UNEP: Montreal Protocol on Substances That Deplete the Ozone Layer, 1994 Report of the Refrigeration, Air Conditioning and Heat Pumps Technical Options Committee, 1995 Assessment


                                  EPA 430/K94/027
       MONTREAL PROTOCOL
 ON SUBSTANCES THAT DEPLETE
         THE  OZONE LAYER
           UNEP
             1994  Report of the
Refrigeration, Air Conditioning and Heat Pumps
         Technical Options Committee
              1995  Assessment

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                                      UNEP
                          1994 Report of the
Refrigeration, Air Conditioning and Heat Pumps
                 Technical Options Committee

                            1995 Assessment

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Montreal Protocol
On Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer

UNEP
1994  Report of the
Refrigeration, Air Conditioning and Heat Pumps
Technical Options Committee

1995  Assessment
The text of this report is composed in CG Times.
Composition and co-ordination:     Lambert Kuijpers (Chair TOC)
Layout:                         Frank Engels
Reprinting:                      UNEP Nairobi, Ozone Secretariat
Funding of reproduction:          Ministry of Housing,
                                Spatial Planning
                                and the Environment,
                                the Netherlands
Date:                           30 November 1994
No copyright involved.
Printed in Kenya; 1994.
ISBN 92-807-1455-4

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             1994 Report of the
Refrigeration, Air Conditioning and Heat Pumps
        Technical Options Committee
                   for the
               1995 Assessment
                   of the

             U N  E P
         MONTREAL PROTOCOL
   ON SUBSTANCES THAT DEPLETE
           THE OZONE LAYER
                 pursuant to
                  Article 6
            of the Montreal Protocol;
             Decision IV/13  (1993)
        by the Parties to the Montreal Protocol

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                                      Disclaimer

The  United  Nations Environment Programme (UNEP),  the Technology and  Economics
Assessment Panel co-chairs and  members, the Technical  and Economics  Options  Committees
chairs and members and the companies and organisations that employ them do not endorse the
performance,  worker safety,  or  environmental acceptability of any  of the technical  options
discussed. Every industrial operation requires consideration of worker safety and proper disposal
of contaminants and waste products. Moreover, as work continues -including additional toxicity
testing and evaluation-   more  information on health,  environmental  and safety effects  of
alternatives and  replacements will become available for  use in selecting among  the  options
discussed in this document.

UNEP,  the Technology  and  Economics Assessment Panel  co-chairs and members,  and the
Technical and Economics Options Committees chairs and members, in furnishing or distributing
this information, do  not make any warranty or representation,  either express or implied, with
respect to the accuracy, completeness  or utility; nor do they assume any  liability  of any kind
whatsoever resulting from the use or reliance upon, any information, material, or procedure
contained herein, including but not limited to any claims regarding health, safety, environmental
effects or fate, efficacy, or performance, made by the source of information.

Mention of any company, association, or product hi this document is for information purposes
only and does not constitute a recommendation of any such company, association, or product,
either express or implied  by UNEP, the Technology and Economics Assessment Panel co-chairs
and members, and the Technical and Economics Options Committees chairs and members or the
companies or organisations that employ them.
                                  Acknowledgement

The UNEP Refrigeration, AC and Heat Pumps Technical Options Committee acknowledges with
thanks, the outstanding contributions from all of the individuals and organisations who provided
technical support to committee members. In developing this report, particularly the section chairs
and cochairs were instrumental.
The names, addresses and contact numbers of all section chairs and members of the UNEP TOC
Refrigeration, AC and Heat Pumps can be found in Annex H.
The opinions expressed are those of the committee and do not necessarily reflect the views of any
sponsoring or supporting organisations.

Reproduction of draft copies and of the final copies of the Refrigeration, AC and Heat Pumps
Technical Options report has been made possible through funding by the Netherlands Ministry of
Housing, Spatial Planning and the Environment.
 ll

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              2.2.4  Refrigerant nomenclature	34
                     2.2.4.1 Numerical designation	34
                     2.2.4.2 Prefix letter	35
       2.3    Possibilities for alternatives	35
              2.3.1  Pure fluids	35
                     2.3.1.1 Halocarbons	35
                     2.3.1.2 "Natural refrigerants"	35
                     2.3.1.3 Other fluids	36
              2.3.2  Mixtures	36
                     2.3.2.1 Azeotropes	36
                     2.3.2.2 Zeotropic mixtures	36
                     2.3.2.3 Near-azeotropes	36
              2.3.3  Characteristics of Alternatives...	37
                     2.3.3.1 Physical properties	37
                     2.3.3.2 Safety data	.	37
                     2.3.3.3 Environmental properties	42
                     2.3.3.4 Availability	42
                     2.3.3.5 Applicable temperature range	42
              2.3.4  Tradeoffs	^42
       2.4    Thermophysical properties in the vapour compression cycle	43
              2.4.1  Thermodynamic properties	43
                     2.4.1.1 Mixture thermodynamic properties	44
              2.4.2  Transport properties	44
       2.5    Data status	44
              2.5.1  Pure fluids thermophysical properties	44
                     2.5.1.1 Screening parameters	45
                     2.5.1.2 Primary data	,	45
                     2.5.1.3 Comprehensive data	45
                     2.5.1.4 Standard reference data	45
                     2.5.1.5 Status of thermophysical property data	46
              2.5.2  Mixtures	46
              2.5.3  Priorities for the thermophysical properties	50
              2.5.4  Other data	....50
              2.5.5  Time frame to obtain crucial data	50
                     2.5.5.1 Screening of possible alternatives	50
                     2.5.5.2 Thermodynamic and transport properties	51
                     2.5.5.3 Flammability data	51
                     2.5.5.4 Materials compatibility tests	51
                     2.5.5.5 Toxicity	51
                     2.5.5.6 Environmental acceptability data	52
       2.6    Concluding remarks	52
       References	53
3  Domestic refrigeration	55
       3.1    Introduction	55
       3.2    Energy efficiency	55
              3.2.1   Influence of improved insulation	56
                     3.2.1.1 In-kind technology	56
                     3.2.1.2 Not in-kind technology	58
              3.2.2   Advanced vapour compression	58
IV

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Table of contents
List of tables
List of figures [[[ •
Executive summary: refrigeration, air conditioning and heat pumps ...................... 1
       Refrigerant data [[[ 1
       Domestic refrigeration [[[ 2
       Commercial refrigeration [[[ 3
       Cold storage and food processing [[[ 4
       Industrial refrigeration [[[ -.6
       Air conditioning & heat pumps (air cooled systems) ...................................... 7
       Air conditioning (water chillers) [[[ 8
       Transport refrigeration ............................................. : .......................... 10
       Automotive air conditioning [[[ ............. 10
       Heat pumps (heating only and heat recovery) ............................................. 11
       Refrigerant conservation [[[ 12
       Developing country aspects .............................. . ................................... 13
       Research co-ordination and information dissemination .................................. 13
       Historical global CFC and HCFC consumption ................ . ......................... 14
       and future demand for CFC and HCFC refrigerants ...................................... 14
1 Introduction - Montreal Protocol process [[[ 17
       1.1   Introduction Montreal Protocol [[[ 17
       1.2   Introduction on developments 1989-1994 ......................................... 17
       1.3   UNEP Assessment Panels [[[ 22
       1.4   Terms of reference for the Refrigeration Committee ............................ 24
       1.5   Refrigeration, air conditioning and heat pumps .................................. 27
             1.5.1  General remarks ............................................... . ............. 27
             1.5.2  Energy efficiency .................................. .......................... 28
             1.5.3  HCFCs [[[ 29
             1.5.4  Contents of this report... [[[ 30
2 Refrigerant  data .................................................. . ................................ 31
       2.1   Scope ................................... ............................................. ...31
       2.2   Overview [[[ 31
             2.2.1  Present refrigeration equipment ........................................... 31

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                     3.2.2.1 Lorenz and Meutzner cycle	59
                     3.2.2.2 Dual evaporator circuits	59
                     3.2.2.3 Refrigeration circuit with continuous capacity
                           control	59
       3.3    Current use of CFC-12	59
       3.4    New equipment	60
              3.4.1  Alternative refrigerants to CFC-12	60
              3.4.2  Primary replacement	62
                     3.4.2.1 HFC-134a	'	62
                     3.4.2.2 Hydrocarbon refrigerants	62
              3.4.3  Other replacements	63
                     3.4.3. lHFC-152a	63
                     3.4.3.2 HCFC and HCFC/HFC blends	63
              3.4.4  Refrigerant flammability	64
              3.4.5  Product reliability	65
       3.5    Alternative technologies	65
              3.5.1  Stirling cycle	65
              3.5.2  Absorption cycle	66
              3.5.3  Sonic compression	66
              3.5.4  Linear compressor technology	67
              3.5.5  Thermoacoustic  refrigeration	67
              3.5.6  Thermoelectric refrigeration	67
       3.6    Retrofits	67
              3.6.1  Primary replacement: CFC-12	68
              3.6.2  Other replacements	:.	68
                     3.6.2.1 Ternary  blends	68
                     3.6.2.2 HFC-134a	.....68
       3.7    Recovery, recycling, reclamation and conservation	68
              3.7.1  Recovery and recycling	68
              3.7.2  Reclamation and conservation	69
              3.7.3  Technicians training for recovery, recycling and servicing	69
       3.8    Forecast of usage	  69
              3.8.1  CFCs	'..'".'.'.69
              3.8.2  HCFCs	   70
              3.8.3  MFCs	70
              3.8.4  HC-290/HC-600a	70
       3.9    Developing country considerations	70
              3.9.1   Category 1 countries	72
              3.9.2  Category 2 countries	72
              3.9.3  Category 3 countries	72
              3.9.4  Category 4 countries	72
              3.9.5  Category 5 countries	72
       References	74
       Appendix	75
4  Commercial refrigeration	77
       4.1    Introduction	77
       4.2    Current use	77
              4.2.1   General position	77
              4.2.4  Equipment & refrigerant quantities	79

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       4.3   New equipment and alternative refrigerants	79
             4.3.1  Central systems	79
                    4.3.1.1 HCFCs as alternative	79
                    4.3.1.2 HFC refrigerant blends	79
                    4.3.1.3 HFCs - initial use	80
                    4.3.1.4 Future progress with HFCs	80
                    4.3.1.5 Design and installation quality	80
             4.3.2  Non-central systems - detail	80
                    4.3.2.1 Practical limitations	80
             4.3.3  Alternative techniques & not-in-kind (NIK) techniques	81
                    4.3.3.1 Central plant - secondary refrigerants	81
                    4.3.3.2 Ammonia	81
                    4.3.3.3 Hydrocarbons - non-central systems	82
       4.4   Existing equipment	82
             4.4.1  HCFCs as the alternative - general	82
             4.4.2  Central plant - retrofitting	82
                    4.4,2.1 Retrofitting, HCFC based blends and HFCs	82
                    4.4.2.2 Planning & budget..	82
                    4.4.2.3 Survey & service support	83
                    4.4.2.4 Refrigerant conservation	83
             4.4.3  Non central systems	83
       4.5   Conservation of refrigerant	83
             4.5.1  General position	83
             4.5.2  Action recommended to retain refrigerant	84
             4.5.3  Action to minimise leakage	84
             4.5.4  Refrigerant leak detection	84
       4.6   Developing countries	...	— 85
       Acknowledgements	85
5  Cold storage and food processing	89
       5.1   Introduction	89
       5.2   Current use	90
       5.3   New equipment..!	91
             5.3.1  Ammonia	91
             5.3.2  HCFC-22	92
             5.3.4  Other refrigerants	93
             5.3.5  Alternative technology	93
       5.4   Retrofits	94
             5.4.1  Ammonia	94
             5.4.2  HCFC-22	94
             5.4.3  R-502 replacement blends	95
             5.4.4  Refrigerant conservation	95
       5.5   HCFC requirements	95
       5.6   Developing country considerations	96
       5.7   Forecast of use	96
       References	97
       Appendix  5.1	98
       Appendix 5.2	100
       Appendix 5.3	101
6  Industrial refrigeration	103
VI

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       6.1    Introduction	103
       6.2    Current situation	103
              6.2.1 Types and volume of equipment	103
              6.2.2 Refrigerants for industrial refrigeration	104
              6.2.3 Refrigerant use. Trends and consumption figures	105
       6.3    Refrigerant conservation	106
       6.4    Existing equipment	107
              6,4.1 General	107
              6.4.2 CFC recovery and reuse	107
              6.4.3 Premature decommissioning	107
              6.4.4 Retrofitting	108
                    6.4.4.1 General	108
                    6.4.4.2 Replacements for CFC-12 and R-502	108
                           6.4.4.2.1 HCFC-22 and blends containing HCFC-22	108
                           6.4.4.2.2 HFC and HFC blends	109
                           6.4.4.2.3 Ammonia	110
                           6.4.4.2.4 Hydrocarbons	110
                    6.4.4.3 Replacements for CFC-11	110
                    6.4.4.4 Replacements for CFC-13 and BFC-13	110
       6.5    New equipment	HO
              6.5.1  Maturity of long term options	110
              6.5.2  Refrigerants for the lower temperature region.	Ill
              6.5.3  Refrigerants for the medium and upper temperature regions	Ill
                    6.5.3.1 Ammonia	/	Ill
                    6.5.3.2 HCFC-22	".".."!!. 112
                    6.5.3.3 Refrigerant blends with HCFCs	    113
                    6.5.3.4 HFC-134a	113
                    6.5.3.5 HFC blends	113
                    6.5.3.6 Hydrocarbons	114
              6.5.4  Refrigerants for the upper temperature region	114
       6.6    Future development in Article 5(1) countries	115
       6.7    HCFC requirements	115
       6.8    Forecast of use	116
       References	H9
7 Air conditioning and heat pumps (air-cooled systems)	 121
       7.1    Introduction	121
       7.2    Current use	121
              7.2.1  Room and packaged terminal air conditioners	121
              7.2.2  Duct-free packaged and split systems	122
              7.2.3  Ducted residential unitary systems	122
              7.2.4  Ducted commercial unitary systems	122
              7.2.5  Summary of unit population and refrigerant inventory	123
       7.3   Alternative refrigerants and cycles	123
             7.3.1  Alternative refrigerants	    124
                    7.3.1.1 AREP	[".'.'".".".'.124
                    7.3.1.2 Other work/results	..126
                    7.3.1.3 Primary replacement candidates		126
                          7.3.1.3.1 HFC-134a	'"".".'".'.'.'. 127
                          7.3.1.3.2 HFC-32/125	127
                                                                              vn

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                           7.3.1.3.3 HFC-32/125/134a	127
                           7.3.1.3.4 HFC-32/134a	127
                           7.3.1.3.5 HC-290 and other hydrocarbons	128
                    7.3.1.4 Next generation refrigerants	128
                    7.3.1.5 Summary	128
             7.3.2  Alternative cycles	128
                    7.3.2.1 Thermo-mechanical cycles	129
                           7.3.2.1.1 Engine driven cycles	129
                           7.3.2.1.2 Vuilleumier and Stirling cycles	129
                    7.3.2.2 Absorption and sorption	129
                           7.3.2.2.1 Single effect absorption	129
                           7.3.2.2.2 GAX absorption heat pump	130
                           7.3.2.2.3 Solid sorption	130
                    7.3.2.3 Desiccants	131
                           7.3.2.3.1 Desiccant air driers	131
                           7.3.2.3.2 Desiccant cooling cycles	132
                    7.3.2.4 Passive cooling/evaporative cooling	132
             7.3.3  Impact of alternative refrigerants and cycles	132
       7.4   Retrofit	132
             7.4.1  Retrofit issues	132
             7.4.2  Potential candidates	133
             7.4.3  Anticipated market impact of retrofit refrigerants	133
       7.5   HCFC requirements	133
       7.6   Usage forecast	134
       7.7   Developing country considerations	137
       References	138
8  Air conditioning (water chillers)	139
       8.1   Introduction	139
       8.2   Current equipment and refrigerant combinations	139
             8.2.1  Positive displacement compressors and chillers	139
             8.2.2  Centrifugal compressors and chillers	140
             8.2.3  Volume of equipment and refrigerant usage	140
       8.3   New equipment and refrigerants	142
             8.3.1  Positive displacement compressor chillers	143
                    8.3.1.1 HCFC-22 as an interim refrigerant	143
                    8.3.1.2 HFC-134a as the primary replacement for CFC-12	144
                    8.3.1.3 Other refrigerants	145
             8.3.2  Centrifugal chillers	145
             8.3.3  Alternative technologies	146
                    8.3.3.1 Ammonia chillers	,	147
                    8.3.3.2 Absorption chillers	148
       8.4   Retrofits	148
             8.4.1  General comments	148
             8.4.2  HCFC-123 for CFC-11 in centrifugal chillers	149
             8.4.3  HFC-134a for CFC-12 in centrifugal chillers	149
             8.4.4  HCFC-124 for CFC-114 in centrifugal chillers	149
             8.4.5 ' Replacements for HCFC-123, HFC-134a, or HCFC-22	150
       8.5   HCFC requirements	150
             8.5.1  General comments	:	150
viu

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             8.5.2  Current uses of HCFCs	 150
             8.5.3  Alternatives to HCFCs	151
       8.6    Future need for CFCs	151
       References	153
9 Transport refrigeration	155
       9.1    Introduction	155
       9.2    Current use	156
             9.2.1  Ships	156
                    9.2.1.1 Refrigerants in use	156
                    9.2.1.2 Quantitative data	156
                    9.2.1.3 ICS code of practice	157
             9.2.2  Railcars	157
             9.2.3  Containers	157
             9.2.4  Swap bodies	158
             9.2.5  Road transport refrigeration	158
             9.2.6  Transport air conditioning	159
       9.3    New equipment options	159
             9.3.1  New ships	160
             9.3.2  Other new equipment	:	160
             9.3.3  Maintenance and refrigerant recovery	160
       9.4   . Retrofits	160
       9.5    Servicing	161
       9.6    Impact of HCFC phaseout	162
       9.7    Conclusions	162
10  Mobile air conditioning	163
       10.1  Introduction - developments since 1991	163
              10.1.1 Replacement refrigerant HFC-134a	163
       10.2  Current CFC-12 use	163
       10.3  Options for new vehicles	164
              10.3.1 Implementation of HFC-134a in mobile A/C systems	164
              10.3.2 Future mobile A/C systems	165
       10.4  Retrofitting the CFC-12 fleet	165
              10.4.1 General comments	165
              10.4.2 Retrofit requirements	166
                    10.4.2.1 Retrofit refrigerant	:.... 166
                    10.4.2.2 Retrofit cost for HFC-134a	166
              10.4.3 Retrofit/ obsolescence scenario and costs	167
                    10.4.3.1 Retrofitting the CFC-12 fleet	167
                    10.4.3.2 Retrofit activity	168
                    10.4.3.3 CFC-12 supply	168
                    10.4.3.4 Exported CFC-12  vehicles	168
       10.5   Infrastructure requirements	168
              10.5.1 Global mobile A/C survey	168
       10.6   HFC and HCFC demands 1995-2000	169
       10.7   Next generation equipment (15 year time horizon)	169
              10.7.1 Industry future direction	169
              10.7.2 Future alternate refrigerant  and cycles	170
              10.7.3 Transcritical carbon dioxide systems	170
              10.7.4 Adsorption systems	170
                                                                                IX

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               10.7.5 Air cycle systems	               171
               10.7.6 Future mobile A/C systems	 	171
        10.8   Conclusions and recommendations	      	171
               10.8.1 Service technology transfer	 	171
               10.8.2 Retrofitting in Article 5(1) countries      	179
        10.9  Summary	            	   Z
              10.9.1 World fleet size	•'.............."........"......".	172
              10.9.2 Refrigerant supplies	172
              10.9.3 Industry direction	 	173
              10.9.4 Retrofit concerns	   	m
              10.9.5 Retrofit cost	173
              10.9.6 Technology transfer	173
              10.9.7 Future systems	                     	17~
       References	".'.'".".	175
       Appendix	17fi
11  Heat pumps (heating only and heat recovery)....         	
       ll.!  Introduction	
       11.2  Current status	
             11.2.1 Types and volume of equipment	185
                    11.2.1.1 Residential and commercial/institutional
                           applications	
                    11.2.1.2 Industrial applications	
             11.2.2 Refrigerants	                   «„_
       11.3   Existing heat pump installations....               	18fi
             11.3.1 General	i.'.'.'".'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'!	188
             11.3.2 Reuse and recovery of refrigerants.             	
             11.3.3 Retrofitting	
                   •11.3.3.1  CFC-11 alternatives	."".'".'
                    11.3.3.2  CFC-12 and R-500 alternatives ..                       ieo
                    11.3.3.3  CFC-114 alternatives	         	1Qn
                    11.3.3.4  R-502 alternatives	            	""Jon
                    11.3.3.5  HCFC-22 alternatives	.'.'.'.'.'	jm
      11.4   New heat pump installations	                     	1Q1
             11.4.1 General	          	 *
             11.4.2 HCFC Refrigerants	.'	'
                   11.4.2.1 HCFC-22	         	
                   11.4.2.2 HCFC-123	
                   11.4.2.3 HCFC-124	
                   11.4.2.4 HCFC-1415	.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.".'.".'.'.".'.'.'.".'192
            11.4.3 HFC refrigerants	              	
                   11.4.3.1 HFC-134a	
                   11.4.3.2 HFC-152a	
                   11.4.3.3 HFC-32	.'.'
                   11.4.3.4 HFC-125 and HFC-143a	  193
                   11.4.3.5 Other alternatives	                     	
            11.4.4 Blends	.'"
                   11.4.4.1 HCFC blends	  	:1Qo
                  11.4.4.2 HFC blends	.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.".'	194
            11.4.5 "Natural refrigerants"	194

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                    11.4.5.1 Ammonia	194
                    11.4.5.2 Hydrocarbons	:	195
                    11.4.5.3 Carbon dioxide	195
                    11.4.5.4 Water	196
              11.4.6 Alternative technologies	196
                    11.4.6.1 Absorption heat pumps (type I)	196
                    11.4.6.2 Heat transformers (type II)	196
                    11.4.6.3 Hybrid heat pumps	196
       11.5   Developing country considerations	197
       11.6   Forecast of refrigerant use	197
       11.7   Concluding remarks	199
       References	200
12 Refrigerant conservation	203
       12.1   Introduction	203
              12.1.1 Potential reduction of emission	203
              12.1.2  Definitions	203
       12.2   Government options in encouraging refrigerant containment	204
              12.2.1 Research and development	204
              12.2.2 Information dissemination	;	204
              12.2.3 Financial incentives	205
              12.2.4 Direct Regulation	206
       12.3   Containment	206
              12.3.1 Design	206
              12.3.2 Charge minimising	,.	207
              12.3.3 Installation	207
              12.3.4 Servicing	207
       12.4   Leak detection	207
              12.4.1 Global methods	;	208
              12.4.2 Local detection	208
              12.4.3 Automated performances monitoring systems	208
       12.5   Service practices, training	,	209
              12.5.1 Service assessment	•	209
              12.5.2 Maintenance documents	209
              12.5.3 Training	209
       12.6  Refrigerant recovery	210
              12.6.1 The recovery cylinder	210
              12.6.2 Hoses and connections	211
              12.6.3 Liquid recovery.;	211
              12.6.4 Vapour recovery	212
              12.6.5 Performance of equipment	213
       12.7  Recycling and reclamation	.213
              12.7.1 Recycling	213
              12.7.2 Mixed refrigerants	214
              12.7.3 Reclamation	215
       12.8  Refrigerant disposal	215
              12.8.1 General	215
              12.8.2 Destruction methods	215
              12.8.3.Needs for destruction	216
       12.9  Developing countries aspects	216
                                                                               XI

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       References	218
13  Developing country aspects	219
       13.1  Introduction	219
             13.1.1 Current situation	219
             13.1.2 Categories of developing countries	219
             13.1.3 Factors most developing countries have in common	220
       13.2  Technology transfer	221
             13.2.1 General	221
             13.2.2 Types of technology transfer	221
             13.2.3 The role of HCFC based technology	221
             13.2.4 Type of Montreal Protocol assistance	222
       13.3  Special technology for developing countries	222
             13.3.1 Energy	222
             13.3.2 Premature retirement of equipment	223
       13.4  Refrigerant recycling and reclaim (R/R)	223
             13.4.1 Categories in developing countries...	223
             13.4.2 Developing country approach	224
             13.4.3 Type of Montreal Protocol projects	225
       13.5  The service sector	225
             13.5.1 Containment	225
             13.5.2 Recycling	225
             13.5.3 Training	225
             13.5.4 Type of Montreal Protocol project	226
       13.6  Institutional strengthening/legal	226
             13.6.1 Legal	226
             13.6.2 Institutional strengthening	226
             13.6.3 Montreal Protocol Project types	226
14  Research co-ordination and information dissemination	227
       14.1  Introduction	227
       14.2  Information required to phaseout CFC and  HCFC use	228
             14.2.1 Environmental science	229
                    14.2.1.1 Stratospheric ozone depletion	229
                    14.2.1.2 Global warming	229
             14.2.2 Refrigerant information	230
                    14.2.2.1 Thermophysical properties	230
                    14.2.2.2 Safety information	230
                    14.2.2.3 Material compatibility and lubricants	230
                    14.2.2.4 Production and availability.	230
                    14.2.2.5 Energy efficiency and operating characteristics	230
                    14.2.2.6 Refrigerant stability	231
             14.2.3 Information on vapour-compression refrigeration and A/C
                    equipment	231
                    14.2.3.1 Quantity of existing equipment to be replaced or
                           converted	231
                    14.2.3.2 Conservation techniques in existing equipment
                           (servicing and maintenance)	231
                    14.2.3.3 Recovery, recycling and reclamation	231
                    14.2.3.4 New equipment	232
                    14.2.3.5 Retrofit (conversion) equipment	232
XII

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             14.2.4  "Not-In-Kind" refrigeration technology	132
             14.2.5  Regulations	232
             14.2.6  Financing options	232
      14.3   Available information	232
             14.3.1  Clearinghouses and databases...	233
             14.3.2  Other information sources	234
      14.4   Disseminating the information	245
             14.4.1  The audience for this information	245
                    14.4.1.1 Government agencies	245
                    14.4.1.2 Manufacturers/Service personnel	245
                    14.4.1.3 Teaching institutions	246
                    14.4.1.4 Professional societies and industry associations	246
                    14.4.1.5 Researchers	246
                    14.4.1.6 Users and general public	246
                    14.4.1.7 Implementing Agencies under the Multilateral
                          Fund of the Montreal Protocol	246
                    and their review committees	246
                    14.4.1.8 Secretariat of the Multilateral Fund	247
                    14.4.1.9 Non-Governmental Organisations (NGOs)	247
      14.5   Research underway	247
             14.5.1  Alternative refrigerant research	248
             14.5.2  Energy efficiency research	248
             14.5.3  Research on refrigerant environmental and safety issues	260
15 Historical global CFC consumption (1986-1993) and near future demand
      and supply	263
      15.1   Introduction	263
      15.2   Methodology and data sources	263
      15.3.  Data analysis	264
      15.4   Future CFC needs	267
      15.5   CFC recycle potential	267
      Appendix	276
16 Historical global HCFC consumption and future demand	279
      16.1   Introduction	279
      16.2   Methodology and data sources	279
      16.3   Summary of data	279
Annex I
Alternative Refrigeration Technologies	285
      Al    Vapour compression and the refrigerants applied	285
             Al.l   Fluorocarbon vapour compression	285
             Al.2   Non-fluorocarbon vapour compression	286
      A2    Sorption, gas-cycles and other cooling technologies	287
Annex H
Participants UNEP TOC Refrigeration, AC and Heat Pumps,Assessment 1995	293
                                                                             Xlll

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 List of tables


 Table 1.1       Substances controlled by the Montreal Protocol	18
 Table 1.2       The London Amendment to the Montreal Protocol	19
 Table 1.2       The Copenhagen Amendment to the Montreal Protocol	20
 Table 1.4       Member countries of UNEP's Refrigeration, AC and Heat
                 Pumps Committee	25
 Table 1.5       Organisations whose employees serve on the UNEP TOC
                 Refrigeration	26
 Table 1.6       Organisations contacted for the peer review of the UNEP TOC
                 Refrigeration Report	,.,	27
 Table 2.1       Ideal refrigerant criteria	33
 Table 2.2       Summary of possible alternative refrigerants	'.	38
 Table 2.3       Data status of possible alternative refrigerants	47
 Table 2.4       Data required for the various stages in the commercialisation of a
                 new refrigerant	49
 Table 3.1       Energy performance of blowing agents in foam	57
 Table 3.2       Vacuum insulation panel characteristics	58
 Table 3.3       Estimated  1992 world production of domestic refrigerators and
                 freezers and corresponding CFC-12 consumption	60
 Table 3.4       Refrigeration cycle properties of leading alternatives  to CFC-12
                 for domestic refrigeration	61
* Table 3.5       Refrigerant usage by year 1990-1997 and country type	71
 Table 3.6       Refrigerant usage (metric tonnes) by year 2000-2005 and country
                 type	71
 Table 4.1       Theoretical performance comparison of selected substitute
                 refrigerants for CFC-12	.86
 Table 4.2       Theoretical performance comparison of selected substitute
                 refrigerants for R-502	87
 Table 4.3       Alternative refrigerant system options compared with operating
                 temperature bands	88
 Table 5.1       Frozen food consumption- 1992	90
 Table 5.2       Estimated refrigerant consumption for cold storage and food
                 processing	91
 Table 5.3       Physical properties of ammonia	100
 Table 5.4       Physiological effects of ammonia	101
 Table 6.1       Typical refrigerant application pattern in the past	104
 Table 6.2       Non-CFC refrigerant alternatives	104
 Table 6.3       Estimated consumption of CFCs, HCFCs and HFCs.
                 Industrialised countries 1993	106
 Table 6.4       Commercial maturity of HFC refrigerants for retrofit of
                 industrial systems; Europe	109
 Table 6.5       Commercial maturity of long term options; European
                 refrigeration companies	Ill
 Table 6.6       Forecast of refrigerant demand; developed countries	116
 Table 6.7       Potential for CFC and HCFC recovery	117
xiv

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Table 7.1       Estimated unit population and HCFC-22 inventories for various
                unitary product categories	123
Table 7.2       Total Equivalent Warming Impact as a function of halocarbon
                GWP and seasonal cooling efficiency (kg-CO2/year)	124
Table 7.3       Refrigerants and refrigerant blends tested as HCFC-22
                alternatives in ARI's HCFC-22 Alterhative Refrigerants
                Evaluation Program	125
Table 7.4       Assumptions for OEM refrigerant usage in new products	134
Table 7.5       Reclaim rate assumptions (world-wide average)	135
Table 7.6       Unit market growth-rate by product category	 135
Table 7.7       Product life asumptions	135
Table 7.8       HCFC-22 requirements (1994-2015)	136
Table 7.9       Comparison of alternative and HCFC-22 requirements (1994-
                2015)	136
Table 8.1       Chillers in service	141
Table 8.2       Average capacity of units produced in 1993	141
Table 8.3       average refrigerant charge in units in service	142
Table 8.4       Refrigerant usage	142
Table 10.1      Global survey summary	180
Table 10.2      Least-cost HFC-134a retrofits	181
Table 10.3      Refrigerant requirements for MACs in developed countries	182
Table 10.4       U.S. retrofit scenario	.-	183
Table 11.1      Typical application pattern of traditional refrigerants in heating-
                only heat pumps	187
Table 11.2      Estimated annual consumption and total volume of CFCs and
                HCFCs in heating-only heat pumps (1993)	188
Table 11.3      Alternatives for retrofitting of heating-only heat pumps	189
Table 11.4      Estimated heat pump refrigerant demand	198
Table 11.5      Estimated potential for CFC and HCFC recovery and reuse in
                heat pumps	198
Table 14.1      Thermophysical  property investigations	,	249
Table 14.2      Research on non-CFC refrigerants	250
Table 14.3      Research on	252
Table 14.4      Heat transfer research	254
Table 14.5      Materials compatibility research	255
Table 14.6      Performance of alternative refrigerants in existing equipment	256
Table 14.7      Energy efficiency investigations	258
Table 14.8      Alternative cycle investigations	260
Table 15.1      Total CFCs consumed or sold in different countries  or regions,
                and global use (kt)	269
Table 15.2      AFEAS reported global production for sale for all industries (kt)	270
Table 15.3      Estimates for global refrigeration use (kt) (CFCs only, HCFC-22
                excluded)	271
Table 15.4      Global refrigeration (CFCs market only)  1986 - 1992, actual
                figures and  future estimates, 1993-2000	272
Table 15.5      Trends in refrigeration CFC use globally (kt), based on industry
                estimates	273
Table 15.6      Trends in CFC refrigerant use for different parts of the world	274
Table 15.7      Potential CFC production after 1995	275
Table 16.1      Estimated HCFC-22 global demand, all non feedstock uses	281
Table 16.2      Estimated HCFC-22 total world demand for dispersive or non-
                feedstock applications	282
                                                                                xv

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 Table 16.3      Estimated global demand for all HCFCs excluding feedstock
                applications	283
 Table Al       Advantages and disadvantages of 0 ODP refrigerants	290
 Table A2       Advantages and disadvantages of alternative refrigeration and air
                conditioning technologies	291
xvi

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List of figures


Figure 2.1      Practical range of evaporating and condensing temperatures for
               some alternative refrigerants and CFCs	43
Figure 10.1     Wholesale refrigerant cost/kg U.S.$	179
Figure 10.2     Consumer refrigerant price/kg U.S.$	179
Figure 10.3     Developed countries A/C vehicles CFC-12 retrofit/obsolescence	179
Figure 14.1     The content and structure of this section	227
Figure 15.1     Global consumption of CFCs, 1986-1992	264
Figure 15.2     Global consumption of CFC refrigerants, 1986-1993	266
Figure 16.1     Global consumption of HCFC-22, 1986-1992	280
                                                                            xvii

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Executive summary: refrigeration, air conditioning and heat
pumps
Refrigerant data

This section considers the properties of refrigerants for use in the vapour compression
cycle. Namely, the vast majority of present equipment utilises the vapour compression
cycle because of its simplicity and good efficiency. The dominance of this cycle is not
likely to change simply due to the need to replace the chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and
hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs); it will prevail even after the phaseout of the latter
substances.
The ideal refrigerant will satisfy a set of criteria, including chemical stability,
nonflammability, and low toxicity, the need for favourable thermophysical properties,
and other, more practical, considerations such as materials compatibility. Although many
types of fluids have been used as refrigerants in the past, the halocarbons dominate today
because their unique combination of properties proved to best satisfy these sometimes
conflicting requirements. Experience with the CFCs has shown, however, that substances
possessing the chemical stability desirable in a refrigeration system can, when emitted,
accumulate in the atmosphere and cause unacceptable environmental harm.
Because .of the success of the CFC refrigerants, most of the efforts to develop
replacement refrigerants have focused on a set of hydrogen-containing, but otherwise
similar, compounds. At present, hydrocarbons and other simple inorganic compounds
(the so-called "natural refrigerants") are receiving increased interest. This choice is
confirmed by theoretical studies which indicate that simple molecules of relatively low
molecular mass and with normal boiling points similar to present working fluids would be
excellent refrigerants. These fluids include HFCs -134a, -152a, -125, -32, -143a and -23,
and HCFCs -22, -123, -124, and -142b. These fluids are the popular choices for the
immediate replacement of the CFCs; some of these fluids are also acceptable long-term
replacements. Mixtures of these fluids are also good candidates.
The light hydrocarbons such as propane, butane, and isobutane will likely see increased
use; since they have excellent environmental and thermophysical properties. However,
they are flammable, and must only be used in systems which operate safely with
flammables. Ammonia, a refrigerant that currently dominates certain applications, is
being considered for a broader range of uses; it is, however, flammable and toxic. Water,
carbon dioxide, and air may also be used as refrigerants, but require different types of
equipment. Additional classes of fluids, such as the fluorinated propanes and fluorinated
ethers, show some promise as refrigerants; such fluids, however, are in the very early
stages of development and would not be available in large quantities for many years.
Data of a variety of types are required to evaluate a potential alternative refrigerant. The
thermophysical (i.e., thermodynamic and transport) properties of a fluid determine its
energy efficiency and heating or cooling capacity in equipment and are essential for
equipment design. Properties related to health and safety (toxicity and flammability) can
determine whether a fluid is suitable for a particular application. Data on materials
compatibility are required to design reliable equipment. The environmental characteristics
of ozone depletion potential (OOP), atmospheric life, and the greenhouse warming
potential (GWP) taken together with the coefficient of performance of the refrigeration

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system and emissions due to leakage, servicing, and disposal (that is, the total equivalent
warming impact, or TEWI, concept) will determine whether a fluid should be considered
an acceptable alternative to the CFCs.
Only simple parameters such as normal boiling point and molecular structure are needed
to conduct a coarse screening among many candidates, while widespread commercial use
requires extensive, accurate data of all types. In section 2, the needed data are described
and categorised, and the available data are summarised for the leading candidate
refrigerants.
The greatest impediment, however, to selecting, developing, and commercialising
alternative refrigerants is the uncertainty regarding the relative weight to be given to
ozone depletion potential, global warming potential, energy efficiency, and safety factors
such as flammability.
Domestic refrigeration

Approximately 64 million refrigerator-freezers are manufactured world-wide each year.
Hundreds of millions are currently in use. The majority of these units employ the vapour
compression cycle with CFC-12 as the working fluid, typically containing between 20
and 600 grams of CFC-12 refrigerant, globally. The efficient use of energy by
refrigerator-freezers has assumed more importance due to the emphasis on reducing
global warming.
Advanced vapour compression cycles employing separate evaporators in the fresh food
and freezer compartments are receiving significant research attention. A circuit
employing zeotropic mixtures and configured in the manner prescribed by Lorenz and
Meutzner has been predicted to yield efficiency gains up to 26%; gains of 15% have been
experimentally realised to date. Several patents have been issued on alternative two-
evaporator configurations for use with constant boiling refrigerants. Efficiency gains of
the order of 20% to 30% are predicted. Continuous compressor capacity modulation is
another modification estimated to provide efficiency improvement of the order of 10% to
20%.
As new equipment alternatives to CFC-12, candidates have been assessed versus criteria
encompassing environmental acceptability, safety, reliability, efficiency, process
capability, availability and cost. Regional differences in refrigerant choice are driven by
variations in consumer lifestyles and preference, government regulations, and industry
offerings. Two refrigerants dominate current implementation efforts throughout the
world. HFC-134a is the preferred alternative in the Americas, Asia/Oceania and selective
applications in every region of the world. It is nonflammable and has zero ozone
depletion potential. HC-600a is the alternate being widely adopted in Europe. It is
flammable, has zero ozone depletion potential and a greenhouse warming potential
approaching zero. Other alternative refrigerants receiving regional or niche product
consideration are: HFC-152a, HC-290/HC-600a blends and the R-401A/B and R-409A
blends (HCFC/HFC ternary blend).
Product configuration is a critical parameter for assessing risks. The safety aspects of
each unique product configuration must be rigorously assessed. Substantive product
redesign, possibly including new concept introductions, will be required to alleviate
safety concerns with the use of flammable refrigerants for no-frost refrigerator-freezers.
Proof of concept demonstration with resonating piston, Stirling coolers indicate
efficiencies comparable to current refrigerator-freezers. High entry investment, no long
term reliability information and no demonstrated efficiency advantages over conventional
systems constrain interest. Thermoacoustic refrigeration, sonic compression and linear
compressor technology are promising new technologies. Broadened general insight is

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The phaseout of CFCs by 1996 appears feasible and more experience with the use of
HFCs is needed to prepare for the eventual phaseout of HCFCs within the allotted time
scale.
For new equipment the move out of CFCs has generally been more pronounced,
especially to HCFCs, however the subsequent use of HFCs for many operators is
dependent on equipment manufacturers development and testing to produce a price
competitive product and reliable procedures.
Advice for those facing the decision to move from CFCs to HCFCs and/or directly to
HFCs, is available from various sources and free exchange of such information should be
encouraged to accelerate the conversion progress.
Technology transfer to developing countries, particularly in respect to the sharing of
practical experience identified in this section could be expanded by communicating
successful retrofit and new applications case histories, to facilitate the phaseout of CFCs.
Of equal importance is the international acceptance of HFCs as the logical successor of
CFC and HCFC for the majority of commercial applications, notwithstanding the
progress in many areas to investigate the use of non-fluorocarbon and not in kind
alternatives.
Reduction of leakage, recovery of refrigerants coupled with a general reduction from
service/breakdown related activities continue to improve in commercial refrigeration.
This is of considerable significance when applying the TEWI concept to the selection of
refrigerants due to the contribution of high leakage rates on the direct effect of global
warming. With reduced emissions currently evaluated HFCs are most viable when used at
higher system efficiency levels, making the TEWI favourable.
Future trends include designs with reduced refrigerant charge, an increase in self-
contained (unitary) display cases, more efficient compressors, improved electronics for
diagnostics and efficiency improvements plus encouraging moves to secondary
refrigerants for some applications.
The use of primary refrigerants such as ammonia and HFCs require experienced skilled
engineers. To provide the training to produce engineers with such skills presents a major
challenge which must be addressed, if progress is to be maintained.
Cold storage and food processing

Cold storage and food processing is one of society's most important applications of
modern refrigeration techniques. Cold storage and food processing include a wide variety
of applications especially if cold storage is not restricted to the simple storage of foods
and indeed when food processing is extended to cover such fields as the freezing dairy
and brewing industries.

Foods such as dairy products, fish, meat, fruit and vegetables are stored and distributed
in huge quantities in a chilled condition. Frozen foods are generally stored in the
temperature range -18 to -30 °C. Some fish products intended to be eaten raw are stored
at temperatures even lower than -50 °C. Food processing, which includes freezing, may
take place at air and refrigeration temperatures down to -40 °C and lower.
The industrial cold storage and food processing sector is a vital element in the safety and
health of the world population. The preservation of the world food supply is vital to
stability and economic growth throughout the world. The world frozen food production in
1992 was approximately 27.5 million metric tonnes but represents only a small part of the
total food volume preserved by refrigeration. As the transportation and distribution
infrastructure of the developing countries improves, significant increases in the need for
cold storage is likely to occur. This will probably follow the same patterns as in the

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necessary for informed decisions regarding applicability. Absorption cycle refrigeration is
not expected to penetrate beyond its historic niche segment.
Manufacturers will continue to service existing refrigerator-freezers with CFC-12 as long
as it is available and less expensive than other retrofit candidates. Since retrofit options
are limited the HCFC/HFC ternary blends could achieve significant usage. HC-290/HC-
600a hydrocarbon blends would function well, but must be carefully assessed for
application for each unique configuration from a safety perspective. Appliances that have
not been designed for their use should not apply flammables in servicing if not the
appropriate safety measures have been taken. HFC-134a is not a practical alternate for
retrofitting. Part of the CFC-12 service demand will be satisfied by recovered CFC-12
during field service or by recovery at disposal and reclamation to acceptable purity
standards. „
CFC-12 usage for domestic refrigerator/freezers was 9,100 metric tonnes in 1990, 75%
of this amount consumed in the developed countries. It is estimated that 70% of the
production units will be converted to HFC-134a, and 30% will be converted to isobutane.
Further use of isobutane will be mainly determined by the fact whether -compared to
other non ozone depleting options- high energy efficiencies can be achieved. HCFC
usage is not expected to exceed 3% of total refrigerant demand. Regarding transition
timings, it is currently estimated that 85% of the developing (Article 5(1)) countries new
unit production and 15% of developed countries new unit production will be using CFC-
12 in 1995. By 1997, 70% of Article 5(1) countries' new production will still be using
CFC-12 while other countries will be CFC free. Article 5(1) countries new production
usage is expected to be down to 10% by 2000 and CFC free by 2005.
Categorising Article 5(1) countries by their apparent strategic intents toward domestic
refrigerator-freezers -i.e., in finished product import only, finished product manufacture
for domestic use and/or export, and/or hermetic component manufacture for domestic use
and/or export- provides insight toward their technology and timings needs as well as
probable technology access options. Significant product or component import/export
activities with developed countries will require accelerated CFC phaseout timing,
consistent with the needs of the trading partner(s). Service, retrofit and reclamation
technologies are viewed to be particularly acute needs for Article 5(1) countries.
Considering processing technology considerations, the compatibility of materials,
chemicals and components processes must be understood to maintain quality and
reliability standards. Heightened discipline for manufacturing cleanliness and process
control are essential for the successful application of HFC-134a. Required purity levels
for hydrocarbon refrigerants are still being debated.
Commercial refrigeration

Commercial refrigeration encompasses equipment and systems ranging from a fraction of
one kW to many hundreds of kWs extending across the food industry applications to
hospitals, hotels, corner shops through to engineering quality control applications.
CFC consumption, primarily CFC-12 and R-502, has been reduced in the last 3 years in
most industrialised nations primarily by switching over to HCFC-22 and HCFC-22
containing blends and to a much lesser extent to HFC blends. There is still a reluctance to
make changes until it is seen that there is a freedom from service related problems and
that reliable and sound engineering procedures exist, thereby minimising risks and costs.
Areas of uncertainty do exist especially with the small unitary equipment utilising
hermetic compressors. This is particularly the case where high temperature or tropical
operating conditions exist and where the scope for retrofitting is limited.

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developed countries and will eventually stabilise where the chilled food is about 10 to 12
times that of the frozen products.

Since the 1991 assessment the world has seen a return to the use of ammonia in the large
scale chilling, freezing and cold storage systems. Simultaneously, strenuous efforts have
been made to reduce the size of the ammonia charge in large systems by using plate-type
heat exchangers and secondary refrigerants or by using low charge, low pressure receiver
ammonia systems which avoids using circulation pumps that require a large refrigerant
volume.
In countries where there are severe restrictions on using ammonia, other refrigerants are
being examined as replacements. One of the past alternatives to ammonia has been
HCFC-22. However, because it is slated for phaseout, HCFC-22 will eventually become
unavailable requiring the current systems to either be replaced or retrofitted with other
alternatives. One of the current replacements for CFC-12 is HFC-134a. However, HFC-
134a has only limited use as a replacement in this application because CFC-12 is not
widely used in cold storage and food processing. Another widely used refrigerant in this
application is R-502 which has a series of alternatives on the market in the form of
blends. However, the "blends" that replicate the properties of R-502 are slightly more
expensive, many contain HCFC-22, and many have been criticised for their global
warming potential, which is still well below R-502.

While other refrigerants such as hydrocarbons, carbon dioxide and water may have a role
in cold storage and food processing they are currently not expected to become a
significant portion of the refrigerants being used in these applications.
Currently, there are no alternative technologies available that will play an important role
in the replacement of the existing equipment used in this sector.
Retrofits in this sector while possible are difficult to actually implement. Generally
speaking, ammonia can not be used as a direct substitute in equipment not specifically
designed for its use. The current halocarbons being extensively used (HCFC-22 and R-
502) do have suitable direct "drop-in" alternatives, however, may require redesigned
systems for truly effective, efficient operation. These factors tend to mitigate against
retrofits and move the users toward other approaches (such as extending the life of the
system by recovery and recycle of refrigerant, stockpiling, and refrigerant
coriservationMeak prevention activities). Currently, replacement systems must be specially
designed and produced for the specific situation.
Currently, ammonia is the most readily available, environmentally acceptable refrigerant
for food processing, chilling, freezing and cold storage. However, a major problem is
finding ways of using ammonia acceptably in countries that have severe restrictions on its
use based on safety concerns and legal liability precedents. A reasonable approach to
general acceptance of ammonia would seem to be system re-designs to reduce refrigerant
charge, produce automatic oil return and allow operation of unoccupied engine-rooms.
Significant progress has already been achieved in this area but general acceptance of
ammonia in the USA and Japan may continue to be slow. The old-fashioned style of large
charge, pump circulated ammonia systems will always play a role in industrial size for
large Food Processors and Cold Storage. However, non-pump circulation overfeed
systems will play an increasing role. Indirect systems with low charge ammonia circuits
(50 - 100 kg) placed outside buildings and on the roofs of buildings will also become
more common. These small charges can be easily handled in the event of a leak and
ammonia, one of the very few refrigerants lighter than air, will disperse upwards when
released.

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Industrial refrigeration

Industrial refrigeration covers a wide range of uses and operating conditions, primarily
within the chemical, petrochemical and pharmaceutical industries, the oil and gas
industry, the metallurgical industry, industrial ice making and sports and leisure facilities.
Most systems are situated in industrial areas without public access. Therefore, toxic and
flammable refrigerants, like ammonia and hydrocarbons, can often be safely used.
In developed countries CFCs are already virtually phased out in new industrial systems,
only some 2500-3000 tonnes/year is required for service purposes. This demand will
decline gradually, and is expected to die completely out in 10-15 years. Many Article
5(1) countries have decided to accelerate CFC phaseout, and CFC consumption is
expected not to increase above current level of 500-1000 tonnes/year. After the year
2000, CFC use is likely to fall off also in these countries.
Annual HCFC consumption for industrial purposes in the developed countries is believed
to be in the order of 13000 tonnes/year, or five times current use of CFCs, while Article
5(1) countries are expected to consume equally much HCFCs and CFCs. HFC
consumption world-wide is currently believed to be less than 1000 tonnes per year.
The trend with respect to selection of replacement fluids for the CFCs varies markedly.
In response to the outlook for more stringent HCFC regulations in Europe, many
European countries have turned to ammonia, which has gained up to 70-80% market
share for new installations.
In the United States and Japan, HCFC-22 has been the most common CFC alternative so
far, and will most probably continue to be the first choice. Ammonia is expected to gain
shares also in these markets, but less than the hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), which are ex-
pected to remain significant in the long term. While technology with HFC-134a is
considered to be mature for new industrial applications, HFC blends may still require a
certain period to reach full maturity.
Technically, ammonia can be used for most industrial applications (ref. current
development in some European countries), and it should always be considered a
candidate; however it may imply that national regulations may need to be updated to
permit its use. New technological developments have enabled strong reductions in system
charge, and furthermore, made ammonia technology cost competitive in more
applications.
Existing CFC systems, containing some 30,000 tonnes of chemicals, represent the
greatest challenge in the short term. In principle, most installations can be retrofitted to
use a non-regulated fluid. On the other hand, systems using BFC-13 (which is, in fact,
halon-1301) make an important exception, since no fluid with similar properties exists.
Technology to retrofit CFC-12 industrial systems to use HFC-134a is fully mature in
1994, while change-over from R-502 to an HFC blend ,e.g. HFC-404A, will be available
by the mid 1990s. Proven HFC blend technology may be available towards the end of the
decade. Retrofit to use ammonia may be feasible in some cases.
Restricted availability of qualified service engineers to do the retrofit work may become a
serious limiting factor in the short term.
Reduced emissions and recovery and reuse will play an important role in the short term to
keep existing systems in operation. Nonetheless, shortage of refrigerant may force prema-
ture decommissioning. Possible reductions in energy consumption and improved flexi-
bility with modern technology may reduce the cost effects for the end users.
A "most likely" scenario regarding the state of current stock of systems by the year 2000
implies an even distribution among retirement (natural and premature), retrofit and
operation on recycled/stockpiled fluid.
HCFCs will be required to meet refrigerant demand in an interim period, since neither
technology nor supply of chlorine free alternatives will be available in the near term. It is

-------
believed that up to 10 years may be required to enable industrial refrigeration to cope
completely without HCFCs.
In the industrialised countries, HCFC consumption is likely to fall slightly off during the
rest of the nineties, while a strong acceleration in the reduction is foreseen thereafter. By
2005, HCFC demand is believed to be only half of current consumption. A certain
portion will be covered by reuse.
During the next decade, HCFC consumption in Article 5(1) countries is expected to
nearly double, but will still be comparatively low by 2005 (1500-2000 tonnes/year). To
minimise costs and ensure that best technology is identified for all applications, HCFCs
should be available 5-10 years longer in Article 5(1) countries compared to developed
countries.
HFCs will gain increased importance both for retrofit and new installations towards the
year 2000. Consumption figures world wide will most probably exceed those of HCFCs
by 2005 or shortly thereafter.
Change-over to ammonia will normally imply improved energy efficiency, while
reference cycle efficiency will be lower with some of the new fluids. This may be
compensated for by system optimisation and computer based regulation and control. On
average, and in a first instance, energy consumption is expected to remain practically
unchanged.
Air conditioning & heat pumps (air cooled systems)

The product categories included within the unitary (air cooled) product group are ducted
and non-ducted split systems, single package room air conditioners and commercial single
and multi-zone packaged air conditioners (the term air conditioners is assumed to include
heat pumps). Nearly all of these products utilise HCFC-22 as the refrigerant. Globally,
unitary (air cooled) air conditioners account for approximately 32% of the total world
consumption of HCFC-22.
The estimated quantity of refrigerant contained in the installed population (approximately
214 million units) of these products is estimated to be 364,000 metric-tonnes. The 1994
HCFC-22 demand to manufacture and service this category of products is estimated to be
85,000 metric-tonnes.
Several promising HCFC-22 alternatives are currently under investigation. These
alternatives include hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), hydrocarbons (HCs) and a few naturally
occurring compounds (ammonia). The majority of the HCFC-22 replacement candidates
has zero ozone depletion potential. At this time the most promising HCFC-22
replacement candidates for this class of products are the HFC compounds. The HFC
compounds have been extensively evaluated through the ARI AREP program and through
many other research programs within the international community (section 14). The
results of this research indicate that several HFC compounds could be suitable
replacements for HCFC-22.
The HFC compounds have been criticised because of their direct global warming
potentials. However, it is important to consider both the direct (portion caused by the
refrigerant) and indirect (portion resulting from the energy required to operate the
appliance during its lifetime) of the global warming impact when comparing different
refrigerant options. For unitary equipment, the indirect effect can represent over 90
percent of the total global warming impact. The Total Equivalent Warming Impact
(TEWI) is a factor which combines these two terms for a refrigerant. The TEWI values
for the HFC refrigerants are equal or lower than for most of the other alternative
refrigerants.
Equipment using alternative refrigerants is expected to be available in the 1996-1998 time
period. Widespread availability is not expected to occur until 2000-2005.

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An analysis of the demand for HCFC-22 was made assuming three different conversion
rates: pessimistic, optimistic and most likely. The peak demand for HCFC-22 for this
category of products was calculated to be approximately 95,000 metric tonnes with the
peak occurring between 1998 and 2005. The demand for new HCFC-22 for these
products should decline to between 10,000-30,000 metric-tonnes by the year 2015 versus
the 1994 demand of 85,000 metric-tonnes. This analysis used to generate this estimate
assumed a fairly aggressive recovery/recycling effort on the part of the world
community. Should the world community fail to adopt aggressive refrigerant recycling
programs shortages of HCFC-22 could occur during the next decade.
The primary technical concerns of the developing countries are: adequate supplies of
HCFCs to service existing equipment and equipment manufactured before the HCFC
phaseout date dictated by the Protocol, adequate supplies of alternative substances and
technologies and concerns over the cost and safety of the alternative refrigerants and
technologies.
Data on the cost of these refrigerants and the redesigned systems in which they would be
applied are just now being evaluated by researchers. Some of these technologies are
ideally suited to developing countries. Technologies which are complex and in their early
stages of development will probably be too costly or complex for consideration by
developing countries.
Equipment and operating costs are real barriers to the entry of larger residential and
commercial unitary products into a country. If the benefits of air conditioning are to be
experienced on a wide scale, incremental costs must be kept to .a minimum. It is therefore
important to develop alternative refrigerants and technologies which are both
environmentally safe and cost effective. Technologies which are environmentally safe but
also expensive and complex to implement would be a detriment to rapid conversion in
developing countries.
Air conditioning (water chillers)

HCFC-22 has been used in small chillers employing positive displacement compressors
and in very large chillers employing centrifugal compressors. CFC-11 and CFC-12 have
been used in large centrifugal chillers. Due to the CFC phaseout, CFC-11 and -12 have
been essentially replaced in new equipment production by HCFC-123 and HFC-134a,
respectively. To date, no alternate has displaced HCFC-22 in the small and very large
chillers.
HFC-134a is sometimes used in positive displacement water chillers. HCFC-123 is an
energy efficient refrigerant that meets the basic design requirements for low pressure
centrifugal compressors. This accounts for its use in centrifugal chillers in the 350 to
5000 kW range. HCFC-22 is used in the largest centrifugal chillers, from 1000 kW up to
35000 kW.
CFC-114 has been used in some centrifugal chillers, particularly those in naval vessels.
These applications are expected to be converted to HCFC-124 or HFC-236fa, or replaced
by HFC-134a chillers.

New equipment and refrigerants
The planned HCFC-22 phaseout has led to intense activity to find and characterise
appropriate alternates. The refrigerants which appear to be most promising in terms of
their ability to satisfy the performance and safety criteria are the blends of the HFCs.
Azeotropic mixtures are under consideration as HCFC-22 replacements because they tend
to act as single component refrigerant [i.e., the vapour and liquid composition at a given
temperature and pressure is constant]. However, based on a very extensive search of
alternatives, it is clear that there is no drop-in replacement for HCFC-22 in chillers with

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flooded evaporators today, nor is one foreseen. One implication of this is that any further
acceleration of the phaseout of HCFC-22 would have serious consequences for the stock
of HCFC-22 chillers in service at the time of the phaseout.
HFC-134a is being used in positive displacement water chillers as a zero-OOP substitute
for CFC-12. A number of other zero-, or near-zero-, ODP refrigerants with volumetric
flow rates in the range suitable for positive displacement chillers have been suggested.
Examples are HFC-32, HFC-125, HFC-152a, HC-290 (propane) and R-717 (ammonia).
These refrigerants are not attractive to designers of water chillers for commercial
buildings.
Centrifugal compressors are the most efficient technology in their range of applications,
500 to perhaps 35000 kW (200 to several thousand tonnes capacity). The CFCs have been
replaced by HCFC-123 and HFC-134a, respectively, but HCFC-22 is expected to be used
in new equipment for at least another decade. Other refrigerants suggested for centrifugal
chillers are HFC-143a (and maybe HFC-152a), and the fluoroethers E-134, E-143, and
E-245ca. These compounds are either flammable or have no toxicity assessments at this
time and in some cases have very limited thermbdynamic data available. HFC-245ca is a
potential long-term alternative to HCFC-123. More work is necessary to determine the
efficiency of HFC-245ca as a refrigerant and to define any fire risks associated with its
use in chillers. Nonflammable azeotropes containing HCFC-123 are another alternative
for reducing the amounts of HCFC-123 used in chillers. Two ispmers [ea and fa] of
HFC-236 are being considered as replacements for CFC-114 which is used in special
applications such as naval vessels.
Absorption is a tried and proven technology that is mass produced and well supported
with a cadre of experienced technicians. This past decade, two-stage absorption chillers
have been developed and produced with primary-energy-based efficiencies that approach
50% to 60% of those of vapour compression systems. Three-stage absorption systems are
being developed to achieve efficiencies even closer to vapour compression systems.
However, absorption chillers are inherently larger and considerably more expensive than
vapour-compression chillers so absorption systems have had only limited market success
in the western world. However one should emphasise that they are used to take advantage
of waste heat so that they can be very economical in spite of the higher cost.

Retrofits
No substitute refrigerant can be used as a "drop-in" for CFCs with the exception of HFC-
134a in some R-500 systems. HCFC-123 became available in 1989 to retrofit existing
CFC-11 chillers. It is a more aggressive solvent than CFC-11. Non-metallic materials
may have to be replaced with materials which are compatible with HCFC-123. HFC-134a
became available in 1989 for retrofit in centrifugal chillers. Its use requires about 15%
higher tip speeds than CFC-12, so impeller and/or gearbox replacement may be
necessary. HCFC-124 has been suggested as an alternative to CFC-114 in centrifugal
chillers such as those used in naval applications, as has HFC-236fa. There are currently
no satisfactory replacement refrigerants for use in existing equipment designed for
HCFC-123 or HFC-134a, nor are any needed in the near future. For equipment now
using HCFC-22, zeotropic and azeotropic mixtures of HFCs are being developed.
The HCFCs are required as transition and long term refrigerants respectively until at least
the 2020-2030 period. HCFCs are needed to allow the most rapid phaseout of CFCs in
those critical applications such as air conditioning and refrigeration where the HCFCs are
the best alternatives available. Improved design and maintenance of systems to reduce
leakage, design to minimise refrigerant charge quantities in systems, improved service
practices, and reclaiming of refrigerant during servicing are practical and reasonable ways
to reduce the emissions of HCFCs into the atmosphere, thus minimising adverse
environmental effects.

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HFC-134a will play an important role in the transition away from CFCs, particularly as a
replacement for CFC-12. However, HFC-134a is not able to overcome the need for
HCFC-123 and HCFC-22. There are no other good near-term alternatives to the
continued use of HCFCs.
Transport refrigeration

Transport refrigeration includes refrigeration in ships, railcars, containers, swap bodies
and road transport equipment, and also relates to transport air conditioning. New
equipment and retrofit options have been identified, as have servicing needs and the
impact of HCFC phaseout.
There are approximatejy 33,600 ships in excess of 300 tonnes gross, all of which use
some forms of refrigeration. Fully refrigerated cargo ships and refrigerated container
ships number about 1,500. HCFC-22 is virtually universal as the refrigerant for new
cargo refrigeration equipment, but 1993 marked the return of ammonia in a few new
ships. This has yet to be demonstrated as a commercially viable option for widespread
use.
At the end of 1993 there were 252,000 integral refrigerated containers in use, of which
about half were less than 5 years old. Since 1991 there has been an almost universal
acceptance of HFC-134a for new units, and there have been moves to HCFC-22 and
various blends such that there .is no need for CFCs for new container equipment. Retrofit
qptions for existing plant have been developed but have yet to be adopted on a large
scale.
Manufacturing rates for road transport refrigeration equipment are around 100,000 per
year, and new equipment from major producers is moving rapidly away from CFCs,
including R-500 and R-502.
The currently available options for both retrofits and new equipment are bewilderingly
large, and there is a need for much more application-specific testing to determine
optimum solutions. This situation appears likely to become even more complex whilst
manufacturers compete for the future refrigerants market.
There are no proven direct alternatives to HCFC-22, and HCFCs are likely to be required
as components in economically viable retrofit blends.
Automotive air conditioning

The accelerated phaseout of CFCs has brought about a corresponding acceleration in the
introduction of HFC-134a in new vehicles to the extent that full conversion in the
developed countries was completed during 1994. Accelerated phaseout also created the
need to address retrofitting existing CFC-12 vehicles (in the order of 290 million world-
wide). This report deals principally with the technology and costs associated with
servicing CFC-12 vehicles in the face of a dwindling CFC-12 supply and includes
information from (and recommendations for), both developed and developing countries.
OEM vehicle manufacturers unanimously selected HFC-134a as their recommended
retrofit refrigerant, although other refrigerants may exist and find use in the global
marketplace. Refrigerants other than HFC-134a have not been supported by vehicle
OEM's for several reasons: (1) they offer no advantage over HFC-134a; (2) there is
essentially no time to adequately test and commercialise additional refrigerants; (3) they
create-the need for all service outlets to purchase yet another set of tools and equipment;
and (4) they represent additional refrigerants with which the service industry must deal,
thereby posing the real threat of contaminating existing CFC-12 and HFC-134a supplies,
service equipment and MAC systems. The notion that a "drop-in" refrigerant may one
10

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day magically appear is not realistic and may even delay the application of retrofit
technology currently developed while users wait for such a refrigerant to appear in the
marketplace.
Refrigerant availability in any given use sector is difficult to forecast. Historically, the
mobile air conditioning service industry has required a significant amount of refrigerant,
which it will continue to require until the fleet is retrofitted or no longer in service. The
CFC production phaseout will likely find those service industries requiring CFC-12
competing for the same limited supply.
Developing cost-effective and timely retrofit technology is a formidable task. A least-cost
incremental retrofit is estimated to be about US $ 120.-. Higher cost scenarios, involving
additional component replacements and/or additions are likely to be necessary for a
significant percentage of vehicles to maintain acceptable durability and/or performance. It
should be .emphasised that these costs are exclusive of, and in addition to, the cost of
repairing the problems that originally brought the system in for service. These repairs are
estimated to average US $ 260. MAC system manufacturers and component suppliers are
expected to provide retrofit information and components to the service industry in a
timely manner.
Recycling CFC-12 and HFC-134a at the job site is a currently available technology and is
a reality in many developed countries, and should be encouraged globally. The value of
refrigerant recycling and proper servicing cannot be over-emphasised. The "gas-and-go"
type of service, wherein leaks are not repaired and refrigerant is vented directly to the
atmosphere during service, must be eliminated. Technicians that repair MAC systems
should be technically qualified in basic diagnostic and servicing procedures.
The Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE) has developed technical documents covering
equipment requirements for containment and recycling refrigerants used in mobile A/C
systems. SAE documents also include technician service and retrofit procedures that can
provide guidance for Article 5(1) countries.
AFEAS and the US. Department of Energy has recently collaborated on evaluating the
technology status of carbon dioxide, zeolite/water, the air cycle, and Stirling cycle for
potential use in mobile A/C systems. These technologies are currently in their infancy
and face significant technical hurdles which must be overcome before they can be
considered to be commercialisable.
Heat pumps (heating only and heat recovery)

Heating-only heat pumps are used for space and water heating in residential,
commercial/institutional and industrial buildings. In industry, heat pumps are used for
heating of process streams, heat recovery and hot water/steam production. They are often
an integrated part of industrial processes, such as drying, evaporative concentration and
distillation. Virtually all heating-only heat pumps are electric closed-cycle compression
type systems.
The vast majority of heating-only heat pumps in buildings are located in Western Europe,
as most heat pump installations in Japan, USA and Canada are reversible airconditioners.
It is estimated that the total number of heating-only heat pumps in these market sectors
(including district heating) is roughly 1.4 million units, with a total heating capacity of
about 11,000 MW and an annual heat supply of 25 TWh/year. The corresponding figures
for industrial heat pumps are 7,000 units, 2,500 MW and 12 TWh/year.
HCFCs are generally accepted as a part of the solution for a rapid CFC phaseout, and
HCFC-22 is the most important refrigerant in this category. Many European countries are
discussing regulations on HCFCs with a view to phasing them out more rapidly than has
already been'agreed under the Montreal Protocol, (e.g., Germany, Sweden and maybe
Italy will ban the use of HCFCs in new equipment from the year 2000).
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HFC-134a is currently applied for retrofitting of existing heat pumps using CFC-12 and
for charging of new installations. HFC-134a heat pump technology is considered fully
mature for new systems. The demand for HFC-134a is expected to increase substantially
in the next years. Moreover, other HFCs as well as HFC blends are expected to be
available towards the end of the decade, thus resulting in a further increase in HFC
consumption.
Ammonia has recently seen an increasing number of experimental applications for large
capacity heat pump systems in Europe. Halt in CFC production and further technology
development are expected to accelerate its commercialisation and market penetration in
Europe, as well as in Japan and the United States. Ammonia technology for small
capacity heat pumps is expected to be available by the turn of the century.
Propane is currently used in experimental -residential- heat pumps in Europe. Technology
development and improved safety measures are assumed to reduce safety hazards and
improve public acceptability. Hence, propane, other hydrocarbons as well as hydrocarbon
blends are expected to play an increasingly important role in the mid to long term,
especially in small and medium capacity heat pumps.
Carbon dioxide is a promising long-term natural refrigerant, but is not expected to
become of much commercial importance until the late 1990s.
Heat pumps for heating only purposes have a negligible impact on total refrigerant
consumption volumes world-wide (<1%). The estimated refrigerant volume is
approximately 11,000 tonnes, with 60% CFCs and 40% HCFCs (1993). Assessments
indicate that the total annual refrigerant demand for heat pumps will be about 2,300
tonnes in the year 2000, of which 70-80% are HFCs and the rest HCFCs and "natural
refrigerants'1.
If 60% of the refrigerants in scrapped and retrofitted equipment can be recovered,
approximately 2,300 tonnes of CFC and 1,150 tonnes of HCFC will be made available
for reuse between the year 1995 and 2000. This is about 20% more than the expected
demand for CFCs for servicing of existing heat pump installations.
Refrigerant conservation

Until a few years ago, refrigerant conservation was considered to be important only for
proper system functioning. Venting refrigerants during service was a usual practice. The
ozone layer depletion and the need to limit environmental effect of refrigerant emission
changed this. As well, the 1991 revision of the Montreal Protocol that included a
phaseout schedule for HCFC refrigerants extended the interest of conservation. To avoid
any direct impact of refrigerants on environment through their emission, refrigerant
conservation is a major consideration in refrigerating system design, installation, and
service. Conservation deals also with the needs for servicing existing equipment for both
developed and Article 5(1) countries.
As the most direct way to reduce emissions to the atmosphere, refrigerant conservation
should be promoted by governments which are Parties to the Protocol. Tools may include
research and development, information dissemination, financial incentives, and direct
regulations. It should start, anyhow, with regulations making recovery compulsory.
Without this basic regulation, experience shows that refrigerant recovery will not be
carried out.
Refrigerant conservation has three basic elements:
- to properly design and install new equipment so as to minimise actual or potential leaks;
- to leak-tighten existing systems so as to reduce emissions, in case of continued use of
CFCs or retrofit to HCFCs or HFCs;
- to improve service practices, including recovery, permitting continued system operation
with reduced need to add refrigerant.
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Good service practice can significantly reduce refrigerant loss by regularly checking the
systems to find and repair leaks and by recovering the refrigerant each time the system
has to be opened. Training of installers, operators, and service operators is required to
accomplish proper cooling system operation and containment.
Availability of recovery equipment has significantly increased over the last three years.
Standards have been written in order to measure the performances of equipment, and
methods have been developed to make recovery more efficient.
Refrigerant removed from a refrigerating system may be returned to the same system
after recycling. It may be required that refrigerant be reclaimed before it can be reused in
another system to make sure that the contaminant level is consistent with the system
operation. In all cases, refrigerant reuse requires taking measures to avoid mixing
refrigerants.
Refrigerant which is too contaminated for reuse will ultimately have to be destroyed. At
present, high temperature incineration is about the only practical method of destroying
CFC and HCFC refrigerants, but other technologies may emerge in the future.
In Article 5(1) countries, priorities should be given to maintaining systems in proper
operating condition including tightening up systems by finding and repairing leaks and
recovering refrigerant for reuse before servicing systems. Strong government incentives
will be necessary in order to reach effectiveness.
Developing country aspects

During the last couple of years, many projects have been launched in the Article 5(1)
countries. These projects cover both technology, reclaim and training projects. The effort
ahead shall concentrate on training, as this subject requires highest priority. Parallel with
that effort, changes to new technology, collection and reclaim of CFC, HCFC, etc. are to
be continued.
It is worth noting that considerations are extremely essential on which new technology
will be utilised, especially the issue of the new types of refrigerants and also the
utilisation of flammable refrigerants. The background of this consideration is that if the
change in technology does not correspond to a specific Article 5(1) country's situation, in
relation to both the home market and export, it may result in an additional change in
technology within a few years.
Further more, it is considered desirable that a more stringent legislation in the Article
5(1) countries is implemented within the fields of refrigerants, refrigerating plants and
related leakage rates. This is necessary in order to complete the essential changes in
refrigeration technology in a successful way.
Research co-ordination and information dissemination

This section enumerates the types of information required to ensure that the phaseout of
CFCs and HCFCs proceeds in an orderly and cost effective manner, provides a
discussion of where this type of information may be obtained, and provides a listing of
some of the key areas in which co-operative research and developmental efforts are
needed. Both short- and long-term approaches to CFC and HCFC phaseout are being
developed. This section points out the importance for ensuring that available information
includes a discussion of both the problems associated with the near-term ban on CFC
consumption (conservation, recycling, "transitional" replacements), as well as
information on long-range alternatives. It also highlights the need for information to
address the needs of both Article 5(1) and developed countries.
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 The audience  for this section includes anyone responsible  for policy development and
 equipment replacement decisions, such as government environmental officials, equipment
 and refrigerant manufacturers, installation and maintenance personnel, building owners
 and managers, consulting engineers,  and facility operators.  This  section  emphasises the
 need for reliable and unbiased information that includes success stories as well as analyses
 of programs that have been unsuccessful.

 The types of information addressed in this section include:
 •     basis scientific information on stratospheric ozone depletion, global warming, and
       the role of ozone depleting substances (ODS) in these two processes;
 •     data on basic refrigerant properties, as described in  section  2: system engineering,
       and equipment design and manufacturing;
 •     retrofitting of existing equipment, service requirements, and training;
 •     regulations, and
 •     financing mechanisms.
 The section  also provides a listing  of where some of this  information may be obtained,
 from both governmental and non-governmental sources. Some of the issues  associated
 with  information  dissemination   are   discussed  in  the   framework  of  providing
 recommendations for how  information  should  be  compiled, formatted, catalogued,
 abstracted and  simplified for optimal  use. Finally, the section presents a listing of some
 sources of current research on alternative refrigerants, energy efficiency and refrigerant
 safety.

 Historical global CFC and HCFC consumption
 and future  demand for CFC and HCFC refrigerants

 This section provides historical data for CFC use,  as well as estimated data for the use of
 CFCs until the year 2000.  Some  of these data have  been transferred  to the UNEP
 Technology and  Economic Assessment report;  further considerations on historical and
 future use can  be found in this report. Since it is based upon many manufacturer's and
 UNEP estimated data, the UNEP Technology and Economic Assessment Panel provides
 these data in  its report  for information purposes  only.  The Panel will deal  more
 elaborately, with estimates for future consumption of CFCs and HCFCs in its March 1995
 report.

 It is estimated that  the use  of CFCs in the developed world (excluding  CEITs) has
 decreased from 862 kt to 302 kt over the period 1986-1993; this equals a decrease in
 consumption  by 65%. The decrease in consumption that took place over the period 1986-
 1992 amounted to 55%; consumption values are 862 and 386 kt for the years  1986 and
 1992, respectively.  However, the global use of CFCs (by developed countries including
 CEITs and Article 5(1) countries) is estimated to have decreased from 1133  to 643 kt
 over the period 1986-1992,  which is  a decrease in  consumption of 43%. The lower
 decrease is mainly due to the  different consumption patterns in the CEITs and the Article
 5(1) countries;  in the CEITs a small reduction in consumption took place,  whilst Article
 5(1) countries had an estimated growth in CFC consumption over the last  three years of
 more than  10%/year. The  result  is that, in  the  timeframe  1986-1992,  the  CFC
 consumption  in the CEITs and Article 5(1) countries can be estimated as fairly constant
 at a level of 250-270 kt/year.

From 1986  through  1992,   the global  CFC  refrigerant  use has decreased  slightly.
 Consumption was reduced from a level of 250-260  kt/year in 1986 (after peaking at about
300 kt in 1988-1989) to about 230 kt/year in the years 1991-1992.
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 The CFC refrigerant use in the developed world (excluding CEITs) was 208 kt/year in
 the year 1986, which had been  reduced to 130 kt/year in 1992,  which represents a
 reduction by 38%. In a comparable timeframe (1986-1992), the use of CFC refrigerants
 in the CEITs and in the Article 5(1) countries essentially increased by a factor of two,
 from about 50 kt in the year 1986 to about 100 kt in the year 1992.
 Since the decrease in  the use of CFC refrigerants in the developed countries (excluding
 CEITs)  is lower than the decrease in CFC for all uses  (being 55% over the years 1986-
 1992), it means that the share of refrigerants in the total CFC consumption is increasing
 in the developed countries. For the USA, Japan,  and the EU, values of 24%  in 1986 and
 36%  in  1992 can be  calculated (ratio of CFC refrigerant  use to all  CFC  uses);
 preliminary figures are that the percentage has even grown to 44% in the year 1993,  for
 the countries mentioned above.
 It can reasonably be assumed that the total CFC use, and particularly the CFC refrigerant
 use in the CEITs and the Article 5(1) countries will be essentially equal to or greater than
 the consumption in the developed world (excluding CEITs) in the year  1994. It can also
 be estimated  that the CFC  refrigerant  use  in the Article 5(1) countries may become
 comparable to the use in the developed countries (excluding CEITs) by  the end of  the
 year 1994/beginning of the year 1995.
 The change in the use of CFC  refrigerants in certain parts of  the developed  world
 between 1986 and 1993 shows interesting figures:
       o  US consumption decreased from 132 kt to 65 kt, a decrease by 50%;
       o  Japanese consumption decreased from 24.3 kt to 17 kt, a decrease by 33 %;
       o  EU consumption increased from 29.9 kt to 35.6 kt, an increase (!) by 20%'.
 The significant difference in reductions in the three regional markets (US,  Japan, and  the
 EU) may be the result of the significant differences  in  government programs. The most
 aggressive efforts included: large excise taxes, "no venting" regulations, limits on supply
 that were below Protocol limits, as well as encouragement to use all  available safe
 alternatives.
 The global  CFC refrigerant  use in 1994 is estimated to be roughly 230 kt, where the
 decrease  in the developed world is offset by an increase in other  countries! which are
 essentially the Article 5(1) countries.  Estimates are that  more than 80% of this continued
 CFC refrigerant use  is for servicing existing refrigeration equipment; with more than
 50% of it in a broad application area ranging from CFC-12 based commercial equipment
 (food  storage, perishable  food  dispensers)  to domestic appliances, but also to  large
 equipment for commercial food or perishable food storage.
 Up  to date,  experience suggests that  refrigerants tendered  for recycle at central
 reclamation facilities do not contribute  more than 3%  to  the annual  refrigerant sales
 volume.  The fact that overall refrigerant demand in several large refrigeration markets
 has decreased by 20 to 50% suggests that internal recovery and recycle is being practised
 by the engineers which are the refrigeration equipment concerned.
 After 1995  all developed world  new CFC  production  will cease.  The potential world
 supply will in fact consist of the new production as required by Article 5(1) countries  to
 meet  their basic domestic  needs.  The maximum production for this purpose has been
 estimated at 338 kt/year, which  is, in fact, more than adequate for refrigeration and air
 conditioning equipment serviced by CFCs 11 and 12.
 In the  near future, shortages of "speciality"  CFCs (i.e., CFC-13, -113,  -114, and -115)
 are likely, unless users have stockpiled larger quantities in advance of the shutdown  of
 most of the production plants in the developed world.
 CEIT countries will encounter difficulties in  reducing and phasing out their needs for
 CFC refrigerants by 1996. The consumption of  CFC refrigerants  in these  countries  is
assumed to be between 10 and 20 kt in the year 1994,  and to gradually decrease over the
period 1994-1998/1999.
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This part of the report also provides historical data for HCFC use, as well as some
estimated data for the use of HCFCs until the year 2000; this in particular for the use of
HCFC-22 in refrigeration. Equal to the CFC consumption, some of these HCFC data
have been transferred to the UNEP Technology and Economic Assessment report.
Non-feedstock HCFC-22 use has been in the 230 kt to 260 kt range over the last 5 year
period, 1989-1993. The use of HCFC-22 as a refrigerant use has been between 205 kt to
220 kt in this period. National no-venting regulations in the U.S.A., the largest HCFC-
22 market in the world, has curbed the growth in consumption of HCFC-22; it is
estimated that there will be a flat or even negative growth globally since recycling and
refrigerant conservation become common practice in the traditional large HCFC-22
markets, all over the world..
The consumption of other HCFCs as refrigerants (HCFC-123, -124, and also HCFC-
142b) is estimated to be rather modest in the near future, which will be over the six year
period 1994-2000. These HCFCs will be used for some new production (e.g. chillers),
but primarily they will be used as retrofitting fluids in existing equipment. Consumption
is estimated to be between 15 and 25 kt/ year during 1994-2000 in the developed
countries. Consumption in the Article 5(1) countries may slightly increase this
consumption figure.
Other uses for HCFCs (mainly HCFC-22, -141b, and -142b) are estimated to be about
130 kt in 1994, with a consumption between 140 and 170 kt during 1994-1998; their
consumption will then gradually decrease since users will have optimised technologies
that provide desired performance without the use of HCFCs.
The global demand for all HCFCs is estimated to be between 300 and 335 kt in the year
2000, which is actually comparable to the consumption in the years 1993-1994. As stated
above, the use of HCFCs for refrigeration has been in the order 240-250 kt in the year
1993, and is estimated to be in the order of 200 kt in the year 2000, which is in fact a
reduction in HCFC use by about 20%. While there will be a small increase in the
consumption of HCFCs other than HCFC-22 over the period 1993-2000, HCFC-22
consumption is estimated to decrease from 1994 to 2000, from about 230 kt to 160-170 kt
in the year 2000.' Next to conservation, this will mainly be due to the use of other
refrigerants (HFCs, HFC blends and non-fluorocarbons) that will replace new HCFC
applications from 1994 on.
16

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      Introduction - Montreal Protocol process
1.1   Introduction Montreal Protocol

In 1981, in response to the growing scientific consensus that CFCs and  halons would
ultimately deplete the ozone layer, the United Nations Environment Program (UNEP)
began  negotiations   to  develop multilateral  protection  of the  ozone  layer.  These
negotiations resulted  in the Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer, in
March 1985. The Convention provided a framework for  international co-operation in
research, environmental monitoring and information exchange.
In September 1987, 24  nations, including the United States, Japan, the Soviet Union, the
EC and country members of the European Community, signed the Montreal Protocol on
Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer.  By April  1991 already, 68 nations had ratified
the Protocol. These  countries  represent over 90 percent of the world's production of
CFCs and  halons. The Montreal Protocol entered into force on January 1,  1989.  This
international environmental agreement limited production of specified CFCs to 50 percent
of 1986 levels by the year 1998 and called for a freeze in production of specified halons
at 1986 levels starting in 1992.
A list of CFCs,  halons and other substances controlled under the  Montreal  Protocol is
shown in Table 1.1 (Annex A status 1987, Annex A-E status 1992).
1.2    Introduction on developments 1989-1994

Shortly after the 1987 Protocol was  negotiated,  new  scientific  evidence  conclusively
linked  CFCs to  depletion of the ozone layer and indicated that  depletion had already
occurred.  Consequently,  many countries called for further actions to protect the ozone
layer by expanding and  strengthening  the original control provisions of the  Montreal
Protocol.
In June 1990, the Parties  to the Montreal Protocol met in London and agreed to Protocol
adjustments  requiring  more stringent controls on the  CFCs and halons specified in the
original agreement and amendments placing controls on other ozone depleting substances,
including  carbon tetrachloride and 1,1,1-trichloroethane. Decisions were made on the
basis of three Panel reports, one on the science of  ozone layer depletion, one on  its
effects, and a third one on technology and economics. The latter one, the Technology and
Economics Assessment Panel had six Technical Options Committees that each undertook
assessments  of the  technology available to reduce the  dependence on ozone  depleting
substances:
  (1)   Aerosols, Sterilants, and Miscellaneous Uses Technical Options Committee
  (2)   Flexible and Rigid Foams Technical Options Committee
  (3)   Halons Technical  Options Committee
  (4)   Refrigeration, AC and Heat Pumps Technical Options Committee
  (5)   Solvents, Coatings and Adhesives Technical Options Committee
  (6)   Economics Options Committee
The consequence of the London Amendment of 1990 is shown in Table 1.2.
                                                                               17

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        Table 1.1
  Group I
  CFC-11
  CFC-12
  CFC-113
  CFC-114
  CFC-115

  Group n
  Halon 1211
  Halon 1301
  Halon 2402
Substances controlled by the Montreal Protocol, status 1994
      (ODP values relative to CFC-11)

                Annex A

                                                   ODP
           Trichlorofluoromethane                     1.00
           Dichlorodifluoromethane                   1.00
           1,1,2-Trichloro-l ,2,2-trifluoroethane        0.82
           1,2-Dichlorotetrafluoroethane              0.76
           Chloropentafluoroethane                   0.43
           Eromochlorodifluoromethane               3.0
           Bromotrifluorometahne                   10.0
           Dibromotetrafluoroethane                  6.0

                Annex B
 Group I
 CFC-13
 CFC-111
 CFC-112
 CFC-211
 CFC-212
 CFC-213
 CFC-214
 CFC-215
 CFC-216
 CFC-217

 Group n
 CC14

 Group m
 1,1,1-Trichloroethane
           Chlorotrifluoromethane                    1.00
           Pentachlorofluoroethane                   1.00
           Tetrachlordifluoroethane                   1.00
           Heptachlorofluoropropane                  1.00
           Hexachlorodifluoropropane                 1.00
           Pentachlorotrifluoropropane                1.00
           Tetrachlorotetrafluoropropane              1.00
           Tr ichloropentafluoropropane                1.00
           Dichlorohexafluoropropane                 1.00
           Chloroheptafluoropropane                  1.00
           Carbon Tetrachloride (Tetrachloromethane)   1.11


           Methyl Chloroform (1,1,1-Trichloroethane)   0.11

               AnnexC
 Greup I
 Partially halogenated fluorocarbons (including HCFC-22, HCFC-123, and HCFC-141b),
 all with ODPs of less than 0.12, are defined as transitional substances by the Montreal
 Protocol under Annex C.
 Group n
 Hydrobromofluorcarbons
                                    Annex E
'MeBr
          Methyl Bromide
                                                                       0.7
118

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       Table 1.2    The London Amendment to the Montreal Protocol

Annex A - Group I
Chlorofluorocarbons: CFC-11, CFC-12, CFC-113, CFC-114 and CFC-115
(reference level: 1986)
Freeze by July 1989
20 % reduction by                                 January 1, 1993
50 % reduction by                                 January 1, 1995
85 % reduction by                                 January 1, 1997
100 % reduction by                                January 1, 2000

Annex A - Group II
Halons: halon 1211, halon 1301 and halon 2402 (reference level: 1986)
Freeze by July 1992
50i%re^uction by
100 %,red.uction by
(with possibly exemptions for essential uses)
Annex B - Group I
Other fully halogenated CFCs
CFC-13, CFC-lii:!,,.-!^, -211, -212,
(reference level: 1986))

Freeze at July 1992
20 % reduction by
85 % reduction by
100 % reduction by
Annex B, - Group II
Carbon Tetrachloride (reference level: 1989)

Freeze at 1989 levels by July 1992
85 % reduction by
100 % reduction by

Annex B - Group III
1,1,1-trichloroethane (reference level: 1989)

Freeze at by January 1993
30 % reduction by
70 % reduction by
100 % reduction by

Annex C - Transitional Substances
Partially halogenated fluorocarbons
                                                  January 1,1995
                                                  January 1,2000
                                                  -2%, and CFC-217
                                                  January 1,1993
                                                  January E, 1997,
                                                  January 1, 20005
                                                  January 1, 1995
                                                  January 1, 2000
                                                  January 1, 1995
                                                  January 1,2000
                                                  January 1, 2005
Resolution calling for use only where other alternatives are not feasible with phaseout by 2020 if
feasible, and no later than 2040.
                                                                                    19

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        Table 1.3    The Copenhagen Amendment to the Montreal Protocol
                            (Entered into Force June 14, 1994)

 Annex A - Group I
 Chlorofluorocarbons: CFC-11, -12, -113,  -114 and CFC-115 (reference level: 1986)
 75 % reduction by                                 January 1, 1994
 100 % reduction by                                January 1, 1996

 Annex A - Group II
 Halons: halon 1211, halon 1301 and halon 2402 (reference level: 1986)
100 % reduction by
(with possible exemptions for essential uses)
January 1, 1994
Annex B - Group I
Other fully halogenated CFCs
CFC-13, -111, -112, -211, -212, -213, -214, -215, -216, -217 (reference level: 1986)
Freeze at 1986 levels by July 1992
85 % reduction by                                 January 1, 1994
100 % reduction by                                January 1, 1996
Annex B - Group II
Carbon Tetrachloride (reference level: 1989)
85 % reduction by
100 % reduction by

Annex B - Group III
1,1,1-trichloroethane (reference level: 1989)
50 % reduction from 1989 levels by
100 % reduction from 1989 levels by
January 1, 1994
January 1,1996
January 1, 1994
January 1, 1996
Annex C - Group I
HCFCs (reference level: 1989)
3.1% of the 1989 CFC ODP Consumption
PLUS the calculated level of the 1989 HCFC Consumption
Freeze by January 1, 1996
35 % reduction from base allowable level by
65 % reduction from base allowable level by
90 % reduction from base allowable level by
99.5 % reduction from base allowable level by
100 % reduction from base allowable level by

Annex C, Group II
HBFCs
100 % reduction by 1996

Annex E
Methyl Bromide
Freeze at 1991 levels by January 1, 1995
January 1,
January 1,
January 1,
January 1,
2004
2010
2015
2020
January 1, 2030
20

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In London, a new assessment was decided, which was endorsed during the Meeting of the
Parties in Nairobi, 1991 (Decision 111/12). In 1991, the Assessment Panels and the TOCs
performed  substantial effort to collect information for a new assessment. In this effort,
the TOC Refrigeration, AC and  Heat Pumps conceived a section in its report that dealt
with estimates for the consumption of CFCs, HCFCs and HFCs in the near future.
In an extra effort to assess the consequence of ozone layer depletion from anthropogenic
emissions of methylbromide, an  interim Technical Committee reported on science and
technology in 1992.  Based  upon all information available, the Parties decided on  new
phasedown schedules for the different controlled substances,  and methyl bromide  was
introduced as a controlled substance. The consequence of the Copenhagen Amendment is
shown in Table 1.3.

The Parties in Copenhagen took  a number of decisions which concern the work  of the
Technology and Economic  Assessment Panel and its Committees. Decision IV/13, on
"Progress": (2)  To  request the  Technology  and Economics Assessment Panel and its
Technical and Economics Options Committees to report annually to the OEWG  of the
Parties to the Montreal Protocol the technical progress in reducing the use and emissions
of controlled substances and assess the use of alternatives, particularly their direct and
indirect global warming effects.
In 1993  and 1994, therefore, the Technology and Economic Assessment Panel  issued a
progress report on the technical progress in reducing the use and emissions of controlled
substances. In 1994,  next to the technical progress, the report, amongst others, contained
information on essential use recommendations, on recovery and recycling, on inadvertent
losses during production and handling, and also on HCFCs.  This according to  decision
IV/30,   "HCFCs":  (a)  to  evaluate alternative substances and technologies  to the
application for HCFCs as refrigerant and as insulation gas in rigid foam; (b) to identify
other  applications for HCFCs,  if any, where other more environmentally  suitable
alternatives or technologies are not available.

The Parties  also  decided  a new assessment  to  be  carried  out  in  1994 according to
Decision IV/13, "Assessment reports" :
(3) To request the three assessment panels to update their reports and submit them to the
secretariat by 30 November 1994 for consideration by the OEWG and  by  the seventh
meeting  of the Panics to the Montreal Protocol. These assessments should cover all major
facets discussed in the 199.1 assessments^ with enhanced emphasis on methyl bromide. The
scientific assessment; should also include an. evaluation of the impact of subsonic aircraft
on ozone;
(4) To encourage the panels to meet once a year to enable the cochairpersons....

They  also  decided   that  the Technology  and  Economic  Assessment Panel  should
investigate the feasibility of a control schedule for HCFCs in the Article 5(1) paragraph 1
countries,  according  to  Decision V/19,  "Control measures to be applicable to Parties
operating under paragraph 1 of  Article 5(1) with respect to the controlled substances in
Groups I and II  of Annex C and  under Annex E" :
(1)  To  request the   Scientific Assessment Panel and the Technology and Economics
Assessment Panel to assess the following in accordance with Article 6 of the Protocol and
to submit their combined report,  through the Secretariat, by 30 November  at the latest, to
the Seventh Meeting  of the Parties:
(a) what base year, initial levels, control schedules and phaseout date for  consumption of
controlled substances in Group  I  of Annex  C are feasible for application to Parties
operating under paragraph 1 of Article 5;
(b) what base year, initial levels, control schedules and phaseout date for  consumption of
controlled substances in  Group II of Annex  C are feasible for application to Parties
operating under paragraph 1 of Article 5;
                                                                                21

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 (c) what base year, initial levels, control schedules andphaseout date for consumption of
 controlled substances in Annex E are feasible for application to Parties operating under
 paragraph 1 of Article 5;
 (2) To request the OEWG to consider....

 The Parties  in  Copenhagen also considered the operation of the  Interim  Multilateral
 Fund, which was decided in London,  1990. From that moment, the Multilateral Fund
 started its operation and its Executive Committee considered country programmes, work
 programmes for the implementing agencies involved (UNEP, UNDP, UNIDO and the
 World Bank) and specific project proposals for approval. By the end of  1994, a large
 number of country programmes and project proposals had been approved,  and several
 strategic policy decisions had been taken. Projects deal with all the application sectors of
 controlled  substances  in  a large number  of Article  5(1) paragraph  1 countries.  An
 important  part  is formed by  projects  that  deal  with the conversion from  CFCs to
 substitutes  in the refrigeration circuit and in foams of domestic refrigerators. In order to
 analyse technologies for implementation, the World Bank decided to install an advisory
 group in 1992, the Ozone Operation Resource Group (OORG). Under the chairmanship
 of several of its members, working groups derived a number of recommendations for the
 implementation of projects. Where it concerns refrigeration, the latest recommendations
 for foams  and  refrigerants in  household  refrigerators were published in  May  1994,
 recommendations for the conversion of chillers were published in August 1994.

 The present  status (November  1994) is that the Montreal  Protocol has been ratified  by
 142 countries, Parties to the Protocol. The London Amendment has been ratified by  96
 Parties and the Copenhagen Amendment has been ratified  by 35 Parties and  has entered
 into force June 1994.
 1.3   UNEP Assessment Panels

 The 1992 Copenhagen Meeting of the Parties to the Montreal Protocol reconvened the
 1991 UNEP Assessment Panels, which consisted of the Scientific, Environmental Effects
 and Technology and Economics Assessment Panels. The three international panels should
 report on:
 •   the scientific findings  and observations regarding  stratospheric ozone depletion and
    related phenomena and issues (e.g. Ozone Depletion and Global Warming Potentials);
 •   the environmental  and public health effects of stratospheric ozone depletion;
 •   the technical feasibility and earliest possible date in each of the major use sectors, of
    reducing emissions and phasing out production and consumption of controlled (ozone
    depleting) substances and the related anticipated economic concerns.

 The 1994 Technical  and Economic Assessment study  has  been carried  out by the
 Technology and Economic  Assessment Panel  and its  seven  Options  Committees.  The
 seven Committees (the six committees mentioned under  1.2, plus  the Methyl  Bromide
 Technical Options Committee) consisted of more than 300 experts from  a large number
 of countries (for a list see the Technology and Economic Assessment Panel Report 1994).
The 1994 Options Committees  consist  of some  members  of  the 1989 and  1991
 Committees and additional  new  experts, to provide  the widest possible international
participation in the review. Experts from industry, government, academic institutions and
non-government organisations were  invited to prepare comprehensive  and  technically
specific "Options Reports".  UNEP staff, Technical and Economics Panel Chairpersons
and  the  Technical Options  Committee  Chairs and  Cochairs contacted  producers,
equipment manufacturers,  trade  associations,  users,  research  institutions,  standards
making organisations and others to arrange for comprehensive technical input.
22

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The Options Committee reports have been subject to a peer review before final release.
The final version of the reports will be distributed internationally by UNEP.

The Options Committee reports form part of the UNEP review under Article 6 of the
Montreal Protocol. Article 6 specifically directs Parties (nations that have ratified the
Protocol) to assess whether the control measures, as provided for in Article 2 of the
Protocol, are sufficient to meet the goals for reducing ozone depletion based on a review
of the current state of knowledge on technical, scientific, environmental and economic
issues related to stratospheric ozone protection.

This Technical Options Report on Refrigeration, AC and Heat Pumps is part of the work
of the Technology and Economic Assessment Panel under Decision IV/13. The
information collected will also be part of the Technology and Economic Assessment
Report 1994. This report, as well as the reports of the two Panels on Science and
Environmental Effects, will be considered by the Parties for further decisions to be taken
at their 7th Meeting in Vienna, 1995.

Technological and economic measures to reduce the dependence on ozone depleting
substances will be considered against the background of the 1994 findings of the
Scientific Assessment Panel (consisting of 226 of the world's leading atmospheric science
experts). An executive summary of recent major findings and observations was already
published in September 1994 and contains, amongst others, the following paragraphs (in
abbreviated form, compare the Scientific Assessment Panel Report, UNEP/WMO, 1994):

• The atmospheric growth rate of several major ozone depleting substances have
slowed, demonstrating the expected impact of the Montreal protocol and its
Amendments and Adjustments .Peak total chlorine/bromine loading in the
troposphere is expected to occur in 1994, but the stratospheric abundance's of
chlorine and bromine are expected to continue to grow for a few more years,
increasing global ozone losses are predicted (other things being equal) for the
remainder of the decade, with gradual recovery in the 21st century.
• The atmospheric abundance's of several of the CFC substitutes are increasing, as
anticipated. With phaseout dates for the CFCs and other ozone depleting substances
.now fixed by international agreements, several hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs)
and hydrofluorocarbons (MFCs) are being manufactured and used as substitutes. The
atmospheric growth of some of these compounds (e.g. HCFC-22) has been observed
for several years, and the growth rate of others (e.g., HCFC-142b and HCFC-141b)
are now being monitored. Tropospheric chlorine in HCFCs increased by 5 ppt/year in
1989 and about 10 ppt/year in 1992.
• Record low global ozone levels were measured over the last two years. Anomalous
ozone decreases were observed in the mid latitudes of both hemispheres in 1992 and
1993. The Northern Hemisphere decreases were larger than those in the Southern
hemisphere. Globally, ozone values were 1-2% lower than would be expected from
an extrapolation of the trend prior to 1991, allowing for solar-cycle and
quasibiannual-oscillation (QBO) effects. The 1994 global ozone levels are returning to
values closer.to those expected from the longer-term downward trend.
• The conclusion that anthropogenic chlorine and bromine compounds, coupled with
surface chemistry on natural polar stratospheric panicles, are the cause of polar
ozone depletion has been further strengthened.
• The Antarctic ozone "holes" of 1992 and 1993 were the most severe on record.
• Ozone losses have been detected in the Arctic winter stratosphere, and their links to
halogen chemistry have been established.
• Stratospheric ozone losses cause a global-mean negative radiative
forcing Calculations indicate that, on a global mean, the ozone losses between
1980 and 1990 offset about 20% of the radiative forcing due to the well mixed
23

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     greenhouse-gas increases during that period (i.e. carbon  dioxide, methane,  nitrous
     oxide and halocarbons).

 The  Scientific  Assessment Report  also   deals  with  six  "Implications  For  Policy
 Formulation", which are quoted here (including the full text of one of the implications,
 see for full information the Scientific Assessment Report, UNEP/WMO 1994):

 •   The Montreal Protocol and its Amendments and Adjustments are reducing the impact
     of anthropogenic halocarbons on the ozone layer and should eventually eliminate this
     ozone depletion.
 •   Peak global ozone losses are expected to occur during the next several years.
 •  Approaches to lowering stratospheric chlorine and bromine abundance's are limited.
     Further controls on ozone-depleting substances would not be expected to significantly
     change the timing or the magnitude of the peak stratospheric halocarbon abundance's
    and hence peak ozone loss. However, there are  four approaches that  would steepen
     the initial fall from the peak halocarbon levels in the early  decades of the  next
     century:
 (i) If emissions of methyl bromide from agricultural, structural and industrial  activities
    were to be eliminated  in the year 2001, then the integrated effective future chlorine
     loading above the 1980 level (which is related to  the cumulative future loss of ozone)
     is predicted to be 13% less over the next 50 years relative to full compliance to the
    Amendments and Adjustments to the Protocol.
 (ii) If emissions of HCFCs  were to  be totally eliminated by  the  year 2004,  then the
    integrated effective future loading above the 1980 level is predicted to  be 5% less
    over the next 50 years relative to full compliance to the Amendments and Adjustments
    to the Protocol.
 (iii)  If halons presently  contained  in existing equipment were never released  to the
    atmosphere, then the  integrated effective future loading  above the  1980 level  is
    predicted  to-be 10% less over the next 50 years relative  to full compliance to the
    Amendments and Adjustments to the Protocol.
 (iv)  If CFCs presently contained  in existing equipment  were never released  to the
    atmosphere, then  the  integrated effective future loading  above the  1980 level  is
    predicted  to be 3% less  over the next 50 years relative to full compliance  to the
    Amendments and Adjustments  to the Protocol.
 •   Failure to adhere to the  international agreements will delay recovery of the ozone
    layer.
 •   Many of the substitutes for the  CFCs and halons are also notable greenhouse gases.
 •   Consideration  of the ozone change will be one necessary ingredient in understanding
    climate change.
 1.4   Terms of reference for the Refrigeration Committee

 The Technical Options Report on Refrigeration, AC and Heat Pumps has been drafted in
 the form of a number of sections (one section on thermodynamic data, eight sections on
 application  areas,  and  sections  on  refrigerant  conservation,  developing  countries,
 information dissemination and refrigerant consumption). The structure was chosen similar
 to the structure of the 1991 Options Committee report.
 Each of the sections consisted of 6-12 experts in the specific sector,  chaired by one or
 two experts who did the larger part of the drafting  and the  co-ordination within the
 section.  The  Committee  included  representatives  from  African,  Asian, Australian,
 European, Latin and North American governments and companies (see Table 1.4).
24

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Table 1.4 "Member countries" of UNEP's Refrigeration, AC and Heat
Pumps Committee
Austria
Belgium
Brazil
Canada
China, PR
Denmark
France
Germany
India
Italy
Japan
Kenya
Malaysia
Netherlands
New Zealand
Norway
Saudi Arabia
Sweden
Switzerland
Thailand
United Kingdom
United States

Each of the sections consisted of 6-12 experts in the specific sector, chaired by one or
two experts who did the larger part of the drafting and the co-ordination within the
section. The Committee included representatives from African, Asian, Australian,
European, Latin and North American governments and companies (see Table 1.4).
Affiliations of the Committee members are listed in Table 1.5 (about 100 organisations
were involved in the drafting of the report). The names of all the experts are given in
Annex II to this Options Report.
Several drafts of the report were made, reviewed by the separate sections and discussed in
Options Committee meetings (draft End 1993, draft May 1994, draft July 1994, peer
review draft September 1994 and final report November 1994). Committee meetings
were held in Germany (Hannover), Italy (Padova), the Netherlands (Maastricht), and the
United States (Washington D.C., twice, and Purdue University, Indiana).

As stated, the structure of the 1994 Refrigeration Techical Options Committee Report is
similar to the one of the Options Report 1991, except for the fact that the report contains
more data on the global consumption of controlled substances over the period 1986-1993,
and some estimates concerning the future global consumption of controlled substances in
specific refrigeration, AC and heat pumps sectors. With technology proceeding rapidly
the report is no simple update of the 1991 report, but all options described in 1991 are re-
examined taking into account the present range of technological developments.

Next to the section on "Refrigerant conservation", the report contains two more general
sections. One carries the title "Developing country aspects" and deals with specific
problems and actions required in Article 5(1) countries. A second one examines the
dissemination of information and the need for research co-ordination. This section has
been conceived in order to stimulate acceleration of the conversion process on a global
scale; it contains an extensive list with contact addresses for information. All sections
describing application areas of controlled substances consider the feasibility of options in
new and existing equipment (e.g. retrofits), give specific information on the need for
fluorocarbons (HCFCs and HFCs), and consider the potential of recovery and recycling.

The report has been peer reviewed by a large number of institutions and associations,
each of them reviewing the different sections in a co-ordinated effort in a tight time frame
(see Table 1.6).
25

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Table 1.5
Organisations whose employees served on the 1994 VNEP TOC
Refrigeration
Adtcc Services Ltd.
L&E Teknik og Management
Allied Signal Inc.
Lloyds Register of Shipping
Americold Corp.
Lyngby Tech University, Refr.Lab.
AR1. Air Conditg and Refr. Institute
Matsushita Electric Ind. Ltd
Assoc. Bur des Exploit Prigor ABEP
Matsushita Refr. Co
Battelle Pacific Northwest Labs
Meat Industry Research Inst NZ
Behr GmbH
Ministry of Defence UK
Calm (Consultant)
MITI Japan
Caneta Research Inc.
Mitsubishi Heavy Industries
Currier Co.
Nairobi University, Mech. Eng.
Carrier Transicold
Nat. Chemical Laboratory Pune
Chalmers University of Technology
NIST. Nat. Inst. Stand. Technology Bouldei
Copeland Co.
NIST, Nat. Inst. Stand. Technology Gaithersbi
Daikin Industries Ltd.
Nippondenso Co.
Danfoss GmbH
Oak Ridge Natl Laboratory ORNL
Dchon Service SA
Ober-Oesterreichische Kraftwerke AG
Dunham Bush Inc.
Ozone Committee Saudi Arabia
DuPont de Nemours, E.I.
Politecnico di Milano, Eng. Dept.
HA Technology Capenhurst
Re / genT Co
Ecole des Mines Paris
Remco Ltd.
Elf Atochem France
Robinair Division, SPX Div
Elf-Atochem North America
Sabroe Refrigeration A/A
Embrace SA
Sanden AC
Environment Canada
Sanyo Electric Co.
Fisher and Paykel. Refr. Div.
Schatten N.V./SA
FKWGmbH Hannover
Sea Containers Ltd.
Frigoscandia
SINTEF. Div. Ref. Engin
Gas Research Institute Chicago
Societe Trane France
Gas Cooling Center
SRCRA Cambridge
General Electric, Appliance Div.
Star Refrigeration Ltd.
Gen. Mach. Res. Inst. GMRI. Hefei
Sulzer Friotherm Ltd.
Gilkey (Consultant)
Sun Test Engineering
Harrison Division of General Motors
Technical University Eindhc
Haukas (Consultant)
The Trane Company
Heat Pump Tech Center Tokyo
Toshiba Co.
Hoechst AG
Hussman Co.
Tsing Hua University. Dept. Mech. Ei
Unite Hermetique SA
IEA Heat Pump Centre
Unitor Ships Service
Indian Inst. Technology IIT Bombay
University of Hannover. Refr. Er
Indian Inst. Technology HT New Delhi
University of Hannover, Thermodv
Inform. Centre Refr Heat Pumps Karlsruhe
U.S. Environmental Protection Ai
Integral Technologic Plensburg
Valeo Thermique
Int. Institute of Refrigeration IIR
Vilter Manufacturing Co.
Int. Institute of Ammonia Refrigeration nAR
Whirlpool Italia M&T Refr Deptmt
Japanese Refr and AC Ind Ass JRAIA
World Bank
Japanese Refrigeration Association
WS Atkins Energy Ltd.
Keio University. Mech. Engineering
Xi'an Jiatong Univ. Dept Power Machi
Kelvinator of India Ltd.
York Int. Co
LGN Energikonsult
26

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       Table 1.6     Organisations contacted for the peer review of the UNEP TOC
                    Refrigeration Report
 AFEAS         Alternative Fluorocarbon Environmental Acceptability Study
 AFF            French Association of Refrigeration
 ARI            Air Conditioning and Refrigeration Institute
 ASERCOM     European Association of Compressor Manufacturers
 ASHRAE       American Soc. of Heating, Refrigeration and Air Conditioning Engineers
 BIR            British Institute of Refrigeration
 BRA            British Refrigeration Association
 CECOMAF     European Refrigeration Equipment Manufacturers
 DKV           German Refrigeration Society
 EnCan          Environment Canada
 FOE            Friends of the Earth International
 Greenpeace     Greenpeace International
 IIAR            International Institute of Ammonia Refrigeration
 IIR             International Institute of Refrigeration
 JRAIA          Japanese Refrigeration and Air Conditioning Industry Association
 MVMA         Motor Vehicles Manufacturers Association
 ZVEI	German Refrigerator Manufacturer Association	
1.5    Refrigeration, air conditioning and heat pumps

1.5.1  General remarks

With a decreasing use of CFCs, especially in aerosols, foams, solvents and miscellaneous
uses, and a less  rapid decline in the use of CFCs for refrigeration (see section  15), the
percentage of the total CFC  consumption for refrigeration has  been steadily  increasing
over the period  1986-1993. The economic impact of refrigeration  technology  is much
more significant than generally believed. While the yearly investment in machinery and
equipment may  approach  $100,000 million,  the  value of the products  treated by
refrigeration  will be ten times this amount.  This is one of the reasons that economic
impacts of the phaseout of CFCs and  HCFCs are difficult to estimate. It is clear that
investment in technology using CFCs should be avoided anyhow, investment in HCFC
technology should be subject to strategic considerations on the availability of HCFCs,
emissions and economic aspects of equipment operation.
The  future of mankind,  and his food supply in particular, depends on the availability of
sufficient energy and on the availability of efficient refrigeration methods. Of course, this
aspect  must be more than balanced by a concern for the conservation of the biosphere,
including in particular the global warming effect. Energy efficiency, therefore, is one of
the most important aspects. In all application sectors described in this report, most of the
attention is focused on the vapour compression cycle. This cycle has so far provided the
most simple, economic and  efficient  way  for  refrigeration (this  includes  cycles for
fluorocarbons, ammonia and hydrocarbons).

As an  implementing agency for conversion  investment projects in domestic refrigeration
in the developing countries, the World Bank uses a number of recommendations, derived
by its  OORG advisory group. Although there  are differences in  the investments for
different types of refrigerants, they illustrate  the importance of the vapour compression
cycle in the conversion, whether on fluoro- or hydrocarbons:
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• Good practice, recovery and recycling, adequate servicing and maintenance practices.
supporting infrastructure and training projects should be considered for
implementation as a first priority in all refrigeration and air conditioning sectors.
Recovery should be associated with effective arrangements for recycling or
reclamation.
• HFC-134a is a recommended alternative for all CFC-12 based domestic
refrigerator/freezer applications. Effective HFC-134a technology transfer is of utmost
importance and should be within the framework of existing working relationships or
agreements with technology suppliers established for this purpose.
• Isobutane is a recommended alternative for a large part of the CFC-12 domestic
refrigerator/freezer applications. Safety issues currently preclude applications such as
automatic defrost appliances and cost effectiveness is adversely affected if a range of
safety design features are necessary. Cost effectiveness compared to other options
varies from comparable to much lower, depending on costs for compressor
conversion and safety design features. Isobutane technology transfer is conditional on
the support of a technology developing partner experienced in the production of
comparable refrigerator/freezer for the commercial market. It is recommended that
project documentation should require a signed agreement by the technology partner
(at the time of bidding) that it will provide assurances, on safety issues to the
enterprise and these are considered to be adequate by the implementing agency and
the OORG reviewer.
• Blends containing HCFCs do not constitute a final solution to ODS phaseout in
domestic refrigerator/ freezer applications. Technology transfer opportunities are also
limited due to lack of experience/ use in developed countries. Also, given the
anticipated difficulties in servicing such equipment, the use of such blends should be
considered only in cases where country specific circumstances warrant them.
• HFC-152a is a viable alternative and its use can be recommended in circumstances
where suppliers or institutions experienced in the critical issues associated with the
HFC-152a technology are available. Since it is a flammable fluid, its use will require
analogous constraints and incorporation of safety design features as discussed under
paragraph 3.
• Conversion to HFC or isobutane based new refrigeration equipment in a developing
country should be phased, with the first phase encompassing pilot production, with
emphasis on reliability. Conversion to alternative refrigerant technology should
automatically imply critical assessment as to the impact on the energy efficiency of
the equipment.

1.5.2 Energy efficiency

Next to ozone depletion, global warming is the main issue governing the selection of
refrigerant chemicals for the near- mid- and long-term. In all energy related uses, the
relation between the CO2 produced in electricity generation (to operate the product) and
the direct global warming of the substitute chemical have to be taken into account. This
was already described in the 1989 Refrigeration report, and, more extensively, in the
1991 Options report. AFEAS, the Alternative Fluorocarbon Environmental Acceptability
Study, cosponsored by the US Department of Energy, conducted a study in 1990/91 into
the importance of the global warming potential of substitutes compared to the efficiency
in the operation of energy related applications (the total equivalent warming impact,
TEWI); the summary of this report was attached to the 1991 Options report.
Although it does not form a direct issue within the framework of the Montreal Protocol,
consideration on energy efficiency and direct global warming should play an important
role in the selection of future chemicals. Options for energy efficient operation form an
important issue in each of the sections of the Refrigeration report.
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AFEAS, again cosponsored by the U.S. Department of Energy, conducted a study
"Energy and global warming impacts of not-in-kind and next generation CFC and HCFC
alternatives" and will publish a report in 1994/95. Particularly, alternative chemicals and
technologies are considered as substitutes for CFCs, HCFCs, and the use of the vapour
compression cycle for refrigeration and air conditioning. Among these alternatives are:
- HFCs with a zero ODP for use in conventional vapour compression cycles;
- Hydrocarbons and CO2 vapour compression cycles;
- Ammonia compression systems;
- Water based vapour compression systems;
- Air cycle and thermoacoustic compression systems;
- Stirling cycle refrigeration;
- Absorption and adsorption heat pumping and/or refrigeration cycles;
- Magnetic and thermoelectric refrigeration.
The AFEAS report examines the 1994 status of each of these technologies and their
potential as alternatives to the existing technologies based on CFCs and HCFCs. In
addition, the report contains an evaluation of the total equivalent warming impacts
(TEWI) for those alternative technologies which are close enough to commercialisation
that performance data are available. AFEAS also conducted two workshops on non-
fluorocarbon technologies which were held in 1993 (Breckenridge, USA and Wiesbaden,
Germany) and were chaired by independent panels of experts. One of the observations
from these workshops was that the vapour compression cycle -using environmentally
acceptable alternatives- still has the best long-term promise for energy efficiency.
Reports on the above technologies will be available from the AFEAS organisation in
1995.
A preliminary summary an these technologies, as made up by small number of TOC
members, is attached to this report as Annex I.

1.5.3 HCFCs

Alternatives to HCFCs are becoming commercially available. Blends of HFCs are often
propagated as the (long term) substitutes; this certainly holds for existing equipment and
retrofit procedures. For new equipment, non-fluorocarbon cycles may also form an
alternative in selected cases. Information can be found in the different sections of this
report.
However, a rational approach to freeze and phaseout the production of HCFCs, as
transitional chemicals, should allow a minimum time period to permit the industry to
develop and commercialise alternatives (which is underway), and should further allow a
rational phasing in of new (i.e. replacements for the transitional chemical equipment)
equipment in order to avoid high obsolescence costs. This particularly relates to the
servicing of existing equipment. Too early or premature measures to phaseout transitional
chemicals could be counterproductive, since there will be no incentive for refrigeration
equipment manufacturers to invest in HCFC technology and for a large numbers of users
to change away from CFCs. In particular the necessary incentives should be provided to
Article 5(1) countries to transition as soon as possible from CFCs.
The above is in particular valid for chillers. The larger part of the chillers in the world
(the majority being on CFC-11) has not been retrofitted from CFCs to substitutes. The
only alternative available for CFC-11 chillers is so far HCFC-123; blends cannot be used
due to the frequently applied flooded evaporator systems. E.g. for CFC-chillers in the
Article 5(1) countries, the World Bank OORG recommendations include the conversion
to both HCFC-123 and HFC-134a.

As a conclusion, a phasedown schedule for HCFCs has to take into account many
different effects. In refrigeration and air conditioning this also relates to obsolescence and
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  long term servicing needs, in fact to confidence at the user level. While not making a
  recommendation for certain phaseout schedules, it will be clear that a not too stringent
  phaseout date combined with a low ceiling in the consumption ("cap") will be stimulating
  conversions more than earlier phaseout dates with a higher ceiling in consumption. This
  will also work out positively on the chlorine loading of the atmosphere in the 1996-2005
  period.

  1.5.4 Contents of this report

  Section  2 presents  the availability of thermodynamic data for HCFCs  and HCFC
  replacements, sections 3 through 11 deal with the dependence or independence of each  of
  the application sectors on HCFCs, section 12 deals with the improved  containment  of
  refrigerants in systems including recovery, and section  14 describes the ongoing research
  and development, including the one on HCFC alternatives.
  In order to support further discussions on HCFC consumption, section 16 in this report
  gives the HCFC consumption over the period 1986-1993 as well as estimates regarding
  near future consumption levels (until the year 2000).
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Refrigerant data
2.1 Scope

The requirements for fluids which might serve as replacements for the CFC and/or
HCFC refrigerants in the vapour compression cycle are considered, and a list of
candidates is presented. The focus of this section is on the thermophysical properties.
Included are a discussion of the thermophysical and other properties required to evaluate
a candidate refrigerant and a summary of the available data.
2.2 Overview

2.2.1 Present refrigeration equipment

2.2.1.1 Thermodynamic cycles

Refrigerants are the working fluids in refrigeration, air-conditioning, and heat pumping
equipment. The great majority of such equipment operates on the vapour compression
cycle. Other cycles can produce refrigeration or heat pumping. Air cycles such as the
reverse Brayton cycle utilise air as both the working fluid and the cooling medium. Such
cycles are often used in aircraft because of weight and space limitations. Reverse Stirling
cycles employing a gaseous working fluid find use in low power applications at cryogenic
temperatures. Absorption cycles replace the compressor of the vapour compression cycle
with a heat-driven absorption/desorption process to generate the required pressure
difference between the condenser and evaporator.

2.2.1.2 Vapour compression equipment

In the basic vapour compression cycle, heat is removed from a low temperature source
(such as a refrigerated space) by the evaporation of refrigerant at low pressure within a
heat exchanger; the low pressure vapour is compressed to a higher pressure by the input
of mechanical work, raising the saturation temperature so that heat can be rejected to a
high temperature sink (ambient air in the case of most refrigeration applications) by the
condensation of refrigerant. The condensate is passed through an expansion device to
reduce its pressure to that of the evaporator, completing the cycle. Modifications to the
basic vapour compression cycle include additional heat exchangers to increase efficiency
and the cascading of two cycles to obtain refrigeration at lower temperatures.

Despite the existence of other refrigeration cycles and their use in specialised niches,
vapour compression equipment dominates in most refrigeration and heat pumping
applications. This is due to the simplicity of the basic vapour compression cycle, both
conceptually and in terms of the required hardware, the ability to closely approximate the
theoretical cycle in practical equipment, and good efficiency, stemming, in part, from the
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utilisation of phase-change heat transfer processes. The remainder of this section will be
limited to refrigerants for use in the vapour compression cycle.

2.2.2 Present refrigerants

The predominant refrigerants in use today for most applications are members of the
halocarbon family of chemical compounds. To understand this dominance, it is necessary
to examine the requirements for the ideal refrigerant. These are summarised in Table 2.1
/McL87/.

2.2.2.1 Health and safety requirements

The most essential requirement is chemical stability all the other properties would be
meaningless if the fluid decomposed or reacted in use to form something else. The next
most important characteristics relate to health and safety. Numerous safety codes (e.g.
/ASH94/, /BSI80/) require the use of a non-flammable refrigerant with a very low order
of toxicity in residential and many commercial applications. It is in these categories that
the halocarbons excel over all other fluids for use in the vapour compression cycle.
Indeed, it was the conviction that the success of the domestic refrigerator demanded a
fluid safer than the ammonia and sulphur dioxide then in use that led to the development
of the CFCs in the late 1920's /Mid37/. This means that alternative refrigerants must be
very carefully investigated with respect to their toxicity, including not only acute health
risks but also carcinogenic, mutagenic and teratogenic risks.

However, safety risks of the refrigerant cannot be separated from the overall safety of the
equipment /Cal94a/. The design of all refrigeration systems must consider the risks
associated with the chosen refrigerant. Risks can be managed in many ways, but usually
at increased costs. Flammable and/or toxic refrigerants are permitted by most safety
codes if they are contained within special machinery rooms. Flammable refrigerants have
long been used in certain industrial processes where access is restricted to trained
personnel. Small systems (such as a residential heat pump) using a flammable refrigerant
could be located entirely outside, with a secondary fluid exchanging heat with the
conditioned space. Ignition sources, both within the equipment (such as sparks from
electrical switches) and without (for example, a nearby gas furnace), must be considered
in any use of a flammable refrigerant. The risks of a flammable refrigerant can also be
mitigated by using very small quantities of refrigerant. This last strategy has been
important in the recent acceptance of hydrocarbons in domestic refrigerators in some
countries, particularly Germany. Most refrigeration systems operate at significant
pressures and must be designed as pressure vessels. Because of these factors, retrofitting
any refrigerant, and particularly a flammable refrigerant, in existing equipment must be
done with great care. This also holds for servicing equipment with flammable refrigerants
for which manufacturers have been concentrating on the design of procedures and have
started doing risk analyses.

2.2.2.2 Environmental requirements

To these traditional health and safety criteria, environmental criteria must be added. A
refrigerant, if released to the atmosphere, should not contribute to stratospheric ozone
depletion, tropospheric smog formation or global warming. The "natural refrigerants"
(e.g. ammonia, the hydrocarbons, and carbon dioxide) generally excel in this category.
The great stability of some of the halocarbons, long considered an asset, is now seen to
be a liability in this regard. However, any detrimental environmental effects of a
refrigerant will be mitigated by containment within the refrigeration system.
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Table 2.1
Ideal refrigerant criteria
Chemical:
Stable and inert
Health, Safety and Environmental:
Low toxicity
Nonflammable
Does not degrade the environment
Thermophysical Properties:
Critical point and boiling point temperature
appropriate for the application
Low molar vapour heat capacity
Low viscosity
High thermal conductivity
Miscellaneous:
Miscible with lubricating oil (some applications)
High vapour dielectric strength
Low freezing point
Materials compatibility
Easy leak detection
Low cost
2.2.2.3 Physical properties

The vapour compression cycle takes advantage of a change in physical state of a working
fluid brought about by the application of heat and mechanical work. The salient
properties characterising the physical state of a substance are its thermophysical (i.e.
thermodynamic and transport) properties. Thus, to be useful as a refrigerant, the
thermophysical properties of a substance must satisfy certain requirements. These
properties determine not only whether a fluid is suitable for use at all as a refrigerant but
also the efficiency and economy of the cycle. However, there will not be a single
alternative refrigerant suitable for all uses. The search for alternative refrigerants is one
for a variety of substances, each of them best satisfying the requirements -and balancing
the trade-offs for a particular application.

2.2.2.4 Thermodynamic properties

The thermodynamic requirements of a refrigerant in the vapour compression cycle have
been considered by a number of authors, including /Ale87/, /Ang88/, /Ber86/,
/McL88a/, /McL90/, and /Nar88/. While these various reports focus on different aspects
and different applications, all are in essential agreement. They reveal that different
aspects of the vapour compression cycle lead to different, and often contradictory,
thermodynamic requirements. The most important conflict exists between the efficiency
of a cycle and its heating or cooling capacity. The efficiency generally increases as the
critical temperature of the refrigerant increases while the capacity decreases with
increasing critical temperature. This represents an economic trade-off. The efficiency
determines the operating cost while the capacity influences the capital cost of the
equipment, particularly the compressor. The critical pressure also has a significant effect,
with capacity' increasing with increasing critical pressure. These analyses also imply that
replacement fluids should be simple molecules with critical points and boiling points
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similar to existing fluids, at least for use in the simple vapour compression cycle. For
centrifugal compressors, the capacity is inversely proportional to the square root of the
refrigerant molecular weight, again favouring simple molecules. More complex
molecules may be a better match for cycles incorporating intra-cycle heat exchange or
other modifications /McL90/.

2.2.2.5 Transport properties

The viscosity and thermal conductivity have a large impact on the design and required
size of system components, particularly the heat exchangers. Low viscosity and high
thermal conductivity are desirable for refrigerants. While the halocarbons have transport
properties that make them good refrigerants, other compounds, notably ammonia and
simple hydrocarbons such as propane, have superior characteristics /McL88b/.

2.2.2.6 Other properties

A number of other, more practical, criteria are also necessary or, at least, desirable.
Solubility and miscibility with lubricating oils and high vapour dielectric strength are
important, especially for systems employing hermetic compressors. A freezing point
below the lowest expected system temperature is necessary, and a means of easily
detecting leaks is desirable. Compatibility with materials commonly used in refrigeration
systems, including lubricating oils, seals, hoses, and motor insulation's, as well as the
metals used to fabricate heat exchangers and compressors, is obviously required. While
the cost of the fluid must not be exorbitant, historically the cost of the CFC refrigerants
has been a tiny fraction of the total system cost, and moderate cost increases for the
alternative refrigerants can be tolerated. However the use of a particular fluid must not
inflict extraordinary costs for the equipment, either due to corrosion problems, high
pressures, or exceptional safety precautions. The halocarbon and hydrocarbon refrigerants
offer very favourable properties for this final set of criteria. Ammonia does limit the
choices, but suitable materials are available.

2.2.3 Summary of present practice

In summary, there are very good reasons for the present use of halocarbon refrigerants in
the vapour compression cycle. The recent acceptance of hydrocarbon refrigerants in some
applications in some countries may signal a shift in the relative importance of some of the
selection criteria. Many other cycles are possible (and some are currently used in
specialised applications), but the vapour compression cycle offers the most efficient and
economical choice for most applications. This is not likely to change because of the need
to replace the ozone depleting refrigerants.

2.2.4 Refrigerant nomenclature

2.2.4.1 Numerical designation

Refrigerants are most commonly referred to by a numbering system formalised into a
standard by ASHRAE /ASH92b/. This system has been accepted by the International
Organisation for Standardisation /ISO74/ and as a national standard by several countries.
In this system, a two- to four-digit number is used to designate the chemical formula. The
right-most digit is the number of fluorine atoms in the molecule. The second digit from
the right is the number of hydrogen atoms plus 1. The third digit from the right is the
number of carbon atoms minus 1; this digit is omitted if 0 (i.e., single carbon). The
fourth digit from the right is 1 if a carbon-carbon double bond is present; it is omitted for
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saturated compounds. The presence of bromine is indicated by appending B with the
number of bromine atoms. Except for these indicated numbers of fluorine, hydrogen, and
bromine the carbon atoms are assumed to be fully saturated with chlorine. Different
isomeric forms of the same chemical formula are indicated by one or two lower case
letters appended to the number. Although not within the scope of the standard, the same
numbering scheme has been applied to the fluorinated ethers.

The ASHRAE standard also assigns numbers sequentially to refrigerant blends (400
series), azeotropes (500 series), miscellaneous organic compounds (600 series), and
inorganic compounds (700 and 7000 series). For the 400 series blends, the number may
be appended by an upper case letter; these appended letters are assigned sequentially to
designate particular blend compositions which have been commercialised.

2.2.4.2 Prefix letter

In the ASHRAE and ISO standards, the number is preceded by the letter "R" (this is the
most common usage), the word "Refrigerant" or a trade name. A prefix letter of "C" in
conjunction with the "R" indicates a cyclic compound. In response to current
usage, the ASHRAE standard /ASH92b/ allows the use of composition designating
prefixes, such as CFC-12 or HFC-134a. "CFC" indicates a molecule composed of
chlorine, fluorine, and carbon. "HCFC" indicates hydrogen, chlorine, fluorine, and
carbon. "HFC" indicates hydrogen, fluorine, and carbon. "HCC" indicated hydrogen,
chlorine, and carbon. In present usage, the term CFC means a fully halogenated
compound. In the past, however, the term CFC sometimes was used to refer to the entire
family of halocarbon compounds, including those that contained hydrogen. A prefix of
"E" is an unofficial designation for a fluorinated ether. In common usage, composition
designating prefixes vary by language, for example, HCFC-22 is FCKW-22 in German.

2.3 Possibilities for alternatives

2.3.1 Pure fluids

A number of research centres have undertaken screenings of many possible candidates
based on limited property data or the methods mentioned above in Section 2.2.2.4. While
these efforts and the development of more reliable screening techniques should be
ongoing, a number of fluids can be identified as the most likely alternative refrigerants.

2.3.1.1 Halocarbons

Halocarbons are the focus of intense development efforts by industry. In particular, most
of the effort has focused on the one- and two-carbon HFCs and HCFCs. Fluorinated
propane (three-carbon) derivatives are also of interest.

2.3.1.2 "Natural refrigerants"

"Natural refrigerants" have seen increased use in recent years. This group includes
ammonia, water, carbon dioxide, and the simple hydrocarbons, such as ethane, propane,
butane, and isobutane. The term "natural" denotes a fluid which occurs naturally in the
environment. Water is, of course, ubiquitous in the environment. Ammonia and carbon
dioxide are produced by biological processes; any refrigeration use of these fluids would
involve quantities trivial in comparison to natural production. Ethane, propane, butane,
and isobutane are found in natural gas. While the global environmental impacts of
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releasing these fluids in the quantities which might be used in refrigeration applications
would be minimal, they are not necessarily benign on a highly local level (hydrocarbons
are considered VOCs). Ammonia is an excellent refrigerant but is toxic and flammable.
The hydrocarbons have good thermodynamic and transport properties but are highly
flammable.

2.3.1.3 Other fluids

Other fluids also show some promise. Fluorinated ethers are being investigated,
particularly for specialised applications for which no obvious halocarbon alternative
exists. The iodo- (iodine containing) .compounds have been proposed as possible
alternatives. CFsI, for example, is claimed to be non-flammable and nontoxic with an
atmospheric lifetime of only a few days /Nim94/. However, recent and, as yet
unpublished, tests conducted by a reputable toxicity testing laboratory indicate that CF3I
is a cardiac sensitiser at low levels compared to other halocarbon refrigerants; CFsI also
gave positive results in several genotoxicity .assays, indicating that it is a possible
mutagen. There are also serious concerns regarding the stability of both the fluorinated
ethers and iodo-compounds in refrigeration systems.

2.3.2 Mixtures

Refrigerant mixtures represent additional possibilities for replacement working fluids.
Mixtures can also allow the use of a refrigerant that would not be acceptable as a pure
fluid. The most obvious example is the combination of flammable and nonflammable
components to yield a nonflammable mixture. The availability of mixtures is dependent
both on the availability of the constituent components and also the development of
methods to handle mixtures in the charging and servicing of systems. A number of
mixtures are being produced in commercial quantities, particularly as HCFC-22 and R-
502 replacements and to service systems designed for CFC-12. Mixtures can be
categorised into three types.

2,3.2.1 Azeotropes

Azeotropes exist for particular compositions of some mixtures. Azeotropes exhibit a
maxima or minima in the dew and bubble curves. Like pure compounds, they boil and
condense at a constant temperature and have identical liquid and vapour compositions.
The azeotropic composition, however, varies (sometimes widely) with temperature and
pressure.

2,3.2.2 Zeotropic mixtures

Zeotropic mixtures (also called nonazeotropic mixtures and abbreviated NARM for
nonazeotropic refrigerant mixture) have compositions of coexisting liquid and vapour
which differ. Condensation and evaporation processes occur over a range of temperature
in contrast to the isothermal phase change seen with pure components or azeotropes. This
range of condensation or evaporation temperature is referred to as "temperature glide."
These effects can be exploited to enhance performance, but generally require equipment
modifications.

2.3.2.3 Near-azeotropes

Near-azeotropes exhibit such small deviations from azeotropic behaviour to be usable in
traditional refrigeration equipment without modification. Near-azeotropes offer the
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potential to tailor the properties of the working fluid to a particular application, possibly
to the point of obtaining a "drop-in" substitute for use in existing equipment. Some
so-called azeotropes are, in fact, near azeotropes over much of the typical operating
range.

2.3.3 Characteristics of Alternatives

2.3.3.1 Physical properties

A list of candidate pure fluids and mixtures is given in Table 2.2. The fluids are
separated into groups according to their commercial availability. The mixtures listed are
those that have been commercialised or that are the subject of active industrial research;
many other mixtures are possible. This table lists the fluid name or halocarbon number
and chemical formula along with four of the most fundamental thermophysical properties
per molecular mass (MW), normal boiling point temperature (NBP), critical temperature
(Tc), and critical pressure (Pc). For comparison, the fully halogenated compounds are
also listed. Most of the data in Table 2.2 have been compiled from the ARTI Refrigerant
Database /Cal94b/.

2.3.3.2 Safety data

Chronic toxicity is characterised in terms of Threshold Limit Values (TLVs) which
"represent conditions under which it is believed that nearly all workers can be repeatedly
exposed day after day without adverse health effects" /ACG92/. For volatile substances,
such as refrigerants, TLVs are expressed as parts per million volume concentrations in
air. The term TLV is a trademark of the American Conference of Governmental
Industrial Hygienists (ACGIH) and properly refers only to exposure limits fixed by that
group. Several manufacturers have evaluated similar indices in the absence of ACGIH
values; these are noted with an asterisk in Table 2.2. Acute toxicity is also a concern,
see, for example /Cal94a/.

Flammability is characterised in terms of two parameters. The lower flammable limit
(LFL) is defined by ASTM Standard E 681-85 as "the minimum concentration of a
combustible substance that is capable of propagating a flame through a homogeneous
mixture of the combustible and a gaseous oxidiser under the specified conditions of test"
/AST85/; the pressure. (ASHRAE Standard 34 specifies a different ignition source for
the halocarbons, but otherwise adopts the ASTM method.) Heat of combustion is also
listed; this parameter can be computed even for nonflammable fluids and is useful for
estimating whether a mixture of flammable and nonflammable constituents will sustain
and propagate a flame.

The ASHRAE Standard 34 /ASH92b/ safety classifications address both chronic toxicity
and flammability. The toxicity classifications are "A" (lower toxicity) and "B" (higher
toxicity). Flammability is classified as "1" (no flame propagation), "2" (lower
flammability), or ."3" (higher flammability)..The letters and numbers are combined into a
2x3 matrix , from Al to B3. The resulting safety classification, designated by a letter and
number, is tabulated in Table 2.2 where established. For mixtures, two classifications are
assigned: the first represents the classification of the mixture at the "as formulated"
composition, and the second is the "classification of the blend composition at the worst
case of fractionation."
37