EPA 440/1-74/039-a
Group I, Phase II
Development Document for
Effluent Limitations Guidelines and
New Source Performance Standards
for the
ANIMAL FEED, BREAKFAST CEREAL,
AND WHEAT STARCH
Segment of the
GRAIN MILLS
Point Source Category
UNITED STATES ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
DECEMBER 1974
-------
DEVELOPMENT DOCUMENT
EFFLUENT LIMITATIONS GUIDELINES
; • . and . . .
NEW SOURCE PERFORMANCE STANDARDS
| for the
I - .
ANIMAL FEED, BREAKFAST CEREAL, AND
WHEAT 'STARCH SEGMENTS OF THE
I
GRAIN MILLS POINT SOURCE CATEGORY
jRussell E. Train
i Administrator
. i James L. Agee
Assxstant Administrator for Water and Hazardous Materials
Allen Cywin, Director
Effluent Guidelines Division
Richard V. Watkins
Project Officer
i • .
•<•'• jDecember 1974
<"Effluent Guidelines Division
Office of -waiter and Hazardous Materials
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Washington, D.C. 20460
For sale by tho Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Qovermnent Printing Office
I Washington, D.C. 20402 - Price $1.90
-------
ABSTRACT
This document presents the findings of an extensive study of the
animal feed, breakfast cereal, and wheat starch segments of the
grain milling industry by the Environmental Protection Agency for
the purpose of developing effluent limitations guidelines and
Federal standards of performance for the industry, to implement
Sections 304 and 306 of the wAct'»,
Effluent limitations guidelines contained in this document set forth
the degree of effluent reduction attainable through the application
of the best practicable control technology currently available and
the degree of effluent reduction attainable through the application
of the best available itechnology economically achievable which must
be achieved by existing point sources by July 1, 1977 and July 1,
1983, respectively. The standards of performance for new sources
contained herein setifortb the degree of effluent reduction that is
achievable through the application of the best available
demonstrated control \ technology, processes, operating methods, or
other alternatives, < '
i • .. , . ' • .
Separate effluent limitations guidelines are described for the
following subcategoriies of the grain milling point source category:
animal feed manufacturjing, hot cereal manufacturing, ready-to-eat
cereal manufacturing,' and wheat starch and gluten manufacturing.
Treatment technologies are recommended for the two subcategories
with allowable discharges: ready-to-eat cereal manufacturing and
wheat starch and gluten manufacturing. These technologies are
generally similar, and may include equalization and biological
treatment followed by [secondary clarification, in order to attain
the 1983 limitations, additional solids removal techniques will be
required. The standards of performance for new sources in the
ready-to-eat cereal jcategory are the same as the 1983 limitations,
while the standards ofj performance for the wheat starch subcategory
lie between the 197,7 and 1983 effluent limitations guidelines,
reflecting the difficulty in treating the high strength waste waters
involved. i ,
The cost of achieving! these limitations are described. For a
medium-sized ready-t.o|-eat cereal plant with production of 226,800
kg/day (500,000 Ibs/day)„ the investment cost for the entire
treatment system to meet the 1977 limitations is estimated to be
$812,000. An additional $64,000 will be required to meet the 1983
standards. Investment! costs for a typical wheat starch plant with a
capacity of 45,400 kg/day (100,000 Ibs/day) are $964,000 for 1977
and $996,000 for 1983.J
Supportive data and jrationale for development of the proposed
effluent limitations j guidelines and standards of performance are'
contained in this report.
111
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
SECTION
I Conclusions
II Recommendations
." , j
III Introduction
PAGE
IV
VI
VII
Purpose and Authority
Summary of Methods
Sources of Data
Generalj Description of the Industries
Production Processes
Waste Water Considerations
Industry Categorization
I '
Factors Considered
V Water Use arid Waste water Characteristics
Introduction
Animal JFeed Manufacturing
Hot Cereal Manufacturing
Ready-ToJ-Eat Cereal Manufacturing
Wheat Staren and Gluten Manufacturing
Selection of Pollutant Parameters
I
Major Pollutant control Parameters
Other Pollutant Control Parameters
Control and
Treatment Technology
Introduction
Ready-Tjo-Eat Cereal Manufacturing
Wheat Starch and Gluten Manufacturing
i • '
VIII cost. Energy, and Non-Water Quality Aspects
Representative Plants
Terminology
Cost Information
Non-Wat'er Quality Aspects
5
6
7
n
19
30
33
33
36
36
36
37
37
48
61
61
64
69
69
69
71
75
75
75
76
88
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ITABLE OF CONTENTS (Continued)
SECTION
IX
Effluent Reduction Attainable Through
the Application of the Best Practicable
Control ITechnology Currently Available -
Effluent Limitations Guidelines
i . , . .
Introduction
Effluent Reduction Attainable Through
th4 Application of Best Practicable
Control Technology Currently Available
Identification of Best Practicable
Control Technology Currently Available
Rationale for the Selection of Best
Practicable Control Technology
Currently Available
Limitations on the Application of Effluent
Limitations Guidelines
•Effluent Reduction Attainable Through the
Application of the Best Available Technology
Economically Achievable - Effluent
Limitations ^GuideljLnes .-,.,
XI
XII
XIII
Introduction ,
Effluent Reduction Attainable Through
the Application of the Best Available
Technology Economically Achievable
Identification of Best Available
Technology Economically Achievable
Rationale for the Selection of the
Best Available Technology
Economically Achievable
New Source Performance Standards
Introduction
New Source Performance Standards
Rationale for the Selection of New
Source Performance Standards
! ' • - '
Acknowledgements
i ;
References
PAGE
89
89
90
91
93
97
9,9
j '
99
TOO
100
102
105
105
105
106
109
111
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FIGURES
1 NUMBER
I 1
1
2
tl
S3
1 3
| '
i ' 4
i
; • 6
; 7
i 8
;i
^ v
•i • 9
•i
1
i ' 10
;
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
1 .
Data Retrievlal Form
i ' •
i
Location of [Major cereal Producing
Plants in iu. S. ' '
i
Location of Wheat Starch and Gluten
Plants in ;U. S.
I M h .1-
|
Animal Feed Manufacturing
Flaked or Crisped Cereal Production
Shredded Cereal Production
Puffed Whole! Grain cereal Production
f
Extruded/Puffed Cereal Production
i . • .
Extruded Cerjeal Production
1 . • . .-
Wheat Starch and Gluten Manufacturing
i
vi '
Average BOD ?Discharged as a Function of
Age of Cereal Plants
Average Suspended Solids Discharged as
a Functioni of Age of Cereal Plants
Waste water Flow as a Function of Cereal
Plant Capacity -
I • • '
Average BOD Discharged as a Function of
Cereal Plant Capacity
i
Average Suspended Solids Discharged as
a Function of Cereal Plant Capacity
Average BOD Discharged as a Function of
Percentage: of Coated cereal Produced
i •'
Average BOD Discharged as a Function of
Wheat starch Plant Age
'" i i '
i .
i
<"..!• • • • • - • • ":
! ' • •
i
i
i
; i : -• '.
i ,".'-•
PAGE
8
14
18
20
23
24
25
26
28
29
43
44
45
46
47
49
53
i
.-'
-------
TABLES
NUMBER
1
2
3
10
11
12
13
14
15
Wheat Starch Cpmpanies and Plants
••! ''- - *• ',-
Composition of Whole Wheat
I -; .
Shredded cerjeal Cooker Discharge Waste
Water Characteristics
Total Plant feaw waste Water Characteristics,
Ready-To-Eat Cereal Manufacturing
Waste water Characteristics Per Unit of
Finished Product, Ready-To-Eat Cereal
Manufacturing
! •
Total Plant Raw Waste Water Characteristics,
Wheat Starch Manufacturing
t
Waste Water Characteristics Per Unit of
Raw Material, wheat Starch Manufacturing
Water Effluent Treatment Costs, Small
Ready-To-Eat Cereal Plant-(90,700 kg/day)
» * '
Water Effluent Treatment Costs, Medium-Sized
Ready-To-E^t Cereal plant (226,800 kg/day)
i
Water Effluent Treatment costs, Large
Ready-To- 13at Cereal Plant (544,300 kg/day)-
Water Effluent Treatment Costs, Typical
Wheat Starch Plant
i . .
Effluent Reduction Attainable Through the
Application of Best Practicable Control
Technology [Currently Available
i
Effluent Reduction Attainable Through the
Application! of Best Available Technology
Economicallly Achievable
i
New Source Performance Standards
Conversion Table
PAGE
17
16
39
40
41
50
52
78
79
80
85
90
100
106
115
ix
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(eontinued)-
NUMBER
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
Average Suspended Solids Discharged as
a Function of Wheat Starch Plant Age
Waste Wateij Discharge as a Function of
Wheat Starch Plant Capacity
'I
Average BO^ Discharged as a Function of
Wheat Starch Plant Capacity
| j ==•_.-,:.. ,.=.._ _ ,-, ' - '-, = -•-
Average Suspended Solids Discharged as a
Function jof Wheat Starch Plant Capacity
Average BOD| Discharged as a Function of
Wheat Stanch Plant Discharge Volume
i
Average Suspended Solids as a Function of
Wheat Stajrch Plant Discharge Volume
Cost of Treatment Alternatives Versus
Cereal Pipit Capacity
PAGE
54
56
57
58
59
60
82
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-^T^.,..,V: : .— .. j —SECTIOSTT" — ••. .- ••
. I CONCLUSIONS
I •
i
The segment of the gra'in milling industry that is covered in this
document (Phase II) ^includes three industry subgroups: animal feed
manufacturing (SIC Code 2048), breakfast cereal manufacturing (SIC
Code 2043) , and wheat! starch manufacturing (part of SIC Code 2046) .
These industries have been classified into four subcategories based
on products manufactured. Available information on factors such as
age and size of plant, production methods, and waste control
technologies does not provide a sufficient basis for further
subcategorization. |
I . ' . :
The subcategories covered in this segment of the grain milling
industry are as follows:
1. Animal feed manufacturing.
2. Hot cereal manufacturing.
3. Ready-to-eat cereal manufacturing.
I ' •
4. Wheat starch land gluten manufacturxng.
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SECTION II
lit "... ±
RECOMMENDATIONS
The recommended effluent limitations for the waste water parameters
of significance are ; summarized below for the subcategories of the
grain milling industry covered in this document. These values
represent the maximum average allowable loading for any 30 con-
secutive calendar days. Excursions above these levels should be
permitted with a maximum daily average of 3.0 times the average 30-
day values listed belo|w. The effluent limitations are expressed in
weight of pollutant pe'r weight of raw material (wheat flour) for the
wheat starch and gluten subcategory and per weight of finished
product of the reci4y-to-eat cereal subcategory. The effluent
limitation of no discharge of process waste water pollutants to
navigable waters for iihe animal feed and hot cereal manufacturing
subcategory makes quantitative expression of limits unnecessary.
The effluent limitations to be achieved with the best practicable
control technology currently available are as follows:
;BOD Suspended Solids
kg/kkqgbs/1000 Ibsl kg/kkcrflbs/1000
J2S
Animal feed I
manufacturing No discharge of process waste water pollutants
Hot cereal rj
manufacturing No discharge of process waste water pollutants
Ready-to-eat cereal i
manufacturing j 0.40 0.04 6-9
Wheat starch and ,
gluten manufacturing 2.0 2.0 6-9
| • ". ' ' •
Using the best available control technology economically achievable,
the effluent limitations ares
JBOD
Suspended Solids
kg/kkor fibs/1000 IbsS kg/kkqabs/1000 Ibsl
Animal feed |
manufacturing No discharge of process waste water pollutants
Hot cereal j
manufacturing No 'discharge of process waste water pollutants
Ready-to-eat cereal j
manufacturing j 0.20 0.15 6-9
Wheat starch and i
gluten manufacturing 0.50 0.40 6-9
-------
reGamneiraed
standards are as
Animal feed
. , . . .
N° difcharge of Process waste water pollutants
^manufacturing No di
Ready-to-bat cereal <
manufacturing | 0.20
Wheat starch and j
gluten manufacturingj 1.0
water pollutants
0 15 *; Q
, 6""9
1.0 g-9
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SECTION III
INTRODUCTION
PURPOSE AND AUTHORITY
Section 301(b) of the j Act requires the achievement by not later than
July 1, 1977, of effluent limitations for point sources, other than
publicly owned treatment works, which are based on the application
of the best practicable control technology currently available as
defined by the Administrator pursuant to Section 304 (b) of the Act.
Section 301(b) also requires the achievement by not later than July
1, 1983, of effluent limitations for point sources, other than
publicly owned treatment works, which are based on the application
of the best available technology economically achievable which will
result in reasonable jfurther progress toward the national goal of
eliminating the discharge of all pollutants, as determined in
accordance with regulations issued by the Administrator pursuant to
Section 304 (b) of jthe Act. Section 306 of the Act requires the
achievement by new sources of a Federal standard of performance
providing for the jcontrol of the discharge of pollutants which
reflects the greatest degree of effluent reduction which the
Administrator determines to be achievable through the application of
the best available | demonstrated control technology, processes,
operating methods, or other alternatives, including, where
practicable, a standrd permitting no discharge of pollutants.
Section 304 {b) of jthe Act requires the Administrator to publish
within one year of enactment of the Act, regulations providing
guidelines for effluent limitations setting forth the degree of
effluent reduction attainable through the application • of the best
practicable control technology currently available and the degree of
effluent reduction Attainable thrpugh the application of the best
control measures and practices achievable including treatment
techniques, process and procedure innovations, operating methods, and
other alternatives. | The regulations proposed herein set forth
effluent limitations guidelines pursuant to Section 304 (b) of the
Act for a portion of {bhe grain milling point source category.
Section 306 of the JAct requires the Administrator, within one year
after a category of sources is included in a list published pursuant
to Section 306 (b) (1) (A) of the Act, to propose regulations
establishing Federal {Standards of performance for new sources within
such categories. The Administrator published in the Federal
Register of January l|6, 1973 (38 F. R. 1624) , a list of 27 source
categories. Publication of the list constituted announcement of the
Administrator1 s intention of establishing, under Section 306,
standards of performance applicable to new sources within the grain
milling point ^source category, which was included within the list
published January 16, I 1973.
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GUIDELINES AND NEW SOURCE PERFORMANCE STANDARDS
LIMITATIONS
JjJ.iAJ.AAJ.-l.OJMb
The effluent limitations ; guidelines and standards of performance
proposed herein were developed in the following manner. The poin?
source category was first categorized for the purpose of determining
whether separate limitations and standards are appropriate" for
different segments within a point source catSoryT such
o?«d^SW iOIV "aS3 ~baSed Up°n raw ^terial ufedT product
produced, manufacturing; process employed, and other factors
raw waste characteristics for each subcategory werl then
i^;hinSi^ed -W analyjHS of CD the sourS and volume Sfweru ed
in the process employed j and the sources of waste and waste waters in
wa^S J f1*-*2* the ^stituents (including thermalfor Si
waters including toxic1 constituents and other constituents
result in taste, odor, a;nd color in water or aquatS SrganJsmI
constituents of waste wa!ters that should be subjec?
limitations guidelines and standards of performance were
^
rt ao inlued an
the effects
environmental impacts,
such
trol
of the application of such technologies
processes
:
opering met^od^ o?
in relation to the effluent reduction
.
of various types of coAtrol tehniSSS
^
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SOORCES OF DATA
The data utilized in preparing the proposed effluent limitations
guidelines for animal jfeed, breakfast cereal, and wheat starch
manufacturing were derived from a number of sources. These sources
included published literature, previous EPA technical publications
on
the industries, a
voluntary information retrieval form
distributed to the American Feed Manufacturers Association, Cereal
Institute and individualj manufacturers, information contained in
U.S. Army Corps of
VmM .^. K, __ Engineers discharge permit applications,
industrial waste sampling data from several municipalities, and on-
site visits, interviews, and sampling programs at selected
manufacturing plants throughout the United States. A more detailed
explanation of the data sources is given below. All references used
in developing the guidelines for effluent limitations and standards
of performance for new sources reported herein are included in
Section XIII of this document.
During this study the
trade associations representative of the
industry subcategories I were contacted. The American Feed
Manufacturers Association and the Cereal Institute were informed of
the nature of the study and their assistance was requested. Data
and retrieval forms were] voluntarily circulated and completed by the
industries. The data retrieval form is shown in Figure 1. The
completed forms provided a detailed source of information about the
various plants includihg data on raw materials and finished
products, water requirements, waste characterization and sources,
and waste treatment. InJ addition to the trade associations, all
major feed manufacturers and all of the existing plants in the
breakfast cereal and wheat starch industries were contacted.
Specifically, contact was made with ten feed manufacturers, 26
companies manufacturing cereal at 47 plants, and six companies
producing wheat starch! and gluten at seven plants in the United
States, Retrieval formsj with usable data were returned by 16 cereal
plants and six wheat stajrch plants.
i
Refuse Act Permit Prograjm (RAPP) applications to the U.S. Army Corps
of Engineers for discharges to navigable waters under the Rivers and
Harbors Act of 1899 were; also used as a limited source of data.
These data included tine identification of the plant, water usage,
the number of waste discharge points, the volumes of discharge, and
the character and quantity of waste water. RAPP applications for 21
animal feed mills and six cereal manufacturing plants were reviewed.
All of the feed mill] discharges and five of the six cereal plant
discharges were non-contact cooling water. Only one application
from a cereal plant 'recorded a direct discharge of process waste
water to navigable waters.
•*'- I
' i
During the study, requests for information on waste discharges ?. were
made to municipalities receiving waste waters from plants within the
industries covered! Twelve municipalities responded with data on 13
breakfast cereal and jwheat starch plant discharges. Included were
usable sampling data records for ten of the plants.
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Plant visits Provided information about the manufacturing process,
water usage within the plant, sources of wastes, in-plant waS
<->,<* ^"fwa?te treatment^ A total of 17 plants were
r.ne roixowing subcategories:
Industry. Totall
Animal Feed ' 5
Breakfast Cereal 10
Wheat Starch I 2
in addition to the above| visits, personnel at plants in
each subcategory were contacted by telephone for informaticS on the
industry and waste water^ handling and disposal. Detailed da?a werj
obtained during these! conversations consisting of p?oduc?
program provided data on he raw and treatd wase seams t as
provided verification of data on waste water char^terisScS
provided by municipalities and other individual plants?
GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF THE INDUSTRIES
The animal feed, breakfast cereal, and wheat starch industries all
s5i.tat?"Us1--ES -s?
in animal feed. The manufacture of b?eakf2st
Feed
in harvested is used t<|> feed poultry and livestock.
.
and livestock growers fed their animals grain. A
s^f^^r^-
^?^rin^SSf- Sti^r-era^^
operating in 1875.' Early mills were located near rivlrs '
operae nll .
operate smaller mills near; their markets
h, oe
has changed the economics of the industry.
, and feed manufacture?^
11
-------
In the past, so-called "complete feeds" were predominantly manu-
factured. Complete feeds contain all the necessary ingredients for
livestock, including grain, protein, drugs, vitamins, and minerals.
In the late 1920Bs, teed concentrates containing protein, trace
minerals, and vitamins j were introduced. This concentrate was
ideally suited for the grain-producing areas of the country; the
farmer simply mixed it with his own grain on the farm. Production
of feed concentrates j has increased considerably since its
introduction and accounts for about one-third of present total feed
tonnage. A typical listing of concentrate ingredients might include
soybean meal, animal and fishery by-products (protein sources), fat,
minerals, and trace quantities of antibiotics and other substances
for disease and parasite prevention and growth stimulation.
In the last decade, many(manufacturers of drugs and feed ingredients
have developed combinations of drugs and vitamins known as premixes
to which protein and gifain must be added. A typical complete feed
formula would include about two-thirds grain, 25 to 35 percent
concentrate, and 5 toj 10 percent premix ingredients. Nearly all
feed manufacturers offerjcomplete and concentrate feeds; a few offer
premixes. i . ;
: ,:. : .-\.:i-.,,. ,:,-.'
The manufacture of formula feed represents 12 percent of total farm
production, and in agriculture ranks fifth behind cattle, feed
grains, dairy products, and pigs. Usage of formula feed in the
livestock industry is distributed as follows:
'J
si
Poultry j
Dairy Cattle i
Swine
Work Animals
Range and Beef Cattle
Sheep and Goats[
58%
28
8
3
2
1_
1005b
The animal feed industry has undergone tremendous growth since its
inception some 80 years ago; it is .now the tenth largest industry in
the U.S. There are presently over 6000 feed manufacturers, plus
related industries such as drug, chemical, and mineral suppliers.
Consumption of formula feed increased 37 percent from 1940 to 1966,
and current production! is approximately 45 million tons annually,
representing over $3 billion in sales. Today, about 40 percent of
the feed consumed by animals in the U.S. is formula feed. There are
presently about 8000 ! feed mills in the country individually
producing at least 907 kkg (1000 tons) of feed per year. Daily
production pf feed mills ranges from 3.6 to 1800 kkg (4 to 2000
..-.'..''• ' .. STEAM
INGREDIENTS
MIXING
.....ib
I.P
_k
r
COOLING
DRYING
fe
I JF
ROLLING
MEAL
PELLETS
GRANULES
ANMAL FEED MANUFACTURING
12
-------
The basic production sequence in the manufacture of animal feed is
shown in the accompanying diagram. The various ingredients are
first received and stored. Whole grains are often ground or cracked
before use, but cleaning is not performed and water is only used as
necessary to raise the moisture content prior to grinding. Next,
the ingredients are mixed in proper proportion, after which some of
the product may be removed as a meal form of feed. A pelleting
operation follows, in which steam is added and the mixture is forced
through dies. The pellets are cooled and dried, then either
packaged in pellet form or rolled and packaged as a granular feed.
Finished feed is transported from the plant in packages or in bulk
shipments.
Breakfast Cereal Industry
Man has been aware of the food value of grains since ancient times,
but prior to the turn of! this century, grain was only consumed in a
cooked form. Thus early Americans boiled and baked grain into
porridges and breads. Abound the mid 1800«s, the Scottish dish of
oatmeal became popular in the U.S. An American innovation was added
when the oats were rjolled rather than ground. Rolled oats were
first sold as a health fbod, biat eventually developed into a grocery
store staple. It was also found that other grains, such as cracked
wheat and rolled wheat, jcould be prepared in the same manner.
The first ready-to-eat] cereal was prcbably "Granula", developed by
Dr. James C. Jackson in >|1863 at Dansville, New York. Sold as a
health food, Granula :jwas produced by baking a coarse whole meal
dough in thin sheets untjil brittle, breaking the sheets into chunks,
baking again, and then grinding the chunks into granules.
Four discoveries or developments near the turn of the century led to
the ready-to-eat cereal industry. The first occurred in 1893 when
Henry D. Perkey of Ejenver produced and marketed a shredded wheat
product. The following year W. K. Kellogg and his brother. Dr. John
H. Kellogg, developed the flaked cereal. It was first used at the
Battle Creek Sanitarium jas a health food, then later the product was
mass-marketed by W. K. Kellogg. In 1897, Charles W. Post produced a
ground cereal product! in Battle Creek called "Grape Nuts". The
fourth development came Jin 1902 when Alexander Anderson produced the
first puffed cereal. |
The cereal-industry has grown considerably since then. Today over
one and one-half billion pounds of cereal are produced annually;
sales are approximately j$l billion each year. Seventy-five million
servings of cereal areiconsumed each day in the U.S., which amounts
to eight pounds of cereal per person per year. There are some 26
companies operating 'I? plants in the U.S., with the major plants.
located as shown in Figure 2. Plant capacities range from 4i;5 to
almost 680 kkg (10,000:.tio 1,500,000 Ibs) of cereal per day.
i ' ~ • , , "..- • • ~ ......
Breakfast cereals can be broadly classified as either hot cereals or
ready-to-eat cereals. Hot cereals require cooking before serving
and are normally made from oats or wheat. Basic processes in the
13
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of hot cereals include cleaning, milling, sizing," and
enrichment for wheat; and|cleaning, roasting, sizing, de-hulling,
steaming, and rolling for}oats. Manufacturing methods are described
in more detail later in this section.
A wide variety of ready--to-eat cereals is manufactured in the U.S.,
and productidn methods vary depending on the type of cereal. Raw
materials include whole girain wheat and rice, corn grits, oat flour,
sugar, and.other minor ihgredients. The general processes involved
include ingredient mixing^ cooking, tempering or drying, forming
(either flaking or extrusion]) , toasting or puffing, and vitamin
addition. The accompanying diagram outlines a basic cereal
manufacturing operation,', although the particular type of cereal
being produced will dictate which specific unit processes are
utilized. i
I
INGREDIENTS
MIXING
DOKING
DRYING
FORMING
r
1
COATING
dU—
VITAMIN 1
ADDITION |
i 4r
K-t
TOASTING
PUFFING
PACKAGING
PACKAGING
CEREAL MANUFACTURING
. i
Today the wheat starch! industry might be more properly termed the
wheat gluten and starch industry, as gluten presently brings a
higher economic return! than starch. Basically, wheat starch
manufacture involves the physical separation and refinement of the
starch and gluten (protein) components of wheat flour.
The
preparation of starch from cereal grains was carried on in
ancient times. The 'Egyptians as early as 3000 B.C. used starch for
sizing papyrus, and a Roman treatise written in 184 B.C. describes
a method of preparing starch from wheat by fermentation. Wheat was
the major source of starch from primitive times until the late 18th
Century, when cheaper sources of starch were sought. Potatoes and
finally corn replaced wheat as major starch sources. ; \
The first American wheat starch plant was built in 1807 in Ut'ica,
New York. Many plants were constructed in the early 1800*s, but by
the end of the century, all but a few had been converted to corn
starch plants. In 1895 there were five wheat starch plants
15
-------
pounds of starch per year.
i ' ' "
within the industry has increased considerably during the
r-om=,^Qxi- f3' f ugll the number of manufacturing plants has
ieniaineci almost constant- WHIT *i7i-i«3a4- c-t-^t-f^^ ^i-.«.i _
• „ in/rrt •» j v**^.»,<****-• iwua. wiitJciT; starcn plants were ooeratino
o a ;h~« Prfent inhere are seven plants in operation in SI
U.S., three of which were producing starch in 1960. current wheat
flour consumption in the industry is about 113,400 kkcr f250
pounds) annually. Ta.ble 1 lists the companies and plants in
U.S. presently producing wheat starch and gluten, and the
S-SSS^sftSS VWi SS^^SSy'-SLf-^LS
manufacturing processes employed whole wheat as the raw material
who^wLa? grain/' f"* ™**i™** —* «• P««* °? Se
; Table 2
i
Composition of Whole Wheat
Starch
Protein
Moisttire
Sugary gum, etc.
Fibre j
Ash j
Fat 1..
12.1
13.6
3.8
2.6
1.6
1.7
. .. ,, - ,- whole wheat were used during the early
's, the Halle process and the Alsatian process. in the Halle
process, the wheat was steeped until soft, drained and crushed
between rollers, and fermented in large vats! The fermentation
h?2!S!!Li an? P*^^1^ I diss<>l^ed the gluten, allowing the starch to
be washed put. The Halle process produced a 50 to 60 percent starch
yield, but had several disadvantages. These included the long time
period required, offensive odors which were produced during
fermentation, and the fact that gluten could not be recovered in a
commercial form. The(Alsatian or Hungarian process was similar to
the Halle process except that the fermentation step was excluded.
This increased the difficulty of washing the starch from the gluten.
The process yielded 35 to 45 percent first grade or A-starch and 10
to 20 percent second grade or B-starch. if gluten recovery was
desired, a long washing (process was required, and the yield w^s only
5 to 6 percent. -,!-,-.
16
-------
—- __ j. ^r^.
llion
tarch
ounds
ucing
g the
has
ating
the
wheat
llion
n the
plant
23 tp
tarch
rial.
the
Table 1
Wheat Starch Companies and Plants
>arly
lalle
istied
ition
:h to
:arch
time
iring
n a
ir to.
ided.
it en.
.d 10
was
only
Centennial Mills j
ll*61* H.¥. Front Avenue j
Portland, Oregon 97208 j
Plants: Portland, Oregon
,97208 j
Spokane, Washington
99220 ' |
>| '
General Mills Chemicals, line.
1*620 West 77th Street |
Minneapolis, Minnesota 55^35
Plant: Keokuk, Iowa 52632
Keever Division, A. E. StaJley .
2200 Eldorado Street j S
Decatur, Illinois 62525 |
Plan*: Go'lumbus , Ohio ^3207
Loma Linda Foods
11503 Pierce Street
Riverside, California 92505
Plant: Riverside,
California 92505
Mid-west' Solvents
1300 Main Street
Atchison, Kansas 66002
Plant: .Atchison, Kansas
'66002
New Era Milling.Company
P. 0. Box 958
Arkansas City, Kansas 67005
••: Plant: Arkansas City,
Kansas 67005
-------
-------
processes involved. : diagram below outlines the basic
WHEAT
FLOUR
^.WATER
DOUGH
MAKING
k
r
^WATER
DOUGH
WASHING
I |
k
•f
iWATER
STARCH
REFINING
^
STARCH
DRYING
PACKAGING
0}
z
_J
a.
z
u
GLUTEN
DEWATERING
k
f
GLUTEN
DRYING
>PACKAGING
WHEAT STARCH AND GLUTEN MANUFACTURING
O
O
(0
UJ
. Z
u.
O
3
O
high percentageaof glu^^^aS;^^^8^^^^
PRODUCTION PROCESSES
this section. The
earlier in
Animal Feed
liquid
used in feed formul s'
with scalpers and
.round, cracked, or
ana ^t"»tnsi and
solubles are also
19
-------
Most wheat starch plants operating today employ the Martin procress
or a modification thereof. This technique, which uses wheat flour
rather than whole wheat^ jwas proposed in 1835 and was widely used by
the end of the 19th Century. The diagram below outlines the basic
processes involved.
CO
z
z
UJ
3
O
p> Q
HI <
3 X
O O
1
UJ
LL
O
L.WATER
WHEAT
FLOUR
DOUGH
MAKING
It
r
DOUGH
WASHING
iWATER
STARCH
REFINING
k
r
STARCH
DRYING
PACKAGING
^ WASTE WATER
> PACKAGING
WHEAT STARCH AND GLUTEN MANUFACTURING
I - - . •„.-..
Wheat flour is first miK^a with water to form a dough. The dough is
then kneaded and washed to separate the starch and gluten. The
gluten is dewatered, dried, and packaged, while the starch stream or
so-called "starch milk* is screened, centrifuged, dewatered, dried
and packaged. The Martin process generally yields 10 to 15 percent
gluten, H5 to 55 percent first grade starch, and 12 to 20 percent
second grade starch. Its main disadvantage lies in the relatively
high percentage of gluten-contaminated B-starch produced*
PRODUCTION PROCESSES
The production methods used in manufacturing animal feeds, breakfast
cereals, arid wheat staarch differ greatly as summarized earlier in
this section. The following discussion provides a more detailed
description of the manufacturing processes employed'in each industry
subcategory. ]
!
Animal Feed
The manufacture of animal feeds, shown in Figure 4, begins with the
receiving and storage of 'raw materials. These ingredients might
include grains such as born,, barley,. milo, and oats; various meals
including soybean, cotton'seed,, meat, and bone; and grain milling by-
products such as wheat middlings and corn gluten. Dry additives,
including salt, mineralls, drugs, phosphorus, and vitaminsi and
liquid ingredients such as fat, molasses, and fish solubles are also
used in feed formulas. Grains receive drycleaning and separation
with scalpers arid magnetis prior to storage. Whole grains are often
ground, cracked, or crimpjed prior to feed mixing. A small amount of
19
-------
. -™ _ VP
INGREDIENTS
l&f RAIV OR
MEAL A
(PACKAGED) ^f-
1
3CALS
\
SURGE E.IN
/
STEAM
PELLETING
FINES
GRANULES
(BULK &
PACKAGED)
PELLETS
(BULK &
PACKAGED)
COOLING &
DRYING
h
P
f SIZING
•8
ROLLERS
ANIMAL FEED MANUFACTURING
20
-------
viator is sometimes added to the grain for dust control during
grinding, which is usually performed with hairanermills.
Mixing is the next stjep in feed manufacture. Ingredients are
weighed and then fed into a mixer in a ratio based on the particular
feed formula. A representative medium-sized plant produces 200 to
300 different feed blends. Material from the mixer is a meal or
mash and may be marketed in this form.
A pelleting operation follows mixing if pellet or granular forms of
feed are desired. Pelleting is an extrusion process in which the
meal is steamed and then iforced through dies. The resulting pellets
are 1/8 to 3/4" in diameter and length. They must be cooled and
dried after extrusion. This is done in pellet coolers through which
air is blown at room . temperature. Feeds with a high molasses
content are dusted with b|entonite or cottonseed meal to prevent
caking. The pellets ajre then sized, with fines and oversize
particles being returned to the extrusion operation. Pellets can be
packaged or bulk shipped.! If t*16 pellets are to be reduced in size,
they are passed through a. roller mill with corrugated rolls to
produce granular feed or crumbles. Again a screening operation
follows, with fines and overs being returned to the pellet
Granular feed is also eitjher shipped in bulk or packaged.
mill.
I
Breakfast cereal
A wide variety of brejakfast cereals are manufactured in the U.S.;
more than 100 different items, brands, and sizes of ready-to-eat and
hot cereals can be found |on a grocery shelf. The chief hot cereals
include wheat or farin'a and oatmeal. Ready-to-eat varieties are
made from one or more of !the basic cereal grains, corn, wheat, rice,
and pats, and may be flakjed, puffed, extruded, shredded,-coated, or
non-coated. A variety -i of production methods are employed in the
manufacture of cereals, wjith different methods often associated with
a particular type or even.1 brand of .cereal.
Hot Cereal
Hot wheat cereal or farin|a is comprised basically of wheat middlings
- chunks of wheat endosperm free of bran and germ. Middlings are
intermediate size particles produced in the milling of whole wheat.
Typical harcl wheat on the average yields about 30 percent middlings.
The only processes involvjed in the manufacture of hot wheat cereal
are sizing and vitamijn and mineral enrichment. occasionally
flavoring ingredients sucjh as malt or cocoa are mixed in with the
farina. One company eiriploys a pre-cooking operation to produce an
instant product. This operation involves addition of steam,
extrusion, and cooling or drying.
f • ' ' - - •-»
The second major t^pe ofj hot cereal is oatmeal or rolled oats. The
manufacture of rolled oats is basically a dry milling operation.
Whole oats are received, drycleaned and stored. A dry roasting
operation follows, during! which the moisture content is reduced to
six percent, the starcjh is partially dextrinized, and the hulls
21
-------
become fragile. The oats are then cooled, sized, and de-hulled,
leaving the inner berry or "groat". Rollers are then employed to
produce flakes from the groats. Cutting of the groats may precede
rolling to produce quick jcooking or instant oats. Addition of minor
ingredients and packaging follow.
Flaked and crisped Cereals
Corn grits, whole wheat, rice, and occasionally a combination of
grains are the chief raw[materials used in the manufacture of flaked
and crisped cereals. The basic production process is shown in
Figure 5. Whole wheat is tempered prior to use; the other grains
receive only dry cleaning. Flavor solution consisting of malt,
sugar, salt, and other ingredients is added and the mixture is
cooked under pressure wiih steam for a specified length of time. A
tempering or drying operation follows to reduce the moisture
content. Some types of flaked cereals are extruded and dried prior
to flaking. Large rollers are used to produce flakes from the
individual grains or pellets. The roller spacing is set close for
flaked cereals and farther apart for crisped cereals. The product
is then dried and toasted in large ovens, sprayed with vitamins, and
packaged, some types of|flaked and crisped cereals are sprayed with
a sugar solution and dried prior to vitamin addition and packaging.
Shredded Cereals
I
The manufacture of shredded cereals, shown in Figure 6, begins with
cleaned whole wheat. The wheat is fed in batches into steam cookers
where water is added, jAfter cooking, the water is drained and the
wheat is transferred to jlarge steel tanks where it is cooled,
tempered, and becomes firm. It then passes through shredding rolls
where the kernels are crushed and formed into long strands. Layers
of wheat strands are cut into biscuits and toasted in an over, prior
to packaging. Some types of shredded cereals receive a sugar
coating and vitamins pribr to packaging.
Puffed Whole Grain Cereals
i
Figure 7 depicts the operations involved in the production of puffed
whole grain cereals. Wheat and rice are the primary raw materials.
The grain is first preheated, then puffed by increasing and suddenly
decreasing the pressure in the puffing device or "gun". The grain
is dried, vitamins, are applied, and the product is dried, screened,
and cooled prior to packaging. Certain types of puffed whole grain
cereal undergo sugar Boating and cooling operations before being
packaged.
Extruded/Puffed Cereals
f
Oat flour and corn .grits
are among the chief ingredients used in the
manufacture of extruded/puffed cereals, shown in
ingredients are mixed with water to form a dough.
Figure 8. The
The dough enters
a combination cooking and extrusion process, where the particular
cereal's characteristic! shape is produced. After the moisture
shape is
22
-------
-
WATER
WET ^v A
SCRUBBER I )«
^r
WASTE
WATER
CONDENSED ^
VAPORS TO « —
SEWER
i
~
WHEAT
TEMPERING
4
CRACKING
j
4r-4
Jr
DRYING OR
TEMPERING
4
FLAKING
ROLLS
• ' • 1 I
I ^
i
^
VITAMIN
ADDITION
4
PACKAGING
" v' " *,."" • ""- J '...-.- ; ... .. •'"'•. 7;^";>>i:";' ;l0Ufi;
- - ^ • . '.,• -' - •,'•-.
CORN.RICE.OATS
;
:
• ' , ' \
A , !
r_ j ; |
«,_ .^.^ EXTRUSION 1
1
i "^ '' 1
^__— DRYING |.
SUGAR
_^. COATING
"F
±.
_
V
DRYING
^
VITAMIN
ADDITION
4
PACKAGING
FIGURE 5
FLAKED OR CRISPED CEREAL PRODUCTION
i
i 23
-------
U-ji
WATER •
WASTE
WATER 4
.
,
•
(h
WHEAT
COOKING
J,
TEMPERING
1
SHREDDING
1
TOASTING
•••.- |
:.';;:w"' •
SUGAR
COATING
j
VITAMIN
ADDITION
PACKAGING
k
F
PACKAGING
' '' ;[•;, •' FIGURE 6 i ;..
SHREDDED CEREAL PRODUCTION
24
-------
WHJOLE GRAIN
WHEAT OR R8CE
PREHEATING
1
; PUFFING
DRYING
I
; VITAMIN
! ADDITION
I SUGAR
! COATING
I
i COOLING
PACKAGING
I
DRYING
SCREENING
COOLING
PACKAGING
j FIGURE 7.
PUFFED WHOLE GRAIN CEREAL, PRODUCTION
I
25
-------
..
INGREOiENTS
MIXING
I
COOKING
EXTRUSION
DRYING
CONDENSED
VAPOR TO SEWER
PRE-HEATING
1
SCREENING
}-
WATER
WET
SCRUBBER
WASTE
WATER
1
1
1
t
VITAMIN
ADDITION
1
j
i
DRYING
TOASTING
I
COATING
PACKAGING
PACKAGING
FIGURE 8
. I -"
EXTRUDED/PUFFED CEREAL PRODUCTION
(, i
26
-------
I ^
content has been reduced, the cereal particles are preheated and
then puffed in a fashion similar to that employed in whole grain
puffing. The product is! sized, sprayed with vitamins and oven
toasted prior to packaging. Certain; varieties receive a sugar or
flavor coating before b^ing packaged.
Extruded Cereals
Extruded cereal production processes are shown in Figure 9.
Ingredients include oajt and corn flours along with sugar and
flavorings. The ingredients are dry mixed, then blended with water
to form a dough. An! extrusion process follows, producing the
various cereal shapes. The product is then sized, coated with a
flavor syrup, toasted, sjprayed with vitamins, and packaged.
i
Wheat Starch
The principal raw material used in the manufacture of wheat starch
and gluten is residual wjheat flour known as "clears" or "second
clears", comprised of jgrades that are unsatisfactory for the manu-
facture of white bread. ]
i ' •
The first step in the prpcess, shown in Figure 10, is dough making,
where fresh water is mixed with the incoming flour. The dough is
allowed to "mature" for la time and then, is washed with fresh water
to begin separation off the starch and gluten. The gluten, due to
certain adhesive properties, adheres to itself in a sticky mass.
The starch granules, packing these properties, are separated and
remain suspended in the if low of water. The separated mass of gluten
is kneaded and again washed to effect more complete starch removal.
After removal of the j starch, the gluten is either spray or drum
dried, sifted, and packed. Wheat gluten, with a 75 to '85 percent
protein content, is uised extensively as an ingredient in bakery
produce, particularly bread, to increase the protein content. About
35 percent of the protein in the gluten is in the form of the amino
acid, glutamic acid. If the gluten is hydrolyzed with hydrochloric
acid, glutamic acid as a| crystalline solid is obtained. Separation
and conversion with sodium hydroxide produces a product known as
monosodium glutamate, which is used as a flavoring agent.
The starch-laden stream from the washing operation is termed the
crude "starch milk", it is passed through coarse and fine screens
to remove cellulose fibrjss. To reduce the water content prior to
refining, a thickeningj or pre-concentrating centrifuge is often
employed. Next the starch milk enters the first refining centrifuge
where an initial separation of A-starch and B-starch is made. The
heavier A-starch component passes on to dewatering, drying, and
packing operations. The! lighter B-starch component enters a second
refining centrifuge which recovers additional A-starch. The B-
starch stream is, then; concentrated with another centrifuge,
dewatered, dried, and ]packed. Wheat starch has widespread use in
the food industry. Lower grade or B-starch finds uses in textile
manufacturing, as foundry starch, and in adhesives.
27
-------
INGREDIENTS
MIXING
WATER
-t
FLAVOR
SYRUP
BLENDING
i
EXTRUSION
i
SCREENING
I
"
PACKAGING
CONDENSED
VAPORS TO SEWER
WATER
*
• 4??
COATING
^
DRYING
TOASTING
4r
VITAMIN
ADDITION
J^^ WET
F\-./ SCRUBBER
4-
WASTE
WATER
F:IGURE 9
''1
EXTRUDED CEREAL PRODUCTION
-------
;
i
•
|
'
'
1
lv
WATERS
WATER v
*
WATER w
WATER^
"
1
WATER w
f
-
>
WHEAT FLOUR
DOUQH
MAKING
1
DOUQH
WASHING
I*
4*
SCREENING
I
FINE
SCREENINQ
I
THICKENING
CENTRIFUGE
I*
• •**
REFINING
CENTRIFUGE
1
A-3TARCH
DEWATERINO
;
A-8TARCH
DRYING
1
A- STARCH
PACKING
; .,-.,.,,. • : , . •-.•-.-. --,-- •- , -_.
j ' ' '
WATPR
• 4
^^^^^ nun-cut IMB^^ QIIFTEM ^^^ GIUTFN
^ WASHING r DEWATERmG ^ DRYING
1^ J 1
b WASTE WATER GLUTEN
r i SIFTING
*
GLUTEN
i
^ **STE WATM
! -WATER ' 4 ^
1^1 1
•^_^t RflFlfHm) ^^^. •- STARCH ^ rk B-BTAnTH
^ ^r CiNTRtFUaK ^ CONCENTRATION ™ DEWATERMG
^. 1
«-J B-STARCH
DRYING
4
•-STARCH
| PACKING
•i. " ,
= •'/'*
j FIGURE 10
WHEAT STARCH AND CILUTIN MANUFACTURINQ
j • 29
i
-------
"WASTE
IN
1 ni< nil i. r h >. Ill , .,i I- HII inn m ,r „ 1 . <|H,i HI < N , >|> , I I n i, . I ! . » ,|
Animal feed manufacturing plants utilize little or no process water
and generate no process waste waters. Water is used in steam
generation,, non-contact jcooling of pellet mills, and occasiqnally
for dust control during corn grinding., The only waste waters
generated are from auxiliary operations and include boiler blowdown,
spent cooling water, eind wastes from boiler feed water treatment
systems. , ]
. • • . i -.'-.',..'-.
Hot cereal manufacturing basically involves dry milling and blending
operations. Water is sometimes used for tempering and for raising
! product moisture content, ibut no process waste waters are generated.
Water is used quite extensively in ready-to-eat cereal manufacturing
plants. The various operations where water is used include grain
tempering, flavor solution make-up, cooking, extrusion, and coating.
Substantial quantities of jwater are employed in the periodic cleanup
of process and conveying equipment, and processing areas. Water is
also used for cooling, j flaking and forming rolls, extruders, and
other equipment such as compressors, and in wet scrubbers for air
pollution control in some iplants.
I • .•' , • ; '•',•• " •••• • ,'''•..
Most of the unit operations in ready-to-eat cereal plants do not
result in process waste Caters. Only the cooking operation in
shredded cereal manufacture generates a continuous or semicontinuous
Hi waste stream. Other wastes from this segment of the industry are
primarily from wet cleanup operations. Condensed vapors from
cooking operations, wet j scrubber discharges, and spent cooling
waters may also contribute relatively minor quantities of waste
water. Total waste water flows vary from 189 to 568 cu m/day
(50,000 to 150,000 gpd) for small plants and up to 3785 , cu m/day
(1,000,000 gpd) for large plants. BOD5 concentrations are moderate
to high, ranging from !*00 to 2500~" mg/1. Suspended solids
concentrations vary in the range of 100 to 400 mg/1 with the higher
concentrations generally being discharged from the larger plants.
At present, only one cereal plant has a direct discharge of process
wastes to a receiving [water, and that waste discharge is not
treated. The municipal s;ewer system is being expanded and will
collect these wastes for treatment in the near future. All other
cereal plants studied discharge their wastes to municipal systems.
One plant provides pretrieatment, and two others are in the process
of constructing pretreatment facilities.
In wheat starch manufacturing, process water is used for dough
making, dough washing, backwashing of screens, and countercurrent
washing of centrifuge discharges. Water is also used for plant
cleanup and auxiliary systems such as boiler feed and cooling.
Waste waters are generated from screening, starch milk thickening,
and plant cleanup - operations. The volumes are moderate, ranging
from 265 to 606 cu m/day 1(70,000 to 160,000 gpd) . These waste
waters are high in BOD5 jand suspended solids and consist primarily
of fine starch particles not recovered in the manufacturing process.
30
-------
.ter
.earn
ny
ers
>wn,
lent
o£ -the seven plants .discharge their wastes to municipal Systems.
one of these six plantis provides pretreatment, and another is
building a pretreatment Ifacility. The seventh plant uses its starch
effluent in a distillery operation from which there is a direct
discharge to a receiving water. This plant is constructing a
treatment plant for thejdistiller^ wastes.
i
ling
iing
ed.
-i
ring
•ain
Jig-
inup
is
and
air
not
in
LOUS
are
rom
.ing
iste
'day
day
ate
ids
rher
:ess
not
ill
her
ms.
ess
ugh
ent
ant
ng.
ngr
ing
ste
ily
ss.
31
-------
INDUSTRY CATEGORIZATION
I
This study of the grain milling industry covers the processing of
milled grain into aninjal feed, breakfast cereals for human
consumption, and wheat stlarch and gluten. After considering various
factors, it was concluded that the industry should be subcategorized
into several discrete segments for purposes of developing effluent
limitations. These subcitegories are as follows:
1. Animal feed manufacturing
2. Hot cereal manufacturing
3. Ready-to-eat cereal manufacturing
I-
4. wheat starch and gluten manufacturing
FACTORS CONSIDERED i
The factors considered in developing the above subcategorization
included: i
i
1. Raw materials j .
i
2. Finished product
i
3. Production processes or methods
4. Size and age ofj production facilities
1 ' vv- "
5. Waste water volume and characteristics
6. Treatability of wastes
I ' - '
Careful examination of iall available information indicates that two
of these factors, namely! type of finished product and waste water
characteristics, provide a meaningful basis for subcategorization
of this segment of the 'industry, as discussed in the following
paragraphs. !
Raw Materials j
The major raw materials used by this segment of the grain milling
industry are the basic cereal grains, principally corn, wheat, oats,
and rice. Other raw materials are used in varying amounts depending
on the specific end product. Vitamins and other additives are used
in animal feed production and large quantities of sugar,or syriip may
be added for certain breakfast cereals. Waste water characteristics
within this industrial category do not reflect the particular raw
materials employed. For example, the production of animal feeds
from cornl generates no waste water while the manufacture of ready-
33
-------
1
corn cereals "produces significant waste discharges.
* ». " — ^ was conclPde
Finished Products •
The finished products from this industry grouping vary widely and do
provide a rational basis for subcategorizing the industry. The
industry can be divided into animal feeds, breakfast cereals, and
wheat starch and gluten. Not only does this grouping divide the
industry into distinct prpduct lines, but it also reflects wastl
water characteristics. Animal feed production generates no process
waste waters. Ready-to7eat cereal manufacturing usually yields
substantial quantities ofimoderate to high strength wastes. Cereal
manufacture generates no process waste water,and wheat starch and
gluten operations producejvery high strength wastes.
The breakfast cereal indujstry contains two distinct subcategories.
hot cereals and ready-to-eat cereals. AS noted above the manu-
facturing operations used to produce hot cereals do not result in
process waste waters as contrasted with ready-to-eat cereal pro-
duction which generates waste waters from several unit operations.
The many types of ready-tq-eat cereals suggest the possibility of
SS^SJ*1 ^fategorizaiion based on cereal type, such as puffed,
extruded, and flaked or coated and non-coated. An examination of
*Ii w ® WS Water dat£ indicated only one possible relationship,
that being the variation of organic waste load with the percentage
of cereals being sugar-coated at cereal plants. it was concluded
V<.S?? -, a correlation may well exist, but it cannot be
quantitatively defined at this time and, hence, additional
subcategorization is not Warranted.
One difficulty in defining characteristics of the ready-to-eat
cereal industry is the fact that most plants produce a wide variety
™ i4-?ei types some plants also produce hot cereal, and many are
multiple-product plants producing items such as cake mixes, bakina
mixes, instant breakfast drinks, and pancake syrup, of the ready-
to-eat cereal plants in the U.S., only four or five produce strictly
O61T63..LS • | •
Production Processeg |
The production methods usejd in this industry vary widely. Animal
feed manufacturing basically consists of mixing various raw mate-
rials together followed by, pelleting and packaging. Cereal manu-
facturing is generally more complex and varies widely depending on
the specific type of cereajl. The unit operations will include at
least some of the following: mixing, shredding, cooking, rolling,
flaking, puffing, extrusion, and packaging. Wheat starch'and gluten
manufacturing entails yet 'another set of unit operations, quite
distinct from those used jin other segments of this industry, while
it is recognized that production methods differ greatly within the
' ^ I H i' ''''•' i J I J ii f It Si .1 I Si "• t 1* *fi 1 W . '
34
-------
^
consistent basis for siabbategorization.
' I. '.
Size and Age of Production Facilities
_ ___ ,_
The available data provides no evidence to support subcategorization
of this industry based on age or size of plants. Relationships
between waste loads arid plant size or age may exist, but the
information gathered during this study does not indicate a
correlation except for wheat starch manufacturing. In that segment,
a general trend of incrjeasing waste loads with increasing plant age
and capacity is indicated. The waste loads per unit of raw material
vary within a fairjly narrow range, however, making a
subcategorization on thiis basis impractical and unwarranted.
Waste Water Characteristics
i
Waste water characteristics, in conjunction with finished products,
form the basis for the subcategorization detailed previously in this
document. Animal feed ahd hot cereal manufacturing do riot produce
process waste waters and are thereby clearly distinguished from the
remaining two subcategorxes. Both ready-to-eat cereal and wheat
starch production genejrate organic type wastes; the very high
strength of the wheat starch waste waters (6000 to 14,000 mg/1 of
BODJi) merits a separate subcategory. Ready-to-eat cereals normally
generate waste waters with BODJ5 concentrations of 400 to 2500 mg/1.
This range is representative of small plants and large plants,
correspondingly. 5|
Treatabilitv of Wastes
All of the process waste waters generated by various segments of
this industry are amenjable to conventional physical arid-biological
treatment systems of the! same general type. The fundamental design
criteria are similar land treatability is not a satisfactory basis
for subcatiegorization. i Supplemental nutrients (nitrogen and
phosphorus) are requirjed for effective biological treatment of
1 ready-to-eat cereal procjess waste waters, as well as pH control for
starch waste. i
35
-------
H.i(ll
WATER USE AND WASTE WATER CHARACTERISTICS
-' •• ••- '
INTRODUCTION '•'('•
The industry subcategories covered by this document indicate a wide
range of process water requirements and waste water characteristics.
The animal feed industry, with little or no process water use,
generates no process waste waters. Water use in the breakfast
cereal industry varies from _ virtually none in hot cereal manufacture
to substantial amounts .in "large ready-to-eat cereal plants. Wheat
starch plants do not require large quantities of process water, but
they do produce high-strength waste waters.
This section presents a| detailed discussion of water use, individual
process and total plant waste water characteristics, and factors
that might influence th£ nature of the waste waters generated. The
information presented j has been collected from industrial sources,
U.S. .Army Corps of Engineers permit applications, municipal sampling
data records, literatures, and the results of a series of sampling
visits to selected plants in each industrial subcategory. The
sources of data are described in more detail in Section III.
In general, information
contact cooling water
on waste water characteristics of non-
boiler blowdcwn, and water treatment plant
wastes has been excluded from the following discussion. These
auxiliary activities >j are common to many industries, and the
individual practices atj any given plant usually do not reflect
conditions that are unique to the grain milling industry. The types
of treatment employed for cooling water systems, boiler feed water,
and process water vary widely throughout the industry and depend . on
such factors as raw walber characteristics, availability of surface,
ground, or city water, individual company preferences, and other
considerations not related to the basic nature of the industry.
Separate guidelines for auxiliary wastes common to many industries
will be proposed by EPA at a later date.
ANIMAL FEED MANUFACTURING
! • • • ......
The prpcessing of various grains, grain milling by-products, and
other materials into prepared animal feeds requires only small
volumes of process water. The two main areas of water use in a feed
mill are boiler operation for steam generation and non-contact
cooling of processing equipment such as pellet mills. Steam is
required for softening the meal and raising the moisture content
prior to pelleting (seejFigure 4 in Section III of this document).
No water is discharged)as a liquid from this operation. Only water
vapor results from, the pellet cooling and drying operation. ;
Waste waters generated jbyanimal feed producing plants include
boiler blowdown, non-contact cooling water, and wastes from boiler
feed water treatment, siich as ion exchange regeneration wastes. No
J36
-------
walsrtre^crters-^^
termed a "dry" industry.
HOT CEREAL MANUFACTURING
jn general, only dry milling and blending operations are involved in
the manufacture of hoi: cereals such as farina and rolled oats.
Water is used for grain tempering and for raising product moisture
during manufacture, but no waste waters result from these
operations. i
READY-TO-EAT CEREAL MANUFACTURING
Water Use
i
There are several areas bf water use in ready-to-eat cereal manu-
facturing. A large prbportion of the total water consumption of a
plant is due to wet cleanup and washing operations, but several of
the processing steps alsb require fresh water.
i
Many areas of a ready-t!o-eat cereal plant receive wet wash-downs or
cleanup, including certain types of process equipment and specific
processing areas. Equipment that is washed on a regular basis
includes cookers for flaked and crisped cereals, flavor making or
brewing tanks, ingredient and syrup mixing tanks, coating equipment
such as rotating drums and spray nozzles, and belt conveyors. One
plant utilizes a continuous stream of spent cooling water to wash
conveyor belts and floor! areas under flaked cereal cookers. The
waste stream is discharged to the sewer.
Specific processing areas that are washed include diked floor areas
under vitamin and sugar [coating equipment, toasting ovens, conveyor
belts, and ingredient mixing equipment. Dry collection of product
spillage for subsequent use as feed is practiced to a greater extent
in some plants than in others. A few 'plants have vacuum systems for
this purpose. General washing of floors and walls is also carried
out in most ready-to-eat cereal plants. Floors are either rinsed or
mopped, arid walls are1 occasionally scrubbed, particularly tiled
surfaces around processing areas. Detergents are generally used,
and some plants also j use sanitizing agents in their cleanup
operations. ;
Water is added to the product to increase the moisture content in
several of the processing steps in cereal manufacturing. These
steps include grain tempering, cooking operations, and extrusion
operations. Except fcjr the cooking operation in shredded cereal
manufacture, the added n|oisture remains with the product until it is
released as a vapor in^ at drying operation. Water is also used in
coating of cereals withjvitamins. In most plants, water is added to
a dry vitamin mixture to form a solution which is th'en sprayed on
the cereal. Some plants, first spray the product with water and then
spray the vitamins on in a dry form. The water enables the vitamins
to adhere to the cereal.;
37
-------
Some ready-to-eat cereal plants use wet scrubbers for air pollution
control. Certain processes such as cooking, extruding, coating, and
puffing can produce moist: vapors containing particulates. Typical
flows of fresh water or spent cooling water into a wet scrubber can
range from 0.32 to 0.63 litlers/sec (5 to 10 gal/min) .
I
Flaking rolls, forming rcjlls, cookers, extruders, air compressors,
heat exchangers, air conditioning units, and other select pieces of
equipment used in cereal manufacturing require cooling water when in
operation. One plant withdraws water from a river for some of its
cooling needs. Other plants use either municipal supplies or on-
site wells. Some plants have separate non-contact cooling water
discharges to receiving waters, while others combine spent cooling
water with process and sanitary wastes and discharge to municipal
systems. I '
Steam generation in cereal |plants also consumes water. An average
plant may use up to 75.7 to 113.6 cu m/day {20,000 to 30,000 gpd) of
water for boiler feed. j
j- - . . --, .
Total water use in the re4dy-to-eat cereal industry ranges from 757
to 15,140 cu m/day (200,000 to 4,000,000 gpd) per plant. On a
product basis, cereal plants use 8.3 to 25 cu m/day (1000 to 3000
gal/1000 Ibs) of cereal produced. Interestingly, the larger volumes
generally correspond to larger plants employing once-through cooling
systems. I
'[ •''::''•
Wagte Water Characteristics
— — __ _ . |
Other than total raw waste;data, information was obtained on only
one individual process waste stream. This was the discharge from
the cooking operation in sljiredded cereal manufacturing. Only four
plants in the country produce this type of cereal, and shredded
cereals are a small proportion of total production at one of these
plants. in the grain cooking operation, water is discharged after
each batch of grain is cooked. The volume of discharge is approx-
imately 1.1 cu m/day (132 gal/1000 Ibs) of grain cooked. Several
samples of this discharge from a cereal plant were collected after
passing through a screening operation. High concentrations of BOD5,
COD, and dissolved and suspended solids were indicated as shown in
Table 3. j
38
-------
Shreddecl Cereal Cooker Discharge
Waste Water Character!sties After Screening
Ranpe, mcr/l
BOD5
COD
Suspended solids
Dissolved solids
Organic nitrogen
as N
3414 -
5921 -
1558 -
3800 -
70.5 -
0.07 -
4.1 -
71 -
3504
6040
1572
7619
95.1
0.37
6.1
74
Nitrite nitrogen' as N
pH |
Temperature (°C)
This waste is highly variable in strength, with earlier sampling
the plant indicating BOD5J concentrations as high as 9000 mg/1.
by
Most of the data accumulated during this study relate to the total
raw waste characteristics! from ready-to-eat cereal plants. Summary
data from 11 plants are presented in Table 4. The wastes can
generally be characterized as medium to high in organic strength and
volume. The BOD5 varijes widely, from 331 to 2500 mg/1.
Correspondingly, COD levels range from 804 to 4434 mg/1.
Average suspended solids concentrations in the total waste streams
vary from 80 to 1073 mg/1', although the levels at most plants are in
the range of 150 to 400 nig/1. The average pH of the waste streams
varies from 6.2 to 8.6!, although the pH of individual samples can
vary over a much wider range, from 4.5 up to 10.
Limited data on phosphorus and nitrogen indicate low levels for most
plants. Typically the wajstes from ready-to-eat cereal plants may be
deficient in nitrogen and phosphorus for biological treatment.
!
The information contained in the preceding table is presented in
Table 5 in terms of Jfinished product quantity, i.e., kg/kkg
(lbs/1000 Ibs) of cereal.i The plant numbers in the two tables do
not correspond to one andthe!r.
; i ' • '
Waste water flows from iready-to-eat cereal plants vary from 2.5 to
9.6 cu m/day (0.30 to 1.15 gal/It) of cereal, with an average of
5.82 cu m/day (0.70 gal/lb) (See Table 4).
finished product output ranges from 2.2 to 18.2
Ibs) and averages 6.6 kg/kkg (lbs/1000 Ibs).
available oh COD, which vjaries from 5.7 to 42.4
Ibs) and averages 15.^7J kg/kkg (lbs/1000 Ibs) .
BOD5 in terms of
kg/kkg (lbs/1000
Limited data were
kg/kkg (lbs/1000
Suspended solids
values fall in a fairly riarrow range, varying from 0.6 to 2.7 kg/kkg
(lbs/1000 Ibs) and averaging 1.4 kg/kkg (lbs/1000 Ibs). • ;
39
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As noted previously, wasjte waters from ready-to-eat cereal plants
vary considerably in quantity and character. This variability is a
function of many different factors, and attempts have been made in
this study to correlate' some of these factors with raw waste loads,
as discussed in the following paragraphs.
Age of Plant
In some industries, the character of waste generated is directly
related to the age of the plants. Such is not the case in ready-to-
eat cereal manufacturijng, as evidenced in Figures 11 and 12, which
relate plant age to the BODJ5 and suspended solids in the total plant
effluent. Data from ten plants were used to determine regression
lines and compute correlation coefficients. The value of the
correlation coefficient varies between zero and plus or minus one,
with zero indicating no correlation and one indicating perfect fit
or correlation. The positive or negative sign merely indicates the
slope of the data curve. The dashed line indicates the line of
regression, while the actual data points are contained within the
shaded portion of the graph. The line of regression was determined
by the least squares fit! of the data. A correlation coefficient of
-0.324 was obtained when BOD5 was plotted againstplant age, and a
correlation value of 0.3J03 was determined when suspended solids
loadings were plotted v|ersus plant age.. Both values are quite low,
indicating a low degree of correlation or a high degree of
randomness. No discernible relationship between the total waste
load and the age of the Iplants was determined. In fact, several of
the newer plants generjate more wastes per unit of finished product
than the older plants, jit should be noted that the age of the plant
in this industry subcatejgory does not accurately reflect the degree
of modernization in tjerms of types of equipment and production
methods. Most ready-to-jeat cereal plants employ similar production
techniques.
Size of Plant
I
CM'
Several comparisons were made between the size of plant, expressed
in daily quantity of finished product, and total plant waste loads,
as shown in Figures 13, '14, and 15. The total daily volume of waste
water discharged was found to correlate fairly well with the plant
capacity. Figure 13, jas might be expected. A correlation
coefficient value of JO.,8,3*).'. w^s computed. At the same time, the
range of plant data reflect different process and cooling water use
practices. !
• !-•••' - _ ' . - - •
Data on BOD5 and suspended solids were used to generate the graphs
shown in Figures 14 and i!5. These figures attempt to relate plant
capacity to BOD5f and suspended solids loads, respectively." The
correlation coefficient values of 0.273 and 0.215 and the wide range
of average ;plant data indicate "tbat no definable relationships exist
between plant capacity a'nd either of these two pollutant parameters.
*
42
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2J: 2S3S£ Coafced Cereal
j- ' .".
In Figure 16, average BODJ5 loadings per unit of finished product are
compared with the proportion of cereal that is sugar coated at a
plant. The value ofj the correlation coefficient is 0.629, indi-
cating a fair degree of*! correlation between organic waste load and
amount of cereal being coated.. A general trend of increasing BOD5
with increasing percentage of cereal being coated is indicatedT
This might be expected, as increasing coating operations probably
result in larger quantifies of sugar entering the plant effluent
during cleanup operations.
t, . ..__._
WHEAT STARCH AND GLUTENj MANUFACTURING
II,
>•: '
Water Use , |
I .....
The use of water is integral to the processes involved in starch and
gluten manufacturing. [ Basically the manufacture of wheat starch is
a wet separation of "the' starch and gluten components of wheat flour.
Fresh water enters the operation at several different points, as
shown in the process flow diagram. Figure 10 in Section III. Water
is mixed with the flour| to form a dough. More water is used in. the
washing operations which separate the starch from the gluten. in
the screening steps, water is used for back-washing fibre collected
on coarse screens and for cpuntercurrent washing of the overflow
(fibres) leaving the fine screens. A major water use in the process
occurs in the refining ' iof the crude starch milk. As the'- refining
centrifuges separate (the heavy component, A-starch, from the light
component, B-starch, a. (fresh water stream washes the heavy component
countercurrently. Smaljler quantities of water are also used for
cleanup, cooling, and bjoiler operation.
Total water use in
wh
eat starch plants varies from 284 to 946 cu
m/day (75,000 to 250,00|0 gpd) depending mainly on plant capacity.
The water use per uni't of raw material ranges from 10.4 to 13.0 cu
m/day (1.25 to 1.56 galj/lb) cf flour.
-1 . , . .
Waste Water Characteris'tics
~ L , .- '..• ' , . ' - , . ' .
In the wheat starch manufacturing process, waste waters are gen-
erated primarily from s|tarch milk screening and centrifugation. The
fibre washed from the cjoarse screens enters the waste stream in most
plants. Data from onje plant indicate that the screening operation
produced a 0.17 to 0.28! liter/sec (2.7 to 4.4 gal/min) waste stream
containing 5.0 to 6.0 'percent solids. This is a volume of 15 to 24
cu m/day (4000 to 6300 ;gpd) with a total solids loading of 809 to
1494 kg/day (1783 ,toj 3291 Ib/day) . Discharges from starch milk
thickening and concentreating operations make up the balance of the
waste waters, ,.although cleanup may generate additional small
volumes. .1
The remainder of the clafta accumulated on wheat starch operations
relate to total waste flows. Summary data from six of the seven
plants are included in'(Table 6. The seventh plant uses
its starch
f-i ;-
48
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waste stream as raw material feed in a distillery operation and,
therefore, the plant*s waste characteristics are not representative
Of the industry. The sixth plant listed in Table 6 also processes
soybeans and has a canning operation that generates waste waters.
BOD5 values for the six plants range from 6500 to 14,600 mg/1, with
the higher concentrations (corresponding to larger plants. Suspended
solids concentrations range from 5140 to 14,800 mg/1, and, again,
the higher concentrations tend to correspond to the larger plants.
The pH of wheat starch plant effluents is generally acidic, in the
range of 3 to 6, although jdata from one plant indicate a neutral pH,
Limited data on phosphorus and nitrogen show rather high values.
Total phosphorus concentrations at two plants varied from 75 to 140
mg/l» and total nitrogen (values ranged from 350 to 400 mg/1. Waste
temperatures varied from 70 to 80°F for the various wheat starch
plants. , !
The information contained in the preceding table is presented in
Table 7 in terms of raw material input, i.e., kg/kkg (lbs/1000 Ibs)
of wheat flour. The plant numbers in the two tables, do not
corresgond to one another.' - —
BOD5 in terms of raw material input ranges from 80 to 108 kg/kkg
(lbs/1000 Ibs), and averages 90.7 kg/kkg (lbs/1000 Ibs). Suspended
solids loads vary in the s.ame range, from 52 to 110 kg/kkg (lbs/1000
Ibs), with ,an average >value of 75.7 kg/kkg (lbs/1000 Ibs).
Available COD data show a range of 116 to 260 kg/kkg (lbs/1000 Ibs)
averaging 198.6 kg/kkg (lb,s/1000 Ibs) . The waste water flows are
fairly consistent throughout the plants studied, varying from 7.5 to
m/day (0.9 to 1.5 gal/lb), Averaging 9.9 cu m/kkg (1.19
12.5 cu
gal/lb). Generally, the vjaste water characteristics in "the wheat
starch subcategory show good correlation when expressed in loadings
per unit of raw material. I -
2£s Affectina Waste Walter Characteristicg
As with waste waters from ready-to-eat cereal plants, there is some
variability in waste quantity and character in the wheat starch and
gluten industry. Many factors may be responsible for these varia-
tions, and the following discussion outlines several attempts to
correlate certain factors jwith raw waste loads.
i ' . -
Age of Plant j
' i ' . ' .
Data on five wheat starch plants were utilized in an attempt to
relate raw waste loads? i per unit of raw material to plant age.
Figures 17 and 18 show tfie results for BODS and suspended solids,
respectively. The .correlation coefficients, 0.655 and ^0.809, We
quite high, indicating the possibility of a definable relationship.
The regression lines indicate that waste loads generally increase
with increasing plant age.j
51
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The possibility of a relationship between wheat starch raw waste
loads and plant capacity was investigated, and the results are shown
in Figures 19, 20, and 21. Daily waste water flow correlated well
with plant capacity, asi shown in Figure 19. The high value of the
correlation coefficien^, 0.795, indicates a reasonably good fit of
the data with the regression line, as might be expected. Figure 20
attempts . to relate B0D5 loadings per unit of wheat flour to plant
capacity. The low correlation coefficient, 0.365, indicates that
there is no definable relationship. In Figure 21, suspended solids
loadings are plotted versus plant capacity. In this case, a high
correlation coefficient of 0.688 was obtained, indicating a good
probability that suspended solids loadings increase as plant size
increases in a definable relationship.
In comparing Figures 17', 18, 20, and 21, it should be noted that the
larger wheat starch plants also tend to be the older plants. Thus,
a particular figure may not be showing the effect of just one
variable pn raw waste loads. It should also be noted that the raw
waste load values, particularly for BOE5, do not vary a great deal
from plant to plant.' This fact, plus the limited number of data
points, influenced the decision not to further subcategorize the
wheat starch industry oh the basis of age and size of plant or waste
water characteristics. I
Water Use and Waste Water Discharge
. ' T
It has been speculated that there might be a relationship between
the total waste load and the volume of waste water discharged.
Figures 22 and 23 were developed to evaluate this hypothesis and
clearly show that no such relationship exists. The correlation
coefficient values ofj -0.109 and 0.106 indicate little or no cor-
relation.
55
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correlation coefficient (r) = -0:109
I .02 .04 .06 .08 .10 .12 .14
(million gallon! /day)
0 .i .3 .4 .5 •
.16
6
(1000 cubic meters /day)
discharge;
: !''•••
FIGURE 22
AVERAGE BOD DISCHARGED AS A FUNCTION OF WHEAT
STARCH PLANT DISCHARGE VOLUME
59
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r i i 1 1 1 r- f
.02 .04 .06 .08 .10 .12 .14 .16
-? - I i ' ' i ' :'
(million gallons/day)
"T
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0 .1
(1000 cubic meters /day)
discharge
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.6
FIGURE 23
AVERAGE SUSPENDED SOLIDS AS A FUNCTION OF WHEAT
STARCH PLANT DISCHARGE^VOLUME
60
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"SECTION VI
SELECTION OF POLLUTANT PARAMETERS
I
The waste water parameters that can be used in characterizing the
process waste waters j from the cereal and wheat starch segments of
the grain milling industry are as follows: BOD5 (5-day20°C
biochemical oxygen demand), suspended solids, pH, chemical oxygen
demand (COD), dissolved solids, nitrogen, phosphorus, and
temperature. These parameters are common to the entire industry,
••but are not always of e'gual importance. As described below, the
selection of the waste water control parameters was determined by
the significance of the; parameters and the availability of data
throughout each industry subcategory.
' . ' ' 1'
MAJOR POLLUTANT CONTROL PARAMETERS
; . |
The following selected parameters are the most important consti-
tuents of cereal and wheat starch manufacturing waste waters. Data
collected during the preparation of this document, particularly from
cereal plants, was limited in most cases to these parameters.
Nevertheless, the use of these parameters adequately describes the
waste water characteristics from virtually all. plants in the
industry. BOD5, suspended solids, and pH
parameters ..selected I for effluent
standards of performance for new sources for these two
subcategories. '!
are, therefore,
limitations guidelines
the
and
Biochemical Oxvgen Demarid fBODSI
Biochemical oxygen denand (BOD5) is a measure of the oxygen con-
suming capabilities of (organic matter. The BOD5 does not, in
itself, cause direct lharm to a water system, but~it does exert an
indirect effect by depressing the oxygen content of the water.
Sewage and other orgajnic effluents during their processes of
decomposition exert a BOBS, which can have a catastrophic effect on
the ecosystem by depleting the oxygen supply. . conditions are
frequently reached where! all of the oxygen is used and the con-
tinuing decay process causes the production of noxious gases such as
hydrogen sulfide and methane. Water with a high BOD5 indicates the
presence of decomposing brganic matter and subsequent high bacterial
counts that degrade its quality and potential uses.
Dissolved oxygen (DO) is a water quality constituent that, in
appropriate concentrations, is essential to keep organisms living
and sustain species'reproduction, vigor, and the development of
populations. Organisms!undergo stress at reduced DO concentrations
that make them less competitive and able to sustain their species
within the aquatic ! environment. For example,, reduced DO
concentrations hav« been!shown to interfere with fish population
through delayed hatching'of eggs,, reduced size and vigor of embryos,
production of deformities in the young, interference with food
digestion, acceleration of blood clotting, decreased tolerance to
61
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certain toxicants,—reduced—_fopd-,~-e,f ficiency and
reduced maximum sustained swimming speed. Fish food organises are
likewise affected adversely by suppressed DO. since all aerobic
aquatic organisms need a certain amount of oxygen, the total lack of
dissolved oxygen due to ja high BOD5 can kill all inhabitants of the*
affected area. |
If a high BOD5 is present, the quality of the water is usually
visually degraded by the presence of decomposing materials and algae
blooms due to the uptake of degraded materials that form the
foodstuffs of the algal jpopulations.
Many cereal and wheat starch plants or the municipalities that
handle their waste waters routinely measure BOD5 in the plant waste
waters. Typical BOD5 jlevels are moderate to high in the ready-to-
eat cereal subcategory, ;ranging from several hundred to over 2000
mg/1. wheat starch wastle waters are quite high in BODS, with values
ranging from 6,000 to 14,000 mg/1 and higher for large plants.
Suspended solids include both organic and inorganic materials
These materials may settjle out rapidly, and bottom deposits are
often a mixture of bjoth organic and inorganic solids. They ad-
versely affect fisheries; by covering the bottom of the stream or
lake with; a blanket of material that destroys the fish-food bottom
fauna or the spawning grjound of fish. Deposits containing organic
materials may deplete ,j bottom oxygen supplies and produce hydrogen
sulfide, carbon dioxide.;) methane, and other noxious gases.
In raw water sources for domestic use. State and regional agencies
generally specify that1 suspended solids in streams shall not be
present in sufficient concentrations to be objectionable or to
interfere with normal j treatment processes. Suspended solids in
water may interfere with many industrial processes, and cause
foaming in boilers, or iencrustatiens on equipment exposed to water,
especially as the tem'perature rises. Suspended solids are
undesirable in water jfor textile industries; paper and pulp;
beverages; dairy products; laundries; dyeing; photography; cooling
systems; and power plknts. Suspended particles also serve as a
transport mechanism for pesticides and other substances that are
readily sorbed into or ontoclay particles.
Solids may be suspended! in water for a time, and then settle to the
bed of the stream or lak^. These settleable solids discharged with
man's wastes may be inert, slowly biodegradable materials, or
rapidly decomposable substances. While in suspension, they increase
the turbidity of the water, reduce light penetration and impair the
photosynthetic activity of. aquatic plants.
Solids in suspension are aesthetically displeasing/ when they
settle to form sludge deposits on the stream or lake bed, they are
often much more damaging to the life in water, and they retain the
capacity to displease the senses. Solids, when transformed to
62
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sludge deposits, may [ do" a variety of damaging things, including-
blanketing the stream or lake bed and thereby destroying the living
spaces for those benthic organisms that would otherwise occupy the
habitat. When of an or'ganic and, therefore, decomposable nature,
solids use a portion or! all of the dissolved oxygen available in the
area. Organic materials also serve as a seemingly inexhaustible
food source for sludgeworms and associated organisms.
Suspended solids concentrations are rather low (100 to 400 mg/1) in
cereal manufacturing waste waters, but are quite high (5000 to
15,000 mg/1) in wheat starch effluents. Wet cleanup operations that
wash product spillage iinto the sewer account for much of the
suspended solids contjent of cereal waste waters. In wheat starch
wastes, very fine starch particles 'pass through the refining
operation and remain 'in suspension. This starch accounts for much
of the organic load in the waste water and is essentially insoluble.
ES •
The term pH is a logarithmic expression of the concentration of
hydrogen ions. At a1 pH of 7.0, the hydrogen and hydroxyl ion
concentrations are equal and the water is neutral. If pH values are
below 7.0, acid conditions are indicated, while pH values above 7.0
indicate alkaline conditions.
Waters with a pH below 6.0 are corrosive to water works structures,
distribution lines, and household plumbing fixtures and can thus add
such constituents to drinking water as iron, copper, zinc, cadmium,
and lead. The hydrogen ion concentration can affect the "taste" of
the water. At a low pH water tastes "sour". The bactericidal
effect of chlorine is weakened as the- pH increases, and it is
advantageous to keep the pH close to 7.0. This is very significant
for providing safe drinking water.
I
Extremes of pH or rapid pE changes can exert stress conditions or
kill aquatic life outright. Dead fish, associated algal blooms, and
foul stenches are aesthetic liabilities of any waterway. Even
moderate changes from "acceptable" criteria limits of pH are
deleterious to some species. The relative toxiciity to aquatic life
of many materials is increased by changes in the water pH.
Metalocyanide complexes can increase a thousand-fold in toxicity
with a drop of 1.5 pH units. The availability of many nutrient
substances varies with the alkalinity and acidity.
The lacrimal fluid of the human eye has a pH of approximately 7.0
and a deviation of 0.1 pH unit from the norm may result in eye
irritation for the swimmer. Appreciable irritation will cause
severe pain. -
The pH levels .-of ready-to-eat cereal plant waste waters vary over
the production day, but generally average close to 7.0. Wheat
starch waste waters tend to be acidic, in the range of 3 to 6. pH
is an essential controj. parameter for treatment of this waste and
regulation of the discharges.
63
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BOTHER POLL&FANT CONTROL
Chemical Oxygen Demand JCOD1
COD is a chemical measure of the organic content and, hence, oxygen
demand of the waste water constituents. AS with most food wastes
the COD of cereal and wheat starch wastes is considerably higher
than the BOD5, usually b;y a factor of 2.0 to 2.5. COD was not
specified as a control parameter because of the limited availabilitv
of COD data. Due to jthe lack of data, no definitive relationship
between COD and BOD5 can1 be established at the present time. The
fact that 'the chemical bature of the organics may differ from plant
to plant may preclude th|e use of a uniform COD standard for each
subcategory. Therefore, it was concluded that effluent limitations
guidelines and standards! of performance should not be based on COD.
Dissolved Solids
.In natural waters, the dissolved solids consist mainly of inorganic
compounds including calcium, magnesium, sodium, potassium, iron, and
manganese and their associated anionic species of carbonates
chlorides, sulfates, phobphates, and possibly nitrates.
Many communities in the jlnited States and in other countries use
water supplies containing 2000 to 4000 mg/1 of dissolved solids
when no better water is available. .Such waters are not very
palatable, may not quench thirst, and may have a laxative action on
new users. Waters containing more than 4000 mg/1 of total salts are
generally considered unfit for human use, although in hot climates
such higher salt concentrations can be tolerated whereas they could
not be in temperate climates. Waters containing 5000 mg/1 or more
are reported to be bitter and act as bladder and intestinal
irritants. It is generally agreed that the salt concentration of
good, palatable water should not exceed 500 mg/1.
Limiting concentrations of dissolved solids for fresh-water fish may
range from 5000 to 10,000 mg/1, according to species and prior
acclimatization. Some fish are adapted to living in more saline
waters, and a few species of fresh-water forms have been found in
natural waters with a salt concentration of 15,000 to 20,000 mg/1.
Fish can slowly becomejacclimatized to higher salinities, but fish
in waters of low salinity cannot survive sudden exposure to high
salinities, such as those resulting from discharges of oil-well
brines. Dissolved solids may influence the toxicity of heavy metals
and organic compounds to(fish and other aquatic life, primarily
because of the antagonistic effect of hardness on metals.
Waters with total dissolved solids over 500 mg/1 have decreasing
utility as irrigation water. Above 5000 mg/1 water has little or no
value for irrigation. . j . , "
i ... .. !i' ' '• '" •••,-!' ''- .-'•'• . .' " ' ' ••••
Dissolved solids in industrial waters can cause foaming in boilers
and cause .interference with clearness, color, or taste of many
64
-------
finished products. High dissolved solids concentratrons also tend
to accelerate corrosion.
There are a number of
sources of dissolved solids in the cereal and
wheat starch subcategories . In cereal manufacturing, these sources
include wastes from j water treatment, cooling water blowdown, and
various processes, particularly cleanup, within the plant. These
sources can increase dissolved solids concentrations several hundred
to a few thousand mg/1. Most of these dissolved materials are
usually of an organic nature. Wheat starch wastes contain high
levels of dissolved solids, most of which are probably unrecovered
starch and gluten and ibhus constitute a high dissolved organic load.
Temp.erature
i
Temperature is one of the most important and influential water
quality characteristics. Temperature determines those species that
may be present; it activates the hatching of young, regulates their
activity,; and stimulaties or suppresses their growth and development;
it. attracts, and may kill when the water becomes too hot or becomes
chilled too suddenly. Colder water generally suppresses
development; warmer w^ter generally accelerates activity and may be
a primary cause of aguiatic plant nuisances when other environmental
factors are suitable. .!
I
Temperature is a prime regulator of natural processes within the
water environment. It' governs physiological functions in organisms
and, acting directly or indirectly in combination with ether water
quality constituents, lit affects aquatic life with each change.
These effects include! chemical reaction rates, enzymatic functions,
molecular movements, i and molecular exchanges between membranes
within
animal.
and between the physiological systems and the organs of an
Chemical reaction rates vary with temperature and generally increase
as the temperature is increased. The solubility of gases in water
varies with temperature. Dissolved oxygen is decreased by the decay
or decomposition of dissolved organic substances and the decay rate
increases as the temperature of the water increases reaching a
maximum at about 30°C i(86°F) . The temperature of stream water, even
during summer, is 'below the optimum for pollution-associated
bacteria* Increasing [the water temperature increases the bacterial
multiplication rate |when the environment is favorable and the food
supply is abundant.
Reproduction cycles may be changed significantly by increased
temperature because this function takes place under restricted
temperature ranges. * ^pawning may not occur at all because tem-
peratures are too high. Thus,, a fish population, may exist in a
heated area ortfly by continued immigration. Disregarding the
decreased reproductive potential, water temperatures need not reach
lethal levels to decimate a species. Temperatures that favor
competitors, predators, parasites, and disease can destroy a species
at levels far below those that would otherwise be lethal.
65
-------
m
I !•>'' '?
=»
altered severely v^ert
Predoirmnant algal species change, primary produc-
bottcm associated organisms may be deleted
nUBba» ^ distribution. Increased water
nuisances when other
SynergisUo ac±ioni of .pollutants are more severe at higher water
•teneratures. .Given amounts of dorestlo sewage, refineS
' ;u?8ec4«ddM>. aetergents, and fertilizers more
fo
«pidly or
s^a of s
by extreme temperature
changes.
Cereal
43° C1
o
i£;'£j- lii?:«'!?~- a!••,? Vs,,!;"i'::•<'i:"if .:*i.;:ji'H,''?c •:• '£i ^%"*,• i;t.v? v'1'' :*t!'•':'. ':•'">:<
bures ranging from 32
in temperature is due
of
As
a 2
66
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Phosphorus j „
During the past 30 years, a formidable case has developed for the
belief that increasing standing crops of aquatic plant growths,
which often interfere with water uses and are nuisances to man,
frequently are caused by increasing supplies of phosphorus, such
phenomena are associated with a condition of accelerated eutrophi-
cation or aging of Caters. It is generally recognized that phos-
phorus is not the sole cause of eutrophication, but there is
Evidence to substantiate that it is frequently a key element in
stimulating excess alg^e growth.
When a plant populatioil increases sufficiently to become a nuisance,
a large number of associated liabilities are immediately apparent.
Dense populations ofj pond weeds make swimming dangerous.. Boating
and water skiing and sometimes fishing may be el^natj? J^f1"!;6 °£
the mass of vegetatio^ that serves as a physical impediment to such
activities. Plant populations have been associated with stunted
fish populations and
emit bad odors, impart
with poor fishing.
tastes and odors to
Excess algae growth can
^^ water supplies, reduce
the efficiency "of"Industrial and municipal water treatment, impair
aesthetic beauty, reduce or restrict resort trade, lower waterfront
property values, cause skin rashes to man during water contact, and
serve as a desired substrate and breeding ground for flies.
Phosphorus in the elemental form is particularly toxic, and subject
to bioaccumulation iJn much the same way as mercury. Colloidal
elemental phosphorus w^ill poison marine fish (causing *"> *"™
breakdown and discoloration). Also, phosphorus is capable of being
concentrated and will accumulate in organs and soft tissues.
SpeSmlntf have shown that marine fish will concentrate phosphorus
from water containingjas little as 1.0 microgram per liter.
Phosphorus levels in ready-to-eat cereal waste waters tend to be
quitelow. concentrations in plant effluents may be increased
somewhat by the use of detergents in plant cleanup, but levels in
the waste streams
-------
CONTROL AND TREATMENT TECHNOLOGY
INTRODUCTION ! . ...
i . - .
Since animal feed and hot cereal manufacturing plants generate no
process waste waters,' there is no need to include these subcate-
gories in a discussion jof control and treatment technologies. There
has not been a great deal of attention given to either in-plant
control or treatment of waste waters within the ready-to-eat cereal
industry. Most of the |cereal plants in the U.S. discharge medium
strength wastes to large municipal systems which are capable of
handling the industrial waste loads. Several plants within the
subcategory provide screening and some settling of their wastes.
One plant provides biological pretreatment, and two others are
constructing pretreatment facilities to reduce waste loadings prior
to municipal discharge]
Although there has been more attention given - to waste treatment
Within the wheat starch industry, there has not been a great need
for development of waste control and treatment technology within
this subcategory since there are only a few plants and they all
discharge to municipal)systems. One plant operates a pretreatment
facility and is attempting to develop a complete treatment system.
Another plant will soon construct a biological pretreatment facility
to reduce its organic yraste loads prior *-~ •" «*'*>>=>•'-'•"=» ••-« => small
municipal system. j
to discharge to a small
READY-TO-EAT CEREAL MANUFACTURING
Waste Water Characteristics v
I
As detailed in Section V/ ready-to-eat cereal plants generally
produce moderate volumes of medium to high strength wastes. Higher
BOD5 concentrations result from plants that produce shredded cereals
or a high percentage of sugar-coated cereals. Suspended solids
concentrations are modjerate, generally in the range of 100 to 400
mg/1. Treatment in th.e industry is limited; one known pretreatment
facility and the design criteria for a pretreatment facility
presently under construction are discussed in this section.
In-Plant Controls !
Since most waste waters from ready-to-eat cereal manufacturing are
generated by cleanup operations, it is not anticipated that the raw
waste characteristicjs can be greatly influenced by in-plant
controls. Separation and recycling of non-contact cooling waters or
increased usage of spent cooling water rather than fresh water for
such uses as cleanup would reduce waste volumes, but not waste
loadings in terms of kilograms or pounds of pollutant per unit of
production. Waste ijoads could te reduced in some plants if more
69
-------
, i •
* i:-
airy—type cleanup operations, such as sweeping or vacuuming
spillage, were employed in place of wet washing methods.
Processes 1
Of
Several plants provide minimal forms qf pre treatment for their
process wastes prior to discharge to municipal systems. This
treatment usually consists of screening and occasionally settling
and skimming. Solids collected are either dried and recovered as
animal feed or disposed1 of by landfill.
One plant in the industry presently provides biological pretreatment
prior to municipal discharge. The treatment system consists of a
0.51 hectare (1.25 acre) lagoon equipped with mechanical aerators
and designed for 30-day detention. Nutrients in the form of ammonia
and phosphoric acid are! added to the high carbohydrate waste stream.
The treatment facility handles all process and sanitary wastes from
the plant, including shredded cereal cooking wastes. The facility
was designed to handle a flow of 379 cu m/day (0.1 MGD) . a BOD5
loading of 1135 kg/day! (2500 Ibs/day) , and a suspended solids
loading of 272 kg/day !(600 Ibs/day) . Average influent and effluent
characteristics over thje. past year are given below:
kverage Influent
' ' '"
BOD5
COD
Suspended Solids
Total Solids
pH
Average Effluent
2500
4300
300X)
6.9
260
870
i- • .
935
2500
7.1
The high effluent suspended solids concentrations reflect the pro-
duction of biological; solids during aeration. These figures are
averages over a year's time and do not reflect seasonal fluctuations
which occur. During the warmer months. May through September,
effluent BOD5 values vary from 100 to 200 mg/1, and suspended solids
vary from 550 to 800 mg/1. Corresponding BOD5 and suspended solids
removals range from 92-96 percent, and zero percent. In cooler
weather, BOD5, concentrations increase to the 300 to 450 mg/1 range.
Similarly, suspended solids during winter vary from 900 to 1200
mg/1. BOD5 and suspended solids removals under winter conditions
ranged from 81 to 8$ percent, and zero percent. Results of a
sampling program conducted during the winter as a part of this study
indicated BOD5 removals'of 81 to 83 -percent and an average efifluent
BOD5 of 450 mg/l( The'addition of a final clarifier is anticipated
to lower the suspended isolids levels within municipal ordinance
limits. i
70
-------
a. second pretreatment facility is currently uncler constraction that
will handle combined process and sanitary wastes from a small ready-
to-eat cereal plant. Presently the plant's total waste discharge
lias an average BOD5 concentration of 600 mg/1 and an average
suspended solids level ofj 175 mg/1. The facility will consist of
two aerated lagoons in series with nutrient addition and provisions
for recycling between thej two lagoons. Design is based on an
average flow of 284 cu m/day (75,000 gpd) and an average BOD5
loading of 408 kg/day (900 Ibs/day). Anticipated effluent quality
is shown below: j
BOD5
Suspended Solids
pH
'200
I200
41
41
90
90
88
50
17,5 -9.0
The municipal sanitary • system will continue to handle the treated
effluent. j
: • j .
WHEAT STARCH AND GLUTEN f^ANUFACTURING
'•• \
Waste Water Characteristics
Waste waters from wheat starch and gluten manufacturing operations,
as described in detail in Section V, are high in organic strength
and suspended solids. Fliows are moderate, in the range of 265 to
570 cu m/day (70,000 to',j 160,000 gpd), pH values are quite low, and
phosphorus and nitrogen levels tend to be high. All plants in the
O.S. discharge to municipal systems except one which uses its starch
process wastes in a distillery operation and then discharges
directly to receiving watiers. Extensive treatment facilities for
the distillery waste arejunder construction,
In-Plant Controls '
It is doubtful that any major reductions in waste loads can be
achieved through in-plant controls or modifications at existing
starch plants. Since product yield is economically crucial to wheat
starch and gluten plaints, most manufacturers already attempt to
maximize solids recovery in the starch refining operations by
thickening and centrifiigation™ Wash down water only amounts to
between 5 and 10 percent of the total process waste water
contribution. j
Two new plants will commence full scale production of wheat starch
and gluten in the near future, and both anticipate the generation of
much lower volumes of waste water than existing plants. One plant
will accomplish this by drastically reducing water requirements,
while the other hoges to; employ a total recycle system. These
plants are constructed j primarily for recovery of proteinaceous
material from the wheat ijraw material and are suspected to employ
methods and processes jwhich may be quite uncharacteristic as
compared to historical processes.
71
-------
Treatment Technology
Pretreatnient operations and pilot plant studies substantially
support that the pr|oc§ss waste water from wheat starch and gluten
manufacturing is readily biodegradable and treatable by conventional
biological treatment systems.
One pretreatment facility is in operation in the wheat starch in-
dustry, reducing thej organic strength of the starch waste prior to
municipal system disposal. The facility handles 530 cu m/day
(140,000 gpd) of high-'strength wastes from a medium sized starch and
gluten plant. The 'treatment sequence consists of a steel mixing
tank where the waste is heated to 29°C 85°F,_ three anaerobic filters
operated in parallel, land a chlorine contact tank. Ammonia gas and
sodium bicarbonate a're continuously added in the mixing tank to
stabilize the pH between 6.5 and 7.5. The treated waste can be
recycled at rates frjom 0 to 100 percent. That portion that is not
recycled enters the I chlorine contact tank, where chlorine is
introduced for control of odor and potential sewer corrosion by
reducing hydrogen sulfide levels. Waste gas produced by the filters
contains ^sufficient me'thane: to^ be combusted readily in a gas burner;
and is a potential energy source.
A comparison of average influent and effluent characteristics during
seven months of operation is shown below:
Average Influent
mg/j'l kg/day Ib/day
BOD5
COD
Suspended Solids
6500
, V,|>-
8'8 00
;rj'"
265V
. -I r
f1 1
3175
ft 30 9
1270
7000
9500
2800
Average Effluent
Ib/day
3100
3400
1550
2940
3170
1460
1406
1542,
703
This data indicates average reductions of 55, 64, and 45 percent for
BOD5, COD, and suspended solids, respectively. More recent plant
sampling indicates COD removals ranging from 18 to 59 percent and
averaging 33 percent over the past year, however.
One whea-ib starch plant has been experimenting with a full scale
complete \ treatment system for some time. The system employs a vapor
recompression evaporator '"wh'ich"/ ^n -theory, should effect 98 to 99
percent solids recovery. The plant has not been able to operate the
system successfully oiji a continuous basis. The plant has been
operated successfully for intermittent periods of a week or more,
and experimental efforts to the process are continuing. This type
of treatment system definitely cannot yet be considered as
demonstrated technology at the present time. • • :
Tl t I
72
-------
— one other plant in the wheat star ch~~±nmis try is planning to—cori-
rr struct a pretreatment facility. The facility will incorporate
extended aeration and final clarification after which the wastes
will be discharged to the municipal system. A chemical feed unit
will be capable of adding lime and alum .to the wastes either prior
to or after aeration, j Design flow is 409 cu m/day (108,000 gpd) ,
and the detention time will! be 5.0 days in the aeration unit!
Effluent BOD5 levels abre estimated at 190 mg/1, representing a 95
percent reduction. It should be emphasized that the attainment of
this effluent level ha!s not been demonstrated in a full scale
treatment facility. !
i
Extensive pilot plant studies were run on the starch waste prior to
design of the above pretreatment facility. The pilot system
included a 15,140 liter (4000 gallon) aeration and settling tank, to
which were later added a J1325 liter (350 gallon) rotating biological
disc and a 3217 liter (850 gallon) polishing pond. The pilot system
handled 2.7 cu m/day (720, gpd) of waste over a five-month period.
During that time, BODS reductions averaged 86 percent through the
aeration unit alone, 88 percent through the aeration unit and disc,
and 98 percent through (the entire system including polishing pond.
Average effluent BOD5, concentrations were 680, 578, and 84 mg/1,
respectively„ from the ! three components of the pilct treatment
system. !
• i -'-'''
73
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COST, ENERGY; AND NON-WATER QUALITY ASPECTS
This chapter presents detailed cost estimates for the various
treatment alternatives land the rationale used in developing this
information. Data have jbeen developed for investment, capital,
operating and maintenance, depreciation, and energy costs using
various sources, including contractor1s files, literature references
6 and 9, and information|from individual plants within the industry.
The cost data from industry were quite limited and, therefore, the
cost estimates are based principally on data developed by the
contractor and the references cited.
REPRESENTATIVE PLANTS j
Because of the variations in plant operation, waste'' water
characteristics, and treatment systems, it was impractical to select
one existing plant as typical of each of the industry subcategories.
Therefore, hypothetical I plants were developed (or synthesized) for
purposes of developing cost data.
In the ready-to-eat cereal subcategory, there is such a wide range
of plant production capacities that it was decided to choose three
hypothetical plants of different sizes. . The plant capacities chosen
were 90,700 kg/day (200,000 Ib/day), 226,800 kg/day (500,000
Ib/day), and 544,300 kg/day (1,200,000 Ib/day). Although the waste
water characteristics 1 of ready-to-eat cereal plants vary
considerably, there is no apparent correlation with plant capacity,
as shown in Figures 14 arid 15 in Section V of this report. Thus,
flow and waste water ;characteristics were selected to reflect
average values for existing plants in the industry as reported in
Section V. j
I .
The seven wheat starch1 and gluten plants exhibit a fairly narrow
range of plant capacities and waste water characteristics. A
hypothetical plant with an average daily raw material capacity of
45,360 kg (100,000 Ibs) 6f flour was chosen for cost estimating
purposes. Since flow jand waste water characteristics are fairly
uniform for the industry; average values for existing plants as
reported in Section V were utilized;
TERMINOLOGY ' ' .
i '
Investment Costs !
Investment costs are defined as the capital expenditures required to
bring the treatment or control technology into operation.. Included,
as appropriate, are the costs of excavation, concrete* structural
steel, mechanical and electrical equipment installed, and piping.
An amount equal to 15 percent of the total of the above is added to
cover engineering design I services, construction supervision, and
related costs. Because most of the control technologies involve
75
-------
estternal, end-of-plant; systems, no cost is included for lost i.o.me
due to installation, jit is believed that..the interruptions required
for installation of j control technologies can be coordinated with
normal plant operating; schedules. The cost of additional land
required for treatment facilities is included, using an estimatina
figure of $10,000 per lacre. y
Capital Costs
The capital costs are Calculated, in all cases, as 8 percent of the
total investment cosjts. Consultations with representatives of
industry and the financial community lead to the conclusion that,
with the; limited data available, this estimate is reasonable for
this industry.
Deereciation
Straight-line depreciation for 20 years, or 5 percent of the total
investment cost, is used in all cases.
Operation and Maintenance gosts
Operation and maintenance costs include labor, materials, solid
waste disposal, effluent monitoring, added administrative expense,
taxes and insurance.! ghen ; the control, technology involves water
recycling, a credit of)$0.30 per lr000 gallons is applied to reduce
the operation and maintenance costs. Manpower requirements are
based upon information! found in References 6 and 9. A total salary
cost of $10 per man-hour is used in all cases.
' . i '••••• ••"_ 'I-'"- .,"v;"i- "1 .^'.''••.^.••.•'ki;'"••- - v,™-:'-:.".>: ;,..,,,,,.;,...,;,._ , ,,,.,. • , -„
Energy and Power Costs
Power costs are estimated on the basis of $0.025 per kilowatt-hour.
Annual costs are [defined as the total of capital costs,
depreciation, operation and maintenance, and energy and power costs
as accrued on an annual basis.
; .. .. j
COST INFORMATION i
• i . i •• . ' I »
• I ..-,••.;.• | > i f ' • » f \,
The investment and annual costs, as defined above, associated with
the alternative waste treatment controltechnologies are presented
below. In addition, a description of each of the control
technologies is provided, together with the effluent quality
expected from the application of these technologies. All costs are
reported in terms of August 1971 dollars.
£e.ady.-to-Eat CereaJ. Maftufactoring
As a basis for developing control and treatment cost information,
three different r'eady—tpo-eat cereal plants were synthesized to cover
the broad range of plant capacities within the industry. The waste
water characteristics used to describe these plants reflect actual
76
r
1 i
-------
time
luired
J with
land
nating
E the
2S 0f
that,
Le for
total
solid
pense,
water
reduce
ts are
salary
hour.
costs,
costs
industry practice based on average data received from existing
plants. The values employed are as follows:
Flow
BOD5
Suspended Solids
2.7 liters/lb of cereal (0.7 gal/lb)
6.6 kg/kkg (lbs/1000 Ibs) or 1130 mg/1
1.4 kg/kkg (lbs/1000 Ibs) or 240 mg/1
I
The production and waste water characteristics of the
hypothetical cereal plants are summarized below:
three
Plant A:
Production
Flow
BOD5
Suspended Solids
Plant B:
Production
Flow
BOD5 I
Suspended Solids
Plant c:
Production
Flow
BOD5
Suspended Solids
90,700 kg/day
| 529 cu m/day
I 635 kg/day
I 127 kg/day
(200,000 Ib/day)
(140,000 gpd)
(1400 Ib/day
(280 Ib/day)
226,800 kg/day (500,000 Ib/day)
! 1325 cu m;day (350,000 gpd)
i 1588 kg/day (3500 Ib/day)
| 318 kg/day (700 Ib/day)
54J4,300 Jcg/day (1,200,000 Ib/day)
i 3179 cu m/day (840,000 gpd)
! 3810 kg/day (8400 Ib/day)
.! 762 kg/day (1680 Ib/day)
A number of alternative treatment systems are proposed below to
handle the waste waters j from these plants. These systems are
presented in terms of increasing effluent quality. The investment
and annual cost information for each alternative, and thev resultant
effluent qualities are I presented in Tables 8, 9, and 10 for the
three hypothetical ready-'to-eat cereal plants.
d with
sented
ontrol
uality
ts are
ation,
cover
waste
actual
77
-------
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§igure 24 graphically depicts the investment costs of the six
fereatment alternatives (as a function of cereal plant capacity. The
tectinologies are described in the following
treatment
paragraphs.
Gative A — Activated Sludge
alternative provides for grit removal, nutrient addition,
primary sedimentation, [ complete-mix activated sludge, secondary
^sedimentation, chlorination, and solids dewatering. The treatment
"system does not include j equalization. Effluent BOD5 and suspended
? solids concentrations iare expected to be about 100 mg/1. In terms
of plant production, these values correspond to 0.58 kg/kkg
(lbs/1000 Ibs) for BODS and for suspended solids.
Investment Cos4s:
Total Annual Costs:
Plant A
Plant B
Plant C
Plant A
Plant B
Plant C
$ 448,900
$ 686,400
$1,062,100
$
$
114,100
179,100
279,700
! .... , . j
Reduction Benefits: BOD5 reduction of 92 percent and
suspended solids reduction of 59 percent.
I -,••',-.- .• • • • '....•
Alternative B — Equalisation and Activated Sludge
Alternative B includes ah aerated equalization step with 18-hour
detention ahead of the icomplete-mix activated sludge system and
associated chemical fe^ed, sedimentation, and sludge dewatering
facilities outlined in 4l"teriia^ive A. Estimated BOD5 and- suspended
solids levels are 75 mg/1 for each parameter. This value
corresponds to 0.44 kg/kkg (lbs/1000 Ibs) of BOD5 and suspended
solids. S - ~
Investment Costis:
Plant A
Plant B
Plant C
$ 527,900
$ 811,800
$1,277,500
Total Annual Costs: Plan€ A
j Plant B
: ! Plant C
$
126,600
199,200
314,200
Reduction Benefits: BOD5_ reduction of 94 percent
and suspended solids reduction of 69 percent.
Alternative G — , Equalization, Activated Sludge, and Stabilization
' ' ' a ^ f •* i w *•' '* ?
Basin i •
This alternative adds a ! stabilization basin or lagoon after the
secondary sedimentation step of the preceding treatment system,
Alternative B. This lagoon will provide 10-day detention for
I
81
-------
ffii
1
If r.
3000-
2500-
2000
1500-
1000^
S
I 500H
2
O1 —
0 2;00
(1000 Ib./dajf)
•:-;' I
-------
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tabilizing the remaining BOD5 and reducing -the suspended solids
if Concentration. Effluent levels of 30 to 60 mg/1 of BOD5 and
^suspended solids are expected from Alternative C. Resultant waste
iloads per unit of production will be 0.18 to 0.35 kg/kkg (lbs/1000
for both BOD5 and suspended solids.
\ A,
Investment Costs:
j
Total Annual Ccists:
Plant A
Plant B
Plant C
Plant A
Plant B
Plant C
$ 629,900
$ 887,200
$1,441,500
$
$
$
141,400
210,900
337,900
Reduction Benefits: BOD5 reduction of 95 to 97.5
percent and suspended solids reduction of 75 to 87 percent.
Alternative p — Equalization,
Filtration
Activated Sludge, and Deep Bed
Alternative D includes 4eep bed filtration with the treatment steps
proposed in Alternative B. BOD5 concentrations are anticipated to
be 20 to 30 mg/1 in the effluent and suspended solids are expected
to be 10 to 20 ing/1,, These concentrations correspond •»
waste loads of 0.12 to 0.18 kg/kkg (lbs/1000 Ibs) of BOD5
to 0.12 kg/kkg (Ibs/lOOQ Ibs) of suspended solids.
and 0.06
Investment Costs:
•I
Plant A
Plant B
Plant C
$ 563,300
$ 875,300
$1,411,700
Total Annual Co|sts: Plant A
I Plant B
I Plant C
$
$
$
139,300
223,100
359,900
Reduction Benefits: BOD5 and suspended solids reduc-
tions of 97.4 tjo 98.3 percent and 91.4 to 95.7 percent,
respectively, i
j ',,.--.•
Alternative E — Equalization, Activated Sludge, Deep Bed
Filtration, and Activated Carbon Filtration
In Alternative E, activated carbon
previous treatment sjcheme. The
estimated to be 5 mg/1 f,or both BOD5
i
level corresponds to waste loads
both BOD5 and suspended Isolids.
filtration is added to the
effluent concentrations are
and suspended solids. This
of 0.03 kg/kkg (lbs/1000 Ibs) for
i
Investment costis:
Plant
Plant
Plant
A
B
C
Total Annual costs: Plant A
I Plant B
$ 777,500
$1,247,300
$2,040,900
$ 186,100
:$ 304,.400
83
-------
n
li k
8II
1 Plant C
494,800"
Reduction Benefits: BOD5 arid suspended solids
reductions of 99.6 arid97.9 percent, respectively.
The effluent should be suitable for partial
••• *<• • reuse or recycle."" '""""" ' ".
I • • [••.•.'ij...',. ¥./.!A;•••'.!:: ••'•'•.. ''-''I'-'i •*•". -..':..'< ±-..'.i- :• /-" !''.i '. ", ••.• '.:
Alternative F — Equalization, Activated Sludge, Deep Bed
~~Filtration, Activated Carton Filtration, and Reverse
6!smosis
'i '. "": '"' : : . .." % I * '''I'; r" * "'* , " ' >' ':' *' -' ' '''*' •''••'• "
This alternative includes reverse osmosis to reduce the total dis-
solved solids. Effluent levels will be comparable to those
anticipated in Alternative E, but with a maximum dissolved solids
concentration of 500 mgi'l.
Investment costs
Total Annual Costs:
Plant A
Plant" "B"
Plant C
p.. ~
Plant A
Plant B
"Plant c
$ 960,700
'$1,613,500
$2,785,500
$ 233,700
$ 394,600
'$ ' 679,400
[• | . I |' t I " • ' -'.•••.,•
Reduction Benefits: "BODS' and suspended solids
reductions eq^al*to those expected in Alternative E,
i.e., 99.6 arici 97.9 percent, respectively. The
effluent should be suitable for complete recycle.
i ...- - f a m PI » II i... MI
'I* (I
'Li-
Wheat Starch and Gluten Manufacturing
A hypothetical wheat s4arch and'gluten plant of moderate size, i.e.,
45,360 kg/day (100,000 Ibs/day) of wheat flour input, was selected
as "a basis for developing cost data. The values of the waste water
Characteristics used lib describe this plant reflect actual industry
practice, as follows: "i
Flow
BOD5
Suspended Solids
4.5 cu ni/day (1.2 gal/lb) of flour
90.7 kg/kkg (lbs/1000 Ibs)
75.2 kg/3dcg (lbs/1000 Ibs)
The production and waste" water characteristics of the hypothetical
plant are" summarized below:
Production
Flow" |
BOD5
Suspended Solids
45,360kg/day (100,000 Ibs/day)
454 cu m/day (120,000 gpd)
4114kg/day (9070 Ibs/day) or 9057 mg/1
3411 kg/day (7520 Ibs/day) or 7509 mg/1
Proposed alternative (treatment systems are described below.
investment and annual £os t information for each alternative and
resultant; effluent qualities are presented in Table 11.
'-•••••'!'•;'•••: . * , ' '' " * •
Alternative A — Activated Sludge
84
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^___
Thfs first alternative includes pET neutralization, primary sedi-
mentation, complete-mix jactivated sludge, secondary sedimentation,
effluent chlorination, and sludge dewatering. Anticipated effluent
levels are '200 to 400 mg/1 of"BOD5 and 100 to 400 mg/1 of suspended
solids. Tliese levels correspond to waste loads of 2.0 to 4.0 kg/kkg
(lbs/1000 Ibs) of BOD'S and 1.0 "to 4.0 kg/kkg (lbs/1000 Ibs) of
.suspended" solids. ' " "" ."
'investment dost: $ 892,500
: • | ,) L ' •,.,.. i.
1 - • i .:,'.'-•• - ' i F rtr * h f * * ^ . ' , •. 4'f :,!' ; „:'• "i t
Total Annual Cost: $ 240,700
Reduction Benefits: Bppj5 reduction of 95.6 to 97.8
percent, suspended solids reduction of 94.7 to 98.7
''percent. "I " *
Alternative B — Equalization and Activated Sludge
This alternative includes 18 hours of aerated equalization ahead of
the complete-mix activated sludgesystem described in Alternative A.
Average effluent levelis are estimated at 150 to 300 mg/1 for BOD5
arid 100 to 300 mg/1 for suspended solids. These concentrations
represent 'waste loads;of 1.5 to 3.0 kg/kkg (lbs/1000 Ibs) for BOD5
and 1.0 to 3.0 kg/kkg (lbs/1000 Ibs) for suspended solids.
Investment' Cost: " "''Incremental costs' are"" approximately
$71,800 over Alternative A* for a total cost of $964,300.
Total Annual Cost: Incrementai costs are approximately
$11,500 over Alternative A for a total annual cost of
.• :' .-.;.. $252,200. ' "j """ " " • - ' " ';' ;
Reduction Benefits: Bops"reduction of 96.7 to 98.3
percent and suspended solids reduction of 96.0 to 98.7
percent. ' '
, - ' .. '-.'•' ' -1 '..". '::" "'''.'.:"'" ".:"• "•, \ .- i + t j ' .' i f i r -T p ,
Alternative^C — Equalization^ Activated Sludge, and
1 Stabilization Lagoon
Alternative C adds a stabilization basin with 10-day retention to
the preceding treatment system.
'BODS'levels in the effluent are
anticipated to be 100 to 150 mg/1, and suspended solids levels of 75
to 150 mg/1 are expected. These values correspond to 1.0 to 1.5
kg/kkg(lbs/1060 Ibs) for BOD5 and 0.75 to 1.4 kg/kkg (lbs/1000 Ibs)
for suspended solids. \
• Investment Costs: Incremental costs of $50,300
over Alternative B fora total cost of $1,014,600.
Total Annual Costs: incremental costs of $8000-
over Alternative B for a total cost of $260,200.
: I _ "; r _ i ,.*.'. • "v ''"• ' '"'
Reduction Benefits: BODSreduction of 98.3 to 98.9
percent, suspended solids reduction of 98 to 99 percent.
i A i" IT *• k- « (l I F I
86
-------
. g. . . ,...-„-.,„. i ,„ .... , ........ ,-,..„.,. ^Mi,^ ,!_, - J -—I,.'.. ,.fl L . _ ,- , _ , • '
Alte£Q§£iYg D ~ Equalization, Activated Sludge * arid Deep-"Bed
Filtration |
In this proposed systejn, deep bed filtration is added to the
treatment system outlined in Alternative B. The stabilization
lagoon is Deleted. BOD5 and suspended solids effluent levels of 30
to 50 mg/1 and 20 to, 30 mg/1, respectively, are anticipated. These
concentrations represenjb 0.3 to 0.5 kg/kkg (lbs/1000 Ibs) of BOD5
and 0.2 to 0.3 kg/kkg (lbs/1000 Ibs) of suspended solids.
Investment Cosjbs: Incremental.,'costs of $31,700
over Alternative B for"a total cost of $996,000.
Total Annual C
-------
•
ill..;
(V"
°n Be'HitS" BOOT and suspended~solids
NON-WATER DUALITY ASPECTS .
£iE HSiiStion Control
. liT.a'Wl.
•i... flit ', i "• i "!IJ|'!, "*!.'i.
ecn 0
sys.
extensively applied in the h?o?o^?i are available and have been
contribute to pollution ground o
o ri
acceptable land Sspoial Stai^lU. V ^ "^ " ^idance for
rs re- .
hazardous mateSIS °n
Aerials
88
-------
•the appropriate
is locates.
office of tile legal jurisdiction in which the site
Reguir ement s
~
The treatment technologies presently in use or proposed in this
'document do not require any processes with exceedingly high energy
requirements. Power jwill be needed for aeration, pumping,
centrifugation, and other unit operations. These requirements,
generally, are a direct function of the volume treated and the waste
strength. Thus, the greatest energy demands will occur in large
ready-to-eat cereal plants.
For the hypothetical -treatment systems described previously in this
section, the power requirements are in the range of 75 to 370 kw
(100 to '500 hp) for cfereal plants and 150 to 220 kw (200 to 300 hp)
for wheat starch plantjs. This level of demand is generally less
than one percent of the total energy requirements of a typical
ready-to-eat cereal or wheat starch plant. It was concluded that
the energy needs for achieving needed waste water treatment consti-
tute only a small portion of the energy demands of the entire
industry, and these added demands can readily be accommodated by
purchased and in-housej power sources.
89
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SECTION IX
EFFLUENT REDUCTION ATTAINABLE THROUGH THE APPLICATION OF
THE BEST PRACTICABLE CONTROL TECHNOLOGY CURRENTLY AVAILABLE
EFFLUENT LIMITATIONS GUIDELINES
INTRODUCTION
I ' " : :
The effluent limitations that must be achieved by July 1, 1977, are
to specify the degree of effluent reduction attainable through the
application of the besi practicable control technology currently
available. The best practicable control technology currently
available is generallyjbased upon the averages of the best existing
performance by plants of various sizes^ ages, and unit processes
within the industrial category or subcategory. This average is not
based on a broad range of plants within the grain milling industry,
but on performance levels achieved by a combination of plants
showing exemplary in-house performance and those with exemplary end-
of-pipe control technology.
I • -
Consideration must also be given to:
j ......
a. the total cost of application of technology in relation to
the effluent) reduction benefits to be achieved from such
application; !
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
the size and age of equipment and facilities involved;
the processes
employed and product mix;
the engineering aspects of the application of various types
of control techniques;
process changes; and
non-water quality environmental impact
requirements).
(including energy
Also, best practicable control technology currently available
emphasizes treatment [facilities at the end of a manufacturing
process, but includes the control technologies within the process
itself when the latter are considered to be normal practice within
an industry. A further consideration is the degree of economic and
engineering reliability which must be established for the technology
to be "currently available." As a result of demonstration projects,
pilot plants, and general use, there must exist a high degree of
confidence in the "engineering and economic practicability of the
technology at the time of commencement of construction of
installation of thej control facilities. However, where pollution
control and abatement (technology as presently applied in an industry
is judged inadequate, effluent limitation guidelines for the
industry category or subcategory may be based upon the transfer of
91
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j
technology to reasonably achieve the effluent limitations arid
standards as established,'
In establishing the leVel of technology and effluent limitation
guidelines for the breakfjast cereal, and wheat starch segment of the
point source category, it is recognized that present plants, with
only few exceptions, discharge the untreated or partially treated
waste water to municipal sewage systems. Therefore, since no direct
discharge to navigable waters results from, the operation of industry-
owned treatment measures;i effluent guidelines would have no direct
application in these instance's... However, the need for effluent
guidelines for the ready-to-eat cereal and wheat starch
manufacturing subcategories is evident where any plant modifications
or changes in existing! practices would result in discharge of
process waste waters directly tonavigable waters.
EFFLUENT REDUCTION ATTAINABLE THROUGH THE APPLICATION OF BEST
PRACTICABLE ^CONTROL TECHNOLOGY CURRENTLY AVAILABLE
Biased on the .infor.mati.-ojn presented in Sections III through VIII of
this report, it has been determined that the effluent reductions
attainable through the Application of the best practicable control
technology currently available for these subcategories are those
presented in Table12. These.values represent the maximum allowable
waste water effluentloading for any 30 consecutive calendar days.
Excursions above these leyelsare to be permitted "with a maximum
daily average of 3.0 times the average 30-day values listed below.
The variances for maximuin daily average are necessary to consider
variation in production;, plant operation, shock waste loads, and
variable waste cpntributions.
; . I '_ : . _ ' ^ _ .. ;; -Table 12 ''_ '." .." . ;;,.. .
Effluent Reduction Attainable Through the Application of
, Best Practicable Control, .Technology Currently Available*
^ BOI55 ;
kg/kkg fibs/1000
Animal feed
manufacturing
, i
Hot cereal
manufacturing
Suspended Solids
kg^kkcT (lbs/10 00
' •:v:V.':Vl. '•'• .;•'..<••! ':"•' - I". "•I.'iv •*!•', " »'t , • i i- •*
pH
Ready-to-eat cereal
manufacturing Oi HO
Wheat starch and ; j
gluten manufacturing 21 0
No discharge of process waste
wkteii: "pollutants
Nb discharge of process waste
water pollutants
0.40
2.0
6-9
6-9
*Maximum average of daily values for any period of 30
consecutive days. j ,
n T
t I ' ' I I
92
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BEST
IDMTIFICATION OF
AVAILABLE :
' ft" •'?} '' *'f r , ;•- •'.'.•• ::;•'''"••-
The best practicableicontrol technology currently available for the
subcategories of the grain milling industry covered in this document
generally consists of equalization, biological treatment (e.g.
activated sludge) r a'nd effective solids separation. The specific
technological means available to implement the specified effluent
limitations are presented below for each subcategory.
Animal Feed Manufacturing '
Animal feed manufacturing requires little process water and
generates no waste waters. Hence, the effluent limitation of no
discharge of process wastes is already being met.
1 ! '
Hot Cereal Manufacturing
I
The manufacture of hot cereals generates no process wastes. Thus,
the effluent limitation of no discharge of process wastes is already
being met.
Readv-to-Eat
Manufacturing
Waste waters from ready-to-eat cereal plants are generated primarily
in cleanup operations.' Although waste volumes can be reduced by in^
plant modifications, substantial reduction in the waste load from
the plant is not an immediate possibility and treatment of the
entire waste stream is necessary. Treatment includes:
1. Collection and equalization of flow
2. Primary sedimentation
3. Nutrient addition
i
4, Biological treatment using activated sludge or a
, comparable system
i
5. Secondary sedimentation
6. Additional bxological treatment and/or solids removal
The technology presented in support of the recommended effluent
guidelines limitations is as given under Alternative B of Section
VIII of the Development Document in discussion of the ready-to-eat
cereal subcategory. j The technology includes treatment of the raw
waste load by equalisation, and activated sludge. For the ready-
to-eat cereal subcategory, the supportive technology would be
expected to provide an overall BOD and suspended solids removal of
93.7 and 68.6 "percent, respectively, over a 30 consecutive day
period. The average raw waste BOD load is established at 6.6 kg
(6.6 Ib) per kkg {lOOO Ib) of cereal product corresponding to an
average waste water flow of 5.82 cu m/kkg (0.7 gal/lb) of cereal
93
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and average; raw waste BOD concentration of 1130 m xi"
Waffe susPen - -
Wheat Starch and Gluten fjlanuf acturino
'! . . ' - ,j .:..• ' V.' ,,', -'LTTT*"^ -. ,. ,r. • „•.. .>,.-...!.. ... ,-.--.,,.
Wheat starch manufacturing
strength waste waters, i
load by means of in-plant ncdificatinn
under present manufacturing mltSSdS"
waste stream is required as follows
limitations: I
1.
2.
3
, i
Collection and elqualization of flow
[ ''-"',-". r " .' r - '- s i* nil 1 «
pH neutralization
I
Primary sedimentation
4. Biological treatment using activated sludge or a
comparable system
recommended effluent
ative B of Section
f\-r f-iirjr m^4.^-v«-4 -* t *x:-i . I _ _ -2
94
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CONTROL TECHNOIsOeY-
IUVTIONALE FdM:THE SELEt*PION OP BEST PRACTICABLE
CURRENTLY AVAILABLE I
Animal Fee'd Manuf actur ling
' I ' •
Since no process wajste waters are generated in the manufacture of
animal feed, an effluent limitation of no discharge is specified.
i . .
Hot Cereal Manufacturing
As with animal feed manufacturing, no waste waters are generated in
the manufacture of hot cereal, and again an effluent limitation of
no discharge is specifjied,
ReadY-to-Eat Cereal Manufacturing
Cost of Application
Data developed on the ' cost of applying various treatment tech-
nologies are presented in Section VIII. Costs were developed for
three ready-to-eat cerjeal plants of different sizes. For a small
plant producing 90,700 kg/day (200,000 Ibs/day), the investment cost
for implementing the best practicable control technology currently
available is about $527,900 and the total annual cost is $126,600.
For a medium sized plant producing 226,800 kg/day (500,000 Ibs/day)^
the investment cost i is $811,800 and the total annual cost is
$199,200. For a large! plant producing 544,300 kg/day (1,200,000
Ibs/day), the investment cost is $1,277,500 and the total annual
cost is $314,200. ;
-1
Age and Size of Production Facilities
The plants in this subcategory range in age from four' to over 70
years. The chronological age of the original buildings, however,
does not accurately reflect the degree of modernization of the
production facilities. Periodic changes in the types of cereal
produced frequently iiivolve new production methods and equipment.
As a result, it is riot possible to differentiate between the basic
production operations 1at the various plants on the basis of age.
Similarly, waste water characteristics from the ready-to-eat cereal
plants cannot be classified according to plant age. Of the newer
plants, several generate low raw waste loads in terms of BOD5 and
suspended solids per unit of product and several yield rather high
waste loads. At the same time, several older plants have low raw
waste loads. The data graphically presented in Section V clearly
demonstrate the absence of any practicable and reliable correlation
based on plant ag^el Accordingly, it is concluded that the age of
the plant is not a ditect factor in determining the best practicable
control technology currently available. : ;
The size of the plant!does have a direct influence
the total amounts of contaminants discharged.
larger the plant the greater the waste load.
as expected on
In general, the
The effluent
95
-------
limitations pres^n^ed—feejrein-have been developed in terms-of—anit-of.
finished product, i.e., kg/kkg or lbs/1000 Ibs of cereal, in order
to reflect the influence ofjplant size. The control technologies
discussed in Section VIII, however, are applicable to all plants
regardless of size.
Production Processes
Although the manufacturing processes employed
plants vary depending on the type of cereal
basic unit processes are Standard across the
processes, as discussed in Section IV, include
of mixing, cooking, extrusion, flaking,
toasting, and packaging. Production processes
do not provide a basis for isubcategorization,
in determining the best practicable control
available.
in ready-to-eat cereal
being produced, the
industry. These unit
various combinations
shredding, puffing,
within the industry
nor are they a factor
technology currently
Product Mix
As mentioned ; previously iin describing the ready-to-eat cereal
industry, a wide variety of Jdifferent types of cereal is produced at
the various plants throughout the country. Furthermore, the product
mix at a given plant may vary significantly on a monthly, weekly,
and even daily basis. Attempts were made to correlate raw waste
loads with type of cereal produced, such as flaked, puffed,
extruded, coated, and non-coated. The available data did not
indicate a correlation betwejen waste loads and variation in product
mix. One possible relationship was indicated, that being the
variation of organic waste load with the percentage of cereals being
sugar-coated, but this relationship could not be quantitatively
defined and in practice jwould be administratively -difficult to
interpret. There is no evidence to suggest that the waste waters
generated from any specific cereal manufacturing process so affect
the character of the total plant waste stream as to substantially
reduce the ability of the plant to implement the best practicable
control technology currently available,
,('.'• • . * .
i i in i i i ii > •
Engineering Aspects of Application
The engineering feasibility jof achieving the effluent
using the technology discussed has been examined.
limitations
ready-to-eat cereal plants provide extensive waste water treatment
with discharge directly
to the receiving waters.
The best
practicable control technology currently available does not
represent current practice of any cereal plant. All plants
presently discharge their processwastewater, with or without
partial treatment, to municipal sewagesystems with one exception.
The one plant now discharging directly to receiving waters
anticipates connection to I a municipal sewage system inlthe neair
future. The availability ofj municipal systems has not necessitated
the development and the application of available treatment measures
for specific use in the j ready-to-eat cereal industry. The
technology as presently demonstrated in the industry is inadequate.
96
-------
similar wastes is appropriate
The
and transfer of
effectiveness of thes'e technologies for treatment of ready- to-eat
cereal waste has been satisfactorily indicated through pilot plants
and prototype operations as described in Section VII of this
document. Data from one pretreatment plant clearly indicate that
this type of waste [water is amenable to biological treatment.
Accordingly, the treatment technology recommended is considered to
be a practicable means for achieving the specific effluent
limitations. The treatment technology is readily available. On an
overall industry basis', these effluent limitations will result in a
BOD5 reduction of approximately 95 percent and a suspended solids
reduction of about 6 9 percent.
Based on present waste water volumes in the industry, the average
treated effluent resulting from the application of these effluent
limitations will contain about 75 mg/1 of BOD5 and suspended solids.
Non-Water Quality Environmental Impact
In terms of the non-water quality environmental impact, the only
item of possible conceip is the increased energy consumption to
operate the waste water treatment facilities. Relative to the
production plant energy needs, this added load is small and not of
significant impact. JFor example, the power requirements for waste
handling and disposal in the application of the best practicable
control technology currently available to a medium sized ready-to-
eat cereal plant are estimated to be 100 kilowatts (135 hp) . This
demand represents less than one percent of the plants total power
usage. ]
| . • .
Wheat Starch and Gluten Manufacturing •
Q2§£ 2£ Application J ".,-.-
The investment and annual costs for implementing various control
technologies were presented in Section VIII. To implement the best
practicable control technology currently available in order to meet
the' specified effluent limitations, the costs for a typical me'dium
sized wheat starch plant were estimated to be $964,300 for
investment and $252,200 in total annual costs.
' j .__..."
Age and Size of Production Facilities
The plants in this subcategory range in age from three to over 30
years. As with the cereal industry, the age of the original plant
building , does not, however, reflect the degree of modernization of
the production facilities. Since the plants continually incorporate
new production techniques, no reliable generalizations between the
basic production operations employed at various plants and the age
of the plant can fbe made. ;, ' ';
Available data indicates a possible relationship between plant age
and raw waste loads. j On the basis of Figures 17 and 18 in Section
V, BOD5 and suspended solids loads show some correlation with wheat
97
-------
starch plant age, and a 'general trend of increasing waste loads
increasing age was indicated. It is important however "notJ
the older wheat starch plants also tend to be the larSer "
ones in terms, of plant) capacity. Thus, the indicates correlations
oal i» V ? P ^! aS exPected has a direct influence upon the
total amounts of contaminants discharged. The effluent limitations
presented herein for ^he wheat starch and gluten manuf ac?urina
subcategory have been developed in terms of units oT rtw material
xnput, a.e., kg/kkg ob lbs/1000 Ibs of wheat flour , in ' SdSto
reflect the influence ofj plant size. Available data does LScJte a
SS^J6 rJ1ftionshiP between suspended solids and plJnt * £«S or
25SS If n° *el**OfMfcip between BOD5 and plant lize. ^narrow
range of raw waste lijad values exists per unit of raw material
input. The control technologies discussed in Section VI?I
DUdged applicable to all wheat starch plants ^ regardlJsi^f size.
Aspects of Application
^e ready-to4at cereal subcategory, none of the wheat
dSecf Ud?LgiantS ?r°Vide .e-te-s^ walte water SLtment
xVf to receiving waters. One wheat starch and
Plant d°es Provide substantial pretreatment of
™ WH I! Wate^' pri°r to discharge to a municipal sewage
eSt Practi
-------
'
Of
it is-weM—recognized that in-plant-control — measures (water
conservation and waste water recycling) and land application have
promise of offering j practical and effective means of waste load
reduction in many instances, and may effectively complement end-of-
pipe treatment measures. * High pollutant reduction levels (BOD5I and
suspended solids) are necessitated particularly in the wheat starch
and gluten manufacturing subcategory because of the extremely high
initial raw waste loa£ characteristic of this industry. Technology
exists to effectively reduce the effluent load limitations to the
specific level. Attainment of this level of technology is judged
practical, and is currently available. The final effluent
concentrations to be! realized by applying the specified control
technologies will be about 200 mg/1 of BOD5 and suspended solids.
Non-Water Quality Impact
... j . -
The non-water quality [environmental impact is restricted to the
increased power consjumption required for the treatment facility.
This power consumption! is quite small compared to the total energy
requirements for a wh'eat starch plant and, therefore, the impact of
the control facilities! is considered insignificant.
j .
LIMITATIONS ON THE JAPPLICATION OF THE EFFLUENT LIMITATIONS
GUIDELINES j
The effluent limitations guidelines presented above can generally be
applied to all plants Jin each subcategory of the grain milling
industry covered in !' this report. Special circumstances in indi-
vidual plants, however, may warrant careful evaluation.
Also, it must be recognized that the treatment of high strength
carbohydrate wastes, notably from wheat starch plants, is difficult.
Upset conditions may j occur that result in higher BOD5, and suspended
solids discharges than normal. While the treatment sequence defined
as best practicable control technology currently available will
minimize these upsets, they may still occur. The allowance in the
effluent limitations guidelines to reflect maximum daily values
properly considers the momentary variations in waste load and
treatment efficiency which are expected to occur.
99
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SECTION X
EFFLUENT REDUCTIQN ATTAINABLE THROUGH THE APPLICATION OF
THE BEST AVAILABLE TECHNOLOGY ECONOMICALLY ACHIEVABLE
EFFLUENT LIMITATIONS GUIDELINES
I
INTRODUCTION
The effluent limitations that must be achieved by July 1, 1983, are
to specify the degree of effluent reduction attainable through the
application of the j best available technology economically
achievable. This control technology is not based upon an average of
the best performance within an industrial category, but is
determined by identifying the very best control and treatment
technology employed b'y a specific plant within the industrial
category or subcategory, or readily transferable from one industry
process to another. ;
Consideration must also be given to:
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
the total cost of application of this control technology in
relation to tljie effluent reduction benefits to be achieved
from such application;
the size and age of equipment and facilities involved;
the process es j employed;
!\
I - - , ~ - , • • „ , „ - • -n
the engineering aspects of the application of this control
technology; I
process changes; and
non-water quality environmental impact
requirements)1
(including energy
Best available technology economically achievable also considers the
availability of in-process controls as well as end-of-process
control and additional|treatment techniques. This control tech-
nology is the highest degree that has been achieved or has been
demonstrated to be capable of being designed for plant scale opera-
tion up to and including "no discharge" of pollutants.
Although economic factors are considered in this development, the
costs for this level o£ control are intended to be the top-of-the-
line of current technology subject to limitations imposed by
economic and engineering feasibility. However, this control
technology may be characterized by some technical risk with respect
to performance and with respect to certainty of costs. Therefore,
this control technology may necessitate some industrially sponsored
development work priori to its application.
101
-------
•In establishing the level of technology and effluent limitations
guidelines for the breakfast cereal, and wheat starch segment of the
grain mills, point source category, it is recognized that present
plants, with only few exceptions, discharge untreated or partially
treated waste water to) municipal sewage systems. While direct
discharge to municipal systems are the result, effluent guidelines
as applicable to discharge to navigable waters from industrial
guidelines for the ready-to-eat and wheat starch manufacturing
subcategories is apparent where any plant modifications or changes
in existing practices would result in discharge of process waste
waters directly to navigable waters.
'; ' " .' ,'"' ]''-.',. ;;.; • •;. / | ' '.r ' ", . • ' t • , :::* ' . .;•:;•: ;i,,r
EFFLUENT REDUCTION ATTAINABLE THROUGH THE APPLICATION OF THE BEST
AVAILABLE TECHNOLOGY ECONOMICALLY ACHIEVABLE
• ' \ . ; • ' "" .. •: I-•''>•:'*q.'1 ' f: .-V^ '-=,*"' ' .i-y /•:•"" - VH" v,:'1.- , '"',. •• > ^ r u -•.:•.:•'
; . i , . . ,,. .,•'•, if ,Hi ,; "™"»t'i ..-..ijj': '.,';, i li" I., '.' |* ,. jut-1.!', '• . 'J.i'Sti jfi'M" ' I'll '' r v y -'l""','™ '111'. J'..nJ ' 'i w'i\ ,»• " ii ' i"'si' 1''i!', J'ki ,'! ', II. •" I".,', i ' ,i, • , '' h' "' " ! j
Based on the information bonja^ned in SectionsIII through VIII of
this document, it has been determined that theeffluent reductions
attainable through the application of the best available technology
economically achievable are those presented in Table 13. The values
presented in Table 13 represent the maximum allowable waste water
effluent loading for any 36 consecutive calendar days. To allow for
variances, excursions aboye these levels are permitted for a maximum
daily average of 3.0 thirties the average 30-day values. These
standards are based on unit; weight of pollutant per unit weight of
raw material (wheat starchy for the wheat starch and gluten
subcategory, and per unit weight of finished cereal product for the
ready-to-eat cereal subcategory.
, Table 13 ,
! * it * * • t '¥ I ! i •
if r
Attainable Through the Application
of Bjest Available Technology Economically Achievable
1111 • ,11. n\ , 4 j " n i ' i
Effluent Reduction
Industry
Sabcategory
t,-- ,i. ,,,,••'»•, /
BOD ]
kg/kkg (Ibs/lbgo
Suspended Solids
ka/kkq(lbs/1000
Animal feed
manuf act urd.ng
Hpt ^cereal
manufacturing
Ready-to-eat cereal
imanufacturing
Wheat starch' and ]
.gluten manufacturing Oi50
No discharge of process wastes
, , i^ ]'• E, ;-; i-,',1, ;'i'„ -r , , i1" --** H.^, , a •,;.;; g"^,.u,,. t,i -> >•» ,- n|,- , i ,. LV „ ,r,', ,. ;,,' ••&. s~
No discharge of process wastes
0;20 0.15
0.40
6-9
6-9
IDENTIFICATION OF BEST AVAILABLE, TECHNOLOGY ECONOMICALLY ACHIEVABLE
1 ,,'"", j J * H # * ' J I U ( ' t ' ^ I 1*1 I I «. '« '•:',inii!'« I.H* '',' '• ""' ''^Mllli'lil1 "i
For the segments of the /grain milling industry covered in this
document, the best available technology economically achievable :.f or
those subcategories 'with \*aste water discharges comprises improved
solids separation " following activated sludge or comparable
biological treatment. Improved solids separation can be represented
best by deep bed filtration arid/or carbon filtration although
alternative systems mayi be available. It is anticipated that the
102
'. l||,H \'
-------
by filtration will
of
rapidly with the increased use of such treatment processes in many
industries and municipalities,
Improved stability and ! performance of the biological treatment
processes is a significant factor in the successful application of
deep bed filtration. At present, upsets do occur in activated
sludge systems handling high strength waste waters and might be
expected to result in some efficiency and effectiveness loss of deep
bed filtration. A reasonable allowance must be made in the
established effluent guidelines limitations to account for variance
in daily effluent quality with best operation.
The technology presented in support of the recommended effluent
guidelines limitations fjor the ready-to-eat cereal subcategory is as
given under Alternative D of Section VIII of the Development
Document in discussion of the ready-to-eat cereal subcategory. The
technology includes treatment of the raw waste load by equalization,
activated sludge and jdeep bed filtration. For the ready-to-eat
cereal subcategory, the supportive technology would be expected to
provide an overall BOD ajnd suspended solids removal of 97.4 and 87.1
percent, respectively, j over a 30 consecutive day period. The
average raw waste BOD lo>ad is established at 6.6 kg (6.6 Ib) per kkg
(1000 Ib) of cereal product corresponding to an average waste water
flow of 5.82 cu m/kkg (0.7 gal/lb) of cereal production and average
raw waste BOD concentration of 1130 mg/1. Average raw waste
suspended solids load | is established at 1.4 kg (1.4 Ib) per kkg
(1000 Ib) of cereal corresponding to an average waste water flow of
5.82 cu m/day (0.7 gal/lb) of cereal production and average raw
waste total suspended sojlids concentration of 240 mg/1. The average
raw waste load would be jreduced to the recommended limitation of
0.20 kg/kkg (0.20 lb/10-00 Ib) for BOD and 0.15 kg/kkg (0.15 lb/1000
Ib) for suspended solids;. Corresponding treated effluent levels for
BOD and suspended solids! of 30 mg/1 would result.
i . • • • •
The technology presented in support of the recommended effluent
guidelines limitations for the wheat starch and gluten manufacturing
subcategory is as given under Alternative D of Section VIII of the
Development Document in (discussion of the wheat starch and gluten
manufacturing subcategory. The technology includes treatment of the
raw waste load by equalization, activated sludge and deep bed
filtration. For the wheat starch and glufcen manufacturing
subcategory, the supporjtive technology would be expected to provide
overall BOD and suspended solids removals of 99.4 percent over a 30
consecutive day period. The average raw waste BOD load is
established at 90.7 kg (190.7 Ib) per kkg (1000 Ib) of cereal product
corresponding to an average waste water flow of 9,9 cu m/kkg (1.2
gal/lb) of cereal production and average raw waste* BOD concentration
of 9057 mg/1. Average raw waste suspended solids 'load is
established at 75.2 kg 1(75.2 Ib) per kkg (1000 Ib) of cereal
corresponding to -an average waste water flow of 9,9 cu m/kkg (1.2
gal/lb) of cereal production and average raw waste total suspended
solids concentration of 7509 mg/1. The average raw waste load would
be reduced to the recommended -limitation of 0.50 kg/kkg (0.50
i
i ...... 103
-------
;
I
lb/1000 Ib) for BOD and
Read^-to-Eat Cereal Manufacturing
S2§t of Application
-Sf:™^e^^^
small cereal plant '<»" ™« i,~,* £„-.: _r::cl"J-e are *3t>j,.
plant
of Production Facilities
methoas employa™ Sy the di?f»^; ^lkflse- *he proauotion
affect the: 3 *" «**»••>* *>
Engineering Aspects of Application
Practicable control
technology
facility Sow In SSera'^"19 *ull-scale Pretreatment
Process Changes
'f*
104
-------
Nobasicprocess Changes will be necessaryto implement these
control technologies. substitution of dry clean-up for wet clean-up
operations can substantially reduce pollutant loads from the
industry, i • '
! .
Non-water Quality Environmental Aspects
The application of the best available technology economically
achievable will not create any new sources of air or land pollution,
or require significantly more energy than the best practicable
control technology currently available. Power needs for this level
of treatment technology were estimated to be about 115 kw (155 hp)
for a medium sized plant as defined in Section VIII. This demand is
small when compared to the total production plant power
requirements. j
"I ' i '
Wheat Starch and Gluten Manufacturing
Cost of Application
I
The investment cost of applying the best available technology
economically achievable, defined above, to a moderate-sized wheat
starch and gluten plant; has been estimated in Section VIII to be
$996,000. Total annual costs are estimated at $264,000.
' ' i
Aqef Size^ and Type of [Production Facilities
As discussed in Section' IX, the application of this level of control
technology is not dependent upon the size or age of the plants.
Production methods employed by the different plants are similar and
do not affect the applicability of this technology.
Enqineerincr Aspects of JApplication
[
As previously discussed in relation to ready-to-eat cereal plants,
the specified treatment technology has not been specifically
demonstrated for wheat starch and gluten manufacturing process waste
waters. However, these processes are readily available,
transferrable frotfi other treatment applications and economically and
technically feasible, j Technology as now practiced is judged
inadequate where direct discharge of treated process waste water to
navigable waters result;. The technology may be aided by reduction
of in-plant clean-up j water use (generally representing 5 to 10
percent of the total process waste water flow), and recycling of
process water in the production operation. Biodegradability of the
waste has been firmly established by results at one operational
pretreatment facility,1 and pilot plant studies. High organic
removals are necessitated by the extraordinarily high pollutant
potential of the representative waste water. The technology will
result in effluent conqentrations of 100 mg/1 of BOD55 a'nd suspended
solids. "I ~~
105
-------
Process Changes '
i - j i :M"'.' r-B'-a-'iK'-'It-''.!''"'!'"'.'!!:,: '' "'.nvM .i'SrilHi.flSifr1,«"' ' i" , «i ",' " ' •'. ' • •.>;
No basic changes are necessary -fco implement these control
technologies. Reduction;in water use, and recycling of water for
production purposes can reduce the reliance upon end-of-pipe
treatment technology. j
Non-water Quality Environmenta1 Aspects
, - -i ^,» - f -• —— . - ,, ' .,
Power requirements for the prescribed treatment system are small
compared to the overall production demands. The estimated energy
requirement for waste treatment ata typical wheat starch plant is
185 kw (250 hp). Other environmental considerations will not be
affected by the application of this control technology.
106
-------
atrol
for
-pipe
small
iergy
- is
Dt be
SECTION XI
NEW SOURCE PERFORMANCE STANDARDS
INTRODUCTION
Standards of performance are presented in this section for new
sources. The term "new source" is defined to mean "any source, the
construction of which is commenced after the publication of the
proposed regulations prescribing a standard of performance." These
standards of performance are to reflect higher levels of pollution
control that may be available through the application of improved
production processes and/or treatment techniques.
Consideration should bej given to the following factors:
i . . _. • ' • ; • • . . .
a. the type of process employed and process changes;
c.
d.
e.
f.
operating methods and in-plant controls;
batch as opposed to continuous operations;
: , j .,••., ,- - • -
use of alternative raw materials;
use of dry rather than wet processes; and
recovery of pollutant as by-products.
The new source performance standards represent the best in-plant and
end-of-process control technology coupled with the use of new and/or
improved manufacturing j processes. in the development of these
performance standards; consideration must be given to the
practicability of a standard permitting "no discharqe" of
pollutants. j
: '. , | . ,,:,,.:.,',.'''.,• .",',._,.
NEW SOURCE PERFORMANCE STANDARDS
The performance standards for new sources in the subcategories of
the grain milling industry covered in this document are presented in
Table 14, Standards (BOD and suspended solids) are given in terms
of unit weight of pollutant per unit weight of raw material (wheat
flour) for the wheat starch and gluten subcategory and per unit
weight of finished cereal product for the ready-to-eat cereal
subcategory. j
i .. " -•• ': ,•.„.'•. .1- • • • •., ;-. .- -.„• ,- , ' ; '•' ' ."•
107
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i Table 14
I . ,
New Sourcje Performance Standards*
I • •" • ;---•,••- _-.-..- .
BOD Suspended Solids
kg/kkgilbs/1000 Ibsl kg/kkcr(lbs/1000
Animal feed
manufacturing
Hot cereal
manufacturing
Ready-to-eat cereal
manufacturing
Wheat starch and
gluten manufacturing
Noj discharge of process wastes
No discharge of process wastes
0.20 0.15
T.b 1.0
6-9
6-9
*Maximum average of daily values for any period of 30
consecutive days. !
The values given in Table |13 reflect the maximum allowable waste
water effluent loading tor any 30 consecutive calendar days. To
allow for variances, excursions above these levels are permitted for
a maximum daily average ofj3.0 times the average 30-day levels.
RATIONALE FOR THE SELECTION OF NEW SOURCE PERFORMANCE STANDARDS
I • .
Ready—to-Eat Cereal Manufacturing
.! . • . • •
The performance standards tor new sources in the ready-to-eat cereal
subcategory are identical $° the effluent limitations prescribed as
attainable thr6ugh the application of the best available technology
economically achievable as|presented in Section X,
The technology presented iiji support of the recommended effluent
guidelines limitations is as given under Alternative D of Section
VIII of the Development Document in discussion of the ready-to-eat
cereal subcategory. The! technology includes treatment of the raw
waste load by equalization, activated sludge and deep bed
filtration. For the ready-Mio-eat cereal subcategory, the supportive
technology would be expected to provide an overall BOD and suspended
solids removal of 97.4 land 87.1 percent, respectively, over a 30
consecutive day period, i The average raw waste BOD load is
established at 6.6 kg (6.6 Ib) per kkg (1000 Ib) of cereal product
corresponding to an average waste water flow of 5.82 cu m/kkg (0.7
gal/lb) of cereal production and average raw waste BOD concentration
of 1130 mg/1. Average raw waste suspended solids load is
established at 1. 4 kg (1.4 Ib) per kkg (1000 Ib) of cereal
corresponding to an average waste water flow of 5.82 cu m/kkg (0.7
gal/lb) of cereal production and average raw waste total suspended
solids concentration' of 240 mg/l«, The average raw waste load would
be reduced to the recommended limitation of 0.20 kg/kkg (0.20
lb/1000 Ib) for BOD and O.J15 kg/kkg (0,15 lb/1000 Ib) for suspended
solids. Corresponding treated effluent levels for BOD and suspended
solids of 30 mg/1 would result.
I
108
-------
The specific control technologies to meet the new source performance
standards are not presented in this document. The end-of-process
treatment is to be equivalent to that suggested for the best control
technology economically achievable. Recognizing that this level of
waste water treatment hab not been demonstrated in this segment of
the grain milling industry, it is nonetheless felt that this
technology will meet the! new source standards. Factors considered
in developing these standards are summarized in the following
discussion. !
Production Processes
| • .'•:-. •. •. . -
i , .
The basic production methods employed in ready-to-eat cereal
manufacturing are not I likely to be altered significantly in the
future. Although new itypes of equipment are constantly being
developed and incorporated into the manufacturing operations, the
basic process will probably remain largely in its present form.
Furthermore, since most waste waters from a ready-to-eat cereal
plant are generated in cleanup operations, it is not anticipated
that changes in production processes will significantly alter waste
characteristics and waste water flow volumes contributed by this
industry. I
; '. . . I
Operating Methods and InfPlant Controls
As discussed in Section VII, in-plant controls are not anticipated
to have a major effect on waste loads from ready-to-eat cereal
plants. New plants do offer the possibility of incorporating
controls such as dry-collection systems for product spillage, but
significant usage of yater in wet cleanup operations may still be
expected, ,
By-product Recovery
!
At present, most plants in this segment of the grain milling in-
dustry recover substantial amounts of product spillage in a dry form
for use in animal feed.! These recoveries might be increased at new
plants by implementing improved collection methods and systems, but
no new recovery methods are presently anticipated.
Wheat Starch and Gluten Manufacturing
~"^""" ! -,,'•-
The new source performance standards for the wheat starch and gluten
manufacturing subcategoty fall between the technology required to
meet the effluent limitations guidelines established for the best
practicable control technology currently available and the best
available technology economically achievable. These standards
include biological treatment, final sedimentation, and a further
solids removal step such j as a stabilization basin or deep'- bed
filters. Two factors I properly influence the selection of the
proposed new source" performance standard. One is the extremely high
organic strength and suspended solids concentrations of the process
waste water from wheat starch plants, which make waste load
reductions beyond conventional secondary treatment quite difficult.
109
-------
I
A second factor is -that tHe Degree of pollutant reduction required
by end-of-process treatment has not been specifically demonstrated
at any full-scale plant, even though reliable technology is
available and transferrable. Water reuse and conservation offer
alternatives to reducing waste loads through in-plant controls, and
together with end-of-pipe treatment, may be the most effective means
of pollutant reduction. 'Several new plants now under construction
are incorporating such in-plant measures for substantial reductions
in water use and waste loads.
r
The production processes at existing wheat starch plants are
basically the same throughout the industry. It is known that two
new plants, presently | under construction, anticipate • major
reductions in water usage and waste loads. These waste load
reductions have yet to b& demonstrated, however. If improved waste
water characteristics do result at these plants, re-evaluation of
the proposed new source performance standards may be warranted.
The technology presented! *-n support of the recommended effluent
guidelines limitations jis as given under Alternative D of Section
VIII of the Development Document in discussion of the wheat starch
and gluten manufacturing subcategory. The technology includes
treatment of the raw wasjbe load by equalization, activated sludge
and deep bed filtration, For the wheat starch and gluten
subcategory, the supportive technology would be expected to provide
an .overall BOD and suspended solids removal of 99 and 98.7 percent,
respectively, over a 30 consecutive day period. The average raw
waste BOD load is established at 90.7 kg (90.7 Ib) per kkg (1000 Ib)
of cereal product corresponding to an average waste water flow of
9.9 cu m/kkg (1.2 gal/lb!) of cereal production and average raw waste
BOD concentration of 905J7 mg/1. Average raw waste suspended solids
load is established at 75.2 kg (75.2 Ib) per kkg (1000 Ib). of cereal
corresponding to an ajverage waste water flow of 9.9 cii m/kkg (1.2
gal/lb) of cereal production and average waste total suspended
solids concentration of 7509 mg/1. The average raw waste load would
be reduced to the recommended limitation of 1.0 kg/kkg (1.0 lb/1000
Ib) for both BOD and j suspended solids. Corresponding treated
effluent levels for BOD and suspended solids of 100 mg/1 would
result. !
no
-------
•-.• .--.•.;• • .. v. -•---. .,,. ,„ ...... SECTION
, ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
; | ' ' ". -
This study was performeji in its investigative, data gathering, and
preparatory aspects by the firm of Sverdrup & Parcel and Associates,
Inc., St. Louis, Missouri, under the direction of Dr. H.G. Schwartz,
Jr. Mr. Alan Carter served as the principal Engineer. Mr. Richard
V. Wat kins, P.E. of the! U.S. Environmental Protection Agency served
as the principal project officer on the work. Mr. Robert J. Carton
served as the EPA projept officer during the early stages of the
project. . |
Appreciation is wished to be extended to the many people in the
animal feed, breakfast | cereal, and wheat starch industries who
cooperated in pr ovid ing j information for this study. Special mention
xs given to company representatives who were particularly helpful in
this effort: I
Mr.
Mr.
Mr.
Mr.
Mr.
Mr.
Mr.
Mr.
Mr.
Mr.
Mr.
Mr.
Mr.
Mr.
Mr.
Mr.
Mr.
J. F. Lavery of Baker/Beech-Nut Corporation;
G. R. D. Williams ojE CPC International Inc;
John Wingfield and Mr. Howard Hall .of Centennial Mills;
Robert Cerosky, Mr.jV. J. Herzing, and Mr. M. A. Tubbs of
General Foods Corporation;
J. W. Haun, Mr. Donald Thimsen, and Mr. Bob Syrup of
General Mills, Inc;j
J. W. Gentzkow of General Mills Chemicals, Inc;
George T. Gould of Gould Engineering Company;
.Paul Kehoe, Mr. Bill Boyd, and Mrs. Toni Carrigan of
The Kellogg Company;
C. E. Swick of Kent Feeds;
Lloyd Sutter of Loma Linda Foods;
Donavon L. Pautzke and Mr. Ken Klimisch of Malt-o-Meal Company;
Leonard Nash of Nabisco, Inc;
W. F. Hanser and Mrl W. H. Drennan of National Oats Company;
A. J. Sowden, Mr. T. R. Sowden, and Mr. Gary Lowrance of
New Era Milling Company;
Tom Mole of Quaker Oats Company;
Frank Hackmann and tjlr, C. B. Smith of Ralston Purina Company;
William Hagenbach and Mr. Robert Popma of the A. E. Staley
Manufacturing Company.
Acknowledgment is also given to Dr. Eugene B. Hayden, President of
the Cereal Institute, and Mr. Oakley Ray, President of the American
Feed Manufacturers Association, who were helpful in providing input
to this study and in soliciting the cooperation of their member
companies. -; • \
\ ' - '•'..•' •• '•
Special mention and ackriowedgment is made of the following EPA 'grain
industry , working* grbup members who assisted in the project
evaluation and review of the draft and final documents: John E.
Riley, Chairman and Ernst Hall, Deputy Director, Effluent Guidelines
Division; G.W. Frick jand R.E. McDevitt, Office of the General
111
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Counsel; Maxwell Coohrari and Kenneth Dostal, NERC, Corvallis; Edmund
Struzeski, NFIC, Denverj Arthur MaiIon, ORD; William Sonnett, Permit
Assistance and Gail Load, Office of Planning and Evaluation.
i '
Acknowledgnent is made of ;the assistance provided by the EPA regional
offices and research centers as well as those in State and municipal
offices who provided information and assistance during the study.
The contributions of Acquanetta Delaney/ Barbara Wortman and Jane D.
Mitchell in the preparation of the manuscript are gratefully
acknowledged. !
'
112
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i SECTION~XHI"
i , i i.,'....
j REFERENCES
1. "Battle Creek - Cerepl Capital of the World", Inside Battle
Creek, Battle Cireek Public Schools Brochure No. 6, 1965T
2. "Breakfast Cereals, •] Part of Modern Life", Cereal institute
Publication. February, 1973.
3. Brody, Julius, Fishery By-Products Technology, AVI Publishing
Company, Inc., faestport, Connecticut, 1965.
ft. Dyer, Irwin A.f and b'Mary, C. C., The Feedlot, Lea & Febiger,
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, 1972*
5. Eynon, Lewis, and j Lane, J. Henry, Starch, Its Chemistry?
Technology, and Uses, W. Heffer and Sons Ltd7, Cambridge,
1928, y
6. Koon, J. H.„ Adams, Carl E., Jr., Eckenfelder, w. Wesley, Jr.,
"Analysis of National Industrial Water Pollution Control
Costs", submitted to U.S. Environmental Protection Agency,
Office of Economic Analysis, Washington, D. C., May 21*
A y / 3 • i , •
7. Matz, Samuel A., Cejreal Technology. AVI Publishing Company,
Inc.r Westport,j Connecticut, 1970.
i
8. Matz, Samuel A., The i Chemistry and Technology of Cereals as FOod
an4 Heed, AVI i Publishing Company, Inc.„ Westport,
Connecticut, 1959.
i ••
1
9. Patterson, W. L., and Banker, R. F., Black S Veatch Consulting
Engineers, "Estimating Costs and Manpower Requirements for
Conventional Wastewater Treatment Facilities", Report for
the Office of Research and Monitoring, Environmental
Protection Agency, October, 1971.
,' I .'.-'",'-
10. Radley, J. A., Starch and Its Derivatives. Chapman & Hall Ltd.,
London, 1940. I -
i •
11, Reece, F. N., "Desig4 of a Small Pushbutton Feed Mill for
Research Stations", Feedstuffg, pp. 39-40, September 24,
pj. y / j. ;
i
12. Riggs, J. K., "Fifty Years of Progress in Beef Cattle
Nutrition"* Journal of Animal Science, Volume 17, 981-1006.
1958. •> -, ! ;
13. Sanford, F. Bruce, i "Utilization of Fishery By-Products in
Washington andj Oregon", Fishery Leaflet No. 370, U.s,
113
-------
Department of the Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service,
March, 1950.
1ft. Schaible, Philip J.
1
Poultry: Feeds and
AVI
, .
publishing Company, Inc., Westport, Connecticut, 1970.
15 sevfried, C. F., "Purification of Starch Industry Waste Water",
15. seyfr^ro^e^ings of the 23rd Industrial Waste Conference, Purdue
University, Lafayette, Indiana, May 7-9, 1968.
16 Shannon, L. J., Gorman, P. G., Epp, D. M. , Gerstle, R. W.,
16. shannon, £. , Amick, R., "Engineering and Cost Study of
Missions con^ol in the' Grain and Feed Industry",
Environmental Protection Aaencv, Research Triangle Park,
North Carolina. ;
i • • • • •
17. Sherwood, Ross M., ! The Feed Mixers' Handbook, Interstate
Publishers, Danville, Illinois, 1956.
18 Whistler, Roy L. and jpaschall, Eugene F. , Starch;. Chemistry, and
volume 1^ Fundamental Aspects, Academic Press,
New York, 1965. |
19 Whistler,
19. WhiStr
. and!Paschall, Eugene F. , Starch; Chemistry and
yolume T^. industrial Aspects, Academic Press,
New York, 1967.
M
20 "Water Quality Criteria ^1972," National Academy of Sciences and National
Academy of Engineering for the Environmental Protection Agency,
Washington, D.C. 1972 (U.S. Government Printing Office Stock No.
5501-00520). i ...
114
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I
METRIC TABLE
CONVERSION TABLE
MULTIPLY (ENGLISH UNITS) i
ENGLISH UNIT ABBREVIATION
acre
acre - feet
. British Thermal
Unit
British Thermal
Unit/pound
cubic feet/minute
cubic feet/second
cubic feet
cubic feet
cubic inches
degree Fahrenheit
feet
gallon
gallon/minute
horsepower
inches
inches of mercury
pounds
million gallons/day
mile
pound/square
inch (gauge)
-square feet
square inches
ton (short)
yard ;
* Actual conversion, not a multiplier
by TO OBTAIN (METRIC UNITS)
CONVERSION ABBREVIATION METRIC UNIT .
hectares
cubic meters
kilogram - calories
kilogram calories/kilogram
cubic meters/minute
cubic meters/minute
cubic meters
liters
cubic centimeters
degree Centigrade
meters
liters
liters/second
killowatts
centimeters
atmospheres
kilograms.
cubic meters/day
kilometer
atmospheres (absolute)
square meters
square centimeters
metric ton (1000 kilograms)
meter
ac
0.
ac ft _ 1233.
BTU
'"'0.
BTU/ljb 0.
cfm ; 0.
cfs 1.
cu ft! 0.
cu ft! 28.
cu in1 16.
°F
ft
gal
gpm
hp
in ,
405
5 ....
252
555
028
7
028
32
39
0.555(°F-32)*
Q.
3.
0.
Q.
2
in Hg 0.
Ib 1 0.
mgd 3,785
mi
1.
I
1 -. • '
psig
(0.06805
sq-ftj 0.
sq in 6.
ton ! 0.
yd i o.
3048
785
0631
7457
54' ..
03342
454
609 ,
psig +1)*
0929
452
907
9144
ha
cu m
kg cai
kg cal/kg
cu m/min
cu m/min
cu m
1
cu cm
°C
m
1
I/sec
,,,KW
cm
atm
kg
cu m/day
km
atm
sq m
sq cm
kkg
m
U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1975- 582—420:228
115
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