THE TECHNICAL
AND ECONOMIC
FEASIBILITY
OF REPLACING
Case Studies in Zimbabwe, Thailand and Chile
IN DEVELOPING
COUNTRIES
STUDY FUNDERS
United States Environmental Protection Agency
Environment Canada
Swiss Agency for Development and Cooperation
International Development Research Centre
Friends of the Earth USA
Friends of the Earth Canada
Agriculture Canada
u g u
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The Technical and Economic
Feasibility of Replacing Methyl
Bromide in Developing Countries:
Case Studies in Zimbabwe,
Thailand and Chile
© 1996 Friends of the Earth
ISBN 0-913890-84-7
August 1996
REPORT EDITOR
Dr. Melanie Miller
Environmental Policy Consultant, New Zealand
CHAPTERS CONTRIBUTED BY
Dr. Melanie Miller
Environmental Policy Consultant, New Zealand
Mr. Peter Wilkinson
Xylocopa Systems, IPM Consultant, Zimbabwe
Dr. Amnaj Covanich, Mr. Vichian Hengsawad
Chiang Mai University, Thailand
Mr. Chuvit Sukprakarn
Head, Stored Product Insect Research Group,
Department of Agriculture, Thailand
Mr. Jose Olavarria, Mr. Rodrigo Ortiz,
Mr. Loreto Mora
INI A Agricultural Research Institute, Chile
PROJECT ADMINISTRATION
Ms. Corinna Gilfillan, Mr. Joe Mendelson,
Ms. Amanda Blankenship, Ms. Goldie H. Gider,
Mr. Ian Penn
Friends of the Earth USA
Dr. Dana Silk, Ms. Tina Guthrie,
Mr. Blaine Marchand, Ms. Pam Foster,
Friends of the Earth Canada
GRAPHIC DESIGN AND LAYOUT
Barbara Raab Design
Additional copies of this report are available for $20
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Executive
Summary
1. Introduction
This report presents the results of an international research project involving specialists from
diverse countries. Surveys were carried out in Zimbabwe, Thailand and Chile to identify
methyl bromide (MB) use patterns. The study reviewed examples of the costs and yields of
alternatives and identified technically feasible alternatives where possible. The report also
assessed barriers and possibilities for making cost-effective substitutions for MB, and produced
a cost-benefit overview, identifying economic opportunities in developing countries, such as
new industries to supply alternatives.
Zimbabwe, Thailand and Chile were selected for study because MB is important to key sectors
of their economies. The range of commodities and crops treated with MB in the three coun-
tries covers many of the uses in developing countries.
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2. Background to Research Project
2.1 OZONE LAYER DEPLETION
Measurable ozone depletion occurs in most regions of the world, except the tropics. The fol-
lowing examples illustrate the decline in ozone levels over developing countries during the
decade to 1991:
1-2% ozone decline near Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, increasing to 7-9% at the southern tip of
South America;
0.5-1% ozone decline near Harare, Zimbabwe, increasing to 3-4% at the southern end
of South Africa in the southern hemisphere;
2% ozone decline near Delhi, India, increasing to 4-7% above Beijing, China, in the north-
ern hemisphere (NASA 1992).
Global ozone levels (from 60°N to 60°S) fell by about 4% on average between 1980 and
1994 (WMO 1994:xxx). More recently, springtime measurements in both hemispheres in
THE TECHNICAL AND ECONOMIC FEASIBILITY OF REPLACING METHYL BROMIDE IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES
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1995 and 1996 have shown some of the worst ozone losses on record (WMO 1996). Ozone
depletion is expected to peak in the next few years, and recovery will be very slow.
2.2 HUMAN AND ECONOMIC COSTS OF OZONE DEPLETION
By about 1998 at mid-latitudes in the southern and northern hemispheres UV-B radiation
levels are expected to become approximately 13% and 11% greater than levels experienced
before ozone depletion became significant (WMO 1994). Additional UV-B is expected to have
negative effects on human health, health services, farm animals, crop production, forest pro-
duction, fisheries and tourist industries (Section 2.2). Examples of likely effects of additional
UV-B, identified by the World Health Organisation (WHO) and United Nations Environment
Programme (UNEP) Environmental Effects Panel include:
reduced immune responses, which may increase the incidence of infectious disease and
may reduce the efficacy of vaccination programmes;
disrupted growth processes in some plants, leading to reduced yields for certain crops
and forest trees, and costs of research to develop new UV tolerant cultivars; and
disrupted development in fish, estimated to reduce ocean fish stocks by several million tonnes
per annum. More than 30% of human food protein comes from the sea (Section 2.2).
2.3 CONTROLS ON METHYL BROMIDE
World Meteorological Organisation (WMO)/UNEP Scientific Assessments have concluded that
MB is a significant ozone depleting compound, and that eliminating emissions would have an
impact on ozone loss (Section 2.1). The 1994 Assessment calculated that eliminating agricul-
tural and industrial emissions of MB in 2001 would significantly reduce future chlorine/bromine
loading in the atmosphere (WMO 1994). 'Phasing out MB was identified as the largest single
step that governments could take to further protect the ozone layer (Table 2.2).
In 1995, Parties to the Montreal Protocol agreed that industrialised countries will phase out
MB by 2010 allowing some exemptions, and Article 5 developing countries will freeze con-
sumption in 2002 (based on 1995-98 average consumption) (Section 2.3).
2.4 THE NEED FOR INFORMATION
Controls on MB are due to be reviewed by the Parties to the Montreal Protocol in 1997.
Methyl bromide is important to certain export sectors of Article 5 countries, and it is desirable
to have more information about the technical feasibility of alternatives and the possibilities for
cost-effective substitutions. Technical and economic information is also needed by enter-
prises using MB, potential funders and investors (Section 1.3).
This report contributes information in the following areas (Sections 1.1 and 1.3):
existing and potential alternatives;
examples of yields and costs of alternatives compared to MB;
examples of resources needed for introducing alternatives;
potential sources of financial assistance;
institutional, market and economic barriers;
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assessment of feasibility and cost-effectiveness;
cost-benefit overview, including economic opportunities such as the development of new
industries to supply alternatives.
3. Consumption of Methyl Bromide
3.1 CONSUMPTION IN ZIMBABWE, THAILAND AND CHILE
Article 5 countries have been estimated to use approximately 14,500 tonnes of MB a year
(Section 2.5). Surveys conducted for this research project found that:
Zimbabwe used at least 600 tonnes MB in 1994 (Section 3.3), and was probably the
ninth highest user among developing countries.
Thailand used about 700 tonnes per annum (1992-94 average) (Section 4.8), and among
developing countries was around the eighth highest user of MB.
Chile used more than 200 tonnes in 1994 (Section 5.3), and probably ranked about twen-
tieth among developing country users.
3.2 MAIN APPLICATIONS
Article 5 countries in total have been estimated to use about 70% of MB for soil, about 16%
for grain stocks, about 9% for all types of quarantine and pre-shipment (QPS) treatments, and
about 5% for miscellaneous uses (Section 3.3). Our surveys found that Zimbabwe and Chile
predominantly use MB for soil (Table A below). Chile uses an unusually large proportion of
MB as a quarantine treatment for perishable commodities, while Thailand uses an unusually
large proportion for durable commodities, mainly grain exports (Table A).
These examples illustrate the fact that use patterns are very diverse among Article 5 countries.
However, there are general regional patterns. Countries in Latin America use MB predominantly
for soil fumigation; South East Asian countries mainly use it for stored or exported grains;
while dominant uses in Africa are soil and grain storage, varying from country to country.
TABLE A
Consumption of MB in Zimbabwe, Chile and Thailand in 1994 (survey results), compared
with estimates for all Article 5 countries in 1992 (TEAP 1995b).
QPS = quarantine and pre-shipment uses
Major Applications
of MB
Soil
Post-harvest
except QPS
All QPS uses
Misc. uses
Total consumption
Estimated MB Consumption - tonnes (%)
Article 5
Countries
10,150 (70%)
2,320 (16%)
1,250 (9%)
780 (5%)
14,500 (100%)
Zimbabwe
515 (85%)
78 (13%)
10 (2%)
2 (<1%)
605 (100%)
Chile
140 (70%)
0 (0%)
45 (22%)
16 (8%)
201 (100%)
Thailand
31 (5%)
142 (23%)
432(1|(70%)
6 (1%)
617 (100%)
Kl
'" This includes cases where phytosanitary certificates are required by importing companies, and some
may not be QPS as defined by the Montreal Protocol
THE TECHNICAL AND ECONOMIC FEASIBILITY OF REPLACING METHYL BROMIDE IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES
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3.3 CROPS GROWN USING METHYL BROMIDE
The project identified the crops and commodities treated with MB by conducting surveys of
MB importers and users. In Zimbabwe, for example, the survey covered 102 agricultural
producers and 8 organisations (Section 3.3).
Together the three countries use MB for more than 24 crops, predominantly for export. The
only soil uses common to all three countries are tobacco seedbeds, cut flowers and nurseries
{Table B below).
In Zimbabwe, MB is used for more than 12 crops; mainly tobacco seedbeds (about 500
tonnes ie. 83% of national consumption), with small amounts for flowers, paprika and
nurseries (Section 3.3).
In Thailand, a small quantity of MB was reported to be used for four soil applications,
mainly tobacco (Section 4.10).
In Chile, MB is used for more than 12 crops, mainly tomatoes and peppers (approximately
130 tonnes ie. about 65% of national consumption), with small quantities for tobacco
seedbeds and nurseries (Section 5.4).
TABLE B
Crops reported to be grown in soil treated with MB in survey countries - percentage of
national consumption (1994).
Estimated Percentage of National MB Consumption - % (tonnes)
Crop Use
Crops using 10% or
more of national MB
consumption
Crops using 1% -9%
of national MB
consumption
Crops using less
than about 1% of
national MB
consumption
Zimbabwe
Tobacco 83% (550 T)
Flowers 2% (12 T)
Paprika >1% (>1 T)
Nurseries for coffee,
tomato, citrus, cole,
and others
Strawberries
Chile
Tomato 55% (110 T)
Pepper 10% (20 T)
Tobacco 3% (c.5 T)
Nurseries for forest,
fruit & nut trees
Seedbeds for lettuce,
eggplant, onion,
other vegetables
Thailand
Tobacco 1% (3 T)
Cut flowers
Nurseries for coffee
Golf courses
3.4 STORED PRODUCTS TREATED WITH MB
Methyl bromide is used for more than 7 types of stored grains in the survey countries. The rel-
ative importance of MB is fairly typical of the respective regions.
Zimbabwe used about 78 tonnes MB in 1994 to help protect about 4 main types of stored
grains, predominantly maize and wheat (Section 3.4).
Thailand used at least 142 tonnes MB for at least 5 main stored products, including rice,
maize, tapioca, feed grains and pulses (Section 4.11).
Chile used no MB for stored products (Section 5.3).
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3.5 QUARANTINE & PRE-SHIPWENT USES
The survey found MB was used as a quarantine and pre-shipment (QPS) treatment for 9
main durable commodities .and about 12 perishable commodities.
Zimbabwe uses a small amount of MB for QPS, for 6 perishable and durable commodities,
such as grains and tobacco (Section 3.4).
Thailand uses almost 450 tonnes MB for quarantine and pre-shipment and phytosanitary
purposes, for about 6 main durable commodities (grains) and 3 main perishable com-
modities (Section 4.11). Grain treatments are often carried out because importing com-
panies require phytosanitary certificates.
Chile uses >45 tonnes MB for nine export commodities, primarily table grapes, stone-
fruit and timber to meet the requirements of USA quarantine authorities (Section 5.3).
4. Economic Importance of Methyl Bromide
Methyl bromide was found to have significant economic importance to the agricultural sectors
which export fresh produce, tobacco and grains in the three countries. In Zimbabwe and
Thailand it is also used to help preserve grain stocks, which are important for food security.
Box 1 illustrates the employment and export value of the three main sectors using MB in
Zimbabwe.
Box 1
Examples of economic importance of MB.
Economic importance of main sectors using MB in Zimbabwe:
1. Tobacco - seedbed production and export
Tobacco had an export value of about US$ 530 million in 1994/95, accounting for
20-25% of Zimbabwe's foreign currency earnings. The sector is a major source of
employment, and about 6% of the population depends on the tobacco industry
(Section 3.4.1). About 98% of tobacco is grown using MB in Zimbabwe, on 1,800
large-scale farms, and on half of the 1,000 small-scale farms.
2. Grains - storage, import and export
MB is used by the Grain Marketing Board to conserve grain stocks. It is impor-
tant for food security, and for export earnings in years when significant quantities of
grain are exported.
3. Horticulture - production and export
Exports of cut flowers, fruit and vegetables from Zimbabwe earned US$ 62 mil-
lion in 1994/95, and are likely to continue to grow. MB is used by a proportion of
large-scale commercial farms as a soil treatment, and occasionally as a quarantine
treatment in Zimbabwe or importing countries. .
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THE TECHNICAL AND ECONOMIC FEASIBILITY OF REPLACING METHYL BROMIDE IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES
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5. Soil Alternatives
The Methyl Bromide Technical Options Committee (MBTOC) report did not identify techni-
cally feasible alternatives, either currently available or at an advanced stage of development,
for less than 10% of MB use in 1991 (MBTOC 1994). MBTOC found that the alternatives
to MB are the same in developing countries as in industrialised countries, but developing coun-
tries face additional constraints in infrastructure and other conditions (Section 6.3).
5.1. YIELDS OF ALTERNATIVES
To be considered effective, alternatives must give adequate yields. Some techniques give
lower yields than MB, while others give equal or greater yields. Substrates in particular (nat-
ural or synthetic) tend to give significantly higher yields, often about 20% greater for straw-
berries for example (Section 6.5). Table C below presents examples of alternatives that give
greater yields than MB.
TABLE C
Examples of alternatives that give greater yields than MB.
Alternative system
Natural substrates
Chemical treatments, plant
breeding, etc.
Substrate (peat) allowing
double crop
Solarlsation, IPM
IPM, composting, steam
1,3-D fumlgant, herbicide
Crop and country
Strawberries - Italy
Strawberries open field -
Netherlands
Strawberries covered crop -
Netherlands
Peppers - Italy
Cut flowers - Colombia
Peppers - Florida trial
Crop yield - compared to MB
Alternative 60% greater yields
Alternative gives 50-100%
greater yields
Alternative 125% greater
yields p. a.
Alternative 20% greater
Alternative greater
Alternative slightly greater
5.2. TECHNICALLY FEASIBLE ALTERNATIVES
The significant pests controlled by MB were examined. In many cases a combination of
treatments or procedures is necessary to control the range of pests controlled by MB (Section
3.6). Technically feasible alternatives were identified for all of the crops using MB in
Zimbabwe, Thailand and Chile (Table D below) (Section 6.6). Several alternatives were listed
for each crop, noting that different users (eg. small and large tobacco growers) have different
needs, and that it is desirable to avoid vulnerability from dependence on one method in the
future.
5.3 SOIL ALTERNATIVES IN USE
Surveys identified 13 examples of soil alternatives used in Zimbabwe, Thailand and Chile for
8 different crops. Literature reviews identified further cases of existing alternatives, giving
more than 58 examples in developing countries (excluding trials) (Table 6.1, Section 6.4).
Alternatives in use include integrated pest management (IPM), soil amendments, solarisation,
chemical treatments, steam and substrates (soil substitutes), or combinations of these tech-
niques, for crops such as tomatoes, peppers, strawberries, tobacco and flowers. In some
cases alternatives are used by a small proportion of growers; in others, use is widespread.
Successful alternatives are used on an area of about 4,200 hectares for cut flower production
in Colombia, for example (Section 6.4).
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TABLED
Examples of technically feasible soil alternatives, and examples of countries where alternative
techniques are used commercially.
Crops (examples)
Tobacco seedbeds
Cut flowers
Nurseries, propagation beds
Tomatoes, peppers
or other vegetables
Strawberries
Examples of technically
feasible alternatives
Steam treatments
Nematicides, pesticides,
burning straw on seedbeds
Natural substrates
Hydroponics
IPM, compost, steam
Steam
Substrates
Solarisation with pesticides
Substrates and steam
Steam
Bark substrates
IPM, with composting in
some cases
Substrates
Steam
Solarisation with fumigant
or IPM
Pesticides or fumigants
IPM
Natural substrates
Metam sodium and/or
other pesticides
Solarisation^) or Solarisation
with IPM
Examples of countries where
treatments used
Thailand
Thailand, Zimbabwe
Brazil
USA
Colombia
Italy, UK
UK
Italy
Colombia, UK
Zimbabwe
Zimbabwe, USA - Ohio
Chile, Mexico,
Guatemala, Sri Lanka,
Vietnam, Indonesia, Spain
Zimbabwe, Sicily, Belgium,
Germany, Morocco
Italy, UK, Germany
India, Morocco, Italy,
USA - Florida
Zimbabwe, Chile
Zimbabwe, Guatemala,
Germany
Italy, Netherlands, Belgium
South Africa, Netherlands
Italy, Brazil, Philippines
(') Often needs to be combined with other treatments to give full pest control.
6. Alternatives for Durable Commodities
6.1. TECHNICALLY FEASIBLE ALTERNATIVES
An analysis of the commodities and pests treated with MB identified technically feasible
alternatives for all post-harvest uses of MB for durable commodities, excluding quarantine and
pre-shipment. In many cases, changes in commodity management practices would be required.
6.2. ALTERNATIVES IN USE OR APPROVED
The study also identified more than 50 examples where alternatives are used for durable
commodities (excluding trials or prototypes) (Tables 6.6 and 6.8). These included 15 different
treatments, such as phosphine, in-transit carbon dioxide, hermetic storage and cold treatments
(Table E). Phosphine is used in many countries.
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T.HE TECHNICAL AND ECONOMIC FEASIBILITY OF REPLACING METHYL BROMIDE IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES
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7. Quarantine and Pre-Shipment Alternatives
Literature reviews identified 41 alternative quarantine treatments for specific durables
approved by quarantine authorities in the USA (Tables 6.9 and 6.10), and a further 90 alter-
native quarantine treatments approved for perishable commodities by the USA or other coun-
tries (Tables 6.14 and 6.15). These provide potential alternatives for quarantine and
pre-shipment uses in Zimbabwe, Thailand and Chile (Sections 6.8.3 and 6.9.3).
TABLE E
Examples of technically feasible alternatives for durable commodities, and examples of coun-
tries where alternative treatments are used.
Durable products
Stored grains, legumes
Export grains, nuts, legumes
Tobacco
Examples of technically feasible
alternatives
Examples of countries where
alternatives are used
Phosphine
Carbon dioxide
Hermetic storage with
other treatment
Nitrogen
Insecticides
Inert dusts, where appropriate
Heat treatments,
where appropriate
Zimbabwe, Thailand,
Philippines and many
other countries
Indonesia
Philippines, Israel
Australia
Some countries
Australia, Canada
(Commercial prototype stage)
Phosphine
In-transit carbon dioxide
Flushing retail packs with CCk
or nitrogen
Nitrogen
Heat treatments
Phosphine
Vacuum steam flow process
Pre-shipment inspection
and certification
Methoprene insect growth
regulator, for storage
Wooden items, textiles, crafts, artifacts
Heat with constant humidity
Heat treatment for
Khapra beetle
Phosphine, where appropriate
Thailand, UK
Australia (groundnuts)
Thailand (for premium rice)
Australia
(Prototype stage)
Zimbabwe
(Approved by USA
quarantine authorities)
Increasingly used
UK, Germany, Austria
(Approved by USA
quarantine authorities)
Philippines
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8. Transferability of Alternatives
The Crop Protection Coalition, a group representing MB users in the USA, has noted that agri-
cultural research in the past has been directly transferable from some crops to others, so 'it is
logical to infer that much of the work' on alternatives for crops in major user regions 'will be
transferable to other crops and cultural systems in other regions' (CPC 1995).
Some of the existing alternatives can often be transferred directly from one region to another,
without need for additional testing in each country. This applies, for example, to certain effi-
cient steam systems and some substrate systems. For stored products, existing treatments such
as phosphine or COz can often be utilised without need for additional research. In contrast,
existing IPM systems can normally be transferred only within areas where the same pests and
conditions occur; some additional work would be required to apply the systems to new areas.
9. Costs of Alternatives Compared to MB
The project reviewed studies that compare the costs of MB and alternatives, and commissioned
additional cost studies in Zimbabwe and Chile. Some alternatives were found to cost signifi-
cantly more, whereas others cost the same or significantly less than using MB (Sections 7.2 -
7.8). Examples of specific alternative systems with operating costs similar to or lower than MB
are given in Table F.
Each term such as 'steam treatment', 'IPM', 'solarisation' or 'phosphine fumigation' covers a
wide range of techniques, and each should be regarded as a family of techniques. We found
that different techniques within the same family had very different costs. In most cases where
there are expensive techniques, there are also much cheaper options in the same family. So if
alternatives are selected carefully it would be possible to introduce alternatives with low to
moderate costs. Conversely, alternatives can be unnecessarily expensive if careful selection is
not made (Section 7.9).
We also found that the costs of alternatives in sectors or countries where alternatives are
well-established were often significantly lower than in countries where they are rarely used
(Section 7.9). There are cost-savings from widescale use, and normal market pressures over
time have led to improvements in costs and applications.
In the area of stored products, costs can be reduced by changing the supply of key inputs (eg.
phosphine). The operating costs of COz treatments for grain, for example, could be reduced
by investing in the capture of COz by-products (Section 7.8).
It would be useful to users and funders if UNEP or another independent agency were to com-
pile a database which identifies for each family of alternatives the techniques which are most
cost-effective, and areas where costs can be reduced by making technical improvements.
THE TECHNICAL AND ECONOMIC FEASIBILITY OF REPLACING METHYL BROMIDE IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES
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TABLE F
Examples of specific soil alternatives with operating costs similar to or lower than MB.
Specific Alternative
IPM/composting
IPM/solarisation
IPM/solarisation
Steam, certain types
Seed trays
Substrates, natural &
synthetic
Certain chemical treatments
Crop and Country
Cut flowers - Colombia
Tomatoes - Italy
Strawberries, various
crops - Italy
Various glasshouse crops
Seedlings - Zimbabwe
Strawberries, cucurbits -
Netherlands
Runnerbeans - Zimbabwe
Strawberries - S. Africa
Cost Compared to Use of MB
IPM/composting 28%
cheaper, and more profitable
IPM/solarisation 67%
cheaper, and more profitable
IPM/solarisation much
cheaper, and more profitable
Similar to MB
Seed trays cheaper where
transport costs low
Substrates give higher
profits than MB
Chemical systems similar
or cheaper
10. Resource Requirements
Resources are primarily required for know-how, training, and building up local industries to
supply alternatives. The resources that will be needed are outlined below.
Training in alternative methods of pest control and changed management practices. The
transfer of skills and knowledge will in most cases be the most important component in the
adoption of alternatives. Training projects have a high completion rate (56%) among pro-
jects approved under the Multilateral Fund, and tend to be of shorter duration and less
resource-intensive than other projects (UNEP 1994). The large-scale IPM programmes
carried out by the Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO) and Non-Governmental
Organisations (NGOs) in developing countries demonstrate the economic benefits and
practical feasibility of large numbers of farmers changing agricultural practices (Section
7.6.1). Training also will be important for agricultural advisers and consultants, who have
an important role in advising users about suitable techniques.
New or extra equipment will be required by users. Equipment for soil and post-harvest
alternatives is generally not complex. Equipment for natural substrates, for example,
would include suitable substrates (eg. grain hulls, gravel, agricultural or food industry
waste), and plastic sheets, holders or concrete beds. Equipment for steam treatment can
include ordinary drainage pipes, a fan and a steam boiler. Equipment for COa grain
treatment includes gas-tight sheeting, a pressure-testing device, specialist glue, and cylin-
ders of CO2.
Additional labour or other costs will need assistance where alternatives have higher oper-
ating costs than MB. Use of phosphine for grain, for example, often incurs additional
chemical costs, additional sheeting and additional demurrage charges.
Expertise and research facilities will be needed to improve, adapt or develop alternatives.
This would require researchers with specialist experience of alternatives, facilities of agri-
cultural research institutes in developing countries, and growers/users participation in
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on-site research. Experts in some developing countries (eg. Colombia) have considerable
experience with developing and using alternatives.
Establishment of new, local industries to provide products and services for alternatives.
Examples include pest control advisory services, processing of otherwise waste materials
to make substrates, manufacture of seed trays, concrete for fixed beds, plastics and fumi-
gation sheets, specialist glues, chemicals, biological control agents and other agricultural
equipment.
In cases where alternatives have lower operating costs than MB, there are opportunities for
growers to receive good returns on investments. Effective IPM or substrate systems, for exam-
ple, normally provide growers with significantly better profits after the investment in
know-how and equipment has been made (Section 7.6).
11. Financial Assistance
Financial assistance would be essential for replacing major uses of MB in developing countries.
Sufficient replenishment of the Multilateral Fund would be necessary, and other sources of
financial assistance may also be considered where appropriate (see Section 7.12). Potential
sources include:
Import licence fees. Governments in developing countries could consider placing import
fees on MB and using all revenues for the introduction of environmentally-sound alterna-
tives. Australia has introduced import licence handling fees of about US$70 per tonne of
MB, and importers have to pay about US$7,800 for two-year licences (Australian EPA
1995).
Voluntary levies. Some users of MB in developing countries are owned by well-resourced
companies (eg. multinationals), and could consider introducing a voluntary levy and
donating it to their national Ozone Protection Unit to allocate to smaller users for envi-
ronmentally-sound alternatives. (Growers in one region of Australia have introduced a
voluntary levy of about US$0.15 per kg of MB (Nufarm 1995).)
Agricultural programmes. A number of governments and agricultural and development
agencies at present offer assistance to agriculturalists in the form of subsidies, reduced-rate
loans, or grants for agricultural production, technology transfer, modernisation, export
development or marketing. Relevant programmes could be reviewed to see whether
some might be re-oriented to encourage the up-take of environmentally-sound alternatives
in order to assist the modernisation of horticulture and other sectors using MB.
Training programmes. A number of governments and other agencies operate agricultural
training programmes. Small and large IPM programmes have been carried out in a num-
ber of countries. Some programmes could be re-oriented or expanded to help provide
training in alternatives to MB.
Agenda 21 programmes. Countries signing the Earth Summit's Agenda 21 have made a
commitment to promote training in IPM and non-chemical methods of pest control
(UNCED 1992). Funding issues are under discussion internationally. There will be oppor-
tunities to integrate future programmes to implement the IPM objectives of Agenda 21
with programmes to replace MB.
THE TECHNICAL AND ECONOMIC FEASIBILITY OF REPLACING METHYL BROMIDE IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES
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Development programmes. Some rural development and industrial development pro-
grammes could be re-oriented to help provide grants, loans, management programmes,
training schemes, or other assistance to establish or expand companies in developing coun-
tries to supply alternatives. Programmes which provide loans or funds for export indus-
tries could also assist developing countries to establish new export industries to help
meet the future demand for alternatives to MB.
12. Economic Opportunities from Replacing MB
The replacement of MB would provide developing countries with a number of benefits and
new economic opportunities. One of the major opportunities is the development of new indus-
tries in developing countries, to supply local and export markets with alternative products and
services. Examples of opportunities to manufacture products:
substrates made from otherwise waste materials, such as forest industry waste, crop waste,
seafood and grain processing wastes;
plant extracts, pesticide products;
biological control agents;
specialist glues and plastics;
fumigation sheets;
steam boilers, heat treatment equipment, fans, etc.;
capture and scrubbing of CO* by-products.
Examples of opportunities for new service industries:
soil pest identification and monitoring services;
consultancy and information services on alternative methods of pest control;
training programmes;
research services;
pest control treatments, such as mobile steam treatments, fumigation services
(Section 7.14.5).
Some existing companies in developing countries have opportunities to expand production
or diversify; for example a company making biological control agents in Zimbabwe.
Agricultural research facilities in Zimbabwe, Thailand and Chile also have opportunities to
expand to provide research, consultancy services and professional training in alternatives for
MB users locally and in other countries.
Replacing MB also provides developing countries with opportunities to:
Improve crop yields and profitability. A number of alternatives offer growers opportuni-
ties for increasing yields and profitability (Sections 6.5 and 7.2-7.8).
-------
Improve competitiveness. Alternatives used by Colombia flower producers have helped to
increase cost-efficiency in an industry that has more than doubled its volume and value
of flower exports in the last decade. In contrast to some other flower exporting nations,
yields in Colombia are increasing (Section 7.14.2).
Modernise horticulture. Broad spectrum pesticides are increasingly regarded as
out-moded methods of pest control, because they destroy both damaging and beneficial
organisms. Replacing MB provides opportunities to modernise horticultural sectors. The
removal of MB in the Netherlands, for example, was found to have been a catalyst for
the widespread adoption and continued development of new agricultural techniques
(Section 7.14.2).
Increase skill levels in agriculture. Many of the alternatives would require a higher level of
skill among rural workers.
Create employment. Some alternatives replace chemical inputs with more labour, provid-
ing opportunities to increase employment (Section 7.14.3). The new industries needed to
supply alternatives would also generate employment.
Reduce consumption of imported products. Zimbabwe and Thailand each pay about US$
1,200,000 for imports of MB each year. Replacing MB provides opportunities for import
substitution, so that future expenditure on pest control products and services could bene-
fit industries in developing countries (Section 7.14.6).
Increase technology transfer between developing countries. The expertise and technol-
ogy of successful alternatives used in developing countries can be transferred to other
countries, helping the economies of both partners (Section 8.6).
Reduce externalised costs. Use of MB produces externalised costs, primarily ozone deple-
tion, but also residues in soil, crops and sometimes water (Section 7.13).
A comparison of the costs and benefits of using or replacing MB concluded that for develop-
ing countries, greater economic opportunities arise from the development and uptake of
modern, competitive alternatives than from continued reliance on MB (Sections 7.13 - 7.16).
13. Commercial and Market Issues
Market pressures are starting to have an impact on MB users in some sectors. For example,
some tobacco importers no longer accept MB treatments for tobacco exports from Zimbabwe
and some Asian countries, partly because MB can affect the quality of tobacco but also because
of its environmental effects.
Other market changes may have an impact on MB use in future. At present many consumers
are not fully aware of methyl bromide's role in ozone depletion. When ozone depletion
increases in the next few years, consumers may press supermarkets and importing companies
to avoid purchasing products treated with MB (Section 7.15.1).
In the USA, products manufactured with CFCs and traded between states normally have to
be labeled with a warning statement about ozone depletion. Some groups in the USA and
THE TECHNICAL AND ECONOMIC FEASIBILITY OF REPLACING METHYL BROMIDE IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES
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Europe have started to campaign for similar labeling of products grown with MB, so that the
public can choose to avoid such products if they wish (Section 7.15.2).
Such trends indicate that users of MB may experience commercial difficulties in marketing
their products in the future as supermarkets and importers respond to market pressures.
14. Factors that Facilitate Transition
The Review Under Paragraph 8 of Article 5 of the Montreal Protocol identified major factors
that tend to impede or hasten phase-out of ozone depleting substances (ODS) in Article 5 coun-
tries (UNEP 1994). The high proportion of MB used for export products (about 88% in
Zimbabwe) for example can be expected to hasten phase-out because users will be subject to
market pressures from importers and will tend to have better links to information about
alternatives according to the review findings. Zimbabwe, Chile and Thailand have a predom-
inance of factors that hasten phase-out, such as export orientation, user organisation, and
the existence of National Ozone Protection Units (Sections 8.1-8.3). Exporters in tobacco, hor-
ticulture and grain sectors have started to actively investigate alternatives. Funding the replace-
ment of MB in such circumstances is likely to produce a more rapid reduction in MB than
would occur in countries without such positive factors (Section 8.4).
Governments may consider taking several steps at the national level to encourage reductions
in MB use:
Adjust controls on MB pesticide product use (under pesticide regulations) to increase the
interval between MB treatments and reduce the permitted doses (Section 8.5.1).
Review the list of crops and products for which MB is permitted under national pesticide
regulations', and let approval lapse for uses where pests can be controlled by other meth-
ods (Section 8.5.1).
Review agricultural programmes, subsidies, grants, favourable loans and other forms of
agricultural assistance to ensure they do not promote use of MB. Where possible re-ori-
ent horticultural or other agriculture programmes to promote environmentally sound
alternatives.
Review quarantine policies, to ensure that use of MB is not required in cases where other
suitable disinfestation treatments can be used. Request importing countries to do like-
wise.
Identify opportunities for establishing new industries based on alternatives, and set up or
re-orient rural development and export development programmes to encourage such
industries.
Companies and user sectors can also take measures to reduce consumption of MB in the
short to mid-term:
Some traders and importing companies currently specify in commercial contracts that
exporters must fumigate commodities with MB. Contract conditions could in many
cases be changed to allow use of other effective methods of pest control.
-------
Users could examine whether they could alternate MB treatments for soil or stored prod-
ucts with other methods of pest control. This would effectively halve their consumption,
and help develop the market for alternatives.
Where financial assistance is made available, users could examine the potential for reduc-
ing doses of MB. For example, the Tobacco Research Board in Zimbabwe has found the
traditional dose of MB for tobacco seedbeds could be reduced by half if gas-tight sheets
were available (Blair 1995); this could reduce consumption of MB. in Zimbabwe by
approximately 40%.
However, the marketing and promotional policies of some MB manufacturers and distributors
could have a strong negative effect on global efforts to reduce consumption.
15. Feasibility of Reductions and Phase-out
Scientists have calculated that a freeze on MB consumption in Article 5 countries would not
prevent an increase in future chlorine/bromine loading to the atmosphere (TEAP 1995), indi-
cating that further controls on MB are desirable. In addition, replacing MB offers develop-
ing countries benefits and significant new economic opportunities.
Table G summarises some of the main findings of this study. Technically feasible alternatives
were identified for all soil and post-harvest (non-quarantine and pre-shipment) uses of MB in
the three countries examined. The alternatives would also be appropriate for similar crops and
commodities using MB in many other developing countries. Potential alternatives were iden-
tified for quarantine and pre-shipment uses.
The identified alternatives are effective techniques, most of which are in use in some sectors
or countries. In some cases alternatives are used by large numbers of enterprises (eg. phos-
phine in many countries, IPM system in Colombia).
Financial assistance would be required for developing countries to replace major uses of MB;
for investment in infrastructure, training and equipment, and for additional operating costs
that arise. After the initial investment, some alternatives would have lower operating costs.
Cost-effective replacements of MB (in terms of $ cost per OPP-kg replaced) can be made if
alternatives are screened to ensure that more expensive techniques within each 'family' are
avoided.
The complete replacement of MB for soil and post-harvest uses is technically and economically
feasible in Zimbabwe, Thailand, Chile and developing countries with similar uses of MB.
The main factors that will determine the rate of reductions and phase-out will be the avail-
ability of sufficient financial assistance, market pressures and policies of governments and
users.
«
s
§
8
03
03
S>
*»
t-4
u
X
THE TECHNICAL AND ECONOMIC FEASIBILITY OF REPLACING METHYL BROMIDE IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES
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TABLE G
Summary of conclusions on the technical and economic feasibility of replacing MB.
Identification of
existing, alternative
methods of pest
control or
disinfestation
Identification of
technically feasible
alternatives
Main resource
requirements
Cost-effectiveness
Technical and
economic feasibility
of replacing MB
Soil applications
A range of alternatives
was found to be in use
(more than 50
examples in developing
countries alone)
Pests and crops using
MB were analysed;
technically feasible
alternatives were
identified for all crops
in the countries studied
Rnancial assistance
would be necessary for
adapting or applying
alternatives at local
level, and primarily for
skill/knowledge
transfer; after the initial
investment, some
alternatives have lower
operating costs
Commonly used
alternatives offer
opportunities for many
cost-effective
replacements of MB
($ per ODP-kg replaced)
Feasible for almost all
crops and pests
provided sufficient
resources are made
available and
alternatives are
selected with care
Post-harvest, except
quarantine &
pre-shipment
A range of alternatives
was found to be in use
(more than 50
examples in developing
and industrialised
countries)
Commodities and pests
treated with MB were
analyzed; technically
feasible alternatives
were identified for all
commodities in the
countries studied
Financial assistance
would be necessary for
training and additional
costs of equipment,
changed procedures
etc; further
development work
needed to optimise
some alternatives (eg.
heat treatments);
long-term grain storage
using alternatives can
be cheaper than
using MB
Alternatives such as
phosphine and COa
offer opportunities for
many cost-effective
replacements of MB
($ per ODP-kg replaced)
Feasible for almost all
commodities and pests
provided sufficient
resources are made
available, alternatives
are selected carefully
and commodities are
well managed
Quarantine &
pre-shipment
A range of alternatives
was found to be
approved or in use
(130 examples)
Potential alternatives
were identified
Financial assistance
necessary for further
research,
development, trials
and lengthy
negotiations for
ge-ming official
approval
May have higher
relative costs than
replacements for soil
and stored products
Economic feasibility
not assessed
-------
Acknowledgements
PARTICULAR THANKS ARE DUE TO THE SPECIALISTS WHO CARRIED OUT SURVEYS AND CONTRIBUTED CHAPTERS
FOR THIS RESEARCH PROJECT!
Chapters 1 and 2: Dr. Melanie Miller
Environmental Policy Consultant, Napier, New Zealand
Chapter 3: Mr. Peter Wilkinson
IPM consultant, Xylocopa Systems, Harare, Zimbabwe
Dr. Melanie Miller
Chapter 4: Dr. Amnaj Covanich and Mr. Vichian Hengsawad
Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand
Mr. Chuvit Sukprakarn
Head of the Stored Product Insect Research Group, Department of Agriculture,
Bangkok, Thailand
ChapterS: Mr. Jose Olavama, Mr. Rodrigo Ortiz and Mr. Loreto Mora,
Instituto de Investigaciones Agropecuarias, Centra Regional de Investigacion La Platina,
Santiago de Chile, Chile
Chapters 6, 7 and 8: Dr. Melanie Miller
Many people have kindly responded to requests for technical information, comments on
drafts, or other assistance. Special thanks are due to: Dr. Peter Annis, Dr. Jonathan Banks,
Dr. Tom Batchelor, Dr. Barry Blair, Dr. Antonio Bello, Mr. Dermot Cassidy, Mr. Chamlong
Chettanachitara, Ms. Karen Cummings, Ms. Cheryl Danley, Mr. Juan Francisco Fernandez,
Ms. Pam Foster, Mr. Darren Goetze, Dr. Arnold Hara, Mr. Trevor Hedges, Dr. Garry Hill,
Ms. Michelle Horan, Mr. Thanavat Junchaya, Dr. Yaacov Katan, Mr. Noah Kutukwa and staff
at the Zimbabwe Grain Marketing Board, Mr. John Logan, Dr. Nicholas Martin, Dr. Mack
McFarland, Mr. Joe Mendelson, Ms. Cecilia Mercado, staff at NAPHIRE, Ms. Maria Nolan,
Dr. David Okioga, Dr. Samantha Page, Mr. Frank Pinto and his team at UNDP, Dr. Allan
Rae, Dr. Azmi Rahim, Mr. Wiraphon Rajadanuraks, Dr. Christoph Reichmuth, Ms. Laurence
Reno, Dr. Rodrigo Rodriguez-Kabana, Mr. Francisco Rojas, Ms. Karen Roux, Ms. Anne
Schonfield, Mr. John Shepherd, Dr. Mulyo Sidik, Mr. Robert Taylor, Dr. Anne Turner, Dr. Jan
van S Graver, Dr. Robert van Slooten, Mr. Bill Thomas, Mr. Viraj Vithoontien, Dr. Janny Vos.
This report remains the responsibility of the respective authors and editors.
bo
a
THE TECHNICAL AND ECONOMIC FEASIBILITY OF REPLACING METHYL BROMIDE IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES
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Friends of the Earth is very appreciative of Joan Leibman's and Ian Penn's thorough editing
of the report. Special thanks also goes to Amanda Blankenship and Goldie Heidi Gider for cre-
ating the index and for all their hard work in helping to put together the final report. The
project administrators would also like to thank Brent Blackwelder, Velma Smith, Dena
Leibmnn and Anne Walton for their support and assistance. Our sincere gratitude to Barbara
Raab and Lee Ann Rhodes for their patience and creativity in designing this report.
This research project would not have been possible without the financial support of the pro-
ject funders:
US Environmental Protection Agency
Environment Canada
Swiss Agency for Development and Cooperation
International Development Research Centre
Agriculture Canada
Friends of the Earth USA
Friends of the Earth Canada
The views expressed in this report are those of the authors and or/editor and do not necessar-
ily reflect those of the project funders.
Comments on this report are welcome. Please send them to:
Dr. Melanie Miller, Environmental Policy Analyst,
PO Box 665, Napier, New Zealand. Tel/fax +646 835 3501
-------
Contents
Executive Summary.
1. INTRODUCTION
2. BACKGROUND TO RESEARCH PROJECT
2.1 Ozone Layer Depletion
2.2 Human and Economic Costs of Ozone Depletion
2.3 Controls on Methyl Bromide
2.4 Need for Information
3. CONSUMPTION OF METHYL BROMIDE
3.1 Consumption in Zimbabwe, Chile and Thailand
3.2 Main Applications
3.3 Crops Grown Using Methyl Bromide
3.4 Stored Products Treated with Methyl Bromide
3.5 Quarantine and Pre-Shipment Use
4. ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE OF METHYL BROMIDE
5. SOIL ALTERNATIVES
5.1 Yields of Alternatives
5.2 Technically Feasible Alternatives
5.3 Soil Alternatives in Use
6. ALTERNATIVES FOR DURABLE COMMODITIES
6.1 Technically Feasible Alternatives
6.2 Alternatives in Use or Approved
7. QUARANTINE AND PRE-SHIPMENT ALTERNATIVES
Acknowledgements xvii
List of Tables xxvii
O
O
Chapter 1: Aims of Report
1.1 AIMS OF REPORT
THE TECHNICAL AND ECONOMIC FEASIBILITY OF REPLACING METHYL BROMIDE IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES
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1.2 RESEARCH METHODS
1.3 THE NEED FOR INFORMATION
1.4 OUTPUTS OF RESEARCH PROJECT
Chapter 2: Overview of Methyl Bromide
and Ozone Depletion
2.1 METHYL BROMIDE'S ROLE IN OZONE DEPLETION
2.2 HEALTH, ENVIRONMENTAL AND ECONOMIC IMPACTS OF OZONE DEPLETION
2.3 INTERNATIONAL CONTROLS ON METHYL BROMIDE
2.4 NATIONAL CONTROLS ON METHYL BROMIDE
2.5 IMPORTANCE OF METHYL BROMIDE IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES
Chapter 3: Zimbabwe: Methyl Bromide Use and
Existing/Potential Alternatives
13
3.1 SURVEY
3.2 OVERVIEW OF USES AND USERS
3.3 QUANTITIES USED FOR CROPS AND COMMODITIES
3.4 SIGNIFICANCE OF METHYL BROMIDE IN MAIN SECTORS
3.4.1 Tobacco Sector
3.4.2 Grain Sector
3.4.3 Horticultural Sector
3.5 TRENDS IN CONSUMPTION OF MB
3.6 ALTERNATIVE METHODS OF SOIL PEST CONTROL
3.6.1 Alternatives for Tobacco Seedbeds
3.6.1.1 Seed Trays
3.6.1.2 Substrates in Fixed Beds
3.6.1.3 Steam Treatments
3.6.1.4 IPM Techniques for Tobacco
3.6.2 Alternatives for Cut Flowers and Nurseries
3.7 ALTERNATIVE QUARANTINE TREATMENTS
3.7.1 Quarantine Treatments for Cut Flowers
3.7.2 Quarantine Alternatives for Tobacco
3.7.3 Quarantine Alternatives for Grain
3.7.4 Quarantine Alternatives for Curios and Artifacts
3.8 ALTERNATIVES FOR GRAIN IN STORAGE
3.9 ALTERNATIVES FOR TERMITE NESTS
Chapter 4: Thailand: Methyl Bromide Use and
Existing/Potential Alternatives
33
4.1 OVERVIEW OF SITUATION IN THAILAND
4.2 SOURCES OF METHYL BROMIDE
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4.3 MAJOR USES OF METHYL BROMIDE
4.4 REASONS FOR USE
4.5 REQUIRED USES
4.6 HANDLERS OF METHYL BROMIDE
4.7 QUANTITIES IMPORTED AND USED
4.8 ESTIMATED AMOUNTS USED
4.9 CROPS GROWN ON SOIL TREATED WITH METHYL BROMIDE
4.10 COMMODITIES GROWN WITH METHYL BROMIDE
4.11 ECONOMIC INDICATORS FOR KEY SECTORS USING METHYL BROMIDE
4.12 PESTS CONTROLLED BY METHYL BROMIDE
4.13 ALTERNATIVE METHODS OF PEST CONTROL FOR SOIL
4.14 ALTERNATIVE METHODS OF PEST CONTROL FOR STORED AND EXPORT COMMODITIES
4.15 EMISSIONS REDUCTION
Chapter 5: Chile: Methyl Bromide Use and
Existing/Potential Alternatives
41
5.1 IMPORTS OF METHYL BROMIDE
5.2 ESTIMATES OF USE OF METHYL BROMIDE
5.3 SECTORS USING METHYL BROMIDE
5.4 CROPS FOR WHICH METHYL BROMIDE is USED:
5.4.1 Fresh Tomatoes and Peppers
5.4.2 Pepper Seed Production
5.4.3 Industrial Tomato Seedbeds
5.4.4 Tobacco Seedbeds
5.5 DOSES OF METHYL BROMIDE USED FOR SOIL
5.6 PROPORTIONS OF CROPS GROWN USING METHYL BROMIDE AND USING ALTERNATIVES
5.7 POTENTIAL ALTERNATIVES TO THE USE OF METHYL BROMIDE
5.8 POTENTIAL ALTERNATIVES TO MB FOR QUARANTINE
Chapter 6: Methyl Bromide Alternatives:
Description and Yields
a
o
0
51
6.1 MBTOC REPORT
6.2 IMPORTANCE OF IPM APPROACH
6.3 SOIL ALTERNATIVES IDENTIFIED BY MBTOC
O.lChanges in Cultural Practices
6.3.1.1 Crop Rotations
6.3.1.2 Plant Nutrition and Soil pH
6.3.1.3 Deep Ploughing
6.3.1.4 Cover Crops and Living Mulches
6.3.1.5 Timing of Planting
6.3.2 Soil Substitutes (non-soil substrates)
THE TECHNICAL AND ECONOMIC FEASIBILITY OF REPLACING METHYL BROMIDE IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES
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6.3.3 Biological Controls
6.3.3.2 Rhizobacteria
6.3.3.2 Mycorrhizae
6.3.4 Plant Breeding and Grafting
6.3.5 Natural Materials and By-Products (soil amendments)
6.3.6 Physical Methods
6.3.6.1 Polarisation
6.3.6.2 Steam Heating
6.3.7 Chemical Treatments
6.4 EXAMPLES OF SUCCESSFUL SOIL ALTERNATIVES
6.5 CROP YIELDS USING ALTERNATIVES
6.5.1 Importance of Production Systems
6.6 SOIL ALTERNATIVES RELEVANT TO ZIMBABWE, THAILAND AND CHILE
6.7 ALTERNATIVES FOR STORED PRODUCTS
6.7.1 Techniques Identified by MBTOC
6.7.2 Examples of Effective Alternatives for Stored Products
6.7.3 Alternatives for Stored Products Relevant to Zimbabwe and Thailand
6.8 ALTERNATIVES FOR DURABLE EXPORTS AND IMPORTS
6.8.1 Alternatives for Durable Commodities Identified by MBTOC
6.8.2 Examples of Alternatives Used for Durable Commodities
6.8.3 Alternatives for Durable Commodities Relevant to Zimbabwe and Thailand
6.9 ALTERNATIVES FOR PERISHABLE EXPORTS AND IMPORTS
6.9.1 Alternatives Identified by MBTOC
6.9.2 Examples of Approved Quarantine Treatments for Perishables
6.9.3 Alternatives for Perishable Commodities relevant to Zimbabwe, Chile and Thailand
Chapter 7: Economic Issues
7.1 COST OF USING ALTERNATIVES
7.2 EXAMPLES OF COSTS OF SOLARISATION IN CHILE, ITALY AND FLORIDA
7.2.1 Soil Solarisation in Chile
7.2.2 Solarisation in Brazil, Italy and Florida
7.2.3 Summary of Examples of Solarisation Costs
7.3 EXAMPLES OF COST OF STEAM TREATMENTS
7.3.1 Steam Treatment in Chile
7.3.2 Steam Treatments for Tobacco in Brazil
7.3.3 Steam Treatments for Sterile Beds in Colombia
7.3.4 Steam Treatments in UK
7.3.5 Steam Treatments in the Netherlands
7.3.6 Summary of Examples of Steam Costs
7.4 EXAMPLES OF COSTS OF SUBSTRATE AND SEED TRAY SYSTEMS
7.4.1 Seed Trays for Tobacco Seedlings in Zimbabwe
7.4.2 Substrates for Tobacco Seedlings in Brazil
7.4.3 Seed Trays for Paprika Seedbeds in Zimbabwe
79
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7.4.4 Peat Substrates for Strawberries in the Netherlands
7.4.5 Rockwool Substrates for Cucurbits in the Netherlands
7.4.6 Summary of Examples of Substrate Costs
7.5 EXAMPLES OF COSTS OF DIRECT SOWING
7.5.1 Direct Sowing of Paprika Seeds in Zimbabwe
7.6 EXAMPLES OF COSTS OF IPM AND MIXED TECHNIQUES
7.6.1 IPM Systems in General
7.6.2 IPM/Composting for Cut Flowers in Colombia
7.6.3 IPM/Solarisation for Tomatoes in Sicily
7.6.4 IPM/Solarisation in Italy
7.6.5 IPM/Pesticides for Strawberries in the Netherlands
7.6.6 Summary of Examples of IPM System Costs
7.7 EXAMPLES OF COSTS OF CHEMICAL TREATMENTS FOR SOIL
7.7.1 Tagetes Extract Nematicide for Flowers in Kenya
7.7.2 Dazomet for Pepper Seedbeds in Chile
7.7.3 Dazomet for Processed Tomato Seedbeds in Chile
7.7.4 Metam Sodium and Manure for Strawberries in South Africa
7.7.5 Metam Sodium for Cut Flowers in Colombia
7.7.6 Dazomet and EDB for Strawberries in Zimbabwe
7.7.7 EDB for Runnerbeans in Zimbabwe
7.7.8 Summary of Examples of Chemical Alternative Costs
7.8 EXAMPLES OF COSTS OF ALTERNATIVES FOR STORED PRODUCTS
7.8.1 Phosphine for Grain in Zimbabwe
7.8.2 Phosphine and Carbon Dioxide for Grain in the Philippines
7.8.3 Carbon Dioxide and Phosphine for Grain Storage in Malaysia
7.8.4 Phosphine, Carbon Dioxide and Vacuum Systems in Indonesia
7.9 CONCLUSIONS ON COSTS
7.10 RESOURCES REQUIRED FOR METHYL BROMIDE REPLACEMENT
7.10.1 Expertise and Research Facilities
7.10.2 Establishment of New Service and Manufacturing Industries
7.10.3 Conversion Costs at Farm/Enterprise Level
7.10.4 Training and Technical Advice
7.11 EXAMPLES OF REQUIRED RESOURCES
7.11.1 Resources for Tobacco Seedbeds in Zimbabwe
7.11.2 Resources for IPM for Cut Flowers
7.11.3 Resources for Carbon Dioxide Treatment for Stored Grain
7.11.4 Resources for Phosphine for Export Grains
7.11.5 Resources for Quarantine Treatments
7.12 SOURCES OF FINANCIAL ASSISTANCE
7.13 EXTERNALISED COSTS OF METHYL BROMIDE USE
7.13.1 Residues in Soil
7.13.2 Impacts on Soil Microflora and Nitrogen
7.13.3 Water Residues
7.13.4 Food Residues
7.13.5 Air Contamination
S
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THE TECHNICAL AND ECONOMIC FEASIBILITY OF REPLACING METHYL BROMIDE IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES
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7.14 ECONOMIC BENEFITS FROM REPLACING METHYL BROMIDE
7.14.1 Improved Yields and Profitability
7.14.2 Competitive, Modern Approaches to Horticulture
7.14.3 Generating Employment
7.14.4 Increasing Skill Levels
7.14.5 Developing New Industries
7.14.6 Prioritising Local Economies
7.14.7 Environmental Improvements
7.14.8 Diversification and Production for Niche Markets
7.14.9 Technology Transfer Between Developing Nations
7.14.10 Reducing Dependency
7.15 COMMERCIAL ISSUES
7.15.1 Market Pressures
7.15.2 Consumer Demands for Labeling
7.15.3 Commercial Disruption
7.16 COST BENEFIT OVERVIEW
Chapter 8: Replacing Methyl Bromide:
Options and Constraints
113
8.1FACTORS AFFECTING THE RATE OF PHASE-OUT
8.2 PRIMARY FACTORS
8.2.1 Market Factors
8.2.1.1 Industry Structure
8.2.1.2 Existing Ozone Depleting Substances-Dependent Stock
8.2.1.3 Supply and Cost ofODS and Alternatives
8.2.1.4 Information Flow
8.2.2 Role of Montreal Protocol and Multilateral Fund
8.2.3 Role of Article 5 Governments
8.2.3.1 Existence of Ozone Protection Unit (OPU)
8.2.3.2 Government Policies
8.2.4 Time for Societal Transition
8.3 SECONDARY FACTORS AFFECTING RATE OF PHASE-OUT
8.3.1 Selection of Alternatives at Project Level
8.3.2 Terms of Project Financing
8.3.3 Structure and Operation of the Multilateral Fund
8.3.4 Structure and Operation of OPUs
8.4 CONCLUSIONS ON RATE OF PHASE-OUT
8.5 AGRICULTURAL POLICIES TO FACILITATE TRANSITION
8.5.1 Adjusting Controls on MB Pesticide Products
8.5.2 Codes of Practice
8.5.3 Adjusting Agricultural Policy Measures
8.5.4 Agricultural Research Programmes
8.5.5 Agricultural Extension Programmes
8.5.6 Implementation of Agenda 21
-------
8.5.7 Rural Development Programmes
8.6 TECHNOLOGY TRANSFER AND TRAINING
8.6.1 Cost Effectiveness of Training
8.6.2 Skill Transfer between Article 5 Countries
8.7 SCENARIOS FOR REDUCTIONS AND PHASE-OUT
8.7.1 Lessons from Phase-Out of CFCs and Halons
8.7.2 Potential Control Scenarios Examined by UNEP Panels
8.8 ROLE OF THE GRACE PERIOD
Chapter 9: Contacts and Information Resources 127
9.1 INTERNATIONAL AGENCIES
9.2 SOIL (PRE-PLANT) - COMPANIES AND RESEARCH GROUPS WITH EXPERTISE IN
ALTERNATIVES
9.3 GRAINS, DURABLE COMMODITIES AND BUILDINGS - COMPANIES AND RESEARCH GROUPS
WITH EXPERTISE IN ALTERNATIVES
9.4 PERISHABLE COMMODITIES - COMPANIES AND RESEARCH GROUPS WITH EXPERTISE IN
ALTERNATIVES
9.5 REPORTS ON ALTERNATIVES
9.6 ENVIRONMENTAL ORGANISATIONS
9.7 METHYL BROMIDE MANUFACTURERS AND INDUSTRY ORGANIZATIONS
Appendix 1: Method for Calculating Costs
of Replacing MB
139
Appendix 2: Agenda 21 Commitments on
Sustainable Agriculture
141
K
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O
Bibliography 143
Index 157
THE TECHNICAL AND ECONOMIC FEASIBILITY OF REPLACING METHYL BROMIDE IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES
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List of Tables
TABLE A Consumption of MB in Zimbabwe, Chile and Thailand, Compared with
Estimates for all Article 5 Countries in 1992
TABLE B Crops Reported to be Grown in Soil Treated with MB in Survey Countries -
Percentage of National Consumption
TABLE C Examples of Alternatives that Give Greater Yields than MB
TABLE D Examples of Technically Feasible Soil Alternatives, and Examples of
Countries where Alternatives Techniques are Used
TABLE E Examples of Technically Feasible Alternatives for Durable Commodities,
and Examples of Countries where Alternative Treatments are Used
TABLE F Examples of Specific Soil Alternatives with Operating Costs Similar to or
Lower than MB
TABLE G Summary of Conclusions on the Technical and Economic Feasibility of
Replacing MB
TABLE 2.1 Remaining Areas where Action can be Taken to Reduce Future
Ozone Losses
TABLE 2.2 International Controls on MB
TABLE 2.3 National Legislation and Policies for Reducing or Phasing Out Domestic
Consumption of MB
TABLE 3.1 Producers, Companies and Organizations Surveyed in Zimbabwe to
Identify Consumption and Users of MB
TABLE 3.2 Estimated Quantity of MB Consumed in Zimbabwe in 1994
TABLE 3.3 Area of Crop Cultivated or Tonnage Exported for Main Sectors in
Zimbabwe, and Percentage Treated With MB
TABLE 3.4 Tobacco Seedbeds: Pests Controlled by MB in Zimbabwe, and Potential
Alternative Pest Control Techniques
TABLE 3.5 Cut Flower Cultivation: Pests Currently Controlled by MB and Alternative
Treatments for Pest Control
TABLE 3.6 Nurseries: Pests Currently Controlled by MB and Alternative Treatments
for Pest Control
TABLE 3.7 Cut Flower Exports: Quarantine Pests Controlled by MB, and
Potential Alternatives
TABLE 3.8 Tobacco Exports: Pests Controlled by MB, and Alternative Treatments
THE TECHNICAL AND ECONOMIC FEASIBILITY OF REPLACING METHYL BROMIDE IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES
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TABLE 3.9 Grain Exports: Pests Controlled by MB, and Alternative
Disinfestation Treatments
TABLE 3.10 Artifacts and Curios: Pests Controlled by MB and Alternative
Disinfestation Treatments
TABLE 3.H Stored Grains: Pests Controlled by MB, and Alternative Methods of
Pest Control
TABLE 4.1 Estimated MB Imports and Use in Thailand
TABLE 4.2 Major Applications of MB in Thailand
TABLE 4.3 Crops Grown on Soil Treated With MB in Thailand
TABLE 4.4 Commodities Treated With MB in Thailand
TABLE 4.5 Economic Importance of Sectors Using MB
TABLE 4.6 Pests Controlled by MB in Selected Commodities and Crops
TABLE 4.7 Examples of Alternatives for Soil
TABLE 4.8 Examples of Alternative Treatments for Stored Products
TABLE 4.9 Examples of Alternative Treatments for Export Commodities
TABLE 5.1 MB Imports by Country of Origin
TABLE 5.2 Classification According to Range of MB Imports
TABLE 5.3 MB Imports for 1994
TABLE 5.4 Estimates of Total Quantity of MB Consumed in Chile, 1991-1994
TABLE 5.5 Consumption of MB in Chile in 1994
TABLE 5.6 Boxes of Fruit Fumigated in 1994/95 Destined for the USA
TABLE 5.7 Crops Grown on Soil Treated With MB
TABLE 5.8 Area of Crops and MB Soil Fumigation
TABLE 5.9 Dosage and Cost of MB
TABLE 5.10 Proportion of Crops Grown with MB and Alternatives
TABLE 5.11 Alternative Quarantine Treatments for Fruit
TABLE 5.12 Commodities Treated with MB and Other Treatments
TABLE 5.13 Economic Indicators for Key Sectors Using MB
TABLE 5.14 Pests Controlled by MB in Chile
TABLE 6.1 Examples of Alternative Methods of Pest Control Used in
Developing Countries
TABLE 6.2 Tomato Yields from High-Yield and Low-Yield Systems
TABLE 6.3 Soil Alternatives Relevant to Zimbabwe
TABLE 6.4 Soil Alternatives Relevant to Chile
TABLE 6.5 Soil Alternatives Relevant to Thailand
TABLE 6.6 Examples of Alternatives Used for Stored Products
TABLE 6.7 Alternatives for Stored Products Relevant to Zimbabwe and Thailand
TABLE 6.8 Examples of Alternative Treatments Used for Durable
Export/Import Commodities
TABLE 6.9 Examples of Cold and Heat Treatments Approved by USA
Quarantine Authorities (USDA-APHIS) for Durable Commodities
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TABLE 6.10 Examples o£ Fumigants and Fungicide Treatments Approved by USA
Quarantine Authorities for Durable Commodities
TABLE 6.11 Alternatives for Durable Export/Import Commodities Relevant
to Zimbabwe
TABLE 6.12 Alternatives for Durable Export/Import Commodities Relevant to Chile
TABLE 6.13 Alternatives for Durable Export/Import Commodities Relevant to Thailand
TABLE 6.14 Alternative Quarantine Techniques, With Examples of Approved
Applications for Fresh Fruit, Perishable Commodities
TABLE 6.15 Number of Known Cases where Countries have Approved an Alternative
Quarantine Technique for Perishable Commodities
TABLE 6.16 Alternatives for Perishable Commodities Relevant to Zimbabwe
TABLE 6.17 Alternatives for Perishable Commodities Relevant to Chile
TABLE 6.18 Alternatives for Perishable Commodities Relevant to Thailand
TABLE 7.1 Cost of Using MB Compared to a Solarisation Technique in Chile
TABLE 7.2 Summary of Available Examples of Soil Solarisation Costs
TABLE 7.3 Cost of Using MB Compared to a Specific Steam Technique in Chile
TABLE 7.4 * Comparative Inputs and Costs for Various Steam Treatments in the UK
TABLE 7.5 Summary of Examples of Various Steam Treatment Costs
TABLE 7.6 Cost of Using MB Compared to Seed Trays for Tobacco in Zimbabwe
TABLE 7.7 Cost of Using MB Compared to Seed Trays for Paprika Spice in Zimbabwe
TABLE 7.8 Summary of Examples of Substrates and Seed Tray System Costs
TABLE 7.9 Cost of Using MB Compared to Direct Sowing for Paprika Seeds
in Zimbabwe
TABLE 7.10 Costs of Vegetable Production Using Conventional and IPM Methods
in Guatemala
TABLE 7.11 Summary of Examples of IPM System Costs
TABLE 7.12 Cost of Using MB Compared to Dazomet for Pepper Seedbeds in Chile
TABLE 7.13 Cost of Using MB Compared to Dazomet for Tomato Seedbeds in Chile
TABLE 7.14 Cost of Using MB Compared to Metam Sodium and Other Techniques for
Strawberries in South Africa
TABLE 7.15 Cost of Using MB Compared to EDB/Dazomet for Strawberries
in Zimbabwe
TABLE 7.16 Cost of Using MB Compared to EDB for Runnerbeans in Zimbabwe
TABLE 7.17 Summary of Examples of Costs of Chemical Alternatives for Soil
TABLE 7.18 Cost of Using MB Compared to Phosphine and Carbon Dioxide for Stored
Grain (Milled Rice) in the Philippines
TABLE 7.19 Cost of Using MB Compared to Phosphine and Carbon Dioxide for Stored
Grain (Maize) in the Philippines
TABLE 7.20 Cost of Using Carbon Dioxide and Phosphine for Stored Grain (Milled
Rice) in Malaysia
TABLE 7.21 Cost of Using MB, Phosphine, Carbon Dioxide and Vacuum Container
System for Grain Stored for 6 Months in Indonesia
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THE TECHNICAL AND ECONOMIC FEASIBILITY OF REPLACING METHYL BROMIDE IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES
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TABLE 7.22 Cost of Using MB, Phosphine, Carbon Dioxide for Grain Stored for Twelve
Months in Indonesia
TABLE 7.23 Local and Global Environmental Impacts Resulting from Use of MB
TABLE 7.24 Examples of Labour Requirements for Weed Control, Comparing MB and
Some Alternatives
TABLE 7.25 Comparison of Costs of Labour and Agrochemical Inputs on about 200
Conventional Farms and about 90 Low-Chemical IPM Farms, over a
2 year Period
TABLE 7.26 Use of Labour on Small and Large Farms, Comparing Conventional with
Low-Chemical IPM Farms
TABLE 8.1 Primary Factors that Tend to Speed Up or Slow Down the Rate of ODS
Phase-Out in Article 5 Countries, Applied to the Situation in Zimbabwe
TABLE 8.2 Primary Factors that Tend to Speed Up or Slow Down the Rate of ODS
Phase-Out in Article 5 Countries, Applied to the Situation in Chile
TABLE 8.3 Secondary Factors Affecting the Rate of ODS Phase-Out in Article 5
Countries, Applied to the Situation in Zimbabwe
TABLE 8.4 Secondary Factors Affecting the Rate of ODS Phase-Out in Article 5
Countries, Applied to the Situation in Chile *
TABLE Al Method for Determining Conversion Costs
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CHAPTER
Ai ms of the
Report
1.1. Aims of Report
This report provides information about the pattern of use of methyl bromide (MB) in
Zimbabwe, Thailand and Chile, and existing and potential alternatives. It will examine the fol-
lowing issues:
Crops and commodities for which MB is used;
Quantity of MB used;
Pests of concern to MB users;
Value and structure of sectors using MB;
Existing and potential alternatives suitable for the situations in the case study countries,
including a description of alternatives identified by the United Nations Environment
Programme's (UNEP) Methyl Bromide Technical Options Committee (MBTOC) report;
Examples of the costs of using alternatives compared to MB;
Examples of resources (equipment, expertise and funding) necessary to develop, improve
or introduce alternatives for key sectors;
Factors that tend to promote or impede potential reductions or phase-out of MB;
Technical feasibility and economic implications of replacing MB, under various scenarios.
1.2. Research Methods
Specialists in the three study countries were commissioned to undertake surveys to identify MB
consumption, user sectors and existing and potential alternatives. Specialists were also com-
missioned to compile case studies comparing the cost of using MB and alternatives, and to
analyse the collected data.
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THE TECHNICAL AND ECONOMIC FEASIBILITY OF REPLACING METHYL BROMIDE IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES
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This report utilised the following research methods: literature reviews; interviews with appro-
priate experts in the study countries and elsewhere; surveys of MB users and research groups
to identify uses of MB and existing/potential alternatives; surveys to identify pests, condi-
tions and control techniques; analysis of collected research data; and peer review.
1.3. The Need for Information
The 1994 UNEP/WMO Scientific Assessment reported that eliminating the agricultural and
industrial emissions of MB would produce a significant reduction in the levels of
chlorine/bromine reaching the stratosphere in future years (WMO 1994:xxiii). In 1995 the
Parties to the Montreal Protocol agreed that consumption of MB in Article 5 countries will
be frozen by 2002, with the exception of quarantine and pre-shipment uses (Decision VII/3).
The 1997 Meeting of the Parties will consider further adjustments to control measures on
MB (Decision Vn/8).
Developing countries are concerned about the impacts that controls on MB may have on
agricultural exports, a major source of national income. This has been a major factor in dis-
cussions during the Montreal Protocol meetings in 1994 and 1995.
UNEP's MBTOC report has noted that alternatives to MB in developing countries are the
same as in industrialised countries (MBTOC 1994:284). However, MBTOC pointed out that
Article 5 countries have, in general, characteristics that may affect the economic and techni-
cal feasibility of the implementation of alternatives. The report stated that resources such as
technological capacity and infrastructural attributes in Article 5 countries tend to be less devel-
oped. Article 5 countries may also have more urgent social needs and are more dependent on
the agricultural sector than most industrialised countries (MBTOC 1994:285).
The MBTOC report has identified a wide range of existing and potential alternatives. This
information can be applied to the specific pests, sectors and conditions of Zimbabwe,
Thailand and Chile. In addition, case studies on the performance and costs of alternatives in
these countries can help to provide information about the technical and economic implications
of replacing MB in developing countries.
Additional information about the technical feasibility and costs of alternatives would be ben-
eficial at several levels:
1) To help inform discussions on further adjustments to controls on MB, at the national level
and under the Montreal Protocol. A number of Parties have expressed the need for more
information about the technical and economic issues arising from controls on MB.
2) To help inform enterprises using MB in Article 5 countries, including SMEs and paras-
tatals. Some exporters who use MB are already experiencing market pressures (mainly
from importing companies) to replace MB. Yet users often do not have information
about alternatives. The Review Under Paragraph 8 of Article 5 of the Montreal Protocol
found market forces will not contribute to timely action on ozone depleting substances
(ODS) unless critical actors (such as technology producers, suppliers and users) receive
sufficient quantity and quality of information, including reliable data on the technical and
financial details of alternatives (UNEP 1994:80).
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3) To help inform research activities. MBTOC
has noted the need for research to identify
alternatives that are effective, environmentally
acceptable, easy to apply, safe to users, afford-
able and specific to local conditions, crops and
target pests, as part of a technical strategy nec-
essary for replacing MB in Article 5 countries
(MBTOC 1994:293).
4) To help improve the coordination of activities
at national and regional level. The Review
Under Paragraph 8 of Article 5 noted that
Article 5 countries identified lack of informa-
tion about costs and alternative technologies
as one of the impediments to the implementa-
tion of country programmes (UNEP 1994).
Ozone monitoring at the University ofPunta Arenas
in Southern Chile.
1.4. Outputs of Research Project
The case studies and assessment in this report contribute information in the following areas:
technical information about existing and potential MB alternatives for three countries and
others with similar uses;
identification of alternatives that minimise externalised costs, ie. alternatives that pose the
least risk to users, human health and the environment;
costs of using alternatives compared to MB in selected sectors, and identification of some
cost- effective alternatives;
examples of resources needed for developing, improving or introducing alternatives in
selected sectors;
institutional, market and economic barriers to the development or introduction of alter-
natives;
assessment of the feasibility of reducing or replacing MB, under different scenarios;
opportunities to develop new industries and exports to supply new markets for alterna-
tives to MB;
projects requiring funding in case study countries, for the development of alternatives
and/or technology transfer.
The study provides information relevant to the following groups: decision-makers involved
in the Montreal Protocol; sectors and individual enterprises using MB; enterprises seeking to
develop new industries, export products or services; research groups; national Ozone
Protection Units and coordination bodies; industrial development bodies; and funders of
projects to develop or introduce alternatives.
V.
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THE TECHNICAL AND ECONOMIC FEASIBILITY OF REPLACING METHYL BROMIDE IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES
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CHAPTER
OVERVIEW
Of Methyl Bromide and Ozone Depletion
THIS CHAPTER PROVIDES AN OVERVIEW OF THE 1994 UNEP SCIENTIFIC ASSESSMENT OF OZONE
DEPLETION, AND THE PREDICTED HEALTH, ENVIRONMENTAL AND ECONOMIC EFFECTS OF INCREASED UV
RADIATION. IT SUMMARISES NATIONAL AND INTERNATIONAL CONTROLS ON METHYL BROMIDE. IT OUTLINES
THE REASONS FOR THE INCREASING USE OF MB IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES, AND ITS CURRENT ECONOMIC
IMPORTANCE.
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MB has a short life-time, which means it inflicts its damage rapidly on ozone. As a conse-
quence, early reductions in the use of MB would produce improvements rapidly in the ozone
layer, while elimination of chemicals with long lifetimes (eg. CFCs) will bring improvements in
the long term. Early reductions in chemicals with short lifetimes would shorten the period of
high ozone losses, and would reduce the impact of other ozone depleting substances in the
atmosphere, because of synergistic reactions between bromine and chlorine.
The WMO Assessment estimated that each atom of bromine that reaches the stratosphere
destroys approximately 50 times more ozone than each atom of chlorine (WMO 1994:xxi).
The Assessment calculated that it is improbable that MB's ODP is less than 0.3 or greater
than 0.8 (WMO 1994:10.23) The document states that 'There is no single process whose
present estimated uncertainty could reduce the ODP below 0.3'. Smaller values could be pos-
sible only if two improbable situations occurred simultaneously and several of the parame-
ters were at the extremes of their error limits (WMO 1994:10.22).
In the improbable event that MB's ODP were to be reduced to 0.1, it would be the same as
methyl chloroform (ODP 0.1) which is scheduled to be phased out by 1996. There are also
ozone depleting substances with ODPs of less than 0.1 which are scheduled for phase-out.
Methyl bromide has both natural and anthropogenic (human) sources. It is not the only
ozone depleting substance like this. Methyl chloride, for example, is emitted by the oceans and
biomass burning. Natural emissions of chlorine and bromine have occurred for millennia,
and are part of the balanced rate of natural ozone break-up and replenishment established over
billions of years (NOAA 1992). It is the extra chlorine and bromine - from human activities -
that causes the net reduction in ozone levels called ozone depletion. The additional chlorine
and bromine break up ozone faster than it can be replaced. From a policy perspective, it is
therefore necessary to address the preventable additional emissions.
The WMO Scientific Assessment has examined the suggestion of an 'ocean buffer' to deter-
mine whether the oceans might emit an additional, equivalent amount of MB if human emis-
sions were eliminated. The Assessment concluded that ocean 'buffering' is realistically limited
to only about 2 or 3% (WMO 1994:10.14).
The 1994 Assessment reported that uncertainties about MB's chemistry in the stratosphere
have been mostly resolved, although a number of other scientific uncertainties remain (WMO
1994:10.23). This means that scientists are dealing with ranges and estimates, rather than
precise figures.
In every area of science, especially those where research started barely twenty years ago, sci-
entists can state that there are large areas of uncertainty, so this is to be expected in the case
of MB. The key issue is whether there is sufficient scientific information to determine that
MB has a significant detrimental effect on the ozone layer. The WMO Scientific Assessment re-
confirmed that anthropogenic MB contributes significantly to ozone depletion, and that elim-
inating emissions from industry and the fumigant would lead to significant improvements in
the future.
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TABLE 2.1
The 1994 WMO Scientific Assessment identified four areas where controls in addition to
the Copenhagen Amendments could be introduced by the international community to reduce
future ozone losses.
Action identified by the WMO
Scientific Assessment
1. MB - Eliminating agricultural
and industrial emissions in
the year 2001
2. Halons - Preventing release of
halons in existing equipment
3. HCFCs - Eliminating emissions
by 2004
4. CFCs - Preventing release
of CFCs in existing equipment
Total
Estimated reduction
in integrated future
ozone losses
13% reduction - compared
to a freeze on MB in 1994
10% reduction
5% reduction
3% reduction
31% reduction
TEAP conclusions
about the feasibility of
further controls
Technically feasible
Technically feasible,
but costly
Technically and
economically feasible
Technically feasible, but
not economically feasible
Sources: Compiled from WMO 1994:xxiii; TEAP 1995:1-2.
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2.2. Health, Environmental, and Economic Impacts of Ozone
Depletion
Ozone depletion allows increased levels of radiation from the sun to reach the earth's surface.
Additional ultraviolet-B (UV-B) radiation is expected to have negative impacts on human
health, plants, animals and ecosystems, and economic implications for health services, agri-
cultural production, forestry, tourism and other industries.
The UNEP report on The Environmental Effects of Ozone Depletion provides an authorita-
tive scientific assessment of the expected health impacts of increased UV-B radiation
.(Environmental Effects Panel 1994):
A sustained 1 % decrease in ozone is estimated to increase the incidence of non-melanoma
skin cancer by approximately 2%.
A 1% increase in ozone depletion may be associated with a 0.6-0.8% increase in eye
cataracts.
' Additional UV exposure suppresses some immune responses, and may increase the inci-
dence of certain infectious diseases. This could have a significant impact on people with
impaired immune function and could reduce the efficacy of vaccination programmes
(Environmental Effects Panel 1994; WHO 1994).
Some plants have mechanisms to ameliorate the effects of increased UV-B radiation and may
acclimate to increased levels. However, physiological and developmental processes of others
are adversely affected by UV-B. In agriculture this will necessitate the selection or breeding of
more UV-tolerant cultivars. The Panel reports that secondary effects in plants, such as changes
in form or timing of developmental phases, may be as important as the direct effects of UV-B.
Exact changes at the ecosystem level cannot be easily predicted but they will nevertheless be
significant (Environmental Effects Panel 1994).
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THE TECHNICAL AND ECONOMIC FEASIBILITY OF REPLACING METHYL BROMIDE IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES
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Globally, more than 30% of the animal protein used as human food comes from the sea. In
developing countries the percentage is significantly higher. UV radiation has been shown to
cause damage to early developmental stages of fish, shrimp and other sea organisms, and
even small increases in UV could result in significant reductions in certain fish populations
(Environmental Effects Panel 1994:4-2).
Increased UV radiation could reduce the productivity of both marine and terrestrial ecosys-
tems, thereby reducing the uptake of atmospheric carbon dioxide. The Panel notes that this
could alter the sources and sinks of greenhouse gases and important trace gases such as carbon
dioxide, carbon monoxide and carbonyl sulphide (Environmental Effects Panel 1994:vi),
Additional UV-B results in increased production and destruction of polluting gases such as
ground level ozone and hydrogen peroxide, which are known to have adverse effects on
human health, plants and outdoor materials. The Panel reports that tropospheric (ground-
level) ozone is expected to increase in polluted regions, with high nitrous oxides reaching
potentially harmful concentrations earlier in the day. Some plastics and other materials of com-
mercial significance are adversely affected by UV, reducing their useful outdoor life. This will
add to the cost of using or maintaining these outdoor materials in the future (Environmental
Effects Panel 1994:vii-ix).
The Panel noted that many of the changes induced by increased UV radiation will be so com-
plex that it is not possible to quantify them. The Panel concluded that the increases in UV-B
radiation already observed, and those expected in the future will have significant consequences
in even the most favorable scenario of ozone depletion, so it strongly endorsed continued
efforts to protect the ozone layer (Environmental Effects Panel 1994:ix).
2.3. International Controls on Methyl Bromide
At the international level, the Copenhagen Amendments to the Montreal Protocol froze the
consumption of MB at 1991 levels in industrialised countries, starting in 1995. An exemp-
tion was made for quarantine and pre-shipment uses. The parties also adopted a non-binding
resolution urging nations to make every effort to reduce MB emissions, and to discuss an
appropriate control scheme at the Montreal Protocol meeting in 1995.
At the 1993 Montreal Protocol meeting in Bangkok, seventeen countries signed a voluntary
Declaration, stating their determination to:
reduce consumption of MB by at least 25% by the year 2000 at the latest;
totally phase out the consumption of MB as soon as technically possible.
The signatory countries were Zimbabwe, Botswana, Austria, Belgium, Canada, Denmark,
Finland, Germany, Iceland, Israel, Italy, Liechtenstein, Netherlands, Sweden, Switzerland,
United Kingdom, and the United States.
The Montreal Protocol meeting in Vienna 1995 agreed that industrialised countries would:
reduce MB production and consumption 25% by the year 2001, and 50% by 2005;
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phase out MB production and consumption by 2010 (up to 15% of the 1991 production
level can continue in order to supply developing countries) (UNEP 1995:Annex III).
Quarantine and pre-shipment uses, comprising approximately 17% of world use, were
exempted from these controls. However, all countries were urged to refrain from using MB
wherever possible (UNEP 1995:Decision VII/5). Governments may decide to permit some
quantity of MB for "critical agricultural uses" beyond the phase-out (UNEP 1995:61). The
Technology and Economic Assessment Panel (TEAP) was asked to examine the need for
"critical agricultural use" exemptions, and possible procedures and criteria (UNEP
1995:Decision VII/29). This issue will be discussed at the Montreal Protocol meeting in 1996.
Recognising the spe-
cial needs of develop-
ing countries, the
Montreal Protocol
meeting agreed that
by 2002 developing
countries should limit
consumption of MB
to the average annual
amount they used in
the period 1995-98
(UNEP 1995: Annex
III). Methyl bromide
used for quarantine
and pre-shipment is
exempt.
TABLE 2,2
International controls on MB. Control schedules agreed under
the Montreal Protocol in 1995.
Controls in Industrialised Countries
Freeze at 1991 level
- except for quarantine & pre-shipment uses
25% reduction
- except for quarantine & pre-shipment uses
50% reduction
- except for quarantine & pre-shipment uses
Phase-out
- except for quarantine and pre-shipment uses.
- except for essential and/or critical agricultural uses
Controls in Developing (Article 5) Countries
Freeze at 1995-98 (annual average) level
- except for quarantine & pre-shipment uses
Year
1995
2001
2005
2010
Year
2002
Source: UNEP 1995: Annex III.
Four developing coun-
tries and 17 industri-
alised countries signed
a voluntary Declaration at the Montreal Protocol meeting in 1995, noting that faster move-
ment towards phasing out MB would reduce the human and environmental impacts of ozone
depletion (see box on page 10). They stated their determination to:
encourage the widespread adoption of alternatives;
take measures to limit consumption to necessary applications only, and to phase out as
soon as possible (UNEP 1995:Annex X).
The 1997 Montreal Protocol meeting will examine new technical and economic information
about alternatives and will consider adjustments to the controls on MB (UNEP 1995:Decision
VII/8).
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VIENNA DECLARATION ON METHYL BROMIDE
Signed by 21 countries: Australia, Austria, Belgium, Botswana, Canada, Denmark
Finland, Germany, Iceland, Italy, Luxembourg, Malawi, Mauritius, Netherlands, New
Zealand, Norway, Sweden, Switzerland, UK, USA and Venezuela, at the Montreal Protocol
meeting in December 1995.
"The above Parties present at the Seventh Meeting of the Parties to the Montreal
Protocol, Commend the international community for taking constructive steps in
strengthening controls on methyl bromide,
Being aware that faster movement towards phasing out methyl bromide would reduce
the human and environmental impacts of ozone depletion,
Being aware that some Parties are able to adopt alternatives at an earlier stage, and that
several Parties have adopted domestic policies to largely phase out -methyl bromide in
the next few years,
Declare their firm determination, at the national level:
(a) To encourage the widespread adoption of alternatives;
(b) To take all appropriate measures to limit the consumption of methyl bromide to
those applications that are strictly necessary, and to phase out the consumption of
methyl bromide as soon as possible."
Source: UNEP 1995:81. The list of signatory countries was provided by the Delegation that pre-
sented the Declaration during the meeting.
2.4. National Controls on Methyl Bromide
A number of countries have passed legislation to phase out or reduce consumption of MB
more quickly. Table 2.3 outlines national legislation and policies to reduce or end consump-
tion of MB in advance of what is required under the Montreal Protocol. The USA, which
uses more MB than any other country, has agreed upon regulations to phase out production
for national use by the year 2001 (USA Federal Register 1993).
Austria has made a commitment to phase out use of MB by 2000, and has recently adopted
a regulation to prohibit storage uses by 1998. Denmark has introduced regulations to elimi-
nate domestic use by 1998 and has achieved a substantial reduction of 64% from 33 tonnes in
1991/92 to 12 tonnes in 1994 (Danish EPA 1994 and 1995). The other Nordic countries
have also agreed to phase out MB by 1998 (Nordic Environmental Strategy 1995).
Indonesia has issued a decree which schedules a phase-out for MB; registrations for MB
imports expire by May 1997. Formulations containing MB cannot be kept on Indonesian
territory after January 1 1998 (Menteri Pertanian 1994). Columbia has also issued a
Ministerial Resolution to phase out MB (Ministerio de Salud 1996).
The European Union, the second largest user after the USA, has agreed upon regulations that
will cut MB consumption by 25% in 1998 (EC Official Journal 1994). Canada has also
introduced regulations to reduce consumption by 25% in 1998 (Canada Gazette 1994).
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One intensive horticultural region of Italy phased out the use of MB in the 1980s because of
concerns about local water contamination (Regional Ordinance 288, August 3 1983). In
June 1994, the Italian Ministry of Health issued a national Ordinance restricting fumigation of
fields to one year in two (Italian Official Gazette 1994). Industry sources report that Italian
sales of MB were lower in 1994 as a result (Agrow 1995:8).
Germany has eliminated the use of MB for stored grains and food crops, and the Netherlands
has phased out all soil uses, because the governments were concerned about problems such
as water contamination, food residues and/or safety to agricultural workers and local com-
munities exposed to MB (Ketzis 1992, Miller 1994, Netherlands Lower House 1981).
TABLE 2.3
National legislation and policies for reducing or phasing out domestic consumption of MB in
advance of international schedules.
Country
USA
Canada.
Austria
Denmark
Norway, Finland
Sweden
Columbia
Indonesia
European Union
Germany
Netherlands
Switzerland
Italy
Measure and
year adopted
Regulation 1993
Regulation 1994
Policy
Regulation 1995
Policy
Regulation 1994
Nordic environmental
strategy agreement
Regulation 1994
Resolution 1996
Decree 1994
Regulation 1994
(1)
(1)
(1)
Regional ordinance
1993
National Ordinance
1994 (2)
Agreed phase-out or reductions
Phase-out by 2001
- An amendment might be introduced to
exempt and define essential or critical uses
25% cut in 1998
- Permits required for importing methyl bro-
mide for quarantine or preshipment uses
Phase-out by 2001
Phase-out storage facility use by 1998
Phase-out by 2000
Phase-out by 1998
- Eliminate certain uses by 1995
- Phase out main use (glasshouse
tomatoes) by 1996
Phase-out by 1998
Phase-out by 1998
- soil treatments phased out by 1993
- other uses: 25% cut in 1995
- other uses: 50% cut in 1996/7
Phase out by (date to be decided)
Phase-out by 1998
25% cut in 1998
- Requires all practical measures to
prevent leakage
- Regular review of permitted uses is
desirable
Treatments for food crops and stored
grains have been phased out
All soil treatments have been phased out
Soil uses not permitted
Prohibited MB use in region of Lake
Bracciano
Fields may be fumigated only in alternate
years, Reduce application dose
Note: Some regulations allow exemptions for essential uses or for quarantine and pre-shipment uses.
(1) Introduced because government agencies were primarily concerned about water contamination,
food residues and human health.
(2) Introduced as a pesticide control measure by the Ministry of Health.
Source: Miller 1996.
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THE TECHNICAL AND ECONOMIC FEASIBILITY OF REPLACING METHYL BROMIDE IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES
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Bromine processing facility of Dead Sea Bromine in
Israel, where bromine extracted from the Dead Sea is
used to manufacture methyl bromide and other chem-
ical products, primarily for export.
2.5. Importance of Methyl Bromide
in Developing Countries
Developing countries use about 18% of the MB
manufactured globally (MBTOC 1994:7).
Although this is a small proportion of the global
total, it is a significant amount (about 14,500
tonnes) (TEAP 1995:67). Several Article 5 coun-
tries have become dependent on the use of MB for
important aspects of their economies (MBTOC
1994:285).
Export crops grown with the assistance of MB
include tobacco, cut flowers, strawberries and
vegetables. These crops generate foreign currency
revenues. Cut flowers from Kenya, for example,
account for 13% of the foreign exchange earnings. In Zimbabwe, MB is used for about 98%
of the area of tobacco seedbeds, and tobacco exports account for 20-25% of the country's
export earnings. A significant proportion of soil used to produce horticultural exports is
treated with MB in Zimbabwe, where the exports were worth about US$27 million in 1994.
The sector is also a major source of employment (Standard Chartered Bank 1995).
Grain stocks are sometimes treated with MB to inhibit pests. In some regions, it has become an
important technique, contributing to food security. MB is currently the cheapest technique in
Zimbabwe for conserving grain stock. It was especially important during the 1992 drought
in southern Africa when large quantities of maize had to be moved rapidly into the region. The
fumigant was used to prevent transfer of the Larger Grain Borer (Prostephanus truncatus), a
very damaging pest.
Quarantine and pre-shipment treatments for certain commodities are sometimes required by
quarantine authorities or commercial companies. These uses are economically important to
developing countries. For example, grapes exported from Chile to the USA accounted for
3% of total exports (MBTOC 1994:292).
Developing countries are attempting to deal with issues such as poverty, global inequalities,
large debt repayments, and social, agricultural and industrial changes. The replacement of
ozone-depleting substances can create additional difficulties but also offers opportunities for
local economic development and job creation. The level of infrastructure - insufficient admin-
istrative, research and training capacity and difficulties in information transfer - also places
constraints on the development or introduction of alternatives. These issues must be fully
considered when discussing the economic implications of replacing methly bromide.
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CHAPTER
Zimbabwe:
Methyl Bromide Use and Existing /Potential Alternatives
Chapter prepared by:
Dr. Melanie Miller, Environmental policy analyst, New Zealand
Peter Wilkinson, Xylocopa Systems, IPM consultant, Zimbabwe.
THIS CHAPTER PRESENTS SURVEY INFORMATION ABOUT THE CROPS, COMMODITIES AND PESTS FOR WHICH
METHYL BROMIDE IS USED, AND ESTIMATED TONNAGES. IT IDENTIFIES THE VALUE OF MAJOR SECTORS, AND THE
SIZE AND PROPORTION OF AGRICULTURAL PRODUCERS USING MB AND ALSO PROVIDES AN OVERVIEW OF EXIST-
ING AND POTENTIAL ALTERNATIVES RELEVANT TO ZIMBABWE USERS.
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3.1. Survey
For the purpose of this study, surveys were carried out in Zimbabwe; a number of MB sup-
pliers, users and relevant experts were asked for detailed information. More than 102 agri-
cultural producers and 8 organizations were surveyed (Table 3.1) to identify treated crops,
commodities and pests, and the quantities of MB used in 1994.
3.2. Overview of Uses and Users
Methyl bromide is used in Zimbabwe to kill pests in soil, stored grain and export products.
Users reported that they used MB to kill about 17 insect species of concern to them, as well
as to control weeds and soil phytopathogens (organisms that cause disease in plants).
The survey identified one sector that uses a large amount of MB (tobacco growers), two sec-
tors using moderate amounts (stored grain, and horticulture), and more than four sectors using
small quantities (exports of tobacco, artifacts and horticulture, and destruction of termite
nests). The majority of MB is used by commercial companies and a former parastatal organi-
zation.
OVERVIEW OF SECTORS USING MB:
1) Soil treatment for tobacco seedbeds - 83% of MB use
The tobacco sector is very important in Zimbabwe, accounting for 20% - 25% of for-
eign currency earnings. There are approximately 1,800 large-scale commercial tobacco
farms, virtually all of which use MB. About 500 (50%) of the 1,000 small-scale tobacco
growers use MB. Only a few large farms are foreign-owned.
5
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THE TECHNICAL AND ECONOMIC FEASIBILITY OF REPLACING METHYL BROMIDE IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES
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2) Fumigation of grains in storage and for export - 13% of MB use
Stores of grain are important for food security. The Grain Marketing Board (GMB), a
parastatal until very recently, holds the national stores and treats most types of grain
with MB. It is not used by farmers for on-farm storage.
3) Soil treatment for flowers, nurseries and seedbeds - 3% of MB use
The horticultural sector has a high value and is very important for export earnings. A small
proportion of horticultural producers use ME. Users are generally large-scale commercial
farms. Most farms are Zimbabwean but some are foreign-owned (European, especially
Dutch). No small-scale farmers in horticulture use MB.
4) Fumigation of tobacco leaf exports - <1% of MB use
A small proportion of tobacco exports (about 5%) is treated with MB, as a requirement of
certain importing countries. ME is used primarily by large and very large tobacco
exporters ivith a mix of Zimbabwean and European ownership.
5) Fumigation of export curios and artifacts - <1% of MB use
Use of MB for fumigation of export curios is a significant export sector. Treatments are
carried out by professional fumigators.
6) Quarantine treatment for horticultural exports - <1% of MB use
Some cut floivers and occasionally fresh vegetables are fumigated prior to export. More
often, exports are fumigated with ME on arrival in importing countries, such as Australia
and Mauritius, if pests of concern are detected. «
7) Miscellaneous minor uses - <1% of MB use
For example, killing tennite nests and disinfesting sacks in coffee mills are minor uses of MB.
Although some areas use very small quantities, the use is often economically important, espe-
cially in the case of treatments for exports.
3.3. Quantities Used for Crops and Commodities
Estimates of the quantity of MB used in Zimbabwe vary. The Agricultural Chemicals Industry
Association estimates that use is between 850 and 900 tonnes per year. Our survey found an
estimated usage of more than 604 tonnes in 1994. This figure would normally be higher, but
less MB has been used for grain stocks in recent years because of droughts.
In 1992 Zimbabwe was estimated to be the second-highest user of MB on the African conti-
nent, after Egypt (MBTOC 1994:287). A United Nations Development Programme (UNDP)
survey in 1995 found that it was probably the highest user in Africa (UNDP 1995).
Among developing countries Zimbabwe ranks as one of the highest users. In 1992 it was prob-
ably the ninth highest user after Brazil and the Republic of Korea (1,400 tonnes each), China
and Mexico (1,000 tonnes each), Jordan (900 tonnes), Turkey (800 tonnes), Egypt (750
tonnes) and Thailand (730 tonnes) (MBTOC 1994:286; UNDP 1995).
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Methyl bromide is not manufactured in Zimbabwe. It is imported from two sources: Dead Sea
Bromine company in Israel and Great Lakes Chemical Corporation in the USA. About 60-
75% comes from Israel but the quantity varies because local importers buy on price and
availability.
According to our survey results
about 515 tonnes (85%) of MB
were used for soil fumigation, 82
tonnes (14%) for durable com-
modities, and a small quantity
(less than 1%) as a quarantine
treatment for perishable exports in
1994. According to MBTOC esti-
mates, developing countries on
average use about 70% for soil,
20% for durables, 7% for perish-
ables and less than 1 % for struc-
tures (MBTOC 1994:289-292).
The proportions used in
Zimbabwe vary significantly from
these average figures: the country
uses a higher proportion for soil,
and a slightly lower proportion for
durables and perishable commodi-
ties (see Figure 3.1 and Figure
3.2).
In Zimbabwe MB is used for the
production of tobacco, cut flowers
and a relatively small amount of
fresh fruit and vegetables. It is
used for growing high-input hor-
ticultural crops which are almost
entirely for export. In this respect
it is like other developing coun-
tries. MBTOC reports that MB is
not used to grow staple foods such
as maize or wheat (MBTOC
1994:284).
In the vast majority of developing
countries, MB is used by large and
medium sized companies rather
than small farmers. Zimbabwe is
unusual in that MB is used by
TABLE 3.1
Producers, companies and organizations surveyed in
Zimbabwe to identify consumption and users of MB.
Agricultural sector
or organization
Agricultural Producers
Tobacco
Pea
Deciduous fruit
Paprika, capsicums
Asparagus
Roses
Other flowers
Tomatoes
Cole
Cucurbits
Beans
Baby sweetcorn
Nuts
Strawberries
Passion fruit
Tropical fruit
Onion
Nurseries
Animal feed producers
Seed producers
Other Organizations
Professional fumigators
Government plant
inspection dept
Horticultural Promotion
Council
Tobacco Research
Board
Zimbabwe Tobacco
Association
National Museum
Affretair
Number of producers
or companies surveyed
10
20
14
7
4
8
3
2
3
1 .
12
4
1
3
1
2
1
3
2
1
2
1
1
1
1
1
1
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FIGURE 3.1
Estimated use of MB in developing countries (MBTOC 1994).
Perishable Commodities 7%
Durable
Commodities 20%
Structural and Miscellaneous >1%
Soil Fumigation 70%
FIGURE 3.2
Major applications of MB in Zimbabwe in 1994 (survey results).
Durable Commodities 14%
Quarantine Treatments for
Perishable Exports <1%
Miscellaneous Uses <1%
Soil Fumigation 85%
about 500 small farmers for tobacco. Brazil is believed to be the only other developing coun-
try where it is used by a large number of small farmers, also for tobacco.
The estimates in Table 3.2 show the main agricultural sectors using MB. The tobacco indus-
try uses the greatest quantity, consuming about 500 tonnes (83%) in 1994. Grain is the next
most important sector, using 78 tonnes (13%) in 1994. The cut flower sector used about 12
tonnes (2%), and the rest of the horticultural sector used about 3 tonnes (<1%) for soil and
post-harvest treatments.
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The quantity of MB used in some sectors varies significantly from year to year, particularly
for grain. For example, the GMB used 62 tonnes in 1992, 16 tonnes in 1993 and 78 tonnes
in 1994 because of fluctuating amounts of grain in storage (Kutukwa & Juriangwa 1995).
TABLE 3.2
Estimated quantity of MB consumed in Zimbabwe in 1994 (survey results).
Soil and Commodity
Applications
Tobacco Crop
Tobacco seedbeds
Tobacco fields/lands
Cut Flower Crops
Roses
Chrysanthemums
Asters
Other flowers
Nurseries/Seedbeds
Paprika seedbeds
Tomatoes
Cole
Citrus
Coffee
Other
Perishable Exports
Cut flowers
Fruit & veg.
Durable Commodities
Tobacco exports
Curios and artifacts
Grains
Other Uses
Termite nests
Total
MB used
by sector
(tonnes/yr)
50Q (sub-total)
12 (sub-total)
3 (sub-total)
<5 (sub-total)
82 (sub-total)
2 (sub-total)
604
MB used
by crop
(tonnes/yr)
500
.0
5
1
1
5
>1
0.5
0.2
0.3
0.5
0.5
small,
variable
amount
small,
variable
amount
3
1
78
0.5
604
Percent
by sector
83%
2%
.
<1%
<1%
14%
<1%
100%
Percent
by crop
83%
zero
2%
1%
<1%
<1%
1%
<1%
<1%
<1%
<1%
<1%
<1%
<1%
<1%
<1%
<1%
13%
<1%
100%
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THE TECHNICAL AND ECONOMIC FEASIBILITY OF REPLACING METHYL BROMIDE IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES
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TABLE 3.3
Area of crop cultivated or tonnage exported for each main sector, and percentage treated
with MB in 1994 (survey results).
Sector
Total crop area
or commodity
tonnage
Area or tonnage
treated with MB
Percentage
treated with MB
Tobacco (export value: US$530 million"1)
Seedbeds (soil)
Tobacco (post-harvest)
910 ha
169,220 tonnes
880 ha
10,000 tonnes
98%
5%
Horticulture (export value: US$62 million m)
Roses (soil)
Other cut flowers (soil)
Strawberries (soil)
Nurseries (soil)
Cut flowers (post-harvest)
Fruit & veg. (post-harvest)
200 ha
520 ha
25 ha
c.25 ha
8,000 tonnes
6,400 tonnes
10 ha
13 ha
0 ha
3.6 ha
small quantity
small quantity
5%
3%
zero
c.20%
n/a
n/a
Grain
Storage, export, import
(post-harvest)
1,295,000 tonnes
large quantity
high percentage
'" Estimated value of 1994/95 crop (Blair 1995b).
>u Value of exported floivers, vegetables and fruit including citrus, in 1994/95 season.
3.4. Significance of Methyl Bromide in Main Sectors
3.4.1. TOBACCO SECTOR
About 98% of the tobacco grown in Zimbabwe is exported. The value of the 1994/95 crop
is expected to be US$532 million, amounting to about 20% to 25% of Zimbabwe's foreign
exchange earnings (Blair 1995b). The sector is also a major source of employment (Standard
Chartered Bank 1995), with about 6% of the population of Zimbabwe dependent on the
tobacco industry (Blair 1995b).
Methyl bromide is used to treat about 98% of the area of tobacco seedbeds (table 3.3). About
500 tonnes of MB were used in 1994. Typically about 550 tonnes per year is used (Blair
1995b). Methyl bromide is not used to treat the soil for growing mature tobacco plants
(tobacco lands) due to relatively slow application, high cost of sheeting and tape, and the
impracticality of moving sheets over large areas.
There are approximately 1,800 large-scale tobacco growers, virtually all of whom use MB.
About 500 of the 1,000 small-scale growers use MB. In total, about 2,300 tobacco growers
(82%) use MB.
There are 910 hectares of tobacco seedbeds grown in Zimbabwe; the vast majority grown by
large-scale commercial growers. About 20 hectares (2%) of the seedbeds are for Virginia
tobacco grown by small-scale farmers covering about 1,500 hectares. Small-scale farmers
growing Burley tobacco (covering 2,000 hectares) do not use MB.
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About 15% of the large-scale commercial farms are foreign-owned, and the rest Zimbabwean.
Each are several hundred hectares in size, grow crops other than horticultural crops, and
most keep livestock. They grow 40 to 75 hectares of tobacco on average, although some grow
150 to 200 hectares. These large farms have management personnel trained to college or often
university level, who are technically the most skilled farmers in Zimbabwe. The large farms
have relatively good financial security and access to loans. A Tobacco Research Board (largely
financed by farmers paying a levy on tobacco sales) provides good technical support to grow-
ers.
The tobacco is exported to about 120 countries in Western Europe (51%), Asia (21%), Eastern
Europe (11%), North America (9%), and the Middle East (8%).
In 1994 about 3.2 tonnes of MB were used to fumigate 10,000 tonnes of tobacco prior to
export. This amounted to about 5% of tobacco exports (Table 3.3). The MB was applied to
meet the QPS requirements of a small number of importing countries, principally Japan and
Taiwan. Tobacco exporters either own fumigation chambers or apply fumigants under sheet-
ing. Fumigations may be carried out by their own staff or by contract fumigators.
Phosphine has largely replaced MB as a fumigant, and was used for about 95% of tobacco
exports in 1994. Fumigation prior to shipment is not required by most importing countries,
but as a precaution, almost all tobacco is treated in Zimbabwe because it is more expensive
(financially and for the producers' reputation) if tobacco beetle is found by the importing coun-
try.
3.4.2. GRAIN SECTOR
Methyl bromide is used for grain only by the
Grain Marketing Board (GMB). It is not used by
farmers for on-farm grain storage, nor by grain
millers or animal feed manufacturers.
The GMB holds national grain stocks and is the
main grain marketing authority in Zimbabwe. Its
role has recently been changed to make it more
market-oriented. It has an extensive network of
large storage areas and treatment depots through-
out the country and plays an important role in
food security in the region. Grains are mainly
consumed locally. Grain is exported when suffi-
cient quantity is produced, and imported when
the crop grown in Zimbabwe does not meet
national demand.
Sacks of grain at a national grain store in Kenya
being prepared for fumigation with methyl bromide.
The methyl bromide cylinder sits on a weighing
device for measuring the correct dose; pipes carry the
gas to the top of the stack.
Since--it was first established the GMB predominantly used MB for pest control and is techni-
cally skilled in applying it. Grain in storage may be fumigated two or three times a year, some-
times with phosphine and it may be stored for up to three years before marketing, depending
on the quantity harvested and demand for grain.
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The GMB used 78 tonnes of MB in 1994, accounting for about 13% of Zimbabwe's use.
Drought and other factors have led to low use of MB. In normal years up to 250 tonnes might
be used. The GMB expects to use up to 200 tonnes in 1995.
GMB's capacity for grain storage is 5 million tonnes: about 20% in bulk and 80% in bags.
In a. normal year there would be 2 million tonnes of maize and 0.5 million tonnes of other cere-
als. This would require 100-250 tonnes of MB, depending on the level of pests. Normally
about 80% would be used for maize and about 20% for wheat. A very small amount of MB
is used for rice because it is imported in response to demand, not held in stock, and a small
quantity of MB is used to treat empty grain sacks.
The GMB fumigates cereals in stacks but not in bulk storage. Oilseeds are not fumigated
with MB. Phosphine is used for bulk storage, legumes, sorghum and finger millet (Eleusine
coracana).
Grain for export often is required to be fumigated prior to shipment. The Middle East requires
fumigation but does not specify which fumigant, while Japan specifies that MB must be used.
Grain imported into Zimbabwe must be fumigated, but the fumigant is not specified.
3.4.3. HORTICULTURAL SECTOR
Export earnings from horticultural exports (cut flowers, vegetables, fruit and citrus) were
US$62 million for the 1994/95 season, exceeding both the value and volume of previous years.
Flowers accounted for 58%, vegetables and non-citrus fruit for 30%, and citrus for 12% of
the value (The Herald 1995). Horticultural output is expected to continue to grow.
In 1994/95 8,000 tonnes of cut flowers were exported, earning US$36 million. This repre-
sented growth of 49% on the 1992/93 figures according to the Horticultural Promotion
Council. In 1992/93, 5,216 tonnes of cut flowers were exported.
The flower production area on individual farms seldom exceeds 10 hectares. The farms
themselves are mostly large scale operations of which the flowers are one small part. The
sector employs on average 25 people per hectare (The Herald 1995).
Our survey found that about 23 hectares (3%) out of 720 hectares of flowers are treated
with MB (Table 3.3). Approximately 12 tonnes of MB were used in 1994. Roses accounted
for 5 tonnes (42%) of this, chrysanthemums and asters accounted for 2 tonnes, and the rest
is used for a wide variety of other flowers (Table 3.2).
Vegetable and fruit exports (excluding citrus) earned US$18.5 million in 1994/95. This rep-
resented an increase of 20% from the previous year. Areas producing horticultural crops in
Zimbabwe are relatively small and are often part of much larger mixed farming enterprises.
Less than 1 tonne of MB was used in 1994. Small-scale horticultural producers do not use
MB.
Citrus exports earned about US$7 million in 1994/95. The area planted with citrus has
expanded rapidly and now covers about 4,000 hectares. About 0.3 tonnes of MB was used for
citrus in nurseries in 1994.
In the last few years use of MB has increased rapidly for paprika seedbeds, an important export
crop primarily used for paprika oleoresin, a colorant for food, drugs and cosmetics.
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Nurseries used about 2 tonnes of MB in total in 1994.
The nurseries grow a wide range of plants, primarily
tomatoes, cole (eg. cabbage), as well as citrus (Table
3.2). There are relatively few commercial horticultural
nurseries in Zimbabwe and they are small,
Zimbabwean-owned, and usually independent of large-
scale farms.
Coffee nurseries, in contrast, are on large commercial
coffee estates, mostly Zimbabwean-owned. About 0.5
tonnes of MB was used in nurseries for coffee (which is
not classed as a horticultural crop). Small-scale coffee
producers do not use MB. Coffee is not treated with MB
after harvesting, although coffee mills sometimes fumi-
gate sacks.
Technical resources in horticulture and coffee produc-
tion are fewer than in the tobacco sector. Farmers are
skilled but there are limited research facilities. Limited
technical assistance is provided by the Horticultural
Research Station and the Coffee Research Station.
Foreign and local consultants play a large role in tech-
nology transfer in this sector and often recommend use
of MB.
Horticultural products and propagules imported into
Zimbabwe are not fumigated with MB because it often
harms the plant material.
Preparation for methyl bromide strip futnig,
tion in Zimbabwe's horticultural sector.
"Hot gas" method of soil fumigation, a
technique used in Zimbabwe's horticultural
sector. Methyl bromide is piped via a drum of
hot water so it is converted to vapour before
being applied to the soil.
Most cut flowers are exported to Europe. South Africa is reported to be the second largest
importer, followed by Australia, the USA and Mauritius (Roozendaal 1994:7). Vegetables and
fruit are exported mainly to Europe but also to South Africa, Asia and Australia. In a small
number of cases, for example certain products sea-freighted to Mauritius, products are given
a quarantine treatment in Zimbabwe prior to export. More commonly, products are fumi-
gated by the importing country if quarantine pests are detected. Australia, for example, has
intercepted pests in quite a few batches of snowpeas and cut flowers airfreighted from
Zimbabwe, and so has applied MB on arrival.
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3.5. Trends in Consumption of Methyl Bromide
Developing countries are estimated to use approximately 18% of the MB used worldwide
(MBTOC 1994:285). Worldwide, the use of MB grew at the rate of 5.5% per year between
1988 and 1992 (TEAP 1995:66). Limited data suggest much larger rates of increase in the
use of MB are anticipated for Article 5 countries developing horticultural industries such as cut
flowers for export (TEAP 1995:68).
Our survey of users in Zimbabwe found that use of MB is certainly rising in horticultural
export sectors, while falling in other sectors. It is not possible to ascertain whether overall
THE TECHNICAL AND ECONOMIC FEASIBILITY OF REPLACING METHYL BROMIDE IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES
-------
use will rise or fall in the next few years. One factor promoting consumption is that some con-
sultants and chemical suppliers continue to recommend the use of MB in cases where alterna-
tives could be used.
Use of MB for paprika seedbeds is likely to continue increasing as production increases. Use
for citrus is likely to increase from the small current level, because the area of citrus planting
has been expanding rapidly. Other horticultural crops are due to expand, and in some cases
this would increase use of MB.
However, use of MB for strawberries has virtually ceased. A major strawberry producer
stopped using MB a number of years ago, and continues to use alternative methods. Hortico,
a large horticultural exporter also growing strawberries, tested alternatives for the 1993 visit
of the MBTOC committee. On finding that MB made no detectable difference to productiv-
ity, they stopped using it. Apparently one grower working with Hortico has started to use it
again because it is a familiar product, but the other growers are still using the alternatives.
Use of MB for grain stocks has dropped in recent years because of drought. Large stockpiles
of grain are no longer deemed necessary, in part because the GMB has moved into a market
oriented situation where it can trade freely. This suggests that use of MB would remain low
for this sector.
However, the GMB tendered for and has taken delivery of 200 tonnes of MB for 1995, so
the proportion of stocks treated with MB (compared to phosphine) is likely to rise in 1995.
Use of MB as a pre-shipment fumigant for tobacco has declined substantially in recent years.
This is mainly because it can cause methylation, decreasing tobacco leaf quality. Some
European tobacco importers now insist that MB must not be used, due to environmental
concerns.
Companies in Japan and Taiwan actively require pre-shipment fumigation with MB for com-
modities such as tobacco. If exports to these countries increase then use of MB will increase in
parallel, unless the importing countries or companies change their policies to accept substi-
tute quarantine or phytosanitary treatments.
Use of MB for flower and snowpea exports to Australia is likely to increase this year because
of pest control problems. Methyl bromide may be applied to new uses in future, such as
apple imports from South Africa.
3.6. Alternative Methods of Soil Pest Control
3.6.1. ALTERNATIVES FOR TOBACCO SEEDBEDS
Methyl bromide is used extensively on tobacco seedbeds in Zimbabwe because it is very
effective in controlling broad-leaved weeds, grass weeds, nematodes, soil insects and soil
fungi including one causing anthracnose (Colletotrickum tabacum) (Table 3.4). The farmers
are accustomed to using MB and have a great deal of confidence in its ability to perform well.
The Zimbabwe Tobacco Research Board (TRB) has undertaken research on some potential
alternatives, and has recommended several other fumigants (Shepherd 1993, Blair 1995b). For
example, a mixture of 1,3-dichloropropene (1,3-D) and methyl isothiocyanate (MITC) gives
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good control of nematodes, controls some soil insects and soil fungi, and greatly reduces the
number of broadleaved weeds and grasses. Selected techniques could be used to control
other soil insects and weeds. However, 1,3-D and MITC are more expensive and like MB,
these fumigants are toxic and may cause environmental contamination. Therefore, they have
significant drawbacks compared to non-chemical alternatives.
The TRB and farmers have found that dazomet, metam-sodium and 1,3-D mixed with MITC
are not as effective or reliable as MB. But the full range of pests can be controlled. The
results are likely to improve with further knowledge (Shepherd 1993, Blair 1995b).
A treatment that the TRB found to give excellent results also poses human safety problems.
The treatment combines ethylene dibromide (EDB) (which is no longer permitted in some
countries (MBTOC 1994:80)) to control nematodes and soil insects, with the burning of
brushwood or maize cobs on the seedbed area to destroy weed seeds (Shepherd 1993:2). The
Board does not recommend this practice because burning brushwood would lead to further
deforestation, carbon dioxide and smoke pollution (Blair 1995b). Burning vegetation would
also generate very small amounts of MB (WMO 1994).
The TRB has recommended several Integrated Pest Management (IPM) techniques. It rec-
ommends that seedbed sites are rotated and that a specific cover grass crop (a non-host to
nematodes) is planted in the rotation. These can contribute to the weed seed problem (nor-
mally killed by MB) and it would be useful if a hybrid sterile grass could be developed.
Nematode-resistant tobacco cultivars have been commercialised and are more tolerant of
nematodes. Greater use of tobacco cultivars resistant to Meloidogyne javanica would lessen
the necessity for perfect control of nematodes (Shepherd 1993:2). The problems of disease,
weeds and insects would have to be addressed by other techniques.
The biological control agent Trichoderma harzianum helps to control sore-shin complex. A
study by the Philippines National Tobacco Administration Research and Training Center
found that Trichoderma harzianum effectively controlled the two most destructive fungi affect-
ing tobacco in the area (Sclerotium rolfsii and Pythium apanidermatum). Trichoderma was
developed by the TRB for use in Zimbabwe and is sold as a commercial pest control product.
The TRB is investigating techniques such as soil substitutes, seed trays (conventional and float-
ing), permanent seedbed sites, as well as a combination of dazomet and EDB (Blair 1995b).
TRB has found that doses of MB could be reduced by 50% (from 50 g/m2 to 25 g/m2),
providing sheets are gas-tight (Blair 1995b). If doses were halved in the entire sector, con-
sumption of MB could be reduced by approximately 250 tonnes per year.
The TRB concluded in 1993 that though withdrawal of MB would be very disruptive, they
would be able to overcome the problems (Shepherd 1993:2). After further research in 1995
the TRB stated that if MB were to be banned "a number of alternatives are either available
or could possibly be implemented after further development work" (Blair 1995b:l).
The spectrum of pest problems can be controlled by selecting an appropriate technique for
each pest, or by creating a sterile seedbed using steam or clean substrates. At present there
are few reliable nematode testing facilities in Zimbabwe. The establishment of more facilities
in Zimbabwe to rapidly test soil for damaging pests and beneficial organisms would help
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THE TECHNICAL AND ECONOMIC FEASIBILITY OF REPLACING METHYL BROMIDE IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES
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growers to select a nematode-free site or to be much more selective in their use of soil treat-
ments and procedures.
It would be desirable for the sector to adopt several different alternatives, to cater to the
needs of different users, for the large area, and to reduce dependence on any one technique.
The most promising alternatives for Zimbabwe tobacco growers are likely to be as follows.
3.6.1.1. Seed Trays
Seedlings planted in sterile media in trays comprising separate cells are currently available for
certain crops in Zimbabwe. They are produced by commercial nurseries, but farmers could
grow the seedlings themselves.
The major impediment for tobacco is that it has very small seeds, making it hard to plant in
trays without sophisticated equipment or pelleted seeds. However, the preparation of the
seedling trays and sowing could be done by commercial nurseries. The farmer could then
purchase dry, pre-sown seed trays, and irrigate and germinate them on-farm. They could
potentially be floated on troughs of nutrient solution as done in other countries, although
this requires careful control. Alternatively, conventional methods of irrigation and nutrition
could be investigated to see if they would work adequately.
One farmer who has tried using tobacco seedlings grown in trays by a commercial nursery was
interviewed for this study. He found that there was a cost involved in transporting seedlings
to his farm and that they were more uneven than the seedlings he grew himself. However,
the final tobacco crop was the same as tobacco grown using MB. Use of seed trays for tobacco
appears to be unusual in Zimbabwe but apparently it is used more commonly in South Africa
and some other regions.
3.6.1.2. Substrates in Fixed Beds
It would be feasible to construct permanent seedbeds of concrete or brick, with sides project-
ing well above the surrounding soil to prevent contamination. Pinebark is currently used as
a growing medium in Zimbabwe. Tobacco seedbeds cover a large area, and the supply of
pine bark is limited, so additional sources of substrates would need to be developed.
Possibilities include selected clean waste materials, such as fresh grain hulls, grit, paper waste,
composted crop residues (excluding tobacco residues), or other agricultural or processing
waste. Research would be able to determine the best local materials to use as soil substitutes.
To minimise environmental impacts, local, renewable sources of materials should be given
preference over imported or non-renewable resources. Where necessary, sterilisation of soil
substitutes at the farm level would be feasible because tobacco farms invariably have boilers to
generate steam for conditioning cured tobacco.
The effective introduction of soil substitutes on a large scale would require resources for local
research, farmer education and some major infrastructural changes for transporting substrates
locally. It would require changes hi practices and approaches.
3.6.1.3. Steam Treatments
Some tobacco growers would be able to sterilise soil or substrates with steam, where steam
from conditioning boilers can be piped to the seedbeds. Steaming is used in nurseries in
many countries, including Zimbabwe. Newer techniques are much more energy efficient and
effective than some older steam techniques.
-------
3.6.1.4. IPM Techniques for Tobacco
Suitable combinations of IPM techniques could be developed to suit the needs of different
types of tobacco producers (table 3.4). For example, in some cases nematodes could be
avoided using rotation, cover crops and nematode-resistant cultivars; and diseases could be
controlled chemically. It may be possible to pre-irrigate the seedbeds and germinate the weed
seeds before the long, dry winter. The weed seeds could then be allowed to die of drought or
killed chemically. It would be helpful to devise a mechanism to help prevent more weed
seeds blowing in (this is also a problem when using MB).
The TRB has already achieved significant results in developing certain biological controls
and plant breeding. Considerable further developments in IPM and non-chemical techniques
could be made if the TRB had additional resources. One organic farmer has paid for a
researcher to be based at TRB to work on the control of nematodes using an actinomycete,
Pasteuria penetrans. Seconding or sponsoring further specialists to work with the TRB experts
on alternatives to MB is likely to help substantially in its replacement.
3.6.2. ALTERNATIVES FOR CUT FLOWERS AND NURSERIES
In Zimbabwe the flower crop pests controlled by MB are plant parasitic nematodes, weed
seeds, soilborne pathogens, and soil insects. In the case of roses there is also rose replant
sickness (non specific allelopathy) (see Table 3.5).
Recent research in Kenya has found that a plant extract from Tagetes minuta (Khaki weed) is
reported to control Root Knot nematodes in rose beds as effectively as conventional nemati-
cides (such as fenamiphos) (Okioga 1994). Some farm trials with Tagetes have been carried
out in Zimbabwe and are continuing.
Table 3.5 lists alternative techniques for cut flower pests. A combination of appropriate
techniques could be used to replace methyl bromide. Soilborne pathogens, for example,
could be controlled by a fungicide drench. Nematodes could be controlled with available
nematicides or potentially with Tagetes plant extract. If more facilities for diagnosis were
established, it would be feasible for farmers to have soil tested for soilborne pathogens and soil
insects to save unnecessary expenditure on drenches or other treatments. One area where a
pest control technique is not currently available is for rose replant sickness. The addition of
organic matter to the soil may address this problem.
Some significant flower-producing regions of the world predominantly use alternatives to MB.
Colombia, for example, is the world's second-largest exporter of cut flowers. Flower cultiva-
tion covered 4,200 hectares and had a value of about US$380 million in 1993 (Van Wijk
1994:4). Methyl bromide is no longer used in Colombian flower production, except in a few
isolated cases. A sophisticated system of IPM, composting and steam treatments is used very
successfully (Rodriguez-Kabana &c Martinez-Ochoa 1995) (see Chapter 6 for more informa-
tion).
Table 3.6 shows the nursery pests currently controlled by MB, and alternative techniques.
Only one nursery in the greater Harare area of Zimbabwe still uses MB. Most nurseries
have already moved away from MB, commonly using steam instead.
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THE TECHNICAL AND ECONOMIC FEASIBILITY OF REPLACING METHYL BROMIDE IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES
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TABLE 3.4
Tobacco seedbeds: pests controlled by MB in Zimbabwe, and potential alternative pest con-
trol techniques.
Pests controlled by MB
Plant parasitic nematodes
(mainly Meloidogyne javanica, M. incognita)
Soil insects
(eg. whitegntbs, false wirewonns, cutworms)
Certain soilbome fungi
(including those causing tobacco anthracnose
Colletotncbum tabactim, and the sore-shin
complex - Ftisaritim solani and
Rljizoctonia solani)
Most weed seeds. Grass weeds predominate.
Alternative treatments or practices
1. Establishing nematode testing facilities to
determine whether soil treatment is
necessary
2. Rotating area used as seedbed to reduce
nematode levels
3. Using soil substitutes in permanent '
seedbeds or seed trays
4. Using steam treatments for soil or
substrates
5. Using cultivars resistant to nematodes
6. Using nematicides eg. ethoprophos,
fenamiphos, oxamyl, terbufos, or 1,3-D
with MITC
1. Using soil substitutes in permanent
seedbeds or seed trays
2. Using a steam treatment, for soil or
substrates
3. Acephate, methamidophos and
monocrotophos are registered for seedbed
insect control
4. Some beetle and moth larvae can be
controlled by fungal and bacterial
pathogens, and entomophilic nematodes
5. Some insects are controlled by 1,3-D
with MITC
1. Using soil substitutes
2. Using steam treatments
3. Thiram, mancozeb and anilazine are
registered for controlling Anthracnose
4. Triadimenol, benodanil and benomyl
are used against sore-shin
5. Some are controlled by 1,3-D with MITC
6. Trichoderma, a commercial biological
control agent, can out-compete sore-shin
when it can be established in the seedbed
1. Pre-irrigation to germinate weed seeds,
followed by dessication or herbicide or
ammonium nitrate fertilizer
(6-10 g/m2) before sowing
2. Using soil substitutes
3. Using steam treatments
4. Grass herbicides eg. fluazifop-p-butyl
5.1,3-D with MITC reduces broadleaved
weeds and grasses
6. Potential development of a sterile grass
(to reduce nematodes also)
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TABLE 3.5
Cut flower cultivation: pests currently controlled by MB and alternative treatments
for pest control.
Pests controlled by MB
Plant parasitic nematodes
Soilborne pathogens
Soil insects
Weed seeds
Rose replant sickness
(non-specific allelopathy)
Alternative treatments and procedures
1. System of composting, IPM and steam
similar to system used by cut flower
industry in Colombia
2. Nematicides eg. fenamiphos, oxamyl
3. Tagetes minuta plant extract for Root
Knot nematodes
1. System of composting, IPM and steam
2. Diagnosis to see whether treatment
is required
3. Specific fungicide drench
1. System of composting, IPM and steam
2. Diagnosis to see whether treatment
is required
3. Specific insecticide drench
4. Some beetles and moth larvae may be
controlled by fungal and bacterial pathogens
and entomophilic nematodes
1. System of composting, IPM and steam
2. Irrigate seedbed to germinate weeds before
dry winter period
3. Herbicides
1. System of composting, IPM and steam
2. Increasing the organic matter is effective
in practice
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TABLE 3.6
Nurseries: pests currently controlled by MB and alternative treatments for pest control.
Pests controlled by MB
Plant parasitic nematodes
Soilborne pathogens
Soil insects
Weed seeds
Alternative treatments or procedures
1. Steam
2. Soil substitutes, eg. pine bark
3. Nematicides eg. fenamiphos, oxamyl
4. Tagetes minuta plant extract for Root
Knot nematodes
1. Steam or soil substitutes
2. Fungicide drenches
1. Steam
2. Soil substitutes
3. Insecticide drench
1. Hand cultivation
2. Soil substitutes
THE TECHNICAL AND ECONOMIC FEASIBILITY OF REPLACING METHYL BROMIDE IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES
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TABLE 3.7
Cut flower exports: quarantine pests controlled by MB, and potential alternatives.
Quarantine pests controlled by MB
Potential alternatives
Tbrips, including western flower thrips
(Frankliniella occidentalis)
1. Improved pest control at field level followed
by selected post-harvest insecticides with
improved delivery systems (eg. very fine
aerosols) or repeat treatments
2. Improved pest control in field followed by
controlled atmosphere treatment during
transit, or a combination of other suitable
post-harvest treatments (Table 6.14)
Helicoverpa boll worm
1. Improved pest control at field level followed
by selected post-harvest insecticides with
improved delivery system, or after applying
compound to draw caterpillars from crevices
2. Improved pest control in field followed by
suitable combined post-harvest treatments
(Table 6.14)
Spider mite
1. Improved pest control at field level followed
by appropriate post-harvest miticides
2. Post-harvest chemical agitants or adjuvants
eg. organo-silicone dip
Other pests
1. Chemical dips
2. For snails and large scale insects: hand
removal
3. For surface pests: high pressure water
spray (for robust flowers or foliage)
4. For heat sensitive pests: warm water or
hot air (for robust flowers or foliage)
TABLE 3.8
Tobacco exports: pests controlled by MB, and alternative treatments.
Pests controlled by MB
Alternative treatments or procedures
Tobacco Beetle (Lasioderma serricorne)
Tobacco moth (Ephestia elutella)
1. Pre-shipment inspection and certification
2. Phosphine
3. Carbon dioxide treatment
4. Methoprene insect growth regulator for
stored tobacco
5. Potential humid heat treatment
TABLE 3.9
Grain exports: pests controlled by MB, and alternative disinfestation treatments.
Pests controlled by MB
Alternative disinfestation treatments
Oryzaepbilus surinqmetisis,
RInzotoertba dominica,
Tribolium spp. etc.
1. Phosphine used under well-sealed conditions
2. Nitrogen controlled atmosphere treatment
3. In-transit carbon dioxide treatment
4. Potential heat treatment for rice and wheat
for breadmaking
5. Dichlorvos
Larger grain borer
No alternatives approved for quarantine
currently, potential alternatives as above
-------
TABLE 3.10
Artifacts and curios: pests controlled by ME, and alternative disinfestation treatments.
Pests controlled by MB
Atropos spp.
Alternative disinfestation treatments
1. Heat treatment with constant controlled
humidity
2. Nitrogen flow fumigation
3, Carbon dioxide treatment in some cases
4. Phosphine for artifacts free from metals
or pigments
TABLE 3.11
Stored grains: pests controlled by MB, and alternative methods of pest control.
Pests controlled by MB
Tribolium spp.
Rhizopertba dominica,
Oryzaephilus surinamensis,
Epnestia spp.
Plodia, etc.
Alternative treatments or procedures
1. Procedures to prevent infestation
2. Phosphine used under well-sealed conditions
3. Carbon dioxide treatment
4. Nitrogen controlled atmosphere
5. Insecticide eg. dichlorvos
6! Potential for hermetically sealed storage,
assisted by other treatment
7. Heat treatment for rice and wheat for
breadmaking
8. Inert dusts (provided conditions are
sufficiently dry)
9. Grain protectants and insect growth regulators
3.7. Alternative Quarantine Techniques
Methyl bromide is not normally required by the Zimbabwean authorities for imported goods.
Other fumigants or inspection are generally used instead.
Zimbabwe horticultural exports do not normally have to be fumigated prior to export, but if
pests are detected on arrival in certain countries (such as Australia or Mauritius) the prod-
ucts are fumigated with MB. To replace this use of MB it would be necessary to introduce
changes in procedures or new treatments in Zimbabwe prior to export.
In a small number of cases commodities are required to be treated with MB prior to export.
Companies in Japan and Taiwan require tobacco and grain imports to be fumigated with
MB. Fresh produce from Zimbabwe currently is not exported to these countries because the
quarantine and pre-shipment requirements would be very stringent. Some of the alternatives
identified in this section and Chapter 6 could be applied to provide quarantine security for
Japan and Taiwan. However, quarantine treatments generally have to be agreed on a case-
by-case basis, and negotiations can be extremely slow.
3.7.1. QUARANTINE TREATMENTS FOR CUT FLOWERS
Methyl bromide is toxic to many plants, and may damage cut flowers, reducing their quality
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THE TECHNICAL AND ECONOMIC FEASIBILITY OF REPLACING METHYL BROMIDE IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES
-------
and price. Therefore, pre-shipment inspection and certification is commonly used in place of
MB for surface pests. Table 6.14 in Chapter 6 shows examples of other alternatives that
have been approved for certain pests and flowers. For example, the USA accepts removal of
the pests by hand or by pressurised water spray as a combination treatment (with insecticide
dips) for certain pests. Physical removal of surface pests offers a non-toxic treatment that
would be viable for some flowers, if used in combination with another technique. An aerosol
of permethrin and pyrethrum insecticide is used for cut flower exports from New Zealand to
Japan, but is suitable only for surface pests. Heat treatments and water jets are suitable for
robust plants such as sturdy decorative foliage.
Table 3.7 lists the pests of concern in cut flower exports from Zimbabwe and identifies poten-
tial quarantine procedures and treatments that could be developed to replace MB. The suit-
ability of treatments is determined by factors such as whether the pest is on the surface or
buried in plant crevices, and the robustness of the plant.
Zimbabwe flower exporters have a particular problem with the western flower thrips, which
is not fully controlled by current treatments including MB fumigation. The thrips embed
their eggs in plant tissue or hide in flower buds. A field and post-harvest systems approach
offers the best means of control. Thrips numbers could be reduced in the field by regular mon-
itoring and treatment with insecticides. (Monitoring and rotation of at least 3 insecticides is
essential to cope with resistance problems.) There are several potential post-harvest treat-
ments: insecticides with improved delivery systems, or with a time period between dippings
or treatments; an in-transit controlled atmosphere treatment (high carbon dioxide and low
oxygen) suitable for transporting flowers by sea; and a very fine, penetrating aerosol based
on several insecticides. Research would be required to develop and demonstrate the efficacy
and suitability of such treatments for the pest and the commodity.
In the case of Japan and Taiwan, which specify the use of MB, there are likely to be consider-
able delays and difficulties in negotiating approval for an alternative with the quarantine
authorities of the importing country. In contrast, Australian authorities state that they would
generally require only a sound scientific paper demonstrating efficacy (AQIS 1995).
3.7.2. QUARANTINE ALTERNATIVES FOR TOBACCO
The majority of tobacco is no longer treated with MB. Our survey found that only two traders
used it in 1994, on request of the importing country. A small number of importing countries,
principally Japan and Taiwan, require MB treatment. Most other countries accept treatment
with phosphine.
Phosphine is a longer treatment, taking 7-10 days, compared to 3 days for MB at normal pres-
sure. However, MB can cause methylation, decreasing the quality of tobacco leaf, so there is
a commercial preference for phosphine. Some European importers now insist that MB not
be used because of environmental concerns.
Table 3.8 shows the main pests currently controlled by MB in tobacco exports and the tech-
nically feasible alternatives.
3.7.3. QUARANTINE ALTERNATIVES FOR GRAIN
The GMB sometimes has to treat exported and imported grain with MB as a quarantine
measure. The situation with grain exports is similar to tobacco, in that Japan and Taiwan
-------
appear to be the main countries requiring MB. Some other countries accept alternatives such
as phosphine for almost all quarantine grain pests, with the exception of the Khapra beetle.
One drawback is that phosphine is more expensive than MB in Zimbabwe (although in many
other countries it is often cheaper). It requires a longer treatment time and more fumigation
sheets would need to be purchased. Additional demurrage charges would also need to be
paid at ports.
Table 3.9 shows the alternative quarantine treatments that could be used for grain exports.
3.7.4. QUARANTINE ALTERNATIVES FOR CURIOS & ARTIFACTS
Table 3.10 lists some of the potential alternatives. Phosphine is used in some countries for a
diverse range of export commodities. In the Philippines, for example, it is used to treat bas-
ketwares, handicrafts, accessories, rattan furniture, and antique wooden items (UNDP 1995).
It is not suitable for items containing certain metals.
Carbon dioxide treatments are used for artifacts in parts of Europe. This treatment is suit-
able for a wide range of items. It is a slow treatment, so would not be suitable for some
exports.
In Germany, the UK and Austria a thermal technique (Thermo Lignum) is used commercially
for artifacts and museum items, and is suitable for a very wide range of materials. Items are
disinfested by heating up to 52°C for up to 48 hours. The moisture content of items is moni-
tored during the entire process and kept constant to prevent damage. The process does not
use toxic substances and does not cause reactions with materials.
A nitrogen flow fumigation has been developed in Germany for wood products, skins and
museum items. Nitrogen is applied to items in gastight plastic bags or gastight chambers at
constant low oxygen concentrations at a low pressure of 5 to 10 Pa. The treatment takes 10
to 30 or more days, depending on the pest species. This makes it suitable only for products
that do not have to be exported quickly. The main advantages are that the gas does not react
with the artifacts and the method is very cheap (Reichmuth et al 1993).
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3,8. Alternatives for Grain in Storage
Grain in storage is susceptible to a variety of pests, such as Tribolium, Sitophilus, Rhizopertha,
Ephestia and Plodia. It is important that grain losses are prevented as much as possible, so that
food stocks are not diminished. Improvements in hygiene and hygiene training are an impor-
tant first step in helping to prevent pest buildup, whatever treatment is used.
Careful examination of the traditional dosage of MB shows that reductions can sometimes
be made. The GMB has found that it can reduce the MB dose from 40 g/tonne to 30 g/tonne
for large (5,000 tonnes) well-sealed maize stacks treated outdoors (Taylor 1994).
Phosphine has replaced MB, or is used alongside it, for some types of treatment in many devel-
oping countries and is the preferred chemical where fumigation has recently been introduced
(Taylor 1994). Ease of application, requiring minimal equipment with consequent lower costs,
is a major reason for the popularity of phosphine. However, like MB it is a toxic gas, so
there is the potential for accidents.
THE TECHNICAL AND ECONOMIC FEASIBILITY OF REPLACING METHYL BROMIDE IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES
-------
Insect resistance to phosphine has started to build up in certain areas where there is a lack of
training or incentive among pest control personnel, or, in some cases, poor quality equipment
(Taylor 1994). Improvements such as training and gas monitoring would be necessary to
retain the effectiveness of the fumigant. On a technical basis alone, phosphine could proba-
bly substitute for MB in most of the current non-urgent commodity treatments in Africa and
Asia (Taylor 1994). The GMB sometimes uses phosphine to fumigate grain. However, phos-
phine Is more expensive than MB in Zimbabwe, and this is a significant barrier to greater use.
The Zimbabwe GMB is investigating other alternatives to MB. Carbon dioxide is effective
where treatment does not have to be rapid. This means it is suitable for most grain in stor-
age. It requires a high standard of gas-tightness. (Continued use of MB would require simi-
lar expenditure to improve gas-tightness.) However, retro-sealing is technically feasible.
Indonesia uses carbon dioxide for treating large quantities of carry-over rice stocks stored for
a year or longer. Carbon dioxide gives better grain quality than either phosphine or MB (Sidik
1995). The gas is extracted from the air so it does not add to global warming. Cement works,
distilleries, smelters, cracking processes at oil refineries, and certain other industrial processes
generate carbon dioxide as by-products and could potentially provide local sources in devel-
oping countries. Trials to evaluate the effectiveness of carbon dioxide in large-scale silos are in
progress in East Africa (Taylor 1994). A demonstration of carbon dioxide fumigation was car-
ried out by CSIRO, the Australian research organisation, at the GMB in 1995 (van Graver and
Annis 1995).
Other controlled atmosphere techniques such as raised levels of nitrogen, also offer an effec-
tive method for controlling pests. The treatment usually kills pests over a period of weeks
rather than days. The process leaves no undesirable residues, unlike MB. The main barrier
is that a better standard of sealing is required (this is also the case with MB and other gases).
The cost of good sealing techniques tends to be expensive at present. CSIRO has demonstrated
the use of gas-tight sheeting and locally made glues in Zimbabwe (van Graver and Annis 1995).
Grain in storage does not normally have to be treated rapidly, so there are several alternatives
to MB which could be adopted rapidly if financial assistance were available (Table 3.11).
3.9. Alternatives for Termite Nests
A small amount of MB is used in Zimbabwe to kill termite nests. Chemical alternatives such
as fipronil can be used instead. The chemical is applied via a tube inserted into the main air-
shaft of the nest and sealed with wet soil. Like MB and a number of other pesticides, fipronil
is capable of causing acute poisoning to operators if over-exposure occurs. Fipronil inhibits
cholinesterase, an enzyme necessary for 'switching off nerve signals after nerve impulses
have been sent (Extoxnet 1993).
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H
P T
R
4
Thailand:
Methyl Bromide Use and Existing /Potential Alternatives
Chapter prepared by:
Dr. Amnaj Covanich and Mr. Vichian Hengsawad, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai
Mr. Chuvit Sukprakarn, Head, Stored Product Insect Research Group,Department of Agriculture, Bangkok
THIS CHAPTER PRESENTS INFORMATION ABOUT CURRENT USES OF METHYL BROMIDE IN THAILAND,
ESTIMATED TONNAGES, EXPORT EARNINGS OF SECTORS USING IT, AND EXAMPLES OF EXISTING AND POTEN-
TIAL ALTERNATIVES.
4.1. Overview of the Situation in Thailand
Thailand's economy was primarily based on agriculture until the 1960s. Since then, Thailand
has experienced rapid industrialisation, accompanied by important structural transformations.
The predominance of the agricultural sector has declined sharply, both in terms of contribu-
tion to GDP and in export earnings, while the manufacturing and service sectors have experi-
enced significant growth. The manufacturing share of GDP rose from 6.8% in the past to
26.1% in the 1990s.
However, the agricultural sector remains important to Thailand in both economic and social
development. Thailand is one of the major exporters of agricultural products in the world.
Rice export alone ranges from 4 million to more than 6.2 million tonnes per annum, approx-
imately 3545% of the total world market. Export earnings from just rice and tapioca
(dried cassava) products total more than US$2.5 billion.
Other exported commodities include animal feeds, pulses and oil seeds, sorghum, mung
beans and cut flowers. It is anticipated that Thailand will maintain the current level of
exported agricultural commodities in the future.
Methyl bromide is widely used in Thailand for the fumigation of exported commodities,
grain storage, and soil. It is a cost effective and wellproven pesticide in Thailand.
Alternatives must be comparable in technical, economic and practical aspects in order to be
accepted.
4.2. Sources of Methyl Bromide
Methyl bromide is not manufactured in Thailand. Its importation is controlled and importers
s
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must obtain permits from the Ministry of Defence. Its usage is controlled and regulated by the
Department of Agriculture, Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives.
The amounts of MB imported into the country from 199194 averaged 730 tonnes per year
(Industry Department, Defence Industry and Energy Center, Ministry of Defence). Major sup-
pliers are the USA, Israel, France and Belgium.
4.3. Major Uses of Methyl Bromide
The use of MB in Thailand can be categorised into three major groups:
pest control in stored products;
fumigation of export commodities;
soil fumigation.
Methyl bromide fumigation of stored products is estimated to be about 20-25% of total MB
used in Thailand. The commodities in this category are mainly rice, maize, tapioca, animal
feeds, mung bean and oil seeds (soya bean, groundnuts, etc.).
Fumigation of export commodities amounted to about 70% of the total MB used.
Commodities fumigated prior to shipment include rice, maize, tapioca, pulses (white bean, red
bean, mung bean) and oil crops (groundnuts, soya bean) grain sorghum, pearl barley, and
sesame seeds. Exported perishables, mainly asparagus and cut flowers (orchids), consumed
less than 1% of MB used in Thailand.
Soil fumigation using MB is found mainly in the preparation of tobacco seedbeds. A lesser
amount is used for golf courses, cut flower nurseries and coffee nurseries. The amount of
MB used for soil purposes is estimated to be approximately 5% of the total MB used in the
country (SGS 1995) (see Figure 4.1).
4.4. Reasons for Use
The extensive use of MB as a fumigant in Thailand can be attributed to the following:
Methyl bromide was probably the first fumigant to be introduced and established.
Methyl bromide has the potency required for the total eradication of insects and other
pests in all stages. Its characteristics follow the rule of concentration and time product
(CTP). This means that a reduction in the exposure time can be compensated for by
increasing MB concentration to maintain the same effectiveness in insect control. This is
a very important property of MB in situations where time is critical or expensive, such as
in ships where demurrage fees are quite high.
No insect resistance to MB has been found although it has been used in the country for a
number of years.
Several importing countries require that exported products be fumigated using MB prior
to shipment, for example, Japan and Korea for fresh pineapple and Australia for grains.
-------
4.S. Required Uses
Importing countries often require that commodities be fumigated with MB prior to ship-
ment. In some cases this is a requirement of the official authorities, and in others it is a com-
mercial specification set by importing companies:
Methyl bromide is often specified in commercial contracts or in letters of credit, so that
exporters are obliged to use the fumigant.
Commodities like grains (rice, maize, tapioca) and fruits like pineapple (exported to Japan
and South Korea) are required by the quarantine authorities of the importing country to
be fumigated using MB. Australia requires grains to be treated prior to shipment, because
Thailand is among the countries listed as having Khapra beetle. Thai quarantine regula-
tions do not specify fumigation with MB.
4.6. Handlers of Methyl Bromide
Four major importers of MB in Thailand control the major share of the market. Two of
them are also major users, commercially involved in pest control along with approximately
2025 registered companies. There are also companies that carry out fumigations themselves,
such as in tobacco seedbed preparation.
TABLE 4.1
Estimated MB imports and use in Thailand.
13
S
Methyl bromide is not manufac-
tured in Thailand and there are no
reported plans to produce the gas
there.
4.7. Quantities Imported
and Used
From 1991 to 1994, MB use
appears to have fallen slightly, but
it seems to have stabilised now
(Table 4.1). It may decrease in the
future because the Department of
Agriculture is encouraging greater
use of phosphine to replace MB
where appropriate.
4.8. Estimated Amounts
Used
Most MB (about 70%) is used in
Thailand as a treatment for grains
and pulses prior to export. A sig-
nificant amount (approximately
2025%) is used for stored grains.
Year
1991
1992
1993
1994
Average
MB import data
(a) (tonnes)
708
658
964
590
730
MB use estimates
(b) (tonnes)
896
735
749
617
750
(a) Official import permit figures from 'the Ministry of
Defence
(b) Figures from the main importing companies. There
may be an additional, small amount (approximately
30 tonnes).
FIGURE 4.1
Major applications of MB in Thailand.
Soil Fumigation 5%
Fumigation of
Stored Products
23%
Fumigation of
Perishable
Commodities 1%
~ Fumigation
of Grains for
Export 70%
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THE TECHNICAL AND ECONOMIC FEASIBILITY OF REPLACING METHYL BROMIDE IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES
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4.9. Crops Grown on Soil Treated with Methyl Bromide
Methyl bromide is used as a soil treatment primarily for tobacco seedbeds. Tobacco produc-
tion in Thailand is highly controlled and farmers can grow tobacco only in contract farming
with a licensed curing company. Seedlings are normally raised by the company and distrib-
uted to member farmers. Unofficial estimates of the amount of MB used in seedbed prepara-
tion obtained from the government's Thailand Tobacco Monopoly (TTM) for its 11 stations
were 1.69, 1.20 and 1.24 tonnes for the crop years 1992/93, 1993/94 and 1994/95, respec-
tively. Additional MB use by private tobacco companies may be a little less than the TTM's.
A small amount of MB is used for golf courses, flower nurseries and coffee nurseries.
TABLE 4.3
Crops grown on soil treated with MB in Thailand.
Crops
Tobacco seedbed
Golf courses
Rower nurseries
Coffee nurseries
Expected changes in
the next 5 years
Decrease
No information on trends
No information on trends
No information on trends
Probable reason(s) for
the change
Please see Note 1.
Note 1: Tobacco production is a diminishing business in Thailand. The number of operational private
companies have been reduced from about 10 to 3 or 4 in the past decade.
4.10. Commodities Treated with Methyl Bromide
TABLE 4.4
Main commodities treated with MB in Thailand.
Commodities
treated with MB
Expected changes
in the next 5 years
Probable reason(s)
for the change
Grains in storage
Rice
Maize
Tapioca
Feed Grains
Pulses
Decrease
No change
Decrease
No change
No change
Notel
Note 2
NoteS
Exported grains
Rice
Maize
Tapioca
Grain sorghum
Pearl barley
Pulses
No change
Decrease
Decrease
No change
No change
Decrease
Note 4
Note 2
NoteS
Exported perishables
Asparagus
Cut orchids
Ginger
No Change
No Change
No Change
Notes:
I.It is government policy to
reduce cultivation ofoff-season
rice crops for the next three
years. Export quantity will be
kept at the level of four to five
million tonnes annually and
emphasis will be on high
quality rice and its processed
products. There is also an
increasing demand in the interna-
tional market for organic or
"Green Rice," that is, rice not
chemically treated.
2.Tapioca production is expected
to be reduced in the near future
due to lower demand in the inter-
national market. The govern-
ment is trying to restructure
tapioca production into other
crops.
3. Pulses refer to leguminous
grains including oil grains: white
bean, red bean, mung bean,
groundnuts, and soya bean.
4.Maize has ceased to be a major
export commodity in the last five
to eight years. It is now
processed as a major ingredient
in exported animal feed and is
also used locally by the feed
industry.
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4.11. Economic Indicators for Key Sectors Using Methyl Bromide
TABLE 4.5
Economic importance 'of sectors using MB.
Export Earnings of sectors using MB
Rice: approximately 4 5 million tonnes annually
Maize: not a major export in the last 8 years
Tapioca: Pelleted and semi processed products
Animal Feeds: maize is a major ingredient
Pulses and Oil seeds
Perishables
Tobacco (dried leaves)
Sorghum
Black matpe beans
Mung beans
Million
1,597
29
780
154
140
145
56
0.79
10.3
11.4
US$
1,818
163
1,104
205
288
284
146
3.39
27.9
25.9
Note: MB is used on a variable proportion of the commodities in each sector. For example, only
some types of tobacco (such as hurley) are fumigated with MB.
ft)
to
«
4.12. Pests Controlled by Methyl Bromide
TABLE 4.6
Pests controlled by MB in selected commodities and crops.
Grains
Root crops
Perishables
Commodities/Crops
Rice
Maize & Sorghum
Pulses
Tapioca
Asparagus
Cut orchids
Pests and Pathogens Controlled by MB
Maize weevil (Sitophilus zeama/s (Motschulsky))
Rice weevil (Sitophilus oryzae (Linn.)
Red flour beetle (Tribolium castaneum (Herbst))
Rice Moth (Corcyra cephalonica (Stainton))
Saw tooth grain beetle (Oryzaephilus surinamensis (Linn.))
Flat grain beetle (Cryptolestes puslllus (Schonherr))
Maize weevil (Sitophilus zeama/s (Motschulsky))
Red flour beetle (Tribolium castaneum (Herbst))
Corn' sap beetle (Carpophilus dimidiatus (Fabricius))
Rice Moth (Corcyra cephalonica (Stainton))
Tropical warehouse moth (Ephestia cautella (Walker))
Cowpea beetle (Callosobruchus maculatus (Fabricius))
Southern cowpea beetle (Callosobruchus chinensis (Linn.))
Tropical warehouse moth (Ephestia cautella (Walker))
Coffee bean weevil (Araecerus fasciculatus (Degeer))
Lesser grain borer (Rhizopertha dominica (Fabricius))
Cigarette beetle (Lasioderma serricorne (Fabricius))
Thrips (Thrips tabaci)
Thrips (Dichmmothrips corbetti)
-a
a
(chart continued on next page)
THE TECHNICAL AND ECONOMIC FEASIBILITY OF REPLACING METHYL BROMIDE IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES
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TABLE 4.6 (CONTINUED)
Pests controlled by MB in selected commodities and crops.
Seedbed preparation
Commodities/Crops
Tobacco Seedbed
Pests and Pathogens Controlled by MB
Damping off (Pythium spp.)
Stem rot (Rhizoctonia spp.)
Anthracnose (Colletotrichum spp.), (Gloeosporium spp.
Frog eye leafspot (Cercospora nicotianae)
Brown spot (Alternaria spp.)
Root knot nematode (Meloidogyne spp.: M. javanica,
M. napla, M. incognita)
4.13. Alternative Methods of Soil Pest Control
The use of MB in crop production in Thailand is low (approximately 5% of MB consump-
tion). The prime use is for soilborne pathogens in seedbeds in tobacco production. Please
refer to Table 4.7.
TABLE 4.7
Examples of alternatives for soil.
Crop
Tobacco Seedbed Preparation
Note: Seedling production is
done in the open field where
a sheet of plastic net is some-
times used to reduce the inten-
sity of sunlight
Alternative Methods
Nematicide and Herbicide. Nematicides and herbicides are
widely used in tobacco seedbed preparation. Examples of
nematicides and herbicides are fenamiphos, oxamyl, bazamic
G and roundup. These chemicals can be applied directly into
the soil and require no covering sheet.
Dry heat treatment. This method is an indigenous method of
controlling soil pests. Local dry materials such as stems,
Brasses and straw are used to cover the seedbed and are
urned to penetrate heat into the soil.
Steam treatment. This method works on the same principle
as the dry heat treatment but requires a simple steam
generator. It is rarely found in Thailand.
4.14. Alternative Methods of Pest
Control for Stored and Export
Commodities
Phosphine, another fumigant, is currently used
extensively to treat a large proportion of grain
in storage. It would be technically feasible to
increase the amount treated with phosphine,
but cost is a constraint (see Table 4.8).
About 2025% of grain exports are fumi-
gated with phosphine prior to shipment. Many
shipments need to be treated rapidly, so
Pressure testing to ensure sheeting will hold gas
adequately, before a demonstration ofphosphine
treatment for sealed stacks of stored rice in Thailand.
-------
increasing the use of phosphine is limited there.
Changes in some pest management procedures
could reduce the need for such treatments (Banks
1995b).
Some types of tobacco are treated with MB.
However, some importing companies (eg. Philip
Morris) will accept only phosphine treatment.
o
st.
TABLE 4.8
Examples of alternative treatments for stored products.
Carbon dioxide is applied to a stack of stored
rice after sheets have been sealed together and
tested for adequate sealing (demonstration in
Malaysia).
Grain Storage
Phosphine fumigation
Carbon dioxide treatment
Nitrogen atmosphere
Sealed storage
Grain protectants
Alternative methods
Phosphine is used extensively for fumigating stored and
exported grains. It is easier to administer but requires a
longer exposure time than MB, and the cost of fumigation
is a little higher: about US$0.60 per tonne of grain as opposed
to about US$0.52 per tonne using MB. The cost quoted here of
using phosphine is the commercial price using a German
product. A Chinese product is now available at about 50% of
the German one, but its quality and effectiveness have not yet
been fully tested in Thailand.
Carbon dioxide has been used commercially for some kinds of
rice in small packages. Although COa can be used as a
fumigant it requires a much longer exposure time than MB and
the cost of treatment per tonne of grain is reported to be much
higher: about US$0.96 per ton.
Nitrogen has been tried commercially for fragrant brown rice in
small packages but no extensive use of the technique has
been found in Thailand.
A sealed small enclosure is a common technique found for
food grains like rice and groundnuts. However, the technique,
alone or in combination, could be feasible for long term
storage of large stacks where grain is kept enclosed.
Several grain protectants can be used to control pest
reinfestation during storage, but it is not able to provide
eradication in already infested commodities.
a
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4.15. Emissions Reductions
While efforts are being made to develop or apply workable alternatives to MB, which may take
a few years, and to research new fumigants, which will take even longer, it may be worth-
while to look at ways to make more efficient use of MB. An example is the development of
systems where exhaust gas from one fumigated grain stack (after an exposure time is reached)
could be introduced into another stack. This practice would reduce the amount of MB required
for the new stack by as much as 4050%, by just topping it up to the required concentra-
tion. Another area for study involves reduction of MB released into the air after fumigation.
-------
H
Chile:
Methyl Bromide Use and Existing /Potential Alternatives
Chapter prepared by:
Mr. Jose Olavarria M. Ing. Agr., Mr. Rodrigo Ortiz, Mr. Loreto Mora
INIA La Platina Research Institute, Santiago de Chile.
-------
The smaller volume imported in 1994 can be explained by imports accumulated in the previ-
ous two years, due to the expectation of increased fumigation of fruit to be exported to the
USA. This would have been carried out according to a program by U.S. Department of
Agriculture and SAG, the Chilean quarantine authorities, promoting increased fumigation in
countries of origin, but the program was cancelled before having been put into effect.
When used as a soil fumigant, MB can be injected directly or applied by irrigation systems
using a dosage of 400-450 kg/hectare. When applied to fruit in compliance with USA conditions,
the application is undertaken in 300 m3 fumigation chambers, designed and constructed accord-
ing to USDA specifications. The dosage varies according to the condition and temperature of
the fruit as established by the quarantine treatment T 101(a) of the USDA (see Table 5.12).
Methyl bromide can be obtained in formulations with differing concentrations according to
the use in question; for fruit fumigation 100% MB is used, while for soil fumigation concen-
trations of 75% or 98% can be used. Methyl bromide is distributed in containers weighing
from 10 to 200 kg. It also comes in small canisters of 0.5 to 1 kg.
There are three main distributors of this product in Chile: Degesch de Chile Ltda., Agricola
Nacional S.A.C. e Industrial (Anasac) and Bayer de Chile Ltda. Table 5.2 shows the US$ range
of the principal importing firms.
TABLE 5.2
Classification according to the range of MB
imports in US$.
TABLE 5.3
MB imports for 1994 (tonnes).
Company
Del Curto
Degesch de Chile Ltda.
Chiletabacos
Bayer de Chile S.A.
Anasac
Range of Imports
(USf)
30,000 - 60,000
60,000 -150,000
60,000 -150,000
150,000 -500,000
150,000 -500,000
Importer
Degesch
de Chile Ltda.
Bayer de Chile
S.A.
Anasac
Total
Weight
(tonnes)
31.53
40.27
127.18
198.98
Percentage
(%)
15.8
20.3
63.9
100.0
Source: Pro-Chile 1994.
Source: Aduana (Customs Office).
5.2. Estimates of Use of Methyl Bromide
There is no precise data as yet about the
usage of MB in Chile. In part this is because
the importing companies do not keep
detailed records of the many small farmer
clients with variable fumigation require-
ments. Furthermore, there are no official sta-
tistics concerning the use of MB in Chile. It is
only possible to obtain information where
large amounts are sold or where the con-
sumers are organised, as is the case with fruit
and vegetable exporters (Associacion de
Exportadores de Chile A.G.).
TABLE 5.4
Estimates of total quantity of MB con-
sumed in Chile, 1991 -1994.
Year
1991
1992
1993
1994
Estimated quantity
of MB used in
Chile (tonnes)
375.7
128.7
210.6
230.7
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S. 3. Sectors Using Methyl Bromide
According to data for 1994, approximately
70% was used for soil fumigation; 22%
was used for fruit fumigation;' and the
remaining 8 % was put to other uses in the
forestry sector and in the fumigation of
warehouses (these figures are drawn from a
variety of sources) (see Figure 5.1).
According to the information collected so
far, the main crops where MB is used for
soil fumigation are the following:
fresh tomatoes;
fresh peppers;
production of pepper seeds;
industrial tomato seedbeds;
seedbeds for tobacco production;
fruit tree seedbeds in nursery green-
houses
The following crops require quarantine
fumigation in order to be allowed entry into
the USA: table grapes, chestnuts, citrus
fruits, nectarines, peaches, plums and apri-
cots.
Information received from two forestry
companies that export wood to the USA
shows that there is a requirement for MB
treatment at a dosage of 80g/m3 of wood.
The total volume involved is not known.
In the 1994/95 season, Chile exported
approximately 63 million boxes of table
grapes, of which about 35 million went to
the USA. Fourteen percent of the total
amount of fruit exported (and 25% of the
fruit exported to the USA) was fumigated in
Chile. However, all the table grapes
exported to the USA are required to be
treated with MB, whether at the point of
origin or at the destination, before entering
the USA.
TABLE 5.5
The usage of MB in Chile in 1994.
Usage
Soil fumigation
Fruit fumigation
Grain post-harvest
Other
Total
Weight
(tonnes)
140.00
45.00
0
16.00
201.00
Percentage
(%)
. 70.0
22.0
0.0
8.0
100.0
TABLE 5.6
Boxes of fruit fumigated in Chile with des-
tination USA in 1994/95 season.
Species of fruit
Apricots
Nectarines
Plums
Peaches
Table grapes
Boxes
11,076
163,777
203,721
204,445
9,069,054
Source: Association de Exportadores de Chile
A.G. 1995.
FIGURE 5.1
Major applications of MB in Chile (1994).
Fruit
Fumigation
22%
Forestry Sector,
[ Warehouses,and
Miscellaneous
8%
Soil Fumigation 70%
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THE TECHNICAL AND ECONOMIC FEASIBILITY OF REPLACING METHYL BROMIDE IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES
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5.4. Crops for which Methyl Bromide is Used
Table 5.7 lists the crops grown on soil treated with MB in Chile.
TABLE 5.7
Crops grown on soil treated with MB.
Name of Crop
Vegetables
Tomatoes
Peppers
Fruit, Orchards, Nut Trees
Fruit and nut trees
Flowers, Ornamental Plants
Roses
Other Crops
Other vegetables
(onions, lettuce, eggplant etc.)
Tobacco
Forest trees
MB used for open field crops
Used for seedbeds
Used for seedbeds
Soil fumigation for nurseries
For use with seedbed soil
(eventually)
Used for seedbeds
Used for seedbeds
Used for seedbeds
and nurseries
MB used for glasshouse and
covered crops
Soil and seedbeds
Extensive use with seeds
5.4.1. FRESH TOMATOES AND PEPPERS
Currently there are over 2,000 hectares of tomato greenhouses. The hectares in the central
region of Chile are fumigated at least once per season, since there are two annual harvests,
spring (July to December) and autumn (January to May). The main objective of this fumiga-
tion is to control the fungus Pyrenochata lycopersici which causes root damage in tomatoes.
The high cost of tomato production under plastic and the potentially high profitability of this
crop, makes the use of MB important as it guarantees the establishment and adequate density
of the plants.
Some producers are exporting tomatoes to Argentina for which there is a MB fumigation
requirement, which explains the appearance of tomatoes in Table 5.12.
There are approximately 3,300 hectares of peppers under cultivation, of which no more than
5% are under plastic (165 hectares) and fumigated. Where peppers are grown as a second crop
after the autumn tomato, only one of the two crops would be fumigated per season, which
complicates the estimate of the area fumigated. The main objective of fumigating peppers
grown for fresh consumption is to control the fungus Phytophthora spp., which causes pep-
per wilt.
5.4.2. PEPPER SEED PRODUCTION
The production of hybrid pepper seeds has grown significantly in recent seasons, especially in
the Fifth Region and the Metropolitan Area of Santiago where greenhouse cultivation under
plastic is concentrated. Given the high costs involved in the production of hybrid seeds, MB
is used to fumigate the soil.
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5.4.3. AGRO-INDUSTRIAL TOMATO SEEDBEDS
Tomatoes for agro-industrial processing are cultivated on approximately 12,000 hectares: only
the part used for seedbeds is fumigated. It is calculated that to plant one hectare, 100 m2 of
seedbeds are needed. Accordingly, the total area fumigated in the production of tomatoes for
agro-industrial use is 120 hectares.
5.4.4. TOBACCO
SEEDBEDS
Currently 5,000 hectares
are cultivated for tobacco
in Chile. Of this area only
the soil used for seedbeds
is fumigated. For each
hectare of tobacco
plants, 100 m2 of seed-
beds are required, mean-
ing that approximately
50 hectares are fumi-
gated.
5.5. Quantities of
TABLE 5.8
Area of crops and MB soil fumigation (hectares).
Crop
Greenhouse tomatoes
Greenhouse peppers
Pepper seeds
Industrial tomato (lands)
Tobacco (lands)
Total
Area Cultivated
(hectares)
2,114
165
38
11,590
5,000
18,907
Area Fumigated
(hectares)
1,000
140
36
120 (seedbeds)
50 (seedbeds)
1,346
Source: Estimates based on information from. ODEPA.
TABLE 5.9
Methyl Bromide Used Dosage and cost of ME (with chloropicrin).
for Soil
Product Dosage Cost per kg Cost per
680 g canister
98% injections
75% injections
Source: Market pr
(kg/hectare)
450
450-800
450-800
xes in Ouillota,
!US$)
5.1-7.3
3.5
5.0
Fifth Region.
hectare
(US$)
2295-3285
1575-2800
2250-4000
Soil fumigation with MB can
be done by direct injection or
by piped systems of irrigation.
The dosage of MB varies
according to the concentration
of chloropicrin with which it is
mixed, and may vary between
450 kg/hectare and 800 kg/hectare. When fumigating by irrigation, two 680 g canisters are
used for each 15 m2 of soil. This gives a total of 450 kg/hectare since only the planted areas,
which amount to 50% of the total surface area, are fumigated. When MB is injected into the
soil, the dosage varies from 45 to 80 g/m2, which translates to 450 kg/hectare to 800
kg/hectare.
The 680 g canisters are priced between about US$3.50 and 5.00 each plus value-added tax
(VAT) (18%). For the injected MB (with chloropicrin) the costs are about US$4.20 for the
98% formulation and about 4.60 for the 75% formulation, in addition to the cost of the
injecting equipment (Table 5.9). For case studies on costs see Chapter 7.
5.6. Proportions of Crops Using MB and Using Alternatives
Table 5.10 shows estimates of the area of crops treated with MB and with other pest control
methods in 1994. Alternatives are in use for each of the main crops. They are used on a very
small percentage (about 5%) of the area of pepper seeds. Alternatives are used on 15 - 40%
of the area of three major crops. Tomatoes under plastic have the largest area using alternatives
- about 100 hectares, although this is a small proportion of the total crop area (5%).
13
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THE TECHNICAL AND ECONOMIC FEASIBILITY OF REPLACING METHYL BROMIDE IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES
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TABLE 5.10
Proportion of crops grown with MB and alternatives.
Name of crop
Tomatoes (under plastic)
Peppers (under plastic)
Pepper seeds
Tomato for Industry
(seedbeds)
Tobacco (seedbeds)
Total area
cultivated 1994
(ha)
2.114
165
38
120
50
Area treated with
MB in 1994
(ha)
2.008
140
36
84
30
Area using other
pest control
methods (ha)
105 (5%)
25 (15%)
2 (5%)
36 (30%)
20 (40%)
5.7. Potential Alternatives to the Use of Methyl Bromide
A wide variety of products have been used for soil fumigation, but have proved to be less effec-
tive than MB. The following should be mentioned:
Metam sodium and metam potassium products do not need covering when applied to soil. The
dosage used varies between 100 and 200 cc/m2. They do not keep weed seeds or the fungus
Pyrenochaeta lycopersici under control, which limits their use with tomato crops.
Formalin, also known as formaldehyde, is rarely used now due to its inefficiency. It is applied
to the soil via irrigation 20 to 40 days before planting in doses of between 250 and 300 cc/m2.
It has been listed by the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) as an animal car-
cinogen, so handling it may pose safety problems.
Dazomet is a product that comes in powder form and is used in doses of 60 g/m2. It must be
applied via irrigation water or using polyethylene covers. This has shown itself to be a good
alternative for replacing MB and is already being used in experimental form for the fumigation
of industrial tomato seedbeds, tobacco and the production of hybrid seeds (see Table 5.10).
Enzone is a wide spectrum disinfectant used to control Phytophthora spp. and Pyrenochaeta
lycopersici. The dosage varies between 20 and 25 litres/lOOOm2 in four applications via irri-
gation. This product has been used in Spain but produces toxic gases when mixed with acidic
substances, which makes it dangerous to human health.
Solarisation consists of covering an area of soil with transparent polyethylene and leaving it
exposed to solar radiation for 20 to 30 days. This technique has been well developed in Spain
and a number of other countries with high levels of solar radiation.
Its drawbacks in Chile are its current costs (see Chapter 7)'and the lack of an adequate method
for placing and removing the plastic from the soil. In Chilean conditions it is an interesting
alternative for use with seedbeds in areas of high solar radiation and its capacity to control dis-
eases specific to Chilean soils should be evaluated. Currently it is being studied and evaluated
by some producers.
-------
Steam treatment (vaporisation) is a very effective method
which can even destroy viruses. Temperatures of 85°
Celsius are maintained for a period of 30 minutes by
injecting steam into soil. It is widely used in nurseries,
but it is restricted to small volumes of soil, due to the
high infrastructure and fuel costs for this method as cur-
rently practiced in Chile.
The methods and techniques described here need to be
evaluated and validated for use in local conditions to
determine whether they provide adequate and economi-
cally viable alternatives to MB in Chile.
Use of natural soil substitutes -in this case
gravel - for growing tomatoes in farm trials
in Chile.
IS
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5.8. Potential Alternatives to Methyl Bromide for Quarantine
Of those species requiring fumigation with MB in order to comply with quarantine conditions,
the most important in terms of the volume exported is the table grape. It must be fumigated
because it is host to the vine spider mite (Brevipalpus chilensis), a quarantine pest in the USA.
The establishment and development of an alternative pilot plan is being studied that involves
the phytosanitary treatment of vineyards. This aims to control Brevipalpus cbilensis in order
to obtain a declaration that the area is accredited by SAG, the Chilean quarantine authori-
ties, and recognized by USDA as free of the spider mite.
Another alternative for the treatment of fruit is the use of ultraviolet light pulses (lasers). These
UV laser systems have potential for the surface control of bacteria, fungi and viruses.
Furthermore, with light intensities at 250-280 nanometers (nm), it is possible to maintain
surface control of insects and mites. This may enable an improvement in the handling, trans-
portation and prolonged storage of the fruit. The feasibility of implementing this system for
table grapes is currently being evaluated. The main drawbacks are economic and technical,
arising from the high cost of the system and from the need to adapt the packing structures to
the application of UV light pulses.
Another alternative to the use of MB is the application of natural waxes to the fruit. This
technique is used with custard apples and some citrus fruits such as lemons, and is at an exper-
imental stage with mandarins. It consists in covering the fruit with a layer of wax, which
impedes fruit deterioration and asphyxiates insects already present.
It has been possible to develop the alternative of inspecting stone fruits in the country of origin
and in the destination country so as to avoid fumigating with MB. This method of pre-inspec-
tion and certification is a widely used quarantine procedure around the world. However, the
results achieved in Chile have been erratic, since an adequate control system for the presence
of quarantine insects has not yet been established.
The use of MB (USA quarantine treatment T 101) is not required in species such as aspara-
gus and raspberries, but fumigation takes place in some instances to eliminate insects that
might cause imports to be rejected.
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THE TECHNICAL AND ECONOMIC FEASIBILITY OF REPLACING METHYL BROMIDE IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES
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Other possible alternatives that will have to
be studied in order to evaluate their effec-
tiveness on quarantine pests are:
the application of cold treatment;
the use of modified atmospheres,
achieved by altering the relative concen-
trations of oxygen and carbon dioxide;
the utilisation of techniques involving
high pressure followed by rapid decom-
pression (the PEX method), which is
under study in developed countries.
TABLE 5.11
Alternative quarantine treatments for fruit.
Species
Table grapes
Stone fruit
Lemons
Mandarins
Treatment
(existing and potential)
Vineyard free of spider mites
UV light pulses
Double inspection USDA/SAG
Cold treatment
Modified atmosphere
Waxing
Waxing
TABLE 5.12
List of commodities treated with MB and other treatments.
Name of
Commodity
Table grapes
Citrus fruit
Nectarines
Peaches
Plums
Apricots
Tomatoes
Asparagus
Strawberries
Post-harvest
treatment
excluding quarantine
SOz as gas
Waxing
MB fumigation
MB fumigation
Quarantine treatment
Treatment T-101 with MB
Treatment T-101 or USDA-SAG inspection
Treatment T-101 or USDA-SAG inspection
Treatment T-101 or USDA-SAG inspection
Treatment T-101 or USDA-SAG inspection
MB fumigation
TABLE 5.13
Economic indicators for key sectors using MB.
Name of crop or
commodity
Table Grapes
Nectarines
Peaches
Plums
Apricots
Tomatoes
Export value in 1994
(US$ million)
300.0 »'
24.8
27.3
55.0
3.7
5.1
Number directly
employed 1994
(LD=Labour day=8hrs)
9,717 LD <2>
175 LD
219 LD
218 LD
12 LD
450 LD
Number indirectly
employed 1994
819,336 LD <3>
17,420 LD
57,712 LD
612 LD
131 LD
5,880 LD
Notes:
"> Estimated value of the total exported to USA.
m Only the people directly involved in MB fumigation are included.
ft> This refers to the people involved in the production of the fruit that is fumigated.
-------
There is also an apparatus in Chile (made by Halozone in Canada) which can be fitted to a
fumigation chamber to recycle part of the MB used for fruit. But the equipment has not been
used due to the lack of resources to put it into operation and to evaluate its effectiveness. The
export sector and the research institutes INIA and INTEC in Chile have requested foreign
funds to evaluate this equipment but have not yet received a positive response. Evaluations car-
ried out by the firm itself show that it is possible to recapture a significant proportion of the
MB remaining available in chambers after fumigation. However, the capital cost of the equip-
ment is very high and it consumes a significant amount of energy.
TABLE 5.14
List of pests controlled by MB in selected major crops and commodities.
Name of Crop
Tomatoes
Peppers
Forestry (seedbeds)
Fruit Trees (nursery and adult)
Table grapes
Vegetable seedbeds
Biological names of pests controlled by MB
1. - Pyrenochaeta lycopersicl
±. - Phytophthora capsici
1. - Macrophomina phaseolina
1. - Armillaria spp.
1. - Brevipalpus chilensis
1. - Rhizoctonia spp.
2. - Pythium spp.
3. - Fusarium spp.
Note: Only the principal pests and diseases are mentioned.
o
ft*
13
«
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-------
CHAPTER
Methyl Bromide
Alternatives:
Description and Yields
THIS CHAPTER OUTLINES THE ALTERNATIVE PEST CONTROL TECHNIQUES IDENTIFIED BY THE METHYL BROMIDE
TECHNICAL OPTIONS COMMITTEE (MBTOC) REPORT, AND THEIR MAIN ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES. IT
GIVES FURTHER EXAMPLES OF EXISTING ALTERNATIVES THAT COULD BE APPLIED IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES.
IT ALSO PROVIDES EXAMPLES OF THE CROP YIELDS GIVEN BY ALTERNATIVES AND MB.
6.1. MBTOC Report
MBTOC identified alternative, effective methods of pest control; it did not examine eco-
'nomic information. The MBTOC report identified technically feasible alternatives, either
currently available or at an advanced stage of development, for a substantial proportion of MB
use (MBTOC 1994:3). These included some alternative treatments for quarantine. MBTOC
noted that alternatives, an4 the potential constraints on their use, are generally the same in
developing countries as in industrialised countries. However, their application is generally
further constrained by the social conditions, level of infrastructure and other conditions typi-
cal in many developing countries (TEAP 1995:69).
01
q
6.2. Importance of IPM Approach
To control the broad spectrum of pests controlled by MB, it is often necessary to use combi-
nations of practices or techniques. The most effective and suitable combination will vary
according to the crop, commodity, pests and local situation.
MBTOC noted that to implement alternatives to MB an Integrated Pest Management (IPM)
strategy will be required (MBTOC 1994:64). IPM is a systems approach, which aims to pre-
vent and manage pest problems in an environmentally sound and cost effective manner, min-
imising the use of pesticides (Pimentel 1981). MBTOC points out that this approach is needed
to avoid future environmental problems (MBTOC 1994:70).
THE TECHNICAL AND ECONOMIC FEASIBILITY OF REPLACING METHYL BROMIDE IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES
-------
As a replacement for MB, EPM involves detecting and monitoring pests and beneficial organ-
isms; establishing economically acceptable levels of pests; selecting a mix of techniques to
enhance natural controls and predators and prevent pest build-up; physically removing pests
or weeds; using the least-toxic, target-specific pesticides where cultivation techniques and
biological controls cannot control a pest. IPM generally replaces chemical inputs with inputs
of skill and knowledge.
Horticultural holdings in some developing countries have introduced IPM very successfully.
For example, an IPM programme for tomatoes in Mexico was found to give similar or higher
yields than conventional production; net profits ranged from US$304 to 579 per hectare higher
using IPM (Trumble & Alvarado-Rodriguez 1993). IPM adopted by many growers in Sri
Lanka has increased yields and more than doubled profits in vegetable production (Jones
1996). Cut flower producers in Colombia have replaced MB with a combination of IPM and
composting, which is both effective and profitable (Rodriguez-Kabana & Martinez-Ochoa
1995).
The major barrier to introducing IPM is that it requires an initial investment in training as well
as research/development to apply the technique locally. However, the initial investment can
often produce long-term cost savings. A detailed evaluation of large-scale IPM programmes by
the Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO), for example, found that training farmers in
IPM improved crop yields and substantially reduced pesticide expenditure in each of the
seven Asian countries studied in detail (FAO 1994).
Pest and predator monitoring is a very important part of IPM. Monitoring and economic
threshold systems are well developed for some key insects, mites and nematode pests, but at
present are poorly developed for some plant pathogens. Further research is needed for this area
in particular. In Zimbabwe, for example, there has been a relatively small amount of research
into natural pest predators and competitors, so horticulture could gain considerably from
further research of this type (Wilkinson 1992). Effective use of sampling would require train-
ing at the farm level. Several commercial techniques exist to assist accurate monitoring of soil
pests - insects, mites, nematodes, pathogens, viruses and weeds (MBTOC 1994:70). These
include:
a variety of 'traps' and surfactant drenches to detect insects and mites;
seed sampling to detect weeds (MBTOC 1994:70).
6.3. Soil Alternatives Identified by MBTOC
This section provides an overview of the alternative soil pest control techniques identified by
MBTOC, and their general advantages and disadvantages. The MBTOC report divided alter-
native soil techniques into several groups, which are described below. In most cases several
techniques need to be used in the context of an IPM system, to fully replace MB. The alterna-
tive soil techniques are:
changes in cultural practices;
biological controls;
-------
waste organic materials (soil amendments);
physical treatments;
chemical treatments.
6.3.1. CHANGES IN CULTURAL PRACTICES
MBTQC concluded that it is possible to develop systems of cultivation practices for specific
localities to reduce or eliminate use of MB (MBTOC 1994:75). In most cases a prerequisite is
a good understanding of pest dynamics and the ecology of the field system. Cultural practices
include crop rotations, controlling plant nutrition, deep ploughing and cover crops.
6.3.1.1 Crop Rotation
Changing crops from year to year, in a carefully selected cycle, is a traditional and wide-
spread pest control technique. Where growers have sufficient space, horticultural crops may be
alternated with crops that break pest life cycles and help prevent pest build-up. Crop rota-
tions are effective in controlling many soilborne pests in various parts of the world (MBTOC
1994:64). Strawberry producers in Germany, for example, adopted crop rotation as a major
technique for replacing MB when it was prohibited for food crops in 1985 (Ketzis 1992). Some
German horticulturalists exchanged the use of fields with other farmers nearby when they
had insufficient space to rotate fields within their own farms (Ketzis 1992).
The advantages of crop rotation to horticulturalists include simplicity, no human or environ-
mental safety problems, no chemical residue problems (which can affect the marketability of
crops), and opportunity to build up natural soil predators. The main barriers include access
to information about suitable rotations, insufficient land for rotation, or insufficient profit
from the rotation cycle in some cases. Prior heavy investment in capital equipment suitable
for only one type of crop also mitigates against rotation. In Zimbabwe, for example, rotation
of tobacco seedbeds is recommended by the Tobacco Research Board, but krigation facilities
often restrict the ability to rotate.
6.3.1.2. Plant Nutrition and SoilpH
Adequate, balanced plant nutrition can help to reduce the impact of soilborne pests (MBTOC
1994:75). For example, phytonematodes are sometimes inhibited by sources of urea or ammo-
niacal nitrogen which affect microbial activity in soils (Franco et al 1993). Ammoniacal
nitrogen sources (eg. ammonia, ammonium carbonate and ammonium bicarbonate) can
reduce damage from Sclerotium rolfsii in carrots and other crops (Punja 1985). Pod rot
(Pythium myriotylum, Rhizoctonia solani, Fusarium spp.) in peanut has been reduced by
applying lime (calcium carbonate) or landplaster (calcium sulphate) to enhance calcium nutri-
tion (Pattee &c Young 1982). In some cases a change in soil pH is sufficient to reduce certain
soil pests (Cook 8c Baker 1983). A great deal can be done to reduce disease through appro-
priate management of plant nutrition and soil pH (MBTOC 1994:75).
Appropriate sources of nutrients need to be carefully selected to avoid environmental problems
or over-nutrition. Readily available nutrients in synthetic fertilizers can have negative envi-
ronmental impacts, such as emitting nitrous oxides to the atmosphere (Conway & Pretty
1991). Nutrients that are slowly released from decaying organic waste matter are preferable.
^
u
-«
THE TECHNICAL AND ECONOMIC FEASIBILITY OF REPLACING METHYL BROMIDE IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES
-------
The technique requires knowledge of plant nutrition, and the availability of suitable sources of
nutrients. For horticulturalists, the main advantages would be minimal human safety prob-
lems, and low environmental impact if the source and type of nutrient is carefully selected. The
main barriers are the lack of knowledge and information about nutrition and soil pH.
6.3.1.3. Deep Ploughing
Deep ploughing can reduce pathogen levels by burying their reproductive structures and by
stimulating microbial activity and decomposition of crop debris (MBTOC 1994:74). For
example, the number of sclerotia of Sclerotium rolfsii in soil can be reduced significantly by
deep burial. This technique has been practiced for a long time in the production of peanuts
(Arachis hypogaea) and other crops in the USA to reduce southern blight (Punja 1985). The
technique requires deep ploughing equipment and knowledge about the crops and pathogens
for which the technique will be effective.
The main advantages of this approach would be low human or environmental safety problems
and absence of chemical residues. The main barriers are lack of knowledge about relevant
pathogens and lack of suitable plough equipment.
6.3.1 A. Cover Crops and Liuing Mulches
Cover crops are non-commercial crops that are turned into the soil as green or dry residues.
For example, in Florida, winter vegetables may be preceded by summer cover cropping with
sorghum (Sorghum bicolor), sudan grass (Sorghum spp.), jointvetch (Aeschynomene ameri-
cana) or hairy indigo (Indigofera hirsuta) (MBTOC 1994:74). This reduces damage from
nematodes and other soilborne pathogens in the vegetable crops (McSorley et al 1994). Cover
crops must be carefully selected so that they complement, rather than compete with, the
commercial crop. In Zimbabwe, selected cover crops are planted in tobacco seedbeds to help
reduce nematodes. .
A living mulch is another form of cover crop grown at the same time as the commercial crop.
It can suppress weeds, reduce tillage and insect pests, without reducing yields (Thurston et al
1994). Mulching can also help to control pest insects by mechanisms such as repelling or
possibly confusing them, by attracting natural enemies, or by reducing the visibility of the com-
mercial crop (MBTOC 1994:75).
The main advantages of this approach are the absence of human or environmental safety prob-
lems, the opportunity to build up natural predators, extra plant nutrients in some cases, and
cost-savings in weed control/tillage. The main barriers are lack of knowledge and informa-
tion about suitable cover crops and mulches, and cost of seeds, planting and ploughing in.
6.3.1.5. Timing of Planting
Certain crops can be planted when plant pathogen levels are low and/or conditions are not
conducive to disease development. This approach was demonstrated to be effective in Georgia,
USA, where damage from root knot nematodes was maintained at low levels through a com-
bination of crop rotation and early planting to avoid periods when nematodes were likely to
flourish (MBTOC 1994:74). In developing countries, this technique may be feasible for crops
with production and marketing windows that fit with low pest windows. Knowledge of the
population dynamics of plant pathogens would be required.
-------
Substrate (coal slag) being steam sterilised for use in
propagation beds in the successful cut flower indus-
try In Colombia.
The main advantages o£ this approach would be the absence of human, environmental or
residue problems, and minimal cost. The main disadvantage is that it is only suitable for cer-
tain crops and pests. In Zimbabwe, there is a closed season for tobacco when it may exist
only in seed form; this legal requirement was introduced as a disease control measure.
6.3.2. SOIL SUBSTITUTES
In nurseries, glasshouses, shadehouses and some
other situations, soil can be replaced with nat-
ural or synthetic substitutes such as rock wool,
tuff stone, clay granules, volcanic pumice, coal
slag, charcoal or clean 'waste' materials such
as disease-free grain hulls or bark from forest
industries. Re-usable materials such as clay .
granules and rock wool need to be sterilised
between crops, with steam for example (Nordic
Council 1993). Waste materials such as grain
hulls can be replaced each season.
Use of soil substitutes has demonstrated the
technical and economic feasibility of eliminat-
ing the use of MB in greenhouses in the
Netherlands (MBTOC 1994:75). In Italy,
Denmark and the Netherlands, soil substitutes have given significantly higher yields than soil
fumigated with MB (Vickers 1995; Nordic Council 1993; De Barro 1995) (see Section 6.5).
Some of the systems in the Netherlands have been capital intensive and technologically based,
however, cheaper substrate systems are also used there. Cheaper soil substitutes are feasible for
many countries. Rice hulls are used in the flower industry in Colombia; and mixtures of porous
basalt, perlite and agilla are used for tomatoes in Sicily. A producer in Chile has experimented
with growing lettuce on grain hulls, and tomatoes on gravel.
6.3.3. BIOLOGICAL CONTROLS
There are many beneficial soil organisms that can damage or compete with soil pests. A great
deal of scientific literature is available, describing many organisms antagonistic to plant
pathogens (MBTOC 1994:71). Beneficial organisms (biological controls) can be carefully
selected, reared commercially and introduced into soil. They need to be placed in an unoccu-
pied niche or in large amounts in colonised substrate before they can overwhelm competing
or pest organisms. In some cases they partially reduce disease levels, in other cases they prevent
disease from occurring (MBTOC 1994:72). Each biological control is normally active against
very specific pests, so appropriate organisms need to be selected for different pests and condi-
tions. To help replace MB they would normally have to be used with other techniques.
In a few cases biological controls have been in use for many years (MBTOC 1994:73). The effi-
cacy varies considerably under different cultural and environmental conditions. There is a
growing body of research which shows that soilborne insect pests, in particular beetle and
moth larvae, can be controlled by fungal and bacterial pathogens and entomophilic nematodes
(Hill 1995). For example, fungal pathogens, mostly in the genus Beauveria, are used to control
white grub in sugarcane in Reunion and Mauritius. A fungal pathogen as an alternative to
EDB is being developed in Tanzania for the control of white grub in soil (Hill 1995).
-------
In the future, use of antagonistic Fusarium spp. and/or fluorescent Pseudomonads, active
against several formae speciales (f.sp.) of F.oxysporum (f.sp. diantbi, f.sp. lycopersici, f.sp.
cyclaminis, f.sp. melonis, f.sp. basilicum) may permit control of Fusarium wilts and other
diseases (MBTOC 1994:72). Use of Trichoderma spp. as seed dressing or soil treatment may
help to control damping-off and root rots caused by Phytophthora spp., Pytbium spp. and R.
solani (Cole & Zvenyika 1988). Many of the soilborne pests of concern in horticulture in
Africa are indigenous (for example white grub, cutworm, wireworm), and may therefore be
amenable to control by enhancing the impact of the large number of indigenous natural ene-
mies that occur in African agro-ecosystems (Hill 1995).
Trichoderma, Gliocladium and a few other biological controls have been registered and com-
mercial preparations are available in a number of countries (Katan 1993). So far, less than six
commercially available biological control agents for soil are available (MBTOG 1994:72).
In Zimbabwe, Trichoderma is produced commercially; it is used in tobacco seedbeds, and is
being tested for strawberries. It is also used in tobacco seedbeds in the Philippines, allowing
reduced use of pesticides.
A commercial form of Gliocladium has recently been officially registered (approved) in the
USA for controlling damping off and root rot pathogens of ornamental and food plants in
nurseries and greenhouses; registration will be extended to open field use (Lumsden et al
1996). Gliocladium virens suppresses soilborne diseases caused by pathogens such as Pythium,
Rhizoctonia and Sclerotium rolfsii.
For pests originally introduced from other countries (exotics) it may be necessary to import
natural predators because there are normally no indigenous ones. From an environmental per-
spective, it is necessary to ensure that any imported, non-indigenous predators will not cause
unanticipated problems for the local ecology or agriculture. Researchers working with bio-
logical controls have, for a long time, taken account of this when developing controls. A
FAO code of practice on biological control has recently been drawn up.
Biological controls offer developing countries the advantages of no adverse effects on other
beneficial organisms, no chemical residues and low or absent environmental problems if bio-
logical controls are carefully selected. The main disadvantages are the very specific activity of
some (but not all) biological controls, the need for re-inoculation, the lack of sufficient research
and development to date, and the lack of farmer knowledge.
6.3.3.1. Rlrizobacteria
Rhizobacteria are bacteria that live in and around the roots of plants. Many are antagonistic
to pathogens and can establish a 'biological shield' around plant roots, delaying invasion by
nematodes or other pathogens (MBTOC 1994:72). Rhizobacteria could prevent attacks from
a broader range of organisms than normal for biological controls. Rhizobacteria also can
produce the beneficial side-effect of promoting plant growth (Suslow 1982). There are sev-
eral commercial rhizobacteria products that have been tested successfully under field condi-
tions (MBTOC 1994:72).
6.3.3.2. Mycorrhizae
In natural situations, almost all plant roots develop in close association with specialized fungi
forming a complex, the mycorrhizae. Mycorrhizae inhibit growth in some plants. In others
-------
they encourage roots to proliferate and increase the surface for absorbing nutrients (MBTOC
1994:72). Certain plants with mycorrhizae have been found to be more resistant to soilborne
diseases (Calvet et al 1993, Chet 1987). A few commercial products are available (Rodriguez-
Kabana 8c Calvet 1994). However, they are limited to certain crops and may not be suitable in
soils with a high level of readily available nutrients.
6.3.4. PLANT BREEDING AND GRAFTING
Systematic, scientific plant selection and breeding began almost a century ago and has produced
crop cultivars resistant to many soilborne pests (MBTOC 1994:75). For most crop species there
are varieties tolerant or resistant to root-knot nematodes or to pathogenic fungi such as
Phytophthora, Fusarium, Verticillium and Sclerotinia (MBTOC 1994:76). Selectively breeding
new resistant varieties may take 5-15 years. Cultivars are usually resistant to one rather than
several pathogens. However, in certain cases they can help to replace MB. In Zimbabwe, for
example, some nematode resistant cultivars of tobacco are commercially available.
Grafting susceptible plants onto pathogen-resistant rootstock is traditionally used for
orchards. More recently, efficient grafting techniques have been developed for annual crops,
such as tomato, eggplant and cucurbits, to allow production of the crops without fumigation
(MBTOC 1994:76). Tomatoes, for example, can be grafted onto Solanum torvum rootstock
to obviate damage from root-knot nematodes and bacterial wilt (Pseudomonas spp.).
Similarly, melons or cucumbers can be grafted onto wild melon or pumpkin rootstock to avoid
problems caused by Fusarium wilt pathogens (Gomez 1993). In some cases, grafting tech-
niques can economically and efficiently permit production without fumigation (MBTOC
1994:76). Grafting also has the benefit of allowing growers to make a rapid response to mar-
ket demands (MBTOC 1994:76).
6.3.5. NATURAL MATERIALS AND BY-PRODUCTS
Natural (organic) materials added to soil can help to manage pests and diseases as well as
improve fertility. A wide variety of natural materials - called soil amendments - have been
tested in managing nematodes, soilborne phytopathogenic fungi and weeds. Materials include
livestock manure, waste chips and bark from forest industries, waste paper, oil cakes, materi-
als from seafood and fisheries operations (such as shrimp shells), sewage, and by-products
from agriculture, food and other industries (MBTOC 1994:70). There is a large body of sci-
entific knowledge on the use of such materials for the management of soilborne pathogens
(Cook & Baker 1983; Hoitink 1988).
Efficacy of the materials depends on their chemical and physical properties, which deter-
mines the type of soil microorganisms involved in their decomposition. Some materials con-
taining nitrogen (such as urea and guanidines) generate ammonia which can be nematicidal
(Canullo 1991, Canullo et al 1992). Chitin or chitinous materials generate ammonia and stim-
ulate chitinolytic microorganisms in soil (Rodriguez-Kabana et al 1983,1989,1990). Many of
these destroy nematode eggs and mycelia of certain phytopathogenic fungi. Hardwood bark
(composted or not) usually improves plant growth -and helps to suppress pests. Bark com-
posts support higher levels of antagonistic microorganisms and show good antagonistic activ-
ity against Phytophthora spp., Pythium spp., Rhizoctonia solani and several formae speciales
of Fusarium oxysporum (MBTOC 1994:71).
§
o
s-
05
THE TECHNICAL AND ECONOMIC FEASIBILITY OF REPLACING METHYL BROMIDE IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES
-------
To be effective, large amounts of material normally need to be added to soil - more than 50
tonnes per hectare (MBTOC 1994:71). However, if other treatments are used, the quantity of
material can be reduced. For example, the combination of solarisation (see below) with
reduced amounts of waste material offers considerable potential to increase efficacy against
pests (Gamliel and Stapleton 1993).
Materials can be relatively cheap where local industry by-products or consumer waste can be
utilised. However, materials such as sewage and paper mill by-products need to be examined for
suitability and subjected to quality controls to avoid introducing toxic compounds into the soil.
6.3.6. PHYSICAL METHODS
6.3.6.1. Solarisation
Solarisation involves covering moist soil with thin, transparent plastic sheeting, for at least 4
weeks, to enhance the heat of the sun. In sunny regions it is used to control many soilborne
pathogens and other soil pests effectively (FAO 1991). It pasteurises the soil rather than ster-
ilising it, enhancing the activity of some beneficial microorganisms. The main disadvantages
are the length of time for which the soil has to be covered, and, as with MB, the disposal of
waste plastic sheeting. Solarisation is used on thousands of acres in diverse countries, includ-
ing Egypt, Morocco, India, Pakistan, Jordan, Israel, Greece, Australia, and sunny regions of
Japan and the USA (Katan &c DeVay 1991). For a number of crops, solarisation needs to be
combined with other practices to make it as effective as MB. Growers in a very intensive hor-
ticultural region of Italy, for example, successfully control pests using solarisation combined
with IPM, and have found it cheaper than using MB (MBTOC 1994:100).
6.3.6.2. Steam Heating
Pasteurising soil with steam at a temperature of 70-80° C is as effective as MB under appro-
priate conditions (MBTOC 1994:76). It is particularly suitable for smaller areas such as
glasshouses, shadehouses and nurseries. Steaming soil at about 80° C sterilises it, as MB does,
and can result in a biological vacuum where pathogens are able to re-colonise the soil unless
sanitary practices are strictly adhered to. Prolonged steam above 80° C can degrade soil struc-
ture and release undesirable compounds such as manganese. However, there are other steam
treatment methods that avoid these problems (MBTOC 1994:76). Steam is used by growers in
a wide range of countries.
The cost of purchasing steam boilers presents a cost barrier. However, a study in the UK found
that if growers are able to hire boilers rather than purchase them the cost is similar to using
MB (Ellis 1991:77). In some developing countries many tobacco growers already own boilers
(for conditioning cured leaves), so a steam system such as negative pressure would be an option
for tobacco seedbeds where the boiler is sufficiently close for delivering steam via pipes.
6.3.7. CHEMICAL TREATMENTS
Fumigants, such as methyl isothiocyanate (MITC), metam sodium, dazomet, chloropicrin, 1,3-
dichloropropene (1,3-D) and ethylene dibromide (EDB) can be used to control some soil pests.
These pesticides are not as effective as MB, and often need to be used in combination with
other pesticides or other techniques. .
Like MB, alternative chemical treatments can have negative impacts on soil, water or other
aspects of the environment (Conway &c Pretty 1991). Some are officially recognized as posing
hazards to human health (WHO 1990). Metam sodium, for example, is classed as a teratogen
and genotoxin; 1,3-D has been listed as a probable (B2) human carcinogen by the US
-------
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA 1992); while EDB has been banned in some countries
because of groundwater contamination and carcinogenic hazards (MBTOC 1994:80,122-123).
TABLE 6.1
Examples of alternative methods of pest control used in developing countries.
Crop
Tobacco seedbeds
Flowers, ornamentals
Banana
Broccoli
Cabbage
Cumin
Curcurbits
Pepper and paprika
Snowpeas
Strawberries
Tomatoes
Nurseries
Tree nurseries
Niche market
organic produce
Various horticultural
crops
Example of alternative
pest control method
Natural substrates
Nematicides such as 1,3-D
with EDB or M1TC
Steam treatments
Solarisation, composting
IPM, composting
Steam treatments
Tagetes extract (nematodes)
IPM
Dazomet (1>
IPM
IPM
Solarisation, soil amendments
Solarisation (greenhouse) (1)
Resistant varieties, grafting (1)
Natural substrates, rockwool
IPM
Dazomet (1)
Substrates, seed trays
Direct planting in fields
IPM
IPM
Soil amendments
Solarisation11'
Metam sodium, other pesticides
IPM
Soil amendments
Solarisation (1)
Steam
Natural soil substitutes (bark)
IPM
Methods complying with
organic production standards
Composting/IPM
IPM
Solarisation, or Solarisation
with. IPM11'
Example of country using method
Zimbabwe (trial), Brazil
Zimbabwe
Thailand
China
Colombia
Thailand, Colombia
Kenya (trial)
Costa Rica
Philippines
Guatemala
Taiwan, Malaysia,
Sri Lanka, Philippines (trial)
India
Brazil
Morocco
Morocco
Indonesia, Sri Lanka
Chile
Zimbabwe
Zimbabwe
Guatemala
Zimbabwe, Guatemala
Senegal
Brazil, Philippines
South Africa
Mexico, Guatemala
Senegal
Morocco, Jordan
Zimbabwe
Zimbabwe
China
- Mexico, Costa Rica, Bolivia
El Salvador, Dominican Republic
. Burkino Faso, Egypt, Senegal,
India,, Indonesia, Myanmar
Malaysia, Chile
Vietnam, Indonesia
India, Pakistan, Morocco, Jordan,
Egypt
!*
s
u
S
Does not control all. the pests controlled by MB; however, it provides adequate control
in certain situations and complete contol when combined with other treatments.
THE TECHNICAL AND ECONOMIC FEASIBILITY OF REPLACING METHYL BROMIDE IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES
-------
6.4. Examples of Successful Soil Alternatives
Table 6.1 presents some examples of developing countries and crops where alternatives are in
use. The crops, pests, climates and circumstances covered by these alternatives are very diverse.
They demonstrate that there is considerable scope for extending the use of soil alternatives to
a wide range of situations. Some alternatives, such as the Colombia composting/IPM system,
are used on a very wide scale. The following section gives some examples of alternatives in use.
Most examples are drawn from industrialised countries, because this is where more studies are
available, but are relevant to developing countries. MBTOC pointed out that effective alter-
natives are generally the same in developing countries as in industrialised countries. (The sep-
arate issue of resources and infrastructure is discussed in subsequent chapters.)
Composting/IPM for cut flowers
About 450 farms on an area of about 4,200 hectares in Colombia use a combination of
sophisticated composting and IPM to control pests in their very successful cut flower
export industry. Techniques include composting, hygienic measures, daily pest monitoring,
limited crop rotation, resistant varieties, biological controls and selected pesticides. Spot
steam treatments are used in production beds when necessary (Rodriguez-Kabana &
Martiuez-Ochoa 1995).
Solarisation/IPM for strawberries, tomatoes and vegetables
Growers in an intensive horticultural region of Italy, famous for its strawberries, are
using a mix of solarisation and IPM techniques such as composting, cultivation techniques
and selected use of pesticides. This gives equal yields (and sometimes higher yields) and
costs much less than MB or steam (Correnti & Di Luzio 1994, MBTOC 1994, Vickers
1995). A combination of solarisation and IPM is also used successfully for tomatoes
grown in plastic tunnels on about 50 hectares in another region of Italy (Vickers 1995).
IPM and other techniques for strawberries and vegetables
Open-field strawberry growers in Germany have replaced MB primarily with IPM, includ-
ing pest resistant varieties and selected pesticides. MB has been phased out for all food
crops, so the use of alternatives is widespread (Ketzis 1992).
i
IPM and pesticides for vineyards
More than half of the large area of com-
mercial vineyards in California is treated
with alternatives to MB. Alternatives are
based on combinations of techniques
including pest monitoring, cover crops,
composting, subsoil ploughing and selected
pesticides (MBTOC 1994).
Pesticides for open-field strawberries
Formerly dependent on MB, open-field
strawberry production in parts of the
Netherlands now uses alternative fumigants
Such as 1,3-D Or metam sodium every 4
years. They also apply hygienic practices
Sophisticated composting is an important component
"""'*'
-------
and selected pesticides. This combination is used on 1,950 hectares to produce 17,000
tonnes of open-field strawberries annually. Growers are moving to soil substrates (peat) to
avoid using fumigants like 1,3-D and metam-sodium (De Barro 1995).
Cheap substrates for tomatoes
Mixed substrates (eg. porous basalt, perlite, agilla) have had successful trials in Sicily for
three years. They are used on 3.5 hectares, and the area is due to increase (Vickers 1995).
Many cheap, clean waste materials can be used eg. grain hulls, coal grit, waste bark from
forest industries; they can be sterilised with steam if necessary.
Composted bark substrates for nurseries
Since the 1970s, compost and composted bark have replaced virtually all the MB used in
the Ohio nursery industry, effectively controlling soil diseases for trees, flowers and veg-
etable nurseries (MBTOC 1994).
Peat substrates for covered strawberries
Peat is used as a soil substitute on about 122 hectares to produce about 14,000 tonnes of
strawberries annually in the Netherlands (De Barro 1995). The substrate allows double-
cropping. Problem diseases such as Botrytis, Phytophthora and Vertidllium are uncommon,
but can be treated with specific fungicides if they arise. Some farmers also use substrates
in plastic tunnels, which are cheaper to set up than glasshouses (De Barro 1995).
Substrates and steam for covered crops
For greenhouse crops in Germany, alternatives that have replaced MB include steam, soil
substitutes and IPM (Ketzis 1992). Alternatives adopted in Germany are generally less
capital intensive than those adopted in glasshouses in the Netherlands.
Substrates and steam for propagation beds
Cut flower growers in Colombia plant propagative material in mixed substrates (such as
coal slag, rice hulls, charcoal, foam pellets) which are first sterilised with steam. Steam
from fixed and mobile boilers is also used to sterilise the raised beds where mother stock
plants are produced (Rodriguez-Kabana & Martinez-Ochoa 1995).
Steam treatments for covered crops
Steam is an effective alternative used for many glasshouse crops in southern and northern
Europe. It is frequently used for cut flowers in Italy (Gullino 1992). The traditional
steam systems are expensive and energy-intensive, but new energy-efficient systems are
now available.
Mixed techniques for forest nurseries
A large commercial forest nursery in Florida has grown pine seedlings successfully without
MB. The Florida Division of Forestry has also grown successful crops for two years with-
out MB, saving taxpayers about $40,000 (fumigation costs). In the last 3 years five forest
seedling crops have been successfully produced in Florida and South Carolina in soils
which have not been fumigated for 5 years (Bernard 1995).
O
s.
05
u
s
6,5. Crop Yields Using Alternatives
Some alternatives give lower yields than MB, while others give equal or higher yields. Clean
THE TECHNICAL AND ECONOMIC FEASIBILITY OF REPLACING METHYL BROMIDE IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES
-------
substrates in particular tend to give significantly higher yields than using MB-treated soil.
Experience shows that if alternatives are selected carefully, it is feasible to maintain or in
some cases to increase yields (and profitability). Examples of equal or increased yields using
alternatives:
Strawberries grown in natural soil substitutes in Italy gave yields of 4.8 kg/m2 compared to
3 kg/m2 using soil treated with MB. It is common for soil substitutes to give strawberry
yields 20% higher than MB (De Barro 1995; Nuyten 1995).
Open-field strawberries produced using pesticides in the Netherlands give average yields
of 3-4 kg/m2 per crop, compared to 2 kg/m2 for MB (De Barro 1995).
Strawberries grown in peat substrate in the
Netherlands: double-cropping on substrates
gives an average yield of 9 kg/m2, compared to 4
kg/m2 using MB (De Barro 1995).
Pepper crops produced in Italy using solarisa-
tion give yields 20% higher than using MB
(Vickers 1995).
Tomatoes grown on substrates (eg. porous
basalt, perlite and argilla) in Sicily have had suc-
cessful trials since the early 1990s. Yields and
quality were found to be better than the stan-
dard system using MB (Vickers 1995).
Polarisation is used in many countries to
pasteurise the soil: plastic sheets are laid
over the soil to trap the sun's heat.
Solarisation/IPM used for tomatoes grown in a region of Italy gives yields and quality
equal to using MB. In some cases yields and profits are greater using the alternative
(Vickers 1995).
Trials on solarisation/metam sodium for tomatoes in Florida found that marketable yield
was the same as using MB. Fusarium crown rot (incidence and severity) was also con-
trolled equally by MB and the alternative (McGovern 1996).
Modern solarisation techniques trialed on tomatoes in Florida gave yields equal to using
MB (Chellemi et al 1995).
Average yields of tomatoes in the Netherlands, where MB is no longer used for soil, are
520 tonnes per hectare. This compares with average yields of 518 tonnes per hectare in
Belgium where many growers use MB (Kwantitatieve Informatie 1994/95, Ministry of
Agriculture 1995).
Melon yields in the Netherlands were doubled when MB was replaced with substrates,
increasing from 10 kg/m2 using MB to 20 kg/m2 using the same variety of melon plants
on rockwool (De Barro 1995).
Covered cucumbers in the Netherlands gave yields of 26.6 kg/m2 when grown on soil using
MB. Steaming the soil gave the same yield as using MB. Rockwool substrates allowed a
triple crop, giving yields of 67.9 kg/m2 (De Barro 1995).
-------
Table 6.2 shows tomato yields in various European countries, allowing comparison of high-
yield systems (using substrates predominantly) and low-yield systems, and of countries using
MB and alternatives. Germany and the Netherlands, which no longer use MB for food crops,
have high yields compared to other countries with similar crop systems.
TABLE 6.2
Tomato yields from high-yield and low-yield sys-
tems, showing use of ME.
6.5.1. IMPORTANCE OF PRODUCTION
SYSTEMS
There is great diversity among agro-
nomic systems that carry the same
name. For example, there are ineffec-
tive IPM systems, steam treatments
and MB applications, but there are
also highly effective and cost-efficient
versions of these systems. Likewise
there are soil substitute systems that
are poorly managed or designed,
allowing development of diseases, as
well as effective systems. Careful selec-
tion of alternative techniques is there-
fore essential. The existence of many
cost-effective IPM systems established
in developing countries, using cheap
local materials and inputs, demon-
strates that appropriate systems can be
selected.
It should be noted that the use of MB
(or any pest control system) is just one
factor determining yields and mar-
ketable production. Substantial
increases in horticultural production experienced in recent years in some developing coun-
tries are due to diverse factors, such as use of tunnels or greenhouses, higher yielding culti-
vars, irrigation, improved marketing, and improved distribution systems.
Country
Average
crop yield
100 kg/ha
(1992)
MB used
in tomato
sector
Countries using low-yield systems
predominantly:
Germany
Greece
Spain
France
Italy
Portugal
640
514
476
670
465
447
No
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Countries using high-yield systems
predominantly:
Netherlands
Belgium
UK
Average for 12
European countries
4,332
3,425
2,600
559
No
Yes
Yes
Source of data: Eurostat.
6.6. Soil Alternatives Relevant to Zimbabwe, Thailand and Chile
The estimated amount of MB used for soil (as a percentage of national consumption in 1994)
was 85% in Zimbabwe, 5% in Thailand and 70% in Chile. Tables 6.3 - 6.5 summarise the
alternatives relevant to the crops using MB in each of the three countries.
Alternatives are known to be in use in other countries for all the soil uses of MB, with the
exception of golf courses. In fact, it is most likely that some countries currently use alternatives
for golf courses, since MB cannot be used for this purpose in certain countries.
Examples of technically feasible alternatives are given for all soil uses, including golf courses,
in the three countries.
THE TECHNICAL AND ECONOMIC FEASIBILITY OF REPLACING METHYL BROMIDE IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES
-------
TABLE 6.3
Soil alternatives relevant to Zimbabwe.
Percent
of MB
used in
1994
83%
2%
<1%
Crops using
MB
Tobacco
seedbeds
Cut flowers
Nurseries
& Seedbeds
Examples of
alternatives in use
Steam treatments -Thailand
Hydroponics - USA
Natural substrates - Brazil
IPM/com post/steam - Colombia
Peat substrate - UK
Steam - Italy, UK
Where climate & time allow:
Solarisation/nematicides - Italy
Substrates/steam - Colombia, UK
Bark substrates - Zimbabwe, Ohio
Steam - Zimbabwe
Mixed techniques - Florida
Examples of technically
feasible alternatives
1. Permanent soil beds sterilised
with steam
2. Beds using substrates and
steam where necessary
3. Seed trays and substrates
4. Nematicides with other
practices (see Table 3.4)
5. Fumigants with other practices
1. IPM/composting/steam
2. Clean substrates
3. Tagetes extract nematicide &
other practices
(see Table 3.5)
4. Fumigants with other
practices
5. Where suitable, solarisation
with IPM or other practices
1. Steam treatments
2. Clean substrates
3. Fumigants with selected
pesticides
4. Where suitable, solarisation
with other treatments
TABLE 6.4
Soil alternatives relevant to Chile.
Est.
Percent
of MB
used in
1994
49%
8%
6%
Crops using
MB'11
Tomato
seedbeds
under plastic
To control
mainly
Pyrenochaeta
lycopersicl &
other fungi
Fresh pepper
seedbeds
under plastic
To control
mainly
Phytophthora
& other fungi
Processed
tomato
seedbeds
Examples of
alternatives in use
Mixed substrates -Sicily
IPM - Mexico, Guatemala
Steam - Italy
Where climate & time allow:
Solarisation/fumigant - Florida
Solarisation/IPM - Italy
IPM - Indonesia, Sri Lanka
Where climate & time allow:
Solarisation/IPM - Italy
Substrates/steam for other types
of seedbeds - Colombia, UK
Examples of technically
feasible alternatives
1. IPM/composting/steam
2. Steam treatments
3. Clean substrates
4. Selected fungicides with
treatments or practices to
control other pests
5. Other fumigants with selected
pesticides or practices
6. Where suitable, solarisation
with IPM or other practices
1. IPM/composting/steam
2. Steam
3. Clean substrates
4. Fungicides with other
treatments or practices
5. Fumigants with selected
pesticides or practices
6. Where suitable, solarisation
with IPM or other practices
1. IPM/composting/steam
2. Steam
3. Clean substrates
4. Fungicides with other
treatments or practices
5. Fumigants with selected
pesticides or practices
6. Where suitable, solarisation
with IPM or other practices
(chart continued on next page)
-------
TABLE 6.4(coNTiNUED)
Soil alternatives relevant to Chile.
Est.
Percent
of MB
used in
1994
3%
2%
<1%
<1%
<1%
<1%
Crops using
MB'11
Tobacco
seedbeds
Pepper seeds
grown under
plastic
Fruit & nut
tree nurseries
To control
mainly
Armillaria
fungi
Other
vegetables:
seedbeds for
lettuce,
eggplant,
onions etc.
Forest tree
nurseries
To control
mainly
Macrophomlna
phaseollna
Fungus
Nurseries &
seedbeds
Examples of
alternatives in use
Steam treatments - Thailand
Hydrophonics - USA
Natural substrates - Brazil
See alternatives used
for sterile seedbeds in general
Substrates - Ohio
IPM and pesticides - California
Steam - Germany, Netherlands,
UK
Substrates - Germany,
Netherlands
IPM - Germany, Vietnam,
Indonesia
Mixed techniques - Florida,
Carolina USA
IPM - China
Composted bark - Ohio
Substrates/steam - Colombia, UK
Bark substrates - Zimbabwe, Ohio
Steam - Zimbabwe
Mixed techniques - Florida,
Carolina
Examples of technically
feasible alternatives
1. Steam
2. Clean substrates
3. Fumigants with selected
pesticides or practices
(see Table 3.4)
4. Where suitable, solarisation
with IPM or other treatments
1. Steam
2. Clean substrates
3. Fumigants with selected
pesticides or practices
4. Where suitable, solarisation
with other treatments
1. Steam
2. Clean substrates
3. Fumigants with selected
pesticides
4. Where suitable, solarisation
with other treatments
1. IPM/composting/steam
2. Steam
3. Clean substrates
4. Selected fungicides with other
treatments or practices
5. Fumigants with selected
pesticides or practices
6. Where suitible, solarisation
with other treatment
1. Steam
2. Clean substrates
3. Fumigants with selected
pesticides
4. Where suitable, solarisation
with other treatments
1. Steam
2. Clean substrates
3. Fumigants with selected
pesticides
4. where suitable, solarisation
with other treatments
11 In these crops we mam targets of ivia fumigation are various species of fungi.
a,
**
K
THE TECHNICAL AND ECONOMIC FEASIBILITY OF REPLACING METHYL BROMIDE IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES
-------
TABLE 6.5
Soil alternatives relevant to Thailand.
Percent
of MB
used in
1994
5%
Crops using
MB
Tobacco
seedbeds
To control
Pyttiium,
Rhizoctonia,
Meloidogyne
etc.
Golf courses
Nurseries:
flowers and
coffee
Examples of
alternatives in use
Steam treatments -Thailand
Hydroponics - USA
Natural substrates - Brazil
Substrates/steam - Colombia, UK
Bark substrates - Zimbabwe, Ohio
Steam - Zimbabwe
Mixed techniques - Florida
Examples of technically
feasible alternatives
1. Steam treatments ,
2. Clean substrates
3. Fumigants or nematicides
with selected pesticides or
practices (see Tables 3.4 and
4.7)
4. Where suitable, solarisation
with other treatments
1. Steam
2. Other fumigants with selected
pesticides
1. Steam
2. Clean substrates
3. Fumigants with selected
pesticides
4. Where suitable, solarisation
with other treatments
6.7. Alternatives for Stored Products
6.7.1. TECHNIQUES IDENTIFIED BY MBTOC
Existing and potential alternative treatments for stored products, such as grains, have been
identified by MBTOC and include (MBTOC 1994):
improved hygiene (an important practice but not sufficient on its own);
cold treatments;
heat treatments;
carbon dioxide treatments;
nitrogen treatments;
biological controls (need to be used with other treatments);
insect growth regulators (need to be used with other treatments);
inert dusts;
insecticides;
phosphine and other fumigants;
irradiation.
MBTOC notes that in some cases alternatives have to be based on combinations of treat-
ments or practices. Good hygienic practices to prevent grains from becoming infested with
insects are important in reducing the need for treatments.
-------
6.7.2. EXAMPLES OF EFFECTIVE ALTERNATIVES FOR STORED PRODUCTS
Alternatives are known to be in use for stored products in diverse climates and conditions.
Phosphine, in particular, is widely used. Table 6.6 gives examples of alternative treatments used
for stored products in various countries.
TABLE 6.6
Examples of alternatives used for stored products. Some examples of successful trials are
also included.
Stored products
Stored grains, pukes
Black pepper
Wooden items
Artifacts,
museum items
Examples of
alternative treatments
Phosphine
Carbon dioxide
Nitrogen
Nitrogen-flushed retail packs
Hermetic storage or CA
Vacuum chamber
Heat treatment
Freezing
Inert dusts (where appropriate)
Phosphine
Carbon dioxide
Heat treatment
Nitrogen
Heat treatment
with controlled humidity
Nitrogen flow
Examples of countries
using alternatives
Zimbabwe, Thailand, Vietnam,
Indonesia, Philippines, Malaysia,
Germany and many other countries
Indonesia, Philippines, Vietnam,
Australia
Australia
Thailand (commercial trial)
Israel, Philippines
Argentina (trial), China
Indonesia
Australia (prototype)
Europe (for premium grains)
Australia, Canada
Malaysia
Germany
Denmark, UK
Germany
UK, Germany, Austria
Germany
6.7.3. ALTERNATIVES FOR STORED PRODUCTS RELEVANT TO ZIMBABWE, THAILAND & CHILE
The estimated amount of MB used for stored products in 1994 (as a percentage of national
consumption) was about 13% in Zimbabwe (or higher in some years), about 23% in Thailand
and zero in Chile. Table 6.7 presents technically feasible alternatives for the stored products
using MB in the three countries. The only situation where these alternatives would not be
feasible is where treatments have to be conducted very rapidly. However, grains in storage do
not normally have to be treated rapidly. In instances where grains must be treated quickly, heat
treatments would provide a faster treatment than MB. (The economics of the alternatives are
discussed in Chapter 7).
-13
V*
s
o
THE TECHNICAL AND ECONOMIC FEASIBILITY OF REPLACING METHYL BROMIDE IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES
-------
TABLE 6.7
Alternatives for stored products relevant to Zimbabwe and Thailand.
Stored products
(% of national MB
consumption in 1994)
Examples of
alternatives in use
Examples of technically
feasible alternatives
Stored grains in:
Zimbabwe
(13% of national MB
consumption, or more
in some years)
Thailand
(23% of national MB
consumption)
Phosphine - Zimbabwe,
Thailand, Philippines
Carbon dioxide - Indonesia
Retail packs flushed with
carbon dioxide - Thailand
Hermetic storage - Philippines,
Israel
1. Carbon dioxide
2. Hermetic storage with other
treatment
3. Nitrogen
4. Phosphine
5. Heat treatment for some grains
6. Retail packs flushed with carbon
dioxide, in situations where
grain would be packaged anyway
7. Inert dusts, where appropriate
8. Insect growth regulators
9. Insecticides
6.8. Alternatives for Durable Exports and Imports
Durable commodities treated with MB are predominantly grains, but also include pulses,
spices, nuts, cocoa beans, tobacco, timber, wooden items and handicrafts. MB is applied to
import/export commodities for three main purposes:
1. Quarantine treatments - required by official quarantine authorities to prevent the intro-
duction or spread of quarantine pests and diseases.
2. Pre-shipment treatments - applied directly preceding and in relation to export, to meet
the phytosanitary or sanitary requirements of importing countries or existing requirements
of exporting countries, as defined under the Montreal Protocol (Decision VI/5, UNEP
1995b:25).
3. Commercial treatments - carried out at the request of a trader or importing company, often
specified in a commercial contract or letter of credit as a pre-requisite for receiving pay-
ment for exported goods. The treatment reduces commodity losses and damage from pests.
"When conducting surveys to determine the quantity of MB used, we found it was not always
possible to distinguish between treatments required by official quarantine authorities and
treatments required by commercial companies, because exporters themselves sometimes did
not know whether the importing company or authorities were responsible for the requirement.
However, in Thailand a large proportion of the MB used for export grains is for meeting the
commercial contracts (letters of credit) of importers; it is frequently not for official quaran-
tine purposes.
6.8.1. ALTERNATIVES FOR DURABLE COMMODITIES IDENTIFIED BY MBTOC
The disinfestation treatments (ie. those that kill pests rather than limiting their numbers)
identified in the stored products section above would be technically feasible for quarantine,
pre-shipment or other commercial export requirements. Examples of relevant export/import
treatments identified by MBTOC are:
-------
phosphine;
carbon dioxide (used in transit for rapid treatment);
nitrogen, in some cases;
heat treatments for certain grains;
irradiation.
6.8.2. EXAMPLES OF ALTERNATIVES USED FOR DURABLE COMMODITIES
Table 6.8 presents examples of alternatives used for exported or imported durable commodi-
ties, in various countries. Most of these treatments kill pests completely (rather than just reduc-
ing their numbers), so would be effective as quarantine treatments, provided official authorities
were to accept their use. Tables 6.9 and 6.10 present examples of quarantine treatments
approved by the US Department of Agriculture's Animal & Plant Health Inspection Service
(USDA-APHIS) for durable commodities. The diversity of treatments and commodities shows
that there is great potential for applying approved treatments to a wide range of other com-
modities.
TABLE 6.8
Examples of alternative treatments used for durable export/import commodities.
Commodity
Grain, nuts and
similar edible exports
or imports
Cocoa beans
Coconut products
Coffee
Spices
Seeds of cotton,
cover crops, castor
Tobacco
Basketware,
handicrafts, accessories
Wood products
eg. rubberwood
furniture
Sawn timber
Logs
Various durable
commodities
Example of alternative treatment
Phosphine
Carbon dioxide retail packs
In-transit carbon dioxide treatment
Nitrogen
Phosphine
Phosphine
Phosphine
Phosphine
Phosphine
Phosphine
Phosphine (
Phosphine
Chemical dip (wood preservative)
Sulphuryl fluoride
Water immersion and insecticide
Phosphine
Example of country
Germany, UK, Thailand
Thailand
Australia (groundnuts)
Australia, Thailand
(for premium rice)
Malaysia and many other
countries
Philippines
Vietnam
Malaysia
Philippines
Philippines, Indonesia, Zimbabwe
Philippines
Malaysia, Philippines (for exports
to Japan, USA), Vietnam
Malaysia
USA
Japan
Philippines
!*
s
"T3
**
s
O
THE TECHNICAL AND ECONOMIC FEASIBILITY OF REPLACING METHYL BROMIDE IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES
-------
TABLE 6.9
Examples of cold and heat treatments approved by the USA quarantine authorities (USDA-
APHIS) as quarantine treatments for durable commodities.
Type of treatment and examples of commodities
Heat Treatments
Steam Treatments
Steam Treatment
With Pressure
Vacuum Steam
Flow Process
Hot Water Dips
Freezing Treatments
Any durable commodity that can
tolerate heat - to control
Khapra beetle
Feeds & milled products for processing
Bagasse/sugarcane
Bags for seeds
Lumber (3" thick) with wood borers
Corn (maize) ears not for propagation
Rice straw novelties and articles
Niger seeds with Khapra beetle or soil
Niger seeds with Khapra beetle or soil
Seeds not for propagation
Rice straw and hulls, straw mats
Rice straw novelties
Novelties and articles from broomcorn
Leaf tobacco for export ,
Blended strip tobacco for export
Bulbs with Ditylenchus nematodes
Lily bulbs with Aphelenchoides
nematodes
Senecio with Aphelenchoides
nematodes
Narcissus bulbs with bulb scale mite
Certain tubers with Meloidogyne spp.
Horseradish root with golden nematode
Banana roots
Sugarcane
More than 17 other hot water treatment
schedules
Items with insects in soil
Duration and treatment
7 minutes at 150°F
7 minutes at 150°F
2 hours at 158°F
Ihour at212°F
14 hours at 130°F or
7 hours at 140°F
2 hours at 168°F
2 hours at 180°F
15 minutes at 212°F .
15 minutes at 212°F
to 212°F
30 minutes
30 minutes
30 minutes
15 minutes at 170°F
3 minutes at 160°F
2 hours at 75°F
& 4 hours at 110°F
- at!02°F
1 hour at 110°F
Ihour atllO°F
30 minutes at 118°F
30 minutes at 118°F
30 minutes at 110°F
& 60 mins at 120°F
4 hours at 110°F
5 days at 0°F
Source: Compiled from USDA-APHIS 1993 'Plant Protection and Quarantine Treatment Manual',
revised edition, Hyattsville.
-------
TABLE 6.10
Examples offumigants and fungicide treatments approved by the USA quarantine authorities
(USDA-APHIS) as quarantine treatments for durable commodities.
Type of treatment and examples of commodities
Fumigants
Fungicides
Tobacco for export
Cotton, cottonwaste and cotton
products in bulk, against boll weevil etc.
Seeds of cotton, packaged or bulk
Seeds & dried pods, okra, kenaf, etc.
Bales of hay
Wooden items with wood borers
Non-plant articles infested with ticks
Non-plant articles infested with ticks
Wooden items with wood borers
Wood products, containers with termites
Seeds of corn Medicago spp.
from Europe
Seeds for propagation, small batches
Seeds of sugarcane
Seeds of citrus
Duration and treatment
96 hours phosphine
120 hours phosphine
120 hours phosphine
120 hours phosphine
72 hours phosphine
72 hours phosphine
24 hours carboxide
24 hours sulphuryl
fluoride
24 hours sulphuryl
fluoride
24 hours sulphuryl
fluoride
apply thiram
apply zineb and captan
30 minutes sodium
hypochlorite, then
8 hours drying
2 minutes sodium
hypochlorite, dry
Source: Compiled from USD A/ APHIS 1993 'Plant Protection and Quarantine Treatment Manual',
revised edition, Hyattsville.
ft.
5
o
K
CQ
6.8.3 ALTERNATIVES FOR DURABLE COMMODITIES RELEVANT TO ZIMBABWE, THAILAND AND CHILE
Durable export/import commodities accounted for <3% of MB used in Zimbabwe, about
70% of MB used in Thailand, and approximately 6% in Chile, in 1994. Tables 6.11 - 6.13
identify alternatives that are relevant to the durable export/import commodities treated with
MB in the three countries. In each case there are alternatives in use or registered as quaran-
tine treatments, as well as potential alternatives. Some changes in infrastructure and com-
modity management would be necessary to introduce alternatives, particularly where MB
treatments are carried out rapidly. Rapid alternative treatments are used in a few countries,
but would require further development and investment to meet commercial needs in the
three countries.
Alternatives for officially-required quarantine treatments, while technically feasible, would
require approval by the relevant authorities. The main barriers would be the cost of demon-
stration trials and of negotiations with quarantine authorities.
THE TECHNICAL AND ECONOMIC FEASIBILITY OF REPLACING METHYL BROMIDE IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES
-------
TABLE 6.11
Alternatives for durable export/import commodities relevant to Zimbabwe.
%of
national MB
consumption
tn 1994
small %
<1%
<1%
Commodities
treated with
MB
Grain exports
Tobacco
exports
- MB required
by Japan &
Taiwan mainly
Curios &
artifact
exports
Examples of alternatives
in use or registered
Phosphine - many countries
Retail packs flushed with
carbon dioxide - Thailand
Heat treatment - quarantine
treatment approved by
USA for any durables that
tolerate heat.
Phosphine - Zimbabwe
Vacuum steam flow
process - quarantine
treatment approved by USA
Heat treatment with
constant humidity -
UK, Germany, Austria
Heat treatment - quarantine
treatment approved by
USA to kill Khapra beetle
Phosphine for artifacts
free from metal
components - Philippines
Examples of technically
feasible alternatives
1. In-transit carbon dioxide
2. Phosphine
3. Retail packs flushed with
carbon dioxide
4. Heat treatment in some
cases
5. Nitrogen in some cases
1. Phosphine
2. Carbon dioxide
3. Vacuum steam flow process
4. Pre-shipment inspection
and certification
5. Methoprene insect growth
regulator
1. Heat treatment with
constant humidity
2. Nitrogen flow fumigation
3. Carbon dioxide treatment
in some cases
4. Phosphine for artifacts free
from metal components
TABLE 6.12
Alternatives for durable export/import commodities relevant to Chile.
Commodities treated
with MB
Timber exports
(about 6% of national
MB consumption)
Examples of alternatives
in use or registered
Sulphury! fluoride - USA
Heat treatment -quarantine
treatment approved by USA
for sawn timber
Borate dip-diffusion
treatment - registered in
USA and Japan
Debarking
Processing timber prior
to export
Examples of technically
feasible alternatives
1. Conversion of logs to timber in
Chile, prior to export
2. Sulphuryl fluoride
3. Phosphine
4. Borate dip-diffusion treatment
5. Heat treatment in some cases
TABLE 6.13
Alternatives for durable export/import commodities relevant to Thailand.
Commodities
treated with MB
Examples of alternatives
in use or registered
Examples of technically
feasible alternatives
Grain exports
(70% of national
MB consumption)
Phosphine - many countries
Retail packs flushed with
carbon dioxide - Thailand
In-transit carbon dioxide -
Australia
Heat treatment -
quarantine treatment
approved by USA for durables
that tolerate heat
1. In-transit carbon dioxide
2. Phosphine in some cases
3. Retail packs flushed with carbon
dioxide
4. Heat treatment in some cases
5. Nitrogen in some cases
6. In-transit phosphine in some
cases
-------
6.9. Alternatives for Perishable Exports and Imports
6.9.1. ALTERNATIVES IDENTIFIED BY MBTOC
Perishable commodities include fresh fruit, fresh vegetables and cut flowers. MBTOC pointed
out that quarantine alternatives for perishable commodities sometimes have to be based on
more than one treatment or procedure. Techniques include:
systems approach: series of practices which each reduce pest levels;
pest-free zones and pest-free periods;
inspection and certification prior to export;
cold treatments;
heat treatments (eg. hot dry air, hot moist air, hot water dip);
controlled atmospheres (eg. very low oxygen, high carbon dioxide or nitrogen)
modified atmospheres;
physical removal of pests;
microwaves;
irradiation (generally makes pests sterile rather than killing them);
other fumigants;
insecticides. :
Of the many perishable commodities treated with MB, MBTOC identified only five com-
modity/pest combinations where there are as yet no approved alternative techniques:
1. grapes from Chile to USA (infested with Brevipalptts chilensis mite);
2. apples infested with codling moth - to countries where it is absent;
3. stonefruit infested with codling moth;
4. certain berryfruit;
5. certain root crops;
MBTOC noted that there are potential alternatives for these five commodities (MBTOC
1994:226).
6.9.2. EXAMPLES OF APPROVED QUARANTINE TREATMENTS FOR PERISHABLE COMMODITIES
Table 6.14 gives examples of perishable commodities where alternative quarantine treat-
ments have been approved. Table 6.15 shows the number of known cases where quarantine
treatments based on alternative techniques (for perishable commodities) have been approved
by quarantine authorities.
a
"S
THE TECHNICAL AND ECONOMIC FEASIBILITY OF REPLACING METHYL BROMIDE IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES
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Many fruits, vegetables and cut flowers do not require any quarantine treatment. Quarantine
treatments are generally applied in the importing country if pests of concern are detected.
However, in certain cases an importing country requires a treatment prior to export and in
some cases the use of MB is specified.
TABLE 6.14
Alternative quarantine techniques, with examples of approved applications for fresh fruit,
vegetables and cut flowers.
Procedure or treatment
Cold treatments
Heat treatments
Certified pest-free zones
or pest-free periods
Systems approach (IPM)
Pre-shipment inspection
and certification
Physical removal of pests
Controlled atmospheres
Pesticides, fumigants,
aerosols
Combination treatments
Examples of approved quarantine applications
Grapes & kiwifruit from Chile to Japan
Citrus from Israel, South Africa, Florida (USA) to Japan
Cherries from Chile to USA
Apples from Chile, Mexico, Israel, Italy, France, Spain,
South Africa to USA
Citrus from 23 countries to USA
Peaches, apricots & plums from Morocco to USA
Mangoes from Taiwan to Japan
Papaya from Hawaii to Japan and USA
Narcissus bulbs to Japan and USA
Tomatoes, zuccini, squash, eggplant, bell peppers to USA
Melons from a region of China to Japan
Squash from Tasmania to Japan
Cucurbits to Japan and USA
Nectarines from USA to New Zealand
Immature banana to Japan
Avocado
Certain cut flowers from Netherlands to Japan
Apples from Chile and New Zealand to USA
Nectarines from New Zealand to Australia
Green vegetables to many countries
Root crops are accepted by many countries if all soil is removed
Hand removal of certain pests from cut flowers to USA
Apples from Canada to California
Cut flowers from New Zealand to Japan
Asparagus to Japan
Tomatoes from Australia to New Zealand
Cut flowers from Thailand and Hawaii
Bulbs to Japan
Soapy water and wax coating for cherimoya from Chile to USA
Vapour heat and cold treatment for lychees from Taiwan to Japan
Pressure water spray and insecticide for certain cut flowers to USA
Source: Compiled from MBTOC 1994:222-226.
-------
6.9.3 ALTERNATIVES FOR PERISHABLE
COMMODITIES RELEVANT TO ZIMBABWE,
THAILAND AND CHILE
Quarantine treatments for perishable com-
modities account for <1% of MB used in
Zimbabwe, 1% in Thailand and 22% in
Chile. Approximately 20% of the MB used
in Chile is used solely for grapes exported
to the USA. Potential alternatives were
identified for each commodity (Tables 6.17
- 6.19).
Resources would be required for develop-
ment of the alternatives. In the case of
flower exports from Zimbabwe, for exam-
ple, alternatives are available for surface
pests, but research work would be required
to develop a suitable treatment for "Western
Flower Thrips. Where an importing coun-
try requires MB treatment prior to export,
alternatives will have to be approved by
quarantine authorities of importing coun-
tries on a case-by-case basis. Negotiations
can be extremely slow in this area, so it is
likely to take a number of years to gain
approvals. --.-
TABLES.15
Number of known cases where countries have
approved an alternative quarantine technique
for perishable commodities (or groups of sim-
ilar commodities).
Alternative
procedure or
technique
Cultural practices
Pest-free zones
or periods
Pre-shipment
inspection
Cold treatments
Heat treatments
Controlled
atmospheres
Modified
atmospheres
Physical removal
of pests
Combined treatments
Fumigants other
than MB
Chemical dips
Number of cases
where a country has
approved an
alternative quaran-
tine treatment
2 cases
6 cases
many cases
61 cases
11 cases
lease
nil cases
many cases
4 cases
5 cases , '
3 cases
Source: Compiled from MBTOC 1994.
TABLE 6.16
Alternatives for perishable commodities relevant to Zimbabwe.
Commodities treated
with MB - for
quarantine
Cut flowers
(<1% of national MB
consumption)
Fruit & vegetable
exports (<1% of MB
consumption)
Examples of alternatives in use
or registered for quarantine
Pre-shipment inspection &
certification for surface pests -
quarantine procedure used by
many countries
Pressure water spray and
insecticide dip for certain pests
-USA
Pre-shipment certification
Cold treatments
Heat treatments
Combined treatments.
Pest-free zones
Examples of technically
feasible alternatives
1. Improved pest control in field,
followed by controlled atmosphere
treatment during transit
2. Improved pest control in field,
followed by double post-harvest
treatment eg. double insecticide
dip
1. Cold treatments
2. In-transit controlled atmosphere
treatments
3. Systems approach
4. Combined treatments
-------
TABLE 6.17
Alternatives for perishable commodities relevant to Chile.
Commodities treated
with MB-for
quarantine
Grape exports to USA
- to control
Brevlpalpus chilensis
(c.20% national MB
consumption)
Citrus fruit exports
(<1% MB
consumption)
Stonefruit exports
- nectarines,
peaches, plums,
apricots (<1% MB
consumption)
Tomato exports
to Argentina (<1%
MB consumption)
Asparagus exports
- treated to reduce
chance of rejection
in USA
Strawberries and
raspberries
-treated to reduce
chance rejection in
USA(<1%MB
consumption)
Examples of alternatives
in use or registered
Cold treatments - quarantine
treatment commonly used for
citrus, eg. used by 23 countries
exporting to USA
Heated dry air or heated moist
air - quarantine treatments
approved by USA for Mexican
fruit fly
Inspection - quarantine
procedure commonly used by
USA for products from Chile
and many countries
Cold treatment - quarantine
treatment approved by USA
for Moroccan imports
Heat treatment - quarantine
treatment approved by
USA for various pests
Chemical dip - quarantine
treatment approved by
New Zealand for Australian
exports
Chemical treatment
- quarantine treatment
approved by Japan
Inspection - used in many
countries
Carbon dioxide treatment
- used in USA
Examples of technically
feasible alternatives
1. Potential: treatment of vineyards
to provide certified pest-free
zones
2. Combined treatment:
cold treatment combined with
another treatment
1. Cold treatment (sometimes with
warm temperature
pre-conditioning)
2. Heated dry air or heated moist
air
3. Waxing
1. Improved pest control systems
in field, followed by
pre-shipment inspection and
certification
2. Combination treatment
1. Vapour heat treatments
2. Chemical dip
1. Chemical treatment
2. Double treatment
1. Cold or heat treatments,
depending on pests
2. Carbon dioxide treatment
in some cases
3. Sulphur dioxide treatment
in some cases
-------
TABLE 6.18
Alternatives for perishable commodities relevant to Thailand.
Commodities treated
with MB - for
quaranrine
Orchid flower exports
- to control
Dichromothrips
corbetti mainly
(<1% of national
MB consumption)
Ginger exports
(<1% MB
consumption)
Asparagus expprts
- to control Thrips
tabaci mainly (<1%
MB consumption)
Examples of
alternatives in use
or registered
Pre-shipment inspection and
inspection and certification
for surface pests only -
quarantine procedure used by
many countries
Hand removal of surface
pests -quarantine treatment
approved by USA
Chemical sprays or dips -
quarantine treatments used by
Thailand, Hawaii and
New Zealand
Pressure water spray and
insecticide for certain cut
flowers - approved by USA
Removal of soil prior to export
- quarantine treatment used
by many countries
Heat treatment - quarantine
treatment approved for bulbs
by Japan and USA
Pre-shipment inspection and
certification
Fumigation - quarantine
treatment approved by Japan
Controlled atmosphere - used
for US military supplies
Examples of technically
feasible alternatives
1. Improved pest control in field,
followed by controlled
atmosphere during transit
2. Improved pest control in field,
followed by double
post-harvest treatment eg.
double insecticide dip
3. Chemical aerosols for surface
pests
4. Chemical dips in some cases
1. Removal of soil
2. Cold treatment (possibly
combined with other treatment)
3. Controlled atmosphere
treatment
1. Pre-shipment inspection and
certification
2. Controlled atmosphere treatment
3. Combined treatment
THE TECHNICAL AND ECONOMIC FEASIBILITY OF REPLACING METHYL BROMIDE IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES
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-------
CHAPTER
Economic
Issues
THIS CHAPTER GIVES EXAMPLES OF THE COSTS OF USING ALTERNATIVES COMPARED TO USING METHYL BRO-
MIDE . INFORMATION OF THE PROFITABILITY OF DIFFERENT SYSTEMS is PRESENTED WHERE AVAILABLE.
SUBSEQUENT SECTIONS IDENTIFY THE GENERAL RESOURCES THAT WOULD BE REQUIRED TO REPLACE MB
AND POTENTIAL SOURCES OF FINANCIAL ASSISTANCE. THE CHAPTER OUTLINES THE EXTERNALISED COSTS
RESULTING FROM USE OF MB AND PRESENTS A COST-BENEFIT OVERVIEW. IT IDENTIFIES A NUMBER OF COM-
MERCIAL AND EMPLOYMENT OPPORTUNITIES ARISING FROM REDUCED USE OF MB.
7.1. Cost of Using Alternatives
This study has compiled some case studies of the operating costs of MB and alternatives in
Zimbabwe and Chile. Data on comparative costs in other countries have also been sum-
marised. These examples should be taken as approximate indicators of cost because actual
costs will vary from one location or situation to another. Due to factors such as marketing poli-
cies and currency conversion, the cost of using MB itself varies from one country to another.
It is therefore more meaningful to compare the relative costs of MB and the alternative, rather
than absolute costs.
It is important to note that alternatives covered by the same name are often very diverse. For
example, the term 'steam treatment' or 'IPM' covers many different practices, with different
cost implications.
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THE TECHNICAL AND ECONOMIC FEASIBILITY OF REPLACING METHYL BROMIDE IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES
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7.2. Examples of Costs of Polarisation
7.2.1. SOIL SOLARISATION IN CHILE
A cost assessment conducted for this study estimated that MB costs on average US$3,620 per
hectare in Chile, compared to about US$4,100 for solarisation (Rojas 1995) (see Table 7.1).
For certain crops there would be an economic penalty from not using lands during summer,
amounting to additional costs of approximately US$750 per hectare. Solarisation is rarely used
in Chile. Producers combine it with
chemical treatments (eg. dazomet) to
increase efficacy and reduce chemical
doses. New experiments with solarisa-
tion alone will be made in 1995/96.
There are opportunities for reducing
costs and increasing efficacy by combin-
ing solarisation with IPM - a combina-
tion used successfully in Italy (see
Section 7.6).
TABLE 7.1
Cost of using MB compared to a solarisation
technique in Chile.
7.2.2. SOLARISATION IN BRAZIL, ITALY AND
FLORIDA
Data collected for a UNDP study found
the material cost of MB for tobacco
seedlings in nursery operations in Brazil
is US$29 per hectare (0.8% of the total
production costs). Solarisation materials
cost US$25 per hectare (0.7% of total
production costs) (UNDP 1995).
Inputs
Soil preparation
Chemical product
Tractor with driver
Machine application
Plastic (O.lmm)
Sowing by machine
Irrigation labour
Labour
Total
MB cost
(US$/ha)
236
180
75
105
2,625
250
0
150
3,621
Solarisation
cost
(US$/ha)
236
0
75
105
2,625
250
63
750
4,104
Source: Francisco ] Rojas, ETEC, Santiago, 1995.
The cost of using solarisation for tomatoes in the Ragusa region of Italy is about US$1,260 per
hectare compared to about US$3,780 per hectare for using MB (Vickers 1995).
Studies conducted on autumn (fall) production of fresh tomatoes by the University of Florida
in 1994 used a solarisation technique that gave tomato yields equal to using MB/chloropi-
crin. Solarisation was found to be fully compatible with standard production practices and
resulted in savings of more than US$250 per acre when compared to the cost of using
MB/chloropicrin (Chellemi et al 1995). Studies will continue with the aim of further improv-
ing the performance of solarisation and other alternatives.
7.2.3. SUMMARY OF EXAMPLES OF SOLARISATION COSTS
There is great diversity in solarisation techniques, and the examples of costs show similar
diversity. For the cases where we were able to find comparisons of solarisation and MB costs,
solarisation was cheaper in three out of four cases (Table 7.2). At one end of the spectrum
MB was 12% cheaper than the alternative, and at the other end of the spectrum solarisation
was 67% cheaper than using MB.
-------
TABLE 7.2
Summary of available examples of soil solarisation costs.
Example of
alternative
Solarisation, Chile
Solarisation, Brazil
Solarisation, Italy
Solarisation, Florida
Cost of MB (US$)
$ 3,621 per ha
$ 29 per ha
for materials
0.8% of
production costs
$ 3,780 per ha
n/a
Cost of
alternative example
$ 4,104 per ha
$ 25 per ha
for materials
0.7% of
production costs
c.$ 1,260 per ha
$250 per acre
less than using MB
Cost comparison
MB 12% cheaper
Solarisation 14%
cheaper for
materials
Solarisation 67%
cheaper
Solarisation $250
cheaper per acre
7.3. Examples of Costs of Steam Treatments
7.3.1. STEAM TREATMENT IN CHILE
A cost assessment carried out for this project estimated that a steam technique in Chile would
cost about US$13,971 per hectare, which is about 286% more than the cost of using MB
(Rojas 1995) (see Table 7.3). Steam treatment in Chile is very expensive compared to steam
systems in use in other countries, and farmers are not generally familiar with the cheaper
techniques. The technique in Chile involves moving large quantities of earth into piles no more
than 3 cubic meters. The cost of earth
moving accounts for US$10,725,
which is 77% of the cost. It would be
feasible to apply steam systems that
avoid the need to move soil, substan-
tially reducing the cost for glasshouse
and nurseries in particular. Steam is
widely used for beds in the flower
industry in Colombia, as part of a
cost-effective production system (see
Section 7.6).
T A B L E 7 3
Cost of using MB compared to a specific
steam technique in Chile.
7.3.2. STEAM TREATMENTS FOR TOBACCO
IN BRAZIL
Cost comparisons made for a UNDP
study found that the material cost of
steam is US$45.60 per hectare (1.3%
of total production costs) for nursery
tobacco seedlings in Brazil, while the
material cost of MB is US$29.00 per
hectare (0.8% of total production
costs) (UNDP 1995). The cost of
labour and other operational expendi-
ture was assumed to be approximately
the same according to this study.
Inputs
Soil preparation
Chemical product
Steam production
Moving earth
Fertilization
Plastic (O.lmm)
Earth levelling
Sowing by machine
Labour, tractor
application
Total
MB cost
(US$/ha)
236
180
0
0
0
2,625
0
250
330
3,621
Steam cost
(US$/ha)
236
0
2,289
10,500
146
75
225
250
250
13,971
g
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a
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u
fcl
Source: Francisco J Rojas, ETEC, Santiago, 1995.
THE TECHNICAL AND ECONOMIC FEASIBILITY OF REPLACING METHYL BROMIDE IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES
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7.3.3. STEAM TREATMENTS FOR STERILE BEDS IN COLOMBIA
The Colombia cut flower industry uses steam for cleaning propagation beds (raised beds for
mother plants), and for occasional spot treatments in flower production beds. The approxi-
mate cost of using steam is US$18,519 per hectare (full costs including labour etc.), com-
pared to US$4,932 per hectare for using MB once per year (Rodriguez-Kabana &
Martinez-Ochoa 1995). The actual cost of steam varies greatly according to the type of boiler
and fuel used. The cost of steaming is more than three times greater than using MB in this
example. However, because of the importance of obtaining disease and pest-free propagation
material, steam is preferred over the other methods in the Colombian cut flower industry;
steaming is considered the most reliable method (UNDP 1995).
7.3.4. STEAM TREATMENTS IN UK
The costs of five different steam systems in the UK have been compared in a detailed study
(Ellis 1991). The report concluded that sheet steaming and hood steaming are comparable in
cost to using MB if a suitable steam boiler can be hired rather than purchased (Ellis 1991:77).
The negative pressure or Fink systems are competitive if deep steaming is required or sterili-
sation is carried out less frequently. Table 7.4 presents the cost details.
TABLE 7.4
Comparative inputs and costs for various steam treatments in the UK (US$ per 2,000 m2).
Boiler kg/h
Sheet size m!
Depth mm
Time per sheet h
Total time h
Energy used MJ
Fuel cost US$
Boiler US$
Annual cost US$
Boiler hire US$
Equipment US$
Annual cost US$
Labour hours h
Labour cost US$
TOTAL COST
Boiler owned
Boiler hired
Sheet -
200 mm depth
1,000
100
200
4
80
200,000
945
22,500
3,848
960
450
197
80
540
5,531
2,642
Source: Ellis 1991:68.
Sheet -
300 mm depth
1,000
100
300
8
160
400,000
1,890
22,500
3,848
1,920
450
197
160
1,080
7,014
5,087
Hood
1,000
20
150
0.25
25
92,000
435
22,500
3,848
300
5,250
1,046
25
170
5,498
1,950
Negative
pressure
1,000
67
500
5
150
230,000
1,086
22,500
3,848
1,800
10,500
2,093
150
1,013
8,039
5,991
Fink
1,000
67
500
5
150
230,000
1,086
22,500
3,848
1,800
5,250
1,046
150
1,013
6,993
4,946
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7.3.5. STEAM TREATMENTS IN THE NETHERLANDS
A number of developments in the Netherlands and Germany have improved the fuel effi-
ciency and reduced the time of operation of steam treatments, because steam is more widely
used in those countries. Negative pressure steaming used for up to 10% of cucurbit production
in the Netherlands costs US$1.43 -1.74 per m2 compared to about US$1.66 per m2 for MB.
Using steam avoids the cost of leaching with water after MB fumigation (to reduce bromine
residues) and allows faster replanting. Cucumbers grown on soil treated with steam give an
average profit of US$6.03/m2, which is similar to the profit of US$6.00/m2 using MB (De Barro
1995).
7.3.6. SUMMARY OF EXAMPLES OF STEAM COSTS
Diversity among steam techniques and costs is much greater than among solarisation tech-
niques. As a generalisation, MB is cheaper than steam treatments, and in some cases consid-
erably (at least 74%) cheaper (see Table 7.5). However, a few steam systems are cheaper or the
same cost as MB, notably some negative pressure techniques, and certain techniques using
boilers that are hired rather than purchased. Interestingly, some very expensive steam systems
-almost four times the cost of MB - are used in Colombia in preference to MB because grow-
ers consider them to perform better (UNDP 1995).
TABLE 7.5
Summary of examples of various steam treatment costs.
, Example of
alternative
Moving earth for
steaming, Chile
Steam, Brazil
Steam, Colombia
Sheet steaming,
hired boiler, UK
Sheet steaming,
purchased boner, UK
Hood steaming,
hired boiler, UK
Hood steaming,
purchased boner, UK
Negative pressure,
Netherlands
Cost of MB
(US$)
$ 3,621 per ha
$ 29.00 per ha
for materials
0.8% of
production costs
$ 4,932 per ha
n/a
n/a
n/a
n/a
Cost:$ 1.66 per m2
Profit:$6.00 per m2
Cost of alternative
example (US$)
$ 13,971 per ha
(of this, moving earth
cost $10,725 per ha)
$ 45.60 per ha
for materials,
1.3% of
production costs
$ 18,519 per ha
$ 2,642 -5,087
per 2000 m2
$ 5,531 - 7,014
per 2000 m2
$ 1,950 per 2000 m2
$ 5,498 per 2000 m2
Cost:$1.43 -1.74 per m2
Profit:$6.03 per m2
Cost comparison
MB 74% cheaper
MB 36% cheaper
for materials
MB 73% cheaper,
but growers prefer
performance of
steam
Some types steam
similar cost to MB
MB cheaper
Steam similar cost
to MB
MB cheaper
Some steam 14%
cheaper, some
slightly more
expensive,
Steam gives 0.5%
higher profit average
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ft]
THE TECHNICAL AND ECONOMIC FEASIBILITY OF REPLACING METHYL BROMIDE IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES
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7.4. Examples of Costs of Substrate Systems
7.4.1. SEED TRAYS FOR TOBACCO SEEDBEDS IN ZIMBABWE
The cost of tobacco seedlings grown with MB in Zimbabwe is estimated to be about US$131-
137 per hectare, assuming Trichoderma is not used (ZTA 1995). Seedlings grown in soil sub-
stitutes (eg. pine bark) in seed trays by a commercial nursery cost about US$240 per hectare of
adult plants (see Table 7.6). The cost of seed trays, however, needs to be adjusted to take
account of the fact that farmers would no longer need seedbeds and could use the land for
additional crop production. The cost of transporting seed trays will vary according to the
distance between the farm and nursery, and is likely to be cost-effective only for farms that
are reasonably close to nurseries. Seedlings would cost less if trays were prepared by com-
mercial nurseries and then germinated by farmers themselves. The actual seedlings would
cost about 50% less,
TABLE 7.6
Cost of using MB compared to seed trays for tobacco
in Zimbabwe.
Inputs
MB and other
pesticides
Tent and other inputs
Labour
Production of seedlings
in seedtrays
Transport
Total
MB costs
(US$/ha)
97
used
used
0
0
>131
Seed trays
terminated
y nursery
0
0
0
239
variable
>239
Seed trays
terminated
y farmer
0
0
used
102
variable
>102
although some on-farm
labour would also be
required. Adoption of such
a system would require
development of local
industries to provide quan-
tities of seed trays and suit-
able soil substitutes.
7.4.2. SUBSTRATES FOR
TOBACCO SEEDLINGS IN
BRAZIL
A UNDP study calculated
that the material cost of
soil-less substrates for
tobacco seedlings in Brazil
was US$85.56 per hectare
(2.4% of total production costs). This compares with material cost of US$29.00 for MB (0.8%
of total production costs) (UNDP 1995). The study pointed out that although soil-less sub-
strates are more than twice the cost of MB they are well received by users because of their
simplicity and reliability (UNDP 1995).
7.4.3. SEED TRAYS FOR PAPRIKA SEEDBEDS IN ZIMBABWE
An assessment conducted for this project estimated the cost of a system using MB for paprika
seedbeds in Zimbabwe to be US$368 per hectare, compared to US$977 for seed trays pur-
chased from commercial nurseries (Hedges 1995) (see Table 7.7). Using MB costs 62% less
than using this seed tray system for paprika. An increased yield of almost half a tonne would
be required from the seed tray system to offset the increased cost, but it is unlikely that this
level of yield increase would be achieved. The case study on direct sowing of paprika seeds in
Section 7.5 illustrates a much cheaper option.
Source: Wilkinson 1995.
-------
7.4.4. PEAT SUBSTRATES
FOR STRAWBERRIES IN
NETHERLANDS
Using a substrate (peat)
for glasshouse strawber-
ries in the Netherlands
costs US$2.79 per m2 for
the first ten years and
about US$1.86 thereafter.
This compares with
US$0.65 - 1.27 for a sys-
tem using MB. However,
yields from the substrate
system are more than dou-
ble the yields from using
MB, so substrates give
greater profits of
US$27.58/m2, compared
to $11.44/m2 for MB (De
Barro 1995).
T A B L E 7 . 7
Cost of using MB compared to seed trays for paprika spice in
Zimbabwe.
Inputs
MB chemical
Seeds & seedbeds
Commercial nursery production
and transport
Transplanting
Other pesticides
Labour
Miscellaneous costs
(including interest)
Total variable costs
Cost per established seedling
MB costs
(US$/ha of
adult plants)
36.69
103.70
0
37.85
51.47
88.87
49.58
368.16
0.82
Seed tray costs
(US$/ha of
adult plants)
0
0
679.49
55.64
51.47
58.92
131.61
977.13
2.17
Note: Calculated on basis that 1
120 m2 seedbed area.
Source: Hedges, Hy-Veld Seed Co,
hectare of adult plants requires
Harare, 1995.
7.4.5. ROCKWOOL SUBSTRATES FOR CUCURBITS IN THE NETHERLANDS
Substrate (rockwool) systems for cucumber production in the Netherlands have an operating
cost of US$21.62 per m2, and give three crops per year. This compares with an operating cost
of US$8.02 per m2 using MB, giving a single crop per year. The profit (revenue minus operat-
ing expenses) from the triple-crop substrate system is US$26 per m2, compared to US$6 per
m2 using MB (De Barro 1995).
7.4.6. SUMMARY OF EXAMPLES OF SUBSTRATI-: COSTS
There is a great variety of substrate materials and system costs (Table 7.8). For the cases where
we were able to find comparisons of substrates and MB costs, substrates (including seed
trays) were cheaper in two out of six cases. At one end of the spectrum MB was 77% cheaper
than the alternative, and at the other end of the spectrum substrates were 10% cheaper than
using MB.
In the two cases where data on profits were available, substrates were more profitable (by
141% and 333%) than using MB.
7.5. Example of Costs of Direct Sowing
7.5.1. DIRECT SOWING OF PAPRIKA SEEDS IN ZIMBABWE
If paprika seeds are planted directly into the field rather than sown in seedbeds, improved
irrigation and planting techniques are required. Direct sowing is used on approximately 50
hectares in Zimbabwe, and paprika companies expect that the area will increase markedly in
THE TECHNICAL AND ECONOMIC FEASIBILITY OF REPLACING METHYL BROMIDE IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES
-------
TABLE 7.8
Summary of examples of substrates and seed tray system costs.
Example of
alternative
Commercial seed
trays, tobacco,
Zimbabwe
Seed trays cultivated
by fanner
Zimbabwe
Substrates, tobacco,
Brazil
Commercial
seed trays, paprika,
Zimbabwe
Sttbstrates (peat),
strawberries,
Netherlands
Substrates
(rockwool), cucurbits,
Netherlands
Direct souring.
paprika, Zititbabwe
Cost of MB
(US$)
$131 - 137 per ha
$131 - 137 per ha
$29 per ha
for materials,
0.8% of
production costs
$368 per ha
Cost: $0.65 -
1.27 per m2
Profit: $11.44 per m2
Cost: $8.02 per m2
for 1 crop p. a.
Profit: $6 per m2
$368 per ha
Cost of alternative
example (US$)
$239 per ha
$102 per ha
excluding transport
$86 per ha
for materials,
2.4% of
production costs
$977 per ha
Cost: $2.79 per m2
Profit: $27.58 per m2
Cost: $21.62 per m2
for 3 crops p.a.
Profit: $26 per m2
$486 per ha,
but gives other
advantages
Cost comparison
MB 44% cheaper
Seed trays 23%
cheaper
(excl. transport) '
MB 66% cheaper ...';
MB 62% cheaper
MB 54-77% cheaper,
but substrates
give profit 141%
higher
Substrate 10%
cheaper, substrate
gives profit 333%
higher
MB 24% cheaper,
but equivalent overall
cost/benefit
the next few years. Hy-Veld Seed Co.
is actively advocating this method
because of its inherent advantages in
terms of yield and reduction in MB
use (Hedges 1995). A study carried
out for this project estimated that use
of MB for seedbeds costs US$368
compared to US$486 for direct sow-
ing. Using MB costs 24% less than
direct sowing (see Table 7.9).
However, direct sowing has several
advantages, such as reduction in
mechanically transferred diseases,
closer plant spacing, better root sys-
tems, increased yields (under good
management) and earlier harvesting.
As a result, direct sowing is economi-
cally viable compared to using MB
(Hedges 1995).
TABLE 7.9
Cost of using MB compared to direct sowing for
paprika spice seeds in Zimbabwe.
Inputs
MB chemical
Seeds and
seedbed inputs
Seeds and extra
land preparation
Planting &
production
Other pesticides
Labour
Miscellaneous
(incl. interest)
Total variable costs
Cost per
established
seedling
MB costs
(US$/ha of
adult plants)
36.69
103.70
0
37.85
51.47
88.87
49.58
368.13
0.82
Direct sowing
costs (US$/ha
of adult plants)
0
0
315.51
46.78
35.07
8.00
65.43
485.75
1.08
Source: Hedges, Hy-Veld Seed Co, Harare, Zimbabwe.
-------
Paprika crop in Zimbabwe, grown with methyl
bromide, shown 20 weeks after sowing date. Plants
are grown initially in fumigated seedbeds, then
planted out.
Paprika crop in Zimbabwe, grown without use of
methyl bromide, shown 16 weeks after sowing date.
Seeds are planted directly into the field, producing a
superior rooting system, and healthier plants that
mature six weeks earlier than crops grown with
methyl bromide.
7.6. EXAMPLES OF COSTS OF IPM AND MIXED TECHNIQUES
7.6.1. IPM SYSTEMS IN GENERAL
Well-designed IPM systems entail a mix of pest monitoring, cultivation practices and mini-
mal use of target-specific chemicals, and are often cheaper to operate and/or more profitable
than conventional chemical methods once the system is established. Some examples:
IPM is used for tomatoes, snow peas and broccoli in Guatemala. For tomatoes, net rev-
enues using IPM are US$1,526 per hectare, compared to US$1,156 using conventional
methods. For broccoli, net revenues using IPM are US$936 per hectare, compared to
US$828 for conventional methods. Net revenues are also higher when IPM is used for
snow peas (see Table 7.10) (USAID et al 1994 in Thrupp 1995).
IPM used for cabbage in Malaysia
gave marketable yields 5-6% higher
than conventional methods and
increased profits up to six-fold
(Loke et al 1990).
An IPM system used for tomato pro-
duction in Mexico was found to give
net profits ranging from US$304 to
US$579 per hectare higher than pro-
duction using conventional pesticide
inputs (Trumble & Alvarado-
Rodriguez 1993).
TABLE 7.10
Costs of vegetable production using conven-
tional and IPM methods in Guatemala.
Crop grown in
Guatemala
Tomatoes
Broccoli
Snow peas
Conventional
cultivation
using pesticide:
(USf/ha)
Costs: 2,536
Profit: 1,156
Costs: 1,332
Profit: 828
Costs: 2,879
Profit: 3,583
IPM methods
(US$/ha)
Costs: 2,166
Profit: 1,526
Costs: 1,224
Profit: 936
Costs: 2,634
Profit: 3,828
Source: USAID et al 1994 in Thrupp 1995.
An IPM programme introduced in a
horticultural region that relied heav-
ily on insecticides and fungicides in Ontario led to a 25-40% reduction in pesticide use and
net savings of about US$100 per hectare. IPM was widely accepted by the growers and
THE TECHNICAL AND ECONOMIC FEASIBILITY OF REPLACING METHYL BROMIDE IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES
-------
grower organisations (Surgeoner 8c Roberts 1993).
A large-scale IPM training programme for vegetable production in Sri Lanka increased
yields significantly. The profits from IPM chilli production are 100,300 rupee/hectare,
compared to 30,800 rupee/hectare using conventional pesticides. For cabbage, IPM prof-
its are 150,500 rupee/hectare, compared to 20,000 rupee/hectare using conventional pes-
ticides (Jones 1996).
A detailed evaluation of IPM has been made by the FAO in Asia, where IPM has been
adopted on a large scale for rice production (FAO 1994). Over 570,000 farmers have been
trained in IPM in seven countries. The study found that IPM training improved crop yields
and substantially reduced expenditure on pesticides in each country. In India, for example,
about 50,000 rice farmers were trained to use IPM. Their pesticide costs were reduced to
US$9 per hectare on average compared to US$25 per hectare for farmers who have not
been trained. IPM yields were 5.5 tonnes per hectare on average compared to 5.1 tonnes
for conventional chemical methods (FAO 1994). In the Philippines, for example, 175,000
farmers have been trained in IPM. The IPM farmers had average pesticide costs of about
US$13 per hectare compared to US$26, while average yields were 5.1 tonnes/hectare com-
pared to 5.0 (FAO 1994). The FAO noted that IPM offers a way to increase farmers'
profits while protecting human health and the environment (FAO 1991b:25).
7.6.2. IPM/COMPOSTING FOR CUT FLOWERS IN COLOMBIA
A system of IPM and sophisticated composting is used for flower production in Colombia,
which has one of the most successful cut flower export industries in the world. It provides an
example of a very widely used and well-established alternative. The alternative pest control
system costs about US$4,930 per hectare compared to US$6,827 per hectare for a pest control
system based on MB (Rodriguez-Kabana 8c Martinez-Ochoa 1995). MB is 39% more expen-
sive than the alternative.
7.6.3. IPM/SOLARISATION FOR TOMATOES IN SlCILY
Solarisation in the Ragusa region of Sicily costs approximately US$1,260 per hectare, com-
pared to approximately US$3,780 for MB. It has been calculated that tomatoes grown in
Ragusa using a combination of solarisation and IPM would give profits approximately
US$2,000 per hectare higher than using MB (Vickers 1995).
7.6.4. IPM/SOLARISATION IN ITALY
An IPM/solarisation system is used for a variety of crops in a very intensive horticultural area
beside Lake Bracciano in the Lazio region of Italy. According to MBTOC, the cost of this alter-
native is very low compared to using either MB or steam (MBTOC 1994:100). The cost of
solarisation was about US$550-600 per hectare, although this is now likely to be higher. MB
is no longer permitted in the area beside Lake Bracciano, so cost data are not available.
However, as an approximate indicator, MB fumigation in another part of Italy costs US$3,700
per hectare (MBTOC 1994:100). The IPM/solarisation technique has received a favorable
reaction from farmers, on economic as well as other grounds, and has been so successful that
it will be applied to other parts of the region (MBTOC 1994).
7.6.5. IPM/PESTICIDES FOR STRAWBERRIES IN THE NETHERLANDS
-------
The profitability of open-field strawberries grown using IPM and pesticides has increased since
MB was phased out in the Netherlands (De Barro 1995).
7.6.6. SUMMARY OF EXAMPLES OF IPM SYSTEM COSTS
Diversity among IPM systems is even greater than among the other alternatives. For the cases
where we were able to find comparisons of IPM and MB costs, IPM systems were cheaper
(by 28% to 67%). In each case the alternatives were also more profitable.
TABLE 7.11
Summary of examples of IPM system costs.
Example of
alternative
IPM/composting,
flowers, Colombia
IPM/solarisation,
tomatoes, Italy
IPM/solarisation,
various crops, Italy
Cost of MB
(US$)
6,827 per ha
Cost: 3,780 per ha
Cost: approx. 3,700
per ha
Cost of alternative
example (US$)
4,930 per ha
Cost: 1,260 per ha
Profit: c. 2,000
per ha higher
than using MB
Cost: >600 per ha.
Cost comparison
IPM/composting 28%
cheaper, and more
profitable
IPM/solarisation 67%
cheaper, and gives
profits $2,000/ha
higher than MB
IPM/solarisation
much cheaper,
and more profitable
7.7. Examples of Costs of Chemical Treatments for Soil
7.7.1. TAGETES EXTRACT NEMATICIDE FOR FLOWERS IN KENYA
Methyl bromide, sometimes with additional nematicides, is used by rose producers to reduce
the risk of Root Knot nematodes. A study in Kenya has calculated that the labour and chem-
ical cost for this method is approxi-
mately US$1,200 per month per TABLE 7 12
hectare of rose plants. Trials with a Cost ofusing MB compared to dazomet for pep-
local plant extract (Tagetes minuta) per seedbeds in Chile.
were reported to cost US$200 per
month for an equally effective treat-
ment (Okioga 1994). Some trials with
Tagetes have been carried out in
Zimbabwe and are continuing.
7.7.2. DAZOMET FOR PEPPER SEEDBEDS
IN CHILE
Dazomet is not a complete replace-
ment for MB. In Chile, it is reported to
give a germination rate of 70-80%
compared to 90% for MB, while the
crop output using dazomet is lower. A
cost assessment carried out for this
project estimated that use of MB in
Inputs
Soil preparation
Chemical product
Tractor with driver
Machine application
Plastic (O.lmm)
Sowing by machine
Irrigation labour
Labour
Total
MB cost
(US$/ha)
236
160
75
105
2,625
250
0
150
3,601
Dazomet cost
(US$/ha)
236
2,170
75
105
2,625
250
50
312
5,823
§
<5
8
C
«
Ml
Source: Francisco ] Rofas, ETEC, Santiago, 1995.
THE TECHNICAL AND ECONOMIC FEASIBILITY OF REPLACING METHYL BROMIDE IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES
-------
Chile costs about US$3,600 per hectare, compared to about US$5,820 for dazomet, suggest-
ing that MB is 38% cheaper than this alternative (Rojas 1995) (see Table 7.12).
7.7.3. DAZOMET FOR PROCESSED TOMATO SEEDBEDS IN CHILE
TABLE 7.13
Cost of using MB compared to dazomet for
tomato seedbeds in Chile.
Resources required
Land preparation
Chemical product
Tractor with driver
Machine application
Plastic (O.lmm)
Sowing by machine
Labour
Total
MB cost
(US$/ha)
236
200
75
105
2,625
250
150
3,641
Dazomet cost
(US$/ha)
236
2,604
75
105
2,625
250
312
6,207
Source: Francisco J. Rojas, ETEC, Santiago, 1995.
In Chile, germination of tomatoes
using dazomet varies from 60 to 85%,
whereas germination using MB
reaches 85%. The output and control
of pests, insects and weeds is reported
to be similar. However, the longer
waiting time for dazomet, combined
with adverse weather conditions can
lead in effect to an increased cost of
250% for processed tomato producers
in Chile (Rojas 1995).
Cost calculations made for this study
estimate that use of MB on processed
tomato seedbeds in Chile costs about
US$3,640 per hectare. Treatment with
dazomet is estimated to cost about
US$6,210, suggesting an additional
cost of 70% (Rojas 1995) (see Table 7.13).
7.7.4. METAM SODIUM AND MANURE FOR STRAWBERRIES IN SOUTH AFRICA
The cost of using a combination of metam sodium, manure and several cultivation tech-
niques (eg. plastic mulch for weed control) for strawberries in South Africa amounts to about
US$4,054 per hectare. Using the 'hot gas' method of applying MB costs about US$3,908, so
the alternative is about 4% more expensive (Cassidy 1995) (see Table 7.14). If MB is cur-
rently used only once every two years the alternative would be relatively more expensive.
However, the cold gas method of applying MB costs about 21% more than the alternative.
Many of the techniques used in this alternative system would be effective for strawberries
and runnerbeans in Zimbabwe (Cassidy 1995).
TABLE 7.14
Costs of using MB compared to metam-sodium and other techniques for strawberries in
South Africa.
Inputs
MB
Metam sodium and cblorpyrifos
Other pesticides
Manure
Total
MB - cold
gas method
fUS$/ha)
2,169
0
2,728
0
4,897
MB - hot
gas method
fus$/ha)
1,180
0
2,728
0
3,908
MB - every
two years
(US$/ha)
493
0
> 2,728
0
> 3,221
Metam sodium
cost
(US$/ha)
0
850
2,728
476
4,054
Source: Cassidy 1995.
-------
7,7,5, METAM-SODJUM FOR CUT FLOWERS IN COLOMBIA
An entire pest control system for cut flowers based on metam sodium in Colombia would
cost US$7,583 per hectare per year, compared to US$6,827 for MB (Rodriguez-Kabana &
Martinez-Genoa 1995:14). In this case MB would be 10% cheaper.
7.7.6. DAZOMET AND EDB FOR STRAWBERRIES IN ZIMBABWE
Use of a combination of dazomet,
EDB, chlorpyrifos and other pesticides
for strawberry production in
Zimbabwe is estimated to cost more
than US$5,480 per hectare compared
to more than US$4,460 for a combi-
nation of MB and other pesticides (see
Table 7.15). Using MB is about 19%
cheaper than the other system. While
the chemical product EDB is a cheap
nematicide compared to MB, it is
listed by the IARC as a suspected car-
cinogen, posing an occupational safety
hazard that is likely to result in unde-
sirable externalised costs (WHO
1992).
7.7.7. EDB FOR RUNNERBEANS IN
ZIMBABWE
Use of EDB (at 60 litre/hectare) for
controlling nematodes for runner-
beans in Zimbabwe was found to cost
about US$766 compared to US$2,320
for a professional application of MB
(Wilkinson 1995) (see Table 7.16). In
this case using MB costs 203% more
than EDB, however, EDB poses occu-
pational safety problems (WHO
1992).
7.7.8. SUMMARY OF EXAMPLES OF
CHEMICAL ALTERNATIVE COSTS
As with other alternatives, chemical
systems and costs are very diverse. For
the cases comparing costs with MB,
alternative chemical systems were
cheaper in one case (by 67%). In the
five other cases, MB varied from 4%
cheaper to 41% cheaper (Table 7.17)
TABLE 7.15
Cost of using MB compared to EDB/dazomet for
strawberries in Zimbabwe.
Inputs
Pesticides for plants
(eg. benomyl)
Dazomet for nursery
Field pesticides
(MB, or EDB and
chlorpyrifos)
Other weekly pesticide
inputs (eg. carbaryl,
dichlofluanid,
clofentezine)
Tent hire
Applicator
Protective clothing
Labour
Total
MB system
cost
(US$/ha)
595
0
3,299
498
34
used
used
used
>4,460
Dazomet/
EDB system
cost
(US$/ha)
595
4,186
136
498
34
7
28
used
>5,483
Source: Wilkinson 1995.
TABLE 7.16
Cost of using MB compared to EDB for runner-
beans in Zimbabwe.
o
K
O
u
K)
Inputs
MB applied by pest
control company
EDB
Other chemicals
Total
MB cost
(US$/ha)
2,045
0
275
2,320
EDB cost
(US$/ha)
0 '
276
490
>766
Source: Wilkinson 1995.
THE TECHNICAL AND ECONOMIC FEASIBILITY OF REPLACING METHYL BROMIDE IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES
-------
TABLE 7.17
Summary of examples of costs of chemical alternatives for soil.
Example of alternative treatment
Dazotnet, pepper - Chile
Dazomet, tomato - Chile
Dazomet & EDB, strawberries -
Zimbabwe
EDB, runnerbeans - Zimbabwe
Metam-sodium and manure,
strawberries - South Africa
Metam-sodium, flowers - Colombia
Cost of MB
(US$ per ha)
3,601
3,641
>4,460
2,320
3,908
6,827
Cost of example
of alternative
(US$ per ha)
5,823
6,207
>5,483
>766
4,054
7,583
Cost
comparison
MB 38%
cheaper
MB 41%
cheaper
MB 19%
cheaper
EDB 67%
cheaper
MB 4%
cheaper
MB 10%
cheaper
7.8. Examples of Costs of Alternatives for Stored Products
7.8.1. PHOSPHINE FOR GRAIN IN ZIMBABWE
The GMB has estimated that (at local prices) the cost of purchasing phosphine chemical is
about three times the cost of MB. For 1.8 million tonnes of stacked grains the additional chem-
ical cost would amount to US$500,000 according to GMB calculations (GMB 1993).
Another study has also estimated the cost of sheeting. The cost of purchasing the MB chemi-
cal for grain fumigation in Zimbabwe has been estimated to be approximately US$221,520 for
2.5 million tonnes of grain; the cost of phosphine chemical to treat the same amount of grain
has been estimated to be about US$355,843 (Taylor 1995). Phosphine treatment is slower, so
additional fumigation sheets would also be required. Assuming that 3,500 additional sheets
might be needed and that each sheet costs US$2,326, then the cost of additional sheets for
phosphine treatments might be approximately US$8,141,000 (Taylor 1995).
It may be possible to reduce these figures by using less expensive brands of phosphine. Recent
changes in the role of GMB make it unlikely that such large quantities of grain will be stored
in the future. Nevertheless, the additional cost of phosphine and sheeting provides a substan-
tial barrier to its use in Zimbabwe.
i
7.8.2. PHOSPHINE AND CARBON DIOXIDE FOR GRAIN IN THE PHILIPPINES
Studies in the Philippines have compared the costs of treatments for stored grains (milled
rice). MB is no longer used for stored grain in the Philippines, however it would cost about
US$1,900 to treat stacks of 300 tonnes of bagged grain in storage for 6 months. Using a con-
ventional method of applying phosphine costs about US$2,152 for the same period (see Table
7.18). Improved techniques of applying phosphine (for example, using a floorsheet) have
been found to lower the cost. It could also be lowered by using a cheaper brand of phos-
phine.
Phosphine used in a sealed enclosure containing 300 tonnes of grain (milled rice) and stored
for 16 months was found to cost about US$1,380. Using carbon dioxide for the same period
-------
cost about US$1,965. However, carbon dioxide main-
tains the quality of the grain noticeably better than MB
or phosphine (Sidik 1995).
Carbon dioxide gas in the Philippines tends to be
expensive compared to some other countries in the
region, so there is scope for reducing costs by utilising
a cheap source of CCh such as by-products from the
cracking process of oil refineries. After the initial
investment has been made, the running costs of both
alternatives can often be cheaper than MB for grain in
long-term storage.
Carbon dioxide applied from cylinders to a
stack of stored rice which has been sealed and
tested for gas tightness.
TABLE 7.18
Cost of using MB compared to phosphine and carbon dioxide for stored grain (milled rice)
in the Philippines.
Storage costs
for 300 tonnes
of bagged grain
Variable direct
costs
Fixed direct
costs
Losses due to
insects
Total
MB - 6 month
storage (US$)
221
1,532
150
1,903
Conventional
phosphine -
6 month
storage (US$)
552
1,082
518
2,152
Phosphine in
sealed
enclosure -
16 months
(US$)
184
1,021
173
1,378
Carbon dioxide
in sealed
enclosure -
16 months
(US$)
778
1,145
42
1,965
Source: NAPHIRE 1995.
TABLE 7.19
Cost of using MB compared to phosphine and carbon dioxide for stored grain (maize) in
the Philippines.
Storage costs
for 250 tonnes
of bagged grain
Variable direct
costs
Fixed direct
costs
Losses due to
insects
Total
Conventional
phosphine -
5 month
storage (US$)
472
1,082
2,617
4,171
Phosphine in
sealed
enclosure -
5 months
(US$)
179
1,021
597
1,797
Carbon dioxide
in sealed
enclosure -
5 months
(US$)
673
1,146
447
2,266
s
o
s
o
u
ft!
Source: CSIRO 1992.
THE TECHNICAL AND ECONOMIC FEASIBILITY OF REPLACING METHYL BROMIDE IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES
-------
7.8.3. CARBON DIOXIDE AND PHOSPHINE
FOR GRAIN STORAGE IN MALAYSIA
The cost of two treatments for bag-
stack grains (milled rice) have been
compared in Malaysia. For four
months of storage, phosphine was
found to be cheaper than carbon diox-
ide, costing US$2.24 per tonne of
grain compared to US$2.52. But, from
the sixth month, carbon dioxide
becomes the cheaper storage treat-
ment. At one year, phosphine costs
US$3.49 per tonne of grain, compared
to US$2.52 for carbon dioxide
(CSIRO 1992) (see Table 7.20).
TABLE 7.20
Costs of using carbon dioxide and phosphine for
stored grain (milled rice) in Malaysia.
Cost as time
progresses
Initial fixed cost
per tonne of grain
Total cost at 4 months
Total cost at 6 months
Total cost at 8 months
Total cost at one year
Phosphine
treatment
(US$/tonne
grain)
1.28
2.24
2.53
3.06
3.49
Carbon
dioxide
treatment
(US$/tonne)
2.52
2.52
2.52
2.52
2.52
Source: CSIRO 1992.
7.8.4. PHOSPHINE, CARBON DIOXIDE AND VACUUM SYSTEMS IN INDONESIA
For a six-month period, phosphine costs US$0.61 - 0.79 per tonne of grain, compared to
US$0.50 for MB in Indonesia. Calculations are based on a conversion rate of approximately
2,000 Indonesian Rupiah (Rp) to US$1. For six-month storage, the carbon dioxide system was
more expensive, at US$2.43 per tonne (see Table 7.21). However, significantly cheaper car-
bon dioxide techniques can now be used, and were demonstrated by CSIRO staff in Zimbabwe
in 1995.
When grain is stored for 12 months in Indonesia, the direct cost of carbon dioxide (using a rel-
atively expensive carbon dioxide system) is higher than MB or phosphine (see Table 7.22).
Analyses of direct costs of different methods found that after 12 -14 months, carbon dioxide
is the cheapest method (Suharno 1986, Conway et al 1989). An analysis of both costs and
rice losses determined that carbon dioxide becomes as cheap as phosphine after about 9
months storage (Nataredja 8c Hodges 1989).
Carbon dioxide is generally more effective than phosphine in controlling insect pests and mold
growth. Rice stored under carbon dioxide also tends to maintain quality better (particularly
odour and appearance) so it often fetches higher prices than rice treated by conventional fumi-
gants. For example, rice
stored in Jakarta for 2.5 years
using carbon dioxide was
sold at 225-230 Rp/kg,
almost 8% higher than rice
treated with conventional
fumigants (210-215 Rp/kg)
(Nataredja 8c Hodges 1989).
The vacuum container system
is substantially more expen-
sive than the other systems, at
US$50 per tonne.
TABLE 7.21
Cos£ of using MB, phosphine, carbon dioxide and vac-
uum container system for grain stored for six months in
Indonesia.
Cost for six
month period
Equipment
Operating cost
Direct costs
MB
(US$/
tonne)
0.43
0.07
0.50
Phosphine
(US$/
tonne)
0.56 - 0.74
0.05
0.61 - 0.79
Carbon
dioxide
(US$/
tonne)
2.43
0.003
2.43
Vacuum
(US$/
tonne)
35.00 (1)
15.00
50.00
'"Excluding capital cost of plant construction.
Source: Compiled from data in Sidik 1995.
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TABLE 7.22
Cost of using MB, phospbine and carbon dioxide
for grain stored for twelve months in Indonesia.
Costs exclude grain losses.
Cost for 12
month period
Equipment
, Operating cost
Direct costs
MB
(US$/
tonne)
0.62
0.14
0.76
Phosphine
(US$/
tonne)
0.96 - 1.33
0.10
1.06 - 1.42
Carbon
dioxide
(US$/
tonne)
2.43
0.005
2.44
7.9. CONCLUSIONS ON COSTS
A number of case studies have com-
pared the costs of using MB with the
use of alternatives. Some alternatives
cost substantially more than using
MB, whereas certain techniques of
solarisation, steam, substrates, IPM
and chemical treatments have been
found to have lower costs and/or
higher profits than using MB.
Source: Compiled from data in Sidik 1995.
Each term such as 'steam treatment',
'IPM', 'solarisation' or 'phosphine
fumigation' covers a wide range of
techniques, so each should be regarded as a family of techniques rather than a single one.
The members of each family have very different cost implications. We found examples where
alternatives carrying the same name were in fact very different techniques, some of which
had similar costs to MB and others of which had much higher costs. In most cases where the
techniques are expensive, there are also cheaper techniques in the same family. Therefore, if
alternatives are selected carefully it would be possible to introduce alternatives with compa-
rable or lower operating costs than MB. Conversely, alternatives can be unnecessarily expen-
sive if careful selection is not made.
It would be useful to MB users and future project funders if UNEP or another UN agency
would consider establishing a database which identifies and describes for each family of
alternatives the techniques which are most cost-effective.
We also found that the costs in countries where alternatives are well-established or widely used
were often lower than in countries where they are rarely used. This is due to factors such as
cost-savings from efficiencies of scale and commercial pressures having produced improve-
ments in techniques over time. This indicates that the costs of alternatives introduced into new
areas are likely to become lower over time, as a result of normal market pressures.
To put these comparative costs into context, it is important to note that the cost of pest con-
trol in a number of cases is a small fraction of the total cost of producing and marketing veg-
etables, fruit and cut flowers. Some of the examples from Brazil clearly showed that the cost of
any treatment such as MB, substrates, steam or solarisation was less than 2.5% of the total
production cost (UNDP 1995). Likewise, data on tobacco costs in Zimbabwe show that use of
MB represents a small proportion of the total costs; seedbed costs represent about 4.5% of the
average cost of producing, curing, transporting and selling one hectare of tobacco (ZTA 1995).
Like MB, some alternatives, especially some alternative chemicals, pose safety hazards (costs)
to operators and the environment and in some cases to the general community. These exter-
nalised costs are not normally included in cost comparisons, with the result that MB and
some alternatives (eg. EDB) appear cheaper than they really are (see Section 7.13 on exter-
nalised costs).
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THE TECHNICAL AND ECONOMIC FEASIBILITY OF REPLACING METHYL BROMIDE IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES
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7.10. Resources Required for MB Replacement
In the majority of cases, some form of information and/or training is necessary at a mini-
mum, in order for alternatives to be adopted by users. Certain alternatives would also require
some capital investment at user level, or investment in supply industries at regional level.
Since a number of alternatives have lower operating costs than MB, there is potential for grow-
ers to get a good return on investment if alternatives are carefully selected. IPM, for example,
normally requires a higher level of information and skill than other alternatives and the con-
version cost can present a substantial barrier; but if this is overcome the operating costs can
become substantially lower and give growers better profits. The large-scale IPM training pro-
grammes carried out by the FAO provide an illustration of the economic benefits, and the prac-
tical feasibility of large numbers of farmers converting to IPM methods (Section 7.6.1).
Standard partial budgeting techniques are applicable to the problem of identifying the costs
of replacing MB with alternative treatments at farm or enterprise levels (Rae 1995), and are
summarised in Appendix 1.
There are several major areas where resources will be required in order to replace MB, which
are outlined below.
7.10.1. EXPERTISE AND RESEARCH FACILITIES
Additional research will be needed in a number of cases to apply alternatives to the specific
pests, crops and conditions of the region. This is especially true for IPM systems. Research
would also be beneficial to improve the efficacy or costs of certain alternatives, especially of
alternatives that are better for the environment. This will require resources such as researchers
with specialist knowledge and experience of the development of alternatives, the facilities of
agricultural research institutes in .developing countries, and the input of growers participating
in on-farm research. Experts and agricultural research institutes in a number of developing
countries have already started to examine alternatives.
Research will not be required in all cases. Some soil alternatives can be directly transferred
from one site to another (eg. modern steam systems, some substrate systems and some fumi-
gants). Successful IPM systems can often be transferred to more farms where the same pests
arise in the local region (and sometimes further afield). For stored products, alternative fumi-
gants can often be introduced without the need for additional research. For other alterna-
tives, further work would often be required to apply them to new areas. Research will be
especially important in the area of quarantine, where further research, development and
demonstration trials will be necessary in a number of cases.
7.10.2. ESTABLISHMENT OF NEW SERVICE AND MANUFACTURING INDUSTRIES
There is need for resources to build up or create service and manufacturing industries to pro-
vide a wide range of services and equipment related to alternatives, such as IPM advisory ser-
vices, cheap sources of COz by-product gas, processing of waste materials to make substrates,
large-scale manufacture of seed trays and other agricultural equipment and products.
7.10.3. CONVERSION COSTS AT FARM/ENTERPRISE LEVEL
There is need for financial assistance for purchasing capital equipment and one-off expendi-
ture associated with conversion to alternatives, such as new equipment, specialist advice, and
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training. There will also be a need for assistance to meet on-going additional operating costs
where they arise, for example, labour, chemical or biological products. However, if alternatives
are carefully selected, additional operating costs could be avoided in many cases.
7.10.4. TRAINING AND TECHNICAL ADVICE
Alternatives for soil and stored products do not normally require sophisticated equipment,
except in a few cases. The transfer of skills and knowledge will be considerably more impor-
tant than transfer of technology (equipment or other hardware). In some countries large
numbers of growers will need training in techniques such as IPM, as well as sources of inde-
pendent information and advice. Training of agricultural consultants and farm advisers will be
important because they have a crucial role in determining the techniques used by farmers.
However, many currently recommend MB because they are not sufficiently familiar with alter-
native techniques. Large-scale training programmes in IPM have demonstrated the feasibility
and effectiveness of training large numbers of farmers in developing countries (FAO 1994,
Jones 1996). ' . . .
7.11. Examples of'Required Resources
7.11.1. RESOURCES FOR TOBACCO SEEDBEDS IN ZIMBABWE
Zimbabwe's Tobacco Research Board (TRB) is actively examining potential alternatives to
MB, including IPM and seed tray systems. The TRB has good technical facilities. For example,
it receives a larger number of technical journals than any other research institute in Zimbabwe,
including the University of Zimbabwe. TRB researchers also interact with other scientists by
attending foreign conferences and visiting other institutions.
To avoid dependency on one pest control method in the future, it is desirable to develop sev-
eral alternative techniques, such as fixed concrete seedbeds, substrates, steam and seed tray sys-
tems. The following types of resources would be required:
Further research and development work at TRB. The recruitment of researchers with long-
standing experience in specific alternative systems, to assist experts at the TRB.
Loans or grants for commercial companies to manufacture necessary equipment. To estab-
lish, for example, industries making seed trays, producing soil substitutes from local waste
materials, providing concrete or blocks for permanent seedbeds, pipes and fans for steam
systems, or expanding production of biological controls. Loans would also be needed,
for example, for nurseries to purchase additional trays, seed planting equipment, and other
items to increase output.
Growers would need resources for items such as training, setting up permanent seedbeds
or steam pipe systems, any additional labour or costs related to alternatives, or addi-
tional transport costs due to use of seed trays.
7.11.2. RESOURCES FOR IPM FOR CUT FLOWERS
The development and use of IPM for cut flowers would require resources for:
Regionally coordinated research to determine the most effective and cost-effective mix of
IPM techniques. In a number of cases existing IPM systems could be adapted to suit new
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THE TECHNICAL AND ECONOMIC FEASIBILITY OF REPLACING METHYL BROMIDE IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES
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regions; the amount of necessary research would vary according to the pest spectrum and
other conditions. The process would be speeded up if researchers with considerable expe-
rience in using IPM systems for cut flowers could be recruited to work with growers and
research institutes in the regions needing alternatives. Flower industry specialists from
Colombia, for example, offer considerable skills in this area.
loans or grants to help local industry to establish or expand production of necessary items,
such as pest monitoring equipment, biological controls, equipment for cultivation prac-
tices, processing of waste materials to produce substrates or soil amendments, etc.;
training programmes for growers, agricultural advisers and consultants;
resources for growers to make the conversion, such as pest monitoring equipment, estab-
lishment of new systems and procedures, and costs of any additional labour, chemicals,
biological controls or other equipment.
7.11.3. RESOURCES FOR CARBON DIOXIDE TREATMENT FOR STORED GRAIN
In order to introduce carbon dioxide as an alternative for stored grain, the following resources
would be needed:
equipment to capture (and where necessary scrub) and distribute cheap sources of car-
bon dioxide, such as by-products from distilleries or cracking processes at oil refineries;
loans or grants to establish or expand local industries to produce appropriate glues and
fumigation sheets;
financial assistance to users for training and equipment such as fixed enclosures, airtight
sheering, special glues, and gas monitoring equipment.
7.11.4. RESOURCES FOR PHOSPHINE FOR EXPORT GRAINS
Using phosphine takes at least 5 days (at 30°C) compared to about 2 days for MB. Fumigations
with either MB or phosphine must be carried out under monitored and well-sealed condi-
tions for adequate duration. In the case of phosphine this is particularly necessary to prevent
further increases in pest resistance. The longer time to fumigate a given depot increases the risk
of cross-infestation, so more fumigations are likely to be necessary. Extra demurrage charges
will also be incurred. Using phosphine would require the following capital and running costs:
users would require training, monitoring equipment, additional sheeting material, and any
additional costs for the phosphine chemical; exporting companies may need training in
procedures and planning to manage fumigations over a longer timescale;
in countries where the cost of phosphine is relatively high, resources are needed to inves-
tigate cheaper brands or sources of the chemical;
additional demurrage charges due to longer treatment time.
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7.11,5. RESOURCES FOR QUARANTINE TREATMENTS
For cut flowers, for example, pre-shipment inspection and certification is a common alterna-
tive to MB (MBJOG 1994:221) because MB can cause significant damage to flowers.
However, pre:shipment inspection is not effective for certain pests and flowers, and quarantine
authorities of importing countries require fumigation with MB prior to export. In such cases
research is needed to develop techniques based on changes in field procedures as well as post-
harvest treatments:
research to develop effective pre-harvest procedures, and post-harvest techniques to kill
specific pests in specific commodities;
compilation of dossiers to demonstrate that the techniques provide full quarantine secu-
rity;
resources for experts familiar with importing country quarantine procedures to assist with
negotiations to gain approval for the technique; ,
resources for capital equipment and training, and for any additional operating costs asso-
ciated with using the treatments.
The cost of negotiations could be substantial if the importing countries are not prepared to
accept demonstrated alternatives to MB. In such cases the prime barrier would be the policy of
the importing countries.
7.12. Sources of Financial Assistance
The availability of financial assistance will be essential for reducing reliance on MB in devel-
oping countries. The Multilateral Fund is able to finance projects on MB now that Article 5
countries have agreed to some controls. The replenishment of the Fund, and additional
resources for the replacement of MB, will be necessary for assisting progress. However, increas-
ing demands on the Fund and political pressures within industrialised countries to limit expen-
diture on the Fund, are leading the Parties to examine more diverse sources of funding. There
are several other possible sources of financial assistance for action on MB. Examples include:
Re-orienting Existing Agricultural and D?M Programmes
Governments of industrialised countries, international agencies such as the FAO, agricul-
tural institutes, NGOs and the World Bank currently finance diverse agricultural pro-
grammes in developing countries, assisting in training, technology transfer and research.
Programmes relating to horticulture and stored products could be reviewed to see whether
some can be re-focused to assist the adoption of environmentally sound alternatives to
ME. The FAO, for example, could consider extending successful IPM training pro-
grammes to horticultural sectors using MB.
As a first step, organisations could examine current policies and projects to ensure that
they do not actively promote use of MB. The World Bank has undertaken a preliminary
survey of its projects in the Agricultural and Natural Resource Division (Forno 1995). Any
Bank-financed project likely to include use of MB or other pesticide is likely to require a
full Environmental Analysis (Category A) (under Bank procedures OD 4.01, Annex E).
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THE TECHNICAL AND ECONOMIC FEASIBILITY OF REPLACING METHYL BROMIDE IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES
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A Bank Memo notes that the promotion oflPM alternatives in research and project imple-
mentation ivoidd be consistent with the Bank's efforts to improve pest management prac-
tices (under GP 4.03, Part II, Para 7) (Formo 1995).
Programmes under Agenda 21 of the Earth Summit
The United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED) Earth
Summit agreement on sustainable agriculture and rural development (Chapter 14 of
Agenda 21) included specific objectives for governments to promote IPM and non-chem-
ical pest control methods (UNCED 1992) (see Appendix 2 for a list of commitments in the
agreement). Funding mechanisms are still under discussion by the Commission on
Sustainable Development. There are opportunities to integrate work on the IPM objectives
of Chapter 14 of Agenda 21 (such as building up regional IPM. networks) with the replace-
ment of MB by IPM and non-chemical methods in certain sectors, to provide more cost-
efficient use of funds.
National Agricultural Subsidies and Loans
Governments in some developing nations currently provide financial assistance for agri-
cultural development, in the form of agricultural payments or subsidies or favourable
loans. Any payments or loans to sectors using MB could be reviewed with a view to alter-
ing incentives to encourage growers to adopt environmentally sound alternatives.
Changing the criteria for receiving existing agricultural support payments, to make pay-
ments dependent upon meeting certain environmental criteria, has been identified as an
important policy instrument for reducing the environmental impacts of agriculture
(Baldock etal 1993).
Re-orienting Existing Development and Export Programmes
Some rural development and industrial development programmes could be re-focused to
help create infrastructure, management programmes, training schemes, grants, loans, or
other assistance to establish or expand companies and local industries supplying alterna-
tives in developing countries. Programmes which provide loans or funds for export indus-
tries could also assist developing countries to establish new export industries to help
meet the future demand for alternatives to MB.
Import Licence Fees
In the vast majority of cases the MB used in developing countries is imported.
Governments in importing countries could consider setting up a licence fee for MB
imports. Australia charges an import licence handling fee of A$90 per tonne of imported
MB, and importers have to purchase licences at a cost of A$l0,000 for two years
(Australian EPA 1995). Such a scheme should ideally be fiscally neutral so that the major-
ity of the revenue could be used to assist the replacement of MB.
Voluntary Levy
Some large companies using MB in developing countries, such as certain flower producing
companies in Africa, are owned by multinational companies which are well-resourced.
Such companies could consider placing a voluntary levy on their own use of MB, to assist
other users to adopt replacements. Fruit and vegetable growers in a region of Australia
have set up a voluntary levy of 20 cents per kilogram MB, collected at wholesale level by
the importer, starting 1 September 1995. The levy is expected to raise A$150,000 per
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year for the development of alternatives in the region (Nufarm 1995). If a levy were
adopted by multinational companies using MB in developing countries, revenue could be
passed to the national Ozone Unit to assist smaller users to adopt environmentally sound
alternatives.
7.13. Externalised Costs of Methyl Bromide Use
Use of MB itself entails a number of costs. Methyl bromide is a relatively expensive pesticide,
which has to be imported into most of the countries that use it. Zimbabwe, for example, paid
at least US$1,200,000 for imports of MB in 1994. In addition to the cost of purchasing the
chemical, there are also externalised costs such as ozone layer depletion and residues in soil,
crops and sometimes water. Externalised costs are carried by the environment rather than
being included in the price the grower pays for fumigation or that the final consumer pays for
a food product. As a result, food produced using MB appears cheaper than it really is, passing
hidden costs on to others. The main externalised cost of using MB, as with other ozone deplet-
ing substances, will arise from raised levels of UV-B radiation, which will increase medical
costs and impose costs on agriculture, forestry, fisheries and tourist industries (see Chapter 2).
Other externalised costs arise because MB normally leaves residues of bromide ion and a range
of other poorly defined residues and metabolites. Bromide ion residues are of relatively low
toxicity and raise toxicological concerns only if above certain levels. There is limited infor-
mation about the other residues and metabolites. Nevertheless, the addition of residues to the
environment (soil, crops, local air and sometimes water) contributes to the general problem
of environmental contamination and is not good agricultural practice. Table 7.23 summarises
the environmental impacts of using MB. Emissions reduction techniques would help to reduce
emissions to the air and atmosphere but will generally lead to higher levels of residues in soil,
crops and/or water.
7.13.1. RESIDUES IN SOIL
MB breaks down into a variety of residues, often leaving raised levels of inorganic bromide and
other residues in soil.
Inorganic bromide residues in fumigated soil have been reported to range from a few mil-
ligrams up to 218 mg/kg (ACP 1992). Raised levels of bromide in the soil have been
reported to persist in some cases for four years (Fallico &C Ferrante 1991).
Inorganic bromide occurs naturally in the soil at low levels, and is bound tightly to the soil.
In contrast, the bromide from MB fumigation is initially free to move and be taken up by
plants or washed out by water (WHO 1995).
Carnations can be damaged by inorganic bromide in the soil if precautions are not taken
(Kempton & Maw 1974). Certain crops such as pepper, celery and onion do not reach ade-
quate growth when grown in fumigated soil (Bromine &c Chemicals Ltd 1990), unless
residues are-reduced by leaching soil with copious amounts of water or planting is delayed.
Dead Sea Bromine recommends that MB fumigation should not be used for celery nurs-
ery crops (Klein 1996).
THE TECHNICAL AND ECONOMIC FEASIBILITY OF REPLACING METHYL BROMIDE IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES
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7.13.2. IMPACTS ON SOIL MICROFLORA AND NITROGEN
A well-conducted fumigation destroys injurious pests but also destroys a variety of beneficial
and non-target organisms, such as earthworms and some soil microflora, altering the trophic
structure of the soil environment (Van Rhee 1977, WHO 1995, Sassaman et al' 19:86). This can
have negative consequences. Some examples include:
The elimination of many soil organisms is a disadvantage if unwanted pests enter a fumi-
gated field on new plants or from deeper soil or neighbouring land - they may multiply
rapidly in the absence of many competing species or predators (Conway & Pretty 1991).
The Florida Department of Agriculture reports that MB fumigations can sometimes lead
to disease because pathogens are able to become much more active in soil free from many
competing micro-organisms.
Repeated MB fumigations may sometimes lead to reductions in plant growth, due to activ-
ity of pathogens such as Pythium (Vickers 1995). Repeated fumigations can destroy nat-
urally occurring saprophytic Fusaria, beneficial micro-organisms which suppress the
development of fusarium wilt.
'Successful' MB fumigations can sometimes create mycorrhizal deficiencies, which lead
to costly crop failures (Barnard 1995). Dead Sea Bromine notes that if decreased crop
growth occurs after fumigation the most common cause is the effect of MB on beneficial
microflora, especially mycorrhizae which are extremely susceptible to MB (Klein 1996,
Menge 1982, Menge et al 1979).
Soil studies show that MB fumigations (especially repeated fumigations) reduce several key
enzymatic activities of soil microorganisms. Reduced microbial activity reduces the capac-
ity of soil to retain nitrogen, allowing it to be leached more easily (Rodriguez-Kabana 1996).
7.13.3. WATER RESIDUES '
After fumigation, soil is sometimes leached with large quantities of water to reduce residues.
Dead Sea Bromine notes that soil leaching after MB fumigation is needed for two reasons: (1)
to eliminate toxic residues which cause phytotoxicity to sensitive crops and (2) to prevent accu-
mulation of bromides in the edible parts of vegetables, especially in leafy crops (Klein 1996).
Deliberate leaching, heavy rain and irrigation systems can in some cases transport residues into
surface or groundwater.
The IPCS/WHO has noted that relatively high levels of inorganic bromide (up to 72
mg/litre) can be found in drainage water from greenhouses and could adversely affect
aquatic organisms. The long-term No Observed Effect Concentration (NOEC) toxicity
indicator value for different fish species is 25 mg bromide/litre (IPCS 1994).
Concentrations of MB per se have occasionally been found, at levels of up to 9.3 mg/litre
in drainage water (IPCS 1994). IPCS reports the EC50 or LCSO toxicity indicator values to
be 0.3 mg/litre for fish and 1.7 mg/litre for daphnids.
7.13.4. FOOD RESIDUES
Plant species differ in their ability to take up bromide and other residues. Accumulation of bro-
mide ion is greater in leaves than in crop roots or fruit such as tomatoes (Klein 1996). Leafy
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TABLE 7.23
Local and global environmental impacts resulting from use of MB.
Occurrence of residues
Examples of impacts
Global impacts
Stratosphere
/
Humans: increased risk of non-melanoma skin cancers,
cataracts, immune suppression
Certain crops: disrupted growth, less disease resistance,
reduced yields
Grazing animals: increased incidence of disease
Forests: disrupted growth and reduced yields in certain species
Fisheries: reduced fish stocks
Certain building materials: reduced useful life
Local impacts
Soil
Some beneficial organisms destroyed eg. earthworms,
micro-organisms that inhibit crop diseases
Phytotoxicity in certain crops eg. carnations - requiring
ameliorative action such as leaching
Water
Unintended run-off
Deliberate leaching
Food
Soil treatment residues
Post harvest treatment
residues
Groundwater: contamination in some situations
Water organisms: potential hazard to fish and water organisms
as a result of leaching in certain areas
Leafy vegetables: raised bromide ion levels and other residues or
metabolites
Oily foods eg. oily nuts: MB residues sometimes occur after
post-harvest treatment
Milk: potential residues if MB is used intensively on low-lying land
Air in vicinity of fumigation sites
Agricultural workers: occupational hazard from skin exposure or
inhalation
Local community: potential exposure
Birds, mammals and pets: potential exposure
vegetables, such as lettuce and celery, have been found with high bromide levels, so MB man-
ufacturers recommend that soil should be leached with water or that the interval between
fumigation and planting is as long as possible (Klein 1996). t
Comparing residues in crops grown on fumigated and non-fumigated soil, a study found
bromide residues in tomatoes were about two times higher in the crop grown on fumigated
soil, and remained higher for four successive harvests after a single MB fumigation (Fallico
& Ferrante 1991).
Bromide residues are generally considered to be acceptable if they are below the legal
limits, or Maximum Residue Levels (MRLs), but in some cases crop residues are found
to exceed the MRLs.
THE TECHNICAL AND ECONOMIC FEASIBILITY OF REPLACING METHYL BROMIDE IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES
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When MB is applied as a post-harvest treatment to commodities that contain oil or fat,
such as walnuts, residues of MB per se can remain in the food. This is undesirable since
MB is a potentially toxic compound (ACP 1992; WHO 1995).
7.13.5. AIR CONTAMINATION
Methyl bromide is classified as highly toxic to people, with a TLV (an exposure threshold) of
0.065 mg/1 air (Royal Society of Chemistry 1994). MB is recognized by the WHO and other
official bodies to be a toxic substance, which can pose risks to operator safety (IPCS 1994).
Cases of operator poisonings in the past led many governments to introduce controls on use
for soil and post-harvest commodities. Methyl bromide may now be applied only by licensed
operators in most industrialised countries. Legal limits for occupational exposure" vary from
1 mg/m3 in the Netherlands to 20 mg/m3 in the UK and 60 mg/m3 in Italy (IPCS 1994; van
Haasteren 1995).
Methyl bromide concentrations in soil and between soil and sheeting during commercial fumi-
gations can vary from 250 to 10,000 mg hr/1, even within the same glasshouse (ACP 1992). As
with other poisonous gases, excessive exposures or accidents can occasionally occur, even
where there are regulatory controls. Some examples:
In California MB can legally be used only by licensed operators. Nevertheless, there were
148 recorded cases of systemic illness, 52 eye injuries and 60 cases of skin injury due to
MB between 1982 and 1990 (Brodberg et al 1992).
MB levels up to 1 mg/m3 have been found up to 20 m from a greenhouse four days after
it was fumigated. Air concentrations up to 900 ppb have been measured in adjacent fields
100 m away from fumigated fields (Brodberg et al 1992).
7.14. Economic Benefits from Replacing Methyl Bromide
In addition to reducing the costs resulting from ozone depletion in the future, and other
externalised costs, the replacement of MB would provide developing countries with opportu-
nities for direct economic benefits.
7.14.1. IMPROVED YIELDS AND PROFITABILITY
The examples of operating costs, yields and profitability given above show that selected alter-
natives would allow growers to increase yields and profits. A well-designed IPM system, for
example, often gives higher profits than conventional pesticide methods, as illustrated by expe-
rience in Colombia, Mexico, Guatemala, Sri Lanka and a number of other countries. Soil
substitutes, particularly cheaper, natural substrates, offer opportunities for significantly
increasing productivity and profitability.
7.14.2. COMPETITIVE, MODERN APPROACHES TO HORTICULTURE
The cut flower export industry in Colombia, which has almost totally abandoned the use of
MB, illustrates that fact that industries using alternatives can be very competitive. Colombia
is one of the largest flower exporters in the world, in a highly competitive international mar-
ket. Colombia competes with countries in Latin America and Africa (such as Kenya, which
relies heavily on MB). Colombian producers have been obliged in the last decade to increase
cost-efficiency and to diversify into new flower varieties. They more than doubled the vol-
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ume and value of flower exports between 1985 and 1993, despite abandoning use of MB
(Rodriguez-Kabana 8c Martinez-Ochoa 1995). The industry says that continuing improve-
ments in agronomic knowledge and active on-farm research are essential to its success in the
competitive world market. In contrast to some other flower exporting nations, yields in
Colombia are increasing (Rodriguez-Kabana & Martinez-Ochoa 1995).
A detailed case study on alternatives to MB in the Netherlands concluded that the wide-
spread adoption of alternatives as a result of phasing-out MB made it very much easier for
other productive methods to be adopted by the horticultural industry. The removal of MB
acted as a catalyst for the widespread development of new and improved agricultural pro-
duction techniques and systems. Development has continued, giving further improvements in
performance and environmental impact (De Barro 1995). .
Many broad spectrum pesticides are no longer used in agriculture and are regarded as old -
fashioned methods of pest control, because they destroy both damaging and beneficial organ-
isms. Replacing MB provides an opportunity for developing countries to modernise horticul-
tural approaches and help ensure future competitiveness of these sectors.
7.14.3. GENERATING EMPLOYMENT
Horticulture normally uses more labour than other types of agriculture. Table 7.24 gives exam-
ples of labour requirements for weed control, comparing MB and other treatments. These
labour measurements apply to USA application techniques and practices, and some hours
would differ in other countries. For example, MB application is often automated in the USA:
tractors inject soil with the fumigant and may automatically lay sheeting as they move over the
field. In Zimbabwe and Chile sheeting is normally done manually, and a small canister of gas
punctured under the sheeting. Nevertheless, the data illustrate the general point that different
techniques often require substantially different labour inputs. If alternatives are carefully
selected, it would be possible to create employment when MB is replaced. This is an important
aspect because unemployment in rural areas is often a substantial and growing problem.
Low-chemical IPM systems, for example, generally replace chemical inputs with labour and
skill. Table 7.25 compares agrochemical inputs and labour inputs on about 200 conventional
and about 90 low-chemical IPM farms
over a two-year period. The conven- TABLE/.24
tional farms spent more on agrochem- Examples of labour requirements for weed
. , . i M i TT.I , r control, comparing MB and some alternatives
ical inputs while the IPM farms spent /rjc 4 d t }
more on labour. The additional labour
.costs can be offset by reduced expendi-
ture on agrochemical inputs (Table
7.25). On average 23% of the total
cost (per hectare) on conventional
farms was for pesticides and other
agrochemicals, compared to 7% on
IPM farms. Labour comprised 2% of
the total cost (per hectare) on conven-
tional farms while it comprised 8 % of
the cost on low-chemical IPM farms.
Weed control treatment
MB
Solarisation with metam
sodium fumigant
Chloropicrin
Metam sodium
Solarisation
No treatment, hand weeding
Labour required
for 0.1 acre for
6 months
11 hours
14 hours
16 hours
16 hours
22 hours
33 hours
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U
Kl
Source: Larson & Shaw 1994
THE TECHNICAL AND ECONOMIC FEASIBILITY OF REPLACING METHYL BROMIDE IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES
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A detailed study found that conventional farms use on average 6 units of labour (per 100
hectares) compared to 10 on low-chemical IPM farms (see Table 7.26). Another study com-
pared labour on 36 low-chemical IPM farms and 36 conventional farms, calculating that
IPM farms used 5.5 labour units per hectare compared to 2.8 labour units per hectare on aver-
age (Rude 1990, Dubgaard et al 1990). Although using different units, both studies indicate
that low-chemical IPM farms can require almost double the labour. This applies to small hold-
ings in particular. The data in Table 7.26 came from farms in Europe; the differences in devel-
oping countries may be more marked.
TABLE 7.25
Comparison of costs of labour and agro-
chemical inputs on about 200 conventional
farms and about 90 low-chemical IPM
farms, over a 2 year period (1988-90).
Type of inputs
Pesticides and
other agro-
chemical
products
Labour
Total
Cost on
conventional
farms (cost/
hectare)
1,636
157
7,017
Cost on IPM
farms (cost/
hectare)
426
511
6,568
TABLE 7.26
Use of labour on small and large farms,
comparing conventional farms with
low-chemical IPM. farms.
Farm size
Under 10
hectares
10-20 hectares
Over 50
hectares
Average
Labour on
conventional
farms (labour
units per 100
hectares)
23
10
3
6
Labour on
IPM farms
(labour
units per 100
hectares)
60
14
5
10
Source: Lamp kin 1992.
Source: Lampkin 1992.
7.14.4. INCREASING SKILL LEVELS
Some of the alternatives to MB, especially IPM techniques, require higher skill levels. More
skilled agricultural workers would benefit developing economies, allowing more scope for flex-
ibility and diversification.
7.14.5. DEVELOPING NEW INDUSTRIES
The replacement of MB in Zimbabwe, Thailand and Chile would require the expansion of
some existing industries and the development of a variety of new industries to provide prod-
ucts, pest control services and training at domestic level. These countries are also in a posi-
tion to develop new export products and services to help meet regional and international
demands for alternatives. Examples of opportunities for new industries include:
processing and recycling waste products (eg. forestry industry waste) to use as soil substi-
tutes or soil amendments;
recycling plastic waste to produce seed trays;
manufacturing biological controls and pesticidal plant extracts (Zimbabwe already pro-
duces commercial biological control agents and has the opportunity to expand produc-
tion);
manufacturing plastic sheets for solarisation;
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manufac.tu.ring additional fumigation sheets for phosphine treatments;
manufacturing specialised sheets and glues for carbon dioxide treatments;
capturing, and where necessary scrubbing, carbon dioxide by-products from distilleries, oil
refinery cracking processes, smelters;
making equipment for heat .treatments, hot water dips, and cold treatments for quarantine.
Examples of new or expanded service industries include:
providing portable steam boilers and steam treatments;
providing soil pest monitoring and identification services;
providing research services to further develop or apply alternatives;
providing consultancy and information services to advise growers and MB users on alter-
native methods of pest control;
training programmes on the use of alternatives.
7.14.6. PRIORITISING LOCAL ECONOMIES
It would benefit the economies of Zimbabwe, Thailand and Chile if alternatives were based as
much as possible on local resources, local industries and local employment, rather than on
imported equipment and chemicals. MB is an expensive pesticide and Zimbabwe alone paid at
least US$1,200,000 in foreign exchange earnings for imports of the chemical product in
1994. Replacing MB provides opportunities for import substitution, allowing much of current
expenditure on MB to remain within the economies of developing countries rather than being
transferred to chemical companies in the USA or Israel.
7.14.7. ENVIRONMENTAL IMPROVEMENTS
Certain alternatives have much lower impact on the environment than MB. By selecting
these, developing countries have an opportunity to reduce externalised costs.
7.14.8. DIVERSIFICATION AND PRODUCTION FOR NICHE MARKETS
Some alternatives provide opportunities for diversification in horticultural exports. Techniques
that give greater control over planting time, for example, allow crops to be sold at times
when they can gain higher prices. In some cases more skilled production would assist grow-
ers to keep pace with consumer fashions in horticultural products, such as specialist vegetables
or flowers. There are other opportunities to increase production for niche markets. Uganda,
for example, has developed a trade in organic exports to Europe which is growing at the rate
of 20% per annum (Mavondo 1995), and countries such as Zimbabwe have the potential to
convert some horticultural production in a similar manner.
7.14.9. TECHNOLOGY TRANSFER BETWEEN DEVELOPING NATIONS
A number of alternatives to MB have been developed and are successfully used in developing
countries. There are many opportunities for transferring experience, expertise and technol-
ogy between developing countries, helping the economies of both partners.
THE TECHNICAL AND ECONOMIC FEASIBILITY OF REPLACING METHYL BROMIDE IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES
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7.14.10. REDUCING DEPENDENCY
Many sectors using MB have become heavily dependent on this one technique. It would be
desirable to develop several alternative techniques for each sector (rather than one alternative),
to prevent vulnerability from heavy dependence on one technique in the future. Several alter-
natives would also help to meet the capacity demand, and suit the needs of different users
and situations. There would also be benefits in reducing dependency on MB if restricted sup-
plies in future lead to price rises; or if emission reduction technologies are introduced, raising
the cost of using MB.
7.15. Commercial Issues
7.15.1. MARKET PRESSURES
Commercial pressures to move away from MB are likely to increase as the public and media
become fully aware of the link between MB and ozone depletion. Some companies exporting
products grown or treated with MB are already experiencing market pressures to use alterna-
tives. Examples of commercial trends follow.
In Zimbabwe, for example, tobacco exporters have been told by some European importers
that they will no longer accept MB as a pre-shipment treatment; phosphine is used instead.
Some companies purchasing tobacco from Asia also no longer accept MB treatments
(UNDP 1995).
A large retail chain in the UK (Sainsbury's) aims by the end of 1996 to purchase the major-
ity of its local and imported fruit and vegetables from producers who use IPM systems.
Other major retail chains in northern Europe and North America are also actively encour-
aging suppliers to reduce pesticides and utilise IPM (non-chemical methods and target-spe-
cific pesticides).
In response to a survey, three large UK retail chains (Sainsbury's, Asda and Co-op)
endorsed EU phase out of MB by the year 2000, or sooner where alternatives exist. A large
international fresh produce trader, Geest, said it supported EU phase out by 2000 provided
economic alternatives were found (SAFE 1994).
Currently there is not widespread public awareness of the environmental problems associ-
ated with MB. Public awareness is likely to grow as ozone depletion increases over the next few
years (see Chapter 2). In response to market pressures, retail chains and traders may, where
feasible, select produce from suppliers who do not use MB. There is already substantial com-
petition in international trade in fresh produce, and importers and large retail chains are able
to switch from one supplier to another. Countries that depend heavily on MB may suffer uncer-
tainty and a loss of exports as a result of market pressures. Conversely, countries that adopt
alternatives early may gain a comparative advantage over competitors.
7.15.2. CONSUMER DEMANDS FOR LABELING
In the USA, products manufactured with CFCs and traded between states are normally labeled
with a warning statement about ozone depletion, as a requirement of the Clean Air Act.
Some consumer and environmental organisations have been pressing the EPA to introduce
-------
labeling for products grown with MB so that consumers can exercise a choice in what they
purchase (NRDC 1994). Consumer organisations for many years have pointed out that con-
sumers have a right to more information about the manner in which food products are pro-
duced and that markets cannot operate efficiently unless consumers are provided with
sufficient information to distinguish between products (IOCU 1991).
In Monterey, a US region using large amounts of MB, a publicity campaign started in August
1995 to encourage consumers to purchase strawberries grown without MB (Kreider 1995). If
there is strong consumer demand, some retailers may respond by encouraging declarations
on labels, to inform consumers that MB has or has not been used.
7.15.3. COMMERCIAL DISRUPTION
The 1994 UNEP Scientific Assessment of Ozone Layer Depletion confirmed that MB is a sig-
nificant problem for the ozone layer. The Assessment calculated that eliminating human
emissions of MB would have an impact on the extent of ozone loss (WMO 1994:10.23). As
ozone depletion increases in the next few years, public pressure to phase out remaining ozone
depleting substances is likely to increase, with pressure for all countries to agree to phase out
MB. Countries that start early in drawing up plans for MB replacement, and encourage
industry to move towards alternatives will have more time in which to make a transition;
and change will occur in a more orderly and planned manner, reducing disruption to indus-
try. Where countries do not encourage early planning, industry is likely to face greater dis-
ruption in the long term.
7.16. Cost Benefit Overview
There is no standard method for conducting a cost benefit analysis to compare use of MB with
the costs and benefits of a potential phase-out in developing countries.
Studies in certain industrialised countries have attempted to examine the overall costs of phase
out. They have often used standard partial equilibrium analysis techniques, measuring eco-
nomic losses in terms of changes in consumer surplus arid producer surplus. Examples include
USA studies by US Department of Agriculture's National Agricultural Pesticide Impact
Assessment Program (USDA/NAPIAP) and Dudley &c Maddox in 1993, and a Japanese study
by the Association of MB Industry of Japan in 1993. These studies were given a preliminary
evaluation by the chair of UNEP's Economic Options Committee. The USDA/NAPIAP study,
for example, was found to be limited because it assumed an immediate ban, estimated effects
for year 1 only, and ignored a number of alternatives. These assumptions generated much
higher estimates of economic cost than one might reasonably expect (Van Slooten 1994:2-3).
Likewise, the US study by Dudley and Maddox was criticised because the analysis seriously
over-stated the social costs and under-stated the benefits of the control options (Van Slooten
1994:5). An economic study on the situation in Japan was found to have similar shortcomings.
In southern Europe, preliminary cost benefit analysis (CBA) studies have looked at the eco-
nomic implications of phasing out MB fumigation in Italy, Spain and France (Perez 1994,
Bonte 1994, Schimmenti 8c di Franco 1994). These studies contribute some useful data but
due to lack of time they have focused on a small part of the spectrum of costs and benefits, and
do not provide a complete picture (Prospect 1995).
THE TECHNICAL AND ECONOMIC FEASIBILITY OF REPLACING METHYL BROMIDE IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES
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The majority of studies to date have tended to look at only one side of the equation - the
costs. One of the exceptions is a US EPA review which attempted to quantify benefits as well
as costs (EPA 1993). It estimated that costs of a phase-out to be betweenUS$1.7 and $2.3
billion; benefits were estimated at $14 to $56 billion (EPA 1993).
A quantitative cost-benefit analysis has not been conducted for this study, however, a number
of qualitative factors have been identified, and these provide an overview of the costs and
benefits of replacing and retaining MB. Examples of the costs and the benefits associated are
listed below.
EXAMPLES OF COSTS ASSOCIATED WITH REPLACING MB:
introducing alternatives: research, development and/or change-over and training costs;
reduced yields and changes in crop production if alternatives with good yields are not
prioritised or if insufficient resources are put into training, independent information etc.;
reduced markets if insufficient support means that alternatives are poorly selected and
product prices rise compared to competitors; ,
public and environmental costs (occupational safety, water and food residues) if least-toxic
alternatives are not selected.
EXAMPLES OF COSTS ARISING FROM USE OF MB:
loss of trade in countries where consumer pressure encourages supermarkets and traders
to avoid purchasing produce produced with MB - due to ozone concerns and trend for
lower residues;
future medical costs from increases in immune suppression, non-melanoma skin cancer,
and cataracts that may result from increased UV;
costs and disruption to agriculture, forestry and fisheries from disruption, disease and
reduced production in certain crops, outdoor livestock and fish stocks - due to increased
UV radiation in future;
future costs and disruption to tourist industries in sunny climates, due to tourists' efforts
to reduce personal UV exposure;
public and environmental costs (increases in food residues due to emission reduction
technology, occupational safety, water residues in some regions); and
costs of research, development, training and introduction of emission reduction tech-
nologies and recapture/recycling equipment.
EXAMPLES OF ECONOMIC OPPORTUNITIES FROM USE OF MB:
manufacturing plant to make less permeable sheeting and equipment for reducing emis-
sions or recapture/recycling.
EXAMPLES OF ECONOMIC OPPORTUNITIES FROM REPLACING MB:
improved horticultural yields in areas suitable for simple soil substitutes;
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« mid- to long-term cost savings and increased profitability for farmers, if alternatives with
lower operating costs are used, such as IPM and cheap soil substitutes;
increased employment in rural areas, if alternatives which generate employment are pri-
oritised (eg. low-chemical IPM);
opportunities for industrial and agricultural innovation and development of a range of
new local industries to sell pest control products and services;
reduced externalised costs in the areas of occupational safety, water and crop residues, if
least-toxic alternatives are prioritised.
S
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THE TECHNICAL AND ECONOMIC FEASIBILITY OF REPLACING METHYL BROMIDE IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES
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CHAPTER 8
Replacing
Methyl Bromide:
Options and Constraints
THIS CHAPTER EXAMINES DIVERSE FACTORS THAT PROMOTE OR IMPEDE THE ADOPTION OF ALTERNATIVES TO
METHYL BROMIDE. IT PROVIDES A DISCUSSION OF THE FEASIBILITY OF THE PHASE-OUT SCENARIOS EXAMINED
BY TEAP. THE BENEFITS AND DRAWBACKS OF A GRACE PERIOD ARE ALSO OUTLINED.
8.1. Factors Affecting the Rate of Phase-Out
UNEP has published a report examining the factors that promote and impede phase-out of
ozone depleting substances (ODS) in developing countries. The report is called The Review
Under Paragraph 8 of Article 5 (UNEP 1994a). A number of representatives of developing
(Article 5) countries were interviewed for this report. The factors cited as impediments to phase
out of ODS included the following (UNEP 1994a:ES-6):
lack of awareness about phase-out among companies in developing countries;
lack of information about alternative techniques;
lack of a national Ozone Protection Unit, or recent establishment of a unit.
lack of funding or capital for conversion to alternative techniques;
unavailability of alternative techniques;
complicated procedures for receiving Multilateral Fund assistance, particularly regarding
funds disbursement.
Factors cited as facilitating phase-out included (UNEP 1994a:ES-6):
availability of cheaper substitutes;
foreign ownership of local ODS users, or presence of multinational corporations;
Multilateral Fund support;
K
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13
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o
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+*
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O
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awareness programmes (both general and targeted);
high or rising ODS prices.
The UNEP report also identified the most significant policy and institutional factors deter-
mining the rate of phase-out, and divided them into two categories:
1). Primary factors -
These directly and unambiguously affect the time it takes to achieve phase-out. Each pri-
mary factor can potentially reduce or extend the phase-out time by several years.
Examples: market factors and financial support for phase-out.
2). Secondary factors -
These affect the phase-out rate by several months to about two years, so have less of an
effect. Example: capacity of ODS users to manage change (UNEP 1994a:75-76).
The following sections describe each of the primary and secondary factors, and assesses the
likely influence of these factors in affecting the phase-out rate in Zimbabwe and Chile.
8.2. Primary Factors
Tables 8.1 and 8.2 summarise the diverse market and policy factors as they apply to Zimbabwe
and Chile. A few market factors are likely to slow down the rate at which these countries can
replace and reduce MB. However, in most cases market factors suggest that the two countries
will be able to make a more rapid phase-out than a number of other Article 5 countries. The
export orientation of MB users and international trade links are especially significant factors.
The following section describes each of the market factors and the other primary factors
identified by the UNEP study.
8.2.1. MARKET FACTORS
8.2.1.1. Industry Structure
The UNEP study found that ODS phase-out actions are fundamentally affected by the export
orientation, ownership structure, size and formality of ODS consuming enterprises, and size of
existing capital stock requiring constant ODS use (UNEP 1994a:77). These are described
below.
Export Orientation
In sectors with a preponderance of export-oriented users, the phase-out of ODS has generally
been accelerated (UNEP 1994a:ES-7). The UNEP report noted that exporters have typically
moved quickly to protect their export markets. Also, exporting companies often have access to
more information about alternatives and new technology, compared to companies without
international links (UNEP 1994a:77).
In Zimbabwe about 88% of MB is used by export sectors. The tobacco industry has been
active in investigating alternatives, has published information about some recommended alter-
natives to MB, and has contributed to the MBTOC report. Tobacco leaf traders in Zimbabwe
and Asia have been required by some tobacco importers to switch to phosphine (as a pre-ship-
ment treatment). Zimbabwe exporters of strawberries and fresh produce have been active in
changing practices - most strawberry producers no longer use MB.
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The UNEP report noted that companies tend to be especially active if they export to industri-
alised countries that have accelerated phase-out requirements (UNEP 1994a:77). A signifi-
cant proportion of exports from Zimbabwe, for example, go to countries that have set cuts
or phase-out dates for MB. The following Zimbabwe sectors and companies may therefore
be expected to be especially active:
tobacco exports to the USA and Europe (some European importers no longer accept MB
treatments for tobacco leaves);
flower and horticulture producers exporting to the Netherlands, European Union and
USA.
Ownership Structure
The UNEP report found that full or part ownership by a government or multinational corpo-
ration plays a strong role in driving and facilitating that company's ODS phase-out plans
(UNEP 1994a:78). Access to information, technologies, skills and awareness of public image
are among the factors affecting multinational corporations. Some MB users in Zimbabwe,
for example, are owned by foreign companies.
In at least 3 cases identified by the UNEP study, government control of enterprises helped to
accelerate the replacement of ODS (UNEP 1994a:78). Until recently the Grain Marketing
Board in Zimbabwe was a para-statal; it uses approximately 13% of national consumption
of MB. It has already been active in examining alternatives to MB and reductions in dosage.
Size and Formality of Enterprises
The UNEP study found that phase-out of ODS tends to proceed much more slowly in the small
and informal portions of industry sectors (UNEP 1994a:78). Many such sectors are diffuse,
lacking in technical sophistication, and not linked to formal institutions, large suppliers or
the government. The UNEP report noted that, as a result, diffuse sectors tend to be less
informed about phase-out, less likely to initiate phase-out action, more difficult for suppliers,
governments and implementing agencies to identify, more difficult to provide information to,
and more difficult to organise for MF projects (UNEP 1994a:78).
In Zimbabwe the tobacco sector includes approximately 500 small users - an informal and dif-
fuse group. However, the organisation of the Tobacco Board provides potential for small users
to receive information about MB alternatives and funding opportunities.
8.2.1.2. Existing ODS-dependent Stock
The UNEP report also found that if expensive ODS-using equipment is in place, firms tend to
move more slowly to alternatives than do enterprises where the value of the ODS-dependent
capital stock is lower.
The value of capital equipment for using MB is relatively low in many cases. The capital equip-
ment for carrying out a soil fumigation, for example, may consist of plastic sheeting, an old
steel drum, a spiral copper tube for heating the gas, and a source of heat. The equipment
used to fumigate stored grain includes durable sheeting, plastic tubing to distribute the gas, lad-
ders, 'snakes' to hold down the side of the sheeting, and gas detectors. Much of this equipment
can be used for phosphine.
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Fumigation chambers are normally the most
expensive piece of capital equipment associated
with MB. However, chambers may often be made
suitable for alternative fumigants or converted to
controlled atmosphere or heat/cold treatment
facilities.
8.2.1.3. Supply and Cost of ODS and
Alternatives
The UNEP study found that the direct cost of
ODS versus non-ODS alternatives plays a signifi-
cant role in helping to drive phase-out in some
countries (UNEP 1994a:79). Higher prices for
ODS make alternatives more attractive and help
encourage research, development and production
of new alternatives. However, higher ODS prices
may also shift a larger portion of phase-out burden
The introduction of alternatives to methyl bromide
offers opportunities for creating new industries in
developing countries, to provide alternative products
and services. There are also opportunities to utilise
waste materials such as rice hulls, seen here for cut
flower production in Colombia.
on to local consumers (UNEP 1994a:79).
In the case of MB, the supply to developing countries is currently plentiful. At present MB is
being offered at discount prices in some countries; as a result MB use is being extended to
new users and new areas. Stock-piling is occurring in some sectors. Prices are not expected to
increase until well after the freeze has come into force in 2002. This situation means that MB
supply and prices for the foreseeable future will not provide any incentive for users to examine
alternatives.
8.2.1.4. Information Flow
The UNEP report concluded that unless ODS prices to users rise dramatically, significant
market interventions are generally required to facilitate factors such as the flow of information
about phase-out, price, alternatives and financing. Without reliable information of this type,
and with no other incentives, few enterprises can be expected to make potentially costly or dis-
ruptive changes in their processes (UNEP 1994a:80).
The UNEP report noted that operation of market forces is affected by the level and quality of
information available to producers, suppliers and users. Until these actors receive certain kinds
of information, many market forces will not contribute to timely phase-out (UNEP 1994a:80).
Important information includes:
clear, near-term and long-term price signals for ODS and alternatives;
authoritative data on alternatives (availability, technical and financial details);
data for alternative producers and suppliers about potential projects in Article 5 countries,
to encourage them to market their products and services;
information about the availability of financing for phase-out projects (UNEP 1994a:80).
The UNEP study found this information is not flowing openly in many Article 5 countries, and
that institutions involved in phase-out efforts are generally not providing a wide distribution
-------
of this information at the company level (UNEP 1994a:80). They also found that the major-
ity of companies interviewed lacked complete and reliable information about the impending
ODS phase-out and their options for dealing with it. The problem is exacerbated in the small
and informal sectors which have fewer links with trade associations or international ties
(UNEP 1994a:80). In Zimbabwe and Chile, for example, we found that a number of MB users
do not have sufficient quality or quantity of information.
8.2.2. ROLE OF MONTREAL PROTOCOL AND MULTILATERAL FUND
The UNEP report on the Review Under Paragraph 8 of Article 5 identified the importance of
the Montreal Protocol, noting that the control schedules affect the supply and market for ODS
(UNEP 1994a). In the case of MB it will be a number of years before the freeze agreed by devel-
oping countries starts to affect the supply and market.
The report said that funding can be very important. Some Article 5 countries have stated that
they will not be able to achieve ODS phase-out by target dates without financial assistance
from the Multilateral Fund (MLF), signifying its symbolic and practical importance (UNEP
1994a:81). Now that controls on MB have been agreed, the MLF is able to fund projects,
and guidelines will be developed during 1996.
8.2.3. ROLE OF ARTICLE 5 GOVERNMENTS
8.2.3.1. Existence of Ozone Protection Units
The UNEP report noted that governments have an important role in affecting phase-out, by
actions such as establishing national Ozone Protection Units (OPU). Without a functioning
and responsive OPU the Secretariat and implementing agencies cannot provide services as
effectively to the country (UNEP 1994a:81). Zimbabwe's Ministry of Environment and
Tourism, for example, has set up an ozone office which is funded by the MLF, and will act as
a national information exchange and resource centre. It aims to appraise and assist MLF pro-
jects and monitor activities related to ODS (Marongwe 1995).
8.2.3.2. Government Policies
The UNEP study found that Government domestic policies are also important. These may
include import quotas, voluntary or mandatory ODS use controls, or taxes on ODS. Such
policy actions prompt the flow of information about phase-out and alternatives among com-
panies, and aid more efficient use of ODS. The Zimbabwe government, for example;, has
indicated its desire to phase out ODS as early as is feasible (Marongwe 1995). The Thai
Ministry of Agriculture aims to reduce MB consumption by encouraging use of phosphine
for grains where feasible (UNDP 1995).
8.2.4. TIME FOR SOCIETAL TRANSITION
The UNEP report noted that the complexity of the phase-out task poses a substantial chal-
lenge. The report points out that with limited resources, agencies and individuals must foster
difficult technical transformation in diverse economic sectors (UNEP 1994a:82). They must
overcome an array of technical, institutional, economic and political constraints. They face
many additional constraints, such as critical social policies, limited institutional capacity,
sparse technical and economic data, and lack of local experts familiar with alternatives, for
example (UNEP 1994a:82). For these reasons alone, rapid phase-out on the same timescale
as industrialised countries would normally be extremely difficult or impossible for Article 5
countries, according to the UNEP study.
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TABLE 8.1
Primary factors that tend to speed up or slow down the rate of ODS phase-out in Article 5
countries, applied to the situation in Zimbabwe. (These factors were identified'by the Review
Under Paragraph 8 of Article 5 carried out for the Executive Committee of the Multilateral
Fund (UNEP 1994a).)
Key: + positive effect on phase-out rate ++ strong positive effect on phase-out rate.
-negative effect on phase-out rate ' , ,
Primary factors
affecting rate of
phase-out
1. Market dynamics:
Export users?
Multinational or
government
ownership?
Diffuse users?
High value MB
capital equipment?
Information on
alternatives?
2. Global commitment
& financial support:
Montreal Protocol
commitment to
Phase-out?
Assistance from
MLP?
3. Government policies
andOPU?
Situation in Zimbabwe
About 88% of MB use is for export
Some foreign ownership in tobacco and horticulture.
Grain Marketing Board was parastatal until recently
Not diffuse for grain. Tobacco and horticulture diffuse
Generally low value capital equipment
Tobacco Research Board and Grain Marketing
Board actively examining alternatives
Freeze by 2002, phase-out schedule has not been
agreed
Project funds available, but MLF policy not yet
established
Zimbabwe government applied for funds for reducing
MB use for grain as part of country programme.
OPU due to be established 1995
Likely effect
on PO rate
++
, +
.+/-
+
++
+
+
++
8.3. Secondary Factors Affecting Rate of Phase-out
The UNEP report identified secondary factors that can affect the timing of phase-out by sev-
eral months to two years. The secondary factors are described below. Tables 8.3 and 8.4
summarise the positive and negative factors relevant to Zimbabwe and Chile. Positive factors
predominate in both countries.
8.3.1, SELECTION OF ALTERNATIVES AT PROJECT LEVEL
UNEP's report found that a number of factors influence how companies identify, evaluate
and select replacement technologies or techniques. These factors may include the institutional
capacity of the individual company, and the involvement of other actors such as equipment
vendors and implementing agencies in the firm's decision making. The report noted that suc-
cess in this process will result in an efficient enterprise-level ODS phase-out, while failure can
lead to delay in phase-out decision making and abandonment of the project. This may occur,
for example if technologies do not meet the actual local needs or are not sustainable with
local resources (UNEP 1994a:ES-ll).
In Zimbabwe, for example, the Tobacco Research Board and Grain Marketing Board will have
an essential role in identifying and selecting alternatives.
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TABLE 8.2
Primary factors that tend to speed up or slow down the rate of ODS phase-out in Article 5
countries, applied to the situation in Chile.
Key: + positive effect on phase-out rate ++ strong positive effect on phase-out rate
- negative effect on phase-out rate
Primary factors
affecting rate of
phase-out
1. Market dynamics:
Export users?
Multinational or
government
ownership?
Diffuse users?
High value MB
capital equipment?
Information on
alternatives?
2. Global commitment
df financial support:
Montreal Protocol
commitment to
Phase-out?
Assistance from
MLF?
3. Government policies
and Ozone
Protection Unit?
Situation in Chile
About 85-97% of use is for export
Some foreign ownership in horticulture and
horticulture export
Companies using post-harvest horticulture
treatments are co-ordinated, soil users appear diffuse
Very low value capital equipment for soil, high value
equipment for quarantine (fumigation chambers).
- but could be converted for alternatives
Agriculturalists, horticulture exporters and
government departments actively examining
alternatives
Freeze by 2002, phase out schedule has
not been agreed
Project funds available but MLF policy not yet
established
Government has encouraged investigation of
alternatives and emissions reduction technologies.
Ozone Team appointed in 1993 under Nationaf
Environmental Commission (CONAMA)
Likely effect
on PO rate
++
+
+ /-
++
+
+
+
++
8.3.2. TERMS OF PROJECT FINANCING
Only the incremental costs of ODS phase-out are financed by the MLF. The UNEP report
noted that even if incremental costs were fully subsidised, a company may still have little incen-
tive to adopt an alternative technology. Fund grants which do not fully cover all the incre-
mental costs from the company's perspective provide even less incentive for change (UNEP
1994a:ES-ll).
In Zimbabwe, Thailand and Chile there are opportunities for funding sector-wide projects,
such as tobacco, flowers, tomatoes, pepper, and grain. While the Executive Committee has put
in place procedures to allow for sectoral phase-out strategies (including projects with net incre-
mental savings and for concessional loans to help address financing difficulties) there has
been little forward movement to develop sector-wide projects to date, according to UNEP's
report (UNEP 1994a:ES-ll). The Implementing Agencies currently provide only grants, not
loans. This is important because the report found that companies in Article 5 countries find it
difficult to obtain project financing for ODS phase-out from sources other than the MLF.
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THE TECHNICAL AND ECONOMIC FEASIBILITY OF REPLACING METHYL BROMIDE IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES
-------
TRAP has noted that the specified incremental costs eligible for funding under the MLF and
items on the indicative list may need revision in order to accommodate the special needs
associated with MB (TEAP 1994:94).
Some alternatives have lower operating costs than MB, but would require initial investment for
training and/or equipment. MLF policies on projects with net incremental savings need to be
examined in the light of this. IPM, for example, normally increases labour costs slightly to
moderately, while reducing the cost of chemical inputs substantially (Chapter 7). The net
running cost of low-chemical IPM is likely to be lower than use of MB in many cases.
However, IPM requires investment in local application and training, which would act as a bar-
rier for many MB users. It is important that the Fund will be able to help users to overcome
such barriers.
8.3.3. STRUCTURE AND OPERATION OF THE MULTILATERAL FUND
The UNEP report noted the perception that differing and confusing priorities and objectives
may sometimes emerge between the Executive Committee and the implementing agencies on
issues such as cost effectiveness, technical criteria and safety criteria. This may slow technol-
ogy transfer efforts by requiring repetition of tasks or redesign of projects. The involvement
of multiple agencies for administering the MLF also sometimes causes confusion for compa-
nies in Article 5 countries, according to UNEP's report (UNEP 1994a).
8.3.4. STRUCTURE AND OPERATION OF OPUs
UNEP's report found that the capacity and capabilities of OPUs set up by Article 5 country
governments have an impact on the rate of phase-out. Some OPUs are autonomous organisa-
tions while others are part of larger government agencies, such as the national ministries
responsible for environment or finance. Some OPUs have multiple staff dedicated solely to
ozone protection issues, while others have staff whose primary responsibilities have little to do
with ozone, and other countries do not have anyone working on the issue on a daily basis.
Some OPUs are intimately involved in all stages of project development and implementation
while others play a passive role (UNEP 1994a:ES-12).
8.4. Conclusions on Rate of Phase-Out
The UNEP study concluded that the combination of primary and secondary factors largely
determines the rate of phase-out. In some Article 5 countries factors combine to give phase-out
almost at the same speed as industrialised countries, while in other countries different factors
hinder a rapid phase-out (UNEP 1994a:91).
Tables 8.1 - 8.4 show that Zimbabwe and Chile have a predominance of positive factors,
suggesting that they are likely to achieve a more rapid phase-out than a number of other devel-
oping countries. The situation of Thailand is similar in key respects. The export orientation
of MB users and international trade links are especially important.
Zimbabwe, Thailand and Chile are likely to be cost-efficient areas for funding, in the sense
that funding is likely to produce a more rapid reduction in MB than it would in a number of
other countries.
-------
TABLE 8.3
Secondary factors affecting the rate of phase out in Article 5 countries, applied to the situa-
tion in Zimbabwe. (These lesser factors can affect rate of phase-out by several months to
two years (UNEP 1994a).)
Key: + positive effect on phase-out rate ++ strong positive effect on phase-out rate
- negative effect on phase-out rate
Secondary factors
affecting phase-
out rate
I. Process of
identifying
alternatives at
project level
Current alternatives
2. Terms of project
financing under
MLF
3. Operation of MLF
4. Operation of OPU
Situation in Zimbabwe
Tobacco and grain sectors already active in process
of identifying potential alternatives and applying
for project funds
Alternatives for most sectors are used in other
countries, a few alternatives (eg. phosphine, IPM)
are used in Zimbabwe
MLF policy not yet established for MB
Not yet applicable to MB
Zimbabwe's OPU is due to be fully involved in
project appraisal, information exchange etc.
Likely effect on
PO rate
+ +
+ +
-
-
+ +
T A B L E 8 . 4
Secondary factors affecting the rate of phase-out in Article 5 countries, applied to the situa-
tion in Chile.
s
o
O
ft.
O
Key: + positive effect on
- negative effect on
phase-out rate ++ strong positive effect on phase-out rate
phase-out rate
Secondary factors
affecting phase
out rate
1. Process of identifying
alternatives at
project level
Current alternatives
2. Terms of project
financing under
MLF
3. Operation of MLF
4. Operation of OPU
Situation in Chile
Exporters, export organisations and some growers
active in identifying potential alternatives
Alternatives for most sectors are used in other
countries, a few alternatives (eg. IPM) are used
in Chile
MLF policy not yet established for MB
Not yet applicable to MB
CONAMA is responsible for managing transfer
of investment funds, industry training, awareness
Likely effect
on PO rate
+ +
+ +
-
-
+ +
so
a
8.5. Agricultural Policies to Facilitate Transition
In addition to the factors identified by UNEP's Review, agricultural and rural development
policies will also determine the rate of phase-out. By reviewing and adjusting relevant poli-
cies, governments and funding bodies would encourage the transfer of technology and
know-how, and assist growers and pest control companies to reduce MB consumption.
Examples of potential measures:
THE TECHNICAL AND ECONOMIC FEASIBILITY OF REPLACING METHYL BROMIDE IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES
-------
8.5.1. ADJUSTING CONTROLS ON MB PESTICIDE PRODUCTS
Many countries have placed legal controls on the labeling and use of plant protection products
such as MB. Controls could be adjusted to encourage the adoption of alternatives, by:
increasing the interval between MB fumigation treatments; for example, by limiting MB
soil treatments to intervals of more than 23 months, 35 months or 47 months, depending
on the crop;
limiting the maximum permitted doses, eg. reducing the permittedp dose for a specific
crop from 70 g/m2 to 30 g/m2, as appropriate;
reviewing the list of crops and products for which MB is currently permitted, and where
appropriate dropping approval for uses where pests can be controlled successfully by other
methods.
8.5.2. CODES OF PRACTICE
The adjustments outlined in Section 8.5.1 could initially be encouraged by Codes of Practice,
as a matter of good agricultural practice. Some fumigation companies and commercial com-
panies using MB would be able to act more quickly than'the authorities, implementing restric-
tions voluntarily prior to any adjustment to official MB pesticide controls.
8.5.3. ADJUSTING AGRICULTURAL POLICY MEASURES
A number of governments operate agricultural programmes providing subsidies, grants,
favourable loans and other forms of assistance to farmers, to promote agricultural develop-
ment. Such programmes could be reviewed and re-oriented to encourage up-take of environ-
mentally sound alternatives to MB.
8.5.4. AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH PROGRAMMES
It may also be feasible to re-orient some existing agricultural research programmes to adapt
and improve existing alternative techniques, using on-farm research in particular, and to
develop further methods of pest control in the longer term. Research would benefit from being
coordinated at regional level.
8.5.5. AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION PROGRAMMES
A number of governments operate agricultural extension (education) programmes in conven-
tional and IPM methods. Relevant programmes could be re-oriented to disseminate indepen-
dent information and advice about alternatives and reduction techniques. Training in
environmentally sound techniques would also be an important component, to minimise exter-
nalised costs. Extension programmes may also be able to assist in establishing best-practice
methods of pest control on leading farms or sites in key regions and sectors, to assist on-site
training and demonstrations.
8.5.6. IMPLEMENTATION OF AGENDA 21
The financial mechanisms for funding the implementation of Agenda 21 are still under dis-
cussion. When established, funds will be available to help implement commitments on sus-
tainable agriculture and rural development, such as promoting IPM and non-chemical
methods in agriculture. A number of these commitments will also assist in the replacement of
MB (see Appendix 2).
-------
8.5,7. RURAL DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMMES
Rural development programmes have become increasingly important in some countries.
Some of these programmes could be adjusted to generate employment in horticulture in rural
areas by setting up training programmes in low-chemical IPM systems, or providing cheap
loans or grants for local companies to provide the necessary services and products for alter-
natives.
8.6. Technology Transfer and Training
When replacing MB, transfer of technical equipment may be important for some sectors.
However, for most uses the transfer of knowledge and skill will be much more important.
Training growers and other users in new skills will be essential. A prerequisite for adapting
alternatives will be the availability of appropriate experts to select and refine a suitable mix
of practices and treatments. In many cases equipment can be sourced or produced locally. In
general the concept of 'skill transfer' or 'technique transfer' is more appropriate than' 'tech-
nology transfer'.
8.6.1. COST EFFECTIVENESS OF TRAINING
The Review Under Paragraph 8 of Article 5 found that training projects had the highest com-
pletion rate (56%) among the projects so far approved under the MLF (UNEP 1994a:ES-5). In
contrast, about 4% of all investment projects had been completed.
Training projects tend to be of shorter duration and less resource intensive than other projects.
.Training will be a large component of the cost of replacing MB, particularly for IPM for soil
use, but also for post-harvest procedures. This indicates that a significant proportion of fund-
ing in the MB area could be spent on projects with a short duration and high completion
rate, which would suggest a cost-effective area for funding. . - ; -'
8.6.2. SKILL TRANSFER BETWEEN ARTICLE 5 COUNTRIES
The UNEP Review found a few projects were planning transfer of alternatives between Article
5 countries (for ODS other than MB). In the case of MB there will be considerable scope for
transfer of skills and techniques between Article 5 countries. For example, the expertise of
Colombian IPM experts to flower growers in other regions. .
Universities and agricultural research institutes in certain developing countries have specialised
in developing IPM techniques, non-chemical controls, and sustainable agriculture practices
optimising local resources. These experts will be an invaluable resource in helping to identify
and adapt "suitable alternatives. IPM training programmes have been developed in a number of
Article 5 countries, with the potential for training skills to be transferred.
a
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1995:21). Users of MB are in a better position because MBTOC has identified technically
THE TECHNICAL AND ECONOMIC FEASIBILITY OF REPLACING METHYL BROMIDE IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES
-------
feasible alternatives for a substantial proportion of MB use at this stage. A number of alter-
natives to CFCs are now in use, yet in 1987 the industry claimed that:
no single chemical offered the same advantages;
if alternatives were possible they would have been identified;
any substitute would face years of delay from regulatory requirements, testing etc.;
competitors in Article 5 countries would gain an unfair advantage by a grace period (TEAP
1995:22).
TEAP noted that in retrospect these early perspectives failed to appreciate the potential for
technical innovation, the power of market forces, the efficiency of public/private partner-
ships, and the leadership of specific companies that pledged early phase-outs. In many cases the
alternatives were cost-saving, no cost or low cost. The early pessimism gave way to innova-
tive product development and profitable commercialization (TEAP 1995:22).
TEAP also noted that it is now possible to see that alternatives to CFCs often performed poorly
in initial technical evaluations because they were judged against fully optimised CFC tech-
nologies. Researchers accepted the conservative business-as-usual estimates of the time neces-
sary to implement technology and/or to secure government approval. For example, routine
evaluation of food packaging could take three to five years normally at the US Food &c Drug
Administration, but was accomplished in less than 60 days at the request of the EPA and
with input from a government expert (TEAP 1995:22).
TEAP concluded that more stringent Protocol controls would serve as powerful market incen-
tives to commercialise alternatives, but must also allow adequate time for real (rather than just
perceived) barriers to be overcome (TEAP 1995:23).
The reductions and phase-out agreed by industrialised countries, as well as the early phase-outs
agreed by the USA and some other countries, will stimulate innovation as with other ODS.
TEAP noted that technical innovation has been particularly rapid when:
Chemical suppliers support ozone layer protection. Unlike DuPont leadership after 1987,
MB producers still question the science (TEAP 1995:23).
Leadership companies set voluntary goals to halt use. So far, few MB customers are pub-
licly demanding rapid change.
National regulations encourage change. Progress in the Netherlands is an example of
such success (TEAP 1995:23).
8.7.2. POTENTIAL CONTROL SCENARIOS EXAMINED BY UNEP PANELS
The WMO/UNEP Scientific Assessment of 1994 estimated that eliminating agricultural and
industrial emissions of MB in the year 2001 would significantly reduce (by 13%) the future
calculated levels of chlorine/bromine in the atmosphere (WMO 1994). The MB Technical
Options Committee has identified technically feasible alternatives (either currently available or
at an advanced stage of development) for a substantial proportion of MB use (MBTOC
-------
1994:3), and this conclusion was recently re-affirmed.
Chapter 6 of this report identified technically feasible alternatives for all the non-quarantine
and pre-shipment uses of MB in the three case study countries. Chapter 7 found that a number
of soil alternatives have operating costs that are similar to or lower than MB, and that the main
barrier is the initial investment or transition cost. Some soil alternatives would provide a
rapid return on the investment. Alternatives for stored products tend to have higher operat-
ing costs than MB, except for long-term storage. However, there is considerable scope for
reducing the cost of alternatives for stored products, such as COz systems, by using more effi-
cient methods and cheaper, local materials, as demonstrated by the work of CSIRO. TEAP has
noted that provided funding is available, the main barriers to rapid phase-out in developing
countries are considered to be largely informational and administrative, rather than technical
or economic (TEAP 1994:57). The data in our study have produced the same conclusion.
The Synthesis Report of the Scientific Assessment Panel and Technology and Economic
Assessment Panel of March 1995 examined several potential phase out scenarios for MB in
Article 5 countries, pointing out the need to take account of the special circumstances of devel-
oping countries:
1) No controls for Article 5 countries -
In the absence of controls, assuming a 7% annual growth in MB use, Article 5 country
consumption would exceed 90% of the 1991 industrialised country consumption by 2010.
This scenario would produce a more than 700% increase in calculated chlorine/bromine
'-levels and associated ozone depletion (TEAP 1995:Syn-6).
2). Freeze in 1996 at 1996 levels -
For the most part, alternatives are the same in developing countries as in industrialised
countries. Therefore TEAP concluded that it is technically feasible to halt the increase in
use in Article 5 countries providing that technology, financing and infrastructure were
available. This scenario would increase the calculated chlorine/bromine levels by
0.3-0.4%.
3). Freeze at 1996 and phase-out by 2011 -
If industrialised countries phase-out MB by 2001, it is anticipated that a wide variety of
alternatives will have been commercialised by that time. In principle, ten years is sufficient
time for Article 5 countries to implement these same technologies, providing there is access
to new technology, infrastructure development and financing (TEAP 1995:73). There may
be some pest situations that are unique to Article 5 countries and may not be solved by the
research in industrialised countries. In such cases uses would be approved under an essen-
tial use process. This scenario would reduce calculated chlorine/bromine levels by
1.3-1.8%.
4) Freeze at 1996, 25% cut by 2008, 50% cut by 2011 -
A 50% allowance would accommodate unusual pest situations and difficulties of build-
ing infrastructure. This scenario would reduce calculated chlorine/bromine levels by
0.5-0.7% (TEAP 1995:Syn-6).
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THE TECHNICAL AND ECONOMIC FEASIBILITY OF REPLACING METHYL BROMIDE IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES
-------
The scenarios assume an exemption for quarantine and pre-shipment or application of the
essential use process.
Estimates of the cost-effectiveness of controlling CFCs and halons may be relevant to MB. A
study carried out for the Executive Committee found that where ODS prices rise over time, it
is likely that late reductions may result in higher actual costs than earlier reductions. Phase-out
of CFCs by the scheduled date (2010) is estimated to cost US$800 million, while phase-out
in 2006 would be a cheaper option at about US$470 million (UNEP 1994a:ES-19).
Interestingly, phase-out as fast as cost-effectively possible (early reductions, equivalent to
phase-out by 2001 with a long servicing tail) was estimated to achieve net savings of US$876
million (UNEP 1994a:ES-19). Article 5 countries bear a proportion of the costs of replacing
ODS; these costs can be reduced by avoiding late reductions in ODS use.
The UNEP study found that the scenario of phase-out as fast as cost-effectively possible was
the best option for cost effectiveness and for ozone layer protection. It indicated that since it
will be significantly easier and cheaper to replace ODS in some sectors than others that there
could be significant benefits if the Montreal Protocol were to set different phase-out dates
for different sectors (uses) (UNEP 1994a:115). In the case of MB this would be technically
feasible and cost-effective (see Chapter 7).
8.8. Role of the Grace Period
Article 5 countries conventionally have an additional ten years for achieving cuts or phase-out
in recognition of the additional constraints they face. TEAP's 1995 Assessment discussed the
possibilities for shorter grace periods, hi the case of halons and CFCs the commercialisation of
replacements has occurred much more rapidly than predicted. TEAP noted that in the case of
MB there is the need to evaluate whether a grace period of ten years is advisable, in view of the
trade implications and possible dumping this would cause (TEAP 1994:58). There is a possi-
bility that markets in industrialised countries will be resistant to products that are produced
with the aid of MB and this is an issue of great concern to Article 5 exporters (TEAP 1994:94).
Those Article 5 countries with export earnings at risk already have strong market incentives to
accelerate phase-outs of export-related MB uses. In view of the potential for trade restric-
tions and availability of alternatives it may be argued that only a short grace period may be
required for MB (TEAP 1994:58).
TEAP also noted that a grace period should be sufficiently long to make the necessary changes
to disseminate and support alternatives and to allow continued uninterrupted production of
those cash crops and other exports currently dependent on MB (TEAP 1994:58). Industrialised
countries may wish to assure that national environmental legislation permits continued impor-
tation of produce grown with MB. TEAP concludes that in the end the allowable grace period
may be irrelevant if market forces and technical innovation prevail (TEAP 1994:58).
-------
CHAPTER
Contacts and
Resources
Obtaining Information on Alternatives
THIS CHAPTER PROVIDES A LIST OF CONTACTS AMD RESOURCES WHICH CAN PROVIDE INFORMATION ON METHYL
BROMIDE, OZONE DEPLETION AND ALTERNATIVES.
9.1. International Agencies
Dr. Peter Ooi
Deputy Regional Programme Coordinator
Integrated Pest Control Intercountry Programme
Food & Agriculture Organisation
PO Box 3700 MCPO
1277Makati
Metro Manila, the Philippines
tel +632 818 6478
fax+632 812 7725
email: ipm-manila@cgnet.com
Information on FAO regional IPM train-
ing programmes;
Reports and brochures on IPM methods.
Dr. Omar E El-Arini
Chief Officer
Multilateral Fund for the Montreal Protocol
27th floor, Montreal Trust Building
1800 McGill College
Avenue Montreal
Quebec H3A 3J6 Canada
tel+1514 282 1122
fax +1 514 282 0068
email: sysop@mfs.login.qc.ca
Information about projects funded by the
Multilateral Fund to assist phase-out of
ozone depleting substances.
Procedures and guidelines for proposed
projects.
Mr. Frank Pinto
Chief
Montreal Protocol Unit
United Nations Development Programme
1 United Nations Plaza
New York, NY 10017 USA
tel +1 212 906 5042
fax +1 212 906 6947
email: frank.pinto@undp.org
Report on UNDP surveys on MB con-
, sumption and potential alternatives in
English-speaking Africa, South America
and South-East Asia and Pacific region
(1995);
" Information about UNDP projects and
programmes.
Mr. K M Sarma
Coordinator
Ozone Secretariat
United Nations Environment Programme
PO Box 30552
Nairobi, Kenya
tel +254 2 623 885
fax+254 2 521 930
email: madhava.sarma@unep.no
MBTOC report on MB alternatives, the
'1994 Report of the Methyl Bromide
Technical Options Committee';
'Synthesis report on MB: its atmospheric
science, technology and economies'
(1992);
O
O
THE TECHNICAL AND ECONOMIC FEASIBILITY OF REPLACING METHYL BROMIDE IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES
-------
'Action on ozone' UNEP booklet (1993);
Reports on scientific assessments of the
environmental effects of ozone depletion
(1991, 1994);
Reports on the Montreal Protocol meet-
ings and decisions.
Mr. Rajendra Shende
Coordinator
OzonAction Programme
United Nations Environment Programme -
Industry &C Environment
Tour Mirabeau 39-43
quai Andre Citroen
75739 Paris cedex 15 France
tel +331 4437 1450
fax +331 4437 1474
email: ozonaction@unep.fr
UNEP database on alternatives;
Report on regional workshops on MB for
English-speaking Africa, South America
and South-East Asia and Pacific (1995);
'OzonAction' newsletter;
Information about UNEP OzonAction
projects and programmes.
Mr. A R Ben Brahim
Director, Agro-based Industries Branch
United Nations Industrial Development
Organisation
PO Box 300
A-1400 Vienna Austria
tel +431 211 315 542
fax+431 211 316 849
Report of UNIDO survey of projects on
MB alternatives (due 1996);
Information about UNIDO projects and
programmes.
Mr. Ken Newcombe
World Bank
1818 H Street NW
Washington DC 20433 USA
tel +1 202 477 1234
fax +1 202 522 3256
email: knewcombe@worldbank.org
Memo on MB and World "Bank agricul-
tural projects from Agricultural and
Natural Resource Division (1995);
World Bank policy paper on MB projects
(due 1996).
Dr. Rumen Bojkov
Special Advisor to the Secretary-General
World Meteorological Organisation
41 Avenue Guiseppe-Motta'
CH 1211 Geneva 2, Switzerland
tel +41 22 730 8315
fax +41 22 734 2326
email: ipa@www.wmo.ch
Scientific assessments of ozone depletion
(1991, 1994);
Scientific information and press releases
about ozone depletion.
9.2. Soil (Pre-Plant)
COMPANIES AND RESEARCH GROUPS WITH
EXPERTISE IN ALTERNATIVE METHODS OF
PEST CONTROL
Dr. Jaw-fen Wang
Asian Vegetable Research and Development
Centre (AVRDC)
PO Box 42
Shanhua, Tainan
Taiwan 741
tel +88 66 583 7802
fax +88 66 583 0009
IPM systems for vegetable production;
economic analysis.
Dr. Rodrigo Rodriguez-Kabana
Chair of MBTOC's soil sub-committee
Department of Plant Pathology
Auburn University
Auburn, Alabama 36849-5409 USA
tel +1 334 844 4714
fax +1 334 844 1948
email: cweaver@ag.auburn.edu
IPM systems including soil amendments,
biological controls, cultural practices,
chemical treatments.
Mr. Marten Barel
Barel BV
5505 JJ, Roskam 22
Veldhoven Netherlands
tel +31 40 253 2726
fax +31 40 253 9565
Steam treatments for soil and substrates.
-------
Ms. Sheila Daar
Bio-Integral Resource Center (BIRC)
PO Box 7414
Berkeley, CA 94707
USA
tel + 1 510 524 2567
fax + 1 510 524 1758
email: birc@ igc.apc.org
7PM Practitioner' journal;
Books, reports and leaflets on IPM.
Dr. Garry Hill
Centre for Agriculture and Biosciences
International (CABI)
Regional Office for Africa
PO Box 76520
Nairobi, Kenya
tel +254 2 747 329
fax +254 2 747 340
email: cabi-roaf@cabi.org
Information about IPM and biological
controls; IPM training.
Dr. Antonio Bello
Centre de Ciencias Medioambientales
Serrano, 115 dpdo.
28006 Madrid Spain
tel +34 9 1562 5020
fax +34 9 1564 0800
email: arias@cc.csic.es
IPM systems for horticulture.
Dr. Nicholas Martin
Research Leader
Crop & Food Research
Private bag 92169
Auckland New Zealand
tel +649 849 3660
fax +649 815 4201
email: martinn@marc.cri.nz
IPM systems for vegetables and flowers.
Dr. Anne Turner
Crop Science Department
University of Zimbabwe
PO Box 167
Harare
Zimbabwe
tel+ 263 430 3211
fax + 263 433 3482
Training in IPM for small-scale growers.
Mr. HenkNuyten
Experimental Garden Breda
Heilaarstraat 230
Breda Netherlands
tel +31 76 144 382
fax+3176 202 711
Substrates for strawberry production.
Dr. Yaacov Katan
Buck Family Professor of Plant Pathology
Faculty of Agriculture
The Hebrew University of Jerusalam
PO Box 12
Rehovot 76100 Israel
tel +972 8 948 1217
fax +972 8 946 6794
Soil solarisation.
Dr. Robert Hill
Science Manager - Natural Products Group
HortResearch
Private bag 3123
Hamilton New Zealand
tel +647 838 5052
fax +647 838 5903
email: rhill@hort.cri.nz
Natural substrates and pest control prod-
ucts.
Dr. Marta Pizano
HortiTecnia Ltd.
Carrera 21 #85-45, of. 101
Santafe de Bogota, DC
Colombia
tel + 571 610 9541
fax + 571 610 9702
IPM. consultancy.
Dr. Peter Ooi
Deputy Regional Programme Coordinator
Integrated Pest Control Intercountry
Programme
FAO regional office
PO Box 3700 MCPO
1277 Makati, Metro Manila
Philippines
tel +632 818 6478
fax+632 812 7725
email: ipm-manila@cgnet.com
IPM training programmes for horticul-
tural crops; information about IPM sys-
tems and methods.
o
O
THE TECHNICAL AND ECONOMIC FEASIBILITY OF REPLACING METHYL BROMIDE IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES
-------
The Secretary
International Federation of Organic
Agriculture Movements (IFOAM)
D-66636 Tholey-Theley
Germany
tel+49 6853 5190
fax+ 49 6853 30110
email: ifoam-secretary@oln.comlink.apc.org
Information about organic methods of
production and marketing.
Dr. Janny Vos
IPM specialist
International Institute of Biological Control
(BBC)
MARDI block G
43409 UPM Serdang, Selangor
Malaysia
tel +603 942 6489
fax +603 942 6490
email: cabi-iibc-malaysia@cabi.org
IPM systems for vegetable production;
IPM training.
Dr.JeffWaage
Director
International Institute of Biological Control
(HBO
Silwood Park
Buckhurst Road
Ascot, Berks SL57TA UK
tel +44 1344 872 999
fax +44 1344 875 007
email: j.waage@cabi.org
Information about IPM and biological
controls; IPM training.
Mr. Joel Grossman
IPM Consultant
937 6th Street #5
Santa Monica, CA 90403
USA
tel + 1 310 394 1233
email: 3216125@mcimail.com
IPM consultancy.
Dr. Paul K. Ndalut
Chemistry Department
Moi University
Eldoret
Kenya
tel + 254 321 43042
fax + 254 321 43047
Research in potential natural pest control
products.
Dr. Dave Gillespie
Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada
Research Branch
Pacific Agriculture Research Centre
PO Box 1000
Agassiz, British Colombia VOM 1AO
Canada
tel +1 604 796 2221
fax +1 604 796 0359
Substrates, IPM and biological pest con-
trols for horticulture.
Prof. Lucio Triolo and Dr Angelo Correnti
Biotechnology and Agriculture Sector
Technology Innovation Department ENEA
Rome, Italy
tel +369 304 83607
fax +396 304 84267
IPM systems for horticulture.
Dr. Barry Blair
Assistant Director & Research Coordinator
Tobacco Research Board
Kutsaga Research Station
Airport King Road
Harare
Zimbabwe
tel + 263 4 575 289
fax + 263 4 575 288
Research into alternatives for tobacco.
Dr. James DeVay
Professor,
Department of Plant Pathology
University of California Davis
Davis, CA 95616 USA
Soil solarisation techniques
Dr. R D Lumsden
Supervisory Plant Pathologist
USDA-ARS Agricultural Research Center
Beltsville, MD 20705 USA
Gliocladium product for controlling
damping-off and root rot pathogens.
Dr. Norbert Ceustermans
Vegetable Research Station
Binnenweg 6
B-2860 Sint-Katelijne-Waver
Belgium
tel +32 15 552 771
fax +32 15 553 001
Substrate systems for vegetables.
-------
Mr. Peter Wilkinson
Xylocopa Systems
PO Box 1011
Borrowdale
Harare
Zimbabwe
tel/fax + 26 34 882 094
xylocopa@xchange.harare.iafrica.com
IPM consultancy.
Dr. Sam Page
ZIP Research
PO Box CY301
Causeway
Harare
Zimbabwe
tel+ 26 34 726 911
Soil tests to identify nematodes and other
pests; IPM training for small-scale grow-
ers.
Dr. David Okioga
Coordinator of Environment and Natural
Resources
PO Box 30126
Nairobi
Kenya
tel +254 2 242 887 or 890
fax + 254 2 604 202
Tagetes extract nematicide.
Mr. Dermot Cassidy
414 Polaris Ave.
Waterkloof Ridge 0181
Pretoria
South Africa
tel +27 11 9643800
fax+ 27 11 964 3513
IPM systems for horticultural crops.
9.3. Grains, Durable
Commodities and Buildings
COMPANIES AND RESEARCH GROUPS WITH
EXPERTISE IN ALTERNATIVES
Dr. Jonathan Banks
Chair of MBTOC
also Dr. Peter Annis, Mr. Jan van S Graver
CSIRO Division of Entomology
GPO Box 1700
Canberra ACT 2601
Australia
tel+ 616 246 4201
fax+ 616 246 4202
email: sgrl.secretary@ento.csiro.au
» Carbon dioxide for bag-stacks, in-transit
carbon dioxide, nitrogen, phosphine, car-
bonyl sulphide, heat, inert dusts and
other post-harvest treatments for grains
and commodities.
Dr. Shlomo Navarro
Department of Stored Products
Ministry of Agriculture- Agricultural
Research Organisation
PO Box 6
Bet-Dagan 50250
Israel
tel + 972 3 968 3587
fax + 972 3 993 998
Hermetic storage systems for grains.
Dr. Christoph Reichmuth
Federal Biological Research Center for
Agriculture 8c Forestry
Konigin-Luise-Strasse 19
14195 Berlin
Germany
tel + 49 30 830 4261
fax + 49 30 830 4284
Nitrogen flow system and other post-har-
vest treatments for grains, commodities,
textiles, and artifacts.
Mr. Patrick Stafford-Smith
Hedley-Pacific Ventures Ltd.
Suite 1540
800 West Pender Street
Vancouver
British Colombia V6C 2V6
Canada
tel + 1 604 685 1247
fax + 1 604 685 6039
Diatomaceous earth, commerical pest
control product for stored grain.
THE TECHNICAL AND ECONOMIC FEASIBILITY OF REPLACING METHYL BROMIDE IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES
-------
Mr. David Mueller
Director
Insects Limited Inc.
PO Box 40641
Indianapolis, IN 46280-1451
USA
tel + 1 317 846 5444
fax + 1 317 846 9799
Commercial treatments for buildings eg.
food processing facilities.
Dr. Mulyo Sidik
Assistant to the Minister
Ministry of Food Affairs/ BULOG
Jl. Gatot Subroto 49
Jakarta 12950
Indonesia
tel + 6221 521 0283
fax + 6221 521 0279
Information on carbon dioxide and phos-
phine post-harvest treatments for stored
grains.
Executive Director
National Postharvest Institute for Research
and Extension NAPfflRE CLSU Complex
Munoz
Nueva Ecija
Philippines
tel + 632 984 019 or 029
fax + 632 968 159
Phosphine and carbon dioxide treatments
for stored grains.
Mr. Robert Taylor
Natural Resources Institute
Chatham Maritime
Chatham, Kent ME4 4TB
UK
tel+ 44 1634 883 778
fax + 44 1634 880 066
email: bob.taylor@nri.org
Phosphine and other post-harvest treat-
ments for grains and other commodities.
Mr. Alfredo T. Gonzales
President and General Manager
Philippines Association of Professional
Fumigators
77 Kamuning Road
Quezon City
Philippines
tel + 632 721 2473
fax+ 632 922 4618
Commerical phosphine treatments for
commodities.
Mr. James Howard
General Manager
SGS Ltd.
994 Soi Thonglor
Sukhumvit 55 Road
Klongton
Bankok 10110
Thailand
tel + 662 392 1066
fax+ 662 381 2022
Information on in-transit phosphine,
post-harvest treatments for grains and
other commodities.
Mr. Joe Tallon
Vice President
Tallon Termite and Pest Control
5702 Pioneer
Bakersfield, CA 93306
USA
tel + 1 805 366 0516
fax + 1 805 366 0573
Commercial treatments for houses.
Mr. H-W v Rotberg Geschaftsfuhrer
Thermo Lignum
Maschinen-Vertriebs GmbH
Landhausstrasse 17
6900 Heidelberg
Germany
tel + 622 116 3466
fax + 622 120 081
Commerical heat/controlled humidity
treatments for wood items, artifacts, fur-
nishings, rooms, etc.
Ms. Karen Roux
Director
Thermo Lignum
Grand Union Centre, Unit 19
West Row
London W10 5AS
UK
tel+ 44 181 964 3964
fax+ 44 181 964 2969
Commerical heat/controlled humidity
treatments for wood items, artifacts, fur-
nishings, rooms, etc.
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9.4. Perishable Commodities
COMPANIES AND RESEARCH GROUPS WITH
EXPERTISE IN ALTERNATIVES
Director of Technical Services
American President Lines Ltd.
1111 Broadway, 9th fir
'Oakland, CA 94607
USA
tel + 1 510 272 8241
fax + 1 510 272 8655
Controlled atmosphere transportation
systems.
Dr. Arnold Hara
Beaumont Agricultural Research Center
University of Hawaii at Manoa
461 W. Lanikaula Street
Hilo
Hawaii 96720
tel + 1 808 935 2885
fax + 1 808 969 7923
Quarantine treatments for flowers.
Dr. Alan Carpenter
Crop and Food Research
Private bag 4005
Levin
New Zealand
tel + 646 368 7059
fax + 646 368 3578
Controlled atmosphere treatments for
perishable commodities.
Dr. Nicholas Martin
Research Leader
Crop and Food Research
Private Bag 92169
Auckland
New Zealand
tel +649 849 3660
fax+649 815 4201
email: martinn@narc.cri.nz
Quarantine treatments for vegetables and
flowers.
Dr. Tom Batchelor
Co-Chair of MBTOC's sub-committee on
perishable commodities
ENZA International
PO Box 1101
Hastings
New Zealand
tel + 646 878 1865
fax + 646 876 8597
email: 100035.3402@compuserv'e.com
Quarantine treatments for perishable
commodities.
THE TECHNICAL AND ECONOMIC FEASIBILITY OF REPLACING METHYL BROMIDE IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES
Dr. Michael Lay-Yee
Post-harvest Research Unit
HortResearch
Private Bag 92169
Auckland
New Zealand
tel + 649 815 4217
fax + 649 815 4239
email: mlay-yee@hort.cri.nz
Quarantine treatments for perishable and
other commodities.
Marketing Manager, Controlled
Atmospheres
Permea Inc.
11444 Lackland Road
St. Louis, MO 63146
USA
tel + 1 314 995 3440
fax + 1 314 995 3500
Controlled atmosphere transportation
systems.
Dr. John Armstrong
Tropical Fruit and Vegetable Research
Laboratory
US Department of Agriculture- Agricultural
Research Service
PO Box 4459
Hilo
Hawaii 96720
tel + 1 808 959 9138
fax + 1 808 959 5470
Heat and other quarantine treatments for
tropical fruit and vegetables.
Dr. Robert Mangan
Research Leader
Tropical Fruit and Vegetable Research
Laboratory
USD A- ARS
301 S. International Blvd.
Weslaco, TX 78596
USA
Heat and other quarantine treatments for
tropical fruit.
Dr. Adel Kader
Department of Pomology
University of California
Davis, California 95616
USA
Controlled atmospheres and other treat-
ments for fruit.
a
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9.5. Reports on Alternatives
See books and papers in reference list in
this report
Ms. Linda Dunn
Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada
930 Catling Avenue
Ottawa K1A OC5
Canada
tel +1 613 759 7304
fax +1 613 759 7238
email: dunniab@em.agr.ca
Report on heat, phosphine and CO2
experimental fumigation for structures
(1996).
ASEAN Food Handling Bureau
Level 3, G14 8c G15 Damansara Town
Centre
50490 Kuala Lumpur
Malaysia
tel + 603 255 1088 or 254 4199
fax + 603 255 2787
Operations manuals on post-harvest
treatments for grains, including carbon
dioxide for bag-stacks (1991), in-transit
carbon dioxide in freight containers
(1995/96) and phosphine (1994).
Dr. Jonathan Banks
CSIRO Division of Entomology
GPO Box 1700
Canberra, ACT 2601
Australia
tel + 616 246 4201
fax+ 616 246 4202
email: sgrl.secretary@ento.csiro.au
"Agricultural production without methyl
bromide- four case studies"- edited by
H.J, Banks (1995).
Mr. Michael Hoest Rasmussen
Danish Environmental Protection Agency
Ministry of Environment and Energy
Strandgade 29
DK 1401 Copenhagen K
Denmark
tel + 45 32 660 572
fax + 45 32 660 535
email: michael@mst.mst.min.dk
Infomration about phase-out programme
in Denmark.
Mr. J. Henningsen
Head of Environment Quality and Natural
Resources
DG XI, European Commission
Rue de la Loi 200
B-1040 Brussels
Belgium
tel + 322 296 9503
fax + 322 296 9557
"Prospect Report" on performance and
costs of alternatives to ME (1996).
Mr. Steve Gorman
Head, Technology Outreach Section
Environment Canada
Hull
Quebec K1A OH3
Canada
tel + 1 819 953 9399
fax + 1 819 953 7253
Report on Canadian leadership in
developing alternatives to MB (1995).
Mr. Heinrich W. Kraus
Head of Section
Federal Ministry of Environment
Kennedy-Allee
Bonn
Germany
tel + 49 228 305 2750
fax + 49 228 305 3524
Information on government departments
able to provide details of pest control
methods used for fruit and vegetable pro-
duction, grains, commodities, structures.
Distribution and Sales Section
Food and Agriculture Organisation
Via delle Terme di Caracalla
00100 Rome
Italy
tel + 396 52281
"Soil Polarization" FA O Plant Protection
Paper 109 (1991);
"Soilless Culture for Horticultural Crop
Production" FAO Plant Protection Paper
101 (1990);
Other publications relating to pest
control for grains and soil.
-------
Mr. David Mueller
Fumigation Service and Supply Inc.
PO Box 40641
Indianapolis, IN 46280-1451
USA
tel + 1 317 846 5444
fax + 1 317 846 9799
email: insectsltd@aol.com
"Fumigants and Pheromones" newsletter.
Mr. Gary Obenauf
MB Alternatives Outreach
3425 N.First #101
Fresno, CA 93726
USA
tel + 1 209 244 4710
fax + 1 209 224 2610
Reports of the "'Annual International
Research Conference on Methyl Bromide
Alternatives" (1994, 1995).
Dr. Joop van Haasteren
Ministry of Housing, Spatial Planning and
the Environment
Directorate IBPC, ipc 650
PO Box 30945
2500 GX The Hague
The Netherlands
tel + 31 70 339 4879
fax+ 31 70 339 1293
Information about phase-out programme
achieved in the Netherlands.
The Nordic Council
PO Box 19506
S-104 32 Stockholm
Sweden
tel + 46 8 143 420
"MB in the Nordic Countries- Current
Use and Alternatives" report Nord
1993:34 (1993);
"Alternatives to MB" report TemaNord
1995:574 (1995).
Ms. Doris Stanley
Information Staff
US Department of Agriculture- ARS
6303 Ivy Lane, Room 444
Greenbelt, MD 20770
USA
tel + 1 301 344 2963
fax+1301 344 2311
"Methyl Bromide Alternatives" USD A
newsletter;
Other reports and information on methyl
bromide.
Mr. Bill Thomas
US Environmental Protection Agency
Methyl Bromide Program
Office of Atmospheric Programs
Mail Code 6205J
401 M Street SW
Washington, DC 20460
USA
tel + 1 202 233 9179
fax + 1 202 233 9637
email: thomas.bill@epamail.epa.gov
"International Workshops on
Alternatives to MB for Soil Fumigation"
report (1992);
EPA Internet Home Page on Methyl
Bromide;
MBTOC Report on MB Alternatives
(1994);
Other reports and information on MB.
9.6. Environmental
Organisations
Ms. Patty Clary
Associate Director
Californians for Alternatives to Toxics
860 1/2 llth Street
Arcata, CA 95521
tel + 1 707 822 8497
fax + 1 707 822 7136
Mr. Ravi Sharma
Associate Director
Centre for Science and Environment
41 Tughlakabad Institutional Area
New Delhi-110 062
India
tel + 91 11 698 3394
fax+ 91 11 6985874
email: ravi@unv.ernet.in
Mr. Miguel Stuzin
President
Comite Nacional Pro Defensa de la
Fauna y Flora
Friends of the Earth Chile
Sazie 1885
Santiago, Chile
tel + 56 2 696 1268
fax + 56 2 696 8562
email: info@codeff.mic.cl
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THE TECHNICAL AND ECONOMIC FEASIBILITY OF REPLACING METHYL BROMIDE IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES
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Mr. Jean-Marie Fayemi
Environmental Liaison Centre International
PO Box 72461
Nairobi
Kenya
tel +254 2 562 015
fax + 254 2 562 175
email: fayemi@elci.gn.apc.org
Ms. Annie Petsonk
International Counsel
Environmental Defense Fund
1875 Connecticut Ave NW
Washington, DC 20009
USA
tel + 1 202 387 3500
fax + 1 202 234 6049
email: annie@edf.org
Beatrice Olivastri
Friends of the Earth Canada
47 Clarence St
Ottawa
Ontario KIN 9K1
tel + 1 613 241 0085
fax + 1 613 241 7998
email: foe@intranet.ca
Reports and leaflets about ozone deple-
tion issues;
"Meeting Environmental Goals Through
Lessons Learned: An Analysis of the
Multilateral Fund and the GEE"
Ms. Corinna Gilfillan
Ozone Campaign Director
Friends of the Earth USA
1025 Vermont Avenue NW
Suite 300
Washington, DC 20005
USA
tel + 1 202 783 7400
fax + 1 202 783 0444
email: gilfilla@foe.org
"Ozone Reality Check: Dispelling the
Myths About Ozone Depletion" (1995);
"Into the Sunlight: Exposing Methyl
Bromide's Threat to the Ozone Layer"
(1992);
Other reports and leaflets about ozone
depletion issues;
"Atmosphere" newsletter.
Mr. John Mate
Ozone Coordinator
Greenpeace International
1726 Commercial Drive
Greenpeace Vancouver
Vancouver
British Colombia
Canada V5N4A3
tel + 1 604 327 0943
email: jmate@sfu.ca
"MB and Ozone Depletion" (1993);
"Bromuro de Metilo: Reducdon ya" (1993);
"Full of Holes" briefing on Montreal
Protocol controls (1995);
"Whose Chlorine and Bromine Is It?"
(1995).
Mr. Samuel Chayen
Staff Scientist
Israel Union for Environmental Defense
21 Zalman Shneour St.
Tel Aviv 63326
Israel
tel + 972 3 525 6462
fax + 972 3 525 6475
email: chayens@igc.apc.org
Ms. Fumi Ishii
Japan's Save The Ozone Network
Daiichi Seimel Building
8F116-3
Aramachi Takasaki Gunma
2 14 2 Mikawa-cho Maebashi-City
Japan
tel + 02 73 28 45 58
fax + 02 73 23 07 31
email: ishiif@mailsv01.toue.ae.jp
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Ms. Anne Schonfield
Coordinator
Methly Bromide Alternatives Network
and Pesticide Action Network
116 New Montgomery #810
San Francisco, CA 94105
USA
tel + 1 415 541 9140
fax + 1 415 541 9253
email: panna@igc.apc.org
"Alternatives to MB" exerpts from MBTOC
report, in English and Spanish (1995);
"Under African Skies" report on MB use
and alternatives in Africa (1994);
"Southern Exposure" on MB phase-out in
developing countries, in English and Spanish
(1994);
MB AN Briefing Kit on methyl bromide
(1994);
"Prospering without MB " critique of
USDA's assessment of phasing out MB
(1994);
"The Economists Who Cried Wolf" review
ofCDFA assessment of the costs of phasing
out MB (1996).
Ms. Kelly Sims
Science Policy Director
Ozone Action, Inc.
1636 Connecticut Ave, NW
Washington, DC 20009
USA
tel + 1 202 265 6738
fax + 1 202 332 4865
email: ozone_action@essential.org
"Out of the Frying Pan" MB use and
alternatives (1995);
"Ozone Action" email newsletter.
9.7. MB Manufacturers and
Industry Organisations
Mr. Tsuneo Sakurai
Association of Methyl Bromide Industry
Japan (AMBIJ)
Teijin Chemicals Ltd. (MB manufacturer)
6-21 Nishi-Shimbashi
1-Chome Minato-Ku
Tokyo
Japan
tel + 813 3506 4714
fax + 813 3508 9528
Mr. Michael Spiegelstein and
Mr. David Shapiro
Dead Sea Bromine (MB manufacturer)
PO Box 180
Beer-Sheva 84101
Israel
tel + 972 7297 828
fax + 972 7297 832
Mr. Bent Jensen
Secretary
European Methyl Bromide Association
(EMBA)
c/o European Chemical Industry Council
(CEFIC)
Avenue E Van Nieuwenhuyse 4, bte 1
B-l 160 Brussels
Belgium
tel + 322 676 7211
fax + 322 676 7300
« EMBA position paper on MB (1995).
Mr. Rene Weber and Mr. David McAllister
Great Lakes Chemical Corporation (MB
manufacturer)
PO Box 2200
W. Lafayette, IN 47906
USA
tel + 1 317 497 6217
fax+1317 497 6287
Mr. Peter Sparber
Methyl Bromide Working Group (MBWG)
Methyl Bromide Global Coalition (MBGC)
1319 F Street NW
Washington, DC 20004
USA
tel + 1 202 393 3240
fax + 1 202 393 4385
Dr. Tom Duafala
Methyl Bromide Global Coalition (MBGC)
TriCal (fumigation company)
PO Box 1327
Hollister, CA 95024
USA
tel + 1 408 637 0195
fax + 1 408 637 0273
"Methyl Bromide Global Monitor"
newsletter.
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THE TECHNICAL AND ECONOMIC FEASIBILITY OF REPLACING METHYL BROMIDE IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES
-------
-------
APPENDIX 1
Appendix 1:
Method for Calculating Costs of Replacing Methyl Bromide
60
a
Standard partial budgeting techniques are applicable to the problem of comparing methyl bro-
mide (MB) and alternative treatments at farm or enterprise levels (Rae 1995). This requires
that all physical and financial implications of converting from one treatment method to
another be identified. It involves four components:
[A] Additional revenue that would result from the change to the new treatment, eg. enhanced
yields, improved quality or reduced storage losses.
[B] Revenue that would be foregone as a result of the change to the new treatment, eg. if
there are lower yields or quality.
[C] Additional costs due to the change to the new treatment. This includes the direct run-
ning costs associated with the new treatment, as well as the conversion and capital costs.
[D] Costs that will no longer be incurred, due to the change. This would include the costs
(direct and capital) of operating and maintaining the old treatment, which would no
longer be incurred.
TABLE Al
Method for determining conversion costs.
The partial budgeting method for
determining conversion costs at farm
or enterprise level are summarised in
Table Al.
The partial budgeting method requires
the following:
All costs and revenues should refer
to the same time period, such as
one year, two years, one crop cycle.
In the case of grain storage they
should also be based on a common
physical storage volume.
Direct costs include costs of all inputs that need to be purchased in each recurring time
period or crop cycle. For example, chemicals and labour.
Additional revenue -
foregone costs
[A]
[Dl] direct costs
[D2] capital costs
Total = [A] + [D]
Additional costs -
foregone revenue
[B]
[Cl] direct costs
[C2] capital costs
Total = [B] + [C]
Net direct cost/benefit
of new treatment = [A]+[D] - [B] - [C]
o
O
bo
<0
-^
o
o
a
o
-ss
ft,
a.
THE TECHNICAL AND ECONOMIC FEASIBILITY OF REPLACING METHYL BROMIDE IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES
-------
Capital costs cover all buildings, machinery and equipment inputs required by each treat-
ment, that have a life of more than one time period. Data include the purchase costs and
life of such inputs, and are summarised at appropriate interest and depreciation charges
per relevant time period.
Conversion costs that are paid for should generally be included in [C2].
All the above costs are measured at the farm/enterprise level, and represent the financial
implications for that level. Components of the conversion costs would also include costs
often borne elsewhere, such as R8cD and training.
Where it is not possible to quantify the effects of alternative treatments on yields, quality
and losses, a qualitative assessment of the expected effects should be given.
-------
APPENDIX
Appendix 2:
Agenda 21 Commitments to Sustainable Agriculture
bo
-O
<3
a
The Earth Summit's Agenda 21, signed by governments in Rio de Janeiro in 1992, contains a.
chapter entitled Promoting Sustainable Agriculture and Rural Development (UNCED 1992).
This chapter commits signatory countries to a list of objectives and activities for promoting
sustainable agricultural practices, including Integrated Pest Management (IPM) and non-chem-
ical methods of pest control. Agenda 21's section on pest control notes that 'integrated pest
management... is the best option for the future' for controlling pests, because it ensures yields,
reduces costs, is environmentally friendly, and contributes to the sustainability of agriculture
(UNCED 1992:14.74).
The following Agenda 21 commitments relating to sustainable agriculture will assist the
replacement of MB:
Review and reform policies:
- Ensure the environmentally safe and appropriate use of pesticides by reviewing and
reforming national policies and mechanisms, for example pesticide pricing, IPM policies
and action plans.
Implement IPM programmes:
- Implement programmes to put IPM practices within the reach of farmers through farmer
networks, farm extension [education and advice] services and research institutions;
- By the year 1998, establish operational and interactive networks (among farmers,
advisers and researchers) to promote and develop IPM.
Research:
- Carry out on-farm research in the development of non-chemical alternative pest
management techniques;
- Encourage research into pesticides that are target- specific.
Information:
- Consolidate existing information and programmes on pesticides that have been banned
or severely restricted in different countries;
- Document and disseminate information on alternative non-chemical ways of
controlling pests.
o
O
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s
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Interdisciplinary networks:
- Establish IPM netivorks to demonstrate the social, economic and environmental
benefits of IPM for food and cash crops.
Regional focus:
- Develop IPM at regional level, taking into account specific regional conditions;
- Strengthen regional interdisciplinary projects.
Training:
- Conduct training programmes in techniques for IPM and control of pesticide use;
- Train farm advisors/educators and farmers in non-chemical ways of controlling pests.
Technology transfer:
-Strengthen national public administrations in the transfer of techniques for IPM.
Funding mechanisms for Agenda 21 activities are currently under discussion at international
level. Progress in meeting the objectives in Agenda 21 will be reviewed by the international
community, under the auspices of the Commission for Sustainable Development.
-------
B/BLIOGRAPHY
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«
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Report submitted by the Executive Committee of the Multilateral Fund for the
Implementation of the Montreal Protocol, UNEP/OzL.Pro/WG.1/11/4,19 December.
Nairobi, Ozone Secretariat.
UNEP 1994b. Corrigendum to the report of the fifth meeting of the Parties to the Montreal
Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer. UNEP/OzL.Pro.5/12/Corri.l.
Nairobi, Ozone Secretariat.
UNEP 1994c. International scientists report record ozone depletion, but future improvements
expected. Press release, 6 September. Nairobi.
-------
UNEP 1995a. Report of the eleventh meeting of the Open-Ended Working Group of the
Parties to the Montreal Protocol, 8-12 May. UNEP/OzL.Pro/WG. 1/11/10, 13 May.
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UNEP 1995b. Report of the seventh meeting of the Parties to the Montreal Protocol on sub-
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Ozone Secretariat,
UNEP IE 1995. Regional Workshops on Methyl Bromide: English-speaking African region,
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Workshop reports. Paris, OzonAction Programme, UNEP Industry and Environment.
UNEP IE 1996. Regional Workshop on Methyl Bromide for English-Speaking Africa 25-26
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US EPA 1993a. Protection of stratospheric ozone, Proposed rule. Federal Register
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US EPA 1993b. Protection of stratospheric ozone, Final rule. Federal Register Washington
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US EPA 1993c. The cost and cost-effectiveness of the proposed phaseout of methyl bromide.
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Van Haasteren J 1995. Personal communication. The Hague, The Netherlands Ministry of
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Van Rhee JA 1977. Effects of soil pollution on earthworms. Pedobiologia 17, 201-208.
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o
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-------
Agricultural Production Without Methyl Bromide - Four Case Studies. Canberra,
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-------
f N D E X
ndex 1:
Alternatives to Methyl Bromide
Alternatives to MB
Section
Alternatives used in developing countries:
- durable exports and imports
- perishable commodities
- soil
-stored products
Alternatives used in Chile
Alternatives used in Thailand
6.8; Tables 6.8-6.10
6.9; Table 6.14
6.4; 6.5; Table 6.1
6.7; Table 6.6
5.6
4.14; 4.15
Comparisons of MB and alternatives:
- costs
- performance
- yields
7.2 - 7.8
6.4; 6.5
6.5
Costs of alternatives:
- carbon dioxide
- chemical soil treatments
- direct sowing
- IPM/ composting
- IPM/ solarisation
- phosphine
- seed trays
- solarisation
- steam treatments
- substrate systems
7.8
7.7
7.5
7.6
7.6
7.8
7.4
7.2
7.3
7.4
Potential alternatives for Chile:
- perishable commodities
- soil
5.8; 6.9
5.7; 6.6
Potential alternatives for Thailand:
- durable commodities
4.15; 6.8
(Index 1 continued on next page)
THE TECHNICAL AND ECONOMIC FEASIBILITY OF REPLACING METHYL BROMIDE IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES
-------
Potential alternatives for Thailand (continued):
- perishable commodities
-soil
- stored products
Potential alternatives for Zimbabwe:
- durable commodities
- perishable commodities
-soil
- stored products
Yields of alternatives
1,3-dichIoropropene (1,3-D)
Biological controls
Bunting vegetation
Chemical dips
Chemical treatments
Chloropicrin
Chloropyrifos
COi treatments
Cold treatments
Composting
Controlled atmospheres
Cover crops
Crop rotation
Cultural practices
Dazomet
Deep ploughing
Direct sowing
Dry heat
Enzone
Etbylene dibromide (EDB)
Fenamiphos
Fipronil
Formalin (formaldehyde)
Fungicides
Gliocladium
4.15; 6.9
4.14; 6.6
4.15; 6.7
3.7; 3.8; 6.8
3.7; 6.9
3.6; 6.6
3.8; 6.7
6.5
3.6.1; Table 3.4; 6.3.7
3.6.1.4;6.2; 6.3; 6.3.3; 6.3.3.1; 6.4; 6.7.1; ,: .
7.11.1; 7.11.2; 7.14.5
3.6.1
Table 3.7; Table 6.15; Table 6.18
6.3; 6.3.7; 7.2.1; 7.7; 7.9
5.5; Table 5.9; 6.3.7; 7.2.2; Table 7.24
Table 7.14; 7.7.6; Table 7.15
Table 4.8; Table 4.9; 6.7.1; 7.14.5; 8.7.2
5.8; Table 5.11; 6.7.1; 6.9.1; Table 6.14;
Table 6.15; Table 6.16; Table 6.17; 7.14.5
3.6.2; Table 3.5; 6.2; Table 6.1; 6.4;
Table 6.3; Table 6.4; 7.6.2; Table 7.11
6.9.1; Table 6.14; Table 6.15; 8.2.1.1.4
3.6.1.4; 6.3.1; 6.3.1.4; 6.4; Table 6.8;
6.3.1; 6.3.1.1; 6.3.1.5; 6.4
6.3; 6.3.1; 6.9.1; Table 6.15
3.6.1; 5.7; Table 6.1; 6.3.7; 7.2.1; 7.2.2;
Table 7.12; 7.7.3; Table 7.13; 7.7.6;
Table 7.15; Table 7.17
6.3.1; 6.3.1.3
7.4.3; Table 7.7; 7.5; 7.5.5; Table 7.9
Table 4.7
5.7
3.6.1; 6.3.7
3.6.2, Table 3.4, Table 3.5, Table 3.6,
Table 4.7
3.9
5.7
6.4; Table 6.4; 7.6.2
6.3.3
(Index 1 continued on next page)
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Grafting
Grain hulls
Grit
Heat treatments
Herbicides
Hydroponics
Hygiene
Inert dusts
Insect growth regulators
Insecticides
Integrated pest management (IPM)
Irradiation
Lime
Living mulches
Manure
Metam sodium
Methyl isothiocyanate (MITC)
Microwaves
Modified atmospheres
Mycorrihizae
Natural materials
Nematicides
Nematode-resistant cultivars
Nitrogen flow fumigation
Nitrogen treatments
Oxamyl
Paper waste
Peat substrates
6.3.4
3.6.1.2; 6.3.2; 6.4
3.6.1.2; 6.4
3.7.1; 6.7.1; 6.7.3; 6.8.1; Table 6.9; 6.9.1;
Table 6.14; Table 6.15; Table 6.16;
Table 6.17; 7.14.5
Table 3.4; Table 3.5; Table 4.7
Table 6.3; Table 6.4; Table 6.5
6.7.1
Table 3.11; 6.7.1; 6.8.1; 6.9.1
6.7.1; Table 6.7
Table 3.7; 3.7.1; 6.7.1; Table 6.7; 6.9.1; 7.6.1
3.6.1; 6.2; Table 6.1; 7.1; 7.2.1; 7.6; 7.6.1;
Table 7.10; 7.6.2; 7.6.3; 7.6.4; 7.6.5; 7.6.6;
Table 7.11; 7.9; 7.10; 7.10.1; 7.10.2;
7.10.4; 7.11.1; 7.11.2; 7.12; 7.14.1; 7.14.3;
7.14.4; 7.15.1; 7.16.4; Table 7.25;
Table 7.26
6.7.1; 6.8.1; 6.9.1
6.3.1.2
6.3.1.4
6.3.5; 7.7.4; Table 7.14; Table 7.24
6.3.7; Table 6.1; 6.4; 7.7.4; Table 7.14;
Table 7.24
3.6.1; 6.3.7
6.9.1
6.9.1; Table 6.15
6.3.3.2; 7.13.2
6.3.5
3.6.2; Table 3.4; Table 3.5; Table 3.6;
Table 4.7; Table 6.1; Table 6.3; Table 6.4;
Table 6.5; 7.7.1
3.6.1; 3.6.1.4
Table 3.10; 3.7.4; Table 6.11
Table 3.9; 6.7.1
Table 3.4; Table 3.5; Table 3.6; Table 4.7
3.6.1.2
6.4; 7.4.4
fs
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(Index 1 continued on next page)
THE TECHNICAL AND ECONOMIC FEASIBILITY OF REPLACING METHYL BROMIDE IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES
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Phosphine
Pinebark
Plant breeding
Plant nutrition
Pre-shipment inspection and certification
Pressure treatments
Resistant varieties
Rbizobacteria
Rockwool substrates
Seed trays
Soil amendments
Soil substitutes - see substrates
Solarisation
Steam boilers
Steam treatments
Substra tes
Sulphur dioxide treatment
Tagetes mintita (Khaki weed)
Trichoderma harzianum
3.4.1; 3.4.2; 3.5; Table 3.8; Table 3.9;
Table 3.10; Table 3.11; 3.7.2; 3.7.3; 3.7.4;
3.8; 4.7; Table 4.1; 4.14; Table 4.8; Table 4.9;
6.7.1; 6.7.2; Table 6.6; Table 6.7; 6.8.1;
Table 6.8; Table 6.10; Table 6.11; Table 6.12;
Table 6.13; 7.8.1; 7.8.2; Table 7.18;
Table 7.19; 7.8.3; Table 7.20; 7.8.4; 7.9;
7.11.4; 7.14.5; 7.15.1; Table 7.22;
Table 7.21; 8.2.1.1.1; 8.2.1.1.4; 8.2.3.2
3.6.1.2
3.6.1.4; 6.3.4
6.3.1; 6.3.1.2
Table 6.11; Table 6.14; Table 6.1;7I
Table 6.18; 7.11.5; 7.15.1
Table 6.9
6.3.4; 6.4
6.3.3.1
6.5; 7.4.5
3.6.1; 3.6.1.1; Table 3.4; Table 6.3; 7.4.1;
Table 7.6; 7.4.3; Table 7.7; 7.6; Table 7.8;
7,11,1; 7.14.5
6.3; 6.3.5; Table 6.1; 7.11.2; 7.14.5
5.7; 6.3.6.2; Table 6.1; 6.4; 6.5.1; Table 6.3;
Table 6.4; Table 6.6; 7.2; 7.2.1; Table 7.1;
7.2.2; 7.2.3; Table 7.2; 7.3.6; 7.6.3; 7.6.4;
Table 7.11; 7.9; 7.14.5
6.3.6.2; 7.14.5
3.6.1.3; 3.6.2; Table 3.4; Table 4.7; 5.7;
6.3.6.2; Table 6.1; 6.4; 6.5.1; Table 6.3;
Table 6.4; Table 6.5; Table 6.9; 7.3; 7.3.1;
7.3.2; 7.3.3; 7.3.4; Table 7.4; 7.3.5; 7.3.6;
Table 7.5; 7.14.5
3.6.1; 3.6.1.2; 3.6.1.3; Table 3.4; Table 3.6;
6.3.2; 6.4; 6.5; Table 6.1; 7.4.1; 7.14.5;
7.16.4 Table 6.3; Table 6.4; Table 6.5; 7.4.2;
7.4.4; 7.4.5; 7.4.6; Table 7.8; 7.9; 7.10;.2;
7.11.1; 7.11.2; 7.14.1
Table 6.17
3.6.2
3.6.1; Table 3.4
(Index 1 continued on next page)
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Ultraviolet light pulses (lasers)
Vapour beat treatments
Waste materials
Waxing
5.8
Table 6.9; Table 6.14; Table 6.17
3.6.1.2; 6.3.2; 6.4; 7.10.2; 7.11.1;
7.11.2
Table 5.11; Table 5.12; Table 6.17
"(3
THE TECHNICAL AND ECONOMIC FEASIBILITY OF REPLACING METHYL BROMIDE IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES
-------
-------
INDEX
ndex2:
| Crops and Commodities for Which Methyl Bromide is Used
Crops, Commodities and Structures
Treated with MB
animal feeds
apples
apricots
asparagus
avocado
banana
basketwear
broccoli
bulbs
cherimoya
chestnuts
cherries
citrus fruits
cocoa beans
coffee
coffee mills
cotton
cucumbers
cucurbits
curios
Section
Table 3.1; 4.1; 4.3; Table 4.5
5.8; 6.9.1; Table 6.14;
Table 5.5; Table 5.6; Table 5.12; Table 5.13;
Table 6.14; Table 6.17
Table 3.1; 4.3; 4.10; Table 4.4; 4.12;
Table 4.6; 4.9; 5.8; Table 5.12; Table 6.14;
Table 6.17; Table 6.18
Table 6.14
Table 6.1; Table 6.9; Table 6.14
3.7.4; Table 6.8
Table 6.1; 7.6.1; Table 7.10
Table 6.9; Table 6.14; Table 6.18
Table 6.14
Table 5.5
Table 6.14
Table 3.2; Table 3.3; 3.4.3; 3.5; Table 5.5; 5.8
6.8; Table 6.8
3.2; Table 3.2; 3.4.3; Table 4.2; 4.3;
Table 4.3; 4.9; 4.12; Table 4.6; Table 6.5;
Table 6.8
3.2, 3.4.3
Table 6.8; Table 6.10
6.3.4; 6.5; 7.3.5
6.3.4; Table 6.14; 7.4.5; Table 7.8
3.2; Table 3.2; Table 3.10; 3.7.4
8
O
"S!
VI
o
S
S
o
O
ft.
O
V
O
13
a
(Index 2 continued on next page)
THE TECHNICAL AND ECONOMIC FEASIBILITY OF REPLACING METHYL BROMIDE IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES
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cut flowers
eggplant
forest trees
fniit trees
ginger
glasshouse crops
golf courses
grains
horticulture
lemons
lettuce
logs
lycliees
mandarins
mangoes
maize
melons
mung bean
nectarines
nuts
nut trees
oil seeds
onions
papaya
paprika
peaches
peppers
2.5; 3.2; 3.3; Table 3.2; Table 3.3; 3.4.3; 3.51
3.6.2; Table 3.5; Table 3.7; 3.7.1; 4.1; 4.3;
6.4; Table 6.3; 6.9.1; 6^9.2; Table 6.14;
Table 6.16; Table 6.18; 7.6.2; 7.7.5; 7.9;
7.11.2;7.11.5
Table 5.7; 6.3.4; Table 6.4; Table 6.14;
Table 5.7
Table 5.14
4.10; Table 4.4; Table 6.18
Table 2.4; 6.4
4.3; Table 4.2; 4.8; 4.9; Table 4.3; 6.6;
Table 6.5
2.5
3.2; Table 3.3; 3.4.3; 6.2; 6.3.3; 7.12;
7.14.2; 7.14.3; 8.2.1.1.1, 8.5.7
5.8; Table 5.11
Table 5.7; 6.3.2; Table 6.4; 7.13.4
Table 6.8; Table 6.12
Table 6.14
5.8; Table 5.11
Table 6.1; Table 6.14
2.5; 3.3; 3.4.2; 3.6.1; 3.8; 4.3; 4.5; 4-10;
Table 4.4; Table 4.5; 4.11; 4.12; Table 4.6;
Table 6.9; Table 7.19
6.3.4; Table 6.14
4.1; 4.3; 4.10; Table 4.4; 4.11; Table 4.5;
Table 5.5; Table 5.6; Table 5.12; Table 5.13;
Table 6.14; Table 6.17
Table 3.1;
Table 5.7
4.1; 4.3; 4.11; Table 4.5; Table 6.8
Table 3.1; Table 5.7; Table 6.4
Table 6.14
Table 3.2, 3.4.3, 3.5; 7.4.3; Table 7.7;
Table 7.8; 7.5.1; Table 7.9
Table 5.5; Table 5.6; Table 5.12; Table 5.13;
Table 6.14; Table 6.17
Table 5.5; Table 5.7; 5.4.1; Table 5.8;
Table 5.10; Table 5.14; Table 6.14
(Index 2 continued on next page)
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pepper seeds
plums
pulses
rice
roses
sawn timber
snow peas
soil fumigation
squash
spices
stone fruits
stored grain
strawberries
table grapes
tapioca
tobacco/tobacco seed beds
tomato/tomato seed beds
Table 5.5; 5.4.2; Table 5.8; 5.6; Table 5.10;
Table 6.4
Table 5.5; Table 5.6; Table 5.12; Table 5.13;
Table 6.14; Table 6.17
4.1; 4.3; 4.8; 4.10; Table 4.4; 4.11;
Table 4.5; 4.12; Table 4.6; 5.8; Table 5.11;
Table 6.6; 6.8
3.4.2; Table 3.9; Table 3.11; 3.8; 4.1; 4.3;
4.5; 4.10; Table 4.4; 4.11; Table 4.5; 4.12;
Table 4.6; Table 4.8; 6.3.2; 6.4; Table 6.8;
Table 6.9; 7.6.1; 7.8.2; Table 7.18; 7.8.3;
Table 7.20; 7.8.4; 7.14.8; 7.7.1
Table 3.1; Table 3.2; Table 3.3; 3.4.3; 3.6.2;
Table 3.5; 4.1; Table 5.7
Table 6.8; Table 6.12
3.4.3, 3.5; Table 7.10; 7.6.1
3.3; 4.3; Table 4.2; Table 5.1; 5.3; Table 5.5;
Table 5.7; Table 5.8; 5.5; 5.7; 8.2.1.1.4
Table 6.14
6.8; Table 6.8
5.8
3.2; Table 3.2; Table 3.3; 3.4.3; 3.5; 3.6.1.2;
Table 3.9; Table 3.11; 3.7; 3.7.3; 3.8; 7.8.2;
Table 7.18; Table 7.19; Table 7.20; 7.11.3
2.5; Table 3.1; Table 3.3; 3.5; Table 5.12;
6.3.3; Table 6.1; 6.4; 6.5; Table 6.177.4.4;
Table 7.8; 7.6.5; 7.7.4; 7.7.6; Table 7.15;
7.15.2; 8.2.1.1.1
2.5; Table 5.5; Table 5.6; 5.8; Table 5.22;
Table 5.12; Table 5.13; Table 5.14
4.1; 4.3; 4.5; Table 4.4; 4.11; Table 4.5;
4.12; Table 4.6
2.5; 3.2; Table 3.1; Table 5.5; 5.4.4;
Table 5.8; Table 5.10; 5.7; 6.3.1.1; 6.3.1.4;
7.2.2; 7.3.2; 7.4.1; Table 7.6; 7.4.2;
Table 7.8; 7.9; 7.11.1; 7.15.1
2.3; Table 3.1; Table 3.2; 3.4.3; 5.3;
Table 5.7; 5.4.1; 5.4.3; Table 5.8; 5.6-
Table 5.10; 5.7; Table 5.12; Table 5.13;
O
5
S
o
0
O
i.
-------
tomato/tomato seed beds (continued)
vegetables
vineyards
wood products
Table 5.14; 6.2; 6.3.2; 6.3.4; Table 6.1; 6.4;
6.5; Table 6.2; Table 6.4; Table 6.14; 7.2.2;
7.6.1; Table 7.10; 7.6.3; Table 7.11; 7.7.3;
Table 7.13; Table 7.17; 7.13.4
2.5; 3.2; 3.3; Table 3.3; 3.4.3; Table 5.7;
6.3.1.4; 6.4; Table 6.4; 6.9.1; 6.9.2;
Table 6 14' 7.9; Table 7.23; 7.13.3; 7.13.4;
7.14.8; 7.15.1
5.8; Table 6.17
3.7.4; Table 6.8; Table 6.10
-------
INDEX 3
ndex 3:
Countries /States
Countries/ States
Argentina
Australia
Austria
Belgium
Bolivia
Brazil
Burkina Paso
California, USA
Canada
Chile
China
Colombia
Costa Rica
Denmark
Dominican Republic
El Salvador
Egypt
European Union
Section
5.4.1; Table 6.6; Table 6.17
2.3; 3.7; 3.7.1; 4.4; 4.5; Table 4.9; 6.3.6.1; Table 6.6;
Table 6.8; Table 6.13; Table 6.14; Table 6.17; 7.2
2.3; Table 2.4; 3.7.4; Table 6.6; Table 6.11
2.3; 4.2; 5.1; Table 5.1; 6.5; Table 6.2
Table 6.1
3.3; 7.2.2; 7.3.2; Table 7.5; 7.4.2; 7.4.6; 7.9
Table 6.1
6.4; Table 6.4; Table 6.14;7.13.5
7.6.1
1.1; 1.3; 2.5; 5.1; Table 5.1; Table 5.2; Table 5.3; 5.2;
Table 5.4; Table 5.5; Table 5.6; 5.4.2; 5.4.4; 5.5.; 5.7; 5.8;
6.3.2; Table 6.1; 6.6; Table 6.4; 6.7.3; Table 6.7; 6.8.3;
Table 6.12; 6.9.1; Table 6.14; 6.9.3; Table 6.17; 7.1; 7.2;
7.2.1; 7.2.3; 7.3.1; Table 7.5; 7.7.2; 7.7.3; 7.7.8; 7.14.3;
7.14.5; 7.14.6; 8.1, 8.2, 8.2.1.1.6, 8.3, 8.3.2, 8.4
Table 6.1; Table 6.4; Table 6.14
3.6.2; Table 3.5; 6.2; 6.3.2; Table 6.1; 6.4; Table 6.3; Table 6.4;
Table 6.5; 7.3.1; 7.3.3; 7.3.6; Table 7.5; 7.6.2; Table 7.11;
7.7.5; Table 7.17; 7.11.2; 7.14.1; 7.14.2; 8.6.2
Table 6.1
2.3; Table 2.4; 6.3.2; Table 6.6
Table 6.1
Table 6.1
3.3; 6.3.6.1; Table 6.1
Table 2.4
(Index 3 continued on next page)
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Florida, USA
France
Germany
Georgia, USA
Greece
Guatemala
India
Indonesia
Israel
Italy
Japan
Jordan
Kenya
Korea
Malaysia
Mexico
Myanmar (Burma)
Netherlands
New Zealand
Norway
Pakistan
Philippines
Portugal
Senegal
South Africa
South Carolina, USA
Spain
Sri Lanka
Sweden
6.3.1.4; 6.4; 6.5; Table 6.3; Table 6.4; Table 6.5; Table 6.14;
7.2; 7.2.2; Table 7.2; 7.13.2
4.2; Table 6.2; Table 6.14; 7.16
2.3; Table 2.4; 3.7.4; 6.3.1.1; 6.4; Table 6.2; Table 6.4;
Table 6.6; Table 6.8; Table 6.117.3.5
6.3.1.5
6.3.6.1; Table 6.2
Table 6.1; Table 6.4; 7.6.1; Table 7.10; 7.14.1
6.3.6.1; Table 6.1; 7.6.1
Table 2.4; 3.8; Table 6.1; Table 6.4; Table 6.6; Table 6.7;
Table 6.8; Table 7.111 7.13.5; 7.16; 7.6.4; 7.8.4; Table 7.21;
Table 7.22; Table 7.23;
2.3; 3.3; 4.2; 5.1; Table 5.1; 6.3.6.1; Table 6.6; Table 6.7;
Table 6.14; 7.14.6
2.3; Table 2.4; 4.4; 4.5; 6.3.2 6.3; 6.1; 6.4; 6;5. Table 6.2;
Table 6.3; Table 6.4; Table 6.14; 7.2; 7.2.1; 7.2.2
3.4.1, 3.4.2, 3.5, 3.7, 3.7.1, 3.7.2, 3.7.3; 6.3.6.1; Table 6.8;
Table 6.11; Table 6.12; Table 6.14; Table 6.17; Table 6.187.16
3.3; 6.3.6.1; Table 6.1
2.5; 3.6.2; Table 6.1; 7.7.1; 7.14.2
3.3, 4.4, 4.5
Table 6.1; Table 6.6; Table 6.8; 7.6.1; 7.8.3; Table 7.20
3.3; 6.2; Table 6.1; Table 6.4; Table 6.14; 7.6.1; 7.14.1
Table 6.1
2.3; 6.3.2; 6.4; 6.5; Table 6.2; Table 6.4; Table 6.14; 7.3.5;
Table 7.5; 7.4.4; 7.4.5; Table 7.8; 7.6.5; 7.13.5; 7.14.2;
8.2.1.1.1; 8.7.1
2.3; 3.7.1; Table 6.14; Table 6.17; Table 6.18;
2.3; Table 2.4
6.3.6.1; Table 6.1
3.6.1; 3.7.4; 6.3.3; Table 6.1; Table 6.6; Table 6.7; Table 6.8;
Table 6.227.6.1; 7.8.2; Table 7.18; Table 7.19
Table 6.2
Table 6.1
3.4.3; 3.5; 3.6.1.1; Table 6.1; Table 6.14; 7.7.4; Table 7.14;
Table 7.17
6.4
5.7; 6.2; Table 6.14; 7.16
6.2; Table 6.1; Table 6.4; 7.6.1; 7.14.1
Table 2.4
(index 3 continued on next page)
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Taiwan
-Tanzania
Thailand
United Kingdom-
United States of America
Vietnam
Zimbabwe
3.4.1; 3.5; 3.7; 3.7.1; 3.7.2; 3.7.3; Table 6.1; Table 6.11;
Table 6.14
6.3.3
1.1; 1.3; 3.3, 4.1; 4.2; 4.3; 4.4; 4.5; 4.6; 4.7; 4.8; 4.9; 4.10;
4.13; Table 6.1; 6.6; Table 6.3; Table 6.4; Table 6.5; Table 6.6;
6.7.3; Table 6.7; 6.8; Table 6.8; 6.8.3; Table 6.11; Table 6.13;
Table 6.14; 7.14.5; 8.3.2; 8.4
2.3; 3.7.4; 6.3; 6.2; Table 6.2; Table 6.3; Table 6.4; Table 6.5;
Table 6.6; Table 6.8; Table 6.11; 7.3.4; Table 7.4; Table 7.5;
7.13.5; 7.15.1
2.3; Table 2.4; 2.5; 3.3; 3.4.3; 3.7.1; 4.2; 5.1; Table 5.1; 5.2;
Table 5.5; Table 5.6; Table 5.8; Table 5.13; 6.3.1.3; 6.3.1.5;
6.3.3; 6.1; Table 6.3; Table 6.4; Table 6.5; Table 6.8; Table 6.9;
Table 6.10; Table 6.11; Table 6.12; Table 6.13; 6.9.1;
Table 6.14; 6.9.3; Table 6.16; Table 6.17; Table 6.18; 7.14.3;
Table 7.24; 7.14.6; 7.15.2; 7.16; 8.2.1.1.1; 8.7.1
Table 6.1; Table 6.4; Table 6.6; Table 6.8
1.1; 1.3; 2.3; 2.5; 3.1; 3.2; 3.3; Table 3.1; Table 3.2; 3.4.1;
3.4.2; 3.4.3; 3.5; 3.6.1; 3.6.1.1; 3.6.1.2; 3.1.6.3; 3.6.2; 3.7;
3.7.1; 3.7.3; 3.8; 3.9; Table 3.6; Table 3.4; Table 3.7; 6.2;
6.3.3.1; 6.3.1.4; 6.3.1.5; 6.3.3; 6.3.4; Table 6.1; 6.6; Table 6.3;
Table 6.4; Table 6.5; Table 6.6; 6.7.3; Table 6.7; 6.8.3;
Table 6.11; 6.9.3; Table 6.16; 7.1; 7.4.1; Table 7.6; 7.4.3;
Table 7.7; Table 7.8; 7.5.1; Table 7.9; 7.7.1; 7.7.4; 7.7.6; 7.15;
7.7.7; Table 7.16; Table 7.17; 7.8.1; 7.8.4; 7.9; 7.11.1; 7.13;
7.14.3; 7.14.5; 7.14.6; 7.15.1; 8.1; 8.2; 8.2.1.1.1; 8.2.1.1.2;
8.2.1.1.3; 8.2.1.1.6; 8.2.3.1; 8.2.3.2; 8.2.4; 8.3; 8.3.1;
8.3.2; 8.4
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THE TECHNICAL AND ECONOMIC FEASIBILITY OF REPLACING METHYL BROMIDE IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES
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INDEX
ndex 4:
Economic and Regulatory Issues
Economic and Regulatory Issues
Agricultural policies
Commercial pressures
Competition
Section
8.5
7.15
7.14
Cost benefit overview 7.16
Costs of alternatives:
- carbon dioxide
- chemical soil treatments
- direct sowing
- IPM/composting
- IPM/solarisation
- phosphine
- seed trays
- solarisation
- steam treatments
7.8
7.7
7.5
7.6
7.6
7.8
7.4
7.2
7.3
- substrate systems 7.4
Comparisons of MB and alternatives:
- costs
- performance
- yields
Controls on MB applications
Controls, international
Controls, national
Economic benefits of controls
Economic importance of MB
Economic opportunities
Employment
Export orientation
7.2- 7.8
6.4, 6.5
6.5
8.5
2.3
2.4
7.14
2.5; 3.4; Table 4.5; Table 5.13
7.10; 7.14
7.14
8.2
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(Index 4 continued on next page)
THE TECHNICAL AND ECONOMIC FEASIBILITY OF REPLACING METHYL BROMIDE IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES
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Financial assistance
Grace period
Import licence fees
Import substitution
Information flow
Labelling
Market factors
Measures to facilitate transition
Montreal Protocol
Multilateral Fund
New industries
Rate of phase-out
Resource requirements
Technology transfer
Training
Voluntary levy
7.12
8.8
7.12
7.14
8.2
7.15
7.15; 8.2
8.5
2.3; 8.2
7.12; 8.2; 8.3
7.10; 7.14
8.1; 8.2; 8.3; 8.4;
7.10.; 7.11
8.6; 7.14
7.6.1; 7.10; 7.12; 8.5.5; 8.6
7.12
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INDEX
ndex 5:
T3
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Ozone Depletion and Environmental Effects ofMethy Bromide
Kl
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X
THE TECHNICAL AND ECONOMIC FEASIBILITY OF REPLACING METHYL BROMIDE IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES
* U. S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1997-518-283
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