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SECTION VI
SELECTION OF POLLUTANTS
Section V presented the pollutants to be examined for possible
regulation along with data from plant sampling visits and
chemical analyses.
This section discusses those pollutants which were not found in
the raw process wastewaters or were detected at such small levels
that their presence could not be quantified. Additionally,
pollutants known to be present in raw process wastewaters are
discussed. Toxic pollutants known to be present are discussed in
numerical order, followed by nonconventional pollutants and then
conventional pollutant parameters, each in alphabetical order.
• •' *"'n •• • • r1' •• '' • !!• j L " H" j_ .HI i, , , , L ...•".
Finally, the pollutant parameters selected for consideration for
specific regulation for the discharge alternatives discussed in
Sections IX through XIII of this document, and those eliminated
from further consideration in each subcategory are discussed.
The rationale for those selections is also presented.
POLLUTANTS NOT DETECTED IN RAW PROCESS WASTEWATERS
Table VI-1 lists the 21 pollutants that were not detected in any
raw process wastewater samples in this category. These
pollutants have been eliminated from further consideration for
regulation* ~ ; -=
POLLUTANTS DETECTED IN
RAW PROCESS WASTEWATERS BELOW QUANTIFIABLE LIMITS
Table VI-2 lists the 14 pollutants that were found in raw process
wastewaters at npnquantifiable levels in all raw process
wastewaters samples analyzed in this category, These pollutants
have also been eliminated from further consideration for
regulation.
POLLUTANTS PRESENT IN RAW PROCESS WASTEWATERS
Table VI-3 lists those pollutants present in quantifiable in raw
process wastewaters. A pollutant is considered to be present if
any of the following three conditions are satisfied: 1) the
average raw wastewater concentration of a pollutant for all
plants sampled within the subcategory is 0.010 mg/1 or greater,
2) the pollutant is identified as "known to be present" in the
plant DCP response, or 3) examination of the metal molding and
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casting manufacturing processes indicates that a pollutant is
associated with a specific manufacturing process due to the
nature of the manufacturing process, raw materials used, air
pollution control devices, or other production related
parameters.
Ninty-two toxic pollutants were found in quantifiable amounts in
wastewaters of the metal molding and casting category. These
pollutants are listed in Table VI-3 and are discussed briefly
below. These discussions: provide details regarding the process
origin of the pollutant; discuss whether the pollutant is a
naturally occurring • element, processed metal, or process
chemical; describe the general physical properties and the form
of each pollutant; describe the toxic effects of the pollutant in
humans and other animals; and discuss the behavior of each
pollutant in POTWs at the concentrations that might be expected
from industrial dischargers. The literature relied upon for
these discussions is listed in Section XV. Particular attention
has been given to documents generated by the EPA Criteria and
Standards Division, and the Monitoring and Data Support Division.
i
Acenaphthene(1). Acenaphthene (1,2-dihydroacenaphthylene, or
1,8-ethylene-naphthalene) is a polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbon
(PAH) with molecular weight of 154 and a formula of C12Hj0. The
structure is:
Acenaphthene occurs in coal tar produced during high temperature
coking of coal. It has been detected in cigarette smoke and
gasoline exhaust condensates.
The pure compound is a white crystalline solid at room
temperature, with a melting range of 95 to 97°C (203 to 207°F)
and a boiling, range of 278 to 280°C (532 to 536°F). Its vapor
pressure at room temperature is less than 0.02 mm Hg.
Acenaphthene is slightly soluble in water (100 mg/1), but even
more soluble in organic solvents such as ethanol, toluene, and
chloroform. Acenaphthene can be oxidized by oxygen or ozone in
the presence of certain catalysts. It is stable under laboratory
conditions.
Acenaphthene is used as a dye intermediate, in the manufacture of
some plastics, and as an insecticide and fungicide.
So little research has been performed on acenaphthene that its
mammalian and human health effects are virtually unknown. The
water quality criterion of 0.02 mg/1 is recommended to prevent
the adverse effects on humans due to the organoleptic properties
of acenaphthene in water. Limited acute ;and chronic toxicity
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data for freshwater aquatic life show that adverse effects occur
at higher concentrations than Jthose cited for human health risks.
No detailed study of acenaphthene behavior in POTWs is available.
However, it has been demonstrated that none of the organic
priority pollutants studied so far can be broken down by
biological treatment processes as readily as fatty acids,
carbohydrates, or proteins. Many of the priority pollutants have
been investigated, at least in laboratory scale studies, at
concentrations higher than those expected to be contained by most
municipal wastewaters. General observations relating molecular
structure to ease of degradation have been developed for all of
the organic priority pollutants.
The conclusion reached by study of the limited data is that
biological treatment produces little or no degradation of
acenaphthene. No evidence is available to draw conclusions about
its possible toxic or inhibitory effect on POTW operations.
Its water solubility would allow acenaphthene present in the
influent to. pass through a POTW into the effluent. The
hydrocarbon character of this compound makes it sufficiently
hydrophobic that adsorption onto suspended solids and retention
in the sludge may also be a significant route for removal of
acenaphthene from the POTW.
Acenaphthene has been demonstrated to affect the growth of plants
through improper nuclear division and polypoidal chromosome
number. However, it is not expected that land application of
sewage sludge containing acenaphthene, at the low concentrations
which are to be expected in a POTW sludge, would result in any
adverse effects on animals ingesting plants grown in such soil.
Benzene (4). Benzene (C6H«) is a clear, colorless, liquid
obtained mainly from petroleum feedstocks by several different
processes. Some is recovered from light oil obtained from coal
carbonization gases. It boils at 80°C and has a vapor pressure
of 100 mm Hg at 26°C. It is slightly soluble in water (1.8 g/1
at 25°C) and it dissolves in hydrocarbon solvents. Annual U.S.
production is three to four million tons.
Most of the benzene used in the U.S. goes into chemical
manufacture. About half of that is converted to ethylbenzene
which is used to make styrene. Some benzene is used in motor
fuels.
Benzene is harmful to human health according to numerous
published studies. Most studies relate effects of inhaled
benzene vapors. These effects include nausea, loss of muscle
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coordination, and excitement, followed by depression and coma.
Death is usually the result of respiratory or cardiac failure.
Two specific blood disorders are related to benzene exposure.
One of these, acute myelogenous leukemia, represents a
carcinogenic effect of benzene. However, most human exposure
data is based on exposure in occupational settings, and benzene
carcinogenesis is not considered to be firmly established.
Oral administration of benzene to laboratory animals produced
leukopenia, a reduction in the number of leukocytes in the blood.
Subcutaneous injection of benzene-oil solutions has produced
suggestive, but not conclusive, evidence of benzene
carcinogenesis.
Benzene demonstrated teratogenic effects in laboratory animals,
and mutagenic effects in humans and other animals.
For maximum protection of human health from the potential
carcinogenic effects of exposure to benzene, through ingestion of
water and contaminated aquatic organisms, the ambient water
concentration is zero. Concentrations of benzene estimated to
result in additional lifetime cancer risk at levels of 10~7,
10-«, and 10~s are 0.00015 mg/1, 0.0015 mg/1, and 0.015 mg/1,
respectively. If contaminated aquatic organisms alone are
consumed, excluding the consumption of water, the water
concentration should be less than 0.478 mg/1 to keep the lifetime
cancer risk below 10~s. Available data show that adverse effects
on aquatic life occur at concentrations higher than those cited
for human risks.
Some studies have been reported regarding the behavior of benzene
in POTWs. Biochemical oxidation of benzene under laboratory
conditions, at concentrations of 3 to 10 mg/1, produced 24, 27,
24, and 29 percent degradation in 5, 10, 15, and 20 days,
respectively, using unacclimated seed cultures in fresh water.
Degradation of 58, 67, 76, and 80 percent was produced in the
same time periods using acclimated seed cultures. Other studies
produced similar results. Based on these data and general
conclusions relating molecular structure to biochemical
oxidation, it is expected that biological treatment in POTWs will
remove benzene readily from the water. Other reports indicate
that most of the benzene entering a POTW is removed to the
sludge, and that influent concentrations of 1 g/1 inhibit sludge
digestion. An EPA study of the fate of priority pollutants in
POTWs reveals removal efficiencies of 70 to 98 percent for three
POTWs where influent benzene levels were 5 x 10~3 to 143 x 10~3
mg/1. Four other POTW samples had influent benzene
concentrations of 1 or 2 x 10~3 mg/1, and removals appeared
indeterminate because of the limits of quantification for
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analyses. There is no information about possible effects of
benzene on crops grown in soils amended with sludge containing
benzene.
Benzidine (5). Benzidine (NHZ(C6H4)2NH2) is a grayish-yellow,
white or reddish-gray crystalline powder. It melts at 127°C
{260°F), and boils at 400°C (752<>F). This chemical is soluble in
hot water, alcohol, and ether, but only slightly soluble in
water. It is derived by: (a) reducing nitrobenzene with zinc
dust in an alkaline solution followed by distillation; (b) the
electrolysis of nitrobenzene, followed by distillation; or, (c)
the nitration of diphenyl followed by reduction of the product
with zinc dust in an alkaline solution, with subsequent
distillation. It is used in the synthesis of a variety of
organic chemicals, such as stiffening agents in rubber
compounding.
Available data indicate that benzidine is acutely toxic to
freshwater aquatic life at concentrations as low as 2.50 mg/1 and
would occur at lower concentrations among species that are more
sensitive than those tested. However, no data are available
concerning the chronic toxicity to sensitive freshwater and
saltwater aquatic life.
For the maximum protection of human health from the potential
carcinogenic effects due to exposure to benzidine, through the
ingestion of contaminated water and contaminated aquatic
organisms, the ambient water concentration should be zero.
Concentrations of this pollutant estimated to result in
additional lifetime cancer risk at risk levels of TO-5, 10-«, and
TO-* are 0.0000012 mg/1, 0.00000012 mg/1, and 0.000000012 mg/1
respectively.
With respect to treatment in POTWs, laboratory studies have shown
that benzidine is amenable to treatment via biochemical
oxidation. The expected 30-day average treated effluent
concentration is 0.025 mg/1.
Carbon tetrachloride (6). Carbon tetrachloride (CC14), also
called tetrachloromethane, is a colorless liquid produced
primarily by the chlorination of hydrocarbons - particularly
methane. Carbon tetrachloride boils at 77°C and has a vapor
pressure Of 90 mm Hg at 20°C. It is slightly soluble in water
(0.8 mg/1 at 25°C) and soluble in many organic solvents.
Approximately one-third of a million tons is produced annually in
the U.S.
Carbon tetrachloride, which was displaced by perchloroethylene as
a dry cleaning agent in the 1930's, is used principally as an
2-91.
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intermediate for production of chlorofluoromethanes for
refrigerants, aerosols, and blowing agents. It is also used as a
grain fumigant.
Carbon tetrachloride produces a variety of toxic effects in
humans. Ingestion of relatively large quantities - greater than
five grams - has frequently proven fatal. Symptoms are burning
sensation in the mouth, esophagus, and stomach, followed by
abdominal pains, nausea, diarrhea, dizziness, abnormal pulse, and
coma. When death does not occur immediately, liver and kidney
damage are usually found. Symptoms of chronic poisoning are not
as well defined. General fatigue, headache, and anxiety have
been observed, accompanied by digestive tract and kidney
discomfort or pain.
Data concerning teratogenicity and mutagenicity of carbon
tetrachloride are scarce and inconclusive. However, carbon
tetrachloride has been demonstrated to be carcinogenic in
laboratory animals. The liver was the target organ.
For the maximum protection of human health from the potential
carcinogenic effects of exposure to carbon tetrachloride, through
ingestion of water and contaminated aquatic organisms, the
ambient water concentration is zero. Concentrations of carbon
tetrachloride estimated to result in additional lifetime cancer
risk at risk levels of 10~7, 10~«, and 10~5 are 0.000026 mg/1,
0.00026 mg/1, and 0.0026 mg/1, respectively.
Data on the behavior of carbon tetrachloride in POTWs are not
available. Many of the organic priority pollutants have been
investigated, at least in laboratory scale studies, at
concentrations higher than those expected to be found in most
municipal wastewaters. General observations have been developed
relating molecular structure to ease of degradation for all of
the organic priority pollutants. The conclusion reached by study
of the limited data is that biological treatment produces a
moderate degree of removal of carbon tetrachloride in POTWs. No
information was found regarding the possible interference of
carbon tetrachloride with treatment processes. Based on the
water solubility of carbon tetrachloride, and the vapor pressure
of this compound, it is expected that some of the undegraded
carbon tetrachloride will pass through to the POTW effluent, and
some will be volatilized in aerobic processes.
Chlorobenzene (7). Chlorobenzene (C6H5C1), also called
monochlorobenzene is a clear, colorless, liquid manufactured by
the liquid phase chlorination of benzene over a catalyst. It
boils at 132°C (270°F) and has a vapor pressure of 12.5 mm Hg at
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25°C. It is almost insoluble in water (0.5 g/1 at 30°C), but
dissolves in hydrocarbon solvents. IkS. annual production is
near 150,000 tons.
Principal uses of chlorobenzene are as a solvent and as an
intermediate for dyes and pesticides. Formerly it was used as an
intermediate for DDT production, but elimination of production of
that compound reduced annual U.S. production requirements for
chlorobenzene by half.
Data on the threat tohuman health posed by chlorobenzene are
limited in number. Laboratory animals administered large doses
of chlorobenzene subcutaneously, died as a result of central
nervous system depression. At slightly lower dose rates, animals
died of liver or kidney damage. Metabolic disturbances occurred
also. At even lower dose rates of orally administered
chlorobenzene, similar effects were observed, but some animals
survived longer than at higher dose rates. No studies have been
reported regarding evaluation of the teratogenic, mutagenic, or
carcinogenic potential of chlorobenzene.
For the prevention of adverse effects due to the organoleptic
properties of chlorobenzene in water, the recommended criterion
is 0.020 mg/1.
Limited data are available on which to base conclusions about the
behavior of chlorobenzene in POTWs. Laboratory studies of the
biochemical oxidation of chlorobenzene have been carried out at
concentrations greater than those expected to normally be present
in POTW influents. Results showed the extent of degradation to
be 25, 28, and 44 percent after 5, 10, and 20 days, respectively.
In another, similar study using a phenol-adapted culture, 4
percent degradation was observed after 3 hours with a solution
containing 80 mg/1. On the basis of these results and general
conclusions about the relationship of molecular structure to
biochemical oxidation, it is concluded that chlorobenzene will be
removed to a moderate degree by biological treatment in POTWs. A
substantial percentage of the chlorobenzene remains intact and is
expected to volatilize from the POTW in aeration processes. The
estimated half-life of chlorobenzene in water, based on water
solubility, vapor pressure and molecular weight, is 5.8 hours.
1,2,4-trichlorobenzene (8). 1,2,4-trichlorobenzene (C6H3C13,
1,2,4-TCB) is a liquid at room temperature, solidifying to a
crystalline solid at 17°C (3°F) and boiling at 214°C (417°F). It
is produced by liquid phase chlorination , of benzene in the
presence of a catalyst. Its vapor pressure is 4 mm Hg at 25°C.
1,2,4-TCB is insoluble in water and soluble in organic solvents.
Annual U.S. production is in ,the range of 15,000 tons. 1,2,4-TCB
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is used in limited quantities as a solvent and as a dye carrier
in the textile industry. It is also used as a heat transfer
medium and as a transformer fluid. The compound can be
selectively chlorinated to 1,2,4,5-tetrachlorobenzene using
iodine plus antimony trichloride as catalysts.
No reports were available regarding the toxic effects of
1,2,4-TCB on humans. Limited data, from studies of effects in
laboratory animals fed 1,2,4-TCB, indicate depression of activity
at low doses and predeath extension convulsions at lethal doses.
Metabolic disturbances and liver changes were also observed.
Studies for the purpose of determining teratogenic or mutagenic
properties of 1,2,4-TCB have not been conducted. No studies have
been made of carcinogenic behavior of 1,2,4-TCB administered
orally.
For the prevention of adverse effects due to the organoleptic
properties of 1,2,4-trichlorobenzene in water, the water quality
criterion is 0.013 mg/1.
Data on the behavior of 1,2,4-TCB in POTWs are not available.
However, this compound has been investigated in a laboratory
scale study of biochemical oxidation at concentrations higher
than those expected to be contained by most municipal
wastewaters. Degradations of 0, 87, and 100 percent were
observed after 5, 10, and 20 days, respectively. Using this
observation and general observations relating molecular structure
to ease of degradation for all of the organic priority
pollutants/ the conclusion was reached that biological treatment
produces a high degree of removal in POTWs.
1,2-dichloroethane (10). 1,2-dichloroethane (C1CH2CH2C1) is a
colorless, oily liquid with a chloroform-like odor and a sweet
taste. Stable in the presence of water, alkalies, acids, or
actively reacting chemicals, it is resistant to oxidation.
Miscible with most common solvents, it is only slightly soluble
in water. It boils at 83.5°C (182°F), flashes at 21°C (70°F) and
has a vapor pressure of 100 mm Hg at 29.4°C- This chemical is
derived by the action of chlorine on ethylene with subsequent
distillation, with ethylene dibromide as a catalyst. It is used
as a solvent for oils, resins, gums, and other products and for
metal degreasing.
Available data indicate that acute toxicity to freshwater aquatic
life occurs at 118 mg/1, and that chronic toxicity occurs at a
concentration of 29 mg/1. Available data for saltwater fish and
invertebrate species indicate that acute toxicity occurs at 113
mg/1.
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For the maximum protection of human health from the potential
carcinogenic effects due toi exposure to 1,2-dichloroethane,
through the ingestion of contaminated water and contaminated
aquatic organisms, the ambient water concentration should be
zero. Concentrations of this pollutant estimated to result in
additional lifetime cancer risk at risk levels of J0-s> TO «, and
lO-^ are 0.0094 mg/1, 0.00094 mg/1, and 0.000094 mg/1
respectively.
With respect to treatment in POTWs, laboratory studies have shown
that V,2-dichloroethane is only moderately amenable to treatment
via biochemical oxidation. This is corroborated by the Physical
property data presented above. It should be noted that the
optimum estimated 30-day average treated effluent concentration.
of 0.10 mg/1 is greater than the level at which this pollutant
was found in any foundry process wastewater.
l,l,l-trichloroethane(n). 1,1,1-trichloroethane is^one of the
t££—possible" trichloroethanes. It is manufactured by
hydrochlorinating vinyl chloride to 1 1-dichloroethane, ^ich^is
then chlorinated to the desired product. 1,1,1-trichlproethane
is a liquid at room temperature with a vapor pressure of 96 mm Hg
at 20°C and a boiling point of 74oc. Its formula is CCljCHa- Jt
is slightly soluble in water (0.48 g/1) and is very soluble in
organic solvents. U.S. annual production is greater than
one-third of a million tons.
1,1,1-trichloroethane is used as an industrial solvent and
degreasing agent.
Most human toxicity data for 1,1 ', 1-trichloroethane relates to
inhalation and dermal exposure routes. Limited^ data are
available for determining toxicity of ^"^ted
1 1 1-trichloroethane, and those data are all for the compound
itself, not. for solutions in water. No data are available
regarding its toxicity to fish and aquatic organisms. For the
protection of human health from the toxic properties of
1 l,1-trichloroethane, ingested through the consumption of water
and fish, the ambient water criterion is 15.7 mg/1. The
criterion is based on bioassay for possible carcinogenicity.
No detailed study of 1,1,1-trichloroethane behavior in POTWs is
available. However, it has been demonstrated that none of the
organic priority pollutants of this type can be broken down by
biological treatment processes as readily as fatty acids,
carbohydrates, or proteins.
Biochemical oxidation of many of the organic priority pollutants
has been investigated, at least in laboratory scale studies, at
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concentrations higher than commonly expected in municipal
wastewater. General observations relating molecular structure to
ease of degradation have been developed for all of these
pollutants. The conclusion reached by study of the limited data
is that biological treatment produces a moderate degree of
degradation of 1,1,1-trichloroethane. No evidence is available
for drawing conclusions about its possible toxic or inhibitory
effect on POTW operations. However, for degradation to occur, a
fairly constant input of the compound would be necessary.
Its water solubility would allow 1,1,1-trichloroethane, present
in the influent and not biodegradable, to pass through a POTW
into the effluent. One factor which has received some attention,
but no detailed study, is the volatilization of the lower
molecular weight organics from POTWs. If 1,1,1-trichloroethane
is not biodegraded, it will volatilize during aeration processes
in the POTW.
1,1-dichloroethane(13). l,1-dichloroethane, also called
ethylidene dichloride and ethylidene chloride, is a colorless
liquid manufactured by reacting hydrogen chloride with vinyl
chloride in 1,1-dichloroethane solution in the presence of a
catalyst. However, it is reportedly not manufactured
commercially in the U.S. 1,1-dichloroethane boils at 57°C and
has a vapor pressure of 182 mm Hg at 20°C. It is slightly
soluble in water (5.5 g/1 at 20°C) and very soluble in organic
solvents. v
1,1-dichloroethane is used as an extractant for heat-sensitive
substances and as a solvent for rubber and silicone grease.
1,1-dichloroethane is less toxic than its isomer
(1,2-dichloroethane), but its use as an anesthetic has been
discontinued because of marked excitation of the heart. It
causes central nervous system depression in humans. There are
insufficient data to derive water quality criteria for
1,1-dichloroethane.
l
Data on the behavior of 1,1-dichloroethane in POTWs are not
available. Many of the organic priority pollutants have been
investigated, at least in laboratory scale studies, at
concentrations higher than those expected to be contained by most
municipal wastewaters. General observations have been developed,
relating molecular structure to ease of degradation, for all of
the organic priority pollutants. The conclusion reached by study
of the limited data is that biological treatment produces only a
moderate removal of 1,1-dichloroethane in POTWs by degradation.
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The high vapor pressure of 1,1-dichloroethane is expected to
result in volatilization of some of the compound from aerobic
processes in POTWs. Its water solubility will result in some of
the 1,1-dichloroethane which enters the POTW leaving in the
effluent from the POTW.
1.1.2-trichloroethane(14). 1,1,2-trichloroethane is one of the
two possible trichloroethanes and is sometimes called ethane
trichloride or vinyl trichloride. It is used as a solvent for
fats, oils, waxes, and resins, in the manufacture of
1,1-dichloroethylene, and as an intermediate in organic
synthesis.
1,1,2-trichloroethane is a clear, colorless liquid at room
temperature with a vapor pressure of 16.7 mm Hg at 20°C, and a
boiling point of 113°C. It is insoluble in water and very
soluble in organic solvents. The formula is CKC1ZCEZC1.
Human toxicity data for 1,1,2-trichloroethane does not appear in
the literature. The compound does produce liver and kidney
damage in laboratory animals after intraperitoneal
administration. No literature data were found concerning
teratogenicity or mutagenicity of l,1,2-trichloroethane.
However, mice treated with 1,1,2-trichloroethane showed increased
incidence of hepatocellular carcinoma. Although bioconcentration
factors are not available for 1,1,2-trichloroethane in fish and
other freshwater aquatic organisms, it is concluded on the basis
of octanol-water partition coefficients that bioconcentration
does occur.
For the maximum protection of human health from the potential
carcinogenic effects of exposure to 1,1,2-trichloroethane,
through ingestion of water and contaminated aquatic organisms,
the ambient water concentration is zero. Concentrations of this
compound estimated to result in additional lifetime cancer risks
at risk levels of 10~7, 10-«, and 10~s are 0.000027 mg/1, 0.00027
mg/1, and 0.0027 mg/1, respectively.
No detailed study of 1,1,2-trichloroethane behavior in POTWs is
available. However, it is reported that small amounts are formed
by chlorination processes, and that this compound persists in the
environment (greater than two years) and it is not biologically
degraded. This information is not completely consistent with the
conclusions based on laboratory scale biochemical oxidation
studies and relating molecular structure to ease of degradation.
That study concluded that biological treatment in POTWs will
produce moderate removal of 1,1,2-trichloroethane.
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The lack of water solubility and the relatively high vapor
pressure may lead to removal of this compound from POTWs by
volatilization.
1,1,2,2-tetrachloroethane (15). 1,1,2,2-tetrachloroethane
(CHC12CHC12) is a heavy, colorless, mobile, nonflammable,
corrosive, toxic liquid. While it has a chloroform-like odor, it
is more toxic than chloroform. It is soluble in alcohol or
ether, but insoluble in water. It has no flash point, boils at
146.5°C (296°F) and has a vapor pressure of 5 mm Hg at 20.7°C.
It results from the interaction of acetylene and chlorine, with
subsequent distillation. This chemical is used in organic
synthesis, as a solvent, and for metal cleaning and degreasing.
Available freshwater data indicate that acute toxicity occurs at
concentrations of 9.32 rng/1, and that chronic toxicity occurs at
4.000 mg/1. Available saltwater data indicate that acute
toxicity occurs at 9.020 mg/1.
For the maximum protection of human health from the potential
carcinogenic effects due to exposure to 1,1,2,2-tetra-
chloroethane, through contaminated water and contaminated aquatic
organisms, the ambient water concentration should be zero.
Concentrations of this pollutant estimated to result in
additional lifetime cancer risk at risk levels of 10-s, 10-*, and
10-7 are 0.0017 mg/1, 0.00017 mg/1, and 0.000017 mg/1
With respect to treatment in POTWs, laboratory studies have shown
that 1,1,2,2-tetrachloroethane is not amenable to treatment via
biochemical oxidation. As this pollutant is insoluble in water,
any removal of this pollutant which would occur in a POTW, would
be related to physical treatment processes.
Bis(2-chloroethvl) ether (18). Bis(2-chloroethyl) ether
(C1CH2CH2OCH2CH2CL) is a colorless, stable, non-corrosive liquid
with an odor similar to that of ethylene dichloride. Its boils
at 178.5°C (353°F), flashes at 55°C (131°F) and has a vapor
pressure of 1 mm Hg at 23.5°C. It is miscible with most organic
solvents, immiscible with the paraffin hydrocarbons, and
insoluble with water. It is used as a solvent for oils, waxes,
and resins, as a wetting and penetrating compound, as a solvent
in the production of lubricating oils, and in the synthesis of
various organics.
The available data for this pollutant indicate that acute
toxicity to freshwater aquatic life occurs at concentrations as
low as 238 mg/1. No data are available concerning this
pollutant's chronic toxicity to freshwater aquatic life and acute
and chronic toxicity to saltwater aquatic life.
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For the maximum protection of human health from the potential
carcinogenic effects of exposure to this pollutant, through
ingestion of contaminated water and aquatic organisms, the
ambient water concentration should be zero. Concentrations of
this pollutant estimated to result in additional lifetime cancer
risks at risk levels of 10-*, 10-«, and 10-* are 0.0003 mg/1,
0.00003 mg/1, '0.000003 mg/1 respectively.
With respect to treatment in POTWs, laboratory studies have shown
that bis(2-chloroethyl) ether is not amenable to treatment•. via
biochemical oxidation. As this pollutant is insoluble in water,
any removal of this pollutant, which would occur in a POTW,, would
be related to physical treatment processes.
2.4.6-trichlorophenol (21). 2,4,6-trichlorophenol (Cl3C6H2OH,
abbreviated heTe"~to" 2,4,6 TCP) is a colorless crystalline solid
at room temperature. It is prepared by the direct chlorination
of phenol. 2,4,6-TCP melts at 68°C (154°F) and is ,slightly
soluble in water (0.8 gm/1 at 25°C). This phenol doe* not
produce a color with 4-aminoantipyrene, therefore it does not,
contribute to the non-conventional pollutant parameter Total
Phenols." No data were found on production volumes.
2 4 6-TCP is used as a fungicide, bactericide, glue and wood
preservative, and for antimildew treatment. It is also used for
the manufacture of 2,3,4,6,-tetrachlorophenol and
pentachlorophenol.
No data were found on human toxicity effects of^ 2,4,6-TCP.
Reports of studies with laboratory animals indicate that
2 4 6-TCP produced convulsions when injected interpentoneally.
Body temperature was elevated also. The compound also produced
inhibition of ATP production in isolated rat liver mitochondria,
increased mutation rates in one strain of bacteria, and produced
a genetic change in rats. No studies on teratogenicity were
found.
For the maximum protection of human health from the potential
carcinogenic effects of exposure to 2,4,6-trichlorophenol,
through ingestion of water and contaminated aquatic organisms^
the ambient water concentration should be zero. The estimated
levels which would result in increased lifetime cancer risks of
ID-* 10-6, and 10-s are 1.18 x 10-s mg/1, 1.18 x 10~* mg/1, and
1 18 x 10~3 mg/1, respectively. If contaminated aquatic
organisms alone are consumed, excluding the consumption of water,
the water concentration should be less than 3.6 x 10-* mg/1 to
keep the increased lifetime cancer risk below 10-s. Available
data show that adverse effects in aquatic species can occur at
9.7 x 10~4 mg/1.
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Although no data were found regarding the behavior of 2,4,6-TCP
in POTWs, studies of the biochemical oxidation of the compound
ftave been made on a laboratory scale at concentrations higher
than those normally expected in municipal wastewaters.
Biochemical oxidation of 2,4,6-TCP at 100 mg/1 produced 23
percent degradation using a phenol-adapted acclimated seed
culture. Based on these results, biological treatment in a POTW
is expected to produce a moderate degree of degradation. Another
study indicates that 2,4,6-TCP may be produced in POTWs by
chlorination of phenol during normal chlorination treatment.
Parachlorometacresol (22)_. Parachlorometacresol (C1C,H«OH) is
thought to be 4-chloro-3-methylphenol (4-chlorometacresol, or
2-chloro-5- hydroxytoluene, but is also used by some authorities
to refer to 6-chloro-3-methylphenol (6-chlorometacresol, or
4-chloro-3-hydroxytoluene), depending on whether the chlorine is
considered to be para to the methyl or to the hydroxy group. It
is assumed for the purposes of this document that the subject
compound is 2-chloro-5-hydroxytoluene. This compound is a
colorless crystalline solid melting at 66-68°C (151-154op) it
is slightly soluble in water (3.8 gm/1) and soluble in organic
solvents. This phenol reacts with 4-aminoantipyrene to give a
colored product and therefore contributes to the non-conventional
pollutant parameter designated "Total Phenols." No information on
manufacturing methods or volumes produced was found.
Parachlorometacresol (abbreviated here as PCMC) is marketed as a
microbicide, and was proposed as an antiseptic and disinfectant,
TnvS an 5??ty Year! a?°' Ifc is used in Slues, gums, paints
inks, textiles, and leather goods. PCMC was found in raw
wastewaters from the die casting quench operation from one
subcategory of foundry operations.
Although no human toxicity data are available for PCMC, studies
on laboratory animals have demonstrated that this compound is
toxic when administered subcutaneously and intravenously. Death
was proceeded by severe muscle tremors. At high dosages, kidney
damage occurred. On the other hand, an unspecified isomer of
chlorocresol, presumed to be PCMC, is used at a concentration of
0.15 percent to preserve mucous heparin, a natural product
administrated intravenously as an anticoagulant. The report does
not indicate the total amount of PCMC typically received No
information was found regarding possible teratogenicity, or
carcinogenicity of PCMC. ^il-y'
Two reports indicate that PCMC undergoes degradation in
biochemical oxidation treatments carried out at concentrations
higher than are expected to be encountered in POTW influents
One study showed 59 percent degradation in 3.5 hours, when a
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phenol-adapted acclimated seed culture was used with a solution
of 60 mg/1 PCMC. The other study showed 100 percent degradation
of a 20 mg/1 solution of PCMC in two weeks in- an. aerobic
activated sludge test system. No degradation of PCMC occurred
under anaerobic conditions. From a review of limited data, it is
expected that PCMC will be biochemically oxidized to a lesser-
extent .than domestic sewage by biological treatment in POTWs.
Chloroform(23). Chloroform is a colorless liquid manufactured
commercially "by chlorination of methane. Careful control of
conditions maximizes chloroform production, but other^products
must be separated. Chloroform boils at 61°C .<142.oF) and has a
vapor pressure of 200 mm Hg at 25<>C. It is slightly soluble in
water (8.22 g/1 at 20°C) and readily soluble in organic solvents.
Chloroform is used as a solvent and to manufacture refrigerants,
Pharmaceuticals, plastics, and anesthetics. It is seldom used as
an anesthetic.
Toxic effects of chloroform on humans include central nervous
system depression, gastrointestinal irritation, liver and kidney
damage and possible cardiac sensitization to adrenalin
Carcinogenicity has been demonstrated for chloroform on
laboratory animals.
For the maximum protection of human health; from the potential
carcinogenic effects of exposure to chloroform, through ingestion
of water and contaminated"aquatic organisms, the ambient water
concentration is zero. Concentrations of chloroform estimated to
result in additional lifetime cancer risks at the levels of lO^,
10-« and 10-5 were 0.000021 mg/1, 0.00021 mg/1, and 0.0021 mg/1,
respectively. If contaminated aquatic organisms alone are
consumed, excluding the consumption of water, the water
concentration should be less than 0.157 mg/rto.keep the
increased lifetime cancer risk below 10-*. Available data show
that adverse effects on aquatic life occur at concentrations
higher than those cited for human health risks.
No data are available regarding the behavior of chloroform in a
POTW However, the biochemical oxidation of this compound was
studied in one laboratory scale study at concentrations higher
than those expected to be contained by most municipal
wastewaters. After 5, 10, and 20 days no degradation _of
chloroform was< observed. The conclusion reached is_ that-
biological treatment produces little or no removal by degradation
of chloroform in POTWs. An EPA study of the fate of priority
pollutants in POTWs reveals removal efficiencies of 0 to^SO
percent for influent concentrations ranging from 5 to 46 x 10
mg/1 at seven POTWs.
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The high vapor pressure of chloroform is expected to result in
volatilization of the compound from aerobic treatment steps in
POTWs. Remaining chloroform is expected to pass through into the
POTW effluent.
2-chlorophenol (24). 2-chlorophenol (C1C6H4OH), also called
ortho-chlorophenol, is a colorless liquid at room temperature,
manufactured by direct chlorination of phenol followed by
distillation to separate it from the other principal product,
4-chlorophenol. 2-chlorophenol solidifies below 7°C (45°F) and
boils at 176°C (349°F). It is soluble in water (28.5 gm/1 at
20°C) and soluble in several types of organic solvents. This
phenol gives a strong color with 4-aminoantipyrene and therefore
contributes to the non-conventional pollutant parameter "Total
Phenols." Production statistics could not be found.
2-chlorophenol is used almost exclusively as a chemical
intermediate in the production of pesticides and dyes.
Production of some phenolic resins uses 2-chlorophenol.
Very few data are available concerning the toxic effects of
2-chlorophenol on humans. The compound is more toxic to
laboratory mammals when administered orally, than when
administered subcutaneously or intravenously. This effect is
attributed to the fact that the compound is almost completely in
the un-ionized state at the low pH of the stomach, and hence, is
more readily absorbed into the body. Initial symptoms are
restlessness, increased respiration rate, followed by motor
weakness and convulsions induced by-noise or touch, and coma.
Following lethal doses, kidney, liver, and intestinal damage were
observed. No studies were found which addressed the
teratogenicity or mutagenicity of 2-chlorophenol. Studies of
2-chlorophenol as a promoter of carcinogenic activity of other
carcinogens were conducted by dermal application. Results do not
bear a determinable relationship to results of oral
administration studies.
For controlling undesirable taste and odor quality of ambient
water due to the organoleptic properties of 2-chlorophenol in
water, the estimated level is 1 x 10~4 mg/1. Data show that
adverse effects on aquatic life occur at concentrations higher
than that cited for organoleptic effects.
Data on the behavior of 2-chlorophenol in POTWs are not
available. However, laboratory scale studies have been conducted
at concentrations higher than those expected to be found in
municipal wastewaters. At 1 mg/1 of 2-chlorophenol, an
acclimated culture produced 100 percent degradation by
biochemical oxidation after 15 days. Another study showed 45,
70, and 79 percent degradation by biochemical oxidation after 5,
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10, and 20 days, respectively. The conclusion, reached by the
study of thes4 limited data, and general observations, on all
organic priority pollutants relating molecular structure to ease
of biochemical oxidation, is that 2-chlorophenol is removed to a
high degree or completely by biological treatment in^ POTWs.
Undegraded 2-chlorophenol is expected to pass through POTWs into
the effluent because of the water solubility. Some
2-chloropheno~l is also expected to.be generated by chlorination
treatments of POTW effluents containing phenol.
T .2-trans-dichlQr0ethvlene(30) . 1 , 2
( trans- 1,2-DCE) — is a clear, colorless liquid with the formula
CHC1CHC1 Trans- Tf2-DCE is produced in a mixture with the
cis-isomer by chiorination- of acetylene. The cisTisomer has
distinctly different physical properties. Industrially, the
mixture is used rather than the separate isomers. Trans-1 ,2-DCE
has a boiling point of 48°C, and a vapor pressure of 324 mm Hg at
25°C.
The principal use" of 1 ,2-dich'loroethylene (mixed isomers) is to
produce vinyl chloride. It is used as a lead scavenger in
gasoline, as* a general solvent, and for the synthesis of various
other organic chemicals. When it is used as a solvent,
trans- 1 ,2-DCE can enter wastewater streams.
For the maximum protection of human health from the potential
effecte of exposure to 1 , 2-trans-dichloroethylene, through
ingest ion of water and contaminated aquatic organisms, the
ambient water concentration is zero. Concentrations of
T?2-l?ans-d?chloroethylene estimated to result in ad ditional
lifetime cancer risk at risk levels of 10-' f 10-', and 1 0 -are
33 x ID-* mg/1, 3.3 10-s mg/1, and 3.3 x 10 * mg/1,
respectively. If contaminated aquatic organisms, alone are
consumed excluding the consumption of water, the water
coSratf on should be less than 0.018 mg/1 to keep the lifetime.
cancer risk below .10-«. Limited acute and chronic toxicity data
for freshwater aquatic life show that adverse effects occur at
concentrations higher than those cited for human health risks.
The behavior of trans-1 , 2-DCE in POTWs has not ^been studied
However, its high vapor pressure is expected to result -in the
release of a significant percentage of this compound to the
atmosphere in any treatment involving aeration. Degradation o£
?he dichloroethylenes in air is reported to occur, with a
half-life of 8 weeks.
Biochemical oxidation of many of the organic priority pollutants
has been investigated in laboratory scale studies at
concentrations higher than would normally be expected in
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municipal wastewater. General observations relating molecular
structure to ease of degradation have been developed for all of
these pollutants. The conclusion reached by the study of the
limited data, is that biochemical oxidation produces little or no
degradation of 1,2-trans-dichloroethylene. No evidence is
available for drawing conclusions about the possible toxic or
inhibitory effects of 1,2-trans-dichloroethylene on POTW
operations. It is expected that its low molecular weight and
degree of water solubility will result in trans-1,2-DCE passing
through a POTW to the effluent, if it is not degraded or
volatilized. Very little trans-1,2-DCE is expected to be found
in sludge from POTWs.
2,4-dichlorophenol (31 ). 2,4-dichlorophenol (C12C6H3OH) is a
colorless, crystalline solid manufactured by chlorination of
phenol dissolved in liquid sulfur dioxide or by chlorination of
molten phenol (a lower yield method). 2,4-dichlorophenol
(2,4-DCP) melts at 45°C (113°F) and has a vapor pressure of less
than 1 mm Hg at 25°C (vapor pressure equals 1 mm Hg at 53°C).
2,4-DCP is slightly soluble in water (4.6 g/1 at 20°C) and
soluble in many organic solvents. 2,4-DCP reacts to give a
strong color development with 4-aminoantipyrene, and therefore
contributes to the non-conventional pollutant designated "Total
Phenols." Annual U.S. production of 2,4-DCP is about 25,000 tons.
The principal use of 2,4-DCP is for the manufacture of the
herbicide 2,4-dichloro-phenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D) and other
pesticides.
Few data exist concerning the toxic effects of 2,4-DCP on humans.
Symptoms exhibited by laboratory animals injected with fatal
doses of 2,4-DCP included loss of muscle tone, followed by rapid,
then slow breathing. In vitro experiments revealed inhibition of
oxidative phosphorylation (a primary metabolic function) by
2,4-DCP in rat liver mitochondria and rat brain homogenates. No
studies were found which addressed the teratogenicity, or the
mutagenicity in mammals, of 2,4-DCP. The only studies of
carcinogenic properties of 2,4-DCP used dermal application, which
has no established relationship to oral administration results.
For the prevention of adverse effects due to the
properties of 2,4-dichlorophenol in water, the
0.0005 mg/1.
organoleptic
criterion is
Data on the behavior of 2,4-dichlorophenol in POTWs are not
available. However, laboratory scale studies have been conducted
at concentrations higher than those expected to be found in
municipal wastewaters. Biochemical oxidation produced
degradation of 70,72, and 72 percent -after 5,10 and 20 days,
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respectively, in one study. In another study, using an
acclimated phenol-adapted culture, 30 percent degradation was
measured after 3.5 hours. Based on these limited data, and on
general observations relating molecular structure to ease of
biological oxidation, it is concluded that 2 4-DCP is-removed to
a high degree or completely by biological treatment an POTWs.
Undegraded 2,4-DCP is-expected to pass through; POTWs to . the
effluent. Some 2,4-DCP may be formed in POTWs by chlorination of
effluents containing phenol. ' ;•
i > „-,,,',.
1 3-dichloropropylene (33). 1,3-dichloropropylene (CHC1:CHCH2C1)
is a colorleisTIquIdT" The boiling point of its cis-isomer is
104°C (219°F), while the boiling point of its trans-isomer is
112°C (234°F). It is derived from the chlorination of propylene.
While it is soluble in acetone, toluene, and octane, it is
insoluble in water. This chemical is used in various organic
synthesis procedures.
The available data indicate that acute and chronic toxicity to
freshwater aquatic life occur at concentrations as^ low as 6.06
mq/1 and 0.244 mg/1 respectively. The available data for this
pollutant indicate that acute toxicity to saltwater aquatic_ life
occurs at concentrations as low as 0.79 mg/1. No data are
available concerning the chronic toxicity of this pollutant to
saltwater aquatic life.
For the protection of human health from the toxic properties^of
this pollutant, ingested through aquatic organisms alone, the
ambient water criterion is determined to be 14.1 mg/1.
With respect to treatment in *POTWs, laboratory studies have shown
that 1,3-dichloropropylene is only moderately amenable to
treatment via biochemical oxidation. The optimum expected 30-day
average treated effluent concentration for this pollutant is
0.100 mg/1.
2.4-dimethylphenol(34). 2,4-dimethylphenol (2,4-DMP), also
called 2,4-xylenol, is a colorless, crystalline^ solid at room
temperature (25oC), but melts at 27 to 28°C (81to82°F.
2,4-DMP is slightly soluble in water and, as a weak acid, is
soluble in alkaline solutions. Its vapor pressure is less than 1
mm Hg at room temperature.
2 4-DMP is a natural product, occurring in coal and petroleum
sources. It is used commercially as an intermediate for the
manufacture of pesticides, dyestuffs, plastics, resins, and
surfactants. It is found in the water runoff from asphalt
surfaces. It can find its way into the wastewater of a
manufacturing plant from any of several sources.
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Analytical procedures specific to this compound are used for its
identification and quantification in wastewaters. This compound
does not contribute to "Total Phenols" determined by the
4-aminoantipyrene method.
Three methylphenol isomers (cresols) and six dimethylphenol
isomers (xylenols) generally occur together in natural products,
industrial processes, commercial products, and phenolic wastes.
Therefore, data are not available for human exposure to 2,4-DMP
alone, in addition to this, most mammalian tests for toxicity of
individual dimethylphenol isomers have been conducted with
isomers other than 2,4-DMP.
In general, the mixtures of phenol, methylphenols, and
dimethylphenols contain compounds which produced acute poisoning
in laboratory animals. Symptoms were difficult breathing, rapid
muscular spasms, disturbance of motor coordination, and
assymetrical body position. In a 1977 National Academy of
Science publication, the conclusion was reached that, "In view of
the relative paucity of data on the mutagenicity,
carcinogenicity, teratogenicity, and long term oral toxicity of
2,4 dimethylphenol, estimates of the effects of chronic oral
exposure at low levels cannot be made with any confidence." No
ambient water quality criterion can be set at this time. In
order to protect public health, exposure to this compound should
be minimized as soon as possible.
Toxicity data for fish and freshwater aquatic life are limited
Acute toxicity to freshwater aquatic life occurs at
2,4-dimethylphenol concentrations of 2.12 mg/1. For controlling
undesirable taste and odor quality of ambient water, due to the
organoleptic effects of 2,4-dimethylphenol in water, the
estimated level is 0.4 mg/1.
The behavior of 2,4-DMP in POTWs has not been studied. As a weak
acid its behavior may be somewhat dependent on the pH of the
i^J1,"61^ ,to the POTW> However, over the normal limited range of
POTW pH, little effect of pH would be expected.
Biological degradability of 2,4-DMP, as determined in one study
?™? 92'5 Percent removal, based on chemical oxygen demand
(COD). Thus, substantial removal is expected for this compound
Another study determined that persistence of 2,4-DMP in the
environment is low, thus any of the compound which remained in
the sludge or passed through the POTW into the effluent would be
degraded within a moderate length of time (estimated as 2 months
in the report).
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2, 4-dinitrotoluene ( 35 ) -..;. 2, 4-dinitrotoluene [ (N02) 2C6H3CH3], a
yellow crystalline compound, is manufactured as a co-product with
the 2,6-isomer by nitration of nitrotoluene. It melts at 71°C.
2,4-dinitrotoluene . is insoluble in water (0.27 g/1 at 22°C) and
soluble in a number of organic solvents. Production data for the
2,4-isomer alone are not available. The 2,4-and 2,6-isomers are
manufactured in an 80:20 or 65:35 ratio, depending on the process
used. Annual U.S. commercial: production .is about 150,000 tons of
the two isomers. Unspecified amounts are produced by the U.S.
government and further nitrated to trinitrotoluene (TNT) for
military use.
The major use of the dinitrotoluene mixture is for production of
toluene diisocyanate used to make polyurethanes. Another use is
in production of dyestuffs.
The toxic effect of 2,4-dinitrotoluene in humans is primarily
methemoglobinemia (a blood condition hindering oxygen transport
by the blood). Symptoms depend on severity of the disease, but
include cyanosis, dizziness, pain in joints, headache, and loss
of appetite in workers inhaling the compound. Laboratory
animals, fed oral doses of 2,4-dinitrotoluene, exhibited many of
the same symptoms. Aside from the effects in red blood cells,
effects are observed in the nervous system and testes.
Chronic exposure to 2,4-dinitrotoluene may produce liver damage
and reversible anemia. No data were found on teratogenicity of
this compound. Mutagenic data are limited and are, regarded as
confusing. Data resulting , from studies of carcinogenicity of
2,4-dinitrotoluene point to a need for further testing for this
property.
For the maximum protection of human health from the potential
carcinogenic effects of exposure to 2,4-dinitrotoluene, through
ingestion of water and contaminated aquatic organisms, the
ambient water concentration is zero. Concentrations of
2,4-dinitrotoluene estimated to result in additional lifetime
cancer risk at risk levels of TO-7, 10-*, and 10~s are 0..0074
mg/1, 0.074 mg/1, and 0.740 mg/1, respectively.
Data on the behavior of 2,4-dinitrotoluene in POTWs are not
available. However, biochemical oxidation of 2,4-dinitrophenol
was investigated on a laboratory scale. At 100 mg/1 of
2,4-dinitrophenol, a concentration considerably higher than that
expected in municipal wastewaters, biochemical oxidation by an
acclimated, phenol-adapted seed culture produced 52 percent
degradation in three hours. Based on this limited information
and general observations relating molecular structure to ease of
degradation for all the organic priority pollutants, it was
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concluded that biological treatment in POTWs removes
2,4-dinitrotoluene to a high degree or completely. No
information is available regarding possible interference by
2,4-dinitrotoluene in POTW treatment processes, or on the
possible detrimental effect on sludge used to amend soils in
which food crops are grown.
2,6-dinitrotoluene (36). 2, 6-dinitrotoluene [ (N02)2C
-------
pressure of 7 mm Hg at 20°C. It is slightly soluble in water
(0.14 g/1 at 15°C) and is very soluble in organic solvents.
About 98 percent of the ethylbenzene produced in the U.S. goes
into the production of styrene, much of which is used in the
plastics and synthetic rubber industries. Ethylbenzene is a
constituent of xylene mixtures used as dilutents in the paint
industry, agricultural insecticide sprays/ and gasoline blends.
Although humans are exposed to ethylbenzene from a variety of
sources in the environment, little information on effects of
ethylbenzene in man or animals is available. Inhalation can
irritate eyes, affect the respiratory tract, or cause vertigo.
In laboratory animals, ethylbenzene exhibited low toxicity.
There are no data available on teratogenicity, mutagenicity, or
carcinogenicity of ethylbenzene.
Criteria are based on data derived from inhalation exposure
limits. For the protection of human health from the toxic
properties of ethylbenzene, ingested through water and
contaminated aquatic organisms, the ambient water quality
criterion is 1.4 mg/1. If contaminated aquatic organisms alone
are consumed, excluding the consumption of water, the ambient
water criterion is 3.28 mg/1. Available data show that at
concentrations of 0.43 mg/1, adverse effects on aquatic life
occur.
The behavior of ethylbenzene in POTWs has not been studied in
detail. Laboratory scale studies of the biochemical oxidation of
ethylbenzene at concentrations greater than would normally be
found in municipal wastewaters have demonstrated varying degrees
of degradation. In one study with phenol-acclimated seed
cultures, 27 percent degradation was observed in a half day at
250 mg/1 ethylbenzene. Another study, at unspecified conditions,
showed 32, 38, and 45 percent degradation after 5, 10, and 20
days, respectively. Based on. these results and general
observations relating molecular structure to ease of degradation,
it is expected that ethylbenzene will be biochemically oxidized
to a lesser extent than domestic sewage, by biological treatment
in POTWs.
An EPA study of seven POTWs showed removals of 77 to 100 percent
in five POTWs having influent ethyl benzene concentrations of 10
to 44 x 10~3 mg/1. The other two POTWs had influent
concentrations of 2 x 10~3 mg/1 or less. Other studies suggest
that most of the ethylbenzene entering a POTW is removed from the
aqueous stream to the sludge. The ethylbenzene contained in the
sludge removed from the POTW may volatilize.
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Fluoranthene(39). Fluoranthene (1,2-benzacenaphthene) is one of
the compounds called polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH). A
pale yellow solid at room temperature, it melts at 111°C (232°F)
and has a negligible vapor pressure at 25°C. Water solubility is
low (0.2 mg/1). Its molecular formula is C16H10.
Fluoranthene, along with many other PAHs, is found throughout the
environment. It is produced by pyrolytic processing of organic
raw materials, such as coal and petroleum, at high temperature
(coking processes). It occurs naturally as a product of plant
biosynthesis. Cigarette smoke contains fluoranthene. Although
it is not used as the pure compound in industry, it has been
found at relatively higher concentrations (0.002 mg/1) than most
other PAHs in at least one industrial effluent. Furthermore, in
a 1977 EPA survey to determine levels of PAH in U.S. drinking
water supplies, none of the 110 samples analyzed showed any PAH
other than fluoranthene.
Experiments with laboratory animals indicate that fluoranthene
presents a relatively low degree of toxic potential from acute
exposure, including oral administration. Where death occured, no
information was reported concerning target organs or the specific
cause of death.
There is no epidemiological evidence to prove that PAHs in
general, and fluoranthene, in particular, present in drinking
water are related to the development of cancer. The only studies
directed toward determining carcinogenicity of fluoranthene have
been skin tests on laboratory animals. Results of these tests
show that fluoranthene has no activity as a complete carcinogen
(i.e., an agent which produces cancer when applied by itself),
but exhibits significant cocarcinogenicity (i.e., in combination
with a carcinogen, it increases the carcinogenic activity).
Based on the limited animal study data, and following an
established procedure, the ambient water criterion for
fluoranthene, through water and contaminated aquatic organisms,
is determined to be 0.042 mg/1 for the protection of human health
from its toxic properties. If contaminated aquatic organisms
alone are consumed, excluding the consumption of water, the
ambient water criterion is 0.054 mg/1. Available data show that
adverse effects on aquatic life occur at concentrations of 0.016
mg/1.
Results of studies of the behavior of fluoranthene, in
conventional sewage treatment processes found in POTWs, have been
published. Removal of fluoranthene during primary sedimentation
was found to be 62 to 66 percent (from an initial value of
0.00323 to 0.0435 mg/1 to a final" value of 0.00122 to 0.0146
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mg/1), and the removal was 91
0.00028 to 0.00026 mg/1) after
activated sludge processes.
to 99 percent (final values of
biological purification with
A review was made of data on biochemical oxidation of many of the
organic priority pollutants investigated in laboratory scale
studies at concentrations higher than would normally be expected
in municipal wastewater. General observations relating molecular
structure to ease of degradation have been developed for all of
these pollutants. The conclusion reached by study of the limited
data is that biological treatment ^produces little or - no
degradation of fluoranthene. The same study however concludes
that fluoranthene would be readily removed by filtration and oil
water separation and other methods which rely on water
insolubility, or adsorption on other particulate surfaces. This
latter conclusion is supported by the previously cited study
showing significant removal by primary sedimentation.
No studies were found to give data on either the possible
interference of fluoranthene with POTW operations, or the
persistence of fluoranthene in sludges on POTW effluent waters.
Several studies have documented the ubiquity of fluoranthene in
the environment, and it cannot be readily determined if this
results from persistence of anthropogenic fluoranthene or the
replacement of degraded fluoranthene by natural processes such as
biosynthesis in plants.
Bis(2-Ghloroethvoxv)methane (43). Bis(2-chloroethoxy) methane
[CH2(OCH2CH2Cirz1isacolorless liquid. It boils at 218.1°C
(424°F), flashes at 110°C (230°F), and has a vapor pressure of 1
mm Hg at 53°C. Slightly soluble in water, this chemical is
decomposed by mineral acids. This chemical is used as a solvent
and as an intermediate for polysulfide rubber.
The available data indicate that this pollutant is acutely toxic
to freshwater aquatic life at!concentrations as low as 0.36 mg/1,
and that chronictoxicity occurs at concentrations as low as
0.122 mg/1. No data are available to determine acute or chronic
toxicity levels for saltwater;aquatic life.
With respect to human health effects, a satisfactory criterion
cannot be derived at this time, due to the insufficiency in the
available data. T
Concerning treatment in POTWs, laboratory studies have shown that
this pollutant is only moderately amenable to treatment via
biochemical oxidation. It should be noted, however, that the
optimum estimated 30-day average treated effluent concentration
-311
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of 0.10 mg/1 is greater than the level at which this contaminant
was found in any foundry process wastewater.
Methylene chloride(44). Methylene chloride, also called
dichloromethane (CH2C12), is a colorless liquid manufactured by
chlorination of methane or methyl chloride followed by separation
from the higher chlorinated methanes formed as co-products.
Methylene chloride boils at 40°C, and has a vapor pressure of
362 mm Hg at 20°C. It is slightly soluble in water (20 g/1 at
20PC), and very soluble in organic solvents. U.S. annual
production is about 250,000 tons.
Methylene chloride is a common industrial solvent found in
insecticides, metal cleaners, paint, and paint and varnish
removers.
Methylene chloride is not generally regarded as being 'highly
toxic to humans. Most human toxicity data are for exposure by
inhalation. Inhaled methylene chloride acts as a central nervous
system depressant. There is also evidence that the compound
causes heart failure when large amounts are inhaled.
Methylene chloride does produce mutation in tests for this
effect. In addition, a bioassay recognized for its extremely
high sensitivity to strong and weak carcinogens, produced results
which were marginally significant. Thus, potential carcinogenic
effects of methylene chloride are not confirmed or denied, but
are under continuous study. Difficulty in conducting tests and
interpreting data results from the low boiling point (40°C) of
methylene chloride. This increases the difficulty of maintaining
the compound in growth media during incubation at 37°C. In
addition, it is difficult to remove all impurities, some of which
might themselves be carcinogenic.
For the protection of human health from the toxic properties of
methylene chloride, ingested through water and contaminated
aquatic organisms, the ambient water criterion is 0.002 mg/1.
The behavior of methylene chloride in POTWs has not been studied
in any detail. However, the biochemical oxidation of this
compound was studied in one laboratory scale study at
concentrations higher than those expected to be contained by most
municipal wastewaters. After five days, no degradation of
methylene chloride was observed. The conclusion reached is that
biological treatment produces litte or no removal by degradation
of methylene chloride in POTWs.
The high vapor pressure of methylene chloride is expected to
result in volatilization of the compound from aerobic treatment
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steps in POTWs. It has been reported that methylene chloride
inhibits anaerobic processes in POTWs. Any methylene chloride
that is not volatilized in the POTW is expected to pass through
into the effluent.
Methyl chloride (45). Methyl chloride (CH3C1) is a colorless,
noncorrosive liquifiable gas which is transparent in both the
gaseous and liquid states. It has a faintly sweet, ethereal
odor. It boils at -23.7°C (-11°F). It is slightly soluble in
water (by which it is decomposed) and soluble in alcohol,
chloroform, benzene, carbon tetrachloride, and glacial acetic
acid. It is derived by: (a) the chlorination of methane; and,
(b) the action of hydrochloric acid on methanol, either in vapor
or liquid phase. It is used as an extractant and solvent, as a
pesticide, in the synthesis of organic chemicals, and in
silicones.
The available data for this pollutant indicate that acute
toxicity to freshwater aquatic life occurs at concentrations as
low as 11.0 mg/1. No data are available concerning this
pollutant's chronic toxicity to sensitive freshwater aquatic
life. The available data for this pollutant indicate that acute
and chronic toxicities to saltwater aquatic life occur at
concentrations as low as 12.0 mg/1 and 6.40 mg/1 respectively.
With respect to saltwater aquatic life, a decrease in algal cell
numbers was found to occur at concentrations as low as 11.5 mg/1.
For the maximum protection of human health from the potential
carcinogenic effects due to exposure to this pollutant, through
the ingestion of contaminated water and aquatic organisms, the
ambient water concentration should be zero. Concentrations of
this pollutant estimated to result in additional lifetime cancer
risks at risk levels of 10-», 10-«, and 10~7 are 0.0019 mg/1,
0.00019 mg/1, and 0.000019 mg/1 respectively.
Concerning treatment in POTWs, laboratory studies have shown that
methyl chloride is not amenable to treatment via biochemical
oxidation. It should be noted that the optimum treated effluent
level of 0.100 mg/1 is greater than the levels ,at which this
pollutant was found in any foundry sampled.
Bromoform (47).' Brombform (CHBr3) is a colorless, heavy liquid
whose odor "and taste are similar to those of chloroform. It is
soluble in alcohol, ether, chloroform, benzene, solvent naphtha,
and fixed and volatile oils, while being only slightly soluble in
water. It melts at 9°C (48°F), boils at 151°C (304<>F) and has a
vapor pressure of 5 mm Hg of 22°C. This chemical is derived from
the heating of acetone or ethyl alcohol with bromine and alkali
hydroxide, with recovery by distillation. This product is used
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as an intermediate in organic synthesis
waxes, greases and oils.
and as a solvent for
Available freshwater data indicate that acute toxicity occurs at
concentrations as low as 11 mg/1 . No data are available
concerning chronic toxicity to sensitive freshwater aquatic life.
The available data indicate that acute and chronic toxicity to
saltwater aquatic life occur at concentrations as low as 12.0
mg/1 and 6.4 mg/1 respectively.
For the maximum protection of human health from the potential
carcinogenic effects due to exposure to bromoform, through
contaminated water and contaminated aquatic organisms, the
ambient water concentration should be zero. Concentrations of
this pollutant estimated to result in additional lifetime cancer
risk at risk levels of 10~5, 10~6, and 10~7 are 0.0019 mg/1,
0.00019 mg/1, and 0.000019 mg/1 respectively.
With respect to treatment in POTWs, laboratory studies have shown
that bromoform is not amenable to treatment incorporating
biochemical oxidation.
Dichlorobromomethane
colorless liquid which
data was available for this chemical.
an additive in certain organic synthesis processes.
Dichlorobromomethane (CHCl2Br) is a
boils at 90.1°C (194°F). No solubility
This chemical is used as
Available freshwater data indicate that acute toxicity occurs at
concentrations as low as 11 mg/1. No data are available
concerning chronic toxicity to sensitive freshwater aquatic life.
The available data indicate that acute and chronic toxicities to
saltwater aquatic life occur at concentrations as low as 12.0
mg/1 and 6.4 mg/1 respectively.
For the maximum protection of human health from the potential
carcinogenic effects due to exposure to dichlorobromomethane,
through contaminated water and contaminated aquatic organisms,
the ambient water concentration should be zero. Concentrations
of this pollutant estimated to result in additional lifetime
cancer risk at risk levels of 10~s, 10~6, and 1 0~7 are 0.0019
mg/1, 0.00019 mg/1, and 0.000019 mg/1 respectively.
With respect to treatment in POTWs, laboratory studies indicate
that this pollutant is not amenable to treatment via biochemical
oxidation.
Trichlorof luoromethane (49) .
Trichlorofluoromethane (CC13F) is a
nearly odorless, volatile liquid. It boils at 23.7°C
23.7°C. It is
colorless,
(75°F) and has a vapor pressure of 760 mm Hg at
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derived from the reaction of carbon tetrachlpride and hydrogen
fluoride in the presence of fluorinating agents such as antimony
tri- and penta-fluoride. It is used as a solvent and chemical
intermediate.
The available data for this pollutant indicate that acute
toxicity to freshwater aquatic life occurs at concentrations as
low as 11.0 mg/1. No data are available concerning this
pollutant's chronic toxicity to sensitive freshwater aquatic
life. The available data for this pollutant indicate that acute
and chronic toxicities to saltwater aquatic life occur at
concentrations as low as 12.0:mg/1 and6.40 mg/1 respectively.
With respect to saltwater aquatic life, a decrease in algal cell
numbers was found to occur at concentrations as low as 11.5 mg/1.
For the maximum protection of human health from the potential
carcinogenic, effects due to exposure to this pollutant, through
the ingestion of contaminated water and aquatic organisms, the
ambient water concentration: should be zero. Concentrations of
this pollutant estimated to result in additional lifetime cancer
risks at risk levels of 10-*, 10-*, and 10~7 are 0.0019 mg/1,
0.00019 mg/1, and 0.000019 mg/1 respectively.
With respect to treatment in POTWs, laboratory studies have
indicated that this pollutant is not amenable to treatment via
biochemical oxidation.
Chlorodibromomethane (51). Chlorodibromomethane (CHBr2Cl) is a
clear, colorless, heavy liquid. It boils at 116°C (24T°F). This
pollutant is used in the synthesis of various organic compounds.
The available data for this pollutant indicate that acute
toxicity to freshwater aquatic life occurs at concentrations as
low as 11.0 mg/1. No data are available concerning this
pollutant's chronic toxicity to sensitive freshwater aquatic
life. The available data for this pollutant indicate that acute
and chronic toxicities to saltwater aquatic life occur at
concentrations as low as 12.0 mg/1 and 6.40 mg/1 respectively.
With respect to saltwater aquatic life, a decrease in algal cell
numbers was found to occur at concentrations as low as 11.5 mg/1.
For the maximum protection of human health from the potential
carcinogenic effects due to exposure to this pollutant, through
the ingestion of contaminated water and aquatic organisms, the
ambient water concentration should be zero. Concentrations of
this pollutant estimated to result in additional lifetime cancer
risks at risk levels of 10~s, 10-«-, 10~7 are 0.0019 mg/1, 0.00019
mg/1, and 0.000019 mg/1 respectively.
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With respect to treatment in POTWs, laboratory studies indicate
that this pollutant is not amenable to treatment via biochemical
oxidation. It should be noted that the optimum expected treated
effluent level of 0.100 mg/1 for this pollutant is greater than
the level at which this pollutant was found in any foundry
sampled.
Isophorone(54). Isophorone is an industrial chemical produced at
a level of tens of millions of pounds annually in the U.S. The
chemical name for isophorone is 3,5,5-trimethy2-cyclo-hexene-l-
one and it is also known as trimethyl cyclohexanone and
isoacetophorone. The formula is C6H5(CH3)30. Normally, it is
produced as the gamma-isomer; technical grades contain about 3
percent of the beta-isomer (3,5-5-trimethyl-3-cyclohexen-l-one).
The pure gamma-isomer is a water-white liquid, with vapor
pressure less than 1 mm Hg at room temperature, and a boiling
point of 215.2°C. It has a camphor- or peppermint-like odor and
yellows upon standing. It is slightly soluble (12 mg/1) in water
and dissolves in fats and oils.
Isophorone is synthesized from acetone and is used commercially
as a solvent or co-solvent for finishes, lacquers, polyvinyl and
nitrocellulose resins, pesticides, herbicides, fats, oils, and
gums. It is also used as a chemical feedstock.
Because isophorone is an industrially used solvent, most toxicity
data are for inhalation exposure. Oral administration to
laboratory animals in two different studies revealed no acute or
chronic effects during 90 days, and no hematological or
pathological abnormalities were reported. Apparently, no studies
have been completed on the carcinogenicity of isophorone.
Isophorone does undergo bioconcentration in the lipids of aquatic
organisms and fish.
Based on subacute data, the ambient water quality criterion for
isophorone, ingested through consumption of water and fish, is
set at 460 mg/1 for the protection of human health from its toxic
properties.
Studies of the effects of isophorone on fish and aquatic
organisms reveal relatively low toxicity, compared to some other
priority pollutants.
The behavior of isophorone in POTWs has not been studied.
However, the biochemical oxidation of many of the organic
priority pollutants has been investigated in laboratory scale
studies at concentrations higher than would normally be expected
in municipal wastewater. General observations relating molecular
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structure to ease of degradation have been.developed for all of
these pollutants. The conclusion reached by the study of the
limited data is that biochemical treatment in POTWs produces
moderate removal of isophorone. This conclusion is consistent
with the findings of an experimental study of microbiological
degradation of isophorone which showed about 45 percent
bio-oxidation in 15 to 20 days in domestic wastewater, but only 9
percent in salt water. No data were found on the persistence of
isophorone in sewage sludge.
Naphthalene(55). Naphthalene is an aromatic hydrocarbon, with two
orthocondensed benzene rings and a molecular formula of CioHg.
As such, it is properly classed as a polynuclear aromatic
hydrocarbon (PAH). Pure naphthalene is a white crystalline solid
melting at 80°C (176°F).. For a solid, it has a relatively high
vapor pressure (0.05 mm Hg at 20°C), and moderate water
solubility (19 mg/1 at 20°C)... Naphthalene is the most abundant
single component of coal tar. Production is more than a third of
a million tons annually in the U.S. About three fourths of the
production is used as feedstock for phthalic anhydride
manufacture. Most of the remaining production goes into the
manufacture of insecticides, dyestuffs, pigments, and
Pharmaceuticals. Chlorinated and partially hydrogenated
naphthalenes are used in some solvent mixtures. Naphthalene is
also used as a moth repellent.
Naphthalene/ ingested by humans, has reportedly caused vision
loss (cataracts), hemolytic anemia, and occasionally, renal
disease. These effects of naphthalene ingestion are confirmed by
studies on laboratory animals., No carcinogenicity studies are
available which can be used to:demonstrate carcinogenic activity
for naphthalene. Naphthalene does bioconcentrate in aquatic
organisms.
The available data base is insufficient to establish an ambient
water criterion for the protection of human health from the toxic
properties of naphthalene. Available data show that adverse
effects in aquatic life occur at concentrations as low as 0.62
mg/1.
Only a limited number of studies have been conducted to determine
the effects of naphthalene on aquatic organisms. The data from
those studies show only moderate toxicity.
Naphthalene has been detected in sewage plant effluents at
concentrations up to 22 »/g/l in studies carried out by the U.S.
EPA. Influent levels were not reported. The behavior of
naphthalene in POTWs has not been studied. However, recent
studies have determined that naphthalene will accumulate in
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sediments at TOO times the concentration in overlying water.
These results suggest that naphthalene will be readily removed by
primary and secondary settling in POTWs, if it is not
biologically degraded. ;
Biochemical oxidation of many of the organic priority pollutants
has been investigated in laboratory scale studies at
concentrations higher than would normally be expected in
municipal wastewater. General observations relating molecular
structure to ease of degradation have been developed for all of
these pollutants. The conclusion reached by study of the limited
data is that biological treatment produces a high removal by
degradation of naphthalene. One recent study has shown that
microorganisms can degrade naphthalene, first to a dihydro
compound, and ultimately to carbon dioxide and water.
Nitrobenzene (56). Nitrobenzene (C6H5N02), also called
nitrobenzol- and oil of mirbane, is a pale yellow, oily liquid,
manufactured by reacting benzene with nitric acid and sulfuric
acid. Nitrobenzene boils at 210°C (410°F) and has a vapor
pressure of 0.34 mm Hg at 25°C. It is slightly soluble in water
(1.9 g/1 at 20°C), and is miscible with most organic solvents.
Estimates of annual U.S. production vary widely, ranging from 100
to 350 thousand tons.
Almost the entire volume of nitrobenzene produced (97 percent) is
converted to aniline, which is used in dyes, rubber, and
medicinals. Other uses for nitrobenzene include: solvent for
organic synthesis, metal polish, shoe polish, and perfume.
The toxic effects of ingested or inhaled nitrobenzene in humans
are related to its action in blood: methemoglobinemia and
cyanosis. Nitrobenzene administered orally to laboratory animals
caused degeneration of heart, kidney, and liver tissue;
paralysis; and death. Nitrobenzene has also exhibited
teratogenicity in laboratory animals, but studies conducted to
determine mutagenicity or carcinogenicity did not reveal either
of these properties.
For the prevention of adverse effects due to the organoleptic
properties of nitrobenzene in water, the criterion is 0.030 mg/1.
r
Data on the behavior of nitrobenzene in POTWs are not available.
However, laboratory scale studies have been conducted at
concentrations higher than those expected to be found in
municipal wastewaters. Biochemical oxidation produced no
degradation after 5, 10, and 20 days. A second study also
reported no degradation after 28 hours, using an acclimated,
phenol-adapted seed culture with nitrobenzene at 100 mg/1. Based
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on these limited data, and on general observations relating
molecular structure to ease of biological oxidation, it is
concluded that little or no removal of nitrobenzene occurs during
biological treatment in POTWs. The low water solubility and low
vapor pressure of nitrobenzene lead to the expectation that
nitrobenzene will be removed from POTWs in the effluent and by
volatilization during aerobic treatment.
2-nitrophenol (57). 2-nitrophenol (NOzCgH^OH) , also called
ortho-nitrophenol, is a light yellow crystalline solid,
manufactured commercially by hydrolysis of 2-chloro-nitrobenzene
with aqueous sodium hydroxide. 2-nitrophenol melts at 45°C
(113°F) and has a vapor pressure of 1 mm Hg at 49°C.
2-nitrophenol is slightly soluble in water (2.1 g/1 at 20°C) and
soluble in organic solvents. This phenol does not react to give
a color with 4-aminoantipyrene, and therefore does not contribute
to the non-conventional pollutant parameter "Total Phenols." U.S.
annual production is five thousand to eight thousand tons.
The principle use of ortho-nitrophenol is to synthesize
ortho-aminophenol, ortho-nitroanisole, and other dyestuff
intermediates.
The toxic effects of 2-nitrophenol on humans have not been
extensively studied. Data from experiments with laboratory
animals indicate that exposure to this compound causes kidney and
liver damage. Other studies indicate that the compound acts
directly on cell membranes, and inhibits certain enzyme systems
in vitro. No information regarding potential teratogenicity was
found. Available data indicate that this compound does not pose
a mutagenic hazard to humans. Very limited data for
2-nitrophenol do not reveal potential carcinogenic effects.
The available data base is insufficient to establish an ambient
water criterion for the protection of human health from exposure
to 2-nitrophenol. No data are available on which to evaluate the
adverse effects of 2-nitrophenol on aquatic life.
Data on the behavior of 2-nitrophenol in POTWs were not
available. However, laboratory scale studies have been conducted
at concentrations higher than those expected to be found in
municipal wastewater. Biochemical oxidation using adapted
cultures from various sources produced 95 percent degradation in
three to six days in one study. Similar results were reported
for other studies. Based on these data, and on general
observations relating molecular structure to ease of biological
oxidation, it is expected that 2-nitrophenol will be
biochemically oxidized to a lesser extent than domestic sewage by
biological treatment in POTWs.
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4-nitrophenol (58). 4-nitrophenol (NO2C6H4OH), also called
para-nitrophenol, is a colorless to yellowish crystalline solid
manufactured commercially by hydrolysis of 4-chloro-nitrobenzene
with aqueous sodium hydroxide. 4-nitrophenol melts at 114<>C
(237°F). Vapor pressure is not cited in the usual sources.
4-nitrophenol is slightly soluble in water (15 g/1 at 25°C) and
soluble in organic solvents. This phenol does not react to give
a color with 4-aminoantipyrene, and therefore does not contribute
to the non-conventional pollutant parameter "Total Phenols."
U.S. annual production is about 20/000 tons.
Para-nitrophenol is used to prepare phenetidine, aceta-phene-ti-
dine, azo and sulfur dyes, photochemicals, and pesticides.
The toxic effects of 4-nitrophenol on humans have not been
extensively studied. Data from experiments with laboratory
animals indicate that exposure to this compound results in
methemoglobinemia (a metabolic disorder of blood), shortness of
breath, and stimulation followed by depression. Other studies
indicate that the compound acts directly on cell membranes, and
inhibits certain enzyme systems in vitro. No information
regarding potential teratogenicity was found. Available data
indicate that this compound does not pose a mutagenic hazard to
humans. Very limited data for 4-nitrophenol do not reveal
potential carcinogenic effects, although the compound has been
selected by the national cancer institute for testing under the
Carcinogenic Bioassay Program.
No U.S. standards for exposure to 4-nitrophenol in ambient water
have been established.
Data on the behavior of 4 nitrophenol in POTWs are not available.
However, laboratory scale studies have been conducted at
concentrations higher than those expected to be found in
municipal wastewater. Biochemical oxidation using adapated
cultures from various sources produced 95 percent degradation in
three to six days in one study. Similar results were reported
for other studies. Based on these data, and on general
observations relating molecular structure to ease of biological
oxidation, it is expected that complete or nearly complete
removal of 4-nitrophenol occurs during biological treatment in
POTWs.
2,4-dinitrophenol (59). 2,4-dinitrophenol [(NO2)2C6H3OH], a
yellow crystalline solid, is manufactured commercially by
hydrolysis of 2,4-dinitro-l-chlorobenzene with sodium hydroxide.
2,4-dinitrophenol sublimes at 114°C (237°F). Vapor pressure is
not cited in usual sources. It is slightly soluble in water (7.9
g/1 at 25°C) and soluble in organic solvents. This phenol does
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not react with 4-aminoantipyrene and therefore does)( not
contribute to the non-conventional pollutant parameter Total
Phenols." U.S. annual production is about 500 tons.
2,4-dinitrophenol is used to manufacture sulfur and azo dyes,
photochemicals, explosives, and pesticides.
The toxic effects of 2,4-dinitrophenol in humans are generally
attributed to this pollutant's ability to uncouple oxidative
phosphorylation. In brief, this means that sufficient
2,4-dinitrophenol short-circuits cell metabolism by preventing
utilization of energy provided by respiration and glycolosis.
Specific symptoms are gastrointestinal disturbances, weakness,
dizziness, headache, and loss of weight. More acute poisoning
includes symptoms such as: burning thirst, agitation, irregular"
breathing, and abnormally high fever. This compound also
inhibits other enzyme systems; and acts directly on the cell
membrane, inhibiting chloride permeability. Ingestion of
2,4-dinitrophenol also causes cataracts in humans.
Based on available data, it appears unlikely that
2,4-dinitrophenol poses a teratogenic hazard to humans. Results
of studies of mutagenic activity of this compound are
inconclusive as far as humans are concerned. Available data
suggest that 2,4-dinitrophenol does not possess carcinogenic
properties.
To protect human health from the adverse effects of
2,4-dinitrophenol, ingested in contaminated water and fish, the
suggested water quality criterion is 0.0686 mg/1.
Data on the behavior of 2,4-dinitrophenol in POTWs are not
available. However, laboratory scale studies have been conducted
at concentrations higher than those expected to be found in
municipal wastewaters. Biochemical oxidation using a
phenol-adapted seed culture produced 92 percent degradation in
3.5 hours. Similar results were reported' for other studies.
Based on these data, and on general observations relating
molecular structure to ease of biological oxidation, it is
expected that complete or nearly complete removal of
2,4-dinitrophenol occurs during biological treatment in POTWs..
4.6-dinitro-o-cresol (60). 4,6-dinitro-o-cresol (DNOC) is a
yellow crystalline solid derived from o-cresol. DNOC melts at
85.8°C and has a vapor pressure of 0.000052 mm Hg at 20°C. DNOC
is sparingly soluble in water (100 mg/1 at 20°C), while it is
readily soluble in alkaline aqueous solutions, ether, acetone,
and alcohol. DNOC is produced by sulfonation of o-cresol
followed by treatment with nitric acid.
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DNOC is used primarily as a blossom thinning agent on fruit trees
and as a fungicide, insecticide and miticide on fruit trees
during the dormant season. It is highly toxic to plants in the
growing stage. DNOC is not manufactured in the U.S. as an
agricultural chemical. Imports of DNOC have been decreasing
recently with only 30,000 Ibs being imported in 1976.
While DNOC is highly toxic to plants, it is also very toxic to
humans and is considered to be one of the more dangerous
agricultural pesticides. The available literature concerning
humans indicates that DNOC may be absorbed in acutely toxic
amounts through the respiratory and gastrointestinal tracts and
through the skin, and that it accumulates in the blood. Symptoms
of poisoning include profuse sweating, thirst, loss of weight,
headache, malaise, and yellow staining to the skin, hair, sclera,
and conjunctiva.
There is no evidence to suggest that DNOC is teratogenic,
mutagenic, or carcinogenic. The effects of DNOC in the human due
to chronic exposure are basically the same as those effects
resulting from acute exposure. Although DNOC is considered a
cumulative poison in humans, cataract formation is the only
chronic effect noted in any human or experimental animal study.
It is believed that DNOC accumulates in the human body, and that
toxic symptoms may develop when blood levels exceed 20 mg/kg.
For the protection of human health from the toxic properties of
dinitro-o-cresol, ingested through water and contaminated aquatic
organisms, the ambient water criterion is determined to be 0.0134
mg/1. If contaminated aquatic organisms alone are consumed,
excluding the consumption of water, the ambient water criterion
is determined to be 0.765 mg/1. No data are available concerning
the adverse effects of 4,6-dinitro-o-cresol on aquatic life.
Some studies have been reported regarding the behavior of DNOC in
POTWs. Biochemical oxidation of DNOC under laboratory conditions
at a concentration of 100 mg/1 produced 22 percent degradation in
3.5 hours, using acclimated phenol adapted seed cultures. In
addition, the nitro group in the number 4 (para) position seems
to impart a destabilizing effect on the molecule. Based on these
data and general conclusions relating molecular structure to
biochemical oxidation, it is expected that 4,6-dinitro-o-cresol
will be biochemically oxidized to a lesser extent than domestic
sewage by biological treatment in POTWs.
N-nitrosodipheny1amine (62). N-nitrosodiphenylamine [(C«H5)2NNO],
also called nitrous diphenylamide, is a yellow crystalline solid
manufactured by nitrosation of diphenylamine. It melts at 66°C
(151°F) and is insoluble in water, but soluble in several organic
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solvents other than hydrocarbons. Production in the U.S. has
approached 1500 tons per year. The compound is used as a
retarder for rubber vulcanization and as a pesticide for control
of scorch (a fungus disease of plants).
N-nitroso compounds are acutely toxic to every animal species
tested and are also poisonous to humans. N-nitrosodiphenylamme
toxicity in adult rats lies in the midrange of the values for 60
N-nitroso compounds tested. Liver damage is the .principal toxic
effect. N-nitrosodiphenylamine, unlike many other
N-nitrosoamines, does not show mutagenic activity.
N-nitrosodiphenylamine has been reported by several
investigations to be non-carcinogenic. However, the compound is
capable of trans-nitrosation and could thereby convert other
amines to carcinogenic N-nitrosoamines. Sixty-seven of 87
N-nitrosoamines studied were reported to have carcinogenic
activity. No water quality criterion has been proposed for
N-nitrosodiphenylamine.
No data are available on the behavior of N-nitrosodiphenylamine
in POTWs. Biochemical oxidation of many of the organic priority
pollutants has been investigated, at .least in laboratory scale
studies, at concentrations higher than those expected to be
contained in most municipal wastewaters. General observations
have been developed relating molecular structure to ease of
degradation for all the organic priority pollutants. The
conclusion reached by study of. the limited data is that-
biological treatment produces little or no removal of
N-nitrosodiphenylamine in POTWs. No information is available
regarding possible interference by N-nitrosodiphenylamine in POTW
processes, or on the possible detrimental effects on sludge used
to amend soils in which crops are grown. However, no
interference or detrimental effects are expected, because
N-nitroso compounds are widely distributed in the soil and water-
environment, at low concentrations, as a result of microbial
action on nitrates and nitrosatable compounds.
N-nitrosodi-n-propvlamine (63). No physical properties or usage
data could be found for this pollutant. It can be formed from
the interaction of nitrite with secondary and tertiary amines.
The available data for this pollutant indicate that acute
toxicity to freshwater aquatic life occurs at concentrations as
low as 5.85 mg/1. No data are available concerning this
pollutant's chronic toxicity to freshwater and saltwater aquatic
life. The available data indicate that acute toxicity to
saltwater aquatic life occurs at concentrations as low as 3,300
mg/1. . ..- ••-- -• - •" • '"_'"•" ::'---' -'-. '"::'"r •" -•"-
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For the maximum protection of human health from the potential
carcinogenic effects due to exposure to this pollutant, through
the ingestion of contaminated water and aquatic organisms, the
ambient water concentration should be zero. Concentrations of
this pollutant estimated to result in additional lifetime cancer
risks at risk levels of 10-«, 10-«, and 10~7 are 0.00016 mg/1,
0.000016 mg/1, and 0.0000016 mg/1 respectively.
With respect to treatment in POTWs, laboratory studies indicate
that this pollutant is not amenable to treatment via biochemical
oxidation.
Pentachlorophenol(64). Pentachlorophenol (C6C15OH) is a white
crystalline solid produced commercially by chlorination of phenol
or polychlorophenols. U.S. annual production is in excess of
20,000 tons. Pentachlorophenol melts at 190°C (374°F) and is
slightly soluble in water (14 mg/1). Pentachlorophenol is. not
detected by the 4-aminoantipyrene method.
Pentachlorophenol is a bactericide and fungicide and is used for
the preservation of wood and wood products. It is competitive
with creosote in that application. It is also used as a
preservative in glues, starches, and photographic papers. It is
an effective algicide and herbicide.
Although data are available on the human toxicity effects of
Pentachlorophenol, interpretation of data is frequently
uncertain. Occupational exposure observations must be examined
carefully, because exposure to pentachlorophenol is frequently
accompanied by exposure to other wood preservatives.
Additionally, experimental results and occupational exposure
observations must be examined carefully, to make sure that
observed effects are produced by the pentachlorophenol itself and
not by the by-products which usually contaminate
pentachlorophenol.
Acute and chronic toxic effects of pentachlorophenol in humans
are similar; muscle weakness, headache, loss of appetite,
abdominal pain, weight loss, and irritation of skin, eyes, and
respiratory tract. Available literature indicates that
pentachlorophenol does not accumulate in body tissues to any
significant extent. Studies on laboratory animals of
distribution of the compound in body tissues showed the highest
levels of pentachlorophenol in liver, kidney, and intestine,
while the lowest levels were in brain, fat, muscle, and bone.
Toxic effects of pentachlorophenol in aquatic -organisms are much
greater at a pH of 6, where this weak acid is predominately in
the undissociated form than at a pH of 9, where the ionic form
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predominates. Similar results were observed in mammals, where
oral lethal doses of pentachlorophenol were lower, when the
compound was administered in hydrocarbon solvents (un-ionized
form) than when .it was administered as the sodium salt (ionized
form) in water.
There appear to be no significant teratogenic, mutagenic, or
carcinogenic effects of pentachlorophenol.
For the protection of human health from the toxic properties of
pentachlorophenol, ingested through water and through
contaminated aquatic organisms, the ambient water quality
criterion is determined to be 1.01 mg/1. If contaminated aquatic
organisms alone are consumed, excluding the consumption of water,
the ambient water criterion is determined to be 29.4 mg/1.
Available data show that adverse effects on aquatic life occur at
concentrations as low as 0.0032 mg/1.
Only limited data are available for reaching conclusions about
the behavior of pentachlorophenol in POTWs. Pentachlorophenol
has been found in the influent to POTWs. In a study of one POTW,
the mean removal was 59 percent over a 7 day period. Trickling
filters removed 44 percent of the influent pentachlorophenol,
suggesting that biological degradation occurs. The same report
compared removal of pentachlorophenol at the same plant and two
additional POTWs on a later date, and obtained values of 4.4,
19.5 and 28.6 percent removal, the last value being for the plant
which achieved 59 percent removal in the original study.
Influent concentrations of pentachlorophenol ranged from 0.0014
to 0.0046 mg/1. Other studies, including the general review of
data relating molecular structure to biological oxidation,
indicate that pentachlorophenol is not removed by biological
treatment processes in POTWs, Anaerobic digestion processes are
inhibited by 0.4 mg/1 of pentachlorophenol.
The low water solubility and low volatility of pentachlorophenol
lead to the expectation that most of the compund will remain in
the sludge in..a POTW. The effect on plants grown on land treated
with sludge containing pentachlorophenol is unpredictable.
Laboratory studies show that this compound affects crop
germination at 5.4 mg/1. However, photodecomposition of
pentachlorophenol occurs in sunlight. The effects of the various
breakdown products which may remain in the soil were not found in
the literature.
Phenol(65). Phenol, also called hydroxybenzerie and carbolic
acid, is a clear, colorless, hygroscopic, deliquescent,
crystalline solid at room temperature. Its melting point is 43°C
(109°F) and its vapor pressure at room temperature is 0.35 mm Hg.
325.
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It is very soluble in water (67 gm/1 at 16°C) and can be
dissolved in benzene, oils, and petroleum solids. Its formula is
CeHgOH.
Although a small percent of the annual production of phenol is
derived from coal tar as a naturally occuring product, most of
the phenol is synthesized. Two of the methods are fusion of
benzene sulfonate with sodium hydroxide, and oxidation of cumene
followed by cleavage with a catalyst. Annual production in the
U.S. is in excess of one million tons. Phenol is generated
during the distillation of wood and the microbiological
decomposition of organic matter in the mammalian intestinal
tract.
Phenol is used as a disinfectant, in the manufacture of resins,
dyestuffs, and Pharmaceuticals, and in the photo processing
industry. In this discussion, phenol is the specific compound
which is separated by methylene chloride extraction of an
acidified sample and identified and quantified by GC/MS. Phenol
also contributes to the pollutant "Total Phenols", discussed
elsewhere, which are determined by the 4-AAP colorimetric method.
Phenol exhibits acute and sub-acute toxicity in humans and
laboratory animals. Acute oral doses of phenol in humans cause
sudden collapse and unconsciousness due to the action of phenol
on the central nervous system. Death occurs by respiratory
arrest. Sub-acute oral doses in mammals are rapidly absorbed,
then quickly distributed to various organs, then cleared from the
body by urinary excretion and metabolism. Long term exposure, by
drinking phenol contaminated water, has resulted in statistically
significant increases in reported cases of diarrhea, mouth sores,
and burning of the mouth. In laboratory animals, long term oral
administration at low levels produced slight liver and kidney
damage. No reports were found regarding carcinogenicity of
phenol administered orally - all carcinogenicity studies involved
skin tests.
For the protection of human health from phenol ingested through
water and through contaminated aquatic organisms, the ambient
water criterion is determined to be 3.5 mg/1. If contaminated
aquatic organisms alone are consumed, excluding the consumption
of water, the ambient water criterion is 769 mg/1. Available
data show that adverse effects in aquatic life occur at
concentrations as low as 2.56 mg/1.
Data have been developed on the behavior of phenol in POTWs.
Phenol is biodegradable by biota present in POTWs. The ability
of a POTW to treat phenol-bearing influents depends upon
acclimation of the biota and the constancy of the phenol
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concentration. It appears that an induction period is required
to build up the population of organisms which can degrade Phenol.
Too large a concentration will result in upset or^pass through in
the POTW but the specific level causing upset depends on the
immediate past history of phenol concentrations in^the influent,
Phenol levels as high as 200 mg/1 have been treated with 95
percent removal in POTWs, but more or less continuous presence of
phenol is necessary to maintain the population of microorganisms
that degrade phenol.
Phenol which is not degraded is expected to pass thorugh the POTW
because of its very high water solubility. However in POTWs
whe?e ?hlorination isVacticed for disinfection of the POTW
effluent, chlorination of phenol may occur. The products of that
reaction may be priority pollutants.
The EPA has developed data on influent and effluent
concentrations of total phenols in a study of 103 POTWs.
Sowever the analytical procedure was the 4-AAP method mentioned
earlier and not the GC/MS method specif ically^ for phenol.
SlscuSs'ion of the study, which of course^ncludes phenol, is
presented under the pollutant heading "Total Phenols.
Phthalate Esters (66-71). Phthalic _ acid ,-omer?c"
1,2-benzenedicarboxylic acid, is one of three ifomer ic
benzenedicarboxylic acids produced by the chemical industry. The
otter So isomeric forms a?e called isophthalic and terephathalic
acids. The formula for all three acids is C«H* 5°OH)f' ,^°me
esters of phthalic acid are designated as priority ^"tants.
They will be discussed as a group here, and specif ic properties
of individual phthalate esters will be discussed afterwards.
Phthalic acid esters are manufactured in the U.S. at ah annual
rate in excess of 1 billion pounds. They are used as
DlaSticizers - primarily in the production of polyvinyl chloride
?P??) reSiSsY The most widely used phthalate plasticizer is bis
2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (66) which accounts for nearly one third
of the phthalate esters produced. This particular ester is
Commonly referred to as dioctyl phthalate (DOP) ^ shouldnot^e
confused with one of the less used esters, di-n-octyl Palate
(69), which is also used as a plastcizer. In addition to these
two isomeric dioctyl phthalates, four .other esters, also used
primarily as plasticizers, are designated asjprionty Poljut^s.
They are: butyl benzyl phthalate (67), di-n-butyl phthalate (68),
diethyl phthalate (70), and dimethyl phthalate (71).
Industrially, phthalate esters are prepared from
anhydride and the specific alcohol to form the ester. Some
evidence is available suggesting that phthalic acid esters also
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may be synthesized by certain plant and animal tissues. The
extent to which this occurs in nature is not known.
Phthalate esters used as plasticizers can be present in
concentrations up to 60 percent of the total weight of the PVC
plastic. The plasticizer is not linked by primary chemical bonds
to the PVC resin. Rather, it is locked into the structure of
intermeshing polymer molecules and held by van der Waals forces
The result is that the plasticizer is easily extracted!
Plasticizers are responsible for the odor associated with new
plastic toys or flexible sheet that has been contained in a
sealed package.
Although the phthalate esters are not soluble, or are only verv
slightly soluble in water, they do migrate into aqueous solutions
P-fuef "^.contact with the plastic. Thus industrial facilities
with tank linings, wire and cable coverings, tubing, and sheet
flooring of PVC are expected to discharge some phthalate esters
Xu4.u ?XE raw waste- In addition to their ,use as plasticizers
phthalate esters are used in lubricating oils and pesticid4
C^uX?r?' These also can contribute to industrial discharge of
phthalate esters.
From the accumulated data on acute toxicity in animals, phthalate
esters may be considered as having a rather low order of
toxicity. Human toxicity data are limited. It is thought that
the toxic effects of the esters are most likely due to one of the
metabolic products,, in particular the monoester. Oral acute
toxicity in animals is greater for the lower molecular weiaht
esters than for the higher molecular weight esters.
Orally administered phthalate esters generally produced enlarging
of liver and kidney, and atrophy of testes in laboratory animals!
Specific esters produced enlargement of heart and brain,
spleenitis, and degeneration of central nervous system tissue
Subacute doses administered orally to laboratory animals
some decrease in growth and degeneration of the testes.
studies in animals showed similar effects to those found
and subacute studies, but to a much lower degree.
organs were enlarged, but pathological changes were not
detected.
produced
Chronic
in acute
The same
usually
A recent study of several phthalic esters produced suggestive but
not conclusive evidence that dimethyl and diethyl phthalates have
a cancer liability. Only four of the six priority pollutant
esters were included in the study. Phthalate esters do
bioconcentrate in fish. The factors, weighted for relative
consumption of various aquatic and marine food groups, are used
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to calculate ambient water quality ' criteria for four phthalate
esters. The values are included in the discussion of the
specific esters.
Studies of toxicity of phthalate esters in freshwater and salt
water organisms are scarce. A chronic toxicity test with
bis(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate showed that significant reproductive
impairment occurred at 3 mg/1 in the freshwater crustacean
Daphnia maqna.. In acute toxicity studies, saltwater fish and
organisms~iho'wed sensitivity differences of up to eight-fold to
butyl benzyl, diethyl, and dimethyl phthalates. This suggests
that each ester must be evaluated individually for toxic effects.
The behavior of phthalate esters in POTWs has "not been studied.
However, the biochemical oxidation of many of the organic
priority pollutants has been investigated in laboratory scale
studies at concentrations higher than would normally be expected
In municipal wastewater. , Three of the phthalate. esters were,
studied. Bis(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate was found to be degraded
Slightly or not at all, and its removal by biological treatment
in a POTW is expected to be slight or zero. Di-n-butyl phthalate
and diethyl phthalate were degraded to a moderate degree, and
their removal by biological treatment in a POTW is expected to
occur to a moderate degree. Based on these data and other
observations relating molecular structure to ease of biochemical
degradation of other organic pollutants, it is expected^that
butyl benzyl and dimethyl phthalate will be biochemically
oxidized to a lesser extent than domestic sewage by biological
treatment in a POTW. An EPA study of seven POTWs revealed that
for all but di-n-octyl phthalate, which was not studied, removals
ranged from 62 to 87 percent.
No informations was found on possible interference with POTW
operation or the possible effects on sludge by the phthalate
esters The water insoluble phthalate esters - butyl benzyl and
di-n-octyl phthalate - would tend to remain in sludge, whereas
the other four priority pollutant phthalate esters with water
solubilities ranging from 50,mg/1 to 4.5 mg/1 would probably pass.
through into the POTW effluent.
Bis (2-ethylhexyl.) phthalate(66). In addition to the general
FiHarks and "discussion on phthalate esters, specific information
on bis (2-ethylhexyl) phthalate is provided. Little ^^mation
is available about the physical properties of bis(2-ethylhexyl)
phthalate. It is a liquid boiling at 387°C at 5mm Hg and is
insoluble in water. Its formula is C,H (COOC?H17)2-This
priority pollutant constitutes about one third of the phthalate
ester production in the U.S. It is commonly referred to as
dioctyl phthalate, or DOP, in the plastics industry, where it is
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the most extensively used compound for the plasticization of
polyvinyl chloride (PVC). Bis(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate has been
approved by the FDA for use in plastics in contact with food.
Therefore, it may be found in wastewaters coming in contact with
discarded plastic food wrappers as well as the PVC films and
shapes normally found in industrial plants. This priority
pollutant is also a commonly used organic diffusion pump oil,
where its low vapor pressure is an advantage.
For the protection of human health from the toxic properties of
bis(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate, ingested through water and through
contaminated aquatic organisms, the ambient water quality
criterion is determined to be 15 mg/1. If contaminated aquatic
organisms alone are consumed, excluding the consumption of water
the ambient water criterion is determined to be 50 mg/1.
Although the behavior of bis(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate in POTWs has
not been studied, biochemical oxidation of -this priority
pollutant has been studied on a laboratory scale at
concentrations higher than would normally be expected in
municipal wastewater. In fresh water with a non-acclimated seed
culture, no biochemical oxidation was observed after 5, 10, and
20 days. However, with an acclimated seed culture, biological
oxidation occurred to the extents of 13, 0, 6, and 23 percent of
theoretical oxidation after 5, 10, 15 and 20 days, respectively.
Bis(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate concentrations were 3 to 10 mg/1
Little or no removal of bis(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate by biological
treatment in POTWs is expected.
Butyl benzyl phthalate(67). In addition to the general remarks
and discussion on phthalate esters, specific information on butyl
benzyl phthalate is provided. No information was found on the
physical properties of this compound.
Butyl benzyl phthalate is used as a plasticizer for PVC. Two
special applications differentiate it from other phthalate
esters. It is approved by the U.S. FDA for food contact in
wrappers and containers; and it is the industry standard for
plasticization of vinyl flooring, because it provides stain
resistance.
No ambient water quality criterion is proposed for
phthalate.
butyl benzyl
. phthalate removal, by biological treatment in a
POTW, is expected to occur to a moderate degree.
Di-n-butvl phthalate (68). In addition to the general remarks
and discussion on phthalate esters, specific information on
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di-n-butyl phthalate (DBF) is provided. DBF.is a colorless, oily
liquid, boiling at 340°C. Its .water solubility at room
temperature is reported to : be 0.4 g/1 and 4.5 g/1 in two
different chemistry handbooks. The formula for
DBF, C6H4(COOC^H9)2 is the same as for its isomer, di-isobutyl
phthalate. DCP production is one to two percent of total U.S.
phthalate ester production.
Dibutyl phthalate is used to a limited extent as a plasticizer
for polyvinyl chloride (PVC). It is not approved for contact
with food. It is used in liquid lipsticks and as a dilutent for
polysulfide dental impression materials. DBF is used as a
plasticizer for nitrocellulose in making gun powder, and as a
fuel in solid propellants - for rockets. Further uses are
insecticides, safety glass manufacture, textile lubricating
agents, printing inks, adhesives, paper coatings and resin
solvents. .
For protection of human health from the toxic properties'of
dibutyl phthalate, ingested through water and through
contaminated aquatic organisms, the ambient water quality
criterion is determined to be 34 mg/1. If contaminated aquatic-
organisms are consumed, excluding the consumption of water, the
ambient water criterion is 154 mg/1.
Although the behavior of di-n-butyl phthalate in POTWs has not
been studied, biochemical oxidation of this priority pollutant
has been studied on a laboratory scale at concentrations higher
than would normally be expected 'in municipal wastewaters.
Biochemical oxidation of 35, 43, and 45 percent of theoretical
oxidation were obtained after 5, 10, and 20 days, respectively,
using sewage microorganisms as an unacclimated seed culture.
Based on these data, it is expected that di-n-butyl phthalate
will be biochemically oxidized to a lesser extent than domestic
sewage by biological treatment in POTWs. Biological treatment in
POTWs is expected to remove di-n-butyl phthalate to a moderate
degree.
Di-n-octvl phthalate(69). In addition to the general remarks and
discussion on phthalate esters, specific information on
di-n-octyl phthalate is provided, Di-n-octyl phthalate is not to
be confused with the isomeric bis(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate which
is commonly referred to in the plastics industry as DOP.
Di-n-octyl phthalate is a liquid which boils at 220°C at 5 mm Hg.
It is insoluble in water. Its molecular formula is
C6H4(COOC8H17)2. Its production constitutes about one percent of
all phthalate ester production in the U.S.
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Industrially, di-n-octyl phthalate
polyvinyl chloride (PVC) resins.
is used to plasticize
No ambient water quality criterion is proposed for di-n-octyl
phthalate. Biological treatment in POTW is expected to lead to
little or no removal of di-n-octyl phthalate.
Diethyl phthalate (70). In addition to the general remarks and
discussion on phthalate esters, specific information on diethyl
phthalate is provided. Diethyl phthalate, or DEP, is a colorless
liquid boiling at 296°C, and is insoluble in water. Its
molecular formula is C6H4(COOC2H5)2. Production of diethyl
phthalate constitutes about 1.5 percent of phthalate ester
production in the U.S.
Diethyl phthalate is approved for use in plastic food containers
by the U.S. FDA. In addition to its use as a polyvinyl chloride
(PVC) plasticizer, DEP is used to plasticize cellulose nitrate
for gun powder, to dilute polysulfide dental impression
materials, and as an accelerator for dyeing triacetate fibers.
An additional use, which would contribute to its wide
distribution in the environment, is as an approved special
denaturant for ethyl alcohol. The alcohol-containing products,
for which DEP is an approved denaturant, include a wide range of
personal care items such as bath preparations, bay rum, colognes,
hair preparations, face and hand creams, perfumes and toilet
soaps. Additionally, this denaturant is approved for use in
biocides, cleaning solutions, disinfectants, insecticides,
fungicides, and room deodorants which have ethyl alcohol as part
of the formulation. It is expected, therefore, that people and
buildings would have some surface loading of this priority
pollutant which would find its way into raw wastewaters.
For the protection of human health from the toxic properties of
diethyl phthalate, ingested through water and through
contaminated aquatic organisms, the ambient water quality
criterion is determined to be 350 mg/1. If contaminated aquatic
organisms alone are consumed, excluding the consumption of water,
the ambient water criterion is 1800 mg/1.
Although the behavior of diethyl phthalate in POTWs has not been
studied, biochemical oxidation of this priority pollutant has
been studied on a laboratory scale at concentrations higher than
would normally be expected in municipal wastewaters. Biochemical
oxidation of 79, 84, and 89 percent of theoretical was observed
after 5, 5, and 20 days, respectively. Based on these results,
it is expected that diethyl phthalate will be biochemically
oxidized to a lesser extent than domestic sewage by biological
treatment in POTWs.
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Dimethyl phthalate (71). In addition to the general remarks^and
discussion on pntnaiate esters, specific information on dimethyl
phthalate (DMP) is provided. BMP has the lowest molecular weight
of the phthalate esters - M.W. of 194 compared to M.W. of 391 for
bis(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate. DMP has a boiling point of 2820C.
It is a colorless liquid, soluble in water to the extent of 5
mg/1. Its molecular formula is C6H4(COOCH3)2.
Dimethyl phthalate production in the U.S. is just under one
percent of total phthalate ester production. DMP is used to some
extent as a plasticizer in cellulosics. However its principle
specific use is for dispersion of polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF).
PVDF is resistant to most chemicals and finds use as electrical
insulation, chemical process equipment (particularly pipe), and
as a base for long-life finishes for exterior metal siding. Coil
coating techniques are used to apply PVDF dispersions to aluminum
or galvanized steel siding.
For the protection of human health from the toxic properties of
dimethyl phthalate, ingested through water and through
contaminated aquatic organisms, the ambient water quality
criterion is determined to be 313 mg/1. If contaminated aquatic
organisms alone are consumed, excluding the consumption of water,
the ambient water criterion is 2800 mg/1.
Based on limited data and observations relating molecular
structure to ease of biochemical degradation of other organic
pollutants, it is expected that dimethyl phthalate will be
biochemically oxidized to a lesser extent than domestic sewage by
biological treatment in POTWs.
Polvnuclear Aromatic Hydrocarbons(72-84). The polynuclear
aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) selected as priority pollutants are a
group of 13 compounds consisting of substituted and unsubstituted
polycyclic aromatic rings. The general class of PAHs includes
heterocyclics, but none of those were selected as priority
pollutants. PAHs are formed as the result of incomplete
combustion when organic compounds are burned with insufficient
oxvqen. PAHs are found in coke oven emissions, vehicular
emissions, and volatile products of oil and gas burning. The
compounds chosen as priority pollutants are listed with their
structural formulas and melting points (m.p.). All are insoluble
in water.
72 Benzo(a)anthracene (1,2-benzanthracene)*
m.p. 162°C (324°F)
73 Benzo(a)pyrene (3,4-benzopyrene)*
; T'-~i m.p. '17.6DC (349°F)
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74 3,4-benzofluoranthene*
m.p. 168°C (334°F)
75 Benzo(k)fluoranthene (11,12-benzofluoranthene)
m.p. 217°C (391°F)
76 Chrysene (1,2-benzophenanthrene)*
77 Acenaphthylene*
HC=CH
78 Anthracene*
m.p. 255°C
m.p. 92°C (198°F)
m.p. 216°C (421°F)
HC=CH
79 Benzo(ghi)perylene (1,12-benzoperylene)
m.p. not reported
80 Fluorene (alpha-diphenylenemethane)*
81 Phenanthrene*
m.p. 116°C (241<>F)
m.p. 101°C (214°F)
82 Dibenzo(a,h)anthracene (1,2,5,6-dibenzoanthracene)
m.p. 269°C (516°F)
83 Indenod,2,3-cd)pyrene (2,3-o-phenylenepyrene)
m.p. not available
84 Pyrene*
m.p. 156°C (313°F)
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Note; An asterisk indicates that the pollutant is known to be present
in metal molding and casting process wastewaters.
Some of these priority pollutants have commercial or industrial
useL Benzo (a) anthracene, benzo(a)Pyrene, chrysene anthracene,
dibenzo(a,h)anthracene, and pyrene are all used a^ jntioxidants.
Chrysene, acenaphthylene, anthracene, fluorene, phenanthrene, and
pyrene are all used for synthesis of dyestuffs or other organic
chemicals. 3,4-benzof luoranthrene, benzo(k)f luoranthene, benzo
(qhi) perylene, and indeno (1,2,3-cd) pyrene have no known
industrial uses/ according to the results of a recent literature
search .
Several of the PAH priority pollutants are found in smoked^meats,
in smoke flavoring mixtures, in vegetable oils, and in coffee.
They are found in soils and sediments in river beds.
Consequently, they are also found in many drinking water
sSppliel The widedistribution of these pollutants in complex
mixtures, with the many other PAHs which have not b^n designated
as priority pollutants, results in exposures by humans that
cannot be associated with specific individual compounds.
The screening and verification analysis procedures used for the
organic priority pollutants are based on gas chromatography (GC) .
Three pairs of the PAHs have identical elution times on_the
columnipecified in the protocol, which means that the parameters
of the pair are not differentiated. For these three pairs
[anthracene (78) - phenanthrene (81); 3,4-benzof luoran thene (74^
- benzo(k)fluoranthene (75); and benzo (a) anthracene (72) ^
chrysene (76)] results are obtained and reported as either-or.
Either both are present in the combined concentration reported,
or one is present in the concentration reported. When detections
below reportable limits are recorded, ™f "r^V"3^3,1;3. ^
reauired For samples where the concentrations of coeluting
pairs have ..... I significant value, additional analyses are
Conducted, using different procedures that resolve the particular
pair.
There are no studies to document the possible carcinogenic risks
to humans by direct ingest ion. Air pollution studies indicate an
excess of lung cancer mortality among workers exposed to large
amounts of PAH containing materials such as coal gas, tars, and
coke-oven emissions. However, no definite proof exists that the
PAH present in these materials are responsible for the cancers
observed.
Animal studies have demonstrated the toxicity of PAH by.b
dermal administration. The carcinogenicity of PAH has been
335
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traced to formation of PAH metabolites which, in turn, lead to
tumor formation. Because the levels of PAH which induce cancer
are very low, little work has been done on other health hazards
resulting from exposure. It has been established in animal
studies that tissue damage and systemic toxicity can result from
exposure to non-carcinogenic PAH compounds.
Because there were no studies available regarding chronic oral
exposures to PAH mixtures, proposed water quality criteria were
derived using data on exposure to a single compound. Two studies
were selected, one involving benzo(a)pyrene ingestion and one
involving dibenzo(a,h)anthracene ingestion. Both are known
animal carcinogens.
For the maximum protection of human health from the potential
carcinogenic effects of exposure to polynuclear aromatic
hydrocarbons (PAH), through ingestion of water and contaminated
aquatic organisms, the ambient water concentration is zero
Concentrations of PAH estimated to result in additional lifetime
?an«Sr ^isk °f 10~7' 10~62' and 10~S are 2-8 x lO-^ mg/1, 2,8 x
10-' mg/1 and 2.8 x 1 o- mg/1 respectively. If contaminated
aquatic organisms alone are consumed, excluding the consumption
of water, the water concentration should be less than 3 11 x 10-*
mg/1 to keep the increased lifetime cancer risk below 10-s
Available data show the adverse effects on aquatic life occur at
concentrations higher than those cited for human health risk.
The behavior of PAHs in POTWs has received only a limited amount
of study. It is reported that up to 90 percent of the PAHs
entering a POTW will be retained in the sludge generated by
?°2?u"!:1unai Sewa9e treatment processes. Some of the PAHs can
inhibit bacterial growth when they are present at concentrations
as low as 0.018 mg/1. Biological treatment in activated sludge
units has been shown to reduce the concentration of phenanthrene
and anthracene to some extent. However, a study of biochemical
oxidation of fluorene on a laboratory scale showed no degradation
after 5, 10, and 20 days. On the basis of that study and studies
of other organic priority pollutants, some general observations
were made relating molecular structure to ease of degradation.
Those observations lead to the conclusion that the 13 PAHs
selected to represent that^ group as priority pollutants, will be
removed only slightly or not at all by biological treatment
methods in POTWs. Based on their water insolubility and tendency
*£ ?n™o h0S?1Sedime"t Partifles, very little pass through of PAHs
to POTWs effluents is expected.
r?cent Agency study, Fate of Priority Pollutants in
Owned Treatment Works, the poI7uti[Ht~~c^ncentrations IK
the influent, effluent and sludge of 20 POTWs were measured. The
336
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results show that indeed the PAHs are concentrated -in.-the
sludges, and that little or no PAHs are discharged in the
effluent of POTWs. The differences in average concentrations
from influent to effluent range from 50 to . TOO percent removal
with all but one PAH above 80;percent removal. The data indicate
that all or nearly all of the , PAHs are concentrated in the
sludge.
No data are available at this time to support any conclusions
about PAH contamination of land on which sewage sludge containing
PAH is spread. .
Tetrachloroethvlene(85). Tetrachloroethylene (CCl.2CClz), also
called perchloroethylene and PCE, is a colorless nonflammable
liquid produced mainly by two methods - chlonnation and
pyrolysis of ethane and propane, and oxychlorination of
dichloroethane. U.S. annual production exceeds 300,000 tons.
PCE boils at 121°C (250°F) and has a vapor pressure of 19 mm Hg
at 20°C. It is insoluble in water but soluble in organic
solvents.
Approximately two-thirds of'the U.S. production pf PCE is used
for dry cleaning. Textile processing and metal degreasing, in
equal amounts consume about one-quarter of the U.S. production.
The principal toxic effect of PCE on humans is central nervous
system depression, when the compound is inhaled. Headache,
fatigue, sleepiness, dizziness and sensations of intoxication are
reported. Severity of effects increases with vapor
concentration. High integrated exposure (concentration times
duration) produces kidney and liver damage. Very limited data on
PCE ingested by laboratory animals indicate that liver damage
occurs when PCE is administered by that route. PCE tends to
distribute to fat in mammalian bodies.
One report found in the literature suggests, but does not
conclude, that PCE is teratogenic. PCE has been demonstrated to
be a liver carcinogen in B6C3F1 mice.
For the maximum protection of human health from the potential
carcinogenic effects of exposure to tetrachloroethylene, through
ingestion of water and contaminated aquatic organisms, the
ambient water concentration is zero. Concentrations of
tetrachloroethylene estimated to result in additional lifetime
cancer risk levels of TO-7, 10-«, and 10-* are 8 x 10-s mg/1, 8 x
10-* mg/1, 8 x 10-3mg/l respectively. If contaminated aquatic
organisms alone are consumed, excluding the consumption of water,
the water concentration should be less than 0.088 mg/1 to keep
the increased lifetime cancer risk below 10~». Available data
:: -337
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show that adverse effects on aquatic life occur at concentrations
higher than those cited for human health risks.
No data were found regarding the behavior of PCE in POTWs. Many
of the organic priority pollutants have been investigated, at
least in laboratory scale studies, at concentrations higher than
those expected to be contained by most municipal wastewaters.
General observations have been developed relating molecular
structure to ease of degradation for all of the organic priority
K 1U »r*S' -?fSud u" Study of the limited data, it is expected
that PCE will be biochemically oxidized to a lesser extent than
domestic sewage by biological treatment in POTWs. An EPA studv
of seven POTWs revealed removals of 40 to 100 percent. Sludqe
concentrations of tetrachloroethylene ranged from 1 x 10-3 to 16
mg/1. Some PCE is expected to be volatilized in aerobic
treatment processes and little, if any, is expected to pass
through into the effluent from the POTW.
Toluene(86). Toluene is a clear, colorless liquid with a
benzene-like odor. It is a naturally occuring compound derived
primarily from petroleum or petrochemical processes. Some
toluene is obtained from the manufacture of metallurgical coke.
Toluene is also referred to as totuol, methylbenzene, methacide,
and phenymethane. It is an aromatic hydrocarbon with the formul4
LgH5CH3. It boils at llioc and has a vapor pressure of 30 mm Hq
at room temperature. The water solubility of toluene is 535
TSm.ai x, 1J- 1S "Jscible with a variety of organic solvents.
Annual production of toluene in the U.S. is greater than 2
million metric tons. Approximately two-thirds of the toluene is
converted to benzene and the remaining 30 percent is divided
approximately equally into chemical manufacture, and use as a
paint solvent and aviation gasoline additive. An estimated 5,000
metric tons is discharged to the environment annually as a
constituent in wastewater. ,
Most data on the effects of toluene in humans and other mammals
have been based on inhalation exposure or dermal contact studies
There appear to be no reports of oral administration of toluene
to human subjects. A long term toxicity study on female rats
revealed no adverse effects on growth, mortality, appearance and
behavior organ to body weight ratios, blood-urea nitrogen
levels, bone marrow counts, peripheral blood counts, or
morphology of major organs. The effects of inhaled toluene on
the central nervous system, both at high and low concentrations
have been studied in humans and animals. However, inaested
toluene is expected to be handled differently by the body
because it is absorbed more slowly and must first pass through
the liver before reaching the nervous system. Toluene is
extensively and rapidly metabolized in the liver. One of the
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principal metabolic products- of toluene is benzoic acid, which
itself seems to have little potential to produce tissue injury.
Toluene does not appear to be teratogenic in laboratory animals
or man. Nor is there any conclusive evidence that toluene is
mutagenic. Toluene has not been demonstrated to be positive in
any iH vitro mutagenicity or carcinogenicity bioassay system, nor
to be carcinogenic in animals or man.
Toluene has been found in fish caught in harbor waters in the
vicinity of petroleum and petrochemical plants. Bioconcentration
studies have not been conducted, but bioconcentration factors
have been calculated on the basis of the octanol-water partition
coefficient.
For the
toluene, i
organisms,
mg/1. If
excluding
criterion
on aquatic
protection of human health from the toxic properties of
ngested through water and through contaminated aquatic
the ambient water criterion is determined to be 14.3
contaminated aquatic organisms alone are consumed,
the consumption of water, the ambient water quality
is 424 mg/1. Available data show that adverse affects
life occur at concentrations as low as 5 mg/1.
Acute toxicity tests have been conducted with toluene and a
variety of freshwater fish and Daphnia maqna. The latter appears
to be significantly more resistant than fish. No test results
have been reported for the chronic effects of toluene on
freshwater fish or invertebrate species.
Only one study of toluene behavior in POTWs is available.
However, the biochemical oxidation of many of the priority
pollutants has been investigated in laboratory scale studies at
concentrations centrations greater than those expected to be
contained by most municipal wastewaters. At toluene
concentrations ranging from 3 to 25.0 mg/1, biochemical oxidation
proceeded to fifty percent of theoretical or greater. The time
period varied from a few hours to 20 days, depending on whether
or not the seed culture was acclimated. Phenol adapted
acclimated seed cultures gave the most rapid and extensive
biochemical oxidation. Based on study of the limited data, it is
expected that toluene will be biochemically oxidized to a lesser
extent than domestic sewage by biological treatment in a POTW.
The volatility and relatively low water solubility of toluene
lead to the expectation that aeration processes will remove
significant quantities of toluene from the POTW. The EPA studied
toluene removal in seven POTWs. The removals ranged from 40 to
100 percent. Sludge concentrations of toluene ranged from 54 x
10-3 to 1.85 mg/1.
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Trichloroethvlene(87). Trichloroethylene (1,1,2-trichlor-
ethylene or TCE) is a clear colorless boiling at 87°C (189°F).
It has a vapor pressure of 77 mm Hg at room temperature and is
slightly soluble in water (1 gm/1). U.S. production is greater
than 0.25 million metric tons annually. It is produced from
tetrachloroethane by treatment with lime in the presence of
water.
TCE is used for vapor phase degreasing of metal parts, cleaning
and drying electronic components, as a solvent for paints, as a
refrigerant, for extraction of oils, fats, and waxes, and for dry
cleaning. Its widespread use and relatively high volatility
result in detectable levels in many parts of the environment.
Data on the effects produced by ingested TCE are limited. Most
studies have been directed at inhalation exposure. Nervous
system disorders and liver damage are frequent results of
inhalation exposure. In the short term exposures, TCE acts as a
central nervous system depressant - it was used as an anesthetic
before its other long term effects were defined.
TCE has been shown to induce transformation in a highly sensitive
iH vitro Fischer rat embryo cell system (F1706) that is used for
identifying carcinogens. Severe and persistent toxicity to the
liver was recently demonstrated when TCE was shown to produce
carcinoma of the liver in mouse strain B6C3F1. One systematic
study of TCE exposure and the incidence of human cancer was based
on 518 men exposed to TCE. The authors of that study concluded
that, although the cancer risk to man cannot be ruled out,
exposure to low levels of TCE probably does not present a very
serious and general cancer hazard.
TCE is bioconcentrated in aquatic species, making the consumption
of such species by humans a significant source of TCE. For the
protection of human health from the potential carcinogenic
effects of exposure to trichloroethylene, through ingestion of
water and contaminated aquatic organisms, the ambient water
concentration is zero. Concentrations of trichloroethylene
estimated to result in additional lifetime cancer risk of 1 in
100,000 corresponds to an ambient water concentration of 0.00021
mg/1.
Only a very limited amount of data on the effects of TCE on
freshwater aquatic life are available. One species of fish
(fathead minnows) showed a loss of equilibrium at concentrations
below those resulting in lethal effects. The limited data for
aquatic life show that adverse effects occur at concentrations
higher than those cited for human health risks.
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For a recent Agency study, Fate of Priority Pollutants in.
Publicly Owned Treatment Works, the pollutant concentrations in
the influent, effluent, and sludge of 20 POTWs were measured. No
conclusions were made; however, trichloroethylene appeared in 95
percent of the influent stream samples but only in 54 percent of
the effluent stream samples. This indicates that
trichloroethylene either is concentrated in the sludge or escapes
to the atmosphere. Concentration? in 5.0 percent of the sludge
samples indicate that much of the trichloroethylene is
concentrated there.
Aldrin (89). Aldrin (C12H8C16) is a brown to white crystalline
solid whTcV is used as an insecticide. It melts at -104-1 05.5°C
(219-222°F). While soluble in most organic solvents, aldrin is
insoluble in water. It is not affected by alkalies or dilute
acids, and is compatible with most herbicides, fertilizers,,
fungicides, and insecticides.
For freshwater aquatic life, the concentration of aldrin should
not exceed 0.003 mg/1. For saltwater aquatic life, the
concentration of this pollutant should not exceed 0.0013 mg/1 at
any time. No data are available concerning this pollutant's
chronic toxicity.
For the maximum protection of human health from the potential
carcinogenic effects of exposure to this pollutant, through the
ingestion of contaminated water and aquatic organisms, the
ambient water concentration should be zero. Concentrations, of
this pollutant estimated to result in additional lifetime cancer
risks at risk levels of 10-5, 10-*, and TO-7 are 0.00000074 mg/1,
0.000000074 mg/1, and 0.0000000074 mg/1 respectively. . ,
With respect to discharges to a POTW, it must be noted that this
pollutant is toxic to biological organisms. As this pollutant
can interfere with the biological treatment processes in a POTW,
its discharge to a POTW must be carefully controlled.
Chlordane (91_). Chlordane (C10H6C18) is a colorless, odorless,
viscous liquid." It boils at 175°C (347°F) and. decomposes in weak
alkalies. This chemical is soluble in many organic solvents,
insoluble in water, and miscible in deodorized kerosene. In
addition to its use as an insecticide, this chemical is also used
in oil emulsions and dispersible liquids.
The criterion to protect freshwater aquatic life is 0.0000043
mg/1 as a 24 hour average and the concentration should not exceed
0.0024 mg/1 at any time. The criterion to protect saltwater
aquatic life is 0.000004 mg/1 as a 24 hour average and the
concentration should not exceed 0.00009 mg/1 at any time.
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For the maximum protection of human health from the potential
carcinogenic effects due to exposure to chlordane, through the
ingestion of contaminated water and contaminated aquatic
organisms, the ambient water concentration should be zero.
Concentrations of this pollutant estimated to result in
additional lifetime cancer risk at risk levels of TO"5, TO"6/ and
1077 are 0.0000046 mg/1, 0.00000046 mg/1, and 0.000000046 mg/1
respectively.
With respect to treatment in POTWs, this substance is
biodegradable, but can also accumulate in biological organisms
and exert a toxic effect. Therefore, the discharge of this
pollutant to a POTW must be carefully controlled to avoid
inhibitory effects on the POTW treatment process.
4,4'-DDT(92). 4,4'-DDT (C1C€H4)2CHCC13 is a colorless crystal or
a slightly off-white powder which is odorless or slightly
aromatic. It is soluble in acetone, ether, benzene, carbon
tetrachloride, kerosene, dioxane, and pyridine, but insoluble in
water. It is not compatible with alkaline materials. This
compound is derived by condensing chloral or chloral hydrate with
chlorobenzene in the presence of fuming sulfuric acid. It is
used as an insecticide.
For this pollutant, the criterion to protect freshwater and
saltwater aquatic life is 0.0000010 mg/1 as a 24 hour average.
The concentrations which should not be exceeded at any time are
0.0011 mg/1 for fresh waters and 0.00013 mg/1 for saltwaters.
For the maximum protection of human health from the potential
carcinogenic effects due to exposure to this pollutant, through
the ingestion of contaminated water and aquatic organisms, the
ambient water concentrations should be zero. Concentrations of
this pollutant estimated to result in additional lifetime cancer
risks at risk levels of 10-5, 10~6, and 10~7 are 0.00000024 mg/1,
0.000000024 mg/1, and 0.0000000024 mg/1 respectively.
With respect to discharge to a POTW, it must be noted that this
pollutant is toxic to biological organisms. As this pollutant
can interfere with the biological treatment process in a POTW,
its discharge to a POTW must be carefully controlled.
4,4'-DDE (93). 4,4'-DDE (C1C6H4)2 CHCC13 is a colorless crystal
or slightly off-white powder which is odorless or exhibits a
slight aromatic odor. It is soluble in acetone, ether, benzene,
carbon tetrachloride, kerosene, dioxane, and pyridine but is
insoluble in water. It is not compatible with alkaline
materials. This pollutant is derived by condensing chloral or
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chloral hydrate with chlorobenzene in the presence of fuming
sulfuric acid. It is used as a pesticide.
For this pollutant/ 'the criterion to protect freshwater • and
saltwater aquatic life is 0.0000010 mg/1 as a 24-hour average.
The concentrations which should not be exceeded at any time are
0.0011 mg/1 for freshwaters and 0.00013 mg/1 for saltwaters.
For the maximum protection of human health from the potential
carcinogenic effects due to exposure to this pollutant, through
the ingestion of contaminated water and aquatic organisms, the
ambient water concentration should be zero. Concentrations of
this pollutant estimated to result in additional lifetime cancer
risks at risk levels of 10~s, TO-*/ and 10~7 are 0.00000024 mg/1,
0.000000024 mg/1, and 0.0000000027 mg/1 respectively.
With respect to discharges to,a POTW, it must be noted that this
pollutant is toxic to biological organisms. As this pollutant
can interfere with the biological treatment processes in a POTW,
its discharge, to a POTW must be carefully controlled.
Endrin Aldehyde (99). Endrin aldehyde is a biodegradation
product of endirin. While known to be toxic no additional data
pertaining to aquatic toxicity, ambient water quality criteria,
and cancer risk levels are available.
Heptachlor epoxide (101). Heptachlor epoxide (C10H9C170) is a
degradation product of heptachlor and subsequently also acts as
an insecticide.
The criteria to protect fresh water and saltwater aquatic life
are 0.0000053 mg/1 and 0.0000050 mg/1 respectively. The
concentrations which should not be exceeded at any time are
0.00052 mg/1 for freshwaters and 0,0000053 mg/1 for saltwaters.
For the maximum protection of human health from the potential
carcinogenic effects due to exposure to this pollutant, through
the ingestion of contaminated water and aquatic organisms, the
ambient water concentration should be zero. Concentrations of
this pollutant estimated to result in additional lifetime cancer
risks at risk levels of 10~s, 10~«, and 10~7 are 0.00000278 mg/1,
0.000000278 mg/1, and 0.0000000278 mg/1 respectively.
With respect to discharge to a POTW, it must be noted that this
pollutant is toxic to biological organisms. As this pollutant
can interfere with the biological treatment processes in a POTW,
its discharge to a POTW must be carefully controlled.
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Hexachlorocyclohexanes (102, 103, 104 and 105). The alpha, beta,
gamma, and delta BHC isomers (C«H6C16) are white, crystalline
powders with slightly musty odors. These isomers melt at about
"M2°C (234°F) and are: freely soluble in acetone, benzene and
chloroform; soluble in alcohol; slightly soluble in ethylene
glycol; and practically insoluble in water. These products are
derived from the chlorination of benzene in the presence of
ultraviolet light. The mixture of stereoisomers is separated by
fractional crystallization. These isomers are used as
insecticides.
The available data for a mixture of isomers of BHC indicate that
acute toxicity to freshwater aquatic life occurs at
concentrations as low as 0.1 mg/1 and would occur at lower
concentrations among species more sensitive than those tested.
The available data for a mixture of BHC isomers indicate that
acute toxicity to saltwater aquatic life occurs at concentrations
as low as 0.00034 mg/1. No data are available concerning chronic
toxicity to freshwater or saltwater species.
For maximum protection of human health from the potential
carcinogenic effects due to exposure to the BHC isomers, through
the ingestion of contaminated waters and contaminated aquatic
organisms, the ambient water concentrations for alpha and beta
BHC should be zero. Using the present guidelines, a satisfactory
criterion for delta BHC cannot be derived at this time, due to an
insufficiency of data. Concentrations estimated to result in
additional lifetime cancer risk at risk levels of 1 0~5 10~6, and
10~7 are 0.000092 mg/1, 0.0000092 mg/1, and 0.00000092 mg/1 for
alpha BHC, and 0.000163 mg/1, 0.0000163 mg/1, and 0.00000163 mg/1
for beta BHC. For the protection of human health from the
ingestion of contaminated water and aquatic organisms, the
ambient water criterion for gamma BHt is determined to be
0.000625 mg/1. At this time, a satisfactory criterion for delta
BHC cannot be derived.
With respect to the acceptability of these pollutants to POTWs,
it must be noted that they are pesticides and therefore toxic to
the biological organisms which accomplish treatment in POTWs.
Subsequently, the discharge of these substances to POTWs must be
controlled.
Polychlorinated biphenyls (106-112). Polychlorinated biphenyls
(C12Hi0nCln,H,0-nCln where n can range from 1 to 10), designated
PCB's, are chlorinated derivatives of biphenyls. The commerical
products are complex mixtures of chlorobiphenyls, but are no
longer produced in the U.S. The mixtures produced formerly were
characterized by the percentage chlorination. Direct
chlorination of biphenyl was used to produce mixtures containing
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from 21 to 70 percent chlorine.
selected as priority pollutants;
Six of these mixtures have been
Priority
Pollutant
Number Name
Percent Distillation Pour 25°C Water
Chlorine Range(°C) Point(°C) Solubility ,/g/l
106
107
108
109
110
111
112
PCB
PCB
PCB
PCB
PCB
PCB
PCB
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
242
254
221
232
248
260
016
20.
31 .
42
54
5-21 .
4-32.
48
60
41
5
5
325-366
365-390
275-320
290-325
340-375
385-420
323-356
-19
10
1
-35,
-7
31
240
12
>200 .
54
2.7
225-250
The PCBs 1221, 1232, 1016, 1242, and 1248 are colorless oily
liquids; 1254 is a viscous liquid; 1260 is a sticky resin at room
temperature. Total annual U.S. production of PCBs averaged about
20,000 tons in 1972-1974.
Prior to 1971, PCBs were used in several applications including
plasticizers, heat transfer liquids, hydraulic fluids,
lubricants, vacuum pump and compressor fluids; and capacitor and
transformer oils. After 1970, when PCB use was restricted to
closed systems, the latter two uses were the only commercial
applications.
The toxic effects of PCBs ingested by humans have been reported
to range from acne-like skin eruptions and pigmentation of the
skin to numbness of limbs, hearing and vision problems, and
spasms. Interpretation of results is complicated by the fact
that the very highly toxic polychlorinated dibenzofurans (PCDFs)
are found in many commercial PCB mixtures. Photochemical and
thermal decomposition appear to accelerate the transformation of
PCBs to PCDFs. Thus the specific effects of PCBs may be masked
by the effects of PCDFs. However, if PCDFs are frequently
present to some extent in any PCB mixture, then their effects may
be properly included in the effects of PCB mixtures.
Studies of effects of PCBs in laboratory animals indicate that
liver and kidney damage, large weight losses, eye discharges, and
interference with some metabolic processes occur frequently.
Teratogenic effects of PCBs in laboratory animals have been
observed, but are rare. Growth retardations during gestation,
and reproductive failure are more common effects observed in
studies of PCB teratogenicity. Carcinogenic effects of PCBs have
been studied in laboratory animals with results interpreted as
positive. Specific reference has been made to liver cancer in
rats in the discussion of water quality criterion formulation.
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For the maximum protection of human health from the potential
carcinogenic effects of exposure to PCBs, through ingestion of
water and contaminated aquatic organisms, the ambient water
concentration should be zero. Concentrations of PCBs estimated
to result in additional lifetime cancer risk at risk levels of
10-*, TO-6, and 10~5 are 0.0000000026 mg/1, 0.000000026 mg/1, and
0.00000026 mg/1, respectively.
The behavior of PCBs in POTWs has received limited study. Most
PCBs will be removed with sludge. One study showed removals of
82 to 89 percent, depending on suspended solid removal. The PCBs
adsorb onto suspended sediments and other particulates. In
laboratory scale experiments with PCB 1221, 81 percent was
removed by degradation in an activated sludge system in 47 hours.
Biodegradation can form polychlorinated dibenzofurans which are
more toxic than PCBs (as noted earlier). PCBs at concentrations
of 0.1 to 1,000 mg/1 inhibit or enhance bacterial growth rates,
depending on the bacterial culture and the percentage chlorine in
the PCB. Thus, activated sludge may be inhibited by PCBs. Based
on studies of bioaccumulation of PCBs in food crops grown on
soils amended with PCB-containing sludge, the U.S. FDA has
recommended a limit of 10 mg PCB/kg dry weight of sludge used for
application to soils bearing food crops.
Antimony(114). Antimony (chemical name - stibium, symbol Sb)
classified as a non-metal or metalloid, is a silvery white ,
brittle, crystalline solid. Antimony is found in small ore
bodies throughout the world. Principal ores are oxides of mixed
antimony valences, and an' oxysulfide ore. Complex ores with
metals are important, because the antimony is recovered as a
by-product. Antimony melts at 631°C, and is a poor conductor of
electricity and heat.
Annual U.S. consumption of primary antimony ranges from 10,000 to
20,000 tons. About half is consumed in metal products - mostly
antimonial lead for lead acid storage batteries, and about half
in nonmetal products. A principal compound is antimony trioxide
which is used as a flame retardant in fabrics, and as an
opacifier in glass, ceramics, and enamels. Several antimony
compounds are used as catalysts in organic chemicals synthesis,
as fluorinating agents (the antimony fluoride), as pigments, and
in fireworks. Semiconductor applications are economically
significant.
Essentially no information on antimony-induced human health
effects, has been derived from community epidemiology studies.
The available data are in literature relating effects observed
with therapeutic or medicinal uses of antimony compounds and
industrial exposure studies. Large therapeutic doses of
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antimonial compounds, usually used to treat schistosomiasis, have
caused severe nausea, vomiting,, convulsions, irregular heart
action, liver damage, and skin rashes. Studies of acute
industrial antimony poisoning have revealed loss of appetite,
diarrhea, headache, and dizziness in addition to the symptoms
found in studies of therapeutic doses of antimony.
For the protection of human health from the toxic properties of
antimony, ingested through water and through contaminated aquatic
organisms, the ambient water criterion is determined to be 0.146
mg/1. If contaminated aquatic organisms alone are consumed,
excluding the consumption of water, the ambient water criterion
is determined to be 45 mg/1. Available data show that adverse
effects on aquatic life occur at concentrations higher than those
cited for human health risks. ;
Very little information is available regarding the behavior of
antimony in, POTWs. The limited solubilities of most antimony
compounds expected in POTWs, i.e. the oxides and sulfides,
suggest that at least part of the antimony entering a POTW will
be precipitated and incorporated into the sludge. However, some
antimony is expected to remain dissolved and pass through the
POTW into the effluent. Antimony compounds remaining in the
sludge under anaerobic conditions may be connected to stibine
(SbH3), a very soluble and very toxic compound. There , are no
data to show antimony inhibits any POTW processes. Antimony is
not known to be essential to the growth of plants, and has been
reported to be moderately toxic. Therefore, sludge containing
large amounts of antimony could be detrimental to plants, if it
is applied in large amounts to croplands.
Arsenic(115). Arsenic (chemical symbol As), is classified as a
non-metal or metalloid. Elemental arsenic normally exists in the
alpha-crystalline metallic form which is steel gray and brittle,
and in the beta form which is dark gray and amorphous. Arsenic
sublimes at 6T5°G (1139°F). Arsenic is widely distributed
throughout the world in a large number of minerals. The most
important commercial source of arsenic is as a by-product from
treatment of copper, lead, cobalt, and gold ores. Arsenic is
usually marketed as the trioxide (As203). Annual U.S. production
of the trioxide approaches 40,000 tons.
The principal use of _ arsenicis in agricultural chemicals
(herbicides) for controlling weeds in cotton fields. , Arsenicals
have various applications in medicinal and veterinary use, as
wood preservatives, and in semiconductors.
The effects of arsenic in humans were known by the ancient Greeks
and Romans. The principal toxic effects are gastrointestinal
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disturbances. Breakdown of red blood cells occurs. Symptoms of
acute poisoning include vomiting, diarrhea, abdominal pain,
lassitude, dizziness, and headache. Longer exposure produced
dry, falling hair, brittle, loose nails, eczema, and exfoliation.
Arsenicals also exhibit teratogenic and mutagenic effects in
humans. Oral administration of arsenic compounds has been
associated clinically with skin cancer for nearly a hundred
years. Since 1888, numerous studies have linked occupational
exposure to, and therapeutic administration of, arsenic compounds
to increased incidence of respiratory and skin cancer.
For the maximum protection of human health from the potential
carcinogenic effects of exposure to arsenic, through ingestion of
water and contaminated aquatic organisms, the ambient water
concentration is zero. Concentrations of arsenic estimated to
result in additional lifetime cancer risk levels of 10~7, 10~*,
and 10-5 are 2.2 x 10-*° mg/1, 2.2 x lO-» mg/1, and 2.2 x 10-«
mg/1, respectively. If contaminated aquatic organisms alone are
consumed, excluding the consumption of water, the water
concentration should be less than 2.7 x 10~4 mg/1 to keep the
increased lifetime cancer risk below 10~5. Available data show
that adverse effects on aquatic life occur at concentrations
higher than those cited for human health risks.
A few studies have been made regarding the behavior of arsenic in
POTWs. One EPA survey of 9 POTWs reported influent
concentrations ranging from 0.0005 to 0.693 mg/1; effluents from
3 POTWs having biological treatment contained 0.0004 - 0.01 mg/1;
2 POTWs showed arsenic removal efficiencies of 50 and 71 percent
in biological treatment. Inhibition of treatment processes by
sodium arsenate is reported to occur at 0.1 mg/1 in activated
sludge, and 1.6 mg/1 in anaerobic digestion processes. In
another study based on data from 60 POTWs, arsenic in sludge
ranged from 1.6 to 65.6 mg/kg and the median value was 7.8 mg/kg.
Arsenic in sludge spread on cropland may be taken up by plants
grown on that land. Edible plants can take up arsenic, but
normally their growth is inhibited before the plants are ready
for harvest.
Beryl1jump 17). Beryllium is a dark gray metal of the alkaline
earth family. It is relatively rare, but because of its unique
properties finds widespread use as an alloying element,
especially for hardening copper which is used in springs,
electrical contacts, and non-sparking tools. World production is
reported to be in the range of 250 tons annually. However, much
more reaches the environment as emissions from coal burning
operations. Analysis of coal indicates an average beryllium
content of 3 ppm and 0.1 to 1.0 percent in coal ash or fly ash.
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The principal ores are beryl (3BeO»Al2Os»6Si02) and bertrandite
[Be4Si2O7(OH)2], Only two industrial facilities produce
beryllium in the U.S. because of limited demand and the highly
toxic character. About two-thirds of the annual production goes
into alloys, 20 percent into heat sinks, and 10 percent into
beryllium oxide (BeO) ceramic products.
Beryllium has a specific gravity of 1.846 making it the lightest
metal with a high melting point (1350°C). Beryllium alloys are
corrosion resistant, but the metal corrodes in aqueous
environments. Most"T:ommohberyllium compounds are soluble in
water, at least to the extent necessary to produce a toxic
concentration of beryllium ions.
Most data on toxicity of beryllium is for inhalation of beryllium
oxide dust. Some studies on orally administered beryllium in
laboratory animals have been reported. Despite the large number
of studies implicating beryllium as a carcinogen, there is no
recorded -instance of cancer being produced by ingestion.
However, a recently convened panel of uninvolved experts
concluded that epidemiologic evidence is suggestive that
beryllium is a carcinogen in man.
In the aquatic3environment, beryllium is acutely toxic to fish at
concentrations as low as 0.087 mg/1, and chronically toxic to an
aquatic organism at 0.003 mg/1. Water softness has a large
effect on beryllium toxicity to fish. In soft water, beryllium
is reportedly TOO times as toxic as in hard water.
For the maximum protection of human health from the potential
carcinogenic effects of exposure to beryllium, through ingestion
of water and contaminated aquatic organisms., The ambient water
concentration is zero. Concentrations of beryllium estimated to
result in additional lifetime cancer risk levels of TO-7, 10~«,
and TO-5 are 0.00000087 mg/1, 0.0000087 mg/1, and 0.000087 mg/1,
respectively.
Information on the behavior of beryllium in POTWs is scarce.
Because beryllium hydroxide is insoluble in water, most beryllium
entering POTWs will probably be in the form of suspended solids.
As a result,, most of the beryllium will settle and be removed
with sludge. However, beryllium has been shown to inhibit
several enzyme systems, to interfere with DNA metabolism in
liver, and to induce chromosomal and mitotic abnormalities. This
interference in cellular processes may extend to interfere with
biological treatment processes. The concentration and effects of
beryllium in sludge which could be applied to cropland have not
been studied.
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Cadmium(118). Cadmium is a relatively rare metallic element that
is seldom found in sufficient quantities in a pure state to'
warrant mining or extraction from the earth's surface. It is
found in trace amounts of about 1 ppm throughout the earth's
crust. Cadmium is, however, a valuable by-product of zinc
production.
Cadmium is used primarily as an electroplated metal, and is found
as an impurity in the secondary refining of zinc, lead, and
copper. Cadmium appears at a significant level in raw
wastewaters from only one of the three subcategories of coil
coating - galvanized. The presence of cadmium in the wastewater
is attributed to its presence as an impurity in the zinc used to
produce galvanized coil stock. Some of the zinc is removed by
the cleaning and conversion coating steps.
Cadmium is an extremely dangerous cumulative toxicant, causing
progressive chronic poisoning in mammals, fish, and probably
other organisms. The metal is not excreted.
Toxic effects of cadmium on man have been reported from
throughout the world. Cadmium may be a factor in the development
of such human pathological conditions as kidney disease,
testicular tumors, hypertension, arteriosclerosis, growth
inhibition, chronic disease of old age, and cancer. Cadmium is
normally ingested by humans through food and water, as well as by
breathing air contaminated by cadmium dust. Cadmium is
cumulative in the liver, kidney, pancreas, and thyroid of humans
and other animals. A severe bone and kidney syndrome known as
itai-itai disease has been documented in Japan as being caused by
cadmium ingestion via drinking water and contaminated irrigation
water. Ingestion of as little as 0.6 ing/day has produced the
disease. Cadmium acts synergistically with other metals. Copper
and zinc substantially increase its toxicity.
Cadmium is concentrated by marine organisms, particularly
molluscs, which accumulate cadmium in calcareous tissues and in
the viscera. A concentration factor of 1000 for cadmium in fish
muscle has been reported as having concentration factors of 3000
in marine plants and up to 29,600 in certain marine animals. The
eggs and larvae of fish are apparently more sensitive than adult
fish to poisoning by cadmium, and crustaceans appear to be more
sensitive than fish eggs and larvae.
For the protection of human health from the toxic properties of
cadmium, ingested through water and through contaminated aquatic
organisms, the ambient water criterion is determined to be 0.01.0
mg/1. Available data show that adverse effects on aquatic life
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occur at concentrations in the same range as those cited for
human health, and they are highly dependent on water hardness.
Cadmium is not destroyed when it is introduced into a POTW, and
will either pass through to the POTW effluent or be incorporated
in the POTW sludge. In addition, it can interfere with the POTW
treatment process.
In a study of 189 POTWs, 75 percent of the primary plants, 57
percent of the trickling filter plants, 66 percent of the
activated sludge plants and 62 percent of the biological plants
allowed over 90 percent of the influent cadmium to pass through
to the POTW effluent. Only 2 of the 189 POTWs allowed less than
20 percent pass through, and none less than 10 percent pass
through. POTW effluent concentrations ranged from 0.001 to
1.97 mg/1 (mean 0.028 standard deviation 0.167).
Cadmium not passed through the POTW will be retained in the
sludge, where it is likely to build up in concentration. Cadmium
contamination of sewage sludge limits its use on land, since it
increases the level of cadmium in the soil. Data show that
cadmium can be incorporated into crops, including vegetables and
grains, from contaminated soils. Since the crops themselves show
no adverse effects from soils with levels up to 100 mg/kg
cadmium, these contaminated crops could have a significant impact
on human health. Two Federal agencies have already recognized
the potential adverse human health effects posed by the use of
sludge on cropland. The FDA recommends that sludge containing
over 30 mg/kg of cadmium should not be used on agricultural land.
Sewage sludge contains 3 to 300 mg/kg (dry basis) of cadmium
(mean = 10 mg/kg; median = 16 mg/kg). The USDA also recommends
placing limits on the total cadmium from sludge that may be
applied to land.
Chromium(119). Chromium is an elemental metal usually found as a
chromite (FeO*Cr203). The metal is normally produced by reducing
the oxide with aluminum. A significant proportion of the
chromium used is in the form of compounds such as sodium
dichromate (Na?CrO4), and chromic acid (CrO3) - both are
hexavalent chromium compounds.
Chromium and its compounds are used extensively in the coil
coating industry. As the metal, it is found as an alloying
component of many steels.
The two chromium forms most frequently found in industry
wastewaters are hexavalent and trivalent chromium. Hexavalent
chromium is the form used for metal treatments. Some of it is
reduced to trivalent chromium as part of the process reaction.
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The raw wastewater containing both valence states is usually
treated first to reduce remaining hexavalent to trivalent
chromium, and second to precipitate the trivalent form as the
hydroxide. The hexavalent form is not removed by lime treatment.
Chromium, in its various valence states, is hazardous to man. It
can produce lung tumors when inhaled, and induces skin
sensitizfations. Large doses of chromates have corrosive effects
on the intestinal tract and can cause inflammation of the
kidneys. Hexavalent chromium is a known human carcinogen.
Levels of chromate ions that show no effect in man appear to be
so low as to prohibit determination, to date.
i
The toxicity of chromium salts to fish and other aquatic lif-e
varies widely with the species, temperature, pH, valence of the
chromium, and synergistic or antagonistic effects, especially the
effect of water hardness. Studies have shown that trivalent
chromium is more toxic to fish of some types than is hexavalent
chromium. Hexavalent chromium retards growth of one fish species
at 0.0002 mg/1. Fish food organisms and other lower forms of
aquatic life are extremely sensitive to chromium. Therefore,
both hexavalent and trivalent chromium must be considered harmful
to particular fish or organisms.
For the protection of human health from the toxic properties of
chromium (except hexavalent chromium), ingested through water and
contaminated aquatic organisms, the recommended water quality
criterion is 0.050 mg/1.
For the maximum protection of human health from the potential
carcinogenic effects of exposure to hexavalent chromium, through
ingestion of water and contaminated aquatic organisms, the
ambient water concentration is zero. The estimated levels which
would result in increased lifetime cancer risks of 10~7, 10-*,
and 10-s are 7.4 x IO-« mg/1, 7.4 x 10~7 mg/1, and 7.4 x 10-*
mg/1 respectively. If contaminated aquatic organisms alone are
consumed, excluding the consumption of water, the water
concentration should be less than 1.5 x 10~5 mg/1 to keep the
increased lifetime cancer risk below 10~5.
Chromium is not destroyed when treated by POTWs (although the
oxidation state may change), and will either pass through to the
POTW effluent or be incorporated into the POTW sludge. Both
oxidation states can cause POTW treatment inhibition and can also
limit the usefulness of municipal sludge.
Influent concentrations of chromium to POTW facilities have been
observed by EPA to range from 0.005 to 14.0 mg/1, with a median
concentration of 0.1 mg/1. The efficiencies for removal of
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chromium by the activated sludge process can vary greatly,
depending on chromium concentration in the influent, and other
operating conditions at the POTW. Chelation of chromium by
organic matter and dissolution due to the presence of carbonates
can cause deviations from the predicted behavior in treatment
systems.
The systematic presence of chromium compounds will halt
nitrification in a POTW for short periods, and most of the
chromium will be retained in the sludge solids. Hexavalent
chromium has been reported to severely affect the nitrification
process, but trivalent chromium has little or no toxicity to
activated sludge, except at high concentrations. The presence or
iron, copper, and low pH will increase the toxicity of chromium
in a POTW by releasing the chromium into solution to be ingested
by microorganisms in the POTW.
The amount of chromium which passes through to the POTW effluent
depends on the type of treatment processes used by the POTW. v In
a study of 240 POTWs 56 percent of the primary plants allowed
more than 80 percent pass through to POTW effluent.^ More
advanced treatment results ;in less pass through. POTW effluent
concentrations ranged from 0.003 to 3.2 mg/1 total chromium (mean
=0.197, standard deviation = 0.48), and from 0.002 to 0.1 mg/1
hexavalent chromium (mean = 0.017, standard deviation = 0.020).
Chromium not passed through the POTW will be retained in the
sludge, where it is likely to build up in concentration. Sludge
concentrations of total chromium of over 20,000 mg/kg (dry basis)
have been observed. Disposal of sludges, containing very high
concentrations of trivalent chromium, can potentially cause
problems in uncontrollable landfills. Incineration, or similar
destructive oxidation processes can produce hexavalent chromium
from lower valance states. Hexavalent chromium is potentially
more toxic than trivalent chromium. In cases where high rates of
chrome sludge application on land are used, distinct growth
inhibition and plant tissue uptake have been noted.
Pretreatment of discharges substantially reduces the
concentration of chromium in sludge. In Buffalo, New York,
pretreatment of electroplating waste resulted in a decrease in
chromium concentrations in POTW sludges from 2,510 to
1,040 mg/kg. A similar reduction occurred in Grand Rapids,
Michigan POTWs, where the chromium concentration in sludge
decreased from 11,000 to 2,700 mg/kg when pretreatment was made a
requirement.
Copper(120). Copper is a metallic element that sometimes is
found free, as the native metal, and is also found in minerals
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such as cuprite (Cu20), malachite [CuC03»Cu(OH)2], azurite
[2CuC03»Cu(OH)2], chalcopyrite (CuFeS2), and bornite (CusFeS4).
Copper is obtained from these ores by smelting, leaching, and
electrolysis. It is used in the plating, electrical, plumbing,
and heating equipment industries, as well as in insecticides and
fungicides.
Traces of copper are found in all forms of plant and animal life,
and the metal is an essential trace element for nutrition.
Copper is not considered to be a cumulative systemic poison for
humans, as it is readily excreted by the body, but it can cause
symptoms of gastroenteritis, with nausea and intestinal
irritations, at relatively low dosages.
domestic water supplies is taste.
The limiting factor in
To prevent this adverse
organoleptic effect of copper in water, a criterion of 1 mg/1 has
been established.
The toxicity of copper to aquatic organisms varies significantly,
not only with the species, but also with the physical and
chemical characteristics of the water, including temperature,
hardness, turbidity, and carbon dioxide content. In hard water,
the toxicity of copper salts may be reduced by the precipitation
of copper carbonate or other insoluble compounds. The sulfates
of copper and zinc, and of copper and calcium are synergistic in
their toxic effect on fish.
Relatively high concentrations of copper may be tolerated by
adult fish for short periods of time; the critical effect of
copper appears to be its higher toxicity to young or juvenile
fish. Concentrations of 0.02 to 0.031 mg/1 have proved fatal to
some common fish species. In general, the salmonoids are very
sensitive and the sunfishes are less sensitive to copper.
The recommended criterion to protect saltwater aquatic life is
0.00097 mg/1 as a 24-hour average, and 0.018 mg/1 maximum
concentration.
Copper salts cause undesirable color reactions in the food
industry and cause pitting when deposited on some other metals
such as aluminum and galvanized steel.
Irrigation water, containing more than minute quantities of
copper, can be detrimental to certain crops. Copper appears in
all soils, and its concentration ranges from 10 to 80 ppm. In
soils, copper occurs in association with hydrous oxides of
manganese and iron, and also as soluble and insoluble complexes
with organic matter. Copper is essential to the life of plants,
and the normal range of concentration in plant tissue is from 5
to 20 ppm. Copper concentrations in plants normally do not build
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up to high levels when toxicity occurs. For example, the
concentrations of copper in snapbean leaves and pods were less
than 50 and 20 mg/kg, respectively, under conditions of severe
copper toxicity. Even under conditions of copper toxicity, most
of the excess copper accumulates in the roots; very little is
moved to the aerial part of the plant.
Copper is not destroyed when treated by a POTW, and will either
pass through to the POTW effluent or be retained in the POTW
sludge. It can interfere with the POTW treatment processes and
can limit the usefulness of municipal sludge.
The influent concentration of copper to POTW facilities has been
observed by the EPA to range from 0.01 to 1.97 mg/1, with a
median concentration of 0.12 mg/1. The copper that is removed
from the influent stream of a POTW is adsorbed on the sludge or
appears in the sludge as the hydroxide of the metal. Bench scale
pilot studies have shown that 25 percent to 75 percent of the
copper passing through the activated sludge process remains in
solution in the final effluent. Four hour slug dosages of .copper
sulfate, in concentrations exceeding 50 mg/1, were reported to
have severe effects on the removal efficiency of an unacclimated
system, with the system returning to normal in about 100 hours.
Slug dosages of copper in the form of copper cyanide were
observed to have much more severe effects on the activated sludge
system, but the total system returned to normal in .24 hours.
In a recent study of 268 POTWs, the median pass through was over
80 percent for primary plants, and 40 to 50 percent for trickling
filter, activated sludge, and biological treatment plants. POTW
effluent concentrations of copper ranged from 0.003 to 1.8 mg/1
(mean 0.126, standard deviation 0.242).
Copper which does not pass through the POTW will be retained in
the sludge, where it will build up in concentration. The
presence of excessive levels of copper in sludge may limit its
use on cropland. Sewage sludge contains up to 16,000 mg/kg of
copper, with 730 mg/kg as the mean value. These concentrations
are significantly greater than those normally found in soil,
which usually range from 18 to 80 mg/kg. Experimental data
indicate that when dried sludge is spread over tillable land, the
copper tends to remain in place down to the depth of tillage,
except for copper which is taken up by plants grown in the soil.
Recent investigation has shown that the extractable copper
content of sludge-treated soil decreased with time, which
suggests that a reversion of copper to less soluble forms was
occurring.
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Cyanide(121). Cyanides are among the most toxic of pollutants
commonly observed in industrial wastewaters. Introduction of
cyanide into industrial processes is usually by dissolution of
potassium cyanide (KCN) or sodium cyanide (NaCN) in process
waters. However, hydrogen cyanide (HCN), formed when the above
salts are dissolved in water, is probably the most acutely lethal
compound.
The relationship of pH to hydrogen cyanide formation is very
important. As pH is lowered to below 7, more than 99 percent of
the cyanide is present as HCN and less than 1 percent as cyanide
ions. Thus, at neutral pH, that of most living organisms, the
more toxic form of cyanide prevails.
Cyanide ions combine with numerous heavy metal ions to form
complexes. The complexes are in equilibrium with HCN. Thus, the
stability of the metal-cyanide complex and the pH determine the
concentration of HCN. Stability of the metal-cyanide anion
complexes is extremely variable. Those formed with zinc, copper,
and cadmium are not stable - they rapidly dissociate, with
production of HCN, in near neutral or acid waters. Some of the
complexes are extremely stable. Cobaltocyanide is very resistant
to acid distillation in the laboratory. Iron cyanide complexes
are also stable, but undergo photodecomposition to give HCN upon
exposure to sunlight. Synergistic effects have been demonstrated
for the metal cyanide complexes, making zinc, copper, and cadmium
cyanides more toxic than an equal concentration of sodium
cyanide.
The toxic mechanism of cyanide is essentially an inhibition of
oxygen metabolism, i.e., rendering the tissues incapable of
exchanging oxygen. The cyanogen compounds are true noncumulative
protoplasmic poisons. They arrest the activity of all forms of
animal life. Cyanide shows a very specific type of toxic action.
It inhibits the cytochrome oxidase system. This system is the
one which facilitates electron transfer from reduced metabolites
to molecular oxygen. The human body can convert cyanide to a
non-toxic thiocyanate and eliminate it. However, if the quantity
of cyanide ingested is too great at one time, the inhibition of
oxygen utilization proves fatal before the detoxifying reaction
reduces the cyanide concentration to a safe level.
Cyanides are more toxic to fish than to lower forms of aquatic
organisms such as midge larvae, crustaceans, and mussels.
Toxicity to fish is a function of chemical form and
concentration, and is influenced by the rate of metabolism
(temperature), the level of dissolved oxygen, and pH. In
laboratory studies free cyanide concentrations ranging from 0.05
to 0.15 mg/1 have been proven to be fatal to sensitive fish
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species including trout, bl.uegi.il/ and fathead minnows. Levels
above 0.2 mg/1 are rapidly fatal to most, fish species. Long term
sublethal concentrations of cyanide, as low as 0.01 mg/1, have
been shown t,p affect the ability of fish to function normally,
e.g., reproduce, grow, and swim.
For the protection of human health from the toxic properties of
cyanide, ingested through water and through contaminated aquatic
organisms, the ambient water quality criterion is determined to
be 0.200 mg/1. Available data show that effects on aquatic life
occur at concentrations as low as 3.5 x 10-3 mg/1.
Persistence of cyanide in water is highly variable and depends
upon the chemical form of cyanide in the water, the concentration
of cyanide, and the nature of other constituents. Cyanide may be
destroyed by strong oxidizing agents such as permanganate and
chlorine. Chlorine is commonly used to oxidize strong cyanide
solutions. Carbon dioxide and nitrogen are the products of
complete oxidation. But if the reaction is not complete, the
very toxic compound, cyanogen chloride, may remain in the
treatment system and subsequently be released to the environment.
Partial chlorination may occur as part of a POTW- treatment, or
during the disinfection treatment of surface water for drinking
water preparation.
Cyanides can interfere with treatment processes in POTWs, or pass
through to ambient waters. At low concentrations, and with
acclimated microflora, cyanide may be "decomposed by
microorganisms in anaerobic and aerobic environments or waste
treatment systems. However, data indicate that much of the
cyanide introduced passes through to the POTW effluent. The mean
pass through of 14 biological plants was 71 percent. In a recent
study of 41 POTWs the effluent concentrations ranged from 0.002
to 100 mg/1 (mean = 2.518, standard deviation = 15.6). Cyanide
also enhances the toxicity of metals commonly found in POTW
effluents, including the priority pollutants cadmium, zinc, and
copper.
Data for Grand Rapids, Michigan, showed a significant decline in
cyanide concentrations downstream from the POTW after
pretreatment regulations were enforced. Concentrations fell from
0.66 mg/1 before, to 0.01 mg/1 after pretreatment was required.
Lead (122). Lead is a soft, malleable, ductile, blueish-gray,
metallicelement, usually obtained from the mineral galena (lead
sulfide, PbS), anglesite (lead sulfate, PbS04), or cerussite
(lead carbonate,, PbC03). Because it is usually associated with
minerals of zinc, silver, copper, gold, cadmium, antimony, and
arsenic, special purification methods are frequently used before
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and after extraction of the metal from
smelting.
the ore concentrate by
Lead is widely used for its corrosion resistance, sound and
vibration absorption, low melting point (solders), and relatively
high imperviousness to various forms of radiation. Small amounts
of copper, antimony and other metals can be alloyed with lead to
achieve greater hardness, stiffness, or corrosion resistance than
is afforded by the pure metal. Lead compounds are used in glazes
and paints. About one third of U.S. lead consumption goes into
storage batteries. About half of U.S. lead consumption is from
secondary lead recovery. U.S. consumption of lead is in the
range of one million tons annually.
Lead ingested by humans produces a variety of toxic effects,
including impaired reproductive ability, disturbances in blood
chemistry, neurological disorders, kidney damage, and adverse
cardiovascular effects. Exposure to lead in the diet results in
permanent increase in lead levels in the body. Most of the lead
entering the body eventually becomes localized in the bones,
where it accumulates. Lead is a carcinogen or cocarcinogen in
some species of experimental animals. Lead is teratogenic in
experimental animals. Mutagenicity data are not available for
1 ead.
For the protection of human health from the toxic properties of
lead, ingested through water and contaminated aquatic organisms,
the ambient water criterion is 0.050 mg/1. Available data show
that adverse effects on aquatic life occur at concentrations as
low as 7.5 x 10~4 mg/1.
Lead is not destroyed in POTWs, but is passed through to the
effluent or retained in the POTW sludge. It can interfere with
POTW treatment processes and can limit the usefulness of POTW
sludge for application to agricultural croplands. Threshold
concentration for inhibition of the activated sludge process is
0.1 mg/1, and for the nitrification process is 0.5 mg/1. In a
study of 214 POTWs, median pass through values were over 80
percent for primary plants and over 60 percent for trickling
filter, activated sludge, and biological process plants. Lead
concentrations in POTW effluents ranged from 0.003 to' 1.8 mg/1
(mean » 0.106 standard deviation = 0.222).
Application of lead-containing sludge to cropland should not lead
to uptake by crops under most conditions, because normally lead
is strongly bound by soil. However, under the unusual conditions
of low pH (less than 5.5) and low concentrations of labile
phosphorus, lead solubility is increased and plants can
accumulate lead.
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Mercury (123). Mercury is an elemental metal Barely
nature aTThe free metal. Mercury is unique among metals, as j.t .
remains a liquid down to about -39°C. It is^ relatively inert
chemically and is insoluble in water. The principal ore is
cinnabar (Hgj5) .
Mercury is used industrially as the metal and as mercurous and
mlrcuric salts and compounds. Mercury released to_the aqueous
environment is subject to biomethylation - conversion to the
extremely toxic methyl mercury.
Mercury can be "introduced into the body through the skin and the
respiratory system as the elemental vapor. Mercuric salts are
highly toxic to humans and can be absorbed through^ the
gastrointestinal tract. Fatal doses can vary from '^30 grams..
Chronic toxicity of methyl mercury is evidenced, primarily by
neurological symptoms. Some mercuric salts cause death by kidney
failure.
Mercuric salts are extremely toxic to fish and other aquatic
life Mercuric chloride is more lethal than copper, hexavalent
chromium, zinc, nickel, and lead towards fish and aquatic life;
In the food cycle, algae, containing mercury up to TOO times the
concentration in the surrounding sea water, are eaten by f ish,
which further concentrates the mercury. Predators that eat the
fish in turn concentrate the mercury even further.
For the protection of human health from the toxic properties of
mercury, ingested through water and through contaminated aquatic
organisms, the ambient water criterion is determined to be 0.0002
mg/1 .
Mercury is not destroyed when treated by a POTW, and will either
oass through to the POTW effluent or be incorporated into the
POTW slSdge At low concentrations, it may reduce POTW removal
efficiencies, and at high concentrations, it may upset the POTW
operation.
The influent concentrations of "v mercury to POTWs have been
oblervSd by the EPA to range from 0.0002 to 0. 24 mg/1, with a
melian concentration of 0.001 mg/1. Mercury has been reported^n
the literature to have inhibiting effects upon an activated
IS
inhibitory effects being reported at 1365 mg/1
359.
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In a study of 22 POTWs having secondary treatment, the range of
removal of mercury from the influent to the POTW ranged from 4 to
99 percent, with median removal of 41 percent. Thus significant
pass through of mercury may occur.
In sludges, mercury content may be high, if industrial sources of
mercury contamination are present. Little is known about the
form in which mercury occurs in sludge. Mercury may undergo
biological methylation in sediments, but no methylation has been
observed in soils, mud, or sewage sludge.
T.he mercury content of soils not receiving additions of POTW
sewage sludge lies in the range from 0.01 to 0.5 mg/kg. In soils
receiving POTW sludges for protracted periods, the concentration
of mercury has been observed to approach 1.0 mg/kg. In the soil
mercury enters into reactions with the exchange complex of clay
and organic fractions, forming both ionic and covalent bonds
Chemical and microbiological degradation of mercurials can take
place side by side in the soil, and the products - ionic or
molecular - are retained by organic matter and clay or may be
volatilized if gaseous. Because of the high affinity between
mercury and the solid soil surfaces, mercury persists in the
upper layer of soil.
Mercury can enter plants through the roots, it can readily move
to other parts of the plant, and it has been reported to cause
injury to plants. In many plants, mercury concentrations range
from 0.01 to 0.20 mg/kg, but when plants are supplied with high
levels of mercury, these concentrations can exceed 0.5 mg/kg
Bioconcentration occurs in animals ingesting mercury in food.
Nickel(124). Nickel is seldom found in nature as the pure
elemental metal. It is a relatively plentiful element a.nd is
widely distributed throughout the earth's crust. It occurs in
marine organisms and is found in the oceans. The chief
commercial ores for nickel are pentlandite [(Fe,Ni)9Sa], and a
lateritic ore consisting of hydrated nickel-iron-magnesium
silicate.
Nickel has many varied uses. It is used in alloys and as the
pure metal. Nickel salts are used for electroplating baths.
t
The toxicity of nickel to man is thought to be very low and
systemic poisoning of human beings by nickel or nickel salts is
almost unknown. In non-human mammals, nickel acts to inhibit
insulin release, depress growth, and reduce cholesterol. A hiqh
incidence of cancer of the lung and nose has been reported in
humans engaged in the refining of nickel.
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Nickel salts can kill fish at very low concentrations. However,
s
animals contain up to 0.4 mg/1 and marine plants contain up to
Trng/l Higher nickel concentrations have been reported to cause
reduction in photosynthetic activity of the giant kelp. A low
concentration was found to kill oyster eggs.
For the protection of human health from the toxic properties _ of
nickel ingested through water and through contaminated aquatic
Srgan sms the ambient water criterion is determined to be 0 34
mg/1. If contaminated aquatic organisms are consumed excluding
consumption of water, the ambient water criterion is determined
to be 1 01 mg/1. Available data show that adverse effects on
aquatfc life occur for total recoverable nickel concentrations as
low as 0.032 mg/1.
Nickel is not destroyed when treated in a POTW, but will either
oass through to the POTW effluent or be retained in the POTW
SlSdge? It can interfere with POTW treatment processes and can
.also limit the usefulness of municipal sludge.
Nickel salts have caused inhibition of the biochemical oxidation
of sewage in a POTW. In a pilot plant, slug doses of nickel
sianif icantly reduced normal treatment efficiencies for a few
houri but the plant acclimated itself somewhat to the slug
do^e and appeared to achieve norma ^treatment e «-iencies
within 40 hours. It has been reported that the anaerobic
diges?ion process is inhibited only by high concentrations of
nickel, while a low concentration of nickel inhibits the
nitrification process. .^r .... - -. •-
The influent concentration of nickel to POTW facilities has. been
observed by the EPA to range from 0.01 to 3.19 mg/1, with a
median of 033 mg/1. In a study of 190 POTWs, nickel pass
through was greate? than 90 percent for 82 percent of the primary
plants. Median pass through for trickling filter, activated
lludge, and biological process plants was greater than 80
percent. POTW effluent concentrations ranged from 0.002 to
40 mg/1 (mean = 0.410, standard deviation =3.279).
Nickel not passed through the POTW will be incorporated into the
sludge. !n-S recent two-year study of _ eight cities four of the
cities had median nickel concentrations of over 350 mg/kg, and
two were over 1,000 mg/kg. The maximum nickel concentration
observed was 4,010 mg/kg.
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Nickel is found in nearly all soils, plants, and waters. Nickel
has no known essential function in plants. In soils, nickel
typically is found in the range from 10 to TOO mg/kg. Various
environmental exposures to nickel appear to correlate with
increased incidence of tumors in man. For example, cancer in the
maxillary antrum of snuff users may result from using plant
material grown on soil high in nickel.
Nickel toxicity may develop in plants from application of sewage
sludge on acid soils. Nickel has caused reduction of yields for
a variety of crops including oats, mustard, turnips, and cabbage.
I? ?n« study, nickel decreased the yields of oats significantly
at 100 mg/kg.
Whether nickel exerts a toxic effect on plants depends on several
soil factors, the amount of nickel applied, and the contents of
other metals in the sludge. Unlike copper and zinc, which are
more available from inorganic sources than from sludge, nickel
uptake by plants seems to be promoted by the presence of the
organic matter in sludge. Soil treatments, such as liming,
T°xicit* of nickel to plants L
Selenium(125). Selenium (chemical symbol Se) is a non-metallic
SJ®m^nu existin9 in several allotropic forms. Gray selenium,
which has a metallic appearance, is the stable form at ordinary
temperatures and melts at 220°C. Selenium is a major component
or 38 minerals and a minor component of 37 others found in
various parts of the world. Most selenium is obtained as a
by-product of precious metals recovery from electrolytic copper
refinery slimes. U.S. annual production at one time reached one
million pounds.
Principal uses of selenium are in semi-conductors, pigments,
decoloring of glass, zerography, and metallurgy. It also is used
to produce ruby glass used in signal lights. Several selenium
compounds are important oxidizing agents in the synthesis of
organic chemicals and drug products.
While results of some studies suggest that selenium may be an
essential element in human nutrition, the toxic effects of
selenium in humans are well established. Lassitude, loss of
hair, discoloration and loss of fingernails are symptoms of
selenium poisoning. In a fatal case of ingest ion of a larger
dose of selenium acid, peripheral vascular collapse, pulumonary
edema, and coma occurred. Selenium produces mutagenic and
teratogenic effects, but it has not been established as
exhibiting carcinogenic activity.
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For the protection of human health from the toxic properties of
selenium, ingested through water and through contaminated aquatic
organisms, the ambient water criterion is determined to be 0.010
ma/1 Available data show that adverse effects on aquatic life
occur at concentrations higher than that cited for human
toxicity.
Very few data are available regarding the behavior of selenium in
POTWs. One EPA survey of 103 POTWs revealed one POTW using
biological treatment and having selenium in the influent. The
influent concentration was 0.0025 mg/1, while the effluent
concentration was 0.0016 mg/1 giving a removal of 37 percent.
Selenium is not known to be inhibitory to POTW processes. In
another study, sludge from POTWs in 16 cities was found^to
contain from 1.8 to 8.7 mg/kg selenium, compared to 0.01 to
2 mg/kg in untreated soil. These concentrations of selenium in
sludae present a potential;hazard for humans or other mammuals
eating crops grown on soil treated with selenium-containing
sludge.
Silver(126). Silver is a . soft, lustrous, white metal that is
insoluble in water and alkali. In nature, silver is found in the
elemental state (native silver) and combined in ores such as
argentite (Ag2S), horn silver (AgCl), proustite/ (Ag3AsS3), and
pyrargyrite (Ag3SbS3). Silver is used extensively in several
industries, among them electroplating.
Metallic silver is not considered to be toxic, but most of its
salts are toxic to a large number of organisms. Upon ingestion
by humans, many silver salts are absorbed in the circulatory
system and deposited in various body tissues, resulting in
generalized or sometimes localized gray pigmentation of the skin
and mucous membranes know as argyria. There is no known method
for removing silver from the tissues once it is deposited, and
the effect is cumulative.
Silver is recognized as a bactericide and doses from 1 x 10-« to
5 x 10-*' mg/1 have been reported as sufficient to sterilize
water. The criterion for ambient water to protect human health
from the toxic properties of silver, ingested through water and
through contaminated aquatic organisms, is 0.05 mg/1. Available
data show that adverse effects on aquatic life occur at total
recoverable silver concentrations as low as 1.2 x 10 3 mg/1.
The chronic toxic effects of silver on the aquatic environment
have not been given as much attention as many other heavy metals.
Data from existing literature support the fact that silver is
very toxic to aquatic organisms. Despite the fact that silver is
nearly the most toxic of the heavy metals, there are insufficient
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data to adequately evaluate even the effects of hardness on
silver toxicity. There are no data available on the toxicity of
different forms of silver.
There is no available literature on the incidental removal of
silver by POTWs. An incidental removal of about 50 percent is
assumed as being representative. This is the highest average
incidental removal of any metal for which data are available.
(Copper has been indicated to have a median incidental removal
rate of 49 percent).
Bioaccumulation and concentration of silver from sewage sludge
has not been studied to any great degree. There is some
indication that silver could be bioaccumulated in mushrooms, to
the extent that there could be adverse physiological effects on
humans if they consumed large quantities of mushrooms grown in
silver enriched soil. The effect, however, would tend to be
unpleasant rather than fatal.
There is little summary data available on the quantity of silver
discharged to POTWs. Presumably, there would be a tendency to
limit its discharge from a manufacturing facility because of its
high intrinsic value.
Thallium (127). Thallium (Tl) is a soft, silver-white, dense,
malleable metal. Five major minerals contain 15 to 85 percent
thallium, but they are not of commerical importance, because the
metal is produced in sufficient quantity as a by-product of
lead-zinc smelting of sulfide ores. Thallium melts at 304°C.
U.S. annual production of thallium and its compounds is estimated
to be 1500 pounds.
Industrial uses of thallium include the manufacture of alloys
electronic devices and special glass. Thallium catalysts are
used for industrial organic syntheses.
I
Acute thallium poisoning in humans has been widely described.
Gastrointestinal pains and diarrhea are followed by abnormal
sensations in the legs and arms, dizziness, and, later, loss of
hair. The central nervous system is also affected. Somnolence,
delerium or coma may occur. Studies on the teratogenicity of
thallium appear inconclusive; no studies on mutagenicity were
found; and no published reports on carcinogenicity of thallium
were found.
For the protection of human health from the toxic properties of
thallium, ingested through water and contaminated aquatic
organisms, the ambient water criterion is 0.004 mg/1.
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No reports were found regarding the behavior of thallium in
POTWs. It will not be degraded, therefore it must pass through
to the effluent or be removed with the sludge. However, since
the sulfide (T1S) is very insoluble, if appreciable sulfide is
present, dissolved thallium in the influent to POTWs may be
precipitated into the sludge. Subsequent use of sludge bearing
thallium compounds, as a soil amendment to crop bearing soils,
may result in uptake of this element by food plants. Several
leafy garden crops (cabbage, lettuce, leek, and endive) exhibit
relatively higher concentrations of thallium than other foods
such as meat. ;
Zinc(128). Zinc occurs abundantly in the earth's crust,
concentrated in ores. It is readily refined into the^pure,
stable, silvery-white metal. In addition to its use in alloys,
zinc is used as a protective coating,on steel. It is applied by
hot dipping (i.e. dipping the steel in molten zinc) or by
electroplating. The resulting galvanized steel is used as one ol
the basis materials for coil coating. Zinc salts are also used
in conversion coatings in the coil coating industry.
Zinc can have an adverse effect on man and animals at high con-
centrations. Zincat concentrations in excess of 5 mg/1 causes
an undesirable taste, which persists through conventional
treatment. For the prevention of adverse effects due to these
organoleptic properties of zinc, 5 mg/1 was adopted for the
ambient water criterion.
Toxic concentrations of zinc compounds cause adverse changes in
the morphology and physiology of fish. Lethal concentrations in
the range of 0.1 mg/1 have been reported. Acutely toxic
concentrations induce cellular breakdown of the gills, and
possibly the clogging of the gills with mucous. Chronically
toxic concentrations of zinc compounds cause general enfeeblement
and widespread histological changes to many organs, but not to
gills. Abnormal swimming behavior has been reported at
0.04 mg/1. Growth and maturation are retarded by zinc. It has
been observed that the effects of ziric poisoning may not become
apparent immediately, so that fish removed from zinc-contaminated
water may die as long as 48 hours after removal.
In general, salmonoids are most sensitive to elemental zinc in
soft water; the rainbow trout is the most sensitive in hard
waters. A complex relationship exists between zinc
concentration, dissolved zinc concentration, pH, temperature, and
calcium and magnesium concentrations. Prediction of harmful
effects has been less than reliable and controlled studies have
not been extensively documented.
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The major concern with zinc compounds in marine waters is not
with acute lethal effects, but rather with the long-term
sublethal effects of the metallic compounds and complexes. Zinc
accumulates in some marine species, and marine animals contain
zinc in the range of 6 to 1500 mg/kg. From the point of view of
acute lethal effects, invertebrate marine animals seem to be the
most sensitive organism tested.
To,xicities of zinc in nutrient solutions have been demonstrated
for a number of plants. A variety of fresh water plants tested
manifested harmful symptoms at concentrations of 10 mg/1. Zinc
sulfate has also been found to be lethal to many plants, and it
could impair agricultural uses of the water.
Zinc is not destroyed when treated by POTWs, but will either pass
through to the POTW effluent or be retained in the POTW sludge.
It can interfere with treatment processes in the POTW and can
also limit the usefulness of municipal sludge.
In slug doses, and particularly in the presence of copper,
dissolved zinc can interfere with or seriously disrupt the
operation of POTW biological processes by reducing overall
removal efficiencies, largely as a result of the toxicity of the
metal to biological organisms. However, zinc solids in the form
of hydroxides or sulfides do not appear to interfere with
biological treatment processes, on the basis of available data.
Such solids accumulate in the sludge.
The influent concentrations of zinc to POTW facilities have been
observed by the EPA to range from 0.017 to 3.91 mg/1, with a
median concentration of 0.33 mg/1. Primary treatment is not
efficient in removing zinc; however, the microbial floe of
secondary treatment readily adsorbs zinc.
In a study of 258 POTWs, the median pass through values were 70
to 88 percent for primary plants, 50 to 60 percent for trickling
filter and biological process plants, and 30 to 40 percent for
activated process plants. POTW effluent concentrations of zinc
ranged from 0.003 to 3.6 mg/1 (mean = 0.330, standard deviation =
0.464).
The zinc which does not pass through the POTW is retained in the
sludge. The presence of zinc in sludge may limit its use on
cropland. Sewage sludge contains 72 to over 30,000 mg/kg of
zinc, with 3,366 mg/kg as the mean value. These concentrations
are significantly greater than those normally found in soil,
which range from 0 to 195 mg/kg, with 94 mg/kg being a common
level. Therefore, application of sewage sludge to soil will
generally increase the concentration of zinc in the soil. Zinc
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can be toxic to plants, depending upon soil pH. Lettuce,
?omatoes turnips, mustard, kale, and beets are especially
sensitive to zinc contamination.
is a colorless flammable liquid
The boiling point ranges from 137
many other organic liquids. Xylene is commonly JJ mixture of
three isomers, ortho, meta, and para-xylene, with m-xylene
predominating. ' Xylene' is manufactured from pseudocumene, or by
catalytic isomerization of a hydrocarbon fraction.
Xylene is predominately used as a solvent, for the manufacure of
dveland other organics, and as a raw material -for production of
benzotc acid, phthalic anhydride and other acids and esters used
in the manufacture of polyester fibers.
Xylene has been shown to have a narcotic effect^on humans exposed
to Mgh concentrations. The chronic toxicity of xylene has not
been defined, however, it is less toxic than benzene.
on the behavior of xylene in POTWs are not available.
the methyl groups in xylene tend to transfer electrons
benzeneTino, anS make If more -usceptible.to biochemical
oxidation. This observation, in addition _to the low_ water
solubility of xylene, leads to the expectation that aeration
processes will remove some xylene from the POTW.
Ammonia. Ammonia (chemical formula NH,) is
the U.S.)
converted to ammonium compounds or
Lronfad
to 50 mg/1 ammonia.
ThP nrincinal use of ammonia and its compounds is as a
fertilizer? PHighSmounts are introduced into soils and the water
runoff from agricultural land by this use. Smaller quantities of
ammonia are Jed as a refrigerant. Aqueous ammonia ( 2 to 5
percent solution) is widely used as a household c leaner.
Ammonium compounds find a variety of uses in various industries.
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Ammonia is toxic to humans by inhalation of the gas or ingestion
of aqueous solutions. The ionized form (NH4+) is less toxic than
hone: h"^"1^ -f0.m- mgestion of as little, as' one ounce of
household ammonia has been reported as a fatal dose. Whether
inhaled or ingested, ammonia acts destructively on mucous
membrane with resulting loss of function. Aside from breaks in
=m2!Ji- amiponia refrigeration equipment, industrial hazard from
ammonia exists where solutions of ammonium compounds may be
trea^d Wlth a Stron9 alkali, releasing ammonia gas.
as 15° pm ammonia in air is reported to cause
in alr iS
amb.ient water criteria for total ammonia are pH and
temperature dependent; un-ionized ammonia criteria is 0.02 mg/1 .
The reported odor threshold for ammonia in water is 0.037 mq/1
Un-ionized ammonia is acutely or chronically toxic to many
important freshwater and marine aquatic organisms at ambient
water concentrations below 4.2 mg/1. Salmonoid fishes are
*?P™i £ sensitive to the toxic effects of un-ionized ammoniJ
at concentrations as low as 0.025 mg/1 during prolonged exposure
Because the proportion of un-ionized ammonia varies with
environmental conditions, and cannot be directly controlled in
controlled? *"' tOtal ammonia is the Pollutant which must be
The behavior of ammonia in POTWs is well documented, because it
is a natural component of domestic wastewaters. Only verv hiah
concentrations of ammonia compounds could overload POTWs One
?£*ny SnS S/?Wn fcSat concentrations of un-ionized ammonia greater
than 90 mg/1 reduce gasification in anaerobic digesters, and
concentrations of 140 mg/1 stop digestion completely. Cor?osiSn
™, ?°PPfr Plp.*n8 and excessive consumption of chlorine also
ff^i- frorohif1? ammonia concentrations. Interference with
aerobic nitrification processes can occur when larae
concentrations of ammonia suppress dissolved oxygen. Nitrites
are then produced instead of nitrates. Elevated nitrite
drinking water are known to
Fluoride ion (F-) is a non-conventional pollutant.
Fluorine is an extremely reactive, pale yellow, gas which is
never found free in nature. Compounds of fluorine - fluorides -
are found widely distributed in nature. The principal minerals
fl°rine are fluorspar (CaF2) and
hoi 2 e a
Although fluorine is produced commercially in small quantities by
electrolysis of potassium bifluoride in anhydrous hydrogen
fluoride, the elemental form bears little relation to the
combined ion. Total production of fluoride chemicals in the U S
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is difficult to estimate because of the varied , uses. Large
volume usage compounds «":.,„ calcium fluoride (est. 1,5.00,000
tons in U.S.) and sodium f luoroaluminate (est. 100,000 tons in
5s )/ Some fluoride compounds and their uses are: sodium
f luoroaluminate - aluminum production; calcium fluoride -
steelmtking? hydrofluoric acid production, enamel, iron foundry;
boron Sif luoride - organic synthesis; antimony Pe»taf luoride -
f luorocarbon production; f luoboric acid and f luoborates
ele?t?oplatinq. perchloryl fluoride (C10.F) - rocket fuel
oxidize?- hydrogen fluoride - organic fluoride manufacture,
PickUng'acid in stainless steel-making,, manufacture of alumium
fiSoride; sulfur hexaf luoride - insulator in high voltage
transformers; polytetraf luoroethylene - inert plastic. Sodium
f luSfide is used at a concentration of about 1 ppm in many public
drinking water supplies to prevent tooth decay in children.
The toxic effects of fluoride on humans include severe
aastroenteritis, vomiting, diarrhea, spasms, weakness, thirst,
failing pulse and delayed blood coagulation. Most observations
of toxic effects are made on individuals who intentionally or
accidentally ingest sodium fluoride intended for use as rat
poison "o? insecticide. Lethal doses .for adults are estimate^ to
be as low as 2.5 g. At 1.5 ppm in drinking water, mot ling of
tooth enamel is reported, and 14 ppm, consumed over a period of
ylars, may lead to deposition of calcium fluoride in bone and
tendons.
Verv few data are available on the behavior of fluoride ; in POTWs.
Under usual operating conditions in a POTW, fluorides pass
S?ough ?nto the effluent. Very little of the fluoride entering
conventional primary and secondary treatment Presses is
removed In one study of POTW influents conducted by _ the U.S.
EPA nine POTWs reported concentrations of fluoride ranging from
07 m~g/l to 1.2 mg/1, which is the range of concentrations used
for fluoridated drinking water.
Iron
Iron is a non-conventional pollutant. It is an abundant
3oand tante O> Pros . of en
Sd in commSrcial use, but it is usually alloyed with other
metals and minerals. The most common of these is .carbon.
Iron is the basic element in the production of steel. Iron with
carbon is used for casting of major. parts of machines and it can
be machined, cast, formed, and welded. Ferrous iron is used in
SlntSfihlle. powdered iron' can be sintered and used in powder.
metallurgy. Iron compounds are also used to precipitate other
369
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metals and undesirable minerals from industrial
streams.
wastewater
Corrosion products of iron in water cause staining of porcelain
fixtures, and ferric iron combines with tannin to produce a dark
violet color. The presence of excessive iron in water
discourages cows from drinking and thus reduces milk production.
High concentrations of ferric and ferrous ions in water kill most
fish introduced to the solution within a few hours. The killing
action is attributed to coatings of iron hydroxide precipitates
on the gills. Iron oxidizing bacteria are dependent on iron in
water for growth. These bacteria form slimes that can affect the
aesthetic values of bodies of water and cause stoppage of flows
in pipes.
Iron is an essential nutrient and micro-nutrient for all forms of
growth. Drinking water standards in the U.S. set a limit of 0 3
mg/1 of iron in domestic water supplies, based on aesthetic and
organoleptic properties of iron in water.
High concentrations of iron do not pass through a POTW into the
effluent. In some POTWs iron salts are added to coagulate
precipitates and suspended sediments into a sludge. In an EPA
study of POTWs the concentration of iron in the effluent of 22
biological POTWs meeting secondary treatment performance levels
ranged from 0.048 to 0.569 mg/1 with a median value of 0.25 mq/1
This represented removals of 76 to 97 percent with a median of 87
percent removal.
Iron in sewage sludge spread on land used for agricultural
purposes is not expected to have a detrimental effect on crops
grown on the land.
Manganese. Manganese is a non-conventional pollutant. It is a
gray-white metal resembling iron, but more brittle. The pure
metal does not occur in nature, but must be produced by reduction
°t B , °?lde Wlth sodium, magnesium, or aluminum, or by
electrolysis. The principal ores are pyrolusite (MnO,) and
psilomelane (a complex mixture of Mn02 and oxides of potassium
barium and other alkali and alkaline earth metals). The largest
percentage of manganese used in the U.S. is in ferro-manganese
alloys. A small amount goes into dry batteries and chemicals.
Manganese is not often present in natural surface waters because
its hydroxides and carbonates are only sparingly soluble.
Manganese is undesirable in domestic water supplies because it
causes unpleasant tastes, deposits on food during cooking, stains
and discolors laundry and plumbing fixtures, and fosters the
370
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growth of some microorganisms in reservoirs, filters, and
distribution systems.
Small concentrators of 0.2 to;0.3 mg/1 of manganese may cause the
formation of heavy encrustations in piping. Excessive manganese
is also undesirable in water for use in many industries,
including textiles, dyeing, food processing, distilling, brewing,
ice, and paper. ,
The recommended limitation for manganese in drinking water in the
U.S. is 0.05 mg/1. The limit appears to be based on aesthetic
and economic factors rather than physiological hazards. Most
investigators regard manganese to be of no toxicological
significance in drinking water at concentrations not causing
unpleasant tastes. However, cases of manganese poisoning have
been reported in the literature. A small outbreak of
encephalitis - like disease, with early symptoms of lethargy and
edema, was traced to manganese, in the drinking water in a village
near Tokyo. Three persons died as a result of poisoning by well
water contaminated by manganese derived from dry-cell batteries
buried nearby. Excess manganese in the drinking water is also
believed to be the cause of a rare disease in Northeastern China.
No data were found regarding the behavior of manganese in POTWs.
However, one sourcereports that typical mineral pickup from
domestic water use results in an increase in manganese
concentration of 0.2 to 0.4 mg/1 in a municipal sewage system.
Therefore, it is expected that interference in POTWs, if it
occurs, would not be noted until manganese concentrations
exceeded 0 . 4, mg/1. .
Phenols(Total). "Total Phenols" is a non-conventional pollutant
parameter. Total phenols is the result of analysis using the
4-AAP (4-aminoantipyrene) method. This analytical procedure
measures the color development of reaction products between 4-AAP
and some phenols. The results are reported as phenol. Thus
"total phenol" is not total phenols, because many phenols
(notably nitrophenols) do not react. Also, since each reacting
phenol contributes to the color development to a different
degree, and each phenol has a molecular weight different from
others and from phenol itself, analyses of several mixtures
containing the same total concentration in mg/1 of several
phenols will give different numbers, depending on the proportions
in the. particular mixture.
Despite these limitations of the analytical method, total phenols
is a useful parameter when the mix of phenols is relatively
constant and an inexpensive monitoring method is desired. In any
given plant or even in an industry subcategory, monitoring of
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"total phenols" provides an indication of the concentration of
this group of priority pollutants, as well as those phenols not
selected as priority pollutants. A further advantage is that the
method is widely used in water quality determinations.
In an EPA survey of 103 POTWs the concentration of "total
phenols" ranged grom 0.0001 mg/1 to 0.176 mg/1 in the influent,
with a median concentration of 0.016 mg/1. Analysis of effluents
from 22 of these same POTWs, which had biological treatment
meeting secondary treatment performance levels, showed "total
phenols" concentrations ranging from 0 mg/1 to 0.203 mg/1 with a
median of 0.007. Removals were 64 to 100 percent with a median
of 78 percent.
It must be recognized, however, that six of the eleven priority
pollutant phenols could be present in high concentrations and not
be detected. Conversely, it is possible, but not probable, to
have a high "total phenol" concentration without having any
phenol itself or any of the ten other priority pollutant phenols
present. A characterization of the phenol mixture to be
monitored to establish constancy of composition will allow "total
phenols" to be used with confidence.
Sulfides
Sulfides are oxidizable and therefore can exert an oxygen demand
on the receiving stream. Their presence, in amounts which
consume oxygen at a rate exceeding the oxygen uptake of the
stream, can produce a condition of insufficient dissolved oxygen
in the receiving water. Sulfides also impart an unpleasant taste
and odor to the water and can render the water unfit for other
uses.
Sulfides are constituents of many industrial wastes such as those
from tanneries, paper mills, chemical plants, and gas works; but
they are also generated in sewage and some natural waters by the
anaerobic decomposition of organic matter. When added to water,
soluble sulfide salts such as Na2S dissociate into sulfide ions
which, in turn, react with the hydrogen ions in the water to form
HS- or H2S, the proportion of each depending upon the resulting
pH value. Thus, when reference is made to sulfides in water, the
reader should bear in mind that the sulfide is probably in the
form of HS- or H2S.
Owing to the unpleasant taste and odor which results when
sulfides occur in water, it is unlikely that any person or animal
will consume a harmful dose. The thresholds of taste and smell
were reported to be 0.2 mg/1 of sulfides in pulp mill wastes.
For industrial uses, however, even small traces of sulfides are
372
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often detrimental.
irrigation waters.
Sulfides are of little importance in
The toxicity of solutions of sulfides toward fish increases as
the pH value is." lowered, i.e., the HeS or HS- rather than the
sulfide ion, appears to be the principle toxic agent. In water
containing 3.2 mg/1 of sodium sulfide, trout overturned in two
hours at pH 9.0, in ten minutes at pH 7.8, and in four minutes at
pH 6.0. Inorganic sulfides have proved to be fatal to sensitive
fish such as trout at concentrations between 0.5 and 1.0 mg/1 as
sulfide, even in neutral and somewhat alkaline solutions.
and grease are taken together as one
This is a conventional pollutant and some
Oil and .Grease. Oil
pollutant parameter.
of its components are:
1. Light Hydrocarbons - These include light fuels such as
gasoline, kerosene, and jet fuel, and miscellaneous sol-
vents used for industrial processing, degreasing, or
cleaning purposes. The presence of these light hydro-
carbons may make the removal of other heavier oil wastes
more difficult.
2. Heavy Hydrocarbons, Fuels, arid Tars - These include the
crude oils, diesel oils, #6 fuel oil, residual oils, slop
oils, and in some cases, asphalt and road tar.
3. Lubricants and Cutting Fluids - These generally fall into
two classes: non-emulsifiable oils such as lubricating oils
and greases and emulsifiable oils such as water soluble
oils, rolling oils, cutting oils, and drawing compounds.
Emulsifiable oils may contain fat soap or various other
additives.
4. Vegetable andAnimal Fats and Oils - These originate
primarily from processing of foods and natural products.
These compounds can settle or float and may exist as solids or
liquids depending upon factors such as method of use, production
process, and temperature of wastewater.
Oils and greases, even in small quantities, cause troublesome
taste and odor problems. Scum lines, from these agents are
produced on water treatment basin walls and other containers.
Fish and water fowl are adversely affected by oils in their
habitat. Oil emulsions may adhere to the gills of fish causing
suffocation, and the flesh of fish is tainted when microorganisms
that were exposed to waste oil are eaten. Deposition of oil in
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the bottom sediments of water can serve to inhibit normal benthic
growth. Oil and grease exhibit an oxygen demand.
Many of the organic priority pollutants will be found distributed
between the oily phase and the aqueous phase in industrial
wastewaters. The presence of phenols, PCBs, PAHs, and almost any
other organic pollutant in the oil and grease make
characterization of this parameter almost impossible. However,
all of these other organics add to the objectionable nature of
the oil and grease.
Levels of oil and grease which are toxic to aquatic organisms
vary greatly, depending on the type and the species'
susceptibility. However, it has been reported that crude oil, in
concentrations as low as 0.3 mg/1, is extremely toxic to
fresh-water fish. It has been recommended that public water
supply sources be essentially free from oil and grease.
I
Oil and grease in quantities of 100 1/sq km show up as a sheen on
the surface of a body of water. The presence of oil slicks
decreases the aesthetic value of a waterway.
Oil and grease is compatible with a POTW activated sludge process
in limited quantity. However, slug loadings or high
concentrations of oil and grease interfere with biological
treatment processes. The oils coat surfaces and solid particles,
preventing access of oxygen, and sealing in some microorganisms.
Land spreading of POTW sludge, containing oil and grease
uncontaminated by toxic pollutants, is not expected to affect
crops grown on the treated land, or animals eating those crops.
p_H. Although not a specific pollutant, pH is related to the
acidity or alkalinity of a wastewater stream. It is not,
however, a measure of either. The term pH is used to describe
the hydrogen ion concentration (or activity) present in a given
solution. Values for pH range from 0 to 14, and these numbers
are the negative logarithms of the hydrogen ion concentrations.
A pH of 7 indicates neutrality. Solutions with a pH above 7 are
alkaline, while those solutions with a pH below 7 are acidic.
The relationship of pH and acidity and alkalinity is not
necessarily linear or direct. Knowledge of the water pH is
useful in determining necessary measures for corrosion control,
sanitation, and disinfection. Its value is also necessary in the
treatment of industrial wastewaters, to determine amounts of
chemicals required to remove pollutants, and to measure their
effectiveness. Removal of pollutants, especially dissolved
solids, is affected by the pH of the wastewater.
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Waters with a pH below 6.0 are corrosive to water works
structures, distribution lines, and household plumbing fixtures
and can thus add constituents to drinking water such as iron,
copper, zinc, cadmium, and lead. The hydrogen ion concentration
can affect the taste of the water, and at a low pH, water tastes
sour. The bactericidal effect of chlorine is weakened as the pH
increases, and it is advantageous to keep the pH close to 7.0.
This is significant for providing.safe drinking water.
Extremes of pH or rapid pH changes can exert stress conditions or
kill aquatic life outright. Even moderate changes from
acceptable criteria limits of pH are deleterious to some species.
The relative toxicity to aquatic life of many materials is
increased by changes in the water pH, For example,
metallocyanide complexes can increase a thousand-fold in toxicity
with a drop of 1.5 pH units.
Because of the universal nature of pH and its effect on water
quality and treatment, it is selected as a pollutant parameter
for all subcategories in the metal molding and casting industry.
A neutral pH range (approximately 6-9) is generally desired,
because either extreme beyond this range has a deleterious effect
on receiving waters or the pollutant nature of other wastewater
constituents.
Pretreatment for regulation of pH is covered by the "General
Pretreatment Regulations for Existing and New Sources of
Pollution," 40 CFR 403.5. This section prohibits the discharge
to a POTW of "pollutants which will cause corrosive structural
damage to the POTW, but in no case discharges with pH lower than
5.0, unless the works is specially designed to accommodate such
discharges."
Total Suspended Sol ids(TSS). Suspended solids include both
organic and inorganic materials. The inorganic compounds include
sand, silt, and clay. The organic fraction includes such
materials as grease, oil, tar, and animal and vegetable waste
products. These solids may settle out rapidly, and bottom
deposits are often a mixture of both organic and inorganic
solids. Solids may be suspended in water for a time and then
settle to the bed of the stream or lake. These solids discharged
with man's wastes may be inert, slowly biodegradable materials,
or rapidly decomposable substances. While in suspension,
suspended solids increase the turbidity of the water, reduce
light penetration, and impair the photosynthetic activity of
aquatic plants.
Suspended solids in water interfere with many industrial
processes and cause foaming in boilers and encrustations on
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equipment exposed to such water, especially as the temperature
rises. They are undesirable in process water used in the
manufacture of steel, in the textile industry, in laundries, in
dyeing, and in cooling systems.
Solids in suspension are aesthetically displeasing. When they
settle to form sludge deposits on the stream or lake bed, they
are often damaging to the life in the water. Solids, when
transformed to sludge deposit, may do a variety of damaging
things, including blanketing the stream or lake bed and thereby
destroying the living spaces for those benthic organisms that
would otherwise occupy the habitat. When of an organic nature,
solids use a portion or all of the dissolved oxygen available in
the area. Organic materials also serve as a food source for
sludgeworms and associated organisms.
Disregarding any toxic effect attributable to substances leached
out by water, suspended solids may kill fish and shellfish by
causing abrasive injuries and by clogging the gills and
respiratory passages of various aquatic fauna. Indirectly,
suspended solids are inimical to aquatic life, because they
screen out light, and they promote and maintain the development
of noxious conditions through oxygen depletion. This results in
the killing of fish and fish food organisms. Suspended solids
also reduce the recreational value of the water.
Total suspended solids is a traditional pollutant which is
compatible with a well-run POTW. This pollutant with the
exception of those components which are described elsewhere in
this section, e.g., heavy metal components, does not interfere
with the operation of a POTW. However, since a considerable
portion of the innocuous TSS may be inseparably bound to the
constituents which do interfere with POTW operation, or produce
unusable sludge, or subsequently dissolve to produce unacceptable
POTW effluent, TSS may be considered a toxic waste hazard.
REGULATION OF SPECIFIC POLLUTANTS
Discussions of individual pollutants selected or not selected for
consideration for specific regulation are based on concentrations
obtained from sampling and analysis of raw wastewater streams
from six subcategories.
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Aluminum Casting Subcateqory
Pollutants Considered for Specific
Regulation in the Aluminum Casting Subcategory
Based on sampling results and examination of the aluminum casting
subcategory manufacturing processes and raw materials, forty-one
pollutants were selected for consideration for specific
regulation through effluent limitations and standards for this
subcategory. These pollutants were found in raw wastewaters from
processes in this subcategory and are amenable to control by
identified wastewater treatment practices (e.g. activated carbon
adsorption, chemical precipitation-sedimentation). Discussions
of each of these pollutants follow.
Acenaphthene (1) values were detected on 6 of the 21 sampling
days in this subcategory. The maximum concentration in this
subcategory was 0.38 mg/1. Some of the concentrations are above
the treated effluent level achievable with available specific
treatment methods. This pollutant may be found in the leakages,
which subsequently contaminate process wastewaters, from die
casting operations.
Benzidine (5) values were detected on 1 of the 21 sampling days
in this subcategory. The concentration found on this day was
2.76 mg/1, a value substantially greater than the treated
effluent levels achievable with available treatment methods.
Carbon tetrachloride (6) values were detected on 11 of the 21
sampling days in this subcategory. The maximum concentration
found in this subcategory was 0.25 mg/1. Some of the
concentrations are above the treated effluent levels achievable
with available specific treatment methods. This, pollutant is
used in metal degreasing and as a general solvent in process
solutions.
Chlorobenzene (7) values were detected on 2 of the 21 sampling
days in this subcategory. The maximum concentration found was
0.59 mg/1. Some of the concentrations are above the treated
effluent levels achievable with available specific treatment
methods. This pollutant's presence is , associated with the
process solutions used in this subcategory.
1,2-dichloroethane (10) values were detected on 4 of the 21
sampling days in. this subcategory. The maximum concentration
found was 0.33 mg/1. Some of; the concentrations are above the
treated effluent levels achievable with available specific
treatment methods. This pollutant is used as a solvent for
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various process solutions, as a metal degreasing agent, and as a
wetting or penetrating agent.
1,1t 1-trichloroethane (11) values were detected on 9 of the 21
sampling days in this subcategory. The maximum concentration
found was 16.95 mg/1. This pollutant's presence is associated
with the process solutions used in this subcategory.
l',1-dichloroethane (13) values were detected on 1 of the 21
sampling days in this subcategory. The maximum concentration
found was 0.105 mg/1. This pollutant is used as a solvent in
process solutions.
2,4,6-trichlorophenol (21) values were detected on 13 of the 21
sampling days in this subcategory. The maximum concentration
found was 2.0 mg/1. Some of the concentrations are above the
treated effluent levels achievable with available specific
treatment methods. This pollutant is used as an agent to control
biological growth in various process solutions.
Parachlorometacresol (22) values were detected on 7 of the 21
sampling days in this subcategory. The maximum concentration
found was 0.925 mg/1. Some of these concentrations are well
above the optimum expected 30-day average treated effluent levels
achievable with available treatment methods. The presence of
this pollutant is associated with the contamination of process
waters with process equipment lubricants and fluids.
Chloroform (23) values were detected on all 21 sampling days in
this subcategory. The maximum concentration found was 0.46 mg/1.
Some of the concentrations are above the treated effluent levels
achievable with available specific treatment methods. This
pollutant is used as a general solvent in this and other
subcategories.
2,4-dichlorophenol (31) values were detected on 8 of the 21
sampling days in this subcategory. The maximum concentration
found was 0.15 mg/1. Some of the concentrations are above the
treated effluent levels achievable with available specific
treatment methods. This pollutant's presence is related to the
solutions used in processes and process equipment in this
subcategory.
Fluoranthene (39) values were detected on 15 of the 21 sampling
days in this subcategory. The maximum concentration found was
5.8 mg/1. Some of the concentrations are substantially above the
treated effluent levels achievable with available specific
treatment methods. This pollutant's presence is related to the
process solutions used in this subcategory.
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Methylene chloride (44) values were detected on 16 of the 21
sampling days in this subcategory. The maximum concentration
found was 2.46 mg/1. Some of these concentrations are above the
optimum expected 30-day average treated effluent levels
attainable with available specific treatment methods. The
presence :of this pollutant is related to its use in various
process solutions.
Naphthalene (55) values were detected on 8 of the 21 sampling
days in this subcategory. The maximum concentration found was
2.87 mg/1. Some of these ; concentrations are well above the
optimum expected 30-day average treated effluent levels
achievable with available treatment methods. This pollutant's
presence is related to the process solutions used.
4-nitrophenol (58) values were detected on 1 of the 21 sampling
days in this subcategory. The concentration found on this day
was 0.45 mg/1, a concentration above the optimum expected 30-day
average treated effluent level achievable with available
treatment methods. The presence of this pollutant is related to
the solutions used in the processes.
N-nitrosodi-n-propylamine (63). values were detected on 2 of the
21 sampling days' in this subcategory. The maximum concentration
found was 0.078 mg/1. This pollutant's presence is associated
with the process solutions used in this subcategory.
Pentachlorophenol (64) values were detected on 2 of the 21
sampling days in this subcategory. The maximum concentration
found was 3.05 mg/1. Some of the concentrations are
substantially above the treated effluent levels achievable with
available specific treatment methods. This pollutant is used as
an agent to control biological growth in process solutions. This
pollutant's presence may also be related to the contamination of
process wastewaters with process equipment fluids and lubricants.
Phenol (65.)-. values were detected on 15 of the 21 sampling days in
this subcategory. The maximum concentration found was 36.0 mg/1.
Some of these concentrations are above the optimum expected
30^day average treated effluent levels achievable with available
treatment methods. This pollutant is present as a major
component of various process solutions and of process equipment
fluids.
Bis(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate (66) values were detected on all 21
sampling days in this subcategory. The maximum concentration
found was 482.4 mg/1. Some of the concentrations are
substantially above the treated effluent levels achievable with
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available specific treatment methods. This pollutant's presence
can be related to the solutions used in the processes and to the
fluids used in process equipment.
Butyl benzyl phthalate (67) values were detected on 12 of the 21
sampling days in this subcategory. The maximum concentration
found was 2.0 mg/1. Some of these concentrations are above the
optimum expected 30-day average treated effluent levels
attainable with available specific treatment methods. The
presence of this pollutant can also be associated with the
solutions used in the processes and with the fluids used in
process equipment.
Benzo(a)anthracene (72) values were detected on 6 of the 21
sampling days in this subcategory. The maximum concentration
found was 22.54 mg/1. Some of the concentrations are
substantially above the treated effluent levels achievable with
available specific treatment methods. This pollutant can be
found in the solutions used in this subcategory's processes.
Benzo(a)pyrene (73) values were detected on 5 of the 21 sampling
days in this subcategory. The maximum concentration found was
0.16 mg/1. Some of these concentrations are above the optimum
expected 30-day average treated effluent levels achievable with
available treatment methods. As with b$nzo(a)anthracene, this
pollutant can be found in process solutions.
Chrysene (76) values were detected on 9 of the 21 sampling days
in this subcategory. The maximum concentration found was 19.0
mg/1. Some of the concentrations are above the treated effluent
levels achievable with available specific treatment methods.
This pollutant's presence is related to the process solutions
used in this subcategory.
Acenaphthylene (77) values were detected on 8 of the 21 sampling
days in this subcategory. The maximum concentration found was
1.64 mg/1. Some of these concentrations are well above the
optimum expected 30-day average treated effluent levels
achievable with available treatment methods. The presence of
this pollutant can be attributed to the process solutions used.
Anthracene (78) values were detected on 9 of the 21 sampling days
in this subcategory. The maximum concentration found was 1.35
mg/1. Some of these concentrations are above the optimum
expected 30-day average treated effluent levels achievable with
available specific treatment methods. This pollutant can be
found in process solutions used in this subcategory.
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Fluorene (80) values were "detected on 10 of the 21 sampling days
in this subcategory. The maximum concentration found was 7.27
mg/1. Some of the concentrations are substantially above the
treated effluent levels achievable with available specific
treatment methods. Fluorene can be found in various process
solutions (e.g., die lubes).
Phenanthrene (81) values were detected on 9 of the 21 sampling
days in this subcategory. The maximum concentration found was
1.35 mg/1. Some of the concentrations are above the treated
effluent levels achievable with available specific treatment
methods. This pollutant's presence in process wastewaters is
attributable to its presence in process solutions.
Pyrene (84) values were detected on 15 of the 21 sampling days in
this subcategory. The maximum concentration found was 0.69 mg/1.
Some of these concentrations are above the optimum expected
30-day average treated effluent levels achievable with available
treatment methods. Pyrene can be found in many of the process
solutions used by plants in this subcategory,
Tetrachloroethylene (85) values were detected on 14 of the 21
sampling days in this subcategory. The maximum concentration
found was 0.255 mg/1. Some of the concentrations are above the
treated effluent levels achievable with available specific
treatment methods. The presence of this pollutant in this
subcategory's wastewaters is related to its use as a solvent and
as a drying agent for metals.
Trichloroethylene (87) values were detected on 14 of the 21
sampling days in this subcategory. The maximum concentration
found was 0.328 mg/1. Some of the concentrations are above the
treated effluent levels achievable with available specific
treatment methods. This pollutant's presence results from its
use as a solvent in process solutions and for metal degreasing.
Chlordane (91) values were detected on 6 of the 13 sampling days
in this subcategory. The maximum concentration found was 0.24
mg/1. Some of these concentrations are above the optimum
expected 30-day average treated effluent levels achievable with
available treatment methods. Although most commonly known as a
pesticide, chlordane is also used in oil emulsions and
dispersible liquids. These latter two uses are related to the
process solutions of this subcategory.
Xylene (130) values were detected on 6 of the 21 sampling days in
this subcategory. The maximum concentration found was 70.09
mg/1. Some of the concentrations are substantially above the
treated effluent levels achievable with available specific
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treatment methods. This pollutant is used as both a protective
coating and a solvent in process solutions.
Copper (120) values were detected on all 14 sampling days in this
subcategory. The maximum concentration found was 1.11 mg/1.
Some of these concentrations are above the optimum expected
30-day average treated effluent levels achievable with available
treatment methods. The presence of copper in process wastewaters
is related to its use as an alloying material, as well as to its
use in various items of process equipment (dies, etc.).
Lead (122) values were detected on all 20 sampling days in this
subcategory. The maximum concentration found was 3.9 mg/1. Some
of the concentrations are above the treated effluent levels
achievable with available specific treatment methods. Lead
contamination in process wastewaters results from the presence of
lead in process equipment and facilities.
Zinc (128) values were detected on all 20 sampling days in this
subcategory. The maximum concentration found was 9.1 mg/1. Some
of these concentrations are above the optimum expected 30-day
average treated effluent levels achievable with available
treatment methods. Zinc's presence as a process wastewater
contaminant is related to its use as an alloying material, as
well as to its use in process equipment and facilities.
Total suspended solids (TSS) values were found on all 20 sampling
days at concentrations as high as 1632.7 mg/1. These TSS
concentrations are above the treated effluent levels achievable
with available treatment technologies. In addition, the control
of TSS in wastewater discharges will also result in the control,
to a certain extent, of several toxic pollutants. Consequently,
TSS is considered for specific regulation in this subcategory.
Oil and grease values were detected on all 20 sampling days. The
maximum concentration found was 23,273 mg/1. Oils and greases,
as process wastewater pollutants, originate in the solutions,
products, and scrap used in this subcategory's processes. As
many of the concentrations are greater than the treated effluent
levels typically achievable, oil and grease is considered for
specific regulation in this subcategory.
pH can be controlled within the limits of 7.5 to 10.0 with
available specific treatment methods and is, therefore,
considered for specific regulation in this subcategory.
Ammonia values were detected on all 20 sampling days. The
maximum concentration found was 25.2 mg/1. As a number of the
concentrations are greater than the treated effluent levels
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attainable with available treatment technologies, ammonia is
considered for specific regulation in this subcategory. Ammonia
can result from the biological degradation of organic
constituents in the process solutions.
Sulfide values were detected on all 20 sampling days. The
maximum level detected was:37.0 mg/1. As many of these values
are greater than the treated effluent levels achievable with
specific available treatment methods, sulfide is considered for
specific regulation in this subcategory. Sulfide can be
generated as a result of the biological degradation of process
solution organic compounds.
Phenols values were detected on all 20 of the sampling days in
this subcategory. The maximum concentration found was 88.41
mg/1. Some of the concentrations are substantially above the
treated effluent levels achievable with available specific
treatment methods. This pollutant, detected by wet chemistry
techniques (4AAP), encompasses a variety of the individual
phenolic compounds. This pollutant's presence in process
wastewaters is related to the constituents of process solutions.
Pollutants Not Considered for Specific
Regulation in the Aluminum Casting Subcateqory
A total of ninety-six pollutants that were evaluated were
eliminated from further consideration for specific regulation in
the aluminum casting subcategory. Forty pollutants were dropped
from further consideration, because their presence in raw process
wastewater was not detected in this subcategory. Nineteen
pollutants were eliminated from further consideration, because
the concentrations of these pollutants were less than the
analytically quantifiable limits.
The remaining thirty-seven pollutants were found to be present
infrequently or found at levels below those usually achieved by
end-of-pipe treatment technologies. Discussions of these
pollutants follow.
Benzene (4) concentrations appeared on 16 of 21 process sampling
days in the aluminum subcategory. The maximum concentration was
0.335 mg/1. Eleven concentrations are lower than the analytical
quantification limit. Three of the remaining five concentrations
are lower than the level considered to be achievable with
available specific treatment methods. However, all five
concentrations are lower than the level considered likely to
cause toxic effects in humans. Therefore, benzene is not
considered for specific regulation in this subcategory.
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1,1,2,2-tetrachloroethane (15) concentrations appeared on 3 of 21
process sampling days in the aluminum subcategory. The maximum
concentration was 0.013 mg/1. One concentration is below the
analytically quantifiable limit. The maximum concentration is
less than the concentration achievable by specific treatment
methods. Therefore, this pollutant is not considered for
specific regulation in this subcategory.
Bis(2-chloroethyl)ether (18) concentrations appeared on 1 of 21
process sampling days in the aluminum subcategory. The
concentration was 0.024 mg/1. Because this toxic pollutant was
found at only one plant, bis(2-chloroethyl)ether is not
considered for specific regulation in this subcategory.
2-chlorophenol (24) concentrations appeared on 4 of 21 process
sampling days in the aluminum subcategory. The maximum
concentration was 0.235 mg/1. Two concentrations are below the
analytically quantifiable limit. Another concentration is lower
than the level considered to be achievable by specific treatment
methods. Because this toxic pollutant was found on only one
process sampling day at a level considered to be achievable with
available specific treatment methods, 2-chlorophenol is not
considered for specific regulation in this subcategory.
2,4-dimethylphenol (34) concentrations appeared on 9 of 21
process sampling days in the aluminum subcategory. The maximum
concentration was 0.13 mg/1. Five concentrations are below the
analytical quantification limit. Two other concentrations are
lower than the level considered to be achievable by specific
treatment methods. The two remaining concentrations are lower
than trie level considered to cause toxic effects in humans.
Therefore, 2,4-dimethylphenol is not considered for specific
regulation in this subcategory.
Ethylbenzene (38) concentrations appeared on 6 of 21 process
sampling days in the aluminum subcategory. The maximum
concentration was 0.033 mg/1. Five concentrations are below the
analytically quantifiable limit. The maximum concentration is
below the level considered to be achievable by specific treatment
methods. Therefore, ethylbenzene is not considered for specific
regulation in this subcategory.
Dichlorobromomethane (48) concentrations^ appeared on 7 of 21
process sampling days in the aluminum subcategory. The maximum
concentration was 0.017 mg/1. Five concentrations are below the
analytically quantifiable limit. The remaining two
concentrations are lower than the level considered to be
achievable by specific treatment methods. Therefore,
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dichlorobromornethane is not considered "for specific regulation in
this subcategory.
2-nitrophenol (57) concentrations appeared on 3 of 21 process
sampling days in the aluminum subcategory. The maximum
concentration was 1.0 mg/1. One concentration is below the
analytically quantifiable limit. Another concentration is below
the level considered to be achievable with available specific
treatment methods. Because this toxic pollutant was found on
only one process sampling day at a level considered to be
achievable with available specific treatment methods,
2-nitrophenol is not considered for specific regulation in this
subcategory.
2,4-dinitrophenol (59) concentrations appeared on 2 of 21 process
sampling days in the aluminum subcategory. The maximum
concentration was 0.41 mg/1. One concentration is below the
analytically quantifiable limit. Because this toxic pollutant
was found on only one sampling day at a level considered to be
achievable with available specific treatment methods,
2,4-dinitrophenol is not considered for specific regulation in
this subcategory.
4 6-dinitro-o-cresol (60) concentrations appeared on 3 of 21
process sampling days in the aluminum subcategory.' The maximum
concentration was 0.285 mg/1. Two concentrations are below the
analytically quantifiable limit. Because this toxic pollutant
was found on only one sampling day at a level considered to be
achievable with specific treatment methods, 4,6-dinitro-o-cresol
is not considered for specific regulation; in this subcategory.
Di-n-butyl phthalate (68) concentrations appeared on 18 of 21
process sampling days in the aluminum subcategory. The maximum
concentration was 23.6 mg/1. Eight concentrations are below the
analytically quantifiable limit. Many other concentrations are
lower than the level considered to be achievable with available
specific treatment methods. Therefore, di-n-butyl phthalate is
not considered for specific regulation in this subcategory.
Diethyl phthalate (70) concentrations appeared on 11 of 21
process sampling days in the aluminum subcategory. The maximum
concentration was 9.09 mg/1. Five concentrations are below the
analytically quantifiable limit. Many other concentrations are
at levels that are considered achievable with available specific
treatment methods. However, all of the concentrations were below
the human toxicity level for this pollutant. Therefore, diethyl
phthalate is not considered for specific regulation in this
subcategory. ,
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Dimethyl phthalate (71) concentrations appeared on 5 of 21
process sampling days in the aluminum subcategory. The maximum
concentration was 0.035 mg/1. Four concentrations are below the
analytically quantifiable limit. The maximum concentration is
slightly above the level that is considered achievable with
available specific treatment methods. Therefore, dimethyl
phthalate is not considered for specific regulation in this
subcategory.
Toluene (86) concentrations appeared on 14 of 21 process sampling
days in the aluminum subcategory. The maximum concentration was
1.02 mg/1. Eleven concentrations are below the analytically
quantifiable limit. One other concentration is lower than the
level considered to be achievable wi|th available specific
treatment methods. Therefore, toluene is not considered for
specific regulation in this subcategory.
Aldrin (89) concentrations appeared on 6 of 13 process sampling
days in the aluminum subcategory. The maximum concentration was
0.018 mg/1. Five concentrations are below that level achievable
with end-of-pipe treatment technologies. Because this toxic
pollutant appeared on only one process sampling day at an
analytically quantifiable limit, aldrin is not considered for
specific regulation in this subcategory.
4,4'-DDT (92) concentrations appeared on 9 of 13 process sampling
days in the aluminum subcategory. The maiximum concentration was
0.017 mg/1. Eight of the nine concentrations are below the
analytically quantifiable level. Because only one quantifiable
value was found, 4,4'-DDT is not considered for specific
regulation in this subcategory.
4,4'-DDE (93) concentrations appeared on 6 of 13 process sampling
days in the aluminum subcategory. The maximum concentration was
0.013 mg/1. Five concentrations are below the analytically
quantifiable limit. Because only one quantifiable value
appeared, 4,4'-DDE is not considered for specific regulation in
this subcategory.
Heptachlor epoxide (101) concentrations appeared on 4 of 13
process sampling days in the aluminum subcategory. The maximum
concentration was 0.028 mg/1. Three concentrations are below the
analytically quantifiable limit. Because this toxic pollutant
was found on only one process sampling day at an analytically
quantifiable level, heptachlor epoxide is not considered for
specific regulation in this subcategory.
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a-BHC-Alpha (102) concentrations appeared on 8 of 13 process
sampling days in the aluminum subcategory. The maximum
concentration was 0.071 mg/1. Seven concentrations are below the
analytically quantifiable limit. Because this toxic pollutant
was found on only one process sampling day at an analytically
quantifiable level, a-BHC-Alpha is not considered for specific
regulation in this subcategory.
b-BHC-Beta (103) concentrations appeared on 6 of 13 process
sampling days in the aluminum subcategory. The maximum
concentration was 0.151 mg/1. Four concentrations are below the
analytically quantifiable limit. Because this toxic pollutant
was found on only two process sampling days at an analytically
quantifiable level, b-BHC-Beta is not considered for specific
regulation in this subcategory.
11 of 13 process
The maximum
r-BHC-Gamma (104) concentrations appeared on
sampling days in the aluminum subcategory.
concentration was 0.024 mg/1. Nine concentrations are below the
analytically quantifiable limit. Because this toxic pollutant
was found on only two process sampling days at an analytically
quantifiable level, r-BHC-Gamma is not considered for specific
regulation in.this subcategory.
g-BHC-Delta (105) concentrations appeared on 7 of 13 process
sampling days in the aluminum subcategory. The maximum
concentration was 0.039 mg/1, Five concentrations are below the
analytically quantifiable limit. Because this toxic pollutant
was found on only two process sampling days at an analytically
quantifiable level, 6-BHC-Delta is not considered for specific
regulation in this subcategory.
Polychlorinated biphenols (PCB-1242, PCB-1254, PCB-1221,
PCB-1232, PCB-1248, PCB-1260, PCB-1016) (106-112) concentrations
appeared at one plant in the aluminum subcategory. The maximum
concentration was 0.013 mg/1. This concentration is above the
level considered to be achievable by specific treatment methods.
The appearance of these PCBs can be traced,to plants which at one
time used PCS bearing hydraulic fluids. Hydraulic fluids are a
necessity in the operation of die casting machinery. Prior to
1971, PCBs were used extensively in hydraulic fluids. Commercial
products containing PCBs are no longer produced in the U.S:, and
the use of these materials in hydraulic fluids has been
eliminated. However, PCB residuals can still be detected after
extensive cleaning and flushing of hydraulic oil systems which
once contained them. Because PCBs are artifacts of one time use,
and because they are no longer used, PCBs are not considered for
specific regulation in this subcategory.
387.
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Arsenic (115) concentrations appeared on all 4 process sampling
days in the aluminum subcategory. The maximum concentration was
0.01 mg/1. Three concentrations are lower than the analytical
quantification limit. The maximum concentration is below the
level considered to be achievable with available specific
treatment methods. Therefore, arsenic is not considered for
specific regulation in this subcategory.
Chromium (119) concentrations appeared on all 11 process sampling
days in the aluminum subcategory. The maximum concentration was
0.01 mg/1. Ten concentrations are lower than the analytical
quantification limit. The maximum concentration is below the
level considered to be achievable with available specific
treatment methods. Therefore, chromium is not considered for
specific regulation in this subcategory.
Cyanide (121) concentrations appeared on all 20 process sampling
days in the aluminum subcategory. The maximum concentration was
0.05 mg/1. All concentrations are lower than the level
considered to be achievable by specific treatment methods.
Therefore, cyanide is not considered for specific regulation in
this subcategory.
Mercury (123) concentrations appeared on all 14 process sampling
days in the aluminum subcategory. The maximum concentration was
0.0014 mg/1. All concentrations are lower than the level
considered to be achievable by specific treatment methods.
Therefore, mercury is not considered for specific regulation in
this subcategory.
Nickel (124) concentrations appeared on all 14 process sampling
days in the aluminum subcategory. The maximum concentration was
0.04 mg/1. This concentration is below the level considered to
be achievable by specific treatment methods. Therefore, nickel
is not considered for specific regulation in this subcategory.
Fluoride concentrations appeared on all 20 process sampling days
in the aluminum subcategory. The maximum concentration was 3.4
mg/1. This concentration is below the level considered to be
achievable by specific treatment methods. Therefore, fluoride is
not considered for specific regulation in this subcategory.
Manganese concentrations appeared on all 20 process sampling days
in the aluminum subcategory. The maximum concentration was 0.56
mg/1. Four concentrations are below the analytical
quantification limit. Fourteen concentrations are lower than the
level considered to be achievable by specific treatment methods.
Because this pollutant was found on only two process sampling
days at a concentration above the level considered to be
388
-------
achievable by specific treatment methods, manganese is not
considered for specific regulation in this subcategory.
Iron concentrations appeared on all 12 process sampling days in
the aluminum casting subcategory. The maximum concentration was
4.2 mg/1. Three of the concentration values are below the level
considered to be analytically quantifiable. Nine of the twelve
concentration values are below the level considered to be
achievable by specific treatment methods. Therefore, iron is not
considered for specific regulation in this subcategory.
Copper Casting Subcateqory
Pollutants Considered for Specific
Regulation in the Copper Casting Subcateqory
Based on sampling results and a careful examination of the copper
casting subcategory manufacturing processes and raw materials,
thirteen pollutants were selected for consideration for specific
regulation through effluent limitations and standards for this
subcategory. These pollutants were found in raw wastewaters from
processes in this subcategory and are amenable to control by
identified wastewater treatment practices (e.g., activated carbon
adsorption, oxidation, chemical precipitation-sedimentation).
Discussions of these pollutants follow.
Butyl benzyl phthalate (67) values were detected on 4 of the 6
sampling days in this subcategory. The maximum concentration
found was 0.55 mg/1. Some of the concentrations are above the
treated effluent levels achievable with available specific
treatment methods. The presence of this pollutant is related to
the use of binders and other chemical additives in the casting
sands.
3,4-benzofluoranthene (74) values were detected on 2 of the 6
sampling days in this subcategory. The maximum concentration
found was 0.013 mg/1. Some of the concentrations are above the
treated effluent levels achievable with available specific
treatment methods. This pollutant is present as a combustion
byproduct of the binders and other sand additives.
Benzo(k)fluoranthene (75) values were detected on 2 of the 6
sampling days in this subcategory. The maximum concentration
found was 0.013 mg/1. Some of these concentrations are above the
optimum expected 30-day average treated effluent levels
achievable with available specific treatment methods. This
pollutant is present as a combustion byproduct of the binders and
other sand additives.
389
-------
Pyrene (84) values were detected on 5 of the 6 sampling days in
this subcategory. The maximum concentration found was 0.034
mg/1. Some of these concentrations are above the optimum
expected 30-day average treated effluent levels attainable with
available specific treatment methods. This pollutant is a
combustion byproduct of the binders and other sand additives.
Copper (120) values were detected on all 4 sampling days in this
subcategory. The maximum concentration found was 147.9 mg/1.
Some of these concentrations are above the optimum expected
30-day average treated effluent levels achievable with available
treatment methods. Copper is considered for specific regulation,
as it is the primary metal used in this subcategory.
Lead (122) values were detected on all 6 of sampling days in this
subcategory. The maximum concentration found was 32.1 mg/1.
Some of the concentrations are above the treated effluent -levels
achievable with available specific treatment methods. Lead's
presence as a process wastewater pollutant is related to its use
as an alloying material, as well as to its use in process
equipment and facilities.
Nickel (124) values were detected on all 4 sampling days in this
subcategory. The maximum concentration found was 1.02 mg/1.
Some of these concentrations are above the optimum expected
30-day average treated effluent levels achievable with available
treatment methods. The presence of nickel in process wastewaters
is a result of its use as an alloying material for copper, as
well as its use in process equipment (molds, etc.) and
facilities.
Zinc (128) values were detected on all 6 sampling days in this
subcategory. The maximum concentration found was 144.6 mg/1.
Some of the concentrations are above the treated effluent levels
achievable with available specific treatment methods. The
presence of this pollutant is attributed to its use as an alloy
for copper and to its use in production equipment and facilities.
Total suspended solids were found on all 6 sampling days. The
maximum concentration found was 773.9 mg/1. The TSS
concentrations are greater than the treated effluent levels
achievable with available treatment technologies. In addition,
control of TSS in process wastewater discharges will result in
the control, to a certain extent, of several toxic pollutants.
Therefore, this pollutant is considered for specific regulation.
Oil and grease values were found on all 6 sampling days. The
maximum concentration was 110 mg/1. As these concentrations are
greater than the treated effluent levels typically achievable
390
-------
with specific treatment technologies, oil and grease is
considered for specific, regulation in this subcategory.
nH can be controlled within the limits of 7.5 to 10.0 with
available spec??ic treatment methods and is therefore considered
for specific regulation in this subcategory.
values were detected on all 6 sampling days. The
concentration found was "0.97 wg/1. Js severa 1^ of these
concentrations are greater than the treated effluent levels
acSiSSSe 5i!h specific treatment technologies manganese is
considered for specific regulation in this subcategory.
^un
cncnr ons are greater than the treated effluent levels
acnle^aole with specified treatment technologies phenol is
considered for specific regulation in this subcategory.
Pollutants Not Considered for Specific
Regulation in the Copper Casting Subcateqory
A total of one hundred twenty-four pollutants which were
evaluated were eliminated from further consideration for specif ic
regulation in the copper casting subcategory. Fifty one
nollutants were dropped from further consideration because their
^esence in ?aw wastewaters was not detected. Forty pollutants
lire eliminated from further consideration, beca^ £he
concentrations of these pollutants were less than the
analytically quantifiable limits.
The remaining thirty-three pollutants were found to be present
InlrequenV or found at levels below those usually achieved^
specific treatment methods. Discussions of these pollutants
follow.
Acenaphthene (1) concentrations appeared on 4 of 6 Process
csamnling davs in the copper subcategory. The maximum
?onc"en?ratiof was 0.011 mg/1 Three concentration values appear
belSS the level considered to be analytically quantifiable. The
rtmSining concentration value is only slightly above the level
co^slderld to be achievable with available specific treatment
Se?hodl! Therefore, acenaphthene is not considered for specific
regulation in this subcategory.
Carbon tetrachloride (6) concentrations appeared
SocSss sampling days in , the copper subcategory
?oncSlral?Sn wa2 0.032 mg/1.
This concentration
on 1 of 6
. The maximum
is below the
391
-------
level considered to be achievable by specific treatment methods.
Therefore, carbon tetrachloride is not considered for specific
regulation in this subcategory.
i
1,1,1-trichloroethane (11) concentrations appeared on 1 of 6
process sampling days in the copper subcategory. The maximum
concentration was 0.14 mg/1. Because this toxic pollutant was
found at only one plant, 1,1,1-trichloroethane is not considered
for specific regulation in this subcategory.
1,1,2-trichloroethane (14) concentrations appeared on 1 of 6
process sampling days in the copper subcategory. The maximum
concentration was 0.013 mg/1. Because this toxic pollutant was
found at only one plant, and the maximum concentration is less
than the concentration achievable by specific treatment methods,
1,1,2-trichloroethane is not considered for specific regulation
in this subcategory.
Chloroform (23) concentrations appeared on all 6 process sampling
days in the copper subcategory. The maximum concentration was
0.093 mg/1. Five concentration values are below the level
considered to be analytically quantifiable. The remaining
concentration is less than the concentration achievable by
specific treatment methods. Therefore, chloroform is not
considered for specific regulation in this subcategory.
2,4-dimethylphenol (34) concentrations appeared on 3 of 6 process
sampling days in -the copper subcategory. The maximum
concentration was 0.084 mg/1. This concentration is only
slightly above the level considered to be achievable with
available specific treatment methods. Therefore,
2,4-dimethylphenol is not considered for specific regulation in
this subcategory.
2,6-dinitrotoluene (36) concentrations appeared on 1 of 6 process
sampling days in the copper subcategory. The concentration was
0.012 mg/1. The concentration value is below the level
considered to be achievable by specific treatment methods.
Therefore, 2,6-dinitrotoluene is not considered for specific
regulation in this subcategory.
Methylene chloride (44) concentrations appeared on 3 of 6 process
sampling days in the copper subcategory. The maximum
concentration was 0.016 mg/1. Two concentration values are below
the level considered to be analytically quantifiable. The
remaining concentration value is below the level considered to be
achievable by specific treatment methods. Therefore, methylene
chloride is not considered for- specific regulation in this
subcategory.
392
-------
Methyl chloride (45) concentrations appeared on 1 of 6 Process
sampling days in the copper subcategory. The maximum
concentration was 0.028 mg/1. This concentration is below the
level considered to be achievable by specific treatment methods.
Therefore, methyl chloride is not considered for specific
regulation in this subcategory.
Isophorone (54) concentrations appeared on 3 of 6 process
sampling days in the copper subcategory. The maximum
c5n?en?rationywas 0.015 mg/1. Two concentration values are below
the level considered to be analytically quantifiable. The other
concentration value is below the level considered to be
a?hiSvable by specific treatment methods. Therefore, isophorone
is not considered for specific regulation in this subcategory.
4-nitrophenol (58) concentrations appeared on 2 of 6 process
sailing days in the copper subcategory The maximum
concentration was 0.019 mg/1. This concentration is below the
level considered to be achievable by specific treatment methods.
Therefore, 4-nitrophenol not considered for specific regulation
in this subcategory.
Pentachlorophenol (64.) concentrations appeared on 4 of 6 process
sapling days in the copper subcategory. The maximum
concentration was 0.051 mg/1. Only one concentration value was
detected above the level considered to be achievable with
available specific treatment methods.. Therefore
pentachlorophenol is not considered" for specific regulation irt
this subcategory.
Phenol (65) concentrations appeared on 5 of 6 process sampling
days in the copper subcategory. The maximum concentration was
0 031 ma/1. Two concentration values are below -the < level
considered to be analytically quantifiable. This concentration
is below the level considered to be achievable by-specific
treatment methods. Therefore, phenol is not considered for
specific regulation in this subcategory.
Bis(2-ethvlhexyl) phthalate (66) concentrations appeared on all 6
procesfsampling days in the copper subcategory The maximum
Concentration was 0.15 mg/1. However, this co^!fratl^e^f^f
lower than the human toxicity level. Therefore,
bis(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate is not considered for specific
regulation in this subcategory.
Di-n-butyl phthalate (68) concentrations appeared on 5 of 6
process sampling days in the copper subcategory. The maximum
Concentration was 0.023 mg/1. Two concentration values are below
the level considered to be analytically quantifiable. The
393
-------
maximum concentration is below the level considered to be
achievable by specific treatment methods. Therefore, di-n-butyl
phthalate is not considered for specific regulation in this
subcategory.
Diethyl phthalate (70) concentrations appeared on 5 of 6 process
sampling days in the copper subcategory. The maximum
concentration was 0.01 mg/1. Four concentration values are below
the level considered to be analytically quantifiable. The
remaining concentration is below the level considered to be
achievable by specific treatment methods. Therefore, diethyl
phthalate is not considered for specific regulation in this
subcategory.
Dimethyl phthalate (71) concentrations appeared on 3 of 6 process
sampling days in the copper subcategory. The maximum
concentration was 0.151 mg/1. One concentration value is below
the level considered to be analytically quantifiable. Only one
concentration is above the level considered achievable with
Su?u ? Ze specific treatment methods. Therefore, dimethyl
phthalate is not considered for specific regulation in this
subcategory.
Benzo(a)anthracene (72) concentrations appeared on 1 of 6 process
«ao?iing,, ays in the c°PPer subcategory. This concentration was
0.089 mg/1. Because this toxic pollutant was found on only one
sampling day, it is not considered for specific regulation in
this subcategory.
Benzo(a)pyrene (73) concentrations appeared on 3 of 6 process
sampling days in the copper subcategory. The maximum
concentration was 0.038 mg/1. Two of the concentration values
are below the level considered to be analytically quantifiable.
Therefore, benzo(a)pyrene is not considered for specific
regulation in this subcategory.
Chrysene (76) concentrations appeared on 4 of 6 process sampling
nYoo1" copper subcategory. The maximum concentration was
0.108 mg/1. Two of the concentration values are below the level
considered to be analytically quantifiable. Therefore, chrysene
is not considered for specific regulation in this subcategory.
Acenaphthylene (77) concentrations appeared on 4 of 6 process
sampling days in the copper subcategory. The maximum
concentration was 0.013 mg/1. Three of the concentration values
are below the level considered to be analytically quantifiable.
Therefore, acenaphthylene is not considered for specific
regulation in this subcategory.
394
-------
Anthracene (78) concentrations appeared on 3 of 6 process
sampling days "in the copper subcategory. The maximum
concentration was 0.038 mg/1. These three concentration values
are either below the level considered to be analytically
quantifiable of inseparable. Therefore, anthracene is not
considered for specific regulation in this subcategory.
i ,-- .. ... - . -,»sr-,, ., . ,- , i j, .. „„
Phenanthrene (81) concentrations appeared on 3 of 6 process
sampling days in the copper subcategory. The maximum
concentration was 0.038 mg/1. These three concentration^values
are either below the level considered to be analytically
quantifiable or inseparable. Therefore, phenanthrene is not
considered for specific regulation in this subcategory.
Tetrachloroethylene (85) concentrations appeared on 3 of 6
process sampling days in the copper subcategory. The^aximum
concentration was 0.28 mg/1. Two of the concentration values are
below the level considered to be analytically quantifiable.
Therefore, tetrachloroethylene is not considered for specific
regulation in this subcategory.
Trichloroethylene (87) concentrations appeared on 1 of 6 process
sampling days in the copper subcategory. The concentration was
018 mg/1. Because this .toxic pollutant was found on only one
sampling day, is is not considered for specific regulation in
this subcategory.
Arsenic (115) concentrations appeared on both of the process
sampling days in the copper subcategory. The maximum
concentration was 0.016 mg/1. Arsenic was excluded/ from
verification analysis. This maximum concentration is below the
level considered to be achievable by specific treatment methods.
Therefore, arsenic is not considered for specific regulation in
this subcategory.
Cadmium (11 8) concentrations appeared on all 4 process sampling
days in the copper subcategory. The maximum concentration was
013 mg/1. All of the concentrations are below the level
considered to be achievable by specific treatment methods.
Therefore, cadmium is not considered for specific regulation in
this subcategory.
Cyanide (121)concentrations appeared on all 6 process sampling
days in the copper subcategory. The maximum concentration was
0 032 mg/1. All of the concentration values are below the level
considered to be achievable by specific treatment methods.
Therefore, cyanide is not considered for specific regulation in
this subcategory.
395.
-------
Mercury (123) concentrations appeared on all 4 process sampling
days in the copper subcategory. The maximum concentration was
0.0005 mg/1. One of the concentration values is below the level
considered to be analytically quantifiable. All of the values
are below the level considered to be achievable by specific
treatment methods. Therefore, mercury is not considered for
specific regulation in this subcategory.
Ammonia concentrations appeared on all 6 process sampling days in
the copper subcategory. The maximum concentration was 2.77 mg/1.
All of the concentration values are below the level considered to
be toxic in humans. Therefore, ammonia is not considered for
specific regulation in this subcategory.
Sulfide concentrations appeared on all 6 process sampling days in
the copper subcategory. The maximum conentration was 1 .-3 mg/1
Four of the concentration values are below the level considered
to be analytically quantifiable. The remaining two concentration
values are above the levels considered to be achievable by
specific treatment methods for their respective operations
However, sulfide is not considered for regulation in this
subcategory.
Fluoride concentrations appeared on all 6 process sampling day's
in the copper subcategory. The maximum concentration was
4.2 mg/1. All of the concentration values are below the level
considered to be achievable by specific treatment methods.
Therefore, fluoride is not considered for regulation in this
subcategory.
Iron concentrations appeared on all 3 process sampling days in
the copper casting subcategory. The maximum concentration was
0.07 mg/1. All of the concentration values are below the level
considered to be achievable by specific treatment methods.
Therefore, iron is not considered for specific regulation in this
subcategory.
j
Ferrous Casting Subcategory
Pollutants Considered for Specific
Regulation in the Ferrous Casting Subcateqorv
Based on sampling results and careful examination of the ferrous
casting subcategory manufacturing processes and raw waste
materials, thirty-five pollutants were selected for consideration
for specific regulation through effluent limitations and
standards for this subcategory. These pollutants were found in
raw wastewaters from processes in this subcategory and are
amenable to control by identified wastewater treatment practices.
396
-------
(eg., activated carbon adsorption, chemical
precipitation-sedimentation). - Disucssions of these pollutants
follow. . .._...
Acenaphthene (1) values were detected on 27 of the 32 sampling
days in this subcategory. The maximum concentration found was
0 081 mg/1. Some of the concentrations are above the^ treated
effluent levels achievable with available specific treatment
methods. Acenaphthene may be found in dust collection and sand
washing wastewaters and in various casting sand additives.
2-chlorophenol (24) values were detected on 17 of the 32^sampling
days in this subcategory. The maximum concentration found was
0.082 mg/1. Some of these concentrations are above the optimum
expected 30-day average treated effluent levels achievable with
available treatment methods. This pollutant is present as a
result of the materials used in Discussions of these pollutants
follow. the melting process. _.
2,4-dichlorophenol (31) values were detected on 14 of the 32
sampling days in this subcategory. The maximum concentration
found was 0.372 mg/1. Some of the concentrations are above the
treated effluent levels achievable with available specific
treatment methods. This pollutant originates i«: the-, products
used in the casting processes (ie., casting sand additives).
2,4-dimethylphenol (34) values were detected on 22 of^the.32
sampling days in this subcategory. The maximum concentration
found was 1.2 mg/1. Some of these concentrations are above the
optimum expected 30-day average treated effluent levels
achievable with available treatment methods. This pollutant may
also originate in the products used in the casting and melting
porcesses.
Fluoranthene (39) values were detected on 30 of the 32 sampling
days in "this subcategory. The maximum concentration .found was
1.5 mg/1. Some of the concentrations are above the? treated
effluent levels achievable with available specific treatment
methods. This contaminant's presence is related to the use of
coke in the melting process. As the coke is combusted, this
pollutant may be evolved as a by-product.
2,4-dinitrophenol (59) values were detected on 8^. of-the_32.
sampling days in this subcategory. The maximum concentration
found was 0.13 mg/1. Some of the concentrations are above the
treated effluent levels achievable with available specific
treatment methods. This pollutant's presence can^also_be related
to the raw materials (coke and oily scrap) .used in the melting
processes. ,
397
-------
4,6-dinitro-o-cresol (60) values were detected on 1 2 of the 32
fon^f n^ in/1this subcategory. The maximum concentration
found was 0.137 mg/1 . Some of these concentrations are above the
optimum expected 30-day average treated effluent levels
be found ?„ fhth available treatment methods. This pollutant may
be found in this subcategory 's process wastewaters as a result of
the raw materials used in the melting process.
N-nitrosodiphenylamine (62) values were detected on 1 4 of the 32
?an£;r!!g cay,S il]1 this subcategory. The maximum concentration
found was 5.95 mg/1. Some of the concentrations are well above
the treated effluent levels achievable with available specific
treatment methods. This pollutant's presence is related to the
raw materials used in the melting process.
Pentachlorophenol (64) values were detected on 1 3 of the 32
Snn£iing dar,vn t/^S subcategory. The maximum concentration
found was 0.47 mg/1. Some of these concentrations are above the
optimum expected 30-day average treated effluent levels
aailable treatment methods. The presence of
aSSOCiated *ith the raw materials used in
det?cted on 27 of the 32 sampling days in
o h maximum concentration found was 7.4 mg/1.
Some of the concentrations are well above the treated effluent
Phenof'^nriSlf16- Wlt? arilable sPedfic treatment methods^
Phenol s presence is related to the use of coke and oily scrap in
the melting process and to the binders and other additives used
in CHStixncj
Butyl benzyl phthalate (67) values were detected on 23 of the 32
Knni1"9 yn ^ thi/S subcategory. The maximum concentration
found was 0.32 mg/1. Some of the concentrations are above the
treated effluent levels achievable with available specific
treatment methods. This pollutant's presence is related to the
materials used in the casting and melting processes.
Benzo( a) anthracene (72) values were detected on 15 of the 32
fnnSi^L naXS-7 in/-,this, subcategory. The maximum concentration
found was 0.047 mg/1. Some of these concentrations are above the
optimum expected 30-day average treated effluent levels
achievable with available treatment methods. This pollutant may
be found as a result of the raw materials used in the melting
(76) values were detected on 22 of the 32 sampling days
Categ°ry; ,?he maximum concentration found was
. Some of the concentrations are above the treated
Chrysene
S VQ
U.U29
398
-------
effluent levels achievable with available specific treatment
methods This pollutant's presence is related to the raw
mlte??lis used inPthe melting .process and to the ^ binders and
other additives used in the casting sand. This polluant is also
a combustion by-product of coke and the sand additives.
Arenaohthvlene (77) values were detected on 25 of the 32 sampling
davS in thi? subcategory. The maximum concentration found was
043 mg/1 . S me of thele concentrations are above the optimum
exacted 30-day average treated effluent levels achievable with
Ivatlable treatment methods. This pollutant's origin is
IsSociatSd with the raw materials used in the melting process.
Fluorene (80) values were detected on 27 of the 32 sampling days
in tM.1 subcategory. The maximum concentration found was
18 mg/1 Some of the concentrations are above the treated
effluent levels achievable with available specific treatment
methods. As with chrysene, this pollutant is a combustion
by-product of coke and the sand additives.
Phenanthrene (81) values were detected on 27 of the 32 sampling
davS in this subcategory. The maximum concentration found was
OH mg/1 . Some of theSe concentrations are above the optimum
expected 30-day average treated effluent levels attainable with
available specific treatment methods.
Pyrene (84) values were detected on 29 of the 32 sampling days in
this subcategory. The maximum concentration found was 3.3 mg/1.
SomS of thele concentrations are well above the optimum expected
30-day average treated effluent levels achievable with available
treatment methods. This pollutant may ^^ UStl°n
by-product of the casting sand binders and other
(85)
values were detected on 27 or the 32
Tetrachloroethylene
" ?yf Is
raw materials used in the melting process.
Antimony (114) values were detected on all 19 sampling days in
this subcateqorv. The maximum concentration found was 1.4 mg/1.
ISml'of thSs? concentrations , are above the optimum expected
30-dav average treated effluent levels achievable with available
treatment methods. The presence of this pollutant is related to
its use as an alloy.
Arsenic (115) values were detected on 25 of the 27 sampling days
tn this subcategory. The maximum concentration found was
399
-------
i i* -,Some Of the
effluent levels achievable
wlstewlters Sar1i,Utant iS
meftfnfprocess ^ 1S *
concentrations are above the treated
with available specific treatment
resfnt.in thi* subcategory ' s p?oc1ss
contaminant - the coke used in the
Cadmium (118) values were detected on 25 of the 26 sampling days
*n this subcategory. The maximum concentration foCnd was
Some of these concentrations are above the optimum
30-day average treated effluent levels achievable with
treatment methods. The presence of this pollutant is
use as an alloy. It may also be present as a
of plated materials in the
Chromium
in this
3.1 mg/1,
effluent
methods.
alloying
sands.
(I,!2i ^alues were detected on 26 of the 27 sampling days
subcategory The maximum concentration found waS
borne of the concentrations are above the treated
Th s non^n^ Wlth available specific trea?men?
This pollutant's presence is related to its use as an
material or as a result of its washing from chromite
Copper (120) values were detected on all 60 sampling davs in
- "
te
Lead (122) values were detected on all 63 sampling davs in
Iom2ao?g?hr The maXimUm ^centration Sn^w^s 0 mg/
Ha?f Se^a%eC?rneae^ae^
- This pollutant
Nickel (124) values were detected on 58 of the 59 sampling days
0 98 la/1 ^oSfo?0^' The maximum concentration foSnd wal
SS Concentrations are above the optimum
pollutant is related to its use ,as, an alloy in
pollutant
as a contaminant in the scrap charge
400
-------
Total suspended solids values were^found on a*y
The maximum concentration found was 39,000 mg/1. The TSS
concentrations are greater than the typically achievable effluent
levels and are, therefore, considered for specific Regulation-
in addition, the control of TSS will result in the control, to a
certain extent, of several toxic pollutants.
Oil and grease values were detected on all 63 sampling days. The
once^r .t^S^tT than° B^fluXt 1=3. t&c.ft
achievable Si 1 and grease is considered for specific regulation
in this subcategory.
nH can be controlled within the limits "of 7.5 to 10.0-with-
available Specific treatment methods and is therefore considered
for specific regulation in this subcategory >•
Ammonia , values were detected on all 78 sampling days. .The
maxtmum value detected was 120 mg/1 As many of^these valuesjjre
well above the treated effluent levels achievable with available
treatment methods, ammonia is considered f°VTif ^noUutant
subcategory. Ammonia's presence as a wastewater P°;^utant
results from the various materials used in casting and melting
operations.
Sulfide values were detected on all 63 sampling^ days. The
materials used
casting
pollutant is related to the various
and melting operations.
Fluoride values "wire" detected on all 63 sampling days in this
subcategory. The maximum level found was 242^mg/l,; As many of
IhesS values are well above the attainable treated effluent
levels, fluoride is considered for specific regulation in this
^category. Fluoride's presence as a wastewater pollutant is
associated with the fluxes used in melting operations. r -
Manganese values were detected on all 63 sampling ^days in ^this
subcategory. The maximum concentration detected was 392_mg/l.
many of these values are greater than the treated effluent
* attainable with available specific treatment .methods
manganese is considered for specific regulation in this
sSbcategory. Its presence is related to its use as an alloy.
Iron values were detected on 48 of the 49 sampl tng _ days _in this
subcategory. The maximum dissolved iron concentration detected
401
-------
was 26 mg/1. Iron is considered for specific regulation in this
subcategory, because it is the primary constituent of the
products of this subcategory.
Phenols values were detected on all 79 sampling days in this
subcategory. The maximum concentration found was 16.5 mg/1
Some of these concentrations are substantially above the optimum
expected 30-day average treated effluent levels achievable with
available treatment methods. This pollutant, detected by the
4-AAP wet chemistry technique, encompasses a variety of the
individual phenolic compounds. Its presence is related to the
raw materials used in the melting process and to the binders and
additives used in casting sand.
Pollutants Not Considered for Specific
Regulation in the Ferrous Casting Subcateqory
A total of one hundred and two pollutants that were evaluated
were eliminated from further consideration for specific
regulation in the ferrous casting subcategory. Twenty-six
pollutants were dropped from further consideration, because their
presence in raw process wastewaters was not detected.
Thirty-seven pollutants were eliminated from further
consideration, because the concentrations of these pollutants
were less than the analytically quantifiable limits.
The remaining thirty-nine pollutants were found to be present
infrequently, found at levels below those usually achieved bv
specific treatment methods, or present as a result of
site-specific conditions. Discussions of these pollutants
follow.
Benzene (4) concentrations appeared on 26 of 32 process sampling
days in the ferrous casting subcategory. The maximum
concentration was 0.361 mg/1. Seventeen concentrations are below
the level considered to be analytically quantifiable. Only one
of the remaining values is greater than the concentration
considered to be achievable with available specific treatment
methods. Therefore, benzene is not considered for specific
regulation in this subcategory.
Carbon tetrachloride (6) concentrations appeared on 14 of 32
process sampling days in the ferrous casting subcategory The
maximum concentration was 0.016 mg/1. Thirteen concentrations
are below the level considered to be analytically quantifiable.
The remaining value is lower than the concentration considered to
be achievable with available specific treatment methods.
Therefore, carbon tetrachloride is not considered for specific
regulation in this subcategory.
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1,2,4-trichlorobenzene (8) concentrations appeared on 6 of 32
process sampling days in the ferrous casting subcategory. The
Maximum concentration was O..30mg/l. Five concentrations are
below the level considered to be analytically quantifiable. Only
one concentration value is greater than the level considered -to
be achievable with available specific treatment methods.
Therefore., 1,2,4-trichlorobenzene is not considered for specific
regulation in this subcategory.
1 1 1,-trichloroethane (11) concentrations appeared on 18 of 32
process sampling days in the ferrous casting subcategory,. The
maximum concentration was 0.075 mg/1. Fourteen concentrations
are below the level considered to be analytically quantifiable.
The remaining values are all lower than the concentration
considered to be achievable with available specific treatment
methods. Therefore, 1,1,l-trichloroethane is not considered for
specific regulation in this subcategory.
Bis(2-chloroethyl) ether (18) concentrations appeared on 4 of 32
process sampling days in the ferrous casting subcategory. The
maxium concentration was 0.014 mg/1. Three concentrations are
below the level considered to be analytically quantifiable. The
remaining value is lower than the concentration considered to be
achievable with available specific treatment .methods. Therefore,
this toxic pollutant is not considered for specific regulation in
this subcategory.
2,4,6-trichlorophenol (21) concentrations appeared on 14 of 32
process, sampling days in the ferrous casting subcategory. The
maximum concentration was 0.195 mg/1. All but three of the
concentrations are below the level considered to be analytically
quantifiable. Therefore, 2,4,6-trichlorophenol is not considered
for specific regulation in this subcategory.
Parachlorometacresol (22) concentrations appeared on 8 ofJJ2
process sampling days in the ferrous casting subcategory. The
maximum conentration was 0.536 mg/1. Four concentrations are
less than the analytically quantifiable limit. Only two
concentrations are above the level considered to be achievable
with available specific treatment methods. Therefore,
parachlorometacresol is not considered for specific regulation, in
this subcategory. - - ( . ;
Chloroform (23) concentrations appeared on all 32 process
sampling days in the ferrous casting subcategory. The maximum
concentration was 0.692 mg/1. Sixteen concentrations are less
than the analytically quantifiable limit. Fifteen concentrations
are lower then that concentration considered to be achievable
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with available specific treatment methods. Therefore, chloroform
is not considered for specific regulation in this subcategory.
1,2,-trans-dichloroethylene (30) concentrations appeared on 1 of
32 process sampling days in the ferrous casting subcategorv.
That concentration was 0.033 mg/1. The concentration value is
lower than the concentration considered to be achievable with
available specific treatment methods, therefore,
1,2-trans-dichloroethylene is not considered for specific
regulation in this subcategory. »p«i.iiit.
1,3-dichloropropylene (33) concentrations appeared on 2 of 32
process sampling days in the ferrous casting subcategory. The
maximum concentration was 0.24 mg/1. Only one concentration
value is above that level considered to be achievable with
available specific treatment methods. Therefore,
1,3-dichloropropylene is not considered for specific regulation
in this subcategory.
Bis(2-chloroethoxy) 'methane (43) concentrations appeared on 6 of
32 process sampling days in the ferrous casting subcategorv. The
maximum concentration was 0.045 mg/1. Four concentrations are
below the level considered to be analytically quantifiable. All
conentration values are lower than the concentration considered
ThPrplnrf ihT! JS ."^available specific treatment methods.
Therefore, this toxic pollutant is not considered for specific
regulation in this subcategory.
Methylene chloride (44) concentrations appeared on 26 of 32
process sampling days in the ferrous casting subcategory The
maximum concentration was 2.05 mg/1. Twelve concentrations are
below the level considered to be analytically quantifiable. Only
two of the remaining concentrations are greater -than the level
considered to be achievable by specific treatment methods. Both
of those concentrations are from one plant. Therefore, methylene
cnionde is not considered for specific regulation in this
subcategory.
Methyl chloride (45) concentrations appeared on 1 of 32 process
sampling days in the ferrous casting subcategory The
concentration was 0.012 mg/1. Because this toxic pollutant was
found at only one plant, at a level lower than the concentration
considered to be achievable with available specific treatment
methods, methyl chloride is not considered for specific
regulation in this subcategory.
Bromoform (47)
sampling days
concentration was
concentrations appeared on 1 of 32 process
in the ferrous casting subcategory. The
0.018 mg/1. Because this toxic pollutant was
404
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found at ony one plant, at a level lower than the concentration
considered to be achievable with available specific treatment
methods, bromoform is not considered for specific regulation in
this subcategory.
Trichlorofluoromethane (49) concentrations appeared on 1 of 32
process sampling days in the ferrous casting subcategory. The
concentration was 0.12 mg/1. Because this toxic pollutant was
found at only one plant, at a level lower than the concentration
considered to be achievable with available specific treatment
methods, trichlorofluoromethane is not considered for specific
regulation in this subcategory.
Chlorodibromomethane (51) concentrations appeared on 1 of 32
process sampling days in the ferrous casting subcategory. The
concentration was 0.019 mg/1. Because this toxic pollutant was
found at only one plant, at a level lower than the concentration
considered to be achievable with available specific treatment
methods, Chlorodibromomethane is not considered for specific
regulation in this subcategory.
Isophorone (54) concentrations appeared on 10 of 32 process
sampling days in the ferrous casting subcategory. The maximum
concentration was 0.074 mg/1. Eight concentration values are
below the level considered to be analytically quantifiable. Only
one of the remaining concentration values is above the level
considered to be achievable by specific treatment methods'.
Therefore, this toxic pollutant is not considered for regulation
in this subcategory.
Naphthalene (55) concentrations appeared on 29 of 32 process
sampling days in the ferrous casting subcategory. The maximum
concentration was'0.13 mg/1. Seventeen concentration values are
below the level considered to be analytically quantifiable. Some
concentrations are above the level considered to be achievable
with available specific treatment methods. However, all of the
concentrations are below human toxicity levels. Therefore,
naphthalene is not considered for specific regulation in this
subcategory.
Nitrobenzene (56) concentrations appeared on 5 of 32 process
sampling days in the ferrous casting subcategory. The maximum
concentration was 0.86 mg/1. Three concentrations are less than
the analytically quantifiable limit. Only one of the remaining
two concentration values is above the level considered to be
achievable with available specific treatment methods. Therefore,
nitrobenzene is not considered for specific regulation in this
subcategory.
405
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2-nitrophenol (57) concentrations appeared on 15 of 32 process
sampling days in the ferrous casting subcategory. The maximum
concentration was 0.052 mg/1. Eleven concentrations are less
than the analytically quantifiable limit. Three of the four
remaining concentration values are less than the level considered
to be achievable by specific treatment methods. Only the maximum
concentration is at the level considered to be achievable with
available specific treatment methods. Therefore, 2-nitrophenol
is not considered for specific regulation in this subcategory.
4-nitrophenol (58) concentrations appeared on 7 of 32 process
sampling days in the ferrous casting subcategory. The maximum
concentration was 0.16 mg/1. Three concentrations are less than
the analytically quantifiable limit. Three of the remaining four
concentrations are less than the level considered to be
achievable by specific treatment methods. Only the maximum
concentration is above the level considered to be achievable with
available specific treatment methods. Therefore, 4-nitrophenol
is not considered for specific regulation in this subcategory.
Bis(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (66) concentrations appeared on 31 of
32 process sampling days in the ferrous casting subcategory. The
maximum concentration was 0.42 mg/1. Ten concentration values
are below the level considered to be analytically quantifiable.
Many of the concentrations are above the level that is considered
achievable with available specific treatment methods. However,
all of the concentrations are below human toxicity levels.
Therefore, bis(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate is not considered for
specific regulation in this subcategory.
Di-n-butyl phthalate (68) concentrations appeared on 30 of 32
process sampling days in the ferrous casting subcategory. The
maximum concentration was 0.598 mg/1. Seventeen concentrations
are less than the analytically quantifiable limit. All of the
concentrations are below human toxicity levels. Therefore,
di-n-butyl phthalate is not considered for regulation in this
subcategory.
Di-n-octyl phthalate (69) concentrations appeared on 5 of 32
process sampling days in the ferrous casting subcategory. The
maximum concentration was 0.054 mg/1. Three concentrations are
less than the analytically quantifiable limit. Only two
concentrations are slightly above the level considered to be
achievable with specific treatment methods. Therefore,
di-n-octyl phthalate is not considered for specific regulation in
this subcategory.
Diethyl phthatlate (70) concentrations appeared on 24 of 32
process sampling days in the ferrous casting subcategory. The
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maximum concentration was 0.027 mg/1. Fourteen concentrations
are less than the analytically quantifiable limit. All other
concentrations are below human toxicity levels. Therefore,
diethyl phthalate is not considered for specific regulation in
this subcategory.
Dimethyl phthalate (71) concentrations appeared on 25 of 32
process sampling days in the ferrous casting subcategory. The
maximum concentration was 2.9 mg/1. Ten concentrations are less
than the analytically quantifiable limit. All other
concentrations are much lower than human toxicity levels.
Therefore, dimethyl phthalate is not considered for specific
regulation in.this subcategory.
3,4-benzofluoranthene (74) concentrations appeared on 2 of 32
process sampling days in the ferrous casting subcategory. The
maximum concentration was 0.019 mg/1. One concentration value is
below the level considered to be analytically quantifiable.
Because this toxic pollutant was found at only one plant,
3,4-benzofluoranthene is not considered for specific regulation
in this subcategory.
Benzo(k)fluoranthene (75) concentrations appeared on 2 of 32
process sampling days in the ferrous casting subcategory. The
maximum concentration was 0.018 mg/1. One concentration value is
below the level considered to be analytically quantifiable.
Because this toxic pollutant was found at only one plant,
benzo(k)fluoranthene is not considered for specific regulation in
this subcategpry.
Toluene (86) concentrations appeared on 20 of 32 process sampling
days in the ferrous casting, subcategory. The maximum
concentration was 0.015 mg/1. Fifteen concentrations are less
than the quantifiable limit. All other concentrations are below
the level that is considered to be achievable by specific
treatment methods. Therefore, toluene is not considered for
specific regulation in this subcategory.
Trichloroethylene (87) concentrations appeared on 18 of 30
process sampling days in the ferrous casting subcategory. The
maximum concentration was 0.77 mg/1. Eleven concentrations are
less than the analytically quantifiable limit. Six of the
remaining concentration values are below.the level considered to
be achievable with available specific treatment methods.
Therefore, trichloroethylene is not considered for specific
regulation in this subcategory.
Endrin aldehyde (99) concentrations appeared on 6 of 21 process
sampling days in the ferrous casting subcategory. The maximum
• 407
-------
concentration was 0.019 mg/1. Four concentrations are below the
analytically quantifiable limit. The other two concentrations
were found at the same plant. Therefore, endrin aldehyde is not
considered for specific regulation in this subcategory.
b-BHC-Beta (103) concentrations appeared on 10 of 21 process
sampling days in the ferrous casting subcategory. The maximum
concentration was 0.019 mg/1. Eight concentration values are
less than the analytically quantifiable limit. Because this
pollutant was found on only one process sampling day, b-BHC-Beta
is not considered for specific regulation in this subcategory.
Beryllium (117) concentrations appeared on 46 of 48 process
sampling days in the ferrous casting subcategory. The maximum
concentration was 0.04 mg/1. Forty-two concentrations are less
than the analytically quantifiable limit. All other
concentrations are below the level considered to be achievable
with available specific treatment methods. Therefore, beryllium
is not considered for specific regulation in this subcategory.
Cyanide (121) concentrations appeared on 67 of 69 process
sampling days in the ferrous casting subcategory. The maximum
concentration was 0.35 mg/1. Only three concentrations are above
the level considered to be achievable with available specific
treatment methods. Therefore, cyanide is not considered for
specific regulation in this subcategory.
Mercury (123) concentrations appeared on 56 of 57 process
sampling days in the ferrous casting subcategory. The maximum
concentration was 0.015 mg/1. Eighteen concentrations are below
the analytically quantifiable limit. All other concentrations
are below the level considered to be achievable with available
specific treatment methods. Therefore, mercury is not considered
for specific regulation in this subcategory.
Selenium (125) concentrations appeared on 25 of 27 process
sampling days in the ferrous casting subcategory. The maximum
concentration was 2.2 mg/1. Twenty-two concentrations are below
the analytically quantifiable limit. Two other concentrations
are below the level considered to be achievable with available
specific treatment methods. Therefore, selenium is not
considered for specific regulation in this subcategory.
Silver (126) concentrations appeared on 14 of 16 process sampling
days in the ferrous casting subcategory. The maximum
concentration was 0.11 mg/1. Nine concentrations are below the
analytically quantifiable limit. All other concentrations are at
or below the level considered to be achievable with available
408
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treatment methods. Therefore, silver is not considered for
specific regulation in this subcategory.
Thallium (127) concentrations appeared on 14 of. 16 process
sampling days in the ferrous casting subcategory. The maximum
concentration was 7.0 mg/1. Twelve concentrations are below the
analytically quantifiable limit. Because this pollutant was
found on only two process sampling days, thallium is not
considered for specific regulation in this subcategory.
Xylene (130) concentrations appeared on 7 of 28 process sampling
days in the ferrous casting subcategory. The maximum
concentration was 0.023 mg/1. Six concentration values are below
the analytically quantifiable limit. Because this pollutant was
found on only one sampling day, xylene is not considered for
specific regulation in this subcategory.
Lead Casting Subcategory
Pollutants Considered for Specific
Regulation .in the Lead Casting Subcateqory
Based on sampling results and careful examination of the _lead
casting subcategory manufacturing processes and raw materials,
six pollutants were selected for consideration for specific
regulation through effluent limitations and standards for this
subcategory. These pollutants were found in raw wastewaters from
processes in this subcategory and are amenable to control by
identified wastewater treatment practices (e.g., activated carbon
adsorption, chemical precipitation-sedimentation). Discussions
of these pollutants follow.
Copper was detected at a level of 0.046 mg/1 in the process
wastewaters sampled in this subcategory. Copper is used for
electrical conductors in charging operations and may be present
in process equipment. While it is not a primary raw material in
this subcategory, copper may be introduced into this
subcategory's process wastewaters by corrosion of equipment. ,
Lead was detected at a level of 0.85 mg/1 in the process
wastewaters sampled in this subcategory. This value is above the
level which can be achieved by specific treatment methods.
Zinc was detected at a level of 0.014 mg/1 in the process
wastewaters sampled in this subcategory. While it is not a
primary raw material in this subcategory, zinc may be introduced
into this subcategory's process wastewaters as a constituent of
the cast metal.
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Oil and grease was detected at a level of <5 mg/1 in the process
wastewaters sampled in this subcategory. This pollutant can be
removed by conventional treatment methods.
Suspended solids was detected at a level of 5 mg/1 in the process
wastewaters sampled in this subcategory. The TSS generated in
this subcategory may consist of large proportions of toxic
pollutants.
The pH of the process wastewaters sampled in this subcategory was
7.7. pH can be controlled within the limits of 7.5 to 10.0 with
available specific treatment methods.
Pollutants Not Considered for Specific
Regulation in the Lead Casting Subcategory
Analytical data for the lead casting subcategory was originally
collected as part of a study for the Battery Manufacturing Point
Source Category. The screening data for toxic organic pollutants
in this category demonstrated that these pollutants need not be
considered for specific regulation. As a result, analyses for
the toxic organic pollutants were not performed on the sampled
process wastewaters of this subcategory. As lead casting
operations are associated with the manufacture of lead-acid
batteries, data from the battery manufacturing category is
considered to be applicable to the lead casting subcategory. The
toxic organic pollutant dispositions presented in Tables VI-I
through VI-4 for the lead casting subcategory are based upon
battery manufacturing category data. Refer to the Battery
Manufacturing Point Source Category Development Document for
additional details on the sampling carried out at these
operations.
A total of one hundred thirty-one pollutants were eliminated from
further consideration for specific regulation in the lead casting
subcategory. Eighty-three pollutants were dropped from further
consideration, because their presence in raw process wastewater
was not detected. Thirty-one pollutants were eliminated from
further consideration, because the concentrations of these
pollutants were less than the analytically quantifiable limits.
i
The remaining seventeen pollutants were found to be present
infrequently, found at levels below those usually achieved by
specific treatment methods, or found only once.
The two toxic inorganic pollutants not considered for specific
regulation were detected at levels less than 0.003 mg/1 in the
process wastewaters sampled in this subcategory. These
410
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concentrations are
treatment methods.
below those levels achievable with specific
The five non-conventional pollutants not considered for specific
regulation were detected at the following levels in this
subcategory's sampled process wastewaters:
Ammonia(N)
Fluoride
Manganese
Iron
Phenol sUAAP)
0.05 mg/1
1.1 mg/1
0.005 mg/1
0.32 mg/1
0.012 mg/1
These concentrations are below those levels considered to be
achievable with specific treatment methods. Therefore, these
pollutants are not considered for specific regulation in., this
subcategory.
Seven of ten toxic organic pollutants not considered for specific
regulation were detected at levels considered to be
environmentally insignificant. The other three pollutants were
detected at levels below those considered to be achievable with
specific treatment methods. Refer to the Battery Manufacturing
Point Source Category Development Document for additional
details. j
Magnesium Casting Subcateqory
Pollutants Considered for Specific
Regulation in the Magnesium Casting Subcategory
Based on sampling results and a careful examination of the
magnesium casting subcategory manufacturing processes and raw
materials, seven pollutants were Selected for consideration for
specific regulation through effluent limitations and standards
for this subcategory. These pollutants were found in raw
wastewaters from processes in this subcategory and are amenable
to control by identified wastewater treatment practices (e.g.,
activated carbon adsorption, oxidation, chemical
precipitation-sedimentation). Discussions of these pollutants
follow.
Zinc (128) values were detected on all 6 sampling days in this
subcategory. The maximum concentration found was 1.7 mg/1. Some
of these concentrations are above the optimum expected 30-day
average treated effluent levels achievable with available
specific treatment methods. Contamination of process wastewaters
with this pollutant results from contact of process waters with
process equipment and facilities.
411
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Total suspended solids were found on all 6 sampling days in this
subcategory. The maximum concentration was 63 mg/1. Several of
the TSS concentrations are greater than the treated effluent
levels achievable with available treatment technologies.
Therefore, this pollutant is considered for specific regulation.
j-
Oil and grease values were found on all 6 sampling days in this
subcategory. The maximum concentration was 17 mg/1. As some of
the concentrations are greater than the treated effluent levels
typically achievable with available specific treatment methods,
oil and grease is considered for specific regulation in this
subcategory.
pH can be controlled within the limits of 7.5 to 10.0 with
available specific treatment methods, and is therefore
considered for specific regulation in this subcategory.
Sulfide values were detected on all 6 sampling days in this
subcategory. The maximum concentration was 21.0 mg/1. As some
of these values are greater than the treated effluent levels
attainable with specific treatment methods, sulfide is considered
for specific regulation in this subcategory.
Manganese values were detected on all 6 sampling days in this
subcategory. The maximum concentration was 0.42 mg/1. As
several of these values are greater than the treated effluent
levels achievable with available specific treatment in methods,
manganese is considered for specific regulation in this
subcategory.
Phenols values were detected on all 6 sampling days in this
subcategory. The maximum concentration found was 2.15 mg/1.
Some of these concentrations are above| the optimum expected
30-day average treated effluent levels achievable with available
treatment methods. This pollutant, detected by wet chemistry
techniques (4-AAP), encompasses a variety of the individual
phenolic compounds. Its presence is related to the various
casting sand additives and binders.
412
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Pollutants Not Considered for Specific
Regulation i_n the Magnesium Casting Subcateqory
A total of one hundred thirty pollutants that were evaluated were
eliminated from further consideration for specific regulation in
the magnesium casting subcategory. Seventy-one pollutants were
dropped from further consideration because their presence in raw
process wastewaters was not detected. Thirty-five pollutants
were eliminated from further consideration, because the
concentrations of these pollutants were less than the
analytically quantifiable limits.
The remaining twenty-four pollutants were found to be present
infrequently, found at levels below those usually • achieved by
specific treatment methods, or were,present as artifacts related
to sampling procedures. Discussions of these pollutants follow.
Acenaphthene (1) concentrations appeared on 2 of 6 process
sampling days in the magnesium subcategory.' The maximum
concentration was 0.064 mg/1. One of these two values is below
the quantification limit. Therefore, acenaphthene is not
considered for specific regulation in this subcategory.
BenzeneU) concentrations appeared on 1 of 6 process sampling
days in the magnesium subcategory. The ,maximum concentration was
0.014 mg/1. This is lower than the concentration considered to
be achievable with available specific treatment methods.
Therefore, benzene is not considered for specific regulation in
this subcategory.
Chloroform (23) concentrations appeared on all 6 process sampling
days in the magnesium subcategory. The maximum concentration was
0.016 mg/1. This is lower than the concentration considered to
be achievable with specific treatment methods. Therefore,
chloroform is not considered for specific regulation in this
subcategory.
2,4-dimethylphenol (34) concentrations appeared on 1 of 6 process
sampling days in the magnesium subcategory. The maximum
concentration was 0.016 mg/1. This is lower than the
concentration considered to be achievable with available specific
treatment methods. Therefore, 2,4-dimethylphenol is not
considered for specific regulation in this subcategory.
Methylene chloride (44) concentrations appeared on 4 of 6 process
sampling days in the magnesium subcategory. The maximum
concentration was 0.15 mg/1. All concentrations, except the
maximum value, were lower than the concentration considered to be
achievable with available specific treatment methods. The
413
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maximum concentration is only slightly above this level.
Therefore, with only one concentration above the level considered
to be achievable with available specific treatment methods,
methylene chloride is not considered for specific regulation in
this subcategory.
Pentachlorophenol (64) concentrations appeared on 1 of 6 sampling
days in the magnesium subcategory. The concentration was 0.033
mg/1. Since this concentration appeared on only one process
sampling day, pentachlorophenol is not considered for specific
regulation in this subcategory.
Phenol (65) concentrations appeared on 2 of 6 process sampling
days in the magnesium subcategory. The maximum concentration was
0.350 mg/1. All of the concentrations are much lower than the
human toxicity level, effects in humans. Therefore, phenol is
not considered for specific regulation in this subcategory.
Bis(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (66) concentrations appeared on 5 of
6 process sampling days in the magnesium subcategory. The
maximum concentration was 0.195 mg/1. All concentrations are
much lower than the human toxicity level. Therefore,
bis(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate is not considered for specific
regulation in this subcategory.
Butyl benzyl phthalate (67) concentrations appeared on 4 of 6
process sampling days in the magnesium subcategory. The maximum
concentration was 0.013 mg/1. Three concentrations are below the
quantification limit. The maximum concentration is only slightly
above the level considered to be achievable with available
specific treatment methods. However, this maximum concentration
appeared on only one process sampling day. Therefore, butyl
benzyl phthalate is not considered for specific regulation in
this subcategory.
Di-n-butyl phthalate (68) concentrations appeared on 5 of 6
process sampling days in the magnesium subcategory. The maximum
concentration was 0.051 mg/1. Only one concentration is above
the level considered to be achievable with available specific
treatment methods. Therefore, di-n-butyl phthalate is not
considered for specific regulation in this subcategory.
Diethyl phthalate (70) concentrations appeared on 3 of 6 process
sampling days in the magnesium subcategory. The maximum
concentration was 0.20 mg/1. Two concentrations are below the
quantification limit. All of the concentrations are lower than
the human toxicity level. Therefore, diethyl phthalate is not
considered for specific regulation in this subcategory.
414
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Dimethyl phthalate (71) concentrations appeared on 2 of 6 process
sampling days in the magnesium subcategory. The maximum
concentration'was 1.1 mg/1. All concentrations are lower than
the human toxicity level. Therefore, dimethyl phthalate is not
considered for specific regulation in this subcategory.
Chrysene (76) concentrations appeared on 3 of 6 process sampling
days in the magnesium subcategory. The maximum concentration was
0 016 mg/1. Two concentrations are below the quantification
limit. The maximum concentration appeared on only one process
sampling day. Therefore, chrysene is not considered for specific
regulation in this subcategory.
Acenaphthylene (77.) concentrations appeared on 5 of 6 process
sampling days in the magnesium subcategory. The maximum
concentration was 0.124 mg/1. Four concentrations are below the
quantification limit. The maximum concentration appeared on only
one process sampling day. Therefore, acenaphthylene is not
considered for specific regulation in this subcategory.
Anthracene (78) concentrations appeared on 5 of 6 process
sampling days in the magnesium subcategory. The maximum
concentration was 0.10 mg/1. Four concentrations are below the
quantification limit. The maximum concentration appeared on only
one process sampling day. Therefore, anthracene is not
considered for specific regulation in this subcategory.
Phenanthrene (81) concentrations appeared on 5 of 6 process
sampling days in the magnesium subcategory. The maximum
concentration was 0.10 mg/1. Four concentrations are below the
quantification limit. The maximum concentration appeared on only
one process sampling day. Therefore, phenanthrene is not
considered for specific regulation in this subcategory.
Pyrene (84) concentrations appeared on 4 of 6 process sampling
days in the magnesium subcategory. The maximum concentration was
0 019 mg/1. Three concentrations are below the quantification
limit. The maximum concentration appeared on only one process
sampling day. Therefore, pyrene is not considered for specific
regulation in this subcategory.
Toluene (86) concentrations appeared on 3 of 6 process sampling
days in the magnesium subcategory. The maximum concentration was
0 030 mg/1. This is lower than the concentration considered to
be achievable with available specific treatment methods.
Therefore, toluene is not considered for specific regulation in
this subcategory.
.'-'415
-------
Copper (120) concentrations appeared on all 4 process sampling
days in the magnesium subcategory. The maximum concentration was
0.08 mg/1. All concentrations are below the level considered to
be achievable with available specific treatment methods.
Therefore, copper is not considered for specific regulation in
this subcategory.
i
Cyanide (121) concentrations appeared on all 6 process sampling
days in the magnesium subcategory. The maximum concentration was
0.01 mg/1. All concentrations are below the level considered to
be achievable with available specific treatment methods.
Therefore, cyanide is not considered for specific regulation in
this subcategory.
Lead (122) concentrations appeared on all 6 process sampling days
in the magnesium subcategory. The maximum concentration was 0.13
mg/1. All concentrations are below the level considered to be
achievable with available treatment methods. Therefore, lead is
not considered for specific regulation in this subcategory.
Ammonia concentrations appeared on all 6 process sampling days in
the magnesium subcategory. The maximum concentration was 2.1
mg/1. This concentration is lower than the human toxicity level.
Therefore, ammonia is not considered for specific regulation in
this subcategory.
Fluoride concentrations appeared on all 6 process sampling days
in the magnesium subcategory. The maximum concentration was 2.5
mg/1. All concentrations are below the level considered to be
achievable with available treatment methods. Therefore, fluoride
is not considered for specific regulation in this subcategory.
Iron concentrations appeared on all 5 process sampling days in
the magnesium casting subcategory. The maximum concentration was
0.06 mg/1. Two of the concentration values are below the level
considered to be analytically quantifiable. All of the
concentration values are below that level considered to be
achievable by specific treatment methods. Therefore, iron is not
considered for specific regulation in this subcategory.
Zinc Casting Subcateqory
Pollutants Considered for Specific
Regulation in the Zinc Casting Subcategory
Based upon sampling results and a careful examination of the zinc
casting subcategory manufacturing processes and raw materials,
seventeen pollutants were selected for consideration for specific
regulation through effluent limitations and standards for this
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subcategory. These pollutants "were found in the^raw^ wastewaters
from processes in this subcategory and are amenable to control by
wastewater treatment practices (e.g., activated carbon
adsorption, chemical precipitation-sedimentation). Discussions
of these pollutants follow.
2,4,6-trichlorophenol (21) values were detected on 7 of the 11
sampling days in this subcategory. The maximum concentration
found was 2.65 mg/1. Some of these concentrations are^above the
optimum expected 30-day average treated effluent levels
achievabl! with available treatment methods. This pollutant's
presence can be related to its use as an agent to control
biological growth in various process solutions and to the use of
"dirty scrap" in the furnace change.
Parachlorometacresol ( 22 ) values were detected on 6 of the_ 1 1
sampling days in this subcategory. The maximum concentration
found was 0.40 mg/1. Some of concentrations are above the
treated effluent levels achievable with available specific
treatment methods. This pollutant's presence can be related to
the process solutions used in this subcategory.
2,4-dichlorophenol (~31 ) values were detected on 7 of the _ 11
sampling days in this subcategory. The maximum concentration
found was 1.95 mg/1. Some of the concentrations are above the
treated effluent levels achievable with available specific
treatment methods. This pollutant's presence can be related to
the use, of "dirty" scrap in the furnace charge.
2, 4-dimethylphenol (34) values were detected on 10 of the^ _ l l
sampling days in this subcategory. The maximum concentration
found was 9.3 mg/1. Some of these concentrations are well above
the optimum expected 30-day average treated effluent levels
achievable with available treatment methods. The presence of
this pollutant can be related to its use as a solvent and a
biological growth control agent in this subcategory 's process
solutions, and to the use of "dirty scrap" in the furnace charge.
Naphthalene (55) values were detected on 7 of the 11 sampling
days in this subcategory. The maximum concentration found was
4 0 ma/1. Some of the concentrations are above the treated
effluent levels achievable with available specific treatment
methods. The presence of this pollutant can be related to the
use of "dirty" scrap in the furnace charge.
Phenol (65) values were detected on 1 0 of the 11 sampling days in
this subcategory. The maximum concentration found was 19.0 mg/l.
Some of these concentrations, are substantially above the ^optimum
expected 30-day average treated effluent levels achievable with
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available treatment methods. This pollutant's presence can be
related to various process solutions and to contaminants in the
scrap charge to the melting process.
Butyl benzyl phthalate (67) values were detected on 5 of the 11
sampling days in this subcategory. The maximum concentration
found was 0.12 mg/1. Some of the concentrations are above the
treated effluent levels achievable with available specific
treatment methods. This pollutant's presence can be related to
the use of contaminated scrap in the furnace charge.
Pyrene (84) values were detected on 8 of the 11 sampling days in
this subcategory. The maximum concentration found was 0.018
mg/1. Some of the concentrations are above the treated effluent
levels achievable with available specific treatment methods.
This pollutant can be found in process solutions (e.g.,
diecasting and casting quench solutions).
Tetrachloroethylene (85) values were detected on 7 of the 11
sampling days in this subcategory. The maximum concentration
found was 0.142 mg/1. Some of these concentrations are above the
optimum expected 30-day average treated effluent levels
achievable with available treatment methods. This pollutant's
presence can be related to solutions used in this subcategory's
processes.
Lead (122) values were detected on all 11 sampling days in this
subcategory. The maximum concentration found was 0.42 mg/1.
Some of these concentrations are above the optimum expected
30-day average treated effluent levels achievable with available
treatment methods. The presence of this pollutant is related to
its use in process equipment and facilities and to its presence
in the cast metal.
Zinc (128) values were detected on all 11 sampling days in this
subcategory. The maximum concentration found was 350 mg/1. Some
of the concentrations are above the treated effluent levels
achievable with available specific treatment methods. Zinc is
considered for specific regulation in this subcategory as it is
the major metal cast.
Total suspended solids were found on all 11 sampling days in this
subcategory. The maximum concentration found was 3,800 mg/1.
The TSS concentrations are greater than the treated effluent
levels achievable with available specific treatment methods. In
addition, control of TSS in process wastewater discharges will
result in the control, to a certain extent, of several toxic
pollutants.
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Oil and grease values were found on all 11 sampling days in this
subcategory. The maximum concentration found was 17,100 mg/1.
These oils and greases originate as process wastewater
pollutants, in the solutions, products, and scrap used in this
subcategory's processes. As many of the concentrations are
greater than the treated effluent levels typically achievable,
oil and grease is considered for specific regulation in this
subcategory.
pH can be controlled within the limits of 7.5 to 10.0 with
available specific treatment methods and is therefore considered
for specific regulation in this subcategory.
Sulfide values were detected on all 11 sampling days in this
subcategory. The maximum concentration found was 1.0 mg/1. As
several of the concentrations are greater than the treated
effluent levels attainable with available specific treatment
technologies, sulfide is considered for specific regulation in
this subcategory.
Manganese values were detected on all 11 sampling days in this
subcategory. The maximum concentration found was 0.29 mg/1. As
several of these values are greater than the treated effluent
levels achievable with available specific treatment methods,
manganese is considered for specific regulation in this
subcategory.
Phenols values were detected on all 11 sampling days in this
subcategory. The maximum concentration found was 123 mg/1. Some
of these concentrations are substantially above the optimum
expected 30-day average treated effluent levels achievable with
available treatment methods. This pollutant, detected by wet
chemistry techniques (4AAP), encompasses a variety of the
individual phenolic compounds. This pollutant results from the
process solutions used in this subcategory and from contaminants
in the furnace scrap charge.
Pollutants Not Considered for Specific
Regulation in the Zinc Casting Subcategory
A total of one hundred twenty pollutants that were evaluated were
eliminated from further consideration for specific regulation in
the zinc casting subcategory. Fifty pollutants were dropped from
further consideration, because their presence in raw process
wastewaters was not detected. Thirty-five pollutants were
eliminated from further consideration, because the concentrations
of these pollutants were less than the analytically quantifiable
limits. ; '": ; ,
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The remaining thirty-five pollutants were found to be present
infrequently or found at levels below those typically achieved by
specific treatment methods. Discussions of these pollutants
follow.
Acenaphthene (1) concentrations appeared on 4 of 11 process
sampling days in the zinc casting subcategory. The maximum
concentration was 2.5 mg/1. Two concentrations are less than the
analytically quantifiable limit. The maximum concentration is
the only value above the level achievable with available specific
treatment methods. Because this concentration level is found
only on 1 of 11 process sampling days, acenaphthene is not
considered for specific regulation in this subcategory.
Benzene concentrations appeared on 5 of 11 process sampling days
in the zinc casting subcategory. The maximum concentration was
0.15 mg/1. Four of these concentrations are less then the
analytically quantifiable limit. As a quantifiable concentration
was found on only one sampling day, benzene is not considered for
specific regulation in this subcategory.
Carbon tetrachloride (6) concentrations appeared on 4 of 11
process sampling days in the zinc casting subcategory. The
maximum concentration was 0.029 mg/1, which is less than the
concentration achievable by specific treatment methods. Three
concentrations are below the analytically quantifiable limit.
Therefore, this toxic pollutant is not considered for specific
regulation in this subcategory.
1,2,4-trichlorobenzene (8) concentrations appeared on 1 of 11
process sampling days in the zinc casting subcategory. The
concentration was 3.15 mg/1. Because this toxic pollutant is
found at only one plant, it is not considered for specific
regulation in this subcategory.
1r 1,1-trichloroethane (11) concentrations appeared on 3 of 11
process sampling days in the zinc casting subcategory. The
maximum concentration was 0.044 mg/1. This concentration is
lower than the concentration considered to be achievable with
available specific treatment methods. Two concentrations are
below the analytically quantifiable limit. Therefore, this
pollutant is not considered for specific regulation in this
subcategory.
i
Chloroform (23) concentrations appeared on all 11 process
sampling days in the zinc casting subcategory. The maximum
concentration was 0.067 mg/1. This concentration is lower than
the concentration considered to be achievable with available
specific treatment methods. Ten concentrations are below the
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analytically quantificable limit. Therefore, this pollutant: is
not considered for specific regulation in-this subcategory.
2-chlorophenol(24) concentrations appeared on 3 of 11 sampling
days in the zinc casting subcategory. The maximum concentration
was 0.21 mg/1. One concentration is below the analytically
quantifiable limit. Another concentration is below the level
considered to be achievable with available specific treatment
methods. Therefore, 2-chlorophenol is not considered for
specific regulation in this subcategory.
1,2-trans-dichloroethylene (30) concentrations appeared on 1 of
11 process sampling days in the zinc casting subcategory. The
concentration was 0.043 mg/11. Because this toxic pollutant is
found at only one plant, and the concentration is lower than the
concentration considered to be achievable with available specific
treatment methods, this pollutant is not considered for specific
regulation in this subcategory.
2,4-dinitrotoluene (35) concentrations appeared on 1 of 11
process sampling days in the zinc casting subcategory. The
concentration was 0.11 mg/1. Because this pollutant is present
at only one plant, it is not considered for specific regulation
in this subcategory.
2,6-dinitrotoluene (36) concentrations appeared on 1 of 11.
process sampling days in the zinc casting subcategory. The
maximum concentration was 0.11 mg/1. Because this pollutant is
present at only one plant, it is not considered for specific
regulation in this subcategory.
Ethylbenzene (38) concentrations appeared on 2 of 11 process,
sampling days in the zinc casting subcategory. The maximum
concentration was 0.018 mg/1. This concentration is lower than
the concentration considered to be achievable with available
specific treatment methods. One concentration is below the
analytically quantifiable limit. Therefore, this pollutant is
not considered for specific regulation in this subcategory.
Fluoranthene (39) concentrations appeared on 6 of 11 process
sampling days in the zinc casting subcategory. The maximum
concentration was 0.029 mg/1. Two concentrations are below the
analytically quantifiable limit. Four of the concentrations are
slightly greater than the level considered to be achievable by
specific treatment methods. However, all of these concentrations
are much lower than the human toxicity level. Therefore,
fluoranthene is not considered for specific regulation in this
subcategory.
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Methylene chloride (44) concentrations appeared on 7 of 11
process sampling days in the zinc casting subcategory. The
maximum concentration was 0.30 mg/1. Four concentrations are
below the analytically quantifiable limit. Another concentration
is lower than the concentration considered to be achieved with
available specific treatment technology. Therefore, methylene
chloride is not considered for specific regulation in this
subcategory.
Nitrobenzene (56) concentrations appeared on 1 of 11 process
sampling days in the zinc casting subcategory. The concentration
was 0.21 mg/1. Becaus.e this toxic pollutant is present at only
one plant, nitrobenzene is not considered for specific regulation
in this subcategory.
4-nitrophenol (58) concentrations appeared on 1 of 11 process
sampling days in the zinc casting subcategory. The concentration
was 1.6 mg/1. Because this toxic pollutant is present at only
one plant, 4-nitrophenol is not considered for specific
regulation in this subcategory.
I
i
2,4-dinitrophenol (59) concentrations appeared on 2 of 11 process
sampling days in the zinc casting subcategory. The maximum
concentration was 0.09 mg/1. One concentration is below the
analytically quantifiable limit. Therefore, 2,4-dinitrophenol is
not considered for specific regulation in this subcategory.
Bis(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (66) concentrations appeared on all
11 process sampling days in the zinc casting subcategory. The
maximum concentration was 4.3 mg/1. Many of the concentrations
are greater than those considered to be achievable with available
specific treatment methods. However, all of the concentrations
are much lower than the human toxicity level. to cause toxic
effects in humans. Therefore, bis(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate is not
considered for specific regulation in this subcategory.
Di-n-butyl phthalate (68) concentrations appeared on all 11
process sampling days in the zinc casting subcategory. The
maximum concentration v/as 0.30 mg/1. Many of the concentrations
are greater than those considered to be achievable with available
specific treatment methods. However, all of the concentrations
are much lower than the human toxicity level. Therefore,
di-n-butyl phthalate is not considered for specific regulation in
this subcategory.
Di-n-octyl phthalate (69) concentrations appeared on 1 of 11
process sampling days in the zinc casting subcategory. The
concentration was 2.8 mg/1. Because this toxic pollutant is
422
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present at only one plant, di-octyl phthalate is not considered
for specific regulation in this subcategory.
Diethvl phthalate (70) concentrations appeared on 6 of 11 process
sampling days in the zinc casting subcategory. The maximum
c1ncen?ra??on was 13.0 mg/1. Many of the concentrations ape
greater than those considered to be achievable with available
specific treatment methods. Two concentrations are below the
analytically quantifiable limit. However, all ^of the
concentrations are much lower than the human toxicity level,
TherJfore, diSthyl phthalate is not considered for specific
regulation in this subcategory.
Dimethyl pthalate (71) concentrations appeared on 3 ofjl process
sampling days in the zinc casting subcategory. The maximum
concentration was 0.13 mg/1. One concentration is below the
analytically quantifiable limit. All of the concentrations are
Slower than the human toxicity level Therefore dimethyl
phthalate is not considered for specific regulation in this
subcategory.,
Benzo(a)anthracene (72) concentrations appeared^ on 2 of 11
process sampling days in the zinc casting subcategory. The
m^imum concentration was 0.075 mg/1 One Concentration is below
the analytically quantifiable limit. Because this toxic
pollutant is present at only one plant, benzo
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achievable with available specific treatment methods, fluorene is
not considered for specific regulation in this subcategory.
Toluene (86) concentrations appeared on 4 of 11 process sampling
days in the zinc casting subcategory. The maximum concentration
was 0.027 mg/1. All concentrations are lower than the
concentrations considered to be achievable with available
specific treatment methods. Two concentrations are below the
analytically quantifiable limit. Therefore, toluene is not
considered for specific regulation in this subcategory.
Trichloroeth