalent Warming Impact (TEWI) approach calculates the combined global
warming influence of the emissions of substances that are greenhouse gasses and the
energy used to manufacture and operate equipment using those substances over the useful
life of that equipment.
Table l-#: Atmospheric Lifetime or Response Time and Global Warming Potentials (GWP) (mass basis),
referenced to the Absolute GWP for the adopted carbon cycle model CO2 decay response and future CO2
atmospheric concentrations held constant at current levels. Only direct effects are considered.5
Species
Class I
CFC-11
CFC-12
CFC-13
CFC-113
CFC-114
CFC-115
CC14
Halon 1301
CH3Br
Methyl chloroform
Class II
HCFC-22
HCFC-123
HCFC-124
HCFC-141b
HCFC-142b
HCFC-225ca
HCFC-225cb
Atmospheric
Lifetime
50 (+/- 5)
102
640
85
300
1700
42
65
1.3
5.4 (+/1 0.4)
13.3
1.4
5.9
9.4
19.5
2.5
6.6
__ _^ — -— — =
GWP - 20 Years
Time Horizon
5000
7900
8100
5000
6900
6200
2000
6200
NA
360
4300
300
1500
1800
4200
550
1700
GWP- 100 years
Time Horizon
4000
8500
11700
5000
9300
9300
1400
110
NA
5600
1700
93
480
630
2000
170
530
GWP- 500 years
Time Horizon
1400 .
4200
13600
2300
8300
13000
500
35
NA
2200
520
29
150
200
630
52
170
5 The large ozone depletions observed in the lower stratosphere are believed to influence
temperatures near the tropopause. This implies that in addition to the direct greenhouse warming of ozone
destroying gases there is an indirect cooling effect that is significant for estimating the GWPs. Please refer
to the Scientific Assessment of Ozone Depletion: 1994 discussion of the Net Global Warming Potentials.
-------
160
Table l-# (continued): Atmospheric Lifetime or Response Time and Global Wanning Potentials (GWP)
(mass basis), referenced to the Absolute GWP for the adopted carbon cycle model CO2 decay response and
future COa atmospheric concentrations held constant at current levels. Only direct effects are considered.6
(Source: Science Assessment Panel, Scientific Assessment of Ozone Depletion: 1994).
T ^'~ 1 ' - ' -
Species
Other
HFC-23
HFC-32
HFC-125
HFC-134
HPC-134a
HFC-143
HFC-143a
HFC-152a
HFC-227ea
HFC-236fa
HFC-245ca
HFC-43-10mee
Methylene chloride
SF6
CF4
C2F6
c-C4F8
C6F14
—
Atmospheric
Lifetime
250
6
36
11.9
14
3.5
55
1.5
41
250
7
20.8
0.41
3200
50000
10000
3200
3200
!f" _ — —^— .
GWP - 20 Years
Time Horizon
9200
1800
4800
3100
3300
950
5200
460
4500
6100
1900
3300
28
16500
4100
8200
6000
4500
=====
GWP- 100 years
Time Horizon
12100
580
3200
1200
1300
290
4400
140
3300
8000
610
1600
9
24900
6300
12500
9100
6800
GWP- 500 years
Time Horizon j
9900
180
1100
370
420
90
1600
44
1100
6600
190
520
3
36500
9800
19100
13300
9900
6 The large ozone depletions observed in the lower stratosphere are believed to influence
temperatures near the tropopause. This implies that in addition to the direct greenhouse wanning of ozone
destroying gases there is an indirect cooling effect that is significant for estimating the GWPs. Please refer
to the Scientific Assessment of Ozone Depletion: 1994 discussion of the Net Global Warming Potentials.
-------
161
A
ppendix
D
Glossary
AC
Acute toxicity
Adsorption
AEL
Aerosol Spray
AFEAS
Alcohols
Anaphylaxis
Angioplasty
Anti-inflammatory
Agent
Anthelminthic agent
Aqueous cleaning
Article 5(1)
Air Conditioning.
The short-term toxicity of a. product in a single dose. Can be
divided into oral, cutaneous, and respiratory toxicities.
The taking up of some substances at the surface of specific
materials through formation of physiochemical bonds. Not to
be confused with absorption.
Average Exposure Limit.
A means of atomizing liquids by propelling them from a
pressurized container through a suitable valve by either a
liquified or pressurized gas.
Alternative Fluorocarbon Environmental Acceptability Study.
A series of hydrocarbon derivatives with at least one
hydrogen atom replaced by an -OH group. The simplest
alcohols (methanol, ethanol, n-propanol, and isopropanol)
are good solvents for some organic soils, notably rosin, but
are flammable and can form explosive mixtures with air.
The use of flammable solvents requires caution and well-
designed equipment.
An acute life threatening allergic reaction.
A method of mechanically re-establishing blood flow
catheterization through a narrowed arteries.
A medicine (usually inhaled) which is taken regularly to
reduce airway inflammation and thereby prevent asthma
attacks.
An agent to kill parasitic worms.
Cleaning with water to which suitable detergents,
saponifiers, or other additives may be added.
Countries classified by the United Nations as developing and
classified by the Ozone Secretariat as consuming less than
0.3 kilograms per capita of ozone-depleting substances and
Party to the Montreal Protocol.
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162
Azeotrope
Biodegradable
Blends
BOD
Bronchodilator
Carbon tetrachloride
GETT
CFC
CFC-11
CFC-113
A mixture of chemicals is an azeotrope if the vapour
composition is identical to that of the liquid phase and
evaporates at one certain temperature and pressure (no
glides). This means that the distillate of an azeotrope is
theoretically identical to the solvents from which it is
distilled. In practice, the presence of contaminants in the
solvent may upset the azeotrope.
Products are classified as biodegradable if they can be easily
broken down or digested by living organisms.
A mixture of substances to provide specific performance
characteristics. Refrigeration blends are matched to the
components and design temperature (evaporation and
condensation at certain temperatures and pressures, with a
varying temperature glide).
Biochemical oxygen demand, a measure of the
biodegradability of wastewater.
A medicine taken to relieve the symptoms of asthma or
chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) and which
works by reducing or reversing airway narrowing. There
are 3 main types:
(a) Beta agonist, which are sympathetic amines which
stimulate beta adrenoreceptors in the airway wall causing
(among other things) relaxation of bronchial smooth muscle.
(b) Anti cholinergic agents, which work by inhibiting airway
narrowing produced by the action of the vogus nerve on
airway muscle.
(c) Theophyllines, alternative airway openers which work by
relaxing bronchial wall muscle (can only be taken in tablet or
injection form).
A chlorocarbon solvent with an ODP of approximately or
CTC 1.1 (CCLt. It is also considered toxic and a probable
human carcinogen (classified as a B2 carcinogen by US
EPA). Its use is strictly regulated in most countries and it is
used primarily as a feedstock material for the production of
other chemicals.
Countries with Economies In Transition.
Chlorofluorocarbon.
Trichlorofluoromethane (CFC13).
Dichlorodifluoromethan (CF2Cl2).
Trichlorotrifluoroethane
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163
CFC-113a
CFC-114
CFC-115
CHC
Chelation
Chlorocarbon
Chlorofluorocarbon
Chronic toxicity
CIS
CMA
COD
Compressed gas
Conformal coating
Controlled
atmosphere soldering
COPD
CTC
An isomer of CFC-113; l,l,l-trichloro-2,2,2-
trifluoroethane.
Dichlorotetrafluoroeth,ane(CF2ClCF2Cl).
Monochloropentafluoroethane (CF2C1CF3).
Chlorinated Hydrocarbon.
Chelation is the solubilization of a metal salt by forming a
chemical complex or sequestering. One way of doing this is
with ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA) salts which
have a multidentate spiral ligand form that can surround
metallic and other ions.
An organic substance composed of chlorine and carbon,
e.g., carbon tetrachloride.
An organic substance composed of chlorine, fluorine, and
carbon atoms, usually characterized by high stability
contributing to a high ODP.
The toxicity of a substance encountered repeatedly over a
period of time. Chronic means persisting over a long period
of time. Chronic toxicity can often take many years to
determine.
Commonwealth of Independent States.
Chemical Manufacturers Association.
Chemical oxygen demand.
A high pressure propellant that will behave as a gas inside
the aerosol.
A protective material applied in a thin, uniform layer to
surfaces of an electronic assembly.
A soldering process done in a relatively oxygen-free
atmosphere. The process greatly reduces oxidation of the
solder, so that less flux is required, thereby reducing or
eliminating the need for cleaning.
Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease- also know as
chronic bronchitis and emphysema or chronic airflow
limitation, a largely irreversible condition characterized by
narrowing of the airways and damage to the air sacs of the
lung and usually due to tobacco smoking.
Carbon tetrachloride. A chlorocarbon solvent and chemical
feedstock with ODP of approximately 1.1.
-------
164
Defluxing
Detergent
Dichloromethane
Dispersive use
DME
DPI
Dry cleaning
Dry film
Durables
EAP
EC
EO
100% EO
EOC
Excipient
ExCom
EU,
FAO
Fatty acids
The removal of flux residues after a soldering operation.
Defluxing is a part of most high-reliability electronics
production.
A product designed to render soils (e.g., oils and greases)
soluble in water, usually made from synthetic surfactants.
A chlorocarbon solvent used extensively for metal cleaning
Also known as methylene chloride.
Use in which a chemical takes part in a process from which it
can be recovered unchanged.
Di Methyl Ether.
Dry Powder Inhaler.
A common term for cleaning garments in organic solvents
as opposed to water.
A photoresist or photoimageable solder mask applied to
printed circuits by lamination.
Dry commodities which typically are easily storable for lone
periods (eg cereal grain, timber).
Effects Assessment Panel.
European Community.
Ethylene oxide.
Commercial grade ethylene oxide without dilution.
Economic Options Committee.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.
An inert material used in the pharmaceutical industry as a
binder in tablets.
Executive Committee of the Multilateral Fund of the Montreal
Protocol.
European Union.
Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations.
The principal part of many vegetable and animal oils and
greases. Also known as carboxylic acids, which embrace a
wider definition. These are common contaminants which
use solvents for their removal. They are also used to activate
fluxes.
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165
Flux
FO
GAIT
Greenhouse effect
GWP
Halocarbon
Halons
HAP
HBFC
HXCFC
HCFC-21
HCFC-22
HCFC-123
HCFC-124
HCFC-141b
HCFC-142b
HCFC-225ca
HCFC-225cb
HCS
HFC
HFC-125
HFC-134A
HFC-143A
A chemical employed in the soldering process to facilitate the
production of a solder joint. It is usually a liquid or solid
material, frequently based on rosin (colophony).
Formaldehyde.
General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade.
A thermodynamic effect whereby energy absorbed at the
earth's surface and normally radiated back out to space in the
form of long-wave infrared radiation, is retained due to gases
in the atmosphere, causing a rise in global temperature.
CFCs that cause ozone depletion are "greenhouse gases."
Global Warming Potential.
Any organic substance where at least one hydrogen atom in
the hydrocarbon molecule has been replaced by a halogen
atom (fluorine, chlorine, bromine or iodine).
Substances used as fire-extinguishing agents and having
high ODPs.
Hydrocarbon Aerosol Propellant.
Hydrobromofluorocarbon.
Hydrochlorofluorocarbon.
Dichlorofluoromethane.
Chlorodifuoromethane (CF2HC1).
Dichlorotrifluoroethan (CF3CHC12).
Monochlorotetrafluoroethane (CF3CHFC1).
Dichlorofluoroethan (CH3C!FC12).
Monochlorodifluoroethane (CH3CF2C1).
Dichloropentafiuoropropane(CF3CF2CHCl2.
Dichloropentafluoropropane(CF2ClCF2CHFCl.
Hydrocarbon/surfactant (intra).
Hydrofluorocarbon.
Pentafluoroethane (CHF2CF3).
Tetrafluoroethane (CH2FCF3).
Trifluoroethane (CH3CF3).
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166
HFC-152A
Hybrid circuits
Hydrocarbon propellant
Hydrocarbon derivative
Hydrocarbon/surfactant
Hydrochlorocarbon
Hydrocblorofluorocarbon
H-1301
H-1211
H-1202
H-2402
H-1201
H-2401
H-2311
IARC
ICOLP
Infra-red soldering
IPCC
IPR
Difluoroethane (CH3CF2H).
Electronic circuits, with or without integral passive
components, which are formed by the application of
conductive and resistive patterns to a vitreous or ceramic
substrate.
An organic substance composed only of hydrogen and
carbon. Gaseous or volatilized hydrocarbons are flammable.
A hydrocarbon whose molecule has been modified by adding
atoms other than hydrogen and carbon, e.g., alcohols.
A mixture of low-volatility hydrocarbon solvents with
surfactants, allowing the use of a two-phase cleaning
process. The first phase is solvent cleaning in the blend and
the second phase is water washing and rinsing to remove the
residues of the blend and any other water-soluble soils. The
surfactant ensures the water-solubility of the otherwise
insoluble hydrocarbon. Sometimes called semi-aqueous
solvents.
An organic substance composed of hydrogen, chlorine, and
carbon, e.g., trichloroethylene.
An organic substance composed of hydrogen, chlorine,
fluorine, and carbon atoms. These chemicals are less stable
than CFCs, thereby having generally lower ODPs, usually
abbreviated as HCFC.
CF3Br
CF2ClBr
CF2Br2
CF2BrCF2Br
CF2HBr
CF3CHFBr
CF3CHClBr
International Agency for Research on Cancer.
International Cooperative for Ozone Layer Protection.
A method of reflow soldering where the solder and the parts
being joined are heated by the incidence of infra-red radiation
in air, in an inert gas, or in a reactive atmosphere.
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change.
Intellectual Property Rights.
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167
Isobutane
Isopropanol
JAHCS
JEMA
JFGA
ncop
Leadless surface
LEL
LFF
Lifetime
Liquefied gas
Low-solids flux
Lumen
MBTOC
MDI
MEA
MeBr
Metal cleaning
Methyl chloroform
MF
MF Secretariat
Mm
Hydrocarbon C4Hio. Used in refrigeration and aerosol
products.
See alcohols.
Japan Association for Hygiene of Chlorinated Solvents
Japan Electrical Manufacturers' Association.
Japan Flon Gas Association.
Japan Industrial Conference on Ozone Layer Protection.
A surface mount component (SMC) whose exterior mount
component consists of metallized terminations that are an
integral part of the component body.
Lower Explosive Limit. The minimum concentration at
which a vapour will make explosive mixtures with air.
Liquid Freon Freezant.
The folded-e lifetime is the time required for the quantity of a
substance in the atmosphere to be reduced to 1/e (0.368) of
its original quantity. The folded-e lifetime of CFC-113, for
example, is about 80 years.
A low pressure propellant which at ambient temperature has
a vapour pressure of less than 10 bar and will be partially
liquefied inside the aerosol.
A flux which contains little solid matter, thereby reducing or
eliminating the need for cleaning. See no-clean flux.
Passage in the middle of a tube, pipe, or vessel.
Methyl Bromide Technical Options Committee
Medical Dose Inhalers or Metered Dose Inhalers.
Monoethanolamine.
Methyl bromide (CH3Br).
General cleaning or degreasing of metallic surfaces or
assemblies generally with unspecified cleanliness
requirements.
See 1,1,1-trichloroethane (CH3CC13) or MCF
Multilateral Fund.
Secretariat to the Multilateral Fund.
Japan Ministry of International Trade and Industry.
-------
168
Monoethanolamine
NASA
NATO
NGO
NHLBI
No-clean flux
ODP
ODS
OECD
OEWG
1,1,1-trichloroethane
OORG
Organic acid (OA) flux
Oro-pfaaryngeal
Ozone
Ozone depletion
A saponifier capable of reacting with rosin fluxes and fatty
acids. The reaction products are essentially water-soluble
Usually abbreviated as MEA.
U.S. National Aeronautics and Space Administration.
North Atlantic Treaty Organization.
Non-Government Organization.
U.S. National Heart, Lung, & Blood Institute.
A flux whose residues do not have to be removed from an
electronics assembly; therefore, no cleaning is necessary.
This type of flux is often characterized by low quantities of
residues.
Ozone depletion potential.
Ozone-depleting substance.
Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development.
Open-Ended Working Group of the Parties to the Montreal
Protocol.
A hydrochlorocarbon solvent with an estimated ODP of 0.1.
Also known as methyl chloroform.
Ozone Operations Resource Group.
See water-soluble flux.
Appertaining to the mouth, nose, and throat.
A gas 03, typically formed when oxygen is ionized. Ozone
partially filters certain wavelengths of UV light from the
earth. Ozone is a desirable gas in the stratosphere, but it is
toxic to living organisms at ground level (see volatile organic
compound).
Accelerated chemical destruction of the stratospheric ozone
layer. Chlorine and bromine free radicals liberated from
relatively stable chlorinated, fluorinated, and brominated
products by ultraviolet radiation in the ozone layer are the
most depleting species.
-------
169
Ozone-depletion
potential
Ozone layer
Ozone Secretariat
Parties
Pathological
PCB
PCE
Pentafluoropropanol
Perchloroethylene
Perhalogenation
Perishables
PFC
Pharmacokinetics
Photoresist
A relative index of the ability of a substance to
cause ozone depletion. The reference level of 1 is assigned
as an index to CFC-11 and CFC-12. If a product has an
ozone-depletion potential of 0.5, a given weight of the
product in the atmosphere would, in time, deplete half the
ozone that the same weig;ht of CFC-11 or CFC-12 would
deplete. Ozone-depletion potentials are calculated from
mathematical models which take into account factors such as
the stability of the product, the rate of diffusion, the quantity
of depleting atoms per molecule, and the effect of ultraviolet
light and other radiation on the molecules.
A layer in the stratosphere, at an altitude of approximately
10-50 km, where a relatively high concentration of ozone
filters harmful ultraviolet radiation from the earth.
Secretariat to the Parties of the Montreal Protocol in UNEP
Nairobi.
Countries that have ratified the Montreal Protocol.
Disease state.
Printed circuit board.
Perchloroethylene.
A fluorinated alcohol.
A perhalogenated chlorocarbon solvent used extensively in
industrial degreasing and dry cleaning.
An organic molecule is perhalogenated if all of the parent
hydrogen atoms in a hydrocarbon are replaced with halogen
atoms (astatine, bromine, chlorine, fluorine, or iodine). For
example, carbon tetrachloride (CCU) is perchlorinated
methane (CELt). Chloroform (CHC13) is an example of a
simple chlorinated methane, where only three of the
hydrogen atoms have been replaced.
Commodities that are not easy to store for more than brief
periods (eg fresh fruit, vegetables, cut flowers).
Perfluorinated carbon.
The rates of absorption, distribution metabolism, and
Pharmacodynamicsexcretion of drugs.
A photomechanical product, in the form of a liquid or a
laminated dry film, used in the manufacture of printed
circuits. Certain types of these products use large quantities
of ozone-depleting hydirochlorocarbon solvents, usually
1,1,1-trichloroethane. Dichloromethane is used for stripping
some types.
-------
170
Precision cleaning
Propellant
POTW
Printed circuit
PU
PWA
Reflow soldering
Rosin
Rosin flux
S A Flux
Saponifler
Semi-aqueous solvents
SMC
Solder mask (resist)
Cleaning of high-precision mechanical parts and electronic
sensory devices, as opposed to general metal cleaning. This
is usually done in "clean-rooms," with low paniculate
contamination, to specific standards.
Pressurant of an aerosol which can either be a liquid or a gas
inside the aerosol. e
Publicly Owned Treatment Works.
A printed circuit is a component for interconnecting other
components. It usually consists of a metallic conductor
pattern on an organic insulating substrate. After fabrication
it is known as a printed circuit board (PCB); after assembly'
with components it is known as a printed wiring assembly
(PWA). [Terminology different in Europe and USA.]
Polyurethane.
Printed wiring assembly.
A method of electronics soldering commonly used with
surface mount technology, whereby typically a paste formed
of solder powder and flux suspended hi an organic vehicle is
melted by the application of heat.
A solid resin obtained from pine trees. It is frequently used
as a flux, usually with additives.
A flux whose main constituent is rosin. There are several
categories of rosin flux, often designated by the codes R
(pure rosin), RMA (rosin, mild activation), RA (rosin
activated usually with free chloride ions), RSA (rosin, super
activated). F
Synthetic activated fluxes.
A chemical designed to react with organic fatty acids, such as
rosin, some oils and greases, etc., to form water-soluble
soaps. This is a method for defluxing and degreasing.
Saponifiers are usually alkaline and may be mineral based
(sodium hydroxide or potassium hydroxide) or organic
based (water solutions or monoethanolamine).
Another name for hydrocarbon/surfactant (HCS) solvents.
The UNEP Committee recommends hydrocarbon/surfactant
(HCS) solvents as the more descriptive and accurate
nomenclature.
Surface mount component.
A polymeric coating applied to bare printed circuits which
leaves only the pads or leads, designed to be subsequently
soldered, as bare metal.
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171
Solvent
Solvent containment
Stenched
Steroid
(SMC)
Surface mount
Surfactant
TCA
TCE
TEAP
Terpene
Therapeutic
TLV
TOC
Toxicity
An aqueous or organic product designed to clean a
component or assembly by dissolving and/or displacing the
contaminants present on its surface.
Means of reducing the emission of solvents (e.g., CFCs)
into the environment. This technique usually involves
improving the design and operation of the equipment in
which the solvent is used.
The condition of a hydrocarbon propellant to which an
odourizing agent has been added for the purpose of
identifying leakage.
A hormone with anti-inflammatory activity. Surface mount
component. A component capable of being attached to a
PCB using
surface mount technology. The component may be either
leaded or leadless.
A technique for assembling SMCs on the surface of PCBs
technology (SMT) and PWAs, as opposed to inserting leads
through holes.
A chemical to reduce the surface tension of water. Also
referred to as surface-active agents. Detergents are made
primarily from surfactants.
1,1,1-trichloroethane, also known as methyl chloroform.
Trichloroethylene.
Technology and Economic Assessment Panel.
Any of many homocyclic hydrocarbons with the empirical
formula CioHie- Turpentine is mainly a mixture of
terpenes. See hydrocarbon/surfactant solvents.
Treatment.
Threshold Limit Value.
Technical Options Committee.
The quality and degree of being poisonous.
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172
TBWI
US
UV-B
Ultrasonic cleaning
UNDP
UNEP
UNEPffi/PAC
UNEDO
Vapour-phase cleaning
Vapour-phase
(condensation soldering)
VOC
Volatile organic
compound (VOC)
Total Equivalent Warming Impact. The sum of the "direct"
effect of substance emissions and the "indirect" effect of
carbon dioxide emissions from energy consumed in the
equipment using the substance, relative to the GWP of
carbon dioxide or in kg of carbon dioxide and usuallv
expressed for 20-, 100-, and 500-year time horizons! The
TEWI is calculated using a set of assumptions concerning
energy source and energy conversion efficiency and lifetime
equipment energy efficiency, waste disposal, etc. and
usually includes calculations of the energy "embodied" in the
materials used in manufacture and disposal of the equipment.
United States.
Ultraviolet Radiation type B.
Immersion cleaning where mechanical energy formed by
cavitational implosions close to the surfaces being cleaned
significantly aids the cleaning operation.
United Nations Development Programme.
United Nations Environment Programme.
UNEP Industry and Environment Programme Activity
Centre. J
United Nations Industrial Development Organization.
A cleaning process, usually with CFC-113 solvent or
hydrochlorocarbon solvents, where the final rinse is
achieved by condensing solvent vapours on the parts being
A method of reflow spidering where the solder and the
soldering parts being joined are heated in the vapour of a
perfluorinated substance whose boiling point is usually in the
range of 215-260°C. In some types of equipment designed
for this process, a less expensive secondary vapour blanket
of CFC-113 is used.
Volatile Organic Compound.
These are constituents that will evaporate at their temperature
of use and which, by a photochemical reaction under
favorable climatic conditions, will cause atmospheric oxygen
to be converted into potentially smog-promoting tropospheric
ozone.*
* Legally, some countries classify all organic substances which evaporate at ambient
temperatures as VOCs, irrespective of their ozone-promoting properties.
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173
Water-soluble flux
Wave soldering
WB
WHO
WMO
A flux whose post-soldering residues may be removed by a
water wash. Such fluxes are usually very active, so
adequate defluxing is an essential part of their use. They are
also known as Organic Acid (OA) fluxes or inorganic acid
fluxes.
Also known as flow soldering, a method of mass soldering
electronics assemblies by passing them, after fluxing,
through a wave of molten solder.
World Bank.
World Health Organization.
World Meteorological Organizations
-------
174
-------
175
Appendix VT
Glossary
EPA
UNEP
HTOC
NFPA
FAA
CAA
JAA
MOD
UL
BS
ISO
ASTM
NATO
IE/PAC
FIC
HUNG
HAG
HARC
HRC
CEFIC
CFPA
DASCEM
ULC
COP
SATPH
DHB
MPS
CTFHE
CNPP
EU
1ST
DJFP
ONGC
HRBSC
PFS
SEA
FOEP
HSG
DTI
DOT
HO
UKOOA
HSE
EC
RUG
ANSI
Environmental Protection Agency
The United Nations Environment Programme
Halons Technical Options Committee
National Fire Protection Association (US)
Federal Aviation Administration (US)
Civil Aviation Authority (UK)
Joint Aviation Authority (Europe)
Ministry of Defence (UK)
Underwriters Laboratories
British Standard
International Standards Organization
American Society for Testing and Materials
North Atlantic Treaty Organization
Industry and the Environment - Programme Activity Centre
Fire Industry Council (UK)
Halon Users National Consortium (UK)
Halon Alternatives Group (UK)
Halon Alternatives Research Corporation (US)
Halon Recycling .Corporation
European Chemical Industry Council
Conference of Fire Protection Associations (Europe)
Department of the Arts and Administration Services, Centre for
Environment Management
Underwriters Laboratories of Canada
Code of Practice
Substitution and Transfer Plan of Halon (China)
Danish Halon Bank
Ministry of Public Security (China)
Comite Technique Francais Halon Environment (France)
Centre National de Prevention et de Protection
European Union
The Bureau of Indian Standards (India)
Defence Institution of Fire Research
Oil and National Gas Commission
Halon Recycling and Banking Support Committee (Japan)
Polish Fire Service
Swedish Environmental Agency
Federal Office of Environmental Protection (Switzerland)
Halon Sector Group (UK)
Department of Trade and Industry (UK)
Department of Transport (UK)
Home Office (UK)
United Kingdom Offshore Operations Association
Health and Safety Executive (UK)
European Community
Refridgerants Users Group
American National Standards Institute
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176
Glossary (continued)
ASHRAE
AFFF
C02
Halon 1211
Halon 1301
Halon 2402
HBCFs
HCFCs
HFCs
PFCs
PCs
CAAs
PAAs
LOAEL
NOAEL
ALC
ODP
GWP
AL
NFS
HSSD
American Society of Heating, Refrigeration and Air Conditioning
Aqueous Film Forming Foam
Carbon Dioxide
Bromochlorodifluoromethane
Bromotrifluoromethane
Dibromotetrafluoromethane
Hydrobromofluorocarbons
Hydrochlorofluorocarbons
Hydrofluorocarbons
Perfluorocarbons
Fluorocarbons
Chemical Action Agent
Physical Action Agent
Lowest Observed Adverse Effect Level
No Observed Adverse Effect Level
Approximate Lethal Concentration
Ozone Depletion Potential
Global Warming Potential
Atmospheric Life
Nuclear Protection Systems
High Sensitivity Smoke Detection
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