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samples were collected for 14 mills, with two pairs of mills using the
same supply. In other words, 12 separate water supply samples were
collected and analyzed.
Table V-13 includes all 129 of the toxic pollutants, whether detected
in textile wastes or not, and it shows that 65 toxic pollutants,
including all but two of the pesticides and all of the PCB's were not
detected in any wastewater sample. An additional 15 toxic pollutants
were detected only once, i.e., in samples from only one source stream.
With the exception of zinc, the maximum concentration of any toxic
pollutant detected in raw wastewater was less than 5 mg/1; zinc was
detected at just under 8 mg/1.
The field sampling program differed from the usual screening and
verification programs prescribed by EPA in that the number of mills in
each subcategory was changed to more closely fit the distribution of
mills in the industry. Because of the wide diversity within the
manufacturing processes used by the textile industry, it was
recognized that the screening phase should encompass more than one
mill in each subcategory. That this expanded approach was correct is
indicated by the number of toxic pollutants that were detected at only
one of 44 mills, as discussed in more detail in Section VI. The
findings of the field sampling program also indicate that ;a
verification program that adhered exactly to the EPA protocol would
not have produced different results because many of the toxic
pollutants were found infrequently and probably would not have shpwn
up during the verification phase. On the other hand, the field
sampling program did clearly identify those toxic pollutants that are
generally used in the various subcategories of the textile industry.
Toxic Pollutants - Field Sampling Data ,
Based on the data from the field sampling program, the most frequently
occurring toxic pollutants within each subcategory of the industry
were identified. Both raw wastewater and .secondary treated effluent
samples were reviewed, and all values of 10 ug/> and above were
included. The maximum concentration detected and the number of mills
where the pollutant was detected were considered in determining the
significance of the pollutants.
It should be noted that the number of mills sampled was necessarily
limited, and this information is not intended as an all-inclusive
listing. Subsequent data may result in other toxic pollutants being
observed.
Subcateqory 1. - Wool Scouring. Three mills in the Wool Scouring
Subcategory were sampled for toxic pollutants. The , following
pollutants were found to be most significant: ; /
138
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8 . 1,2, 4-tr i chlorobenzene
65. phenol , ^
66. bis (2-ethylhexyl) phthalate
68. di-ni-butyl phthalate
70. diethyl phthalate
85 . tetrachloroethylene
87 . trichloroethylene
115. arsenic
118. cadmium
119. chromium
120. copper
121. cyanide
122. lead
124. nickel
126. silver
128. zinc
found to be most significant:
25 . 1 , 2-dichlorobenzene
27 . 1 , 4-dichlorobenzene
38. ethyl benzene
55. naphthalene
64 . pentachlorophenol
66. bis( 2-ethylhexyl) phthalate
87 . trichloroethylene
118. cadmium
119. chromium
120. copper
123. mercury
124. nickel
128. zinc
- T.QW water Use Processing. Two mills in
Use Proessing Subcategory were
following pollutants were found to be most
Low Water
" ThC
23.
87.
120.
122.
124.
126.
128.
chloroform
trichloroethylene
copper
lead
nickel
silver
zinc
snhrateaorv 4 - ซป" P'bric Finishing. Sixteen ""^^
Fabric Finishing Subcategory were sampled for toxic pollutants
e
The
139
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following pollutants were found to be most significant:
4. benzene
7. (mono) chlorobenzene
8. 1,2,4-trichlorobenzene
21. 2,4,6-trichlorophenol
22. parachlorometacresol
23. chloroform
24. 2-chlorophenol
32. 1,2-dichloropropane
38. ethyl benzene
44. methylene chloride
55. naphthalene
62. N-nitrosodiphenylamine
64. pentachlorophenol
65. phenol
66. bis(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate
68. di-n-butyl phthalate
70. dimethyl phthalate
86. toluene
87. trichloroethylene
114. antimony
115. arsenic
118. cadmium
119. chromium
120. copper
122. lead
123. mercury
124. nickel
126. silver
128. zinc
Subcateqories 5a and 5b - Knit Fabric Finishing. Six mills in the Knit
Fabric Finishing Subcategory were sampled for toxic poUutlnts. The
following pollutants were found to be most significant-
8.
23.
25.
38.
55.
64.
65.
66.
69.
70.
85.
86.
87.
1,2,4-trichlorobenzene
chloroform
1,2-dichlorobenzene
ethyl benzene
naphthalene
pentachlorophenol
phenol
bis(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate
diethyl phthalate
dimethyl phthalate
tetrachloroethylene
toluene
tr i chloroethy1ene
140
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114. antimony
115. arsenic
118. cadmium
119. chromium
120. copper
121. cyanide
122. lead
124. nickel
126. silver
128. zinc
Subcateqory 5c - Hosiery Products. Three mills in the Knit Fabric
Finishing - Hosiery Products Subcategory were sampled for priority
pollutants. The following pollutants were found to be most significant:
3. acrylonitrile
21. 2,4,6-trichlorophenol
23. chloroform
55. naphthalene
62. N-nitrosodiphenylamine
65. phenol
66. bis(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate
67. tetrachloroethylene
119. chromium
126. silver
128. zinc
Subcateqory 6 - Carpet Finishing. Three mills in the Carpet Finishing
Subcategory were sampled for toxic pollutants. The following pollutants
were found to be most significant;
23. chloroform
37. diphenylhydrazine
55. naphthalene
65. phenol
66. bis(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate
118. cadmium
119. chromium
120. copper
121. cyanide
123. mercury
124. nickel
126. silver
128. zinc
Subcateqory 7 - Stock & Yarn Finishing. Six mills in the Stock &
Yarn Finishing Subcategory were sampled for toxic pollutants. The
following pollutants were found to be most significant:
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23. chloroform
55. naphthalene
65. phenol
66. bis(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate
69. diethyl phthalate
70. dimethyl phthalate
87. trichloroethylene
114. antimony
118. cadmium
119. chromium
120. copper
122. lead
123. mercury
124. nickel
126. silver
128. zinc
Subcateqorv 8 - Nonwoven Manufacturing. Three mills in the Nonwoven
Manufacturing Subcategory were sampled for toxic pollutants. The
following pollutants were found to be most significant:
4. benzene
23. chloroform
55. naphthalene
66. bis(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate
67. butyl benzyl phthalate
86. toluene
118. cadmium
120. copper
121. cyanide
122. lead
124, nickel
126. silver
128. zinc
Subcateqorv 9 - Felted Fabric Processing. One mill in the Felted Fabric
Processing Subcategory was sampled for toxic pollutants. The following
pollutants were found to be most significant:
55. naphthalene
65. phenol
66. bis(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate
87. trichloroethylene
Other Sources of Information
Various chemical and textile industry literature sources were reviewed
to collect general information about usage of the toxic pollutants.
in addition, selected specialists within the industry were asked to
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provide information about certain of the pollutants. In some cases,
the results were opinions from chemists and others and were based on
the individual's experience only, without additional study or
research. In other cases, special study committees were convened by
trade associations to gather information from the membership about
certain of the toxic pollutants. Except for some of the metals, the
findings of these committees were qualitative because of the absence
of quantitative historical information. Two committees, one from the
American Textile Manufacturers Institute (ATMI) and one from the Dyes
Environmental and Toxicology Organization (DETO), were particularly
helpful in providing useful information.
ATMI organized a special Task Group on Toxic Pollutants and it
reviewed in detail a list of 52 toxic pollutants that were neither
clearly present nor clearly absent in textile mill wastewaters. This
list was based on the literature and some early results of the field
sampling program. Information was requested about the likelihood of
each pollutant being present and, if so, information about potential
sources. The Task Group classified each pollutant as:
Probable definitely established as present in product or process.
Pollutant levels have been established in only a few cases but the
evidence is sound.
Possible known or suspected as an intermediate or contaminant of
products and processes being used. Many in this category could be
entering in an auxiliary manner such as maintenance products and
agricultural contaminants in process water.
Not Likely unable to find data to support the presence of these
chemicals*
For each "probable" or "possible" pollutant, possible sources were
suggested. This information is incorporated in the discussions of the
sources of the individual toxic pollutants in Section VI.
The other industry-related group was the Ecology Committee of Dyes
Environmental and Toxicology Organization, Inc. {DETO). DETO
comprises 18 member companies that, in aggregate, produce over 90
percent of the dyes manufactured in the United States. The Ecology
Committee carried out a survey of the DETO membership to determine
which of the toxic pollutants in textile wastewaters might originate
in dyes. The list of pollutants was narrowed to 40 that, the committee
believed could possibly be present in commercial dye products.
Because of time limitations, the committee focused on dye products far
which domestic sales (1976) exceeded 90,000 kg (approximately 20,000
pounds) per year and for which there are more than two producers. The
list of dyes numbered 70. Questionnaires were sent to and received
from all 18 member companies, and in addition to the 70 listed dyes,
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responses were received for an additional 81 dyes, for a total of 151
dye products representing 55.3 percent of the 113,380 metric tons
(approximately 250 million pounds) sold in 1976. Six toxic pollutants
(chromium, copper, parachlorometacresol, pentachlorophenol, phenol,
and zinc) were classed as "believed present in (some) commercial dyes
at greater than 0.1%" and 19 additional pollutants were classified as
"believed present in (some) commercial dyes at less than 0.1%." The
results of the DETO survey are presented in more detail in the
discussion of the sources of the individual pollutant parameters in
Section VI.
The ATMI Task Force reports
provided in Appendix E.
and the DETO survey and results are
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SECTION VI
SELECTION OF POLLUTANT PARAMETERS
The wastewater parameters and individual pollutant constituents that
are to be considered in establishing effluent limitations guidelines,
standards of performance, and pretreatment standards are presented in
this section. They are grouped into three separate classes:
conventional, non-conventional, and toxic pollutants. The toxic
pollutants are further classified into three groups, based on their
evaluated significance in textile mill wastewaters. The information
sources used in selecting the pollutant parameters in each class are
described in Section V.
CONVENTIONAL POLLUTANTS
The conventional pollutant parameters selected for the Textile Mills
Point Source Category are the following:
Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD)
Total Suspended Solids (TSS)
Oil & Grease
pH - Acidity and Alkalinity
Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD)
Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) is the quantity of oxygen required for
the biological and chemical oxidation of waterborne substances under
ambient or test conditions. Materials which may contribute to the BOD
include: carbonaceous organic materials usable as a food source by
aerobic organisms; oxidizable nitrogen derived from nitrates, ammonia
and organic nitrogen compounds which serve as food for specific
bacteria; and certain chemically oxidizable materials such as ferrous
iron, sulfides, sulfite, etc. which will react with dissolved oxygen
or are metabolized by bacteria. In most industrial and municipal
wastewaters, the BOD derives principally from organic materials and
from ammonia (which is itself derived from animal or vegetable
matter).
The BOD of a waste exerts an adverse effect upon the dissolved oxygen
resources of a body of water by reducing the oxygen available to fish,
plant life, and other aquatic species. Conditions can be reached
where all of the dissolved oxygen in the water is utilized resulting
in anaerobic conditions and the production of undesirable gases such
as hydrogen sulfide and methane. The reduction of dissolved oxygen
can be detrimental to fish populations, fish growth rate, and
organisms used as fish food. A total lack of oxygen due to excessive
BOD can result in the death of all aerobic aquatic inhabitants in the
affected area.
145
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Water with a high BOD indicates the presence of decomposing organic
matter and associated increased bacterial concentrations that degrade
its quality and potential uses. A by-product of high BOD
concentrations can be increased algal concentrations and blooms which
result from decomposition of the organic matter and which form the ,
basis of algal populations.
The BODS (5-day BOD) test is used widely to estimate the pollutional
strength of domestic and industrial wastes in terms of the oxygen that
they will require if discharged into receiving streams. The test is
an important one in water pollution control activities. It is used
for pollution control regulatory activities, to evaluate the design
and efficiencies of wastewater treatment works, and to indicate the
state of purification or pollution of receiving bodies of water.
Complete biochemical oxidation of a given waste may require a period
of incubation too long for practical analytical test purposes. For
this reason, the 5-day period has been accepted as standard, and the
test results have been designated as BODS . Specific chemical test
methods are not readily available for measuring the quantity of many
degradable substances and their reaction products. Reliance in such
cases is placed on the collective parameter, BODS, which measures the
weight of dissolved oxygen utilized by microorganisms as they oxidize
or transform the gross mixture of chemical compounds in the
wastewater. The biochemical reactions involved in the oxidation of
carbon compounds are related to the period of incubation. The five-
day BOD normally measures only 60 to 80 percent of the carbonaceous
biochemical oxygen demand of the sample, and for many purposes, this
is a reasonable parameter. Additionally, it can be used to estimate
the gross quantity of oxidizable organic matter.
The BODS test is essentially a bioassay procedure which provides an
estimate of the oxygen consumed by microorganisms utilizing the
degradable matter present in a waste under conditions that are
representative of those that are likely to occur in nature. Standard
condi t ions of t ime, temperature, suggested mi crobi al seed, and
dilution water for the wastes have been defined and are incorporated
in the standard analytical procedure. Through the use of this
procedure, the oxygen demand of diverse wastes can be compared and
evaluated for pollution potential and to some extent for treatability
by biological treatment processes.
Because the BOD test is a bioassay procedure, it is important that the
environmental conditions of the test be suitable for the
microorganisms to function in an uninhibited manner at all times.
This means that toxic substances must be absent and that the necessary
nutrients, such as nitrogen, phosphorus, and trace elements, must be
present.
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Total Suspended Solids (TSS)
Suspended solids include both organic and inorganic materials. The
inorganic compounds include sand, silt, and clay. The organic
fraction includes such materials as grease, oil, tar, and animal and
vegetable waste products. These solids may settle out rapidly and
bottom deposits are often a mixture of both organic and inorganic
solids. Solids may be suspended in water for a time, and then settle
to the bed of the stream or lake. These solids discharged with man's
wastes may be inert, slowly biodegradable materials, or rapidly
decomposable substances. While in suspension, they increase the
turbidity of the water, reduce light penetration and impair the
photosynthetic activity of aquatic plants.
Suspended solids in water interfere with many industrial processes,
cause foaming in boilers and incrustations on equipment exposed to
such water, especially as the temperature rises. They are undesirable
in process water used in the manufacture of steel, in the textile
industry, in laundries, in dyeing, and in cooling systems.
Solids in suspension are aesthetically displeasing. When they settle
to form sludge deposits on the stream or lake bed, they are often
damaging to the life in water. Solids, when transformed to sludge
deposits, may do a variety of damaging things, including blanketing
the stream or lake bed and thereby destroying the living spaces for
those benthic organisms that would otherwise occupy that habitat.
When of an organic nature, solids use a portion or all of the
dissolved oxygen available in the area. Organic materials also serve
as a food source for sludgeworms and associated organisms.
Disregarding any toxic effect attributable to substances leached out
by water, suspended solids may kill fish and shellfish by causing
abrasive injuries and by clogging the gills and respiratory passages
of various aquatic fauna.
Indirectly, suspended solids are inimical to aquatic life because they
screen out light, and they promote and maintain the development of
noxious conditions through oxygen depletion. This results in the
killing of fish and fish food organisms. Suspended solids also reduce
the recreational value of the water.
Oil & Grease
Because of widespread use, oil and grease occur often in wastewater
streams. These oily wastes may be classified as follows:
1. Light Hydrocarbons - These include light fuels such as gasoline,
kerosene, and jet fuel, and miscellaneous solvents used for industrial
processing, degreasing, or cleaning purposes. The presence of these
147
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light hydrocarbons may make the removal of other heavier oily wastes
more difficult.
2. Heavy Hydrocarbons, Fuels and Tar - These include the crude oils,
diesel oils, #6 fuel oil, residual oils, slop oils and, in some cases,
asphalt and road tar.
3. Lubricants and Cutting Fluids - These generally fall into two
classes: non-emuIsifiable oils such as lubricating oils and greases
and emulsifiable oils such as water soluble oils, rolling oils,
cutting oils, and drawing compounds. Emulsifiable oils may contain
fat, soap, or various other additives.
4. Vegetable and Animal Fats and Oils - These originate primarily
from processing of foods and natural products.
These compounds can settle or float and may exist as solids or liquids
depending upon factors such as method of use, production process, and
temperature of wastewater.
Oils and grease even in small quantities cause troublesome taste and
odor problems. Scum lines from these agents are produced on water
treatment basin walls and other containers. Fish and water fowl are
adversely affected by oils in their habitat. Oil emulsions may adhere
to the gills of fish causing suffocation, and the flesh of fish is
tainted when microorganisms that were exposed to waste oil are eaten.
Deposition of oil in the bottom sediments of water can serve to
inhibit normal benthic growth. Oil and grease exhibit an oxygen
demand.
Levels of oil and grease which are toxic to aquatic organisms vary
greatly, depending on the type and the species susceptibility.
However, it has been reported that crude oil in concentrations as low
as 0.3 mg/1 is extremely toxic to fresh-water fish. It has been
recommended that public water supply sources be essentially free from
oil and grease.
Oil and grease in quantities of 100 1/sq km (10 gallons/sq mile) show
up as a sheen on the surface of a body of water. The presence of oil
slicks prevent the full aesthetic enjoyment of water. The presence of
oil in water can also increase the toxicity of other substances being
discharged into the receiving bodies of water. Municipalities
frequently limit the quantity of oil and grease that can be discharged
to their wastewater treatment systems by industry.
Wool wax is a substantial pollutant in the Wool Scouring subcategory
of the textile industry; in other subcategories, materials measured as
grease and oil are much less troublesome.
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pH - Acidity and Alkalinity
Although not a specific pollutant, pH is related to the acidity or
alkalinity of a wastewater stream. It is not a linear or direct
measure of either; however, it may properly be used as a surrogate to
control both excess acidity and excess alkalinity in water. The term
pH is used to describe the hydrogen ion - hydroxyl ion balance in
water. Technically, pH is the hydrogen ion concentration or activity
present in a given solution. pH numbers are the negative logarithm of
the hydrogen ion concentrations. A pH of 7 generally indicates
neutrality or a balance between free hydrogen and free hydroxyl ions.
Solutions with a pH above 7 indicate that the solution is alkaline,
while a pH below 7 indicates that the solution is acidic.
Knowledge of the pH of water or wastewater is useful in determining
necessary measures for corrosion control, pollution control, and
disinfection. Waters with a pH below 6.0 are corrosive to water works
structures, distribution lines, and household plumbing fixtures and
such corrosion can add constituents to drinking water such as iron,
copper, zinc, cadmium and lead. Low pH waters not only tend to
dissolve metals from structures and fixtures but also tend to
redissolve or leach metals from sludges and bottom sediments. The
hydrogen ion concentrations can affect the taste of the water and at a
low pH, water tastes sour.
Extremes of pH or rapid pH changes can exert stress conditions or kill
aquatic life outright. Even moderate changes from acceptable criteria
limits of pH are deleterious to some species. The harmful effect on
aquatic life of many materials is increased by changes in the water
pH. For example, metalocyanide complexes can increase a thousand-fold
in toxicity with a drop of 1.5 pH units. Similarly, the toxicity of
ammonia is a function of pH. The bactericidal effect of chlorine in
most cases is less as the pH increases, and it is economically
advantageous to keep the pH close to 7.
NON-CONVENTIONAL POLLUTANTS
The non-conventional pollutant parameters selected for the Textile
Mill Point Source Category are the following:
Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD)
Chemical oxygen demand (COD) is a purely chemical oxidation test
devised as an alternate method of estimating the total oxygen demand
of a wastewater. Since the method relies on the oxidation-reduction
system of chemical analyses rather than on biological factors, it is
more precise, accurate, and rapid than the BOD test. The COD test is
widely used to estimate the total oxygen demand (ultimate rather than
5-day BOD) to oxidize the compounds in a wastewater. It is based on
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the fact that organic compounds, with a few exceptions, can be
oxidized by strong chemical oxidizing agents under acidic conditions
with the assistance of certain inorganic catalysts.
The COD test measures the oxygen demand of compounds that are
biologically degradable and of many that are not. Pollutants which
are measured by the BODS test will be measured by the COD test. In
addition, pollutants which are more resistant to biological oxidation
will also be measured as COD. COD is a more inclusive measure of
oxygen demand than is BODS and will result in higher oxygen demand
values than will the BODS test.
The compounds which are more resistant to biological oxidation are
becoming of greater and greater concern not only because of their slow
but continuing oxygen demand on the resources of the receiving water,
but also because of their potential health effects on aquatic life and
humans. Many of these compounds result from industrial discharges and
some have been found to have carcinogenic, mutagenic and similar
adverse effects, either singly or in combination. Concern about these
compounds has increased as a result of demonstrations that their long
life in receiving water - the result of a slow biochemical oxidation
rate - allows them to contaminate downstream water intakes. The
commonly used systems of water purification are not effective in
removing these types of materials and disinfection, such as
chlorination, may convert them into even more hazardous materials.
Thus the COD test measures organic matter which exerts an oxygen
demand and which may affect the health of the people. It is a useful
analytical tool for pollution control activities. It provides a more
rapid measurement of the oxygen demand and an estimate of organic
compounds which are not measured in the BODS test.
Color
Color is defined as either "true" or "apparent." In Standard Methods
for the Examination of Water and Wastewater (8), the true color of
water is defined as "the color of water from which the turbidity has
been removed." Apparent colors include "not only the color due to
substances in solution, but also due to suspended matter."
Color in textile wastewater results from equipment washup, textile
wash water and from dye not exhausted in the dyeing process.
Color bodies interfere with the transmission of light within the
visible spectrum which is absorbed and used in the photosynthetic
process of microflora. Color will affect the aquarian ecosystem
balance by changing the amount of light transmitted and may lead to
species turnover.
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Color bodies discharged to waterways alter the natural stream color
and thereby become an aesthetic pollutant. Unnatural receiving water
color detracts from the visual appeal and recreational value of the
waterways.
Color, when discharged to receiving waters, may have a detrimenal
effect on downstream municipal and industrial water users. Color is
not treated for in conventional water treatment systems and when
passed to users may result in consumer discontent and may also
interfere with industrial processes which demand high quality water.
Color is found in wastewater throughout the textile industry. Some
colors are water soluble and some are not (dispersed and vat dyes).
Biodegradability of many of the dyes responsible for the color is
highly variable, and toxicity and effect on aquatic life of many of
these dyes is unknown. Many hues are used in dyeing, and may appear
in wastes; their combination in waste streams frequently generates a
gray or black color. There is no universally accepted monitoring
method, although an analytical procedure developed by the American Dye
Manufacturers Institute (ADMI) has been found to evaluate color in
textile effluents most accurately. The analytical procedure and the
calculations required to evaluate color are reported in Appendix A of
the Point Source Development Document (1).
TOXIC POLLUTANTS
Because there are several manufacturing processes that are common to
more than one subcategory of the textile industry, the data from all
mills in the field sampling program were combined in order to identify
the toxic pollutants that are most significant for the entire
industry.
Using the data from the field sampling program and the other sources
of information described in Section V, each of the 129 toxic
pollutants was evaluated in terms of its significance in textile mill
wastewaters. The results are presented below in three groups. The
first group includes 17 organic compounds, cyanides, and 11 metals.
Most of these were found frequently and all were detected at least
once in secondary treatment effluents at concentrations of 10 ug/1 or
greater, except for mercury. The second group includes those toxic
pollutants that are potentially significant in textile mill wastes
either in terms of measured raw waste or treated effluent
concentrations or frequency of detection. None were detected in
secondary treatment effluents at concentrations of 10 ug/1 or above.
Some Group 2 pollutants were not detected, but were either established
as potentially present in mill wastes by industrial sources (ATMI or
DETO) or suggested as possibly present as an intermediate or
contaminant. The third group includes 27 organic compounds plus
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asbestos that are regarded as unlikely constituents of textile
wastewaters.
The 10 ug/1 level was selected as an interim limit for the textile
industry in order to focus upon those toxic pollutants that
potentially will cause the most serious problems. There exist some
questions about the reliability of results below 10 ug/1 for some of
the toxic pollutants because of limitations in the analytical
procedures to extract, concentrate, and clean up samples of textile
mill wastewaters. Also, at this time, there is little information
available about treatment options that can control concentrations at
levels below 10 ug/1.
Group 1 - Most Significant in Textile Wastewaters
The toxic pollutants judged to be most significant in textile mill
wastewaters are the following:
3. acrylonitrile
4. benzene
8. 1,2,4-trichlorobenzene
21. 2,4,6-trichlorophenol
22. parachlorometacresol
23. chloroform
25. 1,2-dichlorobenzene
38. ethylbenzene
49. trichlorofluoromethane
55. naphthalene
63. N-nitrosodi-n-propylamine
64. pentachlorophenol
65. phenol
66. bis(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate
85. tetrachloroethylene
86. toluene
87. trichloroethylene
114. antimony
115. arsenic
118. cadmium
119. chromium
120. copper
121. cyanide
122. lead
123. mercury
124. nickel
125. selenium
126. silver
128. zinc
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A brief discussion of the traditional uses and possible sources in
textile mill operations of each of the Group 1 toxic pollutants
follows.
Acrylonitrile. Acrylonitrile is an unsaturated synthetic organic
compound primarily used in the production of acrylic and modacrylic
fibers, nitrile rubber, and plastics. Annual production totals
approximately 1,5 billion pounds.
Sources of acrylonitrile reported by 'the textile industry include
fibers and other raw materials, laboratory operations, dyes, and latex
compounds. Out of 418 questionnaire returns, 32 indicated "known or
suspected presence" in mill wastewaters. Despite this indication of
rather common usage, acrylonitrile was detected at only 1 mill of 44
in the field sampling program.
Benzene. Benzene is produced principally from coal tar distillation
and from petroleum by catalytic reforming of light naphthas from which
it is isolated by distillation or solvent extraction. The broad
utility spectrum of benzene (commercially sometimes called "Benzol")
includes: extraction and rectification; as an intermediate for
synthesis in the chemical and pharmaceutical industries; the
preparation and use of inks in the graphic arts industries; as a
thinner for lacquers; as a degreasing and cleaning agent; as a solvent
in the rubber industry; as an antiknock fuel additive; and as a
general solvent in laboratories. Industrial processes involving the
production of benzene and chemical synthesis usually are performed in
sealed and protected systems. Currently, benzene is used by the
chemical industry at the rate of 1.4 billion gallons annually.
Sources of benzene reported by the textile industry include raw
materials, use as a solvent, and dyes, although it was not one of 25
priority pollutants suggested by DETO as likely to be present in the
151 dye products that represent the bulk of the dye industry's
commercial volume by weight. Out of 418 questionnaire returns, 32
indicated "known or suspected presence" in mill wastewaters. Benzene
was detected at greater than 10 ug/1 levels in 5 mills in the field
sampling program, and at lesser levels in 6 mills. With one
exception, however, levels in secondary effluents were "less than 5
ug/1" or undetectable.
1,2,4-Trichlorobenzene. The compound 1,2,4-trichlorobenzene is a
chlorinated benzene and is one of the class of aromatic organic
compounds characterized by the substitution of from one to six
chlorine atoms on the benzene nucleus. Other trichlorobenzene isomers
are 1,2,3-trichlorobenzene, and 1,3,5-trichlorobenzene but these are
not used in significant quantity. The compound has seen use as a dye
carrier in the textile industry, a herbicide intermediate, a heat
transfer medium, a dielectric fluid in transformers, a degreaser, a
lubricant, and as a potential insecticide against termites. During
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the period 1973-1974, production and use of trichlorobenzenes resulted
in approximately 8,182 metric tons entering the aquatic environment.
Sources of trichlorobenzene reported by the textile industry include
usage as a dye carrier in dyeing polyester fiber, laboratory
operations, scouring in the dyeing process, and as a raw material.
Out of 418 questionnaire returns, 86 indicated "known or suspected
presence" in mill wastewaters. It was detected at 10 ug/1 or greater
(often much greater) in 10 of 44 mills in the field sampling program.
2,4,6-Trichlorophenol. The compound 2,4,6-trichlorophenol belongs to
thechemical class known as chlorinated phenols. This class
represents a group of commercially produced, substituted phenols and
cresols referred to as chlorophenols and chlorocresols. Chlorinated
phenols are used as intermediates in the synthesis of dyes, pigments,
phenolic resins, pesticides, and herbicides. Certain chlorophenols
also are used directly as flea repellents, fungicides, wood
preservatives, mold inhibitors, antiseptics, disinfectants, and
antigumming agents for gasoline. Sources of trichlorophenol in the
textile industry include possible usage as a preservative and as a
constituent or impurity in carrier systems for dyeing polyester. Out
of 418 questionnaire returns, 7 indicated "suspected presence" in mill
wastewaters. Trichlorophenol was detected in the wastes at five
textile mills during the field sampling program.
Parachlorometacresol. Parachlorometacresol belongs to the chemical
class known as chlorinated phenols. This class represents a group of
commercially produced, substituted phenols and cresols referred to as
chlorophenols and chlorocresols. Chlorinated phenols are used as
intermediates in the synthesis of dyes, pigments, phenolic resins,
pesticides, and herbicides. Certain chlorophenols also are used
directly as flea repellents, fungicides, wood preservatives, mold
inhibitors, antiseptics, disinfectants, and antigumming agents for
gasoline.
Sources of Parachlorometacresol reported by the industry include its
possible use as a biocide or disinfectant in dyestuffs, dye carrier
systems, and in industrial cleaning compounds. The survey of the dye
manufacturing industry conducted by DETO indicated that this compound
was one of six toxic pollutants that could be present at levels
greater than 0.1 percent in some commercial dyes, resulting in
possible raw waste loadings from 100 to 1,000 ug/1. Of 418
questionnaire returns, 3 indicated "suspected presence" in the mill
wastewater. This compound was detected at two mills in the field
sampling program.
Chloroform. Chloroform was initially employed as an anesthetic agent;
however, it has become obsolete as a widely used anesthetic in favor
of other agents with more desirable properties. The major uses of
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chloroform at present are as a solvent and as an intermediate in the
production of refrigerants, plastics, and Pharmaceuticals. Chloroform
seems to be ubiquitous in the environment in trace amounts; discharges
into the environment result largely from chlorination treatment of
water and wastewater.
Sources of chloroform reported by the textile industry include its use
in dyeing operations and in the laboratory. Although only 7 out of
418 questionnaire returns indicated "known or suspected presence" of
chloroform, it was detected at levels greater than 10 ug'/l in the
wastewaters from 12 of 44 mills in the field sampling program, and at
lesser levels in 2 additional mills.
1,2-Dichlorobenzene. The compound 1,2-dichlorobenzene belongs to the
chemical class known as dichlorobenzenes. This class of compounds is
represented by three isomers: 1,2-dichloro-, 1,3-dichloro-, and 1,4-
dichloro-benzene. Both 1,2-dichloro- and 1,4-dichloro-benzene are
produced almost entirely as byproducts from the production of
monochlorobenzene. Production in 1975 consisted of 24,801 metric tons
of 1,2-dichlorobenzene and 20,754 metric tons of 1,4-dichlorobenzene.
The estimated losses of dichlorobenzenes during the production of
monochlorobenzene are 20.5 kg/metric ton to wastewater and 22.22
kg/metric ton to land disposal. The major uses of 1,2-dichlorobenzene
are as a process solvent in the manufacturing of toluene diisocyanate,
and as an intermediate in the synthesis of dyestuffs, herbicides, and
degreasers.
In the survey carried out by DETO, 1,2-dichlorobenzene was judged to
be present in some commercial dyes, but at levels less than 0.1
percent. This is the only reported source of this compound in textile
mill wastewaters. Out of 418 questionnaire returns, 18 indicated
"known or suspected presence" in the wastewaters. In the field
sampling program, this pollutant was detected at greater than 10 ug/1
at 4 mills, and at lesser concentrations at 5 additional mills.
Ethylbenzene. Ethylbenzene is an alkyl substituted aromatic compound
employed as an antiknock compound for airplane engine fuel, as a
lacquer diluent, in the synthesis of styrols for resins, as a solvent
for paraffin waxes, and in the production of cellulose acetate, silks.
It is only slightly soluble in water, but will dissolve in organic
solvents. V
Ethylbenzene was one of 25 toxic pollutants that may be present in
some commercial dyes, at less than 0.1 percent, according to the
survey carried out by DETO. Its presence in dyestuffs and as a
solvent in print pastes was also reported by individual mills. While
only 9 out of 418.questionnaire returns indicated "known or suspected
presence" in mill wastewaters, ethylbenzene was detected at 23 of 44
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mills in the field sampling program. Concentration levels of 10 ug/1
or more were measured in the wastewaters from 19 of the 23 mills.
Trichlorofluoromethane. Trichlorofluoromethane belongs to the class
of compounds known as halomethanes. These compounds are a subcategory
of the halogenated hydrocarbons. Tricholorofluoromethane is also
known as trichloromonofluoromethane, fluorotrichloromethane, Freon 11,
Frigen 11, and Acton 9. Freon compounds are organic compounds that
contain fluorine. They have a high degree of chemical stability,
relatively low toxicity, and are nonflammable. They have found many
applications ranging from use as propellants to use as refrigerants
and solvents.
Trichlorofluoromethane may be used as a refrigerant and an aerosol
propellant in the textile industry. None of the questionnaire returns
indicated any likelihood of this compound being in the mill
wastewaters, although one industry source speculated that it might
result from laboratory operations. It was detected in treated
effluents at five mills in the field sampling program, but not in the
raw wastes at these mills.
Naphthalene. Naphthalene, a bicyclic aromatic compound, is the most
abundant single constituent of coal tar. It is also found in
cigarette smoke. This compound is used as an intermediate in the
production of dye compounds and in the formation of solvents,
lubricants, and motor fuels. The largest use of napthalene in 1975
(58 percent of total use) was for the synthesis of phthalic anhydride.
It has also been used as a moth repellent and insecticide, as well as
an antihelminthic and as an intestinal antiseptic and vermicide.
Sources of naphthalene in textile mill wastewaters reported by the
industry are dyes and possibly laboratory operations. The direct dyes
were cited as specific sources of this compound. The DETO survey
results indicated that this toxic pollutant was likely to be present
in some dyes at levels less than 0.1 percent. Out of 418
questionnaire returns, 55 indicated "known or suspected presence" in
mill wastewaters. In the field sampling program, it was detected at
10 ug/1 or greater concentrations at 15 mills and at lesser levels in
7 additional mills.
N-nitrosodi-n-propylamine. The compound N-nitrosodi-n-propylamine
belongs to the chemical class known as nitrosamines. The organic
nitrosocompounds are a large group of chemicals characterized by a
nitroso group (N=0) that is attached to the nitrogen of a secondary
amine. Patent applications show potential uses of nitrosamines in the
manufacture of rubber, dyestuffs, gasoline additives, lubricating
oils, explosives, insecticides, fungicides, dielectric fluids,
acrylonitrile, plasticizers, industrial solvents, and hydrazine. At
present, two major industries are involved in handling nitrosamines:
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organic chemicals manufacturing and rubber processing.
Diphenylnitrosamine is the only nitrosamine that is produced in
quantities greater than 450 kg. It is used as a vulcanizing retarder
in rubber processing and in pesticides. Other nitrosamines are not
produced commercially except as research chemicals.
Limited industry information suggests that N-nitrosodi-n-propylamine
may possibly be present in textile mill wastewaters from contamination
of certain chemicals, perhaps some dyes. None of the 418
questionnaire returns indicated "known or suspected presence" in mill
wastes. In the field sampling program, this compound was detected at
only two mills, at relatively low concentrations, and only in the
effluents from secondary treatment systems.
Pentachlorophenol. Pentachlorophenol (PCP) is a commercially produced
bactericide, fungicide, and slimicide used primarily for the
preservation of wood, wood products, and other materials. As a
chlorinated hydrocarbon, its biological properties have also resulted
in its use as a herbicide, insecticide, and molluscicide.
Pentachlorophenol is used in the textile industry as a preservative in
dyes. In the DETO survey results, this was one of six toxic
pollutants that could be expected in some commercial dyes at levels
greater than 0.1 percent, resulting in possible raw textile wastewater
concentrations in the 100 to 1,000 ug/1 range. Out of 418
questionnaire returns, 17 indicated "known or suspected presence" in
mill wastewaters. In the field sampling program, pentachlorophenol
was detected at 10 ug/1 or greater levels in 10 mills, and at lower
levels in 2 additional mills.
Phenol. Phenol is an aromatic compound that has a hydroxyl group
attached directly to the benzene ring. It is a liquid and is somewhat
soluble in water. Phenol is used in large quantities as an industrial
chemical. It is produced almost entirely as an intermediate for the
preparation of other chemicals. These include synthetic polymers such
as phenolic resins, bis-phenol and caprolactam plastics intermediates,
and chlorinated and alkylated phenols.
Phenol is used in the textile industry as a preservative in dyes and
could be present in textile mill raw wastes in the 100 to 1,000 ug/1
range according to the results of the DETO survey. Out of 418
questionnaire returns, 81 reported "known presence" and an additional
47 reported "suspected presence" in mill wastewaters. Reported
sources cover a wide spectrum including the water supply; raw
materials, including various fibers; dyes and dye carriers; finishing
resins; nylon carpet processing; laboratory operations; and general
cleaners and disinfectants used in the mill. In the field sampling
program, phenol was detected at concentrations greater than 10 ug/1 in
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the wastewaters from 25 of 44 mills, and at lesser concentrations at 4
additional mills.
Bis (2-ethylhexyl) Phthalate. Bis (2-ethylhexyl) phthalate belongs to
the group of compounds known as phthalate esters. The phthalic acid
esters (PAE) are a large group of substances widely used in the U.S.
and the rest of the world as plasticizers. In the plastics industry,
they are used to impart flexibility to plastic polymers, to improve
workability during fabrication, and to extend or modify properties not
present in the original plastic resins.
PAE are extensively used in polyvinylchloride plastics, which have a
wide variety of applications. They are contained in building and
construction materials (flooring, weatherstripping, wire, and cable),
home furnishings (garden hoses, wall covering, upholstery),
transportation materials (seat covers, auto mats), apparel (footwear,
outerwear, baby pants), and food surfaces and medical products (food
wrap film, medical tubing, intravenous bags). Dioctylphthalate (OOP)
and its isomer di-2-ethylhexyl phthalate (DEPH) are probably the most
widely used plasticizers today. PAE also have minor non-plastic uses
as pesticide carriers, in cosmetics, fragrances, industrial oils, and
insect repellents.
The PAE plasticizers, which can be present in concentrations up to 60
percent of the total weight of the plastic, are only loosely linked to
the plastic polymers and are easily extracted. PAE are known to be
widely distributed in the environment. They have been found in soil,
water, air, fish tissue, and human tissue.
Bis(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate may make up from 10 to 50 percent of some
coating formulations used in the textile industry. It was detected at
levels of 10 ug/1 or greater in wastewaters from 27 out of 44 (61%)
mills in the field sampling program, although only 4 questionnaire
returns out of 418 reported "suspected presence" in mill wastes. This
toxic pollutant was also found at significant concentrations (10 ug/1
or greater) in raw water supplies and in tubing blanks. This
indicates that its use may be less widespread in the industry than the
61 percent occurrence noted above. It is clear, however, that in some
mills this constituent is added to the waste stream during textile
finishing.
Tetrachloroethylene. (Tetrachloroethylene, 1,1,2,2-tetrachloroethy-
lene, perchloroethylene, PCE) is a colorless, nonflammable liquid used
primarily as a solvent in dry cleaning industries. It is used to a
lesser extent as a degreasing solvent in metal industries.
Perchloroethylene is widespread in the environment, and is found in
water, aquatic organisms, air, foodstuffs, and human tissues, in
quantities of micrograms per liter. The highest environmental levels
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of PCE are measured in commercial dry cleaning and metal degreasing
industries.
Although PCE is released into water via aqueous effluents from
production plants, consumer industries, and household sewage, its
level in ambient water is reported to be minimal due to its high
volatility.
Tetrachloroethylene is used in the textile industry as a dry cleaning
solvent and in some dyeing operations as part of the carrier systems
or scouring formulations. Out of 418 questionnaire returns, 29
indicated "known or suspected presence" in mill wastes. In the field
sampling program of 44 mills, tetrachloroethylene was detected at
levels greater than 10 ug/1 at 4 mills, and at lower concentrations at
4 additional mills.
Toluene. Toluene is a clear, colorless, noncorrosive liquid with a
sweet, pungent odor. The production of toluene in the U.S. has
increased steadily since 1940 when approximately 117 million liters
(31 million gallons) were produced; in 1970, production was 2.62
billion liters (694 million gallons). Approximately 70 percent of the
toluene produced is converted to benzene, another 15 percent is used
to produce chemicals, and the remainder is used as a solvent for
paints and as a gasoline additive.
Toluene is a volatile compound and is readily transferred from water
surfaces to the atmosphere. In the atmosphere, it is subject to
photochemical degradation. It degrades to benzaldehyde and traces of
peroxybenzoyl nitrate. Toluene can also re-enter the hydrosphere in
rain.
Sources of toluene reported by the textile industry include dyes and
dye carriers, raw materials, and use as a cleaning solvent. Toluene
is one of 25 toxic pollutants that may be present in commercial dyes
at levels less than 0.1 percent according to the survey carried out by
DETO. Out of 418 questionnaire returns, 48 indicated "known or
suspected presence" in mill wastewaters. In the field sampling
program, toluene was detected at levels of 10 ug/1, or greater, at 18
of the 44 mills sampled, and at lesser concentrations at 13 additional
mills.
Trichloroethylene. Trichloroethylene (1,1,2-trichloroethylene, TCE),
a volatile nonflammable liquid, is used mostly in metal industries as
a degreasing solvent. It had minor applications as a dry cleaning
solvent and as an extractive solvent for decaffeinating coffee, but
was replaced in both these capacities by perchloroethylene and
methylene chloride, respectively.
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Its volatilization during production and use is the major source of
environmental levels of this compound. TCE has been detected in
ambient air, in food, and in human tissue in ug/1 (ppb) quantities.
Its detection in rivers, municipal water supplies, the sea, and
aquatic organisms indicates that TCE is widely distributed in the
aquatic environment at the ug/kg level or lower. Trichloroethylene is
not expected to persist in the environment. This is due in part to
its short half-life in air and its evaporation from water.
Sources of trichloroethylene in textile mill wastewaters reported by
the industry include its use as a solvent in dyeing and cleaning, and
also in some raw materials. Out of 418 questionnaire returns, 21
indicated "known or suspected presence" in mill wastes. It was
detected in the wastewaters at greater than 10 ug/1 concentrations in
10 of the 44 mills visited in the field sampling program, plus three
mills at lower concentrations.
Antimony. Antimony is a naturally occurring element that makes up
between 0.2 and 0.5 ppm of the earth's crust. Environmental concen-
trations of antimony are reported at 0.33 ug/1 in seawater of 35 parts
per thousand salinity and at 1.1 ug/1 in freshwater streams. Antimony
and its compounds are used in the manufacturing of alloys, as flame
retardants, pigments, and catalysts, as well as for medicinal and
veterinary uses.
Individual mills reported possible sources of antimony in textile
wastewaters as finishing agents, dyestuffs, and raw materials. The
DETO survey results did not list antimony as one of the 25 toxic
pollutants likely in the bulk of commercial dyes produced. Various
antimony compounds have been used as mordants in dyeing, in printing
pastes, and as pigments in dye manufacture. Antimony trioxide is used
as a flame retarding agent. Out of 418 questionnaire returns, 52
indicated "known or suspected presence" in mill wastes. Of the 44
mills in the field sampling program, no antimony was detected in the
wastewaters from roughly half. This metal was detected at
concentrations judged to be above common background water supply
levels (here selected as 20 ug/1 for antimony) in eight mill waste
streams. The water supplies of 12 mills were sampled and analyzed for
antimony. One supply had a level of "less than 49 ug/1." The
remaining 11 were all less than 18 ug/1.
Arsenic. Arsenic is a naturally occurring element often referred to
as a metal, although chemically classified as a metalloid.
Environmental concentrations of arsenic have been reported at 0.0005
percent in the earth's crust and 3 ug/1 in sea water. Analyses of
1577 surface waters samples in the U.S. showed arsenic being present
in 87 samples, with concentrations ranging from 5 to 336 ug/1, and a
mean level of 64 ug/1 (20). Arsenic and its compounds are used in the
manufacturing of glass, cloth, and electrical semiconductors, as
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fungicides and wood preservatives, as growth stimulants for plants and
animals, and in veterinary applications.
Individual textile mills reported likely sources of arsenic in their
wastewaters as dyes and "raw materials." Out of 418 questionnaire
returns, 16 indicated "known or suspected presence" in mill wastes.
The survey carried out by DETO confirmed that some commercial dyes
contain arsenic; likely levels are less than 0.1 percent. Other
possible uses include its presence in fungicides and specialty
chemicals. Arsenic was not detected at appreciable levels in any mill
water supplies sampled. It was detected in approximately 25 percent
of the raw waste and secondary effluent samples collected in the field
sampling program. Its occurrence was less widespread than many of the
other metallic toxic pollutants.
Cadmium. Cadmium is a soft, white metal that dissolves readily in
mineral acids. Biologically, it is a non-essential element of high
toxic potential. It occurs in nature chiefly as a sulfide salt,
frequently in association with zinc and lead ores. Accumulations of
cadmium in soils in the vicinity of mines and smelters may result in
high local concentrations in nearby waters. The salts of the metal
also may occur in wastes from electroplating plants, pigment works,
and textile and chemical industries. Seepage of cadmium from
electroplating plants has resulted in groundwater cadmium
concentrations of 0.01 to 3.2 mg/1.
Dissolved cadmium was found in less than 3 percent of 1,577 U.S.
surface water samples with a mean concentration of slightly under 10
ug/1. Most fresh waters contain less than 1 ug/1 cadmium and most
analyses of seawater indicate an average concentration of about 0.15
ug/1 (20).
Sources of cadmium reported by individual textile mills include
pigments, dyes, nylon carpet processing, and "raw materials",
including dirt in raw wool. Cadmium was one of the toxic pollutants
in the DETO survey that could be present in dyes at levels less than
0.1 percent. Of 418 questionnaire returns, 24 indicated "known
presence" and 17 indicated "suspected presence" in mill wastes. In
the field sampling program, cadmium was measured in only one of the 12
water supplies sampled. In two raw wastewater samples and in one
secondary effluent sample, cadmium was measured at greater than 10
ug/1.
Chromium. Chromium salts are used extensively in the metal finishing
industry as electroplating, cleaning, and passivating agents, and as
mordants in the textile industry. They also are used in cooling
waters in the leather tanning industry, in catalytic manufacture, in
pigments and primer paints, and in fungicides and wood preservatives.
In the analysis of 1,577 surface water samples collected at 130
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sampling points in the U.S., chromium was found in 386 samples ranging
from 1 to 112 ug/1; the mean concentration was 9.7 ug/1 (20).
Trivalenfc chromium is recognized as an essential trace element for
humans. Hexavalent chromium in the workplace is suspected of
carcinogenicity.
Sources of chromium reported by individual textile mills include dyes,
mordants, pigments, other raw materials, and nylon carpet processing.
In addition, chromium may result from plating baths used to resurface
printing rolls and may also originate in blowdown from recirculating
cooling systems where it is used to control biofouling. The results
of the DETO survey confirmed that chromium may be present in some
commercial premetallized dyes at levels of from 3 to 4 percent. The
metal is an integral part of the dye molecule and most should exhaust
onto the fiber being dyed. Of 418 questionnaire returns, 117
indicated "known presence" and an additional 55 indicated "suspected
presence" in textile mill wastewaters. In the field sampling program,
chromium was detected in only one of 12 water supply samples (at less
than 4.6 ug/1). In the field sampling program, chromium was detected
at all but 6 mills, with about two-thirds of the raw and secondary
treated wastewaters having values less than 30 ug/1.
Copper. Copper is a soft heavy metal that is ubiquitous in its
distribution in rocks and minerals of the earth's crust. In nature,
copper occurs usually as sulfides and oxides and occasionally as
metallic copper. Weathering and solution of these natural copper
minerals result in background levels of copper in natural surface
waters at concentrations generally well below 20 ug/1. Higher
concentrations of copper are usually from anthropogenic sources.
These sources include corrosion of brass and copper pipe by acidic
waters, industrial effluents and fallout, sewage treatment plant
effluents, and the use of copper compounds as aquatic algicides.
Potential industrial copper pollution sources number in the tens of
thousands in the U.S. However, the major industrial sources include
the smelting and refining industries, copper wire mills, coal burning
industries, and iron and steel producing industries. Copper may enter
natural waters either directly from these sources or by atmospheric
fallout of air pollutants produced by these industries.
A five year study of natural surface waters in the U.S. revealed
copper concentrations ranging from less than 10 ug/1 (the limit of
detection) to 280 ug/1, with a mean value for U.S. waters of 15 ug/1.
Values from 0.6 ug/1 to 4.3 ug/1 have been reported in seawater (20).
Sources of copper reported by individual textile mills include
pigments, dyestuffs, and the mill plumbing system. The DETO survey
results .indicated that copper may be present in some commercial dyes
at levels of 3 to 4 percent. Since the copper is an integral part of
the dye molecule, most of it should be exhausted from the dye bath
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onto the fiber being dyed. Of 418 questionnaire returns, 87 indicated
"known presence" and 79 indicated "suspected presence" in the mill
wastewaters. In the field sampling program, copper was not detected
in nine of the twelve water supply samples. Only one sample had more
than 11 ug/1. Raw textile mill wastewaters measured in the field
sampling program showed a wide range of values, with 19 samples having
more than 50 ug/1, and 11 with more than 100 ug/1. The effluents from
secondary mill treatment plants showed a wide range of values also,
but there were fewer samples at the higher levels.
Cyanide. Cyanide compounds are almost universally present where life
and industry are found. Besides being very important in a number of
manufacturing processes, they are found in many plants and animals as
metabolic intermediates that generally are not stored for long periods
of time.
Possible sources of cyanide reported by individual textile mills
include dyestuffs and "raw materials." The ATMI Task Group suggested
that cyanide is probable in some waste streams, originating in
laboratory and specialty chemicals. Cyanide was not among the 25
toxic pollutants identified in the DETO survey as possibly present in
commercial dyes. Of 418 questionnaire returns, 16 indicated either
"known or suspected presence" in mill wastewaters. In the field
sampling program, cyanide was at less than 2 ug/1 in 9 of the 12 water
supply samples with the maximum level at 22 ug/1. In the raw
wastewater samples, almost all were less than 10 ug/1 with 3 in the 11
to 100 ug/1 range. Similar results were obtained for the secondary
effluent samples, although two samples contained more than 100 ug/1 of
cyanide.
Lead. Lead is a naturally occurring metal that makes up 0.002 percent
of the earth's crust. The reported concentration of lead in seawater
of 35 parts per thousand salinity is 0.03 ug/1, while available data
indicate that the mean natural lead content of the world's lakes and
rivers ranges from 1 to 10 ug/1. Analyses of over 1500 stream samples
from 1962 to 1967 found lead in 19.3 percent of the samples, with
concentrations ranging from 2 to 140 ug/1, and a mean value of 23 ug/1
(20).
Lead is used in the metallurgy of steel and other metals; in ceramics,
plastics and electronic devices; in construction materials and in x-
ray and atomic radiation protection devices.
Sources of lead reported by individual textile mills include pigments,
process chemicals, "raw materials", and tramp impurities in dyes. The
DETO survey results indicated that lead may be present in some
commercial dyes at levels less than 0.1 percent. Of 418 questionnaire
returns, 34 indicated "known presence" and 27 indicated "suspected
presence" in mill wastewaters. In the field sampling program, lead
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was either not detected or at less than 5 ug/1 in 10 of the 12 water
supply samples measured. Two samples had lead levels of 37 and 45
ug/1, respectively. In the raw textile mill samples analyzed, roughly
40 percent had lead levels below 10 ug/1, while 4 had levels above 100
ug/1. Of 16 secondary treatment effluents, 10 (60%) were below 10
ug/1, and only one sample had a concentration greater than 100 ug/1.
Mercury. Mercury, a silver-white metal that is a liquid at room
temperature, can exist in three oxidation states: elemental,
mercurous, and mercuric; it can be part of both inorganic and organic
compounds.
A major use of mercury has been as a cathode in the electrolytic pre-
paration of chlorine and caustic soda; this accounted for 33 percent
of total demand in the U.S. in 1968. Electrical apparatus (lamps, arc
rectifiers, and mercury battery cells) accounted for 27 percent, and
industrial and control instruments (switches, thermometers, and
barometers), and general laboratory applications accounted for 14
percent of demand. Use of mercury in antifouling and mildew-proofing
paints (12 percent) and mercury formulations used to control fungal
diseases of seeds, bulbs, plants, and vegetation (5 percent) were
other major utilizations; however, mercury is no longer registered by
the EPA for use in antifouling paints or for the control of fungal
diseases of bulbs. The remainder (9 percent) was for dental amalgams,
catalysts, pulp and paper manufacture, Pharmaceuticals, and metallurgy
and mining.
Sources of mercury reported by individual textile mills include
pigments, dyes, and "raw materials", including impurities in caustic
soda. The ATMI Task Group suggested that mercury is probably present
in some textile mill wastewaters, originating in dyes and specialty
chemicals.
The DETO survey results included mercury among the toxic pollutants
possibly present in some commercial dyes at levels less than 0.1
percent. Of 418 questionnaire returns, 19 indicated "known presence"
and 15 indicated "suspected presence" in mill wastewaters. In the
field sampling program, mercury was detected in only 1 of the 12 water
supplies sampled, at 0.79 ug/1. Of 51 raw textile mill wastewater
samples, 11 had levels of 0.2 ug/1 or greater, with only 2 of these
above 1.0 ug/1. In effluents from secondary treatment plants at
textile mills, there were 5 out of 38 samples with levels of 0.2 ug/1
or above and none as high as 1.0 ug/1. Mercury is not commonly found
in textile mill wastewaters.
Nickel. Nickel is a silver-white ductile metal commonly occurring in
natural waters in the +2 valence state in concentrations ranging from
a few micrograms per liter, to more than 100 ug/1. Nickel seldom is
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found in groundwater, and if present, probably exists in colloidol
form.
Approximately 0.01 percent of the earth's crust is nickel, and it is
ranked 24th in order of abundance of the elements. By far the
greatest proportion of nickel in the earth's crust comes from igneous
rocks. Some common minerals containing nickel include pentlandite and
ullmannite. Certain secondary silicate minerals contain nickel, which
also substitutes for magnesium in various primary minerals {e.g.
olivine, hypersthene, hornblende, biotite).
In a study of 130 surface water sampling'stations throughout the U.S.
nickel appeared in 16.2 percent of 1,577 samples collected between
1962 and 1967, with a mean concentration of 19 ug/1 and a range of 1
to 130 ug/1. In drinking water samples taken throughout the U.S.,
nickel was detected in only 4.6 percent of the samples, with a mean
concentration of 34.2 ug/1 and a range of 1 to 490 ug/1.
Sources of nickel reported by individual textile mills include
pigments, dyes, processing chemicals, and "raw materials." The DETO
survey confirmed that nickel may be present in some commercial dyes at
levels less than 0.1 percent. Nickel may also originate from plating
operations in resurfacing of printing rolls. Of 418 questionnaire
survey returns, 28 indicated "known presence" and 23 indicated
suspected presence" in the mill wastewaters. In the field sampling
program, nickel was measured at greater than 5 ug/1 in 2 of the 12
water supplies sampled; one at 41 ug/1 and the other at 47 ug/1. Of
the raw wastewater samples, approximately 40 percent were less than 10
ug/1, with approximately 20 percent in each of the following ranges:
11 to 50 ug/1, 51 to 100 ug/1, and greater than 100 ug/1. The results
for the secondary treatment effluents were similarly scattered,
although the numbers of samples above 10 ug/1 were reduced.
Selenium. Selenium is a naturally occurring element and is an
essential waters, selenium levels are low (less than 1 ug/1) but in
areas with seleniferous soils, water levels up to 300 uq/1 have been
reported (20).
The major source of selenium entering the environment is the
weathering of selenium-containing soils and rocks. Man-related
activities account for approximately 3,500 metric tons of selenium
being discharged into the environment each year. Major uses include
glass manufacturing, photocopying, electronic devices, pigments, and
others including several veterinary uses.
No widely recognized sources of selenium in textile mill wastewaters
were reported in this study. The ATMI Task Group suggested that
selenium might be present in some dyes and speciality chemicals. This
was not confirmed by the DETO survey of dye manufacturers. Of 418
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questionnaire responses, 7 indicated "known presence and 3 indicated
"suspected presence" in the mill wastewaters, although no specific
sources were mentioned. In the field sampling program, selenium was
at undetectable levels in most water and wastewater samples. However,
in two water supply samples and six raw and six secondary effluent
samples, appreciable concentrations (from 11 to over 30 ug/1) were
measured. The data developed in this study are insufficient to
establish a possible link between water supply levels and wastewater
concentrations. In summary, for most textile mills, selenium should
not be a problem. For a few, in-plant controls or treatment may be
required.
Silver Silver is a white ductile metal occurring naturally in the
Bureform and in ores. Principal uses of silver are in photographic
materials, as a conductor, in dental alloys, solder and braying
alloys, paints, jewelry, silverware, and mirror production.
Of 418 questionnaire returns, 12 indicated "known presence" and 4
indicated "suspected presence" in textile mill wastewaters, although
no specific sources were given. The ATMI Task Group suggested that
silver was a probable constituent of some textile mill wastewaters,
originating in dyes and/or specialty chemicals. The DETO survey did
not confirm commercial dyes as a likely source of silver. In the
field sampling program, silver was measured at greater than 5 ug/1 in
2 of the 12 water supplies sampled, both at 17 ug/1. In 19 raw
wastewater samples, silver was detected at greater than 10 ug/1, with
13 samples above 30 ug/1, and 1 above 100 ug/1. In secondary
treatment effluents, there were eight with levels greater than 10
ug/1, six above 30 ug/1, and one above 100 ug/1. Based on these
limited data, it seems that silver must be regarded as a constituent
of the wastewaters from some textile mills.
Zinc Zinc is a naturally occurring element that makes up
a^roximately 0.02 percent of the earth's crust. It is used in
various alloys, as a protective coating for other metals, in
galvanizing sheet iron, and as a reducing agent. Zinc was detected in
1 207 of 1,577 surface water samples collected at 130 sampling
locations throughout the U.S. between 1962 and 1967. The maximum
observed concentration was 1,183 ug/1 and the mean value was 64 ug/1.
Levels of zinc in natural seawater approximate 5 ug/1 (20).
Zinc originates from many sources in textile mill wastewaters,
including pigments, dyes, dye stripping, coating materials, catalysts,
latex curing, and in many specialty chemicals both as an added
component and as an impurity. The DETO survey pointed out that some
dyes are prepared as double salts of zinc and may contain up to 3
percent of this metal. Unlike chromium and copper, the zinc is not
exhausted onto the fiber in dyeing. Zinc can also be contributed by
water conditioning chemicals, alloys used in pumps and valves.
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galvanized metals, painted surfaces, and several other sources in
industrial facilities. Of 418 questionnaire returns, 100 indicated
Known presence and 64 indicated "suspected presence" in the mill
wastewaters. In the field sampling program, zinc in the 12 water
supply samples ranged from 10 to 4500 ug/1 . Four had levels above
100, and two were above 1000. For some mills, the water supply must
be considered in undertaking a program to control the discharge of
zinc. The levels measured in raw and treated mill wastewaters were
roughly equivalent with about 37 percent of the samples less than 100
ug/1, 39 percent in the 100 to 500 ug/1 range, 11 percent in the 500
to 1000 ug/1 range, and the remaining 13 percent above 1000 uq/1,
including 3 percent over 5000 ug/1.
GrouP IA - Potentially Significant in Textile Wastewaters: Detected
More Than Once -
vu- L comprises three subgroups, based on frequency of detection in
the field sampling program and information from the special industrial
toxic pollutant committees.
The toxic pollutants detected in the raw or treated wastewater from at
least two mills in the field sampling program, but at less than 10
ug/1 in secondary treatment effluents, are the following:
1 . acenaphthene
7 . chlorobenzene
9 . hexachlorobenzene
11. 1,1,1-trichloroethane
27. 1,4-di chlorobenzene
31. 2,4-dichlorophenol
44. methylene chloride
62. N-nitrosodiphenylamine
67. butyl benzyl phthalate
68. di-n-butyl phthalate
70. diethyl phthalate
71. dimethyl phthalate
78. anthracene
84. pyrene
127. thallium (10 ug/1 limit exceeded)
A?u"?phthene" Acenaphthene ( 1 , 2-dehydro-acenaphthylene or 1,8-
etnylenenaphthylene) occurs in coal tar produced during the high
temperature carbonization or coking of coal. Laboratory
experimentation points out the possibility of limited metabolism of
acenaphthene to naphthalic acid and naphthalic anhydride.
Acenaphthene is used as a dye intermediate in the manufacture of some
plastics, as an insecticide, and as a fungicide.
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The DETO survey results indicate that acenaphthene may be present in
some commercial dyes at concentrations less than 0.1 percent. Out of
418 questionnaire returns, 7 indicated "suspected presence in the
mill wastewaters with 1 respondent citing "raw materials as the
source. This pollutant was detected in the raw wastes of three mills
with a maximum level of 12 ug/1. It was also detected in treated
effluents at two additional mills where it was not detected in the raw
wastes at the time of sampling. In a secondary effluent, the level
was 0.5 ug/1, and in a polishing pond effluent, it was 2.0 ug/1. in
no case was acenaphthene detected in both the raw wastes and the
treated effluent at the same mill in the field sampling program.
Chlorobenzene. The compound chlorobenzene (also referred to as
monochlorobenzene) is a chlorinated benzene and is one of a class of
aromatic organic compounds characterized by the substitution of from
one to six chlorine atoms on the benzene nucleus. The compound has
seen use in the synthesis of ortho- and para-nitrochlorobenzenes, as a
solvent, in phenol manufacturing, and in the manufacture of DDT.
Durinq the period 1973-1974, production and use of monochlorobenzene
resulted in approximately 34,278 metric tons entering the aquatic
environment, approximately 690 metric tons ending up as solid waste,
and 362 metric tons entering the atmosphere.
Chlorobenzene is used as a carrier in some textile dyeing systems.
The DETO survey results indicated that it may be present in some
commercial dyes at concentrations less than 0.1 percent. Out of 418
questionnaire returns, 4 mills indicated "known presence and 28
indicated "suspected presence" in the mill wastes. In the field
sampling program, chlorobenzene was detected in the raw wastewaters of
5 mills with concentrations ranging from less than 5 up to almost 300
ug/1. It was detected only once in a secondary effluent sample and at
3.5 ug/1. It was not detected in the raw waste at this mill at tne
time of sampling.
Hexachlorobenzene. The compound hexachlorobenzene is a chlorinated
benzene and is one of a class of aromatic organic compounds
characterized by the substitution of from one to six chlorine atoms on
the benzene nucleus. The compound has seen use as a fungicide to
control wheat bunt and smut on seed grains, in the manufacture ot
dves, as an intermediate in organic synthesis, as a porosity
controller in the manufacture of electrodes, as a wood preservative,
and as an additive in pyrotechnic compositions for the military. in
1973, approximately 318 metric tons was produced in the U.S.
No very obvious sources of hexachlorobenzene in textile mill
wastewaters were found in this study. Individuals speculated that it
may originate as a trace ingredient or impurity in some dye carriers
or specialty chemicals and may be a fungicidal component of some
industrial cleaning compounds. Out of 418 questionnaire returns, 1
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indicated "known presence" and 5 indicated "suspected presence," but
no sources were suggested. This toxic pollutant was detected in the
wastewaters of 5 mills in the field sampling program. Two raw water
samples had levels of 0.5 and 2.0 ug/1. An intermediate-level
effluent had 0.5 ug/1, while it was not detected in any secondary
effluent samples. It was detected in two polishing pond effluents at
levels of 0.3 and 0.8 ug/1. At none of the mills was it detected in
both raw and treated waste samples.
1,1,1-Trichloroethane. The compound 1,1,1-trichloroethane belongs to
the chemical class known as chlorinated ethanes. The chlorinated
ethanes, which are produced in relatively large quantities, are used
for the production of tetraethyl lead and vinyl chloride, as
industrial solvents, and as intermediates in the production of other
organochlorine compounds. Chlorinated ethanes have been found in
drinking waters, in natural waters, and in aquatic organisms and
foodstuffs.
1,1,1-Trichloroethane is reported to be used in some textile mills as
a carrier, a scouring solvent, and a cleaning agent. Out of 418
questionnaire returns, 5 indicated "known presence" and 34 indicated
suspected presence" in mill wastes. In the field sampling program,
it was detected in the raw wastes of 4 mills with a maximum
concentration of 17 ug/1. In three of the mills, it was not detected
in the secondary treated effluent. In the fourth mill, this compound
was detected after both secondary and "tertiary" treatment, although
at levels of "less than 5 ug/1."
1,4-Dichlorobenzene. The compound 1,4-dichlorobenzenebelongs to the
chemical class known as dichlorobenzenes. This class of compounds is
represented by three isomers: 1,2-dichloro, 1,3-dichloro, and 1,4-
dichlorobenzene. Both 1,2-dichloro and 1,4-dichlorobenzene are
produced almost entirely as byproducts from the production of
monochlorobenzene. Production in 1975 consisted of 24,801 metric tons
of 1,2-dichlorobenzene and 20,754 metric tons of 1,4-dichlorobenzene.
The estimated losses of dichlorobenzenes during the production of
monochlorobenzene are 20.5 kg/metric ton to wastewater and 22 2
kg/metric ton to land disposal. Because 1,4-dichlorobenzene sublimes
at room temperature, this compound probably enters the atmosphere in
large quantities.
The major uses of 1,4-dichlorobenzene are as a process solvent in the
manufacturing of toluene diisocyanate, and as an intermediate in the
synthesis of dyestuffs, herbicides, and degreasers. The bulk of 1 4-
dichlorobenzene usage (90 percent of the total consumption) is in
direct application as air deodorants and insecticides.
1,4-Dichlorobenzene is used for moth proofing of textiles, and may
possibly be an ingredient or impurity in some dye carriers, possibly
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some of those used with polyesters. Out of 418 questionnaire returns,
2 indicated "known presence" and 8 indicated "suspected Presence in
mill wastes. In the field sampling program, this toxic pollutant was
Detected in samples from three mills. Raw wastewater samples
contained concentrations of 6.5 and 215 ug/1, and secondary effluent
samples contained 0.2 and 1.5 ug/1. One raw and one treated effluent
sample had no detectable concentrations of this compound.
2 4-Dichlorophenol. The compound 2,4-dichlorophenol (DCP) is a com-
mercially produced substituted phenol used entirely in the manufacture
of industrial and agricultural products. These products include
herbicides germicides, temporary soil sterilants, plant growth
regulator!; mothproofing agents/ seed disinfectants, miticides, and
wood preservatives.
There were no sources for 2,4-dichlorophenol in textile mill
waltewatlrl cited or suggested by any industry representatives or
questlonnafre respondents" Out of 418 questionnaire re tuiin?
indicated "suspected presence" in mill wastes. In the field sampling
program it was detected in the raw wastewaters of two mills at levels
of 41 and less than 10 ug/1. At a third mill it was detected in the
effluent from a polishing pond at 0.5 ug/1. It was not found in any
secondary effluents.
Methvlene Chloride. Methylene chloride belongs to the class of com-
P^M^own^aTTIaTomethanes, which are a subcategory of halogenated
hydrocarbons. It has been referred to as dichloromethane, .methylene
dichloride, and methylene bichloride. It is a common industrial
solvent found in insecticides, metal cleaners, paints, and paint and
varnish removers.
Methylene chloride is used to extract certain fractions of toxic
pollutants from wastewaters in the EPA analytical protocol. It was
report^ that lome samples collected in the field sampling Program
were found to have unusually high concentrations of methylene chloride
and these results were discarded because they were unreasonable and
contamination of the samples while in the analytical laboratory was
suspected. Measures to prevent such contamination have been taken.
This toxic pollutant is a solvent and finds use in textile mills in
Sefng andP?aboratory operations and as a component of some coatings
decreasing compounds, spot removers, and machine oils. Out of 418
questionnaire returns, 3 indicated "known Presence and 17
i^^he^wastewater r m re
ev Is5 S-tK *&. ^ere0 a?f belowTu ft
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less than 5 ug/1, and the levels in two polishing pond effluents were
10 and 48 ug/1.
N-nitrosodiphenvlamine. The compound N-nitrosodiphenylamine belongs
to the chemical class known as nitrosamines. The organic nitroso-
compounds are a large group of chemicals characterized by a nitroso
group (N=0) that is attached to the nitrogen of a secondary amine.
Patent applications show potential uses of nitrosamines in the
manufacture of rubber, dyestuff, gasoline additives, lubricating oils,
explosives, insecticides, fungicides, dielectric fluids,
acrylonitrile, plasticizers, industrial solvents, and hydrazine. At
present, two major industries are involved in handling nitrosamines:
organic chemicals manufacturing and rubber processing.
Diphenylnitrosamine is the only nitrosamine that is produced in
quantities greater than 450 kg. It is used in pesticides and as a
vulcanizing retarder in rubber processing. Other nitrosamines are not
produced commercially except as research chemicals.
N-nitrosodiphenylamine may be a contaminant of some dyes, although
such was not indicated in the DETO survey. Out of 418 questionnaire
returns, 4 indicated "suspected presence" in the mill waste, but no
possible sources were suggested. In the field sampling program, this
toxic pollutant was detected in the raw wastewaters of three mills at
levels ranging from less than 10 to 72 ug/1. It was not detected in
treated effluents at any of these mills.
B"tyl Benzyl Phthalate. Butyl benzyl phthalate belongs to the group
of compounds known as phthalate esters. The phthalic acid esters
(PAE) are a large group of substances widely used in the U.S. and the
rest of the world as plasticizers. In the plastics industry, they are
used to impart flexibility to plastic polymers, improve workability
during fabrication, and extend or modify properties not present in the
original plastic resins.
PAE are extensively used in polyvinylchloride plastics, which have a
wide variety of applications. They are contained in building and con-
struction materials (flooring, weatherstripping, wire and cable), home
furnishings (garden hoses, wall covering, upholstery), transportation
materials (seat covers, auto mats), apparel (footwear, outerwear, baby
pants), and food surfaces and medical products (food wrap film,
medical tubing, intravenous bags). Dioctylphthalate (DOP) and its
isomer di-2-ethylhexyl phthalate (DEHP) are probably the most widely
used plasticizers today. PAE also have minor non-plastic uses as
pesticide carriers, in cosmetics, fragrances, industrial oils, and
insect repellents.
The PAE plasticizers, which can be present in concentrations up to 60
percent of the total weight of the plastic, are only loosely linked to
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the plastic polymers and are easily extracted. PAE are known to be
widely distributed in the environment. They have been found in soil,
water, air, fish tissue, and human tissue.
Butyl benzyl phthalate is reported to be used in the textile industry
as a plasticizer for polyvinyl and cellulosic resins. Out of 418
questionnaire returns, 3 indicated "known presence" and 2 indicated
"suspected presence" in the mill waste, with sources cited as
dyestuff, dye carrier, and a resin. DETO suggests that phthalates may
be present as anti-dusting agents in dyes. In the field sampling
program it was detected in the raw wastewater samples at two mills at
10 and 73 ug/1. These mills were indirect dischargers, and provided
no significant pretreatment prior to discharge to the POTW.
Di-n-butyl Phthalate. Di-n-butyl phthalate belongs to the group of
compounds known as phthalate esters. The phthalic acid esters (PAE)
are a large group of substances widely used in the U.S. and the rest
of the world as plasticizers. In the plastics industry, they are used
to impart flexibility to plastic polymers, improve workability during
fabrication, and extend or modify properties not present in the
original plastic resins.
PAE are extensively used in polyvinylchloride plastics, which have a
wide variety of applications. They are contained in building and con-
struction materials {flooring, weatherstripping, wire and cable), home
furnishings (garden hoses, wall covering, upholstery), transportation
materials (seat covers, auto mats), apparel (footwear, outerwear, baby
pants), and food surfaces and medical products (food wrap film,
medical tubing, intravenous bags). Dioctylphalate (OOP) and its
isomer di-2-ethylhexyl phthalate (DEHP) are probably the most widely
used plasticizers today. PAE also have minor non-plastic uses as
pesticide carriers, in cosmetics, fragrances, industrial oils, and
insect repellents.
The PAE plasticizers, which can be present in concentrations up to 60
percent of the total weight of the plastic, are only loosely linked to
the plastic polymers and are easily extracted. PAE are known to be
widely distributed in the environment. The have been found in soil,
water, air, fish tissue, and human tissue.
Di-n-butyl phthalate is reported to be used in the textile industry as
a plasticizer and resin solvent and may also find use as a textile
lubricating agent. It was also suggested that it may be an ingredient
of some dye carriers, specialty machine oils, insecticides, and, as a
remote possibility, in some dyes as an anti-dusting agent. Out of 418
questionnaire returns, 1 indicated "known presence" and 6 indicated
"suspected presence" in the mill wastes, but no specific sources were
suggested. In the field sampling program, di-n-butyl phthalate was
detected in the raw wastewaters of seven mills at levels ranging from
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below 10 to 67 ug/1. It was found in only one secondary effluent
sample, at 3.6 ug/1. At three mills where it was not detected in the
raw wastes, it was found in treatment pond effluents at levels ranging
from 5 to 58 ug/1. These mills did not provide conventional secondary
treatment. Concentrations ranging up to 3.7 ug/1 were found in 6
water supply and tubing blank samples.
Pi-ethyl Phthalate. Diethyl phthalate belongs to the group of
compounds known as phthalate esters. The phthalic acid esters (PAE)
are a large group of substances widely used in the U.S. and the rest
of the world as plasticizers. In the plastics industry, they are used
to impart flexibility to plastic polymers, improve workability during
fabrication, and extend or modify properties not present in the
original plastic resins.
PAE are extensively used in polyvinylchloride plastics, which have a
wide variety of applications. They are contained in building and con-
struction materials (flooring, weatherstripping, wire and cable), home
furnishings (garden hoses, wall covering, upholstery), transportation
materials (seat covers, auto mats), apparel (footwear, outerwear, baby
pants), and food surfaces and medical products (food wrap film
medical tubing, intravenous bags). Dioctylphthalate (OOP) and its
isomer di-2-ethylhexyl phthalate (DEHP) are probably the most widely
used plasticizers today. PAE also have minor non-plastic uses a
pesticide carriers, in cosmetics, fragrances, industrial oils, and
insect repellents.
The PAE plasticizers, which can be present in concentrations up to 60
percent of the total weight of the plastic, are only loosely linked to
the plastic polymers and are easily extracted. PAE are known to be
widely distributed in the environment. They have been found in soil
water, air, fish tissue, and human tissue.
Diethyl phthalate may reportedly originate in uses as a plasticizer
and as a component of dye carrier systems, specialty machine oils, and
lubricants in the textile industry. DETO suggests that it may be
present as an anti-dusting agent in some dyes. Out of 418
questionnaire returns, 7 indicated "suspected presence" in the mill
wastes, but no sources were suggested. In the field sampling program,
this toxic pollutant was detected in the wastewaters of 17 mills
although only once was it found in both the raw wastes and secondary
treated effluents of a mill, it was found in the raw wastewaters of
10 mills with most values below 10 ug/1 and three mills at 34, 69, and
86 ug/1. It was found in four secondary effluent samples at
concentrations ranging from 0.5 to 9.4 ug/1; in two polishing pond
effluents at 2.6 and 11 ug/1; and in two pilot plant tertiary
treatment effluents at 3.2 and 12 ug/1. It was detected in 5 water
supply and tubing blank samples at levels from 0.4 to 5.5 ug/1.
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Dimethyl Phthalate. Dimethyl phthalate belongs to the group of
compounds known as phthalate esters. The phthalic acid esters (PAE)
are a large group of substances widely used in the U.S. and the rest
of the world as plasticizers. In the plastics industry, they are used
to impart flexibility to plastic polymers, improve workability during
fabrication, and extend or modify properties not present in the
original plastic resins.
PAE are extensively used in polyvinylchloride plastics, which have a
wide variety of applications. They are contained in building and con-
struction materials (flooring, weatherstripping, wire and cable), home
furnishings (garden hoses, wall covering, upholstery), transportation
materials (seat covers, automats), apparel (footwear, outerwear, baby
pants), and food surfaces and medical products (food wrap film,
medical tubing, intravenous bags). Dioctylphthalate (OOP) and its
isomer di-2-ethylhexyl phthalate (DEHP) are probably the most widely
used plasticizers today. PAE also have minor non-plastic uses as
pesticide carriers, in cosmetics, fragrances, industrial oils, and
insect repellents.
The PAE plasticizers, which can be present in concentrations up to 60
percent of the total weight of the plastic, are only loosely linked to
the plastic polymers and are easily extracted. PAE are known to be
widely distributed in the environment. They have been found in soil,
water, air, fish tissue, and human tissue.
Reported sources of dimethyl phthalate in textile mill wastewaters
were very limited. DETO suggests that it may be present as an anti-
dusting agent in some dyes. Two questionnaire respondents indicated
its use as an antimigrant in dyeing and as a component of a
proprietary chemical. Despite this limited response, out of 418
returns, 8 indicated "known presence" and 17 indicated "suspected
presence" in the mill wastes. In the field sampling program, it was
detected in the raw wastes of four mills at levels ranging from 12 to
14 ug/1. It was not detected in the secondary effluents at these
mills. At another mill it was found only in the secondary effluent,
at a level of 1.0 ug/1.
Anthracene. Anthracene belongs to the chemical class of compounds
known as polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH's). PAH's are formed
as a result of combustion of organic compounds without sufficient
oxygen.
This leads to the formation of C-H free radicals that can polymerize
to form various PAH's. Domestic and industrial soots, coal tar, and
pitch are the products of incomplete combustion of carbonaceous
materials such as wood, coal, and oil. Naturally formed shale oil and
petroleum contain PAH.
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The DETO survey results indicate that anthracene may be present in
some commercial dyes at concentrations less than 0.1 percent. Out of
418 questionnaire returns, 2 indicated "known presence" and 8
indicated "suspected presence" in the mill wastes, with direct dyes
cited as sources in two cases. Anthracene was detected in the
wastewaters at two mills in the field sampling program; one raw waste
sample at 0.1 ug/1, and one secondary treatment effluent sample at 4.4
ug/1. Interestingly, it was detected in 10 water supply and blank
samples at concentrations ranging up to 0.6 ug/1.
Pyrene belongs to the chemical class of compounds known as
polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH's). PAH's are formed as a
result of combustion of organic compounds without sufficient oxygen.
This leads to the formation of C-H free radicals that can polymerize
to form various PAH's. Domestic and industrial soots, coal tar, and
pitch are the products of incomplete combustion of carbonaceous
materials such as wood, coal, and oil. Naturally formed shale oil and
petroleum contain PAH.
The literature cites pyrene usage as a dye intermediate, but this was
not indicated by the DETO survey. No sources were suggested by the
textile industry representatives, other than its use in fire extin-
guishers. Of 418 questionnaire returns, 2 indicated "suspected
presence" in the mill wastes, but without suggesting possible sources.
In the field sampling program, it was found in the wastewaters of four
mills. At one, the raw waste sample contained 0.9 ug/1 and the
secondary effluent, 0.2 ug/1. At the other mills it was not detected
in the raw wastes, but secondary sample concentrations of 0.1 to 0.3
ug/1 were detected. It was not detected in any water supply or blank
samples.
nh^nlium' ThaHiuni is a silver-white metal that constitutes about
0.003 percent of the earth's crust. The average concentration of
thallium in seawater is reported to be 10 mg/1, while analyses of U S
river water during 1958 and 1959 detected no thallium.
Industrial uses of thallium include the manufacture of alloys,
electronic devices, and special glass. Many thallium-containing
catalysts have been patented for industrial organic reactions.
No specific sources of thallium peculiar to textile mill operations
were cited by industry representatives. It was speculated that it
might be found as "residue from catalyst or rodenticide. " Out of 418
questionnaire responses, 2 indicated "known presence" and 1 indicated
suspected presence" in the mill wastes, with no potential sources
suggested. In the field sampling program, thallium was detected in
raw wastewater samples from two mills at levels of "less than 5 ug/1"
and 9 ug/1. It was not detected in the secondary treated effluent of
the first of these mills, but levels up to 18 ug/1 were detected in
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the secondary effluent of the second mill. One laboratory reported
"less than 3 ug/1" for several samples. This is regarded here as
virtually equivalent to "not detected." The other analytical
laboratory, using a minimum detection limit of 0.05 ug/1, did not
detect any thallium in 73 textile mill wastewater samples.
Group 2B - Potentially Significant in Textile
Only Once
Wastewaters: Detected
The toxic pollutants detected in the raw or treated wastewaters at
only one mill and at less than 10 ug/1 in secondary treatment
effluents or established as potentially present in textile effluents
by industrial reference sources {DETO or ATMI) are the following:
5. benzidine
10. *l,2-dichloroethane
13. *1,1-dichloroethane
20. *2-chloronaphthalene
24. *2-chlorophenol
28. 3,3-dichlorobenzidine
29. *1,1-dichloroethylene
32. *l,2-dichloropropane
34. *2,4-dimethylphenol
36. *2,6-dinitrotoluene
37. *1,2-diphenylhydrazine
45. *methyl chloride
46. methyl bromide
48. *dichlorobromomethane
57. *2-nitrophenol
58. *4-nitrophenol
59. 2,4-dinitrophenol
61. N-nitrosodimethylamine
74. *3,4-benzofluoranthene
75. *ll,12-benzofluoranthene
80. *fluorene
81. phenanthrene
88. *vinyl chloride
90. *dieldrin
92. *4,4'-DDT
117. *beryllium
* Detected at one mill
Benzidine. Benzidine (4,4'-diaminobiphenyl) is an aromatic amine.
This grayish, crystalline, slightly water-soluble compound is usually
derived from nitrobenzene. It is reported used in the manufacture of
dyes, especially Congo Red.
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The DETO survey results indicated that benzidine may be present in
some commercial dyes at concentrations less than 0.1 percent. DETO
also noted that such dyes are being rapidly phased out of production.
Out of 418 questionnaire returns, 6 indicated "known presence" and 42
indicated "suspected presence" in the mill wastes, with dyes cited as
the probable source in all cases. This toxic pollutant was not
detected in any samples in the field sampling program.
1,2-Dichloroethane. The compound 1,2-dichloroethane (ethylene
dichloride) belongs to the chemical class known as chlorinated
ethanes. The compounds in this class are produced in large quantities
and used for the production of tetraethyl lead and vinyl chloride, as
industrial solvents, and as intermediates in the production of other
organochlorine compounds. Some have been found in drinking waters, in
natural waters, and in aquatic organisms and foodstuffs.
No particular usage of 1,2-dichloroethane in textile mills was cited
by representatives of the textile or dyestuff manufacturing
industries, although it was speculated that it might be used as a spot
remover and as a solvent in some epoxy formulations. Out of 418
questionnaire returns, 1 indicated "known presence" and 6 indicated
"suspected presence" in mill wastes, with one respondent suggesting
dyes and chemicals as the source. This compound was detected at one
mill in the field sampling program; at "less than 5 ug/1" in the raw
wastewater, at 5.8 ug/1 in the effluent from an experimental DAF unit,
and it was not detected in the secondary effluent.
1,1-Dichloroethane. The compound 1,1-dichloroethane belongs to the
chemical class known as chlorinated ethanes. The chlorinated ethanes,
which are produced in large quantities, are used for the production of
tetraethyl lead and vinyl chloride, as industrial solvents, and as
intermediates in the production of other organochlorine compounds.
Some have been found in drinking waters, in natural waters, and in
aquatic organisms and foodstuffs.
There were no sources in textile mill wastewaters for 1,1-
dichloroethane cited or suggested by industry representatives. Out of
418 questionnaire returns, 1 indicated "known presence" and 1
indicated "suspected presence" in the mill waste. In the field
sampling program, it was detected in two raw wastewater samples
collected on consecutive days at one wool scouring mill at
concentrations of 12 to 14 ug/1. It was not detected in the secondary
effluent.
2-Chloronaphthalene. The compound 2-chloronaphthalene belongs to the
chemical class known as chlorinated naphthalenes. These compounds
consist of the naphthalene double ring where any or all of the eight
hydrogen atoms can be replaced with chlorine. The commercial products
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are usually mixtures with various degrees of chlorination; they are
presently marketed as halowaxes.
Tri- and tetra-chloronaphthalenes (solids) comprise the bulk of market
use as the paper impregnant in automobile capacitors. Lesser use is
made of the mono- and di-chloronaphthalenes as oil additives for
engine cleaning, and in fabric dyeing. Possible impurities of these
products are chlorinated derivatives, corresponding to the impurities
in coal tar, or petroleum-derived naphthalene feedstock which may
include biphenyls, fluorenes, pyrenes, anthracenes, and dibenzofurans.
The potential for environmental exposure may be significant when these
compounds are used as oil additives in electroplating, and in fabric
dyeing. The extent of leaching of chlorinated naphthalenes from
discarded capacitors and old cable insulation (manufactured prior to
curtailment of the chemical's use in such products) has not been
determined.
No sources for 2-chloronaphthalene were cited or suggested in textile
mill wastewaters by either textile or dye manufacturing industry
representatives. Out of 418 questionnaire returns, 3 indicated "known
presence" and 2 indicated "suspected presence" in the mill waste, with
one respondent each citing reactive and direct dyes as the probable
source. This toxic pollutant was detected once at "less than 10 ug/1"
in a raw wastewater sample. It was not detected in the secondary
effluent sample.
2-Chlorophenol. The compound 2-chlorophenol is a commercially
produced chemical used entirely as an intermediate in the production
of other chemicals. It represents a basic chemical feedstock for the
manufacture of higher chlorophenols for such uses as fungicides,
slimicides, bactericides, antiseptics, disinfectants, and wood and
glue preservatives. The compound is also used to form intermediates
in the production of phenolic resins and has been utilized in a
process for extracting sulfur and nitrogen compounds from coal.
The only suggested source of 2-chlorophenol in textile mill
wastewaters was as a constituent or impurity in dyes. This was not
confirmed by the DETO survey. Out of 418 questionnaire responses, 1
indicated "known presence" and 8 indicated "suspected presence" in the
mill waste, with "dye and chemicals" cited as the probable source by
one respondent. This toxic pollutant was found at one mill in the
field sampling program; at 73 ug/1 in the raw wastewater, and 5.9 ug/1
in the secondary treated effluent.
3,3-Dichlorobenzidine. Dichlorobenzidine is used in the production of
dyes and pigments and as a curing agent for polyurethanes. This
compound is soluble in organic solvents, but it is nearly insoluble in
water.
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The ATMI Task Force suggested that 3,3-dichlorobenzidine might be
present in textile mill wastewaters as a trace impurity in some dyes,
perhaps azo dyes. This was not confirmed by the DETO survey results.
Out of 418 questionnaire returns, 1 indicated "known presence" and 10
indicated "suspected presence" in the mill waste, with no probable
sources suggested. This pollutant was not detected in any samples in
the field sampling program.
1,1-Dichloroethvlene. The dichloroethylenes are 1,1-dichloroethylene,
(vinylidene chloride, 1,1-DCE), cis 1,2-dichloroethylene, and trans
1,2-dichloroethylene. Presently, only 1,1-dichloroethylene has
commercial or practical use because neither isomer of 1,2-
dichloroethylene has developed wide industrial use as a solvent or
chemical intermediate.
1,1-dichloroethylene is used in the synthesis of methylchloroform and
in the production of polyvinylidene chloride copolymers (PVDC). Among
the monomers used in copolymer production are vinyl chloride,
acrylonitrile, and alkyl acrylates. The impermeability of PVDC make
them useful, primarily as barrier coatings in the packaging industry.
Polymers with high 1,1-dichloroethylene content (Saran) are widely
used in the food packaging industry. The heat-seal characteristics of
Saran coatings make them useful in the manufacture of nonflammable
synthetic fiber. 1,1-dichloroethylene polymers have also been used
extensively as interior coatings for ship-tanks, railroad cars and
fuel storage tanks, and for coating of steel pipes and structures.
No possible sources of 1,1-dichloroethylene in textile mill
wastewaters were found in this study. No questionnaire returns
indicated either "known" or "suspected presence." This toxic
pollutant was found in one raw wastewater sample at one mill at "less
than 5 ug/1." It was not detected in the secondary effluent samples
at this mill.
lf 2-Dichloropropane. Principal uses of dichloropropanes are as soil
fumigants for the control of nematodes, in oil and fat solvents, and
in dry cleaning and degreasing processes. The presence of these
compounds in water can result from agricultural runoff and industrial
and municipal effluents. Dichloropropanes were detected in New
Orleans drinking water.
No specific sources of 1,2-dichloropropane in textile mill wastewaters
were found in this study. This solvent is mentioned in the general
chemical literature as a cleaning and degreasing agent, but textile
manufacturing is not cited as an area of use. None of the 418
questionnaire returns indicated either "known" or "suspected presence"
in the mill waste. In the field sampling program, this toxic
pollutant was found at one mill in the raw wastewater samples on
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consecutive days at levels of 100 and 36 ug/1. It was not detected in
the secondary treated effluent.
2,4-Dimethylphenol. The compound 2,4-dimethylphenol (2,4-DMP) is
derived from coal and petroleum sources. It finds use commercially as
an important chemical feedstock or constituent for the manufacture of
a wide range of commercial products for industry and agriculture.
Textile industry representatives suggested that possible sources of
2,4-dimethylphenol in textile mill wastewaters were its use as
solvent, plasticizer, additive to lubricants, component of carrier
sytems, and insecticide and fungicide. Out of 418 questionnaire
returns, 2 indicated "suspected presence" in the mill waste, without
citing possible sources. In the field sampling program, this
pollutant was detected in the wastewaters at two mills. It was not
found in the raw wastes, but was in one secondary effluent sample at 8
ug/1 and in one polishing pond effluent sample at 9 ug/1.
2,6-Dinitrotoluene. Dinitrotoluene {DNT) is an ingredient of
explosives for commercial and military use and is used as a chemical
stabilizer in the manufacture of smokeless powder. In 1975, the
production of 2,4-and 2,6-DNT in the U.S. was 264,030 metric tons. The
production of DNT is expected to increase yearly at a rate of 20 to 25
percent.
Possible sources of 2,6-dinitrotoluene in textile mill wastewaters
suggested by industry include trace levels in some dyes and in dye
testing, although these were not regarded as very common sources in
the industry. The DETO survey results did not confirm its likely
presence in dyes. Out of 418 questionnaire returns, 3 indicated
"suspected presence" in the mill waste. In the field sampling
program, this pollutant was detected in one raw wastewater sample, at
54 ug/1. It was not found in the pond treated effluent at this mill.
1,2-Diphenylhydra2ine. Diphenylhydrazine exists in two structural
forms: 1,1-diphenylhydrazine and 1,2-diphenylhydrazine. 1,2-
Diphenlhydrazine (hydrazobenzene) is insoluble in water; in air, it
will oxidize to form azobenzene, a compound with slight water
solubility. When reacted with HC1 or H2S04, hydrazobenzene will form
benzidine.
The ATMI Task Force suggested that 1,2-diphenylhydrazine might find
limited use in textile mill laboratories and might be an impurity in
azo dyes. This latter use was not confirmed by the DETO survey. Out
of 418 questionnaire returns, 5 indicated "suspected presence" in the
mill waste, with no possible sources suggested. This compound was
found in one of two raw wastewater samples at one mill at 22 ug/1. It
was not found in the secondary treated effluent samples.
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Methyl Chloride. Methyl chloride belongs to the class of compounds
known as halomethanes, which are a subcategory of halogenated
hydrocarbons. Methyl chloride is also known as chloromethane. It is
a colorless, flammable, almost odorless gas at room temperature and
pressure. It is used as a refrigerant, a methylating agent, a
dewaxing agent, and a catalyst solvent in synthetic rubber production.
The ATMI Task Force suggested that methyl chloride might be used as an
aerosol propellent. Out of 418 questionnaire returns, 1 indicated
"known presence" and 2 indicated "suspected presence" in the mill
waste. One respondent cited laboratory and dyeing as sources, and
another reported intermittent use as a scouring chemical. In the
field sampling program, this volatile compound was detected in one of
two raw wastewater samples at one mill at "less than 5 ug/1." It was
not found in the two secondary effluent samples at this mill.
Methyl Bromide. Methyl bromide belongs to the class of compounds
known as halomethanes, which are a subcategory of halogenated
hydrocarbons. Methyl bromide has been referred to as bromomethane,
monobromomethane, and embafume. It has been widely used as a
fumigant, fire extinguisher, refrigerant, and insecticide. Today the
major use of methyl bromide is as a fumigating agent.
The DETO survey results indicate that methyl bromide may be present in
some commercial dyes at less than 0.1 percent. No other likely
sources in textile mill wastewaters were found in this study. Of 418
questionnaire returns, 4 indicated "suspected presence" in the mill
waste. No sources were suggested. This toxic pollutant was not
detected in any wastewater samples in the field sampling program.
Dichlorobromomethane. Dichlorobromomethane belongs to the class of
compounds known as halomethanes, which are a subcategory of
halogenated hydrocarbons. Specific industrial uses are not known.
No sources of dichlorobromomethane in textile mill wastewaters were
uncovered in this study. Out of 418 questionnaire returns, none
indicated either "known" or suspected presence" in the mill waste. In
the field sampling program, this compound was found in one of two raw
wastewater samples at one mill at 6.6 ug/1. It was not found in the
two secondary effluent samples at this mill.
2-NitrophenoI. The compound 2-nitrophenol belongs to the chemical
class known as nitrophenols. The nitrophenols represent a generic
class of organic compounds that may contain from one to four nitro
groups substituted on the phenol ring. They include the mono-, di-,
tri-, arid tetra-nitrophenols in various isomeric forms. Isomers of
the dinitrocresols are sometimes included within this class of
compounds.
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Nitrophenols and nitrocresols are widely used in the U.S. as inter-
mediates for the production of dyes, pigments, Pharmaceuticals, rubber
chemicals, lumber preservatives, photographic chemicals, and
pesticidal and fungicidal agents. Although some nitrophenols are not
produced commercially in substantial quantities, various nitrophenolic
compounds are inadvertantly produced via microbial degradation of the
pesticides parathion and 4,6-dinitro-o-cresol.
No sources of 2-nitrophenol in textile mill wastewaters were cited or
suggested by anyone in the industry contacted in this study. Out of
418 questionnaire returns, 2 indicated "suspected presence" in the
mill waste, but no sources were suggested. In the field sampling
program, this toxic pollutant was detected in one secondary treated
effluent at 4.1 ug/1. It was not detected in the raw wastewater
sample at this mill.
4-Nitrophenol. The compound 4-nitrophenol belongs to the chemical
class known as nitrophenols. The nitrophenols represent a generic
class of organic compounds that may contain from one to four nitro
groups substituted on the phenol ring. They include the mono-, di-,
tri-, and tetra-nitrophenols in various isomeric forms. Isomers of
the dinitrocresols are sometimes included within this class of
compounds.
Nitrophenols and nitrocresols are widely used in the U.S. as inter-
mediates for the production of dyes, pigments, Pharmaceuticals, rubber
chemicals, lumber preservatives, photographic chemicals, and
pesticidal and fungicidal agents. Although some nitrophenols are not
produced commercially in substantial quantities, various nitrophenolic
compounds are inadvertantly produced via microbial degradation of the
pesticides parathion and 4,6-dinitro-o-cresol.
The DETO survey results indicated that 4-nitrophenol may be present in
some commercial dyes at less than 0.1 percent levels. Out of 418
questionnaire surveys, 2 indicated "suspected presence" in the mill
waste, but no possible sources were suggested. In the field sampling
program, this pollutant was detected at "less than 10 ug/1" in one of
two secondary effluent samples at one mill. It was not detected in
the raw wastewater samples at this mill.
2,4-Dinitrophenol. The compound 2,4-dinitrophenol belongs to the
chemical class known as nitrophenols. The nitrophenols represent a
generic class of organic compounds which may contain from one to four
nitro groups substituted on the phenol ring. They include the mono-,
di-, tri-, and tetra-nitrophenols in various isomeric forms. Isomers
of the dinitrocresols are sometimes included within this class of
compounds.
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Nitrophenols and nitrocresols are widely used in the U.S. as
intermediates for the production of dyes, pigments, Pharmaceuticals,
rubber chemicals, lumber preservatives, photographic chemicals, and
pesticidal and fungicidal agents. Although some nitrophenols are not
produced commercially in substantial quantities, various nitrophenolic
compounds are inadvertantly produced via microbial degradation of the
pesticides parathion and 4,6-dinitro-o-cresol.
The DETO survey results indicated that 2,4-dinitrophenol may be
present in some commercial dyes at concentrations less than 0.1
percent. Out of 418 questionnaire returns, 4 indicated "suspected
presence" in the mill waste. No possible sources were suggested.
This toxic pollutant was not detected in any sample in the field
sampling program.
N-Nitrosodimethylamine. The compound N-nitrosodiphenylamine belongs
to the chemical class known as nitrosamines. The organic nitroso-
compounds are a large group of chemicals characterized by a nitroso
group (N=0) that is attached to the nitrogen of a secondary amine.
Patent applications show potential uses of nitrosamines in the
manufacture of rubber, dyestuffs, gasoline additives, lubricating
oils, explosives, insecticides, fungicides, dielectric fluids,
acrylonitrile, plasticizers, industrial solvents, and hydrazine. At
present, two major industries are involved in handling nitrosamines:
organic chemicals manufacturing and rubber processing.
Diphenylnitrosamine is the only nitrosamine which is produced in
quantities greater than 450 kg. It is used as a vulcanizing retarder
in rubber processing and in pesticides. Other nitrosamines are not
produced commercially except as research chemicals.
N-nitrosodimethylamine is a possible trace constituent of some
commercial dyes. The DETO survey results indicate that concentrations
should be less than 0.1 percent. Out of 418 questionnaire returns, 5
indicated "suspected presence" in the mill waste. This pollutant was
not detected in any sample collected in the field sampling program.
Benzofluoranthene (3,4 and 11,12). The compounds 3,4- and 11,12-
benzofluoranthene belongs to the chemical class known as polynuclear
aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH's). PAH's are formed as a result of
combustion of organic compounds without sufficient oxygen. This leads
to the formation of C-H free radicals that can polymerize to form
various PAH's. Domestic and industrial soots, coal tar, and pitch are
the products of incomplete combustion of carbonaceous materials such
as wood, coal, and oil. Naturally formed shale oil and petroleum
contain PAH.
Using the EPA analytical protocol, the 3,4- and 11,12- isomers of
benzofluoranthene are not distinguishable. No possible sources of
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this compound in textile mill wastewaters were found in this study.
Out of 418 questionnaire returns, 1 indicated "suspected presence" in
the mill waste, without suggesting any possible source. This
pollutant was detected at "less than 10 ug/1" in one of two raw
wastewater samples at one mill. It was not detected in the two
secondary effluent samples.
Fluorene. Fluorene belongs to the chemical class of compounds known
as polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH's). PAH's are formed as a
result of combustion of organic compounds without sufficient oxygen.
This leads to the formation of C-H free radicals that can polymerize
to form various PAH's. Domestic and industrial soots, coal tar, and
pitch are the products of incomplete combustion of carbonaceous
materials such as wood, coal, and oil. Naturally formed shale oil and
petroleum contain PAH.
A possible source of fluorene in textile mill wastewaters suggested by
the ATMI Task Force was some sanitary cleaning agents. Chemical
references cite its use in dyestuffs, but this was not indicated by
the DETO survey results. Out of 418 questionnaire returns, 1
indicated "known presence" and 4 indicated "suspected presence" in the
mill wastes. No sources were suggested. This pollutant was detected
in one raw wastewater sample at 15 ug/1. It was not found in any
treated effluent samples.
Phenanthrene. Phenanthrene belongs to the chemical class of compounds
known as polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH's). PAH's are formed
as a result of combustion of organic compounds without sufficient
oxygen. This leads to the formation of C-H free radicals that can
polymerize to form various PAH's. Domestic and industrial soots, coal
tar, and pitch are the products of incomplete combustion of
carbonaceous materials such as wood, coal, and oil. Naturally formed
shale oil and petroleum contain PAH.
The only cited source of phenanthrene in textile mill wastewaters was
dyes. The DETO survey results indicated that levels in some
commercial dyes should be less than 0.1 percent. Out of 418
questionnaire returns, 3 indicated "suspected presence" in the mill
wastes. This pollutant was not detected in the field sampling
program.
Vinyl Chloride. Vinyl chloride is used in the manufacture of
polyvinyl chloride, which is the most widely used synthetic plastic
material throughout the world. Of the estimated million metric tons
of vinyl chloride produced each year, 25 percent is manufactured in
the U.S. Polyvinyl chloride is used for numerous products in the
building and automobile industries, for electrical wire insulation,
cables, piping, household equipment, clothing, toys, packaging for
food products and medical supplies. The rubber, paper, and glass
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industries also depend heavily on the production of vinyl chloride.
Polyvinyl chloride and vinyl chloride copolymers are distributed and
processed in a variety of forms including dry resins, plastisol
(dispersions in plasticizers), organosol (dispersion in plasticizers
plus volatile solvent), and latex (colloidal dispersion in water).
Latexes are used to coat or impregnate paper, fabrics, or leather.
No likely sources of vinyl chloride in textile mill wastewaters were
suggested by any industry representatives. Out of 418 questionnaire
returns, 5 indicated "suspected presence" in the mill waste, but no
sources were suggested. In the field sampling program, it was
detected in one raw wastewater sample at 11 ug/1. It was not detected
in the treated waste effluent sample at this mill. There remains some
question as to the validity of this analytical result because of the
nature of this compound.
Dieldrin. Dieldrin has been one of the most widely used domestic
pesticides. It is a chlorinated hydrocarbon compound. Although
aldrin (see Group 2C) is used in greater quantity than dieldrin,
aldrin quickly transforms into dieldrin in the environment. Hence,
there is concern with both compounds. The primary use of the
chemicals in the past was for control of corn pests, although they
were also used by the citrus industry. Uses are restricted to those
where there is no effluent discharge.
Aldrin use in the U.S. peaked at 8.6 million kilograms (19 million
pounds) in 1966 but dropped to about 4.8 million kilograms (10.5
million pounds) in 1970. During that same period dieldrin use
decreased from 0.45 million kilograms (1 million pounds) to 304,000
kilograms about (670,000 pounds). The decreased use has been
attributed primarily to increased insect resistance to the two
chemicals and to development and availability of substitute materials.
No general sources of dieldrin in textile mill wastewaters were
suggested by any of the industry representatives. Out of 418
questionnaire responses, 1 indicated "known presence" in the mill
wastes and cited moth proofing as the source. Dieldrin was detected
in one wastewater sample at 0.2 ug/1. This analysis was carried out
on 10 selected textile mill wastewater samples by EPA's Pesticide
Monitoring Laboratory, and the finding of this toxic pollutant was
confirmed, by both GC/MS and FID-GC.
4,4'-DDT. Dichlorodiphenyl trichloroethane (DDT) and its metabolites
are among the most widely distributed synthetic chemicals on earth.
These pesticides are found in soils, runoff water, air, rainwater, and
in the tissues of animals. Basic characteristics of DDT include per-
sistence, mobility, and a broad range of toxicological effects.
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No known sources of 4,4-DDT were suggested by the textile industry
representatives other than the water supply and agricultural
activities in the vicinity of the mill. Out of 418 questionnaire
returns, 1 indicated "suspected presence" in the mill waste, but
suggested no potential source. This toxic pollutant was detected in 1
of 10 selected textile mill wastewater samples by EPA's Pesticide
Monitoring Laboratory. The concentration was 0.5 ug/1 by GC analysis.
This was confirmed by FID-GC, but could not be confirmed by GC/MS
because of an interference. Florisil cleanup of the sample did not
remove the interference.
Beryllium. Beryllium is a naturally occurring element that
constitutes about 0.001 percent of the earth's crust. Environmental
concentrations of beryllium are reported at 0.6 ng/1 in seawater,
while beryllium concentrations in U.S. surface water samples ranged
from 10 to 1,220 ng/1, with a mean of 190 ng/1 (20). Major uses of
beryllium are in the manufacture of X-ray diffraction tubes and
electrodes, in nuclear reactors, in the optical industry, and in the
production of alloys.
No likely manufacturing-related sources of beryllium in textile mill
wastewaters were suggested by any of the industry representatives.
Out of 418 questionnaire returns, 2 indicated "known presence" and 5
indicated "suspected presence" in the mill waste, but only one
respondent cited the potential source; "raw materials." In the field
sampling program, beryllium was detected in one raw wastewater sample
at "less than 40 ug/1." Other samples analyzed by the same laboratory
were reported as "less than 5 ug/1." This was the lowest level
reported by this laboratory, and is here regarded as being equivalent
to "not detected." Beryllium was not detected in any of the samples
(approximately 40 mills) analyzed by another laboratory. The latter
laboratory worked to a minimum detection limit of 0.1 ug/1.
Group 2C - Potentially Significant jji Textile Wastewaters: Not
Detected
The toxic pollutants not detected in the field sampling program, but
suggested as possibly present as an intermediate or contaminant in
some textile chemicals are the following:
6. carbon tetrachloride
14. 1,1,2-trichloroethane
16. chloroethane
40. 4-chlorophenyl phenyl ether
50. dichlorodifluoromethane
54. isophorone
56. nitrobenzene
60. 4,6-dinitro-o-cresol
77. acenaphthylene
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Also included in Group 2C are the remaining pesticides that could be
present because of contamination of raw materials or agricultural
activities that impact the mill:
89. aldrin
91. chlordane
93. 4,4'-DDE
94. 4,4'-DDD
95. alpha-endosulfan
96. beta-endosulfan
97. endosulfan sulfate
98. endrin
99. endrin aldehyde
100. heptachlor
101. heptachlor epoxide
102. alpha-BHC
103. beta-BHC
104. gamma-BHC (H105. delta-BHC
113. toxaphene
Carbon Tetrachloride. Carbon tetrachloride is a haloalkane and is a
dense, colorless liquid at room temperature. Approximately 450
million kilograms (one billion pounds) are produced annually in the
U.S. The bulk of this production is used in the manufacture of
fluorocarbons (95 percent in 1973), which are used primarily as
aerosol propellants. However, the demand for carbon tetrachloride is
expected to decrease as the use of aerosol products decreases. Other
uses of carbon tetrachloride include: grain fumigation, where it is
being largely replaced by other registered pesticide products; fire
extinguishers; and in the dry cleaning industry as a degreaser, where
it has been largely replaced by perchloroethylene. Carbon
tetrachloride has been used as a deworming agent and anesthetic, but,
because of adverse toxicity, these uses have been discontinued.
Carbon tetrachloride has been found at low levels in plant and animal
tissues, but does not appear to bioconcentrate to any appreciable
extent.
Out of 418 questionnaire returns, 1 indicated "known presence" and 9
indicated "suspected presence" of carbon tetrachloride in the mill
waste. One respondent cited dyes and another "raw material" as
possible sources. This pollutant was not among those listed in the
DETO survey results as believed present in commercial dyes, although
that survey did not include dyes produced in smaller quantities.
1,1,2-Trichloroethane. The compound 1,1,2-trichloroethane belongs to
the chemical class known as chlorinated ethanes. The chlorinated
ethanes, which are produced in relatively large quantities, are used
for the production of tetraethyl lead and vinyl chloride, as
industrial solvents, and as intermediates in the production of other
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organochlorine compounds. Some have been found in drinking waters, in
natural waters, and in aquatic organisms and foodstuffs.
This toxic pollutant may find application in some textile mills in
scouring or as a spot remover. Out of 418 questionnaire returns, 9
indicated "suspected presence" in mill waste, with one respondent
citing dyes as the potential source. This was not confirmed by the
DETO survey results.
Chloroethane. Chloroethane belongs to the chemical class known as
chlorinated ethanes. The chlorinated ethanes, which are produced in
relatively large quantities, are used for the production of tetraethyl
lead and vinyl chlorides, as industrial solvents, and as intermediates
in the production of other organochlorine compounds. Some have been
found in drinking waters, in natural waters, and in aquatic organisms
and foodstuffs.
Out of 418 questionnaire returns, 1 indicated "known presence" and 8
indicated "suspected presence" of Chloroethane in the mill waste.
Potential sources cited by two respondents were "raw materials." No
other information about sources of this compound in textile mill
wastewaters was suggested by the industry.
4-Chlorophenvl Phenyl Ether. The compound 4-chlorophenyl phenyl ether
belongs to the class of compounds known as haloethers. These are com-
pounds that contain an ether moiety (R-O-R) and halogen atoms attached
to the aryl or alkyl groups. Chloroethers appear to be the most
important haloethers used commercially and can be divided into two
categories, alpha- and non-alpha- chloroethers. Chloromethyl methyl
ether (CMME) is the only alpha haloether of commercial significance
and is used primarily in the synthesis of strong base ion exchange
resins used in water conditioning and for chemical separation
processes. However, CMME preparations are usually contaminated with 1
to 8 percent bis(Chloromethyl}ether (BCME) which has been demonstrated
to be a potent carcinogen.
The beta-chloroethers are widespread environmental contaminants. It
has been suggested that they are produced or may be formed as by-
products in sizable quantities, are released to and appear to persist
in the environment, can pass through drinking water treatment plants,
and may be carcinogenic. Bis (2-chloroethyl) ether (BCE) is used as a
dewaxing agent for lubricating oils and is a useful solvent for
naphthenic components. BCE has also been used to separate butadiene
from butylene. The second major use of bis (2-chloroethyl) ether is
in the textile industry as a cleaning agent, a wetting agent and
penetrant in combination with diethylene glycol, sulphonated oils,
etc. The compound generally is a good solvent for tars, fats, waxes,
oils, resins and pectins, and will dissolve cellulose esters when used
with 10-30 percent ethanol.
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The ATMI Task Force suggested that this compound might find general
applications as a fungicide or bactericide, although not necessarily
in textile manufacturing operations. Out of 418 questionnaire
returns, 4 indicated "suspected presence" in the mill waste. No
potential sources were cited. This compound is reportedly used in
some proprietary sanitary cleaning compounds.
Dichlorodifluoromethane. Dichlorodifluoramethane belongs to the class
of compounds known as halomethanes. These compounds are a subcategory
of halogenated hydrocarbons. Dichlorodifluoromethane has been
referred to as difluorodichloromethane, Freon 12, Acton 6, Genetron
12, Halon, and Isotron 2. Freon compounds are organic compounds that
contain fluorine. They have a high degree of chemical stability,
relatively low toxicity, and are nonflammable. Freon compounds have
found many applications ranging from use as propellants to
refrigerants and solvents.
No specific uses of dichlorodifluoromethane were reported by any
textile industry representative, although it might have applications
in textile mills and their laboratories. It has no particular
process-related applications, however. None of the questionnaire
returns listed it as "known" or "suspected presence" in the mill
waste.
Isophorone. Isophorone is an industrial chemical synthesized from
acetone and is used commercially as a solvent or cosolvent for
finishes, lacquers, polyvinyl and nitrocellulose resins, pesticides,
herbicides, fats, oils, and gums. It is also used as a chemical
feedstock for the synthesis of 3,5 xylenol, 2,3,5-trimethyl
cyclobexanol, and 3, 5-dimethylaniline.
Out of 418 questionnaire returns, 1 indicated "suspected presence" in
the mill waste, citing dyes as the potential source. This was not
indicated as a common source by the results of the DETO survey.
Nitrobenzene. Nitrobenzene is a pale yellow liquid with a sweet but
sickening odor. It is produced by the reaction of nitrous and
sulfuric acid and benzene. Most of the nitrobenzene produced is
reduced to analine and other dye intermediates for use in soaps and
shoe polishes. On a small scale, it is used as a mild oxidizing
agent.
Out of 418 questionnaire returns, 7 indicated "suspected presence" of
nitrobenzene in the mill waste, with 1 respondent citing defoamer as
the potential source, and another citing naphthol dyes. This latter
source was not indicated as common by the results of the DETO survey.
4,6-Dinitro-o-Cresol. The compound 4,6-dinitro-o-cresol belongs to
the chemical class known as nitrophenols. The nitrophenols represent
189
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a generic class of organic compounds that may contain from one to four
nitro groups substituted on the phenol ring. They include the mono-,
di-, tri-, and tetra-nitrophenols in various isomeric forms. Isomers
of the dinitrocresols are sometimes included within this class of
compounds.
Nitrophenols and nitrocresols are widely used in the U.S. as
intermediates for the production of dyes, pigments, Pharmaceuticals,
rubber chemicals, lumber preservatives, photographic chemicals, and
pesticidal and fungicidal agents. Although some nitrophenols are not
produced commercially in substantial quantities, various nitrophenolic
compounds are inadvertantly produced via microbial degradation of the
pesticides parathion and 4,6-dinitro-o-cresol.
The use of 4,6-dinitro-o-cresol as a constituent of dyestuff was not
indicated as a common source by the results of the DETO survey. Out
of 418 questionnaire returns, 2 indicated "suspected presence" in the
mill waste. No potential sources were suggested.
Acenaphthylene. Acenaphthylene belongs to the chemical class of
compounds known as polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH's). PAH's
are formed as a result of combustion of organic compounds without
sufficient oxygen. This leads to the formation of C-H free radicals
that can polymerize to form various PAH's. Domestic and industrial
soots, coal tar, and pitch are the products of incomplete combustion
of carbonaceous materials such as wood, coal, and oil. Naturally
formed shale oil and petroleum contain PAH.
Out of 418 questionnaire returns, 3 indicated "known presence" and 2
indicated "suspected presence" of acenaphthylene in the mill waste.
Two respondents cited direct dyes as the potential sources. This was
not indicated as a common source by the results of the DETO survey.
Group 3. - Not Considered Significant in Textile Wastewaters
Based on the findings of this study, the following toxic pollutants
are not considered significant in textile mill wastewater. They were
not detected in the field sampling program and were not suggested as
possibly present in mill wastes due to manufacturing operations or
from other sources. It should be noted that two of the Group 3
pollutants, asbestos and dioxin, were not analyzed for in the field
sampling program because of analytical constraints. Asbestos fibers
have been detected in some municipal water supplies, but at this time
there are no data to suggest that asbestos is a significant pollutant
in textile mill wastewaters. It should be noted that asbestos textile
products are covered by another EPA point source category. Dioxin is
extremely toxic, and there is no evidence that it is commonly present
in textile mill wastewaters.
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Group 3. comprises the following toxic pollutants
2. acrolein
12. hexachloroethane
15. 1,1,2,2-tetrachloroethane
17. bis {chloromethyl) ether
18. bis(2-chloroethyl) ether
19. 2-chloroethyl vinyl ether
26. 1,3-dichlorobenzene
30. 1,2-trans-dichloroethylene
33. 1,3-dichloropropylene
35. 2,4-dinitrotoluene
39. fluoranthene
41. 4-bromophenyl phenyl ether
42. bis(2-chloroisopropyl) ether
43. bis(2-chloroethoxy) methane
47. bromoform
51. chlorodibromomethane
52. hexachlorobutadiene
53. hexachlorocyclopentadiene
69. di-n-octyl phthalate
72. 1,2-benzanthracene
7 3. benzo(a)pyrene
76. chrysene
79. 1,12-benzoperylene
82. 1,2,5,6-dibenzanthracene
83. indeno (1,2,3-cd)pyrene
106. PCB-1242
107. PCB-1254
108. PCB-1221
109. PCB-1232
110. PCB-1248
111. PCB-1260
112. PCB-1016
116. asbestos
129. dioxin
191
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SECTION VII
CONTROL AND TREATMENT TECHNOLOGY
This section describes the technologies that are available to conserve
water and reduce the constituents in textile wastewater discharges.
There are two major approaches available: 1) in-plant controls and
process changes and 2) end-of-pipe treatment. Programs combining
elements of both approaches are required for many mills in the
industry. Individual mills should consider both approaches and
determine which specific combination is best suited to their
particular situation.
In-plant controls and process changes, which are described below, are
measures taken to reduce hydraulic and pollutant loadings originating
from mill operations. At the present time, the use of such measures
is limited. In general, most textile mills use water once and
discharge it. There may exist a lack of communication and
coordination between individuals and activities inside textile mills
and personnel responsible for end-of-pipe water pollution control.
The lack of attention in such mundane areas as housekeeping and leak
control is an indication that more sophisticated measures are also
lacking. These situations can be attributed to several factors,
including low costs for water and lack of recognizable incentives to
practice conservation. These aspects are changing today and much
greater attention is being focused on in-plant control measures
because of economic, environmental, and energy considerations.
End-of-pipe treatment technologies for textile mill wastewaters have
been researched and developed for decades. As described subsequently
in this section, most of the direct-discharge mills in the industry
provide end-of-pipe treatment and many indirect dischargers also
provide treatment. Preliminary treatment, biological treatment,
chemical processes, physical separation methods, and sorption systems
are described after the discussion of in-plant controls. Each system
is described along with specific case studies.
IN-PLANT CONTROLS AND PROCESS CHANGES
It is often more efficient to attack a pollution problem at its
source, i.e., to prevent the generation of waste, rather than to
depend upon treatment to alter or remove it. For this reason,
investigation of in-plant controls and process changes that might be
instituted to reduce the strength and/or volume of wastewaters is a
logical first step in any pollution control program at a textile mill.
Conscientious implementation of in-plant controls and process changes
can be very effective in reducing water use and pollutant discharges.
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It is convenient to divide in-plant measures into five types as
follows: 1) water reuse, 2) water reduction, 3) chemical substitution,
4) material reclamation, and 5) process changes and new process
technology. Water reuse and water reduction measures simply lower
water usage rates. This results in a lower hydraulic loading on
treatment facilities that in turn may yield an improved effluent
quality. In other situations, smaller treatment units may be used,
involving less capital and lower operating costs. Chemical
substitution or material reclamation may reduce conventional pollutant
loadings on treatment facilities or eliminate or reduce the levels of
toxic pollutants or other undesirable constituents in the wastewater.
Process changes can result in water and pollutant reductions through
improved efficiency and process control.
Summary of In-Plant Controls Data
Surveys from 541 textile mills were received during the initial phase
of the study. Of these, 152 provided relevant information about in-
plant production process control. In some instances, this information
was supplemented by telephone calls to knowledgeable mill personnel.
A summary of the responses, listed by subcategory, is provided in
Table VII-1. The number of controls cited totaled 195, with many
facilities identifying more than one control measure. However, the
quantitative accuracy of the in-plant control information developed
from the survey is somewhat questionable due to confusion as to what
qualifies as an in-plant control measure. The following is an example
of the kinds of problems encountered.
Forty-seven mills mercerize cotton to some extent. Twenty-six of
these practice caustic recovery while 18 do not. The practices at the
other 3 mills are unknown. Eleven of the mills practicing caustic
recovery considered it to be an in-plant control measure. Evidently,
the others considered it to be a common and expected aspect of the
mercerizing process, since they did not list it as an in-plant
control. This type of inconsistency may exist elsewhere in the survey
data. To date, most in-plant control measures have been implemented
for reasons other than, or in addition to, water pollution control.
Water Reuse
Water reuse, as considered here, includes those situations that reduce
hydraulic loadings to treatment systems by using the same water in
more than one process. Water reuse resulting from advanced wastewater
treatment (recycle) is not considered an in-plant control here, since
it does not accomplish such reductions. The two major water reuse
measures available to textile mills are: 1) reuse of relatively clean
cooling water in operations requiring hot water, and 2) reuse of
process water from one operation in a second, unrelated operation.
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Cooling water that does not come in contact with fabric or chemicals
can often be collected and reused directly. Examples include
condenser cooling water, water from water-cooled bearings, heat-
exchanger water, and water recovered from such equipment as cooling
rolls, yarn dryers, pressure dyeing machines, and air compressors.
This water can be pumped to hot water storage tanks for reuse in
functions where heated water is required, such as dye makeup water,
bleaching, rinsing, and cleaning. Energy and water savings can be
substantial.
Reuse of certain process water elsewhere in mill operations can also
result in significant wastewater reductions. Many examples have been
cited in the literature regarding potential reuse possibilities.
These include reuse of wash water from bleaching in caustic washing
and scour make-up and rinse water, reuse of scouring rinses for
desizing or washing printing equipment, reuse of mercerizing wash
water to prepare scour, chlorine bleach, and wetting out baths, and
similar activities. Careful analysis will be required prior to
implementation of these and similar measures to determine the
feasibility for each situation.
Ninety-two mills in the survey appear to have instituted some form of
water reuse. To be considered here, the water had to have been
discharged previously without reuse. By far the most common situation
is the use of cooling water a second time to utilize its energy value.
The water is often passed through a heat exchanger and temperature
increases as great as 33ฐC (91ฐF) have been reported. Although most
mills identifying this type of water reuse began the practice in the
mid-seventies to conserve energy, it is possible that similar systems
were instituted elsewhere earlier, and are no longer considered to be
in-plant control measures by mill personnel. At some mills, both
energy and water savings were major considerations in instituting
reuse, while at other mills one or the other predominated. Energy
savings commonly varied from 1 billion to 100 billion Btu/yr, while
water savings varied from a few thousand gpd to 100,000 gpd or more.
Costs to institute these controls were often less than $5,000,
although some facilities reported costs of more than $50,000. The
principal cost items were pumps, piping modifications, and hot water
storage tanks.
As energy costs rise and wastewater treatment requirements become more
stringent, reuse of cooling water is expected to become more
widespread in the industry. This is supported by the fact that many
mills have reported current engineering studies in this area. The
reuse of water from various textile processing operations is also
practiced at a few mills and is being investigated at a number of
others. Savings similar to those noted for cooling water reuse were
reported so it is expected that more reuse of this nature will also be
forthcoming.
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Water Reduction
Three in-plant control measures that are considered forms of water
reduction are: 1) countercurrent. flow washing, 2) conservation, and
3) process modifications. Just
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products being handled. Carefully supervised trials should be run to
determine minimum water requirements possible without reducing product
quality. Instrumentation and automation that can be incorporated into
processes to assist in uniformity of application, reduction of rework,
control of pH and temperature, or performance of similar functions may
be employed to achieve reductions in water and chemical usage.
Another process modification is to pump process liquor to a storage
tank where it is saved for reuse in the makeup of the next similar
bath. This and similar material recovery techniques are more
appropriately considered as material reclamation activities.
Based on questionnaire and telephone surveys, 45 mills have instituted
water reduction control measures. The most common water reduction
measure identified was countercurrent flow of water during wet
processing operations. Countercurrent flow in scouring and desizing,
and rinse water use in bleaching, dyeing, and mercerizing have been
instituted at various mills. As discussed in the section on water
reuse, energy and/or water savings can be substantial and costs for
implementation can vary considerably. Conservation measures include a
variety of steps taken to reduce water use. Use of automatic shut-
off s, level and flow control valves and meters, and similar
modifications to existing equipment;and plumbing have been installed
economically in terms of water and energy savings at some mills.
Some process modifications have been implemented quite simply. A few
mills have found that they can utilize chemicals in operations such as
scouring and dyeing (continuous type) for longer periods without
dumping. For example, one mill has recently extended the time between
scour dumps from once every 2 hours to once every 24 hours without
affecting quality. More extensive modifications that result in lower
water usage generally require capital investments. Such modifications
are considered to be process changes and are discussed later in this
section.
Chemical Substitution
The objective of chemical substitution is to replace process chemicals
having high pollutant strength or atoxic properties with others that
are less polluting or more amenable to wastewater treatment. A number
of process chemical substitutions have1 been suggested or developed for
the textile industry, and it appears from the levels and numbers of
toxic pollutants found in secondary effluents that this area of
control may play an important role in the future. For any
substitution, however, a careful evaluation should be made to
ascertain that one pollution problem is not being substituted for
another. Some examples of process chemical substitution are discussed
below.
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Foaming problems in treatment facilities and receiving streams have
been solved by substituting biodegradable, low-foaming detergents for
the so-called "hard" detergents. In another area, potentially toxic
pollutants, especially certain organics and heavy metals, have been
reduced or eliminated by substitution. One example is switching from
chromate oxidizers to hydrogen peroxide or iodates in certain dyeing
processes to eliminate chromium. The replacement of soap with
sulfuric acid in wool fulling operations is a substitution measure
that has resulted in lower BOD loadings. Mineral acids have been
substituted for high BOD acetic acid in various dyeing processes,
offering an advantage in terms of wastewater treatability. And, the
substitution of mineral oils with nonionic emulsifiers for the more
traditional olive oil for carding wool has also resulted in lower
pollutant levels.
Starch wastes from desizing have been the single greatest source of
BOD at many mills. Consequently, low BOD substitutes, such as CMC,
PVA, and PAA, have become useful to reduce BOD loadings on treatment
plants. However, a secondary consideration should be the net effect
on the environment. These low-BOD, high-COD sizes contribute
substantially to the ultimate oxygen demand of the receiving stream.
In view of this, the following from a report prepared for the American
Textile Manufacturers Institute (61) is pertinent.
"Substitution should assume the direction of easily treatable
materials in terms of waste control technology and recoverability.
Chemists and environmental engineers must work together in considering
which process chemical is best handled by the means or unit process
most efficiently suited to its recovery on removal. Certainly, in
terms of conventional biological systems, low-BOD chemicals will not
lose their significance. However, as physical-chemical methods are
adopted, other characteristics (COD, ultimate BOD, solids, toxic
pollutants, etc.) will likely become increasingly important.
Additional research is necessary to determine the viability of COD
versus BOD substitutions and the economic and treatability impact of
such cursory changes."
Thirty-six mills noted that they had instituted chemical substitution
as an in-plant control measure. Substitution for dyes requiring
chromium mordants and chromate oxidizers are the most commonly cited
such control. One Wool Finishing mill reported that savings in labor
and other processing costs more than offset the higher cost of dyes
substituted for the traditional chrome dyes. BOD reductions were
achieved at some mills by the following substitutions: synthetic warp
sizes for starch, low BOD detergents for those with high BOD, and
other pH adjusters for acetic acid. In addition, nonbiodegradable
chemicals were replaced with substances that are biodegradable, and
certain undesirable compounds and metals eliminated from process
operations at some mills.
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A more general chemical substitution known as solvent processing is
more accurately classified as a process change and was not identified
as an in-plant control by mill respondents.
Material Reclamation
Material reclamation measures are often implemented to reduce
processing costs, reduction of pollutant loadings being a secondary
benefit. As has been noted previously, caustic recovery after
mercerizing is quite common, especially in large finishing operations.
Recovery of various warp sizes has been investigated at length and
shows promise. Size recovery was identified at three facilities; two
reclaim PVA and one reclaims WP-50. While many Carpet Finishing mills
segregate latex waste streams for treatment, only two segregate for
recycle. Some mills reclaim scouring detergent or dye liquor for
future batches. Reclamation of print solvent is practiced at one
mill. In all, some form of material reclamation was noted at some 22
mills. It is anticipated that chemical and wastewater treatment costs
will make material conservation and recovery more important in the
future.
Process Changes and New Process Technology
Process changes comprise a group of related measures that may be used
to achieve benefits in the four areas noted. They result in
reductions of hydraulic and/or pollutant loadings to treatment
systems, and, in some cases, do so quite significantly.
Employment of process changes and new process technology holds great
promise for reducing hydraulic and pollutant loads from textile mills.
Technological advances in fibers, process chemicals and other raw
materials, and fibers process equipment are constantly being made, and
in general these changes have resulted in lower hydraulic and
conventional pollutant loadings (2). It is expected that this trend
will continue, but the nature of future textile processing is
difficult to predict with certainty. Some of the current process
changes and trends available to the textile industry are discussed
below.
Solvent processing has been the most discussed of all the new process
technologies. In general it has not yet lived up to its early
promise, except for certain specialized processing and small batch
operations. Effective applications include solvent scouring of wool
fabric and some synthetic knit fabrics and solvent finishing of
upholstery, drapery, synthetic knits, and fabrics that are sensitive
to water.
There are a number of reasons for the limited application of solvent
processing to date. The most convincing has been the inability to
200
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achieve the required levels of solvent recovery necessary to make the
processes economically feasible. In addition, only a limited number
of the thousands of different dyestuffs and chemicals now used in
commercial textile processing can be transferred directly to solvent
use. Another problem has been the emission of unrecovered solvent to
the work place or the atmosphere. In spite of these problem areas,
some textile equipment manufacturers believe that research and
development will overcome the problems and result in processes and
equipment for large, nonaqueous systems that can be substituted for
the various processes presently being used (62). Thus, the potential
of solvent processing for reducing wastewater problems in the textile
industry cannot be estimated at the present.
A more feasible method of reducing hydraulic and pollutant loadings in
the industry at the present time is to change processes and material
flow procedures. It has been noted (63) that continuous operations
generally require less space, water, and process chemicals than do
batch operations. A second process change that may be employed to
reduce water use is to substitute standing baths and rinses for
running ones. Rope washers are reportedly more effective than open-
width washers in reducing water use. Significant water use reductions
can also be achieved by combining separate operations, such as
scouring and dyeing in the finishing of synthetic fibers and the
desizing and scouring of cotton fibers, whenever possible.
Some of the newer textile processing equipment results in lower water
and chemical usage. For example, pressure dye machines use dyestuff
more efficiently, reduce water requirements, and perhaps most
importantly reduce the level of toxic dye carriers, as compared to
atmospheric dyeing. Nevertheless, technological advancements in
textile machinery should be continually sought. Chemical
manufacturers must be urged to provide chemical modifications that
assist in recovery or removal of chemicals by unit treatment methods,
and equipment manufacturers must be urged to cooperate in design of
equipment with an eye toward pollution abatement. It is with the
textile producer, however, that the responsibility lies for defining
the problem areas and offering the specific direction for equipment
manufacturers to follow.
END-OF-PIPE TREATMENT TECHNOLOGIES
End-of-pipe treatment of combined waste streams is currently the
principal approach being taken by the textile industry to remove or
reduce the pollutant present in the waste from the various wet-
processing operations. This has been, and seems to remain, the
approach because of the difficulty of segregating waste streams at
existing facilities. However, new facilities will no doubt be
designed so that the more concentrated and more troublesome wastes can
be segregated and treated independently. This will certainly be the
201
-------
case if toxic pollutants are to be controlled and chemical
substitutions are not available.
It is convenient to discuss the applicable end-of-pipe treatment tech-
nologies as: 1) preliminary measures (screening, neutralization, and
equalization), 2) biological processes {aerated lagoons, activated
sludge, biological beds, stabilization lagoons), 3) chemical processes
(coagulation, precipitation, and oxidation), 4) physical separation
methods (filtration, hyperfiltration, ultrafiltration, dissolved air
flotation, stripping, and electrodialysis), and 5) sorption systems
(activated carbon, and powdered activated carbon). A summary of the
current end-of-pipe treatment practices by the mills surveyed during
this study, and discussions of the individual technologies noted above
follow.
Summary of Current Practices
The information developed in this study on current end-of-pipe
treatment practices by the wet-processing mills surveyed is summarized
in Table VI1-2. The table illustrates that for the direct
dischargers, 20 percent provide no wastewater treatment, 7 percent
provide only preliminary treatment (i.e., neutralization, screening,
equalization, heat exchange, disinfection, primary sedimentation,
and/or flotation), 65 percent provide biological or an equivalent
level of treatment (i.e., aerated or unaerated lagoons, biological
filtration, activated sludge, and chemical coagulation/flocculation
without preceding biological treatment), and 8 percent provide an
advanced level of treatment (i.e., activated carbon, chemical
coagulation following biological treatment, ozonation, filtration, ion
exchange, and membrane processes). For the indirect dischargers, 57
percent provide no treatment, 33 percent provide preliminary
treatment, 9 percent provide biological or an equivalent level of
treatment, and 0.1 percent (1 mill) provide an advanced level of
treatment. Approximately 21 percent of the mills surveyed (72 percent
of the direct dischargers and 9 percent of the indirect dischargers)
provide biological or an equivalent level of treatment as a minimum.
Specific quantitative information about the treatment technologies
employed by the mills surveyed is presented in Table VII-3 for mills
that discharge directly to a receiving water and in Table VII-4 for
mills that discharge indirectly through POTW.
For both direct- and indirect-discharge mills that have treatment
facilities, well over half provide some form of screening, while less
than half have equalization and only about 20 percent neutralize.
Nearly 68 percent of the direct dischargers employ activated sludge in
their treatment system. For estimating the costs of additional
treatment technologies for the direct dischargers, the base for
existing treatment comprised a sequence of screening, activated
202
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sludge, and secondary sedimentation as the major treatment units.
Basically,, this is the recommended BPT. For the indirect dischargers,
the base for estimating costs assumed that no treatment was currently
provided.
A detailed study of the effectiveness of the recommended BPT in the
textile industry was carried out using the questionnaire results and
supporting monitoring data reports. The extended-aeration mode of
operating activated sludge systems is commonly used by direct-
discharge mills. An analysis of the available data indicated that the
two principal design variables affecting the quality of an aeration
basin effluent are detention time (hours) and aeration horsepower per
unit volume of the basin (hp/1000 cu ft). An analysis of treatment
plants with the recommended BPT was carried out in order to determine
a minimum horsepower:detention time value for biological treatment
systems that, when used, would effect an effluent meeting the 1977
requirements. It was found that a total of 69 treatment plants in
Subcategories 4, 5, 6, and 7 employed the recommended BPT. A
graphical optimization procedure was applied to this list of 69 plants
with the results shown in Figure VII-1. It was found that 40 of 42
(95 percent) of those plants maintaining a minimum detention time of
40 hours, a minimum of 0.2 horsepower per 1,000 cubic feet of basin
volume, and a minimum of 30 horsepower-hours per 1,000 cubic feet met
the 1977 effluent requirements.
It may be noted from Figure VII-1 that a very long detention time may
compensate for inadequate aeration horsepower, but that the reverse is
not true. This emphasizes the importance of designing aeration basins
with sufficient detention time. Factors such as spacing and number of
aerators (proper mixing) and adequate recycle of activated sludge are
also important factors to achieve proper performance.
The relative merit of polishing ponds as an effective treatment tech-
nology was examined in conjunction with the above investigation. Of
the 69 treatment plants examined, 23 utilized polishing ponds. Ten of
these are among the 42 plants having at least the minimum recommended
detention times and aeration values; only one failed to meet the 1977
effluent requirements. The remaining 13 plants with polishing ponds
do not have the minimum recommended detention times and aeration
values; 5 meet the 1977 effluent requirements, indicating a benefit
due to the polishing ponds. Closer inspection, however, reveals that
2 of these 5 plants treat very weak influent waste, 1 of the other 3
plants almost meets the calculated minimum required detention time and
aeration value, and the remaining 2 plants have aeration basin
detention times in excess of 10 days. It seems possible that these 5
plants might meet the effluent requirements without the polishing
ponds. The 8 plants not having the minimum detention time and
aeration horsepower requirements were not benefited by their polishing
ponds. In addition, as noted above, 1 plant having the minimum
206
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required detention time and aeration horsepower requirement failed to
meet the effluent requirements, possibly due to the polishing pond.
On the basis of these findings, the effectiveness of polishing ponds
in upgrading textile mill treatment operations must be questioned.
1. Preliminary Measures
a. Screening
Screening is a physical unit operation and is usually the first
operation employed in wastewater treatment. Based on size of openings
(1/4 inch or greater or less than 1/4 inch), screens may be classified
as coarse or fine. Coarse screens typically consist of parallel bars,
rods or wires, grating, wire mesh or perforated plate. The opening
may be of any shape, circular or rectangular slots being the most
common. They may be "hand cleaned" or "mechanically cleaned" and have
the primary function of removing rags, sticks, and similar coarse
solids that may clog the pipes, pumps, valves, or other mechanical
equipment of the treatment system. Fine screens serve a more definite
role in the removal of pollutant solids and may include inclined disks
or drums, static plates and mesh units, and vibratory mesh units.
These may be cleaned by continuous water spray, by mechanically driven
brushes, or, in the case of the vibratory type, automatically by
nature of the design. They serve to remove floe, strings/short
fibers, vegetable matter, or other small solids that may also clog or
damage equipment or may form a mat or scum layer over aeration basins.
Industry Application. Both coarse and fine screening is practiced in
the textile industry. A summary of the application by each
subcategory for both direct and indirect dischargers is provided in
Table VII-5. The table represents those mills that returned detailed
questionnaires and involves the same data base noted previously in
this section under "Summary of Current Practices." Only the highest
level of screening at each plant is noted in the tabulation.
Coarse static screening predominates as the sole screening type for
both the direct and indirect dischargers. Approximately 40 percent of
the direct dischargers and nearly 25 percent of the indirect
dischargers report static coarse screening as the only screening in
their treatment systems. Fine screening (static, mechanical,
hydrosieve, vibrating) is practiced by 34 percent of the direct
dischargers and 31 percent of the indirect dischargers providing
detailed survey information.
Nearly all of the mills in the Wool Finishing and Carpet Finishing
subcategories provide some type of screening. This is believed to be
because, in both subcategories, fibers are apt to be more plentiful in
the wastewater. Another reason that may explain the high use of
screens by carpet mills is that most of these mills are indirect
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dischargers and are required by the municipalities treating their
waste to practice screening.
b. Neutralization
Neutralization is the process of adjusting the pH so that the waste is
within acceptable limits for discharge to a receiving body or
subsequent treatment plant operations. Generally, a pH range of 6.0
to 9.0 is considered acceptable. Neutralization of acidic waste may
be accomplished by: 1) mixing with an on-site alkaline waste stream;
2) passing through beds of limestone; 3) mixing with lime slurries
or dolomite lime slurries; or 4) adding solution of caustic soda
(NaOH) or soda ash {NaaC03). Alkaline waste may be neutralized by:
1) mixing with an on-site acidic waste stream: 2) blowing waste
boiler flue gas through the waste; 3) adding compressed C02; or 4)
adding sulfuric acid (H2S04). Mixing of various streams is usually
insufficient when the waste is ultimately treated biologically and
supplemental chemical addition generally is required for proper pH
control. Sulfuric acid is most commonly used to neutralize alkaline
waste and sodium hydroxide and sodium carbonate are used to neutralize
acidic wastes. Limestone is the cheapest reagent for acidic wastes
but is not generally satisfactory for sulfate-bearing wastes because
it becomes coated and inactive. If the waste stream is nutrient
deficient in either nitrogen or phosphorus, ammonia or trisodium
phosphate addition serves the dual purpose of providing both
alkalinity and the deficient nutrient.
Industry Application, Current wastewater neutralization practices
reported by the textile mills surveyed are summarized in Table VII-6.
Essentially the same percentage (21 percent and 19 percent) of direct
and indirect dischargers surveyed practice neutralization.
Neutralization of acidic waste by indirect dischargers represent the
greatest total, which is logical for several reasons. There is a
greater total number of indirect dischargers (approximately 80 percent
of industry); textile discharges are usually on the acidic side, and
most municipalities are apt to be more concerned about acidic
discharges than alkaline dischargers. Only a small percentage of both
direct and indirect dischargers find it necessary to provide both
acidic and alkaline neutralizing capability.
c. Equalization
Industrial discharges that result from a diversity of processes can
often be treated more effectively when equalization is practiced as an
initial treatment step. This is so because subsequent physical unit
operation and chemical and biological unit processes are more
efficient if operated at or near uniform hydraulic, organic, and
solids loading rates.
210
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Equalization of a variable nature discharge may be accomplished by
holding the waste for a period of time corresponding to the repetitive
processes of the manufacturing. Thus, facilities that discharge a
variable waste over an eight-hour period need to provide up to eight
hours of storage. Similar facilities that operate on two or three
shifts may need to provide equalization up to a corresponding time
period.
The holding basins may be earthen or fabricated from conventional
treatment plant construction materials. They may also utilize
aerators to enhance mixing.
Industry Application. Current equalization practices reported by the
textile mills surveyed are summarized in Table VII-7. A higher
percentage of indirect dischargers (46 percent) than direct
dischargers (37 percent) provide some form of equalization. This is
likely a result of two factors. First, many of the direct discharge
mills have extended-aeration activated sludge treatment systems with
several days detention time and do not require equalization.
Secondly, many of the indirect dischargers are required by the
municipalities that treat their waste to equalize their flow.
However, a higher percentage of direct dischargers (approximately 15
percent) than indirect dischargers (approximately 4 percent) provide
mixed equalization. This is likely a result of the direct dischargers
wanting to create a more constant pollutant and hydraulic load for
their treatment system and to provide some preliminary biological
oxidation.
2. Biological Processes
Biological treatment of industrial wastewater has been practiced for
decades on a limited basis, but most activated sludge processes have
been constructed in the last 10 to 15 years. It is based on the
ability of microorganisms to utilize organic carbon as a food source.
The treatment is classified aerobic or anaerobic depending on the
presence of free dissolved oxygen. Aerobic biological treatment is
accomplished by bacteria (aerobes) that utilize free dissolved oxygen
in breaking down (oxidizing) organic carbon. Anaerobic biological
treatment is accomplished by bacteria (anaerobes) that utilize
"chemically bound" oxygen in breaking down (oxidizing) organic carbon.
The distinction is not so clear-cut in real life in that a third class
of bacteria (facultative) is also usually active. These bacteria can
act as aerobes or anaerobes as the situation dictates, but will always
act in a manner yielding the greatest energy.
Unlike municipal wastewater, industrial wastes frequently lack the
necessary nutrients to sustain microbial growth. This deficiency can
often be overcome by mixing sanitary waste from the plant site with
212
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the process waste, or by direct addition of chemicals (nitrogen or
phosphorus) containing the proper quantity of deficient nutrients.
A description and discussion of each biological process relevant to
the treatment of textile mill wastewaters follows (64).
a* Aerated Lagoons
An aerated lagoon is an aerobic biological process. It is essentially
a stabilization basin to which air is added either through mechanical
agitation or diffusion. The air provides the necessary oxygen
required for aerobic biodegradation of the organic waste. If properly
designed, the air addition will provide sufficient mixing to maintain
the biological solids in suspension so that they can be removed
efficiently in a secondary sedimentation tank. After settling, sludge
may be recycled to the head of the lagoon to insure the presence of a
properly acclimated seed. When operated in this manner, the aerated
lagoon is analogous to the activated sludge process, which is
discussed below. The viable biological solids level in an aerated
lagoon is low when compared to that of an activated sludge unit. The
aerated lagoon relies primarily on detention time for the breakdown
and removal of organic matter and aeration periods of 3 to 8 days are
common.
Industry Application.. Thirty-three direct dischargers and 23 indirect
dischargers report using aerated lagoons as part of their treatment
systems. Of the direct dischargers, 12 employ aerated lagoons as
their primary means of treatment; 14 employ aerated lagoons followed
by unaerated aerobic lagoons as their primary means of treatment; 2
employ aerated lagoons as polishing ponds following activated sludge
biological treatment; and 6 employ aerated lagoons in combination with
advanced treatment (2 chemical coagulaton, 2 filtration, 1 chemical
coagulation plus filtration, and 1 activated carbon). Of the indirect
dischargers, 21 employ aerated lagoons as their primary pretreatment
step, 1 employs an aerated lagoon followed by an unaerated aerobic
lagoon, and 1 provides multi-media filtration following an aerated
lagoon.
A close inspection of the operating characteristics of the lagoons
reported in use reveals that many indirect dischargers may more real-
istically be providing only mixed equalization. That this is likely
is demonstrated by the following tabulation:
Number hp/mil gal/day Detention Time, hr
Discharge of Mills Min Max Med Min Max Med
Direct 9 0.10 1000 38 0.5 2400 75
Indirect 20 5.0 200 600 4 132 24
214
-------
The 9 direct discharge and 20 indirect discharge mills are those that
reported the use of aerated lagoons as their principal treatment or
pretreatment component and for which data were available to calculate
horsepower application rate and detention time. While the median
direct and indirect dischargers provide similar hp/mil gal/day, the
median direct dischargers provide more than three times the detention
period as the median indirect dischargers. Since detention time is
the primary factor in effective operation of an aerated lagoon, it
would appear that many of the indirect dischargers are not operating
their lagoons as aerated biological lagoons in the true sense.
The effectiveness of aerated lagoons In the treatment of textile
wastewater is shown in the following tabulation for those mills that
provide wastewater monitoring data. The delta reported are the average
values for each mill and generally represent that available for 1976.
Sub-
cateqorv
4c
4a
4c
5a
7
7
Dis-
charge
hp/
mil gal
Direct 45.0
Indirect 400
Indirect 780
Indirect 150
Direct 25.0
Direct 1000
Deten-
tion, hrs
60
24
86
18
75
0.5
BOD, mg/1
jinf eff
366
69
1742
388
108
252
COD, mg/1
inf eff
TSS, mg/1
inf eff
835
644
1762
556
814
581
1215
429
54
556
21
89
68
599
12
110
The tabulation shows that mills providing long detention times are
able to effect good removals of BOD. Data are insufficient to project
the effectiveness on the removal of COD and TSS.
b. Activated Sludge
The activated sludge process also is an aerobic biological process.
The basic components consist of an aerated biological reactor, a
clarifier for separation of biomass, and a piping arrangement to
return separated biomass to the biological reactor. The aeration
requirements are similar to those of the aerated la.goon in that they
provide the necessary oxygen for aerobic biodegradation and mixing to
maintain the biological solids in suspension.
The activated sludge process is very flexible and cam be adapted to
many waste treatment situations. Factors that must be considered in
design include: 1) loading criteria, 2) reactor type, 3} sludge
production, 4) oxygen requirements and transfer, 5) nutrient
requirements, 6) environmental requirements, 7) solid-liquid
215
-------
separation, and, 8) effluent characteristics. Depending on these
factors, and combinations of th;ese factors, the conventional activated
sludge process or standardize.-d modifications of the conventional
process can be selected as most appropriate. The available processes
that have relevance in the treatment of textile wastewaters include
the conventional, complete-mix, tapered-aeration, step-aeration,
modified-aeration, contact-stabilization, extended-aeration, oxidation
ditch, and pure oxygen.
In the conventional activated sludge process, both influent wastewater
and recycled sludge enter the re.-actor at the head end and are aerated
for a period of about 4 to 8 hours. Aeration can be of the diffused
or mechanical type and is constant as the mixed liquor moves through
the tank in a plug-flow fashion. Oxygen demand decreases as the mixed
liquor travels the tank length. The mixed liquor is settled in a
conventional clarifier, and the activated sludge is returned at a rate
of approximately 25 to 50 percent of the influent flow rate.
In the complete-mix activated sludge process, influent wastewater and
recycled sludge enter tho reactor from several points along a central
channel running the length of the reactor. The mixed liquor is
aerated at a constant rate aฃ5 it passes from the central channel to
effluent channels at bot'h sides of the reactor. The contents of the
reactor are completely/ mixed and the oxygen demand remains uniform
throughout. The aerati'on period is from 3 to 5 hours, and the
activated sludge is returned at a rate of 25 to 100 percent of
influent flow rate.
The tapered-aeration jprocess is a modification of the conventional
process, with the arrangement of the aerators and the amount of air
supplied the primary 'differences. At the head of the reactor, where
wastewater and returned activated sludge come in contact, more oxygen
is required so the aerators are spaced close together. As the mixed
liquor traverses t/he aeration tank, the oxygen demand decreases so
aeration is decreased by spacing the aerators further apart. Since
the oxygen supply i,s decreased with the oxygen demand, a lower overall
oxygen requirement ;is a benefit of the tapered-aeration process.
The step-aeration : process also is a modification of the conventional
activated sludge process. In this modification, the wastewater is
introduced at se.-veral points in a compartmentized reactor while the
return activated fsludge is introduced at the head of the reactor.
Each compartment of the reactor comprises a separate step, and the
several steps are linked together in series. Aeration can be of the
diffused or mechamical type and is constant as the mixed liquor moves
through the tank in a plug-flow fashion. The demand is more uniformly
spread over the. length of the reactor than in the conventional
activated sludge -process, resulting in better utilization of the
oxygen supply. The aeration period is typically between 3 and 5
216
-------
hours, and the activated sludge is returned at a rate of 25 to 75
percent of influent flow rate.
The modified-aeration activated sludge process is like the
conventional or tapered-aeration process, except that the aeration
period is shorter (usually 1.5 to 3 hours) and the food-to-
microorganism ratio higher. Activated sludge is returned at a rate of
only 5 to 15 percent of influent flow rate. The resulting BOD removal
is approximately 70 percent (for typical sanitary waste), so the
process is not suitable where a high-quality effluent is desired.
The contact-stabilization process takes advantage of the absorptive
properties of activated sludge by operating the process in two stages.
Tfte first is the absorptive phase, in which most of the colloidal
tinely suspended, and dissolved organics are absorbed in the activated
sludge in a contact tank. The wastewater and return stabilized sludge
enter at the head of the contact tank, are aerated for a period of 20
to 40 minutes, and settled in a conventional clarifier. The second is
the oxidation phase, in which the absorbed organics are metabolically
assimulated providing energy and producing new cells. In this stage
the settled sludge from the absorptive stage is aerated for a period
of from 3 to 6 hours in a stabilization tank. A portion of the sludge
is wasted to maintain a constant mixed liquor volatile suspended
solids (MLVSS) concentration in the stabilization tank. Overall
aeration requirements are approximately 50 percent of those of the
conventional or tapered-aeration plant. However, the process is
usually not effective in treating industrial waste in which the
organic matter is predominantly soluble.
The extended-aeration process is a complete-mix activated sludge
process in which the aeration period is relatively long (24 to 48
hours) and the organic loading relatively low. Because of these
conditions, the process is very stable and can accept intermittent
loads without upset. In smaller appli cat ions, the reactor and
clarifier are generally a single-fabricated unit, and all sludge is
returned to the reactor. The mixed liquor is allowed to increase in
solids concentration over a period of several months and then is
removed directly from the aeration basin. In larger applications, the
reactor and clarifier are separated and some means of wasting and
treating sludge is usually necessary. Reactors can be concrete with
diffused aeration or a lined earth basin with mechanical aerators.
The extended-aeration activated sludge process is used by the majority
of direct dischargers in the textile industry.
The oxidation ditch activated sludge process is an extended-aeration
process in which aeration and circulation are provided by brush rotors
placed across a race track-shaped basin. The waste enters the ditch
at one end, is aerated by the rotors, and circulates at about 1 to 2
tps. Operation can be intermittent, in which case purification takes
217
-------
place in the ditch, or continuous, in which case a separate clarifier
and piping for recycling settled sludge are provided.
The pure oxygen activated sludge process is a modification of the
complete mix process in which high-purity oxygen, instead of air, is
introduced directly into the wastewater. Wastewater, returned
activated sludge, and oxygen gas under a slight pressure are
introduced at the head of an aeration tank that is divided into stages
by a means of baffles and covered with a gas-tight enclosure. Oxygen
may be mixed with the mixed liquor by recirculation through a hollow
shaft with a rotating sparger device or by surface mechanical
aerators. The mixed liquor passes from compartment to compartment and
is discharged from the last compartment to a clarifier. Waste gas,
which is a mixture of carbon dioxide, nitrogen, and 10 to 20 percent
of the oxygen applied, is exhausted in the last compartment. Reported
advantages of the pure oxygen process are high efficiency, decreased
sludge volume, reduced aeration tank volume, and improved sludge
settleability.
Industry Application. Ninety-four direct dischargers and 11 indirect
dischargers report using activated sludge as part of their treatment
systems. Of the direct dischargers, 55 employ activated sludge as
their primary means of treatment; 24 employ activated sludge followed
by unaerated lagoons; 3 employ activated sludge followed by chemical
coagulation; 4 employ activated sludge with chemical addition to the
activated sludge effluent to aid in settling; 4 employ activated
sludge followed by filtration; 2 employ activated sludge followed by
aerated lagoons; 1 employs activated sludge followed by filtration and
aeration lagoons, and 1 employs activated sludge followed by a
trickling filter. Of the indirect dischargers, 9 employ activated
sludge as the primary means of pretreatment, while 2 other mills
employ activated sludge followed by chemical coagulation.
The effectiveness of activated sludge in treating textile wastewater
is demonstrated in the following tabulation for those mills that have
reported historical monitoring data. The data reported are the
average values for each mill and generally represent that available
for the year 1976.
218
-------
Sub- Dis-
cateqorv charge
hp/ Deten-
mil/qal tion*, hrs
1
4C
4a
4c
4C
4c
4c
4a
4b
5b
5a
5a
5b
5b
6
7
7
7
Direct
Direct
Direct
Direct
Direct
Direct
Direct
Direct
Direct
Direct
Direct
Direct
Direct
Direct
Direct
Direct
Direct
Direct
160
120
60
41
58
250
80
60
90
60
74
40
75
160
44
80
500
80
99
106
24
75
131
97
78
120
80
48
82
417
110
76
130
33
44
50
BOD, mg/1
inf eff
COD, mg/1
inf eff
TSS, mg/1
inf eff
1563
475
133
267
400
329
640
180
250
272
190
198
181
1100
207
150
1631
125
125
19
22
24
8
23
105
9
5
45
19
13
5
11
29
6
233
5
16250
472
840
-
2970
1240
468
694
342
745
-
-
614
496
4756
2600
-
307
336
252
594
664
159
-
354
164
226
124
262
227
124
1844
158
3971
-
34
80
-
173
26
218
28
97
49
18
281
93
36
136
46
1231
91
38
27
8
44
176
18
48
55
63
62
18
45
50
27
195
21
* Calculated based on average flow and basin volume.
All the mills listed are operating their activated sludge systems in
the extended-aeration mode and employ surface aerators for mixing and
oxygenation. Many of the actual detention periods noted are much
longer than those used in design because they are calculated based on
present average flow conditions and full basin volumes. Also, solids
may settle in aeration basins, resulting in shorter detention periods.
Removals range from excellent to somewhat poor for BOD and COD- for
TSS, removals are generally poor or solids increase due to generation
of biomass. The effectiveness of the extended-aeration activated
sludge process in treating priority pollutants is discussed in Section
c- Biological Beds
Biological beds are fixed-growth biological systems that contact
wastewater with microbial growths attached to the surfaces of
supporting media. Systems that are in common use include trickling
filters, packed towers, and rotating biological disks. While the
physical structures differ, the biological process is essentially the
same in all of these systems.
As wastewater contacts the supporting media, a thin-film biological
slime develops and coats the surfaces. The film consists primarily of
219
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bacteria, protozoa, and fungi that feed on the waste. Organic matter
and dissolved oxygen are extracted and the metabolic end products are
released. Although very thin, the biological slime layer is anaerobic
at the bottom so hydrogen sulfide, methane, and organic acids are
generated. These materials cause the slime to periodically separate
(slough off) from the supporting media and it is carried through the
system with the hydraulic flow. The sloughed biomass must be removed
in a clarifier.
Trickling filters are classified by hydraulic or organic loading as
low-or high-rate. Low-rate filters generally have a hydraulic loading
rate of 1 to 4 mil gal/acre/day, an organic loading rate of 300 to
1000 Ib BOD5/acre^ft-day, a depth of 6 to 10 feet, and no
recirculation. High-rate filters have a hydraulic loading rate of 10
to 40 mil gal/acre/day, an organic loading rate of 1000 to 5000 Ib
BOD5/acre-ft-day, a depth of 3 to 10 feet, and a recirculation rate of
0.5 to 4. High-rate filters can be single- or two-stage. The most
suitable media in both the low- and high-rate filters is crushed
stone, or gravel, graded to a uniform size within the range of 1 to 3
inches. The material must be strong and durable.
Biological towers are much like conventional trickling filters but
with manufactured media instead of crushed rock or gravel media. The
manufactured media can be corrugated plastic packing or rough-sawn
redwood slats, both of which are very effective in retaining
biological films. The advantages of this type of media are a high
specific surface (sq ft/cu ft), a high percentage of void volume,
uniformity for better liquid distribution, light weight facilitating
construction of deeper beds, chemical resistance, and the ability to
handle high-strength and unsettled wastewaters. Biological towers can
be used in flow patterns similar to normal high-rate natural-media
filter systems. For strong waste, two towers may be set in series and
settled solids from the final clarifier can be returned to the first
tower influent. Because of the increased void space, activated sludge
will build up in the flow and the system will perform as both a
filter, with fixed biological growth, and as a mechanical aeration
system. Biological beds generally have a hydraulic loading rate of up
to 2 gpm/sq ft, an organic loading rate of from 25 to 150 Ib BOD5/1000
cu ft/day, and a depth of 20 feet.
The rotating biological disk makes use of the advantages of the
manufactured plastic media used in the packed tower to increase the
contact time between the wastewater and fixed biological growth. A
series of disks constructed of corrugated plastic plate and mounted on
a horizontal shaft are placed in a contour-bottomed tank and immersed
to approximately 40 percent of the diameter. The disks rotate as
wastewater passes through the tank and a fixed film biological growth,
similar to that on trickling filter media, adheres to the surface.
Alternating exposure to the wastewater and the oxygen in the air
220
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results in biological oxidation of the organics in the wastes.
Biomass sloughs off, as in the trickling filter and packed tower
systems, and is carried out in the effluent for gravity separation.
Direct recirculation is not generally practiced with the rotating
biological disks.
Industry Application. Currently, there are only there textile mills
that utilize biological beds in their wastewater treatment systems.
Two systems are trickling filters and both mills employing them are
direct discharge woven fabric finishers. One of these mills uses a
somewhat modified approach to the standard filtration process. The
beds are square, 14 to 16 feet deep, wastewater is applied
continuously, and forced ventilation insures aerobic conditions
throughout. The system obtains a very efficient 96 percent BODS^
reduction. The other mill employs a standard high-rate trickling
filter as a polishing process after activated sludge treatment. The
overall system performance effects a 98 percent BODS^ and 93 percent
COD removal. The third mill employs a rotating biological disk as an
intermediate step between filtration and biological aeration. This
mill is a direct discharger and practices recovery of dyestuff.
d. Stabilization Lagoons
Stabilization lagoons are rather popular biological treatment
processes. They are often called lagoons or oxidation ponds and are
classified aerobic, facultative, tertiary (polishing), and anaerobic.
They are used extensively in the treatment of municipal waste in small
communities and in the treatment of some industrial and industrial-
municipal wastes that are amendable to biological treatment.
Aerobic lagoons contain bacteria and algae in suspension, and aerobic
conditions prevail throughout the depth. Waste is stabilized as a
result of the symbiotic relationship between aerobic bacteria and
algae. Bacteria break down waste and generate carbon dioxide and
nutrients (primarily nitrogen and phosphorus). Algae, in the presence
of sunlight, utilize the nutrients and inorganic carbon; they in turn
supply oxygen that is utilized by aerobic bacteria. Aerobic lagoons
are usually less than 18 inches deep (the depth of light penetration)
and must be periodically mixed to maintain aerobic conditions
throughout. In order to achieve effective removals with aerobic
lagoons, some means of removing algae (coagulation, filtration,
multiple cell design) is necessary. Algae have a high degree of
mobility and do not settle well using conventional clarification.
In facultative lagoons, the bacterial reactions include both aerobic
and anaerobic decomposition. The symbiotic relationship between
aerobic bacteria and algae exist, as in aerobic lagoons, and anaerobic
decomposition takes place by bacteria that feed on settled solids.
Facultative lagoons are up to 5 feet in depth and require the same
221
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types of provisions for removing algae if effective pollutant removals
are to be realized. Most of the textile mills reporting use of
stabilization lagoons are operating facultative lagoons.
Tertiary lagoons serve as a polishing step following other biological
treatment processes. They are often called maturation or polishing
ponds and primarily serve the purpose of reducing suspended solids.
Water depth is generally limited to 2 or 3 feet and mixing is usually
provided by surface aeration at a low power-to-volume ratio. Tertiary
lagoons are quite popular as a final treatment step for textile waste-
water treated with the extended-aeration activated sludge process.
Anaerobic lagoons are anaerobic throughout their depth and have the
advantage of a low production of waste biological sludge and low
operating costs. Stabilization is brought about by a combination of
precipitation and anaerobic decomposition of organics to carbon
dioxide, methane, other gaseous end products, organic acids, and cell
tissue. Lagoons are constructed with depths up to 20 feet and steep
side walls to minimize the surface area relative to total volume.
This allows grease to form a natural cover, which retains heat,
suppresses odors, and maintains anaerobic conditions. Wastes enter
near the bottom and the discharge is located on the opposite end below
the grease cover. Sludge recirculation is not necessary because
gasification and the inlet-outlet flow pattern provides adequate
mixing. The anaerobic lagoon is not particularly suitable for
treating textile wastewaters, with the possible exception of wool
scouring waste.
Industry Application. Current utilization of stabilization lagoons by
the textile mills surveyed is summarized in Table VII-8. Forty-four
direct dischargers and 17 indirect dischargers report using
stabilization lagoons as part of their treatment system. Of the
direct dischargers, 3 employ facultative lagoons as their primary
means of treatment; 15 employ facultative lagoons following aerated
lagoons; 25 employ tertiary lagoons following activated sludge; and
one employs a tertiary lagoon after activated sludge and prior to
chemical coagulation. Of the indirect dischargers, 15 employ
facultative lagoons as their primary means of treatment; 1 employs a
facultative lagoon following an aerated lagoon, and 1 employs two
parallel anaerobic lagoons prior to activated sludge.
Only one mill reported both influent and effluent monitoring data for
the lagoon portion of their treatment system. However, several of the
mills employing facultative lagoons as their primary treatment, or
pretreatment, provided effluent data that can be used to give an
indication of the effectiveness. These data are presented in the
following tabulation.
222
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Subcateqory
Discharge
Effluent Concentration, mg/1
BOD COD TSS
4C
4C
4b
5b
5b
5a
5C
7
7
8
8
Direct
Direct
Indirect
Indirect
Indirect
Indirect
Indirect
Indirect
Indirect
Direct
Indirect
53
35
482
325
145
141
211
233
111
17
79
175
115
2186
810
862
548
634
789
14
35
18
40
59
945
29
179
Literature/Research. Although a number of textile mills utilize
tertiary lagoons as a final treatment step (see Industry Application),
there are few historical data available that can be used to
demonstrate the effectiveness of the lagoons in treating conventional,
non-conventional, and toxic pollutants. Sampling was conducted around
the polishing lagoons at two mills during this study. The results are
summarized in the following cases.
Case 1
This case discusses the results at a Subcategory 7 Stock & Yarn
Finishing facility that dyes stock (approximately 33 percent of
production) and yarn (approximately 67 percent of production) of wool,
nylon, and acrylic fibers. Production is reported to average 31,750
kg/day (70,000 Ib/day), with a water usage and wastewater discharge of
90 I/kg (10.7 gal/lb) and 2,840 cu m/day (0.75 mgd), respectively.
Wastewater treatment at this facility consists of fine screening
(stationary), equalization (mixed with a power-to-volume ratio of 50
hp/mil gal), aeration (one basin with a volume of 1 mil gal),
secondary clarification, effluent polishing (parallel primary and
secondary oxidation ponds with a total volume of 15 mil gal), and
disinfection (chlorine). Aeration detention time is approximately 24
hours, and air is provided by surface aerators at a power-to-volume
ratio of 150 hp/mil gal.
Samples were collected (see Appendix D for sampling procedures) over a
typical 24-hour period of operation at the influent to the aeration
basin, at the effluent of the secondary clarifier, and at the chlorine
contact chamber. The results presented below demonstrate the
effectiveness of the polishing ponds in treating conventional, non-
conventional, and toxic pollutants.
224
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Conventional and Non-Conventional Pollutant Treatability
Influent and Effluent to Polishing Pond
Parameter
COD, mg/1
TSS, mg/1
Phenols, ug/1
Sulfide, ug/1
Color, ADMI
Influent
78
37
36
2
208
Effluent
142
28
51
ND
218
ND not detected
Toxic Pollutant Treatability
Influent and Effluent to Polishing Pond
Toxic Pollutant
Trichlorofluoromethane
Bis(2-ethylhexyl) Phthalate
Lead
Zinc
Influent, uq/I
48
40
36
865
Effluent, uq/1
ND
11
ND
123
ND not detected
The following pollutants were detected at less than 10 ug/1 in the
secondary clarifier effluent and the final effluent: 2,4-
Dichlorophenol; Phenol; Di-n-butyl Phthalate; Toluene; Arsenic;
Chromium; Copper, Silver.
Case 2
This case discusses the results at a Subcategory 9 Felted Fabric
Processing facility that manufactures papermakers wet felts and dryer
felts. Processing operations include weaving, scouring, fulling, and
functional finishing. Production at this facility is reported to
average 2,100 kg/day (approximately 4,600 Ib/day), and the facility
has a water usage and wastewater discharge of 116.6 I/kg (14 gal/lb)
and 378.5 cu m/day (0.10 mgd), respectively.
Wastewater treatment at this facility consists of equalization (mixed
with a power-to-volume ratio of 50 hp/mil gal), aeration (one basin
with a volume of 1 mil gal), secondary clarification, effluent
polishing (one basin with a volume of 2.5 mil gal), disinfection
225
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(chlorine), and land application (spray). Aeration detention time is
approximately 160 hours, and air is provided by surface aerators at a
power-to-volume ratio of 60 hp/mil gal.
Samples were collected (see Appendix D for sampling procedures) over a
typical 24-hour period of operation at the influent to the
equalization basin, after the secondary clarifier, and following the
polishing pond. The results presented below demonstrate the
effectiveness of the polishing pond in treating conventional, non-
conventional, and toxic pollutants.
Conventional and Non-Conventional Pollutant Treatability
Influent and Effluent to Polishing Pond
Parameter Influent Effluent
COD, mg/1 552 263
TSS, mg/1 91 22
Phenols, ug/1 52 28
Sulfide, ug/1 ND ND
Color, ADMI 283 303
ND not detected
Toxic Pollutant Treatability
Influent and Effluent to Polishing Pond
Toxic Pollutant Influent, uq/1 Effluent, uq/1
Naphthalene 56 ND
Bis(2-ethylhexyl) Phthalate 18 ND
Chromium 35 ND
Copper ND 18
Selenium 32 18
Zinc 45 101
ND not detected
The following pollutants were detected at less than 10 ug/1 in the
secondary clarifier effluent and the final effluent: Phenol; Toluene.
226
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3. Chemical Processes
a. Coagulation
Suspended solids are a significant constituent of most textile mill
wastewaters. The larger solids are removed in preliminary treatment
steps but a variety of colloidal particulates remain even after
secondary treatment. Besides fiber, these solids include color
bodies, soaps, mineral fines, oil & grease, and microscopic organisms.
The wastewater from carpet mills, other adhesive-related processing
mills, and nonwoven processing facilities may, in addition, contain
considerable amounts of latex. In excess, these pollutants are not
suitable for discharge to receiving waters and can upset tertiary
treatment processes or result in inefficient operation of these
processes. Coagulation often can be employed to remove these
pollutants.
Coagulation is the process by which chemicals are employed to
destabilize suspended material such that the particles contact and
agglomerate. The forces that act to keep small particles apart and
hence lead to a stable, colloidal suspension are hydration, which
results in a protective shell of water molecules, and electrostatic
charge. Most colloidal particles carry a characteristic negative
charge and are thus unable to coalesce due to this electrostatic
repulsion. Neutralization of these repulsive forces by the addition
of multivalent cations enables the particles to come together and thus
settle out (64).
The most effective inorganic coagulants for wastewater treatment are
alum (aluminum sulfate), copperas {ferrous sulfate), lime (calcium
hydroxide), ferric chloride, and ferric sulfate. The multivalent
cations, A1+3, Fe+', and Fe+* enter into a series of hydrolytic
reactions to form multivalent positively charged hydrous oxide species
that are adsorbed onto the negatively charged colloid. This
neutralizes the colloidal system and allows the particles to
agglomerate.
Since these chemical reactions are virtually instantaneous, a rapid
mix process is used to mix the coagulant with the wastewater. This
brief mixing provides a complete dispersion of the coagulant
throughout the wastewater but is not long enough for agglomeration to
take place. The second stage of the process, flocculation, promotes
inter-particle contact of the stabilized colloids to form a floe that
is, in turn, removed in the final stage of the process, sedimentation.
In addition to the coagulants noted, polyelectrolytes (polymers) may
be used as coagulant aids or as the sole coagulant. These compounds
contain repeating units of small molecular weight, combined to form a
molecule of colloidal size. Each of the repeating units carries one
227
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or more electrical charges or ionizable groups. Because of their
large size, the major benefit of polyelectrolytes is an increase in
floe size. It is generally agreed that a "bridging" mechanism is
responsible for flocculation enhancement. One end of the polymer
molecule attaches itself to the surface of a suspended particle at one
or more sites and the free end is able to adsorb onto yet another
suspended particle forming a "bridge" between the two. This union
increases the mass of the colloidal-polymer system and increases the
settling velocity. As the particle settles, it entraps other colloids
and polymers and thus clarifies the wastewater with a "sweep floe"
effect.
Industry Application. Thirty-four of the wet-processing mills
surveyed report that chemical coagulation is employed in their waste
treatment systems. Sixteen of these mills are direct dischargers, 15
are indirect dischargers, 2 practice complete recycle, and 1
discharges to an evaporation lagoon after coagulation. At 13 mills,
the primary or only portion of the flow treated by coagulation is
latex or print waste; all but 3 of these are indirect dischargers, and
this accounts for two-thirds of all the indirect discharge mills that
identify coagulation as part of their treatment system. Of the direct
dischargers employing coagulation for treatment of wastewater other
than latex or print wastes, 2 employ it as a last step after
biological treatment, 6 add polymer and/or alum to the effluent from
an aeration basin prior to secondary sedimentation, 2 coagulate as an
intermediate step between activated sludge and filtration, and 2
coagulate in place of biological treatment. At 2 mills, the
information was insufficient to place the treatment accurately.
Based on the above breakdown, there are only 2 mills that are
presently treating integrated textile wastewater using coagulation as
their principal treatment process and 6 mills (4 direct dischargers
and 2 recycle) that employ coagulation as a tertiary treatment
measure. However, because of the nature of the historical data
available from these mills, i.e., influent and effluent data for the
entire treatment systems, the effectiveness of the chemical
coagulation process alone cannot be demonstrated. The following
tabulation does demonstrate the overall effectiveness of the treatment
systems that include coagulation. The data represent average values
for those mills that provide historical monitoring results and
generally represent sampling during 1976.
228
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Subcat-
eqory
2
4b
4b*
4c
4c
4c*
4c*
5a
5a
5a
7
7
Coagulants
Alum,
Polymer
Alum
-
-
Polymer
Ferric
Chloride,
Lime
-
Polymer
Polymer
Alum,
Polymer
Chlorinated
Copperas ,
Treatment
Step
(Direct
Secondary
Clarif ier
Secondary
Clarif ier
Flotation
Unit
Secondary
Clarif ier
Secondary
Clarif ier
Coag/Floc
Raw Waste
-
Coag/Floc
Secondary
Secondary
Clarifier
Injection
Pre-
Filtration
Secondary
Clarifier
Secondary
Clarifier
BOD,
Inf
mg/1
Eff
COD,
Inf
mg/1
Eff
TSS,
Inf
mg/1
Eff
Dischargers)
150
83
-
200
-
-
760
334
-
279
327
60
11
14
51
51
7
4
12
24
24
5
20
15
900
308
-
845
846
1400
1600
1265
-
934
1572
331
-
152
482
663
164
99
248
206
272
196
480
129
175
43
-
82
-
168
420
-
-
41
26
31
64
35
188
142
54
30
99
40
65
7
23
11
Lime
Flotation
Post-
Biological
14
229
-------
(Indirect Dischargers)
2 Lime Coag/Floc - 1328 556 - 560
Raw Waste
4a* Lime, Alum Flotation - 250 - 400 - 30
4c* Ferric Coag/Clarify - 420 - 695 - 118
Chloride Print Waste
4a** Aluminum Flotation -341 -885 - 206
Chloride Print Waste
4a* Alum Coag/Clarify 322 126 1985 263 460 72
Print Waste
(Recycle Plant)
4a* Alum Flotation 298 10 - 1550 - 5
* Fabric printing is a significant portion of production.
** Latex and PVC coating operation.
Literature/Research. Coagulation of textile wastewaters has received
considerable attention by the engineering and research communities.
Much of the work is general and does not address adaptability to
textile dischargers. Some of the studies are too specific and would
not be generally applicable. The following cases offer relevant
information on studies that appear to be both adaptable and generally
applicable.
Case 1
This case presents the results of a laboratory study (65) performed in
1974 to evaluate the effectiveness of coagulation using alum in
removing color from a dyehouse effluent. The effluent was from a
Woven Fabric Finishing mill that processes cotton-polyester broadwoven
fabrics. The types of processing performed and the types of dye
utilized were not provided by the author.
The mill's dyehouse wastewater, boiler blowdown, and air conditioning
condensate were being treated in a two-stage aerated lagoon. Approxi-
mately 50 percent removal of BOD was being achieved prior to discharge
to a small creek.
The study utilized a jar test apparatus to conduct a series of
coagulation investigations using various dosages of alum. The results
230
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are presented below and establish the feasibility of removing COD and
color from the dyehouse wastewater prior to biological treatment.
Alum Dosage, mg/1 Total Soluble
as A12(S04)3-18H20 COD, mg/1 COD, mg/1 TSS, mg/1 Color, APHA
inf* eff** inf eff inf eff inf eff
660 935 490 582 429 132 49 12,800 580
660 903 471 - - 10,200 288
550 1,590 598 667 559 590 12 8,800 428
440 1,030 525 730 335 - 7,700 450
440 973 590 - - 11,000 442
440 954 573 740 519 - 12,200 340
330 805 398 - - 11,800 690
* "inf" represents dyehouse effluent
** "eff" represents supernatant from jar test after 1 hr settling
Case 2
This case presents the results of a laboratory study (66) performed to
evaluate the effectivness of coagulation of textile mill printing
waste. The waste studied was collected from the discharge line of the
printing department of a large Subcategory 4c Woven Fabric Finishing
facility. The facility dyes and/or prints sheets, and the waste
streams resulting from the dyeing and printing operations are
segregated. At the time of the investigation, the waste from the
printing department contained printing pigment, adhesives, an acrylic
latex emulsion, and varsol (print paste carrier). These constituents
are typically suspended in the waste in particulate or colloidal form
and are not readily solubilized by microorganisms when subjected to
biological treatment.
Samples of the waste stream were subjected to a series of jar test
experiments using the following coagulants: ferric chloride, ferric
sulfate, and aluminum sulfate. The experiments reported here
consisted of placing a one-liter sample into a standard flocculation
vessel and stirring at 100 rpm, adding the desired quantity of
coagulant and adjusting the pH with HC1 or NaOH, mixing for 1 minute
after pH adjustment at 100 rpm and flocculating for 2 minutes at 10
rpm, and quiescent settling for 30 minutes followed by analysis.
Results are presented below and establish the feasibility of removing
the suspended and colloidal materials.
231
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Dosage, mg/1 Turbidity, JTU COD, mg/1
Coagulant of Metal+3 pH inf eff inf eff
Ferric Chloride 25 6.6 270 19 2,100 665
Ferric Sulfate 25 7.1 270 26 2,100 155
Aluminum Sulfate 25 6.6 270 14 2,100 235
Case 3
This case presents a summary of the results of a full scale investiga-
tion (24) of activated sludge and alum coagulation treatment of the
wastewater from a Subcategory 5a Knit Fabric Finishing mill. The
investigations were supported by an EPA Demonstration Grant, and were
conducted over a 1 year period.
At the time of the study, the mill was producing velour fabric for the
apparel trade (approximately 56 percent), nylon fabric for the
automotive industry (approximately 13 percent), fabric of
polyester/nylon blends for the uniform trade (approximately 13
percent), and various other fabrics each at less significant
production levels.
During the study period, the mill's daily production ranged from a low
monthly average of approximately 14,790 kg (34,000) Ibs to a high
monthly average of approximately 24,800 kg (57,000) Ibs. Average
daily production was approximately 20,900 kg (48,000 Ibs). The
production was pressure beam-dyed (approximately 54 percent),
atmospheric beck-dyed (approximately 27 percent), or pad-dyed
(approximately 17 percent). Approximately 30 percent of the dyestuff
utilized was of the disperse class and 20 percent was of the acid
class. Besides dyeing, the production was scoured and various
functional finishes (water repellents, softeners, and flame
retardants) were applied.
The wastewater treatment system, as studied, included heat
reclamation, equalization, activated sludge (aerated lagoon plus
clarifier), alum coagulation, chlorination, and mechanical sludge
processing (horizontal scroll centrifuge). The performances of each
component of the treatment system were studied and evaluated. The
following tabulation presents the performance of the alum coagulation
component throughout the study period for the parameters of primary
concern here.
232
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Influent Effluent
Parameter (yearly median?* (yearly median)*
BOD, mg/1 122 33
COD, mg/1 1,056 416
TOC, mg/1 200 105
TSS, mg/1 368 122
Dissolved Solids, mg/1 619 600
Phenols, ug/1 30 40
Color, APHA 804 320
Chromium, ug/1 360 280
Copper, ug/1 30 ND
Lead, ug/1 28** 23**
Nickel, ug/1 10** 10**
Zinc, ug/1 220 110
Mercury, ug/1 1.8** 1.7**
* Samples were collected daily and daily analysis were performed
for all parameters listed except phenolics and metals; the
samples for these parameters were composited and analyzed once
per month.
** average values
ND not detected
EPA/Industry Field Studies. In a joint research effort between EPA
and the textile industry (ATMI, NTA, and CRI), pilot plant studies
were conducted during 1977 and 1978 at 19 textile mills to evaluate
the effectiveness of alternative advanced wastewater treatment
technologies. The studies were performed on the effluent from
treatment systems employing the recommended BPT level of treatment.
One of the alternatives was chemical coagulation using a 1,650 gallon
reactor/clarifier. Prior to initiating the pilot plant studies, jar
testing was performed to determine the coagulant(s) and dosage(s) most
effective for removal of TSS and organic material. Among the
coagulants evaluated were alum, ferric chloride, polymers, and lime,
both alone and in various pairings. These jar tests determined
operating conditions for the reactor/clarifier during screening
(comparison) experiments against other tertiary process modes. Based
on these comparisons, promising modes were selected to be studied more
extensively in candidate process evaluations. The effectiveness of
precoagulation on filtration effectiveness was also studied, but these
experiments are discussed under "Filtration." The available results
of the coagulation studies during the candidate process evaluations
are discussed in the following cases.
233
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Case 1
This case discusses the results at Mill D, a Subcategpry 4c Woven
Fabric Finishing mill. A description of the manufacturing operations
and wastewater treatment at this mill is provided in Appendix F.
The experimental testing was performed on secondary clarifier effluent
prior to chlorination. However, such high coagulant dosages (150 mg/1
as Al + 3 with lime at 200 mg/1) were required during jar test studies
to achieve even partial TSS reduction, that no pilot scale experiments
using the reactor/clarifier were run.
Case 2
This case discusses the results at Mill B, a Subcategory 2 Wool
Finishing mill. A description of the manufacturing operations and
wastewater treatment of this mill is provided in Appendix F.
Secondary clarifier effluent prior to chlorination was used in the
pilot plant tests at this mill. The experimental runs during the
candidate mode operation utilized the reactor/clarifier unit for
coagulation as the first treatment process. Data on the effectiveness
of the unit are presented below.
Conventional and Non-Conventional Pollutant Treatability at Mill B
Influent and Effluent to Reactor/Clarifier*
_Influent _Effluent
Pollutant x_ SD n x SD n
BOD5, mg/1 130 50 9 27 14 9
COD, mg/1 827 447 9 229 5 9
TSS, mg/1 122 67 9 33 36 9
TOC, mg/1 236 103 6 76 28 6
* Loading rate of 400 gpd/ft2 with 5 mg/1 alum (as Al + 3) added as the
_ coagulant (9/6 - 9/13/77, low underflow rate).
x mean
SD standard deviation
n number of samples
234
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Conventional and Non-Conventional Pollutant Treatability at Mill B
Influent and Effluent to Reactor/Clarifier*
Pollutant
BOD5,, mg/1
COD, mg/1
TSS, mg/1
TOC, mg/1
_Influent
x SD n
_Effluent
x SD n
212
1161
352
398
58 9
192 9
118 9
98 9
39
194
6
68
13
68
6
29
added as the
* Loading rate of 400 gpd/ft2 with 35 mg/1 alum (as A1+3
_ coagulant (9/16 - 9/21/77, increased underflow rate).
x mean
SD standard deviation
n number of samples
Conventional and Non-Conventional Polltant Treatability at Mill B
Influent and Effluent to Reactor/Clarifier*
Pollutant
BOD5., mg/1
COD, mg/1
TSS, mg/1
TOC, mg/1
_Influent
x SD n
_Effluent
x SD n
248
769
289
260
- 1
170 3
128 3
50 3
17
216
82
77
137
86
45
* Loading rate of 520 gpd/ft2 with 27 mg/1 alum (as A1+3) added as the
_ coagulant.
x mean
SD standard deviation
n number of samples
In addition to the regular pilot plant studies at this facility,
samples were collected over a 24-hr period to evaluate the
effectiveness of the candidate mode in treating toxic pollutants. The
candidate mode tested included the reactor/clarifier followed by
multi-media filtration followed by carbon adsorption. The
reaction/clarifier was loaded at a rate of 400 gpd/ft2 with 35 mg/1
alum as (Al+3) added as a coagulant, the multi-media filter was loaded
at a rate of 5.4 gpm/ft2, and the carbon columns were operated at an
empty bed retention time of 25 to 30 minutes. Data on the
effectiveness of the reactor/clarifier are presented below.
235
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Toxic Pollutant Treatability at Mill B
Influent and Effluent to Reactor/Clarifier
Toxic Pollutant
1,2,4-Trichlorobenzene
1,2-Dichlorobenzene
Bis(2-ethylhexyl) Phthalate
Toluene
Antimony
Arsenic
Chromium
Copper
Lead
Nickel
Silver
Zinc
Influent, ug/1
1580
20
32
31
22
60
116
23
30
76
140
6400
Effluent, uq/1
154
not detected
44
14
23
62
41
16
30
57
172
5730
The following pollutants were detected at less than 10 ug/1 in the
influent and effluent: Ethylbenzene, Phenol.
Case 3
This case discusses the results at Mill Q, which is actually two
separate Subcategory 5 Knit Fabric Finishing mills that discharge to a
common waste treatment plant. A description of the manufacturing
operations and wastewater treatment at this complex is provided in
Appendix F.
Secondary clarifier effluent prior to chlorination was used in the
pilot plant tests at this mill. The experimental runs during the
candidate mode of operation utilized the reactor/clarifier unit as the
first treatment process. Data on the effectiveness of this process
for treating conventional and non-conventional pollutants are
presented below.
236
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Conventional and Non-Conventional Pollutant Treatability at Mill Q
Influent and Effluent to Reactor/Clarifier*
Pollutant
BOD5, mg/1
COD, mg/1
TSS, mg/1
TOC, mg/1
Color, ADMI
_Influent
x SD n
_Effluent
x SD n
7.4
254
50
227
2.6
39
16
44
5.4
195
73
202
1
78
14
19
* Loading rate of 400 gpd/ft2 with 20 mg/1 alum (as A1+') and 0.75 mg/1
_ anionic polymer added as the coagulants (Experiment 1).
x mean
SD standard deviation
n number of samples
Conventional and Non-Conventional Pollutant Treatability at Mill Q
Influent and Effluent to Reactor/Clarifier*
BOD 5^, mg/1
COD, mg/1
TSS, mg/1
TOC, mg/1
Color, ADMI
_Influent
x SD n
JSffluent
x SD n
8.6
278
39
1
15
4
2.9
173
57
1.5
51
34
150 32
209 132 3
* Loading rate of 320 gpd/ft2 with 30 mg/1 alum (as A1 + *) and 1.0 mg/1
_ anionic polymer added as the coagulants (Experiment 2).
x mean
SD standard deviation
n number of samples
237
-------
Conventional and Non-Conventional Pollutant Treatability at Mill Q
Influent and Effluent to Reactor/Clarifier*
_Influent _Effluent
Pollutant x SD n x SD n
BODS, mg/1 8.5 2.2 5 4.6 3.7 5
COD, mg/1 283 19 5 182 77 5
TSS, mg/1 45 7.2 5 66 58 5
TOC, mg/1 30.3 14 4 21.5 10 4
* Loading rate of 320 gpd/ft2 with 30 mg/1 alum (as A1+3) and 1.0 mg/1
_ anionic polymer added as the coagulants (Experiment 2).
x mean
SD standard deviation
n number of samples
In addition to the regular pilot plant studies at this facility,
samples were collected on two consecutive days to evaluate the
effectiveness of the pilot plant technologies in removing toxic
pollutants. One mode of operation tested was the reactor/clarifier
followed by the multi-media filters. The reactor/clarifier was
operated at a surface loading rate of 320 gpd/ft2, with coagulant
dosages of 30 mg/1 alum and 1.0 mg/1 anionic polymer. The multi-media
filters were loaded at a rate of 3 gpm/ft2. Data on the effectiveness
of this mode of treatment are presented below. The data are presented
here because it is expected that the coagulation process, rather than
the multi-media filtration step, is most responsible for toxic
pollutant removals.
238
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Toxic Pollutant Treatability at Mill Q
Influent and Effluent to Reactor/Clarifier - Multi-Media Filter*
Influent** Effluent**
Toxic Pollutant Min Max n Min Max n
Bis(2-ethylhexyl) Phthalate - 15 1# 7 If
Antimony 660 680 2 620 670 2
Chromium 27 36 2 14 15 2
Copper 100 110 2 90 92 2
Lead - 48 1 46 53 2
Selenium 20 62 2 10 110 2
Silver - 13 1 9.4 12 2
Zinc 47 50 2 130 190 2
* Samples collected around candidate mode of operation; each sample
represents 24-hour composite
** Concentrations in ug/1
# Composite sample collected over 48-hour period
n number of sample
The following were detected at less than 10 ug/1 in the influent and
effluent: 2,4,6-Trichlorophenol; 2-Nitrophenol.
Case 4
This case discusses the results at Mill V, a Subcategory 4c Woven
Fabric Finishing mill. A description of the manufacturing operations
and wastewater treatment at this mill is provided in Appendix F.
Secondary clarifier effluent prior to chlorination was used in the
pilot plant tests at this mill. The experimental runs during the
candidate mode of operation utilized the reactor/clarifier unit as the
first treatment process. Data on the effectiveness of this process
for removing conventional and Non-Conventional pollutants are
presented below.
239
-------
Conventional and Non-Conventional Pollutant Treatability at Mill V
Influent and Effluent to Reactor/Clarifier*
Pollutant
BOD5_, mg/1
COD, mg/1
TSS, mg/1
TOC, mg/1
Color, ADMI
_Influent
x SD n
_Effluent
x SD n
9.3
393
47
76
247
8.5
110
89
11
43
14
14
14
14
13
3.6
352
51
72
274
2
35
17
9
57
14
14
14
14
13
* Loading rate of 400 gpd/ftz with 40 mg/1 alum (as Al + 3) added as
_ the coagulant.
x mean
SD standard deviation
n number of samples
In addition to the regular pilot plant studies at this facility,
samples were collected over a 24-hour period to evaluate the
effectiveness of the candidate mode in removing toxic pollutants. The
mode included the reactor/clarifier, multi-media filters, and
activated carbon columns. The reactor/clarifier was operated at a
surface loading rate of 400 gpd/ft2 with a coagulant dosage of 40 mg/1
alum (as Al+3). The multi-media filters were loaded at a rate of 3.0
gpm/ft2, and the carbon columns were operated at 0.46 gpm (empty bed
retention time of 45 minutes). Data on the effectiveness of the
reactor/clarifier are presented below.
Toxic Pollutant Treatability at Mill V
Influent and Effluent to Reactor/Clarifier
Toxic Pollutant
1,2-Dichlorobenzene
Bis(2-ethylhexyl) Phthalate
Toluene
Antimony
Chromium
Copper
Lead
Silver
Zinc
Influent, uq/1
not detected
8
15
96
trace
57
27
80
163
Effluent, uq/1
13
34
trace
123
17
10
66
72
195
The following were detected at less than 10 ug/1 in the influent and
effluent: 1,4-Dichlorobenzene; Ethylbenzene; Chlorodibromomethane;
Pentachlorophenol; Phenol; Di-n-butyl Phthalate; Anthracene; Arsenic,
Cadmium, Nickel.
240
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Case 5
This case discusses the results at Mill E, a Subcategory 5 Knit Fabric
Finishing mill. A description of the manufacturing operations and
wastewater treatment at this mill is provided in Appendix F.
During the pilot plant testing of the candidate mode treatment
technologies at this mill, samples were collected to evaluate the
effectiveness of the technologies in removing toxic pollutants. The
reactor/clarifier was part of one mode of treatment, and testing was
such that the unit could be evaluated independently. Data on the
effectiveness are presented below.
Toxic Pollutant Treatability at Mill E
Influent and Effluent to Reactor/Clarifier
Toxic Pollutant
Benzene
Chloroform
Phenol
Bis(2-ethylhexyl) Phthalate
Antimony
Chromium
Copper
Cyanide
Lead
Nickel
Silver
Zinc
Influent*
Min Max n
ND
ND
ND
T
22
T
T
101
22#
66
T
15
210
T
110
600
100
36
lot
34
190
73
10
10
10
10
8
8
8
10
8
8
8
Effluent*
Min Max n
155 5200
ND
9
ND
T
10
T
T
101
22#
43
T
145
3
73
670
18
43
T
12
lOt
22#
77
23
155
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
5
3
3
3
3
* concentrations in ug/1
T trace
# reported as "less than" value
n number of samples
ND not detected
The following were detected at less than 10 ug/1 in the influent and
effluent: 1,2,4-Trichlorobenzene; 1,2-Dichlorobenzene; Ethylbenzene;
Methylene Chloride; Naphthalene; N-nitrosodi-n-propylamine; Di-n-butyl
Phthalate; Diethyl Phthalate; Anthracene; Toluene; Beryllium; Cadmium;
Selenium.
241
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Case 6
This case discusses the results at Mill A, a Subcategory 1 Wool
Scouring mill. A description of the manufacturing operations and
wastewater treatment at this mill is provided in Appendix F.
During the pilot plant testing of the candidate mode treatment
technologies at this mill, samples were collected over a typical 24-
hour period of operation to evaluate the effectiveness of the
technologies in removing toxic pollutants. The reactor/clarifier was
part of one mode of treatment, and testing was such that the unit
could be evaluated independently. Data on the effectiveness are
presented below.
Toxic Pollutant Treatability at Mill A
Influent and Effluent to Reactor/Clarifier
Toxic Pollutant
Phenol*
Bis(2-ethylhexyl) Phthalate
Antimony
Arsenic
Cadmium
Copper
Cyanide
Lead
Nickel
Silver
Zinc
Influent, uq/1
16
42
540
38
130
320
200
3500
2000
500
1500
Effluent, uq/1
17
23
T
39
ND
110
240
ND
ND
ND
190
* represents total of all toxic pollutant phenols
T trace
ND not detected
The following pollutants were detected at less than 10 ug/1 in the
influent and effluent: Ethylbenzene; Fluoranthene; Di-n-butyl
Phthalate; Benzo{a)Anthracene; Benzo{a)Pyrene; Benzo{k)Fluoranthane;
Anthracene; Toluene.
Case 7
This case discusses the results at Mill 0, a Subcategory 2 Wool
Finishing mill. A description of the manufacturing operations and
wastewater treatment at this mill is provided in Appendix F.
242
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During the pilot plant testing of the candidate mode treatment
technologies at this mill, samples were collected over a typical 72-
hour period of operation to evaluate the effectiveness of the
technologies in treating toxic pollutants. One mode tested included
the reactor/clarifier followed by multi-media filtration. Samples
were collected around this mode and data on the effectiveness are
presented below.
Toxic Pollutant Treatability at Mill 0
Influent and Effluent to Reactor/Clarifier - Multi-Media Filter
Influent* Effluent*
Toxic Pollutant Min Max n Min Max n
Methylene Chloride 46 46 3 28 28 1
Bis(2-Ethylhexyl) Phthalate 230 760 3 T 31 3
Chromium 158 206 3 30 47 3
Copper 4** 14 3 82 130 3
Lead 22** 22** 3 22** 22** 3
Nickel 36** 36** 3 36** 36** 3
Thallium 50** 50** 3 50** 50** 3
Zinc 639 1280 3 347 440 3
* concentrations in ug/1
** reported as "less than" value
T trace
The following pollutants were detected at less than 10 ug/1 in the
influent and effluent: Acrylonitrile; Benzene; 1,2,4-TrichlorO-
benzene; 2,4,6-Trichlorophenol; Parachlorometacresol; Chloroform; 2-
Chlorophenol; 1,2-Dichlorobenzene; Ethylbenzene; Fluoranthene;
Naphthalene; N-nitrosodi-propylamine; Pentachlorophenol; Phenol; Di-n-
butyl Phthalate; piethyl Phthalate; Dimethyl Phthalate; Anthracene;
Pyrene; Tetrachloroethylene; Toluene; Trichloroethylene; Antimony;
Arsenic; Beryllium; Cadmium; Cyanide; Mercury; Selenium; Silver.
b. Precipitation
Precipitation is a chemical unit process in which undesirable soluble
metallic ions are removed from water or wastewater by conversion to an
insoluble form. It is a commonly used treatment technique for removal
of hardness (calcium, magnesium, strontium, ferrous iron, and
manganous ions and other metals), phosphorus, and the heavy metals.
The procedure involves alteration of the ionic equilibrium to produce
insoluble metallic hydroxides that can be easily settled in a
clarifier. The hydroxide is usually supplied in the form of lime
(Ca(OH)2).
243
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A typical precipitation reaction involving the removal of magnesium
ions (Mg+z) is:
Mg+2 + SO* -2 + Ca(OH)2 Ca + * + S04 -a + Mg(OH)2
Metallic hydroxides have an optimal pH where they are most insoluble.
For Mg(OH)?, noted in the equation above, 10.8 is considered optimal.
When precipitation of several metals is required, a pH of about 9 is
often useful in practice.
Precipitation of chromium, a frequent constituent of some textile
wastewaters, sometimes requires an additional step when chromium
exists in the hexavalent state (Cr+6) in wastewater it must be reduced
to the trivalent state (Cr+3) before precipitation can be achieved.
The reducing agents commonly used are ferrous sulfate, sodium
metabisulfate, and sulfur dioxide. If ferrous sulfate is used, acid
must be added for pH adjustment.
Industry Application. Precipitation was not reported as a treatment
method by any of the direct or indirect dischargers surveyed. It is
suspected, however, that the distinction between coagulation and pre-
cipitation was not clearly established by at least some of those
reporting coagulation as a part of their treatment system. It is
probable that some of these mills may, in fact, be practicing
precipitation for the removal of toxic metals. One reason for the
limited application of precipitation may be that some of the auxiliary
chemicals used in dyeing can act as complexing agents with heavy
metals. These chemicals act as chelants and make the metals less
susceptible to precipitation.
Literature/Research. Literature directly related to the treatment of
textile wastewaters by employing precipitation is generally limited.
The case presented below offers information on one investigation that
is relevant.
Case 1
This case presents the findings of a research study (67) conducted to
compare the effectiveness of chemical precipitation using lime and
that using sulfide.
The sulfide removes heavy metal from solution in the form of sulfide
precipitates and can be advantageous since metal sulfides are several
orders of magnitude less soluble than the corresponding metal
hydroxides. It is especially advantageous for the removal of
hexavalent chrome because the process does not require a separate
pretreatment step.
244
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A wastewater sample from the aeration basin of a Subcategory 5b Knit
Fabric Finishing mill was used in the comparison studies. The mill
dyes 95 percent of the production and uses acid (64 percent), direct
(32 percent), sulfur {2 percent), dispersed {1 percent), and reactive
(1 percent) dyes. Data on the effectiveness of each precipitant are
summarized below:
Concentration, mg/1
Metal Raw Sample Lime Effluent Sulfide Effluent
Zinc 3.2 0.11 0.09
Nickel 0.05
Iron 2.3 0.17 0.19
Cadmium 0.01
Copper 0.50 0.03 0.01
Lead 0.10
Silver 0.05
Total Chromium 0.93 0.08 0.05
The data indicate that for the most part, somewhat greater metals
reduction can be achieved with the sulfide precipitant.
c. Oxidation
Oxidation of wastewater is a chemical unit process that can be used to
remove color, to remove ammonia, to reduce the concentration of
organics, and to reduce the bacterial and viral content. It has been
used for some time in the form of chlorine for the disinfection of
effluents. Other available and tested oxidants include: hydrogen
peroxide, potassium permanganate, chlorine dioxide, and ozone.
Chemical oxidation can provide the more powerful action often
necessary to break down highly resistant industrial wastes. Potassium
permanganate, chlorine, and ozone also have been used to reduce
organic loads prior to biological treatment. In advanced wastewater
treatment of industrial wastes, oxidation with ozone has shown the
most promising application.
Ozone (03) is a faintly blue, pungent-smelling, unstable gas that
exists as an allotropic form of oxygen. Because of its instability,
ozone must be generated on-site. Ozone generators utilize a corona
discharge that occurs when a high-voltage alternating current is
imposed across a discharge gap. The method is highly inefficient in
that only about 10 percent of the applied energy goes into ozone.
Improvement in efficiency can be achieved if pure oxygen is used in
the generator in lieu of air.
Ozone reacts rapidly with the majority of organic compounds and micro-
organisms present in industrial wastewaters. It is capable of
245
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removing color in textile wastewaters but, because of the high dosages
often required, is not suitable for reducing the concentration of
organics.
Industry Application. Sixty of the direct dischargers and 11 of the
indirect dischargers surveyed report using oxidation as part of their
treatment systems. All but one of the direct dischargers simply
chlorinate for disinfection purposes. The other mill reports adding
chlorine in a rapid-mix contact tank for both disinfection and
decoloring. Four of the indirect dischargers also simply chlorinate
for disinfection purposes. Five add chlorine, usually in the form of
hypochlorite, to control color. The other two mills recycle part of
the discharge and are most likely adding chlorine for disinfection
purposes. There are no data available from the survey that can be
used to demonstrate the effectiveness of chlorine oxidation for
decolorization.
Literature/Research. Because of the desire to effectively remove
color, oxidation of textile wastewaters has received considerable
attention by the engineering and research communities. Ozone has been
the primary oxidant studied. The following cases present the findings
of those studies most relevant here.
Case 1
This case discusses the results of a laboratory investigation
conducted by Snyder and Porter (68) on the effect of pH on the ability
of ozone to reduce organic content and color from the dye wastes from
three textile mills. Ozone was produced from compressed air by a
commercial electric discharge ozone generator and fed at a rate of 0.5
g/hr through an experimental apparatus containing 500-ml samples of
the dye wastes. The studies were conducted at room temperature and
usual contact time was one hour. To check the effect of pH on ozone
reactivity, each dye waste was studied at near neutral, at acidic, and
at basic pH values. Adjustments in pH were made with sulfuric acid
and sodium hydroxide.
The results of the investigation indicate that there is no steadfast
rule concerning the effects of pH on the efficiency of the ozonation
process in reducing the organic content of textile dye waste. The
greater removals occurred in the acid pH samples, but, according to
the researchers, this is in contrast to the results obtained by other
researchers, where greater removals occurred in high pH samples. The
average removals of organic content, as measured by COD, for the three
samples were 8, 41, and 55 percent. This indicates that a low
concentration ozone stream (1 g/1) is not feasible for the removal of
the majority of organics in textile dye waste. However, in each
sample tested, excellent color removal was observed. The researchers
246
-------
attributed the effective decolorization to the susceptibility of the
amine function in the dye molecules to ozone attack.
Case 2
The case discusses the results of a laboratory investigation conducted
by the Georgia Department of Natural Resources (69) on ozone treatment
and disinfection of tufted carpet dye wastewater. The investigations
were performed on effluent samples from the City of Dalton municipal
wastewater treatment plant. Approximately 90 percent of the plant's
flow originates from textile mills that are engaged in dyeing and
other carpet finishing operations. The waste from these mills contain
significant levels of unexhausted color bodies and auxiliary dye
chemicals, which result in a colored and moderately high organic
content waste at the municipal plant. At the time of the
investigations, the plant was treating approximately 40 mgd by the
extended-aeration activated sludge process.
The studies investigated the effectiveness of various dosages of ozone
by monitoring color, COD, organic carbon, suspended solids (SS), BODI5,
total and fecal coliform, anionic detergents, dissolved oxygen, and
ozone residual before and after ozonation.
Grab samples were collected from the treatment plant effluent on five
occasions between April 4 and June 21, 1973. Portions of the samples
were placed in a 10-gallon capacity plexiglas contact column and
ozonated gas was injected at a fixed feed rate. Samples were
withdrawn from the column at specified time intervals for analysis.
Results of the investigations are summarized for the parameters of
most interest here in the following table.
247
-------
Parameter
Color (filtered)
Color (filtered)
Color (filtered)
Color (filtered)
Color (filtered)
COD
COD
COD
COD
COD
SS
SS
SS
SS
BOD5
BOD5.
BOD5
BOD5.
BOD5
Biphenyl
Biphenyl
Biphenyl
Biphenyl
Biphenyl
Biphenyl
Ozone
Dosage, mq/1
5
10
14
26
45
3
6
20
42
60
7
19
24
52
8
14
19
25
33
5
12
20
26
42
89
Parameter Concentration, mg/1
Dalton Effluent Ozonated Effluent
300*
300*
300*
300*
300*
130
130
130
130
130
20
20
20
20
21
21
21
21
21
2.0
2.0
2.0
2.0
2.0
2.0
125*
95*
60*
32*
18*
125
110
100
75
75
12
8
6
2
27
53
25
20
19
98
35
62
19
1.21
0.10
* APHA Units
Conclusions regarding these parameters were stated as follows:
1. True color was reduced to less than 30 APHA Units at an ozone
dosage of 40 mg/1; suspended solids reduction reduced the
necessary ozone dosage to 26.5 mg/1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
COD reductions of 40 percent were achieved at ozone dosages of 45
mg/1; suspended solids removal did not significantly enhance COD
reduction.
Suspended solids were reduced by approximately 90 percent with
ozone dosage of 52 mg/1.
The BOD5_ was essentially unchanged at all ozone dosages.
Biphenyls were reduced from approximately 2 mg/1 to less than
mg/1 at an ozone dosage of 89 mg/1.
an
0.1
EPA/Industry Field Studies. In a joint research effort between EPA
and the textile industry (ATMI, NTA, and CRI), pilot plant studies
were conducted during 1977 and 1978 at 19 textile mills to evaluate
the effectiveness of alternative advanced wastewater treatment
248
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e to
^
ซdthTSe ฐffQarS W?Ce Samp^ed t0 dete^inf concentration
and thus permit calculation of ozone utilization Th*
cases'5 ฐf ^ O2Onation -tudies are summari^d1Oin III
Case 1
Conventional and Non-Conventional Pollutant Treatability at Mill D
Influent and Effluent to Ozone Contactor*
Pollutant
BOD5, mg/1
COD, mg/1
TSS, mg/1
TOC, mg/1
Color, ADMI
_Influent
x SD n
13 7
422 142
23 13
101 40
825 239
21
22
21
14
14
_Effluent
x SD n
47 12 18
349 115 17
16 13 18
106 31 13
149 149 14
_* 427 mg/1 ozone utilized {continuous operation)
x mean
SD standard deviation
n number of samples
Case 2
This case discusses the results at Mill Q, a
5 Kni f
Suฃl?'Sซ{st3-
249
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filtration and ozonation. The operating characteristics and data on
the effectivness of ozonation during this mode are presented below.
Conventional and Non-Conventional Pollutant Treatability at Mill Q
Influent and Effluent to Ozone Contactor*
Pollutant
BOD5., mg/1
COD, mg/1
TSS, mg/1
TOC, mg/1
Color, ADMI
Influent
: SD n
_Effluent
x SD n
4.2
206
4.5
22
179
1
16
3.3
1.4
109
8
8
8
2
3
4.9
17
3
15
51
2.8
6.5
1.4
7.1
* 1130-1500 mg/1 ozone utilized
x" mean
;batch operation)
SD standard deviation
n number of samples
ซ .
8
8
2
2
2
ป ? J3SSS .
t s"ฐi. ^"..'o^.s'.r.vss' uisss-^ ""
SS/?'i .nd L. Sion. dowol (utlll.^1 b.twe.n 1130 to 1500 .ซ/! ซ
ซJllซl. Sat. on tM ett.ซl..oซปป of this ปdซ of tr..t..nt at.
presented below.
250
-------
Toxic Pollutant Treatability at Mill Q
Influent and Effluent to Multi-Media Filter - Ozone Contactor Mode
Toxic Pollutant
Bis(2-ethylhexyl) Phthalate
Tetrachloroethylene
Antimony
Cadmium
Copper
Cyanide
Lead
Nickel
Selenium
Silver
Zinc
Influent*
Min Max n
622
ND
102
ND
ND
20
47
15
17
684
ND
106
ND
48
ND
62
13
50
11
11
2
2
2
2
It
2
2
It
2
Effluent*
Min Max n
45 1#
ND It
687 It
17 It
88 It
20 It
53 It
44 It
ND It
19 It
180 1#
* Concentrations in ug/1
t Composite sample, Day 1 and Day 2
ND not detected
n number of samples
The following pollutants were detected at less than 10 ug/1 in the
influent and effluent: 2-Nitrophenol; Arsenic.
Case 3
This case discusses the results at Mill A, a Subcategory 1 Wool
Scouring facility. A description of the manufacturing operations and
wastewater treatment at this mill is provided in Appendix F.
During the pilot plant testing of the candidate mode treatment
technologies at this mill, samples were collected over a typical 24-
hour period of operation to evaluate the effectiveness of the
technologies in removing toxic pollutants. The ozone contactor was
part of one mode of treatment, and testing was such that the unit
could be evaluated independently. Data on the effectiveness are
presented below.
251
-------
Toxic Pollutant Treatability at Mill A
Influent and Effluent to Ozone Contactor
Toxic Pollutant
Phenol*
Bis(2-ethylhexyl) Phthalate
Antimony
Arsenic
Cadmium
Copper
Cyanide
Lead
Nickel
Silver
Zinc
Influent, uq/1
17
14
T
83
ND
120
260
ND
ND
ND
400
Effluent, uq/1
13
106
1200
43
250
590
ND
ND
ND
1300
460
* represents total of all toxic pollutant phenols
T trace
ND not detected
The following pollutants were detected at less than 10 ug/1 in the
influent and effluent: Ethylbenzene; Fluoranthene; Di-n-butyl
Phthalate; Benzo(a)Anthracene; Benzo(a)Pyrene? Benzo(k)Fluoranthene;
Anthracene; Toluene.
4. Physical Separation
a. Filtration
Wastewater filtration is a physical unit operation that is used to
remove suspended materials. It may be employed to polish an existing
biological effluent to prepare wastewater for subsequent advanced
treatment processes, or to enable direct reuse of a discharge.
Primary applications that are discussed in this section include: 1)
direct filtration of secondary biological effluents alone or as
pretreatment for carbon or ozone, 2) filtration of chemically
clarified effluent, and 3) filtration of secondary biological
effluents following in-line chemical injection (precoagulation).
The filtration process separates suspended material from wastewater by
passing the waste through porous material. The mechanisms responsible
for removal include: straining, sedimentation, inertial impaction,
interception, adhesion, chemical adsorption (bonding and chemical
interaction), physical adsorption (electrostatic, electrokinetic, and
Van der Waals forces), and two accessory actions within the filter
bed-biological growth and flocculation. The mechanisms that will
252
-------
Filtration systems are broadly classified as either "surface" or "in
253
-------
Subcate-
gory^ Filter Type
Treatment
Step
BOD, mg/1
Inf Eff
COD, mg/1
Inf Eff
5a
5a
5a
5a
5a
4a
Multi-media
In-depth
Dual-media
In-depth
Sand
In-depth
Multi-media
Pressure
Sand
In-depth
Multi-media
Pressure
Dual-media
In-depth
Dual-media
Pressure
(Direct Discharge)
159
Polishing
Polishing
Polishing 334
Polishing 327
Polishing 279
Post
Flotation
Polishing 327
Polishing 218
(Recycle)
Polishing 298
33
24
43
1265
1261
188
206
427
TSS, mg/1
Inf Eff
65
55
934 196
119
41
40
88
17
20
23
10
1572 480
800 312
- 1550
26
12
21
23
93
Mature/Research. Although considerable attention has been given
to filtration of textile wastewaters, very little historical or
research daฃa exist that demonstrate the effectiveness of ^^ration
Sterns While there are a number of filters in place to polish the
SSJ.u-ซE."'ffiซ01SttS;JTS" ffiSSS? S. SSiJS
summarized in the following cases.
Case 1
This case discusses the results at two Subcategory 5b Knit Fabric
Finishing mills that discharge to a common treatment plant. This
facility was part of the EPA/Industry pilot plant field studies (Mill
254
-------
Q); a description of the manufacturing operations and wastewater
treatment is provided in Appendix F.
Samples were collected over a 48-hour period at the influent to the
treatment plant, following secondary clarification, and at the
effluent. The results presented below demonstrate the effectiveness
of the biological system and the multi-media pressure filter in
treating conventional, non-conventional, and toxic pollutants.
Conventional and Non-Conventional Pollutant Treatability
Pollutant Raw
Parameter Waste*
BOD5, mg/1
COD, mg/1 782
TSS, mg/1 17
Oil & Grease, mg/1 324
Color, ADMI 288
Phenols, ug/1
Sulfide, ug/1 ND
Secondary
Effluent**
312
28
303
187
59
ND
Final
Effluent**
233
6
476
192
48
ND
* 48-hour composite sample
** average of two 24-hour composite samples
ND not detected
255
-------
Toxic Pollutant
Toxic Pollutant Treatability
Concentration, ug/1
Raw Secondary
Waste* Effluent**
1,2,4-Trichlorobenzene 2700
Ethylbenzene 101
Naphtalene 45
Phenol 55
Bis(2-ethylhexyl) Phthalate 41
Tetrachloroethylene ND
Trichloroethylene 840
Antimony 95
Chromium 14
Copper 44
Cyanide 10
Lead 36
Nickel 36
Selenium 15
Silver 12
Zinc 56
ND
ND
ND
ND
15
17
ND
670*
32*
104*
ND
48*
ND
41*
13*
48*
Final
Effluent**
ND
ND
ND
ND
12
17
ND
700*
32*
79*
10*
33*
ND
102* .
8*
84*
* average of two 24-hour grab samples
ND not detected
The following pollutants were detected at less than 10 ug/1 in the raw
waste, secondary effluent, and/or final effluent: 2,4,6-
Trichlorophenol; 2-Nitrophenol.
Case 2
This case discusses the results at a Subcategory 4a Woven Fabric
Finishing mill that performs flat bed and rotary screen printing to
produce sheets, towels, and bedspreads. Rotary screening printing
accounts for approximately 90 percent of the production, which was
reported as 30,000 kg/day (approximately 65,000 Ib/day). The
processing operations result in a water usage of 19.2 I/kg (2.3
gal/lb) and a wastewater discharge of 570 cu m/day (150,000 gpd).
Wastewater treatment at this mill consists of equalization {small
holding tank), grit removal, coarse screening, chemical addition (alum
and caustic), fine screening, (SWECO vibrating screens), chemical
addition (cationic polymer) and flocculation, dissolved air flotation
(300 gpm), biological aeration (2 lagoons in series with a total
volume of 1.64 mil gal), disinfection (chlorine), secondary
clarification (reactor/clarifier in which alum, caustic, and anionic
polymer are added), and dual-media gravity filtration (sand and
256
-------
nrmHri^ Kป detention time is approximately 170 hours, and air
>roximately 18 h /toll^a!*6^"' ** * power-to-voiume catio of
recycled for reuse in the printing operations.
Samples were collected
typical 48-hour period
flotation unit, at the
the chlorine contact
from the dual-media fi
the effectiveness of
treating conventional,
(see Appendix D for sampling procedures) over a
of operation at the bar screen prior to the air
Parshall flume prior to the aeration basins, at
chamber following aeration, and at the effluent
Iter. The results presented below demonstrate
the reactor/clarifier - dual-media filter in
non-conventional, and toxic pollutants
Conventional and Non-Conventional Pollutant Treatability*
Pollutant
Parameter
BOD5, mg/1
COD, mg/1
TSS, mg/1
Phenols, ug/1
Sulfide, ug/1
Biological
Influent
200**
725
32
26
200**
Biological
Effluent
67**
577
17
18
200**
Filter
Effluent
20**
543
4
14
200**
* average of two 24-hour samples
** reported as "less than" value
257
-------
Toxic Pollutant
Toxic Pollutant Treatablity
Concentration, ug/1
Biological Biological
Influent Effluent
Benzene
Ethylbenzene
Methyl Chloride
4-Nitrophenol
Pentachlorophenol
Phenol
Bis(2-ethylhexyl) Phthalate
Toluene
Copper
Lead
Nickel
Thallium
19
160
56
13
34
32
45
200
81**
NS
32**
14**
5*
ND
5*
10*
ND
24
ND
ND
52**
32**
32**
13**
Filter
Effluent
5*
ND
5*
10*
ND
16
ND
ND
27**
NS
NS
NS
* reported as "less than" value
** average of two 24-hour grab samples
ND not detected
NS no sample
The following pollutants were detected at less than 10 ug/1 in the
biological influent biological effluent, and final effluent: 1,2-
Dichloroethane; 1,1,1-Trichloroethane; Tetrachloroethylene;
Trichloroethylene; Beryllium; Cadmium; Chromium; Cyanide; Mercury;
Silver; Zinc.
Case 3
This case discusses the results at a Subcategory 7 Stock & Varn
Finishing facility that performs package dyeing of polyester, cotton,
an2 wool yarn. Dispersed dye is the primary dye class employed
although some acid and cationic dyes also are used Avera.g*
production is reported as 22,680 kg/day (50 000 l^?^' e
processing results in an average water usage of 154 I/kg 18.5 gal/lb)
and a wastewater discharge of 3,500 cu m/day (925,000 gpd).
Wastewater treatment at this mill consists of coarse screening
neutralization, biological aeration (one basin with a total volume of
5 250,000 gal), secondary clarification, dual-media gravity filtration
(sand and9 carbon), and disinfection (chlorine) Deration detention
time is approximately 120 hours, and air is provided by eight surface
aerators with a total power-to-volume ratio of approximately 114
hp/mil gal. The carbon in the filter has not been changed within the
past two years and may not be functioning in an adsorptive capacity.
258
-------
Samples were collected (see Appendix D for sampling procedures) over a
72-hour period of operation of the raw wastewater, the secondary
clarifier effluent, and the filter effluent. The results presented
below demonstrate the effectiveness of the activated sludge system and
the dual-media filter in treating conventional, non-conventional, and
toxic pollutants.
Conventional and Non-Conventional Pollutant Treatability
Pollutant
Parameter
COD, mg/1
TSS, mg/1
Phenols, ug/1
Sulfide, ug/1
Color, ADMI
Biological
Influent
226
25
810
44
131
Clarifier
Effuent
Min Max n
Filter
Effluent
Min Max
116
100
12
6
150
170
21
8
112 124
122
38
17
9
105
148
115
19
9
113
259
-------
Toxic Pollutant Treatability
Toxic
Pollutant
Acrylonitrile
1,2,4-Trichlorobenzene
Bis(chloromethyl) Ether
2,4,6-Trichlorophenol
Parachlorometa Cresol
1,2-Dichlorobenzene
2,4-Dichlorophenol
1,2-Dichloropropane
2,4-Dimethylphenol
Naphthalene
Pentachlorophenol
Bis(2-ethylhexyl)
Phthalate
Di-n-butyl Phthalate
Dimethyl Phthalate
Tetrachloroethylene
Toluene
Trichloroethylene
Antimony
Arsenic
Chromium
Copper
Lead
Nickel
Silver
Thallium
Zinc
Biological
Influent
ND
270
59
16
29
56*
20
56
190
18
ND
490
24
18
310
T
10
156
19
34
49
22**
36**
T
50**
493
Clarifier
Effuent
Min Max
n
ND 100** 3
19
ND
T
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
76
ND
ND
T
T
ND
141
T
68
110
22**
36**
T
ND
228
43 3
ND 3
T 3
T 3
T 3
ND 3
ND 3
ND 3
13 3
23 3
340 3
T 3
ND 3
T 3
38 3
ND 3
177 3
T 3
91 3
132 3
35 3
36** 3
T 3
50** 3
283 3
Filter
Effluent
Min
ND
T
ND
ND
ND
T
ND
ND
ND
T
ND
80
ND
ND
T
T
ND
150
T
12
20
Max
100**
21
ND
T
T
T
ND
ND
ND
T
13
170
T
ND
9
T
ND
162
T
57
84
22** 22**
42
11
ND
139
50
15
50**
436
n
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
* represent sum of concentrations of 1,2-Dichlorobenzene; 1,3-Dichloro-
bene; and 1,4-Dichlorobenzene
** reported as "less than" value
ND not detected
The following pollutants were detected at less than 10 ug/1 in the
biological influent, clarifier effluent, or filter effluent: Benzene;
Hexachlorobenzene; Chloroform; Ethylbenzene; Fluoranthane; Methylene
Chloride; N-nitrosodi-n-propylamine; Phenol; Butyl Benzyl Phthalate;
Diethyl Phthlate; Anthracene; Fluorene; Pyrene; Beryllium; Cadmium;
Cyanide; Mercury; Selenium.
260
-------
?he ,?L2lternative ?dvanced ^tewater treatment
studies were performed on the effluent from
the recommended BPT level of treatment
s
16 inches of gr.l (6 -
of
ฐ
4-
sV?tems employing
Case 1
Secondary clarifier effluent prior to chlorination
was used in
the
lป s
Conventional and Non-Conventional Pollutant Treatability at Mill D
Influent and Effluent to Multi-Media Filter*
Pollutant
BOD5, mg/1
COD, mg/1
TSS, mg/1
TOC, mg/1
Color, ADMI
__Inf luent
ฃ SD n
24 14 17
814 284 19
294 422 17
179 65 14
1007 696 12
_Effluent
x SD n
19 9
630 177
85 100
157 64
1070
15
19
16
32
2
ฐperated at an av*rage surface loading rate of 4.4 gpm/ft*
SD standard deviation
n number of samples
261
-------
Case 2
treatment at this facility is provided in Appendix F.
Multi-media filtration was part of both candidate modes at Mill DD.
However the effectiveness of multi-media filtration alone cannot be
evaluated based on the available data.
20 mg/1 as A1+". Data on the effectiveness are presented below.
Toxic Pollutant Treatability at Mill DD
Influent and Effluent to Multi-Media Filter
Influent, uq/1
58
59
37
72
25
190
Effluent, uq/1
110
28
31
67
28
280
Toxic Pollutant
Chromium
Copper
Lead
Nickel
Silver
Zinc
pollutants were detected at
innuer.L. <ปป* effluent to the filter: ,,-,
Diethyl Phthalate; Dimethyl Phthalate; Arsenic; Cadmium
Case 3
Thic; rac:e discusses the results at Mill B, a Subcategory 2 Wool
Fin?sh?ng mUl A description of the manufacturing operation and
wast!wa?Ir treatment at this mill is provided in Appendix F.
prior to chlorination was used in the
--- modes utilized multi-media
filtration during each mode are presented below.
262
-------
Pollutant
Parameter
BOD5, mg/1
COD, mg/1
TSS, mg/1
TOC, mg/1
x mean
SD standard deviation
n number of samples
Pollutant
Parameter
BOD5, mg/1
COD, mg/1
TSS, mg/1
TOC, mg/1
^Influent
2L SD n
39
194
6
68
13
68
6
29
SUrfaCe
_Influent
x SD n
17
216 137
82 86
77 45
_Effluent
x SD n
31
174
2
65
1.4 9
72 9
3 9
29 9
of 7.0 gpm/ft*
^Effluent
x SD n
23
157
31
69
- 1
124 3
29 3
38 3
x mean
SD standard deviation
n number of samples
of 6.6 gpm/ft*
263
-------
Pollutant
Parameter
BOD5., mg/1
COD, mg/1
TSS, mg/1
TOC, mg/1
Influent
; SD n
27
229
33
76
14
5
36
28
9
9
9
6
Effluent
: SD n
20
203
15
41
10
54
23
16
9
9
9
4
* Filter operated at an average surface loading rate of 5.4 gpm/ftซ
(9/13 - 9/21/77).
x mean
SD standard deviation
n number of samples
in addition to the regular pilot plan, : studies .at this facility,
samples were collected over a 24-hr Pe^ฐฐ u ^o c pollutants.
effectiveness of the candidate mode s ^treating t f*llowed by
The candidate mode tested l"^^"^^^ adsorption. The
.t, <
SET'S
264
-------
Toxic Pollutant Treatability at Mill B
Influent and Effluent to Multi-Media Filter
Toxic Pollutant
1,2,4-Trichlorobenzene
Pentachlorophenol
Bis(2-ethylhexyl) Phthalate
Toluene
Antimony
Arsenic
Cadmium
Chromium
Copper
Lead
Nickel
Silver
Zinc
Influent/ uq/1
154
ND
44
14
23
62
T
41
16
30
57
172
5730
Effluent ug/I
94
10
14
12
12
103
105
41
118
116
73
158
5800
T trace
ND not detected
The following pollutants were detected at less than 10 ug/1 in the
influent and effluent: 1,2-Dichlorobenzene; 2,4-Dimethylphenol, N-
nitrosodiphenylamine; Benzo(a)Pryrene.
Case 4
This case discusses the results at Mill P, a Subcategory 4c Woven
Fabric Finishing mill. A description of the manufacturing operations
and wastewater treatment at this mill is provided in Appendix F.
Two candidate modes utilized multi-media filtration as the first
treatment operation at Mill P. One mode included filtration with
precoagulation and the other followed this treatment with activated
carbon adsorption. Testing was performed on the secondary clarifier
effluent prior to chlorination. The operating characteristics and
data on the effectiveness of multi-media filtration during the testina
are presented below.
265
-------
Conventional and Non-Conventional Pollutant Treatability at Mill P
Influent and Effluent to Multi-Media Filter*
Pollutant
Parameter
_Influent
x SD n
_Effluent
x SD n
^, mg/1
COD, mg/1
TSS, mg/1
TOC, mg/1
Color, ADMI
11
122
10
20
138
9
54
4
7
21
9
98
21
23
141
6
15
15
4
28
* surface loading of 3 gpm/ft2 and a precoagulant alum dose of 1.5 mg/1
(as Al+3>.
x mean
SD standard deviation
n number of samples
Conventional and Non-Conventional Pollutant Treatability at Mill P
Influent and Effluent to Multi-Media Filter*
Pollutant
Parameter
BOD5., mg/1
COD, mg/1
TSS, mg/1
TOC, mg/1
Color, ADMI
_Influent
x SD n
3
122
25
29
163
_Effluent
x SD n
38
130
10
25
162
* surface loading of 3 gpm/ft2 and a precoagulant alum dose of 1.5 mg/1
(as A1+3).
x mean
SD standard deviation
n number of samples
266
-------
Conventional and Non-Conventional Pollutant Treatability at Mill P
Influent and Effluent to Multi-Media Filter*
Pollutant
Parameter
BOD5, mg/1
COD, mg/1
TSS, mg/1
TOC, mg/1
Color, ADMI
x mean
SD standard deviation
n number of samples
_Influent
2L SD n
^Effluent
x SD n
11
85
153
36
154
11
118
17
27
161
ฐf 5 gpm/ft" and a P^coagulant alum dose of
Pollutant
Parameter
^, mg/1
COD, mg/1
TSS, mg/1
TOC, mg/i
Color, ADMI
_Influent
i SD n
26
109
11
29
149
_Effluent
x_ SD n
8
83
12
27
150
ฐf 5 ^m/ft2 and - Precoaguiant alum dose of
x mean
SD standard deviation
n number of samples
267
-------
Conventional and Non-Conventional Pollutant ^ability at Mill P
Influent and Effluent to Multi-Media niter
Pollutant
Parameter
BOD5., mg/1
COD, mg/1
TSS, mg/1
TOC, mg/1
Color, ADMI
Influent
: SD n
_Effluent
x SD n
11
85
153
36
154
10
113
20
25
160
2
2
2
2
* surface loading rate of 7 gpn/ff and a precoagulant alum dose of
_ 1.5 mg/1 (as Al+3).
x mean
SD standard deviation
n number of samples
Case 5
TM, cซ.di,cu,,.,
ซ,ซ.ซ t Mill
at these mills is provided in Appendix F.
o ปs
consisted of multi-media f lltr^ฐ" ^ฐ rlarif ier effluent prior to
EjS
filtration during the testing are presented below.
268
-------
Conventional and Non-Conventional Pollutant Treatability at Mill 0
Influent and Effluent to Multi-Media Filter*
Pollutant
Parameter
BOD5, mg/1
COD, mg/1
TSS, mg/1
TOC, mg/1
Color, ADMI
_Influent
x SD n
_Effluent
x SD n
10
338
77
18
ฐf 2'5
4.3 4
36 4
24 4
0.6 3
7
258
28
18
1.3 4
26 4
19 4
0.6 3
Precoa<3ulant alum dose of
x mean
SD standard deviation
n number of samples
Conventional and Non-Conventional Pollutant Treatability at Mill 0
Influent and Effluent to Multi-Media Filter*
Pollutant
Parameter
BOD5, mg/1
COD, mg/1
TSS, mg/1
TOC, mg/1
Color, ADMI
_Influent
x SD n
8.5
273
48
214
1.4
15
6.8
68
_* surface loading rate of 2.0 gpm/ft2
x mean
SD standard deviation
n number of samples
_Effluent
2L SD n
4 0.7 6
202 10 6
4.5 2.6 6
205
45
269
-------
Conventional and Non-Conventional Pollutant Treatability at Mill Q
Influent and Effluent to Multi-Media Filter*
Pollutant
Parameter
BOD5_, mg/1
COD, mg/1
TSS, mg/1
TOC, mg/1
Color, ADMI
_Influent
x SD n
8
272
45
27
252
2
32
11
3.8
24
14
14
14
3
7
_Effluent
x SD n
4
208
4
22
250
1
17
1.5
1.7
14
14
14
14
3
6
_* surface loading rate of 2.0 gpm/ft2.
x mean
SD standard deviation
n number of samples
Case 6
This case discusses the results at Mill V, a Subcategory 4c Woven
Fabric Finishing mill. A description of the manufacturing operations
and wastewater treatment at this mill is provided in Appendix F.
The candidate mode selected for Mill V consisted of the
reactor/clarifier followed by multi-media filtration followed by
activated carbon adsorption. Testing was performed on secondary
clarifier effluent prior to chlorination. The ฐP^ating
characteristics and data on the effectiveness of multi-media
filtration during the testing are presented below.
270
-------
Conventional and NonConventional Pollutant Treatability at Mill V
Influent and Effluent to Multi-Media Filter*
Pollutant
Parameter
BOD5., mg/1
COD, mg/1
TSS, mg/1
TOC, mg/1
Color, ADMI
_Influent
x SD n
_Effluent
x SD n
3.6
352
51
72
274
2
35
17
9
57
14
14
14
14
13
2.5
331
20
62
283
1.2
31
8
8
49
14
14
14
14
11
_* surface loading rate of 3.0 qpm/ft*
x mean
SD standard deviation
n number of samples
Toxic Pollutant Treatability at Mill V
Influent and Effluent to Multi-Media Filter
Toxic Pollutant
1,2-Dichlorobenzene
Pentachlorophenol
Bis(2-ethylhexyl) Phthalate
Antimony
Chromium
Copper
Lead
Silver
Zinc
Influent, ua/1
not
13
detected
34
123
17
11
66
72
195
Effluent uq/1
trace
12
trace
136
14
25
64
77
234
Tre detected ^ less than 10 ug/1 in the
"
271
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Case 7
This case discusses the results at Mill W, a Subcategory 5b Knit
Fabric Finishing mill. A description of the manufacturing operations
and wastewater treatment at this mill is provided in Appendix F.
Multi-media filtration was part of the treatment in both candidate
modes selected for Mill W. One mode consisted of multj-mซ
filtration followed by activated carbon adsorption. The second mode
tested multi-media filtration with precoagulation. Testing was
performed on secondary clarifier effluent prior to chlorination. The
operating characteristics and data on the effectiveness of multi-media
filtration during the testing are presented below.
Conventional and Non-Conventional Pollutant Treatability at Mill W
Influent and Effluent to Multi-Media Filter*
Pollutant
Parameter
BOD5., mg/1
COD, mg/1
TSS, mg/1
TOC, mg/1
Color, ADMI
Influent
: SD n
4.6
73
26
14
140
1.6
9
9
4.5
57
17
17
17
16
16
_* surface loading rate of 7 gpm/ft2.
x mean
SD standard deviation
n number of samples
_Effluent
x SD n
3.4
55
9.5
11
118
1.2
7
4.7
3.3
42
17
17
17
16
16
272
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Conventional and Non-Conventional Pollutant Testability at Mill W
Influent and Effluent to Multi-Media Filter*
Pollutant
Parameter
BOD5, mg/1
COD, mg/1
TSS, mg/1
TOC, mg/1
Color, ADMI
_Influent
x SD n
_Effluent
x SD n
4.6
73
26
14
140
1.6
9
9
4.5
57
17
17
17
16
16
2.4
48
13
10
83
1.2
7
6
4
30
17
17
17
16
15
x mean
SD standard deviation
n number of samples
""coagulant dosage of
273
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Toxic Pollutant Treatability at Mill W
Influent and Effluent to Multi-Media Filter*
Toxic Pollutant
Benzene
1,2,4-Trichlorobenzene
Chloroform
Bis{2-ethylhexyl) Phthalate
Antimony
Arsenic
Copper
Lead
Nickel
Silver
Thallium
Zinc
Influent**
Min Max n
ND 10
ND 29
ND 1020
ND 34
560 888
10* 10*
18 323
9 82
36* 108
51 30
50# 50#
34 90
7
6
7
7
7
1
7
7
7
7
1
7
Effluent**
Min Max n
ND 4 7
ND 9 7
ND 790 7
ND 44 7
554 869 7
11 11 1
10 41 7
10 85 7
36* 1U 7
5* 32# 7
501 50# 1
40 86 7
* multi-media filtration/activated carbon mode
** concentrations in ug/1
ND not detected
f reported as "less than" valve
n number of samples
The following pollutants were detected at less than 10 ug/1 in the
influent and effluent: Acenaphthene; Parachlorometacresol; 2,4-
Dichlorophlnol; 2,4-Dimethylphenol; Ethylbenzene; Naphthalene; Phenol;
Di-n-butyl Phthaiate; Toluene; Trichloroethylene; Beryllium; Cadmium;
Chromium; Cyanide, Mercury; Selenium.
274
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Toxic Pollutant Treatability at Mill W
Influent and Effluent to Multi-Media Filter*
Toxic Pollutant
Benzene
1,2,4-Tri chlorobenzene
Chloroform
Bis(2-ethylhexyl)
Phthalate
Antimony
Copper
Lead
Nickel
Silver
Thallium
Zinc
Influent**
Min Max n
ND
ND
ND
ND
560
18
9
36#
5t
50#
34
10
29
1020
34
867
323
82
108
30
50#
90
7
6
7
7
7
7
7
7
7
1
7
Effluent**
Min Max n
ND
ND
ND
11
3 7
6 7
7 7
42 7
479
9
28
34
5*
50#
48
888
27
81
137
41
50#
93
7
7
7
7
7
1
7
* multi-media filtration with precoagulation mode.
** concentrations in ug/1
n number of samples
ND not detected
# reported as "less than" value
The following pollutants were detected at less than 10 uq/1 in the
Pnlnof^Di nnbutv?flph?Ht:i * Acenf^hene; Ethylbenzene; Naphthalene?
pnenol; Di-n-butyl Phthalate; Toluene; Trichloroethylene- Arsenic
BerylUum; Cadmium; Chromium; Cyanide; Mercury; Selenium Arsenic,
Case 8
at M111 E' a Subcategory 5a Knit
a Ascription of the manufacturing operations
and wastewater treatment at this mill is provided in Appendix F.
tlie 1 plant testin ฐf the candidate mode treatment
efec venessof1^' S1?1^ Were cฐnecte<* to evaluate the
ettectiveness of the technologies in treating toxic pollutants
was such that'th^nn0? ^ ?5rฃ ฐf tVTฐ mฐdes Of treatment, and testing
ซfL^- fc tre u?lfcs could be evaluated independently. Data on the
effectiveness of multi-media filtration are presented below.
275
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Priority Pollutant Treatability at Mill E
Influent and Effluent to Multi-Media Filter*
Toxic Pollutant
Benzene
Chloroform
N-nitrosodi-n-propylamine
Phenol
Bis(2-ethylhexyl) Phthalate
Antimony
Chromium
Copper
Cyanide
Lead
Nickel
Silver
Zinc
Influent**
Min Max n
ND
ND
ND
ND
T
22*
T
T
10*
22*
66
T
155
15
207
T
T
109
600
98
36
10*
34
187
73
5160
10
10
10
10
10
8
8
8
10
8
8
8
8
Effluent**
Min Max n
ND
ND
ND
ND
T
10*
T
T
10*
22*
36
T
155
T
10
26
2110
20
37
12
26
10*
27
188
68
204
10
10
10
10
10
8
8
8
10
8
8
8
8
* Multi-Media Filter - Activated Carbon mode
** concentrations in ug/1
T trace
* reported as "less than" value
n number of samples
ND not detected
influent and
The following were detected at less than 10 ug/1 in the 1K_orio
effluent? 1,2,4-Trichlorobenzene; 1,2-Dichlorobenzene; Ethylbenzene
Methylene Chloride; Naphthalene; N-nitrosodi-n-propylamine; D^-^tyl
Phthalate; Diethyl Phthalate; Anthracene; Toluene; Beryllium; Cadmium;
Selenium.
276
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Toxic Pollutant Treatability at Mill E
Influent and Effluent to Multi-Media Filter*
Influent** Effluent**
Toxic Pollutant Min Max n Min Max n
Benzene ND T 3 ND 144 10
Chloroform T 73 3 ND ND 10
Phenol ND 669 3 ND T 9
Bis(2-ethylhexyl) Phthalate T 18 3 T 200 10
Antimony 10# 43 3 10# 48 8
Copper 41 12 3 4# 20 8
Cyanide 101 10# 5 10# 10# 10
Lead 22| 22# 3 22# 27 8
Nickel 43 77 3 36# 135 8
Silver 5$ 23 3 5# 59 8
145 155 3 144 160 8
* Reactor/Clarifier - Multi-Media Filter mode
** concentrations in ug/1
T trace
# reported as "less than" value
n number of samples
ND not detected
Case 9
This case discusses the results at Mill A, a Subcategory 1 Wool
Scouring facility. A description of the manufacturing operations and
wastewater treatment at this mill is provided in Appendix F.
During the pilot plant testing of the candidate mode treatment
technologies at this mill, samples were collected over a typical 24-
hour period of operation to evaluate the effectiveness of the
technologies in treating toxic pollutants. Multi-media filtration was
part of one mode of treatment, and testing was such that the unit
could be evaluated independently. Data on the effectiveness are
presented below.
277
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Toxic Pollutant Treatability at Mill A
Influent and Effluent Multi-Media Filter
Toxic Pollutant Influent, uq/1 Effluent, ug/1
Phenol* 17 17
Bis(2-ethylhexyl) Phthalate 23 14
Arsenic 39 83
Copper 110 120
Cyanide 240 260
Zinc 190 400
* represents total of all toxic pollutant phenolics
The following pollutants were detected at less than 10 ug/1 in the
influent and effluent: Ethylbenzene; Fluoranthene; Di-n-butyl
Phthalate; Benzo(a)Anthracene; Benzo(a)Pyrene; Benzo(k)Fluoranthane;
Anthracene; Toluene; Antimony.
This case discusses the results at Mill 0, a Subcategory 2 Wool
Finishing mill. A description of the manufacturing operations and
wastewater treatment at this mill is provided in Appendix F.
During the pilot plant testing of the candidate mode treatment
technologies at this mill, samples were collected over a typical 72-
hour period of operation to evaluate the effectiveness of the
technologies in removing toxic pollutants. Multi-media filtration was
part of two modes of treatment, and testing was such that one unit
could be evaluated independently. Data on the effectiveness are
presented below.
278
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Toxic Pollutant Treatability at Mill 0
Influent and Effluent to Multi-Media Filter*
Toxic Pollutant
Methylene Chloride
Bis(2-ethylhexyl) Phthalate
Chromium
Copper
Lead
Nickel
Thallium
Zinc
Influent**
Min Max n
46
230
158
T
22*
36*
50*
639
46
760
206
14
22#
36*
50*
1280
1
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
Effluent**
Min Max n
47 47 1
16 80 3
78 101 3
105 130 3
22* 22* 3
36* 36* 3
50* 50* 3
371 594 3
* Unit 1
** concentrations in ug/1
n number of samples
T trace
# reported as "less than" value
nfin PQll"tants were detected at less than 10 ug/1 in the
influent and effluent: Acrylonitrile; Benzene- 124-
TV rh2'4'6-Tri^lorophenol; Parachlorametacresot;
h ซ 2-Dichlorobenzene; Ethylbenzene; Fluoranthene
n-butvf neth?h^^ฐSฐdi;n-^ฐ?ylamihe; Pentachlorophenol, PhenSl; Di-
n-butyl Phthalate; Diethyl Phthalate; Phenanthrene- Pvrene-
Tetrachloroethylene; Toluene; Trichloroethylene; Antimony' Arsenic'
Beryllium; Cadmium; Cyanide; Mercury; Selenium; Silver. Arsenic,
b- Hyperfiltration/Ultrafiltration
is a P^ical separation process
K Pressure (greater than osmotic pressure) to
"!rou?h a femi-permeable membrane (permeable to water but
mateFials of a specific molecular size). The process is
dnH rem?vin^ suspended particles and substantial fractions of
dissolved impurities, including organic and inoganic materials The
?hfranr,-are1deS^gn?d Sฐ that water and specils smalTer I* size than
^rn^3 " Vel ฐf the Particular membrane pass through while
larger species are rejected. The process results in two effluents
theconcentrated
The membrane is the most important aspect of the reverse osmosis
systems. Those most widely used are manufactured from T mixture of
Nni ~??ei acetate' Acetone, formamide, and magnesium perchlorate
Non-cellulose synthetic polymer membranes have also been developed and
279
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are commercially available; however, these are more often
in untrafiltration systems. The most common commercially available
hvperfiltration systems include the tubular, spiral wound, and hollow
fine fiber. The tubular system has a typical membrane area per unit
volume of 20 ftVft* and the membrane is situated along the inner wall
of a 1/2-inch diameter tube. The spiral wound system utilizes a
number of flat membranes separated by porous spacers and rolled into a
spiral- these systems typically provide 250 ftซ of membrane surface
per ft* of volume! The hollow fiber system utilizes microscopic
fibers that are essentially tiny, thick-walled tubes. Pressure is
applied from the outside of the tubes and the filtrate <^ซ effluent)
flows into the tubes. The hollow fiber system can Provide from 2000
to 5000 ft* of membrane surface per ftซ of volume. The tubular system
is easiest to clean, or replace, and is usually employed in wastewater
appli cat i ons.
Hvperfiltration systems usually operate at a pressure of 300 to 1,500
psi and have a flux rate on the order of 10 gal/day/ft*. They
generally require extensive pretreatment (pH adjustment, filtration,
chemical precipitation, activated-carbon adsorption) of the waste
stream to prevent rapid fouling or deterioration of the membrane
surface.
Ultrafiltration is similar to hyperfiltration and relies on a semi-
permeable membrane and an applied driving force to separate suspended
and dissolved materials from wastewater. The membranes used in
Ultrafiltration have pores large enough to eliminate osmotic pressure
as a factor and, therefore, allow operation at pressures as low as 5
to 10 psi Sieving is the predominant mechanism of removal, and tne
process is usually applicable for removal of materials above a
molecular weight of 500 that have very small osmotic pressure at
moderate concentration. Because of the larger pore sizes, flux rates
for Ultrafiltration are on the order of 20 to 50 gal/day/ft*. The
systems have been used for removal or concentration of macromolecules
such as proteins, enzymes, starches, and other organic polymers.
Industry Application. None of the textile mills surveyed during this
study report the use of hyperfiltration or Ultrafiltration in their
end-of-pipe wastewater treatment systems.
Literature/Research. Both hyperfiltration and ultrafiltration of
textile wastewater has been studied by EPA and others for several
ytars A research project (71) funded by the EPA Office of Research
and Development investigated the feasibility of hyperfiltration
membranes for the renovation of composite textile dyeing and finishing
wastewater from a Subcategory 4a Woven Fabric Finishing mill. The
processing at the mill included piece dyeing of uphoIstery fabrics
made of cotton, rayon, and nylon. The general conclusion of the study
is that the product water quality is satisfactory for direct reuse in
280
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all dyeing and finishing operations at the facility. The results of
the study are available for information on equipment performance and
projected treatment cost.
A second research project (72), also funded by the EPA Office of
Research and Development, investigated hyperfiltration for renovation
of composite wastewater at eight textile finishing plants. The
objective of the study was to obtain results that when combined with
the results obtained from the project noted above (71) would permit a
feasible assessment of hyperfiltration as a general treatment
technology for the textile industry. The study involved the
measurement of membrane performance with minimum pretreatment, the
evaluation of reuse of both the purified product water and the
concentrated residue, and the determination of the treatability of the
concentrate by conventional means. The general conclusions of the
study are that the product water is satisfactory for reuse in
scouring, bleaching, dyeing, and finishing and that the residual
concentrate is treatable by conventional treatment equivalent to that
used at each facility for treating the composite wastewater. The
results of the investigations are available for information on
equipment performance and projected treatment cost.
Based on the finding of the above hyperfiltration studies, a full-
scale demonstration project has been funded by EPA and is currently in
the design and construction phase.
Research has been conducted, and a full-scale ultrafiltration system
is in place, for recovery of synthetic sizes from scouring wastes.
c. Dissolved Air Flotation
Dissolved air flotation is a physical separation operation that is
used to separate solid or liquid particles from a liquid phase. A
portion of the flow is pressurized to 40 to 50 psi in the presence of
sufficient air to approach saturation. The pressurized air-liquid
mixture is released in a flotation unit through which the remaining
fh^6 4-f uai? !iows- The entrained air is released as fine bubbles
u uui ch to the Partlculate matter. The buoyant force of the gas
bubbles causes the particles to rise to the surface where they are
skimmed off. J
The performance of a flotation unit is related to the air-solids
ratio, which is defined as pounds of air released per pound of solids
0?01 to1" 1 WaSte* A typical range of the air to solids ratio is
The primary variables for flotation design are the quantity of air
used, the influent solids and/or oil concentration, and the overflow
rate. When the flotation process is used primarily for clarification
281
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a detention period of 20 to 30 minutes is adequate for separation and
concentration. Rise rates of 1.5 to 5.0 gpm/sq ft are commonly
employed. (73)
The principal components of a dissolved air flotation system are a
pressurizing pump, air injection facilities, a retention tank, a back
pressure regulating device, and a flotation unit. The pressurizing
pump creates an elevated pressure to increase the solubility of air.
Air is usually added through an injector on the suction side of the
pump. Of the total air induced, 30 to 45 percent will usually be
dissolved.
Chemicals such as aluminum and iron salts and activated silica are
commonly used in dissolved air flotation to increase the flocculent
structure of the floated particles and hence facilitate the capture of
qas bubbles. A variety of organic chemicals (polymers) may also be
employed to change the nature of either the air-liquid interface or
the solid-liquid interface, or both.
Industry Application. Five of the mills surveyed report that air
flotation is employed in their waste treatment systems. Two are
direct dischargers, two are indirect dischargers, and one practices
complete recycle. One of the direct dischargers separates print
pastes from a segregated print department discharge. The other direct
discharger reclaims indigo dyestuff for reuse from a yarn dyeing
operation. One indirect discharger separates print pastes from Uie
discharge of a sheet printing operation, and the other removes latex
from a coating operation. The recycle plant separate print paste from
the discharge of large woven fabric printing operation. Historical
monitoring data are not available to demonstrate the effectiveness of
the air flotation units alone.
Literature/Research. During this study, sampling was conducted at one
of the mills noted above to provide information on the effectiveness
of air flotation. The results are discussed in the following case.
Case 1
This case discusses the results at a Subcategory 4a Woven Fabric
Finishing mill that performs flat bed and rotary screen printing to
produce sheets, towels, and bedspreads. Rotary screening printing
accounts for approximately 90 percent of the production, which was
reported as 30,000 kg/day (approximately 65,000 Ib/day). The
processing operations result in a water usage of 19-2 1/KQ <2-3
gal/lb) and a wastewater discharge of 570 cu m/day (150,000 gpd).
Wastewater treatment at this mill consists of equalization (small
holding tank), grit removal, coarse screening, chemical addition (alum
and caustic), fine screening, (SWECO vibrating screens), chemical
282
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addition (cationic polymer) and flocculation, dissolved air flotation
(300 gpm), biological aeration {2 lagoons in series with a total
volume of 1.64 mil gal), disinfection (chlorine), secondary
clarification (reactor/clarifier in which alum, caustic, and anionic
polymer are added), and dual-media gravity filtrations (sand and
carbon). Aeration detention time is approximately 170 hours, and air
is provided by surface aerators at a power-to-volume ratio of
approximately 18 hp/mil gal. The discharge from the treatment plant
is recycled for reuse in the printing operations.
Samples were collected (see Appendix D for sampling procedures) over a
typical 48-hour period of operation at the bar screen prior to the air
flotation unit, at the Parshall flume prior to the aeration basins, at
the chlorine contact chamber following aeration, and at the effluent
from the dual-media filters. The results presented below demonstrate
the effectiveness of the dissolved air flotation unit in treating
conventional, non-conventional, and toxic pollutants.
Conventional and Non-Conventional Pollutant Treatability
Influent and Effluent to Dissolved Air Flotation Unit*
Pollutant Parameter
BOD5, mg/1
COD, mg/1
TSS, mg/1
Phenols, ug/1
Sulfide, ug/1
Influent
400
1050
195
92
200**
Effluent
200**
725
32
26
200**
* average of two 24-hour samples
** reported as "less than" value
283
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Toxic Pollutant Treatability
Influent and Effluent to Dissolved Air Flotation Unit*
Toxic Pollutant
Benzene
1,1,1-Trichloroethane
Ethylbenzene
Methyl Chloride
Naphthalene
Pentachlorophenol
Phenol
Influent, uq/1
18
11
460
26
250
37
94
Bis(2-ethylhexyl) Phthalate 570
Di-n-butyl Phthalate 13
Toluene 320
Copper 323
Lead 14
Nickel 28
Thallium T
Zinc 25
Effluent, uq/1
12
T
160
30
ND
30
26
45
ND
132
81
ND
32
14
T
* average of two 24-hour samples
ND not detected
T trace
The following pollutants were detected at less than 10 ug/1 in the
influent and effluent: 1,2-Dichloroethane; Chloroform; Tetrachloro-
ethylene; Beryllium; Cadmium; Chromium; Cyanide; Mercury; Selenium;
Silver; Thallium.
d. Stripping
Stripping here refers to the removal of relatively volatile components
from a wastewater by the passage of air, steam, or other gas through
the liquid. For example, ammonia-nitrogen has been removed from high-
pH municipal wastewater by air stripping in a limited number of
applications. The exhaust gas is vented to the atmosphere without
treatment in most cases. Steam stripping of ammonia-rich water
followed by recovery of the ammonia as ammonium salt in an acidic
absorbing liquid is a newer process under development. (74, 75)
Stripping odorous substances from kraft pulp mill waste streams by
steam provides another example (76).
Stripping of certain volatile toxic pollutants from textile mill
wastewaters under controlled conditions that prevent release to the
atmosphere is theoretically a potential treatment process. Serious
questions about the economic feasibility must be addressed, however,
284
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this timฃ ฃฃ* atlVSly low cฐnซntrations typically present. At
this time, there is no information about design criteria
?hf ?tl?e?eSS', ฐl COSts for a"y treatment systems, either in ule in
the textile industry or transferable from other applications that
waltewa?ers " ^ Strippin* volatile Pollutants^rom texUle mUl
e. Electrodialvsis
fi!!ftr?dialySiS is a membrane separation process that is employed to
ofan indn^^fiCOr0nentS fr?n a liquid phase' Tne Processmakes use
a nenaMv* f^ fCtS1C cu"ent that ""ses migration of cations toward
^rfr^l e*ectrod? and migration of anions toward a positive
a^d an^n'^f^"^10"^ iS accomPlished by alternately placing cat on-
and anion-selective membranes across the current path. Because of the
alternate spacing, cells of concentrated and dilute solutions are
formed. Electrodialysis shares the same operating diff iculUes Is
ฑซ" and "^"-filtration systems in that pretreatment s usualfy
necessary to prevent rapid fouling of the membranes. usuany
Industry Application. There are currently no known textile mills that-
IT^rthfnro^31^15 -?S -Part ฐf th^ir waste treatment systems'
Since the process primarily is applicable to the separation of solubl4
inorganic ions it has not been given much consideration except ? thl
case of wastewater renovation for reuse.
5. Sorption Systems
a. Activated Carbon Adsorption
carbonv adsorption is a physical separation process in which
parices '"varioL31^61"0^ ?n,the SUrfaC6 ฐf hig"^ Pฐrous ca"bฐ"
parcicies. various raw materials are used in the nroduri-inn ^f
K s.rs ss:ซJ!r J
.
have surface areas of 500 to 1,400 square meters per gram.
Many factors have been identified as important in describina the
adsorption of materials on activated carbon. It is not appropritae
for this: ^discussion to include all of the factors relating to thl
nature of the carbon and its surface area, particle size? pore size
285
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etc. Instead, the focus is on the materials in the water that are to
be adsorbed. General information has been developed about the
molecular structure of compounds, in relation to adsorbability, in
terms of both polarity and degree of ionization (78). Molecular
structure, of course, is reflected also in the solubility of the
compound and materials that are less attracted to water tend to be
more attracted to activated carbon surfaces.
In general, molecules are more readily adsorbed than ionized
compounds. The aromatic compounds tend to be more readily adsorbed
than the aliphatics, and larger molecules more readily adsorbed then
smaller ones, although extremely high molecular weight materials can
be too large to penetrate the pores in the carbon. Treatment of
wastes with carbon is generally considered for organic rather than
inorganic components, although metals and other inorganics may be
adsorbed on carbon surfaces or on organic solids that are removed in
granular carbon filters.
The concentration level of the material is important in several ways
including competition for sites with other organic materials in tne
water and also displacement of molecules already adsorbed by compounds
more favored by the carbon. A very important consideration relating
to concentration is that the behavior of the toxic pollutants has not
vet been widely studies to any degree at the very low concentrations
that are likely in most wastewaters. The effects of competition with
other organics when the compounds of interest are at extremely low
levels is almost totally speculative at this time. A last, very
important factor in adsorption phenomena is the pH of the solution.
Usually, the lower the PH of the solution, the greater the adsorption
of many materials although, again, it depends upon the type of
material being taken up.
As pointed out by Ford (79) and others, adsorption with activated
carbon cannot be regarded as a universal panacea capable of removing
all types of organics under all conditions. The process has
limitations and must be evaluated for particular situations.
Preliminary treatment of the wastewater, such as pH adjustment,
coagulation, or chemical oxidation may improve the adsorbability ot
some pollutants.
There are two forms of activated carbon in common use, granular and
powdered. To date, the granular form has been preferred for most
wastewater applications because it can be readily regenerated.
Regeneration of powdered activated carbon by steam is currently under
development. Granular carbon is commonly employed in columns operated
in series. The columns may be operated downflow packed bed, upflow
packed bed, or upflow expanded bed. Although the upflow expanded bed
theoretically is the best alternative due to its ability to process
more turbid wastewaters without clogging, operational difficulties
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-
have limited its development. The upflow packed bed offers
hK is.commonly regenerated thermally at 1500ฐ? in a multiole
hearth furnace in the presence of steam. Here, the adsorbed Srqanics
are oxidized to gasses in the form of either
been found to result from biodegradation rather than adsorption
.
the most common. o date thl
flsfarded without regeneration in most systems
SSL?
Literature/Research. Activated carbon adsorption has received
SSch of^ h/tte?ti0n.with re^ard to Bating industrial waste^aters
Much of the information available on textile waste has to rtn wif A
ฐf^diVidUf\rSte streams to allow wlterrluse?he most
data available on end-of-pipe treatment are those
tปซ-- ซป
287
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EPA/Industrv Field Studies. In a joint research effort between EPA
lid the texHIe^ industry (ATMI, NTA, and CRI), pilot plant studies
were conducted during 1977 and 1978 at 19 textile mills to evaluate
the effectiveness of alternative advanced wastewater treatment
technologies The studies were performed with secondary clar if ler
^
during backwashing. Depanding on the results of isot herm tes ting
either Westvaco, ICI, or Hydrodarco granular carbon was utilized. The
available results of the activated carbon studies during the candidate
process evaluations are discussed in the following cases.
Case 1
This case discusses the results at Mill D, a Subcategory 4c Woven
Fabric linilhing mill. A description of the manufacturing operations
and wastewater treatment at this mill is provided in Appendix F.
The experimental testing was performed on secondary ^arifier effluent
prior to chlorination. Two candidate modes were tested and both
utilized activated carbon. One mode consisted of
filtration followed by activated carbon; the other mode
included ozonation. The operating characteristics and data on the
effectiveness of activated carbon adsorption are presented below.
Conventional and Non-Conventional Pollutant Treatability at Mill D
Influent and Effluent to Activated Carbon Columns*
Pollutant Parameter
_Influent
x SD n
Effluent
i SD n
^, mg/1
COD, mg/1
TSS, mg/1
TOC, mg/1
Color, ADMI
19
630
85
157
1070
9
177
100
64
-
15
19
16
32
13 7
422 143
23 13
101 40
825 239
21
22
21
14
14
* Westvaco WV-L activated carbon with an empty bed retention time of
_ 45 minutes.
x mean
SD standard deviation
n number of samples
288
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Case 2
This case discusses the results at Mill DD, a two-facility complex
that performs woven fabric and stock & yarn finishing. A Low-Water-
Use Processing operation (griege mill) also is associated with this
complex. A description of the manufacturing operations and wastewater
treatment at this facility is provided in Appendix F.
One of two candidate modes tested at this facility included activated
carbon. However, the effectiveness of activated carbon alone cannot
be evaluated based on the available data.
In addition to the regular pilot plant studies at this facility
samples were collected over a typical 8-hour operating period to
evaluate the effectiveness of the pilot plant technologies in removinq
priority pollutants. One mode tested included multi-media filtration
followed by activated carbon. The surface loading rate to the filters
ranged from 1 to 4 gpm/ftz and the carbon columns were operated at an
empty bed retention time of 45 minutes. Data on the effectiveness are
presented below.
289
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Toxic Pollutant Treatability at Mill DD
Influent and Effluent to Activated Carbon Columns
Toxic Pollutant
Chromium
Copper
Lead
Nickel
Silver
Zinc
Influent, uq/1
58
59
37
72
25
190
Effluent, uq/1
130
42
35
81
32
370
The following pollutants were detected at less than 10 ug/1 in the
influent and effluent to the filter: Bis(2-ethylhexyl) Phthalate;
Diethyl Phthalate; Dimethyl Phthalate; Toluene; Arsenic; Cadmium.
Case 3
This case discusses the results at Mill B, a Subcategory 2 Wool
Finishing mill. A description of the manufacturing operations and
wastewater treatment at this mill is provided in Appendix F.
Secondary clarifier effluent prior to chlorination was used in the
pilot plant tests at this mill. One candidate mode included activated
carbon columns and data on the effectiveness are presented below.
Conventional and Non-Conventional Pollutant Treatability at Mill B
Influent and Effluent to Activated Carbon Columns*
Pollutant Parameter
BOD5., mg/1
COD, mg/1
TSS, mg/1
TOC, mg/1
_Influent
x SD n
^Effluent
x SD n
31
174
2
65
1.4 9
72 9
3 9
29 9
16
26
1
15
12
22
1
8
* ICI Hydrodarco activated carbon with an empty bed retention time of
30 minutes (9/6 - 9/13/77).
x mean
SD standard deviation
n number of samples
290
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Conventional and Non-Conventional Pollutant Treatability at Mill B
Influent and Effluent to Activated Carbon Columns*
Pollutant Parameter
BOD5, mg/1
COD, mg/1
TSS, mg/1
TOC, mg/1
_Influent
x SD n
23
157
31
69
- 1
124 3
29 3
38 3
_Effluent
x SD n
11
21
5
17
* ICI Hydrodarco activated carbon with an empty bed retention time of
28 minutes (9/11 - 9/12/77).
x mean
SD standard deviation
n number of samples
Conventional and Non-Conventional Pollutant Treatability at Mill B
Influent and Effluent to Activated Carbon Columns*
Pollutant Parameter
BOD5, mg/1
COD, mg/1
TSS, mg/1
TOC, mg/1
_Influent
x SD n
_Effluent
x SD n
20
203
15
41
10
54
23
16
8
40
2
18
7
12
2
2
* ICI Hydrodarco activated carbon with an empty bed retention time of
_ 25 minutes (9/13 - 9/21/77).
x mean
SD standard deviation
n number of samples
In addition to the regular pilot plant studies at this facility,
samples were collected over a 24-hr period to evaluate the
effectiveness of the candidate mode in removing toxic pollutants. The
candidate mode tested included the reactor/clarifier followed by
multi-media filtration followed by carbon adsorption. The
reactor/clarifier was loaded at a rate of 400 gpd/ft2 with 35 mg/1
alum as (Al+ป) added as a coagulant, the multi-media filter was loaded
at a rate of 5.4 gpm/ft2, and the carbon columns were operated at an
empty bed retention time of 25 to 30 minutes. Data on the
effectiveness of the activated carbon columns are presented below.
291
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Toxic Pollutant Treatability at Mill B
Influent and Effluent to Activated Carbon Columns
Toxic Pollutant
Influent, uq/1
1,2,4-Trichlorobenzene 94
Pentachlorophenol 10
Bis(2-ethylhexyl) Phthalate 14
Toluene 12
Antimony 12
Arsenic 103
Cadmium 105
Chromium 41
Copper 118
Lead 116
Nickel 73
Silver 156
Zinc 5890
Effluent, uq/1
ND
ND
5
ND
6
ND
13
29
51
12
82
151
5960
ND not detected
The following pollutants were detected at less than 10 ug/1 in the
influent and effluent: 1,2-Dichlorobenzene; 2,4-Dimethylphenol, N-
nitrosodiphenylamine; Phenol; Benzo(a)Pyrene.
Case 4
This case discusses the results at Mill P, a Subcategory 4c Woven
Fabric Finishing mill. A description of the manufacturing operations
and wastewater treatment at this mill is provided in Appendix F.
One candidate mode tested included filtration with precoagulation
followed by activated carbon adsorption. Testing was performed on the
secondary clarifier effluent prior to chlorination. The operating
characteristics and data on the effectiveness of the carbon columns
are presented below.
292
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Conventional and Non-Conventional Pollutant Treatability at Mill P
Influent and Effluent to Activated Carbon Columns*
Pollutant Parameter
BOD5, mg/1
COD, mg/1
TSS, mg/1
TOC, mg/1
Color, ADMI
_Influent
x SD n
11
118
17
27
161
_Effluent
x SD n
6
57
19
7
39
* Westvaco WL-L activated carbon with an empty bed retention time of
_ 45 minutes.
x mean
SD standard deviation
n number of samples
Conventional and Non-Conventional Pollutant Treatability at Mill P
Influent and Effluent to Activated Carbon Columns*
Pollutant "Parameter
_Influent
x SD n
JEffluent
x SD n
ฃ, "mg/1
COD, mg/1
TSS, mg/1
TOC, mg/1
Color, ADMI
38
130
10
25
162
15
70
11
44
* Westvaco WV-1 activated carbon with an empty bed retention time of
_ 23 minutes.
x mean
SD standard deviation
n number of samples
293
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Conventional and Non-Conventional Pollutant Treatability at Mill P
Influent and Effluent to Activated Carbon Columns*
Pollutant Parameter
BOD5, mg/1
COD, mg/1
TSS, mg/1
TOC, mg/1
Color, ADMI
_Influent
x SD n
9
98
21
23
141
6
15
15
4
28
^Effluent
x SD n
8
93
12
56
5
32
3
8
* Westvaco WV-1 activated carbon with an empty bed retention time of
_ 23 minutes,
x mean
SD standard deviation
n number of samples
Case 5
This case discusses the results at Mill Q, a Subcategory 5b Knit
Fabric Finishing mill. This facility is actually two separate Knit
Fabric Finishing mills that discharge to a common treatment plant. A
description of the manufacturint operations and wastewater treatment
at these mills is provided in Appendix F.
One candidate mode tested included the reactor/clarifier followed by
multi-media filtration followed by activated carbon adsorption.
Testing was performed on the secondary clarifier effluent prior to
chlorination, with and without a precoagulant added. The operating
characteristics and data on the effectiveness of the activated carbon
columns during the testing are presented below.
294
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Conventional and Non-Conventional Pollutant Treatability at Mill Q
Influent and Effluent to Activated Carbon Columns*
Pollutant Parameter
BOD5., mg/1
COD, mg/1
TSS, mg/1
TOC, mg/1
Color, ADMI
_Influent
x SD n
4 7
202 10
4.5 2.6
205
45
_Effluent
2L SD n
1.7 0.5 6
74 76
2.3 0.8 6
137
26
* Westvaco WV-L activated carbon with an empty bed retention time of
_ 22 minutes.
x mean
SD standard deviation
n number of samples
Conventional and Non-Conventional Pollutant Treatability at Mill Q
Influent and Effluent to Activated Carbon Columns*
Pollutant Parameter
BOD 5., mg/1
COD, mg/1
TSS, mg/1
TOC, mg/1
Color, ADMI
_Influent
x SD n
_Effluent
x SD n
4.4
208
4
22
250
1
17
1.5
1.7
14
14
14
14
3
6
2.1
70
2.5
13.7
111
1.6
25
0.8
1.5
66
14
14
14
3
7
* Westvaco WV-L activated carbon with an empty bed retention time of
_ 30 minutes.
x mean
SD standard deviation
n number of samples
In addition to the regular pilot plant studies at this facility,
samples were collected over a typical 48-hour period of operation to
evaluate the effectiveness of the pilot plant technologies in removing
toxic pollutants. One mode of operation tested was multi-media
filtration followed by activated carbon adsorption. Samples were
collected before and after the mode only. The filters were loaded at
a rate of 3 gpm/ft2 and the carbon columns were operated at an empty
bed retention time of 22 minutes. Data on the effectiveness of this
mode are presented below.
295
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Toxic Pollutant Treatability at Mill Q
Influent and Effluent to Multi-Media Filter - Activated Carbon Columns*
Toxic Pollutant
Bis(2-ethylhexyl) Phthalate
Tetrachloroethylene
Antimony
Chromium
Copper
Lead
Selenium
Silver
Zinc
Influent**
Min Max n
15 If
17 1
662 684 2
27 36 2
102 106 2
48 1
ND 2
13 1
47 50 2
Effluent**
Min Max n
655
18
42
52
44
18
65
58
ND
709
21
51
65
44
21
72
It
1
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
* Samples collected around candidate mode of operation; each sample
represents 24-hour period.
** concentrations in ug/1
# composite sample collected over 48-hour period
n number of samples
ND not detected
The following were detected at less than 10 ug/1 in the influent and
effluent: 2-Nitrophenol; Cadmium; Mercury.
Case 6
This case discusses the results at Mill V, a Subcategory 4c Woven
Fabric Finishing mill. A description of the manufacturing operations
and wastewater treatment at this mill is provided in Appendix F.
The candidate mode selected
reactor/c1ar i f i er followed by
activated carbon adsorption.
clarifier effluent prior
for Mill V consisted of the
multi-media filtration followed by
Testing was performed on secondary
to chlorination. The operating
carbon
characteristics and data on the effectiveness of the activated
columns during the testing are presented below.
296
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Conventional and Non-Conventional Pollutant Treatability at Mill V
Influent and Effluent to Activated Carbon Columns*
_Influent JEffluent
Pollutant Parameter ฃ SD n x_ งD n
BOD5, mg/1 2.5 1.2 14 1.2 0.3 14
COD, mg/1 331 31 14 176 58 14
TSS, mg/1 20 8 14 20 9 14
TOC, mg/1 62 8 14 36 10 14
Color, ADMI 283 49 11 85 20 12
* Westvaco WV-L activated carbon with an empty bed retention time of
__ 45 minutes.
x mean
SD standard deviation
n number of samples
In addition to the regular pilot plant studies at this facility,
samples were collected over a 24-hour period to evaluate the
effectiveness of the candidate mode in removing toxic pollutants. The
mode included the reactor/clarifier, multi-media filters, and
activated carbon columns. The reactor/clarifier was operated at a
surface loading rate of 400 gpd/ft2 with a coagulant dosage of 40 mg/1
alum (A1+3). The multi-media filters were loaded at a rate of 3.0
gpm/ft2, and the carbon columns were operated at 0.46 gpm (empty bed
retention time of 45 minutes). Data on the effectiveness of the
activated carbon columns are presented below.
Toxic Pollutant Treatability at Mill V
Influent and Effluent to Activated Carbon Columns
Toxic Pollutant Influent, ug/1 Effluent, uq/1
Pentachlorophenol 12 not detected
Bis(2-ethylhexyl) Phthalate trace 11
Antimony 136 116
Chromium 14 14
Copper 25 35
Lead 64 64
Silver 77 91
Zinc 234 83
The following pollutants were detected at less than 10 ug/1 in the
influent and effluent: 1,2-Dichlorobenzene; Di-n-butyl Phthalate;
Anthracene; Cadmium; Nickel.
297
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Case 7
This case discusses the results at Mill W, a Subcategory 5b Knit
Fabric Finishing mill. A description of the manufacturing operations
and wastewater treatment at this mill is provided in Appendix F.
One candidate mode tested included multi-media filtration followed by
activated carbon adsorption. Testing was performed on secondary
clarifier effluent prior to chlorination. The operating
characteristics and data on the effectiveness of the activated carbon
columns are presented below.
Conventional and Non-Conventional Pollutant Treatability at Mill W
Influent and Effluent to Activated Carbon Columns*
Pollutant Parameter
BOD5, mg/1
COD, mg/1
TSS, mg/1
TOC, mg/1
Color, ADMI
_Influent
x SD n
3.4
55
9.5
11
118
1.2
7
4.7
3.3
42
17
17
17
16
16
_Effluent
x SD n
1.5
19
2
2.9
29
1
4
1
3.5
13
17
17
18
16
15
* Westvaco WV-L activated carbon with an empty bed retention time of
_ 45 minutes.
x mean
SD standard deviation
n number of samples
In addition to the regular pilot plant studies at Mill W, daily
samples were collected during the operation of each candidate mode to
evaluate the effectiveness of the modes in treating toxic pollutants.
The operating characteristics of the multi-media filtration/activated
carbon mode were a 7 gpm/ft2 loading rate through the filters and an
empty bed retention time of 45 minutes for the carbon columns. Data
on the effectiveness of the activated carbon columns are presented
below.
298
-------
Toxic Pollutant Treatability at Mill W
Influent and Effluent to Activated Carbon Columns
Toxic Pollutant
Chloroform
Bis(2-ethylhexyl) Phthalate
Antimony
Copper
Lead
Nickel
Silver
Thallium
Zinc
Influent*
Min Max n
ND 7 7
11 42 7
479 888 7
9 27 7
28 81 7
34 137 7
5** 41 7
50** 50** 1
48 93 7
Effluent*
Min Max n
ND 56 7
2 407 7
588 848 6
4** 24 7
22** 87 7
36** 120 7
5** 38 7
50**
16
50** 1
88 7
* concentrations in ug/1
** reported as "less than" value
n number of samples
ND not detected
Case 8
This case discusses the results at Mill E, a Subcategory 5b Knit
Fabric Finishing mill. A description of the manufacturing operations
and wastewater treatment at this mill is provided in Appendix F.
During the pilot plant testing of the candidate mode treatment
technologies at this mill, samples were collected to evaluate the
effectiveness of the technologies in treating toxic pollutants. One
mode tested included multi-media filtration followed by activated
carbon adsorption. Data on the effectiveness of the activated carbon
columns are presented below.
299
-------
Toxic Pollutant Treatability at Mill E
Influent and Effluent to Activated Carbon Columns
Toxic Pollutant
Influent*
Min Max n
Effluent*
Min Max n
Chloroform ND 10 10
N-nitrosodi-n-propylamine ND 26 10
Phenol ND 2110 10
Bis(2-ethylhexyl) Phthalate T 20 10
Antimony 10** 37 8
Cadmium T T 8
Chromium T 128
Copper T 26 8
Lead 22** 27 8
Nickel 36 188 8
Selenium T 10 5
Silver T 68 8
Zinc 155 204 8
ND ND
ND ND
ND ND
T 222
10** 36
T 22
T 11
T 25
22** 22**
50 164
T T
T 63
T 53
10
10
10
10
8
8
8
8
8
8
5
8
8
* concentration in ug/1
n number of samples
** reported as "less than" value
T trace
ND not detected
The following were detected at less than 10 ug/1 in the influent and
effluent: 1,2,4-Trichlorobenzene; 1,2-Dichlorobenzene; Ethylbenzene;
Methylene Chloride; Naphthalene; Di-n-butyl Phthalate; Anthracene;
Toluene; Beryllium; Cyanide.
Case 9
This case discusses the results at Mill A, a Subcategory 1 Wool
Scouring facility. A description of the manufacturing operations and
wastewater treatment at this mill is provided in Appendix F.
During the pilot plant testing of the candidate mode treatment
technologies at this mill, samples were collected over a typical 24-
hour period of operation to evaluate the effectiveness of the
technologies in removing toxic pollutants. Activated carbon
adsorption preceded by multi-media filtration and chemical coagulation
(reactor/clarifier) was one mode of treatment, and testing was such
that the activated carbon columns could be evaluated independently.
Data on the effectiveness are presented below.
300
-------
Toxic Pollutant Treatability at Mill A
Influent and Effluent to Activated Carbon Columns
Toxic Pollutant Influent, uq/1 Effluent, ug/1
Phenol* 17 17
Bis(2-ethylhexyl) Phthalate 14 26
Arsenic 83 42
Copper 120 ND
Cyanide 260 40
Zinc 400 210
* representa total of all toxic pollutant phenols
ND not detected
Case 10
This case discusses the results at Mill 0, a Subcategory 2 Wool
Finishing mill. A description of the manufacturing operations and
wastewater treatment at this mill is provided in Appendix F.
During the pilot plant testing of the candidate mode treatment
technologies at this mill, samples were collected over a typical 72-
hour period of operation to evaluate the effectiveness of the
technologies in removing toxic pollutants. One mode tested included
multi-media filtration followed by granular activated carbon
adsorption. Data on the effectiveness of the activated carbon columns
are presented below.
301
-------
Toxic Pollutant Treatability at Mill 0
Influent and Effluent to Activated Carbon Columns
Toxic Pollutant
Acrylonitrile
Methylene Chloride
Bis(2-Ethylhexyl) Phthalate
Chromium
Copper
Lead
Nickel
Thallium
Zinc
Influent*
Min Max n
ND 100**
47 47
16 80
78 101
105 130
22** 22**
36** 36**
50** 50**
371 594
3
1
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
Effluent*
Min Max
ND 100**
27 27
T 28
T T
T 24
22** 22**
36** 36**
50** 50**
331 434
n
3
1
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
* concentrations in ug/1
** reported as "less than" value
n number of samples
T trace
ND not detected
The following pollutants were detected at less than 10 ug/1 in the
influent and effluent: Benzene; 1,2,4-Trichlorobenzene; 2,4,6-
Trichorophenol; Parachlorometacresol; Chloroform; 1,2-Dichlorobenzene;
Ethylbenzene; Fluoranthene; Naphthalene; N-nitrosodi-n-propylamine;
Pentachlorophenol; Phenol; Di-n-butyl Phthalate; Diethyl Phthalate;
Anthracene; Phenanthrene; Pyrene; Tetrachloroethylene; Toluene;
Trichloroethylene, Antimony; Arsenic; Beryllium; Cadmium; Cyanide;
Mercury; Selenium; Silver.
b. Powdered Activated Carbon Treatment (PACT)
Powdered activated carbon treatment refers to the addition of powdered
carbon to the activated sludge process. It is a recently developed
process that has shown to significantly upgrade effluent quality in
conventional activated sludge plants. A discussion of powdered
activated carbon, in general, is provided above under "Activated
Carbon." In the PACT process, the carbon concentration in the mixed
liquor is generally equal to or greater than the MLSS level. The
carbon and adsorbed substances are discarded as part of the biological
sludge.
Industry Application. Three mills surveyed in this study report the
use of powdered activated carbon in the treatment of their wastewater.
Two mills manually add powdered carbon to their aeration basins and
try to maintain a specific concentration of carbon in the MLSS. The
other mill operates a semi-continuous system in which raw dyehouse
302
-------
wastewater is pumped to a tank containing a designated amount of
Dicalite (powdered carbon), mixed to form a slurry, and pumped through
a filter press. The filter cake is discarded as solid waste. The
operation and effectiveness of one continuous system and the semi-
continuous system are discussed as case studies under
"Literature/Research."
Literature/Research. Bench-scale laboratory studies have been
conducted by Engineering Science (80) on the wastewaters from 10
textile finishing mills and the results are presented later in this
section. The treatment process at one of the textile mill reporting
full-scale use of powdered activated carbon addition to the activated
sludge process (PACT) and the semi-continous system treating raw
textile wastewater were sampled during the verification program. The
results of these studies are presented in the following cases.
Case 1
This case discusses the field sampling at a Subcategory 5a Knit Fabric
Finishing mill that knits, scours, and dyes synthetic bolt cloth of
polyester and acetate fiber. Pressure piece dyeing with dispersed
dyes is performed on the total production and 20 percent of the
production is scoured. During the field sampling, wastewater flow
rate averaged 984 cu in/day (260,000 gpd).
Wastewater treatment at this mill consists of fine screening
(vibratory), equalization {mixed with nitrogen added as nutrient),
biological aeration (two basins operated in series with powdered
activated carbon added to the first basin), secondary clarification,
sand filtration, disinfection (chlorine), and post aeration. Total
detention time in the aeration basins is approximately 48 hours, and
air is provided by surface aerators at a power-to-volume ratio of
approximately 80 hp/mil gal. The results below demonstrate te
effectiveness of the PACT process in treating conventional, non-
conventional, and toxic pollutants.
303
-------
Conventional and Non-Conventional Pollutant Treatability
Before and After Activated Sludge Process
Pollutant Biological Clarifier Effluent**
Parameter Influent* Min Max n
COD, mg/1 1744 154 254 3
TSS, mg/1 204 44 60 3
Phenol, ug/1 34 3 15 3
Sulfide, ug/1 50 8 20 3
Color, ADMI 158 75 89 3
* 72-hour composite sample
** 24-hour composite samples
Toxic Pollutant Treatability
Before and After Activated Sludge Process
Secondary
Biological Clarifier Effluent**
Toxic Pollutant Influent* Min Max n
Acrolein 199 ND 87 3
Acrylonitrile 90 ND lOOf 3
Chloroform ND ND 5* 3
Methylene Chloride 30 ND 28 3
Bis<2-Ethylhexyl)
Phthalate 430 8 50 3
Trichloroethylene 5 ND 41 3
Antimony 186 81 87 3
Copper 17 7 83
Lead 99 36 44 3
Nickel 69 54 65 3
Silver 19 14 17 3
Thallium 50# 501 501 3
Zinc 343 48 69 3
* 72-hour composite sample; concentrations expressed in ug/1
** 24-hour composite camples; concentrations expressed in ug/1
I reported as "less than" value
The following pollutants were detected at less than 10 ug/1 in the
biological influent and secondary clarifier effluent: Benzene; 1,2,4-
Trichlorobenzene; 2,4,6-Trichlorophenol; Parachlorometacresol; 1,2-
Dichlorobenzene; Ethylbenzene; Naphthalene; N-nitrosodi-n-propylamine;
304
-------
Pentachlorophenol; Phenol; Anthracene; Tetrachloroethylene; Toluene;
Trichloroethylene; Arsenic; Beryllium; Cadmium; Chromium; Cyanide;
Mercury; Selenium.
Case 2
The case discusses the results at a Subcategory 6 Carpet Finishing
facility that piece dyes and backs (jute using latex adhesive) carpet
made from polyester and nylon fibers. Reported production is approxi-
mately 20,400 kg/day (45,000 Ib/day) of finished carpet. The
processing results in a water usage of 36.7 I/kg (4.4 gal/lb) and a
wastewater discharge of 757 cu m/day (0.20 mgd).
Wastewater treatment at this facility consist of coarse screening,
equalization (storage tank), mixing (wastewater and powdered activated
carbon), and solids separation (filter press). The results below
report the effectiveness of the system in treating toxic pollutants.
Toxic Pollutant Treatability
Influent and Effluent to Powdered Activated Carbon System
Effluent**
Toxic Pollutant Influent* Min Max n
Naphthalene 240 T T 2
Phenol 67 T T 2
Bis(2-ethylhexyl) Phthalate 400 T T 2
Antimony I2f 140 160 2
Zinc 20 40 120 2
* composite and grab samples during a 24-hour period; concentrations
expressed in ug/1
** two grab samples during 24-hour period; concentrations expressed in ug/1
# reported as "less than" value
The following pollutants were detected at less than 10 ug/1 in the
influent and effluent: 1,1,1-Trichloroethane; Methylene Chloride;
Cadmium; Copper; Mercury.
EPA/Industry Field Studies. As part of the joint research effort
between EPA and the textile industry (ATMI, NTA, and CRI), bench-scale
laboratory studies were conducted on the raw wastewater (influent to
the biological aeration system) at 10 of the 19 pilot plant locations
to evaluate the effectiveness of powdered activated carbon treatment
(PACT). Each textile mill shipped wastewater to the study laboratory
each week during a six-week study period. A description of the
experimental procedures employed on the waste from each mill is
summarized below:
305
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1. Three 10-liter plexiglas bioreactors were seeded with activated
sludge from the study mill and a municipal/industrial treatment
plant and acclimated to the textile waste.
2. Following acclimation, the residual TOC of the bioreactor
effluents was established.
3. Carbon adsorption isotherms were performed on the bioreactor
effluent, and based on several considerations (the effects on
residual TOC, experience gained in past studies, flow of full-
scale plant, sludge age, economics), a high and low carbon make-up
dosage was selected.
4. Two or three types of carbons were evaluated on an isotherm level
and the most effective was used in the experiments.
5. The three bioreactors were designated control {no carbon
addition), high carbon, and low carbon, and were operated for
approximately three weeks with carbon addition and sludge wastage
each day.
6. Following the initial three-week period of operation (equilibrium
period), two weeks of testing was performed to evaluate
performance.
It should be stressed that the testing performed was for determination
of technical feasibility and to provide an indication of the
achievable effluent quality. Long-term operating characteristics and
costs were not considered. The results of the studies during the
final two weeks of operation are summarized in the following cases.
Case 1
This case discusses the results at Mill D, a Subcategory 4c Woven
Fabric Finishing mill. A description of the manufacturing operations
and wastewater treatment at this facility is provided in Appendix F.
306
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PACT Treatability Studies - Mill D*
Pollutant
Parameter
BODS , mg/1
COD, mg/1
TSS, mg/l*t
TOC, mg/1
Influent**
Control
1169
2115
4121
624
High
#
t
8514
t
Low
#
#
5686
t
Effluent**
Control High Low
46
556
15
157
24 24
447 390
38 45
105 113
* Westvaco "SA" was the selected carbon; the high and low mixed liquor
carbon concentrations were 6,000 mg/1 and 3,000 mg/1, respectively,
with corresponding daily carbon make-up dosages of 210 mg/1 and
105 mg/1.
** mean of samples collected during two-week evaluation period
t same as control
## influent TSS is MLSS
Case 2
This case discusses the results at Mill B, a Subcategory 2 Wool
Finishing mill. A description of the manufacturing operations and
wastewater treatment at this facility is provided in Appendix F.
PACT Treatability Studies - Mill B*
Effluent**
Control High Low
Pollutant
Parameter
BOD5, mg/1
COD, mg/1
TSS, mg/l##
TOC, mg/1
Color, ADMI
Influent**
Control
407
1919
2986
461
71
High
*
t
9774
#
t
Low
#
t
7012
t
#
27
148
29
41
114
18
73
23
38
64
29
107
33
44
81
* Westvaco "SA" was the selected carbon; the high and low mixed liquor
carbon concentrations were 8,000 mg/1 and 2,000 mg/1, respectively,
with corresponding daily carbon make-up dosages of 388 mg/1 and
97 mg/1.
** mean of samples collected during two-week evaluation period
# same as control
## influent TSS is MLSS
307
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Case 3
This case discusses the results at Mill P, a Subcategory 4c Woven
Fabric Finishing mill. A description of the manufacturing operations
and wastewater treatment at this facility is provided in Appendix F.
PACT Treatability Studies - Mill P*
Pollutant Influent** Effluent**
Parameter Control High Low Control High Low
BOD5., mg/1 400 t # 8 8.5 8
COD, mg/1 572. t # 119 82 96
TSS, mg/l#| 2310 4610 4052 30 10 18
TOC, mg/1 243 # I 57 34 42
Color, ADMI - 324 236 293
* Westvaco "SC" was the selected carbon; the high and low mixed liquor
carbon concentrations were 5,000 mg/1 and 1,000 mg/1, respectively,
with corresponding daily carbon make-up dosages of 608 mg/1 and
122 mg/1.
** mean of samples collected during two-week evaluation period
# same as control
## influent TSS is MLSS
Case 4
This case discusses the results at Mill Q, a Subcategory 5b Knit
Fabric Finishing mill. A description of the manufacturing operations
and wastewater treatment at this facility is provided in Appendix F.
308
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PACT Treatability Studies - Mill Q*
Pollutant Influent** Effluent**
Parameter Control High Low Control High Low
BOD5, mg/1 318 t I 17 11 14
COD, mg/1 963 ft | 215 119 175
TSS, mg/1ft 4687 6577 5435 24 24 17
TOC, mg/1 383 ft ft 99 44 56
Color, ADMI - 387 242 325
* Westvaco SC was the selected carbon; the high and low mixed liquor
carbon concentrations were 5,000 mg/1 and 1,000 mg/1, respectively,
with corresponding daily carbon make-up dosages of 173 mg/1 and
3 5 mg/1.
** mean of samples collected during two-week evaluation period
# same as control
## influent TSS is MLSS
Case 5
This case discusses the results at Mill E, a Subcategory 5a Knit
Fabric Finishing mill. A description of the manufacturing operations
and wastewater treatment at this facility is provided in Appendix F.
PACT Treatability Studies - Mill E*
Pollutant Influent** Effluent**
Parameter Control High Low Control High Low
BOD5, mg/1 505 ft ft 57 21 21
COD, mg/1 1737 ft f 1765 69 103
TSS, mg/l## 6086 8818 5978 26 28 17
TOC, mg/1 446 ft ft 91 40 52
Color, ADMI 61 ft ft 85 49 36
* Westvaco SC was the selected carbon; the high and low mixed liquor
carbon concentrations were 5,000 mg/1 and 2,000 mg/1, respectively,
with corresponding daily carbon make-up dosages of 540 mg/1 and
216 mg/1.
** mean of samples collected during two-week evaluation period
t same as control
## influent TSS is MLSS
309
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Case 6
This case discusses the results at Mill A, a Subcategory 1 Wool
Scouring facility. A description of the manufacturing operations and
wastewater treatment at this facility is provided in Appendix F.
PACT Treatability Studies - Mill A*
Pollutant Influent** Effluent**
Parameter Control High Low Control High Low
BODS, mg/1 2580 # f 69 51 54
COD, mg/1 5542 I f 543 457 563
TSS, mg/ltl 2977 14837 5295 568 402 366
TOC, mg/1 1784 t I 373 336 387
Color, ADMI - 705 253 629
* Westvaco "SC" was the selected carbon; the high and low mixed liquor
carbon concentrations were 10,000 mg/1 and 2,000 mg/1, respectively,
with corresponding daily carbon make-up dosages of 694 mg/1 and
139 mg/1.
** mean of samples collected during two-week evaluation period
t same as control
it influent TSS is MLSS
Case 7
This case discusses the results at Mill 0, a Subcategory 2 Wool
Finishing mill. A description of the manufacturing operations and
wastewater treatment at this facility is provided in Appendix F.
310
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PACT Treatability Studies - Mill 0*
Pollutant
Parameter
BOD5_, mg/1
COD, mg/1
TSS, mg/l##
TOC, mg/1
Color, ADMI
Influent**
Control High Low
247 # I
1098 * i
3360 7792 4373
344 f f
Effluent**
Control High Low
16
102
30
30
105
6.5
33
11
11
43
8
63
16
23
66
* Westvaco "SC" was the selected carbon; the high and low mixed liquor
carbon concentrations were 5,000 mg/1 and 1,000 mg/1, respectively,
with corresponding daily carbon make-up dosages of 125 mg/1 and
25 mg/1.
** mean of samples collected during two-week evaluation period
I same as control
#1 influent TSS is MLSS
Case 8
This case discusses the results at Mill F, a Subcategory 6 Carpet
Finishing facility. A description of the manufacturing operations and
wastewater treatment at this facility is provided in Appendix F.
PACT Treatability Studies - Mill F*
Effluent**
Control High Low
Pollutant
Parameter
BOD5,, mg/1
COD, mg/1
TSS, mg/l##
TOC, mg/1
Color, ADMI
Influent**
Control
471
1454
5128
390
1000
High Low
* ft
t #
8488 6318
f #
1 1
11
127
43
57
236
4
40
19
18
77
6
67
50
35
125
* ICI-KB was the selected carbon; the high and low mixed liquor
carbon concentrations were 5,000 mg/1 and 2,000 mg/1, respectively,
with corresponding daily carbon make-up dosages of 694 mg/1 and
277 mg/1.
** mean of samples collected during two-week evaluation period
t same as control
#* influent TSS is MLSS
Case 9
This case discusses the results at Mill S, a Subcategory 7 Stock &
Yarn Finishing facility. A description of the manufacturing
operations and wastewater treatment at this facility is provided in
Appendix F.
311
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PACT Treatability Studies - Mill S*
Pollutant
Parameter
BOD5, mg/1
COD, mg/1
TSS, mg/l##
TOC, mg/1
Color, ADMI
Influent**
Control Hiqh Low
95
956
3168
390
#
#
7183
i
#
I
4585
t
Effluent**
Control Hiqh Low
8.5
143
4
57
512
* Westvaco "SC" was the selected carbon; the high and low mixed liquor
carbon concentrations were 5,000 mg/1 and 2,000 mg/1, respectively,
with corresponding daily carbon make-up dosages of 304 mg/1 and
122 mg/1.
** mean of samples collected during two-week evaluation period
# same as control
## influent TSS is MLSS
Case 10
This case discusses the results at Mill Y, a Subcategory 4c Woven
Fabric Finishing facility. A description of the manufacturing
operations and wastewater treatment at this facility is provided in
Appendix F.
PACT Treatability Studies - Mill Y*
Effluent**
Control Hiqh Low
Pollutant
Parameter
BODS, mg/1
COD, mg/1
TSS, mg/l##
TOC, mg/1
Color, ADMI
Influent**
Control
114
301
1538
91
268
Hiqh
i
f
4657
f
t
Low
t
t
2070
#
#
6
98
29
24
198
5
60
51
12
88
* ICI-Hydrodarco was the selected carbon; the high and low mixed liquor
carbon concentrations were 5,000 mg/1 and 2,000 mg/1, respectively,
with corresponding daily carbon make-up dosages of 526 mg/1 and
210 mg/1.
** mean of samples collected during two-week evaluation period
I same as control
## influent TSS is MLSS
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SECTION VIII
COST, ENERGY, AND NON-WATER QUALITY ASPECTS
This section presents detailed information about the estimated costs
and resulting benefits in terms of pollutant reductions achievable
through the application of selected alternative control technologies.
As discussed below, cost estimates are not provided for in-plant
control measures, but detailed cost:benefit information for end-of-
pipe treatment technologies is given. The bases used in developing
the costs for the end-of-pipe treatment technologies is presented
first, followed by the estimated costs and benefits for the
alternatives for representative model plants in each subcategory.
Existing mills that discharge directly to receiving waters are covered
first, followed by existing indirect-discharge mills, i.e., those that
discharge their wastewaters to publicly owned treatment works (POTW).
The next subsections cover New Sources and address direct and indirect
dischargers. Energy, sludge management, air pollution, and other non-
water environmental quality considerations are also addressed.
EXISTING DIRECT DISCHARGE SOURCES
In-Plant Control Measures
The in-plant control measures that are generally available to mills in
the textile industry are described in Section VII. Some of these in-
plant control measures are suitable for specific subcategories,
depending upon product and processes in use. In developing a
treatment program for a given mill, in-depth analyses of various
combinations of in-plant measures and end-of-pipe treatment
technologies should be carried out by a team that includes expertise
in both textile processing and pollution control. Those
characteristics and constituents of the wastewater that are most
troublesome and costly to treat should be identified in terms of
quantities and sources within the mill. An evaluation should be made
of alternative in-plant measures to eliminate, reduce, and/or
segregate these materials for separate treatment. The cost analysis
should include costs for management of sludges and other residues and
changes in air pollution control and energy requirements, as well as
the more obvious items relating to plant and process modifications,
new construction, etc.
A recent report (25) listed good housekeeping, reporting of leaks,
countercurrent washing, and replacing of batch with continuous process
equipment as most important among steps to reduce water use in textile
finishing. These steps are widely recognized and indicate the general
direction that the industry is moving. However, there are no specific
313
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control measures that are clearly needed in the industry as a whole or
in one or more particular subcategories.
While no specific in-plant control measures were considered for
existing sources, it should not be inferred that such measures are
unimportant or should be eliminated from further consideration. In-
plant measures can effect savings both in manufacturing and in the
costs of treatment. In the future, in-plant measures may assume a
much greater role in treatment and may be instrumental in the
conservation of materials and energy.
Selected End-of-Pipe Technologies
The results of detailed analyses to evaluate the cost effectiveness of
various end-of-pipe treatment technologies for existing direct-
discharge textile mills are summarized here. A model plant approach
was used to develop the costs. Included are analyses of the several
most appropriate treatment alternatives for BAT. From the
questionnaire survey, it was established that the majority of the
existing direct dischargers have BPT in place. For most
subcategories, BPT includes screening, extended-aeration activated
sludge, and secondary sedimentation with solids recycle to the
aeration basin. This level of treatment was used as the base, with
the alternative BAT technologies added on. Mechanical sludge
dewatering is not provided at the majority of textile mill treatment
plants and is not included here as part of BPT. Reported current
sludge processing and disposal practices are discussed later in this
section under Sludge Management.
The alternatives for each level of control are given in Table VIII-1
(see page VII1-17). Some alternatives are based on individual
technologies and others on combinations of technologies. These
technologies include chemical coagulation, filtration, flotation,
activated carbon adsorption, and ozonation. Each of these
technologies is described below.
Chemical Coagulation. This technology utilizes alum as the coagulant
and includes sedimentation except for wool scouring, where dissolved
air flotation is included in the treatment sequence. Sludge
dewatering by vacuum filter is also included for chemical coagulation.
Alum was selected because of its proven effectiveness in the industry.
It is recognized that lime, iron salts, and sulfides may be more
appropriate in some applications, but it is believed that the costs
based on alum are representative of costs that would be experienced by
individual textile mills. For the vacuum filter, the filter area was
determined by using a dry solids loading rate of 19.5 kg/sq m/hr (4
Ib/sq ft/hr) and an operating period of 10 hr/day. Specific
conditions given below under Sludge Disposal for TSS removal were also
factors in sizing vacuum filters.
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Multi-M.edia Filtration. This technology utilizes a granular media bed
with 'polymeric filter aids added in alternatives without prior
chemirjal coagulation. Filter backwash is pumped to the secondary
sedimentation tank. Existing sludge handling practices at mill
treatment facilities are assumed to be capable of handling filter
backwash solids without modification. The hydraulic loading rate is
9.78 cu m/hr/sq m (4 gpm/sq ft.)
Dissolved Air Flotation. This technology is utilized in Subcategory 1
(VVool Scouring) to remove suspended solids and oil & grease. The
Surface hydraulic loading rate is 163.2 cu m/day/sq m (4000 gpd/sq
fc't).
Activated Carbon. This technology utilizes granular carbon columns
and on-s'ite carbon regeneration for wastewater flows of greater than
450 cu m/day (0.12 mgd). Carbon for smaller flows is to be discarded
after use. An exhaustion rate of 0.66 kg/cu m (5500 Ib/mil gal) of
water treated was assumed (26).
Ozonation. This technology utilizes on-site generation of ozone from
air and is based on a generator producing 100 mg/1 of ozone.
The above treatment processes, alone or in combination, are believed
to provide a full range of end-of-pipe technologies for use in
applying the best available technology economically achievable for
control of toxic pollutants.
Investment Costs
Investment costs include installed costs of treatment components and
monitoring equipment plus allowances for contingencies and
engineering. For the selected technologies (chemical coagulation,
filtration, dissolved air flotation, activated carbon, and ozonation),
specific cost curves were developed from literature and other
information (27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39). The
cost information was updated by the EPA-STP and/or EPA-SCCT indexes to
the 4th quarter of 1976.
Total installed costs are broken into equipment and construction
fractions as. follows:
Equipment Construction
Chemical coagulation 20% 80%
Filtration 20 80
Dissolved air flotation 35 65
Activated carbon 50 50
Ozonation 50 50
Vacuum filtration 35 65
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A contingency allowance of 15 percent of the installed cost WAS used
to cover unexpected costs due to local mill conditions and differences
between the actual systems and those used for the cost estl^teSi .*ฐ,
allowance was made for mill shutdown during construction.. Engineering
costs were estimated by using a percentage of installed costs ,pins
contingencies. For a total cost of $20,000 or less, 15 percent was
used. For larger projects a percentage to the nearest 0.5, from curve
A in "Consulting Engineering" (40), was used.
Monitoring Equipment. The investment costs are based on collecting
samples of the influent and effluent streams of the treatment Plant.
The sampling schedule comprises 24-hour composite samples taken at
each location twice weekly for direct dischargers and once per week,
for indirect dischargers. For direct dischargers, grab samples are to
be taken once per week of the receiving water both up- and down-stream
of the discharge. Continuous monitoring of pH and flow is aiso
provided for the influent and effluent of all treatment plants.
The equipment items include two flow meters, two primary and one
backup refrigerated samplers, two PH meters, and refrigerated sample
storage containers. The costs were based on equipment manufacturers
price lists (41, 42, 43).
It should be noted that the equipment described here is that required
for a complete monitoring program for .major direct and Direct
dischargers. Existing facilities, especially larger Direct discharge
mills, generally have most of the equipment on hand and the investment
costs incurred by them would be considerably less.
Land Costs. All of the alternative technologies have small space
Fe^UiFiiiHts and the acquisition of additional land should not be
necessary.
Annual Costs
Capital. The cost of money was assumed to be 10 percent of the total
investment.
Depreciation. Estimated lives for the components of each alternative
were established and related to the investment costs to determine the
estimated design life for the alternative. The installed cost plus
contingencies was depreciated on a straight-line basis for the
calculated life of each alternative.
Operation Labor. Estimates of the annual man-hours required to
operate the~virrious component systems were developed from tne
literature (30 44). A productive work value of 6.5 hr/day/man, or
1 500 hr/yr/man, was assumed (44). A rate of $15/hr was used as the
316
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total cost for wages, benefits, and payroll processing expenses.
Laboratory man-hours were developed for each model plant size and the
associated costs were included. It was assumed that supervisory,
administrative, and clerical costs would be covered by existing
personnel.
Maintenance Labor. Maintenance labor costs were developed in the same
manner as operating labor costs. The annual costs of materials and
parts needed to maintain each technology were developed from the
literature and equipment manufacturers (30, 37, 38).
Sludge Disposal. Sludge disposal costs cover hauling dewatered
sludge, and exhausted activated carbon when applicable, to an approved
sanitary landfill. The hauling costs were obtained from the industry
survey questionnaires and were plotted as tons/yr of sludge hauled vs
dollars/ton. The costs ranged from 18 to 1 dollars/ton, decreasing
with increasing tonnage. The dewatered sludge was assumed to contain
20 percent solids by weight after vacuum filtration.
Sludge disposal costs associated with chemical coagulation and multi-
media filtration were developed based on the quantity of suspended
solids in the waste stream and the desired degree of removal.
Specific conditions were developed for both technologies by grouping
similar influent waste streams. For chemical coagulation, the
following conditions are represented:
Coagulation
Condition
1
2
3
4
5
TSS Removed
mq/1
3200
630
120
60
25
Effluent TSS
mq/1
70
70
30
35
25
Alum Added
mq/1
1000
1000
100
100
100
The cases developed for multi-media filtration represent the following
conditions:
Filtration
Condition
1
2
3
TSS Removed
mq/1
40
20
5
Effluent TSS
mg/1
10
10
10
Values for specific conditions were used for each technology to
determine the weight of material that must be handled for each
alternative.
317
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Costs to dispose of spent activated carbon are based on hauling to a
landfill. The carbon would be wet during hauling, containing its own
weight of water.
Information on current sludge management practices in the industry is
presented at the end of this section.
Energy and Power. Operation time for the equipment of each component
of all treatment alternatives, with the exception of vacuum
filtration, was assumed to be 24 hr/day and 300 days/yr. Vacuum
filters were sized to operate 10 hr/day, 300 days/yr.
Annual electrical energy consumption values for the component
equipment items were developed utilizing applicable technical
literature (36, 41, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49) and equipment manufacturers'
specifications (50). In developing the costs, all electric motors
were assumed to have an efficiency of 88 percent (51) and the cost for
electricity was assumed to be 2.4*/kwh. The cost value is a typical
value taken from the questionnaire responses for the southeastern
region of the U.S. This region was chosen because the majority of the
country's textile mills are located there (Table III-l).
Fuel oil and natural gas costs were developed from questionnaire
responses and applicable technical literature (35). Costs in the
southeast were again used as a basis with 23^/therm for fuel oil and
19*/therm for natural gas established as typical costs.
Vacuum filtration energy consumption varies with filter area. The
area, or size of the filter, was found to be dependent on the specific
condition, treatment alternative, and flow rate being evaluated.
Energy consumption is dependent on these criteria also. Energy
consumption for activated carbon varies depending on the flow and
whether the exhausted carbon is regenerated or discarded. For the
other technologies, consumption is based solely on flow.
Information on the relative additional energy requirements of the
alternative end-of-pipe treatment technologies for selected
subcategories is presented near the end of this section.
Chemicals. Alum was the coagulant of choice based on its proven
effectiveness and reasonable cost, although other coagulants are used
by the industry and may be more applicable in specific cases. The
costs of polymeric filter aids are included whenever filtration is not
preceded by chemical coagulation.
Chemical costs are based on prices quoted in the Chemical Marketing
Reporter (52) for December 6 and 20, 1976. The following estimated
delivered costs are used:
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Alum (technical) - $174 to $185 per MT ($158 to $168 per ton)
Polymer - $2.20 per kg ($1 per Ib)
Carbon (granular) - $1.25 per kg ($0.50 per Ib)
The assumed alum dosages were 1000 mg/1 for coagulation conditions 1
and 2, and 100 mg/1 for conditions 3, 4, and 5. The assumed polymer
dosage was 1 mg/1 for all filtration conditions.
Monitoring. Monitoring costs include outside laboratory analytical
charges and time for reporting results to regulatory agencies. The
costs associated with collecting and delivering samples are included
under operation and maintenance labor.
Separate monitoring costs were developed for direct and indirect
dischargers. Direct dischargers were assumed to sample in order to
comply with a discharge permit. This entails sampling influent and
effluent waste streams plus the receiving water regularly. Samples
for the conventional pollutants are collected twice weekly, and non-
conventional pollutants are analyzed once per week. Samples for toxic
pollutants are collected and analyzed semi-annually. Indirect
dischargers were assumed to sample in order to comply with the local
sewer ordinances. Conventional and non-conventional pollutants are
measured weekly, and toxic pollutants semi-annually.
Laboratory cost estimates were based on current (January-June, 1978)
commercial laboratory price lists (43, 53, 54, 55, 56, 57, 58, 59).
Reporting costs were based on $15/hr and allowed 1 hr/week for
compiling data plus 8 hr/month for preparing data reports.
Annual monitoring costs are based on a complete program for major
direct and indirect dischargers. As mentioned under "Monitoring
Equipment," many of the larger facilities have existing programs that
would result in considerably less additional cost in this area. In
addition, it would not generally be necessary for smaller facilities
to institute such extensive programs. The monitoring frequencies are
assumed for cost estimation purposes only and are not intended to
provide a model for compliance monitoring.
Cost Curves
Cost curves for the individual treatment processes, including vacuum
filtration for processing sludge, are presented in Figures VIII-1
through VIII-7. The curves, which represent 4th quarter 1976 dollars
(EPA-SCCT = 119), are plotted as flow (vacuum filtration is plotted as
sq ft of filter area) vs dollars of total installed cost. They
provide the basis for estimating the investment costs for the
alternative treatment technologies when allowances for contingencies,
engineering, and land are added. Figure VIII-8 is a curve for
319
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dewatered sludge hauling costs and is used to estimate annual sludge
disposal expenses for each alternative.
Model Plant Costs
In selecting model plants sizes, production as well as flow was
considered. Survey responses were initially grouped by subcategory
and discharge type, i.e., direct and indirect. The initial groups
were further broken down, generally into three groups, on the basis of
production size. Average percent utilization values, which were
determined from the survey responses for the mills in each group, were
applied to the average production values for each group to obtain full
capacity production values for typical plants. These capacities were
multiplied by the median water usage rates for each subcategory to
calculate a flow rate for each production group. The calculated flow
rates were subsequently compared to actual reported flow rates and
were found to accurately represent the mills in each subcategory.
As presented previously, five treatment processes (chemical
coagulation, filtration, dissolved air flotation, activated carbon,
and ozonation) have been combined in various systems to provide the
alternative end-of-pipe treatment technologies. These alternatives
are presented in Table VIII-1 and are discussed in greater detail in
following parts of this section.
The textile mills included in the industry survey represent production
values ranging from 54 to 317,333 kg/day (120 to 700,000 Ib/day) and
flow rates ranging from 3,784 to 29,894 cu m/day (0.001 to 7.9 mgd).
Based on these ranges, eight model plant sizes were selected to
represent the industry. The sizes, based on flow rate, are: 189, 416,
946, 2,271, 3,785, 5,678, 11,355, and 18,925 cu m/day (0.05, 0.11,
0.25, 0.6, 1.0, 1.5, 3.0, and 5.0 mgd). The sizes representing direct
and indirect dischargers for each subcategory are given in Table VIII-
2.
Cost estimates were developed for all of the selected model plant
sizes shown in Table VIII-2 and forwarded to a separate contractor for
use in evaluating the economic impact of possible effluent regulations
on the industry. Selected model plant sizes are included in this
document to illustrate the methodology used and the relative
differences between the alternative technologies.
Cost Effectiveness Summaries
Model plant control cost summary sheets were developed for each model
plant to provide a synopsis of the cost analysis for each alternative
technology. Total investment costs, including the installed cost of
each component of a given alternative, monitoring equipment,
engineering, and contingencies are provided. Also, total annual
320
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TABLE VIII-1
ALTERNATIVE END-OF-PIPE TREATMENT TECHNOLOGIES
EXISTING SOURCES
Technology
Description
A* Direct
Indirect
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
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K
BPT - Screening, extended aeration activated sludge,
sedimentation, and solids recycle to aeration basin
No treatment
Chemical coagulation and sedimentation
Multi-media filtration
Chemical coagulation, sedimentation, and multi-media
filtration
Multi-media filtration and granular activated carbon
Chemical coagulation, sedimentation, multi-media
filtration, and granular activated carbon
Ozonation
Chemical coagulation^ sedimentation, and ozonation
Multi-media filtration and ozonation
Chemical coagulation, sedimentation, multi-media
filtration, and ozonation
Chemical coagulation and dissolved air flotation
Chemical coagulation, dissolved air flotation, multi-
media filtration, and granular activated carbon
Chemical coagulation, dissolved air flotation, and
ozonation
Alternative A is considered in place. All other alternatives are
added on to A and for indirect dischargers include screening and
equalization.
Alternatives M, N, & P apply to Subcategory 1 only.
329
-------
TABLE VIII-2
SELECTED MODEL PLANT SIZES
EXISTING SOURCES
Subcategory
Size, mgd
charge* 0.05 0.11 0.25 0.6 1.0 1.5 3.0 5.0
1.
2.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
Wool Scouring
Wool Finishing
Woven Fabric Finishing
a. Simple Processing
b. Complex Processing
c. Complex Processing
Plus Desizing
Knit Fabric Finishing
a. Simple Processing
b. Complex Processing
c. Hosiery Products
Carpet Finishing
Stock & Yarn Finishing
Nonwoven Manufacturing
Felted Fabric Processing
D
I
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X
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X (X)
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X
X
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X (X)
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X (X)
(X) X
X X
X (X)
(X)
X (X)
(X)
(X) X
X
X
(X)
X (X)
X (X)
(X)
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(X) X
(X) X
X X
(X) X
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X
(X)
X
X
X
(X) X
X
X
X
X
* D refers to direct and I to indirect.
( ) Represents model plant size for which Cost Effectiveness Summaries are
included.
330
-------
costs, including cost of capital, depreciation, operation and
maintenance labor, maintenance materials, sludge disposal, energy &
power, chemicals, and monitoring, and the benefits in terms of
effluent quality are detailed for each alternative. For each
subcategory/model plant combination, the corresponding annual and
daily production capacity is noted. The summary sheets for the
alternative end-of-pipe treatment technologies are provided in Tables
VIII-3 through VIII-14.
EXISTING INDIRECT DISCHARGE SOURCES
Selected End-of-Pipe Technologies
The major processes selected for pretreatment for indirect dischargers
are the same as for direct-discharge mills, namely; chemical
coagulation, dissolved air flotation, filtration, activated carbon
adsorption, and ozonation. The treatment goals, i.e., removal of
toxic pollutants, are the same for both direct and indirect
dischargers, and the available technologies are the same. In
addition, screening and equalization are included in the cost
estimates for pretreatment facilities. Screening is included because
more than half of the direct dischargers provide screening, and it is
therefore regarded as a necessary form of preliminary treatment.
Equalization is included because the five basic pretreatment processes
operate more effectively if fluctuations in loading are minimized.
For the direct-discharge mills, the activated sludge aeration tank
provides equalization prior to treatment in the advanced units.
Neutralization is not included as part of the preliminary treatment
sequence because few direct-discharge mills so provide. Where
necessary, neutralization would increase investment and annual costs
slightly.
As described previously, the current base level of treatment for
directdischarge mills is the extended-aeration activated sludge
process. The question arises, therefore, as to whether similar
biological treatment should be included in the alternative
pretreatment technologies. Before evaluating the pros and cons of
such inclusion, it is appropriate to consider the positioning of a
biological unit in the sequence of processes. For all except
Subcategory 1, the best position would be prior to any of the advanced
treatment units. It seems doubtful that there would be sufficient
organic food material to sustain the microorganisms in the biological
treatment unit if it followed chemical coagulation. There would be
little benefit in filtering the wastewater prior to biotreatment; the
reverse sequence would be more effective. As with chemical
coagulation, activated carbon adsorption and/or ozonation prior to
biological treatment would be counterproductive in that all three
processes are aimed at organic material. In the case of Subcategory
1, treatment by chemical coagulation and/or dissolved air flotation
331
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prior to the activated sludge unit could be beneficial in reducing the
load on the biological system so that it could remove organic matter
more completely. In conclusion, if biological treatment were to be
included, its most logical position is after preliminary treatment and
prior to any additional processes. In other words, if biotreatment
were to be included, the pretreatment systems would resemble the
systems used by direct dischargers.
The benefits that would result from biotreatment as part of
pretreatment follow. Since it duplicates the removal mechanisms of
secondary POTW, it might seem at first glance to offer no benefits.
One benefit is that it may accomplish removal of certain toxic
pollutants, e.g., phenol, and cyanides that require an acclimated
biomass. The continuous presence of such compounds due to higher
concentrations could help maintain the state of acclimation.
Acclimation could, at times, be lost at the POTW. Also, volatile
toxic pollutants may be removed during aeration in a biological
pretreatment process, and not be discharged to the POTW. The
biological process coupled with that at the POTW, in effect, provide
two stages of treatment and may effect greater removals than either
alone. It should be noted that the above applies to some toxic
pollutants, but not to all.
A second, and perhaps more important, benefit of biological
pretreatment is that the level of dissolved organics would be reduced
and the effectiveness of downstream activated carbon or ozonation
units would be improved. On the other hand, chemical coagulation,
with or without filtration, is believed to be effective in reducing
the suspended and some of the dissolved organic content of textile
mill wastewaters, although probably not as effectively as does
activated sludge. A third benefit of biotreatment is that it would
provide equalization and a separate unit for this purpose could be
eliminated.
Among the disadvantages of including a biological process as part of
pretreatment is that it duplicates the function of the POTW with only
marginal benefits, if any, in terms of toxic pollutant control; it is
relatively costly in terms of construction and operation; it may
require much land, an unavailable commodity at many indirect-discharge
mills; and it is a more difficult process to operate efficiently than
are the physicochemical processes. It is also more affected by
changes in temperature, pH, toxic materials, and the food supply
balance. It also is unlikely to be effective for some of the toxic
pollutants found in textile mill wastewaters, e.g., chloroform and
trichloroethylene, and may, in fact, cause these and other volatile
toxic pollutants to escape to the atmosphere.
Based on the above factors, it was concluded that the benefits of
inclusion of biological treatment in the alternative pretreatment
356
-------
technologies presented here were outweighed by the disadvantages. It
is believed that combinations of the five selected processes can be
made to accomplish the desired results without biotreatment.
The alternatives for each level of control include screening and
equalization along with one or a combination of the following
technologies: chemical coagulation, multi-media filtration, dissolved
air flotation, activated carbon adsorption, and ozonation. These five
technologies are described previously in this section. Descriptions
of screening and equalization are given below.
Screening. This technology utilizes mechanical fine screens to remove
coarse suspended solids. Screening facilities include intersection of
the existing sewer, pumping, and mecanical vibratory screens.
Equalization. Twelve hours detention and mixing by surface aerators
are provided based on an analysis of the survey questionnaires. The
cost estimates are based on lined earthen-wall basins with water depth
of 3 meters (10 feet), freeboard of 1.5 meters (5 feet), and dike
surface slopes of 3:1. The basins are square in plan.
Investment Costs and Annual Costs
The same bases were used for the investment and annual costs for the
model indirect dischargers as previously described for the direct
dischargers. As noted, the indirect dischargers sample less
frequently and at fewer locations in their monitoring programs. The
cost curves described previously and given in Figures VIII-1 through
VII1-8 apply for indirect discharge mills also.
Model Plant Costs
As noted in the discussion of direct dischargers, model plant sizes
were developed for various production ranges, corrected to full mill
capacity, with the median water usage rates applied to derive raw
wastewater flows. As shown in Table VIII-2, the model treatment plant
sizes used for indirect dischargers are, in part, different from the
sizes for the direct-discharge mills.
Cost Effectiveness Summaries
As with the existing direct dischargers, cost effectiveness summary
sheets were developed for each model plant in the indirect discharge
group to provide a synopsis of the cost analysis for each alternative
end-of-pipe treatment technology. The summary sheets for indirect
dischargers comprise Tables VIII-15 through VIII-26. The letter
designations for the alternative technologies are the same for the
direct and the indirect dischargers. In other words, Alternative C is
multi-media filtration in both situations, etc.
357
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Woven Fabric Finishing -
^CATEGORY: Simple Processing CONTROL LEVEL: PSES MODEL FLO'
ANNUAL CAPACITY: 3,6Qฐ.kk8 DAILY CAPACITY: 12 kkg NUMBER OF
Treatment Alternative
A B D F n J
Cost, thousands of dollars
Investment Costs
Preliminary Treatment
Equipment - 20 20 20 20 20
- Construction - 37 37 37 37 37
Chemical Coagulation
Equipment - 18 18 18 18
Construction - 70 70 70 70
Vacuum Filtration
Equipment - 19 19 19 19 19
Construction - 34 34 34 34 34
Dissolved Air Flotation
Equipment - - -
Construction - - - - - -
Multi-Media Filtration
Equipment - - 19 19 21
Construction - - 77 77 82
Activate^ Carbon
Equipment - 300
Construction - 300
Ozonatio.n
Equipment 80 80
Construction - - - 80 80
Monitoring - 15 15 15 15 15
Engineering - 24 34 78 39 40
Contingencies - 32 46 136 56 58
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381
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Also shown on the summary sheets are the estimated effluent qualities
resulting from each technology when applied in each textile industry
subcategory. That the values of some of the effluent pollutant
parameters are different from those for the direct dischargers
reflects the different influent concentrations resulting from the
absence of biological treatment in the pretreatment alternatives.
NEW SOURCES
Before discussion, introductory comments that apply to both groups are
appropriate. The term "new source" is defined in the Act to mean "any
source, the construction of which is commenced after the publication
of proposed regulations prescribing a standard of performance." In
addition to the control measures available to existing sources,
changes in manufacturing methods and equipment, more extensive use of
in-plant control measures and water recycling, and different end-of-
pipe technologies may be available to new sources. Such additional
opportunities in the textile industry were evaluated based on
available information. Compliance dates differ for new and existing
sources.
Textile industry sources indicate that very few new mills have been
constructed in the past few years. Consequently, there are relatively
few sources of data on water consumption rates, in-plant control
measures, and alternative manufacturing methods in use in new mills.
Zero Discharge
One of the solutions that is economically available to some industrial
plants is complete elimination of liquid process-related waste
discharges through in-plant measures, advanced waste treatment, and/or
complete water recycle programs. There is no evidence available that
such a solution is generally available to new sources in the Textile
Mill Point Source category. While much research is under way aimed at
conservation and reuse of certain materials, recovery of heat energy,
and reduction of water usage in a few processes, there are no typical
textile dyeing and finishing mills that are presently able to approach
zero discharge of process-related wastewaters. Exceptions to this
statement may include some mills in Subcategory 3 that contain all
wastes for land disposal rather than discharge to the sewer. There
may also be a few mills in other subcategories that have been able to
eliminate discharges of process-related wastes because of some unique
characteristics of their operation, but they do not represent most
mills in their subcategory.
In conclusion, the available information indicates that some form of
end-of-pipe treatment of textile mill wastewaters will be required for
the forseeable future, and that zero discharge cannot be included as a
control measure that is technically or economically available. Before
382
-------
moving to consideration of end-of-pipe measures, the importance of in-
plant measures should be stressed again as a means of reducing
treatment costs. Treatment for relatively small concentrations of
toxic pollutants in waste streams can often be very costly compared to
measures to eliminate their presence in the waste discharge initially.
In-plant control measures should be considered first in evaluating
solutions to waste control problems.
Water Usage Rates
In the past, the textile industry has done much to reduce water
consumption in its manufacturing operations. It is expected that this
trend will continue in the future, with water usage rates (I/kg or
gal/lb) gradually declining. For the cost estimates for new sources
in this report, however, the water usage rates are the same as those
for existing sources. There were no data available by which to
estimate what future usage rates may be for different subcategories
and it was determined that existing usage rates would be most
appropriate.
Control Measures
An opportunity that is potentially available to new sources is the
separation of drainage piping in new mills so that waste streams with
significant amounts of toxic pollutants can be segregated from those
without. The former could then be subjected to appropriate advanced
waste treatment processes with possibly improved efficiencies and
reduced costs due to the smaller volume of flow compared to treating
the entire volume of wastewater in the advanced processes.
A review of the principal sources of toxic pollutants in theoretically
typical mills in each subcategory was carried out based on the
available information about the chemicals used today in the industry.
The major sources appear to be certain dyes, dye carriers, solvents,
preservatives, and finishing chemicals. It was assumed that waste
streams containing significant amounts of toxic pollutants would
originate from dyeing and rinsing, application of functional finishes,
and solvent scouring operations. Waste streams from bleaching,
mercerizing, scouring, acid treatment, and fulling and the associated
rinses were assumed to be free of toxic pollutants except as tramp
impurities in some chemicals. It is recognized that some additives
presently used in these last listed operations may include toxic
pollutants. It was assumed that chemicals without toxic pollutants
could be substituted for these additives and for other preservatives,
disinfectants, and plant sanitary compounds presently in use.
Laboratory wastes were assumed to be included in the toxic pollutant
drainage system.
383
-------
Based on available data, it was estimated that the toxic pollutant
waste streams varied from about 10 percent to virtually 100 percent of
the total process-related waste flow among the "typical" mills in the
various subcategories. For the purposes of the cost estimates for new
sources, it was assumed that about two-thirds of the total waste
stream would contain significant levels of toxic pollutants for all
subcategories. The precise flow split used varies slightly depending
upon the total model plant flow volume used.
The above assumptions were introduced in order to develop reasonable
cost estimates for new sources that are comparable to those for
existing sources. It is believed that further refinement of the
assumptions was not warranted in terms of the limited available
information about the sources of toxic pollutants in textile mills or
in terms of improved accuracy of the estimated costs. The basic
premise is that savings in treatment costs, for larger systems, at
least, will more than offset the costs of installing and operating
segregated drainage systems for most new sources in the industry.
End-of-Pipe Technologies
The alternative end-of-pipe control technologies that are available
for existing sources cover the spectrum of processes that are
presently available for new sources. There is presently insufficient
information available by which to evaluate the efficiency of steam
stripping textile mill wastewaters as a means of removing low
concentrations of volatile toxic pollutants that are refractory to
other treatment processes.
Each of the alternative end-of-pipe technologies described prevously
for existing sources was evaluated technically for application to new
sources. It was concluded that alternatives comprising treatment
trains similar to alternatives D, E, and F (Table VIII-1) were
suitable for use with new sources. Alternatives like B and C were
judged not to be cost effective because they would require prior
treatment of the total waste flow by the equivalent of BPT and would
not provide complete treatment of pollutants. Alternatives like G, H,
J, and K were also rejected because of the requirement for prior BPT-
level treatment of the whole waste stream and less than optimal
removal of organic toxic pollutants.
Alternatives R, S, and T are designated for new sources and are
roughly equivalent to Alternatives D, E, and F, respectively. For
each of these three alternatives, comparisons at selected total flow
levels were made between the costs of treating segregated vs combined
flow streams, based on the assumption that two-thirds of the total
flow required treatment to reduce toxic pollutants. It was determined
that segregation was significantly cheaper for Alternatives S and T
384
-------
for direct dischargers and for all three alternatives for indirect
dischargers.
NEW DIRECT DISCHARGE SOURCES
In-Plant Control Measures
As indicated elsewhere in this section, in-plant control measures will
become increasingly important in reducing end-of-pipe treatment costs
in all textile mills and especially in new sources. New mills should
be designed for pollution control in terms of manufacturing processes
and equipment selection. Design should include measures to contain
spills, require dry cleaning methods, and incorporate instrumentation
and other measures to conserve water. The benefits and costs of
segregating drains should be carefully evaluated so that potentially
toxic waste streams can be handled specifically and at minimum cost.
As with the existing direct discharge sources, the treatment
alternatives do not include any in-plant control measures.
Selected End-of-Pipe Technologies
Three alternative end-of-pipe treatment technologies are available for
direct discharging new sources in the textile mill category.
Alternative R (equivalent to Alternative D for existing sources)
comprises BPT, or its equivalent, plus chemical coagulation, sedimen-
tation, and multi-media filtration of the total (unsegregated) waste
stream. Segregation is not cost-effective for this alternative
because the entire waste stream must receive BPT-level treatment to
reduce the concentrations of conventional organic pollutants
sufficiently to permit discharge to a receiving water. Prior
treatment by BPT should improve the efficiency and/or lower the costs
of the advanced treatment processes.
Alternative S provides screening, equalization, multi-media
filtration, and granular activated carbon adsorption of the toxic
pollutant waste stream prior to discharge to the receiving water. The
remaining waste streams, without toxic pollutants, are subjected to
conventional, 8-hour aeration period activated sludge. For total mill
flows of 946 cu m/day (0.25 mgd) and less, the toxic pollutant waste
streams are not segregated. It was judged that the smaller savings
that would result from segregated treatment would not offset the costs
of separated drainage systems. The total waste stream is treated by
24-hour activated sludge, filtration, and carbon adsorption.
Alternative T combines the processes of Alternatives R and S and
should provide effective pollutant removals for discharge to receiving
waters. The segregated toxic pollutant waste stream is treated in a
train comprising screening, equalization, chemical coagulation and
385
-------
sedimentation, multi-media filtration, and granular activated carbon
adsorption prior to discharge to the receiving water. The remaining
waste streams are treated by conventional 8-hour activated sludge with
prior screening and return of biomass from a secondary clarifier. For
total mill flows of 946 cu m/day (0.25 mgd) and less, the toxic
pollutant waste streams are not segregated, and the total flow is
treated by 24-hour activated sludge followed by chemical coagulation,
sedimentation, multi-media filtration, and carbon adsorption.
The three alternatives are described in Table VIII-27.
For all alternatives, thickened s1udges are dewatered by vacuum
filtration prior to removal to disposal in off-site sanitary landfill.
An additional benefit of segregating the toxic pollutant waste streams
is that the resulting sludges can be handled separately.
All but one of the individual processes comprising the three
alternatives are described previously in this section. Screening and
equalization are described under existing indirect dischargers.
Activated Sludge. Conventional activated sludge providing 8-hours
detention in the aeration basin is used for non-toxic pollutant waste
streams when waste segregation is assumed (Alternatives S and T).
Extended-aeration activated sludge (24-hours aeration) is used for
unsegregated waste streams (Alternative R and smaller mill flows for
Alternatives S and T).
Investment Costs and Annual Costs
The same bases were used for the investment and annual costs for the
model direct new sources as previously described for existing direct
and indirect dischargers. Screening and equalization are covered
under existing indirect dischargers. Cost curves were also presented
earlier in this section (Figures VIII-1 through VIII-8).
Total installed costs are broken into equipment and construction
fractions as follows:
Process Equipment Construction
Activated Sludge 20% 80%
Land Costs
Land requirements for waste treatment facilities will vary depending
upon the wastewater flow and whether or not segregation of waste
streams is instituted. The activated sludge process will dictate the
overall land needs in the larger faclities and they could range up to
5 hectares (12.4 acres) or more, depending upon detention period.
386
-------
TABLE VIII-27
ALTERNATIVE END-OF-PIPE-TREATMENT TECHNOLOGIES
NEW SOURCES - DIRECT DISCHARGE
Technology Description
A No treatment
R Screening, 24-hour extended-aeration activated
sludge with solids recycle, chemical coagulation,
sedimentation, and multi-media filtration.
S Larger flows: Priority pollutant stream - Screening,
equalization, multi-media filtration, and granular
activated carbon adsorption. Other streams -
Screening and 8-hour activated sludge with solids
recycle.
Smaller flows: Total mill waste flow - Screening,
24-hour extended-aeration activated sludge with
solids recycle, multi-media filtration and granular
activated carbon adsorption.
T Larger flows: Priority pollutant stream - Screening,
equalization, chemical coagulation, sedimentation,
multi-media filtration, and granular activated
carbon adsorption. Other streams - Screening and
8-hour activated sludge with solids recycle.
Smaller flows: Total mill waste flow - Screening,
24-hour extended-aeration activated sludge with
solids recycle, chemical coagulation, sedimentation,
multi-media filtration, and granular activated
carbon adsorption.
387
-------
water depth, and type of construction used for side walls. The land
requirements for wastewater treatment facilities would be included in
the planning for the new mill site.
Model Plant Costs
For new direct discharge sources, one representative model plant size
was selected for each subcategory from among the model plant sizes
developed for existing sources (Table VIII-2). As noted earlier, no
adjustment was made for improvements in water conservation practices
in new mills.
It was determined that it was very unlikely that new Wool Scouring
mills will be constructed in the forseeable future. Consequently,
this subcategory is not included in the model plant cost estimates.
The selected model plant sizes, expressed as wastewater flow rate are
presented in Table VIII-28.
Cost Effectiveness Summaries
Model plant control cost summary sheets, developed for each model
plant to provide a synopsis of the cost analysis and resulting
benefits, are provided in Tables VIII-29 through VIII-39. As noted
previously, Alternatives R, S, and T in Table VI11-27' are equivalent
to Alternatives D, E, and F in Table VIII-1 for existing sources.
NEW INDIRECT DISCHARGE SOURCES
The discussion presented previously for existing indirect discharge
sources applies also to new sources. Also, the discussion presented
previously about zero discharge, water usage rates, and segregation of
waste streams containing toxic pollutants applies equally to both
direct and indirect discharge new sources. The benefits of
segregation are more evident for indirect sources because the need for
biological treatment is eliminated when discharging to a POTW.
In-plant control measures are discussed in Section VII and their
importance is emphasized previously in this section. They should be
explored fully for new indirect sources to determine whether or not
the discharge of toxic pollutants can be controlled adequately to
eliminate the need for substantial end-of-pipe treatment facilities.
End-of-Pipe Technologies
Alternatives R, S, and T for new direct discharge sources are modified
for new indirect sources by eliminating the activated sludge process
and providing segregation of the toxic pollutant waste stream in all
cases and for all model plant flows. Screening is provided for all
388
-------
Subcategory
TABLE VIII-28
SELECTED MODEL PLANT SIZES
NEW SOURCES
Size, mgd
Discharge* Total Q PPQ** Q-PPQ
1.
2.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
Wool Scouring
Wool Finishing
Woven Fabric Finishing
a. Simple Processing
b. Complex Processing
c. Complex Processing
Plus Desizing
Knit Fabric Finishing
a. Simple Processing
b. Complex Processing
c. Hosiery Products
Carpet Finishing
Stock & Yarn Finishing
Nonwoven Manufacturing
Felted Fabric Processing
D
I
D
I
D
I
D
I
D
I
D
I
D
I
D
I
D
I
D
I
D
I
D
I
0.25
0.25
1.5
1.5
0.60
0.25
3.0
0.60
1.5
1.5
1.0
0.60
0.60
0.60
0.11
0.25
0.'25
0.60
0.60
0.25
0.25
0.60
0.25
0.25
0.25
0.15
1.0
1.0
0.40
0.15
1.8
0.40
1.0
1.0
0.60
0.40
0.40
0.40
0.11
0.15
0.25
0.40
0.40
0.15
0.25
0.40
0.25
0.15
0.10
0.50
0.50
0.20
0.10
1.2
0.20
0.50
0.50
0.40
0.20
0.20
0.20
0.10
0.20
0.20
0.10
0.20
0.10
* D refers to direct and I to indirect,
** PPQ - Priority pollutant stream, segregated from other wastewaters
389
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wastes prior to discharge and equalization is provided for the toxic
pollutant stream prior to any advanced treatment processes. The
alternatives are described briefly in Table VIII-40.
The criteria used in sizing the various processes for Alternatives R,
S, and T are discussed under existing sources.
Investment Costs and Annual Costs
The bases used for estimating investment costs for new indirect
discharge sources were the same as those for existing sources and are
discussed previously in this section. The cost curves in Figures
VIII-1 through VIII-8 apply for new indirect discharge sources.
Land Costs
Without activated sludge facilities, the land requirements for new
indirect discharge sources will be considerably smaller than for new
direct discharge sources, i.e., less than 1 hectare (2.5 acres) for
the largest flows.
Model Plant Costs
The model plant sizes selected for new indirect discharge sources are
given in Table VIII-28.
Cost Effectiveness Summaries
Tables VIII-41 through VIII-51 provide synopses of the elements in the
estimated costs and the expected resultant benefits for the model
plants selected to represent new indirect discharge sources in each
subcategory.
ENERGY ASPECTS
An analysis was carried out to estimate the energy requirements of the
end-of-pipe treatment alternatives in terms of reported total mill
energy usage for selected subcategories. The annual energy
requirements for each treatment alternative were derived in order to
estimate the cost for electrical power for the various equipment
components. For each of the selected subcategories, the estimated
energy requirements were expressed in terms of annual production for
the model plant sizes. From the detailed questionnaires, the reported
total mill energy consumption as electric power, oil, and gas was
calculated in common units and expressed in terms of annual
production. The median value for the mills in each subcategory,
combining both direct and indirect dischargers, was then used as the
base value for that subcategory. The median total mill energy
412
-------
TABLE VIII-40
ALTERNATIVE END-OF-PIPE TREATMENT TECHNOLOGIES
NEW SOURCES - INDIRECT DISCHARGE
Technology Description
A No treatment
R Priority pollutant stream - Screening, equalization,
chemical coagulation, sedimentation, and multi-media
filtration. Other streams - Screening.
S Priority pollutant stream - Screening, equalization,
multi-media filtration, and granular activated
carbon adsorption. Other streams - Screening.
T Priority pollutant stream - Screening, equalization,
chemical coagulation, sedimentation, multi-media
filtration, and granular activated carbon adsorption,
Other streams - Screening.
413
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consumption values per unit of production for the selected
subcategories are as follows:
No. Median Mill Consumption
Subcateqory of Mills qt/kkq* Btu/lb
1. Wool Scouring 8 18.7 8,100
2. Wool Finishing 15 16.0 26,000
5. Knit Fabric Finishing** 75 40.9 18,000
6. Carpet Finishing 25 21.2 9,100
8. Nonwoven Manufacturing 10 19.6 8,400
* gigJoules (billions of Joules) per kkg of production
** excluding Hosiery Products manufacturing.
The maximum energy requirement for each end-of-pipe treatment
alternative for each of the selected subcategories was expressed as a
percentage of the base value to determine the additional energy
requirements per unit of production. The results are presented in
Table VII1-52. The estimated additional energy requirements for
Alternatives B, C, D, E, and F (Table VIII-1) are all well under 2
percent. For Alternatves G, H, J, and K, which involve ozonation, the
additional energy requirements range from 2.5 to 5.5 percent. For the
New Source Alternatives R, S, and T (Table VII1-27), the requirements
range from approximately 1 to 2 percent of the total mill energy
consumption.
SLUDGE MANAGEMENT
Current Practices
Useful questionnaire information on wastewater sludge management
practices was received from 78 mills; 15 indirect and 63 direct
dischargers. In addition, some mills indicated that their systems do
not generate any significant quantities of excess sludge. It is
likely that the very long detention periods employed in some
biological treatment systems in the industry result in very low sludge
production levels. Also, excess sludge may settle and gradually
accumulate in some treatment basins.
Sixty-seven of the 78 mills had biological sludges to be processed and
disposed of. Of the 11 remaining mills, one provides simple screening
and flotation of its wastewaters prior to discharge to a POTW. The
screenings and float are disposed of in a landfill without processing.
The remaining 10 mills produce a sludge through coagulation or
chemical pH adjustment. The effluent from 8 of these mills is
discharged to POTW. In all cases, the sludge is removed to a landfill
436
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for disposal. Six of these mills dispose of the sludge in a wet
condition; two dewater mechanically, one with a centrifuge and the
other with a filter press; and three dry the sludge on sand beds prior
to disposal.
In evaluating the management practices of the 67 reported mill
treatment facilities that produce biological sludges, consideration
was given to both the processing and the disposal of the sludges.
Processing usually encompasses two aspects, stabilization and
dewatering. Stabilization, or digestion, of the putrescible organic
materials in biological sludges reduces the potential for odors and
other nuisance conditions and reduces pathogenic bacteria populations.
Dewatering removes excess free water to improve handling
characteristics and reduce transportation costs. Disposal refers to
the final disposition of the sludge.
Stabilizaton may be accomplished internally within the activated
sludge or other biological process by retaining the solids for
extended periods or externally in separate sludge digesters. Eighteen
mills have sludge digesters, all aerobic except one anaerobic unit.
The rest provide some degree of internal stabilization within the
aeration basins. For this study, internal aeration periods of greater
than 48 hours were regarded as providing full stabilization; shorter
periods, as partial or no stabilization.
Dewatering usually refers to mechanical processes that force the
excess water out of the sludge producing a mass that does not flow or
drip and contains roughly 80 percent or less water by weight. Eight
mills provide mechanical dewatering systems; four vacuum filters,
three centrifuges, and one filter press.
A more complete form of water removal is provided by the use of sand
drying beds. Twenty-four mills use sand drying beds prior to
disposal.
The questionnaire responses about sludge disposal practices were
classified as landfill, land application, or on-site lagoons. The
term "landfill" refers to land disposal sites ranging from sanitary
landfills to dumps. Three of the mills reported the use of on-site
landfills. Land application refers to spraying wet sludge or
spreading dry sludge solids over land surfaces to reuse some of the
organic components of the sludge.
The reported sludge processing and disposal practices are summarized
in Table VIII-53. Most of the mills provide full stabilization of
biological sludges and some form of excess water removal. Over 70
percent of the mills dispose of their sludge in landfills with the
remaining split about evenly between land application and long-term
on-site storage in lagoons.
438
-------
TABLE VIII-53
CURRENT SLUDGE MANAGEMENT PRACTICES
Sludges Type
Numbers of Mill Treatment Facilities
Landfill Land Application Lagoons POTWs
Wet Biological
Partial Stabilization 7
Full Stabilization 10
Dewatered Biological
Partial Stabilization
Full Stabilization 8
Dry Biological
Partial Stabilization 2
Full Stabilization 19
Wet Chemical 5
Dewatered Chemical 2
Dry Chemical 3
Source: Sverdrup & Parcel Textile Industry Survey, 1976-77.
439
-------
Sludge Quantities
The questionnaire information on quantities of excess sludge to be
disposed of and the associated costs of processing and removal varied
widely among the mills that provided data. In most cases, the water
content of the sludge was not reported, and the questionnaire data,
expressed in terms of either volume or weight, could not be correlated
with other information about the type of treatment provided or the
mill production level.
Fourteen mills reported biological sludge volumes ranging from 0.8 to
182 liters/cu m (0.2 to 48 gal/1000 gal) of wastewater treated. The
median value for these mills was approximately 23 liters/cu m (6
gal/1000 gal). The wide range of values reflect differences in
aeration detention periods, loading rates, ambient temperatures, etc.
For reference, typical sludge production rates for conventional (8-
hour) activated sludge plants treating domestic sewage is 76 liters/cu
m (20 gal/1000 gal).
The estimated quantities of excess sludge generated by the various
end-of-pipe treatment alternatives for the model plants are presented
in Table VIII-54 for direct dischargers and Table VIII-55 for indirect
dischargers. The values are expressed in metric tons per year of
dewatered sludge containing 20 percent solids.
OTHER NON-WATER QUALITY ASPECTS
At this time, there are be no known significant other non-water
quality environmental impacts in terms of air pollution, noise, or
radiation from application of any of the alternative end-of-pipe
treatment alternatives.
A non-water quality aspect relating to air quality that is not
peculiar to the textile industry is the possible stripping of volatile
toxic and other pollutants in treatment systems, particularly in
activated sludge aeration basins. A preliminary review of the data
from the field sampling program indicates that some of the Group 1
toxic pollutants that are generally regarded as being very resistant
to biodegradation are often removed substantially during passage of
the wastewater through secondary treatment systems. Release to the
atmosphere is .theoretically possible, but has not been measured at
this time. The possible impact on air quality has not been evaluated.
440
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SECTION IX
EFFLUENT REDUCTION ATTAINABLE THROUGH THE APPLICATION OF
THE BEST AVAILABLE TECHNOLOGY ECONOMICALLY ACHIEVABLE
EFFLUENT LIMITATIONS GUIDELINES
INTRODUCTION
The effluent limitations that must be achieved by July 1, 1984, are
determined by identifying the very best control and treatment
technology employed by a specific point source within the industrial
category or subcategory or by one industry where it is readily
transferable to another. A specific finding must be made as to the
availability of control measures and practices to eliminate the
discharge of pollutants, taking into account the cost of such
elimination.
Consideration was also given to:
o The age of the equipment and facilities;
o The processes employed;
o The engineering aspects of the application of various types
of control techniques;
o Process changes; and
o Non-water quality environmental impact (including energy
requirements).
The Best Available Technology Economically Achievable (BAT) emphasizes
in-process controls as well as control or additional treatment
techniques employed at the end of the production process. It
considers those plant processes and control technologies which, at the
pilot plant semi-works, and other levels, have demonstrated both
technological performances and economic viability at a level
sufficient to reasonably justify investing in such facilities. It is
the highest degree of control technology that has been achieved or has
been demonstrated to be capable of being designed for plant-scale
operation up to and including "no discharge" of pollutants. Although
economic factors are considered in this development, the costs of this
level of control are intended to be the top-of-the-line of current
technology, subject to limitations imposed by economic and engineering
feasibility. There may be some technical risk, however, with respect
to performance and certainty of costs. Therefore, some process
development and adaptation may be necessary for application at a
specific mill site.
445
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IDENTIFICATION OF THE BEST PRACTICABLE CONTROL TECHNOLOGY CURRENTLY
ACHIEVABLE
Best Practicable Control Technology Currently Available (BPT) is the
basis for the present level of control for direct dischargers in the
textile industry. As defined in the earlier Development Document (1),
BPT includes preliminary screening, primary settling (Wool Scouring
Subcategory only), latex coagulation (Carpet Mills Subcategory only),
and secondary biological treatment. Effluent limitations guidelines
representing the degree of effluent reduction attainable by the
application of BPT are detailed in the Federal Register (40 CFR 410;
39 FR 24736, July 5, 1974; Amended by 39 FR 30134, August 20, 1974; 42
FR 26979, May 26, 1977).
IDENTIFICATION OF THE BEST AVAILABLE TECHNOLOGY ECONOMICALLY
ACHIEVABLE
BAT utilizes BPT as a basis for further improvements. No special in-
plant modification is required. In-plant control measures and
additional end-of-pipe treatment technology available to improve BPT
are listed below. The control measures listed are fully discussed in
Section VII, and the operating characteristics of the end-of-pipe
technologies are presented in Section VIII.
In-Plant Control Measures
- Water reuse
- Water reduction through conservation
- Chemical substitution
- Material reclamation for reuse
- Process changes
- Segregation of concentrated waste streams for separate treatment
- Production scheduling to distribute loading
End-of-Pipe Treatment Technology
LEVEL 1 - CURRENT LEVEL OF TREATMENT (BPT) - Biological treatment
(extended-aeration activated sludge)
LEVEL 2 - Biological treatment plus filtration
LEVEL 3 - Biological treatment plus chemical coagulation
LEVEL 4 - Biological treatment plus chemical coagulation and
filtration
More sophisticated end-of-pipe treatment levels involving activated
carbon or ozone added to above levels were evaluated technically but
were not considered in establishing the BAT level of control because
they are too costly relative to the resulting benefits.
446
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Based on analyses of these control options, the Agency has selected
LEVEL 2 for Woven Fabric Finishing (all subdivisions), Knit Fabric
Finishing (except the Hosiery Products Subdivision), Carpet Finishing,
Stock & Yarn Finishing, and Nonwoven Manufacturing, LEVEL 4 for Wool
Scouring, Wool Finishing, and the Hosiery Products Subdivision of Knit
Fabric Finishing, and LEVEL 1 for Felted Fabric Processing as the
basis for BAT effluent limitations. For Wool Scouring, the technology
includes dissolved air flotation in place of filtration because of the
nature of the solids.
The current level of treatment, BPT, properly operated and with
appropriate in-plant control measures or preliminary treatment, will
permit some mills in the industry to comply with the BAT effluent
limitations without instituting additional end-of-pipe treatment.
Some mills, on the other hand, may find it necessary or more cost
effective to go to a higher treatment level in order to comply with
BAT effluent limitations.
BAT EFFLUENT LIMITATIONS
Subcateqory 1 - Wool Scouring
Effluent Limitations, kg/kkg of raw grease wool
Pollutant or Maximum for Average of daily values
Pollutant Property any one day for 30 consecutive days
COD
TSS
Total Phenol
Total Chromium
Total Copper
Total Zinc
Color (ADMI units)
36.3
10.9
0.002
0.01
0.01
0.02
2400
24.6
6.3
0.001
0.006
0.006
0.01
1500
447
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Subcateqory 2 - Wool Finishing
Effluent Limitations, kg/kkg of product
Pollutant or Maximum for Average of daily values
Pollutant Property any one day for 30 consecutive days
COD
TSS
Total
Total
Total
Total
Color
Phenol
Chromium
Copper
Zinc
(ADMI units)
82.4
11.0
0.032
0.26
0.26
0.52
190
56.2
6.4
0.018
0.14
0.14
0.28
120
Subcateqory 3 - Low Water Use Processing
This subcategory is excluded from BAT effluent limitations.
Subcategorv 4a - Woven Fabric Finishing, Simple Processing
Effluent Limitations, kg/kkg of product
Pollutant or Maximum for Average of daily values
Pollutant Property any one day for 30 consecutive days
COD
TSS
Total Phenol
Total Chromium
Total Copper
Total Zinc
Color (ADMI units)
33.1
3.4
0.005
0.07
0.07
0.14
340
22.6
2.0
0.003
0.04
0.04
0.08
220
448
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Subcategory 4b - Woven Fabric Finishing. Complex Processinq
Pollutant or
Pollutant Property
Effluent Limitations, kg/kkg of product
Maximum for
any one day
Average of daily values
for 30 consecutive days
COD
TSS
Total Phenol
Total Chromium
Total Copper
Total Zinc
Color (ADMI units)
38.1
4.7
0.013
0.08
0.08
0.16
340
26.0
2.7
0.008
0.04
0.04
0.08
220
Subcategory 4c - Woven Fabric Finishing, Complex Processinq Plus Desizinq
Pollutant or
Pollutant Property
Effluent Limitations, kg/kkg of product
Maximum for
any one day
Average of daily values
for 30 consecutive days
COD
TSS
Total
Total
Total
Total
Color
Phenol
Chromium
Copper
Zinc
(ADMI units)
49.9
6.2
0.012
0.10
0.10
0.20
340
34.0
3.6
0.007
0.06
0.06
0.11
220
449
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Subcateqorv 5a - Knit Fabric Finishing, Simple Processing
Pollutant or
Pollutant Property
Effluent Limitations, kg/kkg of product
Maximum for
any one day
Average of daily values
for 30 consecutive days
COD
TSS
Total Phenol
Total Chromium
Total Copper
Total Zinc
Color {ADMI units)
64.6
5.2
0.018
0.12
0.12
0.24
340
44.0
3.0
0.010
0.07
0.07
0.14
220
Subcateqorv 5b - Knit Fabric Finishing, Complex Processing
Effluent Limitations, kg/kkg of product
Pollutant or
Pollutant Property
Maximum for
any one day
Average of daily values
for 30 consecutive days
COD
TSS
Total Phenol
Total Chromium
Total Copper
Total Zinc
Color (ADMI units)
41.1
5.0
0.011
0.08
0.08
0.15
340
28.0
2.9
0.006
0.04
0.04
0.08
220
450
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Subcateqory 5c - Knit Fabric Finishing, Hosiery Products
Effluent Limitations, kg/kkg of product
Pollutant or Maximum for Average of daily values
Pollutant Property any one day for 30 consecutive days
COD 47.7 32.5
TSS 7.0 4.0
Total Phenol 0,006 0.003
Total Chromium 0.06 0.03
Total Copper 0.06 0.03
Total Zinc 0.12 0.07
Color (ADMI units) 190 120
Subcateqory 6 - Carpet Finishing
Effluent Limitations, kg/kkg of product
Pollutant or Maximum for Average of daily values
Pollutant Property any one day for 30 consecutive days
COD
TSS
Total
Total
Total
Total
Color
Phenol
Chromium
Copper
Zinc
(ADMI units)
23.8
3.0
0.010
0.04
0.04
0.08
340
16.3
1.8
0.006
0.02
0.02
0.05
220
451
-------
Subcateqory 7 - Stock & Yarn Finishing
Pollutant or
Pollutant Property
Effluent Limitations, kg/kkg of product
Maximum for
any one day
Average of daily values
for 30 consecutive days
COD
TSS
Total Phenol
Total Chromium
Total Copper
Total Zinc
Color (ADMI units)
24.7
2.7
0.013
0.09
0.09
0.18
340
16.8
1.6
0.008
0.05
0.05
0.10
220
Subcateqory 8 - Nonwoven Manufacturing
Pollutant or
Pollutant Property
Effluent Limitations, kg/kkg of product
Maximum for
any one day
Average of daily values
for 30 consecutive days
COD
TSS
Total Phenol
Total Chromium
Total Copper
Total Zinc
Color {ADMI units)
39.8
3.3
0.002
0.04
0.04
0.07
340
27.1
1.9
0.001
0.02
0.02
0.04
220
452
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Subcateoory 9 - Felted Fabric Processing
Effluent Limitations, kg/kkg of product
i ฐr Maximum for Average of daily values
lutant Property any one day for 30 consecutive days
COD
TSS
Total
Total
Total
Total
Color
Phenol
Chromium
Copper
Zinc
(ADMX units)
143.0
62.0
0.05
0.19
0.19
0.38
380
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0.03
0. 11
0. 11
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v * ** A-
240
METHODOLOGY USED TO DEVELOP BAT EFFLUENT LIMITATIONS
The rationale and method used in developing the BAT effluent
limitations are described below.
Rationale
The current wastewater management practices of the textile industry
were investigated and the performances of existing BPT systems were
evaluated in detail, it was found that many such systems are capable
of controlling conventional, non-conventional, and toxic pollutants
when properly designed, operated, and maintained and when in-plant
controls are provided as necessary to prevent overload or other abuse
of the end-of-pipe treatment facilities. The available data indicate
that many BPT systems are currently discharging effluent levels that
could not be significantly improved without resorting to sophisticated
a?u VSSฃ costlv treatment technologies. The data also show that some
other BPT systems in the textile industry either almost achieve such
effluent quality or achieve it intermittently. In light of these
findings, the Agency has concluded that BPT, when functioning
optimally or when upgraded by the application of filtration or
chemical coagulation, or both, constitutes BAT. In other words, many
textile mills are capable of meeting the BAT effluent limitations
without additional end-of-pipe technology. Through the use of in-
plant measures, as described in Section VII, and through improvements
in the operation and/or design of the BPT systems, such mills can
453
-------
consistently provide control of all conventional, non-conventional,
and toxic pollutants.
It is also recognized that a number of textile mills may find it
necessary or cost-effective to implement additional treatment to meet
the BAT effluent limitations. Because of variations among mills
within the same subcategory of the textile industry, not all can
benefit equally from the application of the same in-plant control
measures and end-of-pipe treatment technologies. In order to permit
flexibility in meeting the BAT effluent limitations, more than one
alternative is considered to be appropriate, depending upon the
requirements of individual mills. The alternative unit treatment
processes, filtration and chemical coagulation, provide different
methods of removing the same principal target pollutant; namely, TSS.
Both processes have been used in the industry to upgrade BPT systems,
and both have been demonstrated at full-scale or in pilot-plant
studies, or both, in all subcategories of the industry except Nonwoven
Manufacturing (Subcategory 8) and Felted Fabric Processing
(Subcategory 9).
Method
The Agency developed the effluent limitations in a building block
fashion by engineering analysis using full-scale and pilot-scale
treatability data. First, median BPT effluent concentration levels
were established for the conventional and non-conventional pollutants
for each subcategory and internal subdivisions of subcategories (Table
V-9). Long-term data were available from NPDES permit monitoring
reports and the industry survey questionnaires. Second, separate
statistical analyses were carried out for BOD5, COD, TSS, color, and
total phenol at selected, well-operated textile waste treatment
facilities to determine the normal and seasonal variability of the
data. A summary of these analyses is provided in Table IX-1, which
presents the median average month, maximum month, and maximum day
long-term monitoring values for the mills reporting such data and the
medians of the calculated maximum month/average month and maximum
day/average day ratios for these mills. The median BPT effluent
concentration values were adjusted by the median maximum month/
average month value for each pollutant. The concentrations were
converted to mass loadings (kg/kkg of finished product) by applying
the median water usage values for each subcategory (Table V-l) to
provide the basis for the 30-day average limitations. The basis for
the maximum daily limitations was application of specific factors to
the 30-day average limitations that were determined by dividing the
median maximum day/average month values by the median maximum
month/average month values in Table IX-1. Finally, effluent
limitations based on the BAT option selected were calculated for both
the 30-day average and maximum day by application of median treatment
performance values established from the results of the EPA/Industry
454
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455
-------
Pilot Plant Research Project. Statistical summaries of the
performance data are presented in Table IX-2 for multi-media
filtration and Table IX-3 for chemical coagulation and multi-media
filtration.
REGULATED POLLUTANTS
Non-conventional Pollutants
The non-conventional pollutants limited by BAT are color, as measured
by the ADMI procedure, and COD. These pollutants can produce
detrimental effects in receiving waters and are limited to prevent
such effects. Color limitations are expressed in standard ADMI units.
High color levels in textile mill discharges result primarily from
dyes and printing pastes, except in Subcategory 1, Wool Scouring.
Dyes comprise a wide variety of chemical structures and their behavior
is dependent upon environmental conditions. Because of their variety,
there is no single treatment process that will control color in all
textile mill wastewaters. Limited data from the sampling program show
activated carbon adsorption to be most effective in reducing color.
Filtration is generally ineffective, while chemical coagulation has
been found to be effective, but not in all applications. Mills with
severe color problems will have to develop suitable control measures.
Toxic Pollutants
The toxic pollutants expressly controlled for direct dischargers in
each subcategory are "total phenol," and the following metallic
priority pollutants: total chromium, total copper, and total zinc.
These pollutants are subject to numerical limitations expressed in
kilograms per thousand kilograms (kg/kkg) of product (lbs/1000 Ibs).
Since the Agency has adopted the control of TSS as an indicator
pollutant" as the basis for controlling toxic pollutants, no effluent
limitations are recommended for any toxic pollutants other than those
listed here.
"Total phenol" is measured by the 4-aminoantipyrine method (4AAP).
This method measures the simple phenol present, plus fractions of
other specific substituted phenols, such as 2,4,6-trichlorophenoi.
While pentachlorophenol does not respond to this test, the Agency
concludes that when both total phenol and TSS are controlled, this
compound and other compounds resistant to rapid biodegradation will be
controlled as well.
Total chromium, total copper, and total zinc are regulated because
they were detected at relatively high concentrations in the raw wastes
at some textile mills. Other metallic toxic pollutants detected at
lower concentrations and generally less frequently included antimony.
456
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TABLE IX-2
STATISTICAL SUMMARY - TREATMENT PERFORMANCE DATA
MULTI-MEDIA FILTRATION
No. of
Pollutant Parameter Plants* Minimum Maximum Average Median
BOD5
Effluent, mg/1
Removal, %
COD
Effluent, mg/1
Removal , %
. T-SS
Effluent, mg/1
Removal, %
Color
Effluent, ADMI units
Removal, %
Total Phenol
Effluent, mg/1
Remova 1 , %
14
14
14
14
14
14
12
12
3
3
3
7
55
0
4
19
97
0
0.04
7
23
79
630
40
85
92
384
44
0.08
33
10
34
'210
20
18
59
208
10
0.058
24
8.5
27
109
23
11
67
188
5
0.053
33
(25)#
(20)//
(65)//
(10)#
(30)//
* Number of mills for which treatment performance data were obtained
for the pollutant parameter.
# Removal values used in calculating effluent limitations.
457
-------
TABLE IX-3
STATISTICAL SUMMARY - TREATMENT PERFORMANCE DATA
CHEMICAL COAGULATION PLUS MULTI-MEDIA FILTRATION
No. of
Pollutant Parameter Plants*
BODS
Effluent, mg/1
Removal, %
rirn
\j\JLt
Effluent, mg/1
Removal, %
TSS
Effluent, mg/1
Removal, %
Color
Effluent, ADMI units
Removal, %
Total Phenol
Effluent, mg/1
Removal, %
10
10
10
10
10
10
9
9
3
3
Minimum
2
45
67
16
2
24
55
0
0.03
50
Maximum
31
85
807
85
102
99
626
73
0.054
69
Average
10
66
208
46
23
70
199
43
0.041
58
Median
6c
.5
66
134
48
11
72
168
58
0.04
55
(65)#
(45)#
(75)#
(50)#
(55)#
* Number of mills for which treatment performance data were obtained
for the pollutant parameter.
# Removal values used in calculating effluent limitations.
458
-------
arsenic, cadmium, lead, mercury, nickel, selenium, and silver.
Treatment processes that are effective for chromium, copper, and zinc
may not be completely effective for the other metals in all cases
especially when present at high concentrations. Due to the varied
nature of the textile industry and the necessarily limited extent of
the screening and verification sampling programs, these unregulated
metallic pollutants may be a problem at some textile mills, and
limitations at the local level may be required.
Indicator Pollutant
The ^^i^1!:165 of toxic Pollutant analyses for other toxics has
prompted EPA to propose a new method of regulating certain toxic
pollutants. For certain toxic pollutants, for which historical data
are limited and inexpensive analytical methods are not well developed
Soo IS P5ฐPฐsing numerical limitations for the "indicator pollutant,"
"?ซ*-,. I ?K avai!able to the Agency revealed that when this
indicator pollutant" is controlled, the concentrations of toxic pol-
lutants are significantly lower than when the "indicator pollutant" is
present in high concentrations.
EPA 's consideration of "indicator" limitations was brought to the
attention of Congress during the formative stages of the Clean Water
11 -4. II' 3Lthat time' EPA was examining several techniques to
alleviate the difficulties of lengthy and expensive analytical
procedures. The proposed alternate "indicator" limitations serve that
purpose. This method of toxics regulation obviates the difficulties,
nigh costs, and delays of monitoring and analyses that would result
from limitations solely on the toxic pollutants.
^lev S"? in the. APPendix is a list of toxic pollutants that were
detected in treated effluents in concentrations greater than available
analytical detection limits. The Agency concludes that these
pollutants will be effectively controlled by limitation of the
indicator pollutant" even though the toxics (other than total phenol
and the above listed metals) are not expressly regulated by numerical
limitations.
The toxic pollutants regulated by the "indicator pollutant" include
all of the volatile (purgeable) organics, some of the acid extractable
organic compounds, the base-neutral extractable organic compounds, and
the inorganic compounds.
Effective control of suspended solids has been shown to provide reduc-
tions of toxic inorganic pollutants and certain toxic organic
compounds. Control of TSS is, therefore, an indicator for certain
toxic pollutants, in addition to being a conventional pollutant of
major concern.
459
-------
It should be noted that the "indicator pollutant" TSS is classified as
a "conventional" pollutant under Section 304{a)(4) of the Act or
proposed regulations. Where conventional pollutants are used as
"indicator pollutants" for toxic pollutants, BAT limitations for these
pollutants have been established to assure installation and
performance of waste treatment technology that is adequate for the
removal of toxic pollutants.
SIZE, AGE, PROCESSES EMPLOYED, LOCATION OF FACILITIES
The textile industry includes operations ranging in size from small
shops to large complexes with thousands of employees. The
manufacturing processes employed are determined by the fiber types
(raw materials), final products, and the type of finishing operations
used. These process-related factors have been considered and
incorporated into the subcategorization. The processes employed in
different sized textile mills within each subcategory are essentially
the same. The industry has generally modernized its equipment and
facilities as new methods that are economically attractive have been
introduced. No relationship between size and age and the constitutive
characteristics of the wastewaters within each subcategory was found
to exist, as described in detail in Section IV. Facilities located in
cold climates can employ the same control technologies as those in
warmer climates by incorporating well established design principles
and operating procedures to compensate for the effects of winter
conditions on biological and physico-chemical treatment systems.
In summary, the factor of processes employed is included in the
subcategorization. The factors of size, age, and location of
facilities do not affect the technology that can be applied
effectively in each subcategory.
ENGINEERING ASPECTS OF BEST AVAILABLE TECHNOLOGY ECONOMICALLY
ACHIEVABLE
The characteristics of the wastewaters from the various subcategories
of the textile industry are described in Section V. Because there is
diversity in raw materials, processing methods, process control, and
final products, there are variations in raw wastewater characteristics
among mills within each subcategory. Despite these variations,
textile mill wastewaters are generally susceptible to treatment by
biological systems designed to accommodate the characteristics of the
particular mill where applied.
The overall approach in developing BAT was to use biological treatment
(BPT) as the base. Its performance would be optimized through in-
plant control measures, additional preliminary treatment as
appropriate, and improved control and operation of the existing
biological system components. Additional end-of-pipe treatment
460
-------
technologies would be employed only as required. Since filtration and
chemical coagulation overlap in terms of target pollutants, it is
expected that relatively few mills will need to install both processes
to meet the BAT effluent limitations.
In-Plant Control Measures and Process Changes
In-plant control measures are described in detail in Section VII. In-
plant process changes that reduced the wastewater quantity or
pollutant loading have been implemented at many mills for purely
economic reasons, with the side benefit of improved wastewater
quality. Polyvinyl Alcohol (PVA) recovery and reuse is an example of
such decision-making within the industry. Other examples are
countercurrent flows in rinsing operations, substitution of
alternatives for chromium-based dyes, and pressurized dyeing baths,
all of which have been used successfully within the industry. Other
measures, such as segregation of concentrated waste streams to permit
separate preliminary treatment or reuse and scheduling of production
to distribute waste loadings, may find appropriate applications in the
industry. Many textile mills can also benefit significantly from
improved housekeeping, better control of spills and dumps,
installation of preliminary flow equalization, and closer control of
treatment facility operation by providing additional trained
personnel.
Many textile mills have implemented one or more of the above measures
beneficially, providing demonstrative evidence of their applicability.
However, not all mills can implement all such measures because of dif-
ferences in production methods and site-specific characteristics.
Also, there are no such in-plant measures that are obviously lacking
in most mills in the industry or in any subcategory. There is
evidence, however, that there are many mills that could benefit more
from implementing such measures than from installing end-of-pipe
technologies that are larger or more sophisticated than necessary.
One area that has not yet received much attention is elimination or
reduction of toxic pollutants in the mill wastewaters through raw
material substitution.
Existing End-of-Pipe Treatment Facilities
Over the years, the industry has carried out much research on the
application of biological treatment to textile finishing wastewaters.
The system in most common use today is a sequence comprising screens,
aeration basin, and secondary clarification. Equalization for
approximately 24 hours and/or neutralization prior to aeration is
included in many systems. The systems are basically aerated lagoons
with suspended solids recycle to provide the extended-aeration mode of
the activated sludge process. A relatively wide range of design
criteria have been used, as documented in Section VII. Theoretical
461
-------
aeration basin detention periods range from 1 to 6 or more days, with
about 3 days being typical. It is likely that actual detention
periods are shorter in many installations because of accumulations of
bottom solids that decrease the effective depth of the basin. Mixed
liquor suspended solids typically range from 1,500 to 6,000 mg/1 and,
with the long detention periods (large aeration basin volume), the
theoretical F:M ratios and excess sludge production rates are very
low. As noted in Section VIII, some mills reported that their
treatment facilities required no regular sludge removal and wasting
program because "no excess sludge is produced."
While these biological treatment systems are relatively rugged and do
not require constant attention, they are subject to neglect and abuse
through overloading. Field observations confirmed that many
facilities are not properly designed, operated, or maintained, and it
is evident that better treatment results would accrue from improvement
of these aspects. Upgrading of existing systems and the provision of
closer operating controls and scheduled maintenance programs will be
both beneficial and necessary in order that additional treatment
components function effectively and economically. Simply appending
new treatment components to BPT facilities that are not performing
effectively may not solve the problem. It is likely that problems in
the new units will dictate that upstream improvements be made. In
essence, it is important that existing facilities be brought into
optimal operational condition before designing and installing new
components.
As noted above, it is expected that many mills will be able to meet
the BAT effluent limitations without providing additional treatment
technologies. The two treatment technologies that are available are
filtration and chemical coagulation. There is evidence that some
mills cannot use filtration because the TSS levels in the BPT effluent
are too high for effective operation of the filters. There is also
some limited evidence that the conventional chemical coagulants do not
always work effectively because of the chemical characteristics of the
wastewaters from some mills. Either filtration or chemical
coagulation has been the choice to date among most of the mills in the
industry that have implemented treatment levels beyond BPT. These
technologies have also been demonstrated in several other industrial
point source categories.
Filtration
Filtration is a unit process that has been used for many decades in
the water supply field. In recent years, it has seen increased
application for polishing secondary municipal treatment effluents and
wastewaters from steel mills, grain processing plants, and other
industries. Ten direct dischargers in the textile industry currently
include some form of filtration in their waste treatment facilities.
462
-------
Filtration functions to reduce suspended solids (TSS). Some fraction
of the BOD5 and the COD comprises suspended solids and these
parameters are also reduced by filtration. Certain dissolved organic
compounds may become associated with the suspended solids and be
removed also, further reducing the BOD5 and the COD. At this time,
information is generally lacking by which to document or explain the
removal of dissolved organic constituents by filtration. Such factors
as removal mechanisms, optimal conditions, and the nature of
interferences make reliable predictions impractical at this time.
Based on the filtration data available, generally positive
correlations were found between control of the "indicator pollutant"
TSS and control of the significant organic toxic pollutants. Two
exceptions were the pollutants chloroform and trichloroethylene.
Plain filtration was not found to be effective for reducing relatively
low concentrations of metallic toxic pollutants. Data from municipal
wastewater treatment facilities indicate that high removals of metals
are achieved when TSS removals are very high. It seems likely that
the metals in textile mill wastewaters that pass through filtration
are largely in dissolved forms and, therefore, beyond the capacity of
the filter. Removal of these metals would require precipitation
followed by sedimentation and/or filtration.
Filtration systems that backwash automatically are common today.
While filters are somewhat more sophisticated mechanically than
aerated-lagoon activated sludge systems, they lend themselves to
relatively routine operations schedules. The addition of filtration
to existing well-operated biological treatment facilities need not
require a substantial elevation of operational skills. With training.
existing operators in the industry should be able to operate filters
successfully.
Chemical Coagulation
Chemical coagulation has also been used for decades in the "treatment
of turbid water supplies for municipalities. At.least six direct
dischargers in the textile industry are currently employing some form
of chemical coagulation. Several other facilities add coagulants
ahead of or at the final clarifiers of their biological treatment
systems to increase solids removal. The principal target of chemical
coagulation is the group of finely divided suspended solids known as
colloids. The added chemicals cause these solids to aggregate into
larger particles that can be removed effectively by sedimentation or
filtration, or both. The proper dosages of chemicals are determined
empirically to match the fluctuations in the wastewater
characteristics. The proper dosage is critical for success because
too little or too much chemical will result in failure to produce
coagulation. With polyelectrolytes, the critical dosage range is
relatively narrow, compared to those for the more traditional
463
-------
coagulants such as alum, iron salts, and lime. Because of the complex
of variables that influence the coagulation phenomenon and the
required knowledge of chemistry, this treatment process is more
sophisticated than filtration, and greater operator training and skill
are required.
Much of the work on coagulation of textile mill wastewaters has
focused on the use of alum as the primary coagulant. This chemical is
generally less effective than lime or iron salts in removing heavy
metals from wastewaters. Where metals pose a more significant problem
than organic toxic pollutants, consideration should be given to
coagulants other than alum. The use of lime as a coagulant may
elevate the pH to levels that will make subsequent treatment, e.g.,
recarbonation, necessary. The use of polyelectrolytes, or polymers,
in coagulation and filtration is increasing markedly. These chemicals
offer the advantage of much smaller dosages and smaller resulting
sludge volumes. Today, polymers can often be formulated to fit
specific applications.
Based on limited coagulation data available, generally positive
correlations were found for the control of metallic toxic pollutants
with the control of TSS. Correlations were not as good for organ!cs,
especially chloroform and trichloroethylene. Available data for the
combination of coagulation plus filtration show generally positive
correlations for the control of metallic and organic toxic pollutants
with the control of TSS.
NONWATER QUALITY ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT
Currently, textile mills are classified as major sources of hazardous
wastes, the principal component being sludges from wastewater
treatment facilities. Data are lacking by which to determine the
extent of the problem. Implementation of BAT will, in general, result
in more sludge being generated, although in varying amounts at
different mills. In-plant measures to eliminate or segregate toxic
pollutants from the major wastewater discharge may be feasible at some
mills, thereby resulting in a non-hazardous classification for most of
the wastewater treatment sludge at these mills.
No significant change in atmospheric quality in terms of air
emissions, noise, or radiation will result from implementation of BAT.
It is suspected that some existing BPT facilities release volatile
organic compounds to the atmosphere by air stripping in the aeration
basin of biological systems. This phenomenon has not been measured
directly and is not unique to this industrial point source category.
The estimated energy requirements in implementing BAT range from 0.02
to 0.03 percent of current mill usage for filtration and from 0.2 to
464
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0.5 percent for chemical coagulation or chemical coagulation plus
filtration.
Sludge Management
As noted above and discussed in Section VIII, the production of waste
sludge in BPT treatment systems ranges widely. Some mills have no
recognized sludge generation while others use mechanical stabilization
and dewatering systems to process large quantities of sludge for
disposal. There is no standard sludge management system in use today
in the textile industry.
The addition of filtration will impact existing sludge programs
differently. For mills with very low sludge production rates, the
solids in the filter backwash can be returned to the system via the
secondary clarifier with no appreciable change required in sludge
management practices. It is likely that some mills periodically
discharge undetected excessive TSS levels in their BPT effluents. The
installation of filters would tend to prevent this, and such mills
might find that a sludge management system would be required. For
mills with existing sludge handling systems, the addition of
filtration should not generally result in significantly greater
quantities of sludge to be handled.
The application of chemical coagulation to BPT systems will generate
significantly more sludge in almost all cases. In addition to the TSS
removed, the added chemicals and certain background constituents of
the water will be removed in the form of sludge. Chemical sludges
differ from those from biological systems, and ,common processing of
both may not be feasible in all cases. Chemical sludges are often
difficult to dewater; alum sludge being generally more troublesome
than lime sludge. The use of chemical coagulation will require a
sludge management program in almost all cases.
In Section VIII, model plant costs were developed on the basis of
using vacuum filtration to dewater sludges prior to disposal in
sanitary landfills. Such a sludge processing system will not be
feasible either technically or economically for many textile mills. A
major consideration that will influence the choice of sludge system
will be the flexibility of disposal allowed for sludges classified as
hazardous waste under the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act
(RCRA). Even without this aspect, however, there are many site-
specific factors that must be considered in developing a sludge
management program for a particular textile mill. The type and size
of the treatment facility will be of major importance. Other factors
include the availability of land and the proximity and nature of
disposal sites. Some mills may be able to dispose of small quantities
of sludge without dewatering. Other mills may be able to use sand
drying beds or storage lagoons effectively. Others may use relatively
465
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sophisticated digestion and mechanical dewatering units prior to
disposal. Presently, only a few mills dispose of their sludge on
agricultural or other lands, but this practice is becoming a popular
alternative. In summary, sludge management problems must be solved
individually at each mill location by selecting from among the variety
of alternatives that are available.
TOTAL COST OF APPLICATION
Based on the cost information in Section VIII, the total investment
and associated total annualized costs for the direct dischargers in
the industry to achieve the recommended BAT effluent limitations are
estimated to be $48 and $21 million, respectively. EPA has determined
that these costs will most likely be incurred by 214 direct
dischargers. The remaining 25 mills are currently achieving BAT.
This estimate is based on data which indicates that 18 mills have BAT
technology in-place and 7 mills are currently achieving BAT with
biological treatment.
This investment would reduce the discharge of conventional pollutants,
non-conventional pollutants, and toxic pollutants that are found in
the wastewaters of textile mills to the required effluent
concentrations with a high degree of confidence.
GUIDANCE TO ENFORCEMENT PERSONNEL
Chromium, copper, and zinc are metallic toxic pollutants specifically
regulated by BAT. Antimony, arsenic, cadmium, lead, mercury, nickel,
selenium, and silver are metallic toxic pollutants that were typically
identified at low concentrations in textile plant raw and treated
effluents but, because of their general nature, common usage, and
frequency of detection, may be a problem at some textile mills. It is
recommended that EPA regional, state, and municipal enforcement
personnel investigate the presence of these metals and determine their
levels. The following tabulation provides the average BPT effluent
cpncentrations of these pollutants based on the results of the field
sampling program and offers guidance as to recommended allowable
discharge levels. These levels should be used to determine whether
additional effluent limitations are appropriate for individual direct
dischargers.
Metal Typical Concentration, uq/1
Antimony 100
Arsenic 80
Cadmium 30
Lead 60
Mercury 0.4
Nickel 80
Selenium 40
Silver 40
466
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SECTION X
EFFLUENT REDUCTION ATTAINABLE BY BEST
CONVENTIONAL POLLUTANT CONTROL TECHNOLOGY
The 1977 amendments added Section 301(b)(2){E) to the Act,
establishing "best conventional pollutant control technology" (BCT)
for discharges of conventional pollutants from existing industrial
point sources. Conventional pollutants are those defined in Section
304(a>(4> - BOD, TSS, fecal coliform, and pH - and any additional
pollutants defined by the Administrator as "conventional."
BCT is not an additional limitation, but replaces BAT for the control
of conventional pollutants. BCT requires that limitations for
conventional pollutants be assessed in light of a new "cost-
reasonableness" test, which involves a comparison of the cost and
level of reduction of conventional pollutants from the discharge of
POTW to the cost and level of reduction of such pollutants from a
class or category of industrial sources. The Agency promulgated its
cost test methodology on August 29, 1979 (See 44 FR 50732).
The Agency is proposing that the conventional "indicator pollutants,"
used for control of toxic pollutants, be treated as toxic pollutants.
That is, effluent limitations will be established for them at BAT
levels, and those limitations will not have to pass the BCT cost test
normally required for conventional pollutants. When a permittee in a
specific case can show that the waste stream does not contain any of
the toxic pollutants that a BAT limitation on a conventional toxic
indicator was designed to remove, then that limitation will no longer
be treated as a limitation on a toxic pollutant. The technologies
identified as BAT for control of toxic pllutants also afford removal
of conventional pollutants to BAT levels. Whether or not the BAT
effluent levels are reasonable by the BCT cost test, they are the
levels of conventional pollutants that will be achieved by the BAT
control technologies required for the reduction of toxic pollutants.
EPA determined the cost of reduction of BOD5 and TSS for the selected
treatment alternatives for each model plant developed for the textile
industry. These costs, which are presented in Table X-l, show the
estimated dollars required to remove one pound of BOD5. plus TSS using
the selected treatment alternatives. The figures are based on the
total annual costs and estimated pollutant removals developed and
shown in the BATEA Model Plant Control Cost Summary Tables in Section
v j. j. j..
The Agency applied the BCT methodology and concluded that BCT
limitations based on multi-media filtration (BAT LEVEL 2) are
reasonable for larger plants in the Woven Fabric Finishing (all
subdivisions), Knit Fabric Finishing (except the Hosiery Products
467
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TABLE X-l
COST OF REDUCTION OF BOD5 + TSS FOR THE SELECTED TREATMENT ALTERNATIVES
Subcategory
1
1
1
2
2
2
3
3
4a
4a
4a
4b
4b
4b
4c
4c
4c
5a
5a
5a
5b
5b
5b
5c
5c
Flow
(mgd)
0.05
0.11
0.25
0.6
1.5
3.0
0.11
0.25
0.11
0.6
1.5
0.6
3.0
5.0
0.6
1.5
3.0
0.25
1.0
3.0
0.25
0.6
1.0
0.05
0.11
Treatment Alternative
C B D
($/lb of BOD5 + TSS removed)
-
-
_
-
-
3.69
2.10
4.18
1.40
0.87
1.40
0.63
0.51
1.40
0.87
0.63
2.27
1.01
0.60
2.27
1.34
1.04
_
-
-
2.18
1.31
0.98
7.22
3.74
10.98
3.29
1.96
3.29
1.48
1.27
3.29
1.96
1.48
6.08
2.53
1.56
6.08
3.47
2.53
23.11
11.62
0.69
0.38
0.24
1.72
1.08
0.82
5.48
3.06
7.25
2.39
1.51
2.39
liI5 -
0,96
2.39
1.51
1.15
4.06
1.80
1.15
4.06
2.39
1.80
13.52
7.28
Alternative C = Multi-Media Filtration
Alternative B = Chemical Coagulation
Alternative D = Chemical Coagulation + Multi-Media Filtration
(Chemical Coagulation + Dissolved Air Flotation for
Subcategory 1)
468
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TABLE X-l (Cont.)
Flow
Subcategory (mgd)
6 0.25
6 0.6
6 1.5
7 0.25
7 0.6
7 1.0
7 1.5
Treatment Alternative
C B D
($/lb of BOD5 + TSS removed)
1.43
0.85
0.52
2.96
1.74
1.31
1.08
2.89
1.65
0.98
7.07
4.03
2.94
2.41
2.22
1.31
0.82
5.02
2.95
2.22
1.86
0.11
0.11
0.25
1.78
4.41
3.87
2.03
2.99
2.55
1.43
Alternative C = Multi-Media Filtration
Alternative B = Chemical Coagulation
Alternative D = Chemical Coagulation + Multi-Media Filtration
(Chemical Coagulation -f Dissolved Air Flotation for
Subcategory 1)
469
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Subdivision), Carpet Finishing, Stock & Yarn Finishing, and Nonwoven
Manufacturing subcategories. For larger plants in the Wool Scouring,
Wool Finishing, Hosiery Products
Subdivision of Knit Fabric Finishing subcategories, BCT limitations
based on chemical coagulation plus multimedia filtration (dissolved
air flotation for Wool Scouring) (BAT LEVEL 4) were found to be
reasonable. Using a POTW cost of $1.17 per pound of BOD5 and TSS
removed and curves plotted from the data in Table X-l, wastewater
discharge volumes and production size equivalents of those volumes
were determined. Plants with operating production sizes equal to or
greater than those noted in the following tabulation pass the.BCT
"cost-reasonableness" test. Plants having smaller operating
production sizes do not pass the test.
Subcateqory Production Size, kkq/vr
Wool Scouring 3,300
Wool Finishing 5,800
Woven Fabric Finishing
Simple Processing 13,500
Complex Processing 12,200
Complex Processing Plus Desizing 9,300
Knit Fabric Finishing
Simple Processing 7,200
Complex Processing 11,700
Hosiery Products 14,100
Carpet Finishing 9,500
Stock & Yarn Finishing 16,400
Nonwoven Manufacturing 28,300
The Agency is therefore proposing BCT effluent limitations at the BAT
LEVEL 2 and BAT LEVEL 4 technologies for plants with production equal
to or greater than these values and at the existing BPT limitations
for plants with production less than these values. Since existing BPT
effluent limitations do not exist for Nonwoven Manufacturing, the
limitations for production sizes less than those in the table are
based on the application of extended-aeration activated sludge (BAT
Level 1). BCT effluent limitations for plants in the Low Water Use
Processing Subcategory are also based on BAT Level 1 technology for
all production sizes and Felted Fabric Processing Subcategory.
470
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BCT EFFLUENT LIMITATIONS
Subcateqory 1 - Wool Scouring (less than 3,300 kkg/yr production)
Effluent Limitations, kg/kkg of raw grease wool
Pollutant or Maximum for Average of daily values
Pollutant Property any one day for 30 consecutive days
BOD5 10.6 5.3
TSS 32.2 16.1
pH Within the range of 6.0 to 9.0 at all times
Subcateqorv 1 - Wool Scouring (3,300 kkg/yr production or greater)
Effluent Limitations, kg/kkg of raw grease wool
Pollutant or Maximum for Average of daily values
Pollutant Property any one day for 30 consecutive days
BOD5 1.5 0.9
TSS 10.9 6.3
pH Within the range of 6.0 to 9.0 at all times
Subcateqorv 2 - Wool Finishing (less than 5,800 kkg/yr production)
Effluent Limitations, kg/kkg of product
Pollutant or Maximum for Average of daily values
Pollutant Property any one day for 30 consecutive days
BOD5 22.4 11.2
TSS 35.2 17.6
pH Within the range of 6.0 to 9.0 at all times
471
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Subcateqorv 2 - Wool Finishing (5,800 kkg/yr production or greater)
Effluent Limitations, kg/kkg of product
Pollutant or Maximum for Average of daily values
Pollutant Property any one day for 30 consecutive days
BOD5 15.4 8.9
TSS 11.0 6.4
pH Within the range of 6.0 to 9.0 at all times.
Subcateqorv 3 - Low Water Use Processing
Effluent Limitations, kg/kkg of product
Pollutant or Maximum for Average of daily values
Pollutant Property any one day for 30 consecutive days
BOD5 1.4 0.70
TSS 1.4 0.70
pH Within the range of 6.0 to 9.0 at all times
Subcateqorv 4a - Woven Fabric Finishing/ Simple Processing
(less than 13,500 kkg/yr production)
Effluent Limitations, kg/kkg of product
Pollutant or Maximum for Average of daily values
Pollutant Property any one day for 30 consecutive days
BOD5 6.6 3.3
TSS 17.8 8.9
pH Within the range of 6.0 to 9.0 at all times
472
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Subcateqory 4a - Woven Fabric Finishing, Simple Processing
(13,500 kkg/yr production or greater)
.;.;: ; Effluent Limitations, kg/kkg of product
Pollutant or Maximum for Average of daily values
Pollutant Property any one day for 30 consecutive days
BOD5 2.7 1.6
TSS 3.4 2.0
pH """" Within the range of 6.0 to 9.0 at all times.
Subcateqory 4b - Woven Fabric Finishing, Complex Processing
(less than 12,200 kkg/yr production)
Effluent Limitations, kg/kkg of product
Pollutant or Maximum for Average of daily values
Pollutant Property any one day for 30 consecutive days
BOD5 " 6.6 3.3
TSS 17.8 8.9
pH Within the range of 6.0 to 9.0 at all times
SubcateQory 4b - Woven Fabric Finishing, Complex Processing
(12,200 kkg/yr production or greater)
Effluent Limitations, kg/kkg of product
Pollutant or Maximum for Average of daily values
Pollutant Property any one day for 30 consecutive days
BODS """" "" 5.0 2.0
TSS 4.7 2.7
pH Within the range of 6.0 to 9.0 at all times
473
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Subcateqory 4c - Woven Fabric Finishing, Complex Processing Plus Desizinq
(less than 9,300 kkg/yr production)
Effluent Limitations, kg/kkg of product
Pollutant or Maximum for Average of daily values
Pollutant Property any one day for 30 consecutive days
BOD5 6.6 3.3
TSS 17.8 8.9
pH Within the range of 6.0 to 9.0 at all times.
Subcateqory 4c - Woven Fabric Finishing, Complex Processing Plus Desizinq
(9,300 kkg/yr production or greater)
Effluent Limitations, kg/kkg of product
Pollutant or Maximum for Average of daily values
Pollutant Property any one day for 30 consecutive days
BOD 5. 6.6 3.3
TSS 6.2 3.6
pH Within the range of 6.0 to 9.0 at all times.
Subcateqory 5a - Knit Fabric Finishing, Simple Processing
(less than 7,200 kkg/yr production)
Effluent Limitations, kg/kkg of product
Pollutant or Maximum for Average of daily values
Pollutant Property any one day for 30 consecutive days
BOD5 5.0 2.5
TSS 21.8 10.9
pH Within the range of 6.0 to 9.0 at all times
474
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Subcateqory 5a - Knit Fabric Finishing, Simple Processing
(7,200 kkg/yr production or greater)
Effluent Limitations, kg/kkg of product
Pollutant or Maximum for Average of daily values
Pollutant Property any one day for 30 consecutive days
BOD5 4.7 2.5
TSS 5.2 3.0
PH Within the range of 6.0 to 9.0 at all times
Subcateqory 5b - Knit Fabric Finishing, Complex Processing
(less than 11,700 kkg/yr production)
Effluent Limitations, kg/kkg of product
Pollutant or Maximum for Average of daily values
Pollutant Property any one day for 30 consecutive days
BOD5. 5.0 2.5
TSS 21.8 10.9
PH Within the range of 6.0 to 9.0 at all times
Subcategory 5b - Knit Fabric Finishing, Complex Processing
(11,700 kkg/yr production or greater)
Effluent Limitations, kg/kkg of product
Pollutant or Maximum for Average of daily values
Pollutant Property any one day for 30 consecutive days
BOD5 3.9 2.3
TSS 5.0 2.9
pH Within the range of 6.0 to 9.0 at all times
475
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Subcateqory 5c - Knit Fabric Finishing, Hosiery Products
(less than 14,100 kkg/yr production)
Effluent Limitations, kg/kkg of product
Pollutant or Maximum for Average of daily values
Pollutant Property any one day for 30 consecutive days
BOD5 15.0 8.7
TSS 28.0 16.0
pH Within the range of 6.0 to 9.0 at all times
Subcateqorv 5c - Knit Fabric Finishing, Hosiery Products
(14,100 kkg/yr production or greater)
Effluent Limitations, kg/kkg of product
Pollutant or Maximum for Average of daily values
Pollutant Property any one day for 30 consecutive days
BOD5 5.3 3.1
TSS 7.0 4.0
pH Within the range of 6.0 to 9.0 at all times
Subcateqorv 6 - Carpet Finishing (less than 9,500 kkg/yr production)
Effluent Limitations, kg/kkg of product
Pollutant or Maximum for Average of daily values
Pollutant Property any one day for 30 consecutive days
BOD5 7.8 3.9
TSS 11.0 5.5
pH Within the range of 6.0 to 9.0 at all times
476
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Subcateqory 6 - Carpet Finishing {9,500 kkg/yr production or greater)
Effluent Limitations, kg/kkg of product
Maximum for Average of daily values
any one day for 30 consecutive days
BOD5. 3.8 2.2
TSS 3.0 1.8
pH Within the range of 6.0 to 9.0 at all times
Subcateqory 7 - Stock & Yarn Finishing (less than 16,400 kkg/yr production)
Effluent Limitations, kg/kkg of product
Pollutant or Maximum for Average of daily values
Pollutant Property any one day for 30 consecutive days
BOD5 6.8 3.4
TSS 17.4 8.7
pH Within the range of 6.0 to 9.0 at all times.
Subcateqory 7 - Stock & Yarn Finishing (16,400 kkg/yr production or greater)
Effluent Limitations, kg/kkg of product
Pollutant or Maximum for Average of daily values
Pollutant Property any one day for 30 consecutive days
BOD5 2.3 1.4
TSS 2.7 1.6
pH Within the range of 6.0 to 9.0 at all times.
477
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Subcateqorv 8 - Nonwoven Manufacturing (less than 28,300 kkg/yr production)
Effluent Limitations, kg/kkg of product
Pollutant or Maximum for Average of daily values
Pollutant Property any one day for 30 consecutive days
BODS . 4.3 2.5
TSS~ 9.3 5.4
pH Within the range of 6.0 to 9.0 at all times.
Subcateqory 8 - Nonwoven Manufacturing (28,300 kkg/yr production or greater)
Effluent Limitations, kg/kkg of product
Pollutant or Maximum for Average of daily values
Pollutant Property any one day for 30 consecutive days
BOD 5. 3.3 1.9
TSS 3.3 1.9
pH Within the range of 6.0 to 9.0 at all times.
Subcateqorv 9 - Felted Fabric Processing
Effluent Limitations, kg/kkg of product
Pollutant or ' Maximum for Average of daily values
Pollutant Property any one day for 30 consecutive days
BOD5. 23.1 13.4
TSS 62,0 36.0
pH Within the range of 6.0 to 9.0 at all times
478
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SECTION XI
NEW SOURCE PERFORMANCE STANDARDS
INTRODUCTION
The basis for New Source Performance Standards (NSPS) under Section
306 of the Act is the best available demonstrated technology. New
plants have the opportunity to design the best and most efficient
textile manufacturing processes and wastewater treatment technologies,
and, therefore. Congress directed EPA to consider the best
demonstrated processes and operating methods, in-plant control
measures, end-of-pipe treatment technologies, and other alternatives
that reduce pollution to the maximum extent feasible, including, where
practicable, a standard permitting no discharge of pollutants. A
major difference between NSPS and BAT is that the Act does not require
evaluation of NSPS in light of the BCT cost test.
IDENTIFICATION OF NEW SOURCE PERFORMANCE STANDARDS
The technology for New Source Performance Standards utilizes secondary
biological treatment (BPT) as a basis for further improvements. BPT
is defined in the earlier Development Document (1) and discussed in
Sections VII and IX of this report. The in-plant control measures are
the same as those described in Section VII and noted in Section IX for
BAT. In new sources, greater attention can be given to these control
measures in conjunction with the design of processes, equipment, and
facility and in operating methods and schedules. Technologies
available for NSPS include the following:
LEVEL 1 - Biological treatment (extended-aeration activated
sludge),
LEVEL 2 - Biological treatment plus chemical coagulation and
filtration,
LEVEL 3 - Segregate toxic pollutant waste streams from other
processrelated and non-process related waste streams.
Provide chemical coagulation, filtration, and carbon
adsorption for toxic pollutant waste streams and
biological treatment for other waste streams.
End-of-pipe treatment and stream segregation involving biological
treatment plus filtration and activated carbon was evaluated
technically but was not considered in establishing the NSPS level of
control because it did not provide adequate control of the metallic
toxic pollutants.
479
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Based on analyses of these control options, the Agency has selected
LEVEL 2 for all subcategories. For Wool Scouring, the technology
includes dissolved air flotation in place of filtration becase of the
nature of the solids.
NSPS EFFLUENT LIMITATIONS
Subcateqorv 1 - Wool Scouring
Effluent Limitations, kg/kkg of raw grease wool
Pollutant or Maximum for Average of daily values
Pollutant Property any one day for 30 consecutive days
BODS
COD
TSS
Total
Total
Total
Total
Color
pH
Phenol
Chrom i urn
Copper
Zinc
-------
Subcategory 3 - Low Water Use Processing
Effluent Limitations, kg/kkg of product
Pollutant or Maximum for Average of daily values
Pollutant Property any one day for 30 consecutive days
BOD5 1.4 0.7
COD 2.8 1.4
TSS 1.4 0.7
PH Within the range of 6.0 to 9.0 at all times
Subcateqory 4a - Woven Fabric Finishing, Simple Processing
Effluent Limitations, kg/kkg of product
Pollutant or Maximum for Average of daily values
Pollutant Property any one day for 30 consecutive days
BODS
COD
TSS
Total
Total
Total
Total
Color
PH
Phenol
Chromium
Copper
Zinc
(ADMI units)
1.3
22.8
2.4
0.003
0.07
0.07
0.14
190
Within the range of
0.74
15.5
1.4
0.002
0.04
0.04
0.08
120
6.0 to 9.0 at all times.
481
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Subcateqory 4b - Woven Fabric Finishing, Complex Processing
Pollutant or
Pollutant Property
Effluent Limitations, kg/kkg of product
Maximum for
any one day
Average of daily lvalues
for 30 consecutive days
BOD5
COD
TSS
Total Phenol
Total Chromium
Total Copper
Total Zinc
Color (ADMI units)
pH
2.4
26.2
3.4
0.008
0.08
0.08
0.16
190
1.4
17.9
2.0
0.005
0.04
0.04
0.08
120
Within the range of 6.0 to 9.0 at all times
Subcateqorv 4c - Woven Fabric Finishing, Complex Processing Plus Desizinq
Pollutant or
Pollutant Property
Effluent Limitations, kg/kkg of product
Maximum for
any one day
Average of daily values
for 30 consecutive days
BODS
COD
TSS
Total Phenol
Total Chromium
Total Copper
Total Zinc
Color (ADMI units)
pH
3.1
34.3
4.4
0.008
0.10
0.10
0.20
190
Within the range of
1.8
23.4
2.6
0.005
0.06
0.06
0.11
120
6.0 to 9.0 at all times.
482
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Subcateqory 5a - Knit Fabric Finishing, Simple Processing
Effluent Limitations, kg/kkg of product
Pollutant or Maximum for Average of daily values
Pollutant Property any one day for 30 consecutive days
BODS
COD
TSS
Total
Total
Total
Total
Color
pH
Phenol
Chromium
Copper
Zinc
(ADMI units)
2.2
44.4
3.7
0.011
0.12
0.12
0.24
190
Within the range of
1.3
30.3
2.1
0.007
0.07
0.07
0.14
120
6.0 to 9.0 at all times.
Subcateqory 5b - Knit Fabric Finishing, Complex Processing
Effluent Limitations, kg/kkg of product
Pollutant or Maximum for Average of daily values
Pollutant Property any one day for 30 consecutive days
BODS
COD
TSS
Total
Total
Total
Total
Color
Phenol
Chromium
Copper
Zinc
(ADMI units)
1.8
28.3
3.6
0.007
0.08
0.08
0.15
190
1.1
19.3
2.1
0.004
0.04
0.04
0.08
120
Within the range of 6.0 to 9.0 at all times
483
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Subcateqory 5c - Knit Fabric Finishing, Hosiery Products
Effluent Limitations, kg/kkg of product
Pollutant or Maximum for Average of daily values
Pollutant Property any one day for 30 consecutive days
BOD5 5.3 3.1
COD 47.7 32.5
TSS 7.0 4.0
Total Phenol 0.006 0.003
Total Chromium 0.06 0.03
Total Copper 0.06 0.03
Total Zinc 0.12 0.07
Color (ADMI units) 190 120
pH Within the range of 6.0 to 9.0 at all times
Subcateqory 6 - Carpet Finishing
Effluent Limitations, kg/kkg of product
Pollutant or Maximum for Average of daily values
Pollutant Property any one day for 30 consecutive days
BOD5. 1.8 1.0
COD 16.4 11.2
TSS 2.2 1.3
Total Phenol 0.007 0.004
Total Chromium 0.04 0.02
Total Copper 0.04 0.02
Total Zinc 0.08 0.05
Color (ADMI units) 190 120
pH Within the range of 6.0 to 9.0 at all times
484
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Subcateqory 7 - Stock & Yarn Finishinq
Pollutant or
Pollutant Property
Effluent Limitations, kg/kkg of product
Maximum for
any one day
Average of daily values
for 30 consecutive days
BODS
COD
TSS
Total
Total
Total
Total
Color
PH
Phenol
Chromium
Copper
Zinc
(ADMI units)
1.1
17.0
1.9
0.008
0.09
0.09
0.18
190
Within the range of
0.63
11.6
1.1
0.005
0.05
0.05
0.10
120
6.0 to 9.0 at all times.
Subcateqorv 8 - Nonwoven Manufacturing
Pollutant or
Pollutant Property
Effluent Limitations, kg/kkg of product
Maximum for
any one day
Average of daily values
for 30 consecutive days
BODS
COD
TSS
Total Phenol
Total Chromium
Total Copper
Total Zinc
Color (ADMI units
pH
1.5
27.3
2.3
0.001
0.04
0.04
0.07
190
0.88
18.6
1.4
0.0006
0.02
0.02
0.04
120
Within the range of 6.0 to 9.0 at all times
485
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Subcateqory 9 - Felted Fabric Processing
Effluent Limitations, kg/kkg of product
Pollutant or Maximum for Average of daily values
Pollutant Property any one day for 30 consecutive days
BODS
COD
TSS
Total
Total
Total
Total
Color
pH
Phenol
Chromium
Copper
Zinc
(ADMI units)
8.1
78.5
15.7
0.024
0.19
0.19
0.38
190
Within the range of
4.7
53.5
9.1
0.014
0.11
0.11
0.21
120
6.0 to 9.0 at all times.
METHODOLOGY USED TO DEVELOP NSPS EFFLUENT LIMITATIONS
The effluent limitations for NSPS were developed in a building block
fashion by engineering analysis similar to that used for BAT. Because
of the variety of processes and equipment available within
subcategor i es, no speci f i c in-plant control measures or operat ing
methods were included in establishing the limitations; although, waste
stream segregation was considered in LEVEL 3. Both full-scale and
pilot-scale treatability data were used in developing the limitations.
Using the median BPT effluent concentration values for the
conventional and non-conventional pollutants (Methodology Section IX
and Table V-9) as a base, factors for variability (Table IX-1) and
treatment performance (Table IX-3) were applied to arrive at 30-day
average and maximum day concentrations for each subcategory. The
concentrations were converted to mass loadings (kg/kkg of product) by
incorporating the median water usage values for each subcategory
(Table V-l). The methodology is essentially the same as that
previously described in Section IX for the BAT limitations.
While it is recognized that improvements are available to new sources
in terms of both raw wastewater concentrations and water usage rates,
there is no available informat i on by wh i ch to quant i fy such
improvements for typical new sources in general. The use of median,
rather than average, values does, however, reflect generally better
practices by reducing the influence of extremely high individual
values.
486
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REGULATED POLLUTANTS
The non-toxic, non-conventional pollutants, the toxic pollutants, and
the "indicator pollutant" regulated under NSPS are the same as those
regulated under BAT. One exception is pH, which is not regulated
under BAT. These are discussed in Section IX of this report.
SIZE, AGE, PROCESSES EMPLOYED, LOCATION OF FACILITIES
The aspects of size, age, processes employed, and location for the
subcategories discussed for BAT apply to NSPS. One aspect related to
age of new sources should be noted. It is not unusual for existing
textile mills to incorporate some old equipment moved from old
facilities into newer mills. This practice can be expected to
continue to some degree and will tend to limit some new sources in the
incorporation of in-plant control measures to achieve NSPS.
ENGINEERING ASPECTS OF NEW SOURCE PERFORMANCE STANDARDS
In designing new mills in the textile industry, the full spectrum of
available in-plant controls, process modifications, and equipment
selections should be evaluated in order that end-of-pipe treatment
technologies will be of minimal life-cycle cost, maximum
effectiveness, and as free as possible of operational problems.
Measures to minimize all environmental degradation should be
considered so that the impact of possible future regulation will be
lessened. A careful assessment of the in-plant controls, process
modifications, and operating methods together with the manufacturing
goals for the new facility should permit planners to realize
substantial benefits.
At this time, there are many in-plant controls in use in at least a
few mills that have not been applied across the industry. As noted in
Section VII, the variety among mills makes complete utilization of all
such measures at an individual mill impossible. There are also some
in-plant controls and new manufacturing methods that are currently
being researched. Some of these involve new equipment developments
before they can be implemented at full-scale. These steps are not a
new trend in the textile industry but are part of the normal
evolutionary process that is common to most industries. It is
expected that these changes will continue and that more emphasis will
be placed on changes that reduce the release of environmental
pollutants. While these improvements can be predicted generally, it
is not feasible to make accurate predictions that pinpoint specific
gains in specific subcategories.
Since the NSPS limitations apply immediately upon promulgation, the
benefits of possible future improvements cannot be included. Instead,
487
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best demonstrated technology that is currently available must be used
as the base. The potential benefits of such manufacturing changes as
solvent (non-aqueous) processing or treatment by powdered activated
carbon or steam stripping have not yet been demonstrated to be
generally available to the textile industry.
Zero Discharge
At this time, zero discharge of pollutants is not technically feasible
for the Textile Mills Point Source Category. Many mills are moving to
conserve water through reuse, but there are limitations dictated by
product quality and production schedules. Eventually, the water must
be discharged due to accumulation of dyes, dissolved salts, and other
chemicals that would interfere with processing mechanisms if the water
were used again. It is true that a limited number of textile mills
have been able to eliminate discharges from one or more of their
finishing operations. These have been investigated and found to be
unique situations, and similar systems cannot be implemented by all
other mills in the same subcategory.
For the foreseeable future, the textile industry will have to use end-
ofpipe treatment, rather than zero discharge, to control the release
of wastewater pollutants.
End-of-Pipe Treatment
The end-of-pipe treatment technologies that are currently available to
new sources include biological treatment, chemical coagulation, and
filtration. These are discussed in Section IX and that information
applies also to new sources. The discussion of sludge management
programs and control of high levels of color presented in Section IX
applies here also. Granular activated carbon is included in LEVEL 3
as an alternative that reduced the potential for release of some
organic toxic pollutants to the atmosphere .by air stripping in the
biological treatment system. The overall benefits of this level of
control are relatively small compared to the associated financial and
energy expenditures, and this level was not selected as the basis for
the NSPS effluent limitations.
Segregation of Waste Streams
Segregation of waste streams was included in the model new source
plants in developing estimated costs for the LEVEL 3 control
technology. While the analyses indicated that segregation was not
cost-effective for other levels of control, this in-plant measure
should be included in the evaluation of alternatives carried out in
designing new sources. The cost analyses used in this report
necessarily included several assumptions about relative waste flows
488
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originating from various operations in textile manufacturing. These
flows vary between and within subcategories.
Toxic pollutants are believed to be normally present at higher concen-
trations in wastes from such operations as solvent scouring, dyeing
and rinsing, functional finishing, and laboratory testing. Such
operations as bleaching, mercerizing, scouring, and fulling should
normally generate only very limited quantities of toxic pollutants.
The presence of toxic pollutants in some waste streams may be
controlled by substitutions for certain preservatives, coatings, and
additives.
If the toxic pollutants can be isolated into one relatively smaller
and more concentrated waste stream, more effective treatment should be
possible at reduced costs compared to treating the entire mill waste
stream to the same level of control. An additional benefit of segre-
gation is that the toxic pollutants would be associated with only part
of the sludge generated by the mill wastewater treatment systems. If
this sludge is classified as hazardous waste, the associated
processing and disposal costs would be reduced. The reduction of the
air stripping potential, as noted previously in this section, is
another possible benefit of segregation.
Segregation of waste streams is not now widely practiced in the
textile industry. The technical and economic feasibility of this
approach for an individual new source will require a careful analysis
of all benefits and limitations, including some potential loss of
manufacturing flexibility within the mill. The preliminary analyses
used in this study do not provide a basis for a decision for or
against the incorporation of segregated drains and treatment systems
in a new source. Much site-specific data are required in order to
reach such decisions.
NONWATER QUALITY ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT
The nonwater quality environmental impacts associated with the NSPS
effluent limitations are the same as those associated with the BAT
effluent limitations, as discussed in Section IX.
TOTAL COST OF APPLICATION
Based on the cost information in Section VIII, the Agency estimates
that investment costs for a new source to comply with the NSPS
limitations, depending on subcategory, will range between 3 and 11
percent of the book value of fixed assets of the facility. Annualized
costs are estimated to range between 0.9 and 4.4 percent of total
sales. Implementation of NSPS will reduce the discharge of
conventional, non-conventional, and toxic pollutants expected in the
489
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wastewaters of new sources to reasonably low levels with a high degree
of confidence.
GUIDANCE TO ENFORCEMENT PERSONNEL
Chromium, copper, and zinc are metallic toxic pollutants specifically
regulated by BAT. Antimony, arsenic, cadmium, lead, mercury, nickel,
selenium, and silver are metallic toxic pollutants that were typically
identified at low concentrations in textile plant raw and treated
effluents but, because of their general nature, common usage, and
frequency of detection, may be a problem at some textile mills. It is
recommended that EPA regional, state, and municipal enforcement
personnel investigate the presence of these metals and determine their
levels. The following tabulation provides the average BPT effluent
concentrations of these pollutants based on the results of the field
sampling program and offers guidance as to recommended allowable
discharge levels. These levels should be used to determine whether
additional effluent limitations are appropriate for individual direct
dischargers.
Metal Typical Concentration, uq/1
Antimony 100
Arsenic 80
Cadmium 30
Lead 60
Mercury 0.4
Nickel 80
Selenium 40
Silver 40
490
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SECTION XII
PRETREATMENT STANDARDS FOR EXISTING SOURCES
INTRODUCTION ,,
The effluent limitations that must be achieved by existing sources in
the textile industry that discharge into a publicly owned treatment
works (POTW) are termed pretreatment standards. Section 307(b) of the
Act requires EPA to promulgate pretreatment standards for existing
sources (PSES) to prevent the discharge of pollutants that pass
through, interfere with, or are otherwise incompatible with the
operation of POTW. The Clean Water Act of 1977 adds a new dimension
by requiring pretreatment for pollutants, such as heavy metals, that
limit POTW sludge management alternatives, including the beneficial
use of sludges on agricultural lands. The legislative history of the
1977 Act indicates that pretreatment standards are to be technology-
based, analagous to the best available technology for removal of toxic
pollutants. The general pretreatment regulations (40 CFR Part 403),
which served as the framework for these proposed pretreatment
regulations for the textile industry, can be found at 43 FR 27736-
27773 (June 26, 1978) .
Consideration was also given to the following in establishing the pre-
treatment standards:
o Plant size, age of equipment and facilities, processes employed,
and process changes;
o The engineering aspects of the application of pretreatment
technology and its relationship to POTW;
o Nonwater quality environmental impact (including energy require-
ments); and
o The total cost of application of technology in relation to the
effluent reduction and other benefits to be achieved from such
application.
Pretreatment standards must reflect effluent reduction achievable by
the application of the best available pretreatment technology. This
may include primary treatment technology as used in the industry and
in-plant control measures when such are considered to be normal
practice within the industry.
A final consideration is the determination of economic and engineering
reliability in the application of the pretreatment technology. This
must be determined from the results of demonstration projects, pilot
491
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plant experiments, and most preferably, general use within the
industry.
IDENTIFICATION OF PRETREATMENT STANDARDS FOR EXISTING SOURCES
Most existing indirect dischargers in the textile industry provide no
end-of-pipe treatment other than that required to comply with the
prohibitive discharge limitations, namely, to eliminate the discharge
of gross suspended solids, slug loads, extreme pH values, and
explosive wastes. Some mills, however, have implemented more
extensive treatment in order to comply with local sewer use
ordinances. As with direct dischargers, the use of in-plant control
measures varies widely. Until recently, the implementation of such
measures was usually prompted more by economic factors than by
considerations of water pollution control. In the future, in-plant
control measures should be carefully evaluated by indirect dischargers
because they will permit these mills to comply with the PSES effluent
limitations without the installation of end-of-pipe treatment
technologies. No specific in-plant measures were considered in
establishing the PSES limitations, however, because of the wide
diversity among textile mills.
End-of-Pipe Treatment Technology
LEVEL 1 - CURRENT LEVEL OF PRETREATMENT - Preliminary treatment;
screening, equalization, and/or neutralization as
necessary for compliance with prohibitive discharge
provisions
LEVEL 2 - Preliminary treatment plus chemicl coagulation
LEVEL 3 - Preliminary treatment plus chemical coagulation and
filtration
More sophisticated treatment levels involving activated carbon and
ozone added to the above levels were evaluated technically but were
not considered because they are too costly relative to the resulting
benefits.
Based on analyses of these control options, the Agency has selected
LEVEL 2 as the basis for PSES effluent limitations for all
subcategories. For Wool Scouring, the technology additionally
includes dissolved air flotation.
The current level of pretreatment, with appropriate in-plant control
measures, will permit many mills to comply with the PSES effluent
limitations without providing additional treatment levels.
492
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PSES EFFLUENT LIMITATIONS
Subcateqorv 1 - Wool Scouring
Effluent Limitations, mg/1
Pollutant or Maximum for Average of daily values
Pollutant Property any one day for 30 consecutive days
Total Chromium
Total Copper
Total Zinc
0.90
0.90
1.80
0.50
0.50
1.00
In cases when POTW find it necessary to impose mass effluent limita-
tions, the following equivalent mass limitations are provided as guidance:
Effluent Limitations, kg/kkg of raw grease wool
Pollutant or Maximum for Average of daily values
Pollutant Property any one day for 30 consecutive days
Total Chromium 0.01 0.006
Total Copper 0.01 0.006
Total Zinc 0.02 0.012
493
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Subcateqory 2 - Wool Finishing
Effluent Limitations, mg/1
Pollutant or Maximum for Average of daily values
Pollutant Property any one day for 30 consecutive days
Total Chromium
Total Copper
Total Zinc
0.90
0.90
1.80
0.50
0.50
1.00
In cases when POTW find it necessary to impose mass effluent limita-
tions, the following equivalent mass limitations are povided as guidance
Effluent Limitations, kg/kkg of product
Pollutant or Maximum for Average of daily values
Pollutant Property any one day for 30 consecutive days
Total Chromium
Total Copper
Total Zinc
0.26
0.26
0.52
0.14
0.14
0.28
Subcateqorv 3 - Low Water Use Processing
These plants are required to comply with the general pretreatment regula-
tions found at 43 FR 27736-27773 (June 26, 1978).
494
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Subcateqory 4a - Woven Fabric Finishing, Simple Processing
Effluent Limitations, mg/1
Pollutant or Maximum for Average of daily values
Pollutant Property any one day for 30 consecutive days
Total Chromium 0.90 0.50
Total Copper 0.90 0.50
Total Zinc 1.80 1.00
In cases when POTW find it necessary to impose mass effluent limita-
tions, the following equivalent mass limitations are provided as guidance
Effluent Limitations, kg/kkg of product
Pollutant or Maximum for Average of daily values
Pollutant Property any one day for 30 consecutive days
Total Chromium
Total Copper
Total Zinc
0.07
0.07
0.14
0.04
0.04
0.08
Subcateqory 4b - Woven Fabric Finishing, Complex Processing
Effluent Limitations, mg/1
Pollutant or Maximum for Average of daily values
Pollutant Property any one day for 30 consecutive days
Total Chromium 0.90 0.50
Total Copper 0.90 0.50
Total Zinc 1.80 1.00
495
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In cases when POTW find it necessary to impose mass effluent limita-
tions, the following equivalent mass limitations are provided as guidance
Effluent Limitations, kg/kkg of product
Pollutant or Maximum for Average of daily values
Pollutant Property any one day for 30 consecutive days
Total Chromium
Total Copper
Total Zinc
0.08
0.08
0.16
0.04
0.04
0.08
Subcateqorv 4c - Moven Fabric Finishing, Complex Processing Plus Desizinq
Effluent Limitations, mg/1
Pollutant or Maximum for Average of daily values
Pollutant Property any one day for 30 consecutive days
Total Chromium 0.90 0.50
Total Copper 0.90 0.50
Total Zinc 1.80 1.00
In cases when POTW find it necessary to impose mass effluent limita-
tions, the following equivalent mass limitations are provided as guidance
496
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Effluent Limitations, kg/kkg of product
Pollutant or Maximum for Average of daily values
Pollutant Property any one day for 30 consecutive days
Total Chromium
Total Copper
Total Zinc
0.10
0.10
0.20
0.06
0.06
0.11
Subcateqory 5a - Knit Fabric Finishing, Simple Processing
Effluent Limitations, mg/1
Pollutant or Maximum for Average of daily values
Pollutant Property any one day for 30 consecutive days
Total Chromium
Total Copper
Total Zinc
0.90
0.90
1.80
0.50
0.50
1.00
In cases when POTW find it necessary to impose mass effluent limita-
tions, the following equivalent mass limitations are provided as guidance
Effluent Limitations, kg/kkg of product
Pollutant or Maximum for Average of daily values
Pollutant Property any one day for 30 consecutive days
Total Chromium 0.12 0.07
Total Copper 0.12 0.07
Total Zinc 0.24 0.14
497
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Subcateqorv 5b - Knit Fabric Finishing/ Complex Processing
Effluent Limitations, mg/1
Pollutant or Maximum for Average of daily values
Pollutant Property any one day for 30 consecutive days
Total Chromium
Total Copper
Total Zinc
0.90
0.90
1.80
0.50
0.50
1.00
In cases when POTW find it necessary to impose mass effluent limita-
tions, the following equivalent mass limitations are provided as guidance
Effluent Limitations, kg/kkg of product
Pollutant or Maximum for Average of daily values
Pollutant Property any one day for 30 consecutive days
Total Chromium 0.08 0.04
Total Copper 0.08 0.04
Total Zinc 0.15 0.08
498
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Subcateqory 5c - Knit Fabric Finishing, Hosiery Products
Effluent Limitations, mg/1
Pollutant or Maximum for Average of daily values
Pollutant Property any one day for 30 consecutive days
Total Chromium
Total Copper
Total Zinc
0.90
0.90
1.80
0.50
0.50
1.00
In cases when POTW find it necessary to impose mass effluent limita-
tions, the following equivalent mass limitations are provided as guidance
Effluent Limitations, kg/kkg of product
Pollutant or Maximum for Average of daily values
Pollutant Property any one day for 30 consecutive days
Total Chromium 0.06 0.03
Total Copper 0.06 0.03
Total Zinc 0.12 0.07
499
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Subcateqorv 6 - Carpet Finishing
Effluent Limitations, mg/1
Pollutant or Maximum for Average of daily values
Pollutant Property any one day for 30 consecutive days
Total Chromium 0.90 0.50
Total Copper 0.90 0.50
Total Zinc .1-80 1-00
In cases when POTW find it necessary to impose mass effluent limita-
tions, the following equivalent mass limitations are provided as guidance
Effluent Limitations, kg/kkg of product
Pollutant or Maximum for Average of daily values
Pollutant Property any one day for 30 consecutive days
Total Chromium 0.04 0.02
Total Copper 0.04 0.02
Total Zinc 0.08 0.05
Subcateqorv 7 - Stock & Yarn Finishing
Effluent Limitations, mg/1
Pollutant or Maximum for Average of daily values
Pollutant Property any one day for 30 consecutive days
Total Chromium 0.90 0.50
Total Copper 0.90 0.50
Total Zinc 1-80 1-00
500
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In cases when POTW find it necessary to impose .mass effluent limita-
tions, the following equivalent mass limitations are provided as guidance
Effluent Limitations, kg/kkg of product
Pollutant or Maximum for Average of-daily values
Pollutant Property any one day for 30 consecutive days
Total Chromium 0.09 0.05
Total Copper 0.09 0.05
Total Zinc 0.18 0.10
Subcateqory 8 - Nonwoven Manufacturing
Effluent Limitations, mg/1
Pollutant or Maximum for Average of daily values
Pollutant Property any one day for 30 consecutive days
Total Chromium
Total Copper
Total Zinc
0.90
0.90
1.80
0.50
0.50
1.00
In cases when POTW find it necessary to impose mass effluent limita-
tions, the following equivalent mass limitations are provided as guidance
Effluent Limitations, kg/kkg of product
Pollutant or Maximum for Average of daily values
Pollutant Property any one day for 30 consecutive days
Total Chromium 0.04 0.02
Total Copper 0.04 O.*02
Total Zinc 0.07 0.04
501
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Subcateqorv 9 - Felted Fabric Processing
Effluent Limitations, mg/1
Pollutant or Maximum for Average of daily values
Pollutant Property any one day for 30 consecutive days
Total Chromium
Total Copper
Total Zinc
0.90
0.90
1.80
0.50
0.50
1.00
In cases when POTW find it necessary to impose mass effluent limita-
tions, the following equivalent mass limitations are provided as guidance
Effluent Limitations, kg/kkg of product
Pollutant or Maximum for Average of daily values
Pollutant Property any one day for 30 consecutive days
Total Chromium 0.19 0.11
Total Copper 0.19 0.11
Total Zinc 0.38 0.21
METHODOLOGY USED TO DEVELOP PSES EFFLUENT LIMITATIONS
The rationale and method used in developing the PSES effluent limita-
tions are described below.
Rationale
The basic concept used in developing the PSES effluent limitations was
that the mill pretreatment system plus the treatment provided by the
POTW should be equivalent to BAT in terms of protection of the
receiving waters. In order words, indirect dischargers should not be
permitted to discharge toxic pollutants that pass through POTW to any
greater extent than that permitted mills discharging directly to
receiving waters.
The selected technology level for BAT in most of the subcategories is
biological treatment plus filtration. For the purposes of this
development, it is assumed that the treatment provided by the POTW
502
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provides biological treatment or its equivalent. The level of
pretreatment should be equivalent to filtration in order that it plus
the POTW equal BAT. The suspended solids levels in the raw
wastewaters from most textile mills, even with proper preliminary
treatment, are too high for effective direct treatment by filtration
and an alternative technology must be considered. Chemical
coagulation provides such an alternative. This process is aimed
primarily at the same target pollutants as filtration, namely,
suspended solids. Chemical coagulation provides the additional
benefits of being capable of effecting higher removals of non-
biodegradable COD, metals, and color than is generally achievable by
filtration.
The most commonly reported problems experienced by POTW receiving
textile mill discharges relate to gross solids and slug discharges.
These should be controlled by enforcement of the prohibitive waste
discharge provisions of the general pretreatment regulations. Few
POTW report upsets or interferences associated with the constitutive
characteristics of textile mill wastes beyond those caused by
overloading and discharge fluctuations. However, there are inadequate
data available by which to determine the extent of pass-through or
contamination of POTW sludges by textile mill waste constituents. It
is suspected that this last area will be found to be the major area of
concern for those POTW that are impacted by toxic pollutants in
textile mill wastes, and that the metals will be the most significant
contaminants. For this reason, the three metals found in relatively
high concentrations in the raw wastes from some textile mills, namely,
chromium, copper, and zinc, are regulated by the PSES effluent
limitations. As noted in Section IX, local authorities should assure
themselves that the levels of other metallic toxic pollutants are also
adequately controlled by the textile mills within their jurisdictions.
Method
The Agency established the effluent limitations by engineering
analysis of the degrees of control achieved in treating metal-bearing
wastewaters by chemical coagulation in other industries. The
literature clearly indicates that well operated chemical treatment
systems can consistently achieve the specified effluent limitations.
A separate factor that was also recognized is that the results of the
screening and verification sampling programs indicated that the
average raw waste concentrations of the three regulated metals were
below the effluent limitations. This tends to support the contention
that most indirect dischargers will not require additional end-of-pipe
treatment beyond the current level of pretreatment.
503
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SIZE, AGE, PROCESSES EMPLOYED, LOCATION OF FACILITIES
As discussed in Section IX, the factors of size, age, and location do
not affect the control technology that can be effectively applied to
direct discharging textile mills in each subcategory. Process factors
are already included in the subcategorization. Indirect discharge
textile mills are indistinguishable from direct dischargers in terms
of age and processes employed. They are distributed in the same
states as the direct discharge mills and, except for their being
within POTW service areas, location does not play a role in
determining the availability of the treatment technologies. The
average size of the indirect discharge mills is approximately half
that of the average direct discharge mill in terms of daily discharge
volume, although the range of sizes is the same for both groups. Size
is not a factor in determining the technology that can be applied
effectively. Size relative to the size of the POTW may be of concern,
however, and more stringent local control may be required where
textile wastes constitute a major fraction of the influent to the
POTW.
ENGINEERING ASPECTS OF PRETREATMENT STANDARDS FOR EXISTING SOURCES
As noted previously, few existing indirect dischargers in the textile
industry provide any significant end-of-pipe treatment. Those that
are unable to comply with the PSES effluent limitations through in-
plant control measures will have to develop new programs and face an
array of unfamiliar problems. It is important that adequate planning
and evaluation of alternatives be carried out so that the program
developed will be truly effective, economic, and free of avoidable
operating and maintenance problems.
The treatment system should be the result of testing and careful
analysis of several alternative approaches. The selection for
individual mills should not be based solely on the findings developed
in this report.
For example, some mills may find that biological treatment and/or
filtration provides the best treatment technology. Some of the
advantages and limitations of these processes are discussed in
Sections VII, VIII, and IX. Likewise, decisions about the components
of the preliminary treatment system should be based upon analysis of
the mill's wastewater characteristics, the site-specific conditions,
and the overall goals of the wastewater treatment program. An
important element in the planning should be the sludge management
program. Sludges from chemical treatment are often more difficult to
dewater than those from biological systems, and if the sludge is
classified a hazardous waste, the requirements of the Resource
Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA) regulations regarding generation,
storage, transportation, and disposal will have to be considered.
504
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Little work has been done to date on the treatment of textile wastes
by other than biological processes. Research should be carried out to
investigate various processes and optimal operating modes for various
ranges of waste characteristics. Chemical coagulation is a versatile
process that has been widely applied to a spectrum of industrial
wastes. Despite this, there is often a fine line between success and
tailure of this process and the optimal chemical conditions can be
determined only by experimental means. Alum has seen use in the
textile industry for treating the effluents from biological systems
but is less effective than lime and iron salts for controlling metals.
inese latter chemicals tend to precipitate the dissolved metals as
well as coagulate the suspended solids.
In summary, the treatment system and waste control program should be
designed and operated to solve the problems peculiar to the individual
mill applied.
NONWATER QUALITY ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT
The discussion of nonwater quality environmental impact for direct
dischargers presented in Section IX also applies to indirect
dischargers. The implementation of PSES effluent limitations will
result in improvement in the quality of some POTW sludges, but it will
also create new sources of sludges at the mill that will require
monitoring to insure that they are properly managed.
TOTAL COST OF APPLICATION
Based on the cost information in Section VIII, the total investment
cost tor all indirect dischargers is estimated to be $38 million with
associated total annualized cost of $19 million. The costs are
relatively low because only about 107 mills of the indirect
dischargers may have to apply the full level of end-of-pipe treatment
control. The other mills either have sufficient treatment technology
in place (78) or do not exceed the limitations due to elimination of
the regulated pollutants from raw materials (741). The number of
mills which can meet PSES through substitution of raw materials was
estimated by extrapolation from data available for 47 indirect
Q.iscnargers *
Implementation of PSES, along with the treatment provided by a POTW
would reduce the wastewater discharge of the conventional pollutants
non-conventional pollutants, and toxic pollutants that are found in
te*J;ile nun wastewaters to levels equivalent to those achieved by BAT
with a high degree of confidence.
505
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GUIDANCE TO ENFORCEMENT PERSONNEL
Chromium, copper, and zinc are metallic toxic pollutants specifically
regulated by PSES. Antimony, arsenic, cadmium, lead, mercury, nickel,
selenium, and silver are metallic toxic pollutants that were typically
identified at low concentrations in textile plant raw wastes but,
because of their general nature, common usage, and frequency of
detection, may be a problem at some textile mills. It is recommended
that EPA regional, state, and municipal enforcement personnel
investigate the presence of these metals and determine their levels.
The following tabulation provides the average raw waste concentrations
of these pollutants based on the results of the field sampling program
and offers guidance as to recommended allowable discharge levels.
These levels should be used to determine whether additional effluent
limitations are appropriate for individual indirect dischargers.
Metal Typical Concentration, uq/1
Antimony 100
Arsenic 80
Cadmium 30
Lead 100
Mercury 1
Nickel 100
Selenium 40
Silver 50
While national COD standards for PSES have not been determined to be
appropriate, municipal enforcement personnel should be cognizant of
the high COD levels discharged by many textile mills. The COD
consists of a biodegradable fraction that is effectively treated in
POTW and a refractory fraction that is not effectively treated in most
POTW. The industry has the capability of substituting for materials
having high BOD with materials having relatively low BOD but high COD.
One example is the substitution of synthetic sizing agents such as PVA
and CMC for starch. It is recommended that state and municipal
enforcement personnel investigate the level of COD being discharged by
textile mills to POTW and the removal effectiveness of the COD at the
POTW. The following tabulation provides typical COD values in the raw
untreated wastewater for each subcategory of the industry and the
recommended COD effluent levels from biological treatment systems
similar to POTW. Enforcement personnel should use this information as
guidance to determine whether individual pretreatment standards for
COD are appropriate for textile mills discharging to a particular
POTW.
506
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Concentration, mg/1
Typical Effluent After
Subcateqorv Typical Raw Waste Biological Treatment
Wool Scouring 7,000 2,600
Wool Finishing 600 240
Low Water Use Processing 700 220
Woven Fabric Finishing
Simple Processing 900 240
Complex Processing 1,100 250
Complex Plus Desizing 1,200 250
Knit Fabric Finishing
Simple Processing 870 270
Complex Processing 800 280
Hosiery Products 1,370 570
Carpet Finishing 1,190 290
Stock & Yarn Finishing 680 140
Nonwoven Manufacturing 550 560
Felted Fabric Processing 2,400 300
507
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SECTION XIII
PRETREATMENT STANDARDS FOR NEW SOURCES
INTRODUCTION
Section 307 (c) of the Act requires EPA to promulgate Pretreatment
Standards for New Sources (PSNS) at the same time that it promulgates
NSPS. New indirect dischargers, like new direct dischargers, have the
opportunity to incorporate the best available demonstrated
technologies including process changes, in-plant controls, and end-of-
pipe treatment technologies, and to use plant site selection to insure
adequate treatment system installation.
IDENTIFICATION OF PRETREATMENT STANDARDS FOR NEW SOURCES
The in-plant control measures, process selections, operating methods,
and end-of-pipe treatment technologies available to new indirect
discharge sources for complying with PSNS effluent limitations are the
same as those for new direct discharge sources in the textile
industry. While no specific in-plant control measures are required,
the full spectrum of such measures should be carefully evaluated for
potential application during the planning and design phases for the
new manufacturing facility in order to reduce the extent and costs of
end-of-pipe treatment systems, sludge management programs, and sewer
use charges.
End-of-Pipe Treatment Technology
LEVEL 1 - CURRENT LEVEL OF PRETREATMENT - Pretreatment treatment ;
screening, equalization, and/or neutralization as
necessary for compliance with prohibitive discharge
provisions
LEVEL 2 - Preliminary treatment of all wastes plus segregation and
chemical coagulation and filtration of toxic pollutant
waste streams
LEVEL 3 - Preliminary treatment of all wastes plus segregation and
chemical coagulation, filtration, and carbon adsorption
of toxic pollutant waste streams
Treatment levels involving ozone in place of activated carbon
adsorption were evaluated technically but were not considered because
they are too costly and energy-intensive relative to the resulting
benefits. '
ซ on analyses of these control options, the Agency has selected
LEVEL 2 as the basis for PSNS effluent limitations for all
subcategories.
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PSNS EFFLUENT LIMITATIONS
Subcateqorv 1 - Wool Scouring
Pollutant or
Pollutant Property
Effluent Limitations, mg/1
Maximum for
any one day
Average of daily values
for 30 consecutive days
Total Chromium
Total Copper
Total Zinc
0.90
0.90
1.80
0.50
0.50
1.00
In cases when POTW find it necessary to impose mass effluent limita-
tions, the following equivalent mass limitations are provided as guidance
Effluent Limitations, kg/kkg of raw grease wool
Pollutant or
Pollutant Property
Maximum for
any one day
Average of daily values
for 30 consecutive days
Total Chromium
Total Copper
Total Zinc
0.01
0.01
0.02
0.006
0.006
0.012
Subcateqorv 2 - Wool Finishing
Pollutant or
Pollutant Property
Effluent Limitations, mg/1
Maximum for Average of daily values
any one day for 30 consecutive days
Total Chromium
Total Copper
Total Zinc
0.90
0.90
1.80
0.50
0.50
1.00
In cases when POTW find it necessary to impose mass effluent limita-
tions, the following equivalent mass limitations are provided as guidance
510
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Effluent Limitations, kg/kkg of product
Pollutan Prr,^ Maximum for Average of daily values
Pollutant Property any one day for 30 consecutive days
Total Chromium 0.26 0 14
Total Copper 0.26 n 14
Total Zinc 0.52 0.28
Subcateqorv 3 - Low Water Use Processing
Sretriafm-nJ^in1? ?Vbcatfoory afe required to comply with the general
pretreatment regulations found at 43 FR 27736-27773 (June 26, 1978).
Subcateqorv 4a - Woven Fabric Finishing. Simple Processing
Effluent Limitations, mg/1
oJoiU^UJ 2r ^ Maximum for Average of daily values
Pollutant Property any one day for 30 consecutive days
Total Chromium 0 90 n en
Total Copper 0.'90 0 50
Zinc 1.80 i.nn
nohi find U necessary to impose mass effluent limita-
tions, the following equivalent mass limitations are provided as guidance
511
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Effluent Limitations, kg/kkg of product
Pollutant or Maximum for Average of daily values
Pollutant Property any one day for 30 consecutive days
Total Chromium 0.07 0.04
Total Copper 0.07 0.04
Total Zinc 0.14 0.08
Subcateqorv 4b - Woven Fabric Finishing, Complex Processing
Effluent Limitations, mg/1
Pollutant or Maximum for Average of daily values
Pollutant Property any one day for 30 consecutive days
Total Chromium
Total Copper
Total Zinc
0.90
0.90
1.80
0.50
0.50
1.00
In cases when POTW find it necessary to impose mass effluent limita-
tions, the following equivalent mass limitations are provided as guidance
Effluent Limitations, kg/kkg of product
Pollutant or Maximum for Average of daily values
Pollutant Property any one day for 30 consecutive days
Total Chromium 0.08 0.04
Total Copper 0.08 0.04
Total Zinc ' 0.16 0.08
512
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Subcateqory 4c - Woven Fabric Finishing, Complex Processing Plus Desizlnq
Effluent Limitations, mg/1
Pollutant or Maximum for Average of daily values
Pollutant Property any one day for 30 consecutive days
Total Chromium 0.90 0.50
Total Copper 0.90 0.50
Total Zinc 1.80 1.00
In cases when POTW find it necessary to impose mass effluent limita-
tions, the following equivalent mass limitations are provided as guidance
Effluent Limitations, kg/kkg of product
Pollutant or Maximum for Average of daily values
Pollutant Property any one day for 30 consecutive days
Total Chromium
Total Copper
Total Zinc
0.10
0.10
0.20
0.06
0.06
0.11
Subcateqory 5a - Knit Fabric Finishing, Simple Processing
Effluent Limitations, mg/1
Pollutant or Maximum for Average of daily values
Pollutant Property any one day for 30 consecutive days
Total Chromium 0.90 0.50
Total Copper 0.90 0.50
Total Zinc 1.80 1.00
513
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In cases when POTW find it necessary to impose mass effluent limita-
tions, the following equivalent mass limitations are provided as guidance
Effluent Limitations, kg/kkg of product
Pollutant or Maximum for Average of daily values
Pollutant Property any one day for 30 consecutive days
Total Chromium
Total Copper
Total Zinc
0.12
0.12
0.24
0.07
0.07
0.14
Subcateqory 5b - Knit Fabric Finishing, Complex Processing
Effluent Limitations, mg/1
Pollutant or Maximum for Average of daily values
Pollutant Property any one day for 30 consecutive days
Total Chromium
Total Copper
Total Zinc
0.90
0.90
1.80
0.50
0.50
1.00
In cases when POTW find it necessary to impose mass effluent limita-
tions, the following equivalent mass limitations are provided as guidance
Effluent Limitations, kg/kkg of product
Pollutant or Maximum for Average of daily values
Pollutant Property any one day for 30 consecutive days
Total Chromium 0.08 0.04
Total Copper 0.08 0.04
Total Zinc 0.15 0.08
514
-------
Subcateqory 5c - Knit Fabric Finishing, Hosiery Products
Effluent Limitations, mg/1
Pollutant or Maximum for Average of daily values
Pollutant Property any one day for 30 consecutive days
Total Chromium
Total Copper
Total Zinc
0.90
0.90
1.80
0.50
0.50
1.00
In cases when POTW find it necessary to impose mass effluent limita-
tions, the following equivalent mass limitations are provided as guidance
Effluent Limitations, kg/kkg of product
Pollutant or Maximum for Average of daily values
Pollutant Property any one day for 30 consecutive days
Total Chromium 0.06 0.03
Total Copper 0.06 0*03
Total Zinc 0.12 0*07
515
-------
Subcateqorv 6 - Carpet Finishing
Pollutant or
Pollutant Property
Effluent Limitations, mg/1
Maximum for
any one day
Average of daily values
for 30 consecutive days
Total Chromium
Total Copper
Total Zinc
0,90
0.90
1.80
0.50
0.50
1.00
In cases when POTW find it necessary to impose mass effluent limita-
tions, the following equivalent mass limitations are provided as guidance
Pollutant or
Pollutant Property
Effluent Limitations, kg/kkg of product
Maximum for
any one day
Average of daily values
for 30 consecutive days
Total Chromium
Total Copper
Total Zinc
0.04
0.04
0.08
0.02
0.02
0.05
Subcateqorv 7 - Stock & Yarn Processing
Effluent Limitations, mg/1
Pollutant or
Pollutant Property
Maximum for
any one day
Average of daily values
for 30 consecutive days
Total Chromium
Total Copper
Total Zinc
0.90
0.90
1.80
0.50
0.50
1.00
516
-------
In cases when POTW find it necessary to impose mass effluent limita-
tions, the following equivalent mass limitations are provided as guidance
Effluent Limitations, kg/kkg of product
Pollutant or Maximum for Average of daily values
Pollutant Property any one day for 30 consecutive days
Total Chromium 0.09 0 05
Total Copper 0.09 o!o5
Total Zinc 0.18 0.10
Subcateqory 8 - Nonwoven Manufacturing
Effluent Limitations, mg/1
Pollutant or Maximum for Average of daily values
Pollutant Property any one day for 30 consecutive days
Total Chromium
Total Copper
Total Zinc
0.90
0.90
1.80
0.50
0.50
1.00
In cases when POTW find it necessary to impose mass effluent limita-
tions, the following equivalent mass limitations are provided as guidance
Effluent Limitations, kg/kkg of product
Pollutant or Maximum for Average of daily values
Pollutant Property any one day for 30 consecutive days
Total Chromium 0.04 0 02
Total Copper 0.04 o!o2
Total Zinc 0.07 0.04
517
-------
Subcateqorv 9 - Felted Fabric Processing
Pollutant or
Pollutant Property
Effluent Limitations, mg/1
Maximum for
any one day
Average of daily values
for 30 consecutive days
Total Chromium
Total Copper
Total Zinc
0.90
0.90
1.80
0.50
0.50
1.00
In cases when POTW find it necessary to impose mass effluent limita-
tions, the following equivalent mass limitations are provided as guidance
Pollutant or
Pollutant Property
Effluent Limitations, kg/kkg of product
Maximum for
any one day
Average of daily values
for 30 consecutive days
Total Chromium
Total Copper
Total Zinc
0.19
0.19
0.38
0.11
0.11
0.21
METHODOLOGY USED TO DEVELOP PSWS EFFLUENT LIMITATIONS
The rationale and method used in developing the PSNS effluent
limitations are described below.
Rationale
The basic rationale used in developing the PSES effluent limitations
also applies to the PSNS limitations. However, with the greater use
of in-plant control measures and the segregated stream concept, the
concentrations of conventional, non-conventional, and toxic pollutants
in the toxic pollutant waste stream will be significantly higher than
in the combined waste stream at an existing source. In order to
insure the control of these higher levels of toxic pollutants as
completely as possible and thereby prevent pass-through at POTW and
minimize contamination of POTW sludges and other residues, new
indirect dischargers are required to perform an additional level of
518
-------
control in the for, of ""ration. ..
better insure the removal of th? ^ulated a nal and non.
poflutantslo'feve^ safellr Soling at POTV,
Method
immediately upon
promulgation.
ซT7.g. AGE. PROOFS EMPLOYED. TOPATTON OF FACILITIES
effluent limitations.
^-TKP,PTNr, ASPECT* ^TPEATMENT T^pl* FOR NEW SOURCES
a
establishing the PSNS
inausy
Sections , ,
discharge sources in the textile
streams offers advantages in
that should be ซซPlฐre?^"ydl cted proces
If non-process wastewaters and selected proc
can be discharged to the POTW with only Pซ^
will obviously accrue compared to pr etr eatment
'
tlon
management
of new textile mills.
related waste streams
treatment, savings
total min waste
technical and
play an important role in most cases.
! summary, ซ-"
PmlanimiZCeฐfheฐcok anf impact effluent limitations.
MUPmAiarv uuซ^* j. -^ ***-
The areas, of nonwater quality environmental impact discussed in
Sections IX, XI, and XII apply to PSNS.
519
-------
, depending on subcat-^nn
percent of the book value of fixed IIset4
costs are estimated to range between 0
SJTwi?' S^d^cbe I"
toxic pollutants expected tfbS
1' the Agency estates
comply with the PSNS
ฃa"?e between > "d 8
*acility- Annualized
U
bec.us. of tteir g.n.r.l
pl*nt r" ""ซซ ปut"
of
U_ J. _ 1
Metal
Antimony
Arsenic
Cadmium
Lead
Mercury
Nickel
Selenium
Silver
ical Concentration
100
80
30
100
1
100
40
50
*nn ?atiฐnal COD standards for
the h[oh ron^i10^?1 enfฐrcement pe^son^I should k^*** to be
tne nign COD levels discharaed hu ซ=ซ snould be cognizant of
520
-------
enforcement personnel investigate the level of COD being discharged by
textile mills to POTW and the removal effectiveness of the COD at the
POTW. The following tabulation provides typical COD values in the raw
untreated wastewater for each subcategory of the industry and the
recommended COD effluent levels from biological treatment systems
similar to POTW. Enforcement personnel should use this information as
guidance to determine whether individual pretreatment standards for
COD are appropriate for textile mills discharging to a particular
POTW.
Concentration, mg/1
Typical Effluent After
Subcateqory Typical Raw Waste Biological Treatment
Wool Scouring 7,000 2,600
Wool Finishing 600 240
Low Water Use Processing 700 220
Woven Fabric Finishing
Simple Processing 900 240
Complex Processing 1,100 250
Complex Plus Desizing 1,200 250
Knit Fabric Finishing
Simple Processing 870 270
Complex Processing 800 280
Hosiery Products 1,370 570
Carpet Finishing 1,190 290
Stock & Yarn Finishing 680 140
Nonwoven Manufacturing 550 560
Felted Fabric Processing 2,400 300
521
-------
-------
SECTION XIV
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Hundreds of people have contributed to the development of this report
during the past months and years. They have included representatives
of several EPA Offices and Regions, State and municipal governments,
the textile and related industries, and other contractors. It is not
possible to recognize all of them by name, but some who have been
expecially helpful are noted below.
Dr James Gallup, Mr. James Berlow, and Mr. John Riley of the Wood
Products and Fibers Branch of the Effluent Guidelines Division who
provided overall project direction as well as guidance and much
valuable counsel throughout all phases of the study. Dr. Gallup
served as Project Officer throughout most of the project and was the
major force in developing the information presented herein.
All members of the Textile Working Group; especially Lee DeHihns and
Lee Schroer of the Office of General Counsel, Tony Montrone and Jean
Norioan of the Office of Analysis and Economics, and Murray Strier ol
the Effluent Guidelines Division.
Dr. Max Samfield of the Industrial Environmental Research Laboratory,
Research Triangle Park.
Ed Struzeski, Jr., of the National Enforcement Investigations Center
in Denver.
Robert A. Carter of the North Carolina Division of Environmental
Management.
Charles R. Jeter of the South Carolina Department of Health and
Environmental Control.
Bill Jernigan of the Georgia Department of Natural Resources.
Erlina L. Patron of the Virginia State Water Control Board.
Charles R. Horn of the Alabama Water Improvement Commission.
Frank D'Ascensio of the Passiac Valley Sewerage Commissioners, New
Jersey.
O'Jay Niles, Maggie Dean, and others at the American
Manufacturers Institute, Inc.
Textile
523
-------
Wailace Storey and al1
Preservation Committee.
the members of ATMI's Environmental
William Sullivan and Karl Spilhaus of the Northern Textile Association
and the members of NTA's Water Pollution Control Advtsory Co^Utee
Barry Torrence of the Carpet and Rug Institute.
Dr. Roderick Horning, William Allen and the other members of the Water
Subcommittee of the Dyes Environmental and Toxicology Organilatton"
SSS^nS^S industry! **" ^^ ฐf INฐA ~ Aiation of the
Richard Seltzer of Development Planning and Research Associates, Inc.
Dr. Roger Holm and Dr. Gary Rawlings of Monsanto Research Corp.
A special note of appreciation goes to all the many textile mill
operating personnel who completed questionnaires, proved information
w^h^ fP^"e' and assisted "S during inspection and sampling vTsitl
Without their cooperation, our task could not have been completed
* iS extended to the Effluent Guidlines staff for their
doucment' Specifically Kaye Starr, Nancy Zrubekฐ Pearl
Carol Swann, Maureen Treacy, and Vicky Wilson are recognized
524
-------
SECTION XV
REFERENCES
1. "Development Document for Effluent Limitations Guidelines and New
Source Performance Standards for the Textile Mills Point Source
Category/1 U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC, Ref.
No. EPA 440/1-74-022-a.
2. "In-Plant Control of Pollution - Upgrading Textile Operations to
Reduce Pollution," U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington,
DC, Ref. No. EPA 625/3-74-004.
3. "Draft Development Document: Pretreatment Standards for Textile
Mills (Addendum to the Development Document for Effluent Limitations
Guidelines and New Source Performance Standards for the Textile Mills
Point Source Category)," Sverdrup & Parcel and Associates, Inc., St.
Louis, MO (November, 1976).
4. "Textile Industry Technology and Costs of Wastewater Control,"
Lockwood-Greene, New York, NV (June, 1975).
5. "Cost of Clean Water - Volume III, Industrial Waste Profiles - No.
4, Textile Mill Products, The," Federal Water Pollution Control
Administration, Washington, DC (September, 1967).
6. "Census of Manufactures, 1972," Social and Economic Statistics
Administration, Bureau of the Census, U.S. Department of Commerce
Publication (1975).
7. "County Business Patterns, 1975," County Business Patterns, Bureau
of the Census, Ref. No. CBP-75-1.
8. Davison's Textile Blue Book, lllth Edition, Davison Publishing
Company, Ridgewood, NJ (1977).
9. Wachter, R. A., Archer, S. R., and Blackwood, T. R., "Source
Assessment: Overview and Priorization of Emissions from Textile
Manufacturing," Ref. No. EPA 600/2-77-107h (September, 1977), pp. 1-
131.
10. Trotman, E. R., Dyeing and Chemical Technology of Textile Fibers,
Fifth Edition, Chas. Griffin & Co., Ltd., London, GB (1975).
11. "Textiles - U.S. Industrial Outlook," U.S. Department of Commerce,
Domestic and International Business Administration, Washington, DC
(1978), pp. 239-244.
525
-------
12. "Sources and Strengths of Textile Wastewaters," Lockwood-Greene
Engineers (Technology Transfer Report on Raw Waste Loads, Chapter 4),
pp. 4-1 to 4-65.
13. "Standard Industrial Classification," Office of Management and
Budget, Statistical Policy Division (1972).
14. Masselli, J. W., Masselli, N. W., and Burford, M. G., "A Simplifi-
cation of Textile Waste Survey and Treatment," New England Interstate
Water Pollution Control Commission, Boston, MA (1959).
15. "Industrial Waste Studies Program: Textile Mill Products," Arthur
D. Little, Inc., Draft Report for the Water Quality Office, U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC (May 28, 1971).
16. "Recommendations and Comments for the Establishment of Best
Practicable Wastewater Control Technology Currently Available for the
Textile Industry," Institute of Textile Technology, Charlottesville,
VA and Hydroscience, Inc., Westwood, NJ (January, 1973).
17. Walpole, R. F., and Myers, R. H., Probability and Statistics for
Engineers and Scientists (1972).
18. Miller, I., and Freund, Jป E., Probability and Statistics for
Engineers (1965).
19. Snedecor, G. W., and Cochran, W. G., Statistical Methods,, 6th ed.
(1967).
20. "Quality Criteria for Water," U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency, Washington, DC, Ref. No. EPA 440/9-76-023.
21. "State of the Art Textile Waste Treatment," Clemson University,
Department of Textiles, US EPA Water Pollution Control Research
Series, 12090 ECS 02/71 (1971), pp. 1-347.
22. Davis, G. M., Koon, J. H., and Adams, C. E., "Treatment of Two
Textile Dye House Wastewaters," Proceedings of the 32nd Industrial
Waste Conference, Purdue University, Lafayette, IN (1977), pp. 981-
997.
23. Rachel, W. M., and Keinath, T, M., "Reclamation of Textile
Printing Wastewaters for Direct Recycle," Proceedings of 27th
Industrial Waste Conference, Purdue University, Lafayette, IN (1972),
pp. 406-419.
24. Rinker, T. L., "Treatment of Textile Wastewater by Activated
Sludge and Alum Coagulation," Ref. No. EPA 600/2-75-055.
526
-------
D A "Water Conservation in Textile Finishing,"
25. Rennison, P. A., w , ซ NO 11 (1977).
American Dyestuff Reporter, Vol. 66, No.
ar ,.,-
AIChE-CSChE, Vancouver, BC
Inc., Atlanta, GA (June, 1976).
/q nf Textile Industry BATEA
fterials)," Engineering Science,
r arisss'as
40,
(September
of Pollution Control Equipment
33. Monti, R. P.; and Silberman,
0 T "wastewater System
P. ^ Water & Waste
ป. ซ -
75-003a.
1977).
37. "Ozone System Capital Cost Quotation," Inf ilco-Degremont (C. B.
Smith Company) (October, 1977).
38 "Feasibility and Economics of Ozone Treatment, "Emery Industr.es,
Inc., Data Sheet 789.
527
-------
pc.lซ
ซ. Fi,h.r Scientific Co., c.t.loo 77.
ซ"fflsr
,
45. Maggiolo A anH
Plant for Removal of
-. Clark, Veiss.an,
No. 9 (September, 1977)
pp.
- ASCE, Vol.
An-erican
(October,' 19565; p
ฐf Drin^ng Water with Ozone, -
JAWWA
fฐr
Wastewater
'' Schnell Publishing Company, New
53. NUS/Rice Moratory, Sampling Prices, Pittsburgh, PA (1978), p. ,
' instruments, Inc., Madison,
528
-------
55. Service Brochure and Fee Schedule 116, Orlando Laboratories, Inc.,
Orlando, FL (January 1, 1978).
56. Water & Wastewater Analysis
(August, 1976).
Fee Schedule, St. Louis Testing Lab
Analysis, Ecology
57. Laboratory Services, Individual Component
Audits, Inc., Dallas, TX (August, 1976).
58. Laboratory Pricing Schedule, Laclede Gas Company, Lab Division,
St. Louis (August, 1977).
59. Price List, Industrial Testing Lab, Inc., St. Louis (1975).
*n Farn R C Kartiaaner, H. L., Schneider, A., and Albano, D. J.,
"Pretreatment Provide! Constant 'Effluent Quality," Water t Wastes
Engineering (October, 1974), pp. 52-55.
61 Stone, R., "Carpet Mill Industrial Waste System," Journal of the
Water Pollution Control Federation, Vol. 44, No. 3 (March, 1972), pp.
470-478.
62. Throop, W. M., "Why Industrial Wastewater Pretreatment?"
Industrial Wastes (July/August, 1976), pp. 32-33.
63. Frye, W. H., and DiGiano, F. A., "Adsorptive Behavior of Dispersed
and Basic Textile Dyes on Activated Carbon," Proceedings of the 29th
Industrial Waste Conference, Purdue University, Lafayette, IN 11974;,
pp. 21-28.
64. Metcalf and Eddy, Inc., Wastewater Enqineerinqt Coj^ction,
Treatment, Disposal, McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York, NY (1972).
65. Mahloch, J. L., Shindala, A., McGriff, E. C., and Harriett, W. A.,
"Treatability Studies and Design Considerations for a Dyeing
Operation," Proceedings of the 29th Industrial Waste Conference,
Purdue University, Lafayette, IN (1974), pp. 44-50
66. Rinker, T. L., and Sargent, T. N., "Activated Sludge and Alum
Coagulation Treatment of Textile Wastewaters," feedings of the 29th
Industrial Waste Conference, Purdue University, Lafayette, IN (1974),
pp. 456-471.
67. Feigenbaum, H. N., "Removing Heavy Metals In Textile Waste,"
Industrial Wastes (March/April, 1972), pp. 32-34.
68. Snider, E. H., and Porter, J. J., "Ozone Treatment of Dye Waste,"
Journal of the Water Pollution Control Federation, Vol. 46, No. 5
(May, 1974), pp. 886-894.
529
-------
Carpft^e
ConferencI, Purdue
?ndD--fection of Tufted
vork/NY iff!!) WaSteW3ter T*C""ฐlฐqY, John Wiley & Sons,
^
^
^
'" U"S' EPA Technology
****"ซ>. " O.S. EPA Technology
Water Quality
530
-------
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Abrams, E. F., Guinan, D. K., and Derkics, D., "Assessment of
Industrial Hazardous Waste Practices," (NTIS Reproduction) U. S.
Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Solid Waste Management
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3. Allen, W., Altherr, E., Horning, R. H., and King, J. C., "The
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7. Banerji, S. K,, and O'Conner, J. T., "Designing More Energy-
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8. Blecker, H. G. and Cadman, T. W., "Capital and Operating Costs of
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10. Boudreau, J. J., "Water Quality and the Textile Industry," Journal
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11. Brandon, C. A., and Porter, J. J., "Hyperfiltration for Renovation
of Textile Finishing Plant Wastewater," Ref. No. EPA 600/2-76-060.
531
-------
12. Bryan, C. E., "Water Pollution Reduction Through Recovery of
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16. Carrique, C. S., and Jaurequi, L. U., "Sodium Hydroxide Recovery
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Administration, Bureau of the Census, U. S. Department of Commerce
Publication (1975).
19. "Chemical Research and Services Department Newsletter," Vol. V,
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532
-------
EPA 430/9-77-013, MCD-37
si,
c'nlt
Administration, Washington, DC (September,
--
(1969).
.
P^due University, Lafayette, IN (1977), pp. 655-662
.
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-
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raUtrerory!ปru0ImaEnvirfnmfnfaf Profectfon ฃnly] Washington, DC, Kef.
NO. EPA 440/1-74-022-a.
Division, Washington, DC (1974)
533
-------
! Pretreatinent Standards for Textile
Agency, Cincinnati, OH
Int ^ional Wool Secre-
^
534
-------
51. Feigenbaum, H. N., "Removing Heavy Metals In Textile Waste,"
Industrial Wastes (March/April, 1972), pp. 32-34.
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NC (January, 1976),
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Effluence," Knitting Times (January 21, 1974).
54. Frye, W. H., and DiGiano, F. A., "Adsorptive Behavior of Dispersed
and Basic Textile Dyes on Activated Carbon," Proceedings of the 29th
Industrial Waste Conference, Purdue University, Lafayette, IN (1974),
pp. 21-28.
55. Gaddis, L., "Rejection of Chemical Species by Membranes," Clemson
University, Clemson, SC (1977).
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Biological Effects," Journal of the Water Pollution Control Federation
(1976), pp. 2731-2737.
57. Ghosh, M. M., Woodard, F, E., and Sproul, 0. J., "Treatability
Studies and Design Considerations for a Textile Mill Wastewater,"
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University, Vol. 1 (1977), pp. 663-673.
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Industrial Wastes {January/February, 1976), pp. 34-35.
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Case Studies," New England Water Pollution Control Association Journal
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water Treatment, Part 2," Water & Sewage Works (December, 1972), pp.
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Granular Activated Carbon," 4th Joint Chemical Engineering Conference,
AIChE-CSChE, Vancouver, BC (September 10, 1973).
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Granular Activated Carbon in Treatment of Textile Industry
535
-------
Wastewaters," Prepared for EPA Technology Transfer Seminar, Atlanta,
GA (September 25-26, 1973).
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(January, 1973), pp. 30-32.
65. Hannah, S. A., Jelus, M., and Cohen, J. M., "Removal of Uncommon
Trace Metals by Physical and Chemical Treatment Processes," Journal of
the Water Pollution Control Federation (November, 1977), pp. 2297-
2309.
66. Hatch, L. T., Sharpin, R. E., Wirtanen, W. T.r and Sargent, T. N.,
"Chemical/Physical and Biological Treatment of Wool Processing
Wastes," Ref. No. EPA 660/2-73-036.
67. Hentschel, R. A. A., "Spunbonded Sheet Products," Chemtech
(January, 1974), pp. 32-41.
68. Holliday, T. M., "Spunbonded Fabrics," Modern Textiles (November,
1974), pp. 40-46.
69. Huibers, D. A., McNabney, R., and Halfon, A., "Ozone Treatment of
Secondary Effluents From Wastewater Treatment Plants," Contract No.
14-12-114, (1969), Federal Water Pollution Control Administration,
Cincinnati, OH (April, 1969).
70. "Industrial Waste Studies Program: Textile Mill Products," Arthur
D. Little, Inc., Draft Report for the Water Quality Office, U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC (May 28, 1971).
71. "In-Plant Control of Pollution - Upgrading Textile Operations to
Reduce Pollution," U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington,
DC, Ref. No. EPA 625/3-74-004.
72. Jones, H. R., Pollution Control in the Textile Industry, Noyes
Data Corporation, Park Ridge, NJ (1973).
73. Jones, J. L., Bomberger, D. C., and Lewis, F. M., "Energy Usage
and Recovery in Sludge Disposal, Parts 1 & 2f" Water & Sewage Works
(July/August, 1977), pp. 42-47.
74. Jorder, H., "Spunlaced Nonwovens, Production, Properties, and
Fields of Use," Melliand Textilberichte (English Edition), Vol. 5, No.
8 (1976), pp. 642-643.
75. Junk, G. A., Svec, H. J., Ray, D., and Avery, M. J., "Contamina-
tion of Water by Synthetic Polymer Tubes," Environmental Science and
Technology, Vol. 8, No. 13 (December, 1974), pp. 1100-1106.
536
-------
76. Kace, J. S., and Linford, H. B., "Reduced Cost Flocculation of a
Textile Dyeing Wastewater," Journal of the Water Pollution Control
Federation, Vol. 47, No. 7 (July, 1975), pp. 1971-1977.
77. Rachel, W. M., and Keinath, T. M., "Reclamation of Textile
Printing Wastewaters for Direct Recycle," Proceedings of 27th
Industrial Waste Conference, Purdue University, Lafayette, IN (1972),
pp. 406-419.
78. Kennedy, D. C., Rock, S. L., and Kerner, J. W., "A New Adsorption/
Ion-Exchange Process for Treating Dye Waste Effluents," Rohm and Haas
Co., Philadelphia, PA.
79. Koon, J. H., Adams, C. E., and Eckenfelder, W. W., "Analysis of
National Industrial Water Pollution Control Costs," Associated Water
and Air Resource Engineers, Inc., Nashville, TN (May, 1973).
80. Kreye, W. C., King, P. H., and Randall, C. W., "Polymer Aided Alum
Coagulation of Textile Dyeing and Finishing Wastes," Proceedings of
the 27th Industrial Waste Conference, Purdue University, Lafayette, IN
(1972), pp. 447-457.
81. Leatherland, L. C., "Treatment of Textile Wastes," Water & Sewage
Works, Reference Number (1969), pp. R210-R214.
82. Lehmann, E. J., and Cavagnaro, D. M., "Textile Processing Wastes
and Their Control (Citations from the NTIS Data Base),' U.S.
Department of Commerce, NTIS, NTIS/PS-76/0962 (1976).
83. Little, L. W., and Ericson, J. W., "Biological Treatability of
Wastewaters from Textile and Carpet Dyeing Processes," Proceedings of
the 8th Mid-Atlantic Industrial Waste Conference, University of
Delaware, Newark, DE (January 12-13, 1976), pp. 201-216.
84. Loven, A. W., and Pintenich, J. L,, "Industrial Wastewater
Recirculation System: Preliminary Engineering," Ref. No. EPA-600/2-
77-043.
85. Maggiolo, A., and Sayles, J. H., "Application of Exchange Resins
for Treatment of Textile Dye Wastes," Ref. No. EPA 660/2-75-016.
86. Maggiolo, A., and Sayles, J. H., "Automatic Exchange Resin Pilot
Plant for Removal of Textile Dye Wastes," Ref. No. EPA 600/2-77-136.
87. Mahloch, J. L., Shindala, A., McGriff, E. C., and Barnett, W. A.,
"Treatability Studies and Design Considerations for a Dyeing
Operation," Proceedings of the 29th Industrial Waste Conference,
Purdue University, Lafayette, IN (1974), pp. 44-50.
537
-------
88. Mansfield, R. G. , "Spunbonded Nonwovens Eye Roadbuildinq, " Textile
World, Vol. 127, No. 9 {September, 1977), pp. 81-84. U11QinQ' lextlle
Thn o ' S' M" Chemical Aftertreatment of
, John Wiley and Sons, Inc., New York, NY { 197TT --
TAฃ Hann?h- s' A" a"d Cohen, J. M., "Metal Removal by
twn *. Cl?em,1(:al Treatment Processes," Journal of the Water
Pollution Control Federation, Vol. 47, No. 5 (May, 1975), pp. 962-975.
91. Masselli J. W., Masselli, N. W. , and Burford, M. G. , "A Simpli-
Tifซซ?ป^ 2 i. Tซtlle Waste Survey and Treatment," New England
Interstate Water Pollution Control Commission, Boston, MA (1959).
92 Wilier, E,, Textiles,. Properties, and Behavior. B. T. Batsford
Ltd., London, England (1968). -- ^^LU,
i Silberman' P. T., "Wastewater System
What are they ... And What Cost?" Water & Waste
Engineering (March, 1974 et. seg.), pp. 32, et. seg.
94 Netzer A., and Beszedits, S., "Physical-Chemical Treatment of
Exhausted Dyebath Effluents," Proceedings of the 6th Annual Industrial
Pollution Conference, St. Louis, MO (1978), pp. 225-240.
95. "New Technology for Textile Water Reuse is Available and Can Be
Very Profitable/' U.S. Ozonair Corp., South San Francisco, CA.
96 Newlin, K. D. , "The Economic Feasibility of Treating Textile
Wastes in Municipal Systems/1 Journal of the Water Pollution Control
Federation, Vol. 43, No. 11 (November, 1971), pp. 21952199. ^ontro1
97 O'Donovan, D. C., "Treatment with Ozone," Journal of the Ameriran
Water Works Association (September, 1965), pp. 1167-1194. American
ซ8'^ /ฐEgani? Characterization Study - Coosa River Basin -
Northwest Georgia ป Surveillance and Analysis Division, Region IV,
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Atlanta, GA (1974).
99. "Organic Characterization Study - Phase II - Coosa River Basin -
Northwest Georgia," Surveillance a.nd Analysis Division, Region IV,
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Atlanta, GA (1976).
100. Patterson, J. w., "Technology and Economics of Industrial
*-ironmental Quality,
538
-------
101. Perkins, W. S., Hall, D. M., Slaten, B. L., Walker, R. P., and
Farrow, J. C., "Use of Organic Solvents in Textile Sizing and
Desizing," Ref. No. EPA-600/2-77-126.
102. Phipps, W. H., "Activated Carbon Reclaims Water for Carpet Mill,"
Water & Wastes Engineering (May 1970), pp. C-22 to C-23.
103. "Pilot Plant and Engineering Study of Textile Industry BATEA
Effluent Standards (Presentation Materials)," Engineering Science,
Inc., Atlanta, GA (June, 1976).
104. Pollock, M. J., and Froneberger, C. R., "Treatment of Denim
Textile Mill Wastewaters: Neutralization and Color Removal" EPA
600/2-76-139.
105. Poon, C. P. C., "Biodegradability and Treatability of Combined
Nylon and Municipal Wastes," Journal of the Water Pollution Control
Federation, Vol. 42, No. 1 (January, 1970), pp. 100105.
106. Poon, C. P. C., and Virgadamo, P. P., "Anaerobic - Aerobic Treat-
ment of Textile Wastes with Activated Carbon," Ref. No. EPA R273-248.
107. Porter, J. J., "A Study of the Photodegradation of Commercial
Dyes," Ref. No. EPA R2-73-058.
108. Porter, J. J., "Stability and Removal of Commercial Dyes from
Process Wastewater," Pollution Engineering (October, 1973), pp. 27-28.
109. Porter, J. J. "State of the Art of Textile Waste Treatment," U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC, Water Pollution
Control Research Series - 12090 DWM (January, 1971).
110. Porter, J. J., and Snider, E. H., "Long-Term Biodegradability of
Textile Chemicals," Journal of the Water Pollution Control Federation,
Vol. 48, No. 9 (September, 1976), pp. 2198-2210.
111. "Preliminary Engineering Report, Pretreatment Facilities, Dyers-
burg Fabrics, Inc.," J. E. Sirrine Co., Greenville, SC (May 30, 1974).
112. "Process Design Manual for Carbon Adsorption," U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency, Washington, DC, Ref. No, EPA 625/l-71-002a (1973).
113. "Process Design Manual for Removal of Suspended Solids," U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC, Ref. No. EPA 625/1-
75-003a.
114. "Process Design Manual for Sludge Treatment and Disposal," U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC, Ref. No. EPA 625/1-
74-006.
539
-------
115. Purvis, M. R., "Aerobic Treatment of Textile Waste," American
Dyestuff Reporter (reprint), {August, 1974).
116. "PVA Reclamation Solves Textile Mill Waste Treatment Problem;
Yields Substantial Savings," Union Carbide Corporation, Tarrytown, NY
(1975).
117. Qasim, S. R., and Shah, A. K., "Cost Analysis of Package
Wastewater Treatment Plants," Water and Sewage Works (February, 1975),
pp. 67-69.
118, "Quality Criteria for Water," U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency, Washington, DC, Ref. No. EPA 440/9-76-023.
119. Rebhun, M., Weinberg, A., and Narkis, N., "Treatment of
Wastewater from Cotton Dyeing and Finishing Works for Reuse,"
Proceedings of the 25th Industrial Waste Conference, Purdue
University, Lafayette, IN (1970), pp. 626-637.
120. "Recommendations and Comments for the Establishment of Best
Practicable Wastewater Control Technology Currently Available for the
Textile Industry," Institute of Textile Technology, Charlottesville,
VA and Hydroscience, Inc., Westwood, NJ (January, 1973).
121. Rennison, P. A., "Water Conservation in Textile Finishing,"
American Dyestuff Reporter, Vol. 66, No. 11 (1977).
122. "Report to Charlton Woolen Company, Charlton City, Massachusetts,
on Process Revisons - Pilot Plant Study of the Proposed Wastewater
Treatment Facility," Cullinan Engineering Co., Inc. Auburn, MA
(August, 1973).
123. "Revised Executive Summary to Economic Analysis of Proposed
Effluent Guidelines: Textile Industry," U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency, Washington, DC, Ref. No. EPA 230/1-73-028 (1974).
124. Rhame, G. A., "Treatment of Textile Finishing Wastes by Surface
Aeration," Proceedings of the 26th Industrial Waste Conference, Purdue
University, Lafayette, IN (1971), pp. 702-712.
125. Richardson, M. B., and Stepp, J. M., "Costs of Treating Textile
Wastes in Industrial and Municipal Treatment Plants: Six Case
Studies," Water Resources Research Institute, Clemson University,
Clemson, SC (March, 1972).
126. Rinker, T. L., "Treatment of Textile Wastewater by Activated
Sludge and Alum Coagulation," Ref. No. EPA 600/2-75-055.
540
-------
127 Rinker, T. L. , and Sargent, T. N. , "Activated Sludge and Alum
Coagulation Treatment' of Textile Wastewaters " P"ซedings of the 29th
Industrial Waste Conference, Purdue University, Lafayette, IN (1974),
pp. 456-471.
12090 DWM (January, 1971).
129 Sercu, C., "National Committee on Water Quality Report/' Dow
Chemical Co., Midland, MI (March, 1977).
federation Vol. 48, No. 4 (April, 1976), pp. 753-761.
t
Waste Conference, Purdue University, Lafayette, IN (1978),
592.
1*1 CTn^h 1 F "inventory of Energy Use in Wastewater Sludge
Treatment"' and ^isposa!?" Industrial Water Engineering (July/August,
1977).
133 Smith R., "Cost of Conventional and Advanced Treatment of Waste-
ia^r?" Journal of the Water Pollution Control Federation Vol. 40, No.
9 (September, 1968), pp. 1546-1574.
134 smith R., "Electrical Power Consumption for Municipal Wastewater
Treatment," Ref. No. EPA R2-73-281.
iซ c^^r F H and Porter, J. J., "Ozone Treatment of Dye Waste,"
Journal of' ^'wa^er Pollution Control Federation, Vol. 46, No. 5
(May, 1974), pp. 886-894.
660/2-74-039.
Manufacturers Institute, Inc., Charlotte, NC (1976)
sssur
541
-------
"'"on
, sc
^^
542
-------
Fisheries and Marine Service, Freshwater Institute, Winnipeg,
Manitoba, Canada (1974).
152. Throop, W. M., "Why Industrial Wastewater Pretreatment?"
Industrial Wastes (July/August, 1976), pp. 32-33.
153. Tincher, W. C., "Chemical Use and Discharge in Carpet Dyeing,"
Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA (September, 1975).
154. Trotman, E. R., Dyeing and Chemical Technology of Textile Fibers,
Fifth Edition, Chas. Griffin & Co., Ltd., London, Great Britain
(1975).
155. "U.S. Industrial Outlook," U.S. Department of Commerce, Domestic
and International Business Administration, Washington, DC (1978), pp.
239-244.
156. Van Note, R. H., Herbert, P. V., Patel, R. M., Chupek, C., and
Feldman, L., "A Guide to the Selection of Cost-Effective Wastewater
Teatment Systems," Ref. No. EPA 430/9-75-002.
157. Van Winkle, T. L., Edeleanu, J., Prosser, E. A., and Walker, C.
A., "Cotton versus Polyester," American Scientist, Vol. 66 {1978}, pp.
280-289.
158. Wachter, R. A., Archer, S. R., and Blackwood, T. R., "Source
Assessment: Overview and Priorization of Emissions from Textile
Manufacturing," Ref. No. EPA 600/2-77-107h (September, 1977), pp. 1-
131.
159. "Wastewater Treatment Systems: Additional Case Studies," Metcalf
& Eddy, Inc., Boston, MA (January, 1975).
160. "Wastewater Treatment Systems - Upgrading Textile Operations to
Reduce Pollution," U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington,
DC, Ref. No. EPA 625/3-74-004.
161. Weeter, D. W., and Hodgson, A. G., "Dye Wastewaters -
Alternatives for Biological Waste Treatment," Proceedings of the 32nd
Industrial Waste Conference, Purdue University, Lafayette, IN (1978)
pp. 1-9.
162. Whittaker, C. B., "ITT Publications: 1944-1976," Institute of
Textile Technology, Charlottesville, VA (April, Z977).
163. Whittaker, C. B., "The Textile Library: A Selected List of
Books," Institute of Textile Technology, Charlottesville, VA (January,
1977).
543
-------
164. Wight, J. L., "Biological Treatment System Measures Up During
High Solids Load Condition," Pollution Engineering (October, 1977),
pp. 52-55.
165. Williamson, R., "Handling Dye Waste in a Municipal Plant," Public
Works, Vol. 102, No. 1 (January, 1971), pp. 58-59.
166. Wynn, C. S., Kirk, B. S., and McNabney, R., "Pilot Plant for
Tertiary Treatment of Wastewater with Ozone," Ref No. EPA R2-73-146.
167. Zwerdling, D., "Spraying Dangers in the Air," Washington Post
(January 25, 1976), Section F.
544
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SECTION XVI
GLOSSARY
Animal Hair Fibers
obtained fro. ani.als for purposes of weaving
- """
Anti-static Agents
Functional finishes . appliec i tc > fabric to
C PAA, and polyvinyl acetate.
Batch Processing
Operations which retire loading of discrete
running the process to completion, ^ en wh.ch material in rope
This is in contrast to Continuous processing n thrQugh Qne or more
fฐmtheUnnSeedWfor loading and unloading.
Available
Econnnn rally Arhlovable (BATj
Level of technology appli cabljJ tc.effluent: 11.1 t.t i^ ____
by July 1, ^0*'30f (b)1^) of the Federal Water Pollution Control
Act, As Amended.
rr1-t<,.K,^ r.n.ro! Technnlnnv Currently Available (BPT).
The level of technology applicable to effluent limitations^o^e
"
Control Act, As Amended.
Complex Processing
or Knit fabric
of
o
;?odSction: bleaching, dyeing, or printing
545
-------
Consent
JSS
performance standards
Conventional Pollutant
i
mitations guidelines and
new sourc
Direct Discharger
Effluent Limitation
from an existing point source
End-of-PiPe Technologies
unit> ฐf
to limitation
EnvironmentaT Protection
(EPA-J
cost index originating in 1957
gr0teCti0" ^ncn - Small Citv Conventional Treatment
546
-------
legislation referred to as The Clean Water Act.
Functional Finish Chemicals
Substances applied to fabric to provide desirable properties such as
wrink?e--resist!nce, water-repellency, flame-resistance, etc.
Greiqe Mills
or
generated, it is usually small in quantity.
Indirect Discharger
An industrial discharger that introduces wastewater to a publicly-
owned collection system.
In-olant Control Technologies
Controls or measures applied within the manufacturing proc to
process changes.
Internal Subcategorization
processes employed.
Low-Water-Use Processing Mills
Establishments
is he primary water
use or process water requirements are small.
National Pollt.fr.ant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES)
547
-------
New Source
Non-Conventional Pollutants
Non-Water Quality Envirnnn.0ปj-3l
energy usage
Physical-Chemical
solid waste generation, and
ize physical (
sedimentation, filtration,
-e osmosis, etc.) and/or
, precipitation, etc.) to
Processes that
centrifugation,
chemical means {i.
treat wastewaters.
Point Source Category
established"1 g SectionlJe^rT?)^^ 'fti**.*?"*1 ฐr ^oduct,
Control Act, As Amended for the ourooL of f=f=i1Wa^r Pollutiฐn
standards for the disposal of wasfewater establishing Federal
Pollutant Loading
pollutant)/(kkg wet production)
Pretreatment Standard
.
"pressed in terms of (kg
to
548
-------
Product Line
Goods which are similar : in terms of raw -terials ,
, felt., etc
Pabliclv-Qwned Treatment Works (POTW)
. ss.
or other public agency.
Raw Waste Characteristics
A description of the constituents and
before treatment.
Simple Processing
or Icnlt fabric
bleaching, dyeing, or printing.
Standard industrial Classification (SIC)
A numerical categorization scheme used
Commerce to denote segments of industry.
Standard nf Performance
A -naximun, weight. Discharged per .unit
properties of a wastewater
Blowing
of total production:
by the U.S. Department of
of
e
are subject to effluent limitations
Synthetics
As used in this report
performance
existing sources which
g
that are made by chemical synthesis
ir Pollutants
synthetic ibers are those
549
-------
Water Usage
fr * manufacturing operation to
of
the total
Wet Processing Mills
Wet Production
550
-------
APPENDIX A
SURVEY FORMS USED IN 308 DATA REQUESTS
FIGURE A-l - TELEPHONE SURVEY FORM
FIGURE A-2 - EPA INDUSTRY SURVEY - TEXTILE PLANTS: BAT - NSPS
PRETREATMENT (WET PROCESSING)
FIGURE A-3 - EPA INDUSTRY SURVEY - TEXTILE PLANTS: BAT - NSPS
PRETREATMENT (LOW WATER USE PROCESSING)
551
-------
FIGURE A-l
TELEPHONE SURVEY FORM
Company Name
Plant Name
State
Contact
Tele
Plant Code No.
Letter Date
Telecon Date _
Time
A. Plant Classification (circle one or more numbers
Subcategory Approx. Percent
0. Dry Operation
(no process-related wastewater)
1. Wool Scouring
2. Wool Finishing
3. Dry Processing
a. Greige
b. Adhesive related
4. Woven Fabric Finishing _____
0.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Q
Knit Fabric Finishing
Carpet Mill
Stock & Yarn
Nonwovens
Miscellaneous (describe reverse side)
Approximate Plant Capacity
or small, etc.)
(Ib per day; no. of employees; large, medium,
Wastewater Discharge
Direct
' Indirect POTW Name
Other (describe reverse side)
1. Is treatment (pretreatment) provided? (circle) Yes No
Type of Treatment (describe units in sequence reverse side)
2. Discharge volume GPD
3. Is -wastewater and/or treatment data available .(circle) Yes No
4. General Quality of Data ____.
5. Who has data?
Follow-up Questionnaire? Yes No
Check if additional information on reverse side of form.
552
-------
FIGURE A-2
EPA INDUSTRY SURVEY
TEXTILE PLANTS: BAT-NSPS-PRETREATMENT
Please complete as many of the questionnaire items as possible.
most helpful if questionnaire is returned by __
Dr. James C. Buzzell
Sverdrup & Parcel and Associates, Inc.
800 N. 12th Blvd.
St. Louis, MO 63101
Tel: (3H) 436-7600 Ext. 243 or 347
It would be
to:
Plant
Company _
Plant Location _ _
Part I - GENERAL PLANT INFORMATION
A. Please indicate method used to dispose of process-related wastewaters.
Direct Discharge - Discharge of treated or untreated process-
related wastewaters directly to a receiving body of water.
Indirect Discharge - Discharge of partially treated or untreated
process-related wastewaters directly to a Publicly Owned Treatment
Works (POTW) via municipal sewer system.
Other Discharge such as septic tank, evaporation lagoon, irrigation
system, etc. Please explain briefly below.
B If your plant is a Direct or Other Discharger do you have firm plans to
discharge process-related wastewater to a POTW in the future?
C If vour plant is an Indirect Discharger please provide as much of the
" following information as possible. Please contact POTW if necessary.
POTW name and location .
POTW type (e.g. primary clarification, activated sludge, trickling
filter, aerated lagoon, oxidation ditch, etc.)
POTW design flow
POTW present average flow
If POTW has biological treatment indicate year of completion.
Is POTW designed specifically to treat textile wastewaters? _
Did your plant participate directly in construction of POTW?
Does your plant participate directly in operation of POTW?
Does your plant provide pretreatment? Is it required by POTW?
Does POTW currently meet EPA secondary treatment requirements?
( ) Yes ( ) No ( ) Don't Know
-------
Company
Plant
Part II - MANUFACTURING INFORMATION
'-' EPA Subcategorization. Please indicate average pounds production per day
Do not include redyes; they are covered separately below.
Subcategorv
1
Ib/dav
Wool Scouring
(Raw Grease Wool)
Wool Dye/Finish
Dry Processing
Woven Greige Goods
Knit Greige Goods
Adhesive Products
Carpet Backing
Other
4-. Woven Fabric Dye/Finish
5. Knit Fabric Dye/Finish
6. Carpet Dye/Finish
7. Stock & Yarn Dye/Finish
3. Nonwovens
Mechanical Entanglement
Wet Lay Process
Spun Bond Process
Dry Processed
9. Other
Other
Total
Final manufactured product(s)
etc.)
Fiber Content
Wool
Cotton
Polyester
Rayon
Nylon
Acetate
Acrylic
Modacrylic
Other
Other
Other
It/day
Total
Fiber Blends (e.g. 65%
cotton/35^ polyester )
(e.g. sheeting, hosiery, carpet, thread,
Average Pounds RE-DYES per day
B- Process Wastewater. Please indicate the average gallons of process-
related wastewater discharged per day. gpd.
554
-------
Schematic. Please provide, by attachment or by sketch in the space below
a simple block diagram of your wet manufacturing processes.
555
-------
Company
Plant
D. Production Process Information. Please indicate approximate percent of
production through the following processes. Please do not include Re-dyes.
Percent Process
Wool Scouring
_ Slashing: ;
Weaving
Desizing:
Scouring:
- Bleaching:
Starch;
PVA;
CMC;
other
Type of size
% Open width;
Bleach is
% Rope Range
Mercerizing: Is caustic recovered? ( ) Yes ( ) No
Carbonizi pg
Stock Dyeing: % package (-200ฐF); % package (250ฐF);
Yarn Dyeing: % package (200ฐF); % package (250ฐF)
Fabric Dyeing: % atmospheric (200ฐF); % pressure (250ฐF)
Dye machines are ^Continuous % Jet
% Beam % Jig
% Beck % Other
% automated
% skein
manual
Dye machines are _
Dye usage. Please indicate average pounds per day or percent
per day for each dye class used.
Ib/day
Ib/day
Acid
Cationic
Developed
Direct
Dispersed
Naphthol
Reactive
Sulfur
Vat
Printing: Type(s) . _
Functional Finishes: Please identify types of finishes applied.
Crease-resistant Moth-proof
. - Mildew-resistant
Other '
Other ' .
Water-repellant
Flame-resistant
Bacteriostatic
Please indicate the method(G) of disposal of concentrated dye and/or print
paste wastes __
556
-------
Compaq
Plant
P,rt in- Basins mamt w
A
water 'sampling locations.
roposed
Screening: Type
Equalization:
Spacing
Volume
Neutralization:.
_Mixed
_Unmixed Volume
Acid feed
Tank volume
Primary Sedimentation:
No. of units - Depth
Dimensions
Aeration:
No. of units Volume under aeraUon
Total aeration HP Detention
Aerators are __Surface
. - 1ITQe
Typical Mlob ^
Secondary Sedimentation:
No. of units. Depth
Dimensions
Is sludge returned to aeration basins.
Unaerated Ponds:
M nf nmts . Total volume
No. OI um.Tjb,_ ,
Other: (If using other
hr
e, flotation,
w-ieซซ addition, dis-
please describe.)
Is sludge treated?
descr^Tultimate sludge disposal method..
-------
III (Cont. )
Use this
treatment system
Company
Plant
to Provide
of
abatanent
In-Plant Control
of the net cost or eao
; lf PฐSSlble
an
Control
Year Approx.
Installed cost
Flow
COD
Reductiฐl Auction Reduction
558
-------
Company
Plant
Part IV - WASTEWATER DATA
Please provide representative monitoring data that characterize the raw
(untreated) and treated wastewater discharged. Parameters of interest are
flow rate, EOD5, COD, TSS, sulfide, phenol, chromium and any other priority
pollutant listed in Part VI, for which data are available. Subnit data
sheets as illustrated on the following page or submit copies of
monitoring reports. Data for 1976 is most desirable. Please indicate
approximate production levels that correspond to data provided; also
indicate sampling technique (grab, 24-hour composite, flow-proportional
composite, time composite, etc.).
Who is responsible for wastewater monitoring?
Where are wastewater samples analyzed?
Part V - .ECONOMIC DATA
Parent Organization Please indicate:
C.
Public corporation
Private "
, Partnership
Plant Capacity - 1976
Propri etor ship
Cooperative
Other
1.
Length of shift
hours
2.
3.
5.
6.
Number of Weeks at 0 shifts
at 1 shift
at 2 shifts
at 3 shifts
Plant capacity
(shutdown)
Annual operating rate: 1975
19.76
Average Number of Employees (1976)
Maximum Number of Bnployees (1976)
Age (Year of initial construction) of major
production facility
of plant capacity
of plant capacity
Average age of manufacturing equipment
Water Pollution Costs: Edrect Dischargers
Before
1975 1975
Projected
1976 1977 1978 - 83
Annual Operating Costs $
Capital Expenditures $
559
-------
Company_
Plant
ITO
CCT
O fcJLU
aoo
oduioo *
un38.iv
560
-------
Company
Plant
Part V (Cont.)
D- Water Pollution Costs: Indirect Dischargers
Sewer use charges are based on:
Water usage . Wastewater concentration
Wastewater volume BOD __^_^_ COD
Other Basis
(Please describe)
Suspended Solids
E.
Annual User Charges
Annual Capital Cost
Recovery Charge
Before Projected
1975 1975 1976 1977 1978 - 83
$
Pretreatment
Capital Cost $ _ _ _ _ _
Annual Operating Cost $ _ _ _ _ _
Other Regulatory Costs
Describe other regulatory controls (e.g. air, solid wastes, OSHA, etc.)
that have resulted in significant costs impact.
Estimate combined investment and annual operating costs for other
regulatory considerations over next 4 years.
Total investment cost per year $
Annual operating cost $
F. Energy Usage
Electric power usage for 1976
Fuel Oil usage for 1976
kwh
Cost;
JLOOO gallons Cost; i_
Gas (natural, propane, etc.)
usage for 1976
1000 cu ft
Cost:
/kwh
/cu ft
Approximate percentage of total energy usage attributable to water
pollution controls -f0
Approximate percentage of total energy usage attributable to other
regulatory controls %
561
-------
Company
Plant
Part VI - PRIORITY POLLUXA.NXS
Please complete the following Priority Pollutant listing. For each pollutant
please check whether it is Known To Be Present, Suspected To Be Present,
Suspected To Be Absent, or Known To Be Absent. Suitable responses should be
based on the following descriptions:
Known To Be Present: The compound has been detected by reasonable analytical
procedures in the discharge or by reference is known to be present in the
raw waste load.
Suspected To Be Present: The compound is a raw material in the processes
employed, a product, a by-product, catalyst, etc. Its presence in the raw
waste load and discharge is a reasonable technical judgment.
Suspected To Be Absent: No known reason to predict that the compound is
present in the discharge.
Known To Be Absent: The application of reasonable analytical procedures
designed to detect the material have yielded negative results.
Priority Pollutant
1. acenaphthene
2. acrolein
3. acrylonitrile
4. benzene
5. benzidine
6. carbon tetrachloride
(tetra chloromethane)
7. chlorobenezene
8. 1,2,4-trichlorobenzene
9. hexachlorobenzene
10. 1,2-dichloroethane
11. 1,1,1-trichlorethane
12. hexachloroethane
13. 1,1-dichloroethane
14. 1,1,2-trichloroethane
15. 1,1,2,3-tetrachloroethane
16. chloroethane
17. bis(chloromethyl) ether
IS. bis(2-chloroethyl) ether
19. ' 2-chloroethyl vinyl ether
(mixed)
20. 2-chloronaphthalene
Known Suspected Suspected Known
Present Present Absent Absent
21,
22,
23.
24
2,4,6-trichlorophenol
parachlorometa cresol
chloroform (trichloromethane)
2-chlorophenol
562
-------
Company-
Plant
Part VI (Cont.)
Known Suspected Suspected Known
Priority Pollutant Present Present Absent Absent
25. 1,2-dichlorobenzene
26. 1,3-dichlorobenzene ~~ "
27. 1,4-dichlorobenzene
28. 3,3-dichloroben2idine
29. 1,1-dichloroethylene
30. 1,2-trans-dichloroethylene
31, 2j4-dichlorophenol
32. 1,2-dichloropropane
33- 1,3-dichloropropylene
(1,3-dichloropropene)
34 2,4-dimethylphenol
35. 2,4-dinitrotoluene
36. 2,6-dinitrotoluene
37. 1,2-diphenylhydrazine
38. ethylbenzene
39. fluoranthene
40. 4-chlorophenyl phenyl ether
41. 4-bromophenyl phenyl ether
42. . bis(2-chloroisopropyl) ether
43. bis(2-chloroethoxy) methane
44. methylene chloride
(dichloromethane)
45. methyl chloride
(chloromethane)
46. methyl bromide (bromomethane)
47. bromoform (tribromomethane)
48. dichlorobromomethane
49. trichlorofluoromethane
50. dichlorodifluoromethane
51. chlorodibromome thane
52. hexachlorobutadiene
53. hexachlorocyclopentadiene
54. ispphorone
55. napthalene
56. nitrobenzene
563
-------
Company
Plant
Part VI (Cont.)
Priority Pollutant
57. 2-nitrophenol
58. 4-nitrophenol
59. 2,4-dinitrophenol
60. 4,6-dinitro-o-cresol
61. N-nitrosodimethylamine
62. N-nitrosodiphenylamine
63. N-nitrosodi-n-propylamine
64. pentaehlorophenol
65. phenol
66. bis( 2-ethylhexyl) phthalate
67. butyl benzyl phthalate
68. dl-n-butyl phthalate
69. diethyl phthalate
70. dimethyl phthalate
71. 1,2-benzathracene
72. benzo (a)pyrene (3,4-benzo
pyrene)
73. 3 >4-benzof luoranthene
74. 11,12-benzof luoranthene
75. chrysene
76. acenaphthylene
77. anthracene
78. 1,12-benzoperylene
79. fluorene
80. phenanthrene
81. 1,2:5,6-dibenzanthracene
82. indeno(l,2,3-C,D) pyrene
83. pyrene
84. 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-
p-dioxtn (TCDD)
85. tetrachloroethylene
86. toluene
87. trichloroethylene
88. vinyl chlorine (chloroethylene)
Known Suspected Suspected Known
Present Present Absent Absent
Pesticides and Metabolites
89. aldrin
90. dieldrin
91. chlordane (technical mixture
and metabolites)
564
-------
Company
Plant
Part VI (Cent.)
Priority Pollutant
92. 4,4'-DDT
93. 4,4'-DDE (p,p'-DDX)
94; 4,4'-DDD (p,p'-TDE)
95. a-endosulfan
96. B-endosulfan
97. endosulfan sulfate
98. endrin
99. endrin aldehyde
100. heptachlor
101. heptachlor epoxide
102. a-BHC
103. B-BHC
104- r-BHC (lindane)
105. d-BHC
106. PCB-1242 (Arochlor 1242)
107. PCB-1254 (Arochlor 1254)
108. Toxaphene
Metals
109. Antimony (Total)
110. Arsenic (Total)
111. Asbestos (Fibrow)
112. Beryllium (Total)
113. Cadmium (Total)
114. Chromium (Total)
115. Copper- (Total)
116. Cyanide (Total)
117. Lead (Total)
118. Mercury (Total)
119. Nickel (Total)
120. Selenium (Total)
121. Silver (Total)
122. Thallium (Total)
123. Zinc (Total)
Known Suspected Suspected Known
Present Present Absent Absent
565
-------
Company
Plant
Part VI (Cont.)
For those Priority Pollutants which are Imown to be present, please
indicate to the "best of your knowledge the prime source of the material.
Specific Pollutant Source (Raw Material/Process Line)
QUESTIONNAIRE COMPILATION
Please provide the following information regarding completion of questionnaire,
Compiler _____ ___ _Title_
Office Location Telephone
Date Completed ___
If you have questions, please contact Dr. James Buzzell or Larry Oliver at
(3K) 436-7600, Ext. 347 or 243.
566
-------
FIGURE A-3
EPA INDUSTRY SURVEY
TEXTILE PLANTS
HAT-NSPS-PRETREA1MENT "
Please complete as raaDy of the questionnaire items as possible arid return
to:
Larry J. Oliver
Sverdrup & Parcel and Associates, Inc.
800 N. 12th Blvd.
St. Louis, MO 63101
Tel: (314) 436-7600 Ext. 243 or 347
Company _ Plant
Plant Location .
PART I - MANUFACTURING INFORMATION
A. Plant Classification (Please indicate average .1976 production per day
for the appropriate subcategory(ies).)
Subcategory Ib/day Sub category Ib/day
1. Wool Scouring 4. Woven Fabric Finishing
2. Wool Finishing 5. Knit Fabric Finishing
3. Dry Processing 6. Carpet Mill
Woven Greige Goods 7, Stock & Yarn
Knit Greige Goods 3. Nonwovens
Other 9. Miscellaneous (describe on
reverse side) .
B. Please indicate principal manufactured product(s) (e.g. knit fabric,
v;oven fabric, hosiery, carpet, thread, etc.)
C. Raw Materials (Please indicate average pounds fiber use per day.)
Fiber Content Ib/day Fiber Blends Ib/day
(e.g. 65^ cotton/35# polyester)
Wool
Cotton
Polyester
Rayon
Nylon Other Fibers (identify)
Acetate
Acrylic
Modacrylic
567
-------
D. Production Process Information (Please indicate approximate percent of
production through the following processes.)
Percent Process
Slashing: <& Starch; % PVA; % CMC; % other
Weaving: Type of machinery
Knitting: Type of machinery
Other (Deslzing, Scouring, Bleaching, Mercerising, Dyeing,
Printing, etc.) Please describe: . __
PART IT - V/ASTEWATER INFORMATION
A. Approximately how many gallons of wastewater are discharged, on the
average, per day.
B. Please indicate the approximate percentage of the total flow from
each source:
_ % Process-related wastewater (slasher cleanup, contact cooling
water, equipment washdcwn, other sources)
_ ___ % Boiler Slowdown
__ % Non-contact cooling water
__ % Sanitary sewage
_ % Cafeteria
_ % Air pollution' control equipment
_ f % Other (describe): _ ___ _____ _
C. Process-related wastev/ater is discharged: (please check or indicate.)
__ __ Continuously
_ Times per day
_ Times per week
__ Intermittently (describe): _ _ , _ ; - : -
Other (describe):
0. Is wastewater treated? (e.g., screening, holding tank, aeration, etc.)
Yes No (If yes, please attach a simple block diagram of the
treatment system.)
568
-------
E. Please indicate method used to dispose of -process^related wastewaters.
Direct Discharge - Discharge of treated or untreated process-
related wastev/aters directly to .a receiving body of water.
Indirect Discharge - Discharge of partially treated or untreated
process-related wastewaters directly to a Publicly Owned Treatment
Works (POTW) via municipal sewer system.
Other Discharge such as septic tank, evaporation lagoon, irrigation
system, etc. Please explain briefly below.
F. Are monitoring data available for process-related wastewater discharge?
No - Ho monitoring is done,
Yes - Monitored by municipal water pollution control agency
Yes - Monitored and reported \znder NPDES permit
Yes - Other reason
Jฃ ygg* P^ase attach copies of reports for 1976 and 1977 monitoring.
G. In-Plant Control Information: Has your plant instituted in-plant
controls to reduce water pollution? Yes No (Please check
those applicable.}
Water reuse
Water recycle
Chemical substitution
Material reclamation
Other:
PART III - PLANT INFOPMA.TIQN
A. Plant Capacity - 1976
1. 1976 production was approximately
production capacity.
J6 of plant's full
2. 1976 operating experience:
Length of shifts - _
hours
Average number of shifts -
Plant shut down - weeks
3. Average number of employees:
1st shift
2nd shift
3rd shift
per week
569
-------
Plant Age:
Approximate age of major production facilities -
Average age of manufacturing equipment years
years
Date of latest major remodeling or expansion -
Value of Production - (Please indicate the approximate value of principal
manufactured products or principal production services for 1976.;
Less than ฃ million $/year 5 to 10 million $/year
J to 1 million $/year M) to 25 million $/year
1 to 5 million $/year Greater than 25 million $/year
Icwh/month Cost - $_
1000 gal/month Cost - $_
Cost - $.
C. Energy Usage - 1976
Average electric power usage -
Average fuel oil usage -
Average gas usage - 1000 eu ft/month.
PART IV - PRIORITY POLLUTANTS
A Please circle the reference number for each pollutant or^pollutant
" class listed below that you knew or suspect are present in your raw
wastewater discharge.
_/month
_/mon-bh
/month.
1. acenaphthene
2. acrolein
3. acrylonitrile
4. benzene
5. bensidine
6. carbon tetrachloride
(tetrachlorome thane)
7. chlorinated beneaenes
8. chlorinated ethanes
9. chloroalkyl ethers
1G. chlorinated naphthalene
11. chlorinated phenols
12. chloroform
(trIchloromethane)
13. 2-chlorophenol
1/t. dichlorobenaenes
15. dichlorobenaidine
16. dichloroethylenes
17. 2,4-dichlcrophenol
18. dichlcropropane and
dichloropropone
19. 2,4-dimethylphenol
20 f dinitrotoluene
21. 1,2-diphenylhydrazine
22. ethylbenzene
23. fluroanthene
24. halcethers
25. halomethane
26. hexachlorobutadiene
27. hexachlorocyclopentadiene
28. isophorone
2 9. naphthale ne
30. nitrobenzene
31. nitrophenols
32. nitosamines
33, pentacholorphenol
34, phenol
35, phthalate esters
36,
37
33
39
40
polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons
2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin
(TCDD)
tetrachloroettiylene
toluene
trichloroethylene
41*. vinyl chloride (chloroethylene)
570
-------
Pesticides and Metabolites Metals
42. aldrin/dieldrin 51. antimony (total)
43. chlordane 52, arsenic (total)
44. DDT 53. asbestos (Fibrow)
45. endosulfan 54. beryllium (total)
55. cadium (total)
46. endrin
47. heptaehlor 56. chromium (total)
48. hexachlorocyclohexane 57. copper (total)
49, polychlorinated biphenyls (PCB's) 58. cyanide (total)
50. toxaphene 59. lead (total)
60. mercury (total)
61. nickel (total)
62. selenium (total)
63. silver (total)
64. thallium (total)
65. zinc (total)
B. For those Priority Pollutants that are known or suspected present, please
indicate to the best of your knowledge the prime source of the material.
Specific Pollutant Source (Raw Material/Process Line)
QUESTIONNAIRE COMPILATION
Please provide the following information regarding completion of questionnaire,
Compiler Title
Office Location Telephone
Date Completed
If you have questions, please contact Dr. James Buzszel! or Larry Oliver
at (314) 436-7600, Ext. 347 or 243.
Additional comments
571
-------
-------
A-l
APPENDIX B
WASTEWATER CHARACTERIZATION DATA
TABLE B-l - RAW WASTE CHARACTERISTICS - SUMMARY OF HISTORICAL DATA
TABLE B-2 - BPT EFFLUENT CHARACTERISTICS - SUMMARY OF HISTORICAL DATA
573
-------
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