EPA 440/l-76/060h
Group II
Development Document for Interim
Final Effluent Limitatjons^Guidelines
and Proposed New Source Performance
Standards for the
Carbon Black Manufacturing
Point Source Category
\
UNITED STATES ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
APRIL 1976
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DEVELOPMENT DOCUMENT
for
INTERIM FINAL
EFFLUENT LIMITATIONS, GUIDELINES
AND PROPOSED NEW SOURCE PERFORMANCE STANDARDS
for the
CARBON BLACK MANUFACTURING
POINT SOURCE CATEGORY
Russell E. Train
Administrator
Andrew W. Breidenbach, Ph.D.
Assistant Administrator
for Water and Hazardous Materials
Eckardt C. Beck
Deputy Assistant Administrator for
Water Planning and Standards
\
Ernst P. Hall, P.E.
Acting Director, Effluent Guidelines Division
Joseph S. Vitalis
Project Officer
and
George M. Jett
Assistant Project Officer
April 1976
Effluent Guidelines Division
Office of Water and Hazardous Materials
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Washington, D.C. 20460
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ABSTRACT
This document presents the findings of a study of the carbon
black manufacturing point source category for the purpose of
developing effluent limitations and guidelines for existing
point sources and standards of performance for new point
sources and pretreatment standards for new and existing
point sources, to implement Sections 301 (b), 301 (c) r 304 (b) ,
304 (c) , 306 (b), 306 (c), and 307 (b) of the Federal Water
Pollution Control Act, as-amended (33 U.S.C. 1251, 1331,
1314, and 1316, 86 Stat. 816 et. seq., P.L. 92-500 (the
"Act").
Effluent limitations and guidelines contained herein set
forth the degree of effluent reduction attainable through
the application of the Best Practicable Control Technology
Currently Available (BPCTCA) and the degree of effluent
reduction attainable through the application of the Best
Available Technology Economically Achievable (BATEA) which
must be achieved by existing point sources by July 1, 1977,
and July 1, 1983, respectively. The standards of per-
formance and pretreatment standards for existing and new
sources, contained herein set forth the degree of effluent
reduction which is achievable through the application of the
Best Available Demonstrated Control Technology (BADCT) ,
processes, operating methods, or other alternatives.
The development of data and recommendations in this document
relate to the carbon black manufacturing point source
category which is one of eight industrial segments of the
miscellaneous chemicals point source category study.
Effluent limitations were developed for each subcategory on
the basis of the level of raw waste load as well as on the
degree of treatment achievable. Appropriate technology to
achieve these limitations include systems for reduction in
pollutant loads by in-plant technology.
Supporting data and rationale for development of the
proposed effluent limitations, guidelines and standards of
performance are contained in this report.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Section - Title Page
Abstract
Table of Contents
List of Figures
List of Tables
I Conclusions 1
II Recommendations 5
III Introduction 9
IV Industrial Categorization 21
V Waste Characterization 47
VI Selection of Pollutant Parameters 51
VII Control and Treatment Technologies 61
VIII Cost, Energy, and Non-water Quality
Aspects 67
IX Best Practicable Control Technology
Currently Available (BPT) 75
X Best Available Technology Economically
Achievable (BAT) 79
XI New Source Performance Standards (NSPS) 81
XII Pretreatment Standards 83
XIII Performance Factors for Treatment Plant
Operations 85
XIV Acknowledgements 87
XV Bibliography 91
XVI Glossary 103
XVII Abbreviations and Symbols 121
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LIST OF FIGURES
Number Title Page
III-1 U.S. Carbon Black Production by Process 20
IV-1 Carbon Black Bag Filter System 30
IV-2 Bag Filter Cleaning Process 31
IV-3 Bag Filter Operation 32
IV-4 Process Flow Sheet - Furnace Black
Process 36
IV-5 Simplified Flow Sheet - Thermal
Black Process 38
IV-6 Process Flow Sheet - Channel
Black Process 42
IV-7 Process Flow Sheet - Lamp
Black Process .42
IV-8 Block Diagram for No Discharge of
Process Wastewater Pollutants System 45
VIII-1 In-Plant Recycle Cost Model-Step No. 1 70
VIII-2 In-Plant Recycle Cost Model-Step No. 2 71
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LIST OF TABLES
Number
1-1.
II- 1
1 1- 2
III- 2
IV- 1
IV- 2
V-11
VI- 1
VII- 1
VII- 2
VIII- 1
VII I- 2
IX- 1
X-1
XI- 1
XVIII
Title Page
Summary Table H
BPCTCA Effluent Limitations Guidelines 6
BATEA and BADCT Effluent Limitations
Guidelines 7
Domestic Sales of Carbon Black in the
United States By Use 17
Carbon Black Grades Manufactured 18
Carbon Black Segment Plant Key 23
Plant Key Summary 26
Raw Waste Loads 47
List of Parameters To Be Examined . . 52
Treatment Technology Survey 63
Wastewater Treatment Plant Performance
Data Carbon Black Segment 65
Wastewater Treatment Costs for BPCTCA,
BADCT, and BATEA Effluent Limitations
for Furnace Black Process 73
Wastewater Treatment Costs for BPCTCA,
BADCT and BATEA Effluent Limitations
for Thermal Black Process 74
BPCTCA Effluent Limitations Guidelines 77
BATEA EFfluent Limitations Guidelines 80
BADCT Effluent Limitations Guidelines 82
Metric Table 125
IX
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SECTION I
CONCLUSIONS
General
The miscellaneous chemicals point source category
encompasses eight industrial segments grouped together for
administrative purposes. This document provides background
information for carbon black manufacturing point source
category and represents a revision of a portion of the
initial contractor's draft document issued in February,
1975.
In that document it was pointed out that the carbon black
manufacturing point source category differs from the others
in raw materials, manufacturing processes, and final
products. Water usage and subsequent wastewater discharges
also vary considerably from segment to segment.
Consequently, for the purpose of the development of the
effluent limitations, guidelines and corresponding BPT (Best
Practicable Control Technology Currently Available), NSPS
(Best Available Demonstrated Control Technology) for new
sources, and BAT (Best Available Technology Economically
Achievable) requirements, each segment is treated
independently.
The carbon black manufacturing point source category is
defined to include those commodities listed under the
Standard Industrial Classification (SIC) 2895. Thermal and
lamp black have been included for completeness of coverage
of the carbon black manufacturing processes. It should be
emphasized that the proposed treatment model technology will
be used only as a guideline. The cost models for BPT, BAT,
and NSPS were developed to facilitate the economic analysis
and should not be construed as the only technology capable
of meeting the effluent . limitations, guidelines and
stcindards of performance presented in this development
document., There are alternative systems which, taken either
singly or in combination, are capable of attaining the
effluent limitations, guidelines and standards of
performance recommended in this development document. These
alternative choices include:
1. Various types of end-of-pipe wastewater treatment.
2. Various in-plant.modifications and installation of
at-source pollution control equipment.
3, Various combinations of end-of-pipe and in-plant
technologies.
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It is the intent of this document to identify the technology
that can be used to meet the regulations. This information
also will allow the individual plant to make the choice of
what specific combination of pollution control measures is
best suited to its situation in complying with the
limitations and standards of performance presented in this
development document for the carbon black point source
category.
Carbon Black
For the purpose of developing recommended effluent
limitations, guidelines and new source performance standards
for carbon black manufacture, this point source category has
been subcategorized by process as follows:
A. Furnace Process
B, Thermal Process Including Acetylene Black
C, Channel Process
D. Lamp Process
The criteria used for establishing the above
subcategorization included the impact of the following
factors on the above groupings:
1, Production processes.
2. Product types and yields.
3, Raw material sources.
4. Wastewater quantities, characteristics, control
and treatment.
The wastewater parameters of significance in the manufacture
of carbon black are total suspended solids, total dissolved
solids and pH.
Based on an EPA survey of the entire carbon black segment,
discussed in Section IV, Industrial Categorization, it was
concluded that complete elimination of discharge of process
wastewater pollutants is achievable for all subcategories of
the carbon black point source category for BPT, BAT and NSPS
effluent limitations, guidelines and new source performance
standards, (see Tables IV-1 and IV-2).
Based on the findings of this survey, approximately twenty-
nine furnace black and four thermal black plants are
operating in the United States. There are also two lamp
black plants and one channel black plant operating. Of
these thirty-six plants surveyed, twenty-four have achieved
no discharge of process wastewater pollutants. These
include nineteen furnaces, three thermal, including one
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acetylene black plant, one channel and one lamp black plant.
The thermal and furnace processes that have achieved the no
discharge level manufacture a full range of carbon black
grades and are found in both water surplus and water
deficient areas. The channel black plant is located in an
arid area. The lamp black plants surveyed are located in
waiter surplus areas. It is concluded that all subcategories
in the carbon black manufacturing should have no discharge
of process wastewater pollutants allowed. The summary of
the effluent limitations, guidelines and new source
performance standards are presented in Table 1-1.
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Subcategories
Subcategpry A
Furnace Black
Subcategory B
Thermal Black
Subcategory C
Channel Black
Subcategory D
Lamp Black
Subcategory A
Furnace Black
Subcategory B
Thermal Black
Subcategory C
Channel Black
Subcategory D
Lamp Black
Contaminants
of Interest
N/A2
N/A2
N/A2
N/A2
N/A2
N/A2
N/A2
N/A2
Flow
L/kkg Product
(gal/1,000 Ibs.)
N/A2
N/A2
N/A2
N/A2
Treatment
Technology
In-plant .
in-plant
in-plant
in-plant
*M)le 1 -1
Sumnary Table
Raw Waste Loads (RWL)
Parameter kg/kkg1 rag/L
No Discharge of PWWP3
No Discharge of PWWP3
No Discharge of PWWP3
No Discharge of PWWP3
BATEA (1983)
Long-Term Average Daily Effluent
Parameter kg/kkg-1- mg/L
No Discharge of PWWP^
No Discharge of PWWP3
No Discharge of PWWP
No Discharge of PWWP
Treatment
.Technology
in-plant
in-plant
. in-plant
in-plant
New Source
Treatment
Technology
in-plant
in-plant
in-plant
in-plant
BPCTCA (1977)
Long-Term Average Daily Effluent
Parameter kg/kkg^- mg/L
• ,
No Discharge of PWWP
No Discharge of PWWP3
No Discharge of PWWP3
No Discharge of PWWP3
Performance Standard
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SECTION II
RECOMM ENDATIONS
General
The recommendation for effluent limitations and guidelines
commensurate with the BPT, BAT and NSPS for carbon black
manufacturing are presented in the following text. Included
are the in-plant controls technology required to achieve the
recommended effluent limitations guidelines.
Carbon Black
Implicit in the recommended effluent limitations and
guidelines for carbon black manufacturing is the assumption
that process wastes can be isolated from uncontaminated
wastes such as utility discharges and uncontaminated storm
runoff, isolation of process wastewater is generally the
first recommended step in accomplishing the reductions
necessary to meet the proposed effluent limitations and
guidelines. Treatment of uncontaminated wastewaters in a
treatment facility is not generally cost-effective. This is
generally not a problem in the carbon black manufacture.
Effluent limitations guidelines commensurate with BPT are
presented for each subcategory of carbon black manufacturing
point source category in Table II-1. Process wastewaters
subject to these limitations include all contact process
water but do not include noncontact sources such as boiler
and cooling water blowdown, sanitary and other similar
flows, such as shower and laundry wastewater. BPT includes
the maximum utilization of applicable in-plant pollution
abatement technology to achieve the effluent limitations,and
guidelines. Equipment washout will be considered as process
wastewater. It was found in the EPA survey that the
equipment washout along with process area wash water could
effectively be recycled as quench water for the furnace
black and thermal black processes, resulting in no discharge
of process wastewater. As a result of the survey of the
entire point source category and based on the in-plant
changes achievable as demonstrated in Section IV, it is
recommended that all subcategories in carbon black
manufacturing point source category have effluent
limitations, guidelines and new source performance standards
set at "no discharge of process wastewater pollutants" for
BPT, NSPS and BAT. NSPS and BAT effluent limitations
guidelines are presented in Table II-2.
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TABLE H -1
BPCTCA Effluent Limitations Guidelines
Subcategory
Effluent
Characteristic
Effluent Limitations
Average of Daily Values
for 30 Consecutive Days
Shall not Exceed
kg/kkg-1
mg/L
Maximum for
Any One Day
kg/kkgmg/L
A (Furnace Black)
B (Thermal Black)
C (Channel Black)
D (Lamp Black)
N/A
N/A2
N/A2
No Discharge
of pwwp3
No Discharge
of pwwp3
No Discharge
of pwwp3
No Discharge
of pwwp3
No Discharge
of pwwp3
No Discharge
of pwwp3
No Discharge
of pwwp3
No Discharge
of pwwp->
Productions is equivalent to lbs/1,000 Ibs Production.
N/A = Not Applicable '
3pwwp = Process Wastewater Pollutants
4/30/76
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Table 11-2
BATEA AND BADCT Effluent Limitations Guidelines
Subcategory
Effluent
Characteristic
Effluent Limitations
Average of Daily Values
for 30 Consecutive Days
shall not Exceed
kg/kkg1 mg/L
Maximum for
Any_0ne Day
mg/L
A
B
C
D
NA
NA
NA
NAC
No Discharge -of PWWP"
No Discharge of PWWP:
No Discharge of PWWP:
No Discharge,of
No Discharge of PWWP"
No Discharge of PWWP:
No Discharge of PWWP:
No Discharge of PWWP:
okg/kkg productions is equivalent to lbs./l,000 Ibs. production
= Not Applicable , : .
= Process Wastewater Pollutants
4/30/76
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SECTION III
INTRODUCTION
Purpose and Authority
The Federal Water Pollution Control Act Amendments of 1972
(the Act) made a number of fundamental changes in the
approach to achieving clean water. One of the most
significant changes was to shift from a reliance on effluent
limitations to water quality to a direct control of
effluents through the establishment of technology-based
effluent limitations to form an additional basis, as a
minimum, for issuance of discharge permits.
The Act requires EPA to establish guidelines for technology-
based effluent limitations which must be achieved by point
sources of discharges into the navigable waters of the
United States, Section 301(b) of ,the Act requires the
achievement by not later than July 1, 1977 of effluent
limitations for point sources, other than publicly owned
treatment works, which are based on the application of the
BPT as defined by the Administrator pursuant to Section
304(b) of the Act. Section 301 (b) also requires the
achievement by not later than July 1, 1983 of effluent
limitations for point sources, other than publicly owned
treatment works, which are based on the application of the
BAT, resulting in progress toward the national goal of
eliminating the discharge of all pollutants, as determined
in accordance with regulations issued by the Administrator
pursuant to Section 304 (b) of the Act. Section 306 of the
Act requires the achievement by new sources of federal
standards of performance providing for the control of the
discharge of pollutants, which reflects the greatest degree
of effluent reduction which the Administrator determines to
be achievable through the application of the NSPS process,
operating methods, or other alternatives, including, where
practicable, a standard permitting no discharge of
pollutants.
Section 304(b) of the Act requires the Administrator to
publish regulations based on the degree of effluent
reduction attainable through the application of the BPT and
the best control measures and practices achievable,
including treatment techniques, process and procedure
innovations, operation methods, and other alternatives. The
regulations proposed herein set forth effluent limitations
and guidelines pursuant to Section 304(b) of the Act for the
carbon black point source category. Section 304(c) of the
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Act requires the Administrator to issue information on the
processes, procedures, or operating methods which result in
the elimination or reduction in the discharge of pollutants
to implement standards of performance under Section 306 of
the Act. Such information is to include technical and other
data, including costs, as are available on alternative
methods of elimination or reduction of the discharge of
pollutants.
Section 306 of the Act requires the Administrator, within
one year after a category of sources is included in a list
published pursuant to Section 306(b) (1) (A) of the Act, to
propose regulations establishing federal standards of
performance for new sources within such categories. The
Administrator published in the Federal Register of January
16, 1973 (38 FR 1624) a list of 27 source categories.
Publication of the list constituted announcement of the
Administrator's intention of establishing, under Section
306, standards of performance applicable to new sources.
Furthermore, Section 307 (b) provides that:
1. The Administrator shall, from time to time, publish
proposed regulations establishing pretreatment
standards for introduction of pollutants into
treatment works (as defined in Section 212 of this
Act) which are publicly owned, for those pollutants
which are determined not to be susceptible to
treatment by such treatment works or which would
interfere with the operation of such treatment
works. Not later than ninety days after such
publication, and after opportunity for public hear-
ing, the Administrator shall promulgate such
pretreatment standards. Pretreatment standards
under this subsection shall .specify a time for
compliance not to exceed three years from the date
of promulgation and shall be established to prevent
the discharge of any pollutant through treatment
works (as defined in Section 212 of this Act) which
are publicly owned, which pollutant interferes
with, passes through, or otherwise is incompatible
with such works.
2. The Administrator shall, from time to time, as
control technology, processes, operating methods,
or other alternatives change, revise such
standards, following the procedure established by
this subsection for promulgation of such standards.
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3. When proposing or promulgating any pretreatment
standard under this section, the Administrator
shall designate the category or categories of
sources to which such standard shall apply.
4. Nothing in this subsection shall affect any
pretreatment requirement established by any State
or local law not in conflict with any pretreatment
standard established under this subsection.
In order to insure that any source introducing pollutants
into a publicly owned treatment works, which would be a new
source subject to Section 306 if it were to discharge
pollutants, will not cause a violation of the effluent
limitations established for any such treatment works, the
Administrator is required to promulgate pretreatment
standards for the category of such sources simultaneously
with the promulgation of standards of performance under
Section 306 for the equivalent category of new sources.
Such pretreatment standards shall prevent the discharge into
such treatment works of any pollutant which may interfere
with, pass through, or otherwise be incompatible with such
works.
The Act defines a new source to mean any source the
construction of which is commenced after the publication of
proposed regulations prescribing a standard of performance.
Construction means any placement, assembly, or installation
of facilities or equipment (including contractual obliga-
tions to purchase such facilities or equipment) at the
premises where such equipment .will be used, including
preparation work at such premises.
Methods Used for Development of the Effluent Limitations and
Standards for Performance
The effluent limitations, guidelines and standards of
performance proposed in this document were developed in the
following manner. The miscellaneous chemicals point source
category was first divided into industrial segments, based
on type of manufacturing and products manufactured.
Determination was then made as to whether further
subcategorization would aid in description of the category.
Such determinations were made on the basis of raw materials
required, products manufactured, processes employed, and
other factors.
The raw waste characteristics for each category and/or
subcategory were then identified. This included an analysis
of: 1) the source and volume of water used in the process
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employed and the sources of wastes and wastewaters in the
plant; and 2) the constituents of all wastewaters
(including toxic constituents) which result in taster odor,
and color in water or aquatic organisms. The constituents
of wastewaters which should be subject to effluent
limitations, guidelines and standards of performance were
identified.
The full range of control and treatment technologies
existing within each category and/or subcategory was
identified. This included an identification of each dis-
tinct control and treatment technology, including both in-
plant and end- of-pipe technologies, which are existent or
capable of being designed for each subcategory. It also
included an identification of the effluent level resulting
from the application of each of the treatment and control
technologies, in terms of the amount of constituents and of
the chemical, physical, and biological characteristics of
pollutants. The problems, limitations, and reliability of
each treatment and control technology and the required
implementation time were also identified. In addition, the
non-water quality environmental impacts (such as the effects
of the application of such technologies upon other pollution
problems, including air, solid waste, radiation, and noise)
were also identified. The energy requirements of each of
the control and treatment technologies were identified, as
well as the cost of the application of such technologies.
The information, as outlined above, was then evaluated in
order to determine what levels of technology constituted the
BPT, BAT, and NSPS. In identifying such technologies,
factors considered included the total cost of application of
technology in relation to the effluent reduction benefits to
be achieved from such application, the age of equipment and
facilities involved, the process employed, the engineering
aspects of the application of various types of control
techniques, process changes, non-water quality environmental
impact (including energy requirements), and other factors.
During the initial phases of the study, an assessment was
made of the availability, adequacy, and usefulness of all
existing data sources. Data on the identity and performance
of wastewater treatment systems were known to be included
in:
1, NPDES permit applications,
2. Self-reporting discharge data from various states.
3. Surveys conducted by trade associations or by
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; agencies under research and development grants.
A preliminary analysis of these data indicated an obvious
need for additional information.
Additional data in the following areas were required: 1)
process raw waste load (RWL) related to production; 2)
currently practiced or potential in-process waste control
techniques; and 3) the identity and effectiveness of end-of-
pipe treatment systems. The best source of information was
the manufacturers themselves. New information was obtained
from telephone surveys, direct interviews and sampling
visits to production facilities. -
Collection of the data necessary for development of RWL ana
effluent treatment capabilities within dependable confidence
limits required analysis of both production and treatment
operations. In a few cases, the plant visits were planned
so that the production operations of a single plant could be
studied in association with an end-of-pipe treatment system
which receives only the wastes from that production. The
RWL for this plant and associated treatment technology would
fall within a single subcategory. However, the wide variety
of products manufactured by most of the industrial plants
made this situation rare.
In the majority of cases, it was necessary to visit
facilities where the products manufactured fell into several
subcategories. The end-of-pipe treatment facilities
received combined wastewaters associated with several
subcategories (several products, processes, or even
unrelated manufacturing operations). It was necessary to
analyze separately the production (waste-generating)
facilities and the effluent (waste treatment) facilities.
This approach required establishment of a common basis, the
raw waste load (RWL), for common levels of treatment
technology for the products within a subcategory and for the
translation of treatment technology between categories
and/or subcategories.
The selection of wastewater treatment plants was developed
from identifying information available in the NPDES permit
applications, state self-reporting discharge data, and
contacts within the point source category. Every effort was
made to choose facilities where meaningful information on
both treatment facilities and manufacturing processes could
fce obtained.
Survey teams composed of project engineers and scientists
conducted the actual plant visits. Information on the
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identity and performance of wastewater treatment systems was
obtained through:
1. Interviews with plant water pollution. control
personnel and/or engineering personnel.
2. Examination of treatment plant design « .and
historical operating data (flow rates and analyses
of influent and effluent).
3. Treatment plant influent and effluent sampling.
Information on process plant operations and the associated
RWL was obtained through:
1. Interviews with plant operating personnel.
2. Examination of plant design and operating data
(design specification, flow sheets, day-to-day
material balances around individual process modules
or unit operations where possible).
3. Individual process wastewater sampling and
analysis.
4. Historical production and wastewater treatment
data.
The data base obtained in this manner was then utilized by
the methodology previously described to develop recommended
effluent limitations, guidelines and standards of
performance for the carbon black point source category.
References utilized are included in Section,, XV of this
report. The data obtained during the field data collection
program are included in Supplement B. cost information is
presented in Supplement A. These documents are available
for examination by interested parties at the EPA Public
Information Reference Unit, Room 2922 (EPA Library),
Waterside Mall, 401 M St. S.W., Washington, D.C. 20460.
The following text describes the scope of the study,
technical approach to the development of effluent
limitations guidelines, and the scope of coverage of the
data base for the manufacture of carbon black.
Carbon Black
Scope of the Study
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The term carbon black identifies an important family of
industrial carbons used principally as reinforcing agents in
rubber and as black pigments in inks, coatings and plastics.
Carbon black, a petrochemical derivative, is an extremely
fine soot composed principally of carbon (90 - 99 percent),
with some oxygen and hydrogen. Carbon blacks are
differentiated from bulk commercial carbons (such as cokes
and charcoals) by the fact that carbon blacks are
particulate and are composed of spherical particles,
quasigraphitic in structure and of colloidal dimensions.
The properties of carbon black are determined primarily by
the process by which it is manufactured.
All carbon blacks are produced either by partial combustion
or thermal decomposition of liquid or gaseous hydrocarbons,
and are classified as lamp black, channel black, furnace
combustion black, and thermal black. The Standard
Industrial Classification number for the carbon black
manufacture is 2895. For completeness, the thermal and lamp
black carbon black manufacturing processes have been
included. Lamp blacks are made by the burning of petroleum
or coal-tar residues in open shallow pans, channel black by
impingement of under-ventilated natural gas flames, and
furnace combustion blacks by partial combustion of either
natural gas or liquid hydrocarbons in insulated furnaces.
Thermal blacks are produced by thermal decomposition
(cracking) of natural gas. Acetylene black, which is
classified as a thermal black, is produced by the exothermic
decomposition of acetylene.
Production and Uses
The United states is the largest producer of carbon black in
the world, producing approximately 45 percent of the total.
world output (3.2 out of a total 7,1 billion pounds in
1972) .
Production in the United States has increased steadily since
the rubber manufacture began using 'carbon black in rubber in
1912. Figure III-1 illustrates the United States carbon
black production by process for the period from 1952 - 1972.
The furnace process is responsible for over 90 percent of
the carbon black produced in this country. At the end of
1974, there were 29 furnace black plants, four thermal black
plants, including one acetylene black plant, one channel
black plant and two lamp black plants in operation in the
United States. At the end of 1972, the total carbon black
production capacity in the U.S. was approximately 11,400,000
pounds per day. Approximately 45 percent of this total
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capacity was in Texasr 34 percent in Louisiana, and 22
percent in other states.
Originally, plants were established in Texas and Louisiana
to be near the natural gas sources, since no cheap means of
transporting this feedstock existed. As emphasis shifted
from the channel process to the furnace process, it was only
natural that furnace facilities would be expanded at these
locations. In recent years, with the emphasis on the
furnace process, specifically on liquid hydrocarbon
feedstocks, the economics involved in transporting the feed-
stocks and the product (carbon black) have moved the optimum
sites for construction of new facilities to locations
between the source of the feedstocks (the oil fields) and
the major users of the carbon black specifically, the tire
manufacturers).
Of the total carbon black consumed in the United States,
approximately 94 percent is used in rubber manufacturing.
Most of the remainder is used by the printing ink, paint,
paper, and plastics industries. Table III-1 illustrates the
domestic sales of carbon black in the United States by use
from 1963 through 1972.
At present, only channel black is approved for direct use in
foods, cosmetics, and non-rubber compounds which come into
contact with foodstuff. All furnace blacks are approved up
to 50 percent by weight in rubber compounds coming in
contact with foods, and up to 10 percent by weight in rubber
compounds coming in contact with edible oils, milk and milk
products. Lamp and thermal black are not approved for use
in foodstuff and related materials.
The Pood and Drug Administration has set the limits based on
the fact that carbon black contains solvent extractable
carcinogens such as benzopyrenes. The Delaney Amendment
limits carcinogens in foodstuff and material that comes in
contact with foodstuffs. The smaller the carbon particle
size, the purer the product as a result of the higher
temperature of reaction (approximately 2800 to 3200° F). As
shown in Table III-2, channel black is the smallest particle
size black. Next, furnace, thermal and lamp black in that
approximate order. Because the particle sizes are average
figures, there is overlap for the size diameters as shown in
Table III-2.
The particle size also indicates the usage. The smaller
particles, channel and fine furnace black, are used in the
paint and ink manufacture. The medium and larger furnace
black are used in rubber and particularly in the tread
16
-------
Table III -1
Domestic Sales of Carbon Black in the United States - By Use
(Thousand Pounds)
Use 1963 1964 1965 1966 19i7 1968 1969- 1970 1971 1972
Ink
Paint
Paper
Rubber 1,629,905 1,7?9,432 1,945,459 2,131,169 2,072,543 2,445,550 2,616,166 2,486,146 2,678,151 2,953,779
Miscellaneous 29,315 50,388 5^,163 64,677 61,428 56,986 65,327 71,^54 77,715* 84,764
Total 1,727,420 1,911,494 2,072,500 2,277,595 2,216,145 2,588,402 2,777,9^9 2,649,521 2,853,527 3,146,708
Source: The Minerals Yearbook, 1973 - , ' '
. : . • -; ' - 4/30/76
46,471
13,008
8,721
45,688
17,982
* 8,004
5^,333
10,896
7,649
63,682
11,959
6,108
63,963
12,553
5,658
67,721
13,435
4,710
73,077
17,711
5,668
72,824
14,570 •
4,527
75,201
•18,693-
3,767
82,532
21 ,408
4,225
-------
TABLE III -2
CARBON BLACK GRADES MANUFACTURED
ASTM DESIGNATION*
CLASS
AVERAGE PARTICLE
SIZE (MILLIMICRON)
N110
NH6
N220
N231
N242
N293
N294
N330
N326
N347
N440
N472
N539
N550
N568
N650
N683
N761
N762
N765
N774
N880
N990
HPC (Hard Processing Channel)
MPC (Medium Processing Channel)
EPC (Easy Processing Channel)
SAP (Super Abrasion Furnace)
SAF-HS (High Structure-SAP)
ISAF-LS (Intermediate Super
Abrasion Furnace-Low Structure)
ISAF-LM (Low Modulus-ISAF)
ISAF-HS (High Structure-ISAF)
CF (Conductive Furnace)
SCF (Super Conductive Furnace)
HAF (High Abrasion Furnace)
HAF-LS (Low Structure-HAF)
HAF-HS (High Structure-HAF)
FF (Fine Furnace-HAF)
ECF (Extra Conductive Furnace)
FEF-LS (Fast Extruding Furnace
Low Structure)
FEF
FEF-HS (High Structure)
GPF-HS (General Purpose Furnace
HS)
APF (All Purpose Furnace)
SRF-LM (Semi-Reinforcing Furnace
Low Modulus)
SRF-LM-NS (Non-Stain-SRF-LM)
SRF-NS
SRF-NS-HM (High Modulus-SRF-NS)
FT (Fine Thermal)
MT (Medium Thermal)
24 average
26 average
29 average
20-25
20-25
24-33
24-33
24-33
24-33
24-33
28-36
28-36
28-36
40 average
31-39
39-55
39-55
39-55
49-73
49-73
70-96
70-96
70-96
70-96
180-2QO
250-350
*Generally the first number indicates the particle size
range. The larger the number the larger the particle
diameter.
4/30/76
18
-------
rubber for the tire industry. The larger particle furnace
and thermal blacks are used in tire manufacture. The
smaller the particle size, the harder or more abrasive the
rubber product, so the tread requires smaller particles.
The sidewall requires flexibility, therefore, the particle
size used is larger.
Lamp black carbons are of large particle size, possess
little reinforcing ability in rubber, and are lower in
jetness and coloring power. They are of value as tinting
pigment in certain paints and lacquers but are primarily
used in the manufacture of carbon brushes for electrical
equipment and carbon arcs.
Scope of Coverage for Data Base
Of the 36 carbon black plants in operation in the U.S.
twenty-nine are furnace black, four thermal black, two lamp
black and one channel black. The plant visits covered four
furnace plants and two thermal plants. A telephone survey
covered the additional twenty-five furnace, two thermal, two
lamp and the channel black plants. Effectively, the entire
carbon black segment was contacted and requested to
participate in this guideline study.
The results of the contractor's study combined with the
telephone survey initiated the decision to issue all
subcategories of the carbon black .industrial effluent
limitations, guidelines and new source performance standards
as "no discharge of process wastewater pollutants". The
details that lead to the no discharge decision are found in
Section IV, Industrial Categorization.
19
-------
FIGURE III -1
U.S. CARBON BLACK PRODUCTION
BY PROCESS
2
g
u
a
o
u.
o
to
DQ
DQ
FURNACE
CHANNEL
THERMAL
TOTAL
11972
4/30/76
20
-------
SECTION IV
INDUSTRIAL CATEGORIZATION
General
The goal of this study is the development of effluent
limitations, guidelines and new source performance standards
for the carbon black manufacturing point source category
that will be achieved with different levels of in-plant
waste reduction technology. These effluent limitations
guidelines and new source performance standards are to
specify the quantity of pollutants which will ultimately be
discharged from a specific facility and will be related to a
common yardstick for the category, such as quantity of
production.
Carbon Black
Discussion of the Rationale of Cateqorjzation
Manufacturing subcategories were established so as to define
those sectors of carbon black manufacturing where separate
effluent limitations and standards should apply. The
distinctions between the subcategories have been based on
the production process and product type, its quality,
character!sties, and applicability of control and treatment.
The following factors were considered in determining whether
such subcategorizations are justified:
Manufacturing Process
The manufacturing processes used to manufacture carbon black
consist of the furnace, thermal, channel, and lamp black
processes. The final product from each of these processes
is carbon black, differing in particle size, structure,
application and trace contaminants.
Furnace black is produced by the incomplete combustion of
hydrocarbons. This process is a net user of water and
generally has no process contact wastewaters.
Thermal blacks are produced by cracking of natural gas to
form carbon and hydrogen gas. The major wastewater source
from this process is the blowdown from a recirculating
dehumidifier system. Two of the three plants in operation
now recycle this water as quench water resulting in no
discharge of process wastewater. Acetylene black is also
considered a thermal black process bringing the total
21
-------
thermal black, plants operating in the United States to four.
The single acetylene black plant operating is a dry process
resulting- in no discharge of process wastewater. The
acetylene, like natural gas, is thermally cracked to produce
hydrogen and carbon.
Channel black is produced by impingement of under-ventilated
natural gas flames on moving, continuously scraped channels.
This is a dry operation resulting in no discharge of process
wastewater.
Lamp blacks are manufactured by the burning of petroleum or
coal tar residues in open shallow pans. This is a dry
operation when using the bag filter collection technique
resulting in no discharge of process wastewater.
Product
The carbon black segment manufactures a single product.
Therefore, subcategorization by product basis was not
considered.
Raw Materials
The raw materials consumed in the manufacture of carbon
black consist of hydrocarbons. Liquid hydrocarbons are used
in the furnace and lamp black processes. Natural gas is
used as a raw material in the furnace, thermal and channel
black processes.
The most desirable feed stock oil for the furnace process
comes from near the bottom of the refinery barrel and is
similar in many respects to residual fuel oil. it is low in
sulfur and high in aromatics and olefins. Natural gas is
required to obtain and maintain the reaction temperatures.
The raw materials for the lamp black process are petroleum
or coal tar by-products. Based on the above, raw materials
are not a basis for subcategorization.
Plant size
Based upon process considerations, the plant size, measured
in terms of production, should be directly related to the
pounds of pollutants produced. As more product is produced,
the greater the amount of wastewater generated. This is
true for the carbon black category but the amount of quench
water required to cool the process stream is also directly
related to the size of that process stream. Because all
process water can be consumed as quench water, plant size is
not a basis for categorization.
22
-------
TABLE, IV -1
CARBON BLACK SEGMENT
PLANT KEY
Plant
Ashland Oil Co.
Aransas Pass, TX
Ashland Oil Co.
Delpre, OH
Ashland Oil Co.
Mojave, CA
Ashland Oil Co.
New Iberia, LA
Ashland Oil Co.
Shamrock, TX
Cabot Corp.
Big Spring, IX
Cabot Corp.
Eranklin, LA
Cabot Corp.
Pampa, TX
Cabot Corp.
Ville Platte, LA
Cabot Corp.
Waverly, WV
Cities Services
El Dorado, AR
Cities Services
Eola, LA
Cities Services
Franklin, LA
Process
furnace
furnace
furnace
furnace
furnace
furnace
furnace
furnace
furnace
.furnace
furnace
furnace
furnace
Waste Load
(PWWP)*
no discharge.
discharge
no discharge
discharge
no discharge
no discharge
discharge .
;no discharge
.discharge
discharge
no discharge
discharge
no discharge
Climate***
4/30/76
23
-------
TABLE IV-1 (continued)
-2-
Cities Services
franklin, LA
Cities Services
Hickok, KS
Cities Services
Marshall, W
Cities Services
Mojave, CA
Cities Services
Seagraves, IX
Cities Services
Seagraves, ix
Cities Services
Swartz, LA
Cormercial Solvent Corp.
Thermatomic Carbon
Sterlington, LA
Continental Carbon Co.
Bakersfield, CA
Continental Carbon Co.
Duinas, IX
Continental Carbon Co.
Ponca City, OK
Continental Carbon Co.
Westlake, LA
J. M. Huber
Baytown, TX
J. M. Huber
Borger, TX
J. M. aiber
Borger, TX
thermal
furnace
furnace
furnace
furnace
channel
furnace
thermal
furnace
furnace
furnace
furnace
furnace
thermal
furnace
no discharge
no discharge
no discharge
no discharge
no discharge
no discharge
discharge****
discharge
no discharge
no discharge
no discharge
discharge
discharge**
no discharge
no discharge
4/30/76
24
-------
TABLE IV-1 (continued)
-3-
Monsanto ,
Camden, NJ
Phillips
Borger, TX
Phillips
Orange, TX
Sid Richardson Carbon Co.
Addis, LA
Sid Richardson Carbon Co.
Big Springs, TX
Sid Richardson,Carbon Co.
Odessa, TX
Union Carbide
Ashtabula, OH
Union Carbide
Postoria, OH
lamp
furnace
furnace
furnace
furnace
furnace
thermal
(acetylene)
lamp
no discharge
no discharge
no discharge
discharge
no discharge
no discharge****
no discharge
no discharge
* process wastewater pollutants
* * going to "no discharge" before 7/1/77
**K + : rainfall exceeds evaporation
- : evaporation exceeds rainfall
**«* research and development plant that operates sporadically
4/30/76
25
-------
TABLE IV - 2
PLANT 'KEY 'SUMMARY
A: Summary of Carbon Black Segment Plant Key
Furnace Black
Thermal Black
Channel Black
Lamp Black
Total
Process
29
4
1
2
B: Process Breakdown
Furnace No Discharge
Furnace Discharge
Thermal No Discharge
Thermal Discharge
Channel No Discharge
Lamp No Discharge
*Water
4
10
2
1
»*Water -
15
1
1
^Rainfall exceeds evaporation
**Evaporation exceeds rainfall
4/30/76
26
-------
Plant. Age
The age of a plant was found to have no significance in the
characteristics of a plant's wastewater. Plants continually
modify their processes to be more efficient and the plants»s
separation techniques can be upgraded from cyclones and wet
scrubbers to bag filters. This has been done because of the
higher yields obtainable with ,bag filters and the
elimination of process wastewater. If rain runoff is
controlled by diking or curbing, the dry cleaning of spills
is practiced, and segregation of sanitary waste is required,
the wastewater will be kept to a minimum allowing the total
recycle system to be successful. Some plants have been
using this scheme successfully for twenty years. Based on
these operational in-plant techniques, plant age is not a
basis for subcategorization.
Plant Location
Inspection of carbon black plants in various geographical
areas of the country suggested that location may have some
effect on the quality or quantity of the process wastewater
streams, see Tables IV-1 and IV-2.
Geographical location can influence the use of ponds or
cooling towers. Areas with a large net evaporation are more
suitable for ponds. Storm water quantity is a significant
factor in the use of ponds. In areas where rainfall is
heavy, plants have successfully diverted the rainfall around
the plant. The rainfall that falls directly on the plant
can be used as quench water if the operating area is kept
clean. Therefore, the rainfall-evaporation rate has an
effect on the technique of handling the process wastewater
but not on the raw waste load generated per pound of
product. In the water deficient regions of the southwest,
as a result of the high evaporation rate, all seventeen (17)
plants have achieved the no discharge level. This amounts
to about 47 percent of the point source category.
About 42 percent of the carbon black plants in water surplus
regions presently operate with no discharge of process
wastewater pollutants. All grades of carbon black except
channel black are manufactured at these locations. The
channel black process is located in the arid region.
The quality (hardness) of the water, which can influence
whether process or storm water can be used as quench water,
is a problem that had to be investigated. Although
acceptable limits for this quench water quality have not
been agreed upon by all manufacturers, plants located in
27
-------
both the water surplus and water deficient regions*
manufacturing all grades of carbon black and either using a
dry process or recycle system operate at a level of no
discharge of process wastewater pollutants. The entire
carbon black segment was inspected and based on the survey
datar plant location was found not to be a basis for
subcategorization.
Housekeeping
Plant housekeeping is a factor that was considered when
comparing the various plants visited and was determined not
to be a significant factor. Good housekeeping is important
to the manufacture because a loss of yield can be associated
with poor housekeeping. Good housekeeping generally reduces
the. wastewater quantities. Because of this consideration,
the carbon black segment generally practices relatively good
housekeeping. For example, carbon black spills were dry
vacuumed rather than washed down in all , of the plants
visited and is the general practice throughout the category.
Air Pollution Control Equipment
In the past, air pollution control equipment had a
significant impact upon wastewater quantities and
characteristics. Cyclones and wet scrubbers were used to
remove the carbon black from the process stream; however, at
present, the carbon black manufacturers universally use bag
filters for this purpose. Therefore, air pollution control
equipment no longer has an adverse impact and is not a basis
for subcategorization.
Because bag filtration has a significant impact on the waste
abatement of the manufacture of carbon black a brief
discussion of the operation of bag filters is offered to
enable the reader to better understand the basis for the
effluent limitations specified.
Prior to about 1965, most units recovered product from the
quenched furnace effluent by means of electrostatic
precipitators and several stages of cyclone collectors
(usually three) with or without wet gas scrubbers. With
this type of recovery system, it was possible to recover up
to about 80 to 92 percent of the contained carbon black.
The remaining carbon black would be vented to the atmosphere
with the combustion gases. During this earlier time period,
most drier vents were exhausted directly to atmosphere.
In order to improve product yield and reduce emissions,
nearly all furnace type carbon black plants incorporate bag
28
-------
filters in the product recovery system. The bag filter has
either been added on, or replaced the precipitator and/or
the cyclones in existing plants. In addition, bag filters
on the furnace effluent and drier vent streams are reported
to obtain up to 99.95 percent carbon black recovery.
The substantial improvement in product recovery obtained by
utilizing bag filters on the main process vent stream
economically justifies the increased investment, utilities
and maintenance cost for this equipment.
A sketch of a typical bag filter design for the main process
vent stream is shown in Figure IV-1. Carbon black-laden
gases enter the hopper below the bag cell plates. The
hopper performs as a distribution duct for the entering
production stream. The process gases and carbon black flow
into the individual bags of each compartment through cell
plates. The filtered gas flows through the bags and/or the
bag filter stacks. The entrained carbon black collects on
.the inside of these bags, and during the cleaning or
repressure cycle of each compartment, the black is removed
and dumped into the hopper (repressuring simply means that
the flow of gas through the bags is reversed, Figure IV-2) .
From the hoppers, the carbon black is usually either dropped
through air locks into a pneumatic conveyor system or fed to
screw conveyors for transportation to the product finishing
area. .; . .
Figure IV-1 shows a single stack for the entire bag filter.
In some cases, the filters have one stack for each
compartment. .This makes it somewhat easier to locate
leaking bags.
Normally, the main process vent bag filters contain 6 to 18
compartments and each compartment contains approximately 300
to 400 bags. Each bag is about 5 1/2 inches (14 cm.) in
diameter and 126 inches (3.2 meters) long. These bags
themselves are a great cost item in the bag filter. Bag
filter material used by most major black producers consists
of fiberglass which is coated with a graphite-silicon film.
Bag life would be seriously reduced if this coating were
removed, and this can easily happen if operating temperature
is allowed to exceed 450° F.
The average life expectancy of the filter bags is about 12
to 18 months. However, it is usually necessary to replace a
few bags in each compartment during this period. High
sulfur content of the oil or impurities in the quench water
may shorten this life.
29
-------
FIGURE IV -1
CARBON BLACK BAG FILTER SYS1B4
-Repressuring fan
U)
o
Stack gas
header
Stack valve
Repressuring
valve
Clean gas
outlet
Screw conveyor
Access door
Trough
Repressuring
header
Access doors
Compartment
partition
Product
discharge
• Cell plate
Fiberglass,
filter bag
I I I I
n *S
[
. A A J» A. A
^
!
Cell plate • ^\ /
V
,WaIk
way
Cross section
-------
FIGURE IV -2
BAG FILTER CLEANING PROCESS
CO
H
CLEAN GAS
TO STACK
CARBON BLACK-
FILTER CAKE
BAG CAP
CLEAN GAS
TO STACK
STACK
GASES
REINFORCINS
-F1BERGLAS
CELL PLATE
1-BAG CAP
&ffi%|—\
•\ '•>*•• "-M' ^
STACK
GASES
CARBON
TO HOPPER—^K'&l
FILTERING CYCLE
CLEA-NING CYCLE
4/30/76
-------
FIGURE IV -3
BAG FILTER OPERATION
REPRESSURING
FAN
REPRESSURING
INTAKE VALVE-
CARBON BLACK
a GASES
STACK
VALVE
REPRESSURING
VALVE
CARBON
BLACK
*typically 8-12 compartments only 1 cut for cleaning'
4/30/76
-------
The bags are normally supported from hangers in the roof of
the filter compartment with metal caps. The caps are
tapered on the sides and are slightly larger in diameter
than the hem around the top of the bag. The caps are
inserted into the bags edgewise. When the cap is rotated
and pulled outward, the bag is wedged around the perimeter
of the cap. The wedging action seals the cap-bag surface
and provides support for the bags. The bottom of each bag
is then secured with a snap ring onto the cell plate.
The repressuring process is controlled with an electrically
operated timer. Figure IV-3 illustrates the principal
operations of the bag filter. As shown, the first two
compartments are filtering carbon black from process gases
as the No. 3 compartment is being cleaned. The next event
in the operation will be cleaning of compartment No. 1 while
filteration continues in the No. 2 and No, 3 compartments.
This step-like rotation is continued until all compartments
have been repressured. The cycle is then repeated.
The repressuring fan generates enough force to reverse the
flow of gases. The gases used in the cleaning cycle are
taken from compartments on the filtering cycle. In Figure
IV-3, compartments No. 1 and No. 2 are supplying the
repressuring gases for compartment No. 3. When compartment
No. 1 is cleaned, the gases will be provided from
compartment No. 2. The three-compartment filter illustrated
is merely schematic. On commercial bag filters, several of
the compartments are used as a source for repressuring gas.
The sequence of events which puts compartment No. 3 on-and-
off the cleaning cycle is:
1. Stack valve closes.
2. Repressuring valve opens.
3. Cleaning cycle.
4. Repressuring valve closes.
5. Stack valve opens.
6. Filter cycle.
For cleaning compartment No. 1, the sequence is slightly
different because of the repressuring intake valve. When
the stack valve closes, so does the repressuring intake
valve; and when the stack valve opens, the repressuring
intake valve opens.
Similar type bag filters are used to recover carbon black
from the drier purge vent gas. Fiber glass bags are used in
these filters because of the normal 400° F and higher
operating temperatures.
33
-------
Corrosion, and its related maintenance cost, is a continuous
problem in bag filters, especially in drier vent
applications. This is due to both the sulfur and the water
content of the exit gases.
With a system as described above, it is possible to recover
up to 99.95 percent of the carbon black manufactured.
Nature of Wastes Generated
The furnace black and thermal black processes have been
examined for type of contact process water usage associated
with each, contact process water is defined to be all water
which comes in contact with chemicals within the process and
includes:
1. Water required or produced (in stoichiometric
quantities) in a chemical reaction.
2. Water used as a solvent or as an aqueous medium for
reactions.
3. Water which enters the process with any reactants
or which is used as dilutent (including steam) .
4. Water used as an absorbent or as a scrubbing medium
for separating certain chemicals from the reaction
mixture.
5. Water introduced as 'steam to strip certain
chemicals from the reaction mixture.
6. Water used to wash, remove, or separate chemicals
from the reaction mixture.
7. Water associated with mechanical devices, such as
steam-jet ejectors for drawing a vacuum on the
process.
8. Water used as a quench or direct contact coolant
such as in a barometric condenser or reaction
quenching.
9. Water used to clean or purge equipment used in
batch type operations.
Noncontact flows which were not considered include:
1. Sanitary wastewaters including laundry
and shower wastewater.
34
-------
2. Boiler and cooling tower blowdowns or once-
through cooling water.
3. Chemical regenerants from boiler feed water
preparation.
4. Stormwater runoff from noii-process plant areas,
e.g., tank farms.
These are now covered by separate regulations or may be
covered at a future date by specific effluent limitations,
guidelines and standards.
An evaluation of the furnace process showed that the process
wastewater source is the quench water used to cool the
process stream. However, all of this water is vaporized and
vented to the atmosphere as steam, resulting in no process
wastewater discharge. The only wastewater generated by the
furnace process is from equipment washing and has been shown
to be successfully recycled back to the quench water with no
product contamination resulting again in no discharge of
process wastewater ..discharge.
The thermal black process also uses quench water to cool the
product. However, in this process, this water is condensed
through further water sprays in the dehumidifier and is
usually recycled as quench water. Because no process
wastewater is generated, this is not a basis for
subc at egor i z a ti on .
The lamp and channel black processes are dry operations and
if dry cleaning and bag filters are incorporated there will
be no process wastewater discharge from these processes.
Treatability of Wastewaters
All process wastewater is to be recycled. Although it is
possible to have wastewaters and require waste treatment,
there are no known significant advantages with specific
types of treatment systems. Therefore, wastewater
generation need not occur and treatability of wastewater is
not a basis for subcategorization.
Summary of Considerations
For the purpose of establishing effluent limitations,
guidelines and standards of performance carbon black
manufacturing was divided into four subcategorie's. This
subcategorization was based on distinct differences in
manufacturing processes. The four selected subcategories
are:
35
-------
FIGURE IV -4
CO
cr>
FUEL
STORAGE/BAGGING/HOPPER CAR
PROCESS FLOW SHEET
FURNACE BLACK PROCESS
AIR
PREHEATER
STEAM
VENTED
PELLETIZER
AIR & FUEL (WET MIXER)
STEAM
VENTED
BAG FILTER
MICRO-PULVERIZER
4/30/76
-------
Subcategory A - Furnace Black
Subcategory B —. Thermal Black, Including
Acetylene Black
Subcategory C - Channel Black
Subcategory D - Lamp Black
As discussed in Section III, the furnace and thermal
processes are those of significance in the United States.
Subcategories C and D have been included for completeness.
Description of Subcategories
Subcategory A - Furnace Black Process
This Subcategory (Figure IV-4) includes carbon black
manufactured by the furnace process. The process is a net
user of water. Process raw waste loads should be zero, with
variations caused only by intermittent equipment washdown,
which can be settled, screened and recycled as quench water
or evaporated. Both techniques are practiced by the
manufacturers of furnace black.
Subcategory B - Thermal Black Process
This subcategory (Figure IV-5) consists of carbon black
mainufacture by the thermal process, including the acetylene
black process. Process water in the thermal process
consists of direct contact quench water. It is judged
feasible to reduce process waste loads to zero through
increased recycle as quench water in this subcategory as is
practiced by the manufacturers of thermal black.
Subcategory C - Channel Black Process
This subcategory (Figure IV-6) covers carbon black
manufactured by the channel process. Channel black is a dry
process which results in no wastewater discharge.
Subcategory D - Lamp Black
This subcategory (Figure IV-7) consists of carbon black
manufactured by the lamp black process. No water is
required in this process as bag filters are a tried and
proven technique of collection resulting in 99+ percent
recovery.
Process Descriptions
Subcategory A - Furnace Black Process
37
-------
FIGURE IV -5
SIMPLIFIED FLOW SHEET
THERMAL BLACK PROCESS
CQMBUSION GASES JL
AND STEAM VENTED
I
CO
00
NATURAL GAS
HjGAS
THERMAL
REACTOR
, GAS
THERMAL
REACTOR
COMBUSTION AIR
i
-SB-
VERTICAL
COOLER
QUENCH WATER
HGAS
BAG FILTER
CARBON BLACK
STEAM
VENTED
BULK STORAGE/
HOPPER CARS/
BAGGING
PELLETIZER
H2GAS
DEHUMIDIFIER
QUENCH
WATER
SLOWDOWN
SCREENING*
DEVICE
SETTLING
LAGOON
'Screening device may be in the form of filtration
if the wter quality requires it.
SOLID TO LANDFILL
4/30/76
-------
The furnace black process produces carbon black from the
incomplete combustion of hydrocarbons oil or natural gas,
see Figure IV-4.
In the oil furnace black process, liquid hydrocarbons are
used. Yields range from 35 to 65 percent, depending on the
grade of black being produced. The most desirable feedstock
for furnace black is similar in many respects to residual
fuel oil. It is low in sulfur and high in aromatics and
olefins. The rising cost of natural gas has been a
motivating factor in the shift to greater use of liquid
f€iedstock and to the decline in the use of natural gas as a
source of carbon. With this incentive, the oil furnace
black process has become very flexible. Oil furnace blacks
haive nearly replaced channel blacks in most high-performance
applications, notably passenger-car tire treads. Over the
past thirty years, carbon black technology developments have
centered on the oil furnace black process, and today nearly
all carbon black plants use processes of this type.
The gas furnace black process is based on partial combustion
of natural gas in refractory line furnaces. Yields of gas
furnace blacks range from 10 to 30 percent and are lower for
the smaller particle size grades. This process is similar
to the oil furnace black process. Approximately 91.5
percent of all carbon black manufactured in the United
States in 1972 was made by the furnace black,process.
Oil is supplied from the process oil storage. The oil is
usually preheated in a heat exchanger prior to firing the
reactors to recover some of the waste heat from the reactor.
Also, preheated air may be supplied to the reactor for
partial burning of the fuel. The particle size of the
carbon black is controlled by the air supply.
Carbon black particles are formed in refractory-lined
reactor units designed for the incomplete burning of the
fuel oil. The carbon black particle is formed in this unit.
The reactor temperature is approximately 3200°F. (Reactor
design configurations are generally the major area of
difference between manufacturers and production processes.)
The combustion products (gases and carbon black) pass
through the air preheater (at approximately 1100°F)< and an
oil preheater (at approximately. 800°F) . In-line water
spirays cool the gas-carbon black stream. The combustion
products then pass through a quench tower where water sprays
further cool the stream to approximately 400°F. All quench
water is vaporized and vented to the atmosphere.
39
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The carbon black particles are filtered from the "quenched"
gas stream by passing through baghouses. The captured
carbon black is collected in hoppers below the baghouse and
passed through a micro-pulverizer to a pelletizer. Water is
added to the "fluff" and it is agitated and mixed to form
pellets with a higher density. The "fluff" has a density of
approximately 2 pounds per cu ft, whereas the pellets have a
density of approximately 20 pounds per cu ft.
The wet pellets are then dried in a rotary external fired
direct/indirect dryer. The indirect exhaust gases from this
drier are vented to the atmosphere and the direct (contact)
gases are exhausted to a bag filter. The dried carbon black
pellets are then conveyed to storage and or bulk loaded. A
simplified process flow diagram is shown in Figure IV-4. No
contact process waste streams are generated by this process.
Good housekeeping and/or roofing over and/or diking the
process areas will minimize stormwater runoff contamination.
Subcategory B - Thermal Black Process
Approximately 7.8 percent of all carbon black produced in
the United States in 1972 was made by the thermal black
process.
The thermal black process produces carbon black by the
"cracking" of hydrocarbons (i.e., separation of the carbon
from the hydrogen). The feed stock is generally natural
gas. Particles from the thermal black process are primarily
large sizes, and yields range from 40 to 50 percent.
Each thermal black unit consists of two reactors. To make
the operation continuous, one reactor is automatically
switched to a heating cycle while the other is producing
carbon black. The reactor refractory is heated by
separating the carbon black from the hydrogen gas in a bag
filter and returning and burning the hydrogen gas in the
reactor that is in the "heat" cycle.
Each reactor consists of a firing zone and a cracking zone.
The cracking zone contains refractory brick which stores the
heat required to crack the natural gas into carbon and
hydrogen. Natural gas is injected into the top of the unit.
The energy supplied by the heated refractory brick cracks
the natural gas to thermal black and hydrogen gas. This
mixture leaves the reactor at a relatively high -temperature
and at an increased standard volume and enters the quench
section of the reactor, where the temperature of the
reaction products is decreased by adding water. Because the
temperature at this point is still much higher than the
40
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bailing point of water, the quench water is converted into
steam.
The cooled reaction products flow through a vertical cooler
where additional quench water is added for further cooling.
The temperature at this point is still in excess of the
boiling point of water, and therefore the quench water is
converted to steam.
From the vertical cooler, the reaction products enter the
bag filter, where the thermal black is separated from the
hydrogen gas. The filtered thermal black falls into a
conveyor beneath the bag filter. The filtered hydrogen gas
anid water vapor pass through a water seal (to prevent ex-
plosions) into a dehumidifier. Water sprays in the
dehumidifier cool the reformed gases below the boiling point
of water, removing most of the moisture. Water collected in
the dehumidifier flows to the hot well where it is cooled
and transferred to the cold well. It is then used to supply
the sprays in the dehumidifier. The gases leaving the
dehumidifier are in excess of the amount required to heat
the reactor and the excess is vented.
The loose thermal black is collected under the bag filter in
a closed screw conveyor and conveyed to a micro-pulverizer.
The micro-pulverizer breaks up large agglomerations of
thermal black and small pieces of refractory which may be
present. The loose black from the micro-pulverizer is
pelletized to make it more suitable for handling. The
pelletized black is directly conveyed to a hopper car for
shipment or conveyed to bulk storage. The black can be
loaded into hopper cars or bagged from bulk storage.
Figure IV-5 is a simplified flow diagram illustrating the
thermal black process. The flow diagram shows a single unit
with its two reactors.
The dehumidifier blowdown can be handled by evaporation
ponds, if desired, in water deficient areas and/or can be
recycled as quench water in water surplus regions resulting
in no discharge of process wastewater from the process.
Good housekeeping and/or a roof over and/or diking around
the process areas will minimize the stormwater runoff
contamination.
Due to the high cost and lack of natural gas, large-particle
furnace blacks (LPF) may soon replace many of the thermal
black applications.
41
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Figure TV - 6
Channel Black Process Flow Diagram
FLAME -
HOPPERS
-CHflNOEL
BAGGING
Figure IV - 7
lamp Black Process Flow Diagram
Burners
I oniphlnck Oil
Comtnisliuti pan
• Air—
f feed o'ir.c
nUfiNKFi DETAIL
42
4/30/76
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Acetylene blacks, a type of thermal black, are produced by
the thermal decomposition of acetylene. They possess a high
degree of structural or chaining tendency. They provide a
high elastic modulus and high conductivity in rubber stocks.
At the present time, acetylene black is produced in the
United States at one location and operates at a level of no
discharge of process wastewater.
A typical system for achieving the no discharge of process
wastewater pollutants for both the thermal and furnace black
process is depicted in Figure IV-8.
Channel Black Manufacture
Channel black is a product of incomplete combustion of
natural gas, (Figure IV-6), Small flames are impinged on
cool surfaces, or channels, where carbon black is deposited
and then scraped off as the channel moves back and forth
over a scraper. The properties of channel black are varied
by changes in burner tip design, distances from tip to
channel, and the amount of air made available for
combustion. The process is extremely inefficient
chemically. For rubber-reinforcing grades, the yield is
only 5 percent; for finer particle size, higher color blacks
such as for use in food stuffs, the yield shrinks to 1
percent. Low yields and rapidly rising gas prices have
motivated the manufacturers to develop other methods of
carbon black production.
At present, there is only a single channel black plant
remaining in operation in the United States, as compared to
35 plants in 1951.
Lamp Black Manufacture
Lamp black is the ancestor of all carbon blacks. Until the
1870's, it was the only carbon black available commercially,
(Figure IV-7. The manufacture of lamp black was practiced
by the Chinese and Egyptians during the pre-Christian era.
Purified resins, fats, and oils were burned beneath inverted
porcelain or pottery cones, and the soot deposited on the
cool surface was carefully brushed off from time to time.
Lamp black manufacturers still follow this basic process.
The principal raw materials used today, however, are
petroleum and coal tar by-products, such as creosote and
anthracene oils. They are burned in open, shallow pans with
restricted air supply. The resulting carbon smoke is then
conducted to a series of settling chambers, where the
flocculated carbon deposits are periodically recovered. In
43
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a typical operation, coal-tar distillate or creosote is
burned from pans four feet in diameter and six inches in
depth. The smoke from each pan passes slowly through a
series of settling chambers, where most of the black
collects. The remainder is periodically collected by bag
filters from both settling chambers and filter systems by
vacuum collectors. Since the gas velocities are very low,
heat is dissipated in the chambers without a need for water-
spray cooling. No water is associated with this process if
bag filtration collection technique is employed as is the
situation with one of the two operating plants.
In recent years, this process has undergone some changes and
developments, making it more similar to the oil furnace
black processes. These modified lamp blacks more closely
resemble oil and gas furnace blacks than traditional lamp
blacks. Lamp blacks are of large particle size, possess
little reinforcing ability in rubber, and are low in
coloring power. They are of value as tinting pigments in
certain paints and lacquers, but are primarily used in the
manufacture of carbon black brushes for electrical equipment
and carbon arcs. In most applications, however, they have
been replaced by furnace blacks. Because two plants are in
operation in the United States, this subcategory is included
for completeness.
Basis jfor Assignment to Subcategories
This subcategorization assigns carbon black products to a
subcategory by the manufacturing process by which they are
produced. It should be noted that all carbon black
manufacturing processes were subcategorized.
Field sampling was not performed at plants visited because
of the nature of the processes subcategorized. They either
had no discharge, or the discharge was intermittent,
consisting of occasional equipment washdowns or other
incidental flows. Historical raw waste data from the
manufacturers has been used and is presented in Section V,
Waste Characteristics.
44
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U1
Figure IV - 8
Block Diagram for No Discharge of Process Wastewater Pollutants System
Plant Water Supply
Borrow Pit
Reservoir
Water to
Atmosphere as Steam
Dsphere
Carbon Black**
Process
Plant WasMown*
including equip-
ment washout
Watershed
i
Settling Ponds
***
Screerrmg (Solids to Landfill)
* Does not include utility blowtown, sanitary, laundry or shower, or laboratory wastewater.
These may go to separate sanitary system although some may be acceptable and desirable for
recycle as quench water.
** Process includes both thermal and furnace black.
*** Screening may be in the form of filtration if water quality requires it.
4/30/76
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This Page Intentionally Blank
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SECTION V
WASTE CHARACTERIZATION
Carbon Black
Unlike the other industries listed under miscellaneous
chemicals, the carbon black manufacturers produce only a
single major product type. The various production processes
for manufacturing carbon black were used as a basis for
subcategorization of the segment.
Because the discharges from these processes are intermittent
and highly dependent upon the immediate situation, no
wastewater sampling was performed for this industry.
Available industrial data, however, were acquired for waste
categorization,
The major wastewater discharge from subcategory A (furnace
black), is from equipment and process area wash down which
has been shown to be successfully recycled as quench water.
The major process wastewater stream for subcategory B
(thermal process) is the recirculated dehumidifier stream.
The thermal plant visited for this project had no blowdown
from this source. The dehumidifier stream was ponded and
recirculated as quench water in the process. Data obtained
from the survey are presented in Table V-1.
Table V-1
Raw Waste Loads
Carbon Black Segment
Process Water Usage* TSS**
(L/kkg) (kg/kkg)
Furnace Black 1,500 2.8
Thermal Black 72,100 8.9
*99 + % vented as steam
*#Estimated based on plant data
The furnace black process is a net user of water. The
miscellaneous discharges occur on an unscheduled basis.
These discharges from equipment washout and storm runoff are
mixed with laboratory wastewater, utility blowdown and in
some situations mixing of treated sanitary waste including
47
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shower and laundry waste. Therefore, sampling was not
practical. , ; ,
The thermal waste stream is probably representative of a
blowdown stream that could be, expected from other
dehumidifier/quench systems; however, the dehumidifier
blowdown would be only- 1 percent (approximately) of the
total 72,100 L/kkg flow and has been shown to be
successfully recycled as quench water.'
The raw waste load (RWL) values for the furnace black
process was calculated from plant 84, indicating a three
month average wastewater discharge of 97 gpm. The data did
not indicate whether all of this flow was process
wastewater. .A... range,: of 8 to 45 gpm with an average of 20
gpm was reported by. seven other furnace plants for the
equipment wash water discharge* The RWL was calculated from
the TSS data of plant 84 and the 97 gpm flow, (Table V-1) .
However, this plant was not exemplary and the average flow
of 20 gpm was used to calculate the cost for recycle
equipment (Table VIII-2).
No discharge of process wastewater pollutants is still
recommended for the furnace process based on the data shown
in Tables IV-1 and IV-2, where 66 percent of the furnace
plants currently have no discharge of process wastewater.
Furthermore, based on plant data, the average wash water and
other effluent flow rates represent less than 10 percent of
the average quench water flow rates for those same plants.
No definable process point source waste stream is discharged
from subcategory C (channel black process) and subcategory D
(lamp black process). Bag filtration is the recommended
collection technique for the lamp black process resulting in
no discharge of process wastewater pollutants. One lamp
black plant surveyed had a settling pond where the solids
settled out and the liquid percolated into the ground. It
is recommended that if this settling pond be lined, bag
filters be installed to recover the solids and eliminate the
waste stream. A second lamp black plant surveyed uses the
bag filter collection technique and has no discharge of
process wastewater. The channel black plant was a dry
operation with no discharge of process wastewater
pollutants.
Carbon black spills are generally vacuumed dry, and are
therefore not a source of contamination. Dry vacuuming is
used to allow recovery of uncontaminated dry carbon black
and prevent wastewater contamination. This carbon can
sometimes be reused but is generally incinerated and/or
48
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landfilled. Oil and grease concentrations in the process
wastewater streams were not observed to be a problem for
this point source category due to the high reaction
temperature required to produce carbon black and the nature
of all four subcategories.
It has been reported that the properties of carbon black can
be changed by a variety of techniques including
recirculation of off-gases and injection of additives. For
example, use of potassium and sodium salts (i.e., KNO3 and
NaNO3) at the rate of approximately 0.1 percent by weight
have been effective in the reduction of particle size of
furnace black. Also aluminum and zirconium salts have been
added to the process gas stream to increase refractory life
of the reactors. These alkali materials could attack the
silicon-graphitized fabric and destroy the integrity of the
fabric filter bags. The possible impact on process wastes
due to these factors is unknown.
49
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SECTION VI
SELECTION OF POLLUTANT PARAMETERS
General
From review of NPDES permit, applications for direct
discharge of wastewaters from various manufacturers,
industries grouped under carbon black and examination of
related published data, eight parameters (Table VI-1) were
selected for all industrial wastewaters during the field
data collection program. All surveyed data are summarized
in Supplement B. Supplement B includes historical data from
plants visited and surveyed, RWL calculations, and analysis
of historical data. Supplement A has design calculations.
Supplement A and B are available at the EPA Public
Information Reference Unit, Room 2992 (EPA Library),
Waterside Mall, Washington, D.C. 20460.
The degree of impact on the overall environment has been
used as a basis for dividing the pollutants into groups as
follows:
1. Pollutants of significance.
2. Pollutants of limited significance.
Particular parameters have been discussed in terms of their
validity as measures of environmental impact and as sources
of analytical insight.
Pollutants observed from the field data that were present in
sufficient concentrations so as to interfere with, be
incompatible with, or pass with inadeguate treatment through
publicly owned treatment works are discussed in Section XII
of this document.
Pollutants of Significance
Parameters of pollution significance for the carbon black
segment are TDS and TSS. Due to the intermittent flow or no
discharge from the waste treatment facilities, no sampling
took place on the furnace or thermal processes. No field
visits were made to either the lamp or channel black
manufacturing sites. These are dry operations and generate
new process wastewater. The listing of parameters of
significance was developed from the carton black industrial
survey.
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Table VI-1
List of Parameters Examined
Total Suspended Solids
Dissolved Solids
Iron
Copper
Manganese
pH, Acidity, Alkalinity
52
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Total Suspended Solids (TSS)
Stispended solids- include both organic and inorganic
materials. The inorganic compounds include sand, silt, and
clay. The organic fraction includes such materials as
grease, oil, tar, and animal and vegetable waste products.
These solids may settle out rapidly and bottom deposits are
often a mixture of both organic and inorganic solids.
Solids may be suspended in water for a time, and then settle
to the bed of the stream or lake. These solids discharged
with man* s wastes may be inert, slowly biodegradable
materials, or rapidly decomposable substances. While in
suspension, they increase the turbidity of the water, reduce
light penetration and impair the photosynthetic activity of
aquatic plants. '
Suspended solids in water interfere with many industrial
processes, cause foaming in boilers and incrustations on
equipment exposed to such water, especially as the
temperature rises. They are undesirable in process water
used in the manufacture of steel, in the textile industry,
in laundries, in dyeing and in cooling systems.
Solids in suspension are aesthetically displeasing, when
they settle to form sludge deposits on the stream or lake
bed, they are often damaging to the life in water. Solids,
when transformed to sludge deposits, may do a variety of
damaging things, including blanketing the stream or lake bed
and thereby destroying the living spaces for those benthic
organisms that would otherwise occupy the habitat. When of
an. organic nature, solids use a portion or all of the
dissolved oxygen available in the area. Organic materials
also serve as a food source for sludgeworms and associated
organisms.
Disregarding any toxic effect attributable to Substances
leached out by water, suspended solids may kill fish and
shellfish by causing abrasive injuries and by clogging the
gills and respiratory passages of various aquatic fauna.
Indirectly, suspended solids are inimical to aquatic life
because they screen out light, and they promote and maintain
the development of noxious conditions through oxygen
depletion. This results in the killing of fish and fish
food organisms. Suspended solids also reduce the
recreational value of the water.
Dissolved Solids
In natural waters, the dissolved solids are mainly
carbonates, chlorides, sulfates, phosphates, and, to a
53
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lesser extent, nitrates of calcium, magnesium, sodium, and
potassium, with traces of iron, manganese and other
substances. The summation of all individual dissolved
solids is commonly referred to as total dissolved solids.
Many communities in the United States and in other countries
use water supplies containing 2,000 to 4,000 mg/1 of
dissolved salts, when no better water is available. Such
waters are not palatable, may not quench thirst, and may
have a laxative action on new users, waters containing more
than 4,000 mg/1 of total salts are generally considered
unfit for human use, although in hot climates such higher
salt concentrations can be tolerated. Waters containing
5,000 mg/1 or more are reported to be bitter and act as a
bladder and intestinal irritant. it is generally agreed
that the salt concentration of good, palatable water should
not exceed 500 mg/1.
Limiting concentrations of dissolved solids for fresh-water
fish may range from 5,000 to 10,000 mg/1, depending on
species and prior acclimatization. Some fish are adapted to
living in more saline waters, and a few species of fresh-
water forms have been found in natural waters with a salt
concentration of 15,000 to 20,000 mg/1. Fish can slowly
become acclimatized to higher salinities, but fish in waters
of low salinity cannot survive sudden exposure to high
salinities, such as those resulting from discharges of oil-
well brines. Dissolved solids may influence the toxicity of
heavy metals and organic compounds to fish and other aquatic
life, primarily because of the antagonistic effect of
hardness on metals.
Waters with total dissolved solids (TDS) concentrations
higher than 500 mg/1 have decreasing utility as irrigation
water. At 5,000 mg/1, water has little or no value for
irrigation.
Dissolved solids in industrial waters can cause foaming in
boilers and can cause interference with cleanliness, color,
or taste of many finished products. High concentrations of
dissolved solids also tend to accelerate corrosion.
Specific conductance is a measure of the capacity of water
to convey an electric current. This property is related to
the total concentration of ionized substances in water and
to the water temperature. This property is frequently used
as a substitute method of quickly estimating the dissolved
solids concentration.
Pollutants of Limited Significance
54
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The following parameters, which were investigated in
pcirticular cases, have limited effects on the applicability
of in-plant treatment technologies.
Iron (Fe)
Iron is an abundant metal found in the earth1s crust. The
most common iron ore is hematite from which iron is obtained
by reduction with carbon. Other forms of commercial ores
are magnetite and taconite. Pure iron is riot often found in
commercial use, but it is usally alloyed with other metals
and minerals* the most common being carbon.
Iron is the basic element in the production of steel and
steel alloys. Iron with carbon is used for casting of major
parts of machines and it can be machined, cast, formed, and
welded. Ferrous iron is used in paints, while powdered iron
can be sintered and used in powder metallurgy. Iron
compounds are also used to precipitate other metals and
undesirable minerals from industrial waste water streams.
Iron is chemically reactive and corrodes rapidly in the
presence of moist air and at elevated temperatures. In
water and in the presence of oxygen, the resulting products
of iron corrosion may be pollutants in water. Natural
pollution occurs from the leaching of soluble iron salts
from soil and rocks and is increased by industrial waste
water from pickling baths and other solutions containing
iron salts.
Corrosion products of iron in water cause staining of
porcelain fixtures, and ferric iron combines with the tannin
to produce a dark violet color. The presence of excessive
iron in water discourages cows from drinking and, thus,
reduces milk production. High concentrations of ferric and
ferrous ions in water kill most fish introduced to the
solution within a few hours. The killing action is
attributed to coatings of iron hydroxide precipitates on the
gills. Iron oxidizing bacteria are dependent on iron in
water for growth. These bacteria form slimes that can
affect the esthetic values of bodies of water and cause
stoppage of flows in pipes.
Iron is an essential nutrient and micronutrient for all
forms of growth. Drinking water standards in the U. S. have
set a recommended limit of 0.3 mg/1 of iron in domestic
water supplies based not on the physiological
considerations, but rather on aesthetic and taste
considerations of iron in water.
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Copper (Cu)
Copper is an elemental metal that is sometimes found free in
nature and is found in many minerals such as cuprite,
malachite, azurite, chalcopyrite, and bornite. Copper is
obtained from these ores by smelting, leaching, and
electrolysis. Significant industrial uses are in the
plating, electrical, plumbing, and heating equipment
industries. Copper is also commonly used with other
minerals as an insecticide and fungicide.
Traces of copper are found in all forms of plant and animal
life, and it is an essential trace element for nutrition.
Copper is not considered to be a cumulative systemic poison
for humans as it is readily excreted by the body, but it can
cause symptoms of gastroenteritis, with nausea and
intestinal irritations, at relatively low dosages. The
limiting factor in domestic water supplies is taste.
Threshold concentrations for taste have been generally
reported in the range of 1.0-2.0 mg/1 of copper while
concentrations of 5 to 7.5 mg/1 have made water completely
undrinkable. It has been recommended that the copper in
public water supply sources not exceed 1 mg/1.
Copper salts cause undesirable color reactions in the food
industry and cause pitting when deposited on some other
metals such as aluminum and galvanized steel. The textile
industry is affected when copper salts are present in water
used for processing of fabrics. Irrigation waters con-
taining more than minute quantities of copper can be
detrimental to certain crops. The toxicity of copper to
aquatic organisms varies significantly, not only with the
species, but also with the physical and chemical
characteristics of the water, including temperature,
hardness, turbidity, and carbon dioxide content. In hard
water, the toxicity of copper salts may be reduced by the
precipitation of copper carbonate or other insoluble
compounds. The sulfates of copper and zinc, and of copper
and cadmium are synergistic in their toxic effect on fish.
Copper concentrations less than 1 mg/1 have been reported to
be toxic, particularly in soft water, to many kinds of fish,
crustaceans, mollusks, insects, phytoplankton and
zooplankton. Concentrations of copper, for example, are
detrimental to seme oysters above .1 ppm. Oysters cultured
in sea water containing 0.13-0.5 ppm of copper deposited the
metal in their bodies and became unfit as a food substance.
Manganese
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Manganese metal is not found pure in nature, but its ores
are very common and widely distributed. The metal or its
salts are used extensively in steel alloys, for dry-cell
batteries, in glass and ceramics, in the manufacture of
paints and varnishes, in inks and dyes, in matches and
fireworks, and in agriculture to enrich manganese-deficient
soils. Like iron, it occurs in the divalent and trivalent
form. The chlorides, nitrates, and sulfates are highly
soluble in water; but the oxides, carbonates^ and hydroxides
are only sparingly soluble. For this reason, manganic or
manganous ions are seldom present in natural surface waters
in concentrations above 1.0 mg/1. In groundwater subject to
reducing conditions, manganese can fce leached from the soil
arid occur in high concentrations. Manganese frequently
accompanies iron in such ground waters and in the literature
the two are often linked together.
The recommended limitation for manganese in drinking water
in the U.S. is set at 0.05 mg/1 and internationaly (WHO) at
0.1 mg/1. These limits appear to be based on esthetic and
economic considerations rather than physiological hazards.
In concentrations not causing unpleasant tastes,, manganese
is regarded by most investigators to be of no toxicological
significance in drinking water. However, some cases of
manganese poisoning have been reported in the literature. A
small outbreak of an encephalitis-like disease, with early
symptoms _of lethargy and edema, was traced to manganese in
the drinking water in a village outside of Tokyo; three
persons died as a result of poisoning by well water
contaminated by manganese derived from dry-cell batteries
buried nearby. Excess manganese in the drinking water is
also believed to be the cause of a rare disease endemic in
Manchukuo.
Manganese is undesirable in domestic water supplies because
it causes unpleasant tastes, deposits on food during
cooking, stains and discolors laundry and plumbing fixtures,
and fosters the growth of some micro-organisms in
reservoirs, filters, and distribution systems.
Small concentrations of manganese - 0.2 to 0.3 mg/1 may form
heavy encrustations in piping while even small amounts may
cause noticable black spots on white laundry items.
Excessive manganese is also undesirable in water for use in
many industries, including textiles; dyeing; food
processing, distilling, brewing; ice; paper; and many
others.
Acidity and Alkalinity - pH
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Although not a specific pollutant, pH is related to the
acidity or alkalinity of a waste water stream. It is not a
linear or direct measure of either, however, it may properly
be used as a surrogate to control both excess acidity and
excess alkalinity in water. The term pH is used to describe
the hydrogen ion - hydroxyl ion balance in water.
Technically, pH is the hydrogen ion concentration or
activity present in a given solution. pH numbers are the
negative logarithim of the hydrogen ion concentration. A pH
of 7 generally indicates neutrality or a balance between
free hydrogen and free hydroxyl ions. Solutions with a pH
above 7 indicate that the solution is alkaline, while a pH
below 7 indicate that the solution is acid.
Knowledge of the pH of water or waste water is useful in
determining necessary measures for corrosion control,
pollution control, and disinfection. Waters with a pH below
6.0 are corrosive to water works structures, distribution
lines, and household plumbing fixtures and such corrosion
can add constituents to drinking water such as iron,
copper, zinc, cadmium, and lead. Low pH waters not only
tend to dissolve metals from structures and fixtures but
also tend to redissolve or leach metals from sludges and
bottom sediments. The hydrogen ion concentration can affect
the "taste" of the water and at a low pH, water tastes
"sour".
Extremes of pH or rapid pH changes can exert stress
conditions or kill aquatic life outright. Evein moderate
changes from "acceptable" criteria limits of pH are
deleterious to some species. The relative toxicity to
aquatic life of many materials is increased by changes ift
the water pH. For example, metalocyanide complexes can
increase a thousand-fold in toxicity with a drop of 1.5 pH
units. Similarly, the toxicity of ammonia is a function of
pH. The bactericidal effect of chlorine in most cases is
less as the pH increases, and it is economically
advantageous to keep the pH close to 7.
Acidity is defined as the quantative ability of a water to
neutralize hydroxyl ions. It is usually expressed as the
calcium carbonate equivalent of the hydroxyl ions
neutralized. Acidity should not be confused with pH value.
Acidity is the quantity of hydrogen ions which may be
released to react with or neutralize hydroxyl ions while pH
is a measure of the free hydrogen ions in a solution at the
instant the pH measurement is made. A property of many
chemicals, called buffing, may hold hydrogen ions in a
solution from being in the free state and being measured as
pH. The bond of most buffers is rather weak and hydrogen
58
-------
ions tend to be released from the buffer as needed to
maintain a fixed pH value.
Highly acid waters are corrosive to metals, concrete and
living organisms, exhibiting the pollutional characteristics
outlined above for low pH waters. Depending on buffering
capacity, water may have a higher total acidity at pH values
of 6.0 than other waters with a pH value of 4.0.
Alkalinity; Alkalinity is defined as the ability of a water
to neutralize hydrogen ions. It is usually expressed as the
calcium carbonate equivalent of the hydrogen ions
neutralized.
Alkalinity is commonly caused by the presence of carbonates,
bicarbonates, hydroxides and to a lesser extent by borates,
silicates, phophates and organic substances. Because of the
nature of the chemicals causing alkalinity, and the buffing
caipacity of carbon dioxide in water, very high pH values are
seldom found in natural waters.
Excess alkalinity as exhibited in a high pH value may make
water corrosive to certain metals, to most natural organic
materials and toxic to living organisms.
Ammonia is more lethal with a higher pH. The lacrimal fluid
of the human eye has a pH of approximately 7.0 and a
deviation of 0.1 pH unit from the norm may result in eye
irritation for the swimmer. Appreciable irritation will
cause severe pain.
Carbon Black
As discussed in Section V, all subcategories of carbon black
are no discharge of process wastewater pollutant
subcategories. In the thermal subcategory, the process
quench water contacts a hot process stream of carbon black
and hydrogen formed by cracking natural gas. The quench
water is later condensed in a dehumidifier by further
cooling by active sprays. This contact water contains a
relatively small amount of carbon black as TSS. Since
carbon black consists of elemental carbon (which exerts
minimal oxygen demand), the only pollutant of significance
is TSS. TSS is measured by the organic and inorganic solids
removed when filtered through a preformed glass filter mat
in a Gooch crucible.
One thermal plant visited had a TSS concentration of
approximately 124 mg/1 in the recirculated dehumidifier
system, and had no blowdown. Normally, a blowdown is taken
59
-------
from such a closed-loop system, but in the carbon black
manufacture, this blowdown has been successfully recycled to
the quench water with no product contamination resulting.
The TSS concentration of the blowdown would probably be
similar to the concentration measured in the closed loop
that was investigated, but based on the survey this is not
necessary in the manufacture of carbon black. Therefore, no
process wastewater should be discharged from the plant. The
parameters discussed above may affect the product as
contamination if the level of pollutants are high as a
result of poor settling before recycle, high concentration
in the influent plant water or poor operating procedures.
The raw waste load obtained during the field survey for the
furnace and thermal black plants are presented in Table V-1.
Raw waste load data was collected from a process from the
historical data collected from a survey of the carbon black
furnace and thermal manufacturers. Channel and lamp black
are total dry process resulting in no process wastewater.
Raw waste data for the thermal and furnace process,
historical and surveyed, are summarized in Table VII-2.
60
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SECTION VII .
CONTROL AND TREATMENT TECHNOLOGIES
General , "-_ - ...-•.- -, •' • ,• - . . :
Control and treatment technology may be divided into two
major groupings: in-plant pollution abatement and end-of-
pipe treatment.
Based on the ability to obtain no discharge of process
wastewater pollutants in this point source category
discussion of end-of-plant treatment is not applicable.
After reviewing the results of the segment-wide carbon black
survey, conclusions were made commensurate with the
following distinct technology levels:
I. Best Practicable Control Technology Currently
Available (BPT)
II. Best Available Technology Economically
Achievable (BAT)
III. Best Available Demonstrated Control Technology
(NSPS)
To. assess the economic impact of these proposed effluent
limitations, guidelines and new source performance standards
on each of the subcategories, model treatment systems have
been proposed which are considered capable of attaining the
recommended RWL reduction before recycle is required in
order to meet the effluent limitations and guidelines. It
should be noted and understood that the particular systems
were chosen for use in the economic analysis only, and are
not the only systems capable of attaining the specified
pollutant reductions.
There are many possible combinations of in-plant systems
capable of attaining the effluent limitations, guidelines
and standards of performance suggested in this report. It
is the intent of this study to allow the individual plant to
make the final decision about what specific combination of
pollution control measures is best suited to its.situation
in complying with the effluent limitations, guidelines and
standards.
Carbon Black
61
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In-Pi ant Pollution Abatement:
The elimination or reduction of in-plant pollution sources
depends upon any one or a combination of the following
factors:
1, New plant process selection to minimize pollution.
Present corporate environmental awareness requires that the
new environmental impact of products and processes be
evaluated.
2. The modification of process equipment to improve
product recovery or to minimize pollution.
3. Maintenance and good housekeeping practices to
minimize pollution. The competitive nature of the segment
requires that most producers operate their plants in the
most efficient manner possible. This necessitates good
maintenance and housekeeping practices.
U. The age of the plant and process equipment as it
affects pollution. Poorly maintained process equipment does
not warrant consideration of its age. An example of the
impact of new technology on carbon black manufacturing is
the use of bag filters for carbon black recovery, accepted
as state-of-the-art technology. In the past, cyclones and
wet scrubbers were used, which generate larger quantities of
wastewaters.
Based on the field visits and the telephone survey described
earlier (Section III), Tables IV-1 and IV-2 were compiled.
The findings of this survey shows that all subcategories of.
the carbon black point source category, manufacturing all
grades of carbon black and regardless of geographical
location are achieving a no discharge of process wastewater
pollutants level. The field survey is presented in Table
VII-1.
62
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Table VII-1
Treatment Technology Survey
Carbon Black Segment
Plant Subcategory Treatment Technology
81 A .Settling/Evaporation
82 A* Settling Basin, Gravity
Filtration
83 A and B Evaporation/Settling Ponds
(no discharge)
; 84 A Baffled Settling Lagoons/Coke
Breez Filter Bed
85 A and B Settling Lagoon
(no discharge)
86 B Oxidation Pond/Slurry Storage
Lagoon/Clarification Lagoon
87 A Separator Units
88 A Surge Basin/Sand Filtration
1Scheduled to achieve no discharge of process wastewater
pollutant by 7/1/77.
It is important to note that the treatment technology
applied to subcategory A was not for process contact
sources. Rather, the technology was applied to treatment of
equipment washout, process area washdown, and in some
instances, storm water runoff, utility water and treated
sanitary wastes. Such technology, however, is applicable to
process contact wastewaters to achieve pollution control and
zero no discharge of process wastewater pollutants for the
carbon black segment.
Plant 83 collected stormwater runoff from its property and
from adjoining property for use as quench water in its
process. Also, it was implementing a program to include its
sanitary wastewater within this treatment system.
Plant 82 treated miscellaneous utility discharges and
stormwater runoff by gravity settling followed by gravity
filtration. At the time of the plant visit, little
discharge was observed. This facility has plans to achieve
63
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no discharge of process wastewater by the third quarter of
1976 solely with in-plant changes. Again, this system did
not treat any process contact water. Plant 83 was a
combination furnace and thermal black plant. All process
contact waters (from the thermal black dehumidifier system)
were collected in approximately seven acres of
evaporation/settling ponds. No discharge occurred from this
system due to the high net evaporation for the area. The
sanitary wastes (including shower water) were also collected
by this system and recycled as quench water.
Plant 84 had separate treatment for the sanitary waste
including shower and laundry wastewater. Laboratory
wastewater, equipment washout and storm runoff went to the
baffled settling lagoons then into coke breez filter beds
before mixing with the plant sanitary and utility waste
before leaving the plant. No treatment efficiencies were
known. Low intermittent flow from the filter bed was
observed. Spills were dry cleaned. Bag filters were washed
several times per year. The waste load from this operation
was not known.
Plant 85 had separate treatment for sanitary waste.
Equipment washout, process area washdown and rain runoff
from the concrete, curbed process area pads, was all
collected and sent to a gravity settling lagoon,
mechanically screened and recycled as quench water for the
process. Plant 85 is both a thermal and furnace process
plant. The humidifier scrubber water is sent through the
same treatment system and recycled as quench water resulting
in no discharge of process wastewater pollutants for both
the thermal and furnace processes. This plant is located in
a water surplus region. No historical raw waste water data
was immediately available, but has been requested.
Plants 83 and 85 are considered exemplary plants.
Gravity Settling and/or Gravity Filtration
During the plant survey program, historic wastewater
treatment plant performance data were obtained when
available. Table VII-2 is a summary of average treatment
results attained by the plants surveyed. The treatment
processes are identified in Table VII-1. The information in
Table VII-2 indicates only the relative effectiveness of the
applied treatment technology.
More data has been requested from the manufacturers in order
to better define the wastewaters generated from the carbon
black processes and also to better understand the potential
64
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TABLE VII-2
U1
Wastewater Treatment Plant Performance Data
Carbon Black Segment
Plant
Number Subcategory Flow rate, gpm* Influent TSS, mg/11
Effluent TSS, mg/11
% Removal2
81 ;
84
86
87
88
A
A
B
A
A
Average
18
97
NR3
13
45
Range
12-26
2-200
34 (max)
NR3
Average
40
1800
247
78
38
Range
9-145
120-6300
NR3
16-120
10-85
Average
22
13
51
13
14
Range
13-32
3-24
NR3
70(max)
7-18
70
99
v. 79
83
. 63
^Historical data supplied from manufacturers
^Calculated
3NR = Not reported
4/30/76
-------
problem of product contamination as a result of recycle as
explained in section IV.
It must be emphasized that the data presented above are
significant in that they illustrate the possible performance
of applied treatment technology. All plants received
wastewater from many different sources, including in some
cases sanitary wastewater, utilities and stormwater. This
data does not represent the application of these
technologies to process contact streams.
66
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SECTION VIII . -- .
COST, ENERGY, AND NON-WATER QUALITY ASPECTS
General
In order to evaluate the economic impact of treatment on a
uniform basis, in-plant treatment models which will provide
the desired level of treatment were proposed for the thermal
and furnace black processes. In-plant control measures such
as distance from treatment system to quench feed have been
evaluated based on the industrial averages for the cost,
energy, and non-water quality aspects of in-plant controls
and are intimately related to the specific processes for
which they are developed. Although there,are general cost
and energy requirements for equipment items, these correla-
tions are usually expressed in terms of specific design
parameters. Such parameters are related to the production
rate and other specific considerations at a particular
production site.
In the manufacture of a single product there is a wide
variety of process plant sizes and unit operations. Many
detailed designs might be required to develop a meaningful
understanding of the economic impact of process
modifications. Such a development is really not necessary,
however-* because the in-plant models are capable of
attaining the recommended reduction in the RWL's within the
subcategories before recycle is required. The cost
associated with these systems can be divided by the
production rate for the given subcategory to show the
economic impact of the system in terms of dollars per 1000
pound of product.
Non-water quality aspects such as noise levels will not be
perceptibly affected by the proposed wastewater treatment
systems. Most carbon black plants generate fairly high
noise levels. Equipment associated with in-plant control
systems would not add significantly to these noise levels.
Annual and capital cost estimates have been prepared for
carbon black in-plant treatment models to evaluate the
economic impact of the proposed effluent:, limitations,
guidelines and new source performance standards. In-plant
costs can be estimated using this same framework of
assumptions and unit values. The capital costs were
generated on a unit process basis and are reported in the
form of cost curves in Supplement A for all the proposed
treatment systems. The following percentage figures were
67
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added on to the total unit process costs to develop the
total capital cost requirements:
Percent of Unit Process
Item Capital Cost
Electrical 14
Piping 20
Instrumentation 8
Site Work 6
Engineering Design and Construction
Surveillance Fees 15
Construction Contingency 15
Land costs were computed independently and added directly to
the total capital costs.
Annual costs were computed using the following cost basis:
Item Cost Allocation
Capital Recovery
plus Return 10 yrs at 10 percent
Operations and Includes labor and supervision.
Maintenance chemicals, sludge hauling and dis-
posal, insurance and taxes (computed
at 2 percent of the capital cost),
and maintenance (computed at H per-
cent of the capital cost).
Energy and Power Based on $0.02/kw hr for electrical
power and 170/gal for grade 11
furnace oil.
The 10-year period used for capital recovery is that which
is presently acceptable under current Internal Revenue
Service regulations pertaining to industrial pollution
control equipment.
The following is a qualitative as well as a quantitative
discussion of the possible effects that variations in
treatment technology or design criteria could have on the
total capital costs and annual costs.
Capital
Technology or Design Criteria Cost Differential
1. Use earthen basins with 1, Cost reduction could
68
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a plastic liner in place
of reinforced concrete con-
struction, and floating
aerators plus permanent-
access walkways.
2. Place all treatment tankage
above grade to minimize
excavation, especially if
a pumping station is re-
quired in any case. Use
all-steel tankage to
minimize capital cost. "
3. Minimize flows and-maximize 3. Cost differential would
be 20 to 30 percent
of the total cost.
Cost savings would
depend on the in-
dividual situation.
concentrations through ex-
tensive in-plant recovery and
water conservation, so that
other treatment technologies,
e.g., incineration, may be
economically competitive.
depend on a number of
items, e.g., age of
plant, accessibility
to process piping,
local air pollution
standards, etc.
All cost data were computed in terms of August 1972 dollars,
which corresponds to an Engineering News Records index (ENR)
value of 1980.
Carbon Black
This section provides quantitative cost information relative
to assessing the economic impact of the proposed effluent
limitations, guidelines and new source performance standards
for the carbon black manufacturing point source category.
Since wastewater is associated with only the furnace and
thermal black processes, a treatment model was developed for
only subcategories A and B (furnace and thermal black). In
order to evaluate the economic impact on a uniform treatment
basis, an in-plant treatment model was proposed which will
provide the desired level of treatment before recycle is
required. This treatment model is summarized below:
Technology Level
BPT, NSPS
and BAT
In-PIant
Treatment Model
Gravity Settling and/or
Filtration and Recycle
The choice of which in-plant controls are required to attain
no discharge of process wastewater pollutants is left up to
the individual manufacturer.
69
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FIGURE VIII -1
IN-PLANT RECYCLE
COST MODEL - STEP NO. 1
COMPOSITE
SAMPLER
COMPOSITE
SAMPLER
SETTLING POND
SPLITTER
BOX
EFFLUENT
BOX
TO FILTRATION
OR QUENCH
RECYCLE AS
REQUIRED
SETTLING POND
4/30/76
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FIGURE VIII -2
IN-PLANT RECYCLE
COST MODEL - STEP NO. 2
TO SETTLING POND
SETTLING POND
EFFLUENT
BACK WASH
HOLDING TANK
txj-l
FILTER INLET
. WELL
FILTER WATER
HOLDING TANK
QUENCH RECYCLE
DUAL MEDIA
FILTERS
BACK WASH
PUMPS
4/30/76
-------
BPT. BAT and NSPS Cost Model
To evaluate the economic effects of the BPT, BAT and NSPS effluent
limitations, guidelines and new source performance standards for
carbon black manufacturing, it was necessary to formulate a treatment
model. The model selected was gravity settling ponds and/or dual
media filtration, as shown in Figure VIII-1 and VIII-2. The cost
model is in two steps, since the plant water quality may be of a level
that step No. 2 would not be required before being recycled as quench
water. In order that the cost model include carbon black plants in
all geographical locations, step No. 2 has been included. Again, it
should be emphasized that step No. 2, the dual media filtration, may
not be necessary but is included for completeness in measuring the
total economic impact that the manufacturers would have to incur for
the complete installation.
Cost
Annual and capital cost estimates have been prepared for the above in-
plant model. These costs are presented in Table VIII-1 and VIII-2 for
the furnace and thermal black processes, respectively. These costs
show that the economic impact based on the current selling price of
$220.00 per metric ton to be minimal. Because the majority of the
plants surveyed have installed the equivalent of Step No. 1, the
economic impact will generally be less then the calculated values.
The detailed cost breakdown by unit processes are included in the
Supplement A.
Energy
Since the BPT, BAT and NSPS treatment models were designed to use
landfilling of gravity compacted sludge, energy requirements will be
for low horsepower pumps and pond dredging operations. The gravity
filtration would require only small horsepower pumps. Tables VIII-1
and VIII-2 presents the cost for energy and power for the treatment
model for BPT, BAT, and NSPS.
Non-Water Quali ty Aspects
The non-water quality considerations for the carbon black segment in
achieving the proposed effluent limitations guidelines are minimal.
The major consideration will be disposal of the settled carbon black,
which can be done primarily by landfilling or low cost incineration
such as pit burning.
Other non-water quality aspects will not be perceptibly affected.
72
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TABLE VIII-1
u>
Wastewater Treatment Costs for
BPCTCA, BADCT and BATEA Effluent Limitations
(ENR 1780 - August, 1972 Costs)
Furnace Black Process
RWL
Average Production
C
214 kkg/day
_470 x 1C-3 Ibs/day)
Production Days 350
Wastewater Flow - kL/Day 109
(gpd) , 28,800
kL/kkg product 0.5
(gal/1,000 Ibs) (61)
TSS Effluent Limitations - kg TSS/kkg product3 0.97E
TOTAL CAPITAL COSTS
ANNUAL COSTS ,
Capital Recovery plus return at 10% . :
at 10 years
Operating + Maintenance
Energy + Power
Total Annual Cost
Cost1 $/l,000 kg Product
($/l,000 Ibs Product)
1-Cost based on total annual cost
^Incremental cost over Step No. 1 cost if required
^kg/kkg product is equivalent to lb/1,000 Ib product
^No discharge of process wastewater pollutants allowed
3RWL TSS limit shown is based on average flow rate of 20 gpm
or 28,800 gpd and TSS concentration from plant 84
TECHNOLOGY LEVEL
STEP NO. 1 STEP NO.
-: 0.0"
187,800
30,600
5,000
35,600
0.48
0.22
4
0.0
62,000
10,000
5,000
15^000
0.20
0.09
4/30/76
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TABLE VIII-2
Wastewater Treatment Costs for
BPCTCA, BADCT and BATEA Effluent Limitations
(ENR 1780 - August, 1972 Costs)
Thermal Black Process
RWL
Average Production 68 kkg/day
( 150 x 103 Ibs/day)
Production Days 350
Wastewater Flow - kL/Day
(gpd)
kL/kkg product
(gal/1,000 Ibs)
TSS Effluent Limitations - kg TSS/kkg product3
49
(13,000)
0.7
(86)
0.089
TECHNOLOGY LEVEL
STEP NO. 1 STEP NO. 22
0.0^
0.04
TOTAL CAPITAL COSTS
ANNUAL COSTS
Capital Recovery plus return at 10%
at 10 years
Operating + Maintenance
Energy + Power
Total Annual Cost
Costl $/l,000 kg Product)
($/l,000 Ibs Product)
*Cost based on total annual cost
^Incremental cost over Step No. 1 cost if required
product is equivalent to lb/1,000 Ib product
discharge of process wastewater pollutants allowed
123,800
20,200
5,000
25,200
$1.06
0.48
38,500
6,300
5,000
11,300
0.47
0.22
4/30/76
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SECTION IX
BEST PRACTICABLE CONTROL TECHNOLOGY
CURRENLTY AVAILABLE (BPT)
General
The effluent limitations that must be achieved by all plants
by 1 July, 1977 through the application of the Best
Practicable Control Technology Currently Available (BPT) are
based upon an average of the best performance achievements
of existing exemplary plants.
Carbon Black
The effluent limitations guidelines for all subcategories of
carbon black manufacturing has been established to be no
discharge of process wastewater pollutants for BPT and are
presented in Table IX-1.
The development of the BPT has been based on in-plant
technology for carbon black manufacturing subcategories.
The effluent limitations commensurate with the BPT have been
established on the basis of information in Sections III
through VIII of this report, and are presented in the
following sections. It has been shown that these
limitations can be attained through the application of BPT
pollution control technology.
Survey findings (Table IV-2) indicate that the furnace
process is a net user of water, i.e., no process contact
wastewater is discharged from the process. Based on this
fact, no discharge of process wastewater pollutants is
recommended for subcategory A.
Survey findings also indicate that the thermal process
(Subcategory B), as a result of in-process changes, can
achieve a level of_ no discharge of process wastewater
pollutants. The single acetylene black plant has attained
no discharge of process wastewater pollutants and is
included for completeness.
The only channel black process (Subcategory C) operating in
the United States has achieved the level of no discharge of
wastewater pollutants.
One lamp black plant (Subcategory D) in the United States
have achieved the level of no discharge of process
75
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wastewater pollutants. The other lamp black plant has no
point source discharge due to the type of treatment used.
Based on these facts, no discharge of process wastewater
pollutants is recommended for subcategories A, B, C and D.
The objective of these effluent limitations guidelines is to
induce in-plant reduction of both flow and contaminant
loadings. However, it is not the intent of these effluent
limitations and guidelines to specify the in-plant practices
which must be employed at the individual carbon black
plants.
The actual effluent limitations and guidelines would be
applied directly only to a plant whose manufacturing
processes fall within a single subcategory. In the case of
multi-subcategory plants the effluent limitations guidelines
to be placed upon a plant would represent the sum of the
individual effluent limitations and guidelines applied to
each of its subcategory operations. This building-block
approach allows the system to be applied to any facility
regardless of its unique set of processes.
76
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Table IX -I
BPCTCA Effluent Limitations Guidelines
Subcategories
Flow
Raw Waste Load (RWL)
BPCTCA Long-Term Average.Daily Effluent
Subcategory A
Furnace Black
Subcategory B
Thermal Black
Subcategory C
Channel Black
Subcategory D
Lamp Black
Subcategory A
Furnace Black
Subcategory B
Thermal Black
Subcategory C
Channel Black
Subcategory D
Lamp Black
L/kkg Product Parameter kg/kkg-1- mg/L
(gal/1,000 Ibs)
NA2 No discharge of PWWP3
. NA2' .. . No discharge of PWWP3
? • . ' ' 1 • ' -
NA No discharge of PWWP
2 ' ' q . . ' .
NA . No discharge of PWWP J
. , Effluent
Average of Daily Value for
Thirty Consecutive Days Shall Not Exceed
Parameter kg/kkg1 mg/L
. No discharge of PWWP3
q
. No discharge of PWWPJ
No discharge of PWWP3
No discharge of PWWP
Parameter kg/kkg-'- . mg/L
- , No discharge of PWWP^ . •
. • • o •
No discharge of PWWPJ ..
o
No discharge of PWWP -
q ......
No discharge; of PWWP
.Limitations
Maximum Value for Any One Day
Parameter kg/kkg-"- mg/L
- 0
No discharge of PWWP
. - No discharge of PWWP3
No discharge of PWWP
.. .', ' ' ' •"• 5 •
: • No - discharge , of PWWP . :- :
Productions is equivalent to lb/1,000 Ibs Production
Not Applicable
= Process Wastewater Pollutants
4/30/76
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-------
SECTION X
BEST AVAILABLE TECHNOLOGY ECONOMICALLY
ACHIEVABLE (BAT)
General
The effluent limitations guidelines to be achieved by all
plants by July 1r 1983 through the application of the Best
Available Technology Economically Achievable (BAT) are based
upon the very best control and treatment technology employed
by the existing exemplary plants in each industrial
subcategory.
Carbon Black
Effluent limitations guidelines commensurate with the BAT
are presented in Table X-1. BAT effluent limitations,
guidelines and new source performance standards are
recommended to be no discharge of process wastewater
pollutants for all subcategories of carbon black
manufacturing. These standards are attainable by in-plant
chcinges as explained in Sections III to VII and Section IX.
79
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O&ble X1 -1
BMEA Effluent Limitations Guidelines
CO
o
Subcategories
Subcategory A
Furnace Black
Subcategory B
Thermal Black
Subcategory C
Channel Black
Subcategory D
Lamp Black
Flow
Subcategory A
Furnace Black
Subcategory B
Thermal Black
Subcategory C
Channel Black
Subcategory D
Lamp Black
L/kkg Product
(galAjOOO Ibs)
N/A2
N/A2
N/A2
BPCTCA Long-flsrm Daily Effluent
Parameter kg/kkgJ- mg/L
No Discharge of pwwp3
No Discharge of pwwp
BATEA Long-Term Average Daily Effluent
Parameter
kg/kkg-1
No Discharge of
No Discharge of pwwp3
No Discharge of
No Discharge of
No Discharge of pwwp3
No Discharge of
BATEA Effluent Limitations
Average of Daily Value for
Thirty Consecutive Days Shall Not Exceed
Parameterkg/kkglmg/L
No Discharge of pwwp3
No Discharge of pwwp3
No Discharge of pwwp3
No Discharge, of pwwp-'
ikg/kkg = Production is equivalent to lb/1,000 Ibs production
5N/A = Not Applicable
= Process Wastewater Pollutants
Maximum Value for Any One Day
Parameter ., kg/kkgl mg/L
No Discharge of pwwp'
No Discharge of pwwp3
No Discharge of pwwp'
No Discharge of pwwp3
4/30/76
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SECTION XI
NEW SOURCE PERFORMANCE STANDARDS (NSPS)
General
The term "new source" is defined in the "Federal Water
Pollution Control Act Amendments of 1972" to mean "any
source, the construction of which is commenced after the
publication of proposed regulations prescribing a standard
of performance11. Technology applicable to new sources shall
be the Best Available Demonstrated Control Technology
(NSPS)r defined by a determination of what higher levels of
pollution control can be attained through the use of
improved production process and/or wastewater treatment
techniques. Thus, in addition to considering the best in-
plant and end-of-pipe control technology, NSPS technology is
to be based upon an analysis of how the level of effluent
may be reduced by changing the production process itself.
Carbon Black
New source performance standards commensurate with NSPS for
carbon black manufacture point source category are presented
in Table XI-1. The standards are attainable by in-plant
changes as explained in Sections III to VII and Section IX.
No discharge of process wastewater pollutants are
recommended for "new source" carbon black plants.
81
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Table X3 -1
BADCT Effluent Limitations Guidelines
00
to
Subcategories
Subcategory A
Furnace Black
Flow
Subcategory B
Thermal Black
Subcategory C
Channel Black
Subcategory D
Lamp Black
Subcategory A
Furnace Black
Subcategory B
Thermal Black
Subeategory C
Channel Black
Subcategory D
Lamp Black
L/kkg Product
(gal/1,000 Ibs)
NA2
NA
NA
BPCTCA Long-Term Daily Effluent
Parameter kg/kkg-*- mg/L
No discharge of PWWP
No discharge of
No discharge of PWWP
No discharge 'of PWWP
BADCT Long-Term Average Dally Effluent
Parameter kg/kkg-1-
No discharge of PWIflH
No discharge of PWWp3
No discharge of PWWp3
No discharge of
BflDCT Effluent Limitations
Average of Daily Value for
Thirty Consecutive Days Shall Not Exceed
Parameterkg/kkg1mg/L
No discharge of PWWP3
No discharge of PWWP
3
No discharge of PWWPJ
No discharge of PWffr
Maximum Value for Any One Day
Parameter kg/kkgl mg/L
No discharge of
No discharge of PWWP3
No discharge of PWWP
No discharge of PWWP^
mg/L
kg/kkg = production is equivalent to lb/1,000 Ibs production
N/A = Not Applicable
PPWWP = Process" Wastewater Pollutants
4/30/76
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SECTION XII
PRETREATMENT STANDARDS
General
Pollutants from specific processes within the carbon black
point source category may interfere with, pass through, or
otherwise be incompatible with publicly owned treatment
works (municipal system) . The following section examines
the general wastewater characteristics of this category and
the pretreatment unit operations which may be applicable to
carbon black manufacturing.
Carbon Black
Subcategories A, B, C and D should have no process
wastewater discharges. Presently no carbon black plant is
known to discharge process wastewater to a municipal
treatment system. The only wastewater from this subcategory
would be sanitary wastewater and utility blowdowns. If an
existing source, as a result of these regulations,
determines that a discharge should be made to a POTW rather
than recycling the water to guench systems some pretreatment
would be required. This pretreatment would be of a type to
prevent excessive oil and grease discharges to POTW's. A
simple weir skimmer should suffice and essentially no cost
is involved since existing collection systems can be fitted
with skimmer weirs and the oil periodically removed. Proper
operation and employee instruction should prevent any
significant problem.
The need for pretreatment of any industrial waste is related
to the ability of a publicly owned treatment works to remove
pollutant parameters in the waste. Pretreatment standards
are intended to prevent introduction of pollutants into
publicly owned treatment works which interfere with, pass
through, or are otherwise incompatible with such works. It
has been shown in the literature that oil and grease levels
of 100 mg/1 from petroleum, mineral or unknown origin could
interfere with the normal operations of POTW's. For this
reason a pretreatment level of 100 mg/1 oil and grease for
new sources is recommended.
83
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SECTION XIII
PERFORMANCE FACTORS FOR TREATMENT
PLANT OPERATIONS
Carbon Black
Because all subcategories of the carbon black manufacturing
point source category are designated no discharge of process
wastewater pollutants, performance factors for treatment
plants are not applicable.
85
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SECTION XIV
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This report was prepared by the Environmental Protection
Agency on the basis of a comprehensive study of this segment
performed by Roy F. Weston, Inc., under contract No. 68-01-
2932. The original study was conducted and prepared for the
Environmental Protection Agency under the direction of
Pzroject Director James H. Dougherty, P.E., and Technical
Project Manager Jitendra R. Ghia, P.E. The following
individual members of the staff of Roy F. Weston, Inc., made
contributions to the overall effort:
; W. D. Sitman M. E. Pi roe"
K.M. Peil K. Patterson
The original RFW study and this EPA revision were conducted
under the supervision and guidance of Mr. Joseph S. Vitalis,
Project Officer, assisted by Mr. George Jett, Assistant
Project Officer.
Overall guidance and assistance were provided to the project
personnel by their associates in the Effluent Guidelines
Division, particularly Messrs. Allen Cywin. Director, Ernst
P. Hall, Deputy Director, Walter J. Hunt, Branch Chief, and
Dr. W. Lamar Miller, Technical Advisor. Special recognition
is acknowledged to others ;in the Effluent Guidelines
Division: Messrs. John Nardella, Martin Halper, David
Becker, Bruno Maier, and Dr. Chester Rhines for their
helpful suggestions and timely comments. EGDB project
personnel wishes to acknowledge the assistance of the
personnel at the Environmental Protection Agency's regional
centers, who helped identify those plants achieving
effective , waste treatment, and whose efforts provided much
of the research necessary for the treatment technology
review. A special thanks is extended to Dr. Raymond Loehr
for his invaluable assistance and guidance throughout the
project. '...-. .
In addition project personnel would like to extend its
gratitude to the following individuals for the significant
inputs into the development of this document while serving
as members of the EPA working group/steering committee which
provided detailed review, advice, and assistance:
87
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W. Hunt, Chairman, Chief, Effluent Guidelines
Development Branch
L. Miller, Technical Advisor, Effluent Guidelines Div.
J. Vitalis, Project Officer, Effluent Guidelines Div.
G. Jett, Asst. Project Officer, Effluent Guidelines Div.
J. Ciancia, NERC, Edison, N.J.
H. Skovrenek, NERC, Edison, N.J.
M» Strier, Office of Enforcement
D. Davis, Office of Planning and Evaluation
P. Desrosiers, office of Research and Development
R« Swank, SERL, Athens, Ga.
E. Krabbe, Region II
L. Reading, Region VII
E. Struzeski, NFIC, Denver, Colorado
Appreciation is extended to Mr, Chris Little and James
Rodgers of the EPA Office of General Counsel, for their
invaluable input.
The cooperation of the carbon black manufacturers who were
active in this survey and contributed pertinent information
and data is appreciated. Alphabetically, these
organizations are:
1. Ashland Chemical Company
2. Cabot corporation
3. Cities Service Company
4. Continental Carbon Company
5. J«M. Huber Corporation
6. Monsanto Company
7. Sid Richardson Carbon and Gasoline Company
8. Thermatomic Carbon Company
9. Union Carbide Corporation
Manufacturing representatives for the above companies
playing significant parts in the success of this study were:
C. Beck (2) M. Mullins (6)
G. Boardman (7) D. Robinson, Ph.D. (2)
JR. Cook (5) R. Sterrett (1)
P. Flood (3) G. Temple (8)
N.R. Higgins (4) J.S. Whitaker, Ph.D. (9)
R. Hardison (9) R. Woodley (8)
F. Miller (4)
Furthermore, the project personnel wishes to express
appreciation to the following organizations and individuals
for the assistance which they provided throughout the study:
J. Ferguson, EPA Region VI
88
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J. E. Stiebing, EPA Region VI
•J.J. Doyle, EPA, Region VI
L.B. Evans, EPAr JRTP, N. Carolina
K.C. Hustvedt, EOA, RTF, N. Carolina
Acknowledgement and appreciation is also given for technical
assistance to Mr. Norman Asher and Mr. Eric Yunker for their
contributions, to Ms. Kay Starr and Ms. Nancy Zrubek for
invaluable support in coordinating the preparation and
reproduction of this report, to Mrs. Alice Thompson, Mrs.
Ernestine Christian, Ms. Laura Cammarota and Mrs. Carol
Swann of the Effluent Guidelines Division secretarial staff
for their efforts in the typing of drafts, necessary
revision, and final preparation of the revised Effluent
Guidelines Division development document.
89
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SECTION XV .
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Carbon Black
F-1. An Introduction to Carbon Black and to Cabot
Corporation; Cabot Corporation, R & D Department,
Pampa, Texas 1968, •
F-2. Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology, Kirk Othmer,
Interscience Publishers Division, John Wiley and
Sons, Inc., Second Edition., VOl. 4 (1964).
F-3. Introduction to Rubber Technology; Edited by
Maurice Morton, Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1959.
F-4. Minerals yearbook, U.S. Department of Interior,
1973. 1974.
F-5. Morton, Maurice; Rubber Technology, Van Nostrand
Reinhold Company, 1973.
F-6. Katherine Russell, Editor; 1975 Directory of
Chemical Producers, The United States of America;
Chemical Information Services, Stanford Research
, Institute, Menlo Park, California 94055.
F-7. Shreve, R.N., Chemical Process Industries, 3rd
Edition; McGraw-Hill, New York; pp. 122-138.
F-8. Supplement A £ B - Detailed Record of Data Base for
"Draft Development Document for Interim Final
Effluent Limitations, Guidelines and Standards of
Performance for the Carbon Black Chemicals
Manufacturing Point Source Category", U.S. EPA,
: Washington, D.C. 20460, February 1975.
F-9. U.S. EPA; Draft Development Document for Effluent
Limitations Guidelines and Standards of Performance
- Miscellaneous Chemicals Industry, Prepared by Roy
F. Westdn, Inc. for Effluent Guidelines Division,
Washington, D.C. 20460; February 1975.
F-10. U.S. EPA, Engineering and Cost Study of Air
Pollution Control for the Petrochemical Industry,
Volume 1; Carbon Black Manufacture by the Furnace
91
-------
Process; EPA 450/3-73-006-a; EPA Research Triangle
Park, North Carolina; June 1974.
E-11 U.S. EPA, Treatability of Oil and Grease Discharge
to Publicly Owned Treatment Works, EPA 440/1-
75/066; U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 401 M
Street, S.W., Washington, D.C. 20460; April 1975.
E-12 U.S. EPA, Draft Document for Standards Support and
Environmental Impact Statement, An Investigation of
the Best Systems of Emission Reduction for Furnace
Process Carbon Black Plants in the Carbon Black
Industry; Prepared by K. C. Hustvedt, L.B., Evans and
W.M. Vatavuk; EPA Reserach Triangle Park, North
Carolina; April 1976.
General References
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Operating Costs of Pollution Control Equipment
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D.C. 20460; July, 1973.
92
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GR-8 Bruce, R.D., and Werchan, R.E. ; "Noise Control in
the Petroleum and Chemical Industries," Chemical
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of Texas, March 1972.
GR-16 Cook, C.; "Variability in BOD Concentration from
Biological Treatment Plants," EPA internal
memorandum; March, 1974.
GR-17 Davis, K.E., and Funk, R.J.; "Deep Well Disposal of
Industrial Waste," Industrial Waste; January-
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GR-18 Dean, J.A., editor; Lange*s Handbook of Chemistry,
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GR-19 Eckenfelder, W.W., Jr.; Water Quality Engineering
for Practicing Engineers; Barnes and Noble, Inc.,
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93
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GR-20 Eckenfelder, W.W., Jr.; "Development of Operator
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Corp., Stamford, Conn.; August, 1968.
GR-21 Environmental Science and Technology, Vol. 8, No.
10, October, 1974; "Currents-Technology."
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Municipal Sludge Management, Pittsburgh,
Pennsylvania; June, 1974.
GR-23 Guidelines for Chemical Plants in the Prevention
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Chemists Association, Inc., Washington, D.C. 1972.
GR-24 Hauser, E.A., Colloidal Phenomena, 1st Edition,
McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York, New York; 1939.
GR-25 Iowa State University Department of Industrial
Engineering and Engineering Research Institute,
"Estimating Staff and Cost Factors for Small
Wastewater Treatment Plants Less Than 1 MGD," Parts
I and II; EPA Grant No. 5P2-WP-195-0452; June,
1973.
GR-26 Iowa State University Department of Industrial
Engineering and Engineering Research Institute,
"Staffing Guidelines for Conventional Wastewater
Treatment Plants Less Than 1 MGD," EPA Grant No.
5P2-WP-195-0452; June, 1973.
GR-27 Judd, S.H.; "Noise Abatement in Existing
Refineries," Chemical Engineering Progress, Vol.
71, No. 8; August, 1975; pp. 31-42.
GR-28 Kent, J.A., editor; Reigel's Industrial Chemistry,
7th Edition; Reinhold Publishing corporation, New
York; 1974.
GR-29 Kirk-Othmer; Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology,
2nd Edition; Interscience Publishers Division, John
Wiley and Sons, Inc.
GR-30 Kozlorowski, B., and Kucharski, J.; Industrial
Waste Disposal; Pergamon Press, New York; 1972.
GR-31 Lindner, G. and K. Nyberg; Environmental
Engineering, A Chemical Engineering Discipline; D.
94
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Reidel Publishing company* Boston, Massachusetts
02116, 1973.
GR-32 Liptak, E.G., editor; Environmenta1 Engineers'
Handbook, Volume I, Water Pollution; Chilton Book
Company, Radnor, Pa. ; 1974.
GR-33 Marshall, G.R. and E.J. Middlebrook; Intermittent
Sand Filtration to Upgrade Existing Wastewater
Treatment Facilities, PR JEW 115-2; Utah Water
Research Laboratory, College of Engineering, Utah
State University, Logan, Utah 84322; February,
1974.
GR-34 Martin, J. D. , Dutcher, V.D., Frieze, T.R. , Tapp,
M., and Davis, E.M.; "Waste Stabilization
Experiences at Union Carbide, Seadrift, Texas
Plant."
GR-35 McDermott, G.N. ; Industrial Spill Control and
Pollution Incident Prevention, J. Water Pollution
Control Federation, 43 (8) 1629 (1971).
GR-36 Minear, R.A., and Patterson, J.W. ; Wastewater
Treatment Technology, 2nd Edition; State of
Illinois Institute for Environmental Quality;
January, 1973.
GR-37 National Environmental Research Center; "Evaluation
of Hazardous. Waste Emplacement in Mined Openings;'1
NERC Contract No. 68-03-0470; September, 1974.
GR-38 Nemerow, N. L. ; Liquid Waste of Industry - Theories,
Practices and Treatment; Addision-Wesley Pulbishing
Company, Reading, Massachusetts; 1971.
GR-39 Novak, S.M.; "Biological Waste Stabilization Ponds
at Exxon Company, U.S.A. Baytown Refinery and Exxon
Chemical Company, U.S.A. Chemical Plant (Divisions
of Exxon Corporation) Baytown, Texas."
GR"40 Oswald, W.J., and Ramani, R.; "The Fate of Algae in
Receiving Waters," a paper submitted to the
Conference on Ponds as a Wastewater Treatment
Alternative, University of Texas, Austin; July,
1975.
GR-:41 Otakie, G.F.; A Guide to the Selection of Cost-
effective Wastewater Treatment Systems; EPA-430/9-
95
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75-002, Technical Report, U.S. EPA, Office of Water
Program Operations, Washington, D.C. 20460,
GR-42 Parker, C.L.; Estimating the Cost of Wastewater
Treatment Ponds; Pollution Engineering,, November,
1975.
GR-43 Parker, W.P.; Wastewater Systems Engineering,
Prentice-Hall, Inc., Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey,
1975.
GR-44 Parker, D.S.; "Performance of Alternative Algae
Removal Systems," a report submitted to the
Conference on Ponds as a Wastewater Treatment
Alternative, University of Texas, Austin; July,
1975.
GR-45 Perry, J.H., et. al.; Chemical Engineers' Handbook,
5th Edition; McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York,
New York; 1973.
GR-46 Public Law 92-500, 92nd Congress, S.2770; October
18, 1972.
GR—47 Quirk, T.P.; "Application of Computerized Analysis
to Comparative Costs of Sludge Dewatering by Vacuum
Filtration and Centrifugation," Proc., 23rd
Industrial Waste Conference, Purdue University;
1968; pp. 69-709.
GR-48 Riley, B.T., Jr.; The Relationship Between
Temperature and the Design and Operation of
Biological Waste Treatment Plants, submitted to the
Effluent Guidelines Division, EPA; April, 1975.
GR-49 Rose, A., and Rose, E.; The Condensed Chemical
Dictionary, 6th Edition; Reinhold Publishing
Corporation, New York; 1961.
GR-50 Rudolfs, W.; Industrial Wastes, Their Disposal and
Treatment; Reinhold Publishing Corporation, New
York; 1953.
GR-51 Sax, N.I.; Dangerous Properties of Industrial
Material, 4th Edition; Van Nostrand Reinhold
Company, New York; 1975.
GR-52 Seabrook, B.L.; Cost of Wastewater Treatment by
Land Application; EPA-430/9-75-003, Technical
96
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Report; U.S. EPA, Office of Water Program
Operations, Washington, B.C. 20460.
GR-53 Shreve, R.N. ; Chemical Process Industries'.,. Third
Edition; McGraw-Hill, New York; 1967.
GR-54 Spill Prevention Techniques for Hazardous Polluting
Substances, OHM 7102001; U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency^ Washington, D.C. 20460; February
1971.
GR-55 Stecher, P.G., editor; The Merck Index, An
Encyclopedia of Chemicals and Drugs, 8th Edition;
Merck and Company, Inc., Rahway, New Jersey; 1968.
GR-56 Stevens, J.I., "The Roles of Spillage, Leakage and
Venting in Industrial Pollution Control", Presented
at Second Annual Environmental Engineering and
Science conference. University of Louisville, April
1972.
GR-57 Supplement A j> _B - Detailed Record of Data Base for
"Draft Development Document for Interim Final
Effluent Limitations, Guidelines and Standards of
Performance for the Miscellaneous Chemicals
Manufacturing Point Source Category", U.S. EPA,
Washington, D.C. 20460, February 1975.
GR-58 Swanson, C.L.; "Unit Process Operating and
Maintenance Costs for Conventional Waste Treatment
Plants;" FWQA, Cincinnati, Ohio; June^ 1968.
GR-59 U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare;
"Interaction of Heavy Metals and Biological Sewage
Treatment Processes," Environmental Health Series;
HEW Office of Water Supply and Pollution Control,
Washington, D.C. ; .May, 1965.
GR-60 U.S. Department of the Interior; "Cost of Clean
Water," Industrial Waste Profile No. 3_; Dept. of
Int. GWQA, Washington, D.C.; November, 1967.
GR-61 U.S. EPA; Process Design Manual for Upgrading
Existing Waste Water Treatment Plants, U.S. EPA
Technology Transfer; EPA, Washington, D.C. 20460;
October, 1974.
GR-62 U-S. EPA; Monitoring Industrial Waste Water, U.S.
EPA Technology Transfer; EPA, Washington, D.C.
20460; August, 1973.
-------
GR-63 U.S. EPA; Methods for Chemical Analysis of Water
and Wastes, U.S. EPA Technology Transfer; EPA
625/6-74-003; Washington, B.C. 20460; 1974.
GR-64 U.S. EPA; Handbook for Analytical Quality Control
in Water and Waste Water Laboratories, U.S. EPA
Technology Transfer; EPA, Washington, D.C. 20460;
June, 1972.
GR-65 U.S. EPA; Process Design Manual for Phosphorus
Removal, U.S. EPA Technology Transfer; EPA,
Washington, D.C. 20460; October, 1971.
GR-66 U.S. EPA; Process Design Manual for Suspended
Solids Removal, U.S. EPA Technology Transfer; EPA
625/1-75-003a, Washington, D.C. 20460; January,
1975.
GR-67 U.S. EPA; Process Design Manual for Sulfide Control
in Sanitary Sewerage Systems, U.S. EPA Technology
Transfer; EPA, Washington, D.C. 20460; October,
1974.
GH.-68 U.S. EPA; Process Design Manual for Carbon
Adsorption, U.S. EPA Technology Transfer; EPA,
Washington, D.C. 20460; October, 1973.
GR-69 U.S. EPA; Process Design Manual for Sludge
Treatment and Disposal, U.S. EPA Technology
Transfer; EPA 625/1-74-006, Washington, D.C.
20460; October, 1974.
GR-70 U.S. EPA; Effluent Limitations Guidelines and
Standards of Performance, Metal Finishing Industry,
Draft Development Document; EPA 440/1-75/040 and
EPA 440/1-75/040a; EPA Office of Air and Water
Programs, Effluent Guidelines Division, Washington,
D.C. 20460; April, 1975.
GR-71 U.S. EPA; Development Document for Effluent
Limitations Guidelines and Standards of Performance
- Organic Chemicals Industry; EPA 440/1-74/009a;
EPA Office of Air and Water Programs, Effluent
Guidelines Division, Washington, D.C. 20460;
April, 1974.
GR-72 U.S. EPA; Draft Development Document for Effluent
Limitations Guidelines and Standards of Performance
- Steam Supply and Noncontact Cooling Water
Industries; EPA Office of Air and Water Programs,
98
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Effluent Guidelines Division, Washington, D.C.
20460; October, 1974.
GR-73 U.S. EPA; Draft Development Document for Effluent
Limitations Guidelines and Standards of Performance
- Organic Chemicals Industry, Phase II Prepared by
Roy F. Weston, Inc. under EPA Contract No. 68-01-
1509; EPA Office of Air and Water Programs,
Effluent Guidelines Division, Washington, D.C.
20460; February, 1974.
GR-74 U.S. EPA; Evaluation of Land Application Systems,
Technical Bulletin; EPA 430/9-75-001; EPA,
Washington, D.C. 20460; March, 1975.
GR-75 U.S. EPA; "Projects in the Industrial Pollution
Control Division," Envi ronmental Protection
Technology Series; EPA 600/2-75-001; EPA,
Washington, D.C. 20460; December, 1974.
GR-76 U.S. EPA; Wastewater Sampling Methodologies and
.Flow Measurement Techniques; EPA 907/9-74-005; EPA
Surveillance and Analysis, Region VII, Technical
Support Branch; June, 1974.
GR-77 U.S. EPA; A Primer on Waste Water Treatment; EPA
Water Quality Office; 1971. ,
GR-78 U.S. EPA; Compilation of Municipal and Industrial
injection Wells in the United States; EPA 520/9-74-
020; Vol. I and II; EPA, Washington, D.C. 20460;
1974.
GR-79 U.S. EPA; "Upgrading Lagoons," U.S. EPA Technology
Transfer; EPA, Washington, D.C. 20460; August,
1973.
GR-80 U.S. EPA; "Nitrification and Denitrification
Facilities," U.S. EPA Technology Transfer; August,
1973. ;
GR-81 U.S. EPA; "Physical-Chemical Nitrogen Removal,"
U.S. EPA Technology Transfer; EPA, Washington, D.C.
20460; July, 1974.
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Plant Design^" U.S. EPA Technology Transfer; EPA,
Washington, D.C. 20460; August, 1973.
99
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GR-83 U.S. EPA; "Oxygen Activated Sludge , Wastewater
Treatment Systems, Design Criteria and Operating
Experience," U.S. EPA Technology Transfer; EPA,
Washington, B.C. 20460; August, 1973.
GR-84 U.S. EPA; Wastewater Filtration Design
Considerations; U.S. EPA Technology Transfer; EPA,
Washington, D.C. 20460; July, 1974.
GR-85 U.S. EPA; "Flow Equalization," U.S. EPA Technology
Transfer; EPA, Washington, D.C. 20460; May, 1974.
GR-86 U.S. EPA; "Procedural Manual for Evaluating the
Performance of Wastewater Treatment Plants," U.S.
EPA Technology Transfer; EPA, Washington, D.C.
20460.
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Subcategory, Grain Processing, EPA, Office of Air
and Water Programs, Effluent Guidelines Division,
Washington, D.C. 20460, August 1975.
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Into Publicly Owned Treatment Works; EPA Office of
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GR-89 U.S. Government Printing Office; Standard
Industrial Classific ation Manual; Government
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and Industrial Wastes, EPA-R2-73-236, EPA,
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Systems Division, Buffalo, New York 14221, 1974.
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5501-00520, March, 1973.
GR-93 Weast, R., editor; CRC Handbook of Chemistry and
Physics, 54th Edition; CRC Press, Cleveland, Ohio
44128; 1973-1974.
100
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GR.-94 Weber* C.I., editor; Biological Field and
Laboratory Methods for Measuring the Quality of
Surface Waters and Effluents," Environmental
Monitoring Series; EPA 670/4-73-001; EPA,
Cincinnati, Ohio 45268; July, 1973.
GR-^-95 APHA, ASCE, AWWA, and WPCF, Glossary of Water and
Wastewater Control Engineering, American Society of
Civil Engineers, New York, 1969.
101
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SECTION XVI
GLOSSARY
Carbon Black
Acetylene- Black. Carbon black produced by the thermal
decomposition of acetylene, possess a high degree of
structural, or chaining, tendency. They provide high
elastic modulus and high conductivity in rubber stocks.
Amorphous, without shape.
Slowdown. Water intentionally discharged from a cooling or
heating system to maintain the dissolved solids
concentration of the circulating water below a specific
critical level.
Ceirbon Black. A family of industrial carbons primarily
carbon (90 to 99%) contains some sulfur, oxygen and
hydrogen; a petrochemical used principally as reinforcing
agents in rubber and as black pigments in inks, coatings,
and plastics.
Channel Black. Carbon black manufactured by the channel
process. It is produced by the incomplete combustion of
neitural gas, and is deposited on, then scraped off, a moving
channel.
Colloid. A solid, liquid, or gaseous substance made up of
V€>ry small, insoluble, nondiffusible particles (as single
lairge molecules or masses of smaller molecules) that remain
in suspension in a surrounding solid, liquid, or gaseous
medium. All living matter contains collodial material, and
a colloid has only a negligible effect on the freezing
point, or vapor tension of the surrounding medium.
Furnace Black. Carbon black manufactured by the furnace
process, produced by partial combustion of hydrocarbons in
insulated furnaces.
Impingement« To strike with a sharp collision.
Lamp Black. Carbon black manufactured by the burning of
petroleum or coal tar residues in open shallow pans.
Quasigraphitic. Having graphite-like qualities.
103
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Quench. To cool a material suddenly or halt a process or
reaction abruptly.
Thermal Black. Carbon black manufactured by the thermal
process, produced by thermal decomposition (cracking) of
natural gas.
General Definitions
Abatement. The measures taken to reduce or eliminate
pollution.
Absorption. A process in which one material (the absorbent)
takes up and retains another (the atsorbate) with the
formation of a homogeneous mixture having the attributes of
a solution. Chemical reaction may accompany or follow
absorption.
Acclimation. The ability of an organism to adapt to changes
in its immediate environment.
Acid. A substance which dissolves in water with the
formation of hydrogen ions.
Acid Solution. A solution with a pH of less than 7.00 in
which the activity of the hydrogen ion is greater than the
activity of the hydroxyl ion.
Acidity. The capacity of a wastewater for neutralizing a
base. It is normally associated with the presence of carbon
dioxide, mineral and organic acids and salts of strong acids
or weak bases. It is reported as equivalent of CaCO^
because many times it is not known just what acids are
present.
Act. The Federal Water Pollution Control Act Amendments of
1972, Public Law 92-500.
Activated Carbon. Carbon which is treated by high-
temperature heating with steam or carbon dioxide producing
an internal porous particle structure.
Adsorption. An advanced method of treating wastes in which
a material removes organic matter not necessarily responsive
to clarification or biological treatment by adherence on the
surface of solid bodies.
Aerobic. Ability to live, grow, or take place only where
free oxygen is present.
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Algae. One-celled or many-reel led plants which grow in
sunlit waters and which are capable of photosynthesis. They
are a food for fish and small aquatic animals and, like all
plants, put oxygen in the water.
Algal Bloom. Large masses of microscopic and macroscopic
plant life, such as green algae, occuring in bodies of
water.
Algicide. Chemical agent used to destroy or control algae.
Alkali. A water-soluble metallic hydroxide that ionizes
strongly.
Alkalinity. The presence of salts of alkali metals. The
hydroxides, carbonates and bicarbonates of calcium, sodium
and magnesium are common impurities that cause alkalinity.
A quantitative measure of the capacity of liquids or
suspensions to neutralize strong acids or to resist the
establishment of acidic conditions. Alkalinity results from
the presence of bicarbonates, carbonates, hydroxides,
alkaline salts and occasionally borates and is usually
expressed in terms of the amount of calcium carbonate that
would have an equivalent capacity to neutralize strong
acids.
Alum. A hydrated aluminum sulfate or potassium aluminum
sulfate or ammonium aluminum sulfate which is used as a
settling agent. A coagulant.
Anaerobic. Ability to live, grow, or take place where there
is no air or free oxygen present.
Andon. Ion with a negative charge.
Antagonistic Effects. The simultaneous action of separate
agents mutually opposing each other.
Backwashing. The process of cleaning a rapid sand or
mechanical filter by reversing the flow of water.
Bacteria. Unicellular, plant-like microorganisms, lacking
chlorophyll. Any water supply contaminated by sewage is
certain to contain a bacterial group called "coliform".
Bcicterial Growth. All bacteria require food for their
continued life and growth and all are affected by the
conditions of their environment. Like human beings, they
consume food, they respire, they need moisture, they require
he;at, and they give off waste products. Their food
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requirements are very definite and have been, in general,
already outlined. Without an adequate food supply of the
type the specific organism requires, bacteria will not grow
and multiply at their maximum rate and they will therefore,
not perform their full and complete functions.
(BADCT) NSPS Effluent Limitations. Limitations for new
sources which are based on the application of the Best
Available Demonstrated Control Technology. See NSPS.
Bag Filter. Apparatus used to attain a more complete
purification of air than is attained by a baffle chamber.
Bag House. Large chamber for holding bags (usually
synthetic) used in the filtration of gases for the recovery
of solids suspended in gases.
Base. A substance that in aqueous solution turns red litmus
blue, furnishes hydroxyl ions and reacts with an acid to
form a salt and water only.
Batch Process. A process which has an intermittent flow of
raw materials into the process and a resultant intermittent
flow of product from the process.
BAT (BATEA) Effluent Limitations. Limitations for point
sources, other than publicly owned treatment works, which
are based on the application of the Best Available
Technology Economically Achievable. These limitations must
be achieved by July 1, 1983.
Benthic. Attached to the bottom of a body of water.
Benthos. Organisms (fauna and flora) that live on the
bottoms of bodies of water.
Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD)« A measure of the oxygen
required to oxidize the organic material in a sample of
wastewater by natural biological process under standard
conditions. This test is presently universally accepted as
the yardstick of pollution and is utilized as a means to
determine the degree of treatment in a waste treatment
process. Usually given in mg/1 (or ppm units), meaning
milligrams of oxygen required per liter of wastewater, it
can also be expressed in pounds of total oxygen required per
wastewater or sludge batch. The standard BOD is five days
at 20 degrees C.
Biota. The flora and fauna (plant and animal life) of a
stream or other water body.
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Biological Treatment: System. A system that uses
microorganisms to remove organic pollutant material from a
wastewater.
Blowdown. Water intentionally discharged from a cooling or
heating system to maintain the dissolved solids
concentration of the circulating water below a specific
critical level. The removal of a portion of any process
flow to maintain the constituents of the flow within desired
levels. , Process may be intermittent or continuous. 2) The
water discharged from a boiler or cooling tower to dispose
of accumulated salts.
BOD5. Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) is the amount of
oxygen required by bacteria while stabilizing decomposable
organic matter under aerobic conditions. The BOD test has
been developed on the basis of a 5-day incubation period
(i.e. BOD.5) .
Boiler Slowdown. Wastewater resulting from purging of solid
and waste materials from the boiler system. A solids build
up in concentration as a result of water evaporation (steam
generation) in the boiler.
BPT (BPCTCA) Effluent Limitations. Limitations for point
sources, other than publicly owned treatment works, which
are based on the application of the Best Practicable Control
Technology Currently Available. These limitations must be
achieved by July 1, 1977.
Break Point. The point at which impurities first appear in
the effluent of an adsorption filter bed, (e.g. granular
carbon).
Brine. Water saturated with a salt.
Carbonaceous. Containing or composed of carbon.
Carbonates. Dibasic salts of carbonic acid, HJ^CO^, e.g.,
potassium carbonate, K2CO_3; the radical, CO3-.
Cation. The ion in an electrolyte which carries the
positive charge and which migrates toward the cathode under
the influence of a potential difference.
Caustic Soda. In its hydrated form it is called sodium
hydroxide. Soda ash is sodium carbonate.
Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD). A measure of oxygen-consuming
capacity of organic and inorganic matter present in water or
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wastewater. It is expressed as the amount of oxygen
consumed from a chemical oxidant in a specific test. It
does not differentiate between stable and unstable organic
matter and thus does not correlate with biochemical oxygen
demand.
Chlorides. Chloride ion exist as salts of hydrochloric
acid, e.g. potassium chloride, KCl.
Chlorination. The application of chlorine to water, sewage
or industrial wastes, generally for the purpose of
disinfection but frequently for accomplishing other
biological or chemical results.
Clarification. Process of removing turbidity and suspended
solids by settling. Chemicals can be added to improve and
speed up the settling process through coagulation.
Clarifier. A basin or tank in which a portion of the
material suspended in a wastewater is settled.
Clays. Aluminum silicates less than 0.002mm (2.0 urn) in
size. Therefore, most clay types can go into colloidal
suspension.
Coagulation. The clumping together of solids to make them
settle out of the sewage faster, coagulation of solids is
brought about with the use of certain chemicals, such as
lime, alum or polyelectrolytes.
Coagulati on and Flocculation. Processes which follow
sequentially.
Coagulation Chemicals. Hydrolyzable divalent and trivalent
metallic ions of aluminum, magnesium, and iron salts. They
include alum (aluminum sulfate), quicklime (calcium oxide),
hydrated lime (calcium hydroxide), sulfuric acid, anhydrous
ferric chloride. Lime and acid affect only the solution pH
which in turn causes coagulant precipitation, such as that
of magnesium.
Coliform Organisms. A group of bacteria recognized as
indicators of fecal pollution.
Colloid. A finely divided dispersion of one material (0.01-
10 micron-sized particles), called the "dispersed phase"
(solid), in another material, called the "dispersion medium"
(liquid) .
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Color Bodies. Those complex molecules which impart color to
a solution.
Color Units. A solution with the color of unity contains a
mg/1 of metallic platinum (added as potassium
chloroplatinate to distilled water). Color units are
defined against a platinum-cobalt standard and are based, as
are all the other water quality criteria, upon those
analytical methods described in Standard Methods for the
Examination of Water and Wastewater, 12 \ed., Amer. , Public
Health Assoc., N. Y. , 1967.
Combined Sewer. One which carries both sewage and ctorm
water run-off.
Composite Sample. A combination of individual samples of
wastes taken at selected intervals, generally hourly for 24
hours, to minimize the effect of the variations in
individual samples. Individual samples making up the
composite may be of equal volume or be roughly apportioned
to the volume of flow of liquid at the time of sampling.
Concentration. The total mass of the suspended or dissolved
particles contained in a unit volume at a given temperature
and pressure. ,
Con duetivity. A reliable measurement of electrolyte
concentration in a water sample. * The conductivity
measurement can be related to the concentration of dissolved
solids and is almost directly proportional to the ionic
concentration of the total electrolytes.
Contact Process Wastewaters. These are process-generated
wastewaters which have come in direct or indirect contact
with the reactants used in the process. These include such
streams as contact cooling water, filtrates, centrates, wash
waters, etc.
Continuous Process. A process which has a constant flow of
raw materials into the process and resultant constant flow
of product from the process.
Contract Disposal. Disposal of waste products through an
outside party for a fee.
Crustaceae. These are small animals ranging in size from
0.2 to 0.3 millimeter long which move very rapidly through
the water in search of food. They have recognizable head
arid posterior sections. They form a principal source of
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food for small fish and are found largely in relatively
fresh natural water.
Cyclone. A conical shaped vessel for separating either
entrained solids or liquid materials from the carrying air
or vapor. The vessel has a tangential entry nozzle at or
near the largest diameter, with an overhead exit for air or
vapor and a lower exit for the more dense materials.
Desorption. The opposite of adsorption. A phenomenon where
an adsorbed molecule leaves the surface of the adsorbent.
Demineralization. The total removal of all ions.
Disinfection. The process of killing the larger portion
(but not necessarily all) of the harmful and objectionable
microorganisms in or on a medium.
Dissolved Oxygen (DO). The oxygen dissolved in sewage,
water or other liquids, usually expressed either in
milligrams per liter or percent of saturation. It is the
test used in BOD determination.
DO Units. The units of measurement used are milligrams per
liter (mg/1) and parts per million (ppm), where mg/1 is
defined as the actual weight of oxygen per liter of water
and ppm is defined as the parts actual weight of oxygen
dissolved in a million parts weight of water, i.e., a pound
of oxygen in a million pounds of water is 1 ppm. For
practical purposes in pollution control work, these two are
used interchangeably; the density of water is so close to 1
g/cm3 that the error is negligible. Similarly, the changes
in volume of oxygen with changes in temperature are
insignificant. This, however, is not true if sensors are
calibrated in percent saturation rather than in mg/1 or ppm.
In that case* both temperature and barometric pressure must
be taken into consideration.
Dual Media. A deep-bed filtration system utilizing two
separate and discrete layers of dissimilar media (e.g.,
anthracite and sand) placed one on top of the other to
perform the filtration function.
Ecology. The science of the interrelations between living
organisms and their environment.
Effluent. A liquid which leaves a unit operation or
process. Sewage, water or other liquids, partially or
completely treated or in their natural states, flowing out
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of a reservoir basin, treatment plant or any other unit
operation. An influent is the incoming stream.
Entrainment Separator. A device to remove liquid and/or
solids from a gas stream. Energy source is usually derived
from pressure drop to create centrifugal force.
Envi ronmen t. The sum of all external influences and
conditions affecting the life and the development of an
organism.
Equalization Basin. A holding basin in which variations in
flow and composition of a liquid are averaged. Such basins
are used to provide a flow of reasonably uniform volume and
composition to a treatment unit.
Eutrophication. The process in which the life-sustaining
quality of a body of water is lost or diminished (e.g.,
aging or filling in of lakes). A eutrophic condition is one
in which the water is rich in nutrients but has a seasonal
oxygen deficiency.
Fauna. The animal life adapted for living in a specified
environment.
Filtrate. The liquid fraction that is separated from the
solids fraction of a slurry through filtration.
Flocculants. Those water-soluble organic polyelectrolytes
that are used alone or in conjunction with inorganic
coagulants such as lime, alum or ferric chloride or
coagulant aids to agglomerate solids suspended in aqueous
systems or both. The large dense floes resulting from this
process permit more rapid and more efficient solids-liquid
separations.
Flocculation. The formation of floes. The process step
following the coagulation-precipitation reactions which
consists of bringing together the colloidal particles. It
is the agglomeration by organic polyelectroytes of the
small, slowly settling floes formed during coagulation into
large floes which settle rapidly.
Flora. The plant life characteristic of a region.
Flotation. A method of raising suspended matter to the
surface of the liquid in a tank as scum-by aeration, vacuum,
evolution of gas, chemicals, electrolysis, heat or bacterial
decomposition and the subsequent removal of the scum by
skimming.
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Grab Sample. (1) Instantaneous sampling. (2) A sample
taken at a random place in space and time.
Grease. In sewage, grease includes fats, waxes, free fatty
acids, calcium and magnesium soaps, mineral oils and other
nonfatty materials. The type of solvent to be used for its
extraction should be stated.
Grit Chamber. A small detention chamber or an enlargement
of a sewer designed to reduce the velocity of flow of the
liquid and permit the separation of mineral from organic
solids by differential sedimentation.
Groundwater. The body of water that is retained in the
saturated zone which tends to move by hydraulic gradient to
lower levels.
Hardness. A measure of the capacity of water for
precipitating soap. It is reported as the hardness that
would be produced if a certain amount of CaCO3. were
dissolved in water. More than one ion contributes to water
hardness. The "Glossary of Water and Wastewater Control
Engineering" defines hardness as: A characteristic of water,
imparted by salts of calcium, magnesium, and ion,, such as
bicarbonates, carbonates, sulfates, chlorides, and nitrates,
that causes curdling of soap, deposition of scale in
boilers, damage in some industrial processes, and sometimes
objectionable taste. calcium and magnesium are the most
significant constituents.
Heavy Metals. A general name given for the ions of metallic
elements, such as copper, zinc, iron, chromium, and
aluminum. They are normally removed from a wastewater by
the formation of an insoluble precipitate (usually a
metallic hydroxide).
Hydrocarbon. A compound containing only carbon and
hydrogen.
Incin erat ion. The combustion (by burning) of matter, (e.g.
carbon spills).
Influent. Any sewage, water or other liquid, either raw or
partly treated, flowing into a reservoir, basin, treatment
plant, or any part thereof. The influent is the stream
entering a unit operation; the effluent is the stream
leaving it.
In-Piant Measures. Technology applied within the
manufacturing process to reduce or eliminate pollutants in
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the raw waste water. Sometimes called "internal measures"
or "internal controls".
Ion. An atom or group of atoms possessing an electrical
charge. -
•Lacrimal. Tear forming fluid. ,
Lagoons. An oxidation pond that received sewage which is
not settled or biologically treated.
Leach. To dissolve out by the action of a percolating
liquid, such as water, seeping through a sanitary landfill.
Lime. Limestone is an accumulation of organic remains
consisting mostly of calcium carbonate. When burned, it
yields lime which is a solid. The hydrated form of a
chemical lime is calcium hydroxide.
Maximum Day Limitation. The effluent limitation value equal
to the maximum for one day and is the value to be published
by the EPA in the Federal Register.
Maximum Thirty Day Limitation. The effluent limitation
value for which the average of daily values for thirty
consecutive days shall not exceed and is the value to be
published by the EPA in the Federal Register.
Microbial. Of or pertaining to a bacterium.
Molecular Weight. The relative weight of a molecule
compared to the weight of an atom of carton taken as exactly
12.. 00; the sum of the atomic weights of the atom in a
molecule.
Mollusk (mollusca). A large animal group including those
forms popularly called shellfish (but not including
crustaceans). All have a soft unsegmented body protected in
most instances by a calcareous shell. Examples are snails,
mussels, clams, and oysters.
Navigable Waters. Includes all navigable waters of the
United States; tributaries of navigable waters; interstate
waters; .intrastate lakes, rivers and streams which are
utilized by interstate travellers for recreational or other
purposes; intrastate lakes, rivers and streams from which
fish or shellfish are taken and sold in interstate commerce;
and intrastate lakes, rivers and streams which are utilized
for industrial purposes, by industries in interstate
commerce.
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Neutralization. The restoration of the hydrogen or
hydroxyl ion balance in a solution so that the ionic
concentration of each are equal. Conventionally, the
notation "pH" (puissance d1hydrogen) is used to describe the
hydrogen ion concentration or activity present in a given
solution. For dilute solutions of strong acids, i.e., acids
which are considered to be completely dissociate (ionized in
solution), activity equals concentration.
New Source. Any facility from which there is or may be a
discharge of pollutants, the construction of which is
commenced after the publication of proposed iregulations
prescribing a standard of performance under section 306 of
the Act.
Nitrate. Salt of nitric acid, e.g., sodium nitrate, NaNO_3.
Non-contact Cooling Water. Water used for cooling that does
not come into direct contact with any raw material,
intermediate product, waste product or finished product.
Non-contact Process Wastewaters. wastewaters generated by a
manufacturing process which have not come in direct contact
with the reactants used in the process. These include such
streams as non-contact cooling water, cooling tower
blowdown, boiler blowdown, etc.
NPDES. National Pollution Discharge Elimination System. A
federal program requiring manufacturers to obtain permits to
discharge plant effluents to the nation*s water courses.
NSPS« New source performance standards. See BADCT effluent
limitations.
Nutrient. Any substance assimilated by an organism which
promotes growth and replacement of cellular constituents.
Operations and Maintenance. Costs required to operate and
maintain pollution abatement equipment including labor,
material, insurance, taxes, solid waste disposal, etc.
Oxidation. A process in which an atom or group of atoms
loses electrons; the combination of a substance with oxygen,
accompanied with the release of energy. The oxidized atom
usually becomes a positive ion while the oxidizing agent
becomes a negative ion in (chlorination for example).
Oxygen, Available. The quantity of dissolved oxygen
available for the oxidation of organic matter.
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Oxygen, Dissolved. The oxygen (usually designated as DO)
dissolved in sewage, water or another liquid and usually
expressed in parts per million or percent of saturation.
Parameter. A variable whose measurement aids in
characterizing the sample.
Parts Per Million (ppm). Parts by weight in sewage
analysis; ppm by weight is equal to milligrams per liter
divided by the specific gravity. It should be noted that in
water analysis ppm is always understood to imply a
weight/weight ratio, even though in practice a volume may be
measured instead of a weight.
Percolation. The movement of water beneath the ground
surface both vertically and horizontally, but above the
groundwater table.
Permeability« The ability of a substance (soil) to allow
appreciable movement of water through it when saturated and
actuated by a hydrostatic pressure.
pH. The negative logarithm of the hydrogen ion
concentration or activity in a solution. The number 7
indicates neutrality, numbers less than 7 indicate
increasing acidity^ and numbers greater than 7 indicate
increasing alkalinity.
Phosphate. Phosphate ions exist as an ester or salt of
phosphoric acid, such as calcium phosphate rock. In
municipal wastewater, it is most frequently present as
orthophosphate.
Photosynthesis. The mechanism by which chlorophyll-bearing
plant utilize light energy to produce carbohydrate and
oxygen from carbon dioxide and water (the reverse of
respiration).
Physical/Chemical Treatment System. A system that utilizes
physical (i.e., sedimentation, filtration, centrifugatiori,
activated carbon, reverse osmosis, etc.) and/or chemical
means (i.e., coagulation, oxidation, precipitation, etc.) to
treat wastewaters.
Phytopiankton. (1) Collective term for the plants and
plantlike organisms present in plankton; contrasts with
zooplankton. (2) The plant portion of the plankton.
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Plankton. Collective term for the passively flating or
drifting flora and fauna of a body of water; consists
largely of microscopic organisms.
Point Source. Any discernible, confined and discrete
conveyance, including but not limited to any pipe, ditch,
channel, tunnel, conduit, well, discrete fissure, container,
rolling stock, concentrated animal feeding operation, or
vessel or other floating craft, from which pollutants are or
may be discharged.
Pollutional Load. A measure of the strength of a wastewater
in terms of its solids or oxygen-demanding characteristics
or other objectionable physical and chemical characteristics
or both or in terms of harm done to receiving waters. The
pollutional load imposed on sewage treatment works is
expressed as equivalent population.
Polyelectrolytes. Synthetic chemicals (polymers) used to
speed up the removal of solids from sewage. These chemicals
cause solids to coagulate or clump together more rapidly
than do chemicals such as alum or lime. They can be anibnic
(-charge) , nonionic (+ and -charge) or cationic (+charge—
the most popular). They are linear or branched organic
polymers. They have high molecular weights and are water-
soluble. Compounds similar to the polyelectrolyte
flocculants include surface-active agents and ion exchange
resins. The former are low molecular weight, water soluble
compounds used to disperse solids in aqueous systems. The
latter are high molecular weight, water-insoluble compounds
used to selectively replace certain ions already present in
water with more desirable or less noxious ions.
Potable Water. Drinking water sufficiently pure for human
use,
Preaeration. A preparatory treatment of sewage consisting
of aeration to remove gas and add oxygen or to promote the
flotation of grease and aid coagulation.
Precipitation. The phenomenon which occurs when a substance
held in solution passes out of that solution into solid
form. The adjustment of pH can reduce solubility and cause
precipitation. Alum and lime are frequently used chemicals
in such operations as water softening or alkalinity
reduction.
Pretreatment. Any wastewater treatment process used to
partially reduce the pollution load before the wastewater is
introduced into a main sewer system or delivered to a
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treatment plant for substantial reduction of the pollution
load.
Primary Clarifier. The settling tank into which the
wastewater (sewage) first enters and from which the solids
are removed as raw sludge.
Primary Sludge. Sludge from primary clarifiers.
Primary Treatment. The removal of material that floats or
will settle in sewage by using screens to catch the floating
objects and tanks for the heavy matter to settle in. The
first major treatment and sometimes the only treatment in a
waste-treatment works, usually sedimentation and/or
flocculation and digestion. The removal of a moderate
percentage of suspended matter but little or no colloidal or
dissolved matter. May effect the removal of 30 to 35
percent or more BOD.
Process Wastewater. Any water which, during manufacturing
or processing, comes into direct contact with or results
from the production or use of any raw material, intermediate
product, finished product, by-product, or waste product.
Process Water. Any water (solid, liquid or vapor) which,
during the manufacturing process, comes into direct contact
with any raw material, intermediate product, by-product,
waste product, or finished product.
Quiesance. Quiet, still, inactive.
Raw Waste Load (RWL). The quantity (kg) of pollutant being
discharged in a plant1s wastewater. measured in terms of
some common denominator (i.e., kkg of production or m2 of
floor area) .
Receiving Waters. Rivers, lakes, oceans or other courses
that receive treated or untreated wastewaters.
Recirculation. The return of effluent to the incoming flow.
Reduction. A process in which an atom (or group of atoms)
gain electrons. Such a process always requires the input of
energy.
Retention Time. Volume of the vessel divided by the flow
rate through the vessel.
Saline Water. Water containing dissolved salts, usually
from 10,000 to 33,000 mg/1.
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Salt. A compound made up of the positive ion of a base and
the negative ion of an acid.
Sanitary Landfill. A sanitary landfill is a land disposal
site employing an engineered method of disposing of solid
wastes on land in a manner that minimizes environmental
hazards by spreading the wastes in thin layers, compacting
the solid wastes to the smallest practical volume, and
applying cover material at the end of each operating day.
There are two basic sanitary landfill methods; trench fill
and area or ramp fill. The method chosen is dependent on
many factors such as drainage and type of soil at the
proposed landfill site,
Sanitary Sewers. In a separate system, pipes in a city that
carry only domestic wastewater. The storm water runoff is
handled by a separate system of pipes.
Screening. The removal of relatively coarse, floating and
suspended solids by straining through racks or screens.
Scrubber. A type of apparatus used in sampling and in gas
cleaning in which the gas is passed through a space
containing wetted "packing" or spray.
Sedimentation, Final. The settling of partly settled,
flocculated or oxidized sewage in a final tank. (The term
settling is preferred).
Sedimentation, Plain. The sedimentation of suspended matter
in a liquid unaided by chemicals or other special means and
without any provision for the decomposition of the deposited
solids in contact with the sewage. (The term plain settling
is preferred) .
Settleable Solids. Suspended solids which will settle out
Of a liquid waste in a given period of time.
Sewageff Raw. Untreated sewage.
Sewage, Storm. The liquid flowing in sewers during or
following a period of heavy rainfall and resulting
therefrom.
Sewerage. A comprehensive term which includes facilities
for collecting, pumping, treating, and disposing of sewage;
the sewerage system and the sewage treatment works.
Silt. Particles with a size distribution of 0.05mm-0.002mm
(2.0mm). Silt is high in quartz and feldspar.
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Skimmincr. Removing floating solids (scum) .
Solution. A homogeneous mixture of two or more substances
of dissimilar molecular.structure. In a solution, there is
a dissolving medium-solvent and a dissolved substance-
solute.
Solvent. A liquid which reacts with a material, bringing it
into solution.
Standard Raw Waste Load (SRWL)« The raw waste load which
characterizes a specific subcategory. This is generally
computed by averaging the plant raw waste loads within a
subcategory.
Stoichiometric. Characterized by being a proportion of
substances exactly right for a specific chemical reaction
with no excess of any reactant or product. •
Sulfate. The final decomposition product of organic sulfur
compounds.
Surge tank. A tank for absorbing and dampening the wavelike
motion of a volume of liquid; an in-process storage tank
that acts as a flow buffer between process tanks.
Suspended Solids. The wastes that will not sink or settle
in sewage. The quantity of material deposited on a filter
when a liquid is drawn through a Gooch crucible.
Synergistic. An effect which is more than the sum of the
individual contributors.
Synerqistic Effect. The simultaneous action of separate
agents which, together, have greater total effect than the
sum of their individual effects.
Total Organic Carbon (TOG). A measure of the amount of
carbon in a sample originating from organic matter only.
The test is run by burning the sample and measuring the
carbon dioxide produced.
Total Solids. The total amount of solids in a wastewater
both in solution and suspension.
Turbidity. A measure of the amount of solids in suspension.
The units of measurement are parts per million (ppm) of
suspended solids or Jackson Candle Units. The Jackson
Candle Unit (JCU) is defined as the turbidity resulting from
1 ppm of fuller's earth (and inert mineral) suspended in
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water. The relationship between ppm and JCU depends on
particle sizer color, index of refraction; the correlation
between the two is generally not possible. Turbidity
instruments utilize a light beam projected into the sample
fluid to effect a measurement. The light beam is scattered
by solids in suspension, and the degree of light attenuation
or the amount of scattered light can be related to
turbidity. The light scattered is called the Tyndall effect
and the scattered light the Tyndall light. An expression of
the optical property of a sample which causes light to be
scattered and absorbed rather than transmitted in straight
lines through the sample.
Volatile Suspended Solids JVSS]_. The quantity of suspended
solids lost after the ignition of total suspended solids.
Waste Treatment Plant. A series of tanks, screens, filters,
pumps and other equipment by which pollutants are removed
from water.
Water Quality Criteria. Those specific values of water
quality associated with an identified beneficial use of .the
water under consideration.
Weir. A flow measuring device consisting of a barrier
across an open channel, causing the liquid to flow over its
crest. The height of the liquid above the crest varies with
the volume of liquid flow.
Wet Air Pollution Control. The technique of air pollution
abatement utilizing water as an absorptive media.
Zeolite. Various natural or synthesized silicates used in
water softening and as absorbents.
zooplankton. (1) The animal portion of the plankton. (2)
Collective term for the nonphotosynthetic organisms present
in plankton; contrasts with phytoplankton.
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SECTION XVII
ABBREVIATIONS AND SYMBOLS
A.C. activated
ac ft acre-foot
Ag, silver
atm atmosphere
ave average
B. boron ,
Ba.. barium
bbl barrel
BOD5 biochemical oxygen demand, five day
Btu British thermal unit
C centigrade degrees
C.A. carbon adsorption
cal calorie ,
cc cubic centimeter
cfm cubic foot per minute
cfs cubic foot per second
Cl. chloride ,
cm centimeter
CN cyanide ,
COiD chemical oxygen demand
cone. concentration
cu cubic ,
db decibels
deg degree
DO dissolved oxygen
E. Coli Escherichia coliform bacteria
Eq. equation
F Fahrenheit degrees
Fig. figure
F/M BODJ5 (Wastewater flow) / MLSS (contractor volume)
fpm foot per minute
fps foot per second
ft foot
g gram ,
gal gallon .
gpd gallon per day
gpm gallon per minute ,
Hg mercury :
hp horsepower
hp-hr horsepower-hour
hr hour
in. inch
kg kilogram
kw kilowatt
kwhr kilowatt-hour
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L{1) liter
L/kkg liters per 1000 kilograms
Ib .pound
m meter
M thousand
me millieguivalent
mg milligram
mgd million gallons daily
min minute
ml milliliter
MLSS mixed-liquor suspended solids
MLVSS mixed-liquor volatile suspended solids
MM million
mm millimeter
mole gram-molecular weight
mph mile per hour
MPN most probable number
mu millimicron
NO.3 nitrate
NH3-N ammonium nitrogen
O2 oxygen
POU. phosphate
p. page
pH potential hydrogen or hydrogen-ion index (negative
logarithm of the hydrogen-ion concentration)
pp. pages
ppb parts per billion
ppm parts per million
psf pound per square foot
psi pound per square inch
R.O. reverse osmosis
rpm revolution per minute
RWL raw waste load
sec second
Sec. Section
S.I.C. Standard Industrial classification
SOx sulfates
sq square
sq ft square foot
SS suspended solids
stp standard temperature and pressure
SRWL standard raw waste load
TDS total dissolved solids
TKN total Kjeldahl nitrogen
TLm median tolerance limit
TOC total organic carbon
TOD total oxygen demand
TSS total suspended solids
u micron
ug microgram
122
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vol volume
wt weight
yd yard
123
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TABLE XVIII
METRIC TABLE
CONVERSION TABLE
[ULTIPLY (ENGLISH UNITS)
ENGLISH UNIT ABBREVIATION
.ere ac
.ere-feet ac ft
•ritish Thermal
Unit BTU
British Thermal
Unit/Pound BTU/lb
ubic feet/minute cfm
:ubic feet/second cfs
ubic feet cu ft
ubic feet cu ft
ubic inches cu in
degree Fahrenheit °F
:eet ft
;allon gal
;allon/minute gpm
lorsepower : hp
.nches in
.nches of mercury in Hg
>ounds Ib
dllion gallons/day mgd .
die mi
>ound/square
inch (gauge) psig
square feet sq ft
square inches sq in
:on (short) ton
rard yd
by
CONVERSION
0.405
1233.5
0.252
TO OBTAIN (METRIC UNITS)
ABBREVIATION METRIC UNIT
ha
cu m
kg cal
0.555
0.028
1.7
0.028
28.32
16.39
0.555 (°F-32)*
0.3048
• 3.785
0.0631
0.7457
2.54
0.03342
0.454
3,785
1.609
kg cal/kg
cu m/min
cu m/min
cu m
1
cu cm
°C
m
1
I/sec
kw
cm
atm
kg
cu m/day
km
(0.06805 psig +1)* atm
0.0929 sq m
6.452 sq cm
0.907 kkg
0.9144 m
hectares
cubic meters
kilogram-calories
kilogram calories/kilogram
cubic meters/minute
cubic meters/minute
cubic meters
liters
cubic centimeters
degree Centigrade
meters
liters
liters/second
killowatts
centimeters
atmospheres
kilograms
cubic meters/day
kilometer
atmospheres (absolute)
square meters
square centimeters
metric ton (1000 kilograms)
meter
*Actual conversion, not a multiplier
4/30/76
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