DEVELOPMENT DOCUMENT

                     for

INTERIM FINAL EFFLUENT LIMITATIONS GUIDELINES

                     and

  PROPOSED NEW SOURCE PERFORMANCE STANDARDS

                   for the

          RAW CANE SUGAR PROCESSING
                SEGMENT OF THE
    SUGAR PROCESSING POINT SOURCE CATEGORY
               Russell  E. Train
                Administrator

                James L. Agee
    Assistant Administrator for Water and
             Hazardous  Materials
                 Allen Cywin
    Director, Effluent Guidelines Division

             Robert W. Dellinger
               Project Officer
                February, 1975

         Effluent Guidelines Division
   Office of Water and Hazardous Materials
    U.  S. Environmental Protection Agency
           Washington, D, C.  20460

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                                ABSTRACT
 This document presents the findings of an extensive study of  the  raw
 cane sugar processing segment of the sugar processing category for the
 purpose  of  establishing effluent limitations and guidelines, Federal
 standards of performance, and pretreatment standards for the  industry
 for  the purpose of implementing Sections 301, 304(b) and (c), 306 (b) ,
 and 307 (b)  and (c)  of the Federal  Water  Pollution  Control  Act,  as
 amended  (33  U.S.C.  1251,  1311  and  1314(b)   and  (c), 1316 (b) and
 1317 (c);  86 Stat. 816 et seq.) .

 Effluent limitations and guidelines contained herein are based on  the
 degree of effluent reduction attainable through the application of the
 best  practicable  control technology currently available (BPCTCA) and
 the degree of effluent reduction attainable through the application of
 the best available technology economically  achievable   (BATEA)   which
 must  be  achieved by existing point sources by July 1,  1977, and July
 1,  1983,  respectively.  The standards of performance for  new  sources
 (NSPS)   contained  herein as based on the degree of effluent reduction
 which is achievable through the  application  of  the  best  ^available
 demonstrated  control  technology,  processes,  operating  methods,  or
 other alternatives.                 ^

 The development of data and recommendations presented in the  document
 relate  to  the  raw . cane  sugar  processing  segment  of  the  sugar
 processing category.   This  segment  is  further  divided  into  five
 subcategories   based  on  differing  harvesting  methods,  harvesting
 conditions,  and  manufacturing  processes,  and  differences  in  the
 availability and cost of control and treatment technologies.  Separate
 effluent  limitations  are developed for each subcategory on" the basis
 of  the level of raw  waste  loading  as  well  as  on  the  degree  of
'treatment  achievable  by  suggested  model  systems.   These  systems
 include both biological and physical-chemical treatment.
                •»
 Supportive data and  rationale   for  development  of  the  recommended
 effluent  limitations  and guidelines and standards of performance are
 contained in this document.
                             m

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                             TABLE OF CONTENTS
SECTION

   I
   II
   III
   IV
   V
   VI
   VII
   VIII
   IX
 CONCLUSIONS
 RECOMMENDATIONS
 INTRODUCTION
     Purpose and Authority
     Summary of Methods
     Description of the  Industry
     Background of the Raw Cane Sugar
       Processing Segment
     Process Description
 INDUSTRY CATEGORIZATION
 WATER  USE AND WASTE CHARACTERIZATION
     Water Usage and Waste Water Quantities
     Waste Water Characteristics
     Model Cane Sugar Factories
 SELECTION OF POLLUTANT PARAMETERS
     Preliminary Selection of Pollutant
       Parameters
     Pollutant Parameters
     Final Selection of Pollutant
       Parameters
 CONTROL AND TREATMENT TECHNOLOGY
     In-Plant Control and Treatment Technology
     Existing End-of-Line Waste Water
       Treatment
     Potential End-of-Line Technology
     Selected Control and Treatment
       Technologies Applied to Model Plants
 COST,  ENERGY AND NON-WATER QUALITY ASPECTS
     Subcategory I
     Subcategory II
     Subcategory III
     Subcategory IV
     Subcategory V
     Non-Water Quality Aspects of Alternative
      Treatment and Control  Technology
 EFFLUENT REDUCTION ATTAINABLE THROUGH THE
APPLICATION OF THE BEST PRACTICABLE CONTROL
TECHNOLOGY CURRENTLY AVAILABLE EFFLUENT
LIMITATIONS GUIDELINES
     Introduction
     Effluent Reduction Attainable Through
      the Application of Best Practicable
      Control  Technology Currently Available
      for the Raw Cane Sugar Processing
      Segment
PAGE

 1
 5
 7
 7
 8
 11
 11

 20
 47
 57
 57
 71
 105
 125

 125
 125

 135
 137
 137

 147
 164

 172
 203
 203
 219
 223
 242
 242

 261
                                                                           263
                                                                           263
                                                                           264

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TABLE OF CONTENTS (Cont'd)
SECTION
   XI
   XII
   XIII
   XIV
EFFLUENT REDUCTION ATTAINABLE THROUGH THE
APPLICATION OF THE BEST AVAILABLE TECHNOLOGY
ECONOMICALLY ACHIEVABLE EFFLUENT' LIMITATIONS
GUIDELINES
    Introduction
    Effluent Reduction Attainable Through
      the Application of the Best Available
      Technology Economically Achievable for
      the Raw Cane Sugar Processing Segment
NEW SOURCE PERFORMANCE STANDARDS
    Introduction
    New Source Performance Standards for
      the Raw Cane Sugar Processing Segment
    Pretreatment Considerations
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
REFERENCES
GLOSSARY
                                                      PAGE
                                                                         269
                                                                         269
270
273
273

274
274
275
277
281

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                            LIST OF TABLES
NUMBER

  1

  2

  3
  5

  6


  7A


  7B




  8A


  8B



  9A


  9B



  10A


  10B



  11A


  TIB
              TITLE
Sources of Information

Louisiana Sugar Factories

Puerto Rico Sugar Factories

Florida Sugar Factories

Hawaiian Sugar Factories'

Composition of Mill Juices from
Compound Imbibition

Water Use and Waste Water Quantities
Subcategory I

Unit Water Use and Waste Water
Quantities
Subcategory I

Water Use and Waste Water Quantities
Subcategory II

Unit Water Use and Waste Water
Quantities
Subcategory II

Water Use and Waste Water Quantities
Subcategory III

Unit Water Use and Waste Water
Quantities
Subcategory III

Water Use and Waste Water Quantities
Subcategory IV

Unit Water: Use and Waste Water
Quantities
Subcategory IV

Water Use and Waste Water Quantities
Subcategory, V

Unit Water Use and Waste Water
Quantities
Subcategory V
PAGE


 10

 15

 17

 19

 22



 37



 60




 61



 64




65



66




67



68




69


72




73
                              vn

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LIST OF TABLES  (Cont'd)
NUMBER
  12

  13

  14

  15

  16

  17

  18
  19

  20

  21

  22

  23

  24

  25

  26

  27
               TITLE
PAGE
Typical Characteristics of Mill  Waste
Solids and Liquids                   .                  75
Pollutant Concentrations in Cane Wash Water
Subcategory I                                          76
Pollutant Loadings in Cane Wash Water
Subcategory I                                          77
Pollutant Concentrations in Condenser Water
Subcategory I                                          78
Pollutant Loadings in Condenser Water
Subcategory I                                          79
Pollutant Concentrations in Miscellaneous
Streams
Subcategory I                      • • •.                 81
Pollutant Loadings in Miscellaneous Streams            84
Pollutant Concentrations in Condenser Water
Subcategory II                                         85
Pollutant Loadings in Condenser Water
Subcategory II                                         86
Pollutant Concentrations in Total Discharge
Water
Subcategory III                                        87
.Pollutant Loadings ,in Total Discharge
Water
Subcategory III                                        88
Pollutant Concentrations in Cane Wash Water
Subcategory III                                        90
Pollutant Loadings in Cane Wash Water
Subcategory III                      ,     .            90
            /
Pollutant Concentration in Condenser Water
Subcategory'111  (Net Cane)                             91
Pollutant Loadings in Condenser Water
Subcategory III  (Net Cane)                             91
Pollutant Concentrations in Miscellaneous Streams
Subcategory III                                        92
                                 vi i i

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LIST OF TABLES (Cont'd)
NUMBER
               TITLE
                                                                       PAGE
  28


  29



  30


  31


  32


  33


  34


  35


  36


  37


  38


  39



  40



  41


  42


  43
Pollutant Loadings in Miscellaneous Streams
Subcategory III                                      92

Pollutant Concentrations in Total Discharge
Water
Subcategory IV                                       93

Pollutant Loadings in Total Discharge Water
Subcategory IV                                       94

Pollutant Concentrations in Cane Wash Water
Subcategory IV                                       96

Pollutant Loadings in Cane Wash Water
Subcategory IV                                       96

Pollutant Concentrations in Condenser Water
Subcategory IV  (Net Cane Basis)                      97

Pollutant Loadings in Condenser Water
Subcategory IV  (Net Cane Basis)                      97

Pollutant Concentrations in Miscellaneous Streams
Subcategory IV                                       98

Pollutant Loadings in Miscellaneous Streams
Subcategory IV                                       99

Characterization of Puerto Rican Cane Sugar
Factory Waste Waters                                 ioi

Unit Raw Waste  Loadings for Total Discharge
from Puerto Rican Cane Sugar Factories               102

Pollutant Concentrations in Total Plant
Discharge Waters
Subcategory V                                        103

Pollutant Loadings in Total Plant Discharge
Waters
Subcategory V                                        103

Pollutant Concentrations in Cane Wash Water
Subcategory V                                        104

Pollutant Loadings in Cane Wash Water
Subcategory V                                        104

Pollutant Concentrations in Condenser Water
Subcategory V                                        106
                                 IX

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LIST OF TABLES (Cont'd)
                                TITLE
  45



  46


  47



  47A



  48



  48A



  49



  49A



  50



  50A


  51


  52


  53
Pollutant Loadings in Condenser Water
Subcategory V

Pollutant Concentrations in Miscellaneous
Waters
Subcategory V

Pollutant Loadings in Miscellaneous Waters
Subcategory V

Waste Water Discharge Characteristics
for Individual Waste Streams Model Plant
Subcategory I

Waste Water Discharge Characteristics
Model Plant
Subcategory I

Waste Water Discharge Characteristics
for Individual Waste Streams Model Plant
Subcategory II

Waste Water Discharge Characteristics
Model Plant
Subcategory II

Waste Water Discharge Characteristics for
Individual Waste Streams Model Plant
Subcategory III (Net Cane Basis)

Waste Water Discharge Characteristics
Model Plant
Subcategory III (Net Cane Basis)

Waste Water Discharge Characteristics
for Individual Waste Streams—Model
Plant ~ Subcategory IV

Waste Water Discharge Characteristics
Model Plant — Subcategory IV

Summary of In-Plant Control and
Treatment Technologies

Existing Treatment Practices
Subcategory I

Effluent Suspended Solids Concentrations
from Cane Wash Settling Ponds
PAGE


  106



  107


  107



  110



  m



  114



  115



  118



  119



  121


  122


  148


  149


  151

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LIST OF TABLES (Cont'd)
NUMBER

  54


  55



  56


  57



  58

  59



  60


  61



  62




  63




  64


  65


  66


  67


  68



  69
              TITLE
 Effluent Concentrations  for  Stabilized
 Wastes  Discharged  after  the  Grinding  Season

 Existing Treatment Practices
•Subcategory II

 Summary of  Hydroseparator  Performance for
 Factories in Subcategory IV

 Summary of  Characteristics of Subcategory  IV
 Irrigated Plantations

 Pan  Evaporation  Data

 Existing Treatment Practices
 Subcategory V

 Suspended Solids Removals by Plain
 Sedimentation without Chemical Addition

 Suspended Solids Removals -  Final
 Pilot Plant Series

 Summary of  Removal  Efficiencies for
 Various Treatment Alternatives
 Subcategory I

 Summary of  Removal  Efficiencies for
 Various  Treatment Alternatives
 Subcategory III

 Itemized Cost Summary of Alternative  B-l
 for Subcategory  I

 Itemized Cost Summary of Alternative  B-2
 for Subcategory  I

 Itemized Cost Summary of Alternative  B-3
 for Subcategory  I  .

 Itemized Cost Summary of Alternative  B-4
 for Subcategory  I

 Itemized Cost Summary of Alternative  B-5
 for Subcategory  I

 Itemized Cost Summary of Alternative  C
for Subcategory,  I
PAGE


 151


 152


 159


 160

 162


 165


 169


 170



 174



 189


 207


 208


 209


 210


 211


212
                                 xi

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LIST OF TABLES  (Cont'd)
NUMBER

  70


  71


  72


  73


  74


  75


  76


  77


  78


  79


  80


  81


  82


  83


  84


  85


  86
              TITLE
Itemized Cost Summary of Alternative D
for Subcategory I

Itemized Cost Summary of Alternative E
for Subcategory I

Itemized Cost Summary of Alternative F
for Subcategory I

Itemized Cost Summary of Alternative G
for Subcategory I

Itemized Cost Summary of Alternative H
for Subcategory I

Summary of Alternative Costs—Model
Plant — Subcategory I

Yearly Energy Usage for Model Factory
Subcategory I

Itemized Cost Summary of Alternative A-l
for Subcategory III

Itemized Cost Summary of Alternative B-l
for Subcategory III

Itemized Cost Summary of Alternative B-2
for Subcategory III

Itemized Cost Summary of Alternative B-3
for Subcategory III

Itemized Cost Summary of Alternative C
for Subcategory III

Itemized Cost Summary of Alternative D
for Subcategory III

Itemized Cost Summary of Alternative E
for Subcategory III

Itemized Cost Summary of Alternative F
for Subcategory III

Itemized Cost Summary of Alternative 6
for Subcategory III

Itemized Cost Summary of Alternative H
for Subcategory III
PAGE


 214


 215


 216


 218


 220


 221


 222


 226


 227


 228


 229


 231


 232


 233


 235


 237


 238
                              xn

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LIST OF TABLES  (Cont'd)
NUMBER
TITLE
PAGE
87
88
89
90
91
92
93
94
95
96
97
98
99
TOO
101
Summary of Alternative Costs—Model
Factory -- Subcategory III
Yearly Energy Usage for Model Factory
Subcategory III
Itemized Cost Summary of Alternative B-l
for Subcategory V
Itemized Cost Summary of Alternative B-2
for Subcategory V
Itemized Cost Summary of Alternative B-3
for Subcategory V
Itemized Cost Summary of Alternative B-4
for Subcategory V
Itemized Cost Summary of Alternative B-5
for Subcategory V
Itemized Cost Summary of Alternative C
for Subcategory V
Itemized Cost Summary of Alternative D
for Subcategory V
Itemized Cost Summary of Alternative E
for Subcategory V
Itemized Cost Summary of Alternative F
for Subcategory V
Itemized Cost Summary of Alternative 6
for Subcategory V
Itemized Cost Summary of Alternative H
for Subcategory V
Summary of Alternative Costs— Model
Factory — Subcategory V
Yearly Energy Usage for Model Factory
Siihrat.eanrv- V
240
241
245
246
247
248
249
250
252
253
255
256
258
259
260
                              xiii

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                              LIST OF FIGURES
NUMBER
  1
  2
  3
  4
  5
  6
  7

  8

  9

  10

  11

  12
  13
  14
  15

  16

  17

  18
         TITLE
Louisiana Sugar Factories
Louisiana Sugar Factories
Puerto Rico Sugar Factories
Florida Cane Sugar Factories
Hawaii Cane Sugar Factories
Sucrose
Cross Section and Typical Dimensions
of  Irrigation Furrows
Usual Harvesting Method on Irrigated
Plantation
Harvesting with Pickup Transport on
Non-Irrigated Plantation
Harvesting with Buggy on Non-Irrigated
Plantation
Typical Sugar Factory with Cane
Wash
Multiple Effect Evaporation
Barometric Condenser
Devices to Reduce Entrainment
Distribution of Condenser Water Unit
Flow Rates
Water Usage in an Typical Cane
Sugar Factory
Model Plant Water Balance
Subcategory I
Model Plant Water Balance
Subcategory II
PAGE
 13
 14
 16
 18
 21
 23

 25

 27

 28

 29

 33
 41
 43
 44

 53

 58

 112

 116
                                xv

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LIST OF FIGURES (Cont'd)
NUMBER
  19

 20
  21
 22

 23

 24

 25
 26

 27

 28

 29

 30

 31

 32
 33
 34

 35

 36
 Model  Plant Water Banance
 Subcategories  III and IV
 Cane Wash Recycle System
 Comparison of  BOD5 Loading
 in Barometric  Concfenser Cooling
 Water
 BOD Concentration of  Waters  in
 Private  Canal  System,  Factory 44
 BOD Concentration of  Waters  in
 Private  Canal  System,  Factory 47
 Suspended Solids  Reduction by
 Plain  Sedimentation
 Model  Factory  for Subcategory I
 Control  and  Treatment—Alternative C
 for Subcategory I
 Control  and  Treatment—Alternative D
 for Subcategory I
 Control  and  Treatment—Alternative E
 for Subcategory I
 Control  and  Treatment—Alternative F
 for Subcategory I
 Control  and  Treatment—Alternative G
 for Subcategory I
 Control  and  Treatment—Alternative H
 for Subcategory I
 Model Factory for Subcategory II
 Model Factory for Subcategory III
 Control and Treatment—Alternative B
 for Subcategory III
 Control and Treatment—Alternative C
 for Subcategory III
Control and Treatment—Alternative D
for Subcategory III
PAGE

 120
 140

 144

 153

 155

 168
 175

 177

 178

 180

 181

 182

 184
 186
 187

 190

 192

 194
                                  xvi

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LIST OF FIGURES (Cont'd)
NUMBER
  37

  38

  39

  40

  41
Control and Treatment—Alternative E
for Subcategory III
Control and Treatment—Alternative F
for Subcategory III
Control and Treatment—Alternative G
for Subcategory III
Control and Treatment—Alternative H
for Subcategory III
Model  Factory for Subcategory IV
PAGE

 195

 197

 198

 199
 201
                                 xvn

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                              SECTION I

                             CONCLUSIONS


For the purpose of establishing effluent limitations  and  guidelines,
this study has indicated that the raw cane sugar processing segment of
the  sugar  processing category is best characterized by the following
five subcategories:

Subcategory. I - This subcategory includes those cane  sugar  factories
which  process  sugarcane  into  a  raw  sugar product and are located
within the State of Louisiana.

§Hbcategory. II - This subcategory includes those cane sugar  factories
which  process  sugarcane  into  a  raw  sugar product and are located
within the States of Florida and Texas.

Subcategory III - This subcategory includes those cane sugar factories
which process sugarcane into a raw sugar product and  are  located  on
the Hilo-Hamakua Coast of the Island of Hawaii in the State of Hawaii.

Subcategory.  IV - This subcategory includes those cane sugar factories
not included in Subcategory III, which process sugarcane  into  a  raw
sugar product and are located in the State of Hawaii.

Subcategory  V  - This subcategory includes those cane sugar factories
which process sugarcane into a raw sugar product and  are  located  on
the Island of Puerto Rico.


The  main  criteria for subcategorization include differences in waste
water characteristics due to differing harvesting methods,  harvesting
conditions,  and  manufacturing  processes,  and  differences  in  the
availability and cost of control and treatment technologies.   Factors
such  as  age  and  size of facilities, climatic variations, and waste
treatability support the aforementioned subcategorization.

Process waste  water  pollutants  of  significance  for  the  industry
segment   include  organics  and  solids.   These  pollutants  can  be
adequately controlled by limiting the discharge of BODS and  suspended
solids.                                               ~

It  is  concluded  that  Subcategories I and V can be represented by a
model cane sugar factory processing 2,730 metric tons (3,000 tons)   of
field  (gross)  cane per day, that Subcategory II can be represented by
a model factory processing 7,300 metric tons  (8,000  tons)  of  field
(gross)  cane  per  day, Subcategory III by a model factory processing
3,3*0 metric tons (3,675 tons) of net cane per  day  or  6,680  metric

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tons  (7,350 tons) of field cane per day, and Subcategory IV by a model
factory processing 3,000 metric tons  (3,300 tons) of net cane per day.

It  was  determined  that  the  best  practicable  control  technology
currently available for Subcategory I is identified as the use of  in-
plant  controls  to  the extent typified by general operating practice
(such as the use of  entrainment  prevention , devices  to  reduce  the
degree  of  entrainment  of  sucrose into barometric condenser cooling
water and the elimination of the discharge of filter cake  and  boiler
ash) , the use of settling ponds to remove solids from cane wash water,
and  the  use  of  a biological treatment system to treat the effluent
from the settling ponds and all other waste streams except  barometric
condenser cooling water and excess condensate.

The  best available technology economically achievable for Subcategory
I is identified  as  the  equivalent  of  the  recycle  of  barometric
condenser  cooling water and cane wash water with biological treatment
of the blowdown and miscellaneous wastes.

The standards of performance for new sources are identified  as  being
equivalent to the best available technology economically achievable.

The  best  practicable  control technology currently available and the
best available technology economically achievable for Subcategories II
and IV are identified as  the  containment  of  all  waste  waters  to
eliminate  a  discharge of waste water pollutants to navigable waters,
except when rainfall events cause an overflow of process  waste  water
from  a  facility  designed,  constructed, and operated to contain all
process  generated  waste  waters.   Those   factories   included   in
Subcategories  II  and  IV  are  currently  achieving  this  level  of
technology and no additional costs are associated.

The  best  practicable  control  technology  currently  available  for
Subcategory  III  is  identified  as  the use of in-plant controls and
clarification of the entire waste stream (except barometric  condenser
cooling water and excess condensate) with polymer addition.

The  best available technology economically achievable for Subcategory
III is identified as the addition of a  barometric  condenser  cooling
water  recirculation  system, the blowdown used as make-up to the cane
wash system.  The entire clarified stream would then be treated  in  a
biological treatment system.

The  standards  of performance for new sources are identified as being
equivalent to the best available technology economically achievable.

That portion of the industry segment comprising Subcategory V is in  a
state  of  flux  between  the  hand-harvesting  of  sugar  cane and an
increased reliance on mechanical harvesting techniques,  with  limited
data  available  on  which  to  base  raw waste loadings.  It has been

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concluded that the application of those treatment techniques currently
employed by Louisiana factories is  a  quite  reasonable  approach  to
establishing  effluent  limitations  and guidelines for Subcategory V.
Raw waste loadings typical of Subcategory I  operations  were  assumed
because  the available current data relating to Puerto Rican factories
indicate raw waste loadings in the lower  range  of  those  associated
with  Subcategory  I  factories.   It  is therefore concluded that the
technologies identified for Subcategory I can be directly  applied  to
Subcategory V operations.

The  capital  and  total yearly costs (August-1971 dollars)  to the raw
cane sugar processing segment of  the  sugar  processing  category  to
achieve  the  best  practicable control technology currently available
effluent limitations are estimated to range  from  between  $9.52  and
$10.41  million,  and  $2.98  and  $4.06 million, respectively.  These
costs are based on  an  estimation  of  those  control  and  treatment
techniques which will be applied at each of the seventy-six individual
cane sugar factories to achieve the effluent limitations.  These costs
do  not  include  expenses  already  incurred as a result of pollution
abatement facilities already existent at the individual factories.

The additional capital and total yearly costs (August-1971 dollars)  to
the raw cane sugar processing segment of the sugar processing category
to achieve the best  available  technology  effluent  limitations  are
estimated to range from between $6,05 and $7.53 million, and $1.02 and
$1.33  million,  respectively.   This  estimate does not include those
costs  associated  with  attainment  of   best   practicable   control
technology  currently available and is based on an estimation of those
control and  treatment  techniques  which  must  be  applied  at  each
individual  factory  in  order  that  the  best  available  technology
economically achievable effluent limitations be attained.   This  cost
estimate  does not include those expenses already incurred as a result
of pollution abatement facilities already existent at  the  individual
factories.

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                                SECTION II

                             R ECOMMENDATIONS
It  is  recommended that  the effluent limitations to be applied as the
best practicable control  technology currently available (BPCTCA)  which
must be achieved by existing point sources  by July 1, 1977,   the  best
available  technology   economically  achievable  (BATEA) which must be
achieved  by existing point sources by July  1, 1983, and the   standards
of performance for new  sources (NSPS) be as follows:
                          BPCTCA
                        BOD5    TSS

Subcategory I (Subpart D)
   30-Day Average      0.63     0.47
   Daily Average       1.14     1.41
Subcategory II
(Subpart E)
      0
Subcategory III  (Subpart P)
   30-Day Average
                            BATEA
                       BOD5      TSS
                        0.050
                        0.10
                                2.1
                     The greater of:
                      0.11 or
                     0.76.0080
               NSPS
             BOD5
 0.050
 0.10
            TSS
  0.080
  0.24
The greater of:  The greater of:
  0.11 or      0.13 or
0.76(l-x)-K>.0060 1.0l(i-x)-t0.0080
   Daily Average
                                4.2
                     The greater of:
                       0.22 or
                     l.S2(l-x)40.012
The greater of:
  0.39 or
3.03(l-x)+0.02«
The greater of.
  0.22 or
1.52U-x)-K).012
The greater of:
  0.39 or
3.03(l-x)+0.024
 Subcategory IV  (Subpart G)
                       00        00         0        0

 Subcategory V  (Subpart H)
   30-Day Average     0.63      0.47    0.050     0.080    0.050       0.080
   Daily Average      1.14      1.41    0.10      0.24     0.10        0.24
 The  above  recommended  values  are expressed  in terms of kilograms of
 pollutant per  metric ton of  field cane,  except  for  Subcategory  III
 which  are  expressed in terms of kilograms of  pollutant per metric ton
 of net cane.

 It is further  recommended that for Subcategories I and  IV,   discharge
 of  factory waste  waters   to  navigable waters be allowed during the
 occurence of rainfall events which cause an overflow of process  waste
 waters  from a facility designed, constructed, and operated to contain
 all process generated waste  waters.

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It is recommended  that  for  all cases for which a  discharge  of  waste
waters  is  allowed,  the   pH  of  the  waste waters be required to be
maintained in the  range of  6.0 to  9.0.

The above recommendations represent, for existing  installations,  the
degrees  of  effluent   reduction attainable through the application of
the best practicable control technology currently  available  and  the
best  available  technology economically achievable to be achieved by
existing  point  sources  by  July  1,  1977,  and   July   1,   1983
respectively.   For  new  sources  the above recommendations reflect a
standard  of  performance   providing 'for  the  control  of  pollutant
discharge  which   reflects  the  greatest degree of effluent reduction
32?ieVf    throu9h the  application of the best available  demonstrated
alte   f technologv'   processes,   operating   methods,   or   other


The effluent limitations and guidelines and control, pretreatment,  and
treatment technologies  pertaining to the  non-process  or  non-contact
waste waters generated by the raw cane sugar processing segment of  the
sugar  processing  category  will  be addressed by effluent guidelines
documents and regulations promulgated separately at a future date.


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                             SECTION III
                             INTRODUCTION
PURPOSE AND AUTHORITY
Section 301(b) of the Act requires the achievement by not  later  than
July  1,  1977,  of effluent limitations for point sources, other than
publicly owned treatment works, which are based on the application  of
the best practicable control technology currently available as defined
by  the  Administrator pursuant to Section 30U(b) of the Act.  Section
301(b) also requires the achievement by not later than July  1,  1983,
of  effluent  limitations for point sources, other than publicly owned
treatment works, which are  based  on  the  application  of  the  best
available  technology  economically  achievable  which  will result in
reasonable further progress towards the national goal  of  eliminating
the discharge of all pollutants, and which reflect the greatest degree
of  effluent  reduction  which  the  Administrator  determines  to  be
achievable through the application of the best available  demonstrated
control   technology,   processes,   operating   methods,   or   other
alternatives, including where practicable  a  standard  permitting  no
discharge of pollutants.

Section  30U(b)  of  the  Act  requires  the  Administrator to publish
regulations providing  guidelines  for  effluent  limitations  setting
forth   the  degree  of  effluent  reduction  attainable  through  the
application of  the  best  practicable  control  technology  currently
available  and the degree of effluent reduction attainable through the
application of the best  control  measures  and  practices  achievable
including  treatment  techniques,  process  and procedure innovations,
operation methods, and other alternatives.  The regulations set  forth
effluent limitations and guidelines pursuant to Section 304^(b) of the
Act  for the raw cane sugar processing segment of the sugar processing
point source category.

Section 306 of the Act requires the  Administrator,  within  one  year
after  a  category of sources is included in a list published pursuant
to  Section  306 (b)   (1)  (A)  of  the  Act,  to  propose  regulations
establishing  Federal standards of performances for new sources within
such categories.  The Administrator published, in the Federal Register
of January 16, 1973 (38 F.R. 1624), a list of  27  source  categories.
Publication    of   the   list   constituted   announcement   of   the
Administrator's  intention  of  establishing,   under   Section   306,
standards  of  performance  applicable to new sources within the sugar
processing point source which was included within the  list  published
January  16, 1973.  The raw cane sugar processing industry, which this
document addresses, is a segment of the sugar processing point  source
category,  as  are  the  beet sugar and cane sugar refining industries
which have been previously studied.

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Section 307(c) of the Act requires  the  Administrator  to  promulgate
pretreatment standards for new sources at the same time that standards
of  performance  for  new  sources are promulgated pursuant to Section
306.   Section  307(b)  of  the  Act  requires  the  establishment  of
pretreatment  standards  for pollutants introduced into publicly owned
treatment works.  The regulations set forth pretreatment standards for
new sources and for existing sources pursuant to Sections  307(b)  and
(c)  of the Act for the raw cane sugar processing segment of the sugar
processing point source category.

The guidelines in this document identify (in terms  of  the  chemical,
physical,  and  biological characteristics of pollutants) the level of
pollutant reductions attainable through the application  of  the  best
practicable  control  technology  currently  available  and  the  best
available technology economically  achievable.   The  guidelines  also
specify factors which must be considered in identifying the technology
levels and in determining the control measures and practices which are
to be applicable within given industrial categories or classes.

In  addition  to  technical factors, the Act requires that a number of
other factors be considered, such as the costs or cost-benefit and the
non-water   quality   environmental    impacts     (including    energy
requirements) resulting from the application of such technologies.

SUMMARY  OF  METHODS  USED FOR DEVELOPMENT OF THE EFFLUENT LIMITATIONS
AND GUIDELINES AND STANDARDS OF"PERFORMANCE~
The effluent limitations and standards of  performance
this document were developed in the following manner:
set  forth  in
     1.    An exhaustive review of available literature was conducted.
This included searches at the  University  of  Florida  and  Louisiana
State University libraries, the Florida Sugar Cane League library, and
the in-house libraries of Environmental Science and Engineering, Inc.,
F.C. Schaffer & Associates, and Sunn, Low, Tom & Hara, Inc.  A list of
references is contained in Section XIII of this document.

     2.    Applications to the U.S. Army corps  of  Engineers  or  the
Puerto Rico Environmental Quality Board for permits to discharge under
the  Refuse  Act Permit Program  (RAPP) were obtained for 30 factories.
These applications provided data on the  characteristics  of  influent
and  effluent  waters,  water  usages,  waste water treatment, control
practices, daily production, and raw materials usage.

     3.    Information was  obtained  from  questionnaires  previously
submitted by the Florida Sugar Cane League to 8 factories.

     H.    Information was  obtained  from  questionnaires  previously
submitted by the American Sugar Cane League to 41 factories.

-------
            Detailed  and
                           general   information  was  provided  by  the
                           ASSO°"ti0" »ith «*«« «» -I Hawaiian cane
      6     On"site inspections were  conducted  at  59  factories  and
      o       °°  Process  Diagrams  and  related  water  usage.  WS
Sained    PJao^ces-  and  control  and  treatment   practices   waS
          t'                   aotea by the
                              sampling  programs  supervised  by   the
                                at fifteen factories was obtained.
     8.
conducted fa
Rico.

           Information  was  obtained  from  personal  and

                              applications; and internal data'supplied


?athJred?reSentS * SUmmary °f the ^*s  and  sources  of  information
thJ
                           evaluations were coordinated and applied to


     l.%   An identification of  distinguishing  features  that  could
           potentially  provide  a .basis for subcategorization of the
           raw cane sugar processing segment.  These features  includl
           the  nature  of raw materials utilized,  plant sfee and age?
           the nature of processes,  and others as discussed in Sec?iSn
           JLV.                                t

     2.     A  determination  of  the  wa€er  usage   and  waste   water
      *    characteristics  for  each  subcatego?y,   as  SscusseS  fn

           ol^poJl^ion01?^^^6  V°1Ume °f "at^ used' ^  sources
           mi.r,F?i    ^      ?m the raw Sugar  factory,  and the type and
           quantity of constituents  in the waste  water.

     3.     An  identification of those  waste   water  constituents,   as
           discussed  in .  Section VI,  which  are  characterisSS of tSe
                       i*6^ fetermined to b^  Pollutants   subject  tS
                               nS   guidelines   an<*    standards    of
          An identification of the control and treatment technologies
          ES^iy fmpl°yed °r caPable °f being employed by the can!
          sugar  factory  segment,  as  discussed  in  Section   VII

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                    TABLE 1
             SOURCES OF INFORMATION
Factory
Ho. Visited?
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
n
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42

yes
no
no
no
yes
no
yes
yes
no
yes
yes
yes
no
no
no
yes
yes
no
yes
yes
no
yes
yes
yes
no
yes
no
yes
no
yes
no
yes
yes
yes
yes
yes
yes
no
yes
no
no
.yes

Sampled?
no
no
no
no
no
no
no
no
no
yes
no
no
no
no
no
yes
no
no
no
no
no
yes
no
no
no
no
no
no
no
no
no
no
no
no
no
no
no
no
no
no
no
no

Data Factory
Sources No .
1,2,6,7
none
6
none
1,6,7
6
1,2,6,7
2,6,7
6
3,4,6,7
1,6,7
6,7
6
6
6
1,3,4,6,7
1,6,7
1,6s
6,7
1,6,7
6
3,4,6,7
6,7
1,6,7
6
1,6,7
6
2,6,7
6
6
6
1,4,6,7
1,6,7
1,6,7
'6,7
6,7
6
6
6,7
6
6
1,2.6,7

43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
63
64
65
66
67
68
69
70
71
72
73 .
74
75
76
77
78
79
80
81
82
83
84
85
Visited?
no .•
yes
yes
yes
yes
yes
yes
yes
yes
yes
yes
yes
yes
no
yes
yes
yes
no
yes
yes
yes
yes
no
yes
yes
yes
yes
yes
yes
yes
no
yes
yes
yes
no
yes
no
yes
no
yes
yes
yes
yes
Sampled?
no
no
no
no
no
no
no
no
yes
no
yes
no
no
no
no
no
no
no
no
no
no
yes
no
no
no
no
yes
no
no
yes
no
no
no
no
no
no
no
yes
no
yes
no
no
no
Data
" Sources
6
1,2,4,6,7
4,6,7
1,5,6,7
1,2,4,6
2,6,7
1,2,6,7
2,6,7
2,3,6,7
1,6,7
1,2,3,6,7
7
1,6,7
1,5,6
1,2,7
1,2,5,6,7
1,5,6,7
1,5,6
1,5,6,7
1,5,6,7
1,2,6,7
1,3,6,7
none
2,4,5,7
2,4,5,7
2,7
2,3,4,5,7
2,4.5.7
2,4,7
3,4,5.7
4
4,7
4,7
4,5
4
4,5,7
4
2.3,4,7
4
2,3.4,5.7
4.7
7
7
             KEY TO SOURCES OF DATA
1.  Corps of Engineers Applications/Puerto Rico Environmental
    Quality Board Applications
2.  Prior Analysis Provided by Factory
3.  ES&E Sampling
4.  Prior Waste Water Studies
5.  EPA (FWPCA) Supervised Studies
6.  Questionnaires
7.  Interview of Plant •Personnel
                            10

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           including  the  effluent  level  attainable  and associated
           treatment efficiency related to each technology.

     5.    An evaluation of the cost associated with  the  application
           of  each  control and treatment technology, as discussed in
           Section VIII.


DESCRIPTION OF THE INDUSTRY

The raw cane sugar manufacturing segment of the cane sugar  processing
industry   is   defined   as   that   listed  in  Standard  Industrial
Classification (SIC)  Code 2061 Cane Sugar, Except Refining  Only  (1).
The cane sugar industry is also comprised of establishments defined by
SIC  Code  2062  or  those engaged in the processing of raw sugar into
refined  sugar.   The  cane  sugar  refining  segment  of  the   sugar
processing  industry  has been the subject of a separate study (43 and
           OF THE RAW CANE SUGAR PROCESSING SEGMENT
In the United States and Puerto Rico, the geographical distribution of
raw cane sugar factories corresponds to the ca'ne growing  areas  since
rapid  spoilage  of  cut  cane precludes long distance transportation.
Cane is grown and processed into raw  sugar • in  four  states  of  the
United  States  (Florida,  Louisiana,  Texas,  and  Hawaii) and in the
Commonwealth of Puerto Rico.               .       ' ~  <-_

Authorities generally agree that sugarcane originated  in  New  Guinea
and  was  transported to Southern Asia in ancient times.  The earliest
recorded production of sugarcane was in Southeast Asia thre,e  thousand
years  ago.   Sugarcane  was  introduced  into  Europe in the eleventh
century, and by the thirteenth century the  crystallization  of  sugar
from cane juice was being practiced throughout the1 Eastern Hemisphere.

The  origin  of  sugarcane  in  the  Western World was with the second
voyage of Columbus in 1493.  With the "Age of Discovery", every  newly
discovered  area  suitable for cane growth was supplied with sugarcane
•for planting.  Sugar from the Americas allowed  for  sugar  to  be  in
large  supply  in  Europe  and it ceased- to be a luxury item dispensed
only in apothecaries.  By the year 1600, raw sugar production was  the
largest industry in the world.

Sugarcane  was introduced into Louisiana by the French in 1751 and the
first Louisiana mill was constructed in 1758.  The Spanish began  cane
sugar  production  in  Puerto  Rico  and  Florida  as well as in other
Spanish territories during their early exploratory periods,  and  Cook
brought the plant to Hawaii in 1778.
                                  11

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 The  production  of  sugarcane  grew  steadily  in  Louisiana from the
 beginning until well into the twentieth century, but has experienced a
 leveling off during the last few decades as lands  suitable  fo"J  can*
 growing were exhausted.  The trend since 1948 has been a consolidation
 of  Louisiana factories from 59 factories to 38 in 1974 (not including
 an experimental  mill  at  Louisiana  state  University  and  a  small
              w
              Figures 1 and 2, are located in  the  wet,  south-central
                   *he,- MississiPPi  R^er  and  the  Bayous  Teche and
                   ««^ng season in Louisiana, usually  extending  from
               ? early January, currently produces about 600,000 metric

                     ^
 Raw cane sugar processing^has been a part of Puerto Rico's history and
 +«  Sgf  °r-,   ^ several centuries since the introduction of sugarcane
 to  that  island.   By 1940 there were 40 sugar factories operating in
 Puerto Rico.    However,  during  the  last  decade  the  Puerto  Rican
 t^oJ17       experienced  a  steady decline.   The once dynamic sugar
 industry now supports only 11 factories located around?  the  periphery
 of  the  island,  as  shown  in  Figure  3 and listed in Table 3.   The
 ^n So3?"    Production of raw sugar is about  270,000  metric  tons
 (300,000 tons)  as opposed to 1,300,000 metric tons (1,400,000 tons)  in
 the  record year  of  1951,   The  reasons for the decline reportedly
 originate in the political philosophy of Puerto Rico (2) ,  but  in  any
 r? 4-h     t?- CC^ °f Production'  labor problems^,  low sugar yields,
 and other problems have reduced the industry  to  a  point  where  the
 Puerto Rico sugar industry is in a state of decline.         "

 In  Florida, after the initial start,  the industry collapsed not to be
 £S°f£-     *W°  ^fntufies-   Prior to 1960 there   was  one  major  sugar
 operation  in   Florida.   But with the  relaxation of domestic quotas in
 the mid-nineteen sixties,  accompanied  by  an influx  of  Cuban sugar
 growers  and ' technologists,   the  Florida  industry  began a decade of
 laiS^?0^*   ^ rentjy'  ei?ht factories,  generally  representing   the
 largest  and  most .modern  in  the industry,   are  located along  the
 southern shore  of  Lake Okeechobee,  as  shown in  Figure 4.   A listing  of
         facjories  is  shown in  Table   4.    These   factories,   normally
          4-  fr?m /ovember   to March, produce  about 600,000  metric tons
          tons)  of  raw sugar per year.

 In Hawaii,  the  sugar  industry has long played a  dominant role   in  the
 economic    and   cultural   development   of  the  islands.   After  the
 exhaustion of the  sandalwood  forests and the  decline  of  the  whaling
 if  f^' sugarcane production began its upswing in the latter  1870 'si
rh* ^   T Same J;im\ - J??°? tation  of  workers for the plantations from
China, Japan, the  Phillipines, Portugal, and  other  areas  began  the
shaping of the present ethnic distribution of Hawaii.
                                  12

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        MEEKER
                                        NORTH
                             i—dl
                              ST. MARTINVILLE
10	0
HHHHHC
SCALE
10     20 Miles
           FIGURE I   LOUISIANA  SUGAR  FACTORIES

                    (BAYOU TECHE) OPERATING 1973
                       13

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                                           NOR TH
     PAINCOURTVILLE
            NAPOLEONVILLE
SCALE
          FIGURE z     LOUISIANA SUGAR FACTORIES
                 ..     (MISSISSIPPI  RIVER VALLEY)
                       OPERATING  1973
                         If.

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                                TABLE 2

             LOUISIANA SUGAR FACTORIES OPERATING 1972-1973
 Factory Name
  Location
  Normal  Grind
(Metric Tons/Day)
 Alma
 Angola
 Armant
 Audubon
 Bllleaud
 Breaux Bridge
 Cajun
 Caldwell
 Catherine
 Cedar Grove
 Cinclare
 Columbia
 Columbia
 Cora-Texas   ,.
 Delgado-Albania
 Duhe & Bourgeois
 Enterprise
 Evan Hall
 Georgia
 Glenwood
 Greenwood
 Helvetia
 Iberia     '
 Leighton
 Louisa
 Lula
 Meeker
 Myrtle Grove
 Oak!awn
 Poplar Grove
 Race!and
 St.  James
 St.  John
 St.  Mary
 San  Francisco
 Smithfield
 Southdown
Sterling
Supreme   ,
Terrebonne
Valentine
Vida
Westfield
  Lakeland
  Angola  State  Prison
  Vacherie
  Baton Rouge
  Broussard
  Breaux  Bridge
.  New  Iberia
  Thibodaux
  Bayou Goula
  White Castle
  Brusly
  Edgard
  Franklin
  White Castle
  Jeanerette
  Jeanerette
  Jeanerette
  McCall
  Mathews
  Napoleonville
  Thibodaux
  Convent
  New  Iberia
  Thibodaux
  Louisa
  Belle Rose
 Meeker
 Plaquemine
  Franklin
 Port Allen
 Raceland
 St. James
 St. Martinvilie
 Jeanerette
 Reserve
 Port Allen
 Houma
 Franklin
 Supreme
 Montegut
 Lockport    ;
 Loreauville
 Paincourtville
     1,820
       780
     2,730
       330*
     2,270
     1,800
     5,000
     3,730
     1,490
     2,000
     2,820
     1,640
     1,680
     2,730
     1,600
     1,270
     3,680
     4,550
     2,180
     3,820
     2,730
     2,270
     3,630
     5,000
     1,900
     3,360
     2,100
     2,270
     4,360
     1,800
     4,550
     3,500
     2,800
     3,180
     1,450
     1,850
    2,800
    4,550
    3,270
    2,360
    2,730
    1,100
    3,360
*24  Hour  Capacity
                                          15

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tu
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16

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               TABLE 3



PUERTO RICO FACTORIES OPERATING 1974
Factory Name
Central Aguirre
Central Cambalache
Central Coloso
Central Eureka
Central Fajardo
Central Guancia
Central Igualdad
Central Mercedita
Central Roig
Central Plata
Central San Francisco
Location
Aguirre
Arecibo •
Coloso
Hormi gueros
Fajardo
Ensenada
Mayaguez
Mercedita
Yabucoa
San Sebastian
Yauco
Capacity
(Metric Tons /Day)
4,550
4,090
4,550
3,090
2,730
5,910
2,910
3,820
3,180
4,090
730
                 17

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18

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Factory Name
               TABLE 4

FLORIDA SUGAR FACTORIES OPERATING 1974



                  Location
  Normal  Grind
(Metric Tons/Day)
Atlanta Sugar
Association
Glades County Sugar
Growers Coop.
Gulf Western Food
Okeelanta Sugar Div.
Osceola Farms
Sugar Cane Growers
Coop, of Florida
Talisman Sugar
Corporation
U.S. Sugar
Corporation
U.S. Sugar
Corporation
Belle Glade
Moore Haven
South Bay
Pahokee
Belle Glade
Belle Glade
Bryant *
C lewis ton
5,200
4,100
11,000
5,400
9,100
7,730
10,000
10,000
                                       19

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As   shown   in  Figure   5   and   listed  in Table  5,  four  of the Hawaiian
Islands  support  20  cane  sugar   factories.   The   Hawaiian   factories,
normally  shutting   down   for   only  a  month to  two months or longer in
early winter,  produce  about  1,200,000  metric tons  (1,300,000 tons)  of
raw  sugar per  year.   The Hawaiian  sugar companies market their  sugar
as a cooperative unit.  They also   combine  efforts  to  support the
Hawaiian  Sugar  Planters'   Association   (HSPA)  and  its experimental
station  which  serves as the  research institute  for the  industry.  With
no competition  between  the individual  companies,  information and
technology are freely  exchanged and  the result  is  an industry that has
remained  viable under  the severe  economic constraints of  remoteness
from the marketing  area,  high labor  costs, limited area for  expansion,
and  in some areas extremely  adverse  climatological and  topographical
conditions.

While  sugarcane had   been  grown to  a limited extent in southeastern
Texas, there was no significant industry in that state.  During   1973,
however,   a new factory was   constructed  near  the mouth  of the Rio
Grande River at  Harlingen, Texas.  This factory is designed  to produce
over 90,000 metric  tons (100,000 tons) of raw sugar per year.

PROCESS  DESCRIPTION

The  manufacturing of raw  sugar  may be  broadly defined as extraction of
juice from sugarcane,  purification of  the  juice,  crystallization  of
the  sucrose   in the   juice,   and separation of the crystals from the
juice.  The following  is  a discussion  of the production of raw  sugar,
beginning   with  a   discussion   of sugarcane production and  continuing
through a  discussion of product handling".

Sugarcane  Production

Sugarcane  is a giant perennial  grass with a commercial  value  derived
from the   large amount   of sucrose in the juice  of the mature plant.
The  exact  concentration of sucrose in  the juice depends on the variety
of cane grown  as well  as  agricultural  factors in   general.   Sugarcane
ordinarily averages  about 15 percent by weight  of  fiber and  85 percent
by   weight of   juice.    The juice typically is composed of  80 percent
water,   12 percent  sucrose,   and  five  percent  invert  sugars  and
impurities.

The  important sugars  in  cane juice are the simple monosaccharides and
disaccharides composed  of  five  or  six  carbon   chains.   Of  these,
sucrose,   glucose,   and  fructose are  the most  important.  Glucose and
fructose are six carbon monosaccharide isomers; sucrose is the product
of the condensation  of  these two simple sugars  and can be  represented
as   in  Figure   6.   Since   essentially  pure   sucrose is the ultimate
product of sugar manufacturing,  the   inversion  or  hydrolyzation  of
sucrose into glucose and  fructose represents lost  production and is of
primary concern throughout the cane sugar manufacturing process.
                                  20

-------





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-------
                           :     ,  TABLE 5

                  HAWAIIAN SUGAR FACTORIES OPERATING 1973
Location
Island of Hawaii
Company/Factory
Island of Kauai
Island of Maui
Island of Oahu
 Kohala Sugar Co.1
 Honokaa Sugar Co.2
 Laupahoehoe Sugar Co.
 Hilo Coast Processing Co.
   Hakalau Factory4
   Pepeekeo Factory5,
   Papaikou Factory
   Wainaku Factory*
 Puna Sugar Co.
 Ka'u Sugar Co.

 Kekaha Sugar Co.
 Olokele Sugar Co.
 McBryde Sugar Co.6
 Grove Farm Co.6
 Li hue Plantation Co.

 Hawaiian Commercial  Sugar Co.
   Paia Factory
   Puunene
 Wailuku Sugar Co.
 Pioneer Mill  Co.

Oahu Sugar Co.
Waialua Sugar Co.
        Normal  Grind
(Metric tons of Net Cane/Day)
         2,400
         2,200
         2,700

         1,200
         1,500
         1,400
         1,400
         2,400
         2,600

         2,500
         2,100
         2,200
         2,000
         3,600
        3,600
        5,900
        1,700
        2,300

        3,600
        3,600
 1  Kohala Sugar Company is to be closed by December, 1975.

 2  Honokaa Sugar Company which was to be expanded,  will  instead operate
     seven days a week starting in 1974.

 3  Laupahoehoe Sugar Company is to be expanded to a rated capacity
     o,f 4360 metric tons of net cane per day.

 4  Hakalau and Wainaku Factories (Hilo Coast Processing  Company)
     are to be closed by the end of 1974.

 5  Pepeekeo Factory (Hilo Coast Processing Company) is to be
     expanded to 3340 metric tons of net cane  per day.

 6  McBryde Sugar Company and Grove Farm Company have merged.   The
     McBryde Mill  is  to be closed by the end of 1974.  Cane  will
     be processed at  the Grove Farm Company (Koloa) Mill  and at
     the Lihue Plantation Company Mill.
                                      22

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       CHgOH
H.
 \
 /
OH
        OH
                                                                 r
                                                                 c-
                                                           OH
                                                                      CH2OH
                                                   C-
                                                   OH
         GLUCOSE
                                                     FRUCTOSE
                                 FIGURE 6
              SUCROSE OR «<-D-GL.UCOPYRANOSYL~^-D-FRUCTOFURANOSIDE
                                 23

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Sugarcane  is  propagated by plant cuttings of the cane with a shallow
soil covering.  Each cut produces  several  shoots.   Under  favorable
conditions  of  soil  and  climate, new plants, called "ratoons", will
grow from the stubble after harvesting and a cane crop can  perpetuate
itself  for  a  number  of  years.   However,  in order to maintain an
acceptable quality  level,  only  a  few  ratoon  crops  are  normally
allowed.  An exception to this occurs at some Puerto Rican farms which
have not had new plantings for a quarter of a, century.

The  length  of  time that cane is allowed to grow prior to harvesting
varies from less than a year in Louisiana to  two  or  more  years  in
Hawaii.

In  Puerto  Rico  and Louisiana the agricultural practices involved in
producing  a  crop  of  sugarcane,  other  than  in  connection   with
agricultural  runoff,  are  irrelevant  to  a  study  of  waste water.
However, at certain factories in Florida and Hawaii  the  disposal  of
process  waste  streams  and  the  irrigation  of  the cane fields are
interrelated.


Irrigation practice in Hawaii is primarily overland flow in ridge  and
furrow  networks  through . the  fields.  The frequency and quantity of
water applied is controlled to ultimately produce  the  highest  sugar
yields  under  natural  local  conditions.   The  first  year  of  the
approximate two year crop is the growth  phase  and  the  second,  the
ripening  phase.   Ample water as well as fertilizer is applied in the
first year.  Water application in the second year is  controlled,  and
fertilizer  application is stopped entirely.  From about 90 days prior
to harvesting, water application is stopped completely for  the  final
ripening phase and drying of the fields.

Although  ridge  and  furrow irrigation is still the primary method of
irrigation, the current trend is toward overhead sprinkler irrigation.
Also under development and regarded optimistically by the industry  is
drip  or  trickle  irrigation  in  which water is applied at low rates
through pipes in the field.  The efficiency of water usage   (about  80
to 90 percent) by this .method is considerably higher than by the ridge
and  furrow  technique   (50  percent  or  less).   The result is water
conservation and the possibility   of  flat  culture  techniques  which
could ultimately affect harvesting techniques.

The  ridge  and  furrow  network is formed by plowing according to the
cross-section  and  typical  dimensions  shown  in  Figure   7.    The
irrigation  furrows are supplied from a flume or ditch at a rate which
may be  manually or automatically   controlled.   A  given  quantity  of
water   is  allowed  to  enter the  furrows and as the water reaches the
end, the water is turned off by the  irrigator.    The  slopes  of  the
furrows are  usually  set at about  1.5 percent so that water movement
through the furrows is not excessively fast or  slow.   Spillways  are
                                  24

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sometimes provided at the middle or end of the furrows to allow excess
water  to spill over into the next furrow.  However, if this continues
until the bottom-most furrow is filled, overflow results.  This excess
is called tailwater.

Usually the irrigator manually opens and closes the gates at the  head
of each furrow.  Several gates are worked at a time to split the total
applied flow of 7,950 to 18,900 liters per minute (2,100 to 5,000 gpm)
to  several  furrows.   The  time  of  application  to  each furrow is
determined from experience,  although  when  the  cane  is  young,  an
irrigator  can  visually  observe  water  movement  to  the end of the
furrows.  After the cane grows and forms a  canopy  over  the  fields,
direct  observation is not possible and timing becomes the main index.
An error in judgment means either an overflow or under-irrigation.

In automatic furrow systems, the irrigation water is diverted to  dif-
ferent sections of the fields through gates equipped with timers.  The
timers  are set according to experience with the particular conditions
in the fields.  Mechanical failures of timers  have  occurred  in  the
past, and vandalism has been a problem in some cases.

In  Florida  it  is  common to maintain the surface water table in the
cane fields with a network, of canals that provide water to the  fields
during the dry season and remove excess water during the rainy season.
The  source  of make up water for the canals, as well as the receiving
water when the canals discharge, is usually one or more  of  the  main
drainage canals for the Everglades.

Cane Harvesting

The  harvesting  and  subsequent  loading  of  the cane onto transport
vehicles can be performed either manually  or  mechanically,  and  the
quantities  .of  dirt  and  mud  entering  a factory can be appreciably
influenced by the methods chosen.  In general,  harvesting  techniques
vary  considerably among the geographical regions of the United States
with the Hawaiian sugar industry being the most strikingly different.

Until the Second World War, hand labor was used extensively in  Hawaii
for cane harvesting.  With the shortage of labor caused by the war and
the high cost of labor in the post-war years, by 1950 the industry was
almost  totally mechanized.  The current harvesting practice basically
involves pushing the cane  into  windrows  with  bulldozers  and  then
loading  the  piles  onto trucks or buggies.  Variations in harvesting
techniques occur  within  the  Hawaiian  industry  as  illustrated  in
Figures 8 through 10.

On  the  characteristically  rocky  and  hilly terrain of the Hawaiian
fields, considerable pickup of soil, rock, and  trash  is  inevitable.
The gross cane received at the factory may often contain as much as 50
                                  26

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I.  V-CUT
   2 ROWS (EAST)
   m
:> i'i 111 :\i,f
'~A I V '.1
_j   -LK2-,   ><> I-1 y» iVi is A *  ' 11* Ml
2. V-CUT  SAME
   2 ROWS (WEST)
3.  PICK-UP  CANE
   (2 ROWS) WITH
   PICKUP TRANS-
   PORT

4. BACK-UP  WITH
   FULL  LOAD
   TO  ROADSIDE
5. DUMP CANE
   AT  ROADSIDE
6.  CRANE LOADS
   HAULER

                X-INT' '^ 
-------
 I. V-CUT 2 ROWS
   (EAST OR  WEST)

2. PUSH  RAKE TO
   WINDROW
3. CRANE  LOADS
   BUGGY

4.  BUGGY TO
   ROADSIDE
5.  DUMP CANE
   AT  ROADSIDE
6.  CRANE LOADS
   HAULER
                     FIGURE 10

           HARVESTING WITH BUGGY ON NON-IRRIGATED PLANTATION
                        29
                                           00^30

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percent  extraneous
much as 70 percent.
material  and, during times of heavy rainfall,  as
Such high loads of extraneous material are  undesirable  from  both  a
waste  water  and a processing point of view.  As discussed below, the
mud, dirt, and trash content of cane  directly  influences  the  waste
waters  generated  by  cane  washing  and the quantities of filter mud
produced by a plant.  In  terms  of  processing,  a  high  content  of
extraneous  material  means  a relatively low sugar production for the
processing effort required.

In contrast to Hawaii, southern Florida is the only cane growing  area
in the United States where a sustantial amount of manual harvesting is
employed.   While  one reason for this is the availability of Jamaican
labor, probably a more important reason is the nature of  the  Florida
cane  which  makes  mechanical harvesting difficult.  The soft muck of
the cane fields and the weak root systems of the Florida cane prevents
the cane from standing straight.

As in Hawaii, the Florida cane fields are burned prior to  harvesting.
However,  the  primary  reason  is not the reduction of trash content,
since this can be accomplished by manual stripping of the cane  stalk,
but  for  increased accessability of the fields to the workers and re-
duction of the danger of snake bites.

Following manual cutting, the cane is mechanically loaded onto  trucks
and  hauled to the factory.  The content of extraneous material in the
cane is relatively low—about five percent—due to the manual cutting.

From interviews with the management of the Florida factories, it would
appear that complete mechanical harvesting would be desirable when and
if it becomes available.  The 1972-1973 harvesting season  in  Florida
witnessed  the  first  major  application of complete mechanization of
harvesting at one factory operation.  Within five  to  ten  years,  if
mechanical  harvesters become more adapted to the Florida cane, it can
be expected that all Florida factories will be using  mechanical  har-
vesting.   If  this  is  the  case, the extraneous material content in
sugar  cane  delivered  to  the  Florida   factories   may   increase.
Considerable research and development is being undertaken at this time
in  an  effort  to  minimize  anticipated  increases  in trash content
through the use of, harvesting equipment which would leave the bulk  of
extraneous material in the fields.

Mechanization  of  Louisiana  cane  harvesting was accomplished, as in
Hawaii, as a result of the labor shortage of  World  War  II  and  the
subsequent   period  of  rising  labor  costs.   Unlike  the  northern
Everglades in Florida, the soils of the river and  bayou  valley*s  in
southern  Louisiana  support  sugarcane that grows upright in a normal
season and is relatively adaptable to mechanical harvesting.  During a
normal season, the extraneous material  content  does  not  exceed  20
                                  30

-------
percent;  however,  heavy rainfalls can  increase this figure.  Also, a
hurricane passing over the  fields prior  to the harvest can  leave  the
cane   in  a  tangled mess and the subsequent mechanical harvesting can
result in more than 50 percent extraneous material  in  the  harvested
cane.

In  contrast  to Florida and Hawaii cane, the Louisiana cane is burned
after  mechanical cutting, while lying on the ground.  This reduces the
amount of particulate matter which becomes airbourne.  As  in  Hawaii,
the  purpose  of burning is to reduce trash content.  After burning of
the field, the cane is  machine-gathered and  loaded  onto  specially
constructed  trailers  which  are  towed by  tractors  to  the  sugar
factories.

In  Puerto  Rico,  about  75  percent  of  all  cane  is  mechanically
harvested;  however,  the  cane  received  by individual factories may
range  from very little to almost total   mechanically  harvested  cane,
and  the  amount of extraneous material  varies accordingly.  The trend
of increased mechanization can be expected to increase in Puerto Rico;
however, some bastions of hand harvesting will probably survive on the
island as long as there are small farms  and farms on  extremely  hilly
terrain.

Transportation and Storage of Cane

The transportation of cane from the fields to the factory is generally
accomplished  by  truck  in  Florida,  Puerto Rico,-and Hawaii, and by
tractor and trailer in Louisiana.  In some cases in Hawaii  where  the
factory  is  at  a  considerably  lower  elevation  than  the  fields,
hydraulic flumes are used.  It is obviously desirable to the  truckers
to  transport as much cane as possible in each load, and the result is
often  a considerable amount of cane loss during  transporatlon.   This
can  create  a  substantial non-point source of water pollution during
rainy  conditions.

The haul distance  should  be  short  for  economic  reasons,  but  in
practice  it  may vary from a few hundred feet to several miles.  In a
number of cases where the factory and the fields have the same  owner,
or  when growers are contracted to particular factories, loads of cane
will pass by one or more factories on their way to another factory.

Upon arrival at the designated factory, each load of cane is  weighed,
and  the tare weight of the transporting vehicle subtracted.   Quantity
control of the entire factory  operation  is  usually  based  on  this
weighing  since  weighing of the raw sugar product is normally done as
the sugar is sold, and this may follow production by many months.

In most cases, the grower receives payment for the cane on  the  basis
of  the  gross  weight  delivered,  but  with  adjustments for sucrose
content.   Samples of the cane produced by each grower are checked  for
                                  31

-------
sucrose  content and the grower is awarded extra payment for a sucrose
content higher than a set figure, or is penalized for a content  lower
than the set figure.

Due  to  the  fact that harvesting and tranportation of cane generally
occur only in daylight hours while processing  at  the  factory  is  a
twenty-four  hour operation, a stockpile of cane must be maintained at
the factory.  Under ideal management, the  cane  yard  should  contain
almost  no  cane  when  the  first load arrives from the fields in the
morning and should hold enough when  the  last  load  arrives  in  the
evening  for  continuous  factory  operation  through  the  night.  In
practice, the stockpile  can  vary  considerably  from  an  inadequate
supply  to  an  over  supply,  although as long as the stockpile has a
detention time short enough to prevent inversion, the  former  is  the
greater  process  problem.   The exception to only daylight harvesting
occurs in Hawaii where  cane  is  harvested  and  transported  to  the
factory over a twenty-four hour period.

Cane Cleaning

The  actual  manufacturing  of raw sugar begins with the extraction of
juice from the sugarcane.  With  the  extensive  replacement  of  hand
cutting by mechanical harvesting and the resulting increase of mud and
dirt  content  in  the  cane,  many factories find washing of the cane
prior to extraction to be necessary.  Figure 11  is  a  diagram  which
illustrates  those  unit  operations  which  are employed at a factory
which washes cane.

The type of washing operation may depend to some extent  on  location,
soil  characteristics,  and type of harvester and harvesting method in
use.  In Louisiana, where soil  is  rock-free,  the  cane  is  usually
washed  by  a spray of warm barometric condenser cooling water that is
sprayed onto- the carrier.  In Hawaii, where over  25  percent  of  the
gross  weight  of  cane delivered to a typical mill consists of rocks,
earth, and cane  trash,  the  cane  cleaning  operations  have  to  be
elaborate and costly.  Rocks are removed by floating the cane across a
water  or mud bath and then the cane is washed on an elevated conveyer
called a cascade.  Elaborate systems, some  costing  in  excess  of  a
million  dollars,  have  also  been  installed  in  Puerto  Rico where
mechanical harvesting has experienced rapid growth in recent years.

Cane washing is avoided at a number of Puerto Rico  factories  and  at
most  Florida  factories.   The  lack  of  washing  at the Puerto Rico
factories can be attributed  to  a  combination  of  soil  conditions,
percentage  of  incoming  cane  that  has  been  hand  harvested,  and
management policy.   In  regard  to  the  last  factor,  some  factory
managers  would  rather tolerate decreased factory efficiency than the
expenses and associated problems of cane washing.  The hand harvesting
employed by Florida factories generally precludes the  need  for  cane
washing.
                                  32

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    Since  the  washing  of  cane  requires  substantial volumes of water,
    produces a major waste water stream, and reduces the  sucrose  content
    of  cane,  research  into  dry cleaning methods dates back many years.
    Recently, dry cleaning techniques have been  introduced  with  varying
    success  at  full  scale  operations  where  high velocity air streams
    remove soil and trash from the  cane  without  affecting  the  sucrose
    content.   The  efficiency  of  these  methods for removal of soil and
    trash is less than that of water washing.  A further discussion of dry
    cleaning techniques will be presented  in  section  VII,  Control  and
    Treatment Technology.
    
    
    The Milling Process  (Extraction)
    
    The  purpose  of the milling process is to extract juice from the cane
    stalk.  This is  usually  accomplished  with  revolving  cane  knives,
    shredders, crushers, and mills.
    
    Revolving  Knives  are,  used to cut the cane into chips to prepare the
    cane for grinding and to provide  a  more  even  feed  to  the  mills.
    Shredders  further  prepare  the  cane  for  grinding  and help attain
    greater juice extraction.  Both  of  these  operations  increase  mill
    capacity.   Crushers  usually  consist  of two or three deeply grooved
    rollers which crush the cane and extract from 40 to 70 percent of  the
    juice.
    
    Modern  milling  plants  consist of several three-roll mills in tandem
    with each being about 0.91 meters (36 inches) in diameter and 1.22  to
    2.14  meters  (four  to  seven  feet)  long.   A typical mill train is
    composed of three to seven  such  sets  of  rollers  preceded  by  two
    revolving  knives.  With this equipment it is possible to remove 85 to
    93 percent of the juice.  In order to improve juice extraction, it  is
    universal  practice to wet the cane after each mill with warm water or
    thin juices.   This  use  of  water  to  dissolve  sucrose  is  termed
    "imbibition",  "saturation", or "maceration".  The most common type of
    imbibition is "compound imbibition" and is  applicable  to  trains  of
    four  or  more  mills.   Water  is applied to the cane fiber (bagasse)
    going to the last mill or last two  mills,  the  last  mill  juice  is
    returned  to the bagasse going to the next to last mill, this juice in
    turn goes back to bagasse from the preceding mill, etc.  Table 6 shows
    the concentrations of juice  from  the  different  mills  in  compound
    imbibition  processes.   The  juice along with the imbibition water is
    approximately equal to the weight of the cane going to the mills.
    
    The bagasse, which is drawn from the last mill and normally amounts to
    about 30 percent  by  weight  of  the  cane  entering  the  operation,
    contains  about  50 percent moisture, and is usually taken to a boiler
    where it is used as fuel to produce steam™  It may in  some  cases  be
    used  for the manufacture of pulp, wall board, furfural, and other by-
    products.  Commonly, however, bagasse in excess of that  required  for
                                      36
    

    -------
                          TABLE 6
    
    
    
    
    COMPOSITION OF MILL JUICES FROM COMPOUND IMBIBITION
    Source of
    Samples
    Double crusher
    First mill
    Front roll
    Back roll
    Second mill
    Front roll
    Back roll
    Third mill
    Front roll
    Back roll
    Fourth mill
    Front roll .
    Back roll
    Fifth mill
    Front roll
    Back roll
    Brix
    17.16
    17.08
    16.13
    7.63
    9.37
    5.04
    6.14
    3.00
    4.52
    . 1.31
    2.55
    Polarization
    14.50
    14.12
    13.06
    5.93
    7.31
    3.73
    4.54
    2.18
    3.26
    0.88
    1.78
    lurity
    84.50
    82,67
    80.97
    76.41
    78.01
    73.94
    74.01
    70.60
    7242
    67.18
    69.80
                                 37
    

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     boiler  fuel
     discharged.
    is  hauled to land fill, or, in rare cases, slurried and
     The boiler  plant,  fueled  primarily  by  bagasse  from  the  milling
     operation,  generates  all  the steam required in the operation of the
     factory.   During start-ups or  abnormal  conditions,   natural  gas  or
     Bunker  C  fuel  oil  is  used  as  auxiliary  fuel.   The boiler plant
     normally operates on externally-treated zeolite-softened  fresh  water
     at  the beginning of the grinding operations, but subsequently is able
     to make exclusive use of the condensate from the processing operation.
     The amount of  condensate produced by the evaporation  of  cane  juice
     and  the  condensation  of  steam  from  all turbines is sufficient to
     supply all boiler feed  water  needs.   Some  condensate  is  used  at
     various places in the process and the excess is discarded.
    
     The, steam generated by the boilers,  ususally at pressures  of 11 to 28
     atmospheres (one Hawaiian mill generates steam at  a   pressure  of  80
     atmospheres),   is  used  to  operate   the milling plant and the turbo-
     generators which furnish electricity  for  the  plant.    The  generated
     voltage  is  usually  42,000, 23,000  or 480 volts.  Plants  with higher
     steam pressures and higher voltages reduce the voltage near points  of
     use -to  480   in sub-stations.   A utility tie-in sub-station or diesel
     generator is  normally installed for emergency and off  season  electric
     power.    The  exhaust from prime-movers in the milling  plant is usually
     2.0 to 2.4 atmospheres.   Any deficiency in exhaust steam is alleviated
     by an automatic pressure regulating station.   Any excess exhaust  that
     might  be present is released to the  atmosphere by an  automatic relief
     valve.
         * !
     Clarification
    
     The juice from the  mill  contains a considerable amount  of   impurities
     including  fine particles of bagasse  as well  as fats,  waxes,  and gums.
     Screening removes the coarser particles (cush-cush) which are returned
     to the  mills.   A substantial portion  of the remaining   impurities  are
     removed by clarification.
    
     In  the   manufacture of  the  raw sugar product,  lime, heat,  and  a small
     amount  of  phosphate are  used  to  remove  as   much  of  the  remaining
     impurities  as  possible.   This  is  the oldest  and  most  effective  method
     of  purifying the  juice,  and  is   known  as   the  "defecation"   process.
     Usually   sufficient  lime  is   added   to  neutralize the  organic acids
     present in  the  juice  and raise  the  pH to 7.3  to 7.8.   The  temperature
     of  the juice is  raised  to about 102  to 105 degrees Centigrade  (215 to
     220 degrees Fahrenheit)  and  a   flocculent   precipitate of  a  complex
     composition  is  formed which consists largely of  insoluble  lime  salts,
     and includes calcium  phosphates,   coagulated   albumin,   fats,   acids,
     gums,  iron,  alumina,   and  other  materials.    Most  of  the suspended
    material remaining  in the  juice  is  occluded and carried down with  the
                                      38
    

    -------
     precipitate.     Separation  of  the  precipitate  is
     settling and  decantation in continuous clarifiers.
    accomplished  by
     Variations of the clarification process are sometimes used and various
     other chemicals can be  added  to  enhance  clarification.    The  most
     significant  recent development in clarification has probably been the
     introduction of polyelectrolytes as an aid in  f locculation.    in  the
     production  of  white  sugar  directly from cane without remeltinq and
     recrystallization,  raw clarification must be  more   complete   and  for
     this   reason  it  is common to add sulfur dioxide or carbon dioxide in
     conjunction with lime.  These processes are known as sulphitation  and
     carbonation,  respectively.   At present,  however, they are seldom used
     in  the manufacture of raw sugar in the United States and Puerto Rico.
    
     Filtration
    
     As  a  result of clarification,  the juice is divided  into two  portions-
     V  -^-*  cMxlfied 3«ice and (2)  the precipitated  sludge (muds) .   The
     clarified  3uice makes up about 80 to 90 percent of  the original  luice
     f=  t? "f^1^ tak6n direc'tly to "the evaporator system.   The  sludge is
     usually thickened by rotary  vacuum filters.
    
     In  the past the most common  type of filter used to  separate the solids
     *?iJi* li «*ge was  <* simple  and efficient plate and frame filter which
     allowed the filtered 3uice to  be mixed directly with  the  clarified
     juice and  to be sent to the  evaporators.   A main drawback of  the plate
     and  frame  filter,  however, was the labor required to take the filter
     apart in order to remove and wash the filter cake. '
    
     Rotary vacuum filters have almost completely replaced   filter  presses
     in  the  United  States  and   Puerto  Rico.   These  filters are not as
     effective  as  the  filter presses  and the filtered juice must  be taken
     back   through  the   clarifiers,   but  this  disadvantage  is  more thin
     compensated for by the  reduction in labor.   A rotary  filter  consists
     of  a  rotating drum covered with  a perforated plate or  cloth which dips
     into  a bath containing  the sludge water.   As  the drum  rotates,  suction
    
               o  5° themrrfaf6 and a  thin layer of  cake  is  formed °"  the
               surface.   The cake is  washed and discarded onto  a  conveyor
               ~        ,the  *ilterin
    -------
    The remaining solids consist mostly of organic material with 15 to  30
    percent  lime  phosphate  salts.   The  sucrose content in the cake is
    about three percent.   The  filter  cake  that  is  discarded  in  the
    filtering  process  can  be  handled  dry  or in slurry form.  The dry
    filter cake is more difficult and expensive to handle, but it  can  be
    spread  on fields as a soil conditioner and fertilizer.  When the cake
    is slurried with water, it is easier to handle in the  plant  but  the
    ultimate disposal problem becomes more difficult.  At the present time
    both dry and slurry handling methods are common.  In those cases where
    filter cake slurries are discharged as waste water, they become a very
    significant source of water pollution produced by a sugar factory.
    
    Evaporation
    
    The juice from the clarification systems is about 85 percent water and
    15  percent  solids.  Before the juice can be crystallized, sufficient
    water must be removed to obtain a syrup of about  60  percent  solids.
    Evaporators  are used to accomplish this concentration and most plants
    use multiple-effect evaporators for better fuel economy.
    
    An evaporator is a closed vessel heated by steam and  placed  under  a
    vacuum.   The  basic principle is that the juice enters the evaporator
    at a temperature higher than its boiling temperature under the reduced
    pressure, or is heated to that temperature.  The result is evaporation
    and the principle allows evaporators to be operated  in  a  series  of
    several  units.   This practice is called multiple-effect evaporation,
    with each evaporation step called an "effect," which is illustrated in
    Figure 12.  In general, the vacuum in each effect is  created  by  the
    condensation  of the vapors from that effect in the subsequent effect.
    The heat of vaporization of the juice in each effect  is  supplied  by
    the  vapors  from the previous effect, with the exception of the first
    and last  effects.   The  first  effect  normally  has  exhaust  steam
    provided to it, and the last effect has a vacuum caused by the conden-*
    sation  of  its vapors in the condenser.  The temperature and pressure
    of each effect  are,  therefore,  lower  than  the  preceding  effect.
    Typically  the  liquid in the first effect may be boiling at pressures
    of 1.4 to 1.7 atmospheres while the liquid in the last effect will  be
    boiling at about 0.13 atmospheres.
    
    The  cane sugar industry commonly uses triple, quadruple, or quintuple
    effect  evaporation  with  the  short  tube  or  "calandria"  type  of
    evaporator   (as  illustrated  in  Figure 12) , although the Lillie film
    evaporator is used in some installations.
    
    Condensation of the vapors from the last effect may be provided by one
    of several condenser designs, but the  barometric  condenser  is  used
    almost exclusively in sugar factories.  This works on the principle of
    relatively cold water passing through a cylindrical vessel, contacting
    the  hot  vapors, and condensing them.  The resulting hot water leaves
    through a long vertical pipe called a barometric leg.  Air is  removed
                                      40
    

    -------
                                                                  o
                                                                  o.
                                                            ce.
                                       00
                                       LU
    
                                       -J          00
                                       «5          LU
                                       >          o;
                                          00 00 00 =>
                                       LU LU LU LU I—
                                       I— s> >• o: <:
                                       •=C — 1 — I =3 52
                                       OO «C «C OO LU
                                       •Z S- > CO D-
                                       z: LU 2: a. i— >.
                                       CD LU LU  •>  «< _ |
                                       (J LU 5» CO 00=1;
                                                Q- l->
                                        A  «\  M  A  A
                                        CO PO CO CVJ CMS
                                        CM CM CVJ i — r-|—
                                       C3 U_ > D-  I— OO
    41
    

    -------
    from  the  system  by  a vacuum pump or steam ejector.  The barometric
    condenser cooling water  (barometric leg  water)   at  a  flow  rate  of
    perhaps  160,000  cubic meters (43 million gallons) per day in a large
    factory, is the largest volume of water used in a raw  sugar  factory.
    It  is usually untreated surface water that is unsuitable for reuse in
    any part of the manufacturing process except cane washing.  The  baro-
    metric condenser is illustrated in Figure 13.
    
    A problem common to the sugar industry in its attempt to prevent sugar
    loss  and  to the environmentalist in the attempt to prevent pollution
    is the entrainment of sugar in the vapors from the  evaporators.   The
    condensed  steam  from  the  first effect does not have direct contact
    with the juice and is essentially pure water.   It  is  used  as  feed
    water  for  the steam boilers.  The condensates from the other effects
    experience relatively little sugar entrainment and are used either for
    boiler feed water or process water; however, in  some  cases  "excess"
    condensate  may be discharged as a waste stream.  The major problem is
    with the vapor from the  last  effect  which  tends  to  have  greater
    entrainment  than  the  other  effects and, due to its mixing with the
    barometric condenser cooling water, becomes a volume too large for any
    reuse other than for cane washing.
    
    Various methods of reducing entrainment are used in the industry,  but
    all are based on either the principle of gravity or centrifugal action
    or  the principle of direct impact; i.e., by changing the direction of
    vapor flow so that liquid droplets may veer away from  the  vapor,  be
    impinged  on  a surface, and ultimately be returned to the liquid body
    or, by allowing the vapor to come  into  direct  contact  with  a  wet
    surface.   A  schematic  of  various methods commonly used is shown in
    Figure 14.
    
    The distance between the liquid level in the evaporator and the top of
    the cylindrical portion  of the body is called the  "vapor belt".   This
    distance  is  important  with regard to entrainment because the higher
    the vapor has to rise the more opportunity   liquid droplets  have  to
    drop  out.   Most  vapor belts range from one and  a half to six meters
     (five to twenty feet) between the calandria and the top of  the  vapor
    belt.  A distance of at  least two times the tube length is required to
    obtain reasonably good gravity separation.
    
    Raw sugar factories often monitor sucrose concentrations in condensate
    and  barometric condenser cooling water to avoid the  addition of sugar
    to boiler feed waters, where it can damage boiler  tubes, and to  avoid
    sugar   loss  in condenser water.  The  frequency of monitoring may vary
    from continuous  (automatic analyzers)  to  hourly,  daily*  or  weekly.
    The methods of analysis  for sucrose are the  "resorcinol test" or, more
    commonly, the "alphanaphthol test".  Both methods  are based on  a color
    change  which  occurs  with  the  reaction   of  the   test reagent with
    sucrose.   Neither  test  is  considered  to be   highly  accurate  in
    quantitative terms, but  they serve the purpose of  indicating excessive
                                       42
    

    -------
                                                                      Cooling  Water
                                                                      (X  #/hr)
    Vapors
    (Y #/hr)
                                                       Trays  to provide  more
                                                       intimate contact  of vapor
                                                       and water
                   Barometric
                         leg
                   Sealing
                   Sump
                                                         vacuum
                                                       Water level in leg
                                                       depends on vacuum
                                                                  (X+Y) #/hr
                                      FIGURE 13
    
                                BAROMETRIC CONDENSER
    
                                        43
    

    -------
     (A) Zig-Zag Baffle
       (B) Catch All
    (C) Cyclone Separator
                                                1
                                          (D) In-Line Baffle Box
                                             I—Jr
                                                         L
    (E) Denrister
                              -FIGURE 14
    
    
    
                     DEVICES TO REDUCE ENTRAPMENT
    

    -------
    sucrose  concentrations  and,  therefore,  indicating  that  a problem
    exists in the system.  Normally, until such time that the problem  can
    be  defined and corrected, the contaminated waters are discharged with
    the cooling waters.
    
    Crystallization
    
    After concentration in  evaporators,  the  juice  is  crystallized  in
    single effect, batch type evaporators called "vacuum pans".  Calandria
    pans are commonly used.  These are similar to the calandria evaporator
    described  above except the pans have shorter tubes of larger diameter
    in order to handle the  more  concentrated  juice.   Vacuum  pans  are
    operated  by  either  exhaust  steam,  or  vapor  from the first stage
    evaporators;  the  resulting  condensates  are  used   as   previously
    described for evaporators.
    
    In  order  for  sugar  crystals  to  grow  in  a vacuum pan, the sugar
    solution  must  be  supersaturated.   There  are   three   phases   of
    supersaturation  in  sugar  boiling:   the  metastable  phase in which
    existing crystals grow but new crystals do not form, the  intermediate
    phase  in which existing crystals grow and also new crystals form, and
    the labile phase in which new crystals form spontaneously without  the
    presence  of  others.   The  formation  of  new or "false" crystals is
    undesirable and the pan must be maintained in  that  narrow  range  of
    sucrose   concentration   and   temperature  which  provides  for  the
    metastable phase and for the growth of the  seed  crystals  which  are
    introduced  into  the  vacuum  pan  at the beginning of the operation.
    Automatic controls for pan operation are beginning to be used  in  raw
    sugar boiling.
    
    Since  vacuum pahs are essentially single effect evaporators, each pan
    must have a vacuum source and a condenser as described abdVe for evap-
    orators.  Sugar  entrainment  is  a  potential  problem,  particularly
    during  start-ups  or  upsets,  and  various "catch-alls", centrifugal
    separators,  or  baffle  arrangements  are  used  along  with  sucrose
    monitoring.
    After  the  formation of crystals in the pans, the massecuite (mixture
    of sugar crystals and syrup) is discharged into a mixer  where  it  is
    gently  agitated, and then into high speed centrifugals where crystals
    are  separated  from  the  syrup.   The  crystals  remaining  in   the
    centrifuge  are  washed  with hot water to remove remaining syrup, and
    the crystalline sugar is discharged to storage.
    
    As shown in Figure 11, vacuum pans operate in  series  with  each  pan
    crystallizing a different grade of massecuite.  The series may consist
    of  two,  three  (as illustrated), or four pans normally designated as
    "A," "B," "C," etc.  The "A" pan is fed with  concentrated  juice  and
    produces  raw  sugar  and  "A" molasses.  The "A" molasses is fed to a
    "footing" of seed in pan "B" which in turn produces raw sugar and  "B"
                                      45
    

    -------
    molasses.  The last pan produces low grade sufar and "final molasses".
    The  final  molasses is considered to contain insufficient sucrose for
    further crystallization.  The low grade sugar produced in the last pan
    is melted into a syrup called "remelt" and mixed with the  syrup  from
    the evaporators.
    
    The  final  pan  cannot  completely  or  even  adequately  exhaust the
    massecuite of sucrose.   Therefore,  the  massecuite  from  the  final
    boiling is ccmmonly discharged to a crystalliier in which it is gently
    agitated  and  cooled  and  where  crystallisation  is  encouraged  by
    decreased solubility resulting from lower temperature.
    
    Product Handling
    
    The raw sugar from the centrifugals is  conveyed  to  shipping  or  to
    storage warehouses by various means, the most common of which are belt
    or screw conveyors.  Modern practice is to store raw sugar in the bulk
    form.   From  the  warehouse,  the  sugar is transported as the market
    requires, by truck, rail, or ship to refineries.  Three  factories  in
    Puerto  Rico, one in Florida, and three in Louisiana operate in direct
    conjunction with refining operations.
    
    The final or "blackstrap" molasses, from which sugar is  unrecoverable
    by  ordinary  means,  is usually sold for various uses.  Approximately
    two-thirds of the blackstrap molasses production in the United  States
    is  used for animal feeds.  A large portion of Puerto Rican blackstrap
    is utilized for the production of  rum.   Other  uses  in  the  United
    States  include the production of ethyl and butyl alcohols, and acetic
    and citric acids.
                                      46
    

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                                   SECTION IV
                           INDUSTRY SUECATEGORIZATION
    
              devel°Pment  of  effluent  limitations  and  guidelines   and
     standards of performance for the cane sugar industry, it was necessary
     £,.  I ^ne whether significant differences exist which form a basil
     SU tU bca**?»»t«»n   of   the   industry.    The   rationale   for
     subcategorization was based on emphasized differences and similarities
     iJodSlr!  ?9,   X9 fact°rs:. <1>   constituents and/or quantity of waste
     produced, (2)   the engineering feasibility of treatment and  resulting
     effluent  reduction,  and  (3)    the cost of treatment.  while factors
     such as process employed, plant  age  and  size,  and  nature  of  rJw
     material  utilized  tend  to  affect  the constituents and quantity of
                         emPhasis herein is not merely on an analyzatiSn of
                                                                Production,
     The  cane  sugar  industry  had  been  preliminarily  categorized into
     Standard Industrial classification (SIC)  Code 2061,  Cane Sugar  Except
     Xct Sft 2FS   ^  SIC C2dG 2°62'  Cane Sugar Refi"ing-   Despite the
     r~il that eight  cane sugar factories  also operate refineries,   it  was
     fJSor,  *  * :)"s^.as ^e cane and beet sugar industries are subjects of
     independent studies,  factories and refineries  should  be  considered
     independently due to the substantial  differences in, processes  employed
     i~L T ^ Water *»"** and quantity,  even if the independent studies
     lead to the same  effluent  guidelines.    Therefore,   the   recommended
     effluent  limitations  and standards  for  cane sugar  refining have been
     published in a separate document (43  and  44).             '"2      D6en
    
     Several factors  or elements were considered with regard to  identifying
     any relevant subcategorization.   These  factors included:
          1
          2.
          3
          4.
          5.
          6.
          7.
          8.
          9.
        10.
    Raw materials
    Harvesting techniques
    Land availability for treatment and disposal
    Length of grinding season
    Climatic variations
    Size of plants
    Nature of soil
    Process variations
    Age of plants
    Nature of water supply
    It should be
    and in other
    example, are
    other  while
    influence on
    geographical
        noted that these elements are in some  cases  independent
        cases interdependent.  Raw materials and factory age, for
        essentially independent of the other elements and of each
         the  length  of  the  harvesting  season  has a definite
        factory size.  Essentially all of the elements vary  with
        location.
    

    -------
    After  consideration  of all of the above factors it is concluded that
    the  raw  cane  sugar  processing  segment  can  be  treated  as  five
    subcategories  of  the sugar processing category, and can be described
    by their various geographical locations as follows:
    
    Subcategory I - This subcategoty includes those cane  sugar  factories
    which  process  sugarcane  into  a  raw  sugar product and are located
    within the State of Louisiana.
    
    Subcategory II - This subcategdry includes those cane sugar  factories
    which  process  sugarcane  into  a  raw  sugar product and are located
    within the States of Florida and Texas.
    
    Subcatecrory III - This subcategory includes those cane sugar factories
    which process sugarcane into a raw sugar product and  are  located  on
    the Hilo-Hamakua Coast of the Island of Hawaii in the State of Hawaii.
    
    Subcategory  IV - This subcategory includes those cane sugar factories
    not included in Subcategory III, which process sugarcane  into  a  raw
    sugar product and are located in the State of Hawaii.
    
    Subcategory  V  - This subcategory includes those cane sugar factories
    which process sugarcane into a raw sugar product and  are  located  on
    the Island of Puerto Rico.
    
    The rationale for the above subcategorization is as follows:
    
    Nature of Raw Materials
    
    All  cane  sugar factories process raw sugar cane.  There are a number
    of different varieties of sugar cane grown,  but  in  terms  of  waste
    water generation the variations have negligible effects.
    
    The  factor  which  does have a significant influence on operation and
    waste water characteristics is the condition of the cane upon  arrival
    to the factory — how much mud and trash it contains.  The greater the
    quantity  of  mud  and  trash  entering  the  factory  the greater the
    increase in  (1) the amount of  bagasse  produced  which  in  turn  may
    result  in more air pollution by increasing fly ash emissions,  (2) the
    quantity of filter mud produced, and  (3) the amount of  pollutants  in
    the  cane  wash  effluent.   In  general, as the quantities of mud and
    trash entering the factory increase, it is necessary that the  factory
    operate at an increased rate to produce a reduced amount of raw sugar.
    This  can  create severe economic problems, as has been experienced by
    those factories which form Subcategory V.
    
    The nature of the field cane entering a factory is affected by several
    factors including harvesting techniques and climatic conditions, which
    will be discussed below, and sucrose content and soil conditions.   As
    documented  in  Section  V,  the  field  cane  entering Subcategory II
                                      48
    

    -------
    factories is relatively clean due to the method of harvesting and is a
    factor that allows these factories to omit cane washing.  Again due to
    harvesting  techniques,   the   cane   entering   the   factories   of
    Subcategories  III and IV has an extremely high mud and trash content.
    The field cane processed by the factories of Subcategories I and V  is
    of  intermediate  cleanliness;  however,  that  of Subcategory v has a
    higher fiber content than the other Subcategories.  These  differences
    in  waste  water  characteristics  result  in the following groupings:
    those factories which form  (1) Subcategories I and V,  (2)   Subcategory
    II, and  (3) Subcategories III and IV.
    
    Harvesting Techniques
    
    As  was discussed above, cane harvesting techniques affect the amounts
    of mud, dirt, and rocks entering a factory as well as  the  amount  of
    trash in the harvested cane.  The effects on the factory include:  the
    presence  or  absence of cane wash operations and the quality of spent
    cane wash water, the efficiency of sucrose production, and the amounts
    of filter mud and bagasse produced.
    
    There  are  three  distinct  harvesting  techniques  employed  in  the
    American  sugar industry, each causing differing amounts of extraneous
    materials to enter a factory.  The Subcategory II factories, with  two
    exceptions,  process hand-harvested cane.  The relative cleanliness of
    the hand harvesting operation  is  a  major  factor  in  allowing  the
    Subcategory II factories to avoid cane washing.
    
    The  Subcategory  I . factories  process  mechanically  harvested  cane
    exclusively and  as  a  result  must  deal  with  considerably  higher
    extraneous  material  contents  than  do the Subcategory II factories.
    Cane washing.is universal within this Subcategory and the waste waters
    generated differ from those of Subcategory II accordingly."
    
    The factories in Subcategories III and IV  also  process  mechanically
    harvested  cane,  but  this  method  of harvesting involves the use of
    push-rakes to push the cane into  windrows.   The  cane  entering  the
    factories  contains a substantially higher extraneous material content
    than the cane processed by either the Subcategory I or Subcategory  II
    factories.   Cane  washing  is  practiced in Subcategories III and IV.
    The resulting waste waters contain considerably higher  concentrations
    and  loadings  of pollutants than do the waste waters generated by the
    factories in Subcategories I or II.
    
    The factories in Subcategory V generally process  a  mixture  of  hand
    harvested  and mechanically harvested cane.  Mechanical harvesting has
    experienced increasing use during the recent past in this Subcategory,
    and  while  it  is  expected  that  the   effects   on   waste   water
    characteristics  are  similar to those of Subcategory I, the data base
    currently accumulated for Subcategory V is limited because of the lack
    of historical data corresponding to current operating practices.
                                     49
    

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    The overall result of varying  harvesting
    substantiate the subcategorization,
    
    Land^Availability
    techniques  is  to  further
    Land  availability  may  be  defined  as  the  ownership  or potential
    ownership of land, or the use or potential use of land owned by others
    with their permission, with the land being  in  adequate  quantity  to
    allow   waste  water  treatment  and  disposal, 'and  with  the  added
    stipulation that the value of the land does not prohibit  its  use  in
    such  manner.   Therefore, land availability is considered a secondary
    factor affecting the feasibility of waste water treatment.
    
    As discussed in Section VII, those factories in Subcategories  II  and
    IV  have  land  availability  to  such  an extent that no discharge of
    polluted  waste  waters  is   practicable   except   under   emergency
    conditions.  Although factories in Subcategories I and V have variable
    land  availability,  it is assumed that adequate land is available for
    the application of the control and treatment alternatives discussed in
    Section VII.  Subcategory III factories have very limited availability
    of land for treatment facilities due to the limiting slopes upon which
    they are located.  The control and treatment technologies developed in
    Section VII for Subcategory III take this limitation into account.
    
    The overall effect of  land  availability  on  control  and  treatment
    technology  is  further  substantiation  of  the  previously discussed
    groupings as well as justification for  separating  Subcategories  III
    and IV into distinct Subcategories.
    
    Length of Processing Seasr j
    
    The  length  of  the  processing  season  for  a  factory is generally
    dependent on climate.  Processing seasons can range from approximately
    two months in Subcategory I to almost 12 months in  Subcategories  III
    and IV.
    
    The  length  of  the  processing  season  is an important factor in an
    evaluation of  potential  control  and  treatment  technologies.   For
    example,  biological treatment in the form of activated sludge becomes
    less practical for short processing seasons while waste  stabilization
    becomes  more practical.  The length of the processing season has been
    taken into account with regard to control  and  treatment  technology;
    this  provides further substantiation for the subcategorization of the
    industry.
    
    Climatic Variations
    
    Substantial variations in average  temperatures,  temperature  ranges,
    radiation,  and  seasons  exist among the various Subcategories of the
    raw cane sugar processing segment which  affect  varietal  selections.
                                      50
    

    -------
     cultural  practices,   processing  practices,   and  the  age of cane  at
     harvest.   The age of  cane at harvest  has  a   direct  bearing  on the
     mechanical and operational constraints imposed upon harvesting systems
     used  in  the  agricultural  operations affiliated  with  the factories.
     The  average age of cane at harvest exceeds  twenty months in Hawaii   as
     compared  to an average age of approximately  one  year  in other growing
     areas.   This does not provide a basis  for further subcategorization  of
     the  segment but is a  significant factor in  isolating Subcategories III
     and  IV,  and lends support to the subcategorization.
    
     Another  factor which  varies significantly from region  to   region   is
     rainfall.    This  factor  can  affect  the chosen  method  of  waste  water
     disposal  or treatment.   The Subcategory IV  factories are, for the most
     part,  located on lands  that require irrigation and  are thereby favored
     with  a   waste  water  disposal  method  of    considerable   economic
     attractiveness.    The  factories  in  Subcategories  I  and III do not
     employ irrigation techniques;  irrigation is practiced  to some extent
     in   Subcategory  v.   The  cane fields of the Subcategory II  factories
     require water level control,  i.e.,  either drainage   or  irrigation   at
     various   times  to maintain a proper water  table  level;  however,  since
     the  processing season corresponds to the dry  season, irrigation during
     this time  of  the year is more prevalent than  drainage.
    
     The  presence   or  absence  of  irrigation  as  a  result of   climatic
     variations   and   the  resulting  waste water  disposal  alternatives are
     considered  in  Section VII.  This  factor offers  further   justification
     for  the  subcategorization  defined in this  section.  The  waste  water
     characteristics  which result  from cane  washing   can   be affected  by
     rainfall during  the harvesting  operations,  i.e.,  by  an increase in the
     mud  and trash  entering the  factory.  Also,  particularly  in  the  case of
     Subcategory   II   factories,   adverse  climatic  conditions   such  as
     hurricanes  during  the time  the  cane  is growing can twist and bend the
     cane.     Mechanical  harvesting  under  such  conditions   can  lead to
     substantial increases in  mud  and  dirt  in the harvested cane.
    
     The  effects   of   rainfall  during  harvesting  can   randomly    cause
     variations   for   individual    factories.   The  effects   of   adverse
     conditions during  cane  growth   can  cause  intersubcategory  but not
     intrasubcategory  variations;   Therefore,  climatic variations, while
     providing support  for the previously stated subcategorization,  do  not
     provide support  for further subcategorization.
    
     Size_of_Plants
    
    As  was  shown in Tables 2 through 5, in Section III of this document,
    in terms of metric tons per  day  of  gross  cane  ground,  raw   sugar
    factories  range  from  68 to 11,000 metric tons per day  (75 to 12,000
    tons)o   The larger factories are concentrated in Subcategory  II  with
    an  average  grind  of  8,000  metric  tons (9,000 tons)  per day.   The
    smaller grinds or smaller capacity factories,  located in Subcategories
                                      51
    

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    I and V, are the result  of the relatively large  number  of  factories
    operating in those cane  growing areas.  The  factories in Subcategories
    III  and IV are also  small,  but this fact can be misleading in view of
    their annual production  which is greater than that of the factories in
    Subcategory II.  This is due to their Icnger grinding season.
    
    It might be assumed   that larger  factories  are  capable  of  better
    management,  and  it   must   be  noted  that  the  larger  factories of
    Subcategory II are also  the  most modern;  however,  on  a  unit  basis
    little  difference  exists   between factories of different sizes.  For
    example. Figure 15 shows a data distribution for barometric  condenser
    cooling   water   flow  versus  factory  grinding  rate.   While  more
    consistency in flow rates may be indicated for larger factories, it is
    not apparent that the larger factories use less water on a unit basis.
    
    In the cost analysis  of  Section VIII, factory size becomes a factor in
    that larger factories require more expensive  facilities  but  at  the
    same time enjoy the benefits of economy of scale.  The single distinct
    size  difference  is   that   Subcategory  II  factories are considerably
    larger than those of  other subcategories.  This  factor  is  secondary
    justification for treating Subcategory II as a separate Subcategory.
    
    Nature of Soil
    
    The nature of the soil in which cane is grown affects the condition of
    the  harvested  cane   in two ways:   (a) directly by the amount of soil
    which adheres to the  cane and (b) indirectly by  affecting  harvesting
    techniques  which in  turn affect the amount of mud and trash delivered
    to the factory.
    
    As a result, the nature  of the soil  affects  the  characteristics  of
    spent  cane  wash water,  filter mud, and other wastes that contain the
    soil.  The nature of  the soil also affects the sucrose yield  of  cane
    and  influences  the   operating efficiency of factories.  Finally, the
    soil of the cane fields  affects the ability of a factory  to  irrigate
    with  waste water and spread land with solid waste such as filter mud.
    Significant variations in soil occur among the previously  established
    subcategories  but  not   within  them.   Therefore,  variations in the
    nature of soil are not considered a justifiable  element  for  further
    subcategorization.
    
    Process Variation
    
    While the production  of  raw  sugar from sugar cane is a similar process
    in  any  factory,  certain significant variations in process do occur.
    These may be necessitated in  some  cases  by  raw  material  quality,
    desired  quality  of   end  product, policies of factory management, or
    other reasons.
                                      52
    

    -------
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    53
    

    -------
     The most  significant  process  variation  in  terms  of  waste  water
     generation is the presence or absence of cane washing.   The effects  of
     harvesting  techniques,  climatic conditions, and other factors on the
     presence or absence of cane washing have been  discussed  earlier and
     the  characteristics  of the major waste water stream produced by cane
     wash water are discussed in Section V.
    
     Another major factor may be management  policy'— the decision  whether
     to  wash cane and handle the extra water required and generate a major
     waste stream, or to not wash cane and handle the  extraneous  material
     within the process.  While hand harvesting is prevalent in Subcategory
     II,  two factories within this subcategory employ mechanical harvesting
     but  choose  not  to  wash  cane  except  on  occasional  instances  of
     extremely high extraneous material content in the cane.
     Process  variation may be  considered  as  a  secondary
     substantiates  the previously stated subcategorization.
    
     Age  of Plants
    element  which
     The  more  modern  plants  are  generally  contained  in  Subcategory II due
     to the  fact that the  majority of  the growth  of  the sugar  industry  in
     that  subcategory   has  occurred   during  the last decade.  Many of the
     factories in the other  areas  were originally constructed  during  the
     nineteenth  century  (in   some cases  using component  parts from even
     earlier eras)  and  have  received various degress of modernization  over
     the years.
    
     The  history   of an individual factory  is generally  unknown beyond the
     memory  of current  management   and the  age   of  component  parts  is,
     therefore,  indeterminable.    Therefore,  age  is not  a  factor that
     affects subcategorization.
    
     Nature  of Water Supply
    
     The quantity and quality  of fresh water supplies  utilized by factories
     were originally considered as potential elements  for industry subcate-
     gorization because of   possible   prohibitive factors   that  could  be
     encountered  in  resulting  control   and  treatment technology,  it was
     found that  fresh  water  sources for  sugar  factories  varied  from
     relatively high quality ground water  to relatively low  quality surface
    water,  and  some  factories   were  found to be utilizing saline ocean
    water.  The quantity of water available for  factory use was  found  to
    be  generally  adequate with  potential  shortages  being  observed on the
     south coast of Puerto Rico and in certain areas of Hawaii.
    
    It was generally observed that in those cases where  low  quality  raw
    water  presented   potential   problems,  the   problems  were either not
    significant or the reduction  in water usage  in  control  and  treatment
     (recycle  and  reuse)  provided the alternative  of higher quality water
                                      54
    

    -------
    supplies.  Therefore, the nature of water supplies was rejected
    posszble element for further subcategorization.
    as  a
                                     55
    

    -------
    

    -------
                                  SECTION V
    
                     WATER USE AND WASTE CHARACTERIZATION
    
    Water is used in various ways in cane sugar factories and a variety of
    waste waters result.  This section describes the water usage and char-
    acterizes   the   waste   waters  associated  with  the  subcategories
    identified in Section IV.  For each subcategory  discussed  herein,  a
    representative  model is developed and defined in terms of waste water
    flow and characteristics.
    
    It should be carefully noted that within  this  document  the  process
    unit employed for cane sugar factories, unless otherwise specified, is
    metric  tons  (tons) of gross (field) cane processed by the factory per
    day, and  that  all  pollutant  concentrations  and  loadings,  unless
    otherwise  specified,  are in terms of net units, i.e., do not include
    any pollutants entering the factory in the fresh water supply.
    
    WATER USAGE AND WASTE WATER QUANTITIES
    
    The uses of water in cane sugar factories include water used for:   (1)
    the  washing  Of  cane,   (2)  the  cooling  of  vapors  in  barometric
    condensers,   (3)  the slurrying of filter cake, boiler bottom ash, and
    boiler fly ash,  (H) boiler makeup,  (5) maceration,  (6) floor wash  and
    miscellaneous  clean-up,  and   (7)  miscellaneous  cooling.  Figure 16
    shows a schematic diagram of water usage and waste water  flows  in   a
    cane  sugar   factory.  It is generally applicable to all subcategories
    except Subcategory  II which does not employ cane washing.
    
    Water  use  varies  considerably  even  within  subcategories  due  to
    dissimilar  water   conservation and recirculation techniques.  Not  all
    factories will use  water  in  all  the  processes  listed  above.   For
    example,  a   number of  factories, particularly in  Subcategory I, use
    spent barometric condenser cooling water   for  washing  sugarcane   and
    thereby  eliminate  the  necessity  for  fresh  water  intake  for  cane
    washing.  Various  factories may handle filter cake and/or ashes  in   a
    "dry"  form   and   dispose  of  them  on  land.  A number of  factories,
    notably in Subcategory  II  and  Subcategory  V, do not  wash cane.
    
    The  quantities  of waste water   generated  by  a   factory  do    not
    necessarily   correspond   to the quantities of fresh  water  brought  into
    the  factory,  for the  following reasons:   (1) the moisture   content of
    sugarcane  is  approximately   70  to   75 percent, representing a water
    input to a factory of  710  to  750  liters  per metric   ton   (170   to   180
    gallons  per  ton)   of  net cane entering the factory,  (2)  a portion of
    the  fresh water entering the  factory  enters into the filter  cake   and
    bagasse,  and  (3)   a   portion  of   the  fresh  water  is   lost due to
    evaporation.
                                       57
    

    -------
    harvested cone
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      WATER  USAGE IN A  TYPICAL. CANE SUGAR FACTORY
    
    
    
                            58
    

    -------
    Water Usage and Waste Water Quantities — Subcat
    
    Tables  7A  and  7B  show  total  fresh  water  intake  and  discharge
    quantities  of  major  waste  streams  for  Subcategory  I.   Table 7A
    presents the information in terms of cubic meters of  water  used  per
    day  and  Table  7B in terms of liters of water used per metric ton of
    gross cane.  For those factories presented, the range of  fresh  water
    intake ranges from 1,800 to 30,100 liters per metric ton (432 to 7,230
    gallons  per  ton).   The  mean intake is 13,200 liters per metric ton
    (3,170 gallons per ton) and the  mean  total  discharge  exclusive  of
    those factories which stabilize all wastes is 12,900 liters per metric
    ton (3,100 gallons per ton) of gross cane.
    
    Q^a§  Hash  Water  -  Washing  cane  for  removal  of  dirt  and other
    extraneous material is practiced extensively in Louisiana.    The  flow
    of  water  varies widely depending upon the condition of the cane, the
    availability and cost of water, and the policy of factory  management.
    An  example of these variable conditions is the hurricane which passed
    through southern Louisiana in the summer of  1971  leaving  the  sugar
    cane  tangled and bent to the ground rather than in its normal upright
    stance.  Consequently, excessive quantities of mud were included  with
    the  harvested cane, necessitating increased amounts of water for cane
    washing.
    
    Historically cane washing has been a once-through operation  requiring
    an  increasing  amount  of  water  usage  with  the increase in use of
    mechanical harvesting equipment.   In  Louisiana, "the  quantities  of
    water  used  in cane washing range from about 890 to 20,000 liters per
    metric ton (214 to 4,800 gallons per  ton)  of  gross  cane,  with  an
    average  of  7,230  liters per metric ton  (1,740 gallons per ton).  As
    can be seen in Table 7B, some Louisiana factories either partially  or
    totally recycle their cane wash water and some stabilize the discharge
    stream.  The average discharge of those factories which discharge cane
    wash  water  directly   (employ  no  stabilization) is 5,920 liters per
    metric ton (1,420 gallons per ton) of gross cane.
    
    Barometric Condenser Cooling Water - Another process  generated  waste
    water,   condenser  water,  ^s  necessary  for  all  sugar  factories.
    Barometric condensers are utilized and normally, the  greatest  amount
    of water used in a factory is employed as barometric condenser cooling
    water.   Condenser  water  is  used  to condense vapors from the last-
    effect evaporators and from the vacuum pans.  The amount of barometric
    condenser cooling water used per process unit of cane will depend upon
    (1) the availability and cost of water,   (2)  the  policy  of  factory
    management  toward  water  conservation,   (3)  the extent of automatic
    control of evaporators and vacuum  pans,  and   (4)  the  thermodynamic
    relationship  between  the  injection  water  and  the  vapors  to  be
    condensed, i.e., the higher the temperature  of  the  condenser  water
    influent,  the larger the theoretical volume of cooling water required
    for condensation of the vapors.
                                      59
    

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     The average barometric condenser cooling water usage for Subcategory I
     factories is 16,300 liters per metric ton (3,910 gallons per  ton)   of
     gross  cane,  ranging  in usage from 8,350 to 26,000 liters per metric
     ton (2,010 to 6,240 gallons per ton)  of gross cane.   Several factories
     recxrculate  barometric  condenser  cooling  water  with  the  average
     discharge, exclusive of those factories which stabilize the barometric
     condenser  cooling water stream, equivalent to 7,600 liters per metric
     ton (1,830 gallons per ton)  of gross cane.
    
    
     It might be anticipated that those factories recirculating  barometric
     condenser cooling water would require larger volumes of water due to a
     higher  intake temperature.   However, those Louisiana factories, which
     recirculate  barometric  condenser  cooling  water  have  an   average
     condenser  water  usage of 16,300 liters per metric  ton (3,910 gallons
     per ton)  of gross cane, or approximately the same average as that  for
     all the factories.
    
     Miscellaneous  Water Uses -  In many cases excess condensate is used or
     supplemented with fresh  water  for  minor  water needs  in  a  sugar
     factory.    Boiler feed water, for example, almost universally consists
     of condensate from the  first  one  or  two  evaporator  effects,   but
     generally  boiler  start  up  is accomplished with fresh water.   Also,
     while   excess  condensate .may  be  used  for  imbibition  water,   the
     condensate  must  first be cooled to avoid the melting of waxes in  the
     cane.   Also many factories find it  simpler  to  use  fresh  water   or
     condenser  water  rather  than excess condensate to  slurry filter mud,
     fly ash,  and boiler ash.
    
     The discharge streams for the miscellaneous   water  uses   account  for
     only a small percentage of total factory discharge.   As shown in Table
     7B,  filter  muds  and  boiler  and  fly  ash  are  often handled dry,
     eliminating two waste streams.    In  factories  where  filter  mud   is
     slurried,   the  average  discharge  is  318   liters  per metric ton  (76
     gallons per ton).   when ash  is slurried,  the  discharge  averages   309
     liters  per  metric  ton  (7U  gallons  per  ton).  Other  miscellaneous
     discharges  include  boiler blowdown,   floor   and  equipment   washings,
     excess  sweetwater,  and acid and caustic wastes.   Totally, the average
     discharge amounts to 300  liters per metric ton (72 gallons per ton)  .
    
     Water Usage and Waste Water  Quantities -  Suhcategorv II
    
     The most  notable difference  in water  usage between  the   factories  in
     Subcategory II  and  other  cane sugar factories  results  from the lack of
     cane  washing.    Cane  is  harvested   by  hand  in all Florida  and Texas
     factories but two,  and cane   is  washed   only   intermittently  in  two
     Subcategory  II   factories.   For this  reason,  cane wash water  has been
     omitted as  a  major   discharge  stream  in the   presentation   of  data
     relative  to  this   Subcategory.    Subcategory  II  factories are on the
    whole newer and  larger than  those in the  other   subcategories,  having
                                      62
    

    -------
     an  average  daily  grind  of  7,800 metric tons (8,600 tons) of gross
     cane, as shown in Table 8A.  Table 8A also lists the total fresh water
     intake, barometric condenser  cooling  water  flow,  and  waste  water
     discharges from the factory in terms of cubic meters of water per day.
     Table 8B presents the same data in terms of unit flow (liters of water
     per metric ton of gross cane).
    
     Fresh  water intake values differ greatly in Subcategory II factories,
     depending  on  the  degree  of  barometric  condenser  cooling   water
     recirculation  and  on  the  degree  of  in-plant reuse of water.  The
     values range from 7 to 18,300  liters  per  metric  ton  (2  to  4,400
     gallons  per  ton)   of gross cane, with an average of 3,960 liters per
     metric ton (950 gallons per ton).  The average amount of  waste  water
     discharged  from  a  Subcategory II factory is 3,410 liters per metric
     ton (819 gallons per ton)  of gross cane.  Barometric condenser cooling
     water usage ranges from 13,800 to 21,100 liters per metric ton  (3,310
     -  5,070  gallons  per  ton)   of  gross  cane,  with the average usage
     amounting to 17,300 liters per metric ton (4,160 gallons per  ton)   of
    . gross cane.
    
     Water Usage and Waste Water Quantities - Subcatecrories III and IV
    
     Factories  fitting  the  requirements  of Subcategories III and IV are
     sufficiently similar in sizes, processes, and water  and  waste  flows
     that  their  water  usage  and waste water quantities may be discussed
     jointly.  From Tables 9A and 10A which show the water usages and waste
     water quantities for the Subcategory III and IV factories,  an  average
     daily  grind  of  3,360  metric  tons  (3,700  tons)   of gross cane is
     observed.   Corresponding water usages given in  terms  of  liters  per
     metric  ton  of  gross cane are presented in Tables 9B and 10B.  Fresh
     water intake values range from 3,900 to 27,100 liters per  metric  ton
     *, ° nto  6'510  gallons  per   ton)   of gross cane, with an^average of
     13,400 liters per metric ton (3,220 gallons  per  ton).    The  average
     factory  discharge,  13,700  liters  per metric ton (3,290  gallons  per
     ton)  of gross cane, differs from the intake by 300  liters  per  metric
     ton  (70 gallons per ton), a difference which is probably attributable
     to the water extruded from the sugarcane.
    
     The factories of Subcategories III and IV historically have  not been
     concerned  with  the  minimization of water usage for various reasons.
     Many Subcategory IV mills  utilize tremendous quantities of   water  for
     irrigation  purposes  and  factory waste water makes up only a fraction
     of the total   irrigation  water.    Those  factories  which   have been
     hampered  with  a  tailwater  discharge problem have recently begun to
     look into various alternatives which  will  minimize  water  usage   to
     alleviate  the  problem of tailwater  discharge of factory generated
     process waste waters.   Subcategory III factories historically have  not
     practiced waste water treatment and the use  of  large  quantities   of
     water  has been  the  general practice.   Data relating to  Factory  66,
     which has. undergone an  extensive  program  of  development  of  waste
                                       63
    

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    treatment  facilities, is presented in Tables 9A and 9B.  Considerable
    effort has been undertaken with regard to waste water  management  and
    now,  although processing 1.66 times as much gross cane, only one-half
    as much water will  be  discharged.   This  indicates  that  where  an
    incentive  to  reduce  water usage exists, considerable reductions are
    attainable.
    
    Cane Wash Water - As in Louisiana, the factories  in  Hawaii  practice
    cane  washing  extensively.   The  cane  is  mechanically harvested by
    raking it into  windrows  before  collection,  and  elaborate  washing
    systems  have  been  developed to handle the large amounts of mud that
    come  in  with  the  cane.   In  fact,  compared  to  Subcategory   I,
    Subcategory  III  and IV factories utilize considerably more water for
    cane washing.  As presented in Tables 9B and  10B,  the  average  cane
    wash  water  flow  is  11,500 liters per metric ton  (2,760 gallic, jer
    ton) of gross cane.  Actual factory  discharge  of  cane  wash  water,
    however,  averages only 9,720 liters per metric ton  (2,330 gallons per
    ton) , indicating the recirculation or reuse  of  the  wash  water  for
    slurrying filter cake, bottom ash, and fly ash.
    
    Barometric  Condenser  Cooling  Water  -  In  Hawaii almost all plants
    partially or totally recirculate barometric  condenser  cooling  water
    back  into  the condensers or reuse it as cane wash water.  Because of
    this recirculation, less than half of the barometric condenser cooling
    water flow for Subcategories III and IV represents an  actual  factory
    discharge.   As presented in Tables 9B and 10B, the average barometric
    condenser coding water flow for Sufccategory III is 7,350  liters  per
    metric  ton   (1,770  gallons  per  ton)  of gross cane with an average
    discharge of 3,820 liters per metric ton   (917  gallons  per  ton)  of
    gross cane.  The evidence of the recirculation of barometric condenser
    cooling  water  is  substantiated  by  Subcategory IV data, showing an
    average flow and discharge of 13,900  liters  per  metric  ton   (3,340
    gallons  per.  ton)  and 6,770 liters per metric ton  (1,630 gallons per
    ton) , respectively.
    
    Miscellaneous Water Usage - Along with fresh water, excess  condensate
    and  cane wash water are used to meet the needs of minor water uses in
    Subcategory III and IV raw sugar factories.  Most often fresh water is
    used for slurrying filter mud, a discharge which varies from 51 to 427
    liters per metric ton  (12 to 103 gallons per ton), while averaging 234
    liters per metric ton  (56 gallons per ton) of gross cane.   Ashes  are
    slurried  with  either  fresh water or cane wash water and waste water
    flow can be as high as 3,030 liters per metric ton   (728  gallons  per
    ton) ,  but averages 926 liters per metric ton  (222 gallons per ton) of
    gross cane.  Other minor discharge flows,  including  boiler  blowdown
    and floor and equipment washings vary from plant to plant depending on
    the  degree  of recirculation and on the water conservation techniques
    employed.
                                      70
    

    -------
    W§ter Usage and Waste Water
                                       ies - Subcategory V
    The existing data on water use and waste  water  discharges  from  the
    factories  in Subcategory V are presented in Tables 11A and 11B.  From
    these tables it can be seen that  an  average  of  3,850  metric  tons
    (4,240 tons) of gross cane is ground daily.  Fresh water intake varies
    from  12,300  to  37,000 liters per metric ton (2,950 to 8,890 gallons
    per ton) of gross cane, all of which is discharged from the factories.
    
    Cane Wash Water - In each case where cane  washing  is  reported,  the
    water  supply is spent barometric condenser cooling water.  An average
    of 8,690 liters of water per metric ton  (2,090  gallons  per  ton)  of
    gross cane is reported by the factories listed in Table 10B which wash
    cane,  with  the  entire amount being discharged from the factory.  At
    the time of data collection, one factory did not wash cane, yet  plans
    indicate  that  in  the future, a somewhat less than average supply of
    water will be used for this purpose.
    
    Barometric Condenser Cooling Water - The greatest use of  fresh  water
    in  Subcategory  V factories is for the barometric leg condensers.  It
    can be seen in the tables that almost 100 percent of the  fresh  water
    intake  is  used  as  barometric  condenser  cooling  water and that a
    portion is usually reused in cane washing, slurrying filter cake,  and
    for cleaning purposes, although actual factory discharge of barometric
    condenser  cooling  water  varies anywhere from 0 to 27,000 liters per
    metric ton  (0 to 6,480 gallons per ton)  of gross  cane.   The  average
    water usage is 20,500 liters per metric ton (4,920 gallons per ton) of
    gross  cane, and the average discharge is 13,800 liters per metric ton
    (3,310 gallons per tori) of gross cane.
    
    Miscellaneous Water Usage - In Puerto Rican  factories,  either  fresh
    water  or:  spent  barometric condenser cooling water is used to supply
    the miscellaneous needs.  Sufficient information is not  available  on
    boiler  blowdown  and ash slurries for characterization of these waste
    flows.  Filter muds, however, are slurried with  quantities  of  water
    ranging  from 1,040 to 1,180 liters per metric ton (250 to 280 gallons
    per ton) of gross cane.
    
    
    WASTE WATER CHARACTERI STICS
    
    Figure 16 presented a schematic diagram of waste water  flows  from  a
    typical  cane  sugar  factory.  The characteristics of the total waste
    water discharge depend upon the characteristics of the component waste
    streams and, most importantly, upon the extent to which  recirculation
    and reuse of water is practiced.
    
    The  major  waste  streams produced by a cane sugar factory are filter
    mud,  barometric  condenser  cooling  water,  and  cane  wash   water.
    Numerous small streams also contribute to the total pollutant loading.
                                      71
    

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    -------
     SUBCATEGORY I
    
     Cane  Wash  Water  -  In  Subcategory  I  factories,   cane  washing  is
     practiced extensively, and  in  many  instances  barometric  condenser
     cooling  water  is  used as the source for cane wash  water.   Its waste
     composition will vary depending upon the amount of  extraneous material
     in the cane on any particular day.   Other determining factors  include
     the  availability  of  water, soil  types, management  policies,  and the
     condition of the cane upon harvesting.
    
     A paper by Hendrickson and Grillot  (3)  shows  Louisiana factories  with
     an  average  BOD5 concentration of  240 mg/1 in  cane wash water.   Their
     other findings on factory waste characteristics are presented in Table
     12 with the cane wash water COD concentration listed  as 570   mg/1 and
     total   solids  listed  as  4,030   mg/1.    other data pertaining  to
     individual factories are listed in  terms of  pollutant concentrations
     in  Table  13 and pollutant loadings in Table 14.   BODS concentrations
     in untreated cane wash water discharge  vary  from  81~ to  562   mg/1,
     averaging  274 mg/1, a value which  compares favorably to that reported
     by Hendrickson and Grillot.   The average BOD5 raw  waste   loading for
     those  factories  listed  in Table  14 is 1.46 kilograms per  metric ton
     (2.92 pounds per ten)  of gross cane.   COD  concentrations  lie   within
     the  range  of  293 to 1,430 mg/1 with an average pollutant  loading  of
     3.69 kilograms per metric ton (7.38 pounds per   ton)   of   gross   cane.
     Because  trash  content  in   the gross  cane  is highly variable from
     factory to factory,  the suspended solids  loading in  cane  wash   water
     ranges  from  a  low of 0.69 kilograms  per metric ton (1.38  pounds per
     ton)  to a high of 36.0 kilograms per metric ton (72.0 pounds per  ton)-
     of  gross  cane.    The average loading  is equivalent  to 17.0 kilograms
     per metric ton (34.0 pounds  per ton)  of gross cane.
    
     Barometric  Condenser  Cooling  Water  -   The  major    pollutants   in
     barometric .condenser cooling water are sucrose and heat.  The sucrose
     originates from entrainment   in last-effect  evaporators  and   vacuum
     pans,   and  heat originates  from the  heat exchange  between the cooling
     water  and  the  condensed  vapors.     in  terms   of   waste    water
     characteristics,  sucrose appears in barometric  condenser cooling water
     as  BOD5,   COD,   and  dissolved solids.   In actuality,  as  indicated  in
     Table  15,   relatively  small  concentrations  of   other   constituents
     appear.   In some cases these are already  present in the barometric leg
     condenser   water  and some are a result of impurities in the molasses.
     It is  perhaps  important to note  that  in a number of  instances,  data
     for   individual   factories   show net  negative  values for suspended
     solids, nutrients, and other parameters.   A negative  value  has  been
     presented   in  Table   15   as having a zero value.   Negative  values are
     probably due to variability  in sampling and analytical  techniques used
     by the many sources  of  data  referred  to in this  report.
    As reported by Hendrickson and Grillot
    COD   concentrations   of   barometric
    (3)  in Table  12,  the   BOD5   and
     condenser cooling  water   are
                                      74
    

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     relatively low, 36 mg/1 and 83  mg/1,  respectively.    The  values   in
     Table  15 are similar, with BOD5_ concentrations ranging from 1 1  to  224
     mg/1 and COD concentrations ranging from 5 to 388 mg/1.
    
     Pollutant loadings for  Subcategory  I  barometric  condenser  cooling
     waters  are  listed  in  Table  16.   The average BODS  loading  is 0.90
     kg/kkg (1.8 pounds per ton);  the average BOD5, loadingT   omitting both
     the  high  and  the  low value,  is 0.57 kilograms per metric ton (1.14
     pounds per ton)  of gross cane.  COD loadings  average  1.69   kilograms
     per metric ton (3.38 pounds per  ton)  of gross cane.
    
     Filter  Mud  -  Filter mud originates from juice clarification  and  the
     rotary vacuum filters which are  used to separate solids  from the juice
     clarification sludge.  Based  on  data supplied by factories  which  dry
     haul  filter  cake,  between   26  and 100 kilograms  of  filter cake  per
     metric ton (52 to 200 pounds  of  filter cake per ton)  of  gross cane  are
     produced depending in  part  upon  cane  conditions.    The  unslurried
     filter  cake  has a moisture  content ranging between  70  and  80  percent
     and a sugar content of  about 1  to  4  percent  (4,   5).    in   those
     factories which produce a filter mud by slurrying the filter cake with
     water,   this stream can be the most significant source  of  organics  and
     solids within the factory.
    
     As  shown in Table 17, the average concentrations  of  BOD5,   COD,   and
     suspended  solids  are,  respectively,  14,700,  42,900, and  79,400 mg/1.
     These concentrations, however, vary widely among  factories   depending
     upon  the  quantity  of cake  produced and the  volume  of  water used  for
     slurrying.
       2E  Washings  -  The  primary  pollutant  loading  in  floor   wash
    originates  in  the  mill  house area and consists of juice spills and
    pump seal leakages.  Spillage of raw  sugar  from  conveyer  belts  in
    loading  areas  or at loading docks may contribute significant sucrose
    concentrations.  Spills or leakages of molasses  cause  slug  loadings
    having  high  concentrations  of  organics.  During wet weather, large
    quantities of mud can enter factories and result  in  a  high  concen-
    tration   of   solids  in  the  floor  wash  effluents.   Volumes  and
    concentrations  depend   upon   equipment   conditions   and   general
    housekeeping  practices.  The BOD5 of floor wash may approach 700 mg/1
    and suspended solids may be in concentrations as high as  1,000  mg/1,
    but  the total discharge volume is sufficiently low that floor wash is
    a  relatively  minor  contributor  to  overall   pollutant   loadings.
    However, during periods following factory shutdown when the factory is
    given  a  thorough  clean-up, the discharge of floor .wash is generally
    the major waste water discharge.
    
    Ash - The sources of ash in a sugar factory are associated with boiler
    operations.   Upon burning of the bagasse, a residual  ash  remains  in
    the  boiler  which  may be removed dry and handled as a solid waste or
    slurried and discharged  as  a  waste  stream.   Associated  with  the
                                      80
    

    -------
                        TABLE 17
    
    POLLUTANT CONCENTRATIONS IN MISCELLANEOUS STREAMS
                      SUBCATEGORY I
    Discharge
    Flow
    Stream (M3/day)
    Filter Mud 820
    Ash Slurry 200
    Boiler Slowdown 680
    Excess
    Condensate
    Floor and
    Equipment Wash
    BODS
    (mg/T)
    14,700
    323
    139
    13
    600
    COD
    (mg/1)
    42,900
    7,440
    312
    41
    900
    TSS
    (mg/1 )
    79,400
    10,400
    80
    153
    750
    TS
    (mg/1)
    
    11,700
    347
    327
    2,100
                                  81
    

    -------
     "bottom"  ash  is fly ash which normally leaves the boiler through the
     stacks.   In cases where wet scrubbers are used to remove fly  ash,   an
     added waste  stream  results.    Characteristics  of  these  two waste
     streams  are generally similar as  essentially  the  same  material  is
     present   in  both  waste  streams.    As  shown  in  Table 17, the BOD5
     concentration of ash slurries in Louisiana is typically on  the   order
     of  300   mg/1.   The  corresponding  concentration of suspended  solids
     averages 10,400 mg/1.                        •
    
     Bmler_Blowdgwn -  Boiler  blowdown  results   from  the  necessity  of
     maintaining  a  high  quality  of boiler feed water by continuously or
     intermittently  discharging  a   portion  of  the  feed   water.     The
     pollutants   in  boiler  blowdown  result  from  internal  boiler water
     treatment with caustic  soda for  pH  control,   organic  dispersants,
     phosphates   used for scale removal,  and sulphite or hydrazine used  for
     oxygen   removal.    The  characteristics   of    boiler   blowdown   are
     independent of the manufacturing process and  can be considered to be a
     function of boiler operation regardless of what the industrial process
     is  in   which the boiler is being used.   Nevertheless,  boiler blowdown
     comprises a discrete, if minor,  component of   the  total  waste   water
     discharge   from  a  cane  sugar   factory.   As seen in Table 17,  boiler
     blowdown contributes some pollutional loading to the total factory  raw
     waste loading.
         and Caustic Wastes - The removal of  scale  deposits  in  a  sugar
    factory  is   normally  accomplished by the use of concentrated caustic
    soda and dilute hydrochloric acid  solutions.   The  caustic  solutions
    are  usually   collected  and reused; the  resulting waste is the sludge
    from the collection tanks.  Hydrochloric  acid solutions  are  normally
    discharged directly after use.  The total acid-caustic waste stream is
    normally  low in organic matter but experiences wide variations in pH
    and contains  high  inorganic  solids  concentrations.   It  is  common
    practice  in-   the  raw  sugar  industry   to totally impound this waste
    stream.
    
    C22.3en.sates -  During the evaporation of cane juice the vapor or  steam
    entering  the  calandria  section of the  evaporator does not come into
    contact  with  the  juice,  and   the   resulting   condensate   would
    theoretically  contain  no  sugar.   However,  if  the  boiling is too
    violent or if  the liquid level in the evaporator is too high, droplets
    of juice may be entrained in the vapor.   Since factories generally use
    the condensate as a source of feed water  for their  steam  generation,
    good  control  in  terms  of  operation   and entrainment prevention is
    usually maintained.  Contaminated  condensate  is  usually  discharged
    with the barometric cooling water.
    
    SUBCATEGORY II
    
    Since  cane  washing  is  generally not practiced by factories in this
    subcategory,  one of the major waste streams is not  existent;  in  the
                                      82
    

    -------
    worst   case,   where   cane  washing  is  employed,  it  is  done  so
    intermittently.  Therefore the majority of pollutants in the  effluent
    waste  stream  are  contributed  by the filter mud slurry.  Barometric
    condenser cooling water accounts for a large waste flow but  pollutant
    loadings  are  smaller  in  comparison  to those of filter mud.  Other
    miscellaneous waste streams have waste  characteristics  and  loadings
    similar  to those presented in Sufccategory I and will not be discussed
    further.  Table 18 shows pollutant loadings found  in  some  of  these
    miscellaneous waste streams.
    
    Barometric Condenser Cooling Water - Seven of the nine factories which
    makeup  Subcategory  II either partially or totally recycle barometric
    condenser cooling, water.   Because  generally  these  factories  have
    proper   vapor   heights  and  have  good  operational  controls,  the
    barometric condenser cooling water is of relatively high  quality  and
    can  be  reused  without the reduction of plant efficiencies and sugar
    recovery.  The pollutant concentrations  presented  in  Table  19  are
    quite variable, with BOD5 ranging from 6 to 2,110 mg/1.  These irregu-
    larities  in  chemical composition can be attributed to variable oper-
    ational parameters, the extent and type of recirculation employed, and
    other factors.  Table 20, which presents barometric condenser  cooling
    water  loadings,  shows  an average EOD5 loading of 0.18 kilograms per
    metric ton (0.36 pounds per ton)  of  gross  cane,  if  Factory  47  is
    considered  to  discharge directly (although this factory recirculates
    barometric condenser  cooling  water  through  a  recirculation  canal
    system).   Thus  a  five  to  one  reduction in sucrose entrainment is
    exhibited by factories presented in Table 20 when  -compared  to  those
    Subcategory I factories presented in Table 16.
    
    Iiiter_Mud - Presenting the greatest pollutional problem in these fac-
    tories,  filter  mud  slurries carry relatively large amounts of BODS,
    COD, and suspended solids.  Although the  average  discharge  flow  is
    1,300  cubic meters per day (0,34 million gallons per day)  as compared
    to an average barometric condenser cooling water flow of 128,000 cubic
    meters  per  day  (33.8  million  gallons  per  day),  the   pollutant
    concentrations  and  respective  loadings are considerably higher.  In
    Table 18 the BOD5, COD, and suspended solids loadings  are  listed  as
    1.89  kilograms  per  metric ton (3.78 pounds per ton), 12.9 kilograms
    per metric ton (25.8 pounds per ton), and 7.32  kilograms  per  metric
    ton (14.6 pounds per ton) for suspended solids, respectively.
    
    SUBCATEGORY III
    
    The  characteristics of the total waste water discharge from factories
    in this Subcategory are presented in Tables 21  and  22  in  terms  of
    concentrations  (mg/1)  and loadings (kilograms per metric ton of gross
    cane), respectively.  The average of these data indicate a waste water
    discharge of 15,800 liters per metric ton (3,800 gallons per  ton)  of
    gross  cane  with a total BOD5 loading of 6.5 kilograms per metric ton
    (13.0 pounds per ten)  of gross cane.    The  average  suspended  solids
                                      83
    

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    loading  is
    gross cane.
    35.2  kilograms  per  metric ton (70. H pounds per ton)  of
    Cane Wash Water - Factories  in Subcategory  III  practice  cane   washing
    extensively.   The  trash  content  of   the gross cane may  approach  50
    percent, ranging from  33 to  51 percent  for  the  factories   represented
    in Tables 21  and 22.   Because of the high trash content, the pollutant
    concentrations  and  loadings in the cane wash  water are quite  high  as
    shown in  Tables  23   and  24.   Comparing  these  concentrations  and
    loadings to those representative of Subcategory I cane wash water, the
    difference  is  clearly  evident.   Average BOD5 and suspended solids
    loadings are, respectively,  5.0 kilograms per metric ton  (10.0   pounds
    per ton) of gross cane, and  31.7 kilograms  per  metric ton  (63.a pounds
    per  ton)  of  gross   cane.  These values are considerably  higher than
    those experienced by cane sugar factories outside of Hawaii.
    
    Barometric Condenser Cooling, Water - The Hawaii Sugar  Industry Waste
    Study   (6)  observed   a  BOD5 loading of 1.18 kilograms per metric ton
    (2.36 pounds per ton)  of net cane processed for  Factory   66.   Other
    available  data, as presented in Tables  25  and  26, show concentrations
    and loadings in terms  of net cane.  The  average BOD5 loading  omitting
    the data discussed above is  0.34 kilograms  per  metric ton  (0.68 pounds
    per  ton)  of  net  cane.    The  low  values for pollutant  loadings  in
    barometric condenser cooling water correspond to  those  observed  for
    other subcategories.
    
    Miscellaneous  Waste   Streams  -  Data   regarding  miscellaneous waste
    discharges are limited and available data are presented in  Tables   27
    and 28.
    
    Data   regarding  slurried   filter  mud  indicates  a  relatively  low
    pollutant load for this Subcategory.  The average waste  discharge   is
    230  liters  per  metric  ton  (55 gallons  per  ton)  of gross cane with
    characteristic loadings as follows:  BOD5,  0.56 kilograms   per   metric
    ton  (1.11  pounds  per  ton)  of  gross cane;  TSS, 2.16 kilograms per
    metric ton (4.32 pounds per  ten)  of gross cane; and total solids, 2.68
    kilograms per metric ton (5.35 pounds per ton)  of gross cane.
    
    Other waste streams such as  ash  slurry,   excess  condensate,   boiler
    blowdown,  and  floor  and equipment washings are minor and contribute
    little to the total factory effluent.  The  discussion of these  streams
    under Subcategory I is applicable to this Subcategory.
    
    SUBCATEGORY IV
    
    The characteristics of the total waste water discharge from factories
    in  this  Subcategory  are  presented  in Tables 29 and 30  in terms  of
    concentrations (mg/1)   and loadings (kilograms per metric ton of  gross
    cane),  respectively.   The average of these  data indicate a  waste water
    discharge  of  14,300  liters per metric  ton (3,430 gallons  per  ton)   of
                                     89
    

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    gross cane with a total BOD5 loading of 5.7 kilograms per  metric  ton
     (11.4  pounds  per  ton)  of gross cane.  The average suspended solids
    loading is 47.8 kilograms per metric ton  (95.6  pounds  per  ton)  of
    gross cane.
    
    Cane  Wash  Water  - Factories in Sufccategory IV practice cane washing
    extensively.  The trash content of the gross cane ranges from 25 to 33
    percent for the factories  represented  in  Tables  29  and  30.   The
    average  cane  wash  water BOD5_ and suspended solids loadings of those
    factories represented in Tables 31 and 32 (omitting the  second  entry
    for  Factory 82 to enable direct comparison with Tables 29 and 30) are
    5.1 kilograms per metric ton (10.2 pounds per ton) of gross  cane  and
    45.3  kilograms  per  metric  ton (90.6 pounds per ton) of gross cane,
    respectively.
    
    Barometric Condenser Cooling Water - As presented in Tables 33 and 34,
    the average  BOD5  loading  for  barometric  condenser  cooling  water
    discharges   (omitting  the second entry for Factory 82- to allow direct
    comparison with Tables 29 and 30) is 0.33  kilograms  per  metric  ton
     (0.66  pounds  per  ton) of net cane.  This compares very favorably to
    the average observed for Subcategory III factories.
    
    Miscellaneous Waste  Streams  -  Data  regarding  miscellaneous  waste
    discharges  is  limited  and available data are presented in Tables 35
    and 36.
    
    Data  regarding  slurried  filter  mud  indicates  a  relatively   low
    pollutant  load  for this subcategory.  The average waste discharge is
    239 liters per metric ton (57 gallons per  ton)  of  gross  cane  with
    characteristic  loadings  as  follows: BOD5, 0.66 kilograms per metric
    ton (1.31 pounds per ton) of  gross  cane;  TSS,  3.81  kilograms  per
    metric ton (7.62 pounds per ton)  of gross cane; and total solids, 4.96
    kilograms per metric ton (9.92 pounds per ton) of gross cane.
    
    Data   regarding  slurried  boiler  ash  indicates  an  average  waste
    discharge of 281 liters per metric ton (67 gallons per ton)  of  gross
    cane.    The  characteristic  loadings  are:   BODS, 0.014 kilograms per
    metric ton (0.028 pounds per ton) of gross cane;~TSS,  0.69  kilograms
    per  metric  ton (1.4 pounds per ten) of gross cane, and total solids,
    1.1 kilograms per metric ton (2.2 pounds per ton) of gross cane.
    
    Other waste streams such as excess condensate,  boiler  blowdown,  and
    floor  and  equipment  washings are minor and contribute little to the
    total  factory  effluent.   The  discussion  of  these  streams  under
    Subcategory I is applicable to this subcategory.
    
    SUBCATEGORY_V
    
    The sugar industry in Puerto Rico is currently undergoing a transition
    from  hand  harvesting  of  sugarcane  to  the  mechanization  of  the
                                      95
    

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    harvesting operation.  This has resulted in a change in the properties
    and characteristics of waste waters discharged from the  Puerto  Rican
    sugar  factories,  due  to  the  need  to  wash  the cane before it is
    processed.  The types of mechanical harvesting currently  employed  in
    Puerto  Rico  cause  increases  in  the  amount of extraneous material
    brought into the factory over  that  associated  with  hand  harvested
    sugarcane.  As discussed previously the major waste streams discharged
    from a cane sugar factory are barometric condenser cooling water, cane
    wash  water,  and floor and equipment washings and other miscellaneous
    waste waters.  The usual  practice  in  Puerto  Rico  is  to  mix  the
    miscellaneous waste waters with barometric condenser cooling water and
    either  utilize  this as cane wash water or, if the washing of cane is
    not practiced, discharge this stream directly.
    
    Candelario, et al. (42), report the characterization of  liquid  waste
    waters  discharged  from  four cane sugar factories in 1972,  Table 37
    summarizes the ranges of values observed and  the  average  value  for
    various  parameters.   Candelario,  et al., explain that most reliable
    data available correspond to the period when mechanical harvesting was
    not employed, with the literature being totally devoid of  information
    on  the  quantities  of  water actually used in Puerto Rican mills for
    washing mechanically harvested cane.  They go on to characterize water
    requirements for sugar mills in Puerto Rico at 12,000 liters  per  day
    for  each  metric ton of cane processed per day (2,880 gallons per day
    for each ton of cane processed per day).   It  is  reported  that  the
    fraction  of  this water used as cane wash water varies depending upon
    the amount of cane which  has  been  mechanically  harvested.   It  is
    stated  that the quantities of waste water generated from Puerto Rican
    mills which process mechanically harvested cane  are  at  present  the
    same as for those which process hand-harvested cane.
    
    By  applying  the  average  values  of  the  various parameters to the
    characteristic flow, one can arrive at unit raw waste loadings.  Table
    38 reports the average raw waste loadings of Puerto Rican  cane  sugar
    factories based on the work of Candelario, et al.
    
    Tables   39   and  40  present  additional  data  regarding  pollutant
    concentrations and loadings in  total  plant  discharge  waters.   The
    average  factory  has a grind of 3,900 metric tons per day  (4,390 tons
    per day)  of gross cane, and has a BOD5 loading between 1.45  and  3.37
    kilograms per metric ton (2.90 and 6.74 pounds per ton) of gross cane.
    The suspended solids loadings range from 2.25 kilograms per metric ton
    (4.50  pounds  per  ton)  to 5.29 kilograms per metric ton (10.6 pounds
    per ton)  of gross cane.
    
    Cane Wash Water -  Cane  washing  is  practiced  by  the  majority  pf
    factories  in  this  subcategory to varying degrees.  Tables 41 and 42
    present data  specific  to  the  cane  wash  water  discharge  stream,
    regarding pollutant concentrations and loadings.  The average BOD5 and
    suspended  solids  loadings  are  1>*87  kilograms per metric ton "(3.74
                                      100
    

    -------
                      TABLE 37
    
    CHARACTERIZATION OF PUERTO RICAN CANE SUGAR
                FACTORY WASTE WATERS
    Parameter
    pH
    BOD5_, (mg/1)
    COD, (mg/1)
    TSS, (mg/1)
    TS, (mg/1)
    Temperature, (°C)
    Range of Values
    Observed
    5.3 -
    112 -
    385 -
    100 -
    500 -
    31° -
    8.8
    225
    978
    700
    1 ,400
    49°
    Average
    Value
    6.8
    180'
    591
    375
    740
    45°
                               101
    

    -------
                                 TABLE 38
               UNIT RAW WASTE LOADINGS FOR TOTAL DISCHARGE
              FROM PUERTO RICAN CANE SUGAR FACTORIES, BASED
                  ON THE WORK OF CANDELARIO, ET AL. (42)
    Parameter
      Flow
      BOD5.
      COD
      TSS
    .  TS
    Unit Raw Waste Loading
      12,000 1/kkg
      2.16 kg/kkg
      7.09 kg/kkg
      4.50 kg/kkg
      8.88 kg/kkg
                                      102
    

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                                                              104
    

    -------
    pounds per ton)  of gross cane and 7.18 kilograms per metric ton  (14.4
    pounds per ten)  of gross cane, respectively.
    
    Barometric  Condenser  Cooling  Water  -  In  Puerto  Rico most of the
    cooling  waters  are  used  on  a  once-through  basis.    High   BOD5
    concentrations  in  this  water  is  evidence  that considerable sugar
    entrainment is occurring.  Studies by Biaggi in 1968 (2) and the  cane
    sugar  industry  in  1959  (7) found BOD5 concentrations in barometric
    condenser cooling water to range from 32 to  185  mg/1.   The  average
    BOD5 concentration in the barometric condenser cooling water discharge
    from all factories studied by Biaggi was 98 mg/1, while the average of
    those  factories  studied  by Biaggi which continue to operate, was 89
    mg/1.  In  terms  of  BOD5  loadings,  Eiaggi  (2)  showed  barometric
    condenser  cooling water loadings to range from 0.14 to 4.68 kilograms
    per metric ton (0.28 to 9.36 pounds per ton) of  gross  cane  with  an
    average  of  1.59  kilograms  per  metric ton (3.18 pounds per ton)  of
    gross cane.  Biaggi reports  that  the  high  BOD5  concentrations  in
    barometric  condenser  cooling  water  is clear evidence that too much
    sugar is being lost to entrainment.
    
    Tables 43 and 44 present more  recent  data  pertaining  to  pollutant
    concentrations  arid loadings in the barometric condenser cooling water
    discharge stream.  The average of the most  recent  data  indicates  a
    BOD5 loading of 0.62 kilograms per metric ton (1.24 pounds per ton)  of
    gross  cane,  which  is  in  the  lower range of the data presented by
    Biaggi.
    
    Miscellaneous Waste Streams - Biaggi  (2) reports  an  average  of  0.2
    percent  sucrose  retained  in  the  filter cake.  He reports that for
    those Puerto Rican factories which slurry the filter cake, an  average
    BOD5  concentration  of 15,800 mg/1, suspended solids concentration of
    41,000, and total solids concentration of 64,500 mg/1 results.  Biaggi
    reports filter cake production on the order of 30 kilograms per metric
    ton  (60 pounds per ton) of gross cane,  within  the  range  of  values
    found to be characteristic of Louisiana cane sugar factories.
    
    Although  the  smaller  waste  streams  could  contain  high pollutant
    concentrations, their  volume  is  small  and  sometimes  sporadic  in
    comparison  with  barometric condenser cooling water, cane wash water,
    and  filter mud slurry, and their effect on total effluent loadings  is
    usually  negligible.   Tables 45 and 46 present recent  data pertaining
    to pollutant concentrations and  loadings  for  certain miscellaneous
    waste water discharge streams.
    
    MODEL CANE SUGAR_FACTCRIES
    
    One  hypothetical sugar factory  (model plant) has been selected to ade-
    quately  represent  each  subcategory.   The models are intended to be
    representative of the subcategory as it presently exists,  but  cannot
    be   expected  to  be  identical to any particular factory.  It is felt
                                      105
    

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    -------
    that the models are representative of their  respective  subcategories
    and,  in all cases, the models are considered adequate for the purpose
    of identifying control and treatment technology  (Section VII) and  for
    conducting cost analyses  (Section VIII).
    
    The models for all subcategories have the following features in common:
    
         1.  All evaporators  have liquid level controls.  The last bodies
             of evaporators have absolute pressure controls.
    
         2.  Baffles used for entrainment control consist of two 1.27 centi-
             meter  (0.5 inch) plates.                  -
    
         3.  All vacuum pans  have domes.
    
         4.  Juice height in  evaporator tubes = 0.91 meter  (3 feet),
    
         5.  Process assumptions:
    
             a.  Juice inlet  temperature             29°C(84°F)
             b.  Syrup brix   •
    
             c.  Overall maceration header,
                 heat transfer coefficient.
                 kg-cal/hr-sq.m-?C ...
                 (BTU/hr-sq.ft-°F)
                                                      60°
                                                      590
                                                      120
    
                                                   Ib/hr-ton
                                                     3.4
                                                     2.0
                                                        V •*
    
                                                     4.0
             d.  condensate usage     kg/hr-kkg
                 Filters      "-•"*        1.7
                 Miscellaneous          1.0
                • Molasses 'dilution,      '
                   washing  .           -2.0
    
    SPBCATEGORY I MODEL PLAKT
    
    In  addition  to  the above features, the Subcategory I model plant is
    assumed to process on a daily basis 2,730 metric €bns  (3,000 tons)  of
    field (gross)  cane.  .It operates seven days per week for a total of 70
    consecutive  days  per  year,  beginning in late October and ending in
    early January.  The discharge from  barometric  condenser  cdoling  is
    used  for cane washing, but more barometric condenser coolincf water is
    generated than'is required for washing.  It employs  quadruple  effect
    evaporation with three meter  (10 foot) diameter evaporator bodies.  It
    requires  65,500  kilograms   (144,000  pounds)  of. steam  per hour of
    operation.  It has the following process characteristics:
    
         1.  Maceration, percent cane =30
                                       108
    

    -------
         2.  Bagasse,  percent  cane  =33
    
         3.  Dilute  juice  brix =  12.5°
    
         4.  Volume  of boiler  ash will approximate  0.45  kilograms
             (1^0  pounds)  per  hour  for every 45  kilograms (100
            pounds) per hour  of  steam generated.   If  ash is  handled
            in a  slurry form, 280  liters  (75 gallons) of water per
            minute  are  used for  sluicing.
    
         5.  A production  of 50 kilograms of filter cake per  metric
            ton (100  pounds of filter cake per  ton) of  gross cane
            is assumed.  If filter cake is handled in a slurry form,
            280 liters  (75 gallons)  of  water per minute are  used for
            slurrying.
    
         6.  Exhaust requirement  to pre-evaporator,
    
            13.5  kg/hr-kkg (27.0 Ib/hr-ton) for evaporators
            9.0 kg/hr-kkg(18.0 Ib/hr-ton)  for vacuum  pans
    
         7.  Vapors  from pre-evaporator  to  heater,  5.7 kg/hr-kkg
             (11.a Ib/hr-ton)
    
         8.  Vapors  from first evaporator to second, 6.07 kg/hr-kkg
             (12.14  Ib/hr-ton)
    
         9.  Vapors  from second evaporator  to third, 6.43 kg/hr-kkg
             (12.86  Ib/hr-ton)
        10.
        11.
        12.
        13,
    Vapors  from third evaporator to fourth,  6.93 kg/hr-kkg
     (13.86  Ib/hr-ton)                                  *
    Condensate usage
    Maceration =
    Boiler feed =
    Excess makeup to injection
    kg/hr-kkg
       12.5
       24.8
        5.7
    Ib/hr-ton
      25.0
      49.5
      11.4
     Muriatic acid usage = 0.18 kilograms per metric ton (0.36
     pounds per ton)  of cane.
    
    Caustic soda (50 percent solution)  = .0.6 kilograms per metric
     ton (1.2 pounds per ton)  of cane.
    Tables 47 and 47A give waste water characteristics for the major waste
    streams generated by the model plant.  Figure 17 shows a water balance
    for the plant.  The water usage and raw waste loadings are based on an
    analysis of data presented previously in this section, and are derived
    from a basis of average rather than exemplary values.
                                     109
    

    -------
                   TABLE 47
    
    WASTE WATER DISCHARGE CHARACTERISTICS
         FOR INDIVIDUAL WASTE STREAMS
         MODEL PLANT — SUBCATEGORY I
    Waste
    Stream
    Barometri c
    Condenser
    Cooling
    Water
    Cane
    Wash
    Boiler
    Slowdown
    Excess
    Condensate
    Floor
    Wash
    Fl ow
    (cu.m/day) (1/kkg)
    44,200 16,200
    16,900 6,200
    82 30
    . 1 ,490 546
    115 42
    BOD5
    (mg/1 ) Tkg/kkg)
    31 0.50
    242
    1,700
    10
    , 600
    1.50
    0.051
    0.0055
    0.025
    TSS
    (mg/1) (kg/kkg)
    0 0
    2,820 17.5
    850 0.025
    0 0
    750 0.03
                           110
    

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                                  TABLE 47A
    
                    WASTE WATER DISCHARGE CHARACTERISTICS
                         MODEL PLANT — SUBCATEGORY I
    Waste        Discharge Flow
    Stream      (cu. in/day) (1/kkg)
                              BOD5
                        (mg/1) (kg/kkg)
                                     TSS
                               (mg/1) (kg/kkg)
    Barometri c
    Condenser
    Cooling
    Water
    27,300   10,000
              31    0.31
      0     0
    Cane
    Wash
    16,900    6,200       273    1.69        2,820   17.5
    Boiler
    Blowdown
        82
    30     1,700    0.051
    850    0.025
    Excess
    Condensate    1,380
                504
              10    0.0050
      0     0
    Floor
    Wash
       115       4T       605    0.025
                                  750    0.032
    Total
    Raw Waste    45,800   16,800
                          124    2.08        1,045   17.56
                                           111
    

    -------
    Flows given as:   Liters/Metric ton of gross cane
    
    
                    6,200
               FIGURE  17
    
       MODEL  PLANT  WATER  BALANCE
             SUBCATEGORY  I
                112
    

    -------
    SUBCATEGORY  II MODEL PLANT
    
    The  Subcategory II model plant has a daily grind of  7,300 metric  tons
     (8,000 tons) of field  (gross) cane.  It  employs a pre-evaporator and a
    triple  effect evaporator.  The evaporator bodies are 4.1 meters  (13.5
    feet) in diameter.  The  plant  requires 182,000  kilograms   (400,000
    pounds) of steam per hour of operation.
    
    The  following process  factors are assumed:
    
         1.  Maceration, percent cane = 25
    
         2.  Bagasse, percent cane =30
    
         3.  Dilute juice  brix = 15°
    
         4.  Exhaust requirement, kg/hr-kkg,  Ib/hr-ton
             Pre-evaporator =        7.5         15
             Pans =                 10           20
         5.
         6.
    Vapors from pre-evaporator to heater, 5.5 kg/hr-kkq
    (11 Ib/hr-ton)
    
    Vapors from first evaporator to second, 8 kq/hr-kka
    (16 Ib/hr-ton)
         7.  Vapors from second evaporator to third, 8.8 kg/hr-kkq
             (17,6 Ib/hr-ton) .
         8.  Condensate usage
             Maceration =
             Boiler feed =
             Excess makeup to injection =
                                     kg/hr-kkg
                                       10.4
                                       25.8
                                        5.0
    Ib/hr-ton
      2Q.8
      51.5
       9.9
    Tables  48  and  48A list the waste water characteristics of the model
    plant.  Figure 18 shows a water balance  for  the  plant.   The  water
    usage  and  raw  waste  loadings  are  based  on  an  analysis of data
    presented previously in this section, and are derived from a basis  of
    average rather than exemplary values.
    
    SUBCATEGORY III MODEL PLANT
    
    The  Subcategory  III  model plant is assumed to have a daily grind of
    3,340 metric tons (3,675 tons) of net cane per day.  This is based  on
    the  proDected increases in capacities presented in Table 5 of Section
    III.  Extraneous material contents experienced in  cane  harvested  at
    Subcategory III factories were found to range from 31 to 51 percent of
    gross  cane on a yearly basis.  The model plant assumes a net to gross
    cane ratio of 0.50.   Process features similar  to  the  Subcategory  I
                                      113
    

    -------
                                    TABLE  48
    
                     WASTE  WATER  DISCHARGE CHARACTERISTICS
                         FOR  INDIVIDUAL WASTE  STREAMS
                        MODEL  PLANT — SUBCATEGORY  II
    WasteFlow
    Stream       (cu.m/day)  (1/kkg)
                              BOD5
                        (tng/D (k?/kkg)
                                     TSS
                               (mg/1) (kg/kkg)
    Barometric
    Condenser
    Cooling
    Water
    13,000   18,000       . 20    0.36
                                                              0     0
    Boiler
    Blowdown
       183
    25     2,240    0.056       1,120   0.028
    Excess
    Condensate   ' 3,510      481
                           10    0.0048
                                    0     0
    Floor
    Wash
    .   336        46        600     0.028
                                                            750   0.035
                                          114
    

    -------
                  TABLE 48A
    
    WASTE WATER DISCHARGE CHARACTERISTICS
        MODEL PLANT — SUBCATE60RY II
    Waste
    Stream
    Barometri c
    Condenser
    Cooling
    Water
    Boiler
    Slowdown
    Excess
    Condensate
    Floor
    Wash
    Total
    Raw Waste
    Discharge
    (cu.m/day)
    131,000
    183
    3,180
    336
    134,700
    Flow
    (1/kkg)
    18,000
    25
    435
    46
    18,500
    (mg/1)
    20
    2,240
    10
    619
    24
    BODS
    (kg/kkg)
    0.36
    0.
    0.
    0.
    0.
    056
    0044
    028
    45
    (mg/1)
    0
    1,120
    0
    750
    3.4
    TSS
    (kg/kkg)
    0
    0.028
    •»
    0
    0.035
    0.063
                          115
    

    -------
      TOTAL
    WATER IN
    
    
    18,690
                Flows given  as:  Liters/Metric  tons  of gross cane
                        FIGURE  18
    
    
               MODEL PLANT  WATER BALANCE
    
                     SUBCATEGORY II
                         116
    

    -------
     model   plant  were  assumed,  except that  the  Subcategory III model plant
     is  assumed to operate  250 days  per  year.
    
     A simplified  waste water flow diagram for the model plant is shown  in
     Figure  19,   with  flows expressed in terms  of liters per metric ton of
     net cane ground.   Corresponding waste characteristics are presented in
     Tables  49 and 49A.   Flows are based on  data previously  presented  in
     Section V.    Barometric  condenser cooling water unit volume and unit
     loadings are  essentially averages of values presented in Tables 9A and
     9B  and  Tables 25 and 26; a  net  cane basis was used.  Cane  wash  water
     unit  volume   is based on that  of Factory 67 which employs a cascading
     system  of cane washing to optimize  water usage.  As shown in Table 9B,
     Factory 67 employs 5,040 liters of  cane wash  water  per  metric  ton
     (1,210  gallons  per ton) of gross  cane.  Assuming a net to gross cane
     ratio of 0.50, a unit  flow  of 10,080  liters  per  metric  ton  (2,420
     gallons per   ton)   of net cane   is   obtained.   This  unit  flow is
     attainable based on  the experience  at Factory 67 (which  in  actuality
     uses  7,530   1/kkg  (1,810  gallons/ton) of  net cane, based,on a net to
     gross cane ratio of  0,67) and based on  the  projected  water  usage  at
     Factory 66   of  3,220 liters,  per  metric ton (770 gallons per ton) of
     gross cane or 4,870  liters  per  metric ton (1,170 gallons per  ton)  of
     net  cane  at a projected  net  to gross cane ratio of 0.66.  Raw waste
     loadings for  the cane  wash  water discharge  stream are based  on  prior
     analyses  by   industry,  which  included an  estimate of anticipated raw
     waste loadings based on a projection of data  to  include  the  entire
     range   of weather  conditions anticipated.   As can be seen in Tables 23
     and  24,  recent   short-term  data  do  not support  these  projected
     loadings.   Data   of  a long-term nature are becoming available due to
     permit  requirements  for  the  Hilo-Hamakua  Coast  factories.   Should
     these   long-term data  contradict information included in this document
     pertaining  to  the  model  plant   for  Subcategory  III,  appropriate
     revisions will be  made during future analyses.
    
     SUBCATEGORY IV MODEL PLANT
    
     The  Subcategory   IV  model  plant  is assumed to have a daily grind of
     3,000 metric  tons  (3,300  tons)   of  net  cane  per  day.   Extraneous
     material  contents   experienced  in  cane   harvested at Subcategory IV
     factories were found to range from  18 to 42 percent on a yearly basis.
     The model plant assumes a net to gross  cane ratio  of  0.66.   Process
     features similar to  the Subcategory I model plant were.assumed.
    
     The  same  waste  water  flow  diagram  (Figure 19), as was employed to
     represent the Subcategory ill factories, is considered  applicable  to
     Subcategory   IV  factories  as well.  Tables 50 and 50A list the waste
    water characteristics  of the model  plant.  The raw waste loadings  are
     based  on  data  presented previously in Section V and are essentially
     average values.                                                      J
                                      117
    

    -------
                                    TABLE  49
    
                     WASTE  WATER  DISCHARGE CHARACTERISTICS
                         FOR  INDIVIDUAL WASTE  STREAMS
                        MODEL PLANT — SUBCATEGORY  III
                               (NET  CANE BASIS)*
    Waste
    Stream
    Barometri c
    Condenser
    Cooling
    Water
    Cane
    Wash
    Filter
    Mud
    Ash Slurry
    Boiler
    Bl owdown
    Floor
    Washings
    Excess
    Condensate
    Flow
    (cu.m/day) (1/kkg)
    40,100
    33,700
    700
    1,000
    100
    160
    2,140
    12,000
    10,080
    210
    300
    30
    48
    642
    BOD5
    (mg/1) (k?/kkg)
    28 0.34
    952
    9,520
    1,000
    1,940
    600
    10
    9.6
    2.0
    0.30
    0.058
    0.029
    0.0064
    TSS
    (mg/1) (kg/kkg)
    0 0
    16,870
    55S700
    41 ,000
    970
    750
    0
    170
    11.7
    12.3
    0.029
    0.036
    0
    *To obtain a gross cane basis divide unit flows and
     unit loadings by 2.
                                       118
    

    -------
                                  TABLE 49A
    
                     WASTE WATER DISCHARGE CHARACTERISTICS
                        MODEL  PLANT  — SUBCATEGORY  III
                               (NET CANE BASIS)*
    Waste
    Stream
    Barometric
    Condenser
    Cooling
    Water
    Cane
    Wash
    Filter
    Mud
    Ash Slurry
    Boiler
    Slowdown
    Floor
    Washings
    Excess
    Condensate
    otal
    Raw Waste
    Discharge Flow BOD5
    (cu.m/day) (1/kkg) (mg/1) (kg/kkg)
    6,400 1,920 28 0.054
    33,700
    700
    1,000
    100
    160
    240
    42,300
    10,080
    210
    300
    30
    48
    72
    12,700
    980
    9,520
    1,000
    1,940
    614
    10
    970
    9.9
    2.0
    0.30
    0.058
    0.029
    0.00072
    12.3
    TSS
    (mg/D (kg/kkg) '
    0
    16,870
    55,700
    41 ,000
    970
    750
    0
    15,300
    0
    170
    11.7
    12.3
    0.029
    0.036
    0
    194
    *To obtain a gross cane basis divide unit
     flows and unit loadings by 2.
                                       119
    

    -------
      TOTAL
    WATER «
    12,820
    Flows given as: Liters/Metric ton of net cane
    ESH 1
    TEK 1
    950
    3
    
    
    CANE
    WATER 	 *.
    870
    50
    
    
    
    
    1,2
    c<
    
    CANE WAS
    £U , .
    \NE MILLINC
    PLANT
    X
    
    t
    
    i
    10,080
    10,080
    BAGASSE
    
    1.098 ^
    
    
    11,540
    58
    
    222
    r
    
    
    
    i
    L
    
    CLAR1FIERS
    
    
    
    
    1,110
    
    J 	
    FILTE
    
    
    12
    L_.
    R3
    
    
    EVAPORATORS
    ,
    
    
    
    CUUM PANS
    . __
    — * —
    CRYSTALLIZER3
    
    
    
    7
    CENTRIFU8ALS
    1
    
    4
    SUOAR MOLAS
    48
    
    
    
    1
    12,000
    700
    i 	 1
    _J
    ^ONDE
    / TA
    \
    •7
    
    
    
    	 1 SLOWDOWN
    . BOILERS
    
    
    
    
    
    FLOOR-WASH, ETC.
    122
    210
    1,920
    NSATE\ -70
    NK \ Id.
    y-
    406
    MOLASSES
    '30
    ASH 300 *
    EVAPORATION <-"
    48
    
    
    
    
    
    
    
    
    
    
    SOLID WASTE
    fc WATFR ,.
    129
    
    WASTE WATER
    	 „_ DISCHARGE 	 ,.
    12,660
    
    EVAPORATED WATER
    i 	 » 	 *•
    28
    
    i
    TOTAL
    WATER OUT
    12,820
    
                          FIGURE 19
                  MODEL PLANT WATER BALANCE
                  SUBCATEGORIES III AND  IV
                           120
    

    -------
                                   TABLE 50
    
                    WASTE WATER DISCHARGE CHARACTERISTICS
                         FOR INDIVIDUAL WASTE STREAMS
                        MODEL PLANT -- SUBCATEGORY IV
                              (NET CANE BASIS)*
    Waste
    Stream
    Barometric
    Condenser
    Cooling
    Water
    Cane
    Wash
    Filter
    Mud
    Ash Slurry
    Boiler
    Slowdown
    Floor
    Washings
    Excess
    Condensate
    Flow
    (cu.m/day) (1/kkg)
    36,000
    30,200
    630
    900
    90
    144
    1,930
    12,000
    10,080
    210
    300
    30
    48
    642
    BODS
    (mg/1) (k?/kkg)
    28
    794
    9,520
    1 ,000
    1,940
    - 600
    10
    0.34
    8.0
    2.0
    0.30
    0.058
    0.029
    0.0064
    TSS
    (mg/1) (kg/kkg)
    0 0
    6,940
    55,700
    41 ,000
    970
    750
    0
    70
    11.7
    12.3
    0.029.
    0.036
    0
    *To obtain a gross cane basis divide unit flows and
     unit loadings by 1.5.
                                         121
    

    -------
                                   TABLE 50A
    
                     WASTE WATER DISCHARGE CHARACTERISTICS
                         MODEL PLANT — SUBCATEGORY IV
                               (NET CANE BASIS)*
    Waste
    Stream
    Barometric
    Condenser
    Cooling
    Water
    Cane
    Wash
    Filter
    Mud
    Ash Slurry
    Boiler
    Slowdown
    Floor
    Washings
    Excess
    Condensate
    Total
    Raw Waste
    Discharge Flow
    (cu.m/day) (1/kkg)
    5,760
    30,200
    630
    900
    90
    144
    216
    38,000
    1,920
    10,080
    210
    300
    30
    48
    72
    12,700
    BODS
    (mg/1) (Fg/kkg)
    28 0.054
    823
    9,520
    1 ,000
    1 ,940
    614
    10
    840
    8.3
    2.0
    0.30
    0.058
    0.029
    0.00072
    10.7
    TSS
    (mg/D (kg/kkg)
    0 0
    6,940
    55,700
    41 ,000
    970
    750
    0
    7,410
    70
    11.7
    12.3
    0.029
    0.036
    0
    94
    *To obtain a gross cane basis divide unit
     flov/s and unit loadings by 1.5.
                                         122
    

    -------
    SUBCATEGORY_V_MODEL_PLANT
    
    As discussed previously in this document, wide variations exist within
    the sugar industry of Puerto Rico and the industry is currently  in  a
    state of flux.  The present trend in the industry has been an increase
    in  the  use  of  mechanical  harvesting  which  has  necessitated the
    increasing usage of cane wash water.  It can be generalized  that  the
    model plant should therefore be some combination of both Subcategory I
    and  Subcategory  II  conditions.  The limited data available indicate
    this to be the case, with an indication of raw waste loadings  in  the
    range  of those found in Subcategories I and II.  Because the trend is
    toward the complete use of mechanical harvesting techniques, the  same
    model plant as has been considered to be representative of Subcategory
    I (which includes total usage of mechanical harvesting techniques)  has
    been  chosen  to  be  the  model plant for Subcategory V.  It has been
    assumed that the model plant operates for a period  of  120  days  per
    year.                                                          2   *
                                     123
    

    -------
    

    -------
                                  SECTION VI
    
                      SELECTION OF POLLUTANT PARAMETERS
    
    
    
    PRELIMINARY SELECTION OF POLLUTANT PARAMETERS
    
    In the previous section, the waste waters associated with the raw cane
    sugar  processing segment were characterized.  Based on the results of
    the waste water characterization, this section indicates the rationale
    for  the  selection  of  pollutant  parameters  for   which   effluent
    limitations should be established.
    
    During  the  project  planning phase, a review of existing literature.
    Refuse Act Permit Program applications, and other information led to a
    preliminary listing of pollutant parameters of  potential  pollutional
    significance.    These   parameters   include   EOD    (five-day,   20°
    Centigrade), COD, total suspended solids, pH, temperature, alkalinity,
    sucrose, total coliforms, fecal coliforms, total dissolved solids, and
    nutrients  (forms of nitrogen and phosphorus).
    
    Following the waste characterization program  and  further  literature
    reviews,  a determination was made concerning whether the pollutant is
    present in sufficient concentration to warrant  further  consideration
    as a pollutant to be controlled or treated.  Some pollutant parameters
                      from  further  consideration  on  the  basis  of low
                                          On the  basis  of  all  evidence
                                         any  purely  hazardous  or  toxic
                      heavy metals, pesticides) in wastes discharged  from
    were  eliminated
    concentrations or inconclusive data.
    reviewed,   there  does  not  exist
               (e.g.,.
    pollutants
    cane sugar factories.
    
    POLLUTANT PARAMETERS
    
    Measurement of Qrganics
    
    Biochemical Oxy_gen Demand  (BOD).  Biochemical oxygen demand  (BOD) is a
    measure  of  the oxygen consuming capabilities of organic matter.  The
    BOD does not in itself cause direct harm to a  water . system,  but  it
    does  exert an indirect effect by depressing the oxygen content of the
    water.  Sewage and other organic effluents during their  processes  of
    decomposition exert a BOD, which can have a catastrophic effect on the
    ecosystem  by  depleting  the  oxygen  supply.  Conditions are reached
    frequently where all of the oxygen is used and  the  continuing  decay
    process  causes  the  production  of  noxious  gases  such as hydrogen
    sulfide and methane.  Water with a high BOD indicates the presence  of
    decomposing  organic  matter and subsequent high bacterial counts that
    degrade its quality and potential uses.
                                 125
    

    -------
     Dissolved  oxygen  (DO)   is  a  water  quality  constituent  that,   in
     appropriate  concentrations,   is  essential not only to keep organisms
     living but also  to  sustain   species  reproduction,   vigor,   and  the
     development  of  populations.    Organisms undergo stress at reduced DO
     concentrations that make them less competitive  and  able  to  sustain
     their species within the aquatic environment.   For example, reduced DO
     concentrations  have  been shown  to  interfere  with fish population
     through delayed hatching of eggs, reduced size and vigor  of  embryos,
     production  of deformities in young,  interference with food digestion,
     acceleration  of  blood   clotting,  decreased   tolerance  to   certain
     toxicants,  reduced  food  efficiency  and  growth  rate,  and reduced
     maximum sustained swimming speed.  Fish food  organisms  are  likewise
     affected  adversely  in   conditions  with  suppressed  DO.    Since  all
     aerobic aquatic  organisms need  a  certain  amount   of  oxygen,   the
     consequences  of  total  lack  of  dissolved oxygen due  to a high BOD  can
     kill  all inhabitants of  the affected  area.
    
     If  a  high BOD is present,  the  quality of the water is usually visually
     degraded by the presence of decomposing materials and algae blooms  due
     to  the uptake of degraded materials that form  the  foodstuffs  of   the
     algal  populations.   Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD)  is contributed by
     sucrose  entrainment  into barometric    condenser   cooling    waters,
     dissolution  of  sugar during  the washing of sugarcane and  floors,  and
     sucrose and other organic  matter present in the juice  being   adsorbed
     by  the  filter  cake.    Biochemical  oxygen  demand  is a particularly
     applicable parameter for the sugar industry because sucrose is highly
     biodegradable.   It is significant to  ground water pollution control  in
     that   it  is   possible  for biodegradable organics to seep  into ground
     water from earthen settling or impounding basins.
    
     Chemical Ojcygen Demand.  Chemical oxygen demand (COD)   is  contributed
     by  sucrose  entrainment  into  barometric   condenser  cooling waters,
     dissolution of sugar  during the  washing of  sugarcane   and  floors   and
     equipment,   and  sucrose and other organic  matter present in  the juice
     being adsorbed by the filter   cake.   its  effects  on  the   receiving
    waters  are identical  to  those  caused  by the biochemical oxygen demand,
     because  for   this   industry   segment,   BOD and  COD  are  essentially a
    measure  of  the  same parameter, organic  matter.  Control  of   BOD  will
     adequately control the adverse effects  of COD.
    
     Bacteriological^characteristics
           Coliforms.   The presence of fecal coliforms in water indicates
    the potential presence of pathogenic bacteria and viruses  because  of
    their  common  origin  within  the  intestinal  tract  of warm blooded
    animals.  For this reason, a measurement of  fecal  coliform  bacteria
    may be used as an indicator of the presence of pathogenic bacteria and
    viruses.
                                      126
    

    -------
    In  general, the presence of fecal coliform organisms indicates recent
    and possibly dangerous fecal contamination.  When the  fecal  coliform
    count  exceeds  2,000  per  100  ml  there  is a high correlation with
    increased numbers of both pathogenic viruses and bacteria.
    
    Many microorganisms, pathogenic to humans and animals, may be  carried
    in  surface  water,  particularly  that  derived from effluent sources
    which find their way into surface water from municipal and  industrial
    wastes.   The  diseases associated with bacteria include bacillary and
    amoebic dysentery. Salmonella gastroenteritis, typhoid and paratyphoid
    fevers, leptospirosis, cholera, vibriosis, and  infectious  hepatitis.
    Recent  studies have emphasized the value of fecal coliform density in
    assessing the occurrence of Salmonella, a common bacterial pathogen in
    surface water.  Field studies involving irrigation water, field.crops,
    and soils indicate that when the  fecal  coliform  density  in  stream
    waters  exceeded  1,000  per  100 ml, the occurrence of Salmonella was
    53.5 percent.
    
    Coliform organisms in cane wash water are  attributable  primarily  to
    soil  bacteria and secondarily to animal excrement in the cane fields.
    The existence, at least occasionally, of pathogenic organisms such  as
    Salmonella is possible.
    
    Other  Bacteriological  Considerations. Theoretically, if bacteria are
    present in surface water used for barometric condenser  cooling  water
    injection,  bacterial  growth  can occur in the heated condenser water
    with the presence of entrained sucrose.   It  is  also  possible  that
    thermal shock will kill these organisms.
    
    No bacteriological problems are presented in the raw sugar product due
    to  the  fact  that  any  bacteria  present  in  the  product prior to
    evaporation are destroyed in the evaporation process. Furthermore, raw
    sugar is not considered to be an edible product and is purified  prior
    to human consumption.
    
    Bacteriological  problems  in  waste  waters are minimized by in-plant
    recirculation and reuse of water,  waste  water  retention,  and  land
    disposal.    However,  in  the  last case adequate protection of ground
    water must be maintained by seepage control.
    
    While the limited available data indicate that coliform  bacteria  may
    be a problem on an individual factory basis, data do not indicate that
    this potential pollutant parameter is of sufficient significance on an
    industry-wide   basis   to  warrant  its  inclusion  as  a  controlled
    parameter.
    
    EH
    
    The term pH is  a  logarithmic  expression  of  the  concentration  of
    hydrogen  ions.    At  a  pH  of  7,  the  hydrogen  and  hydroxyl  ion
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    concentrations are essentially equal and the water is neutral.   Lower
    pH  values  indicate  acidity, while higher values indicate alkalinity.
    The  relationship  between  pH  and  acidity  or  alkalinity  is   not
    necessarily linear or direct.
    
    Waters  with  a  pH below 6.0 are corrosive to water works structures,
    distribution  lines, and household plumbing fixtures and can  thus  add
    such  constituents  to  drinking water as iron, copper, zinc, cadmium,
    and lead.  The hydrogen ion concentration can affect  the  "taste"  of
    the  water.   At a low pH water tastes "sour".  The bactericidal effect
    of chlorine is weakened as the pH increases, and it is advantageous to
    keep the pH close to  7.  This is very significant for  providing  safe
    drinking water.
    
    Extremes of pH or rapid pH changes can exert stress conditions or kill
    aquatic  life outright.  Dead fish, associated algal blooms, and foul
    stenches are  aesthetic liabilities of  any  waterway.   Even  moderate
    changes  from "acceptable"  criteria  limits of pH are deleterious to
    some species.  The relative toxicity to aquatic life of many materials
    is  increased by  changes  in  pH.   The  toxicity  of  metalocyanide
    complexes  can  increase  a thousand-fold with a drop of 1.5 pH units.
    The  availability  of  many  nutrient  substances  varies   with   the
    alkalinity and acidity.  Ammonia is more lethal with a higher pH.
    
    The  lacrimal fluid of the human eye has a pH of approximately 7.0 and
    a deviation of 0.1 pH unit from the norm may result in eye  irritation
    for the swimmer.  Appreciable irritation will cause severe pain.
    
    Within  the   raw  cane  sugar  processing  segment, pH is an important
    criterion for in-process quality control, odor control, and  bacterial
    growth retardation.  Highly acidic or caustic solutions can be harmful
    to  aquatic   environments  and can interfere with water or waste water
    treatment processes.
    
    Temperature
    
    Temperature is one of the most important and influential water quality
    characteristics.  Temperature determines those  species  that  may  be
    present,  activates  the  hatching of young; regulates their activity,
    and  stimulates  or  suppresses  their  growth  and  development.   It
    attracts,  and  may  kill  when water is heated or becomes chilled too
    suddenly.  Colder water generally suppresses development, while warmer
    water generally accelerates activity and may be  a  primary  cause  of
    aquatic plant nuisances when other environmental factors are suitable.
    
    Temperature is a prime regulator of natural processes within the water
    environment.   It  governs  physiological  functions in organisms and,
    acting directly or indirectly in combination with other water  quality
    constituents,  it  affects aquatic life with each change.  Temperature
    affects  chemical  reaction  rates,  enzymatic  functions,   molecular
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    movements,  and  molecular  exchanges  between  membranes  within
    between the physiological systems and the organs of an animal.
    and
    Chemical reaction rates vary with temperature and  generally  increase
    as  the  temperature  is  increased.  The solubility of gases in water
    varies with temperature.  Dissolved oxygen is decreased by  the  decay
    or  decomposition  of  dissolved  organic  substances;  the decay rate
    increases as the  temperature  of  the  water  increases,  reaching  a
    maximum  at  about 30°C (86°F).  The temperature of stream water, even
    during summer, is below the optimum for pollution-associated bacteria.
    Increasing   the   water   temperature   increases    the    bacterial
    multiplication rate under favorable environmental conditions.
    
    Reproduction   cycles   may  be  changed  significantly  by  increased
    temperature  because  this  function  takes  place  under   restricted
    temperature   ranges.    Spawning   may   not  occur  at  all  because
    temperatures are too high.  Thus, a fish population  may  exist  in  a
    heated area only by continued immigration.  Disregarding the decreased
    reproductive  potential,  water  temperatures  need  not  reach lethal
    levels to decimate a species.  Temperatures  that  favor  competitors,
    predators,  parasites, and disease can destroy a species at levels far
    below those that are lethal.
    
    Fish food organisms are altered severely when temperatures approach or
    exceed 90°F.  Predominant algal species change, primary production  is
    decreased,  and bottom associated organisms may be depleted or altered
    drastically in numbers and distribution.  Increased water temperatures
    may enhance  the  presence  of  aquatic  plant  nuisances  when  other
    environmental factors are favorable.
    
    Synergistic  actions  of  pollutants  are  more severe at higher water
    temperatures.  Given amounts  of  domestic  sewage,  refinery  wastes,
    oils,  tars,  insecticides,  detergents,  and fertilizers more rapidly
    deplete oxygen in water at higher  temperatures,  and  the  respective
    toxicities are likewise increased.
    
    When  water  temperatures  increase, the predominant algal species may
    change from diatoms to green algae, and finally at  high  temperatures
    to  blue-green  algae,  because  of species temperature preferentials.
    Blue-green algae can cause serious  odor  problems.   The  number  and
    distribution  of  benthic  organisms  decreases  as water temperatures
    increase above 90°F, which is close to the  tolerance  limit  for  the
    population.   This  could seriously affect certain fish that depend on
    benthic organisms as a food source.
    
    The cost of fish being attracted to heated water in winter months  may
    be considerable, due to fish mortalities that may result when the fish
    return to cooler water.
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    Rising  temperatures  stimulate the decomposition of sludge, formation
    of sludge  gas,  multiplication  of  saprophytic  bacteria  and  fungi
     (particularly  in the presence of organic wastes), and the consumption
    of oxygen by putrefactive processes, thus affecting the esthetic value
    of a water course.
    
    In general, marine water temperatures do  not  change  as  rapidly  or
    range  as  widely  as  those  of  fresh  waters.  Marine and estuarine
    fishes,  therefore,  are  less  tolerant  of  temperature   variation.
    Although  this   limited tolerance is greater in estuarine than in open
    water marine species, temperature changes are more important to  those
    fishes  in  estuaries  and  bays  than  to those in open marine areas,
    because of the nursery and replenishment functions of the estuary.
    
    The temperatures of waste waters discharged from cane sugar  factories
    may  present  a  problem  in  the case of barometric condenser cooling
    water and other  miscellaneous  cooling  waters.   These  streams  are
    normally  discharged  at temperatures in the range of 16° to 43°C  (60°
    'to 110°F), but may in some instances be as high as 63°C  (145°F).   The
    discharge  of these heated waters, with inadequate dilution or removal
    of heat, may result in  serious consequences to  aquatic  environments.
    While the available data indicate that temperature may be a problem on
    an  individual factory basis, data do not indicate that this potential
    pollutant parameter is  of sufficient significance on an  industry-wide
    basis to warrant its inclusion as a controlled parameter.
    
    Acidity and Alkalinity
    
    Acidity  and  alkalinity are  reciprocal terms.  Acidity is produced by
     substances that  yield hydrogen ions upon hydrolysis and alkalinity is
    produced  by  substances  that  yield hydroxyl ions.  The terms  "total
     acidity"  and   "total   alkalinity"  are  often   used  to  express  the
     buffering capacity of a solution.  Acidity in natural waters is  caused
    by  carbon  dioxide,  mineral acids, weakly dissociated acids, and the
     salts of  strong  acids and weak bases.  Alkalinity is  caused by   strong
     bases  and the  salts  of strong alkalies  (such as hydroxide, carbonate,
     and bicarbonate) and weak  acids.
    
     Both  acidity   or alkalinity may   be  contributed   by  waste   waters
     resulting  from  the  production  of  raw cane  sugar.  The  control  of pH,
     however, will adequately control  the  potential adverse   effects of
     acidity  and alkalinity.
    
     Nutrients
    
     Nitrogenous  Cgmpqunds   -   Ammonia,   Nitrates, Nitrites.  Ammonia  is  a
     common  product of the  decomposition  of   organic  matter.    Dead  and
     decaying  animals  and  plants along with human  and  animal  body  wastes
     account  for  much  of   the   ammonia   entering  the  aquatic   ecosystem.
     Ammonia  exists  in its  non-ionized form only  at  higher pH levels  and is
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    the  most  toxic  in  this  state.   The lower the pH, the more ionized
    ammonia is  formed  and  its  toxicity  decreases.   Ammonia,  in  the
    presence  of  dissolved  oxygen,  is  converted  to  nitrate  (NO.3)  by
    nitrifying bacteria.  Nitrite (NO2), which is an intermediate  product
    between  ammonia  and  nitrate,   sometimes  occurs  in  quantity  when
    depressed oxygen conditions permit.    Ammonia  can  exist  in  several
    other  chemical  combinations  including  ammonium  chloride and other
    salts.
    
    Nitrates are considered to  be  among  the  poisonous  ingredients  of
    mineralized  waters,  with potassium nitrate being more poisonous than
    sodium nitrate.   Excess  nitrates  cause  irritation  of  the  mucous
    linings  of  the  gastrointestinal tract and the bladder; the symptoms
    are diarrhea and diuresis.  Drinking one liter of water containing 500
    mg/1 of nitrate can cause such symptoms.
    
    Infant methemoglobinemia, a disease characterized by certain  specific
    blood   changes   and   cyanosis,   may  be  caused  by  high  nitrate
    concentrations in the  water  used  for  preparing  feeding  formulae.
    While it is still impossible to state precise concentration limits, it
    has been widely recommended that water containing more than 10 mg/1 of
    nitrate nitrogen (NO3-N) should not be used for infants.  Nitrates are
    also  harmful  in  fermentation  processes  and can cause disagreeable
    tastes in beer.  In most natural water  the  pH  range  is  such  that
    ammonium  ions   (NH4+) predominate.   In alkaline waters, however, high
    concentrations  of  non-ionized  ammonia  in  undissociated   ammonium
    hydroxide  increase  the  toxicity  of  ammonia solutions.  In streams
    polluted with sewage, up to one half of the nitrogen in the sewage may
    be in the form of free ammonia;  sewage may carry  up  to  35  mg/1  of
    total  nitrogen.   It  has been shown that at a level of 1.0 mg/1 non-
    ionized ammonia, the ability of hemoglobin to combine with  oxygen  is
    impaired  and  fish  may  suffocate.   Evidence indicates *that ammonia
    exerts a considerable toxic effect on all aquatic life within a  range
    of  less  than  1.0 mg/1 to 25 mg/1, depending on the pH and dissolved
    oxygen level present.
    
    Ammonia can add to the problem of eutrophication by supplying nitrogen
    through its reaction products.  Some lakes  in  warmer  climates,  and
    others  that  are aging quickly are sometimes limited by the available
    nitrogen.  Any increase in nitrogen will speed up the plant growth and
    decay process.
    
    Ammonia nitrogen may be  entrained  in  barometric  condenser  cooling
    water  along  with vapors.  Under aerobic conditions it is oxidized to
    nitrite and ultinately to nitrate nitrogen.
    
    While various forms of nitrogenous  compounds  are  present  in  waste
    waters  resulting  from  the production of raw cane sugar, it has been
    determined  that  this  potential  pollutant  is  not  present  at    a
    sufficient level to warrant treatment.
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     Phosphorus.   During the past 30 years,  a formidable case has developed
     for  the  belief  that  increasing  standing  crops  of   aquatic  plant
     growths, which often interfere with water uses and  are   nuisances   to
     man,  frequently are caused by increasing supplies of phosphorus.  Such
     phenomena   are   associated   with  a   condition   of   accelerated
     eutrophication or aging of waters.   It  is  generally  recognized  that
     phosphorus  is  not  the  sole  cause  of eutrophication,  but there  is
     evidence to  substantiate that it is frequently the key element of all
     of  the   elements  required  by  fresh   water  plants and is generally
     present  in the least amount relative to need.   Therefore,  an  increase
     in  phosphorus  allows the use of other, already present nutrients for
     plant growths.  Phosphorus is usually described,  for this  reason, as a
     "limiting factor."
    
     When  a plant population is stimulated  in  production and  attains  a
     nuisance  status,   a  large  number of  associated  liabilities are
     immediately  apparent.   Dense populations of pond weeds  make  swimming
     dangerous.    Boating  and  water  skiing  and  sometimes  fishing may  be
     impossible because of the mass of vegetation that serves as  a physical
     impediment to such activities.   Plant populations have been  associated
     with  stunted fish populations and with  poor fishing.   Plant   nuisances
     emit   vile stenches,  impart tastes  and  odors to water supplies, reduce
     the efficiency of industrial and  municipal water  treatment,  impair
     aesthetic beauty,   reduce  or restrict resort trade,  lower  waterfront
     property values,  cause skin rashes  to man during   water  contact,  and
     serve as a desired substrate and breeding ground  for flies.
    
     Phosphorus  in the elemental form is particularly toxic  and  subject  to
     bioaccumulation in much the same way as mercury.   Colloidal   elemental
     phosphorus  will  poison marine fish (causing skin tissue breakdown and
     discoloration).   Also,  phosphorus is capable of being concentrated and
     will  accumulate in organs and soft  tissues.    Experiments  have  shown
     that   marine, fish will concentrate  phosphorus  from water containing  as
     little as 1  ug/1.
    
     Phosphorus   compounds   are  commonly used  in the  raw  cane    sugar
     processing   segment    to   prevent  scaling  in   boilers;   therefore,
     orthophosphat.e may  be  present   in  boiler blowdowns.   The  use   of
     phosphate detergents  for general  cleaning  can  contribute phosphates  to
     total  waste  water  discharges.    When applied to  the soil  phosphorus
     normally is  fixed by minerals in  the soil  and  movement to  the  ground
    water  is  precluded.
    
    While  phosphorous compounds  are present  in waste waters  resulting from
    the  production   of  raw   cane sugar, it has been determined that this
    potential  pollutant is not present  at a  sufficient  level  to  warrant
    treatment.
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    Total Dissolved Solids
    
    In  natural  waters the dissolved solids consist mainly of carbonates,
    chlorides, sulfates, phosphates, and  possibly  nitrates  of  calcium,
    magnesium,  sodium, and potassium, with traces of iron, manganese, and
    other substances.
    
    Many communities in the United States and in other countries use water
    supplies containing 2,000 to  4,000  mg/1  of  dissolved  salts,  when
    better water is not available.  Such waters are not palatable, may not
    quench  thirst,  and  may have a laxative action on new users.  Waters
    containing  more  than  4,000  mg/1  of  total  salts  are   generally
    considered  unfit  for human use, although in hot climates such higher
    salt concentrations can be tolerated.  Waters containing 5,000 mg/1 or
    more are reported to be bitter  and  act  as  bladder  and  intestinal
    irritants.   It  is  generally  agreed  that the salt concentration of
    good, palatable water should not exceed 500 mg/1.
    
    Limiting concentrations of dissolved solids for fresh-water  fish  may
    range  from  5,000  to  10,000  mg/1,  according  to species and prior
    acclimatization.  Some fish are  adapted  to  living  in  more  saline
    waters,  and  a  few  species  of fresh-water forms have been found in
    natural waters with a salt concentration of  15,000  to  20,000  mg/1.
    Fish  can slowly become acclimatized to higher salinities, but fish in
    waters  of  low  salinity  cannot  survive  sudden  exposure  to  high
    salinities,  such  as  those  resulting  from  discharges  of oil-well
    brines.  Dissolved solids may influence the toxicity of  heavy  metals
    and  organic  compounds  to  fish  and  other  aquatic life, primarily
    because of the antagonistic effect of hardness on metals.
    
    Waters with total dissolved  solids  over  500  mg/1  have  decreasing
    utility  as  irrigation  water.  At  5,000 mg/1, water has Tittle or no
    value for irrigation.
    
    Dissolved solids in industrial waters can cause foaming in boilers and
    cause interference with the  cleanliness,  color,  or  taste  of  many
    finished  products.   High  contents  of dissolved solids also tend to
    accelerate corrosion.
    
    Total dissolved solids may reach  levels of 1,000 milligrams per   liter
    in  factory  waste waters.  In barometric condenser cooling water, the
    concentration of dissolved solids is typically  on  the   order  of  60
    milligrams  per  liter.   When  land impcundage is used,  the  dissolved
    solids concentrations in seepage  may considerably  exceed  raw   waste
    water values.
    
    The  quantity  of total dissolved solids in water is of little meaning
    unless the nature   of  the  solids   is  defined.   In   domestic   water
    supplies,  dissolved  solids  are usually  inorganic  salts with  small
    amounts of dissolved organics.  In raw  cane sugar  factory  effluents,
    dissolved  solids   are  more  often organic in nature,  originating from
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     sucrose, and the control of organics results in control
     solids.
    
     Sotal_Sus2ended_Solids
    of  dissolved
     Suspended  solids  include  both organic and inorganic materials.   The
     inorganic components  include  sand,   silt,   and  clay.    The  organic
     fraction  includes  such  materials  as  grease,  oil, tar,  animal  and
     vegetable fats,  various fibers,  sawdust, hair,  and  various   materials
     from  sewers.  These solids may settle out rapidly and bottom deposits
     are often a mixture  of  both  organic  and   inorganic  solids.   They
     adversely  affect  fisheries  by  covering the  bottom of the stream or
     lake with a blanket of material that   destroys   the  fish-food  bottom
     fauna  or  the  spawning grounds of fish.  Deposits containing organic
     materials may  deplete bottom  oxygen   supplies   and  produce  hydrogen
     sulfide,  carbon  dioxide, methane, and other  noxious gases.
    
     In   raw  water  sources  for domestic use, State and regional agencies
     generally specify that  suspended  solids  in  streams  shall  not  be
     present   in  sufficient  concentration to   be  objectionable  or  to
     interfere with normal treatment  processes.   Suspended solids in water
     may  interfere  with  many  industrial processes,  and cause  foaming in
     boilers,  or encrustations on equipment exposed  to water,  especially as
     the temperature  rises.   Suspended solids are undesirable in  raw water
     used  in   the  textile,   paper  and  pulp,   beverage,  , dairy products,
     laundry,   dyeing,   photography,   and   power   generating  industries.
     Suspended particles also serve as a transport mechanism  for  pesticides
     and  other  substances  which are readily   sorbed  into or onto clay
     particles.
    
     Solids may be  suspended  in water for  a time,  and then settle  to   the
     bed  of   the  stream or  lake.  These  settleable solids discharged with
     man«s wastes, may be inert, slowly biodegradable materials, or  rapidly
     decomposable  substances.    While  in  suspension,   they increase  the
     turbidity of the water,   reduce   light  penetration,   and impair   the
     photosynthetic activity  of aquatic plants.
    
     Solids  in  suspension  are aesthetically  displeasing.  When they  settle
     to  form sludge deposits  on the stream or lake  bed,   suspended   solids
     are  often damaging to the life  in water, and they  retain the capacity
     to  displease the senses,   solids,  when transformed  to sludge  deposits,
     may  do a  variety of damaging  things,  including  blanketing  the   stream
     or lake bed  and  thereby  destroying  the living spaces for those benthic
    organisms  that would otherwise occupy the habitat.  When of an organic
     and  therefore decomposable' nature, solids use  a portion or all of the
    dissolved oxygen available in the  area.  Organic materials also  serve
    as   a    seemingly  inexhaustible   food  source  for  sludgeworms  and
    associated organisms.
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     Total   suspended   solids   serve  as   a  parameter  for  measuring  the
     efficiency   of  waste water  treatment facilities and for the design of
     such facilities.   In cane  sugar waste ;waters,  most  suspended  "solids
     are- inorganic  in nature, originating from process flows such  as cane
     wash and  cleaning water.   Barometric- con'denser—ccioling  'water  is
     essentially  free of net suspended  solids.
    
     Sugar Analysis
    
     Analysis  for  sucrose  content  is important in process control as an
     indicator  of  sugar  loss.   The  two  common  tests  used  are   the
     alphanaphthol  and  resorcinol  methods.   Neither  of  these   methods
     provides high accuracy at  low sucrose  concentrations,  but  each  may
     serve  a  useful   purpose  by  indicating slug loads of sugar and thus
     provide a danger signal  for  improper  operation  of  evaporators  or
     vacuum  pans,  or  for spills of sugar or molasses.  The control of BOD
     will adequately control the potential adverse effects  resulting  from
     sugar losses.
    
     IINAL SELECTION OF POLLUTANT PARAMETERS
    
    After  the  preliminary  selection of pollutant parameters and further
     data  analysis,   a  final  selection  of  pollutant   parameters   was
    necessary,  while the preliminary selection step eliminated parameters
    because   of  their  low  concentrations,   the  final  selection  step
    eliminated additional pollutants from consideration based on;
    
         1.     The pollutant not being harmful  when  selected  parameters
               are  controlled.   For  example,  alkalinity and acidity are
               controlled when pH is controlled;   COD,  TOC,   and  sucrose
               (measured  by sugar analysis)  are controlled by controlling
               XjvJ U *                                              ~$
               The  pollutant  not  being  readily  controllable.     Total
               dissolved  solids is a waste water constituent which is not
               readily controllable with current technology.
    
               The pollutant not being present at a level  which  warrants
               treatment.    Examples  of  this  are  nutrients  (forms  of
               nitrogen and phosphorus).  it has been determined that  the
               raw  waste   waters  resulting  from the processing  of sugar
               cane are low in nutrient content.
    
               The pollutant possibly being a problem  on  an  individual-
               case  basis but not on an industry-wide basis.  Examples of
               this are coliforms and temperature;  however, the available
               data do not indicate that these potential pollutants are of
               sufficient    significance  on  an  industry-wide basis  to
               warrant their inclusion as controlled parameters.
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    The pollutant parameters  for  which   effluent   limitations   guidelines
    will  be  developed  in Section VII,  Control and treatment  Technology,
    are Biochemical oxygen Demand  (BODJ5) ,  suspended solids (TSS) ,  and pH.
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                                 SECTION VII
    
                       CONTROL AND TREATMENT TECHNOLOGY
    
    
    This section identifies, documents,  and  verifies  as  completely  as
    possible  the  full  range  of  control and treatment technology which
    exists or has the potential to exist within each  industrial  subcate-
    gory  identified  in Section IV.  In addition, it develops the control
    and treatment alternatives applicable to the model plants developed in
    Section V.
    
    IN-PLANT CONTROL AND TREATMENT TECHNOLOGY
    
    Waste water treatment and disposal in cane sugar factories range  from
    essentially  no treatment to complete land retention (by irrigation or
    other means) resulting in no discharge to navigable streams.  In-plant
    process control for  the  reduction  of  waste  water  generation  has
    consisted  primarily  of  the reduction of entrainment of sucrose into
    barometric  condenser  cooling  water;  recirculation  of   barometric
    condenser  cooling water through cooling towers, ponds, or canals; dry
    hauling of filter mud; and recirculation of cane wash water.   Efforts
    to reduce pollution by modifying cane harvesting techniques might also
    be  considered  as  an in-plant process control, in that reductions in
    raw waste loadings result.
    
    Cane Harvesting
    
    Two of the major waste sources, cane wash water and filter  muds,  are
    directly   affected  by  cane  harvesting  techniques.    Cane  may  be
    harvested by hand cutting or by mechanical harvesters,  but Florida  is
    the  only  major  cane  growing  area  where  the  majority"of cane is
    harvested by hand cutting.  Only a small portion of cane is  hand  cut
    in  Puerto  Rico  and  essentially  none  is hand cut in Louisiana and
    Hawaii.
    
    The extraneous material in harvested cane is directly  dependent  upon
    harvesting  techniques and soi,l and weather conditions.  Hand cut cane
    in Florida may contain up to 7 percent extraneous matter.   Louisiana,
    which  has  only a one-year growing season as compared with the two or
    more years in Hawaii, usually averages less than 20 percent extraneous
    material.  From 9.2 to 15.3 percent  of  the  gross  tonnage  of  cane
    brought  to  the  factories  during  the 1973 grinding season was mud,
    dirt, or other trash (8).  The Puerto Rican cane sugar  factories  are
    rapidly  switching  from  hand cutting to mechanical harvesting due to
    lack of labor  and  high  labor  cost.   Because  of  the  variety  of
    techniques presently under experimentation in Puerto Rico, no specific
    statement  can  be made concerning percentages of extraneous material.
    It would be expected that  the  quantity  of  extraneous  material  in
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    Puerto  Rican  cane  would range between that of hand cut Florida cane
    and that of mechanically harvested Louisiana cane.
    
    This extraneous material, composed of leaves, dirt,  rocks,  etc.,  is
    the  major  source  of  waste  in  many  sugar  factories.  It must be
    separated from the sugar cane and removed  either  in  the  cane  wash
    water,  filter  muds,  or  in  the bagasse.  ,In simple terms, the more
    extraneous material in the gross cane brought into  the  factory,  the
    more waste must be removed in the cane wash water, bagasse, and filter
    mud.  Excess material in the bagasse is not only harmful to the boiler
    but  can  become  part of a waste water discharge if the boiler ash is
    disposed of in a slurry form.
    
    Extensive studies are presently being conducted on new cane harvesting
    techniques in an effort to reduce extraneous material  to  a  minimum.
    This  research  has  its  main focus on the development of new machine
    harvesting systems which can harvest the cane and transport it to  the
    factory  without  the cane coining into contact with the ground.  Other
    systems being tested would dry clean the cane either in the  field  or
    at the factory.
    
    Two  different  designs are being evaluated in Hawaii  (9).  The Brewer
    system first cuts the cane and stacks it in windrows.   The  harvester
    then  collects  the  cane  and chops it into short pieces for leaf and
    soil removal by air jets caused by fans and blowers.  Rocks  and  soil
    are  also  removed  through bar gaps in the conveyor system.  The Toft
    system cuts, chops, and cleans the cane in  a  single  operation;  the
    object  is to minimize cane contact with the ground, thus reducing the
    amount of mud or dirt brought into the factory.
    
    Preliminary tests indicate that both designs  show  merit  in  that  a
    great  deal  of soil and other extraneous matter can be removed in the
    fields.  Problems common to both systems are loss of cane due  to  in-
    efficient pick-up and difficulty in operation under varied terrain and
    field conditions.  The problem of cane loss is not easily resolved be-
    cause attempts at efficient pick-up result in greater soil loads.
    
    In  preliminary  tests  (9)  under  adverse  conditions to compare the
    Brewer harvester system with conventional techniques, the  total  har-
    vested  weight contained about 30 percent extraneous material compared
    to 60 percent by conventional techniques.  This system  delivers  cane
    to  the  factory  which is suitable for dry cleaning procedures.  With
    the Toft harvester, foreign material averaged 10 percent of the  total
    weight compared to averages of 40 to 50 percent by conventional means.
    This  harvester  delivers  cane  directly  to  the  mills,  by-passing
    conventional cleaning processes.
    
    There are several other harvesting systems being evaluated  in  Puerto
    Rico,  Florida,  and Louisiana which show encouraging results.  In the
    future, as these systems  are  perfected,  they  should  significantly
                                     138
    

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    affect the total quantity of extraneous material entering a cane sugar
    factory.  The goal is to lower the extraneous material to such a level
    that  cane  washing  is not necessary.  Again, it should be noted that
    these mechanical harvesting techniques are in the developmental  stage
    and  all  systems are not as yet perfected.  Similar systems have been
    applied in the Australian  raw  cane  sugar  industry  and  have  been
    developed to the extent that cane washing is unnecessary.
    
    Can e Wash Water
    
    The  source  of  cane  wash  water  may be fresh water, barometric leg
    water, or recycled cane  wash  water.   Most  factories  that  do  not
    recycle  barometric condenser cooling water  (and many that do) utilize
    the discharge for cane washing, thus reducing the overall water  -usage
    in  the  factory  if  not  the pollutant loading.  Figure 20 shows one
    method of cane wash recycle in which the recirculated water  is  again
    used  as  the  initial  wash  for the cane and fresh water is used for
    final washing.  Cane wash water  treatment  to  provide  recirculation
    will be discussed in detail in the discussion of end-of-line treatment
    below.
    
    As previously discussed, cane washing is economically undesirable from
    an  operating  viewpoint  due  to  the loss of sucrose from the washed
    cane.  Therefore, at many factories an attempt is made to minimize the
    extent of cane washing, or, in a few cases, avoid  washing  altogether
    by  choosing  to accept the consequences of unwashed cane entering the
    process.
    
    For some time the Hawaiian Sugar Planters" Association has  worked  on
    the  development  .of  a  cane  cleaning process that avoids the use of
    water.  The design has  been  further  developed  by  the  $ilo  Coast
    Processing Company which currently has two full scale facilities - one
    in  limited  operation  and  one  under  construction.   Ideally,  the
    facility can provide adequate cane cleaning pneumatically with a final
    rinsing with cane juice, thereby eliminating  cane  wash  water  as   a
    waste  water  source.   Preliminary results of the dry cleaning system
    show a potential increase in sugar recovery of up to  5%.   Kenda  and
    Stephen-Hassard give a detailed description of the dry cleaning  system
    and  the  principles  which  govern   its  operability ,  (10).   The dry
    cleaning facilities have not been  demonstrated  in  full   scale  com-
    mercial  operation under a complete range of  operating conditions, and
    therefore at the  present  time  cannot  be   considered  as   currently
    demonstrated technology.
    
    Filter Mud
    
    Filter mud or cake is discharged from vacuum  filters which  are used to
    dewater  the  settled  sludge resulting from juice clarification.  The
    mud can be handled either in a wet or dry  condition.  If handled dry,
    the  cake  is  carried by a belt or  screw  conveyor to a  holding  bin or
                                    139
    

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    directly to a truck.  The cake can then be carried to cane  fields  or
    other  areas  for land disposal.  The second method of handling filter
    mud is to mix the mud with sufficient water so that it can  be  pumped
    as  a  slurry.  This slurry can either be discharged directly, settled
    with discharge pf the supernatant, or totally impounded.
    
    In Florida, three factories handle the mud in a dry form and five pump
    it to impounding ponds from which no discharge occurs.  In  Louisiana,
    where  data  is available for 42 mills, twelve handle filter cake dry,
    29 impound with eighteen discharging after  stabilization,  and  three
    discharge  without  treatment (two mills have the capability to either
    impound or dry haul).  In Hawaii, four mills report dry handling,  ten
    contain  filter  mud  slurry  on their cwn property, and two discharge
    directly to the ocean.  The situation in Puerto Rico is similar;  five
    mills  dry haul filter cake with the remaining mills impounding filter
    mud.
    
    Filter mud is a major waste source from  cane  sugar  factories.   The
    technology  now  being  utilized  by  a  large portion of the industry
    allows for zero discharge of filter mud either  by  dry  handling  and
    land disposal or by impounding the slurried mud.
    
    Barometric Condenser Cooling Water
    
    The  introduction  of  the calandria type evaporator and vacuum pan in
    the sugar industry has allowed increased evaporation  rates,  but,  at
    the  same  time,  has increased the possibility of sucrose entrainment
    into barometric condenser cooling water.  As discussed in  Section  V,
    sucrose  entrainment can represent a significant waste load.  All cane
    sugar  factories  employ  some  method   of   reduction   of   sucrose
    entrainment,  -with  the  main  motive being an economic one.  However,
    barometric condenser cooling water has become  known  as  one  of  the
    major waste water sources in a cane sugar factory and concern is being
    shown from an environmental standpoint.
    
    Entrainment  is  a  .result  of  liquid droplets being carried into the
    barometric leg along with the water vapor.  There are three  important
    factors which affect the efficiency of entrainment control:
    
         1.  Vapor height
         2.  Operation and maintenance
         3.  Liquid-vapor separation devices
    
    One  of  the most important factors in determining liquid carryover is
    the height the liquid bubbles must rise before entering the relatively
    high velocity area of the discharge tube.  If the vapor height  is  of
    sufficient  magnitude,  most  liquid  droplets will fall back into the
    boiling liquor due to the force of gravity.  It has  been  found  from
    experience that the vapor height should be at least 250 percent of the
    height  of  the calandria tubes to minimize entrainment.  A wide range
                                      141
    

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    of vapor heights may be found in existing installations depending upon
    the age and original design of the factory.  If existing vapor heights
    are insufficient, they can be increased  by  installing  a  spacer  in
    existing  equipment.   This  has been done in several instances with a
    resulting increase in evaporation capacity and a reduction in  sucrose
    entrainment.
    
    In  addition  to  proper  design,  proper operation and maintenance of
    evaporators and pans are essential in order to  maintain  minimal  en-
    trainment.   Liquid levels should be maintained at the design level as
    increasing liquid levels decrease existing vapor heights.   The  pres-
    sure  within the vessel must be carefully controlled.  If the pressure
    is suddenly decreased, the resulting increase in boiling is likely  to
    cause   liquid   carryover.   Automatic  controls  are  available  for
    operation of evaporators  and  pans  and  these  are  presently  being
    utilized  in  a  number  of  factories.   A  typical factory will have
    automatic liquid level controls on all evaporator bodies and  absolute
    pressure  control on last bodies of multiple effect evaporators and on
    vacuum pans.
    
    In addition to proper design and operation, a number of devices can be
    installed  to  separate  liquid  droplets  from  the  vapors.   Baffle
    arrangements  which  operate  on  either  centrifugal  or  impingement
    principals are commonly used.  The Serner separator  (11)   is  used  in
    several  factories  and  can significantly reduce carryover.  Demister
    devices, which consist basically of a  fine  wire  mesh  screen  which
    serves the dual purpose of impingement and direction change, were used
    extensively in the Cuban sugar industry, but have found limited use in
    the United States, possibly due to complaints of clogging problems.
    
    It  would  appear  from  the  data  in Section V that no single device
    offers optimum entrainment control  but  that  the  best  results  are
    attained . by  the  proper  combination of controls and operation.  For
    example. Factory 80 employs demisters on last effect  evaporators  and
    pans  and  prevents  clogging  by  cleaning  the screens each time the
    bodies are cleaned.  Factory 82 does not use demisters on last effects
    and vacuum pans because the management believes that clogging would be
    unavoidable.  The data in Section V shows that  while  both  factories
    have  low  concentrations  of  organics  in  the  barometric condenser
    cooling water discharge.  Factory  82  achieves  lower  concentrations
    without demisters.
    
    The  overall  effect  of  equipment and operation can be observed in a
    comparison of Subcategories  III  and  IV  with  Subcategory  I.   The
    generally  higher  level  of  entrainment  control  sophistication  in
    Subcategories III and IV results in an average BOD5  loading  of  some
    one-half  of  that of Subcategory I.  In general, while available data
    show a wide range of BOD and  COD  concentrations  in  the  barometric
    condenser cooling water discharge, no correlation is evident regarding
    the BOD5 loading in barometric condenser cooling water and the size of
                                    142
    

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     a  factory.    Figure   21   compares   the  BOD5   loading to  size for all
     factories  for  which data  is  available with regard   to  the barometric
     condenser  cooling  water waste  stream.    It  was necessary that all
     factories  be  compared  on  as  common  a base as possible.   Therefore,  a
     net  cane  basis  was   chosen  because   boiling house operations are a
     function of the amount of net  sugarcane  processed at the factory.   It
     was assumed that all Subcategory I  and V factories were operating at a
     net to gross  cane ratio of 0.86 and that Subcategory II factories were
     operating  at  a 0.95  ratio; this corresponds to a  trash percentage of
     14  and 5 percent, respectively.  It is illustrated  by Figure  21  that
     small as well  as large factories are capable of maintaining low levels
     of  sucrose   entrainment  into  barometric condenser  cooling waters.  It
     is  felt that if proper liquid  level control, proper vapor  heights, and
     proper  operating   procedures  are   maintained,   BOD5   loadings   in
     barometric condenser cooling water  can be maintained at low levels.
    
     Considerable   discussion   has  been  carried on concerning the potential
     of  using surface  condensers   to  replace  barometric  condensers.   A
     surface condenser operates with a metal  wall between the cooling water
     and the vapors being condensed.  Since the efficiency of heat transfer
     is  reduced  over   that  of a  barometric condenser, a larger volume of
     cooling water  is required.  Due to  the non-contact nature  of  cooling
     water  associated  with   surface   condensers,  entrained  sucrose  is
     maintained separate from  the cooling water stream and is   concentrated
     in  a  much  smaller volume.  Upon initial  investigation, it would appear
     that  a  benefit would be derived from having the BOD entrained in the
     vapors  present  in a much   smaller   volume.   " However,   surface
     condensation   is not the  only  means  available to accomplish this goal.
     The recalculation of barometric condenser cooling  water   also  allows
     the   concentration  of  BOD into a smaller discharge stream which may be
     smaller in volume than that associated with  a surface condenser.   For
     example,   if   a  6,820  metric ton  per day (7,500 tons per day)  mill
     utilized surface condensers, the BOD would be concentrated in  109,000
     kilograms  per hour   (240,000  pounds   per  hour)   of  water.   If  a
     recirculating  barometric  condenser cooling water system were utilized,
     the BOD could  be concentrated  into   only  68,200  kilograms  per  hour
     (150,000  pounds per hour) of  cooling system blowdown water.  Also, it
     must  be noted  that  a   surface condenser  does  not  reduce  the  BOD
     entrained  in  the  vapors from the  evaporators and pans.  Reportedly,
     because of a slower response time to variations  in  vacuum,  sucrose
     losses could be increased until operators become more experienced with
     the operation  of the surface condenser system.
    
    A  potential   problem with surface condensers is fouling.  A number of
     factories throughout the  industry, but particularly in Subcategories I
     and II, use relatively low quality water for condenser cooling.   While
     surface condensers have not been  utilized  in  conjunction  with  the
     evaporation  and  vacuum  pan unit operations in raw sugar factories, a
     comparison can be made with surface heat exchangers used for  air  and
                                     143
    

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    oil  coolers  of turbine generators in which experience has shown that
    low quality water can cause fouling (12).
    
    A second potential problem area in the use of  surface  condensers  is
    vacuum  control  on the vacuum pans.  For proper operation of a vacuum
    pan, an absolute pressure with a tolerance  of  plus  or  minus  0.003
    atmospheres   (0.1  inches of Mercury)  must be maintained.  Adjustments
    to this absolute pressure, made necessary by variations  in  calandria
    steam pressure, feed density, and non-condensible leakage, can be made
    with a barometric condenser by changing the flow in the condenser.  In
    the  case  of  a surface condenser, the associated lag time could make
    absolute pressure control considerably more difficult.
    
    The physical installation of surface condensers could be a problem  in
    certain  factories and in some cases could be an almost insurmountable
    one.  Vertical height when unavailable can be obtained by raising  the
    factory   roof,  but  horizontal  space  can  be  acquired  only  with
    considerable difficulty.   The  weight  of  surface  condensers  could
    potentially  cause structural problems in older factories.  A detailed
    structural analysis might be required to ensure the feasibility of the
    installation of surface condensers.
    
    Based on  the  above  discussion  plus  considerations  of  additional
    requirements  concerning  pumping energy, electrical energy, raw water
    supplies, and steam capacity, surface condensers, although potentially
    applicable,  have  not  been  further  considered   as   a   treatment
    alternative  for  the  raw  cane  sugar  processing"  segment.   It  is
    possible, however, for  an  individual  factory  to  replace  existing
    barometric condensers with surface condensers.
    
    Of the 42 factories in Subcategory I for which in-plant information is
    available,  19  recirculate barometric condenser cooling wa%er through
    the use  of  cooling  towers,  spray  ponds,  or  cooling  ponds.   In
    Subcategory   II,  seven  of  nine  factories  recirculate  barometric
    condenser cooling water through cooling towers, spray ponds,  lagoons,
    or  canals,  and  the  other  two  factories  contain all waste waters
    onsite.  In general, Subcategory III factories re-use condenser  water
    for  cane  washing and then discharge the cane wash effluent; however,
    one  factory  has  installed  a  barometric  condenser  cooling  water
    recirculation  system,  utilizing  a  spray  pond,  which went on-line
    during  the  spring  of  1974.   Subcategory  IV  factories  also  use
    condenser  water  discharges for cane wash, but the cane wash effluent
    is retained onsite for irrigation or other purposes.    Of  the  eleven
    mills  still  operating  in  Puerto  Rico,  two recirculate barometric
    condenser cooling water through either spray ponds or  cooling  ponds.
    Two  other  Subcategory  V mills cool the barometric condenser cooling
    water prior to discharge; seme recycle would appear to be feasible.
                                     145
    

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    Acid and Caustic Waste
    
    Acid and caustic waste is a minor stream resulting from  the  cleaning
    of  evaporators, pans, and other equipment., Acid and caustic water is
    presently discharged directly, combined with the main waste stream and
    impounded, or impounded  separately.  Data indicate that  the  quantity
    of  acid  and  caustic waste is not sufficient to significantly affect
    the pH of the combined waste flow; it is mixed with the total flow  in
    most  Subcategory  IV  factories and utilized as irrigation water.  In
    general, it can be stated that there is existing technology which will
    allow zero discharge of  acid and caustic wastes.
    
    Floor Wash
    
    A significant source of  pollutant leadings can be attributed  to  poor
    housekeeping  practices  resulting  in  accidental spills of sugar and
    molasses, and to poorly  maintained  machinery  and  equipment.   These
    housekeeping  contributions  are  generally  surge loadings that occur
    during daily or weekly maintenance and washdown periods.   Sources  of
    oil  in these waste waters can be attributed to machinery leakage, oil
    pick-up  in  bearing   cooling   waters,   or   accidental   spillage.
    Significant  amounts  of  sugar  have  been observed in floor wash and
    drainage waters.  Syrups or molasses spills and overflows also provide
    prime contributions to   the  problem.   Costs  of  effective  in-plant
    control  of these sources of pollution are negligible when compared to
    the costs of treatment of polluted effluents.
    
    Measures  for  the  control  and  minimization  of  these  sources  of
    pollution can be effected by general gocd practice in housekeeping and
    maintenance.  Bearing cooling water, which in many mills is discharged
    with  floor  wash  water,  can  be recycled.  Recent designs utilize a
    small cooling tower for bearing cooling water alone.  Makeup water  is
    excess  condensate  water  or  deionized water.  The installation of a
    bearing cooling water recirculation  system  not  only  reduces  waste
    water discharge but reduces bearing maintenance requirements.
    
    Boiler Ash and Flv Ash
    
    Boiler  ash  is  the  residue  remaining  in  the boiler after burning
    bagasse.   Fly ash is removed from the exhaust from the boiler in those
    factories where air pollution control is  practiced.   Boiler  ash  is
    often  removed in a slurry form and fly ash is always carried by water
    when wet scrubbers are used.
    
    At least sixteen factories in the United States and  Puerto  Rico  are
    presently  dry  handling  boiler ash, and at least 39 factories retain
    both boiler ash and fly ash onsite by impounding or  land  irrigation.
    Therefore,   existing  technology  allows  for  no  discharge  of these
    materials.
                                     146
    

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    Summary °f lQ-£ian£ Control and Treatment Technology.
    
    Table  51  presents  a  summary  of  in-plant  control  and  treatment
    technology  for  the  raw  sugar  processing segment of the cane sugar
    processing industry.  It is probable that  no  sugar  factory  can  be
    found  in  the United States that has optimum in-plant control, but it
    is also probable that no factory exists that does  not  practice  some
    degree  of  in-plant  control.   Also,  it  is not always economically
    desirable for  an  individual  plant  to  achieve  the  best  in-plant
    controls   possible,   e.g.,   for   a  factory  with  certain  unique
    topographical, climatological, or geographical advantages, money spent
    for in-plant modifications might well be wasted.  The model  treatment
    technologies  developed later in this section and the cost analyses of
    Section VIII are based upon reasonable  steps taken in-plant to  reduce
    pollutant loadings.
    
    EXISTING END-OF-LINE WASTE WATER TREATMENT
    
    Waste  water  treatment  at cane sugar  factories consists of generally
    non-complex systems such as primary   settling  before  discharge,  im-
    poundage,  waste   stabilization,  or  irrigation.   More  sophisticated
    biological or chemical treatment systems have had limited application
    in this industry segment.
    
    SUBCATEGORY_I
    
    Table   52  shows the existing  treatment  practices employed by  raw  sugar
    factories  in  Subcategory I.   Of the  42  factories surveyed within   this
    subcategory,  five  (12  percent)  report no discharge of contaminated
    waters by means   of  complete  impcundage with   four   of   the   five
    impounding waste   waters  in  large swampy areas owned or  leased by the
    factory.   Twenty-three factories  (55 percent) use barometric  condenser
    cooling water for  cane wash  water.   Nineteen   (45  percent)   recycle
    barometric condenser  cooling water  to  some  extent.    Sixteen (38
    percent)  recycle cane wash water to  some extent  and  thirty-nine  (93
    percent)   have  settling   ponds   and/or impoundment facilities for the
    cane wash water prior  to  discharge.   Twenty-seven  (64 percent)  of  the
    factories  retain  the  cane wash water for the  entire season and for  at
     least 30  days after the  end of the season prior to discharge, thus  in
     effect  accomplishing  waste stabilization.   The general practice is  to
     provide settling in a  small impoundment area prior to discharge into a
     larger impoundment area  in which the  wastes  are   contained  for  the
     entire season.
    
     Twenty-one (50 percent)  of the factories either dry haul or completely
     contain  filter  mud slurries, eighteen (43 percent) stabilize the mud
     slurry prior to discharge, and,  of the remaining factories,  only  one
     discharges  filter muds without some kind of impoundment.  Fifteen  (36
     percent)  of the factories discharge boiler ash, but  only  two  do  so
     without  some type of treatment.  Factories that do not discharge ash,
     either completely retain the ash slurry, dry haul the ashes, or do not
     burn bagasse.
                                       147
    

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                                     TABLE  51
    
                           SUMMARY OF  IN-PLANT  CONTROL
                           AND TREATMENT TECHNOLOGIES
     Waste Water
       Source
    
     Cane Wash Water
     Filter Mud
     Bottom Ash
    Acid and Caustic
    Waste
    
    Floor Wash and
    Miscellaneous Wastes
          In-Plant
          Controls
    
     1.   New Harvesting
         techniques.
     2.   Dry cleaning.
                              1.   Dry haul; impound.
    1.  Dry haul, impound.
    Barometric  Condenser     1.   Reduction of
    Cooling Water                 entrainment.
    1.  Impoundment.
    1.  Improve maintenance
        and house keeping
        practices; use water
        only when necessary
        and reuse when possible.
          Remarks
    
     1.   Experimentation
         being conducted.
     2.   Experimentation
         being conducted
         in Hawaii  and
         Puerto Rico, not
         fully demonstrated.
    
     1.   No discharge is
         technically feasible.
    
     1.   No discharge is
         technically feasible.
    
     1.   Reductions in net
         BOD entrained into
         condenser water.
    
    1.  No discharge is
         technically feasible.
    
    1.  Significant BOD
        and suspended
        solids reductions
        achievable.
                                         148
    

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                                        TABLE 52
                              EXISTING TREATMENT PRACTICES
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                                              149
    

    -------
    Effluent suspended solid concentrations  from  several  existing  cane
    wash   settling   ponds   are   presented   in   Table  53.   Effluent
    concentrations from  impoundment  ponds,  in  which  the  wastes  were
    contained  for  the  entire  season and discharged after stabilization
    prior to the beginning of the following grinding season, are listed in
    Table 5*.
    
    Twelve of the factories surveyed employed recirculation  of  the  cane
    wash  water  stream  with stabilization and discharge after the end of
    the  season.
    In
    all,
    twenty-seven   factories   practice   waste
    stabilization  of  the  cane  wash  and  other miscellaneous discharge
    streams.  A typical such operation is found  at  Factory  11  where  a
    double  horseshoe  settling pond and chlorination at a rate of 9 to 14
    kilograms/day  (4.1 to 6.4 pounds/day) of chlorine per 400 I/sec  (6340
    gpm)  are  employed.  The factory discharges the spent cane wash water
    after stabilization at the end of the season and dredges the pond once
    a year to remove settled material.  At Factory 38 a similar system  is
    employed;  the  effluent concentrations after stabilization are listed
    in Table 49.  Keller and Huckabay  (5) give a  detailed  discussion  of
    oxidation  ponds  and  recommended  design  of said ponds.  It is also
    reported by Keller that BOD concentrations of 50 to  60  mg/1  can  be
    expected  out of oxidation ponds  (7).  According to work done by Chen,
    et al.  (13) at a Louisiana factory, stabilization of  the  wash  water
    will  reduce  the  BOD of wastes to 10-45 mg/1.  The use and design of
    oxidation ponds at the factories which  comprise  Subcategory  I  have
    been  greatly  influenced by the works of Keller (5) and Wheeler (14) ,
    which concluded that aerobic oxidation of  sugar  waste  is  feasible.
    Wheeler  (14)  in  his  work  found  that  phosphorus addition did not
    enhance stabilization but that nitrogen  addition  to  about  20  mg/1
    increases the rate of stabilization significantly.
    
    SUBCATEGORY II
    
    Table  55 shows the existing treatment practices employed by raw sugar
    factories in Subcategory II.   Of  the  nine  plants  making  up  this
    subcategory,   none  discharges  process  waste  waters  under  normal
    operating conditions.
    
    At Factory 44, acid and caustic wastes are  completely  impounded  and
    filter  cake  is  dry hauled to the cane fields.  Other waste streams,
    including barometric condenser cooling  water,  are  discharged  to  a
    private  canal  system  which  provides  several  square kilometers of
    irrigation to the cane fields.  The  private  canal  system  currently
    connects  with public waters.  At the point of connection, the private
    canal carries agricultural runoff along with, theoretically,  a  small
    amount   of   factory   process  water.   Figure  22  shows  the  BOD5
    concentration in the private canal at its  point  of  connection  with
    public  waters.   It should be noted that during a substantial part of
    the time that the factory is in operation, the flow of water  is  from
    the  public  water  into  the private canal.  The average BOD5 concen-
                                       150
    

    -------
                       TABLE 53
    
       EFFLUENT SUSPENDED SOLIDS CONCENTRATIONS
             FROM CANE WASH SETTLING PONDS
          Factory
    
            10
            16
            22
            34
                      Effluent
                     TSS  (mg/1)
    
                       730
                       376
                       588*
                       160
     *Not actually  a  settling  pond,  but  a long ditch.
    .   ..     .  ,       TABLE  54
    
       EFFLUENT CONCENTRATIONS FOR STABILIZED
     •WASTES DISCHARGED AFTER THE GRINDING SEASON
    Factory
    
      l"
      9
     10(Pond#l)
     10(Pond#2)
     38
    . Effluent    Effluent  ..  Effluent
    BOD (mg/1)  COD (mg/1)  TSS (rog/1)
       19
       10'
    97
    74
    41
    210
     26
     55
    ...40
     56
                               151
    

    -------
           TABLE 55
    
         SUBCATE60RY II
    EXISTING TREATMENT PRACTICES
    
    
    
    
    
    
    
    
    
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                      152
    

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     tration for the entire period of record is 4.76 mg/1.   The average for
     the periods of time in which the factory  was  operating  is  slightly
     less than the overall average, and the average for the periods of time
     in  which  the  factory  was  not operating (and during which time the
     private canal was carrying  only  agricultural  runoff)   was  slightly
     higher  than the overall average.   These data would appear to indicate
     that if the process waste water is contributing  organic  loadings  to
     public   waters,   the   amount   is  undetegtable  when  compared  to
     agricultural runoff.
    
     At Factory 45, filter mud slurry is impounded, acids and caustics  and
     miscellaneous  wastes  are impounded,  and barometric condenser cooling
     water is recirculated via  a  cooling   lagoon  with  no  discharge  of
     blowdown.    Overflow from impoundage ponds could possibly occur during
     extreme rainfall conditions.
    
     Factory 46 is similar to  Factory   44   in  that  barometric  condenser
     cooling  water is recycled through a private  canal system.   Filter mud
     and acid and caustic wastes are impounded.  Other miscellaneous wastes
     are discharged into a private canal system separate from the condenser
     water system,  and ultimately into  an impoundment  area  which  has  no
     discharge    to  public  waters  even  during   extreme   rainfall.    The
     barometric  condenser  cooling  water   is  recycled  through  some  19
     kilometers  (12 miles)  of canal before being  reused.   A gate separates
     the private canal system from public waters.    A  pumping  station  is
     provided  for  emergency discharges when extreme rainfall threatens to
     flood the  cane fields.
    
     At  Factory 47,  barometric  condenser  cooling   water  is  recirculated
     through about  19  kilometers (12  miles)  of private canals.   All  other
     waste waters,  except  boiler  blowdcwn  which   is  discharged  to  the
     private canal system,  are impounded.   Discharge from the private  canal
     system  to public waters rarely occurs.   According to  plant personnel,
     a five centimeter (two inch)  rainfall  occurring  within   24  hours   is
     necessary   for  pumping  to  be required.   The  last  time this much
     rainfall occurred at Factory  47   during  the   processing  season  was
     December  30,   1963.    Figure  23   shows the BOD5 concentration in  the
     private canal (at the point where  pumping would occur  if  it becomes
     necessary)   for  the  period  of December 4,  1971,  through  January  19.
     1973.                                                             *
    
     At  Factory 48,  barometric  condenser   cooling   water   is  recirculated
     through a  cooling  tower.    The   blowdown from the  cooling tower  is
     impounded  along  with all  other waste  waters.    Filter   cake  is   dry
     hauled to  land disposal.   Any overflow from  the impoundment ponds  or
     from yard  runoff is deposited into  a deep well.   The   factory has   no
     discharge  of  process waste waters to public waters.
    
    At  Factory  49,  barometric condenser cooling water  and spent  cane wash
    water  (when cane is washed)  is  discharged into  13  kilometers  (8 miles)
                                       154
    

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    of private canals.  All other waste waters are  impounded.   Discharge
    from  the  private  canals into public waters rarely occurs during the
    processing season; the last such event was during the 1969-70 season.
    
    At  Factories  50  and  51  barometric  condenser  cooling  water   is
    recirculated;  Factory  50  employs  a  cooling  tower  and Factory 51
    employs a spray pond.  All other waste waters, are impounded.
    
    At Factory 85, a  cooling  tower  is  utilized  for  recirculation  of
    barometric  condenser  cooling  water.   All  other  waste  waters are
    treated in a stabilization pond  which  is  designed  for  96  percent
    removal  of  BOD.  This factory has been in operation for one year and
    adequate data for substantiation  of  the  design  efficiency  is  not
    available.   The  discharge  from  the  stabilization pond is used for
    irrigation.  Normally  there  is  no  discharge  from  the  irrigation
    system;  however,  during  excessive  rainfalls  it  is  expected that
    tailwater discharges could occur.
    
    SUBCATEGORY_III
    
    Historically, the Subcategory III factories have discharged all  waste
    streams  without  treatment.  Recently, however, considerable research
    and development have been and are being undertaken  in  the  areas  of
    waste   water   treatment,   solid  waste  disposal,  and  sugar  cane
    harvesting.  Treatment methods which have  been  employed  within  the
    last  two  years  include  the  dry  handling  of filter cake, the dry
    hauling of ash,  the  screening  and  disposal  of  leafy  trash,  the
    disposal  of rocks which enter the factory with the sugarcane, and the
    elimination of a discharge of  excess  bagasse.   Experimentation  and
    development  of  new  harvesting  systems  (discussed  earlier in this
    section) have been undertaken with the ultimate goal  of  leaving  the
    bulk  of  extraneous  material  in  the  cane  fields.    Research and
    development -is also being accomplished with regard to a  dry  cleaning
    system  which  would  clean  sugarcane by means of mechanical shaking,
    stripping, and air blowing followed by washing with cane  juice  which
    would  act  as a recoverable dry cleaning solution.  This dry cleaning
    system is as yet undemonstrated over  all  operating  conditions  with
    much  work  to  be  accomplished before it can be considered currently
    available technology.
    
    The technical staff which  operate  Factory  66  have  undertaken  the
    development   of  a  sedimentation  system  to  settle,  with  polymer
    addition,  the  cane  wash  and  other   miscellaneous   waste   water
    discharges.   This  research  and developmental work, which includes a
    pilot-scale clarification unit with solids handling capabilities,  has
    resulted  in the design of a heavy duty thickener to clarify the waste
    stream and a rotary vacuum filter to be utilized for  mud  dewatering.
    The  resultant  sludge  is  to  be  disposed on fields which are to be
    plowed for new plantings of cane.   Certain  details  of  optimization
    regarding  numbers  of  filtration units, polymer, and filter aid, are
                                       156
    

    -------
    being determined  at  the  present  time  and  to  date,  no  ultimate
    decisions have been made.  This sedimentation system is expected to•be
    on-line  during  the  next processing season.  Installed at Factory 66
    are a cascading cane wash system which minimizes water usage, a system
    to dry haul  filter  cake,  a  leafy  trash  disposal  system,  and  a
    barometric  condenser  cooling  water recirculation system.  This mill
    employs spray irrigation for approximately six months of the year  and
    the  management  is  contemplating  the construction of a system which
    would enable the use of waste water for irrigation purposes.
    
    Factory 67 is currently  developing  the  Toft  harvesting  system  to
    enable  the  delivery  of  a  "clean"  raw  material  to  the  milling
    operation.  This factory has undergone an expansion of facilities  and
    already  installed  at  this  mill are a cascading cane wash system,  a
    system to dry haul filter cake, and a leafy trash disposal system.
    
    Factory 69 has undergone considerable expansion of sugarcane  handling
    capabilities.   A  dry  cleaning  system  is under construction at the
    present time.  The ultimate objective of this system is  to  eliminate
    the  necessity  for cane wash water.  Already installed is the highest
    pressure bagasse-fired boiler in the United  States,  operating  at  a
    pressure  of  85  atmospheres (1250 psi) at 150,000 kilograms per hour
    (330,000 pounds per hour)  and  producing  some  100,000,000  kilowatt
    hours of energy annually or 2035 of the Island of Hawaii's demand  (10) .
    A  system  to  dry haul bottom ash has been installed at this factory,
    with work being  accomplished  toward  the  goal  of  eliminating  the
    discharge  of filter muds and leafy trash (which will be dewatered and
    burned in the boiler) .  Developmental work with regard to waste  water
    treatment has been undertaken and efforts are being made to coordinate
    the  successful  operation  of  all aspects of the systems approach to
    effluent abatement.
    
    At Factory  70,  experimentation  with  regard  to  a  full-scale  dry
    cleaning system is being undertaken.  Much of the understanding of the
    proper  design  and  operation  of  the  dry  cleaning system has been
    derived from the operating experiences at this mill.   Presently,  the
    final  juice  wash  and  other  details  have  yet to be finalized and
    research and developmental work is continuing.  A system to  dry  haul
    bottom  ash  has  been  installed  at  this  factory,  with work being
    accomplished toward the goal of eliminating the  discharge  of  filter
    muds and leafy trash.
    
    SUBCATEGORY IV
    
    It  can be stated generally that all of the cane sugar factories which
    comprise Subcategory IV employ end-of-pipe methods to the extent  that
    no  discharge  of  waste  water  pollutants  to  navigable  waters  is
    achieved.  Various methods such as recirculation and reuse techniques,
    impoundment concepts,  and irrigation methods are now employed.  Of the
    thirteen factories which comprise  Subcategory  IV,  eleven  factories
                                      157
    

    -------
     utilize  waste  water  for  irrigation  of  cane fields and two employ
     impoundage techniques resulting in a  reclamation  of  land.   At  two
     factories filter cake is dry hauled; at the remaining factories filter
     mud  is  either  impounded  or  mixed  with  waste  water and used for
     irrigation or land reclamation purposes.  At least one factory employs
     dry hauling of bottom ashes with  all  of  the  remainder  (for  which
     information is available)  mixing the ashes with the waste water.
    
     Eleven  of  the Subcategory IV cane sugar factories currently practice
     effective end-of-line treatment by means of crop irrigation, with  the
     only  discharge  being  the  occasional overflow of tailwater from the
     cane fields.   An  exact  definition  of  the  effectiveness  of  these
     systems  is  difficult,  and a precise documentation of the magnitudes
     and frequencies of discharges would have to be performed on a plant by
     plant basis.   At present,  no data pertaining to tailwater  discharges,
     associated with factory waste waters used for irrigation purposes,  has
     been  submitted or obtained.  These discharges, by their nature,  would
     include substantial  quantities  of  agricultural  run-off  water;   to
     generate  data of statistical significance with regard to agricultural
     versus process tailwater discharges is beyond the scope of this study.
    
     Generally irrigation is proceeded by primary clarification,  either   in
     the  form  of settling ponds or hydroseparators (circular clarifiers),
     or,  in the case of one factory, a battery of hydrocyclones.    The  EPA
     (6)   sampled   one  hydroseparator  in  1971  and found suspended solids
     removals ranging from 60 to over 98 percent.
    
     Table 56 presents a summary of influent  and  effluent  concentrations
     relating  to   the  performance  of  hydroseparators operating at  three
     factories.  In general the hydroseparators are overloaded with solids.
     Problems are  encountered at Factory  72  with  the   clarifier  turning
     septic.    Factories  which  irrigate  with settled  waste water are  not
     concerned with a high degree of treatment efficiency,  but in   reducing
     the  suspended solids sufficiently so that the water will not harm  the
     sugar cane or plug up the  irrigation ditches.   Therefore,  most of  the
     clarifiers are  overloaded  with  a  resulting  decrease in  treatment
     efficiency..
    
     Characteristics of the irrigated  plantations   in  Subcategory  IV  are
     shown in Table 57.   Four of these plantations have  some  fields  located
     at    higher   elevations where  rainfall   supplies   the   entire   water
     requirements  of the sugarcane and therefore are not  totally irrigated.
    
     The irrigated plantations  are characterized by higher   sugar yields.
    In  1971,  one  sugar   company  reported   sugar  yields  of 30.3 metric
    tons/hectare  (13.5  tons/acre) from irrigated   fields,  but  only  18.4
    metric   tons/hectare  (8.2  tons/acre)  from non-irrigated  fields, giving
    an  overall   yield  of   27.8  metric   tons/hectare   (12.4  tons/acre).
    Factory  74,  with  total   irrigation,  reported  sugar  yields of 30.8
    metric tons/hectare  (13.7  tons/acre)  in 1971.  Factories  77  and  78,
                                     *  158
    

    -------
                                  TABLE 56
    
    
    
     SUMMARY OF HYDROSEPARATOR PERFORMANCE FOR FACTORIES IN SUBCATE60RY IV
    Factory
    72
    72
    72
    76
    76
    76
    80
    80
    80
    Suspended
    Influent
    2,500
    1,710
    1,745
    9,200
    11,000
    12,000
    1,040
    5,310
    5,865
    Solids
    Effluent
    1,014
    890
    1,175
    1,600
    1,100
    3,200
    705
    605
    1,260
    BOD 5
    Influent Effluent
    450
    597
    636
    610
    540
    1,250
    420
    396
    412
    440
    615
    535
    475
    590
    900
    300
    432
    334
    COD
    Influent
    1,900
    1 ,488
    1,200
    1,850
    2,800
    2,200
    •
    _
    -
    Effluent
    1,650
    800
    880
    680
    930
    1,100
    -
    -
    • -
    Data
    Source
    '73 Internal
    ESE '74
    ESE '74
    '67 FWPCA
    '67 FWPCA
    '68 FWPCA
    ESE '74
    ESE '74
    ESE '74
    Average
             5,597
    1,283
    590
    513
    1,906
    1,007
                                       159
    

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     both  with  a  substantial  acreage  cf  non-irrigated fields,  reported
     lower sugar yields of 16.7 and  24.0  metric  tons/hectare  (7.45   and
     10.71 tons/acre),  respectively (15).
    
     Water  is  applied  at regular intervals at a  rate roughly equivalent to
     93,500 liters/day  per hectare  (10,000  gal/day   per   acre)  or  9,350
     cu.m/day   per  100  hectares (1  MGD per  100  acres).   Application rates
     vary among the  different plantations as  shown  in Table 52.   Factory 57
     applies the most water  with  6.8   hectares  per  1,000  cu.m/day   (64
     acres/mgd),  while Factory 75 applies the least  with  16.3 hectares  per
     1,000  cu.m/day  (152  acres/mgd).    However,  part    of  the  water
     requirement  may   be  made  up  by   rainfall.    All of the plantations
     recycle mzll waste waters for irrigation purposes following  the  usual
     irrigation  procedures  with the exception perhaps of Factories 78  and
     82,  which  are applying effluent  at   significantly greater  irrigation
     rates.  Both Factory 78 and Factory 82,  however,  are  working to reduce
     waste water quantities.
    
     According   to Ekern (16),  the evapotranspiration rate of sugar cane is
     nearly equivalent  to the vacuum  pan evaporation  rate.   Such  data   are
     presented   in  Table  58,  with the  average monthly values ranging from
     13.1 centimeters  (5.16 inches) to 20.1 centimeters (7.91 inches).   The
     average monthly   pan  evaporation   rate  is  on  the  order  of  16.5
     centimeters (6.50  inches)  and represents the monthly  water requirement
     for  sugar  cane.  By comparison,  the average  application rate per month
     assuming   a  14  day interval at 9,350 cu.m/day  per hectare  (1 mgd/100
     acres)  is  26.4  centimeters (10.4 inches),  which  is roughly  twice   as
     great  as   the  evapotranspiration   rate (17).   This  would indicate an
     irrigation  efficiency on the order  cf  50 percent.  The Hawaiian  Sugar
     Planters'    Association    has been  coordinating  developmental  work
     regarding  spray and drip  irrigation  techniques   to   develop  a  more
     efficient,  irrigation technique.                            *
    
     In   general,  factory waste water accounts  for  approximately  10 percent
     of the  total  irrigation  quantity.   The water  use  coefficient ranges
     from about 7,490 to 20,800  1/kkg (1,800  to  5,000  gal/ton) of  net cane
     processed.  A major part of  this water is  used first  as  turbogenerator
     cooling water, then as barometric condenser  cooling  water,  and  then
     for  cane washing.   The waste water  is  settled  and  then recycled to  the
     fields  for   irrigation.   Only  two  factories,   numbers  74  and  84,
     discharge  turbogenerator  cooling   waters  directly.    Both  utilize
     brackish  water  which is  unsuitable for use in the milling  process or
     for  irrigation.
    
    Overflows of  process waters  from the furrows  can  occasionally  occur
    and  could  possibly  result in discharge  into receiving water bodies.
    However, only those  plantations with fields which receive effluent  and
    are bordering on water bodies are   of  concern.   Plantations  located
    inland  have sufficient land buffer  capable of entirely  containing the
    tailwater overflows within the plantation  property.  There   are  seven
                                        161
    

    -------
          TABLE 58
    PAN EVAPORATION DATA
    
      Pan Evaporation (centimeters)
    Plantation'
    65
    66
    70
    73
    75
    76
    77
    78
    80
    82
    83
    84
    Avg. Monthly
    14.1
    16.9
    13.1
    14.7
    18.7
    18.2
    14.2
    16.2
    18.9
    20.1
    17. 6'
    15.1
    Min. Monthly
    8.53
    9.14 '
    4.19
    7.80
    T3.5
    8.51
    5.64
    7.85
    - 6.99
    10.7
    7.80
    6.38
    Max. Monthly
    23.0
    27.7
    19.8
    22.1
    25.5
    28.3
    31.2
    25.0
    37.9
    31.5
    29.3
    24.5
    Avg. Annual
    168.6
    202.7
    157.3
    176.5
    224.9
    218.5
    170.7
    194.2
    227.1 .'
    241.4
    211.2
    181.7
                 162
    

    -------
    plantations  with  fields  immediately bordering the receiving waters.
    Factories 83 and 84 have sufficient land buffer  such  that  tailwater
    discharges   would  occur  to  receiving  waters  only  under  extreme
    conditions of rainfall when storm runoff would be the overriding water
    quality factor.
    
    The occurrence of tailwater is dependent upon the judgment and  exper-
    ience of the irrigator, who controls the water application rate either
    manually  or  automatically.  The application rate is dependent on the
    infiltration and percolation rates in the furrows which in turn  would
    be dependent upon antecedent rainfall or other climatological factors.
    Under  these  conditions  it  is  improbable that precise infiltration
    rates can be maintained at  all  times.   Therefore,  the  possibility
    exists that the irrigation quantity could either be insufficient or in
    excess  of  that  necessary  to optimize cane growth.  Considering the
    irrigation method employed, the  variability  of  factors  controlling
    performance,  and  the  experience  with  this method, it follows that
    tailwater overflows are inherent to the ridge  and  furrow  irrigation
    method.   All of the plantations which utilize factory waste water for
    irrigation purposes have either already installed  or  are  installing
    systems  which  employ  tailwater  catch  ponds  which  eliminate  the
    discharge of tailwater to navigable waters except  during  periods  of
    adverse   rainfall   events  or  due  to  accidental  over-irrigation.
    Rainfall can lead to runoff from the fields despite a furrow depth  of
    35.6  centimeters (14 inches).  The slopes of furrows are set at about
    11 percent which limit the extent of storage in the  fields.   It  has
    been  reported  (6)   that  80  percent  of a 8.9 centimeter (3.5 inch)
    rainfall in 12 hours was retained in  the  fields  as  storage  or  by
    infiltration and percolation; the remainder occurred as runoff.
    
    The factors which govern whether or not tailwater discharges can occur
    include  the number of irrigation rounds applied per year, <«the area of
    cropland irrigated, the volume of waste  water  and  other  irrigation
    water utilized, the linear length of the fields bordering on navigable
    waters,  and  the  fraction of water overflowing the furrows (which is
    dependent on rainfall events among other things).  Sunn,  Low,  Tom  &
    Kara, Inc.  (17) have presented detailed results based on a theoretical
    calculation  of  the  volumes  of  tailwater discharges which might be
    expected  to  occur  based  on  the  above  factors  and  on   several
    assumptions.   It  is  however, recognized that this evaluation is not
    precise;  there  are  little  data  available  for  a  more   complete
    evaluation.  Nevertheless, the results developed can serve as a useful
    guide to decisions regarding waste water management.
    
    
    §2BCATEGORY_V
    
    Of  the eleven factories in Subcategory V operating in 197U, eight are
    located in areas where irrigation should prove feasible as a means  of
    waste  water  disposal and three are in areas that receive rainfall in
                                      163
    

    -------
     such  amounts  that irrigation is  not  necessary.  As shown in Table   59,
     which   presents    existing   treatment   practices   for  the  thirteen
     Subcategory V factories operating  in 1973,  four factories  were  using
     land   irrigation  for disposal of process  generated waste water.  These
     factories,  and all of those for  which  irrigation   is  feasible,   are
     located  on  the relatively dry south  coast of  Puerto  Rico.
    
     Of  the  four  factories that employed irrigation as a method of waste
     water disposal in 1973, all four used it  for  the disposal of cane wash
     water and two also for disposal  of miscellenous wastes such  as  floor
     wash   and   ash slurry.   Factory  55 used a cooling tower for barometric
     condenser cooling water recycle, and Factories 61 and  62  employed a
     cooling  pond  and  a  spray pond, respectively, for the same purpose.
     Factories 55  and  62 also used spent  barometric condenser cooling water
     for cane washing.
    
     Six of the  thirteen factories listed in Table 59 employed some form of
     impoundment of cane wash water prior to discharge and of these,  three
     settled  prior to  impounding.   None of the thirteen factories discharge
     filter  mud  directly,   and  ten  of the  factories accomplished  no
     discharge of  filter cake either  by dry disposal or complete  retention
     of  a mud  slurry.   At least two  factories discharge ash slurries  and
     most  of  the factories discharge  miscellaneous wastes.
    
     Existing treatment technology in Subcategory  V  is   quite  similar  to
     that  employed in  Subcategory I.  Treatment consists  of settling of  the
     cane   wash  water   and   some  use  of waste stabilization.  Guzman (18)
     experimented  with  retention (stabilization)   ponds   similar  to  those
     used   in Subcategory  I  but with   shorter  detention  times.  These
     stabilization ponds which were applied to concentrated  wastes  (floor
     washings, boiler blowdown,  spillages, and other miscellaneous streams)
     resulted in   effluent  BOD5  levels of less than 100  mg/1.  At the time
     of Guzman1s study,  cane washing was  not employed in  Puerto Rico.
    
     In general, current  operating practices are  that wastes  are   not
     retained   by  Subcategory  V factories  for as  long  as  those  of
     Subcategory I.  An additional difference  between the two subcategories
     is that  while a similar percentage of the factories  in  Subcategory  V
     cool   and   recycle  barometric condenser cooling   water, none of  the
     factories   recycles   cane wash  water.   In  addition,  a  number  of
     factories   have the option   of applying irrigation techniques, while
     none  in  Subcategory  I can do  so.
    
    
    POTENTIAL END-OF-LINE TECHNOLOGY
    
    Existing end-of-line treatment technology in the cane sugar  industry,
    as  described   in  this   section,  is  generally rudimentary.   Several
    potential technologies  are applicable to  the  raw  sugar  industry  as
    discussed below.
                                        164
    

    -------
                                        TABLE  59
                                     SUBCATEGORY  V
                              EXISTING  TREATMENT  PRACTICES
    
    
    
    
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     Biological Treatment
    
     Waste  waters  similar in nature to those generated by sugar factories
     by virtue  of their containing  sucrose  and  other  sugars  have  been
     effectively treated by the activated sludge process (19,  20).
    
     Biological  treatment  of  sugar  waste  has been demonstrated in  both
     bench and  pilot plant tests.   Bhaskaran and Cfcakrabarty (21)  conducted
     pilot plant studies in India  on both anerobic and  aerobic  ponds   for
     treating  cane sugar waste,  with a loading rate of 0.25  kilograms per
     day per cubic meter (0.0155 pounds per day per cubic foot)  of BOD, the
     anerobic lagoon treatment efficiency was 61.5 percent.  The  oxidation
     pond  with  a  seven day detention time was able to average 68 percent
     BOD removal,  acting on a waste with an average  concentration  of   272
     mg/1  corresponding to a loading of 330 kilograms/day per hectare  (290
     pounds/day per acre).   Miller (22)   reports  on  an  activated  sludge
     pilot study which  showed that waste water BOD concentrations of 800 to
     1,000  mg/1  from   a  cane factory could be reduced to 20  to 40 mg/1.
     Some difficulty was  reported,  however,  with  filamentous  bacterial
     growth  and problems were also encountered in the control of suspended
     solids in  the effluent from the pilot plant.
    
    
     Flume water in the beet sugar industry has been reported  to be effect-
     ively treated by the activated sludge process with treatment efficien-
     cies for BOD  removal ranging  from 83 to 97 percent (23).  Maximum   BOD
     values of  50  mg/1  in the effluent were reported.
    
     Simpson and   Hemens  (24)  conducted an investigation of  the effect of
     nitrogen and  phosphorus addition on the rate  of COD removal from   cane
     sugar  factory  effluent.   A  laboratory continuous-flow aeration unit,
     completely mixed and supplied with compressed air,  received waste  from
     a Natal  raw sugar  factory.  The investigators concluded that efficient
     activated  sludge treatment of sugar factory effluent is  possible  if
     supplementary  nitrogen and phosphorus are added.   The  minimum COD:N:P
     ratio in the  influent  was  found to  be  100:2:0.4.    The  optimum   load
     factor -was   found  to  be 0.6  g COD/day/g MLSS  with an average sludge
     volume index .of 53  mg/1.   The average settled COD  and BOD values of  a
     well   stabilized  effluent were  observed to  be  97  and  13 mg/1,
     respectively.   It  was  further observed that the  waste activated sludge
     could  be dried on  a conventional drying  bed without  pretreatment.
    
     Due to the seasonal nature  of the sugar  industry in  Subcategories  I,
     II, and V and  the  length of time  required  for  an activated  sludge  sys-
    tem  to reach  an equilibrium,  activated  sludge has not  been considered
    as a treatment alternative  for these  sufccategories.  As the processing
    season approaches a  full year, as in  the case of Subcategories  III  and
    IV, activated  sludge shows  more  promise   as  a   potential  treatment
    alternative.    While   the   use   of  oxidation   ponds  is  currently
    demonstrated,  a technology which has  limited  current   application  is
                                       166
    

    -------
    the   use   of  aerated  lagoons.   The  use  of  aerated  lagoons  is
    particularly worth considering  where  land  is  not  abundant  or  .is
    expensive  as  in  Subcategory  V.  The work of Keller (5, 7)r Wheeler
    (14), Bevan (25), and Miller (22)  indicate  the  feasibility  of  the
    application of aerated lagoons with supplemental nutrient addition.
    
    Chemical-Physical Treatment
    
    Two  rather extensive research studies have been carried out in Hawaii
    to develop methods of removing solids from cane wash  water.   Factory
    72  has  carried  out  laboratory settling tests as well as applying a
    pilot clarification unit.  Figure 2U and Table  60  present  the  data
    collected  in laboratory settling tests without the use of coagulants.
    These results indicate "that good settling and effluent  concentrations
    of  below 300 mg/1 are possible.  The results of the final pilot plant
    runs are presented in Table 61.  Testing with the use of tube settlers
    indicates that the overflow rate is five times that of a  conventional
    clarifier.   It  was  also  reported that the results of clarification
    with operating  parameters  properly  controlled  indicated  a  median
    effluent suspended solids of 50 mg/1 in the effluent  (10, 26).  In one
    case  (with  Akaka  soils) ,  the  suspended solids was found to be 200
    mg/1.
    
    Considerable developmental and optimization work has  been  undertaken
    by  the  technical  staff  of  Factory  66 to accomplish the following
    goals:
         1.
    Reduce the flow  of  cane  wash  .water
    discharged to a treatment system.
            and  other  streams
               Minimize -the soil loading in the waste water  discharge  by
               certain modifications to the present cane washireg system.
         3.
    Design of a  treatment  system
    projected raw waste loading.
    to  adequately  handle  the
    These  efforts  were  initiated  in  a  series  of laboratory analyses
    leading to the development  of  bench-scale  models  and  finally  the
    operation  of  a  pilot  plant  to simulate what was thought to be the
    actual system of cleaning plant waste water treatment.
    
    Initial results of laboratory studies indicate that  settling  of  the
    waste water stream without the addition of polymer will not take place
    in  less than two hours.  However, the addition of polymer or lime was
    found to immediately correct that situation and cause rapid  settling.
    Optimum  polymer  dosages were determined to be about 1.0 mg/1; liming
    to a pH of 11 was required to attain comparable settling results and a
    superior supernatant liquid.
                                      167
    

    -------
              SETTLING
              SETTLING
    POND
    POND
    INFLUENT
    EFFLUENT
     20         40          60
       SETTLING TIME ,  (mm)
                    80
                          IOO
            FIGURE 24
    
    SUSPENDED SOLIDS REDUCTION
      BY  PLAIN SEDIMENTATION
                  168
    

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    -------
                                    TABLE 61
    
                          SUSPENDED SOLIDS REMOVALS -
                            FINAL PILOT PLANT SERIES
    Sampl
    Date:
    7/01:
    
    
    
    
    
    
    7/02:
    
    
    
    
    
    
    
    
    e
    Time
    12:30
    12:50
    13:15
    13:35
    14:15
    14:25
    15:00
    10:10
    10:20
    12:15
    12:25
    12:40
    12:55
    13:05
    13:15
    14:10
    Influent
    TSS (mq/1)
    8,396
    8,408 ;
    8,768
    9,800
    26,932
    12,888
    5,532
    2,368
    2,952
    8,956
    8,068
    4,648
    4,480
    9,056
    7,920
    6,572
    Effluent
    TSS (mg/1)
    452
    240
    400
    624
    216
    440
    672
    556
    188
    536
    516
    400
    272
    292
    220
    152
    Removal
    Efficiency (%)
    94.6
    97.1
    95.4
    93.6
    99.2
    •^ •* • fin
    96 6
    •* v • w
    87.9
    76.5
    93.6
    94.0
    93.6
    91.4
    93.9
    96.8
    97.2
    97.7
    MEAN:
    8,484
                                                386
    95.5
                                          170
    

    -------
    Laboratory work on a bench-scale continued  and  the  result  was  the
    design  of  a  heavy-duty thickener which will clarify the waste water
    stream and  thicken the resultant sludge to the extent that dewatering
    can be accomplished by means  of  vacuum  filtration  (high  rainfalls
    measured  in  tens of feet per year are thought to preclude the use of
    sludge drying ponds).  Laboratory filter leaf  studies  using  several
    types  of  cloth  media were also carried out which indicated variable
    filtration rates.  Some values as low as 15 kg/hr/sq.m (3 Ib/hr/sq.ft)
    were obtained, but the average was generally about  39  kg/hr/sq.m  (8
    Ib/hr/sq.ft).   The  use  of lime was found to improve filtration when
    the mud slurry was allowed to stand  for  long  periods  of  time  (48
    hours).
    
    A  pilot  scale  thickener  was constructed and operated.  The size of
    particles was found to have practically no effect on the settling rate
    and the addition of 1.5 mg/1 of polymer to influent waste water caused
    good settling to occur in a short time.  In general, higher filtration
    rates were obtained than previously.  It was also determined that  the
    filtration  rate  with  a stainless steel screen substituted for cloth
    was higher.  Liming of the thickener underflow improved the filtration
    rate when mud slurry was allowed to stand for long periods of time  (2
    to 24 hours).
    
    Work  continued  with  regard to the elimination of soil discharged to
    the thickener and it  was  found  that  secondary  screening  (1.0  mm
    spacings)  resulted in a 61.856 removal of soil under varied harvesting
    conditions  (poor to good  burns).   The  settling  "properties  of  the
    screened  effluent  were  checked and settleability was effective with
    polymer addition.  Similar filtration rates as experienced  previously
    were  obtained,  comparable to those for unscreened effluent, for both
    cloth and stainless steel filter media.  Filtration rates  ^were  found
    to  increase  with the addition of bagasse used as a filter aid.  In a
    continued effort to reduce water usage, a spray pond was installed  at
    the factory to recirculate barometric condenser cooling water.
    
    An  entire pilot-scale treatment system, including screens, thickener,
    and vacuum filter was constructed and  operated.   Many  factors  were
    varied in an effort to optimize the system and this work is continuing
    at  the  time  of  this  publication.   Secondary  screening  (0.5  mm
    spacings) yielded a 72% reduction in soil loading  to  the  thickener.
    The  elimination  of  coarse  particles  by screening had no affect on
    solid-settling in the thickener or on  the  filtering  operation.   In
    fact, it was reported that filtration appeared to be better with a mud
    slurry devoid of coarse particles.  Good filtration rates without lime
    addition  were  obtained  on  the  pilot  scale unit even when mud was
    allowed to stand for 66 hours.   Filtration  rates  increased  greatly
    through the use of stainless steel media, and were on the order of 245
    kg/hr/sq.m  (50 Ib/hr/sq.ft).  It was found that the filtrate from the
    vacuum filter must be recycled  to  the  thickener  due  to  its  high
    turbidity.   Separate tests in the laboratory revealed that the solids
                                        171
    

    -------
    returning with the filtrate settle quite easily without
    of polymer.
      the  addition
    In  general, it appears that a suspended solids effluent concentration
    of 200 mg/1 or better is feasible from  the  effluent  of  a  properly
    designed  thickener with polymer or lime addition, under the operating
    conditions typical of Subcategory III factories.  However, this  is  a
    conclusion  reached  as a result of bench and,pilot-scale experimental
    work and not actual operating data.
    
    SELECTED CONTBOL AND TREATMENT TECHNOLOGIES APPLIED TO MODEL PLANTS
    
    In Section V, model plants were developed to  represent  factories  in
    each  subcategory  and  assumptions' as to existing in-plant treatment
    technology were made.   In  this  section  additional  assumptions  to
    account  for  the addition of end-of-line treatment will be added, the
    model factories will  be  adjusted  when  necessary,  and  alternative
    control  and  treatment  technologies  will  be presented along with a
    discussion of anticipated waste loading reductions.
    SOBCATEGORY I
    
    In Section V the model plant for this subcategory was
    the following assumptions:
    developed  with
         1.  Filter cake is dry hauled or impounded without discharge.
    
         2.  Barometric condenser cooling water is employed for
             washing cane.
    
         3.  Boiler ash is dry hauled or impounded without discharge.
    
         4.  Non-contact cooling waters such as bearing cooling water are
             segregated from the factory waste waters.
    
         5.  Acid and caustic wastes are not discharged directly,
             either by means of recirculaticn, impoundment, or both.
    
         6.  Condensate has a BOD5 of approximately 10 mg/1.
    
         7.  Excess condensate is used for the washing of floors, etc.
    
    It  is felt that this level of in-plant technology is predominantly in
    practice and would require minimal expenses for the factories which do
    not attain  this  level  of  technology.   No  additional  end-of-line
    treatment  is  assumed  even  though  more  than half of the factories
    impound  cane  wash  water  and  do  not  discharge  until  after  the
    occurrence  of  waste stabilization.  Table 52 summarizes the existing
    technology employed at Subcategory I factories in more detail.
                                       172
    

    -------
    The model plant representative of  Subcategory  I  factories  has  the
    following raw waste loadings.
    
         Flow:  16,800 1/kkg (4,040 gallons/ton)  of gross cane.
         BOD5:   2.08 kg/kkg  (4.16 Ibs/ton) of gross cane.
         TSS:    17.56 kg/kkg  (35.1 Ibs/ton) of gross cane.
    
    Eight  alternative  treatment  schemes  were  chosen  to be applied as
    treatment of the effluent from the model  plant.   These  systems  are
    described  in  detail and a summary of the removal efficiencies of the
    various alternatives is presented,in Table 62.  Figure 25  presents  a
    schematic diagram of the model factory for Subcategory I.
    
    Alternative A *• Alternative A assumes no additional treatment and con-
    trol  technology  to  be added to the model.  The efficiencies of BOD5
    and suspended solids removal are zero.                               ~"
    
    Alternative B - This alternative consists  of  adding  those  in-plant
    controls  and  modifications  which  may or may not be practiced at an
    individual factory, but would enable a factory to attain the level  of
    technology typified by the model plant.  These procedures include:
    
         1.    Filter cake handling.
    
               a.    Dry handling of filter cake.
               b.    Impoundage of filter mud slurry.
    
         2.    Ash handling.
    
               a.    Dry handling of ash.
               b..    Impoundage of ash slurry.
    
         3.    Entrainment control for evaporators and vaccuum pans.
    
               a.  Proper operation and good maintenance.
               b.  Addition of baffles.
               c.  Addition of monitoring equipments       -
               d.  Increase in vapor height.
               e.  Addition of centrifugal separators
                   on the evaporators and vacuum pans.
               f.  Addition of external separators to
                   the evaporators.
    
    Not  all  factories  which  experience  high  losses  of  sucrose into
    barometric condenser cooling water would have to  employ  all  of  the
    techniques  listed  above but would in all probability utilize certain
    of these procedures.
    
    Good  entrainment  control  not  only  achieves  a  reduction  in  the
    discharge of EOD5, but also results in sucrose recovery.  To take into
                                         173
    

    -------
                  TABLE .62
    
    SUMMARY OF REMOVAL EFFICIENCIES FOR
       VARIOUS TREATMENT ALTERNATIVES
               SUBCATE60RY I
    Alternative
    A
    B
    C
    D
    E
    F
    G
    H
    BOD5
    Loading
    (kg/kkg)
    2.08
    2.08
    2.08
    0.63
    0.63
    0.53
    0.050
    0.050
    %BOD5
    Reduction ,
    0%
    0
    0
    69.7
    69.7
    74.5
    97.6
    97.6
    TSS Loading
    (kg/kkg)
    17.56
    17.56
    2.51
    0.47
    0.47
    0.080
    0.080
    0.080
    % TSS
    Reduction
    0%
    0
    85.7
    97.3
    97.3
    99.5
    99.5
    99.5
                             174
    

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    account  the  sucrose  recovery  and  subsequent  sugar savings, it is
    estimated that 75 percent  of  the  BOD5  that  is  removed  from  the
    barometric  condenser  cooling  water  can be converted to sucrose and
    that the ratio of BOD5. to sucrose on a  weight  basis  is  1.125.   In
    addition,  increased  molasses  production  is  achieved.   It is also
    assumed that the concentration of BOD5 at a plant which experiences  a
    high sugar loss into barometric condenser cooling waters is 100 mg/1.
    
    The  application  of the in-plant modifications which are discussed as
    Alternative B would result in the reduction of all BOD5 and  suspended
    solids  associated with the filter mud and ash discharge streams and a
    reduction of BOD5. entrained in the barometric condenser cooling  water
    to  that  level  of the model plant, 0.50 kg/kkg  (1.0 Ib/ton) of gross
    cane.
    
    Alternative C - Figure 26 presents a schematic diagram of  Alternative
    C.   This  alternative  consists of the addition to Alternative B of a
    sedimentation pond to settle all waste waters, with the  exception  of
    barometric  condenser  cooling  water  and  excess  condensate.   Four
    settling ponds were assumed which would be operated in  parallel  with
    each having an effective depth of 3.05 meters  (10 feet)  and a combined
    detention  time  of  32  hours.  Operation of the ponds was assumed to
    require the filling of each pond with mud to a depth  of  0.91  meters
    (three  feet)  at  which  time a clean pond would be used.  The filled
    pond would then be decanted, allowed to dry, and  finally  dredged  to
    clean  and  allow  reuse.   The resulting muds are assumed to be truck
    hauled to a landfill or to cane fields where they may be spread thinly
    over the soil without harming the crop.  An effluent suspended  solids
    concentration  of  400  mg/1  is  assumed.  No BOD5 removal is assumed
    although removals en the order of  ten  to  twenty" percent  would  be
    expected to occur.
    
    The overall effect of Alternative C is a suspended solids reduction of
    85.7 percent.
    
    Alternative	p - Figure 27 shows a schematic diagram of Alternative D.
    This alternative consists of the  addition  to  Alternative  C  of  an
    oxidation  pond  to  treat  the effluent from the settling ponds.  The
    oxidation pond is assumed to have a detention time equivalent  to  the
    entire  grinding  season,  and  to have a loading of 56.1 kilograms of
    BOD5/day per hectare (50.0  pounds  of  BOD5_/day  per  acre).   It  is
    assumed  that  the  oxidation pond is drained when waste stabilization
    occurs, prior to the next grinding season.   The  resulting  BOD5  and
    suspended  solids concentrations are predicted to be less than 50~ mg/1
    and 75 mg/1, respectively.  It is assumed that  nitrogen  addition  is
    required,  based  on  oxidation  studies that have been conducted with
    sugar wastes.
    The overall effect of Alternative  D  is  a  BOD5  reduction
    percent and a suspended solids reduction of 97.3~percent.
    of  69.7
                                       176
    

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    Alternative  g - Figure 28 shows a schematic diagram of Alternative E.
    This alternative consists of the  addition  to  Alternative  C  of  an
    aerated  lagoon  to  treat  the effluent from the settling ponds.  The
    aerated lagoon was designed with a detention time  of  9.5  days,  and
    included  a quiescent zone.  As with the oxidation pond in Alternative
    D, it is assumed  that  nitrogen  addition  is  necessary  for  proper
    treatment of BOD5.  Predicted BOD5_ and suspended solids concentrations
    in  the  effluent  from  the  aerated  lagoon are 50 mg/1 and 75 mg/1,
    respectively.
    
    The overall effect of Alternative  E  is  a  BOD5  reduction  of  69,7
    percent and a suspended solids reduction of 97.3~percent.
    
    Alternative  F - Figure 29 shows a schematic diagram of Alternative F.
    This alternative consists of the addition to Alternative B of  a  cane
    wash  water  recirculation  system  and an oxidation pond to treat the
    blowdown from the settling ponds.
    
    The design of the settling ponds for this alternative is the  same  as
    that  for  Alternative  C with the additional assumption that the cane
    wash water recirculation system is operated with a  blowdown  of  five
    percent.   In  addition,  occasional chemical addition to the recycled
    cane wash water has  been  assumed  in  order  that  potential  septic
    conditions  and  the  associated  odcr  problems  be  avoided.  As was
    discussed previously in this section, this is the practice at  certain
    Louisiana cane sugar factories.
    
    The  design  of the oxidation pond is based on total retention for the
    entire season and discharge after waste stabilization occurs, prior to
    the  next  grinding  season.    As   in   the   previously   discussed
    alternatives, nitrogen addition is assumed.  The pond was designed for
    a   depth   of  1.22  meters  (five  feet).   The  predicted  effluent
    concentrations, assuming no dilution, are expected to be less than  75
    mg/1  for  suspended solids and 50 mg/1 for BOD5.  For the calculation
    of final effluent loadings, the conservative  estimate  of  a  fifteen
    percent  blowdown  from the cane wash recirculation system is assumed,
    although the five percent blowdown used for design  purposes  is  well
    documented by current operating practices.
    
    The  overall  effect  of  Alternative  F  is  a BOD5 reduction of 82.2
    percent and a suspended solids reduction of 99.5 percent.
    
    Alternatiye_6 - Figure 30 shows a schematic diagram of Alternative  G.
    This  alternative  consists  of  the  addition  to  Alternative B of a
    barometric condenser cooling water recirculation system, a  cane  wash
    water  recirculation  system,  and  an  oxidation  pond.   The  design
    assumptions for the settling ponds and the oxidation pond employed  in
    this  alternative  are  the  same  as  those  in Alternative F.  It is
    assumed that the barometric condenser cooling water is recycled with a
    blowdown,equivalent to 2 percent of the total flow.   The  blowdown  is
                                      179
    

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     used  as makeup to the cane wash recirculation system and the blowdown
     from the cane wash recirculation system is  treated  in  an  oxidation
     pond.   The  predicted  effluent concentrations for BOD5 and suspended
     solids from the oxidation pond,  assuming no dilution, are expected  to
      I ^GS?  *!?an 50 mg/1 and 75 mg/1- respectively.   For the calculation
     ot tinal effluent loadings, the  conservative  estimate  of  a  fifteen
     percent  blowdown  from the cane wash recirculation system is assumed,
     although the five percent blowdown used for design  purposes  is  well
     documented by current operating  practices.
    
     The  overall  effect  of  Alternative  G  is  a BOD5 reduction of 97.6
     percent and a suspended solids reduction of 99.5 percent.
    
     Al£ernative_H - Figure 31 shows  a schematic diagram of Alternative  H
     This  alternative  is  the  same  as Alternative G but with an aerated
     lagoon substituted for the oxidation pond.   The  aerated  lagoon was
     designed  in  a  similar fashion as that in Alternative E.   Due to the
     high influent concentrations  into  the  aeration   pond,   two  aerated
     lagoons  were  designed  of  equal size to be operated in series.  The
     design was based on a detention  time of 14 days per pond and  includes
     a   quiescent  zone.   The predicted effluent concentrations are 50 mg/l
     of BOD5 and 75 mg/1 of suspended solids.                           g
    The overall effect of Alternative  H  is  a  BOD5  reduction
    percent and a suspended  solids reduction-of  99.5 percent.
    
    SUBCATEGORY II
                                                                  Of  97.6
          1.
    
          2.
    
          3.
    In  Section V the model plant for this category was developed with the
    following assumptions:
    
             Filter cake is dry hauled or impounded without discharge.
    
             Boiler ash is dry hauled or impounded without discharge.
    
             Non-contact cooling waters such as bearing cooling water are
             segregated from the factory waste waters.
    
         4.   Acid and caustic wastes are not discharged directly, either
             by means of recirculation, impoundment, or both.
    
         5.   Condensate has a BOD5 of 10 mg/1.
    
         6.   Excess condensate is used for the washing of floors, etc.
               *%**• t?iS  leVel  °f  in-Flant  control   is  predominantly
              and would require minimal expenses for the factories that do
    Q    <-     S5°Uld  be  n°ted  that  seven  of  the  nine  factories in
    Subcategory II recycle barometric condenser cooling water by means  of
    canals,  spray  ponds,  or  cooling  towers.  In addition, none of the
                                       183
    

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    factories discharge waste water under normal  conditions.   Discharges
    occur  at  a  few  of  the  factories  but  only during times of heavy
    rainfall and as previously discussed in this section,  BOD5  increases
    over  normal  background  levels  cannot  be established from existing
    information.  It is thus felt that the model factory in Subcategory II
    achieves a zero discharge limitation, and no  additional  control  and
    treatment  technology  is  necessary.   Figure  32  shows  a schematic
    diagram of the model Subcategory II factory.
    
    SOBCATEGORY_III
    
    In Section V the model plant for Subcategory III  was  developed  with
    the following assumptions:
         1.
    
         2.
         Filter cake is discharged in slurry form.
    
         Spent barometric condenser cooling water is used for cane
         wash water.
         3.  Boiler ashes are slurried and discharged.
    
         4.  Non-contact cooling waters such as bearing cooling water and
             hydrogenerator cooling water are segregated from the factory
             waste waters.
    
         5.  Acid and caustic wastes are not discharged.
    
         6.  BOD5 loading in the barometric condenser, cooling water is 0.34
             kg/kkg (0.68 Ib/ton) of net cane.
     7.
    
     8.
    
    
     9.
    
    10.
    
    11.
             Condensate has a BOD5 of 10 mg/1.
    
             Excess condensate is used for slurrying filter cake, ash,
             and for the washing of floors, etc.
    
             Excess bagasse is dry hauled.
    
             Cane trash is discharged.
    
             Rocks and associated mud are dry hauled.
    It  is  felt  that  this  level  of  in-plant technology is typical of
    factories in Subcategory  III.   End-of-line  treatment  is  currently
    being  developed  at factories in this Subcategory but none is assumed
    to exist at the model plant.   The  model  for  Subcategory  III  thus
    corresponds to that developed in Section V; a schematic diagram of the
    model  factory  is  presented in Figure 33 and the corresponding waste
    loadings are:
    
         Flow:   12,700 1/kkg   (3,050 gal/ton) of net cane
                                       185
    

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         BOD:    12.3 kg/kkg   (24.6 Ib/ton) of net cane
         TSS:     194 kg/kkg     (388 Ib/ton) of net cane
         Trash:  400 kg (880 Ib)  of solids per kkg (1.1 tons) of net cane
    
    Eight alternative treatment schemes were chosen for treatment  of  the
    effluent  from the model plant.  These systems are described in detail
    and a summary of the removal efficiencies of the alternatives is  pre-
    sented in Table 63.
    
    Alternative  A - Alternative A involves no added control or treatment.
    The efficiencies of BOD5 and suspended solids removals are zero.
    
    Should an individual factory not attain  that  degree  of  control  of
    entrainment  of  sucrose into barometric condenser cooling water which
    is exhibited by the model plant, a reduction of BOD5 entrainment  into
    barometric   condenser  cooling  water  is  necessary.   This  can  be
    accomplished by the following procedures:
    
               -  Good maintenance and proper operation
               -  Monitoring of barometric condenser cooling water
                  Addition of centrifugal separators to the evaporators
                  and vacuum pans
               -  Addition of external separators to the evaporators
    
    The addition of these control measures allows for a reduction  in  the
    amount of BOD5 discharged to those levels typified by the model plant.
    The  reduction  of  BOD5  entrainment  into  the  barometric condenser
    cooling water increases sucrose and molasses production.  To take into
    account the sucrose recovery  and  subsequent  sugar  savings,  it  is
    estimated  that  75  percent  of  the  BOD5  that  is removed from the
    barometric condenser cooling water can be  converted  to  sucrose  and
    that  the  ratio  of  BOD5  to sucrose on a weight basis is 1.125.  In
    addition, increased molasses  production  is  achieved.   It  is  also
    assumed  that the concentration of BOD5 at a factory which experiences
    a high sugar loss into barometric condenser cooling waters is 50 mg/1.
    
    Alternative B - Figure 34 presents an illustrative diagram of Alterna-
    tive's.  This, alternative consists of the following  in-plant  modifi-
    cations:
    
         1.  B-l:  Dry hauling of filter cake.
    
         2.  B-2:  Dry hauling of boiler ash.
    
         3.  B-3:  Screening and hauling of trash.
    
    For the hauling of mud and ash it was assumed that:
    
         1.  Fifteen cubic meter  (twenty cubic yards) trucks
             would be used.
                                      188
    

    -------
                                  TABLE 63
    
    
                      SUMMARY OF REMOVAL EFFICIENCIES
                     FOR VARIOUS TREATMENT ALTERNATIVES
                              SUBCATE60RY III
    BODS
    Loading* %BOD5
    Alternative (kg/kkg) Reduction
    A
    B
    C
    D
    E
    F
    G
    H
    12.3
    10.0
    10.0
    0.83
    0.57
    (.1-x) 0.48+0. 36
    (l-x)(0.095)+0.36
    The greater of:
    0.76(l-x)+0.0060
    or 0.11
    0
    18.7
    18.7
    93.3
    95.4
    95.9**
    96.8**
    98.1**
    TSS Loading* % TSS
    (kg/kkg) Reduction
    194
    170
    2.1
    1.1
    0.61
    0-x) 1.01+0. 0080
    (l-x)O. 21+0. 0080
    The greater of:
    1.01(l-x)+0.0080
    or 0.13
    0
    12.4
    98.9
    99.4
    99.7
    99.8**
    ' 99.9**
    99.8**
    *Net cane basis.
    **Assumes a 70% usage of advanced harvesting systems.
                                        189
    

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         2.  The mud and ash are disposed on land to a depth of
             1.22 meters (4.0 feet).
    
         3.  If cane growing areas are taken out of production, the
             disposal site could not be used to grow cane for a period
             of three years.
    
         4.  The densities of both mud and ash are assumed to be 650 kg/cu.
             meter  (40 Ib/cu. ft).
    
         5.  The dry weight of filter cake and ash produced are 15 kg/kkg
             (30 Ib/ton) of net cane and 17.5 kg/kkg (35 Ib/ton) of net
             cane, respectively.
    
    For the screening and dry hauling of trash it was assumed that:
    
         1.  All of the trash could be removed by screening.
    
         2.  Thirty-seven cubic meter (fifty cubic yard) trucks are used.
    
         3.  The bulk density of wet trash is 650 kg/cubic meter
             (40 Ibs/cu. ft.).
    
         4.  The trash can be disposed on land to a depth of 1.5 meters
             (five feet) .
    
         5.  If cane growing areas are taken out of production,
             the disposal site could not be used to grow cane for a
             period of five years.
    
    The  resulting  reductions  of  BOD5  and  suspended solids due to the
    application of the techniques described  as  Alternative  B* are  18.7
    percent  and  12.4  percent,  respectively,  in  addition  to complete
    removal of the cane trash.
    Alt ernative
    C  -  Figure  35  presents  an  illustrative  diagram  of
    C.   This alternative includes clarification with polymer
    Alternative
    addition of the cane wash  water,  boiler  blowdown,  and  floor  wash
    discharge  streams.   The  design  assumes  grit  removal  followed by
    polymer addition and mixing, and settling in a  heavy-duty  thickener.
    The thickened sludge is dewatered by means of vacuum filtration.  This
    is  a similar system to that currently being designed to be applied at
    Factory 66.  It is assumed that  the  resulting  dewatered  sludge  is
    hauled in 15.1 cubic meter (20.0 cubic yard) trucks and spread on land
    to a depth of 1.22 meters (4.0 feet).  If cane growing areas are taken
    out  of  production, the disposal site is assumed to be unsuitable for
    growing cane for a period of  three  years.   The  predicted  effluent
    concentration  from the thickener is 200 mg/1 of suspended solids.  No
                                      191
    

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    BOD5 is considered to be removed in the thickener although removals on
    the order of 10 to 20 percent would be expected to occur.
    The overall effects of Alternative C are  a  BOD5  reduction
    percent and a suspended solids reduction of 98.9 percent.
    of  18.7
    Alternative	D  -  Figure  36  presents  an  illustrative  diagram  of
    Alternative pT  This alternative  consists  of  the  addition  of  two
    aerated  lagoons  operated  in  series  to treat the effluent from the
    thickerner described in  Alternative  C.   The  aerated  lagcons  were
    designed  with  a  total  detention  time of eight days and included a
    quiescent zone.  Nutrient addition is also assumed as indications  are
    that  nitrogen  must be added for good biological treatment.  The pre-
    dicted effluent concentrations are a BOD5 concentration of 75 mg/1 and
    a suspended solids concentration of 100 mg/1.
    The overall effects of this alternative are a BOD5 reduction
    percent and a suspended solids reduction of 99.4 percent.
    of  93.3
    Alternative  E  -  Figure  37  presents  an  illustrative  diagram  of
    Alternative E.  This  alternative  consists  of  the  addition  of  an
    activated  sludge  unit  to  treat  the  effluent  from  the thickener
    described in Alternative c.  The activated sludge process assumes:
    
         1.  Aeration basin.
    
         2.  Secondary clarifier.
    
         3.  Aerobic digester.
    
         4.  Additional vacuum filtration.
    
         5.  Additional sludge hauling.
    
         6.  Nutrient addition.
    
    Solid waste handling  capacities were  assumed to  be  increased  by   10
    percent  over  that   of  Alternative  C  to handle the resulting waste
    activated sludge.  As with the disposal  of  mud  it  is  assumed  that
    waste  activated  sludge is disposed  on  land to  a depth of 1.22 meters
     (4.0 feet) and that if cane growing areas are taken out of production,
    the disposal site is  not suitable for cane growing  for  a  period   of
    three years.
    
    Con siderati on of the  Use of Advanced  Harvesting  Systems
    
    As  discussed  previously  in  this section, considerable research  and
    development are being accomplished at the present time with regard   to
    the  usage  of  advanced  harvesting  systems  capable  of  delivering
    sugarcane to the factory mills which  can  be  processed  without   the
                                        193
    

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    necessity  of  a washing step.  It is expected that such a system will
    be employed at the Subcategory III factories between  1977  and  1983,
    and  will enable an individual factory to eliminate the portion of the
    cane wash water stream currently associated with that fraction (x)   of
    the net sugarcane which would be harvested by the advanced systems.  A
    further  assumption  is that the same unit waste loadings as developed
    for the model factory are  applicable  to  that  portion  of  the  net
    sugarcane which is not harvested by the advanced systems.
    
    The   following  treatment  alternatives  include  the  aforementioned
    assumption that a .fraction (x) of the net  sugarcane  processed  at  a
    factory is harvested by the advanced harvesting systems.
    
    Alternative  F  -   This  alternative  involves  the  assumption  that
    Subcategory III factories will have employed the  currently  developed
    technology  of  improved  cane  harvesting systems which will enable a
    factory to eliminate that  portion  of  the  cane  wash  water  stream
    associated  with  that  fraction (x) of cane harvested by the advanced
    systems.  Alternative F involves the treatment of the cane wash  water
    and miscellaneous discharge streams in two aerated lagoons operated in
    series  and  designed  with  a  total detention time of eight days and
    including a quiescent zone.  Nutrient addition is  assumed  to  ensure
    good  biological treatment.  The predicted effluent concentrations are
    a BODJ5 concentration of 75 'mg/1 and a suspended  solids  concentration
    of 100 mg/1.
    
    The  overall  effects of this alternative, assuming a 70 percent usage
    of the advanced harvesting systems,  are  a  BOD5.  reduction  of  95.9
    percent and a suspended solids reduction of 99.8 percent.
    
    Alternative  G  -  This  alternative involves similar assumptions with
    regard  to  the  model  plant  as  Alternative   F.    Alternative   G
    incorporates  a cane wash water recirculation system with discharge of
    a twenty percent blowdown and the miscellaneous waste water  discharge
    streams  to two aerated lagoons operated in series and designed with a
    total detention time of nineteen days and including a quiescent  zone.
    Nutrient addition is assumed to ensure good biological treatment.  The
    predicted  effluent concentrations are a BOD5_ concentration of 75 mg/1
    and a suspended solids concentration of 100 mg/1.
    
    The overall effects of this alternative, assuming a 70  percent  usage
    of  the  advanced  harvesting  systems,  are  a BOD5_ reduction of 96.8
    percent and a suspended solids reduction of 99.9 percent.
    
    Alternative. H - This alternative  involves  similar  assumptions  with
    regard   to   the   model  plant  as  Alternative  F.   Alternative  H
    incorporates the addition of  a  barometric  condenser  cooling  water
    recirculation  system, with discharge of the blowdown to the cane wash
    water system, and the addition of a biological system in the  form  of
    two  aerated  lagoons  operated  in  series  to  treat  the  resulting
                                        196
    

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    discharge stream.  The design includes a quiescent zone  and  a  total
    detention time of 8.5 days.
    
    Nutrient  addition is assumed to ensure adequate biological treatment.
    The predicted effluent concentrations are a BOD5 concentration  of  75
    mg/1 and a suspended solids concentration of 100 mg/1.
    
    The  overall  effects of this alternative, assuming a 70 percent usage
    of the advanced harvesting systems,  are  a  BOD5  reduction  of  98.1
    percent and a suspended solids reduction of 99.8 percent.
    
    SUBCATEGORY_IV
    
    In  Section  V  the  model  plant  for this subcategory was developed.
    Present end-of-line treatment technology in Subcategory IV consists of
    clarification of all process-generated waste waters and irrigation  or
    total  impoundage  of  the  settled  effluent.   Those factories which
    employ irrigation accomplish a zero discharge  of  waste  water  under
    normal  operating  conditions.  Abnormal conditions occur during times
    of heavy rainfall, and as previously discussed in  this  section,  the
    discharges  are  expected to be quite dilute and indistiguishable from
    normal agricultural runoff.  It is thus felt that the model factory in
    Subcategory IV achieves a zero discharge limitation and no  additional
    control  and  treatment  technology  is  necessary.  Figure 41 shows  a
    schematic diagram of the model factory.
    
    SUBCATEGORY V
    
    As discussed in  Section V, limited data are available  from  which  to
    characterize this sector of the industry.  It was discussed in Section
    V that  the  model plant  for  Subcategory  I is applicable to factories
    which  form  Subcategory  V.   The   same   assumptions  on  which   the
    Subcategory.I model factory was based  are  applied to  subcategory V.
    
    Existing end-of-line treatment technologies are  presented in Table 59,
    ranging  from  irrigation  with factory waste water for  some factories
    located  in arrid regions  to partial  impoundment  or   no  treatment  in
    others.   The  same  control  and  treatment alternatives  applied to the
    Subcategory I model plant  are applicable  in  Subcategory V  as  well.
    Therefore,  the  discussion   in this section pertaining  to control and
    treatment alternatives applied to the  Subcategory  I   model  plant  is
    applicable to Subcategory  V.
                                   200
    

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                                 SECTION VIII
    
                  CQSTJ.^ENERGY_AND__ NON-WATER QUALITY^ASPECTS
    
    This section presents an evaluation of the costs, energy requirements,
    and  non-water  quality  aspects  associated  with  the  treatment and
    control alternatives developed in Section VII in terms  of  the  model
    processes and factories developed in Section V.
    
    In  absence of complete cost information for individual processes, the
    cost figures developed  herein  are  based  on  reliable  actual  cost
    figures  reported  for  various installations coupled with engineering
    estimates.  An estimate completely applicable to  all  members  of  an
    entire  industry  is  obviously  impossible.  For instance, it .must be
    realized,that land costs vary widely.  Construction cost, in terms  of
    both  labor  and  material  costs,  is  another element that is highly
    variable. The costs presented  herein  have  been  developed  for  the
    different  industry  subcategories,  rather  than the entire industry,
    thus reducing some of the variability expected in costs.
    
    The following assumptions are common for all of the cost estimates  in
    this section:
    
    1.  All costs are reported in August 1971 dollars.
    
    2.  Annual interest rate for capital cost is assumed at 8 percent.
    
    3=   All  investment cost is depreciated over a period of twenty years
    except for trucks and bulldozers which are depreciated over ten years.
    
    1.  salvage value is assumed to be zero at the end of the depreciation
    period.                                                   *
    
    5.  Depreciation is straight line.
    
    6.  Total    Yearly Cost  =  (Investment  cost /2)   (0.08)  +  Yearly
    Depreciation Cost + Yearly Operating Cost.
    
    
    SUBCATEGORY_I
    
    A  model  factory  representative  of  Subcategbry  I  factories   was
    developed in Section V for the purpose of applying various control and
    treatment  alternatives  which  are applicable to reduce the resulting
    waste loadings  from  the  model  factory.   Eight  alternatives  were
    selected  in Section VII as being applicable engineering alternatives.
    These alternatives provide for various levels of waste reductions  for
    the  model  factory,  which  grinds  2,730 metric tons  (3,000 tons) of
    gross cane per day.
    

    -------
    Cost and Reduction  Benefits  of  Alternative  Treatment  and  Control
    Technologies for Subcategory. I
    
    In   developing  the  costs  of  the  various  control  and  treatment
    alternatives for Subcategory I,  the  following  specific  assumptions
    were made:
    
         1.  There are 70 grinding days per year.,
    
         2.  Increasing evaporator vessels body height will not require
             reinforcing rings.
    
         3.  Pumping costs for a flow-through cane wash system
             are the same as for a recirculation system*
    
         4.  Contract labor is assumed at $12.25/hr.
    
         5.  Plant labor is assumed at $4.00/hr.
    
         6.  Excavation costs are assumed to be $1.67/cu.m  ($1.26/cu.yd).
    
         7.  Clearing and grubbing are assumed to be $2,070/ha ($840/acre).
    
         8.  Grading costs are assumed to be $3,110/ha  ($1,260/acre).
    
         9.  Embankment costs are assumed to be $1.67/cu.m  ($1.26/cu.yd).
    
        10.  Dredging costs are assumed to be $0.67/cu.m . ($0.51/cu.yd).
    
        11.  Truck loading costs are assumed to be $0.78/cu.m  ($0.59/cu.yd)
    
        12.  Truck hauling is done on a contract basis and  therefore no
             capital investment is required for trucks.
    
        13.  Truck hauling costs are assumed to be $0.40/cu.m - kilometer
              ($0.49/cu.yd - mile).
    
        14.  Truck hauling distances of from 2.41 to 16.1 kilometers
              (1.5 to 10 miles) per round trip are assumed.
    
        15.  Electrical costs are assumed to be $0.023 per  kilowatt-hr.
    
    Alternative	A  -  This  alternative  assumes  no  added treatment and
    therefore no reduction in the waste loading.  It is estimated that the
    effluent from a 2,730 metric tons  (3000 tons) of gross  cane  per  day
    factory  is  45,800  cubic nteters  (12.1 million gallons) per day.  The
    BOD5 waste loading is 2.08 kilograms per metric ton  (4.16  pounds  per
    ton) of gross cane and the suspended solids loading is  17.56 kilograms
    per metric ton (35.1 pounds per ton) of gross cane.
                                   204
    

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         Costs:               0
         Reduction Benefits:  None
    
    Alternative	B  -   This alternative consists of adding those in-plant
    modifications~which may or may not  be  practiced  at  the  individual
    factories  which  would  enable  a  factory  to  attain  the  level of
    technology typified by the model factory.   These  procedures  include
    the  dry  hauling  or  impoundage  of  filter  mud, the dry hauling or
    impoundage of boiler ash, and the addition of entrainment controls for
    evaporators and vacuum pans.  The  following  measures  are  taken  to
    achieve  a  reduction in sucrose entrainment into barometric condenser
    cooling water:
    
         - proper operation and good maintenance of entrainment controls
         - improved baffling in evaporators and pans
         - monitoring of barometric condenser cooling water
         - increase vapor height in evaporators and pans
         - addition of centrifugal separators to evaporators and pans
         - addition of external separators for the last effect evaporators
    
    Not  all   factories  which  experience  high  loses  of  sucrose  into
    barometric condenser  cooling  water  would have to employ all of the
    techniques listed above, but would in all probability utilize  certain
    of these procedures.
    
    The  resulting  3OD5  waste  loading  is 2.08 kilograms per metric ton
     (4.16 pounds  per ton) of gross cane and the suspended  solids  loading
    is 17.56 kilograms per metric ton  (35.1 pounds per ton) of gross cane.
    Alternative   B-l:
    Cooling Water.
           Reduction of Entrainment into Barometric Condenser
          Costs:   Incremental  Investment Cost:
                  Incremental  Yearly Cost:
                  Sugar and Molasses Savings:
    
     Alternative,!^!;   Dry Hauling of Filter Cake.
    
          Costs:   incremental  Investment Cost:
                  Incremental  Yearly Cost:
                                      $120,000
                                        27,800
                                        41,200
                                       $37,800
                                        16,400
     Alternative B-3;   Impoundage of Filter Mud Slurry.
    
          Costs
    Incremental Investment Cost:
    Incremental Yearly cost:
     Alternative B-4;  Dry Hauling of Ash.
    
          Costs:  Incremental Investment Cost:
                  Incremental Yearly cost:
    $50,200
      8,900
                                       $31,100
                                         8,600
                                   205
    

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     M£ernative_B;z5:  Impoundage of Ash Slurry.
    
          Costs:   Incremental Investment Cost:
                  Incremental Yearly Cost:
                          $44,500
                            7,800
     Itemized cost breakdowns for Alternatives B-l through B-5 are presented
     in Tables 61 through 68.
          Reduction Benefits:
    The reduction benefits for Alternative B
    involve BOD5 and suspended solids
    reductions to the levels typified by
    .the model plant.
    Alternative C  -  This alternative  involves  the   use   of   sedimentation
    ponds   to  settle   all  of  the  waste  water discharge  streams  except
    barometric  condenser  cooling  water  and  excess   condensate.     The
    resulting  BOD5  waste  loading is  2.08 kilograms per metric  ton (4.16
    pounds  per ton)  of  gross cane and the suspended  solids loading is  2.51
    kilograms per  metric ton (5.02  pounds per ton) of gross  cane.
    
         Costs:  Incremental Investment Cost:          $ 75,700
                 Incremental Yearly Cost:        26,200 - 64,600
                 Total Investment Cost:
                 Total Yearly cost:
                              $75,700
                      26,200 - 64,600
    An itemized cost breakdown for Alternative C is presented in Table 69.
    
         Reduction Benefits:  The reduction benefits for Alternative C
                              involve a suspended solids reduction of 85.7
                              percent.  The incremental reductions due
                              to Alternative c are assumed to be 0.0
                              percent for BOD5 and 85.7 percent for
                              suspended solids.
    
    Alternative D  -  This  alternative  involves  the  treatment  of  the
    effluent  from  the  settling pond,  discussed in Alternative C, in an
    oxidation pond designed for total detention of the  waste  stream  for
    the entire grinding season.  The resulting BOD5 loading is expected to
    be  less  than  0.63 kilograms per metric ton (1.26 pounds per ton)  of
    gross cane and the suspended solids loading is  expected  to  be  less
    than  0.47  kilograms  per  metric  ton (0.94 pounds per ton)  of gross
    cane.                         *    -   •
         Costs:  Incremental Investment Cost:
                 Incremental Yearly Cost:
    
                 Total Investment Cost:
                 Total Yearly Cost
                           $383,000
                              47,200
    
                           $459,000
                   73,400 - 112,000
                                   206
    

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                                   TABLE  64
    
                           ITEMIZED COST SUMMARY OF
                      ALTERNATIVE B-l FOR SUBCATEGORY I
    Investment Costs
    
         Items:  1.  Improved Baffling                       $  6,000
                 2.  Monitoring Equipment                       3,600
                 3.  Increase Vapor Height                     16,000
                 4.  Centrifugal Separators For Evaporators    30,000
                 5.  Centrifugal Separators For Pans           23,000
                 6.  External Separators                       20,000
                 7.  Engineering                               11,000
                 8.  Contingencies                             10.000
    
                     Total Cost                              $119,600
    Operating Costs
    
         Items:   1.
    Yearly Costs
    
         I terns:
    Operating and Maintenance
    
    Total Cost
    Operating Cost
    Investment Cost
    Depreciation Cost
                 4.   Annual  Sugar and Molasses Savings
    
                     Total  Cost
    $ 17,000
    
    $ 17,000
    $ 17,000
       4,780
       5,980
     (41.200)
    
    $(13,400)
                                     207
    

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                                   TABLE 65
                           ITEMIZED COST SUMMARY OF
                      ALTERNATIVE B-2 FOR SUBCATEGORY I
    Investment Costs
         Items:  1.  Mud Storage Bin
                 2.  Conveyor
                     Total Cost
                                           $ 26,900
                                             10.900
                                           $ 37,800
    Operating Costs
         Items:  1.  Operating A Maintenance
                     Total Cost
                                           $ 13.000
                                           $ 13,000
    Yearly Costs
         Items:
    1.  Operating Cost
    2.  Investment Cost
    3.  Depreciation Cost
        Total Cost
    $ 13,000
       1,500
       1.900
    $ 16,400
                                   208
    

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                                   TABLE  66
    
                            ITEMIZED COST SUMMARY OF
                      ALTERNATIVE B-3 FOR SUBCATEGORY  I
     Investment Costs
    
         Items:  1.  Pump, pipes, electrical
                 2.  Pond (Installed)
                 3.  Contingencies
                 4.  Engineering
    
                     Total Cost
                                                   $ 12,000
                                                     29,500
                                                      4,150
                                                      4.570
    
                                                   $ 50,200
    Operating Costs
    
         Items:  1.  Operating & Maintenance
                 2.  Power
    
                     Total Cost
                                                   $  4,180
                                                        180
    
                                                   $  4,360
    Yearly Costs
    
         Items:
    1.  Operating Cost
    2.  Investment Cost
    3.  Depreciation Cost
    
        Total Cost
    $  4,360
       2,000
       2.500
        •*. '
    
    $  8,860
    Land:
                                                                   1.46 hectares
                                     209
    

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                                   TABLE 67
                           ITEMIZED COST SUMMARY OF
                      ALTERNATIVE B-4 FOR SUBCATE60RY I
    Investment Costs
         Items:  1.  Ash Storage Bin
                 2.  Conveyor
                     Total Cost
                                                 $ 20,200
                                                   10.900
                                                 $ 31,100
    Operating Costs
         Items:  1.  Operating & Maintenance
                     Total Cost
                                                 $  5.800
                                                 $  5,800
    Yearly Costs
         Items:
    1.  Operating Cost
    2.  Investment Cost
    3.  Depreciation Cost
        Total Cost
    $  5,800
       1,240
       1.560
    $~  8,600
                                      210
    

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                                   TABLE 68
                           ITEMIZED COST SUMMARY OF
                      ALTERNATIVE B-5 FOR SUBCATEGORY I
    Investment Costs
    
         Items:  1.  Pump, pipes, electrical
                 2.  Pond (Installed)
                 3.  Contingencies
                 4.  Engineering
    
                     Total Cost
                                                $ 12,000
                                                  24,800
                                                   3,680
                                                   4.050
    
                                                $ 44,500
    Operating Costs
    
         Items:  1.  Operating & Maintenance
                 2.  Power
    
                     Total Cost
                                                $  3,580
                                                     180
    
                                                $  3,760
    Yearly Costs
    
         Items:
    1.  Operating Cost
    2.  Investment Cost
    3.  Depreciation Cost
    
        Total Cost
    $  3,760
       1,780
       2.230
    
    $  7>70
     Land:
                                                   1.22  hectares
                                    211
    

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                                   TABLE  69
                           ITEMIZED COST SUMMARY OF
                       ALTERNATIVE C FOR SUBCATEGORY I
    Investment Costs
         Items:   1.   Ponds
                 2.   Contingencies
                 3.   Engineering
                     Total Cost
                                             $ 62,500
                                                6,250
                                                6.900
                                             $ 75,650
    Operating Costs
         Items:  1.  Maintenance
                 2.  Solids Handling
                     Total Cost
                                             $    840
                                               18,600 - 57.000
                                             $ 19,400 - 57,800
    Yearly Costs
         Items:  1.
                 2.
                 3.
    Operating Cost
    Investment Cost
    Depreciation Cost
    Total Cost
    $ 19,400
       3,030
       3.780
    - 57,800
                                                              $ 26,200 - 64,600
    Land:
                                               1.62 hectares
                                      212
    

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    An itemized dost breakdown for Alternative D is presented in Table 70.
         Reduction Benefits:
                              The reduction benefits for Alternative D
                              involve a BOD5 reduction of greater than 69.7
                              percent and a suspended solids reduction
                              of greater than 97.3 percent.  The incremental
                              reductions due to Alternative D are 69.7
                              percent for BCD5 and 11.6 percent for suspended
                              solids.
    
    Alternative E  -  This  alternative  involves  the  treatment  of  the
    effluent  from  the  settling  pond, discussed in Alternative C, in an
    aerated lagoon designed with a quiescent zone and  a  total  detention
    time  of  9.5  days.  The resulting BODJ5 loading is 0.63 kilograms per
    metric ton (1.26 pounds per ton)  of  gross  cane  and  the  suspended
    solids  loading is 0.47 kilograms per metric ton (0.94 pounds per ton)
    of gross cane*
         Costs:  Incremental Investment Cost:
                 Incremental Yearly Cost:
    
                 Total Investment Cost:
                 Total Yearly Cost:
                                                      $393,000
                                                        56,700
    
                                                      $469,000
                                             82,900 -  121,000
    An itemized cost breakdown for Alternative E is presented in Table 71.
         Reduction Benefits:
                              The reduction benefits for Alternative E
                              involve a BOD5 reduction of 69.7 percent and
                              a suspended solids reduction of 97.3 percent.
                              The incremental reductions due to Alternative
                              D are 69.7 percent for BOD5 and 11.6 percent
                              for suspended solids.            «
    
    Alternative F  - This alternative involves the use of a settling  pond
    to  settle  and  recycle  the  cane wash water.  The blowdown from the
    recycle system is contained in an oxidation pond for the entire season
    and discharged after the season to assure  waste  stabilization.   The
    resulting  BOD5  waste  loading is 0.53 kilograms per metric ton  (1.06
    pounds per ton) of gross cane 'and  the  suspended  solids  loading  is
    0.080 kilograms per metric ton  (0.16 pounds per ton) of gross cane.
         Costs:  Incremental  Investment cost:
                 Incremental  Yearly Cost:
    
                 Total Investment Cost:
                 Total Yearly Cost:
                                                        $199,000
                                                58,500 - 104,000
    
                                                        $199,000
                                                58,500 - 104,000
    An  itemized cost breakdown  for Alternative  F  is  presented  in Table  72.
                                    213
    

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                                   TABLE  70
    
                           ITEMIZED COST  SUMMARY OF
                       ALTERNATIVE D FOR  SUBCATEGORY I
    Investment Costs
    
         Items:  1.   Pond
                 2.   Pump,  Sump and Piping
                 3.   Contingencies
                 4.   Engineering
    
                     Total  Cost
                                            $ 308,000
                                                8,600
                                               31,700
                                               34.800
    
                                            $ 383,100
    Operating Costs
    
         Items:  1.  Operation & Maintenance
                 2.  ChemicaT Cost
                 3.  Power Cost
    
                     Total Cost
                                                8,900
                                                2,900
                                                  870
                                            $  12,700
    Yearly Costs
    
         Items:
    1.  Operating Cost
    2.  Investment Cost
    3.  Depreciation Cost
    
        Total Cost
    $  12,700
       15,300
       19,200
    
    $  47,200
    Land:
                                               83 hectares
                                      214
    

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                                   TABLE  71
    
                           ITEMIZED COST SUMMARY OF
                       ALTERNATIVE E FOR SUBCATEGORY I
     Investment Costs
    
         Items:  1.  Aerated Lagoon
                 2.  Pump, Sump and Piping
                 3.  Contingencies
                 4.  Engineering
    
                     Total Cost
                                             $316,000
                                                8,600
                                               32,500
                                               35,700
    
                                             $393,000
    Operating Costs
    
         Items:  1.  Operation & Maintenance
                 2.  Chemical Cost
                 3.  Power Cost
    
                     Total Cost
                                             $ 11,700
                                                2,900
                                                6,700
    
                                             $ 21,300
    Yearly Costs
    
         Items:  1.
                 2.
                 3.
    .Operating Cost
    Investment Cost
    Depreciation Cost
    
    Total Cost
    $ 21,300
      15 ,,700
      19,700
    
    $ 56,700
    Land:
                                                                5.3 hectares
                                        215
    

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                                   TABLE 72
    
                          .ITEMIZED COST SUMMARY OF
                       ALTERNATIVE F FOR SUBCATEGORY I
    Investment Costs
    
         Items:  1.  Settling Ponds
                 2.  Cane Wash Recycle System
                 3.  Oxidation Pond
                 4.  Contingencies
                 5.  Engineering
    
                     Total Cost
                                                $ 62,500
                                                  60,700
                                                  41,600
                                                  16,500
                                                  18.100
    
                                                $199,400
    Operating Costs
         Items:
    1.
    2.
    3.
    4.
    Settling Pond Maintenance
    Cane Wash Recycle Maintenance
    Oxidation Pond Maintenance
    Power Cost
    
    Total Cost
    $ 22,900 - 68,600
      13,500
       3,400
         730	
    
    $ 40,500 - 86,200
    Yearly Costs
    
          Items:  1.
                ' 2.
                 3.
        Operating Cost
        Investment Cost
        Depreciation Cost
    
        Total Cost
                                            $ 40,500 - 86,200
                                               8,000
                                              10,000	
    
                                            $ 58,500 -104,200
     Land:
                                                               6.7 hectares
                                      216
    

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          Reduction Benefits:
                              The reduction benefits for Alternative F
                              involve a BOD5 reduction of 74.5 percent and
                              a suspended solids reduction of 99.5 percent.
                              The incremental reductions due to Alternative
                              F are 7U.5 percent for BODS and 99.5 percent
                              for suspended solids.     ~
    Alternative
    	~  - This alternative involves the recycle of barometric
    condenser cooling water and cane wash water.  The  blowdown  from  the
    barometric condenser cooling water recycle system is assumed to be the
    makeup  to  the cane wash recirculation system.  The blowdown from the
    cane wash recirculation system and the miscellaneous waste streams are
    treated  in  an  oxidation  pond,  designed  with  a  detention   time
    equivalent  to  the entire season, and discharged after stabilisation.
                _ BOD5 waste loading is 0.050  kilograms  per  metric  ton
       o n«n°I^?S  Per t0n) °f gr°SS Cane and the susPended solids loading
       0.080 kilograms per metric ton (0.16 pounds per ton)  of gross cane.
         Costs:   Incremental  Investment Cost:
                  Incremental  Yearly Cost:
    
                  Total Investment Cost:
                  Total Yearly cost:
                                                       $389,000
                                               92,200 - 138,000
    
                                                       $389,000
                                               92,200 - 138,000
    An itemized cost breakdown for Alternative G is presented in Table 73.
    
         Reduction Benefits:  The reduction benefits for Alternative G
                              involve a BODS reduction of 97;6 percent
                              and a suspended solids reduction of 99.5
                              percent.  The incremental reductions due
                              to Alternative G are 97.6 percent for BODS
                              and 99.5 percent for suspended solids.
    
    Alt|rnative_H_ - This alternative involves the recycle  of  barometric
    condenser  cooling  water  and cane wash water.  The blowdown from the
    barometric condenser cooling water recirculation system is assumed  to
    SSrvn Si  makeup  *°  t*6 cane wash recirculation system.  The blowdown
    from the cane wash recirculation system and  the  miscellaneous  waste
    !£?™L "fh trf^6? .in  tw°  aerated  lagoons  operated  in series,
    designed with a total detention time of 28 days and with  a  quiescent
    ^ne',n -J   re;!ultln9 BOD5- waste loading is 0.050 kilograms per metric
    iSdin;  iS°Uo n«SeV?n) °f  grQSS  Cane  and  the  suspendSd  solids
    loading  is  0.080  kilograms  per metric ton (0.16 pounds per ton)  of
    ylTOSS C3.D.6*
    
         Costs:  Incremental Investment Cost:          $525,000
                 Incremental Yearly Cost:     126,000 - 171,000
                 Total Investment Cost:
                 Total Yearly Cost:
                                                       $525,000
                                              126,000  - 171,000
                                  217
    

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                                   TABLE  73
    
                           ITEMIZED COST SUMMARY OF
                       ALTERNATIVE 6 FOR SUBCATE60RY I
    Investment Costs
    
         Items:  1.  Settling Ponds
                 2.  Cane Wash Recycle System
                 3.  Barometric Condenser Cooling
                      Water Recirculation System
                 4.  Oxidation Pond
                 5.  Contingencies
                 6.  Engineering
    
                     Total Cost
                                                $ 62,500
                                                  60,700
    
                                                 155,000
                                                  43,200
                                                  32,100
                                                  35,400
    
                                                $388,900
    Operating Costs
         Items;
    1.
    2.
    3.
    
    4.
    5.
    Settling Pond Maintenance
    Cane Wash Recycle Maintenance
    Condenser Recirculation Maintenance
     & Operation
    Oxidation Pond Maintenance
    Power Cost
    
    Total Cost
    $ 22,900
      13,500
    
      10,700
       3,400
       6,700
    -  68,600
                                                             $ 57,200 - 102,900
    Yearly Costs
    
         Items:
    1.   Operating Cost
    2.   Investment Cost
    3.   Depreciation Cost
    
        Total Cost
                                            $ 57,200
                                              15,600
                                              19,400
             - 102,900
                                                             $ 92,200 - 137,900
    Land:
                                                  7.1 hectares
                                       218
    

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    An itemized cost breakdown for Alternative H is presented in Table 74.
         Reduction Benefits:
    The reduction benefits for Alternative H in-
    volve a BOD5 reduction of 97.6 percent and a
    suspended solids reduction of 99.5 percent.
    The incremental reductions due to Alternative-
    H are 97.6 percent for BOD5 and 99.5 percent
    for suspended solids.
    A summary of the costs for all of the
    Table 75.
                 alternatives  is  presented  in
    Related  Energy,  Requirements  of  Alternative  Treatment  and Control
    Technologies for Subcategorg I                                      ~
    
    Table  76  illustrates  the  estimated  energy  requirements  for  the
    application of the various treatment alternatives to the Subcategory I
    model  factory.   Energy requirements in the form of electrical energy
    needed for the operation of pumps, aerators, and  spray  nozzels,  and
    the  energy  required  for the disposal of solid wastes is compared to
    the overall energy requirements of the model  factory.   In  order . to
    place  the  energy  requirements of the various alternatives in proper
    perspective, it should be noted  that  a  typical  2,730  metric  tons
    (3,000  tons)  of  gross  cane  per  day factory consumes 3.15 million
    kilowatt-hours of  electricity  per  year  and  requires  110  million
    kilograms  (2U2 million pounds) of steam per year.  In the estimate of
    total factory energy requirements, no allowance was made for usage  of
    fuel  associated  with the harvesting and transportation of sugarcane.
    Therefore, the percentage increases in energy  requirements  presented
    in  Table  76  are  .considered  to be the maximum requirements for the
    application  of  the  various  treatment  alternatives  at^ the  model
    factory.                                                  *
    
    As  shown in Table 76, the two major uses of energy resulting from the
    application of the various treatment  alternatives  by  Subcategory  I
    factories  are the recirculation of barometric condenser cooling water
    and the use of aerated lagoons as a treatment method.  Alternatives E,
    G, and H require substantially greater energy  usage  than  the  other
    alternatives.   Of  these  alternatives.  Alternative H employs both a
    barometric condenser cooling water recirculation system and an aerated
    lagoon and would be the largest user of energy.
    
    SUBCATEGORY II                                    :
    
    A  model  factory  representative  of  Subcategory  II  factories  was
    developed  in  Section  V  and  existing  control  and  treatment  was
    established and considered as part of the model plant because  of  its
    universal practice.  As a result, it was concluded in Section VII that
                                  219
    

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                                    TABLE 74
    
                            ITEMIZED COST SUMMARY OF
                        ALTERNATIVE H FOR SUBCATEGORY I
     Investment Costs
          Items:   1.   Settling Ponds                          $  62,500
                  2.   Cane Wash Recycle  System                 60,700
                  3.   Barometric Condenser Cooling  Water
                       Recirculation  System                  155,000
                  4.   Aerated Lagoon                          155,700
                  5.   Contingencies                             43,400
                  6.   Engineering                              47,700
    
                      Total  Cost                             $525,000
    Operating Costs
          Items:
    1,
    2.
    3.
    Settling Pond Maintenance
    Cane Wash Recycle Maintenance
    Condenser Recirculation Maintenance
     & Operation
    Aerated Lagoon Maintenance
     & Operation
    Power Requirements
    
    Total Cost
    $ 22,900
      13,500
    
      10,700
    
      12,700
     18.600
                                                                     -  68,600
                                                            $ 78,400 - 124,100
    Yearly Costs
    
         Items:
    1.  Operating Cost
    2.  Investment Cost
    3.  Depreciation Cost
    
        Total Cost
                                           $ 78,400
                                             21,000
                                             26,300
                                                                     - 124,100
                                                            $125,700 - 171,400
    Land:
                                                             2.8 hectares
                                     220
    

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                                     TABLE 75
    
                           SUMMARY OF ALTERNATIVE COSTS
                           MODEL PLANT — SUBCATEGORY I
    Alternative
    A
    B
    C
    D
    E
    F
    G
    H
    BODS Loading*
    (k?/kkg)
    2.08
    2.08
    2.08
    0.63
    0.63
    0.53
    0.050
    0.050
    TSS Loading*
    (kg/kkg)
    17.56
    17.56
    2.51
    0.47
    0.47
    0.080
    0.080
    0.080
    Total Investment
    Cost
    $ 0
    189,000
    75,700
    459,000
    469,000
    199,000
    389,000
    525,000
    Total Yearly
    Cost-
    $0
    11,600
    26,200- 64,600
    73,400-112,000
    82,900-121,000
    58,500-104,000
    92,200-138,000
    126,000-171,000
    *Gross Cane Basis.
                                       221
    

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                   TABLE 76
    
    YEARLY ENERGY USAGE FOR MODEL FACTORY
                SUBCATEGORY I
    
    Alternative
    A
    B-l
    B-2
    B-3
    B-4
    B-5
    C
    D
    E
    F
    G
    H
    Power Usage
    (kw-hr/yr)
    0
    0
    0
    7,830
    0
    7,83.0
    •0'
    ; 37,800
    291,000 '
    31,700
    291 ,000
    809,000
    Gasoline Usage
    (liters/yr)
    ' •=' . 0
    0_
    3,310,
    , • o
    1 ,060
    •• -.0
    • 3,310-22>,TOO
    - 3,310-22',100
    '3,310-22,100
    3,970-26,500
    3,970-26,500
    3,970-26,500
    Percent of Total
    Energy Requirement
    '" •' ,- 0%
    0
    0.035
    0.021
    0.011
    0.021
    0.035-0.23
    0.14 -0.33
    V0.84 -1.06
    0.13 -0.36
    0.84 -1.07
    2.24 -2.47
                     222
    

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     the   model   factory  attains   a  certain  level  of treatment and that no
     significant  reduction benefits can  be achieved by the  application . of
     control  and  treatment schemes.
    
     Cost  and  Reduction   Benefits  of   Alternative  Treatment and Control
     Alternatives  for Subcategory  II                                 ~	
    
     For the  model  factory developed  as  representative of   Subcategory  II,
     it  is   concluded  that no  further control  and  treatment is required to
     achieve  a zero discharge limitation and  therefore no  additional  costs
     of control and treatment are  incurred.
    
     Related  Energy  Requirements of   Alternative  Treatment   and Control
     Technologies  for Subcategory  II                                 	
    
     Since no further control and  treatment is  required,   no added  enerav
     requirements  are incurred.
    
     SUBCATEGORY III
    
     A  model  factory   representative   of Subcategory III factories was
     developed in  Section  V for the purpose of  applying various control and
     treatment alternatives which  are available to  reduce  the resulting
     waste  loadings  from the  model   factory.    Eight   alternatives were
     selected in Section VII as being applicable engineering alternatives.
     These  alternatives provide for various  levels of waste reductions for
     the model factory,  which grinds 3,340 metric tons (3,675 tons)  of  net
     cane per day or 6,680  metric  tons (7,350 tons)  of gross cane per day.
    
     Cost  and  Reduction   Benefits  of  Alternative  Treatment and Control
     Technologies for Subcategory  III
             •~   -n-.—n~.--.-iiH 	 	"I" '	i  • mill IHII ilni  i	im
    
     In  developing  the  costs  of  the   various   control  and  treatment
     alternatives  for   Subcategory III, the  following specific assumptions
    were made:
    
     1.  There are 250 grinding days per year.
    
     2.  Plant labor is  assumed to be $5.88/hr.
    
    3.   Excavation  and   the  costs  associated   with   construction  of
    impoundments is assumed to be $3.30/cu.m ($2.52/cu.yd).
    
    4.  Truck hauling is done in-house.
    
    5*«  The. COSt  of  °Eerating  trucks is assumed to be  $0.13/kilometer
     ($0.21/mi).
    
    6.  A truck hauling distance of 16.1 kilometers  (10 miles)   is  assumed.
                                   223
    

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    7.  Disposal of muds and ash on land is to  a  depth  of  1.22  meters
    (four feet) and, if cane fields are employed for this purpose, it puts
    land out of service for three years.
    
    8.   Disposal  of  trash  on land is to a depth of 1.5 meters (5 feet)
    and, if cane fields are used for this purpose, it  puts  land  out  of
    service for five years.
    
    9.  Cane fields used for disposal of solid waste are leased at $622/ha
    ($252/acre).
    
    10.  Electrical costs are assumed to be $0.023 per kilowatt-hr.
    
    11.  All investment costs include engineering and contingencies.
    
    Alternative A - This alternative assumes no treatment and therefore no
    reduction  in  the  waste loadings.  It is estimated that the effluent
    from a 3,340 metric ton (3,675 tons) of net cane per  day  factory  is
    42,300  cubic  meters  (11.2  million  gallons) per day.  The BOD5 raw
    waste loading is 12.3 kilograms per metric ton  (24.6 pounds  per  ton)
    of  net  cane  and  the  suspended  solids  raw  waste  loading is 194
    kilograms per metric ton (388 pounds per ton) of net cane.
    
         Costs:               0
         Reduction Benefits:  0
    
    Should an individual factory not attain  that  degree  of  control  of
    entrainment  of  sucrose into barometric condenser cooling water which
    is exhibited by the model factory, a  reduction  of  BOD5  entrainment
    into  barometric  condenser  cooling  water is necessary.  This can be
    accomplished by the following procedures:
    
               T  Good maintenance and proper operation
               -  Monitoring o.f barometric condenser cooling water
                  Addition of centrifugal separators to the evaporators
                  and vacuum pans
               -  Addition of external separators to the evaporators
    
    The addition of these control measures allows for a reduction  in  the
    amount  of  BOD5  discharged  to  those  levels  typified by the model
    factory.  The reduction of BOD5. into the barometric condenser  cooling
    water increases sucrose and molasses production.
    Alternative  A-l:
    Cooling Water.
    Reduction of Entrainment into Barometric Condenser
         Costs:  Incremental Investment Cost:      $117,900
                 Incremental Yearly Cost:            37,500
                 Sugar and Molasses Savings:         24,700
                                   224
    

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    An itemized cost breakdown for Alternative A-l is presented in Table
    77.
         Reduction Benefits:
                 The reduction benefits for Alternative A
                 involve reductions in the raw waste loadings
                 to that level typified by the model factory.
    Alternative  B:   This  alternative  involves  the  use  of   in-plant
    modifications~to allow for the filter cake, boiler ashes, and trash to
    be  dry-hauled.   This  alternative consists of the following in-plant
    modifications:  (a) B-l: dry hauling  of  filter  cake,   (b)  B-2:  dry
    hauling of boiler ash, and (c) B-3: screening and hauling of trash.
    
    The  resulting  BOD5  waste  loading  is 10.0 kilograms  per metric ton
     (20.0 pounds per ton) of net cane and the suspended solids loading  is
    170 kilograms per metric ton  (340 pounds per ton) of net cane.
    Alternative B-l
    
         Costs:
         Dry Hauling of Filter Cake.
    Incremental Investment Cost:
    Incremental Yearly Cost:
    Alternative B-2;  Dry Hauling of Boiler Ash.
    
         Costs:   Incremental Investment cost:
                  Incremental Yearly Cost:
    $112,000
      41,800
                                       $112,000
                                         41,800
    Alternative B-3;   Screening  and Hauling of Trash.
         Costs:   Incremental  Investment cost:
                  Incremental  Yearly Cost:
                                       $386,000
                                        196,000
    An  itemized cost breakdown for Alternative  B  is  presented in Tables  78
    through  80.
         Reduction Benefits:
                 The reduction benefits for Alternative B
                 involve a BOD5 reduction of 18.7X and a sus-
                 pended solids reduction of 12.4%.
     Alternative	C_  -  This alternative involves clarification of the cane
     wash  water   and miscellaneous  waste  streams,    employing   polymer
     addition.    No  BOD5 removal is assumed although  removals on the order
     of  ten to  twenty percent would be expected to  occur.    The  resulting
     BOD5  waste   loading is 10.0 kilograms per metric ton  (20.0 pounds per
     tonj of net  cane and the suspended solids loading is 2.1 kilograms per
     metric ton (4.2 pounds per ton)  of net cane.
          Costs:   Incremental Investment Cost:
                  Incremental Yearly Cost:
                                  $1,594,000
                                     555,000
                                     225
    

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                                   TABLE  77
    
                           ITEMIZED COST SUMMARY OF
                     ALTERNATIVE A-l FOR SUBCATEGORY III
    Investment Costs
    
          Items
    1.  Monitoring Equipment
    2.  Centrifugal Separators for
         Evaporators
    3.  Centrifugal Separators for Pans
    4.  External Separators
    
        TOTAL COST
      $ 5,540
    
       45,800
       35,100
       30.500
                                                               $116,900
    Operating Costs
    
          Items:  1.  Operating & Maintenance
    
                      TOTAL COST
                                                $ 27,000
                                                $ 27,000
    Yearly Costs
    
          Items:
    1.  Operating Cost
    2.  Investment Cost
    3.  Depreciation Cost
    4.  Annual Sugar & Molasses
    
        TOTAL COST
    $ 27,000
       4,680
      , 5,850
     (24.700)
                                                              $ 12,800
                                      226
    

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                        ,    .  ,    .TABLE  78
    
                           ITEMIZED COST SUMMARY OF
                     ALTERNATIVE B-l FOR SUBCATE60RY III
    Investment Costs
         Items;
    1.
    2,
    3,
    Mud Storage Bin
    Conveyor
    Truck (1)
    
    Total Cost
    $ 50,400
      10,900
      50.400
    
    $111,700
    Operating Costs
    
         Items:   1.
                  2.
        Labor.
        Operation & Maintenance
    
        Total Cost
                                       $ 23,500
                                          7,400
    
                                       $ 30,900
    Yearly Costs
    
         Items:   1.
                  2.
                  3.
    Land:
        Operating Cost
        Investment Cpst
        Depreciation Cost
    
        Total Cost
                                         30,900
                                          2,790
                                          8,110
                                        $  41,800
    
                                       $0-7,400/yr.
                                 227
    

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                                   TABLE  79
    
                           ITEMIZED COST SUMMARY OF
                     ALTERNATIVE B-2 FOR SUBCATEGORY III
    Investment Costs
         Items:
    1.
    2.
    Mud Storage Bin
    Conveyor
                  3.  Truck, (1)
    
                      Total Cost
    $ 50,400
      10,900
      50.400
    
    $111,700
    Operating Costs
    
         Items:
    1.
    2.
    Labor
    Operation & Maintenance
    
    Total Cost  ,  -
    $23,500
       7.400
    
    $ 30,900
    Yearly Costs
    
         Items:   1.
                  2.
                  3.
    Land:
        Operating Cost
        Investment Cost
        Depreciation Cost
    
        Total  Cost   1
                                       $ 30,900
                                          2,790
                                          8.110
    
                                       $ 41,800
    
                                       $0-7,400/yr.
                                      228
    

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                                   TABLE  80
    
                           ITEMIZED COST  SUMMARY OF
                     ALTERNATIVE B-3 FOR  SUBCATEGORY  III
    Investment Costs
    
         Items:   1.  Screens
                  2.  Tractors & Trailers (3)
                  3.  Bulldozer
    
                      Total  Cost
                                           $ 42,000
                                            277,000
                                             67,200
    
                                           $386,000
    Operating Costs
         Items:
    1.
    2.
    Labor
    Operation & Maintenance
    
    Total Cost
    $118,000
      32.200
    
    $150,000
    Yearly Costs
    
         Items:
    1.  Operating Cost
    2..  Investment Cost
    3.  Depreciation Cost
    
        Total Cost
                                       $150,000
                                          9,700
                                         36.300
    
                                       $196,000
    Land:
                                           $0-88,500/yr.
                                    229
    

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                  Total Investment Cost:
                  Total Yearly Cost:
    $2,200,000
       835,000
     An itemized cost breakdown for Alternative C is presented in Table 81.
    
          Reduction Benefits:   The reduction benefits for Alternative C
                               involve a BOD5 reduction of 18.7 percent and
                               a suspended solids reduction of 98.9  per-
                               cent.  The incremental reductions due to
                               Alternative c are 0.0 percent for BOD5 and
                               86.5 percent for suspended solids.
    
     Alternative D  -  This  alternative  involves  the  treatment  of  the
     settled wastes in an aerated lagoon.   The resulting BOD5 waste  loading
     is 0.83 kilograms per metric ton (1.63 pounds per ton)  of net cane arid
     the  suspended  solids  loading  is  1.1 kilograms per metric ton (2.2
     pounds per ton)  of net cane.
          Costs:   Incremental  Investment Cost:
                  Incremental  Yearly Cost:
    
                  Total Investment  Cost:
                  Total Yearly Cost:
           $1,180,000
              336,000
    
           $3,380,000
            1,170,000
    An  itemized cost breakdown  for Alternative D is presented in Table 82.
    
         Reduction Benefits:  The reduction benefits for Alternative D
                              involve a BOD5 reduction of 93.3 percent and
                              a suspended solids reduction of 99.4 percent.
                              The incremental reductions due to Alternative D
                              are 74.6 percent for BOD5 and 0.5 percent for
                              suspended solids.
    
    Alternative E  -  This  alternative  involves  the  treatment  of  the
    settled  effluent  in  an activated sludge system.  The resulting BOD5
    waste loading is 0.57 kilograms per metric ton  (1.14 pounds  per  ton)
    of  net  cane,  and the suspended solids loading is 0.61 kilograms per
    metric ton (1.22 pounds per ton) of net cane.
         Costs;  Incremental Investment Cost:
                 Incremental Yearly Cost:
    
                 Total Investment Cost:
                 Total Yearly Cost:
           $2,760,000
             686,000
    
           $4,960,000
           1,520,000
    An itemized cost breakdown for Alternative E is presented in Table 83.
    
         Reduction Benefits:  The reduction benefits for Alternative E in-
                              volve a BOD5 reduction of 95.4 percent and a
                                    230
    

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                                   TABLE  81
    
                           ITEMIZED COST SUMMARY OF
                      ALTERNATIVE C FOR SUBCATEGORY III
    Investment Costs
    
         Items:   1.
                  2.
                  3.
                  4.
                 •5.
                  6.
    Operating Costs
         Items:
    Yearly Cost
    
         Items:
    1.
    2.
    3.
    4.
    5.
    1.
    2.
    3.
        Grit Removal
        Raw Water Pumps & Wet Wells
        Polymer Feeding System
        Heavy Duty Thickener
        Vacuum Filters (8)
        Trucks (4)
    
        Total Cost
    Secondary Screen Maintenance
    Raw Waste Pumps
    Polymer & Polymer Feed System
    Thickener Maintenance
    Vacuum Filters
       Maintenance
       Labor
    Trucks
       Operation & Maintenance
       Truck Labor
    Plant Labor
    
    Total Cost
    Operating Cost
    Investment Cost
    Depreciation
    
    Total Cost
    Land:
                                       $ 42,000
                                         44,000
                                         37,000
                                        328,000
                                        941,000
                                        202,000
    
                                     $1,594,000
    $    840
      22,000
      54,600
       3,300
    
      47,000
      70,600
          •*
    
      37,600
     129,400
      35.300
    
    $401,000
    $401,000
      63,800
      89,800
    
    $555,000
    
    $0-41,700/yr.
                                 231
    

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                                   TABLE  82
    
                           ITEMIZED COST SUMMARY OF
                      ALTERNATIVE D FOR SUBCATE60RY III
    Investment Costs
         Items:
    1.
    2.
    3.
    4.
    Operating Costs
         Items:
    1.
    2.
    3.
    Yearly Costs
    
         Items:
    1.
    2.
    3.
    Aerated Lagoons
    Pump, Sump, Piping
    Contingencies
    Engineering
    
    Total Cost
    Operating & Maintenance
    Chemical Cost
    Power Cost
    
    Total Cost
    Operating Cost
    Investment Cost
    Depreciation
    
    Total Cost
    Land:
     $ 941,000
        31,600
        97,300
       107,000
    
    51,177,000
     $  53,900
        60,800
       115.600
    
     $ 230,000
     $ 230,000
        47,100
        58.900
    
     $ 336,000
    
     $0-6,600/yr.
                                    232
    

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                                   TABLE  83
    
                            ITEMIZED  COST  SUMMARY OF
                      ALTERNATIVE  E  FOR SUBCATEGORY  III
     Investment Costs
          Items:
    1.
    2.
    Activated Sludge System
    Miscellaneous Costs
    
    Total Cost
    $2,520,000
       244.000
    
    $2,760,000
    Operating Costs
    
         Items:   1,
    
                  2,
         Operation & Maintenance of Activated
           Sludge System
         Power Costs
    
         Total Cost
                                                  $  249,000
                                                     189,000
    
                                                  5  438,000
    Yearly Costs
    
         Items:   1,
                  2.
                  3.
         Operating Cost
         Investment Cost
         Depreciation
    
         Total  Cost
                                                  $  438,000
                                                     110,000
                                                     138,000
                                                 i
                                                  $  686,000
    Land:
                                                                    50-1,500/yr.
                                     233
    

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                              suspended solids reduction of 99.7 percent.
                              The incremental reductions due to Alternative
                              E are 76.7 percent for BOD5 and 0.8  percent
                              for suspended solids.
    
    Consideration of the Use TTQ|:„ Advanced Bar vesting mSys terns
    
    As discussed in Section VII, considerable research and development are
    being accomplished at the present time with regard  to  the  usage  of
    advanced  harvesting  systems  capable  of delivering sugarcane to the
    factory mills which can  be  processed  without  the  necessity  of  a
    washing  step.   It is expected that such a system will be employed at
    the Subcategory III factories between 1977 and 1983, and  will  enable
    an  individual factory to eliminate the portion of the cane wash water
    stream  currently  associated  with  that  fraction   (x)  of  the  net
    sugarcane which would be harvested by the advanced systems.  A further
    assumption  is  that the same unit waste loadings as developed for the
    cane wash water discharge stream from the model factory are applicable
    to that portion of the net sugarcane which is  not  harvested  by  the
    advanced systems.
    
    The   following  treatment  alternatives  include  the  aforementioned
    assumption that a fraction  (x) of the net  sugarcane  processed  at  a
    factory   is  harvested  by  the  advanced  harvesting  systems.   The
    following  cost  analysis  assumes  that  70S?  of  the  net  sugarcane
    harvested is harvested by the advanced harvesting systems.
    
    Alternative  F  -   This  alternative  involves  the  assumption  that
    Subcategory III factories will have employed the  currently  developed
    technology  cf  improved  cane harvesting systems.  For the purpose of
    developing costs considered to be representative of this  subcategory,
    it  has  been  assumed that 7056 of the net sugarcane is harvested with
    the advanced systems.  Alternative F involves the biological treatment
    of the settled discharge stream in an aerated lagoon.   The  resulting
    BOD5,  waste  loading  is 0.50 kilograms per metric ton  (1.0 pounds per
    ton) of net cane and the suspended solids loading  is  0.31  kilograms
    per metric ton  (0.62 pounds per ton) of net cane.
         Costs:  Incremental Investment Cost:
                 Incremental Yearly Cost:
                                                       $447,000
                                                        119,000
    An itemized cost breakdown for Alternative F is presented in Table 84.
         Reduction Benefits:
                              The reduction benefits for Alternative F
                              involve a BODJ5 reduction of 95.9 percent
                              and a suspended solids reduction of 99.8
                              percent.
    
    Alternative  G  -  This  alternative involves similar assumptions with
    regard to the model plant as Alternative F.  Alternative G involves  a
                                  234
    

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                                   TABLE  84
    
                           ITEMIZED COST SUMMARY OK
                      ALTERNATIVE F FOR SUBCATEGORY III
    Investment Costs
    
         Items:    1.
                   2.
                   3.
                   4.
         Aerated Lagoons
         Pump, Sump, and Piping
         Contingencies
         Engineering
    
         Total Cost
    $ 349,000
       20,200
       36,900
       40.600
    
    $ 446,700
    Operating Costs
    
         Items:    1,
                   2,
                   3,
         Operation & Maintenance
         Chemical Costs
         Power Costs
    
         Total Cost
    $  23,900
       18,500
       35.900
    
    $  78,300
    Yearly Costs
    
         Items:
    Land:
    1.    Operating Cost
    2.    Investment Cost
    3.    Depreciation
    
         total Cost
    $  78,300
     *  17,900
       22,300
    
    $ 118,500
    
    $0-l,760/yr.
                               235
    

    -------
     cane  wash  water  recirculation  system with discharge of the settled
     twenty percent blowdown and miscellaneous waste water discharge stream
     to an aerated lagoon.    The  resulting  BOD5  waste  loading  is  0.39
     kilograms  per  metric  ton  (0.78 pounds per ton)  of net cane and the
     suspended solids loading is 0.071  kilograms  per  metric  ton  (0.142
     pounds per ton)  of net cane.
          Costs:   Incremental Investment Cost:
                  Incremental Yearly Cost:
                                                   $473,000
                                                    205,000
     An itemized cost breakdown for Alternative G is presented in Table  85.
    
         Reduction Benefits:   The reduction benefits for Alternative G
                               involve a BOD5 reduction of 96.8 percent
                               and a suspended solids reduction of 99.9
                               percent.
    
     Alterative  S  ~ This   alternative involves similar assumptions with
     regard   to   the  model  plant  as  Alternative   F.     Alternative   H
     incorporates  the addition  of  a  barometric condenser  cooling water
     recirculation system with discharge of the blowdown  to the  cane  wash
     water   system,   and  the addition of a biological system in the form of
     an aerated  lagoon to treat.the  settled  cane  wash   water  and  other
     discharge.streams.   The resulting BOD5 waste loading is 0.23 kilograms
     per metric  ton  (0.47   pounds per ton)  of net cane and  the suspended
     solids  loading is 0.31 kilograms per metric ton (0.62 pounds per  ton)
     of net  cane.
         Costs:  Incremental Investment  Cost:
                 Incremental Yearly Cost:
                                                $582,000
                                                 157,000
    An itemized cost breakdown for Alternative H is presented in Table 86
    Reduction Benefits:
                              The reduction benefits for Alternative H
                              involve a BOD5 reduction of 98.1 percent
                              and a suspended solids reduction of 99.8
                              percent.
    An assumption which significantly affects the calculation of the costs
    of  pollution  abatement  to  Subcategory  III  factories involves the
    choice of  a  method  of  disposing  of  solid  wastes  on  the  land.
    Information  presented  in  Tables  77  through 86 includes a range of
    costs  associated  with  land, usage.    At   least   three   distinct
    alternatives  exist.  One alternative would be to assume that existing
    cane fields are taken out of production for varying  periods  of  time
    for   the  purpose  of  pollution  abatement  facilities  or  for  the
    application of solid wastes.  The upper range of values  presented  in
    Tables  77 through 86 assumes that cropland is taken out of production
    (based on the assumptions presented previously in  this  section)  and
    assigns a cost for the leasing of this land.
                                  236
    

    -------
                                   TABLE  85
    
                           ITEMIZED COST  SUMMARY  OF
                      ALTERNATIVE G FOR SUBCATE60RY III
    Investment Costs
         Items:
    1.
    2.
    3.
    4.
    5.
    6.
    Aerated Lagoons
    Pump, Sump, and Piping
    Cane Wash Recirculation System
    Lime Feed & Storage
    Contingencies   ,
    Engineering
    
    Total Cost
    •$  246,000
        20,200
        53,000
        71,400
        39,1.00
        43,000
    
     $  472,700
    Operating Costs
    
         Items:
    1.   Aerated Lagoons O&M                     $  18,800
    2.   Cane Wash Recirculation System O&M         23,400
    3.   Chemical Costs                             84,300
    4.   Power Costs                                35,900
    
         Total Cost                              $ 162,000
    Yearly Costs
    
          Items:
     1.    Operating  Cost
     2.    Investment Cost
     3.    Depreciation
    
          Total  Cost
                                             $ 162,000
                                                18,900
                                                23,600
    
                                             $ 205,000
     Land:
                                                  $0-l,010/yr.
                                237
    

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                                    TABLE 86
    
                            ITEMIZED COST SUMMARY OF
                       ALTERNATIVE H FOR SUBCATE60RY III
     Investment Costs
          Items:
    1.
    2.
    3.
    
    4.
    5.
    Aerated Lagoons
    Pump, Sump, and Piping
    Barometric Condenser Cooling Water
      Recirculation System
    Contingencies
    Engineering
    
    Total Cost
                                                                      $  362,000
                                                                         20,200
    
                                                                         98,300
                                                                         48,100
                                                                         52.900
    
                                                                      $  582,000
    Operating  Costs
          Items:
    1.
    2.
    3.
    4.
    Aerated Lagoons O&M
    B.C.C.W. Recirculation System O&M
    Chemical Costs
    Power Costs
    
    Total Cost
    $  24,600
        7,980
       24,100
       47,800
                                                                     $ 104,500
    Yearly Costs
    
         Items:   1.
                  2.
                  3.
         Operating Cost
         Investment Cost
         Depreciation
    
         Total  Cost
                                                  $ 104,500
                                                     23,300
                                                     29.100
    
                                                  $ 157,000
    Land:
                                                       $0-2,270/yr.
                                      238
    

    -------
    The  lower  range  of  costs corresponds to a second alternative that,
    either:  (1) land exists  for pollution abatement  purposes;   (2)  solid
    wastes   are  disposed  on land which is not suitable for growing cane,
    such as  rocky ground, dry gulches, or other unsuitable areas;  or   (3)
    solid  waste  at low application rates is disposed on fields which  are
    to be plowed for new planting.  This alternative would not involve  the
    incapacitation of cultivated cane growing areas and  therefore,  would
    involve  no  cost associated with the leasing of land.  It is possible
    that with the proper planning and management, this  alternative  could
    result   in  the reclamation of otherwise unsuitable land areas for  use
    as cropland.  No credit  has been given in this section for added value
    associated with the reclamation of land.
    
    The third alternative would include a combination  of  the  above   two
    alternatives  with some  cropland being taken out of production.  Based
    on the assumptions presented previously in  this  section,  the  costs
    associated  with this alternative would lie within the range of values
    presented in Tables 77 through 86.
    
    A summary of  the  costs  for  all  of  the  various  alternatives  is
    presented in Table 87.
    
    Related  Energy.  Requirements  of  Alternative  Treatment  and Control
    Technologies for Subcateqgry III
    
    Table  88  illustrates   the  estimated  energy  requirements  for   the
    application  of  the various treatment alternatives- to the Subcategory
    III model factory.  Energy requirements  in  the  form  of  electrical
    energy needed for the operation of pumps, aerators, and spray nozzels,
    and  the  energy required for the disposal of solid wastes is compared
    to the overall energy requirements of the model factory.  In order  to
    place  the  energy  requirements of the various alternative^,in proper
    perspective, it should be noted  that  a  typical  3,340  metric  tons
    (3,675  tons)   of  net  cane  per  day  factory  consumes  3.6 million
    kilowatt-hours of  electricity  per  year  and  requires  393  million
    kilograms  (864 million pounds)  of steam per year.  In the estimate of
    total factory energy requirements, no allowance was made for usage  of
    fuel  associated  with the harvesting and transportation of sugarcane.
    Therefore, the percentage increases in energy  requirements  presented
    in  Table  88  are  considered  to be the maximum requirements for the
    application  of  the  various  treatment  alternatives  at  the  model
    factory.
    
    As  shown  in  Table  88,  the major uses of energy resulting from the
    application of the various alternatives by Subcategory  III  factories
    are   aerated   lagoons,   activated  sludge  systems,  and  barometric
    condenser cooling water recirculation systems.  The highest energy use
    alternatives are Alternatives D, E, F, G, and H which employ at  least
    one of these three higher energy demanding treatment techniques.
                                 239
    

    -------
                                   TABLE 87
    
                         SUMMARY OF ALTERNATIVE COSTS
                       MODEL FACTORY — SUBCATEGORY III
    Alternative
    A
    B
    C
    D
    5
    F
    6
    H
    BODS Loading*
    (Fg/kkg)
    12.3
    10.0
    10.0
    0.83
    0.57
    0.50
    0.39
    0.23
    TSS Loading*
    (kg/kkg)
    194
    170
    2.1
    1.1
    0.61
    0.31
    0.071
    0.31
    Total Investment
    Cost
    $ 118,000
    610,000
    2,200,000
    3,380,000
    4,960,000
    447,000**
    473,000**
    582,000**
    Total Yearly
    Cost
    $ 12,800
    280,000
    835,000
    1,170,000
    1,520,000
    119,000**
    205,000**
    157,000**
     *Net Cane Basis.
    **Incremental, rather than total costs.
                                    240
    

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                   TABLE 88
    
    YEARLY ENERGY USAGE FOR MODEL FACTORY
               SUBCATEGORY III
    Alternative
    A
    A-l
    B-l
    B-2
    B-3
    C
    D
    E
    F
    G
    H
    Power Usage
    (kw-hr/yr)
    0
    0
    0
    0
    0
    787,000
    5,030,000
    8,220,000
    1,560,000
    1,560,000
    2,080,000
    Gasoline Usage
    (liters/yr)
    0
    0
    40,900
    40,900
    189,000
    498,000
    498,000
    521 ,000
    339,000
    339,000
    339,000
    Percent of Total
    Energy Requirement
    0%
    0
    0.125
    0.125
    0.58
    2.16
    5.63
    8.23
    2.28*
    2.28
    2.75
                  241
    

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    SOBCATEGORY  IV
    
    A  model   factory   representative   of   Subcategory  IV   factories  was
    developed  in   Section  V   and   existing   control  and   treatment  was
    established  and  considered  as  part of the model plant  because of its
    universal  practice.  As a  result it was concluded in Section VII  that
    the  model  factory attains  a  certain level of treatment and that no
    significant  reduction benefits can  be achieved by the  application  of
    control and  treatment schemes.
    
    Cost  and  Reduction  Benefits   of  Alternative  Treatment and Control
    Alternatives for Subcategory.  IV               ~
    
    For the model factory developed  as  representative of  Subcategory  IV,
    it  is  concluded that no  further control  and treatment  is required to
    achieve a  zero  discharge limitation and therefore no additional  costs
    of control and  treatment are  incurred.
    
    Related  Energy Requirements of   Alternative  Treatment  and Control
    Technologies for Subcategory.  JIV                        ~"
    
    Since no further control and  treatment  is  required,  no  added  energy
    requirements are incurred.
    
    
    SOBCATEGORY  V
    
    The  model  factory representative of Subcategory  V  factories was
    developed  in Section V and  is similar in nature to the   model  factory
    representative  of Subcategory I  factories.  The same eight control and
    treatment  alternatives  selected   to   be  applied to the Subcategory I
    model  factory  are  selected   as  being   applicable  engineering
    alternatives and are selected to be applied to the Subcategory V model
    factory.
    
    Cost  and  Reduction  Eenefits   of  Alternative  Treatment and Control
    Technologies
    
    In  developing  the  costs  of   the various  control  and   treatment
    alternatives for   Subcategory   V,  the following specific assumptions
    were made:
    1.  All costs are based on those
    changes listed below.
    developed  for  Subcategory  I  with
    2.  There are 120 grinding days per year.
    
    Alternative	A  -  This  alternative  assumes  no  added treatment and
    therefore no reduction in the waste load.  It is  estimated  that  the
    effluent  from  a 2,730 metric tons  (3,000 tons) of gross cane per day
                                    242
    

    -------
    factory is 45,800 cubic meters (12.1 million gallons)   per  day.   The
    BOD5  waste  loading is 2.08 kilograms per metric ton (4.16 pounds per
    tonf of gross cane and the suspended solids loading is 17.56 kilograms
    per metric ton (35.1 pounds per ton) of gross cane.
    
         Costs:               0
         Reduction Benefits:  None
    
    Alternative B - This alternative consists  of  adding  those  in-plant
    modifications  which  may  or  may  not be practiced at the individual
    factories which  would  enable  a  factory  to  attain  the  level  of
    technplogy  typified  by  the model factory.  These procedures include
    the dry hauling or impcundage  of  filter  mud,  the  dry  hauling  or
    impoundage  of  ash,  and  the  addition  of  entrainment controls for
    evaporators and vacuum pans.  The  following  measures  are  taken  to
    achieve  a  reduction in sucrose entrainment into barometric condenser
    cooling water:
    
         - proper operation and good maintenance of entrainment controls
         - improved baffling in evaporators and pans
         - monitoring of barometric condenser cooling water
         - increase vapor height in evaporators and pans
         - addition of centrifugal separators to evaporators and pans
         - addition of external separators for the last effect evaporators
    
    Not  all  factories  which  experience  high  loses  of  sucrose  into
    barometric  condenser  cooling  water  would have to employ all of the
    techniques listed above, but would in all probability utilize  certain
    of  these  procedures.   The  resulting  BOD5  waste  loading  is 2.08
    kilograms per metric ton  (4.16 pounds per ton) of gross cane  and  the
    suspended  solids  loading  is  17.56  kilograms  per metric ton  (35.1
    pounds per ton) of gross cane.                            «
    
    Alternative B-l;  Reduction of Entrainment into Barometric
    Condenser Cooling Water.
         Costs:  Incremental Investment Cost:
                 Incremental Yearly Cost:
                 Sugar and Molasses Savings:
    
    Alternative^B-2;  Dry Hauling of Filter Cake.
    
         Costs:  Incremental Investment Cost:
                 Incremental Yearly Cost:
    
    Alternative B-3:  Impoundage of Filter Mud Slurry.
    
         Costs:  Incremental Investment Cost:
                 Incremental Yearly Cost:
    $120,000
      28,200
      70,700
     $37,800
      26,100
     $65,700
      13,UOO
                                    243
    

    -------
     Alternative B-4-  Dry Hauling of Ash.
          Costs:   Incremental Investment Cost:
                  Incremental Yearly Cost:
    
     Alternative  B-5;   Impoundage of Ash Slurry.
    
          Costs:   Incremental Investment Cost:
                  Incremental Yearly Cost:
                                                       $31,100
                                                        12,500
                                                       $57,500
                                                        11,600
    Itemized cost  breakdowns for Alternatives  B-l  through  B-5  are  presented
    in Tables  89 through 93.
    
         Reduction Benefits:  The  reduction  benefits  for Alternative  B
                               involve  BOD5 and suspended solids  reductions
                               to the levels  typified  by the model  plant.
    
    Alternative C   - This  alternative  involves the use  of  sedimentation
    ponds  to  settle  all  of  the  waste water streams except  barometric
    condenser  cooling water  and  excess condensate.   The  resulting  BOD5
    waste  loading is 2.08  kilograms  per metric ton  (4.16 pounds  per ton)
    of gross cane  and the  suspended solids loading is 2.51  kilograms per
    metric ton (5.02 pounds  per  ton) of gross  cane.
         Costs:  Incremental Investment Cost
                 Incremental Yearly Cost
    
                 Total Investment cost
                 Total Yearly Cost
                                                          $  75,700
                                                  40,000 -  106,000
    
                                                           $75,700
                                                  40,000 -  106,000
    An itemized cost breakdown for Alternative C is presented in Table 94.
         Reduction Benefits:
                              The reduction benefits for Alternative C
                              involve a suspended solids reduction of 85.7
                              percent.  The incremental reductions due
                              to Alternative C are assumed to be 0.0
                              percent for BOD5 and 85.7 percent for
                              suspended solids.
    Alternative  D
    	  -  This  alternative  involves  the  treatment of the
    effluent from the settling pond, discussed in  Alternative  C,  in  an
    oxidation  pond  designed  for total detention of the waste stream for
    the entire grinding season.  The resulting BOD5 loading is expected to
    be less than 0.63 kilograms per metric ton  (1.26 pounds  per  ton)  of
    gross  cane  and  the  suspended solids loading is expected to be less
    than 0.47 kilograms per metric ton  (0.94  pounds  per  ton)  of  gross
    cane.
         Costs:  Incremental Investment Cost:
                 Incremental Yearly Cost:
                                                         590,000
                                                          74,600
                                  244
    

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                           TABLE  89
    
                   ITEMIZED COST  SUMMARY  OF
               ALTERNATIVE B-l  FOR SUBCATEGORY  V
    Investment Costs
    
         Items:  1.   Improved Baffling                       $  7,300
                 2.   Monitoring Equipment                       4,400
                 3.   Increase Vapor Height                     19,400
                 4.   Centrifugal  Separators For Evaporators    36,300
                 5.   Centrifugal  Separators For Pans           28,000
                 6.   External Separators                       24,200
    
                     Total  Cost                              $119,600
    Operating Costs
    
         Items:  1.  Operating and Maintenance               $ 17,400
    
                     Total Cost                              $ 17,400
    
    Yearly Costs
    
         Items:  1.  Operating Cost                          $ 17,400
                ,2.  Investment Cost                            4,780
                 3.  Depreciation Cost                          5,980
                 4.  Annual Sugar and Molasses Savings        (70,700)
    
                     Total Cost                              $(42,500)
                                  245
    

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                                   TABLE 90
    
                           ITEMIZED COST SUMMARY OF
                      ALTERNATIVE B-2 FOR SUBCATEGORY V
    Investment Costs
    
         Items:  1.
                 2.
        Mud Storage Bin
        Conveyor
    
        Total Cost
    $ 26,900
      10.900
    
    $ 37,800
    Operating Costs
    
         Items:  1.  Operating & Maintenance
    
                     Total Cost
                                           $ 22.700
    
                                           $ 22,700
    Yearly Costs
    
         Items:
    1.   Operating Cost
    2.   Investment Cost
    3.  ^'Depreciation Cost
    
        Total Cost
    $ 22,700
       1,500
       1.900
    
    $ 26,100
                                  246
    

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                                   TABLE 91
                           ITEMIZED COST SUMMARY OF
                      ALTERNATIVE B-3 FOR SUBCATEGORY V
    Investment Costs
         Items:  1.   Pump,  pipes,  electrical
                 2.   Pond (Installed)
                 3.   Contingencies
                 4.   Engineering
                     Total  Cost
                                                   $ 12,000
                                                     42,300
                                                      5,430
                                                      5,970 •
                                                   $ 65,700
    Operating Costs
         Items:  1.  Operating & Maintenance
                 2.  Power
                     Total Cost
                                                   $  7,170
                                                        300
                                                   $  7,470
    Yearly Costs
         Items:
    1.  Operating Cost
    2.-  Investment Cost
    3.  Depreciation Cost
        Total Cost
    $  7,470
       2,630
       3,290
    $ 13,400
    Land:
                                                      2.51  hectares
                                        247
    

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                                   TABLE 92
    
                           ITEMIZED COST SUMMARY OF
                      ALTERNATIVE B-4 FOR SUBCATEGORY V
    Investment Costs
    
         Items:  1.  Ash Storage Bin
                 2.  Conveyor
    
                     Total Cost
                                             $ 20,200
                                               10.900
    
                                             $ 31,100
    Operating Costs
    
         Items:  1.  Operating & Maintenance
    
                     Total Cost
                                             $  9.720
    
                                             $  9,720
    Yearly Costs
    
         Items:   1.
                 2.
                 3.
    Operating Cost
    Investment Cost
    Depreciation Cost
    
    Total Cost
    $  9,720
       1,240
       1,560
    
    $ 12,500
                                     248
    

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                                   TABLE 93
                           ITEMIZED COST SUMMARY OF
                      ALTERNATIVE B-5 FOR SUBCATE60RY V
    Investment Costs
    
         Items:  1.  Pump, pipes, electrical
                 2.  Pond (Installed)
                 3.  Contingencies
                 4.  Engineering
    
                     Total Cost
                                                $ 12,000
                                                  35,500
                                                   4,750
                                                   5,230
    
                                                $ 57,500
    Operating Costs
    
         Items:  1.  Operating & Maintenance
                 2.  Power
    
                     Total Cost
                                                $  6,100
                                                     300
    
                                                $  6,400
    Yearly Costs
    
         Items:
    1.  Operating Cost
    2.  Investment Cost
    3.  Depreciation Cost
    
        Total Cost
    $  6,400
       2,300
       2.900
    
    $ 11,600
    Land:
                                                   2.07 hectares
                                  249
    

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                                   TABLE 94
    
                           ITEMIZED COST SUMMARY OF
                       ALTERNATIVE C FOR SUBCATEGORY V
    Investment Costs
    
         Items:  1.  Ponds
                 2.  Contingencies
                 3.  Engineering
    
                     Total Cost
                                             $ 62,500
                                                6,250
                                                6,900
    
                                             $ 75,700
    Operating Costs
    
         Items:  1.  Maintenance
                 2.  Solids Handling
    
                     Total Cost
                                             $  1,400
                                               31.800 - 97.600
    
                                             $ 33,200 - 99,000
    Yearly Costs
    
         Items:  1.
                 2.
                 3.
    Operating Cost
    Investment Cost
    Depreciation Cost
    
    Total Cost
    $ 33,200 - 99,000
       3,030
       3.790	
    
    $ 40,000 -105,800
    Land:
                                               1.62 hectares
                                    250
    

    -------
                  Total  Investment  Cost:
                  Total  Yearly  Cost;
                                           $666,000
                                 115,000 -  181,000
    An  itemized cost breakdown  for Alternative D  is  presented  in Table  95.
    
         Reduction  Benefits:  The reduction  benefits for Alternative D  in-
                              volve a BOD5 reduction of greater than 69.7
                              percent and a  suspended solids reduction  of
                              greater than 97.3 percent.  The  incremental
                              reductions due to Alternative D  are 69.7
                              percent for BOD5 and 11.6 percent for
                              suspended solids.
    
    Alternative—E_ -  This  alternative  involves  the  treatment of  the
    effluent from the settling  pond, discussed in  Alternative  C,  in  an
    aerated  lagoon designed   with a quiescent zone and a total detention
    time of 9.5 days.  The resulting BODS loading is 0.63  kilograms   per
    metric  ton   (1.26  pounds  per  ton)  of gross  cane and the suspended
    solids loading  is 0.47 kilograms per metric ton  (0.9U pounds per  ton)
    of  gross cane.
         Costs:
    Incremental Investment Cost:
    Incremental Yearly Cost
                                                      $393,000
                                                        65,000
                 Total Investment Cost:
                 Total Yearly cost:
                                         $469,000
                               105,000 -  171,000
    An itemized cost breakdown for Alternative E is presented in Table 96.
    
         Reduction Benefits:  The reduction benefits for Alternative E
                              involve a BOD5 reduction of 69.7 percent and
                              a suspended solids reduction of 97.3 percent.
                              The incremental reductions due to Alternative
                          .    E are 69.7 percent for BOD5 and 11.6 percent
                              for suspended solids.
    
    Alternative	F_ ^ This alternative involves the use of a settling pond
    to settle and recycle the cane wash  water.   The  blowdown  from  the
    recycle system is contained in an oxidation pond for the entire season
    and  discharged  after  the season to assure waste stabilization.  The
    resulting BOD5 waste loading is 0.53 kilograms per  metric  ton  (1.06
    pounds  per  ton)  of  gross  cane and the suspended solids loading is
    0.080 kilograms per metric ton (0.16 pounds per ton)  of gross cane.
         Costs:  Incremental Investment Cost:
                 Incremental Yearly Cost:
    
                 Total Investment Cost:
                 Total Yearly Cost:
                                            $221,000
                                    86,300  - 165,000
    
                                            $221,000
                                    86,300  - 165,000
                                  251
    

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                                   TABLE 95
    
                           ITEMIZED COST SUMMARY OF
                       ALTERNATIVE D FOR SUBCATE60RY V
    Investment Costs
    
         Items:  1.  Pond
                 2.  Pump, Sump and Piping
                 3.  Contingencies
                 4.  Engineering
    
                     Total Cost
                                            $ 479,000
                                                8,600
                                               48,800
                                               53.600
    
                                            $ 590,000
    Operating Costs
         Items
    1.
    2.
    3.
    Operation & Maintenance
    Chemical Cost
    Power Cost
    
    Total Cost
    $  15,000
        5,040
        1,480
    
    $  21,500
    Yearly Costs
    
         Items:  1.
                 2.
                 3.
        Operating Cost
        Investment Cost
        Depreciation Cost
    
        Total Cost
                                        $  21,500
                                           23,600
                                           29,500
    
                                        $  74,600
    Land:
                                              142 hectares
                                  252
    

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                                   TABLE 96
    
                           ITEMIZED COST SUMMARY OF
                       ALTERNATIVE E FOR SUBCATEGORY V
    Investment Costs  ~
    
         Items:  1.  Aerated Lagoon
                 2.  Pump, Sump and Piping
                 3.  Contingencies
                 4.  Engineering
    
                     Total Cost
                                                 $316,000
                                                    8,600
                                                   32,500
                                                   35,700.
    
                                                 $393,000
    Operating Costs
         Items:
    1.
    2.
    3.
    Operation & Maintenance
    Chemical Cost
    Power Cost
    
    Total Cost
    $ 13,100
       5,040
      11.500
    
    $ 29,600
    Yearly Costs
    
         Items:  1.
                 2.
                 3.
        Operating Cost
        Investment Cost
        Depreciation Cost
    
        Total  Cost
                                             $ 29,600
                                               15%700
                                               19.700
    
                                             $ 65,000
    Land:
                                                   5.3 hectares
                                    253
    

    -------
    An itemized cost breakdown for Alternative F is presented in Table 97.
    
         Reduction Benefits:  The reduction benefits for Alternative F in-
                              volve, a BOD5 reduction of 74.5 percent and a
                              suspended solids reduction of 99.5 percent.
                              The incremental reductions due to Alternative
                              F are 74.5 percent for BOD5 and 99.5 percent
                              for suspended solids.
    
    Alternative G  - This alternative involves the recycle  of  barometric
    condenser  cooling  water  and cane wash water.  The blowdown from the
    barometric condenser cooling water recycle system is assumed to be the
    makeup to the cane wash recirculation system.  The blowdown  from  the
    cane wash recirculation system and the miscellaneous waste streams are
    treated   in  an  oxidation  pond,  designed  with  a  detention  time
    equivalent to the entire season, and discharged  after  stabilization.
    The  resulting  BOD5  waste  loading is 0.050 kilograms per metric ton
     (0. 10 pounds per ton) of gross cane and the suspended  solids  loading
    is 0.080 kilograms per metric ton {0.16 pounds per ton) of gross cane.
         Costs:  Incremental Investment cost:
                 Incremental Yearly Cost:
    
                 Total Investment Cost:
                 Total Yearly Cost:
             $  410,000
      126,000 - 205,000
    
               $410,000
      126,000 - 205,000
    An itemized cost breakdown for Alternative G is presented in Table 98.
    
         Reduction Benefits:  The reduction benefits for Alternative G
                              involve a BOD5 reduction of 97.6 percent
                              and a suspended solids reduction of 99.5
                              percent.  The incremental reductions due
                              to Alternative G are 97.6 percent for BOD5
                              and 99.5 percent for suspended solids.
    
    Alternative  H  -  This alternative involves the recycle of barometric
    condenser  cooling  and  cane  wash  water.   The  blowdown  from  the
    barometric  condenser  cooling  water  water  recirculation  system is
    assumed to be the  makeup  to  the  cane  wash  recycle  system.   The
    blowdown from the cane wash recirculation system and the miscellaneous
    waste  streams  are treated in two aerated lagoons operated in series,
    designed with a total detention time of 28 days and with  a  quiescent
    zone.   The resulting BOD5 waste loading is 0.050 kilograms per metric
    ton  (0.10 pounds per ten) of  gross  cane  and  the  suspended  solids
    loading  is  0.080  kilograms  per metric ton  (0.16 pounds per ton) of
    gross cane.
         Costs:  Incremental Investment Cost:
                 Incremental Yearly Cost:
             $525,000
    167,000 - 246,000
                                 254
    

    -------
                                   TABLE  97
    
                           ITEMIZED COST  SUMMARY OF
                       ALTERNATIVE F FOR  SUBCATEGORY V
    Investment Costs
        .Items:
    1.
    2.
    3.
    4.
    5,
    Settling Ponds
    Cane Wash Recycle System
    Oxidation Pond
    Contingencies
    Engineering
    
    Total Cost
    $ 62,500
      60,700
      59,100
      18,200
      20.100
    
    $221,000
    Operating Costs
         Items:
    1.
    2.
    3.
    4.
    Settling Pond Maintenance
    Cane Wash Recycle Maintenance
    Oxidation Pond Maintenance
    Power Cost
    
    Total Cost
    $ 39,500
      19,900
       5,700
       1,250
    - 118,000
                                                             $ 66,400 - 144,900
    Yearly Costs
    
         Items:  1.
                 2.
                 3.
        Operating Cost
        Investment Cost
        Depreciation Cost
    
        Total Cost
                                            $ 66,400
                                               8,800
                                              11,100
             -  144,900
                                                             $ 86,300 - 164,800
    Land:
                                                  9.8 hectares
                                       255
    

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                                    TABLE 98
    
                            ITEMIZED COST SUMMARY OF
                        ALTERNATIVE G FOR SUBCATEGORY V
     Investment Costs
    
          Items:  1.  Settling Ponds
                  2.  Cane Wash Recycle System
                  3.  Barometric Condenser Cooling
                       Water Recirculation System
                  4.  Oxidation Pond
                  5.  Contingencies
                  6.  Engineering
    
                      Total  Cost
                                                 $ 62,500
                                                   60,700
    
                                                  155,000
                                                   60,300
                                                   33,900
                                                   37,200
    
                                                 $410,000
     Operating Costs
          Items;
     1.
     2.
     3.
    
     4.
     5.
     Settling  Pond Maintenance
     Cane  Wash  Recycle Maintenance
     Condenser  Recirculation Maintenance
     & Operation
     Oxidation  Pond Maintenance
     Power Cost
    
     Total Cost
                                                              $  39,500  -  118,000
                                                                19,900
    
                                                                12,800
                                                                 5,700
                                                                11.400	
    
                                                              $  89,300  -  168,000
    Yearly Costs
    
         Items:
    "1:
     2.
     3.
    Operating Cost
    Investment Cost
    Depreciation Cost
    
    Total Cost
                                                             $ 89,300 - 168,000
                                                               16,400
                                                               20.500	
    
                                                             $126,000 - 205,000
    Land:
                                                              10,3 hectares
                                   256
    

    -------
                 Total Investment Cost:
                 Total Yearly Cost:
                                                       $525,000
                                              167,000 - 246,000
    An itemized cost breakdown for Alternative H is presented in Table 99.
         Reduction Benefits:
                              The reduction benefits for Alternative H in-
                              volve a BODJ5 reduction of 97.6 percent and a
                              suspended solids reduction of 99.5 percent.
                              The incremental reductions due to Alternative
                              H are 97.6 percent for BOD5 and 99.5 percent
                              for suspended solids.
    
    A summary of the costs for all of the alternatives is presented in Table
    100.
    Related Energy
    Technologies for Sub'
                              •i§  of  Alternative  Treatment  and  Control
                           egory. V
    Table  101  illustrates  the  estimated  energy  requirements  for the
    application of the various treatment alternatives to the Subcategory V
    model factory.  Energy requirements in the form of  electrical  energy
    needed  for  the  operation of pumps, aerators, and spray nozzels, and
    the energy required for the disposal of solid wastes  is  compared  to
    the  overall  energy  requirements  of the model factory.  In order to
    place the energy requirements of the various  alternatives  in  proper
    perspective,  it  should  be  noted  that  a typica"! 2,730 metric tons
     (3,000 tons) of gross  cane  per  day  factory  consumes  S.U  million
    kilowatt-hours  of  electricity  per  year  and  requires  189 million
    kilograms  (415 million pounds) of steam per year.  In the estimate  of
    total  factory energy requirements, no allowance was made for usage of
    fuel associated with the harvesting and transportation  of * sugarcane.
    Therefore,  the  percentage increases in energy requirements presented
    in Table 101 are considered to be the  maximum  requirements  for  the
    application  of  the  various  treatment  alternatives  at  the  model
    factory.
    
    As shown in Table 101, the two major uses of energy resulting from the
    application of the various treatment  alternatives  by  Subcategory  I
    factories  are the recirculation of barometric condenser cooling water
    and the use of aerated lagoons as a treatment method.  Alternatives E,
    G, and H require substantially greater energy  usage  than  the: other
    alternatives.   Of  these  alternatives.  Alternative H employs both a
    barometric condenser cooling water recirculation system and an aerated
    lagoon and would be the largest user of energy.
                                  257
    

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                                    TABLE 99
    
                            ITEMIZED COST SUMMARY OF
                        ALTERNATIVE H FOR SUBCATEGORY V
     Investment Costs
    
          Items:  1.  Settling Ponds
                  2.  Cane Wash Recycle System
                  3.  Barometric Condenser Cooling Water
                       Recirculated System
                  4.  Aerated Lagoon
                  5.  Contingencies
                  6.  Engineering
    
                      Total  Cost
                                               $ 62,500
                                                 60,700
    
                                                155,000
                                                155,700
                                                 43,400
                                                 47.700
    
                                               $525,000
     Operating Costs
          Items:
    1,
    2.
    3.
    Settling Pond Maintenance
    Cane Wash Recycle Maintenance
    Condenser Recirculation Maintenance
     & Operation
    Aerated Lagoon Maintenance
     & Operation
    Power Requirements
    
    Total Cost
                                                             $  39,500  -  118,000
                                                               19,900
    
                                                               12,800
    
                                                              /16,200
                                                               31.800	
    
                                                             $120,000  -  199,000
    Yearly Costs
    
         Items:' 1.
                 2.
                 3.
        Operating  Cost
        Investment Cost
        Depreciation  Cost
    
        Total  Cost
                                           $120,000 - 199,000
                                             21,000
                                             26.300	
    
                                           $167,000 - 246,000
    Land:
                                                             2.8 hectares
                                       258
    

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                                  TABLE TOO
    
                         SUMMARY OF ALTERNATIVE COSTS
                        MODEL FACTORY — SUBCATEGORY V
    Alternative
    A
    B
    C
    D
    E
    F
    G
    H
    BODS Loading*
    (Fg/kkg)
    2.08
    2.08
    2.08
    0.63
    0.63
    0.53
    0.050
    0.050
    TSS Loading*
    (kg/kkg)
    17.56
    17.56
    2.51
    0.47
    0.47
    0.080
    0.080
    0.080
    total Investment
    Cost
    $ 0
    189,000
    75,700
    666,000
    469 ,000
    ; 221 ,000
    410,000
    525,000
    Total Yearly
    Cost
    $ • 0
    (3,900)
    40,000-106,000
    115,000-181,000
    105,000-171,000
    86,300-165,000
    126,000-205,000
    167,000-246,000
    *6ross Cane Basis.
                                     259
    

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                  TABLE 101
    
    YEARLY ENERGY USAGE FOR MODEL FACTORY
                SUBCATEGORY V
    Alternative
    A
    B-l
    B-2
    B-3
    B-4
    B-5
    C
    D
    E
    F
    G
    H
    Power Usage
    (kw-hr/yr)
    0
    0
    0
    13,000
    . 0
    13,000
    0
    64,300
    500,000
    54,300
    496,000
    1,380,000
    Gasoline Usage
    (liters/yr)
    0
    0
    5,680
    0
    1,820
    0
    5,680-37,900
    5,680-37,900
    5,680-37,900
    6,810-45,400
    6,810-45,400
    6,810-45,400
    Percent of Total
    Energy Requirement
    0%
    0
    0.035
    0.021
    0.011
    0.021
    0.035-0.23
    0.14 -0.33
    0.84 -1.06
    0.13 -0.36
    0.84 -1.07
    2.24 -2.47
                  260
    

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    NON-WATER  DUALITY  ASPECTS  OF  ALTERNATIVE  TREATMENT  AND   CONTROL
    TECHNOLOGY
    
    The  non-water  quality aspects associated with the application of the
    various alternative control and treatment technologies are  considered
    below.   In general, the impact of aesthetic considerations, including
    the sight of treatment facilities as well as odor and  noise  effects,
    are  minimized  by  the  typical location of cane sugar factories away
    from urban areas.
    
    Air Pollution
    
    Waste water lagooning, particularly under  anaerobic  conditions,  can
    promote the growth of sulfur reducing organisms and associated noxious
    gasses.  Aerobic conditions can be maintained by the design of shallow
    ponds, by the use of aerators, by pH adjustment, or by other means.
    
    Spray  drift from cooling ponds can cause problems in congested areas.
    Proper location of cooling devices, with regard  to  prevailing  winds
    and  to  the uses of surrounding land, can be employed to minimize the
    effects of drift.  The use of warm water for cane washing could  cause
    fogging  problems during certain weather conditions and could possibly
    contribute to unsafe working conditions.  Recirculation systems  could
    be employed which would minimize potential fogging problems.
    
    Noise
    
    There is little if any noise pollution associated with the control and
    treatment technologies discussed in this document.
    
    Solid Waste
                                                              •*,
    The removal of solids from waste water produces a solid waste disposal
    problem  in the form of sludges.  In those cases where sludge is to be
    impounded, previously discussed measures for protection of groundwater
    should be observed.  Sanitary landfills, when available, usually offer
    an economic solution if hauling distances  are  reasonable.   Land  is
    usually  available  for  land spreading of sludges, and in the case of
    some areas in Hawaii and particularly in Florida, the  rapid  loss  of
    top  soil  makes the return of organics to the soil a highly desirable
    practice.
    
    In any event, the additional solid wastes produced by the various con-
    trol and treatment alternatives are  not  expected  to  be  a  serious
    problem.   The  costs associated with their handling and disposal have
    been taken into account in Section VIII, and technology  is  available
    to  prevent  harmful  effects  to  the environment as a result of land
    disposal of sludge.
                                   261
    

    -------
    For those waste materials considered to be  non-hazardous  where  land
    disposal  is  the  choice  for  disposal,  practices similar to proper
    sanitary landfill technology may  be  followed.   The  principles  set
    forth in the EPA's Land Disposal of Solid Wastes Guidelines (CFR Title
    HO,  Chapter  1; Part 241) may be used as guidance for acceptable land
    disposal techniques.
    
    For those waste materials considered to be  hazardous,  disposal  will
    require ^special precautions.  In order to ensure long-term protection
    of  public  health  and  the  environment,  special  preparation   and
    pretreatment  may  be required prior to disposal.  If land disposal is
    to be practiced, these sites must not  allow  movement  of  pollutants
    such  as  fluoride  and  radium-226 to either ground or surface water.
    Sites should  be  selected  that  have  natural  soil  and  geological
    conditions to prevent such contamination or, if such conditions do not
    exist,  -artificial  means  (e.g.,  liners)  must be provided to ensure
    long-term protection of  the  environment  from  hazardous  materials.
    Where  appropriate, the location of solid hazardous materials disposal
    sites should be permanently recorded in the appropriate office of  the
    legal  jurisdiction  in which the site is located.  It should be noted
    that there is no evidence that hazardous materials are present in  the
    slurries,  sludges,  muds,  ashes,  and  cakes  which  result from-the
    processing of sugarcane into a raw sugar product.
                                   262
    

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                                  SECTION IX
    
           EFFLUENT REDUCTION ATTAINABLE THROUGH THE APPLICATION OF
         THE BEST PRACTICABLE CONTROL TECHNOLOGY CURRENTLY AVAILABLE
                       EFFLUENT LIMITATIONS GUIDELINES
    
    
    INTRODUCTION
    
    The effluent limitations which must be achieved by July 1,  1977,  are
    to  specify  the  degree  of effluent reduction attainable through the
    application of  the  best  practicable  control  technology  currently
    available.  Best practicable control technology currently available is
    generally  based  upon  the  average  of  best existing performance by
    plants of various sizes, ages and unit processes within the industrial
    category and/or subcategory.
    
    Consideration must also be given to:
    
         a.  The total cost of application of technology in relation to
             the effluent reduction benefits to be achieved from such
             application;
    
         b.  The size and age of equipment and facilities  involved;
    
         c.  The process employed;
    
         d.  The engineering aspects of the application of various
             types of control techniques;
    
         e.  Process changes;
    
         f.  Non-water quality environmental impact  (including
             energy requirements).
    
    
    Best practicable control  technology   currently   available   emphasizes
    treatment   facilities   at  the   end  of  a   manufacturing  process but
    includes the control technologies  within the process  itself when these
    are considered to be normal  practice  within the  industry.
    
    A further  consideration is the   degree of   economic   and  engineering
    reliability which  must  be established   for  the  technology  to be
    "currently available."   As a result of demonstration   projects,  pilot
    plants,   and general use,  there must  exist  a high degree of confidence
    in the engineering  and  economic practicability of  the  technology  at
    the  time  of construction or  installation of the control facilities.
                                  263
    

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     EFFLUENT   REDUCTIONS  ATTAINABLE  THROUGH  THE  APPLICATION  OF  BEST
     PRACTICABLE CCNTROL TECHNOLOGY CURRENTLY AyAI^BLE~FOR~~THE~ RAW  CANE
     SUGAR SEGMENT OF THE SUGAR PROCESSING PCINT SOURCE CATEGORY  	  	
    
    
     Based  upon  the information contained in Sections III through VIII of
     this document it has been  determined  that  the  degree  of  effluent
     reduction  attainable  through the application of the best practicable
     control technology currently available is as follows-
                           30-Day
       Daily
      Average
         I (Subpart D)
    
         II(Subpart E)
    
        III(Subpart F)
    
         IV(Subpart G)
    
          V(Subpart H)   0.63    0.47
    !OD5
    0.63
    0
    -
    0
    TSS
    0.47
    0
    2.1
    0
    BOD5
    1.14
    0
    -
    0
    TSS
    1.41
    0
    4.2
    0
    1.14
    1.41
     The  above  recommendations are  expressed  in  terms  of  kilograms  of
     pollutant   per  metric  ton  of gross cane,  except for Sufccategory in
     which are  expressed in terms of kilograms of pollutant per metric  ton
     of net cane,  and are subject to the following qualifications:
    
     It   is recommended  that  the   factories of  Subcategory  II   (those
     factories  located in Florida and  Texas)   and  Subcategory  IV   (those
     factories   located  in Hawaii but  not on the Hilo-Hamakua coast of the
     island of  Hawaii)  be required to attain  the  level  of  no  discharge  of
     polluted   waste   water  to   navigable waters  in   that  under   normal
     operating  conditions this limitation is  readily attainable and   is  in
     fact   being  achieved by the factories which form  these subcategories.
     It is  further  recommended that  discharge of  factory  waste  waters  to
     navigable   waters  be allowed during the occurrence of rainfall events
     that cause an  overflow of process waste  water  from  a facility
     designed,   constructed,   and operated to contain all  process generated
    WclStG  Welt63TS •
    
    It is  also  recommended that  for  all  cases  for  which   a   discharge  of
    waste  waters  is  allowed, the PH of  the  waste waters  be required to  be
    maintained  in  the range  of 6.0 to  9.0.
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    EFFLUENT LIMITATIONS GUIDELINES DEVELOPMENT
    
    For the purpose of establishing uniform national effluent  limitations
    and  guidelines, model factories were hypothesized which represent the
    various subcategories of the raw cane sugar processing segment of  the
    sugar  processing  category.   Treatment  technologies were considered
    which are applicable to all  factories  within  each  of  the  various
    subcategories.   These  technologies  can be applied to treat the unit
    raw waste loadings  of  the  various  waste  water  discharge  streams
    existent  at  raw  cane  sugar  factories.   An average rather than an
    exemplary plant approach has been taken in the determination  of  unit
    water  usages  and  effluent  raw  waste  loadings  on  which  to base
    attainable  effluent  reductions  and  costs   associated   with   the
    application of the various control and treatment technologies.
    
    It  is  felt that the effluent limitations and guidelines presented in
    this section are reasonable and  technically  achievable  through  the
    application  of  improved  in-plant  controls  and  the addition of an
    appropriate treatment system to  treat  the  process  generated  waste
    water discharge streams.
    
    Establishment  of  Daily  Average Effluent Limitations.  The ratios of
    the daily  maximum  to  30-day  average  limitations  are  based  upon
    statistical  analyses of available data and analyses of the results of
    treatment systems operating on  wastes  similar  in  nature  to  those
    associated with the production of raw cane sugar.
    
    Production  Basis.  The average permitted effluent level should be the
    recommended level, expressed as kg/kkg  (Ib/ton),  multiplied  by  the
    present  daily processing rate, expressed as kkg (ton) per day.  It is
    recommended  that  the  processing  rate  be  based  on  the   highest
    processing   rate   attained  over  five  (5)  consecutive «days  (not
    necessarily continuous) of full normal production.  It is  recommended
    that  the  processing rate on which the effluent limitations are based
    should be one-fifth (1/5)  of the maximum  five  day  total  production
    rate.
    
    IDENTIFICATION   OF  BEST  PRACTICABLE  CONTROL  TECHNOLOGY  CURRENTLY
    AVAILABLE                     '                               	
    
    The technology identified as the best practicable  control  technology
    currently available is defined as follows for each subcategory:
    
    Subcatecrory I
    
    The  best  practicable  control  technology  currently  available  for
    Subcategory I is identified as the use of  in-plant  controls  to  the
    extent  typified  by  general  operating  practice (such as the use of
    entrainment prevention devices to reduce the degree of entrainment  of
    sucrose into barometric condenser cooling water and the elimination of
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     the   discharge  of  filter  cake  and boiler ash),  the use of  settling
     ponds to  remove  solids   from  cane  wash  water,  and  the   use  of  a
     biological   treatment  system  to treat  the effluent from the  settling
     ponds and all  other waste streams except barometric condenser  cooling
     water and excess condensate.
    
     Subcategories  II and IV
    
     The   best  practicable   control  technology  currently  available  for
     Subcategories  II and IV is identified as the containment of  all  waste
     waters except when rainfall events  cause an overflow of process waste
     water from  a facility designed, constructed,  and  operated  to  contain
     all process generated waste waters.
    
     Subcategory III
    
     The   best  practicable   control  technology  currently  available  for
     Subcategory III  is identified as the  use  of in-plant  controls  and
     clarification  of  the entire waste stream (except barometric condenser
     cooling water  and  excess condensate)  with polymer addition.
    
     Subcategory V
    
     That  portion of  the industry segment comprising Subcategory  V is in  a
     state of   flux  between  the  hand   harvesting   of  sugarcane  and an
     increased reliance  on   mechanical  harvesting  techniques.   However,
     since available  data indicate raw waste  loadings  on the order of those
     exhibited   by  Subcategory  I  factories  it  is  concluded  that  the
     technology  described above for Subcategory I  is directly applicable to
     Subcategory V.
    
     ENGINEERING ASPECTS OF  CONTROL TECHNOLOGY APPLICATIONS
    
    With  the exception of polymer addition,  all   technology  discussed  in
    this   section  is   existing   technology   within   the industry segment.
     Polymer addition,  as discussed in Section VII, Control  and  Treatment
    Technology,  has   been   well   demonstrated by the Hawaiian  cane sugar
    industry to be a practical and available technique,  in general, then,
    the concepts discussed  herein are proven,  available for implementation
    prior to July 1, 1977,  and may be readily utilized by the industry.
    
    COSTS OF APPLICATION
    
    The costs of attaining  the effluent  reductions set  forth  herein  are
    summarized  in  Section VIII,   Cost^  Energy^,,  and  Non-Water Quality
    Aspects.                           ~                        ~
    
    The capital  and total yearly  costs (August-1971 dollars)   to  the  raw
    cane   sugar  processing segment   of  the  sugar processing category to
    achieve the best practicable  control  technology  currently  available
                                    266
    

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    effluent  limitations  are  estimated  to range from between $9.52 and
    $10.Ul million, and $2.98  and  $U.06  irillion,  respectively.   These
    total  costs are based on an estimation of those control and treatment
    techniques which must be applied at each of the seventy-six individual
    cane sugar factories to achieve the effluent limitations.  These costs
    do not include expenses already incurred  as  a  result  of  pollution
    abatement facilities already existent at the individual factories.
    
    NON-WATER QUALITY ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT
    
    The  primary non-water quality environmental impacts are summarized in
    Section VIII, Cost,, Energy^ and Non-Water Quality.  Aspects.   A  major
    concern  is that in those cases where a strong reliance is placed upon
    the land for ultimate disposal of wastes,  no  resulting  ground-water
    pollution  should  be allowed.  Technology is available to ensure that
    land disposal systems are maintained commensurate with soil tolerances
    and to prevent groundwater contamination.
    
    Of additional concern is the generation cf solid wastes in the form of
    sludges  and  muds  and  the  possibility  of  odors  resulting   from
    impoundage   lagoons.    In  both  cases,  responsible  operation  and
    maintenance procedures coupled with sound environmental planning  have
    been shown to obviate the problems.
    
    FACTORS TO BE CONSIDERED IN APPLYING EFFLUENT LIMITATIONS
    
    The  above assessment of what constitutes the best "practicable control
    technology currently available is predicated on the  assumption  of  a
    degree  of  uniformity  among  factories  within each subcategory that
    strictly speaking, does not exist.  The control technologies described
    herein have been formulated partly  as  a  function  of  general  land
    availability  within  each  subcategory.  In many cases, tfle degree of
    land availability may dictate that an individual  factory  employ  one
    treatment alternative over another.
    
    A  second  factor that must be considered, particularly with regard to
    Subcategories  I  and  V,  is  the  impact  of  the   discharge   from
    stabilization  ponds;  i.e., , the allowable rate of discharge from the
    ponds at the time they are drained.
                                 267
    

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                                  SECTION X
    
           EFFLUENT REDUCTION ATTAINABLE THROUGH THE APPLICATION OF
            THE BEST AVAILABLE TECHNOLOGY ECONOMICALLY ACHIEVABLE
                       EFFLUENT LIMITATIONS GUIDELINES
    INTRODUCTION
    
    The effluent limitations which must be achieved by July 1,  1983,  are
    to  specify  the  degree  of effluent reduction attainable through the
    application of the best available technology economically  achievable.
    The  best  available  technology  economically achievable is not based
    upon an average of the best performance within an industrial category,
    but is to be determined by  identifying  the  very  best  control  and
    treatment  technology  employed  by a specific point source within the
    industrial category or subcategory, or  where  it  is  readily  trans-
    ferable  from  one  industrial process to another.  A specific finding
    must be made as to the availability of control measures and  practices
    to eliminate the discharge of pollutants, taking into account the cost
    of such elimination.
    
    Consideration must also be given to:
    
    a.  The age of equipment and facilities involved;
    
    b.  The process employed;
    
    c.   The  engineering  aspects  of the application of various types of
    control techniques;
    
    d.  Process change;                                       *
    
    e.   Cost  of  achieving  the  effluent   reduction   resulting   from
    application of the best economically achievable technology;
    f.    Non-water
    requirements) .
    quality   environmental   impact  (including  energy
    In contrast to  the  best  practicable  control  technology  currently
    available,  the  best  economically achievable technology assesses the
    availability in all cases of in-process controls as well as control or
    additional treatment techniques employed at the end  of  a  production
    process.
    
    Those  plant  processes  and  control  technologies which at the pilot
    plant semi-works, or other level, have demonstrated both technological
    performances  and  economic  viability  at  a  level   sufficient   to
    reasonably  justify  investing in such facilities may be considered in
    assessing the best available economically achievable technology.   The
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     best  available  technology  economically  achievable  is  the highest
     degree of control  technology  that  has  been  achieved  or  has   been
     demonstrated to be capable of being designed for plant scale operation
     up  to  and including  "no discharge" of pollutants.  Although economic
     factors are considered in this development, the costs for  this  level
     of   control  are   intended  to  be  the  top-of-the-line  of  current
     technology subject to  limitations imposed by economic and  engineering
     feasibility.   However,   the  best  available  technology economically
     achievable may be  characterized by some technical risk with respect to
     performance and with respect to certainty of  costs.   Therefore,  the
     best available technology economically achievable may necessitate  some
     industrially sponsored development work prior to its application.
    
     EFFLUENT  REDUCTION ATTAINABLE  THROUGH  THE  APPLICATION OF THE  BEST
     AVAILABLE TECHNOLOGY ECONOMICALLY ACHlIvABLE —  EFFLUENT  LIMITATIONS
     GUIDELINES	±Afi±ASS!S
    
     Based  upon  the information contained in Sections III through VIII of
     this document, it has  been determined  that  the  degree  of  effluent
     reduction  attainable  through  the  application of the best available
     technology economically achievable is as follows:
                           30-Day
                           Average
    
     Subcateqory      BOJD5       TSS
    
     I(Subpart D)      0.050      0.080
    
     II(Subpart E )       0          0
    
     III(Subpart F)
    
    
     IV(Subpart G)        0          0
    
     V(Subpart H)      0.050      0.080
                                  Daily
                             BOD5
    The greater of: The greater of:
      0.11 or      0.13 or
    0.76(l-x)+0.0060 1.01(l-x)+0.0080
    The greater of:
      0.22 or
    1.52(1-50+0.012
                             0.10
               e
    
               TSS
    
              0.24
    
                 0
    The greater of:
      0.39 or
    3.03(1-30+0.024
              0.24
    The above recommendations are  expressed  in  terms   of   kilograms  of
    pollutant    per  metric  ton  of  field  cane  processed,   except  for
    Subcategory  III which are expressed  as  kilograms   of   pollutant  per
    metric  ton   of  net  cane  processed,  and  are  subject  to the same
    qualifications listed in Section IX.
    
    It is also recommended that for all cases for  which a   discharge  of
    waste  waters is allowed, the pH of the waste waters be  required to be
    maintained in the range of 6.0 to 9.0.
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    IDENTIFICATION OF THE BEST AVAILABLE CONTROL  TECHNOLOGY  ECONOMICALLY
    ACHIEVABLE
    
    The   technology   identified   as   the   best  available  technology
    economically achievable is defined as follows for each subcategory:
    
    
    Subcategory I
    
    The best available technology economically achievable for  Subcategory
    I  is  identified as the recycle of barometric condenser cooling water
    and cane wash water with biological  treatment  of  the  blowdown  and
    miscellaneous waste streams.
    
    Subcategories II and IV
    
    The    best   available   technology   economically   achievable   for
    Subcategories II and IV is identified as being equivalent to the  best
    practicable control technology currently available.
    
    Subcategory III
    
    The  best available technology economically achievable for Subcategory
    III is identified as the addition of a  barometric  condenser  cooling
    water  recirculation  system,  the blowdown used as makeup to the cane
    wash system.  The entire clarified stream would then be treated  in  a
    biological treatment system.
    
    Subcategory. _V
    
    The  best available technology economically achievable for Subcategory
    V is the same as that identified in this section for Subca€egory I,
    
    ENGINEERING ASPECTS OF CONTROL TECHNOLOGY APPLICATIONS
    
    The engineering  aspects  of  this  level  of  control  and  treatment
    technology  are  the same as discussed in Section IX, and also include
    the assumption that for Subcategory III factories, a fraction  of  the
    net  sugarcane  harvested will be harvested by the advanced harvesting
    systems.  These systems are available at  the  present  time  and  are
    expected  to  be  the  general  operating procedure at Subcategory III
    factories between 1977 and 1983.
    
    COSTS QF^APPLICATIQN
    
    The additional capital and total yearly costs  (August-1971 dollars) to
    the raw cane sugar processing segment of the sugar processing category
    to achieve  the  best  available  technology  economically  achievable
    effluent  limitations  are  estimated  to range from between $6.05 and
    $7.53 million,  and  $1.02  and  $1.33  million,  respectively.   This
                                  271
    

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    estimate  of  total costs does not include those costs associated with
    attainment  of  the  best  practicable  control  technology  currently
    available and is based on an estimation of those control and treatment
    techniques  which  must be applied at each individual factory in order
    that the effluent limitations be attained.  These costs do not include
    those expenses already incurred as a  result  of  pollution  abatement
    facilities already existent at the individual, factories.
    
    NON-HATER QUALITY ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT
    
    The non-water quality environmental impact of this level of technology
    is the same as that discussed in Section IX.
    
    FACTORS TO BE CONSIDERED IN APPLYING EFFLUENT LIMITATIONS
    
    The  factors to be.considered in applying effluent limitations are the
    same as those discussed in Section IX.
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                                  SECTION XI
    
                       NEW SOURCE PERFORMANCE STANDARDS
    INTRODUCTION
    
    In addition to effluent limitations and guidelines reflecting the best
    practicable  control  technology  currently  available  and  the  best
    available  technology  economically achievable, applicable to existing
    point  source  discharges  on  July  Ir  1977,  and  July   1,   1983,
    respectively,   the   Act   requires  that  performance  standards  be
    established for new sources.  The term "new source" is defined in  the
    Act  to mean "any source, the construction of which is commenced after
    the publication of proposed  regulations  prescribing  a  standard  of
    performance."   New  source technology shall be evaluated by adding to
    the consideration underlying  the  identification  of  best  available
    technology  economically  achievable  a  determination  of what higher
    levels of pollution control are available through the use of  improved
    production processes and/or treatment techniques.
    
    New source performance standards may be based on the best in-plant and
    end-of-process     control    technology    identified.     Additional
    considerations applicable to new  source  performance  standards  take
    into account techniques for reducing the level of effluent by changing
    the  production  process  itself  or  adopting  alternative processes,
    operating methods, or other  alternatives.   The  end  result  of  the
    analysis  will  be  the  identification  of  effluent  standards which
    reflect levels of control achievable through the use of improved  pro-
    duction  processes  (as  well as control technology), rather than pre-
    scribing a particular type of process or technology which must be  em-
    ployed.   A  further  determination  which must be made fo£ new source
    technology is whether a standard permitting no discharge of pollutants
    is practicable.
    
    At least the following factors should be considered  with  respect  to
    production  processes which are to be analyzed in assessing technology
    applied to new sources:
    
    a.  The type of process employed and process changes;
    
    b.  Operating methods;
    
    c.  Batch as opposed to continuous operations;
    
    d.  Use of alternative raw materials and mixes of raw materials;
                                     273
    

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    e.  Use of dry rather than wet processes
    recoverable solvents for water) ; and
    
    f .  Recovery of pollutants as by-products.
                                               (including  substitution  of
    NEW
                           STANDARDS
    Based  upon  the information contained in Sections III through VIII of
    this document, it has teen determined that the degree of effluent  re-
    duction  attainable  for  new sources in Subcategories I, II, III, IV,
    and V is the same as that identified as attainable by the  application
    of the best available technology economically achievable.
    
    PRETREATMENT CONSIDERATIONS
    
    Effluents  from  cane sugar factories contain no constituents that are
    known to be incompatible with a well-designed and  operated  municipal
    waste  water  treatment  plant  nor any that would pass through such a
    system.  In general, municipal treatment facilities are not  available
    because cane sugar factories are located in rural areas.  In the event
    that  municipal  sewers do become available to factories, introduction
    of factory waste waters should result in no treatability problems.
    
    Contributions of solids attributable to waste waters discharged  by  a
    cane sugar factory could be substantial.  A judgment should be made on
    an individual basis as to the amount of solids which should be allowed
    to  enter  a  particular  municipal  treatment  system.  Consideration
    should be given to the existing municipal load and total capacity.  If
    it is determined that pretreatment for solids  removal  is  necessary,
    primary settling should be provided at the cane sugar factory.
    
    Where acid and caustic wastes are discharged, these should be held and
    discharged  in  such  a  way as to maintain the pH of the discharge to
    municipal sewers between 6 and 9.
                                 274
    

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                                 SECTION XII
    
                               ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
    
    The  Environmental  Protection  Agency  wishes  to   acknowledge   the
    contributions to the project by Environmental Science and Engineering,
    Inc.  (ESE),  of  Gainesville, Florida.  Dr. Richard H. Jones, Project
    Director, Mr. John D.  Crane,  Project  Manager,  and  Mr.  Robert  A.
    Morrell,  Assistant  Project Manager, of ESE, with the able assistance
    of F.  C.  Schaffer  and  Associates,  Inc.  (FCS),  of  Baton  Rouge,
    Louisiana,  Sunn, Low, Tom and Kara, Inc.  (SLTH) , of Honolulu, Hawaii,
    and Reynolds,  Smith  and  Hills  (RSSH),  of  Jacksonville,  Florida,
    conducted  the detailed technical study and drafted the initial report
    on which this document is based.
    
    Assistance was also provided by the American Sugar  Cane  League,  the
    Florida  Sugar  Cane  League, the Hawaiian Sugar Planters1 Association
    (HSPA),  and  the  Puerto   Rican   Land   Administration.    Specific
    appreciation  is  expressed  to  Mr. Horace D. Godfrey, Mr. Charles J.
    Schiele, Mr. Edward J. Lui,  Mr.  Q.  Dick  Stephen-Hassard,  and  Mr.
    William M. Requa of the above organizations.
    
    Acknowledgment is also due to a number of plant managers and engineers
    and  other  officials  of  the  industry without whose cooperation and
    assistance  in  site  visitations  and  information   gathering,   the
    completion of this project would not have been possible.
    
    Appreciation  is  expressed  to  those in the Environmental Protection
    Agency who assisted  in  the  performance  of  the  project:   Kenneth
    Dostal,  NERC,  Corvallis;  Erik  Krabbe, Region II; Edmund Struzeski,
    NFIC, Denver; Karl Johnson, ORAP, Headquarters; Judith  Nelson,  OP&E,
    Headquarters;  Maria  Mykolenko,  OP&E,  Headquarters;  George Keeler,
    OR&D, Headquarters; Allen Abramson  and  Kenneth  Biggus,  Region  IX;
    Allen  Cywin,  Ernst  P. Hall, Ronald J, McSwinney, George R. Webster,
    John E. Riley, Richard V. Watkins, Dr. Richard T.  Gregg,  Richard  J.
    Kinch,  Jane  D. Mitchell, and Barbara J. Wortman, Effluent Guidelines
    Division; and many others in the EPA  regional  offices  and  research
    centers  who  assisted  in providing information and assistance to the
    project.
                                    275
    

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                                 SECTION XIII
    
                                  REFERENCES
    1.   Standard Industrial Classification Manual,  Executive  Office  of
         the  President,  Office  of  Management  and Budget, 1972 (USGPO,
         Stock No. 4101-0066).
    
    2.   Biaggi, N., "The Sugar Industry in Puerto Rico and  its  Relation
         to the Industrial Waste Problem", Journal Water Pollution Control
         Federation, 40, 8, August 1968.       ~   ~
    
    3.   Hendrickson, E. R., and Grillot, Jr., F. A., "Raw  Sugar  Factory
         Wastes and Their Control".
    
    4.   Spencer, G. L., and Meade, G.  P.,  Cane  Sugar  Handbook,  Ninth
         Edition, John Wiley and Sons, New York, 1964.     ~
    
    5.   Keller, A. G., and Huckabay, H. K., "Pollution Abatement  in  the
         Sugar  Industry  of  Louisiana",  Journal Water Pollution Control
         IS^erationt 37, 7, July 1960.             ~           ~   ~
    
    6.   "Hawaii Sugar  Industry  Waste  Study",  USEPA,  Region  IX,  San
         Francisco, California, June, 1971.
    
    7-   An Industrial Waste  Guide  to  the  Cane  Sugar  Industry,  U.S.
         Department  of  Health,  Education,  and  Welfare," Public Health
         Service Publication 691, Washington, D. C., 1963.
    
    8.   "Report on the Sugar Refineries and Factories  of  Louisiana-1973
         Season",  Division of water Pollution Control, Louisiana Wildlife
         and Fisheries Commission, 1974.
    
    9.   Middleton, F. H.,  et  al.,  Dry,  Versus  Wet  Cane  Cleaning  at
         Laupahoehoe  Sugar  Company.,  Proceedings of the 13th Congress of
         the International Society of Sugar Cane Technologists, 1969.
    
    10.  Kenda, Wm., and Stephen-Hassard, Q. Dick, "A Systems Approach  to
         Effluent  Abatement by Hawaii's Sugar Cane Industry", Proceedings
         Fourth   National   Symposium   on   Food   Processing    Wastes,
         Environmental  Protection  Technology  Series,  EPA 660/2-73-031,
         December, 1973.
    
    11.  Serner, H. E., "Entrainment in  Vacuum  Pans",  Sugar  y,  Azucar,
         January, 1969.
    
    12.  Comparison of  Barometric  and  Surface  Condensers,  Unpublished
         paper  by  the  U.S.  Cane  Sugar Refiners' Association, March 9,
         1973.
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    13.
    
    
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    25.
    Chen,  J.  C.   P.,   et  al.,   "Handling   of   Sugar   Factory   Waste
    Streams", Southdown Sugar  Factories  and Refinery,  Louisiana.
    
    Wheeler, J.   E.,  Jr.,   An  Engineering  Study,   of  the   Effluent
    Disposal  Problems  of the  Louisiana  Raw Sugar Industry,  Louisiana
    State  University, Ph.D., 1959.           ~
    
    1971   Factory Report,   Factory   Report '77,    Sugar  Technology
    Department, Hawaiian Sugar Planters' Association,  August, 1972.
    
    Ekern, P. C.,  Consumptive  Use of  Water  by. Sugar Cane  in Hawaii,
    Water   Resources   Research   Center,  Technical Report   No.   37,
    University of Hawaii, 1970.
    
    "Draft Proposed Effluent Limitations for the Hawaiian  Cane   Sugar
    Industry", Sunn, Low, Tom  &  Kara, Inc.,  May, 1973.
    
    Guzman, Ramon M., "Control of Cane Sugar Wastes in Puerto  Rico,"
    Journal  Water Pollution  Control  Federation,  34,  12,  December,
    1962.                                            ~~
    
    Complete Mix  Activated  Sludge Treatment of Citrus  Process Wastes,
    Environmental Protection Agency,  Water  Pollution Control Research
    Series 12060  EZY, August 1971.
    
    Treatment of  Citrus  Processing Wastes,   Environmental  Protection
    Agency,  Water Pollution  Control Research series  12060, October,
    1970.
    
    Bhaskaran,  T.R.,   and   Chakrabarty,  R.N.,  "Pilot    Plant    for
    Treatment  of  Cane  Sugar  Waste", Journal Water  Pollution Control
    Federation, July, 1966.                                "
    Miller," J.R., "Treatment of Effluent from Raw  Sugar
    Proceedings   of   the   International   Society  of
    Technologists, 1969.
    Factories",
    Sugar  Cane
    State-of-Art, Sugarbeet Processing Waste Treatment, Environmental
    Protection Agency, Water Pollution Control Research Series  12060
    DSI, July, 1971.
    
    Simpson, D.E. and Hemens, J., Sugar Mill Effluent Treatment  With
    Nutrient  Addition,  Journal  Water Pollution Control Federation,
    45, 10, October~1973.
    
    Bevan, D., The Disposal of Sugar Mill  Effluents  in  Queensland,
    Sugar Research Institute.                     ~
                                   278
    

    -------
    26.
    
    
    
    27.
    
    
    
    28.
    
    
    
    29.
    
    
    
    
    30.
    
    
    31.
    
    
    32.
    33.
    
    
    
    34.
    
    
    
    
    35.
    
    
    
    36.
    
    
    37,
     "Wastewater Management   Alternatives   and  Functional  Design  of
     Recommended   Wastewater   Treatment Facilities  at Pepeekeo",  Sunn,
     Low, Tom  S Kara,  Inc., March,  1973.
    
     "Evaluation of  Process Objectives  and Pilot Plant  Investigation
     of   Tube  Settler  Clarification   and  Vacuum  Filter  Sludge
     Dewatering",  Sunn,  Low,  Tom &  Hara, Inc., January, 1972.
    
     "Report of All  Sugar Mills  in   the State  of   Louisiana   -   1970
     Grinding  Season",  Division of Water  Pollution Control, Louisiana
     Wildlife  and  Fisheries Commission, 1971.
    
     "Water Quality  Criteria  1972", National Academy of  Sciences  and
     National  Academy of Engineering for  the  Environmental Protection
     Agency, Washington, D. C.,  1972 (U.S. Government Printing Office,
     Stock No. 5501-00520).      .        .
    
     Technical Paper No., ^0,  "Rainfall  Frequency Atlas of  the  United
     States",  U.S. Department of Commerce, May, 1961.
     Engineering  Field  Manual,   Soil  Conservation
     Department of Agriculture,  1971.
    Service,   U.S.
     "Policy on Subsurface Emplacement of Fluids by Well Injection", A
     Policy Statement issued  by  the  U.S.   Environmental  Protection
     Agency  with  Accompanying  "Recommended  Data  Requirements  for
     Environmental Evaluation of Subsurface Emplacement of  Fluids  by
     Well Injection", Washington, D. C. February, 1973.
    
     Public Health Service Drinking  water  Standards,  Revised  1962,
     U.S.   Department  of  Health, Education, and Welfare, U.S. Public
     Health Service Publication 956, Washington, D. C., 1962.
    
     Oahu Water Quality Program, Prepared for the City and  County  of
     Honolulu,  Department  of  Public  Works,  by  the  Consortium of
     Engineering Science, Inc., Sunn,  Low,  Tom  &  Hara,  Inc.,  and
     Dillingham Environmental Company, 1972.
    
     Schwarz,  Francis  K.,  Probable  Maximum  Precipitation  in  the
     Hawaiian   Islands,   Hydrometeorological  Report  No.  39,  U.S.
     Department of Commerce and U.S. Department of Army, Washington.
    
    "Taliaferro, W., Jr., Rainfall of  the  Hawaiian  Islands,  Hawaii
     Water Authority, September, 1959.
    
     Miller, J. F., Two-to-Ten-Day Rainfall for Return Periods of 2 to
     100 Years in the  Hawaiian  Islands,  Technical  Paper  51,  U.S.
     Department of Commerce, Washington.
                                   279
    

    -------
    38-  1969  Factory  ReEort,  Factory  Report  61,   Sugar   Technology
         Department, Hawaiian Sugar Planters' Association, April,«1970.
    
    39.
    40.
    41.
    42.
          21°.  Factory  Regort,  Factory  Report   71,    Sugar   Technology
         Department, Hawaiian Sugar Planters' Association, June, 1971.
    
         1922  Factory  Report,  Factory  Report   83,    Sugar   Technology
         Department, Hawaiian Sugar Planters' Association, April, 1973.
    
         1973  Factory  Rgfigrt,  Factory  Report   87,    Sugar   Technology
         Department, Hawaiian Sugar Planters' Association, April, 1974.
    
         Candelario, Dr. Rafael Munoz, et al.. Treatment of Liguid  Wastes
         from  the  Cane  Sugar  Industry  in Puerto Rico,"water Resources
         Research Institute, University of Puerto Rico,~Mayaguez, p.R.
    
    If3-  Development Document for Effluent Limitations Guidelines and  New
         §2HESe  Performance Standards for the CANE SUGAR REFINING~iegment
         Qt.  the  Sugar  Processing  Point   Source   Category.   Effluent
         Guidelines  Division,  U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, EPA-
         440/1-74-002-c, March, 1974.
    
    44.  Federal Register, Volume 39,  Number 55,  page  10522,  March  20,
                                280
    

    -------
                                   GLOSSARY
    
    li   "Act" - The Federal Water Pollution Act as amended.
    
    2.   Activated Sludge Process - A biological waste water treatment
         process in which a mixture of waste water and activated sludge is
         agitated and aerated.  The sludge is subsequently separated from
         the treated waste water (mixed liquor) by sedimentation and wasted
         or returned to the process as needed.
    
    3.   Aerated Lagoon - A natural or artificial waste water treatment
         pond in which mechanical or diffused air aeration is used to
         supplement the oxygen supply.
    
    4.   Aerobic - This refers to life or processes that can occur only
         in the presence of oxygen.
    
    5.   Alkalinity - Alkalinity is a measure of the capacity of water to
         neutralize an acid.
    
    6.   Alphanaphthol Test - A test for sucrose concentration in condensate
         and condenser water.  The method is based on a color change which
         occurs in the reaction of alphanaphthol with sucrose.
    
    7.   Anaerobic - This refers to life or processes that occur in the
         absence of oxygen.
    
    8.   Ash Content - In analysis of sugar products, sulfuric acid is added
         to the sample, and this residue, as "sulfated ash" heated to 800°C
         is taken to be a measure of the inorganic constituents.
    
    9.   Bagaclilo - Fine bagasse particles.                          *
    
    10.  Bagasse - Solid material remaining after the milling process has re-
         moved the juice from sugar cane.  It is generally used as boiler fuel
         and, in some cases, in the manufacture of various by-products.
    
    11.  Barometric Condenser - See Condenser, Barometric.
    
    12.  Barometric Leg - A long vertical pipe through which spent condenser
         water leaves the barometric condenser.  Serves as a source of vacuum.
    
    13.  Barometric Leg Water - Condenser cooling water.
    
    14.  Biological Waste Water Treatment - Forms of waste water treatment in
         which bacterial or biochemical action is intensified to stabilize,
         oxidize, and nitrify the unstable organic matter present.  Intermit-
         tent sand filters, contact beds, trickling filters, and activated
         sludge processes are examples.
                                  281
    

    -------
    16.
    17.
          Blackstrap Molasses - Molasses produced by the final vacuum pan,
          and from which sugar is unrecoverable by ordinary means .  Black-
          strap is usually sold for various uses.
    
          BOD - Biochemical Oxygen Demand is a semiquahtitative measure of
          biological decomposition of organic matter in a water sample.  It
          is determined by measuring the oxygen required by micro-organisms
          to oxidize the contaminants of a water sample under standard lab-
          oratory conditions.  The standard conditions include incubation for
          five days at 20° C.
    
          Boiler Ash - The solid residue remaining from combustion of fuel in
          a boiler furnace.
     18*  Boiler Feedwater - Water used to generate steam in a boiler.   This
          water is usually condensate, except during boiler startup,  when
          treated fresh water is normally used.
    
     19 •  Boiler Slowdown - Discharge from a boiler system designed to  prevent
          a buildup of dissolved solids.
    
     20.  Calandria - The steam belt or heating  element in an evaporator or
          vacuum pan, consisting of vertical tube sheets constituting the
          heating surface.
    
     21 •   Calandria Evaporator - An evaporator using a calandria;  the standard
          evaporator in current use in the sugar industry.
    
     22 •   Calandria Vacuum Pan - A vacuum pan using a calandria; the  standard
          vacuum pan in current use in the sugar industry.
    
     23.   Cane  - Gross  Cane:   Crop  material by weight as harvested, including
                              field trash and other extraneous material.
    
                 Net Cane:     Gross  cane  less  the weight of extraneous material.
    
     24.   Cane Milling  - The process whereby raw sugarcane is chopped and
          crushed, in order  to  separate  the  sugar-containing juice from the
          solid pulp.
    
     25 •   Cane Washing  - Washing of sugarcane with water  to remove soil,
         mud, rocks, and other foreign matter preparatory to milling.
    
     26.   Centrifugation - A procedure used  to separate materials of differing
         densities by subjecting them to high speed revolutions.  In sugar
         processing, centrifugation is used to remove sugar crystals from massecuite.
    
    27 •  Clarification - Removing undissolved materials  (largely insoluble lime salts)
         from cane juice by settling, filtration, or flotation.
                                    282
    

    -------
    28.  Clarifier - A unit of which the primary purpose is to reduce the
         amount of suspended matter in a liquid.
    
    29.  Coagulation - The clumping of particles in order to settle out impurities;
         often induced by chemicals such as lime or alum.
    
    30.  COD - Chemical Oxygen Demand.  Its determination provides a measure
         of the oxygen demand equivalent to that portion of matter in a sample
         which is susceptible to oxidation by a strong chemical oxidant.
    
    31.  Compound Imbibition - The most common type of imbibition which involves
        • the addition and recirculation of water and juices to the bagasse at
         different points in a four mill network, in order to dissolve sucrose.
    
    32.  Condensate - Water resulting from the condensation of vapor.
    
    33.  Condenser - A heat exchange device used for condensation.
    
              Barometric:  Condenser in which the cooling water and the vapors
                           are in physical contact;  the condensate is mixed
                           in the cooling water.
    
              Surface:     Condenser in which heat is transfered through a
                           barrier that separates the cooling water and the
                           vapor.  The condensate can be recovered separately.
    
    34.  Condenser Water - Water used for cooling in a condenser.
    
    35.  Crystallization - The process through which sugar crystals separate
         from massecuite.
    
    36.  Cush-cush - The coarser particles of impurities present in cane juice
         after milling.
    
    37.  Decanting - Separation of liquid from solids by drawing off the upper
         layer after the heavier material has settled.
    
    38.  Demineralization - Removal of mineral impurities from sugar.
    
    39.  Dextrose - Glucose.  A monosaccharide sugar with the formula C6H1206.
         Dextrose is a minor component of raw sugar.
    
    40.  Diatomaceous Earth - A viable earthy deposit composed of nearly pure
         silica and consisting essentially of the shells of the microscopic
         plants called diatoms.  Diatomaceous earth is utilized by the cane
         sugar industry as a filter aid.
    
    41.  Pisaccharides - A sugar such as sucrose composed of two
         monosaccharides.
                                   283
    

    -------
     42.   P.O.  - Dissolved Oxygen is  a measure of the amount of free oxygen in a
          water sample.   It is  dependent on the physical,  chemical,  and biochemical
          activities  of  the water sample.
    
     43.   Drycleaning -  Cleaning of raw cane without the use of water.
    
     44.   "Effect"  -  In  systems where evaporators are operated in a  series  of  several
          units,  each evaporator is known as an effect.
    
     45.   Entrainment -  The entrapment of liquid droplets  containing sugar  in  the
          water vapor produced  by evaporation of syrup.
    
     46.   Evaporator  - A closed vessel heated by steam and placed under a vacuum.
          The basic principle is that syrup enters  the evaporator at .a  temperature
          higher than its boiling point under the reduced  pressure,  or  is heated
          to that temperature.   The result is flash evaporation of a portion of  the
          water in  the syrup.
    
     47.   Extraction  - Pol extracted  from cane per  100 pol in cane.
    
     48.   False Crystals  - New  sugar  crystals which form spontaneously  without
          the presence of others.   This event is  undesirable and,  therefore, vacuum
          pan conditions  are maintained in a narrow range  of sucrose concentration
          and temperature which precludes  their formation.
    
     49.   Fiber - The dry water-insoluble  fibrous material in cane products.
    
     50.   Filter Cake - The residue remaining after filtration of  the sludge
          produced  by the clarification process.
    
     51.   Filter Mud  - A  mud produced by slurrying  filter  cake.   The resultant
         waste stream is  the most  significant  source  of solids  and  organics within
          a cane  sugar factory.
    
     52.   Filter  Press -  In the  past, the most  common  type  of  filter used to
         separate  solids  from  sludge.   It  consists  of a simple  and  efficient
         plate and frame  filter which  allows  filtered juice  to mix with clarified
        • juice and be sent  to  the  evaporators.
    
    53.  Fixed Beds  - A  filter  or  adsorption bed where the  entire media is
         exhausted before  any  of the media  is  cleaned.
    
    54.  Flocculant  - A substance  that  induces or  promotes fine particles in a
         colloidal suspension  to aggregate  into small lumps, which  are more
         easily  removed.
    
    55.  Floorwash - Water used to wash factory floors and equipment.
    
    56.  Flotation - The raising of suspended matter to the surface of the
         liquid  in a tank as scum  (by aeration, the evolution of gas, chemicals,
                                     284
    

    -------
         electrolysis,  heat,  or bacterial decomposition) and the subsequent
         removal of the scum by skimming.              :
    
    57.  Fly Ash -  Solid residue produced by combustion in a furnace.
    
    58.  Frothing Clarifiers - Flotation devices that separate' tricalcium
         phosphate precipitate from the liquor.
    
    59.  Furfural - An aldehyde C4H30CHO used in making Furaw and as a resin.
    
    60.  Glucose - Dextrose.
    
    61.  GPP - Gallons per day.
    
    62.  GPM - Gallons per minute.
    
    53.  Granulation - The process which removes remaining moisture from sugar,
         and thus also separates  the crystals  from one  another.
    
    64.  Granulator - A  rotary  dryer used  in sugar refineries to^remove free
         moisture from sugar  crystals  prior  to packaging  or  storing.
    
    65.  Gross  Cane - A  measure by weight  of the entire harvested  cane plant,
         before processing.
    
    66.  Hvdrolization - The  addition  of H20 to a molecule.   In sugar production
         hydrolization of sucrose results  in an inversion into  glucose and fructose
         and represents  lost  production.
    
    67.  Imbibition -  The use of  water in  the  milling process to dissolve  sucrose.
         Identical, in this  connotation, to  maceration and saturation.
    
     68.  Impoundment - A pond,  lake,  tank, basin,  or other space which is  used
         for storage of  waste water.
    
     69.   Impurities -  Fine particles of bagasse,  fats, waxes, and gums contained
          in the cane  juice after milling.   These  impurities are reduced by
          successive refining processes.
    
     70.   Invert Sugars - Glucose and fructose formed by the splitting of
          sucrose by the enzyme sucrase.
    
     71.   Ion-Exchange Resins - Resins consisting of' three-dimensional hydro-
          carbon networks to which are attached ionizable groups.
    
     72.   Isomers - Two or more compounds  containing the same elements and having
          the same molecular weights, but  differing  in  structure and properties,
          e.g.,  glucose and fructose.
                                       285
    

    -------
     73.
    
    
     74.
    
    
     75.
    
    
     76.
    
    
     77.
    
    
     78.
    
    
     79.
    
    
     80.
    
     81.
    
    
     82.
    
    
    
     83.
    
     84.
    
    
     85.
    
    
    
     86.
    
    
    
    87.
    
    88.
    
    89.
     Lagoon  - A pond  containing  raw or  partially  treated waste water  in which
     aerobic or anaerobic  stabilization occurs.
    
     Land Spreading - The  disposal  of waste water on  land  to achieve
     degradation by soil bacteria.
    
     Levulose - Fructose.  A monosaccharide sugar composed of six carbon
     chains with the  formula C6H1206.   Levulose is'a  component of raw sugar.
    
     Maceration - The use  of water  in the milling process  to dissolve sucrose.
     Identical, in this connotation, with imbibition  and saturation.
    
     Maceration Water - Water applied to the bagasse  during the milling
     process to dissolve sucrose, which is later  reclaimed.
    
     Massecuite - Mixture  of sugar  crystals and syrup which originates in
     the boiling of the sugar (literally, cooked mass).
    
     Malt Liquor - Molten sugar to which has been added a small amount of
     water (half the weight of the sugar).
    
     MGD - Million gallons per day.
    
     gg/1 ~ Milligrams per liter (equals parts per million (ppm)  when the
     specific gravity is unity).
    
     Mixed Media Filtration - A combination of different materials  through
     which a waste water or other liquid is passed for the purpose  of
     purification,  treatment,  or  conditioning.
    
     ml/1 - Milliliters  per liter.
    
     Moisture -  Loss  in  weight due to drying under specified  conditions,
     expressed as  percentage  of total weight.
    
     Molasses -  A  dark-colored syrup containing sucrose, dextrose,  levulose,
     amino  acids,  organic  acids,  and minerals produced in processing
     cane and beet  sugar.
    
     Monosaccharides - A carbohydrate that does not hydrolyze, as glucose,
     fructose, ribose, or other simple sugars:  occurring naturally or
     obtained by the hydrolysis of glycosides or polysaccharides.
        - The sludge resulting from the clarification process.
    
    Multiple Effect Evaporation - The operation of evaporators in a series.
    
    Non-contact Waste Waters - Those waste waters such as spent cooling water
    which are independent of the manufacturing process and contain no
    pollutants attributable to the process.
                                   286
    

    -------
    90.  Nutrients - The nutrients in contaminated water are routinely analyzed
         to characterize the food available for micro-organisms to promote
         organic decomposition.  They are:
    
                                 Ammonia Nitrogen (NH3), mg/1 as N.
                                 Kjeldahl Nitrogen (ON), mg/1 as N.
                                 Nitrate Nitrogen (N03), mg/1 as N.
                                 Total Phosphate (TP), mg/1 as P.
                                 Ortho Phosphate (OP), mg/1 as P.
    
    91.  £H - pH is equal to the negative log of the hydrogen ion concentration,
    92.
    93.
    94.
     95.
     96.
     98.
     99.
         Phase of  Supersaturation  - Metastable phase  in which  existing  sugar
         crystals  grow but  new crystals  do  not form;   the  intermediate  phase  in
         which existing crystals grow and new crystals do  form;   and  the  labile
         phase in  which new crystals  form spontaneously without  the presence  of
         others.
         Plate and Frame Filter - A filtering device consisting of a
         fastened inside a metal frame.
                                                                      screen
         POL - The value determined by single polarization of the normal weight of
         a sugar product made up to a total volume of 100 milliliters at 20°C,
         clarified when necessary with dry lead subacetate, and read in a tube
         200 milliliters long at 20CC, using the Bates-Jackson saccharimeter scale.
         The term is used in calculations as if it were a real substance.
    
         Polluted Waste Waters - Those waste waters containing measurable quan-
         tities of substances that are judged to be detrimental to receiving
         waters and that are attributable to the process.
    
         Polyelectrolytes - A coagulant aid consisting of long chained  *
         organic molecules.
     97.   Precoat  Filter  - A type  of  filter  in which  the media  is  applied
         to an existing surface prior to filtration.
         Raw Sugar - An intermediate product consisting of crystals of high
         purity covered with a film of low quality syrup.
         Recrystallizatidn - Formation of new crystals from previously melted
         sugar liquor.  Recrystallization is encouraged by evaporators and
         accomplished in vacuum pans.
    100.  Remelt - A solution of low grade sugar in clarified juice or water.
    
    101.  Resorcinol Test - A color indicator test used for the determination of the
          concentration of sucrose in condensate and condenser waters.
    
    102.  Ridge and Furrow Irrigation - A method of irrigation by which water
          is allowed to flow along the surface of fields.
                                    287
    

    -------
     •103.
    
    
     104.
    
    
     105.
    
    
     106.
    
     107.
    
    
     108.
    
    
    
    
     109.
    110.
    
    
    111.
    
    
    
    112.
    
    113.
     Rotary Vacuum Filter - A rotating drum filter which utilizes suction to
     separate solids from the sludge produced by clarification.
    
     Saturation - The use of water in the milling process to dissolve
     sucrose.  Identical, in this connotation, with imbibition and maceration.
    
     Seed Sugar - Small sucrose crystals which provide a surface for
     continued crystal growth.
    
     Setting Pond - See Clarifier.
    
     Settlings - The material which collects in the bottom portion of a
     clarifier.
    
     Sludge - The separated precipitate from the clarification process.  It
     consists largely of insoluble lime salts and includes calcium phosphates,
     coagulate albumin, fats, acids, gums, iron, alumina,  and other
     material.
    
     Solids ~ Various types of solids are commonly determined on water samples.
     These types of solids are:
    
             Total Solids - (TS):   The material left after evaporation
                                   and drying of a sample  at 103° to  105°C.
    
             Dissolved  Solids -  (DS):   The difference between the total
                                       solids  and the suspended  solids.
    
             Volatile Solids  -   (VS):  Material which is lost when
                                       the total solids sample is
                                      heated  to 550°C.
    
         -   Seattleable  Solids  (STS): The materials which settle in
                                      an  Immhoff cone in one hour.
    
             Suspended Solids  (SS):   The material removed  from  a
                                      sample filtered through a
                                      standard glass  fiber  filter
                                      and dried at 103-105°C.
    
    Spray Evaporation - A method of waste water disposal in
    which water is sprayed into the air to expedite evaporation.
    
    Spray Irrigation - A method of irrigation by which water is sprayed
    from nozzles onto a crop.  In order to avoid clogging of the nozzles,
    the water must be relatively low in suspended solids.
    
    Strike - The massecuite content of a vacuum pan.
    
    Sucrose - A disaccharide having the formula C12H22011.   The  terms
                                       288
    

    -------
    114.
    sucrose and sugar are generally interchangeable, and the common sugar
    of commerce is sucrose in varying:degrees of purity.  Refined cane
    sugar is essentially 100 percent sucrose.
    
    Sugar - The sucrose crystals, including adhering mother liquor,
    remaining after centrifugation.
                  Commercial:  Sugar from high grade massecuite, v/hich enters
                               into commerce.
                  Low Grade:   Sugar from low grade massecuite, synonymous
                               with remelt sugar.
                  96 DA:       A value used for reporting commercial sugar on
                               a common basis, calculated from an empirical
                               formula issued by the United States Department
                               of Agriculture.
    
    115.  Supersaturation - The condition of a solution when it contains more
          solute, (sucrose) than that which would be dissolved under
          normal pressure and temperature.
    
    116.  Surface Condenser - See Condenser, Surface.
    
    117.  Suspended Solids - Solids found in waste water or in the, stream
        .  which in most cases can be removed by filtration.  The origin of
          suspended matter may be man-made wastes or natural sources as from
          erosion.
    
    118.  Turbidity - A condition in a liquid caused by the presence of fine
          suspended matter and resulting in the scattering and absortion of
          light;  an analytical quantity usually reported in arbitrary turbidity
          units determined by measurements of light diffraction.
    
    119.  Vapor - Steam liberated from boiling sugar liquor.
    
    120.  Vapor Belt - The distance between the liquid level in an evaporator
          or vacuum pan and  the top of the cylindrical portion of  the body.
    
    121.  Waste Streams - Any liquified waste material produced by a factory.
                                           289
    

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