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                                                                                        jett.george@epa.gov
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                                                                George M. Jett
                                                                 Chemical Engineer
                                                          U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
                                                         Engineering and Analysis Division (4303)
                                                             1200 Pennsylvania Avenue, NW
                                                               Washington, B.C. 20460

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J

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            DEVELOPMENT DOCUMENT

                     for

EFFLUENT LIMITATIONS GUIDELINES AND STANDARDS

                   for the

   ALUMINUM FORMING POINT SOURCE CATEGORY

                 (VOLUME  II)

           William D. Ruckelshaus
                Administrator

                Jack E. Ravan
      Assistant Administrator for Water

               Steven Schatzow
                  Director
  Office of Water Regulations and Standards
              Jeffery D. Denit
   Director, Effluent Guidelines Division

            Ernst P. Hall, Chief
          Metals & Machinery Branch

              Janet K. Goodwin
          Technical Project Officer
                   June  1984
    U.S. Environmental  Protection  Agency
               Office of Water
  Office of Water Regulations and  Standards
        Effluent Guidelines  Division
           Washington,  D.C.  20460

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f
                                 CONTENTS


      ection                            Title

                    SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS                                   1

      I              RECOMMENDATIONS                                          13
                         BPT                                                 13
                         BAT                                                 31
                         NSPS                                                41
                         PSES                                                58
                         PSNS                                                71

     [II            INTRODUCTION     ,                                        87
                         Legal Authority                                     87
                         Data Collection and Utilization                     87
                         Data Collection Since Proposal                      91
                         Description of the Aluminum Forming Category        93
                         Description of Aluminum Forming Processes           97

     IV             INDUSTRY SUBCATEGORIZATION                              135
                         Basis for Subcategorization                        135
                         Production Normalizing Parameter                   146
                         Description of Subcategories                       148

     V              WATER USE AND WASTEWATER CHARACTERISTICS                165
                         Sources of Data                                    165
                         Presentation of Wastewater Characteristics         174
                         Core Operations Unique to Major Forming
                           Operations                                       175
                         Core Operations Not Unique to Specific
                           Forming Operations                               179
                         Ancillary Operations                               181
                         Treated Wastewater Samples                         187

     VI          ,   SELECTION OF POLLUTANT PARAMETERS                       541
                         Rationale for Selection of Pollutant
                           Parameters                                       542
                         Description of Pollutant Parameters                543
                         Pollutant Selection for Core Waste
                           Streams                                          616
                         Pollutant Selection for Ancillary
                           Waste Streams                                    647
                         Pollutant Selection by Subcategory                 674

     VII            CONTROL AND TREATMENT  TECHNOLOGY                        697
                         End-of-Pipe Treatment Technologies                 697
                         Major Technologies                                 698
                         Major Technology  Effectiveness                     720


                                     iii

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 Section
            CONTENTS (Continued)

                     Title
 VIII
 IX
XI
XII
      Minor Technologies
      In-Plant Technology

 COST  OF  WASTEWATER TREATMENT AND CONTROL
      General  Approach
      Cost  Estimation Methodology:  Pre-Proposal
      Cost  Estimation Methodology:  Post-Proposal
      Summary  of  Costs
      Normal Plant                          ;
      Nonwater Quality  Aspects

 BEST  PRACTICABLE CONTROL TECHNOLOGY CURRENTLY
 AVAILABLE
      Technical Approach to BPT
      Rolling  with  Neat Oils  Subcategory
      Rolling  With  Emulsions  Subcategory
      Extrusion Subcategory
      Forging  Subcategory
      Drawing  with  Neat Oils  Subcategory
      Drawing  with  Emulsions  or Soaps
       Subcategory
      Application of the Limitations in Permits

BEST  AVAILABLE TECHNOLOGY ECONOMICALLY
ACHIEVABLE
      Technical Approach  to BAT
      Selected Option for BAT
      Regulated Pollutant Parameters
      Rolling with  Neat  Oils Subcategory
      Rolling with  Emulsions Subcategory
      Extrusion Subcategory
      Forging Subcategory
      Drawing with  Neat Oils Subcategory
      Drawing with  Emulsions or Soaps Subcategory

NEW SOURCE PERFORMANCE STANDARDS
      Technical Approach  to NSPS
     NSPS Option Selection
     Regulated Pollutant Parameters
     New Source  Performance Standards

PRETREATMENT STANDARDS
      Introduction of Aluminum Forming
       Wastewater  into POTW
     Technical Approach to Pretreatment
 736
 771

 855
 855
 856
 880
 897
 897
 897
                                                                        959
                                                                        959
                                                                        965
                                                                        972
                                                                        978
                                                                        984
                                                                        987

                                                                        991
                                                                        995
1049
1049
1057
1058
1061
1064
1065
1068
1070
1072

1147
1 147
1148
1149
1150

1173

1173
1176
                               IV

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                          CONTENTS (Continued)

Section                            Title                              Page


                    PSES and PSNS Option Selection                    1177
                    Regulated Pollutant Parameters                    1178
                    Pretreatment Standards                            1,179

XIII           BEST CONVENTIONAL POLLUTANT CONTROL TECHNOLOGY         1241

XIV          ,  ACKNOWLEDGMENT                                         1243

XV             REFERENCES                                             1245

XVI            GLOSSARY                                               1261

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                             TABLES


Section                            Title                              Page

III-l          Profile of Aluminum Forming Plants                      119
III-2          Plant Age Distribution by Discharge Type                120
IH-3          Distribution of Facilities According to Time
                 Elapsed Since Latest Major Plant Modification         121

V-l            Rolling with Neat Oils Spent Lubricants                 189
V-2            Frequency of Occurence of Toxic Pollutants
                 Rolling with Neat Oils Spent Lubricants
                 Raw Wastewater                                        190
V-3            Sampling Data Rolling with Neat Oils Spent
                 Lubricants Raw Wastewater                             194
V-4            Rolling with Emulsions Spent Emulsion                   196
V-5            Frequency of Occurence of Toxic Pollutants
                 Rolling with Emulsions Spent Emulsions Raw
                 Wastewater                                            197
V-6            Sampling Data Rolling with Emulsions Spent
                 Emulsions Raw Wastewater                              201
V-7            Roll Grinding Spent Lubricant                           210
V-8            Frequency of Occurence of Toxic Pollutants Roll
                 Grinding Spent Emulsion Raw Wastewater                211
V-9            Sampling Data Roll Grinding Spent Emulsions Raw
                 Wastewater                                            215
V-10           Extrusion Die Cleaning Bath                             220
V-11           Extrusion Die Cleaning Rinse                            221
V-l2           Frequency of Occurence of Toxic Pollutants
                 Extrusion Die Cleaning Bath Raw Wastewater            222
V-l3           Sampling Data Extrusion Die Cleaning Bath Raw
                 Wastewater                                            223
V-l4           Frequency of Occurence of Toxic Pollutants
                 Extrusion Die Cleaning Rinse Raw Wastewater           228
V-l 5           Sampling Data Extrusion Die Cleaning Rinse Raw
                 Wastewater                                            232
V-l6           Extrusion Die Cleaning Scrubber Liquor                  235
V-l7           Frequency of Occurence of Toxic Pollutants Extrusion
                 Die Cleaning Scrubber Liquor Raw Wastewater           236
V-l8           Sampling Data Extrusion Die Cleaning Scrubber Liquor
                 Raw Wastewater                                        240
V-l9           Extrusion Press Scrubber Liquor                         241
V-20           Frequency of Occurence of Toxic Pollutants Extrusion
                 Press Scrubber Liquor Raw Wastewater                  242
V-21           Sampling Data Extrusion Press Scrubber Liquor Raw
                 Wastewater                                            246
V-22           Extrusion Dummy Block Contact Cooling Water             247
V-23           Frequency of Occurence of Toxic Pollutants Extrusion
                 Dummy Block Contact Cooling Water Raw Wastewater      248


                               vi

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                           TABLES (Continued)


Section                            Title                              Page


V-24           Sampling Data Extrusion Dummy Block Cooling Raw
                 Wastewater                                            252
V-25           Drawing with Neat Oils Spent Lubricants                 253
V-26           Drawing with Emulsions or Soaps Spent Emulsion          254
V-27           Frequency of Occurence of Toxic Pollutants Drawing
                 with Emulsions or Soaps Spent Emulsion Raw
                 Wastewater                                            255
V-28           Sampling Data Drawing with Emulsions or Soaps Spent
                 Emulsions Raw Wastewater                              259
V-29           Sawing Spent Lubricant                ,                  260
V-30           Frequency of Occurence of Toxic Pollutants Sawing
                 Spent Lubricant Raw Wastewater                        261
V-31           Sampling Data Sawing Spent Lubricant Raw Wastewater     265
V-32           Frequency of Occurence of Toxic Pollutants Degreasing
                 Spent Solvents Raw Wastewater                         269
V-33           Sampling Data Degreasing Spent Solvents Raw Wastewater  273
V-34           Annealing Atmosphere Scrubber Liquor                    274
V-35           Frequency of Occurence of Toxic Pollutants Annealing
                 Atmosphere Scrubber Liquor Raw Wastewater             275
V-36           Sampling Data Annealing Atmosphere Scrubber Liquor
                 Raw Wastewater                                        279
V-37           Rolling Solution Heat Treatment Contact Cooling Water   280
V-38           Frequency of Occurence of Toxic Pollutants Rolling
                 Solution Heat Treatment Contact Cooling Water Raw
                 Wastewater                                            281
V-39           Sampling Data Rolling Solution Heat Treatment Contact
                 Cooling Water Raw Wastewater                          285
V-40           Extrusion Press Heat Treatment Contact Cooling Water    288
V-41           Frequency of Occurence of Toxic Pollutants Extrusion
                 Press Heat Treatment Contact Cooling Water Raw
                 Wastewater                                            289
V-42           Sampling Data Extrusion Press Heat Treatment Contact
                 Cooling Water Raw Wastewater                          293
V-43           Extrusion Solution Heat Treatment Contact Cooling
                 Water                                                 299
v-44           Frequency of Occurence of Toxic Pollutants Extrusion
                 Solution Heat Treatment Contact Cooling Water Raw
                 Wastewater                                            300
V-45           Sampling Data Extrusion Solution Heat Treatment
                 Contact Cooling Water Raw Wastewater                  304
V-46           Forging Solution Heat Treatment Contact Cooling Water   307
V-47           Frequency of Occurence of Toxic Pollutants Forging
                 Solution Heat Treatment Contact Cooling Water
                 Raw Wastewater                                        308


                               vii

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                            TABLES (Continued)


 Section                            Title


 v~48           Sampling Data Forging Solution Heat Treatment Contact
                  Cooling Water Raw Wastewater                          312
 V-49           Drawing Solution Heat Treatment Contact Cooling Water   317
 v~50           Frequency of Occurence of Toxic Pollutants Drawing
                  Solution Heat Treatment Contact Cooling Water
                  Raw Wastewater                                        3^g
 v~51           Sampling Data Drawing Solution Heat Treatment Contact
                  Cooling Water Raw Wastewater                          322
 V-52           Cleaning or Etching Bath                                326
 v~53           Frequency of Occurence of Toxic Pollutants Cleaning
                  or Etching Bath Raw Wastewater                        328
 V~54           Sampling Data Cleaning or Etching Bath Raw Wastewater   332
 "-55           Cleaning or Etching Rinse                               349
 v~56           Frequency of Occurence of Toxic Pollutants Cleaning
                  or Etching Rinse Raw Wastewater                       351
 v*-57           Sampling Data Cleaning or Etching Rinse Raw
                  Wastewater                                            355
 v~58           Cleaning or Etching Scrubber  Liquor                     391
 v~59           Frequency of Occurence of Toxic Pollutants Cleaning
                  or Etching Scrubber Liquor  Raw Wastewater             392
 v~60           Sampling Data Cleaning or Etching Scrubber Liquor
                  Raw Wastewater                                        396
 V-61            Forging Scrubber Liquor                                 397
 v~62           Frequency of Occurence of Toxic Pollutants Forging
                  Scrubber Liquor Raw Wastewater                        398
 V-63           Sampling Data Forging Scrubber Liquor  Raw Wastewater  '   402
 v~64           Direct Chill Casting  Contact  Cooling Water
                  (Aluminum Forming Plants)                        .      404
 v~65           Direct Chill Casting  Contact  Cooling Water (Primary
                  Aluminum Subcategory)                                  406
 v~66           Frequency of Occurence of Toxic Pollutants Direct
                  Chill  Casting  Contact Cooling Water  Raw Wastewater     408
 v~67            Sampling Data Direct  Chill Casting  Cooling Water
                  Raw Wastewater                                         412
 V-68            Continuous Rod Casting Contact  Cooling Water
                  (Aluminum Forming Plants)                              426
 v~69            Continuous Rod Casting Contact  Cooling Water  (Primary
                  Aluminum Plants)                                       427
 v~70            Continuous Rod Casting Spent  Lubricant                  428
 v~71            Continuous Sheet  Casting  Spent  Lubricant                 429
V-"72            Degassing  Scrubber  Liquor (Primary  Aluminum Plants)      430
v""73            Frequency  of  Occurence of Toxic  Pollutants Degassing
                  Scrubber  Liquor Raw  Wastewater                         431
v~74            Sampling Data  Degassing Scrubber  Liquor Raw Wastewater   435


                              viii

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                                TABLES  (Continued)


    Section                             Title                               Page


    V-75            Extrusion  Press  Hydraulic  Fluid Leakage                 436
    V-76            Frequency  of Occurence  of  Toxic Pollutants  Extrusion
                      Press  Hydraulic Fluid Leakage Raw Wastewater           437
    V-77            Sampling Data Extrusion Press Hydraulic Fluid Leakage
                      Raw Wastewater                                        441
    V-78            Sampling Data Additional Wastewater Raw Wastewater      445
    V-79            Miscellaneous Nondescript  Wastewater                    460
    V-80            Sampling Data Plant B Treated Wastewater                461
    V-81            Sampling Data Plant C Treated Wastewater                465
    V-82            Sampling Data Plant D Treated Wastewater                466
    V-83            Sampling Data Plant E Treated Wastewater                471
    V-84            Sampling Data Plant H Treated Wastewater                479
    V-85            Sampling Data Plant J Treated Wastewater                481
    V-86            Sampling Data Plant K Treated Wastewater                483
    V-87            Sampling Data Plant L Treated Wastewater                485
    V-88            Sampling Data Plant P Treated Wastewater                486
    V-89            Sampling Data Plant Q Treated Wastewater                488
    V-90            Sampling Data Plant U Treated Wastewater                490
    fV-91            Sampling Data Plant V Treated Wastewater                494
    V-92            Sampling Data Plant AA  Treated Wastewater               596
    V-93            Sampling Data Plant BB  Treated Wastewater               500
    V-94            Sampling Data Plant DD  Treated Wastewater               504
    V-95            Sampling Data Plant EE  Treated Wastewater               510

    VI-1            List of  129 Toxic Pollutants                            675
    VI-2            Priority Pollutant  Disposition Core Operations           681
    VI-3            Priority Pollutant  Disposition Ancillary Operations     685
    VI-4            Priority Pollutant  Disposition by Subcategpry           692

    VII-1           pH Control Effect on Metals Removal                     788
    VI1-2           Effectiveness of Sodium Hydroxide for Metals
                      Removal                                                789
/    VII-3           Effectiveness of Lime and Sodium Hydroxide for
                      Metals Removal                                        790
i    VII-4           Theoretical Solubilities of Hydroxides and
'                      Sulfides of Selected  Metals in Pure Water             791
    VII-5           Sampling Data from Sulfide Precipitation-
                      Sedimentation Systems                                 792
    VI1-6           Sulfide Precipitation-Sedimentation Performance         793
    VI1-7           Ferrite Co-precipitation Performance                    794
    VI1-8           Concentration of Total  Cyanide  (mg/1)                   795
    VII-9           Multimedia Filtration Performance                       796
     VIi-10         Performance of Selected Settling Systems                797
     VII-11         Skimming Performance                                    798


                                    ix

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                            TABLES  (Continued)
Section
                    Title
VII-12

VII-13
VII-14
VII-15
VII-16

VII-17

VII-18

VII-19

VII-20
VII-21
VII-22

VII-23

VII-24
VII-25
VII-26
VII-27

VIII-1
VIII-2

VIII-3

VIII-4

VIII-5

VIII-6

VIII-7

VIII-8

VIII-9
VIII-10
VIII-11
Trace Organic Removal by Skimming API Plus
  Belt Skimmers  (From Plant 06058)
Combined Metals  Data Effluent Values  (mg/1)
L&S Performance  Additional Pollutants
Combined Metals  Data Set - Untreated Wastewater
Maximum Pollutant Level in Untreated Wastewater
  Additional Pollutants (mg/1)
Precipitation-Settling-Filtration (LS&F)
  Performance Plant A
Precipitation-Settling-Filtration (LS&F)
  Performance Plant B
Precipitation-Settling-Filtration (LS&F)
  Performance Plant C
Summary of Treatment Effectiveness  (mg/1)
Chemical Emulsion Breaking Efficiencies
Treatability Rating of Priority Pollutants
  Utilizing Carbon Adsorption
Classes of Organic Compounds Adsorbed on
  Carbon
Ion Exchange Performance (all values mg/1)
Peat Adsorption  Performance
Membrane Filtration System Effluent
Ultrafiltration  Performance

Major Differences Between Cost Methodologies
Cost Equations for Recommended Treatment and
  Control Technologies - Pre-Proposal
Oily Sludge Production Associated with Aluminum
  Forming
Lime Dosage Requirements and Lime Sludge
  Production Associated with Aluminum Forming
Carbon Exhaustion Rates Associated with
  Aluminum Forming
Cost Equations for Recommended Treatment and
  Control Technologies - Post-Proposal
Components of Total Capital Investment -
  Post-Proposal
Components of Total Annualized Costs - Post-
  Proposal
Wastewater Sampling Frequency - Post-Proposal
Cost Program Pollutant Parameters
Aluminum Forming Category Cost of Compliance
  ($1982)
799
800
801
802

803

804

805

806
807
808

809

810
81 1
812
813
814

902

903

909

910

911

912

916

917
918
919

920

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                           TABLES (Continued)


Section                            Title


VIII-12        Characteristics of the Rolling  with Neat Oils
                 Subcategory Normal Plant Used for Costing             921
VIII-13        Characteristics of the Rolling  with Emulsion
                 Subcategory Normal Plant Used for Costing             922
VIII-14        Characteristics of the Extrusion Subcategory
                 Normal Plant Used for Costing                         923
VIII-15        Characteristics of the Forging  Subcategory
                 Normal Plant Used for Costing                         924
VIII-16        Characteristics of the Drawing  with Neat Oils
                 Subcategory Normal Plant Used for Costing             925
VIII-17        Characteristics of the Drawing  with Emulsions
                 or Soaps Subcategory Normal Plant Used for
                 Costing                                               926
VII1-18        Summary of the Aluminum Forming Normal Plant
                 Cost ($1982)                                          927

IX-1           Production Operations-Rolling with Neat Oils            998
                 Subcategory
IX-2           Comparison of Wastewater Discharge Rates From
                 Cleaning or Etching Rinse Streams                    1000
iA-3           Concentration Range of Pollutants Considered for
                 BPT Regulation in Core and Ancillary Waste
                 Streams - Rolling with Neat Oils Subcategory         1001
XI-4           BPT Mass Limitations for the Rolling with Neat
                 Oils Subcategory                                     1003
IX-5           Production Operations-Rolling with Emulsions
                 Subcategory                                          1007
IX-6           Concentration Range of Pollutants Considered for
                 BPT Regulation in Core and Ancillary Waste
                 Streams - Rolling with Emulsions Subcategory         1008
IX-7           BPT Mass Limitations for the Rolling with
                 Emulsions Subcategory                                1010
IX-8           Production Operations - Extrusion Subcategory          1013
IX-9           Concentration Range of Pollutants Considered for
                 BPT Regulation in Core and Ancillary Waste
                 Streams - Extrusion Subcategory                      1014
1X-10          BPT Mass Limitations for the Extrusion Subcategory     1016
IX-11          Production Operations - Forging Subcategory            1020
IX-12          Concentration Range of Pollutants Considered for
                 BPT Regulation in Core and Ancillary Waste Streams
                 - Forging Subcategory                                1021
IX-13          BPT Mass Limitations for the Forging Subcategory       1023
iX-I 4          Production Operations - Drawing with Neat Oils
                 Subcategory                                          1026


                               xi

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                           TABLES (Continued)


Section                            Title                              Page


IX-15          Concentration Range of Pollutants Considered for
                 BPT Regulation in Core and Ancillary Waste
                 Streams - Drawing with Neat Oils Subcategory         1027
IX-16          BPT Mass Limitations for the Drawing with Neat
                 Oils Subcategory                                     1029
IX-17          Production Operations - Drawing with Emulsions or
                 Soaps Subcategory                                    1033
IX-18          Comparison of Wastewater Discharge Rates From
                 Drawing with Emulsion or Soap Streams                1034
IX-19          Concentration Range of Pollutants Considered for
                 BPT Regulation in Core and Ancillary Waste
                 Streams - Drawing with Emulsions or Soaps
                 Subcategory                                          1035
IX-20          BPT Mass Limitations for the Drawing with Emulsions
                 or Soaps Subcategory                                 1037
IX-21          Allowable Discharge Calculations for Plant X in
                 Example 1                                            1041
IX-22          Allowable Discharge Calculations for Plant Y in
                 Example 2                                            1042

X-l            Capital and Annual Cost Estimates for BAT Options
                 Total Subcategory                                    1074
X-2            Capital and Annual Cost Estimates for BAT Options
                 Direct Dischargers                                   1075
X-3            Pollutant Reduction Benefits - Rolling with Neat
                 Oils Subcategory                                     1076
X-4            Pollutant Reduction Benefits - Rolling with
                 Emulsions Subcategory                                1078
X-5            Pollutant Reduction Benefits - Extrusion Subcategory   1080
X-6            Pollutant Reduction Benefits - Forging Subcategory     1082
X-7            Pollutant Reduction Benefits - Drawing with Neat Oils
                 Subcategory                                          1085
X-8            Pollutant Reduction Benefits - Drawing with Emulsions
                 or Soaps Subcategory                                 1087
X-9            Pollutant Reduction Benefits - Direct Dischargers -
                 Rolling with Neat Oils Subcategory       '            1089
X-10           Pollutant Reduction Benefits - Direct Dischargers -
                 Rolling with Emulsions Subcategory                   1091
X-ll           Pollutant Reduction Benefits - Direct Dischargers -
                 Extrusion Subcategory                                1093
X-l2           Pollutant Reduction Benefits - Direct Dischargers -
                 Drawing with Neat Oils Subcategory                   1095
X-l3           Pollutant Reduction Benefits - Direct Dischargers -
                 Drawing with Emulsions or Soaps Subcategory          1097


                                xii

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                           TABLES (Cont inued)
Section
                                   Title
                                                       Page
X-14

X-15

X-16

X-17

X-18

X-19

X-20'

X-21

X-22,

X-21

X-24

X-25

X-26

X-27

X-28

X-29

X-30

X-31
X-32
X-33
X-34
X-35

X-36

X-37
Pollutant Reduction Benefits - Normal Plant -
  Rolling with Neat Oils Subcategory
Pollutant Reduction Benefits - Normal Plant -
  Rolling with Emulsions Subcategory       ,
Pollutant Reduction Benefits - Normal Plant -
  Extrusion Subcategory
Pollutant Reduction Benefits - Normal Plant -
  Forging Subcategory
Pollutant Reduction Benefits - Normal Plant -
  Drawing with Neat Oils Subcategory
Pollutant Reduction Benefits - Normal Plant -
  Drawing with Emulsions or Soaps Subcategory
Rolling with Neat Oils Subcategory
  Treatment Performance - Normal Plant
Rolling with Emulsions Subcategory
  Treatment Performance - Normal Plant
Extrusion Subcategory Treatment
  Performance - Normal Plant     :i
Forging Subcategory Treatment Performance  -
  Normal Plant
Drawing with Neat Oils Subcategory
  Treatment Performance - Normal Plants
^Drawing with Emulsions Subcategory
  Treatment Performance - Normal Plant
TTO  - Evaluation of Oil Treatment Effectiveness
  on Toxics Removal
Production Operations - Rolling  with Neat  Oils
  Subcategory
BAT  Mass Limitations for  the  Rolling with  Neat
  Oils Subcategory   :
Production Operations - Rolling  with Emulsions
  Subcategory
BAT  Mass Limitations for  the  Rolling with
  Emulsions  Subcategory
Production Operations - Extrusion  Subcategory
BAT  Mass Limitations for  the  Extrusion  Subcategory
Production Operations - Forging  Subcategory
BAT  Mass Limitations for  the  Forging Subcategory
Production Operations - Drawing  with Neat  Oils
   Subcategory
BAT  Mass Limitations for  the  Drawing with  Neat
   Oils Subcategory
 Production Operations  - Drawing  with Emulsions  or
   Soaps Subcategory      ,
1099

1100

:1101

,1102

1103

1104

1105

1106

1107

1108

 1109

 1110

 1111

 1112

 1113

 1118

 1119
 1122
 1123
 1127
 1128

 1131

 1132

 1136
                               xiii

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                            TABLES (Continued)


 Section                            Title


 X-38            BAT Mass Limitations for the Drawing with Emulsions
                  or Soaps Subcategory                                 1137

 X1-"1            NSPS for the Rolling with Neat  Oils  Subcategory         1151
 XI~2            NSPS for the Rolling with Emulsions  Subcategory         1155
 XI-3            NSPS for the Extrusion Subcategory                      11,58
 XI~4            NSPS for the Forging Subcategory                        1162
 XI~5            NSPS for the Drawing with Neat  Oils  Subcategory         1165
 XI~6            NSPS for the Drawing with Emulsions  or  Soaps
                  Subcategory                                          1169

 XH-1           POTW Removals of  the Toxic Pollutants Found in
                  Aluminum Forming Wastewater                          1180
 xII-2           Capital  and Annual Cost Estimates for BAT Options
                  Indirect Dischargers ($1982)                          1182
 xII-3           Pollutant  Reduction  Benefits -  Indirect Dischargers
                  - Rolling with  Neat Oils Subcategory                  1183
 xH-4           Pollutant  Reduction  Benefits -  Indirect Dischargers
                  - Rolling with  Emulsions Subcategory                  1185
 XII~5           Pollutant  Reduction  Benefits -  Indirect Dischargers
                  - Extrusion Subcategory                              1187
 XII~6           Pollutant  Reduction  Benefits -  Indirect Dischargers
                  - Forging Subcategory                                1189
 XII~7           Pollutant  Reduction  Benefits -  Indirect Dischargers -
                  Drawing  with Neat  Oils  Subcategory                    1192
 xH-8           Pollutant  Reduction  Benefits -  Indirect Dischargers
                  - Drawing with  Emulsions or Soaps Subcategory         1194
 xII-9           PSES for the Rolling  with Neat  Oils Subcategory         1196
 XII-10          PSES for the Rolling  with Emulsions Subcategory         1200
 XII-11          PSES for the Extrusion  Subcategory                      1203
 XI1-12          PSES for the Forging  Subcategory                        1207
 XII-13          PSES for the Drawing  with Neat  Oils Subcategory         1210
 XII-14          PSES for the Drawing  with Emulsions or  Soaps
                  Subcategory                                           1214
 XII-15          PSNS for the Rolliwg  with Neat  Oils Subcategory         1219
 XII-16          PSNS for the Rolling  with Emulsions Subcategory         1222
 XII-17          PSNS for the Extrusion  Subcategory                      1225
 XII-18          PSNS for the Forging  Subcategory                        1229
XII-19          PSNS for the  Drawing  with  Neat  Oils Subcategory         1232
XII-20          PSNS  for the Drawing  with  Emulsions or  Soaps
                 Subcategory                                           j236
                               xiv

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                             FIGURES

Section                            Title                              Page

III-l          Aluminum Forming Products                               122
III-2          Geographical Distribution of Aluminum Forming
                 Plants                                                123
III-3          Common Rolling Mill Configurations                      124
III-4          Geographical Distribution of Plants with Hot
               :  or Cold Rolling                                       125
III-5          Direct Extrusion                                        126
II1-6          Geographical Distribution of Plants with Extrusion      127
II1-7          Forging                                                 128
III-8          Geographical Distribution of Plants with Forging        129
III-y          Tube Drawing                                            130
111-10         Geographical Distribution of Plants with Tube, Wire,
                 Rod and Bar Drawing                                   131
lil-11         Direct Chill Casting                                    132
111-12         Continuous Casting                                      133
111-13         Vapor Degreasing                                        134

V-l            Wastewater Sources at Plant A      ,                     516
V-2         -   Wastewater Sources at Plant B                           517
V-3            Wastewater Sources at Plant C                           518
V-4            Wastewater Sources at Plant D                           519
V-5            Wastewater Sources at Plant E                           520
V-6        '    Wastewater Sources at Plant F' .  '                        521
V-7            Wastewater Sources at Plant G                           522
V-8      '      Wastewater Sources at Plant H       ,                    523
V-9            Wastewater Sources at Plant J                           524
V-10           Wastewater Sources at Plant K                           525
V-ll           Wastewater Sources at Plant L                           526
V-12           Wastewater Sources at Plant- N                        ,   527
V-13           Wastewater Sources at Plant P                           528
V-14           Wastewater Sources at Plant Q                           529
V-15           Wastewater Sources at Plant R         .                  530
V-16           Wastewater Sources at Plant.S                           531
V-17           Wastewater Sources at Plant T                           532
V-l8           Wastewater Sources at Plant U                           533
y-19           Wastewater Sources at Plant V                           534
V-20           Wastewater Sources at Plant W                           535
v-2i           Wastewater Sources at Plant AA                          536
V-22           Wastewater Sources at Pl,ant BB                          537
V-23           Wastewater Sources at Plant CC                          538
V-24           Wastewater Sources at Plant DD                          539
V-25           Wastewater Sources at Plant EE                          540

VII-1          Comparative Solubilities of Metal  Hydroxides
                 and Sulfide as a Function of pH                       815
VII-2          Lead Solubility in Three Alkalies                       816
VII—3          Effluent Zinc Concentration vs. Minimum Effluent pH     817
VlI-4          Hydroxide Precipitation Sedimentation Effectiveness
                 -Cadmium                                              818
                                   xv

-------
 Section
              FIGURES  (Continued)

                    Title
VI I-5

VII-6

VI1-7

VII-8

VII-9

VII-10

VII-11

VII-12

VII-13

VII-14
VII-15
VI1-16
VII-17
VII-18
VII-19
VII-20
VII-21
VII-22
VII-23
VII-24
VII-25
VII-26
VII-27
VII-28
VII-29
VII-30
VI1-31
VII-32
VII-33
VII-34

VII-35

VII-36
VII-37
VII-38
 Hydroxide  Precipitation  Sedimentation  Effectiveness
   -  Chromium
 Hydroxide  Precipitation  Sedimentation  Effectiveness
   -  Copper
 Hydroxide  Precipitation  Sedimentation  Effectiveness
   -  Lead
 Hydroxide  Precipitation  Sedimentation  Effectiveness
   -  Nickel and Aluminum
 Hydroxide  Precipitation  Sedimentation  Effectiveness
   -  Zinc
 Hydroxide  Precipitation  Sedimentation  Effectiveness
   -  Iron
 Hydroxide  Precipitation  Sedimentation  Effectiveness
   —  Manganese
 Hydroxide  Precipitation  Sedimentation  Effectiveness
   -  TSS
 Hexavalent  Chromium Reduction with Sulfur
   Dioxide
 Granular Bed Filtration
 Pressure Filtration
 Representative Types of  Sedimentation
 Activated  Carbon Adsorption Column
 Centrifugation
 Treatment  of Cyanide Waste by Alkaline Chlorination
 Typical Ozone Plant for  Waste Treatment
 UV/Ozonation
 Types of Evaporation Equipment
 Dissolved Air Flotation
 Gravity Thickening
 Ion  Exchange with Regeneration
 Simplified  Reverse Osmosis Schematic
 Reverse Osmosis Membrane Configurations
 Sludge Drying Bed
 Simplified  Ultrafiltration Flow Schematic
Vacuum Filtration
Flow Diagram for Emulsion Breaking with Chemicals
Filter Configurations
Gravity Oil-Water Separation
Flow Diagram for a Batch Treatment Ultrafiltration
  System
Flow Diagram of Activated Carbon Adsorption with
  Regeneration
Flow Diagram for Recycling with a Cooling Tower
Counter Current Rinsing  (Tanks)
Effect of Added Rinse Stages on Water Use
819

820

821

822

823

824

825

826

827
828
829
830
831
832
833
834
835
836
837
838
839
840
841
842
843
844
845
846
847

848

849
850
851
852
                              xvi

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                           SECTION VII

                CONTROL AND TREATMENT TECHNOLOGY


This section describes the treatment techniques currently used or
available  to  remove  or  recover wastewater pollutants normally
generated  by  the  aluminum  forming  industrial  point   source
category.   Included  are  discussions  of individual end-of-pipe
treatment technologies and in-plant technologies.   These  treat-
ment  technologies  are widely used in many industrial categories
and data and information to support their effectiveness has  been
drawn from a similarly wide range of sources and data bases.

               END-OF-PIPE TREATMENT TECHNOLOGIES

Individual  recovery  and  treatment  technologies  are described
which are used or are suitable for  use  in  treating  wastewater
discharges  from  aluminum  forming facilities.  Each description
includes a functional description and discussions of  application
and  performance, advantages-.and limitations, operational factors
(reliability, maintainability, solid waste aspects),  and  demon-
stration  status.  The treatment processes described include both
technologies presently demonstrated within the  aluminum  forming
category,  and  technologies demonstrated in treatment of similar
wastes in other industries.

Aluminum forming wastewater  streams  characteristically  may  be
acid  or alkaline; may contain substantial levels of dissolved or
particulate metals including cadmium, chromium, copper,  cyanide,
lead,  nickel,  selenium, zinc, and aluminum; contain substantial
amounts of toxic organics; and are  generally  free  from  strong
chelating  agents.   These toxic inorganic pollutants, along with
the  nonconventional  pollutant  aluminum,  constitute  the  most
significant wastewater pollutants in this category.

In  general,  these  pollutants are removed by oil removal (skim-
ming, emulsion breaking, and flotation),  chemical  precipitation
and  sedimentation,  or  filtration.   Most of them may be effec-
tively removed by precipitation of metal hydroxides or carbonates
utilizing the reaction with lime,  sodium  hydroxide,  or  sodium
carbonate.   For  some, improved removals are provided by the use
of sodium sulfide or ferrous sulfide to  precipitate  the  pollu-
tants as sulfide compounds with very low solubilities.

Discussion  of end-of-pipe treatment technologies is divided into
three parts: the major technologies; the effectiveness  of  major
technologies; and minor end-of-pipe technologies.  technology.
                               697

-------
 MAJOR TECHNOLOGIES

 In  Sections  IX,  X,  XI,  and  XII, the rationale for selecting
 treatment systems is discussed.  The individual technologies used
 in the system are described here.  The major end-of-pipe technol-
 ogies for treating aluminum  forming  wastewaters  are:  chemical
 reduction  of  hexavalent  chromium,  chemical  precipitation  of
 dissolved metals, cyanide precipitation, granular bed filtration,
 pressure filtration, settling of suspended  solids,  skimming  of
 oil,   chemical  emulsion breaking,  and thermal emulsion breaking
 In  practice,  precipitation  of  metals  and  settling  of   the
 resulting  precipitates  is  often  a unified two-step operation.
 Suspended solids originally present in raw  wastewaters  are  not
 appreciably  affected  by  the  precipitation  operation  and are
 removed with the precipitated metals in the settling  operations
 Settling  operations  can be evaluated independently of hydroxide
 or other chemical precipitation  operations,   but  hydroxide  and
 other  chemical  precipitation operations can  only be evaluated in
 combination with a solids removal operation.

 1.    Chemical Reduction of Chromium
  uu        — — Proc€?ss.   Reduction is  a  chemical  reaction  in
which   electrons   are  transferred   to the chemical  being  reduced
from the  chemical  initiating  the transfer  (the  reducing   agent)
Sulfur  dioxide,   sodium,  bisulfite,   sodium  metabisulfite,   and
ferrous sulfate form  strong reducing  agents  in  aqueous  solution
and  are   often used  in industrial  waste treatment facilities for
the reduction  of hexavalent chromium  to the  trivalent form    The
reduction  allows removal  of chromium  from  solution in conjunction
with  other  metallic  salts by alkaline precipitation.  Hexavalent
chromium  is  not precipitated  as  the hydroxide.

Gaseous sulfur  dioxide  is a widely  used reducing agent  and   pro-
vides   a   good  example  of the chemical  reduction process.  Reduc-
tion using other reagents is  chemically similar.   The  reactions
involved may be illustrated as follows:
3S02 +
3H2S03
2H2Cr04
3H2S03
Cr2(S04)3
                                            5HO
The  above  reactions are favored by low pH.  A pH of from 2 to 3
is normal for situations requiring  complete  reduction.   At  pH
levels  above  5,  the  reduction rate is slow.  Oxidizing agents
such as dissolved oxygen  and  ferric  iron  interfere  with  the
reduction process by consuming the reducing agent.

A  typical  treatment  consists  of  45  minutes  retention  in a
reaction tank.  The reaction  tank  has  an  electronic  recorder-
controller  device  to control process conditions with respect to
                               698

-------
 pH   and   oxidation-reduction   potential   (ORP).    Gaseous  sulfur
 dioxide   is  metered   to   the   reaction   tank  to maintain the ORP
 within the range  of 250 to 300  millivolts.    Sulfuric   acid  is
.added  to maintain   a pH  level of  from  1.8  to 2.0.   The reaction
 tank is  equipped  with a propeller agitator   designed  to  provide
 approximately   one  turnover   per  minute.   Figure  VII-1  shows a
 continuous chromium reduction  system.

 Application  and  Performance.    Chromium reduction   is   used  in
 aluminum forming for treating rinses of chromic acid etching
 solutions used  for high-magnesium aluminum.  Cooling tower  blow-
 down may also  contain  .chromium  as  a  biocide in waste streams.
 Coil coating operations, frequently found on-site with   aluminum
 forming   operations,   are   sometimes a source  of chromium-bearing
 wastewaters.  A study of an operational  waste  treatment   facility
 chemically   reducing   hexavalent chromium   has shown that a 99.7
 percent   reduction  efficiency   is   easily   achieved.     Final
 concentrations    of    0.05  mg/1  are  readily  attainable,   and
 concentrations  of 0.01 mg/1 are considered  to   be attainable  by
 properly maintained and operated equipment.

 Advantages   and  Limitations.    The major   advantage of chemical
 reduction to reduce hexavalent chromium  is  that  it   is   a  fully
 proven   technology  based  on many years  of  experience.   Operation
 at  ambient conditions results  in low energy  consumption,  and  the
 process,  especially  when  using sulfur dioxide,  is well  suited to
 automatic control.  Furthermore, the equipment is readily obtain-
 able from many  suppliers,  and  operation  is  straightforward.

 One limitation  of chemical reduction of   hexavalent   chromium  is
 that for high concentrations of chromium,  the cost of  treatment
 chemicals may be  prohibitive.   When this situation occurs,  other
 treatment techniques are  likely to be more  economical.   Chemical
 interference by oxidizing  agents is possible in the  treatment  of
 mixed  wastes,  and the treatment itself may introduce pollutants
 .if  not properly  controlled.    Storage  and  handling of  sulfur
 dioxide  is somewhat hazardous.

 Operational   Factors.   Reliability:    Maintenance   consists  of
 periodic removal  of sludge, the frequency of removal  depends  on
 the input concentrations of detrimental  constituents.

 Solid  Waste Aspects: Pretreatment to eliminate substances which
 will interfere  with the process may often   be  necessary^.   This
 process   produces trivalent   chromium which can be  controlled by
 further  treatment.  However,   small amounts  of  sludge  may  be
 collected as the result of minor shifts in  the solubility of the
 contaminants.   This sludge can be processed  by  the   main  sludge
 treatment equipment.
                                699

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 Demonstration  Status.   The reduction  of  chromium waste by sulfur
 dioxide  or  sodium bisulfite is a classic  process and is  used  by
 numerous plants  which   have  hexavalent  chromium  compounds in
 wastewaters from  operations  such   as electroplating   and  coil
 coating.    At  least   two  aluminum  forming  plants use chromium
 reduction to treat wastewater and therefore  this  technology  is
 demonstrated in this  category.

 2.    Chemical Precipitation

 Dissolved toxic metal  ions  and certain anions may  be  chemically
 precipitated for removal  by physical means  such  as sedimentation,
 filtration,   or  centrifugation.   Several   reagents are commonly
 used  to  effect this precipitation:

      1)   Alkaline compounds such as lime or sodium hydroxide may
          be used to precipitate many  toxic metal ions   as  metal
          hydroxides.   Lime  also  may precipitate phosphates as
          insoluble calcium phosphate  and  fluorides as  calcium
          fluoride.

      2)   Both "soluble"  sulfides such as   hydrogen sulfide  or
          sodium sulfide  and "insoluble"  sulfides such  as  ferrous
          sulfide  may  be   used to precipitate many heavy metal
          ions as insoluble metal sulfides.

      3)   Ferrous sulfate,  zinc  sulfate,  or both (as is  required)
          may be' used to  precipitate cyanide as  a ferro  or  zinc
          ferricyanide complex.

      4)   Carbonate precipitates  may be   used  to  remove   metals
          either    by  direct  precipitation  using   a   carbonate
          reagent  such as   calcium  carbonate  or  by  converting
          hydroxides into carbonates using  carbon dioxide.

These  treatment  chemicals  may be added to  a flash mixer or rapid
mix tank, to  a  presettling  tank,  or directly to   a   clarifier   or
other  settling  device.  Because metal  hydroxides tend  to  be  col-
loidal in nature,  coagulating agents may  also  be added  to  facili-
tate settling.  After the solids  have  been  removed,   final   pH
adjustment  may   be required to  reduce  the  high  pH created  by  the
alkaline treatment chemicals.

Chemical precipitation as a mechanism  for   removing   metals   from
wastewater   is  a  complex process of at  least two  steps - precipi-
tation of the unwanted metals and  removal   of   the   precipitate.
Some  very  small  amount  of  metal will remain  dissolved  in  the
wastewater after  complete precipitation.  The  amount  of  residual
dissolved  metal  depends  on  the  treatment  chemicals used  and
related factors.  The effectiveness of this  method   of  removing


                               700

-------
any  specific metal depends on the fraction of the specific metal
in the raw waste (and hence in the precipitate)  and  the  effec-
tiveness  of  suspended solids removal.  In specific instances, a
sacrificial ion such as iron or aluminum may be added to  aid  in
the  removal  of  toxic  metals  by  co-precipitation process and
reduce the fraction of a specific metal in the precipitate.

Application and Performance.  Chemical precipitation is  used  in
aluminum  forming  for precipitation of dissolved metals.  It can
be used to remove metal ions such as aluminum, antimony, arsenic,
beryllium,  cadmium,  chromium,  cobalt,  copper,   iron,   lead,
manganese,  mercury,  molybdenum,  tin, and zinc.  The process is
also applicable to any substance that can be transformed into  an
insoluble  form  such  as fluorides, phosphates, soaps, sulfides,
and others.  Because it is simple and effective, chemical precip-
itation is extensively used for industrial waste treatment.

The performance of  chemical  precipitation  depends  on  several
variables.   The  most  important factors affecting precipitation
effectiveness are:

     1.   Maintenance of an  appropriate  (usually  alkaline)  pH
          throughout  the  precipitation  reaction and subsequent
          settling;

     2.   Addition of a sufficient excess of  treatment  ions  to
          drive the precipitation reaction to completion;

     3.   Addition of an  adequate  supply  of  sacrificial  ions
           (such  as iron or aluminum) to ensure precipitation and
          removal of specific target ions; and

     4.   Effective   removal   of   precipitated   solids   (see
          appropriate   technologies   discussed   under  "Solids
          Removal").

Control of pH.  Irrespective of  the  solids  removal  technology
employed, proper control of pH is absolutely essential for favor-
able  performance  of  precipitation-sedimentation  technologies.
This is clearly illustrated by  solubility  curves  for  selected
metals  hydroxides  and  sulfides  shown  in Figure VII-2, and by
plotting effluent zinc concentrations  against  pH  as  shown  in
Figure  VII-3.   Figure VII-3 was obtained from Development Docu-
ment for the Proposed Effluent  Limitations  Guidelines  and  New
Source  Performance  Standards for the Zinc Segment of Nonferrous
Metals Manufacturing Point  Source  Category,  U.S.  E.P.A.,  EPA
440/1-74/033,  November, 1974.  Figure VII-3 was plotted from the
sampling  data  from  several  facilities  with  metal  finishing
operations.   It  is  partially illustrated by data obtained from
three consecutive days of sampling at one metal processing  plant


                               701

-------
 (47432)  as displayed  in  Table VII-1.   Flow  through  this  system  is
 approximately  49,263  1/hr  (13,000  gal/hr).

 This   treatment   system  uses   lime precipitation  (pH  adjustment)
 followed by  coagulant addition  and sedimentation.    Samples  were
 taken  before (in)  and after  (out)  the  treatment  system.   The best
 treatment for  removal of copper and zinc was  achieved  on day one,
 when   the pH was  maintained  at  a satisfactory level.   The poorest
 treatment was  found on the second  day, when the  pH  slipped to   an
 unacceptably  low level and intermediate values were  achieved  on
 the third day, when pH values were less  than desirable but   in
 between  the  values of the first and second  days.

 Sodium   hydroxide is used  by one   facility (plant  439) for  pH
 adjustment   and   chemical  precipitation,   followed by   settling
 (sedimentation  and   a polishing  lagoon) of  precipitated solids.
 Samples  were taken prior to  caustic addition  and   following  the
 polishing  lagoon.    Flow  through the  system  is approximately
 22,700 1/hr  (6,000 gal/hr).  Metals removal data for this system
 are presented  in  Table VI1-2.

 These    data  indicate that  the  system   operated efficiently.
 Effluent pH  was controlled within  the  range of 8.6   to   9.3,  and
 while  raw   waste loadings  were  not unusually high, most toxic
 metals were  removed to very  low concentrations.

 Lime and  sodium   hydroxide  (combined)  are  sometimes   used   to
 precipitate  metals.   Data developed from plant  40063, a facility
 with a metal-bearing  wastewater, exemplify  efficient operation  of
 a chemical precipitation and settling  system.  Table VI1-3  shows
 sampling  data  from   this   system,  which  uses lime and sodium
 hydroxide    for    pH    adjustment,    chemical     precipitation,
 polyelectrolyte   flocculant  addition,  and sedimentation.  Samples
 were taken of the  raw waste  influent to the   system and of  the
 clarifier  effluent.   Flow  through   the system is approximately
 19,000 1/hr  (5,000 gal/hr).

 At this plant, effluent TSS  levels were below 15   mg/1   on  each
 day,  despite  average raw waste TSS concentrations of over 3,500
 mg/1.   Effluent pH was maintained  at approximately  8,  lime  addi-
 tion  was sufficient  to precipitate the dissolved metal  ions, and
 the flocculant addition and  clarifier retention  served to  remove
 effectively  the precipitated solids.

 Sulfide  precipitation  is  sometimes  used to precipitate metals
 resulting in improved  metals removals.  Most  metal  sulfides  are
 less  soluble than hydroxides and  the precipitates  are frequently
more dependably removed from water.   Solubilities  for   selected
metal  hydroxide,   carbonate, and sulfide precipitates are  shown  in
Table  VII-4  (Source:  Lange's  Handbook of  Chemistry).  Sulfide


                                702

-------
precipitation  is  particularly   effective   in   removing   specific
metals  such   as  silver  and  mercury.  Sampling data from  three
industrial plants using sulfide  precipitation   appear   in   Table
VI1-5.  The data were obtained from three  sources:

      1.   Summary Report, Control and  Treatment Technology  for
          the  Metal  Finishing  Industry;  Sulfide Precipitation,
          USEPA, EPA No. 625/8/80-003, 1979^	

      2-   Industry Finishing, Vol. 35, No.  11,  November,  1979.

      3.   Electroplating sampling data from plant 27045.

In all cases except iron, effluent concentrations are  below  0.1
mg/1  and  in  many  cases  below  0.01 mg/1 for the three plants
studied.

Sampling data  from several chlorine-caustic manufacturing plants
using  sulfide precipitation demonstrate effluent mercury concen-
trations varying between 0.009 and 0.03 mg/1.   As shown  in Figure
VII-2, the solubilities of PbS and Ag2S are lower at alkaline  pH
levels  than either the corresponding hydroxides or other sulfide
compounds.  This implies that removal performance  for   lead  and
silver  sulfides  should be comparable to  or better than  that  for
the heavy metal hydroxides.  Bench-scale tests  on  several   types
of  metal  finishing  and  manufacturing wastewater indicate that
metals removal to levels of less than 0.05  mg/1  and in some  cases
less  than  0.01  mg/1  are  common  in  systems using   sulfide
precipitation  followed by clarification.    Some  of the bench-scale
data,  particularly  in the case of lead,  do not support  such  low
effluent concentrations.  However,  lead is  consistently  removed
to  very  low  levels  (less  than  0.02   mg/1)  in systems  using
hydroxide and  carbonate precipitation and  sedimentation.

Of particular  interest is the ability of sulfide to  precipitate
hexavalent  chromium  (Cr+«)  without prior reduction to  the tri-
valent state as is required in the hydroxide process.  When  fer-
rous  sulfide  is used as the precipitant,  iron  and sulfide act as
reducing agents for the  hexavalent  chromium   according  to   the
reaction:

     Cr03 + FeS + 3 H2O	-» Fe(OH)3 + Cr(OH)3  + S

The  sludge  produced  in this reaction consists mainly of ferric
hydroxides,  chromic hydroxides, and  various  metallic  sulfides.
Some excess hydroxyl ions are generated in  this  process,  possibly
requiring a downward re-adjustment of pH.

Based on the available data, Table VII-6 shows  the minimum relia-
bly attainable effluent concentrations for  sulfide precipitation-


                               703

-------
sedimentation  systems.   These  values  are  used  to  calculate
performance predictions  of  sulfide  precipitation-sedimentation
systems.  Table VI1-6 is based on two reports:

     1.    Summary Report, Control and  Treatment  Technology  for
          the  Metal  Finishing  Industry; Sulfide Precipitation,
          U.S. EPA, EPA No. 625/8/80-003, 1979.

     2.    Addendum   to   Development   Document   for   Effluent
          Limitations   Guidelines  and  New  Source  Performance
          Standards,  Major   Inorganic   Products   Segment   of
          Inorganics   Point   Source  Category,  U.S.  EPA,  EPA
          Contract No. EPA 68-01-3281 (Task 7), June, 1978.


Carbonate precipitation is sometimes used to precipitate  metals,
especially  where precipitated metals values are to be recovered.
The solubility of most metal carbonates is  intermediate  between
hydroxide  and sulfide solubilities; in addition, carbonates form
easily filtered precipitates.

Carbonate ions appear to be particularly useful in  precipitating
lead  and  antimony.   Sodium  carbonate  has been observed being
added at treatment to improve lead precipitation and  removal  in
some  industrial  plants.   The lead hydroxide and lead carbonate
solubility  curves  displayed  in  Figure  VII-4  ("Heavy  Metals
Removal,"  by  Kenneth  Lanovette,  Chemical Engineering/Deskbook
Issue, Oct. 17, 1977) explain this phenomenon.

Co-precipitation  with  Iron  -  The  presence   of   substantial
quantities  of iron in metal-bearing wastewaters before treatment
has been shown to improve the removal of toxic metals.   In  some
cases this iron is an integral part of the industrial wastewater;
in  other  cases  iron  is deliberately added as a preliminary or
first step of treatment.  The iron  functions  to  improve  toxic
metal removal by three mechanisms:  the iron co-precipitates with
toxic metals forming a stable precipitate which desolubilizes the
toxic   metal;   the  iron  improves  the  settleability  of  the
precipitate; and the large amount of iron reduces the fraction of
toxic metal in the precipitate.  Incidental co-precipitation with
iron  has  been  practiced  for  many  years  when  iron  was   a
substantial constituent of raw wastewater, and intentionally when
iron  salts  were  added  as  a coagulant aid.  Aluminum or mixed
iron-aluminum salt also have been used.  The addition of iron for
co-precipitation to aid in toxic metals removal is  considered  a
routine part of state-of-the-art lime and settle technology which
should  be  implemented as required to achieve optimal removal of
toxic metals.
                               704

-------
Co-precipitation using  large amounts of  ferrous   iron   salts   is
known  as ferrite co-precipitation because magnetic  iron oxide  or
ferrite  is formed.  The addition of ferrous  salts   (sulfate)   is
followed  by  alkali precipitation and air oxidation.  The  resul-
tant precipitate is easily  removed  by  filtration  and may   be
removed  magnetically.   Data   illustrating  the  performance   of
ferrite co-precipitation is shown in Table VII-7.  The   data  are
from:

     1 •   Sources and Treatment of_ Wastewater  iji   the  Nonferrous
          Metals Industry, U.S. EPA, EPA No. 600/2-80-074,  1980.

Advantages and Limitations.  Chemical precipitation  has  proven  to
be  an  effective  technique  for  removing  many pollutants from
industrial wastewater.  It operates at ambient conditions and   is
well   suited   to   automatic  control.   The  use  of  chemical
precipitation may be limited because of interference by  chelating
agents,  because  of  possible  chemical  interference   of  mixed
wastewaters   and   treatment   chemicals,   or  because of  the
potentially hazardous situation involved  with  the  storage  and
handling of those chemicals.  Aluminum forming wastewaters  do not
normally  contain  chelating  agents  or complex pollutant  matrix
formations which  would  interfere  with  or  limit  the use   of
chemical  precipitation.   Lime is usually added as  a slurry when
used in hydroxide precipitation.  The slurry must  be  kept  well
mixed  and  the  addition  lines  periodically checked to prevent
blocking, which may result  from  a  buildup  of  solids.   Also,
hydroxide   precipitation   usually   makes   recovery   of   the
precipitated  metals  difficult,  because  of  the   heterogeneous
nature of most hydroxide sludges.

The  major advantage of the sulfide precipitation process is that
the extremely low solubility of most metal sulfides  promotes very
high metal removal efficiencies; the sulfide process also has the
ability to remove chromates and dichromates  without  preliminary
reduction  of  the chromium to its trivalent state.  In  addition,
sulfide can precipitate metals  complexed  with  most  complexing
agents.  The process demands care,  however,  in maintaining  the  pH
of the solution at approximately 10 in order to restrict the gen-
eration of toxic hydrogen sulfide gas.   For this reason, ventila-
tion of the treatment tanks may be a necessary precaution in most
installations.  The use of insoluble sulfides reduces the problem
of  hydrogen sulfide evolution.   As with hydroxide precipitation,
excess sulfide ion must be present  to  drive  the  precipitation
reaction  to  completion.   Since the sulfide ion itself  is  toxic,
sulfide addition must be carefully controlled to  maximize  heavy
metals  precipitation  with  a minimum of excess sulfide to avoid
the necessity of post treatment.  At  very  high  excess  sulfide
levels and high pH,  soluble mercury-sulfide compounds may also  be
formed.   Where excess sulfide is present,  aeration of the efflu-


                               705

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ent stream can aid in oxidizing  residual  sulfide  to  the  less
harmful  sodium  sulfate   (Na2SO4).   The cost of sulfide precip-
itants is high in comparison  with  hydroxide  precipitants,  and
disposal  of  metallic  sulfide  sludges  may  pose problems.  An
essential element  in  effective  sulfide  precipitation  is  the
removal  of  precipitated  solids  from the wastewater and proper
disposal in an appropriate site.  Sulfide precipitation will also
generate a higher volume of sludge than hydroxide  precipitation,
resulting  in  higher  disposal  and  dewatering  costs.  This is
especially true when ferrous sulfide is used as the precipitant.

Sulfide precipitation may be used as a polishing treatment  after
hydroxide precipitation-sedimentation.  This treatment configura-
tion  may  provide  the better treatment effectiveness of sulfide
precipitation while minimizing the variability caused by  changes
in  raw  waste  and  reducing  the  amount of sulfide precipitant
required.

Operational    Factors.     Reliability:     Alkaline    chemical
precipitation  is highly reliable, although proper monitoring and
control are  required.   Sulfide  precipitation  systems  provide
similar reliability.

Maintainability:  Major maintenance needs involve periodic upkeep
of  monitoring  equipment,  automatic  feeding  equipment, mixing
equipment, and other hardware.  Removal of accumulated sludge  is
necessary  for efficient operation of precipitation-sedimentation
systems.

Solid Waste Aspects:  Solids which precipitate out are removed in
a subsequent treatment step.  Ultimately,  these  solids  require
proper disposal.

Demonstration Status.  Chemical precipitation of metal hydroxides
is  a  classic waste treatment technology used by most industrial
waste treatment systems.  Chemical precipitation of metals in the
carbonate form alone  has  been  found  to  be  feasible  and  is
commercially  used  to  permit  metals  recovery and water reuse.
Full  scale  commercial  sulfide  precipitation  units   are   in
operation   at   numerous   installations.    As  noted  earlier,
sedimentation to remove precipitates is discussed separately.

3.   Cyanide Precipitation

Cyanide precipitation, although a method for treating cyanide  in
wastewaters,  does  not destroy cyanide.  The cyanide is retained
in the sludge that is formed.  Reports indicate that during expo-
sure to sunlight the cyanide complexes can break  down  and  form
free  cyanide.   For  this  reason the sludge from this treatment
method must be disposed of carefully.


                               706

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 Cyanide may be precipitated and settled out of wastewaters by the
 addition of zinc sulfate or ferrous sulfate.   In the presence  of
 iron,   cyanide will  form extremely stable cyanide complexes.   The
 addition of zinc sulfate or ferrous sulfate forms zinc  ferrocya-
 nide or ferro and ferricyanide complexes.

 Adequate removal of  the  precipitated cyanide  requires that the pH
 must  be  kept  at 9.0 and  an  appropriate detention time be main-
 tained.   A study has shown  that the formation of the  complex  is
 very  dependent  on   pH.  At a pH  of either 8 or 10,  the residual
 cyanide  concentrations   measured   is  twice   that  of  the  same
 reaction  carried out  at   a  pH of 9.   Removal  efficiencies  also
 depend heavily on the retention time allowed.   The  formation  of
 the  complexes  takes place  rather  slowly.   Depending upon the
 excess amount of zinc sulfate  or ferrous sulfate added,  at  least
 a  30-minute retention time  should  be allowed  for the formation of
 the  cyanide  complex before   continuing  on  to  the clarification
 stage.

 One  experiment with  an initial  concentration  of  10 mg/1   of  cya-
 nide  showed  that  98  percent of  the cyanide was  complexed 10
 minutes  after the addition  of  ferrous sulfate at twice the theo-
 retical   amount  necessary.    Interference from  other metal ions.
 such as  cadmium,  might result  in the need   for   longer  retention
 times.

 Table  VI1-8  presents data  from three coil  coating plants.  Plant
 1057 also  does aluminum  forming.   A fourth  plant was  visited   for
 the  purpose  of observing plant  testing  of  the cyanide precipita-
 tion system.   Specific data  from this facility are not   included
 because:    (1)  the pH was usually  well below  the optimum level  of
 9.0; (2)  the  historical  treatment  data were  not  obtained  using
 the  standard   cyanide analysis  procedure;  and  (3)  matched  input-
 output data were  not.made available by the  plant.   Scanning   the
 available  data  indicates  that  the raw  waste CN level was  in  the
 range of 2.5.0  mg/1; the pH  7.5;  and treated CN level  was  from  0.1
 to 0.2 mg/1.

 The  concentrations are those of  the stream  entering   and   leaving
 the  treatment  system.  Plant  1057  allowed a 27-minute  retention
 time for the formation of the complex.   The retention   time   for
 the  other plants  is not known.    The data suggest  that over  a wide
 range   of   cyanide   concentration   in,  the   raw  waste,  "the
 concentration of  cyanide can be  reduced  in  the effluent stream  to
 under 0.15 mg/1.

Application and Performance.  Cyanide precipitation can  be  used
when  cyanide destruction is not feasible because of  the presence
of cyanide complexes  which are difficult  to  destroy.   Effluent
concentrations of cyanide well  below  0.15 mg/1 are possible.


                               707

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Advantages   and   Limitations.    Cyanide  precipitation  is  an
inexpensive method of treating cyanide.  Problems may occur  when
metal ions interfere with the formation of the complexes.

Demonstration  Status.   Although no plants currently use cyanide
precipitation to treat aluminum forming wastewaters, it  is  used
in  at  least  six  coil  coating  plants, two of which have both
aluminum forming and aluminum coil coating operations.

The Agency believes that the technology is  transferable  to  the
aluminum forming category because untreated (raw) wastewater cya-
nide  concentrations  are  of the same order of magnitude in both
categories.  In general, the concentrations of cyanide  found  in
aluminum   forming   wastewater   are   within   the   range   of
concentrations found in coil coating wastewaters.   In  that  this
technology  converts  all  cyanide  species  (that  is, the entire
range of cyanide species present)  to  complex  cyanides,  it  is
reasonable  to  assume that the technology would achieve the same
performance in both categories.

In addition, cyanide compounds are used as accelerators  in  con-
version  coating  operations   in  both categories.  The fact that
cyanide is present  in wastewaters in both categories from similar
operations and is treated by cyanide precipitation  in  six  coil
coating  plants also provides  support  that comparable performance
should be expected  when the technology  is  applied to  aluminum
forming wastewater.

In   assessing  the  homogeneity  of the combined metals data base
(CMDB) discussed  in detail in  this section, the  Agency  compared
raw  waste  concentrations for metals  among all of  the categories
considered, including aluminum forming  and  coil   coating.   Raw
wastewaters  from both categories are  homogeneous with respect to
mean pollutant concentrations.  Consequently,  to the extent  that
there  are  metals  present that  interfere with the  performance of
this technology,  they are accounted for in the performance  data
used  in developing the coil coating treatment effectiveness con-
centrations.  Therefore, aluminum forming plants using this  tech-
nology will achieve performance  comparable to  that  experienced by
plants in  the coil  coating category.

4.   Granular Bed Filtration

Filtration occurs  in  nature as  the  surface   ground  waters   are
cleansed   by  sand.  Silica sand, anthracite coal,  and garnet  are
common filter media used  in water treatment  plants.   These   are
usually   supported  by gravel.  The media  may be used  singly  or  in
combination.  The multi-media  filters  may be arranged  to maintain
relatively distinct layers by  balancing  the  forces  of  gravity,
flow,  and  buoyancy  on  the  individual particles.   This  is  accom-


                                708

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plished  by  selecting  appropriate  filter  flow   rates   (gpm/sq-ft),
media grain size,  and density.

Granular bed   filters  may   be classified  in  terms  of  filtration
rate, filter media, flow pattern,  or  method   of  pressurization.
Traditional  rate  classifications  are slow sand, rapid sand, and
high rate  mixed   media.   In the  slow sand filter,  flux  or
hydraulic   loading is  relatively  low,  and removal of collected
solids to clean the filter is therefore  relatively infrequent.
The  filter is  often  cleaned  by scraping  off the  inlet  face  (top)
of the sand bed.   In  the higher rate  filters,  cleaning  is  fre-
quent and is accomplished by  a periodic  backwash, opposite to the
direction of normal flow.

A  filter  may  use   a single medium  such as sand or diatomaceous
earth (Figure VII-32a),  but  dual  (Figure VII-32d)   and  mixed
(multiple) media (Figure VII-32e)  filters allow higher  flow rates
and  efficiencies.    The  dual media  filter usually  consists of a
fine bed of sand under a coarser bed  of  anthracite coal.   The
coarse   coal  removes most of the  influent  solids, while  the fine
sand performs a polishing function.   At  the end of the   backwash,
the fine sand settles to the  bottom because it is denser  than the
coal,  and  the  filter is ready for  normal operation.   The mixed
media filter operates on the  same  principle,  with the  finer,
denser  media  at  the bottom  and the  coarser,  less dense media at
the top.  The usual arrangement is garnet at the  bottom  (outlet
end)  of  the bed, sand in the middle, and  anthracite coal at the
top.  Some mixing  of  these  layers  occurs   and  is,   in  fact,
desirable.

The flow pattern is usually top-to-bottom,  but other patterns are
sometimes  used.   Upflow  filters  (Figure  VII-32b)  are  sometimes
used, and in a horizontal filter the  flow is   horizontal.   In  a
biflow  filter  (Figure VII-32c), the  influent  enters both the top
and the bottom and exits laterally.   The  advantage of   an  upflow
filter   is that with an upflow backwash the particles of a single
filter medium are  distributed  and   maintained  in  the  desired
coarse-to-fine  (bottom-to-top) arrangement.   The disadvantage is
that the bed tends to become  fluidized,   which  ruins   filtration
efficiency.   The  biflow  design  is an  attempt to  overcome this
problem.

The classic granular bed filter operates  by  gravity  flow;  how-
ever,  pressure  filters  are  fairly  widely  used.  They permit
higher solids loadings before cleaning and  are advantageous  when
the  filter  effluent  must be pressurized  for further  downstream
treatment.  In addition, pressure filter  systems are  often  less
costly for low to moderate flow rates.
                               709

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Figure VI1-6 depicts a high rate, dual  media,  gravity  downflow
granular  bed  filter,  with self-stored backwash.  Both filtrate
and backwash are piped around the bed in an arrangement that per-
mits gravity upflow of the backwash,  with  the  stored  filtrate
serving  as  backwash.   Addition  of the indicated coagulant and
polyelectrolyte usually results in a substantial  improvement  in
filter performance.

Auxiliary  filter cleaning is sometimes employed in the upper few
inches of filter beds.  This is  conventionally  referred  to  as
surface  wash  and  is  accomplished by water jets just below the
surface of the expanded bed during  the  backwash  cycle.   These
jets  enhance  the  scouring  action in the bed by increasing the
agitation.

An important feature for successful filtration and backwashing is
the underdrain.  This is the support structure for the bed.   The
underdrain  provides an area for collection of the filtered water
without clogging from either the filtered  solids  or  the  media
grains.   In  addition, the underdrain prevents loss of the media
with the water, and during the backwash cycle  it  provides  even
flow  distribution over the bed.  Failure to dissipate the veloc-
ity head during the filter or backwash cycle will result  in  bed
upset and the need for major repairs.

Several  standard approaches are employed for filter underdrains.
The simplest one consists of  a  parallel  porous  pipe  imbedded
under  a  layer  of coarse gravel and manifolded to a header pipe
for effluent removal.  Other approaches to the underdrain  system
are  known  as  the  Leopold and Wheeler filter bottoms.  Both of
these incorporate false concrete bottoms with  specific  porosity
configurations to provide drainage  and velocity head dissipation.

Filter  system  operation may be manual or automatic.  The filter
backwash cycle may be on a timed basis,  a  pressure  drop  basis
with a terminal value which triggers backwash, or a solids carry-
over  basis  from turbidity monitoring of the outlet stream.  All
of these schemes have been used  successfully.

Application and Performance.  Wastewater treatment  plants  often
use  granular  bed  filters  for ; polishing   after clarification,
sedimentation,  or  other  similar  operations.    Granular   bed
filtration   thus   has   potential  application  to  nearly  all
industrial plants.  Chemical additives which  enhance the upstream
treatment equipment may or may  not  be compatible  with or  enhance
the  filtration process.  Normal operation flow rates for various
types of filters are

      Slow Sand                  2.04 - 5.30  1/sq  m-hr
      Rapid Sand                40.74 - 51.48  1/sq m-hr


                                710

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       High  Rate Mixed Media
81.48 - 122.22 1/sq m-hr
 Suspended  solids  are commonly  removed from wastewater  streams   by
 filtering   through   a  deep 0.3   to 0.9  m (1  to 3  feet)  granular
 filter  bed.   The  porous bed formed by the granular  media   can   be
 designed   to   remove  practically   all suspended particles.  Even
 colloidal  suspensions (roughly 1 to 100 microns)  are adsorbed   on
 the   surface   of  the media  grains  as they pass in close proximity
 in the  narrow bed passages.

 Properly operated filters following some  preliminary treatment  to
 reduce  suspended  solids below  200  mg/1 should  produce  water  with
 less  than 10 mg/1  TSS.  For example,  multimedia filters  produced
 the effluent  qualities shown in Table VI1-9.

 Advantages and Limitations.  The principal  advantages  of  granular
 bed filtration are   its comparatively (to other  filters)  low
 initial and operating costs, reduced land requirements over other
 methods  to  achieve  the   same  level of  solids  removal,  and
 elimination  of   chemical   additions  to   the   discharge   stream.
 However,   the filter  may   require  preliminary  treatment if the
 solids  level  is high (over  100 mg/1).   Operator training  must   be
 somewhat   extensive   due to  the controls  and periodic  backwashing
 involved,   and backwash  must  be  stored  and  dewatered   for
 economical  disposal.

 Operational   Factors.   Reliability:    The  recent improvements  in
 filter  technology    have    significantly  improved   filtration
 reliability.    Control   systems,   improved   designs,  and  good
 operating  procedures  have   made   filtration   a  highly   reliable
 method of  water treatment.

 Maintainability:  .Deep  bed   filters  may be operated  with either
 manual or  automatic  backwash.  In  either  case,  they must  be peri-
 odically inspected for media  attrition,  partial  plugging,  and
 leakage.   Where backwashing  is not  used,  collected solids must  be
 removed by  shoveling,  and filter media must be  at least partially
 replaced.

 Solid  Waste   Aspects:   Filter  backwash   is   generally  recycled
 within the wastewater  treatment system, so  that the solids  ulti-
 mately  appear  in   the  clarifier   sludge  stream for subsequent
 dewatering.  Alternatively,  the backwash  stream may be  dewatered
 directly or,  if there  is no backwash,  the collected solids may  be
disposed  of   in  a  suitable landfill.  In  either of these situa-
 tions there is a solids  disposal  problem  similar  to   that   of
 clarifiers.

Demonstration  Status.   Deep  bed   filters  are in common use  in
municipal treatment plants.   Their use  in  polishing  industrial
                               711

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clarifier  effluent  is  increasing, and the technology is proven
and conventional.   Granular  bed  filtration  is  used  in  many
manufacturing  plants.  As noted previously, however, little data
are  available  characterizing  the  effectiveness   of   filters
presently in use within the aluminum forming category.

5.   Pressure Filtration

Pressure filtration works by pumping the liquid through a  filter
material  which is impenetrable to the solid phase.  The positive
pressure exerted by the feed pumps or other mechanical means pro-
vides the pressure differential which is   the  principal  driving
force.   Figure  VII-15 represents  the  operation of one type of
pressure filter.

A typical pressure filtration unit consists of a  number of plates
or trays which are held rigidly in a frame to  ensure  alignment
and  which are pressed together between a  fixed end  and a travel-
ing end.  On the surface of each plate  is  mounted a  filter  made
of  cloth  or  a synthetic fiber.  The  feed stream  is pumped into
the unit and passes through holes  in the trays along the  length
of the  press until the cavities or  chambers between  the trays are
completely  filled.   The  solids   are  then entrapped, and a cake
begins  to form on  the surface of the filter material.  The  water
passes  through the fibers, and  the  solids  are  retained.

At  the bottom  of the trays are drainage  ports.  The filtrate  is
collected and discharged to a  common drain.  As  the  filter medium
becomes coated with sludge, the flow   of   filtrate   through  the
filter   drops sharply,  indicating  that  the capacity  of the  filter
has been exhausted.   The unit  must  then be cleaned  of the  sludge.
After  the cleaning or  replacement  of  the  filter  media,   the  unit
 is  again ready  for operation.

Application   and  Performance.    Pressure   filtration  is  used  in
 aluminum forming  for  sludge   dewatering   and  also  for   direct
 removal of   precipitated   and other  suspended solids from waste-
water.   Because  dewatering   is   such   a   common  operation   in
 treatment   systems,   pressure  filtration is a technique  which  can
 be found in  many industries concerned with removing  solids  from
 their  waste  streams.

 In  a  typical   pressure filter,  chemically preconditioned sludge
 detained in  the unit for one to three hours under pressures vary-
 ing from 5  to 13 atmospheres exhibited a final dry solids content
 between 25  and 50 percent.

 Advantages and Limitations.   The pressures which may  be  applied
 toasludge  for  water  removal  by  filter  presses  that are
 currently available range from 5 to 13 atmospheres.  As a result,


                                712

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pressure  filtration may  reduce  the  amount  of   chemical   pretreat-
ment  required  for sludge dewatering.   Sludge  retained  in the  form
of  the   filter  cake  has a  higher  percentage of  solids  than  that
from  a centrifuge or vacuum   filter.    Thus,   it   can  be  easily
accommodated by materials handling  systems.

As  a primary solids  removal   technique,   pressure  filtration
requires  less  space than clarification  and   is   well  suited  to
streams   with  high  solids  loadings.   The sludge produced  may  be
disposed  of without further  dewatering,  but the amount of  sludge
is  increased  by  the  use   of filter precoat materials (usually
diatomaceous earth).   Also,  cloth pressure filters often do  not
achieve   as high a degree of  effluent  clarification  as clarifiers
or granular media filters.

Two disadvantages associated  with pressure filtration  in the  past
have  been the  short life of  the filter cloths and lack   of  auto-
mation.   New  synthetic fibers  have  largely offset the first  of
these problems.  Also, units  with automatic feeding  and   pressing
cycles are now available.

For larger operations, the relatively  high space  requirements,  as
compared  to   those of a centrifuge, could be prohibitive in  some
situations.

Operational Factors.   Reliability:    With proper  pretreatment,
design,   and   control, pressure filtration is a highly dependable
system.

Maintainability:  Maintenance consists of  periodic  cleaning   or
replacement of the filter media, drainage  grids,  drainage piping,
filter  pans,  and  other parts of  the system.  If the removal  of
the sludge cake is not automated, additional  time  is required for
this  operation.

Solid Waste Aspects:  Because it  is generally drier than  other
types  of  sludges,  the  filter  sludge cake can  be handled with
relative  ease.  The accumulated sludge may be disposed by any   of
the   accepted  procedures  depending on  its chemical composition.
The levels of  toxic  metals  present   in  sludge  from   treating
aluminum  forming wastewater necessitate proper disposal.

Demonstration  Status.   Pressure   filtration  is  a  commonly used
technology in many commercial applications.   One aluminum forming
plant is  known to use pressure filtration  for sludge dewatering.

6.   Settling

Settling  is a process which removes solid  particles  from  a  liquid
matrix by gravitational  force.  This   is   done  by   reducing  the


                               713

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velocity  of  the feed stream in a large volume tank or lagoon so
that gravitational settling can occur.  Figure  VI1-8  shows  two
typical settling devices.
                             \
Settling  is  often  preceded  by  chemical  precipitation  which
converts dissolved pollutants to solid form  and  by  coagulation
which  enhances  settling  by  coagulating suspended precipitates
into larger, faster settling particles.

If no chemical pretreatment is used, the wastewater is fed into a
tank or lagoon where it  loses velocity and the  suspended  solids
are  allowed  to  settle out.  Long retention times are generally
required.  Accumulated sludge can be  collected  either  periodi-
cally  or  continuously  and  either  manually  or  mechanically.
Simple settling, however, may require  excessively  large  catch-
ments,  and long retention times (days as compared with hours) to
achieve high removal efficiencies.  Because of this, addition  of
settling  aids  such  as  alum  or polymeric flocculants is often
economically attractive.

In practice, chemical precipitation often precedes settling,  and
inorganic  coagulants or polyelectrolytic flocculants are usually
added as well.  Common coagulants include sodium sulfate,  sodium
aluminate,  ferrous  or  ferric  sulfate,  and  ferric  chloride.
Organic polyelectrolytes vary in structure, but all usually  form
larger floe particles than coagulants used alone.

Following  this  pretreatment,  the  wastewater can be fed into a
holding tank or lagoon for settling, but is more often piped into
a clarifier for the same purpose.   A  clarifier  reduces  space
requirements,   reduces  retention  time,  and  increases  solids
removal efficiency.  Conventional clarifiers generally consist of
a circular or rectangular tank with a mechanical sludge  collect-
ing  device  or  with a  sloping funnel-shaped bottom designed for
sludge  collection.   In advanced  settling  devices,   inclined
plates,  slanted  tubes,  or  a  lamellar network may be included
within the clarifier tank in  order  to  increase  the  effective
settling  area,   increasing  capacity.   A fraction of the sludge
stream is often recirculated to the inlet, promoting formation of
a denser sludge.

Settling is based on the ability of  gravity   (Newton's  Law)  to
cause small particles to fall or settle  (Stoke's Law) through the
fluid  in  which  they are suspended.  Presuming that the factors
affecting chemical precipitation  are  controlled  to  achieve  a
readily settleable precipitate, the principle factors controlling
settling  are the particle characteristics and  the upflow rate of
the  suspending  fluid.  When  the effective settling area  is  great
enough  to allow  settling, any  increase  in the  effective settling
area will produce no increase  in solids  removal.


                                714

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Therefore, if a plant has installed equipment that  provides  the
appropriate  overflow rate,  the precipitated lead in the effluent
can effectively be  removed.   The  number  of  settling  devices
operated  in series or in parallel by a facility is not important
with regard to suspended solids  removal,  but  rather  that  the
settling devices provide sufficient effective settling area.

Another   important   facet   of  sedimentation  theory  is  that
diminishing removal of suspended solids is achieved  for  a  unit
increase  in the effective settling area.  Generally, it has been
found that suspended solids removal performance varies  with  the
effective  up-flow rate.  Qualitatively the performance increases
asymptotically to a maximum level  beyond  which  a  decrease  in
up-flow  rate  provides  incrementally insignificant increases in
removal.   This  maximum  level  is  dictated  by  particle  size
distribution,  density  characteristic  of  the particles and the
water matrix, chemicals used for precipitation and  pH  at  which
precipitation occurs.

Application or Performance.   Settling or clarification is used in
the  aluminum  forming  category  to  remove precipitated metals.
Settling can be  used  to  remove  most  suspended  solids  in  a
particular  waste  stream;  thus,  it is used extensively by many
different industrial waste treatment  facilities.   Because  most
metal  ion  pollutants  are  readily  converted  to  solid  metal
hydroxide precipitates, settling is of particular  use  in  those
industries  associated  with  metal  production, metal finishing,
metal working, and any other industry with high concentrations of
metal ions in their wastewaters.  In addition  to  toxic  metals,
suitably  precipitated  materials effectively removed by settling
include aluminum, iron, manganese, cobalt,  antimony,  beryllium,
molybdenum, fluoride, phosphate, and many others.

A  properly  operated settling system can efficiently remove sus-
pended solids, precipitated metal hydroxides, and  other  impuri-
ties  from wastewater.  The performance of the process depends on
a variety of factors, including the density and particle size  of
the  solids, the effective charge on the suspended particles, and
the types of chemicals used in pretreatment.  The site of floccu-
lant or coagulant addition also may significantly  influence  the
effectiveness  of  clarification.  If the flocculant is subjected
to too much mixing before entering the clarifier,  the  complexes
may be sheared and the settling effectiveness diminished.  At the
same  time,  the flocculant must have sufficient mixing and reac-
tion time in order for effective set-up and  settling  to  occur.
Plant personel have observed that the line or trough leading into
the  clarifier  is  often  the most efficient site for flocculant
addition.  The performance of simple settling is  a  function  of
the  retention  time,  particle size and density, and the surface
area of the basin.
                               715

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 The data  displayed  in   Table  VII-10   indicate   suspended   solids
 removal   efficiencies  in  settling  systems.   The  mean  effluent  TSS
 concentration obtained by the plants  shown   in   Table  VII-10   is
 10.1  mg/1.   Influent concentrations  averaged  838  mg/1.   The
 maximum effluent TSS value reported is 23 mg/1.   These  plants  all
 use alkaline pH adjustment to precipitate metal   hydroxides,   and
 most add  a coagulant or flocculant prior to  settling.

 Advantages  and  Limitations.    The   major   advantage  of   simple
 settling  is its simplicity as demonstrated by  the gravitational
 settling  of  solid particular waste  in a holding tank  or  lagoon.
 The major problem with simple settling is the long retention time
 necessary to  achieve complete  settling,  especially if    the
 specific  gravity  of   the suspended  matter is close  to  that of
 water.  Some materials cannot be effectively removed  by   simple
 settling  alone.

 Settling  performed in a  clarifier is effective  in removing slow-
 settling  suspended matter in a shorter time  and  in  less space
 than  a   simple settling  system.   Also,  effluent quality is often
 better from a clarifier.   The cost of installing and  maintaining
 a  clarifier,  however,   is  substantially greater than the costs
 associated with simple settling.

 Inclined  plate, slant   tube,  and  lamellar  settlers   have  even
 higher  removal  efficiencies  than   conventional  clarifiers,  and
 greater capacities per unit area are  possible.    Installed costs
 for  these  advanced   clarification systems  are  claimed to be  one
 half the  cost of conventional systems of similar capacity.

 Operational Factors.   Reliability:    Settling  can be  a  highly
 reliable  technology   for  removing suspended solids.   Sufficient
 retention time and regular sludge  removal are  important   factors
 affecting  the  reliability of all settling  systems.  Proper con-
 trol of pH adjustment,   chemical  precipitation, and coagulant   or
 flocculant  addition   are  additional   factors affecting settling
 efficiencies  in  systems   (frequently   clarifiers)  where these
 methods are used.

 Those  advanced settlers  using slanted  tubes, inclined  plates,  or
 a lamellar network may  require prescreening  of the waste in order
 to eliminate any fibrous materials which could   potentially  clog
 the  system.    Some  installations  are  especially vulnerable  to
 shock loadings,  as from storm water   runoff,  but  proper  system
 design will prevent this.

Maintainability:    When   clarifiers   or  other   advanced settling
devices are used,  the  associated   system  utilized  for  chemical
pretreatment  and  sludge dragout must be maintained on a  regular
basis.   Routine maintenance of mechanical parts   is  also  neces-


                               716

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sary.   Lagoons  require  little  maintenance other than periodic
sludge removal.

Demonstration Status.  Settling represents the typical method  of
solids  removal  and  is employed extensively in  industrial waste
treatment.  The advanced clarifiers are just beginning to  appear
in  significant  numbers in commercial applications.  Twenty-nine
aluminum forming plants use sedimentation or clarification.

7.   Skimming

Pollutants with a specific gravity less  than  water  will  often
float  unassisted  to  the  surface  of the wastewater.  Skimming
removes these floating wastes.  Skimming normally takes place  in
a tank designed to allow the floating material to rise and remain
on the surface, while the liquid flows to an outlet located below
the floating layer.  Skimming devices are therefore suited to the
removal  of  non-emulsified  oils from raw waste streams.  Common
skimming mechanisms include the rotating drum type,  which  picks
up  oil  from  the  surface of the water as it rotates.  A doctor
blade scrapes oil from the drum and collects it in a  trough  for
disposal  or  reuse.   The water portion is allowed to flow under
the  rotating  drum.   Occasionally,  an  underflow   baffle   is
installed after the drum; this has the advantage of retaining any
floating  oil  which  escapes  the  drum  skimmer.  The belt type
skimmer is pulled vertically through the  water,  collecting  oil
which  is  scraped  off from the surface and collected in a drum.
Gravity separators (Figure VI1-33), such as the API type,  utilize
overflow  and underflow baffles to skim a floating oil layer from
the surface of  the  wastewater.   An  overflow-underflow  baffle
allows  a  small  amount  of wastewater (the oil portion) to flow
over into a trough for disposition or reuse while the majority of
the water flows underneath the baffle.  This is  followed  by- an
overflow  baffle,  which is set at a height relative to the first
baffle such that only the oil bearing portion will flow over  the
first  baffle during normal plant operation.  A diffusion device,
such as a vertical slot baffle, aids in creating a  uniform  flow
through the system and increasing oil removal efficiency.

Application  and  Performance.  Oil skimming is applicable to any
waste stream containing pollutants which float  to  the  surface.
It  is  commonly  used  to  remove  free  oil, grease, and soaps.
Skimming is 'often used  in  conjunction  with  air  flotation  or
clarification in order to increase its effectiveness.

The  removal  efficiency of a skimmer is partly a function of the
retention time of the water in the tank.   Larger,  more  buoyant
particles  require  less  retention  time than smaller particles.
Thus, the efficiency also depends on the composition of the waste
stream.  The retention time required to  allow  phase  separation


                               717

-------
and  subsequent skimming varies from 1 to 15 minues, depending on
the wastewater characteristics.

API or other gravity-type separators tend to be more suitable for
use where the amount of surface oil flowing through the system is
consistently  significant.   Drum  and  belt  type  skimmers  are
applicable  to  waste  streams  which evidence smaller amounts of
floating oil and where surges of floating oil are not a  problem.
Using  an  API  separator  system in conjunction with a drum type
skimmer would be a very effective  method  of  removing  floating
contaminants  from  non-emulsified  oily waste streams.  Sampling
data shown in Table VII-11 illustrate  the  capabilities  of  the
technology  with  both  extremely  high and moderate oil influent
levels.

These data are intended to be illustrative of the very high level
of oil and grease removals attainable in a simple two  stage  oil
removal  system.   Based on the performance of installations in a
variety of manufacturing plants and permit requirements that  are
consistently  achieved, it is determined that effluent oil levels
may be reliably reduced below  10  mg/1  with  moderate  influent
concentrations.   Very  high concentrations of oil such as the 22
percent shown in Table VII-11 may require two step  treatment  to
achieve this level.

Skimming which removes oil may also be used to remove base levels
of  organics.   Plant  sampling  data show that many organic com-
pounds tend to be removed in standard wastewater treatment equip-
ment.  Oil separation not only removes oil but also organics that
are more soluble in oil than  in  water.   Clarification  removes
organic  solids  directly and probably removes dissolved organics
by adsorption on inorganic solids.

The source of these organic pollutants is not always  known  with
certainty,  although  in  metal  forming  operations they seem to
derive mainly from various process  lubricants.   They  are  also
sometimes  present  in  the  plant  water supply, as additives to
proprietary  formulations  of  cleaners,  or  as  the  result  of
leaching from plastic lines and other materials.

High  molecular weight organics in particular are much more solu-
ble in organic solvents than in water.  Thus they are  much  more
concentrated  in the oil phase that is skimmed than in the waste-
water.  The ratio of solubilities of a compound in oil and  water
phases is called the partition coefficient.  The logarithm of the
partition  coefficients for 28 toxic organic compounds in octanol
and water are:                    :
                               718

-------
                                        Log Octanol/Water
       PAH Priority Pollutant	 Partition Coefficient
1 .
1 1.
13.
15.
18.
23.
29.
39.
44.
64.
66.
67.
68.
72.
73.
74.
75.
76.
77.
78.
79.
80.
81 .
82.
83.
84.
85.
86.
Acenaphthene
1 , 1 , 1-Trichloroethane
1 , 1 -Dichloroethane
1,1,2, 2-Tetrachloroethane
Bis( 2-chloroethyl )ether
Chloroform
Dichloroethylene
Fluoranthene
Methylene chloride
Pentachlorophenol
Bis( 2-ethylhexyl )phthalate
Butyl benzyl phthalate
Di-n-butyl phthalate
Benzo ( a ) anthracene
Benzo ( a ) pyrene
3 , 4-Benzof luoranthene
Benzo ( k ) f luoranthene
Chrysene
Acenaphthylene
Anthracene
Benzo (ghi )perylene
Fluorene
Phenanthrene
Dibenzo ( a, h ) anthracene
Indeno( 1,2, 3, cd) pyrene
Pyrene
Tetrachloroethylene
Toluene
4.33
2.17
1 .79
2.56
1 .58
1 .97
1 .48
5.33
1 .25
5.0.1
8.73
5.80
5.20
5.61
6.04
6.57
6.84
5.61
.4.07
4.45
7.23
4.18
4.46
5.97
7.66
5.32
2.88
2.69
A review of priority organic compounds commonly  found  in  metal
forming   operations  waste  streams  indicated  that  incidental
removal of these compounds  often  occurs  as  a  result  of  oil
removal  or  clarification processes.  When all organics analyses
from visited plants are considered, removal of organic  compounds
by  other  waste  treatment  technologies  often  appears  to  be
marginal  in  most  cases.   However,   when   only   raw   waste
concentrations of 0.05 mg/1 or greater are considered, incidental
organics removal becomes much more apparent.  Lower values, those
less  than  0.05  mg/1, are more subject to analytical variation,
while higher values indicate a significant presence  of  a  given
compound.   When  these  factors are taken into account, the data
indicate  that  most  clarification  and  oil  removal  treatment
systems  remove  significant  amounts  of  the  organic compounds
present in the raw waste.  The API  oil-water  separation  system
performed notably in this regard, as shown in Table VII-12.
                               719

-------
The  unit  operation most applicable to removal of trace priority
organics is adsorption, and chemical oxidation is another  possi-
bility.   Biological  degradation   is  not  generally  applicable
because the organics are not present in sufficient  concentration
to  sustain  a  biomass  and  because  most  of  the organics are
resistant to biodegradation.

Advantages  and  Limitations.   Skimming  as  a  pretreatment   is
effective in removing naturally floating waste material.  It also
improves  the  performance  of  subsequent downstream treatments.
Many pollutants, particularly dispersed or emulsified  oil,  will
not  float "naturally" but require  additional treatments.  There-
fore, skimming alone may not remove all the pollutants capable  of
being removed by air flotation or other more sophisticated  tech-
nologies.                          :

Operational  Factors.   Reliability:   Because of its simplicity,
skimming is a very reliable technique, requiring little  operator
supervision.

Maintainability:    The   skimming  mechanism  requires  periodic
lubrication, adjustment, and replacement of worn parts.

Solid Waste Aspects:  The  collected  layer  of  debris  must   be
disposed  of  by  contractor  removal, landfill, or incineration.
Because relatively large quantities of water are present  in  the
collected  wastes,  incineration  is not always a viable disposal
method.
Demonstration Status.  Skimming is a  common  operation
extensively by industrial waste treatment systems.

MAJOR TECHNOLOGY EFFECTIVENESS
utilized
The  performance  of  individual  treatment technologies was pre-
sented above.  Performance  of  operating  systems  is  discussed
here.   Two  different  systems  are  considered:  L&S (hydroxide
precipitation and sedimentation or  lime  and  settle)  and  LS&F
(hydroxide  precipitation, sedimentation, and filtration or lime,
settle, and filter).  Subsequently, an analysis of  effectiveness
of  such  systems  is made to develop one-day maximum and ten-day
and thirty-day average concentration levels to be used  in  regu-
lating pollutants.  Evaluation of the L&S and the LS&F systems is
carried  out  on  the assumption that chemical reduction of chro-
mium, cyanide precipitation, oil skimming, and emulsion  breaking
are installed and operating properly where appropriate.
                               720

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Section
             FIGURES (Continued)

                    Title
VII-39


VIII-1
VIII-2

VIII-3
VI I.I-4
VIII-5
VIII-6
VIII-7
VIII-8
VIII-9
VIII-10
VIII-11
VIII-12
VIII-13
VIII-14
VIII-15
WTTT-15
VIII-17
VIII-18
VIII-19
VIII-20
VIII-21

VIII-22
VIII-23
VIII-24

VIII-25

VIII-26
VIII-27
VITT-28

VIII-29

VIII-30

IX-1
Schematic Diagram of Spinning Nozzle Aluminum
  Refining Process                                      853

Costs of Oil Skimming (Pre-Proposal)                    928
Costs of Chemical Emulsion Breaking
  (Pre-Proposal)   ,                                     929
Costs of Dissolved Air Flotation (Pre-Proposal)         930
Costs of Thermal Emulsion Breaking (Pre-Proposal)       931
Costs of Multimedia Filtration (Pre-Proposal)           932
Costs of pH Adjustment with Acid (Pre-Proposal)         933
Costs of pH Adjustment with Caustic (Pre-Proposal)      934
Costs of Lime and Settle (Pre-Proposal)                 935
Costs of: Chromium Reduction (Pre-Proposal)              936
Costs of Cyanide Oxidation (Pre-Proposal)               937
Costs of Activated Carbon Adsorption (Pre-Proposal)     938
Costs of Vacuum Filtration (Pre-Proposal)               939
Costs of, Contract Hauling (Pre-Proposal)                940
Costs of Flow Equalization (Pre-Proposal)               941
Costs of Pumping (Pre-Proposal)                         942
Costs of Holding Tanks (Pre-Proposal)                   943
Costs of Recycling (Pre-Proposal)                       944
General Logic Diagram of Computer Cost Model            945
Logic Diagram of Module Design Procedure                946
Logic Diagram of the Costing Routine                    947
Costs of Chemical Precipitation and Gravity
  Settling (Post-Proposal)                              948
Costs of Vacuum Filtration (Post-Proposal)              949
Costs of Flow Equalization (Post-Proposal)              950
Costs of Cartridge/Multimedia Filtration
  (Post-Proposal)                                       951
Costs of Chemical Emulsion Breaking (Post-
  Proposal)                                             952
Costs of Oil Skimming (Post-Proposal)                   953
Costs of Chromium Reduction (Post-Proposal)             954
Costs of Recycling via Cooling Towers/Holding
  Tanks (Post-Proposal)                    ,             955
Cost of Countercurrent Cascade Rinsing  (Post-
  Proposal)                                             956
Costs of Contract Hauling (Post-Proposal)               957

BPT Treatment Train for the Rolling with Neat Oils
                               xvi i

-------
Section
             FIGURES (Continued)

                    Title
IX-2

IX-3
IX-4
IX-5

IX-6
X-1
X-2
X-3
X-4
X-5
X-6
  Subcategory
BPT Treatment Train for
  Subcategory
BPT Treatment Train for
BPT Treatment Train for
BPT Treatment Train for
  Subcategory
BPT Treatment Train for
  or Soaps Subcategory
    the Rolling with  Emulsions

    the Extrusion Subcategory
    the Forging Subcategory
    the Drawing with  Neat  Oils

    the Drawing with  Emulsions
BAT Treatment Train
BAT Treatment Train
BAT Treatment Train
BAT Treatment Train
BAT Treatment Train
BAT Treatment Train
for Option 1
for Option 2
for Option 3
for Option 4
for Option 5
for Option 6
1043

1044
1045
1046

1047

1048

1 141
1142
1143
1144
1145
1 146
                               xviii

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L&S Performance — Combined Metals Data Base

A  data  base known as the "combined metals data base" (CMDB) was
used to determine treatment  effectiveness  of  lime  and  settle
treatment  for  certain  pollutants.  The CMDB was developed over
several years and has been used in a number of regulations.

During the development of  coil  coating  and  other  categorical
effluent  limitations  and standards, chemical analysis data were
collected  of  wastewater  (treatment   influent)   and   treated
wastewater  (treatment  effluent)  from 55 plants (126 data days)
sampled by  EPA  (or  its  contractor)  using  EPA  sampling  and
chemical  analysis  protocols.   These  data are the initial data
base for determining  the  effectiveness  of  L&S  technology  in
treating  nine  pollutants.   Each  of these plants belongs to at
least one of the following industry categories: aluminum forming,
battery   manufacturing,   coil    coating,    copper    forming,
electroplating and porcelain enameling.  All of the plants employ
pH  adjustment and hydroxide precipitation using lime or caustic,
followed by Stokes' Law settling (tank, lagoon or clarifier)  for
solids  removal.   An  analysis of this data was presented in the
development documents  for  the  proposed  regulations  for  coil
coating   and  porcelain  enameling   (January  1981).   Prior  to
analyzing the data, some values were deleted from the data  base.
These  deletions  were  made  to ensure that the data reflect the
performance  of  properly  operated   treatment   systems.    The
following criteria were used in making these deletions:

        Plants where malfunctioning processes or treatment
        systems at the time of sampling were identified.

        Data days where pH was less than 7.0 for extended
        periods of time or TSS was greater than 50 mg/1  (these
        are prima facie indications of poor operation).

In  response  to the coil coating and porcelain enameling propos-
als, some commenters claimed that it  was  inappropriate  to  use
data  from some categories for regulation of other categories. In
response to these comments, the Agency reanalyzed the  data.   An
analysis  of variance was applied to  the data for the  126 days of
sampling to test the hypothesis of homogeneous plant mean raw and
treated effluent levels across  categories  by  pollutant.   This
analysis  is  described in the report, "A Statistical Analysis of
the Combined Metals Industries Effluent Data"  which   is   in  the
administrative record supporting this rulemaking.  Homogeneity is
the  absence  of  statistically discernable differences  among the
categories,  while  heterogeneity   is  the  opposite,  i.e.,  the
presence  of  statistically  discernable  differences.   The main
conclusion drawn from the analysis of variance is that,  with  the
exception  of electroplating,  the categories  included  in the data
                                721

-------
 base are generally homogeneous  with  regard  to  mean  pollutant
 concentrations  in  both raw and treated effluent.   That is,  when
 data from electroplating facilities are included in the analysis,
 the hypothesis of  homogeneity  across  categories  is  rejected.
 When  the  electroplating  data are removed from the analysis the
 conclusion changes substantially and the hypothesis of  homogene-
 ity  across  categories  is  not  rejected.   On the basis of  this
 analysis,  the electroplating data were removed from the data  base
 used to  determine limitations for final coil coating  and  porce-
 lain  enameling  regulations  and  the  proposed  regulations for
 copper  forming,   aluminum  forming  and  battery  manufacturing,
 nonferrous metals (Phase I), and canmaking.

 The statistical analysis provides support for the technical engi-
 neering   judgement  that electroplating wastewaters are different
 from the wastewaters of other industrial categories in  the  data
 base used to  determine treatment effectiveness.

 For  the  purpose  of  determining treatment effectiveness, addi-
 tional data were  deleted from the  data  base.    These  deletions
 were  made,   almost  exclusively,   in  cases  where effluent  data
 points were associated with low influent values.   This  was  done
 in  two steps.   First,  effluent values measured on the same day  as
 influent  values   that  were  less than or equal  to 0.1  mg/1  were
 deleted.   Second,  the remaining data were screened  for  cases  in
 which  all  influent values at a plant were  low although slightly
 above  the  0.1  mg/1  value.   These data were deleted  not  as indi-
 vidual   data   points  but   as  plant  clusters  of  data that  were
 consistently  low  and thus  not relevant to assessing treatment.  A
 few data points were also  deleted where malfunctions  not  previ-
 ously  identified  were recognized.   The data  basic to the CMDB are
 displayed  graphically in Figures VII- 4  to 12.

 After  all  deletions,   148  data points from 19  plants remained.
 These data  were used to determine  the  concentration  basis  of
 limitations   derived from  the CMDB used for  the proposed aluminum
 forming  regulations.

 The CMDB was  reviewed  following  ats  use in a  number  of  proposed
 regulations (including  aluminum  forming).  Comments pointed out a
 few errors   in the  data and the Agency's  review  identified a few
 transcription  errors and some data points  that  were  appropriate
 for inclusion  in   the data  that   had not  been used  previously
 because  of   errors   in data  record   identification    numbers.
 Documents   in   the   record   of   this   rulemaking  identify  all the
 changes, the  reasons for the changes,  and  the  effects   of  these
 changes  on   the  data  base.   Other  comments  on the CMDB asserted
 that the data base was  too  small  and  that  the  statistical  methods
 used were overly  complex.   Responses   to  specific   comments  are
provided in a document  included  in the  record of  this  rulemaking
                               722

-------
The  Agency  believes that the data base is adequate to determine
effluent  concentrations  achievable   with   lime   and   settle
treatment.   The statistical methods employed in the analysis are
well known and appropriate statistical references are provided in
the documents in the record that describe the analysis.

The revised data  base  was  re-examined  for  homogeneity.   The
earlier  conclusions  were  unchanged.   The categories show good
overall homogeneity with respect to concentrations  of  the  nine
pollutants in both raw and treated wastewaters with the exception
of electroplating.

The  same procedures used in developing proposed limitations from
the combined metals data base were then used on the revised  data
base.   That is, certain effluent data associated with low influ-
ent values were deleted, and then the remaining data were fit  to
a  lognormal  distribution  to determine limitations values.  The
deletion of data was again done in two  steps.   First,  effluent
values measured on the same day as influent values that were less
than  or  equal  to 0.1 mg/1 were deleted.   Second, the remaining
data were screened for cases in which all influent  values  at  a
plant were low although slightly above the 0.1 mg/1 value.  These
data  were  deleted  not  as  individual data points but as plant
clusters of data that were consistently low and thus not relevant
to assessing treatment.

The revised combined metals data base used for this  final  regu-
lation  consists  of  162  data points from 18 plants in the same
industrial categories used at proposal.  The  changes  that  were
made  since  proposal  resulted in slight upward revisions of the
concentration bases for the limitations and  standards  for  zinc
and  nickel.   The  limitations  for iron decrease slightly.  The
other limitations were unchanged.   A comparison of  Table  VI1-20
in  the  final development document with Table VI1-20 in the pro-
posal development document will show the exact magnitude  of  the
changes.

The  Agency  is confident that the concentrations calculated from
the combined metals data base accurately reflect the  ability  of
lime  and settle systems in aluminum forming plants to reduce the
concentrations of the toxic metals in their  raw  waste  streams.
The  Agency  confirmed  this judgment by comparing available dis-
charge monitoring report (DMR)  data  from  12  aluminum  forming
plants.   This  comparison led to the conclusion that the concen-
trations calculated from  the  combined  metals  data  base  were
achieved by many discharge points over long periods of time.  The
analysis  of  the  DMR  data  is documented in the record of this
rulemaking.
                               723

-------
     One-Day Effluent Values

The same procedures used to determine the concentration basis  of
the  limitations  for  lime and settle treatment from the CMDB at
proposal were used on the CMDB for the  final  limitations.   The
basic  assumption  underlying  this  determination  of  treatment
effectiveness is that the data for  a  particular  pollutant  are
lognormally  distributed  by plant.  The lognormal has been found
to provide a satisfactory fit to plant effluent data in a  number
of  effluent guidelines categories and there was no evidence that
the lognormal was not suitable in the case of the combined metals
data.  Thus, we assumed measurements of  each  pollutant  from  a
particular plant, denoted by X, followed a lognormal distribution
with  a log mean v, and log variance o^.  The mean, variance, and
99th percentile of X are then:

     mean of X = E(X) = exp (? + az/z)
     variance of X = V(X) = exp (2*. + «2) [expU2) -1]
     99th percentile = X.,9 = exp U + 2.33*)

where exp is e, the base of  the ; natural  logarithm.   The  term
lognormal  is  used  because the logarithm of X has a normal dis-
tribution  with  mean  u  and  variance  az.   Using  the   basic
assumption  of  log normality, the actual treatment effectiveness
was determined using a lognormal distribution that, in  a  sense,
approximates  the distribution of an average of the plants in the
data base (i.e., an "average plant" distribution).  The notion of
an "average plant" distribution i|s not a strict statistical  con-
cept  but  is  used here to determine limits that would represent
the performance capability of an average of  the  plants  in  the
data base.

This  "average plant" distribution for a particular pollutant was
developed as follows:  the log me:an was determined by taking  the
average  of all the observations for the pollutant across plants.
The log variance  was  determined  by  the  pooled  within  plant
variance.   This  is the weighted average of the plant variances.
Thus, the log mean represents the average of all the data for the
pollutant and the log variance  r;epresents  the  average  of  the
plant   log  variances  or  average  plant  variability  for  the
pollutant.                       i

The one-day effluent values were 'determined as follows:

Let Xij " the jth observation on a particular pollutant at  plant
i where

          i = 1, . .  ., I
          j - 1, . .  ., Ji
          I = total number of plants
                               724

-------
          Ji = number of observations at plant i

Then      Yij = In Xij

where    In means the natural logarithm.

Then      Y = log mean over all plants
              I   Ji
            = £   I  Yij/n
where
          n = total number of observations
               I
               I
                    Ji
 and     V(Y)  =  pooled log  variance

                I
                Z   (-Ji -, 1 )  Si2
                i  = 1
                I  (Ji - 1)
                i = 1
         where Si2 = log variance at plant i
                Ji        _
                Z ( Yij - Yi) 2/ (Ji - -1 )

         Yi = log mean at plant i


 Thus  Y and V(Y) are the log mean and  log variance, respectively,
 of  the  ?ognormal  distribution  used to determine the treatment
 effectiveness.  The estimated mean and 99th  percentile  of  this
 distribution  form  the basis for the  long term average and daily
 maximum effluent limitations, respectively.  The estimates are

       mean = E(X)  = exp(Y)  *n(0.5V(Y»

       ,,th percentile  = X.,,  = exp  [ Y+2. 33/~VfYT   ]

 where *   (.)  is  a Bessel function  and  exp  is e the  base   of   the
 natural   logarithms   (see   Aitchison,   J.  and  J. A.  C.  Brown,  Th£
 Loonormal  Distribution, Cambridge  University  Press,   1963)     In
 cases where  zeros were present  in  the  data,  a  generalized  form of


                                 725

-------
             n             as. ,.the :delta distribution was used (see
            and  Brown,  op.  cit.,  Chapter 9).
 esut'     S  a??roach  was   Codified  slightly  to
 ensure   that  well   operated   lime   and  settle  plants in  all  CMDB
 S™g°ripS  C?Uld meet   the  Concentrations   calculated from   the
 other da^thaf d?d€'nafter «cl?dlng  the electroplating  d?ta In*
                      "<*  ref      pollutant removal  or proper

value
        calculated  from copper data from all the CMra
   iu

   d   ?
 and data that did not reflect removal or proper treatment
                                                         '
     vacese  tod                e     varan
     variance used to determine the values shown in  Table  VII-14

 lor a?? ^r ^haS estimated by P°oli"9 the within plant variances
 averaae  o?  fh^ mftajs'   Thus'  the cadmium variability  is  the
          ?he ^nn mP   *  variability  averaged over all the othe?
              lo  mean for  cadmium is the mean of the logs of  thp-
                                        Discussion of JSfdaL and
      Average Effluent Values


                  values  that  form  the  basis  for  the  monthly
     nf      consecutive measurements  are  drawn  from  the
     of daily measurements.  The average  of  10  measuremen



proposed  tor  the  aluminum  forming  category   That   <    -

approximation  was  verified  in a computer  tauaUon s?udy (seJ
                               726

-------
"Development Document for Existing Sources Pretreatment Standards
for the Electroplating Point Source Category," EPA  440/1-79/003,
U.S.  Environmental  Protection  Agency, Washington, D.C., August
1979).  The average values were developed  assuming  independence
of  the  observations  although no particular sampling scheme was
assumed.

     Ten-Sample Average:

The formulas for the 10-sample limitations were  derived  on  the
basis  of  simple  relationships between the mean and variance of
the distributions of the daily  pollutant  measurements  and  the
average  of 10 measurements.  We assume that the daily concentra-
tion measurements for  a  particular  pollutant  (denoted  by  X)
follow  a  lognormal  distribution with log mean and log variance
denoted by » and lo and log standard deviation  azi0.
The mean and variance of X10 are then

     E(X10) = exp  U10 + 0.5
-------
     Thirty-Sample Average:

Monthly  average  values  based , on  the  average  of  30   daily
measurements  were  also  calculated.  These are included because
monthly limitations based on 30 samples have  been  used  in  the
past  and  for comparison with the 10 sample values.  The average
values based on 30 measurements are determined on the basis of  a
statistical  result  known  as  the  Central Limit Theorem.  This
Theorem   states   that,   under   general   and   nonrestrictive
assumptions,  the  distribution  of  a  sum of a number of random
variables, say n, is approximated  by  the  normal  distribution.
The  approximation  improves  as  the  number  of  variables,  n,
increases.  The Theorem is quite general  in  that  no  particular
distributional  form  is  assumed  for  the  distribution  of the
individual variables.  In most applications (as in  approximating
the  distribution  of  30-day  averages)  the  Theorem is used to
approximate the distribution of the average of n observations  of
a  random  variable.   The  result  makes  it possible to compute
approximate probability statements about  the average  in  a  wide
range  of cases.  For instance, it is possible to compute a value
below which a specified percentage  (e.g.,  99  percent)  of  the
averages  of  n  observations are likely  to fall.  Most textbooks
state that 25 or 30 observations are sufficient for the  approxi-
mation  to be valid.  In applying the Theorem to the distribution
of 30-day average effluent values, we approximate  the  distribu-
tion  of  the average of 30 observations  drawn from the distribu-
tion of daily measurements and use the estimated 99th  percentile
of  this  distribution.   The  monthly  limitations  based  o>n 10
consecutive measurements  were  determined  using  the  lognormal
approximation  described  above ! because  10 measurements were, in
this case, considered too small a number  for use of  the  Central
Limit Theorem.

     Thirty-Sample Average Calculation

The   formulas  for  the  30-sample  average  were  based  on  an
application of the  Central  Limit  Theorem.   According  to  the
Theorem,   the   average   of  30  observations  drawn  from  the
distribution  of  daily  measurements,   denoted   by   X30,   is
approximately normally distributed.  The mean and variance of X30
are

     mean of X30 = E(X30)_= E(X):
     variance of X30 = V(X30) = V(X)  •? 30

The 30-sample average value was determined by the estimate of the
approximate  99th percentile of jbhe distribution of the 30-sample
average given by                i
           L30
(.99)  = E(X)=2.33 /V(X)  - 30
                               728

-------
where

and
.E~(X) = exp(Y)
-------
 by the appropriate variability factor.
                                              variabilitv
 In  establishing which data were suitable for use  in  Table VTT'H
Agsenic lAsJ. - The  achievable performance of 0.5 mg/1  for  arsenic
at these
                            .                       ..
               was considered  in the combined metals data set
                               treata^ilitV of selenium is based
                              730

-------
Silver (Ag) - The treatability of silver is based on a  0.1  mg/1
treatability  estimate  from  the  inorganic  chemicals industry.
Additional data supporting a treatability as  stringent  or  more
stringent  than 0.1 mg/1 are also available from seven nonferrous
metals manufacturing plants.  The untreated wastewater matrix for
these plants is comparable and summarized in Table VII-16.

Thallium (Tl) -  The  0.50  mg/1  treatability  for  thallium  is
transferred  from  the inorganic chemicals industry.  Although no
untreated wastewater data are available to  verify  comparability
with  the  combined  metals  data set plants, no other sources of
data for thallium treatability could be identified.

Aluminum (Al) - The 2.24 mg/1 treatability of aluminum  is  based
on  the mean performance of three aluminum forming plants and one
coil coating plant.  At proposal  this  was  based  on  the  mean
performance  of  one  coil coating plant and one aluminum forming
plant; data  from  two  aluminum  forming  plants  sampled  after
proposal  were  used in determining treatment effectiveness.  All
of these plants are from categories considered  in  the  combined
metals   data   set,   assuring   untreated   wastewater   matrix
comparability.

Cobalt (Co) - The 0.05  mg/1  treatability  is  based  on  nearly
complete  removal of cobalt at a porcelain enameling plant with a
mean untreated wastewater cobalt concentration of 4.31 mg/1.   In
this  case,  the analytical detection using aspiration techniques
for this pollutant is used as  the  basis  of  the  treatability.
Porcelain  enameling  was  considered in the combined metals data
base, assuring untreated wastewater matrix comparability.

Fluoride (F) - The 14.5 mg/1 treatability of fluoride is based on
the  mean  performance  (216  samples)  of  an  electronics   and
electrical   component   manufacturing   plant.    The  untreated
wastewater matrix  for  this  plant  shown  in  Table  VII-16  is
comparable to the combined metals data set.

Phosphorus   (P)  -  The  4.08  mg/1 treatability of phosphorus is
based on the mean of 44 samples including  19  samples  from  the
Combined  Metals Data Base and 25 samples from the electroplating
data base.   Inclusion of electroplating data  with  the  combined
metals   data  was  considered  appropriate,  since  the  remvoal
mechanism for phosphorus is a precipitation reaction with calcium
rather than hydroxide.

LS&F Performance

Tables VI1-17 and VI1-18 show  long-term  data  from  two  plants
which   have   well   operated  precipitation-settling  treatment
followed by filtration.  The wastewaters from both plants contain
                               731

-------
pollutants   from   metals   processing   and   finishing    operations
 (multi-category).    Both  plants  reduce hexavalent  chromium  before
neutralizing and precipitating metals  with  lime.   A clarifier   is
used   to  remove   much  of the solids load and  a  filter  is used  to
 "polish" or  complete removal of  suspended solids.   Plant  A uses
pressure filtration,  while Plant ;B  uses a rapid  sand  filter.

Raw  wastewater  data  were collected  only occasionally at each
facility  and the  raw  wastewater data   are  presented   as   an
indication   of  the   nature of the  wastewater  treated.  Data from
Plant  A were received as  a statistical summary and are  presented
as  received.   Raw  laboratory data were collected at Plant B and
reviewed for spurious points and discrepancies.    The  method   of
treating the data  base  is discussed below under  lime, settle, and
filter treatment effectiveness.

Table  VII-19 shows long-term data for  zinc  and cadmium  removal  at
Plant  C,  a primary zinc smelter, which operates a  LS&F system.
These  data represent about four  months (103  data  days)  taken
immediately  before the  smelter was  closed,  and have been arranged
similarily to Plants A  and B for comparison and  use.

These  data   are   presented to  demonstrate   the   performance  of
precipitation-settling-filtration (LS&F) technology under   actual
operating conditions and  over a  long period of time.

It  should   be  noted  that the iron  content  of the  raw waste  of
plants A and B is  high  while that   for  Plant  C   is  low.   This
results,  for plants A  and B, in co-precipitation  of  toxic  metals
with iron.   Precipitation  using  high-calcium lime  for pH  control
yields  the   results  shown in Table VII-19.  Plant operating per-
sonnel indicate that  this  chemical  treatment   combination   (some-
times  with   polymer  assisted   coagulation)   generally  produces
better and more consistent metals removal than other  combinations
of sacrificial metal  ions  and alkalis.
                                 I
The LS&F performance  data  presented here  are  based  on  systems
that   provide polishing filtration  after effective L&S  treatment.
As previously shown,  L&S   treatment   is  equally   applicable   to
wastewaters   from  the  five categories  because of  the homogeneity
of its raw and treated wastewaters, and other  factors.   Because
of  the  similarity   of   the wastewaters after L&S treatment, the
Agency  believes   these  wastewaters   are   equally amenable    to
treatment  using  polishing  filters   added  to the L&S treatment
system.  The Agency  concludes the LS&F  data  based on  porcelain
enameling  and  nonferrous  smelting   and   refining   is  directly
applicable to  the   aluminum  forming,   copper forming,  battery
manufacturing,  coil  coating,    and  metal  molding  and  casting
categories,   and the  canmaking subicategory as well   as   it   is   to
porcelain enameling  and nonferrous  metals smelting  and refining.
                               732

-------
Analysis of Treatment System Effectiveness

Data are presented in Table VI1-13 showing the mean, one-day,  10-
day,  and  30-day  values for nine pollutants examined  in the  L&S
metals data base.  The pooled variability factor for seven pollu-
tants (excluding cadmium because of  the  small  number  of  data
points)  was  determined and is used to estimate one-day, 10-day,
and 30-day values.  (The variability factor  is the ratio  of   the
value  of  concern  to  the mean:  the pooled variability factors
are:  one-day maximum - 4.100; ten-day average - 1.821;  and   30-
day average - 1.618.)  For values not calculated from the CMDB as
previously  discussed,  the  mean  value  for pollutants shown in
Table VII-15 were multiplied by the variability factors to derive
the value to obtain the one-, ten- and 30-day values.  These   are
tabulated in Table VII-20.

The   treatment   effectiveness  for  sulfide  precipitation   and
filtration has been  calculated  similarly.   Long  term  average
values   shown  in  Table  VII-6  have  been  multiplied  by   the
appropriate variability factor to estimate one-day  maximum,   and
10-day  and 30-day average values.  Variability factors developed
in the combined metals  data  base  were  used  because  the   raw
wastewaters  are  identical and the treatment methods are similar
as both use chemical precipitation and solids removal to  control
metals.

LS&F  technology  data are presented in Tables VI1-17 and VIJ-18.
These data represent two operating plants (A and B) in which   the
technology has been installed and operated for some years.  Plant
A  data  were received as a statistical summary and are presented
without change.  Plant B data were  received  as  raw  laboratory
analysis  data.   Discussions with plant personnel indicated that
operating experiments and changes in materials and  reagents   and
occasional  operating errors had occurred during the data collec-
tion period.  No specific  information  was  available  on  those
variables.   To  sort  out high values probably caused by method-
ological factors from random  statistical  variability,  or  data
noise,  the  Plant  B  data  were analyzed.  For each of the four
pollutants (chromium, nickel,  zinc,  and  iron),  the  mean   and
standard  deviation  (sigma)  were calculated for the entire data
set.  A data day was removed from the complete data set when   any
individual  pollutant concentration for that day exceeded the  sum
of the mean plus three sigma for that pollutant.   Fifty-one  data
days  (from  a  total  of  about  1,300)  were eliminated by this
method.

Another approach was also used as a check on the above method  of
eliminating  certain  high  values.    The  minimum  values of  raw
wastewater concentrations from Plant B for  the  same  four  pol-
lutants  were  compared to the total set of values for the corre-
                               733

-------
spending pollutants.  Any day on  which  the  treated  wastewater
pollutant  concentration exceeded the minimum value selected from
raw wastewater concentrations for that pollutant  was  discarded.
Forty-five  days  of  data  were  eliminated  by  that procedure.
Forty-three days of data in  common  were  eliminated  by  either
procedures.   Since  common  engineering  practice  (mean  plus 3
sigma) and logic (treated waste should be less  than  raw  waste)
seem  to  coincide,  the data base with the 51 spurious data days
eliminated is the basis for all further analysis.   Range,  mean,
standard  deviation  and  mean  plus  two standard deviations are
shown in Tables VII-17 and VII-18 for Cr, Cu, Ni, Zn, and, Fe.

The Plant B data were separated into 1979, 1978, and  total  data
base  (six  years)  segments.  With the statistical analysis from
Plant A for 1978 and 1979 this in effect created five  data  sets
in  which  there is some overlap :between the individual years and
total data sets from Plant B.  By comparing these five  parts  it
is apparent that they are quite similar and all appear to be from
the  same  family  of  numbers.  :The largest mean found among the
five data sets for each pollutant was selected as  the  long-term
mean  for  LS&F  technology and is used as the LS&F mean in Table
VII-20.
                                 !

Plant C data were used as a basis for cadmium removal performance
and as a check on the zinc values derived from Plants  A  and  B.
The cadmium data is displayed in Table VII-19 and is incorporated
into Table VII-20 for LS&F.  The zinc data were analyzed for com-
pliance  with  the  one-day and 30-day values in Table VII-20; no
zinc value of the 103 data points exceeded the one-day zinc value
of 1.02 mg/1.  The 103 data points were separated into blocks  of
30  points  and averaged.  Each of the three full 30-day averages
was less than the Table VII-20 value of 0.31 mg/1.  Additionally,
the Plant C raw wastewater pollutant concentrations  (Table  VII-
19) are well within the range of raw wastewater concentrations of
the  combined metals data base (Table VII-15), further supporting
the conclusion that Plant C wastewater data are  compatible  with
similar data from Plants A and B.:

Concentration  values  for  regulatory use are displayed in Table
VII-20.  Mean one-day, ten-day, and 30-day  values  for  L&S  for
nine  pollutants  were taken from Table VI1-13; the remaining L&S
values were developed using the mean values in Table  VI1-14  and
the mean variability factors discussed above.

LS&F  mean  values  for  Cd,  Cr, Ni, Zn, and Fe are derived from
Plants A, B, and C as discussed above.   One-, ten-,  and  thirty-
day  values  are  derived  by  applying  the  variability  factor
developed from the pooled data base for the specific pollutant to
the mean for that pollutant.  Other LS&F  values  are  calculated
using   the   long-term  average  or  mean  and  the  appropriate
                               734

-------
variability factors.   Mean values for  LS&F  for  pollutants  not
already  discussed  are  derived by reducing the L&S mean by one-
third.  The onethird reduction was  established  after  examining
the  percent  reduction  in concentrations going from L&S to LS&F
data for Cd, Cr, Ni,  Zn, and Fe.  The average reduction is 0.3338
or one-third.

Concentration values for regulatory use are  displayed  in  Table
VII-20.  Mean one-day, ten-day, and thirty-day values for L&S for
nine  pollutants  were taken from Table VII-13; the remaining L&S
values were developed using the mean values in Table
the mean variability factors discussed above.
VII-14  and
LS&F  mean  values  for  Cd,  Cr,  Ni, Zn and Fe are derived from
plants  A,  B,  and  C  as  discussed  above.   One-,  ten-,  and
thirty-day  values are derived by applying the variability factor
developed from the pooled data base for the specific pollutant to
the mean for that pollutant.  Other LS&F  values  are  calculated
using   the  long  term  average  or  mean  and  the  appropriate
variability factors.

Copper levels achieved at plants A and B may be lower than gener-
ally achievable because of  the high iron content and  low  copper
content  of  the raw wastewaters.  Therefore, the mean concentra-
tion value achieved from plants A and B is not  used;  LS&F  mean
for copper is derived from  the L&S technology.

L&S  cyanide mean levels shown in Table VI1-8 are ratioed to one-
day, ten-day, and 30-day values using mean  variability  factors.
LS&F  mean  cyanide  is  calculated  by  applying   the   ratios of
removals for L&S and LS&F as discussed previously for LS&F metals
limitations.  The cyanide performance was arrived at by  using the
average metal variability factors.   The  treatment method  used
here  is cyanide precipitation.  Because cyanide precipitation  is
limited by the same physical processes as  the  metal  precipita-
tion,  it  is  expected  that  the variabilities will be similar.
Therefore, the average of the metal variability factors  has  been
used as a basis for calculating the cyanide one-day, ten-day, and
30-day average treatment effectiveness values.

The  filter  performance for removing TSS as  shown  in Table  VI1-9
yields a mean effluent concentration of  2.61  mg/1 and  calculates
to a ten-day average of 4.33, 30-day average of  3.36 mg/1,  and  a
one-day maximum of  8.88.  These  calculated values more than  amply
support the classic thirty-day and one-day values of  10  and  15,
respectively, which are used for LS&F.

Although    iron    concentrations  were   decreased   in  some  LS&F
operations, some  facilities using that  treatment   introduce   iron
compounds   to aid  settling. Therefore,  the  one-day,  ten-day,  and
                                735

-------
 30-day values for iron at LS&F were held at the L&S level  so  as
 to  not  unduly  penalize the operations which use the relatively
 less objectionable iron compounds to enhance  removals  of  toxic
 metals.                         ;

 MINOR TECHNOLOGIES              '.

 Several other treatment technologies were considered for possible
 application in BPT or BAT.   These technologies are presented here
 with  a  full  discussion  for most of them.   A few are described
 only briefly because of limited technical development.

 8.    Chemical Emulsion Breaking
                                 i
 Chemical  treatment is often usedito break stable oil-in-water (0-
 W)  emulsions.  An 0-W  emulsion  consists  of  oil  dispersed  in
 water,   stabilized  by electrical  charges and emulsifying agents.
 A  stable  emulsion will not  separate or break   down  without  some
 form of treatment.

 Once  an  emulsion is broken,  the difference in specific gravities
 allows  the  oil  to float to  the surface of the water.   Solids usu-
 ally form a layer between the oil  and  water,  since  some  oil   is
 retained  in the  solids.  The longer the retention time,  the more
 complete  and distinct the separation between  the oil,  solids,  and
 water will  be.    Often  other  methods  of  gravity differential
 separation,  such  as  air flotation  or rotational  separation (e.g.,
 centnfugation),   are  used   to enhance and  speed separation.  A
 schematic flow  diagram of one type of   application  is   shown   in
 Figure  VI1-35.                   '         	

 The   major   equipment  required for  chemical   emulsion  breaking
 includes:   reaction  chambers   with  agitators,   chemical   storage
 tanks,  chemical feed  systems,  pumps, and piping.

 Emulsifiers   may  be   used  in the plant to aid  in stabilizing or
 forming emulsions.  Emulsifiers  are  surface-active agents   which
 alter   the  characteristics of  the:  oil  and water  interface    These
 surfactants  have  rather  long  polar molecules.   One  end  'of  the
 molecule  is  particularly soluble in  water (e.g.,  carboxyl, sul-
 fate, hydroxyl, or sulfonate  groups) and the other end  is readily
 soluble in oils (an organic group!  which  varies greatly  with  the
 different  surfactant   type).  Thus, the surfactant emulsifies or
 suspends  the organic material  (oil)  in water.    Emulsifiers  also
 lower  the  surface  tension   of   the 0-W emulsion as a result of
52 r^*??  ^n
-------
 Application  and Performance.  Emulsion breaking  is  applicable  to
 waste streams containing emulsified oils or   lubricants   such   as
 rolling and drawing emulsions.                -luoricants   such   as

 Treatment of spent O-W emulsions involves the use of chemicals  to
 break  the  emulsion followed by gravity differential senaraMon
 Factors to be considered for breaking emulsions^  typfSf cheml
 aa?taMonST ?"d S^ue?ce of addition, pH, mechanicafshear  and
 agitation, heat, and retention time.
 be,,l^fK        ?hloride' and organic emulsion breakers,
 break emulsions by neutralizing repulsive  charges  between  par-
 ticles,  precipitating  or  salting  out  emulsifying  agents  or
 ?^ring the interfacial film between the oil and water 2S it' is
 readily  broken.    Reactive cations (e.g., H(+l)  Al(+3)  FeU3)
 and cationic polymers) are  particular!?  effective  in  breakina
 dilute  O-W emulsions.  Once the charges have been neural izedS?

 sStids Sufbe adsorhbS°ken'^he Sma11 oil *™^s and suspend
 solids will be adsorbed on  the  surface  of  the  floe  that  is
 formed,  or  break  out  and  float to the top.   Various types of
 emulsion-breaking chemicals are used for  theP various  typel  of
If  more  than one chemical is required,  the
                                                       of
 pH   plays   an   important  role  in  emulsion  breaking,  especially if
         £nor9aruc  chemicals,  such  as  alum,  are  used  as  coagu-
            deP^ssed pH  in  the range of  2  to 4  keeps the aluminum
               h P°sltlve,state where it  can  function most  effec-
 bron  fr-      5ar?S n^utral Cation.   After some   of  the oil is
 broken  free and skimmed,  raising  the pH  into the  6   to  8  ranae
            or Caustic   will  cause the  aluminum  to  hydrolyze  and
             S ajuminum ^droxide.  This floe entraps or  adlorbs
 wate  ohase   ^^Mon^1^5  Whi°h  Ca" then  be  separated from  tK
          J^  ?h       polymers can break  emulsions  over a  wider
          ??   thus,avoid  fcid  corrosion  and  the additional sludge
    n   «i      neutralization; however,  an  inorganic  flocculant
 asor?tfveypr^ert?es?° SUPplement  the *»^  eSulsion breaker's

 Mixing  is important in breaking O-W emulsions.    Proper  chemical
 feed  and   dispersion  is required  for effective  results.

seSSeSM5eS.?0llJSi°nS,Which h€lp break  the   emulsion,   and
sequently helps to agglomerate droplets.

 In  all  emulsions,   the mix of two immiscible  liquids  has a spe-
cific gravity very close to that of water.     Heating  lowers   the
viscosity  and  increases the apparent specific gravity differen-
                               737

-------
tial between oil and water.  Heating also increases the frequency
of droplet collisions, which helps  to  rupture  the  interfacial
film.

Oil and grease and suspended solids performance data are shown in
Table  VI1-21.    Data  were  obtained  from sampling at operating
plants and a review of the  current  literature.   This  type  of
treatment is proven to be reliable and is considered state-ofthe-
art for aluminum forming emulsified oily wastewaters.
                                Advantages gained from the use•of
                               emulsions  are  the  high  removal
Advantages  and  Limitations.
chemicals  for  breaking  O-W
efficiency  potential  and the possibility of reclaiming the oily
waste.  Disadvantages  are  corrosion  problems  associated  with
acid-alum systems, skilled operator requirements for batch treat-
ment,  chemical sludges produced, and poor cost-effectiveness for
low oil concentrations.          ;

Operational Factors.  Reliability:  Chemical emulsion breaking  is
a very reliable process.  The main  control  parameters,  pH  and
temperature, are fairly easy to control.

Maintainability:   Maintenance  i|s required on pumps, motors, and
valves, as well as periodic cleaning of  the  treatment  tank   to
remove  any  accumulated solids.  Energy use is limited to mixers
and pumps.                                                  '

Solid Waste Aspects:  The surface oil and  oily  sludge  produced
are  usually hauled away by a licensed contractor.   If the recov-
ered oil has a sufficiently low percentage of water,  it  may   be
burned for its fuel value or processed and reused.

Demonstrat ion  Status.   Sixteen \ plants  in the aluminum forming
category currently break emulsions with chemicals.   Eight  plants
chemically  break spent rolling oil emulsions with  chemicals, one
plant breaks its rolling and drawing emulsions, one plant  breaks
its  rolling  oils  and  degreasing solvent, one plant breaks its
direct chill casting  contact cooling water, scrubber li-quor,  and
sawing oil, and one plant breaks  its direct chill casting contact
cooling  water and extrusion press heat treatment contact cooling
water.

9.   Thermal Emulsion Breaking

Dispersed oil droplets  in a spent emulsion can be destabilized  by
the  application of heat to the waste.   One  type   of  technology
commonly used  in  the  metals and mechanical products industries  is
the  evaporation-decantation-condensation  process,  also  called
thermal emulsion  breaking  (TEB),  .which  separates   the  emulsion
waste  into  distilled  water, oils and other floating materials,
                                738

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 and sludge.  Raw  waste  is  fed  to  a  main  reaction   chamber.    Warm
 air is passed over  a  large revolving  drum  which  is partially  sub-
 merged   in   the waste.   Some water  evaporates  from the  surface  of
 the drum and is carried upward through a filter and a   condensing
 unit.    The  condensed   water   is discharged or reused  as process
 makeup,  while the air is reheated and returned to  the evaporation
 stage.   As the water  evaporates in  the main chamber, oil  concen-
 tration  increases.  This enhances agglomeration and gravity sepa-
 ration   of oils.  The separated oils  and other floating materials
 flow over a  weir  into   a  decanting  chamber.   A   rotating   drum
 skimmer  picks  up  oil  from the  surface of the decanting chamber
 and  discharges   it   for  possible  reprocessing   or    contractor
 removal.  Meanwhile,  oily  water is  being drawn from the bottom  of
 the decanting chamber,  reheated,  and  sent  back into the main  con-
 veyor ized  chamber.   Solids which  settle  out  in the main chamber
 are removed  by a  conveyor  belt.   This conveyor  belt,  called  a
 flight   scraper,  moves  slowly  so  as  not to interfere with the
 settling of  suspended solids.

 Application   and  Performance.    Thermal    emulsion   breaking
 technology   can be applied to  the treatment of spent emulsions  in
 the aluminum forming  category.

 The performance   of  a   thermal   emulsion  breaker   is  dependent
 primarily  on  the  characteristics  of  the raw waste  and proper
 maintenance  and functioning  of   the  process  components.   Some
 emulsions  may contain  volatile compounds  which could escape with
 the distilled water.  In systems  where the water is recycled back
 to process,  however, this  problem is  essentially eliminated.

 Advantages and Limitations.  Advantages  of the thermal  emulsion
 breaking  process  include high  percentages  of oil removal (at
 least 99 percent  in most cases),  the  separation of  floating  .oil
 from  settleable  sludge   solids,  and the  production of distilled
 water which  is available for  process  reuse.   In  addition,   no
 chemicals  are  required   and the operation is automated, factors
 which reduce operating costs.  Disadvantages of the  process  are
 the   energy   requirement   for    water   evaporation   and,   if
 intermittently operated, the necessary installation  of  a  large
 storage  tank.

 Operational  Factors.   Reliability:   Thermal emulsion breaking  is
 a very reliable process  for  the   treatment   of  emulsified  oil
wastes.

Maintainability:    The thermal emulsion breaking process requires
minimal  routine maintenance of the  process components,  and  peri-
odic disposal of the sludge and oil.
                               739

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Solid  Waste  Aspects:   The  thermal  emulsion  breaking process
generates sludge which must be properly disposed of.

Demonstrat ion Status.   Thermal  emulsion  breaking  is  used  in
metals and mechanical products industries.  It is a proven method
of effectively treating emulsified wastes.

10.  Carbon Adsorption

The use of activated carbon to  remove  dissolved  organics  from
water  and  wastewater  is a long demonstrated technology.  It is
one of the most efficient organic  removal  processes  available.
This sorption process is reversible, allowing activated carbon to
be  regenerated for reuse by the application of heat and steam or
solvent.  Activated carbon has also proved  to  be  an  effective
adsorbent for many toxic metals, including mercury.  Regeneration
of  carbon which has adsorbed significant metals, however, may be
difficult.

The term activated carbon applies to any amorphous form of carbon
that has been specially treated :to give high  adsorption  capaci-
ties.   Typical raw materials include coal, wood, coconut shells,
petroleum base residues, and char from sewage  sludge  pyrolysis.
A  carefully controlled process of dehydration, carbonization, and
oxidation  yields  a  product  which  is called activated carbon.
This material has a high capacity for adsorption due primarily to
the large surface area available for  adsorption,  500  to  1,500
m2/sq  m  resulting  from a large number of internal pores.  Pore
sizes generally range from 10 to 100 angstroms in radius.

Activated carbon removes contaminants from water by  the  process
of adsorption,  or  the  attraction and accumulation of one sub-
stance on the surface of  another.   Activated  carbon  preferen-
tially  adsorbs organic compounds over other species and, because
of this  selectivity,  is  particularly  effective  in  removing
organic compounds from aqueous solution.

Carbon adsorption requires preliminary treatment to remove excess
suspended  solids,  oils,  and  greases.  Suspended solids in the
influent should  be   less  than  50  mg/1  to  minimize  backwash
requirements; a downflow carbon ibed  can handle much higher levels
(up to 2,000 mg/1), but requires frequent backwashing.  Backwash-
ing  more  than  two or three times  a day  is not desirable; at  50
mg/1 suspended solids, one backwash  will  suffice.   Oil and grease
should be less than about  10 mg/1.   A  high   level  of  dissolved
inorganic  material   in  the   influent  may  cause  problems with
thermal carbon reactivation  (i.e.,  scaling and  loss of  activity)
unless  appropriate preventive  steps are  taken.  Such steps might
include pH control,  softening,  or the use of an  acid wash on  the
carbon prior to reactivation.
                                740

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Activated carbon is available in both powdered and granular form.
An adsorption column packed with  granular  activated  carbon  is
shown  in Figure VII-35.  A schematic of an individual adsorption
column is shown in Figure VTI-17.  Powdered carbon is less expen-
sive per unit weight and  may  have  slightly  higher  adsorption
capacity, but it is more difficult to handle and to regenerate.

Application  and Performance.  Isotherm tests have indicated that
activated carbon is very effective in adsorbing 65 percent of the
toxic organic pollutants and is reasonably effective for  another
22   percent.   Specifically,  for  the  organics  of  particular
interest, activated carbon is very effective  in   removing  2,4-
dimethylphenol,   fluoranthene,   isophorone,   naphthalene,  all
phthalates, and phenanthrene.   Activated  carbon  is  reasonably
effective  on  1,1,1-trichloroethane, 1,1-dichloroethane, phenol,
and toluene.

Table VII-22 summarizes the treatability effectiveness  for  most
of  the  toxic organic priority pollutants by activated carbon as
compiled by EPA.  Table  VII-23  summarizes  classes  of  organic
compounds  together  with  samples  of  organics that are readily
adsorbed on carbon.

Advantages  and  Limitations.   The  major  benefits  of   carbon
treatment include applicability to a wide variety of organics and
high  removal  efficiency.  Inorganics such as cyanide, chromium,
and  mercury  are  also  removed  effectively.    Variations   in
concentration  and  flow  rate are well tolerated.  The system is
compact,  and  recovery  of  adsorbed  materials   is   sometimes
practical.   However,  destruction  of  adsorbed  compounds often
occurs  during  thermal  regeneration.   If  carbon   cannot   be
thermally  regenerated,  it  must  be  disposed of along with any
adsorbed pollutants.  The capital and operating costs of  thermal
regeneration are relatively high.  Cost surveys show that thermal
regeneration  is  generally  economical when carbon usage exceeds
about 1,000 Ib/day.  Carbon cannot remove low molecular weight or
highly soluble  organics.   It  also  has  a  low  tolerance  for
suspended  solids,  which  must  be removed in most systems to at
least 50 mg/1 in the influent water.

Operational Factors.  Reliability:  This system  should  be  very
reliable  with  upstream  protection  and  proper  operation  and
maintenance procedures.
                              741

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Maintainability:   This  system requires periodic  regeneration  or
replacement of spent  carbon and Is dependent  upon  raw waste   load
and process efficiency.

Solid  Waste  Aspects:  Solid wa|ste  from this process is  contami-
nated activated  carbon  that  requires  disposal.   Carbon   that
undergoes   regeneration  reduces  the  solid waste  problem  by
reducing the frequency of carbon replacement.

Demonstration  Status.   Carbon  adsorption   systems  have    been
demonstrated to be practical and; economical in reducing COD,  BOD,
and   related  parameters  in  secondary municipal and industrial
wastewaters;  in  removing  toxijc  or  refractory  organics   from
isolated  industrial  wastewaters;   in  removing   and  recovering
certain organics from wastewateris; and in removing and some times
recovering selected   inorganic  chemicals  from  aqueous  wastes.
Carbon  adsorption  is  a viable and economic process for organic
waste streams containing up to 1 to  5 percent of  refractory  or
toxic organics.  Its  applicability for removal of  inorganics  such
as metals has also been demonstrated.

11.  Flotation                  i

Flotation is the process  of  causing  particles   such  as  metal
hydroxides  or  oil   to float to the surface  of a  tank where  they
can be concentrated and removed.  This is accomplished by releas-
ing gas bubbles which attach to the solid  particles,  increasing
their  buoyancy  and  causing  tjhem to float.  In principle,  this
process is the opposite of sedimentation.•   Figure  VI1-22  shows
one type of flotation system.   !

Flotation  is  used  primarily  Jin  the  treatment  of wastewater
streams that carry heavy loads of finely divided suspended solids
or oil.  Solids having a specific gravity only  slightly  greater
than  1.0,  which  would  require  abnormally long sedimentation
times, may be removed in much less time by flotation.

This process may be performed in: several ways:   foam,  dispersed
air,  dissolved  air,  gravity, and vacuum flotation are the  most
commonly used techniques.  Chemical additives are often  used  to
enhance the performance of the flotation process.

The  principal  difference among types of flotation is the method
of generating the minute gas bubbles (usually air) in  a  suspen-
sion  of  water  and  small  particles.  Chemicals may be used  to
improve the efficiency with any of the basic  methods.   The   fol-
lowing paragraphs describe the different flotation techniques and
the method of bubble generation for each process.
                               742

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Froth  Flotation - Froth flotation is based on differences in the
physiochemical properties in various particles.  Wettability  and
surface  properties affect the ability of the particles to attach
themselves to gas bubbles in an aqueous medium.  In froth  flota-
tion,  air  is  blown  through  the solution containing flotation
reagents.  The particles with water repellant surfaces  stick  to
air  bubbles  as  they  rise  and  are brought to the surface.  A
mineralized froth layer, with mineral particles attached  to  air
bubbles,  is formed.  Particles of other minerals which are read-
ily wetted by water do not stick to air  bubbles  and  remain  in
suspension.

Dispersed Air Flotation - In dispersed air flotation, gas bubbles
are  generated by introducing the air by means of mechanical agi-
tation with impellers or by forcing  air  through  porous  media.
Dispersed  air  flotation  is  used  mainly  in the metallurgical
industry.

Dissolved Air Flotation - In dissolved air flotation, bubbles are
produced by releasing air from a superstaturated  solution  under
relatively high pressure.  There are two types of contact between
the  gas bubbles and particles.  The first type is predominant in
the flotation of flocculated materials and  involves  the  entrap-
ment  of  rising gas bubbles in the flocculated particles as they
increase in size.  The bond between the bubble  and  particle  is
one  of physical capture only.  The second type of contact is one
of adhesion.  Adhesion results from the intermolecular attraction
exerted at the interface between the solid particle and the gase-
ous bubble.

Vacuum Flotation - This process consists of saturating the waste-
water with air either directly in an aeration tank, or by permit-
ting air to enter on the suction of a wastewater pump.  A partial
vacuum is applied, which causes the dissolved air to come out  of
solution  as  minute bubbles.  The bubbles attach to solid parti-
cles and rise to the surface to form a  scum  blanket,  which  is
normally  removed  by a skimming mechanism.  Grit and other heavy
solids that settle to the bottom are generally raked to a central
sludge pump for removal.  A typical vacuum  flotation  unit  con-
sists  of a covered cylindrical tank in which a partial vacuum is
maintained.  The tank is equipped with scum  and  sludge  removal
mechanisms.   The  floating material is continuously swept to the
tank periphery, automatically discharged into a scum trough,  and
removed  from  the  unit  by  a  pump  also under partial vacuum.
Auxiliary equipment includes an aeration tank for saturating  the
wastewater  with  air,  a  tank  with  a short retention time for
removal of large bubbles, vacuum pumps, and sludge pumps.

Application and Performance.  The primary variables for flotation
design are pressure, feed  solids  concentration,  and  retention
                               743

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period.   The  suspended solids  in  the effluent decrease, and the
concentration of solids in the float  increases,  with   increasing
retention  period.   When the flotation process is used primarily
for clarification, a retention period of   20   to  30  minutes   is
adequate for separation and concentration.

Advantages  and  Limitations.    Some  advantages of the flotation
process are the high levels of so(lids separation achieved in many
applications,'the relatively low j energy   requirements,  and  the
adaptability  to  meet  the  treatment  requirements of different
waste types.  Limitations of flotation are that it often requires
addition of chemicals to enhance process performance and that   it
generates large quantities of solid waste.

Operational  Factors.   Reliability:   Flotation systems normally
are very reliable with proper maintenance  of the sludge collector
mechanism and the motors and pumps used for aeration.

Maintainability:  Routine maintenance is required  on  the  pumps
and  motors.  The sludge collector mechanism is subject to possi-
ble corrosion or breakage and may require  periodic replacement.

Solid Waste Aspects:  Chemicals  are   commonly  used  to  aid  the
flotation  process  by creating  a surface  or a structure that can
easily adsorb or entrap air bubbles.  Inorganic  chemicals,  such
as  the aluminum and ferric salts, and activated silica, can bind
the particulate matter together  and create a structure  that  can
entrap  air  bubbles.   Various  organic chemicals can change the
nature of either the air-liquid  interface  or  the  solid-liquid
interface,  or  both.   These  compounds   usually  collect on the
interface to bring about the desired  changes.  The  added  chemi-
cals  plus  the  particles  in   solution   combine to form a large
volume of sludge  which  must  be!  further  treated  or  properly
disposed of.

Demonstration Status.  Flotation is a fully developed process and
is  readily  available  for  the 'treatment  of a wide variety of
industrial waste streams..   Dissolved  air flotation technology   is
used  by can manufacturing plants to  remove oil and grease in the
wastewater from can wash lines.  It   is  not  currently  used  to
treat aluminum forming wastewaters.

12.  Centrifugation              i.

Centrifugation is the application;of  centrifugal force  to  sepa-
rate  solids  and  liquids in a  liquid-solid mixture or to effect
concentration of the  solids.    The   application  of  centrifugal
force  is  effective because of the density differential normally
found between the insoluble solids and the liquid in  which  they
are contained.   As a waste treatment procedure, Centrifugation is
                               744

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most often applied to dewatering  of  sludges.
fuge is shown  in Figure VII-18.
One type of centri-
There  are  three common  types of  centrifuges:   the  disc,  basket,
and conveyor type.  All three operate  by   removing   solids  under
the  influence  of centrifugal force.   The fundamental  difference
between the three types is  the method  by which   solids   are   col-
lected in and discharged  from the  bowl.

In  the  disc  centrifuge,  the sludge  feed is distributed  between
narrow channels .that are  present as spaces between   stacked   con-
ical  discs.   Suspended  particles  are collected and  discharged
continuously through small  orifices in the bowl  wall.   The  clar-
ified effluent is discharged through an overflow weir.

A second type of centrifuge which  is useful  in dewatering  sludges
is  the  basket  centrifuge.   In  this type  of centrifuge, sludge
feed is introduced at the bottom of the basket,  and  solids   col-
lect  at the bowl wall while clarified effluent  overflows  the lip
ring at the top.  Since the basket centrifuge does not  have   pro-
vision  for  continuous   discharge  of collected cake,  operation
requires interruption of  the feed  for  cake discharge for a minute
or two in a 10- to 30-minute overall cycle.

The third type of centrifuge commonly  used in  sludge   dewatering
is  the  conveyor  type.  Sludge is fed through  a stationary  feed
pipe into a rotating bowl in which the solids   are  settled   out
against  the bowl wall by centrifugal  force.  From the  bowl wall,
the solids are moved by a screw to the end  of   the  machine,  at
which   point  they  are  discharged.   The  liquid  effluent is
discharged through ports  after passing the  length   of   the   bowl
under centrifugal, force.

Application  and  Performance.   Virtually  all  industrial waste
treatment systems producing  sludge  can   use  centrifugation to
dewater  it.   Centrifugation  is  currently being used  by a  wide
range of industries.

The performance of sludge dewatering by centrifugation depends on
the feed rate,  the rotational  velocity  of  the  drum,  and   the
sludge composition and concentration.  Assuming proper design and
operation,   the  solids content of the sludge can be increased to
20 to 35 percent.

Advantages and Limitations.   Sludge dewatering  centrifuges   have
minimal  space  requirements  and  show a  high degree of effluent
clarification.   The operation is simple,   clean,   and  relatively
inexpensive.    The   area   required  for   a  centrifuge  system
installation is less than that required for  a  filter  system or
                               745

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sludge
lower.
drying  bed  of  equal  capacity, and the initial cost is
Centrifuges have a high power cost that partially offsets the low
initial cost.  Special consideration must also be given  to  pro-
viding sturdy foundations and soundproofing because of the vibra-
tion  and  noise that result from1 centrifuge operation.  Adequate
electrical power must also be provided  since  large  motors  are
required.   The  major difficulty! encountered in the operation of
centrifuges has been the disposal! of  the  concentrate  which  is
relatively high in suspended, nonl-settling solids.
                                 !
Operational  Factors.   Reliability:   Centrifugation  is  highly
reliable with proper control of factors such as sludge feed, con-
sistency, and temperature.  Pretreatment such as grit removal and
coagulant addition may be necessary, depending on the composition
of the sludge and on the type of centrifuge employed.

Maintainability:  Maintenance consists of  periodic  lubrication,
cleaning, and inspection.  The frequency and degree of inspection
required  varies  depending  on  the  type of sludge solids being
dewatered and the maintenance service conditions.  If the  sludge
is  abrasive,  it is recommended that the first inspection of the
rotating assembly be made  after  approximately  1,000  hours  of
operation.   If the sludge is not abrasive or corrosive, then the
initial inspection might be delayed.   Centrifuges  not  equipped
with  a  continuous  sludge  discharge  system  require  periodic
shutdowns for manual sludge cake temoval.

Solid Waste Aspects:  Sludge dewatered in the centrifugation pro-
cess may be disposed of  by  landfill.   The  clarified  effluent
(centrate), if high in dissolved br suspended solids, may require
further treatment prior to discharge.

Demonstration  Status.   Centrifugation  is  currently  used in  a
great many commercial applications to dewater  sludge.   Work  is
underway  to  improve  the efficiency, increase the capacity, and
lower the costs associated with Centrifugation.

13.  Coalescing

The basic principle  of  coalescence  involves  the  preferential
wetting  of  a coalescing medium by oil droplets which accumulate
on the medium and then rise to the surface  of  the  solution  as
they  combine  to  form  larger  particles.   The  most important
requirements for coalescing media are  wettability  for  oil  and
large  surface  area.   Monofilantent  line is sometimes used as  a
coalescing medium.               !
                                746

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Coalescing stages may be integrated with a wide variety of  grav-
ity  oil  separation  devices,  and  some systems may incorporate
several coalescing stages.  In general, a preliminary  oil  skim-
ming step is desirable to avoid overloading the coalescer.

One  commercially  marketed  system for oily waste treatment com-
bines coalescing with inclined plate separation  and  filtration.
In  this  system,  the  oily  wastes  flow into an inclined plate
settler.  This unit consists of a stack of inclined baffle plates
in a cylindrical container with an oil collection chamber at  the
top.   The  oil  droplets rise and impinge upon the undersides of
the plates.  They then migrate upward to a guide rib that directs
the oil to the oil collection chamber, from  which  oil  is  dis-
charged for reuse or disposal.

The  oily  water continues on through another cylinder containing
replaceable filter cartridges  that  remove  suspended  particles
from  the waste.  From there the wastewater enters a final cylin-
der in which the coalescing material  is  housed.   As  the  oily
water  passes  through  the  many  small,  irregular,  continuous
passages in the coalescing material, the  oil  droplets  coalesce
and rise to an oil collection chamber.

Application  and  Performance.   Coalescing is used to treat oily
wastes that do not separate readily in  simple  gravity  systems.
The  three  stage  system  described  above has achieved effluent
concentrations of 10 to 15 mg/1 oil and  grease  from  raw  waste
concentrations of 1,000 mg/1 or more.

Advantages  and  Limitations.   Coalescing  allows removal of oil
droplets  too   finely   dispersed   for   conventional   gravity
separation-skimming technology.  It also can significantly reduce
the residence times (and therefore separator volumes) required to
achieve  separation of oil from some wastes.  Because of its sim-
plicity, coalescing provides generally high reliability  and  low
capital  and operating costs.  Coalescing is not generally effec-
tive in removing  soluble  or  chemically  stabilized  emulsified
oils.   To  avoid  plugging, coalescers must be protected by pre-
treatment from the very  high  concentrations  of  free  oil  and
grease  and suspended solids.  Frequent replacement of prefilters
may be necessary when raw waste oil concentrations are high.

Operational  Factors.   Reliability:   Coalescing  is  inherently
highly  reliable since there are no moving parts and the coalesc-
ing substrate  (monofilament, etc.) is  inert in  the  process  and
therefore  not  subject  to  frequent regeneration or replacement
requirements.  Large loads or  inadequate  preliminary  treatment,
however, may result in plugging or bypass of coalescing stages.
                                747

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 Maintainability:    Maintenance requirements are generally limited
 to  replacement  of  the coalescing! medium on an infrequent basis.
 Solid  Waste  Aspects:
 this process.
          i
No appreciable solid waste is generated  by
Demonstration   Status.   Coalescing  has  been  fully  demonstrated in
industries  generating  oily  wastewater,  although  none  are known to
be  in use at any  aluminum forming facility.

14<  Cyanide Oxidation by_ Chlorine
                                 !
Cyanide oxidation using chlorinej is  widely   used   in  industrial
waste  treatment  to oxidize cyanide.  Chlorine can be utilized in
either the  elemental or hypochlorite  forms.   This  classic proced-
ure can be  illustrated by the  following two  step  chemical  reac-
tion:                            •
 1 .
 2.
C12
3C12
NaCN + 2NaOH ---- > NaCNO + 2NaCl + H20
 6 NaOH + 2 NaCNO --- -%  NaHC03 + N2 +
                            6NaCl
                                                           2H0
The  reaction presented as equation  (2)  for  the oxidation of  cya-
nate is the final step in the oxidation  of cyanide.   A  complete
system  for  the  alkaline  chlorination of cyanide is shown  in
Figure VII-19.                   ;

The alkaline chlorination process  oxidizes  cyanides  to  carbon
dioxide and nitrogen.  The equipment often consists of an equali-
zation tank followed by two reaction tanks,  although the reaction
can be carried out in a single tank.  Each tank has an electronic
recorder-controller  to maintain 'required conditions with respect
to pH and oxidation reduction  potential  (ORP).   In  the  first
reaction  tank,  conditions  are  adjusted to oxidize cyanides  to
cyanates.  To effect the reaction, chlorine  is  metered  to  the
reaction tank as required to maintain the ORP in the range of 350
to  400  millivolts, and 50 percent aqueous  caustic soda is added
to maintain a pH range of 9.5 to  10.    In   the  second  reaction
tank,  conditions  are  maintained  to   oxidize cyanate to carbon
dioxide and nitrogen.  The desirable ORP and pH for this reaction
are 600 millivolts and a pH of 8:0.  Each of the  reaction  tanks
is equipped with a propeller agitator designed to provide approx-
imately  one turnover per minute J  Treatment by the batch process
is accomplished by using two tanks, one  for  collection  of  water
over  a  specified time period, and one  tank for the treatment  of
an accumulated batch.  If dumps of concentrated wastes  are  fre-
quent,   another  tank may be required to equalize the flow to the
treatment tank.  When the holding tank is  full,  the  liquid   is
transferred to the reaction tank for treatment.   After treatment,
the  supernatant  is discharged and the sludges are collected for
removal and ultimate disposal.
                               748

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Application and Performance.  The oxidation of cyanide  waste  by
chlorine  is  a  classic  process and is found in most industrial
plants using cyanide.   This  process  is  capable  of  achieving
effluent  levels  of  free  cyanide  that are nondetectable.  The
process is potentially applicable to aluminum forming  facilities
where  cyanide  is a component in conversion coating formulations
or is added as a corrosion inhibitor  in  heat  treatment  opera-
tions.
Advantages   and   Limitations.
                    Some  advantages  of  chlorine
oxidation for handling process effluents are operation at ambient
temperature, suitability for automatic  control,  and  low  cost.
Disadvantages  include  the need for careful pH control, possible
chemical  interference in the treatment of mixed wastes, and  the
potential  hazard  of  storing  and  handling  chlorine  gas.  If
organic compounds are present, toxic chlorinated organics may  be
generated.   Alkaline  chlorination  is not effective in treating
metallocyanide complexes, such as the ferrocyanide.

Operational Factors.  Reliability:  Chlorine oxidation is  highly
reliable   with   proper   monitoring  and  control,  and  proper
pretreatment to control interfering substances.
Maintainability:  Maintenance consists  of
sludge and recalibration of instruments.
                             periodic  removal  of
Solid  Waste Aspects:  There is no solid waste problem associated
with chlorine oxidation.

Demonstration  Status.   The  oxidation  of  cyanide  wastes   by
chlorine  is  a  widely  used  process in plants using cyanide in
cleaning and metal processing baths.

15.  Cyanide Oxidation by Ozone

Ozone is a highly reactive oxidizing agent which is approximately
10 times more soluble than oxygen on a  weight  basis  in  water.
Ozone may be produced by several methods, but the silent electri-
cal  discharge  method  is  predominant in the field.  The silent
electrical discharge process produces ozone by passing oxygen  or
air  between  electrodes  separated by an insulating material.  A
complete ozonation system is represented in Figure VI1-20.
Application  and
commercially
organometal  complexes.
_  Performance.   Ozonation   has   been   applied
to   oxidize  cyanides,  phenolic  chemicals,  and
           Its   applicability   to   photographic
wastewaters has been studied in the laboratory with good results.
Ozone  is used in industrial waste treatment primarily to oxidize
cyanide to cyanate and to oxidize phenols and dyes to  a  variety
of colorless nontoxic products.
                               749

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Oxidation of cyanide to cyanate is illustrated below:
CN-
           O3 ---- > CNO-
Continued  exposure  to  ozone will convert the cyanate formed to
carbon dioxide and ammonia; however,  this  is  not  economically
practical.

Ozone  oxidation of cyanide to cyanate requires 1.8 to 2.0 pounds
ozone per pound of CN~; complete; oxidation requires  4.6  to  5.0
pounds  ozone per pound of CN~.  ; Zinc, copper and nickel cyanides
are easily destroyed to a nondetectable  level,  but  cobalt  and
iron cyanides are more resistant; to ozone treatment.

Advantages  and  Limitations.  Some advantages of ozone oxideition
for handling process effluents are its suitability  to  automatic
control  and  on-site  generation  and  the  fact  that  reaction
products are not chlorinated orgknics and no dissolved solids are
added in the treatment step.  Ozone in the presence of  activated
carbon,   ultraviolet,  and  othpr  promoters  shows  promise;  of
reducing reaction time and improving ozpne utilization,,  but  the
process  at  present is limited  by high capital expense, possible
chemical interference in the treatment of mixed  wastes,  and  an
energy  requirement  of 25 kwh/kjg of ozone generated.  Cyanide is
not economically oxidized with o!3 beyond the cyanate form.

Operational Factors.  Reliability:   Ozone  oxidation  is  highly
reliable  with proper monitoring and control, and proper prelimi-
nary treatment to control interfering substances.

Maintainability:  Maintenance consists  of  periodic  removal  of
sludge,  and periodic renewal of filters and desiccators required
for the input of clean dry air;  filter  life  is  a  function  of
input concentrations of detrimental constituents.

Solid  Waste  Aspects:   Preliminary  treatment to eliminate sub-
stances which will interfere with the process may  be  necessary.
Dewatering  of sludge generated  Jin the ozone oxidation process or
in an "in-line" process may be desirable prior to disposal.

16.  Cyanide Oxidation by Ozone  with UV Radiation

One of the modifications of the  bzonation process is the simulta-
neous application of ultraviolet light and ozone for  the  treat-
ment  of wastewater, including treatment of halogenated organics.
The combined action of these  two  forms  produces  reactions  by
photolysis,  photosensitization,  hydroxylation, oxygenation, and
oxidation.  The process is uniqu;e because several  reactions  and
reaction species are active simultaneously.
                                750

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Ozonation  is  facilitated by ultraviolet absorption because both
the ozone and the reactant  molecules  are  raised  to  a  higher
energy  state so that they react more rapidly.  In addition, free
radicals for use in the reaction are readily  hydrolyzed  by  the
water,  present.  The energy and reaction intermediates created by
the introduction of both ultraviolet and ozone greatly reduce the
amount of ozone required  compared  with  a  system  using  ozone
alone.    Figure  VII-21  shows  a three-stage UV-ozone system.  A
system to treat mixed  cyanides  requires  preliminary  treatment
that involves chemical coagulation, sedimentation, clarification,
equalization, and pH adjustment.

Application  and Performance.  The ozone-UV radiation process was
developed primarily for cyanide treatment in  the  electroplating
and  color  photo-processing  areas.   It  has  been successfully
applied to mixed cyanides and  organics  from  organic  chemicals
manufacturing  processes.  The process is particularly useful for
treatment of complexed  cyanides  such  as  ferricyanide,  copper
cyanide, and nickel cyanide, that are resistant to ozone.

Demonstration  Status.   Ozone  combined  with  UV radiation is a
relatively new technology.  Four units are currently in operation
and all four treat  cyanide-bearing  waste.   Ozone-UV  treatment
could  be  used  in  aluminum  forming  plants to destroy cyanide
present in waste streams from some conversion  coating  and  heat
treatment operations.

17.  Cyanide Oxidation by Hydrogen Peroxide

Hydrogen peroxide oxidation removes both cyanide  and  metals  in
cyanide-containing wastewaters.  In this process, cyanide-bearing
waters  are heated to 49°C to 54°C  (120°F to  130°F) and the pH is
adjusted to 10.5 to 11.8.  Formalin (37 percent formaldehyde)  is
added  while  the tank is vigorously agitated.  After two to five
minutes, a proprietary peroxygen compound  (41  percent  hydrogen
peroxide  with a catalyst and additives) is added.  After an hour
of mixing, the reaction is complete.  The cyanide is converted to
cyanate and the metals are precipitated as oxides or  hydroxides.
The  metals  are then removed from solution by either settling or
filtration.

The main equipment required for this process  is two holding tanks
equipped with heaters and air spargers  or  mechanical  stirrers.
These  tanks  may  be used in a batch or continuous fashion, with
one tank being used  for  treatment  while  the  other  is  being
filled.  A settling tank or a filter is needed to concentrate the
precipitate.

Application  and  Performance.   The  hydrogen peroxide oxidation
process is applicable to cyanide-bearing wastewaters,  especially
                               751

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 those  containing  metal-cyanide  complexes.    In  terms of waste
 reduction performance,  this process can reduce total  cyanide  to
 less than 0.1  mg/1 and  the zinc or cadmium concentrations to less
 than 1.0 mg/1.

 Advantages  and Limitations.   Chemical  costs  are similar to those
 for  alkaline chlorination using chlorine and  lower than those for
 treatment with  hypochlorite.   All!  free  cyanide  reacts  and  is
 completely   oxidized  to  the  liess  toxic  cyanate  state.    In
 addition,   the  metals precipitate! and settle   quickly,   and  they
 may   be   recoverable  in  many  instances;  however,  the process
 requires energy expenditures  to  !heat  the wastewater  prior  to
 treatment.                        |

 Demonstration   Status.    This treatment process was introduced in
 1971  and is used in  several   facilities.   No  aluminum  forming
 plants use oxidation by hydrogen peroxide.

 18.   Evaporation                 !

 Evaporation is  a concentration process.   Water is evaporated from
 a solution,  increasing  the concentration of solute in  the remain-
 ing  solution.   If the resulting water vapor is condensed back  to
 liquid water, the evaporation-condensation  process is  called dis-
 tillation.   However, to be consistent  with industry terminology,
 evaporation is  used in  this report to  describe  both   processes.
 Both  atmospheric  and   vacuum  evaporation  are commonly used in
 industry today.   Specific  evaporation  techniques  are   shown  in
 Figure VII-22 and discussed below.

 Atmospheric evaporation  could be accomplished simply  by boiling
 the  liquid.   However,   to aid  evaporation,   heated   liquid  is
 sprayed   on an  evaporation   surface,   and air is blown over the
 surface  and subsequently   released  to   the   atmosphere.    Thus,
 evaporation occurs  by  humidification  of the  air stream,  similar
 to a  drying process.   Equipment  jfor  carrying  out atmospheric
 evaporation is  quite   similar for most  applications.   The major
 element  is  generally  a packed  column with an accumulator  bottom.
 Accumulated wastewater   is  pumped  from the  base of the column,
 through  a heat  exchanger,  and  back  into  the top  of  the  column,
 where  it   is   sprayed   into   the1packing.  At  the same  time,  air
 drawn upward through  the.  packing;  by a  fan   is  heated  as  it
 contacts  the   hot   liquid.    The;  liquid partially  vaporizes and
 humidifies  the  air  stream.  The fan then blows  the hot,  humid air
 to the outside   atmosphere.    A  scrubber   is   often unnecessary
because  the packed  column  itself  acts as a  scrubber.

Another  form   of   atmospheric  evaporator  also  works on  the air
humidification  principle,  but  the>evaporated water   is   recovered
for  reuse  by  condensation.   These air humidification techniques
                               752

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operate well below the boiling point of  water  and
waste process heat to supply the energy required.
can  utilize
In  vacuum  evaporation,  the  evaporation pressure is lowered to
cause the liquid to boil at reduced  temperatures.   All  of  the
water  vapor  is condensed and, to maintain the vacuum condition,
noncondensible gases (air in particular) are removed by a  vacuum
pump.   Vacuum evaporation may be either single or double effect.
In double effect evaporation, two evaporators are used,  and  the
water  vapor  from  the  first evaporator (which may be heated by
steam) is used to supply heat to the second  evaporator.   As  it
supplies  heat,  the  water  vapor from the first evaporator con-
denses.  Approximately equal quantities of wastewater are  evapo-
rated  in  each  unit;  thus, the double effect system evaporates
twice the amount of water that a single effect  system  does,  at
nearly  the  same  cost in energy but with added capital cost and
complexity.  The double  effect  technique  is  thermodynamically
possible  because  the  second  evaporator is maintained at lower
pressure (higher vacuum) and, therefore, lower  evaporation  tem-
perature.   Vacuum  evaporation  equipment  may  be classified as
submerged tube or climbing film evaporation units.

Another  means  of  increasing   energy   efficiency   is   vapor
recompression  evaporation,  which enables heat to be transferred
from the condensing water vapor to  the  evaporating  wastewater.
Water  vapor generated from incoming wastewaters flows to a vapor
compressor.   The  compressed  steam  then  travels  through  the
wastewater  via an enclosed tube or coil in which it condenses as
heat is transferred to the surrounding solution.  In this way the
compressed vapor serves as a heating medium.  After condensation,
this distillate is drawn off  continuously  as  the  clean  water
stream.   The  heat  contained in the compressed vapor is used to
head the wastewater, and energy costs for  system  operation  are
reduced.

In  the most commonly used submerged tube evaporator, the heating
and condensing coil are contained in a single  vessel  to  reduce
capital  cost.   The  vacuum  in  the  vessel is maintained by an
eductor-type pump, which creates the required vacuum by the  flow
of  the  condenser  cooling  water through a venturi.  Wastewater
accumulates in the bottom of the vessel, and it is evaporated  by
means  of  submerged steam coils.  The resulting water vapor con-
denses as it contacts the condensing coils  in  the  top  of  the
vessel.   The condensate then drips off the condensing coils into
a collection trough that carries  it out  of  the  vessel.   Con-
centrate is removed from the bottom of the vessel.

The major elements of the climbing film evaporator are the evapo-
rator,  separator,  condenser,  and  vacuum  pump.  Wastewater is
"drawn" into the system by the vacuum so that a  constant  liquid
                               753

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 level   is  maintained  in  the  separator.   Liquid  enters  the  steam-
 jacketed evaporator  tubes,  and  part  of  it evaporates  so that   a
 mixture of vapor  and  liquid  enters  the separator.  The design  of
 the separator  is such  that  the  liquid  is continuously   circulated
 from   the  separator  to  the evaporator.   The vapor entering the
 separator  flows out  through a mesh entrainment separator to  the
 condenser,  where  it   is  condensed as it flows down through the
 condenser  tubes.   The  condensate, along with  any  entrained air,
 is  pumped out  of  the  bottom oif the  condenser by a liquid ring
 vacuum pump.   The  liquid  seal proyided  by  the   condensate  keeps
 the vacuum in  the  system  from being  broken.
                                  i
 Application    and    Performance.  ! Both  atmospheric  and   vacuum
 evaporation are used in many  industrial  plants,   mainly for  the
 concentration  and  recovery  of process solutions.  Many of these
 evaporators also recover  water  for rinsing.   Evaporation has also
 been applied to recovery  of phosphate metal-cleaning solutions.

 In theory, evaporation should yield  a concentrate and a deionized
 condensate.  Actually,  carry-over   has   resulted in   condensate
 metal  concentrations as high  as 1p mg/1,  although the usual level
 is less than 3 mg/1, pure enough  for most final  rinses.  The con-
 densate may   also  contain  organic brighteners and antifoaming
 agents.  These can be  removed with an activated   carbon bed,   if
 necessary.   Samples from one plant  showed 1,900 mg/1 zinc  in the
 feed,  4,570 mg/1 in  the concentrate, and 0.4  mg/1  in the condens-
 ate.   Another plant  had 416 mg/1  copper  in the   feed  and   21,800
 mg/1   in the concentrate.   Chromium  analysis  for that plant indi-
 cated  5,060 mg/1 in  the feed  and  27,500  mg/1  in  the  concentrate.
 Evaporators  are   available  in  a range of capacities,  typically
 from 15 to 75 gph, and may  be used in parallel   arrangements  for
 processing of higher flow rates.

 Advantages   and   Limitations.    Advantages   of   the  evaporation
 process are that it  permits recovery of  a  wide variety  of process
 chemicals, and it  is often  applicable to concentration  or removal
 of compounds which cannot be  accomplished  by any  other   means.
 The  major  disadvantage  is that  the evaporation process consumes
 relatively large amounts  of energy for  the evaporation  of   water.
 However,   the  recovery  of  waste  heat  from   many   industrial
 processes  (e.g., diesel generators,  incinerators,  boilers,  and
 furnaces)  should  be  considered! as a  source of  this  heat for  a
 totally integrated evaporation  system.   Also, in some cases solar
 heating  could  be   inexpensively: and   effectively  applied   to
 evaporation  units.  For  some applications, preliminary  treatment
may be  required to remove solids  or  bacteria  which tend  to  cause
 fouling  in the condenser or  evaporator.   The buildup of scale on
 the evaporator surfaces reduces the  heat  transfer efficiency  and
may  present  a  maintenance  problem or  increase operating cost.
However it  has  been  demonstrated  that  fouling  of   the heat


                                754

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transfer  surfaces  can  be  avoided  or  minimized  for  certain
dissolved solids by maintaining  a  seed  slurry  which  provides
preferential  sites for precipitate deposition. - In addition, low
temperature differences in the evaporator will eliminate nucleate
boiling   and   supersaturation   effects.    Steam   distillable
impurities  in  the  process  stream  are  carried  over with the
product  water  and  must  be  handled  by  preliminary  or  post
treatment.

Operational   Factors.   Reliability:   Proper  maintenance  will
ensure.a high degree of reliability for the system.  Without such
attention, rapid fouling or deterioration  of  vacuum  seals  may
occur, especially when handling corrosive liquids.

Maintainability:    Operating  parameters  can  be  automatically
controlled.  Preliminary treatment may be required,  as  well   as
periodic  cleaning  of the system.  Regular replacement of seals,
especially  in a corrosive environment, may be  necessary.

Solid Waste Aspects:  With only a  few  exceptions,  the  process
does not  generate appreciable quantities  of solid waste.

Demonstration  Status.   Evaporation   is  a fully developed,  com-
mercially available wastewater  treatment  system.   It   is   used
extensively  to  recover  plating  chemicals in the  electroplating
industry  and a pilot-scale unit has  been  used  in  connection   with
phosphating  of  aluminum.   Proven performance in silver  recovery
indicates that evaporation could be  a useful  treatment  operation
for  the  photographic   industry,  as  well as  for  metal  finishing.
Vapor  compression  evaporation  has  been pratically demonstrated  in
a number  of  industries,  including   chemical   manufacturing,   food
processing,  pulp  and  paper and  metal  working.

 19.  Gravity Sludge  Thickening

 In the gravity  thickening  process, dilute sludge  is  fed   from   a
primary  settling   tank   or   clarifier to a  thickening  tank  where
 rakes stir  the  sludge gently to density  it  and to push   it  to   a
 central  collection   well.    The  supernatant  is returned to the
 primary settling  tank.   The  thickened sludge  that collects on the
 bottom of the  tank is pumped to dewatering   equipment   or  hauled
 away.     Figure  VI1-24  shows  the  construction  of   a  gravity
 thickener.

 Application and Performance.  Thickeners are  generally  used  in
 facilities  where  the  sludge  is  to  be further dewatered by a
 compact mechanical device such as a vacuum filter or  centrifuge.
 Doubling  the  solids  content  in  the  thickener  substantially
 reduces capital and operating cost of the  subsequent  dewatering
                                755

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device  and  also  reduces  cost  for  hauling.   The  process is
potentially applicable to almost any industrial plant. process 1S
                                   i
Organic sludges from sedimentation !units of 1 to 2 percent solids
concentration can usually be gravity thickened to 6  to  10  per-
cent; chemical sludges can be thickened to 4 to 6 percent.

           and Limitations.   The principal advantage of a gravity
        thickening  process is that it facilitates further sludae
             Other advantages are high  reliability  and
 sludge
 dewatering.
 maintenance requirements.
              °5 tSS SludQe thickening process are its sensitivity
             rate   rough the thickener  and  the  sludge  removal

                       "U8t                            "
 Operational Factors .    Reliability:    Reliability  is  high  with
 th^bLi^nf911 ^ operati°n-   A 9ravifcy thickener is designed on
 the basis of square feet per pound df solids per  day/   in  which

                    ™e r63 1S related to thePsolids entering arid
                    Thickener area requirements are also expressed
                       "             °f S°lidS  *"  square" meter
                         a ye?r'.a  thickener must be shut down for
 nnmn    K           ud^Ve mechanismsi   Occasionally,  water must be
 pumped  back  through  the system  in  order to clear sludge  pipes.
n«!      AsPgcts:   Thickened  sludge  from  a  gravity  thickening
process will usually require  further  dewatering prior   to   dispo-
fjj'  incineration, or  drying.  The  clear effluent  may be recircu-
to discharge*    °r     ""^  be  sub^ected to further  treatment prior


               Status    Gravity  sludge  thickeners    are    used
wh   n 1SdUStry ut0   reduce  sludge water  content  to a level
where the sludge may be efficiently 'handled.  Further   dewaterinq

                                                               to
20.  Ion Exchange
                                    i
Ion exchange is a process in which ions,  held  bv  electrostatic
£Eh™  t0  ?harged  functional  groups'on the sSrface Sf th! ion
solution InSih^hr?heXChanged f°r 10nS °f similar charge from the
KiUjJSS    whlchuthe resin is immersed.  This is classified as a
sorpt ion process because the exchange occurs on  the  surface  of
J™ re?X^  and the exchanging ion must undergo a phase transfer
from solution phase to solid phase.   Thus, ionic contaminants  in
                               756

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a  waste
resin.
stream  can  be  exchanged for the harmless ions of the
Although the precise technique may vary slightly according to the
application involved, a generalized process description  follows.
The  wastewater  stream  being treated passes through a filter to
remove any solids, then flows through a  cation  exchanger  which
contains  the ion exchange resin.  Here, metallic impurities such
as copper, iron, and trivalent chromium are retained.  The stream
then passes through the anion exchanger and its associated resin.
Hexavalent chromium (in the form of chromate or dichromate),  for
example,  is retained in this stage.  If one pass does not reduce
the contaminant levels sufficiently, the stream  may  then  enter
another  series  of  exchangers.   Many  ion exchange systems are
equipped with more than one set of exchangers for this reason.

The other major portion of the ion exchange process concerns  the
regeneration  of  the  resin,  which  now  holds those impurities
retained from the waste stream.  An ion exchange  unit  with  in-
place regeneration is shown in Figure VI1-25.  Metal ions such as
nickel  are  removed  by an acid, cation exchange resin, which is
regenerated with hydrochloric or  sulfuric  acid,  replacing  the
metal ion with one or more hydrogen ions.  Anions such as dichro-
mate are removed by a basic anion exchange resin, which is regen-
erated  with  sodium  hydroxide,  replacing the anion with one or
more hydroxyl ions.  The  three  principal  methods  employed  by
industry for regenerating the spent resin are:

     (A)  Replacement Service:  A regeneration service replaces
          the spent resin with regenerated resin, and regenerates
          the spent resin at its own facility.  The service then
          has the problem of treating and disposing of the spent
          regenerant.

     (B)  In-Place Regeneration:  Some establishments may find it
          less expensive 'to do their own regeneration.  The spent
          resin column is §hut down for perhaps an hour, and the
          spent resin is regenerated.  This results  in one or
          more waste streams which must be treated in an appro-
          priate manner.  Regeneration is performed as the resins
          require it, usually every few months.

     (C)  Cyclic Regeneration:   In this process, the regeneration
          of the spent resins takes place within the ion exchange
          unit  itself in alternating cycles with the ion removal
          process.  A regeneration frequency of twice an hour is
          typical.  This very short cycle time permits operation
          with  a very small quantity of resign and with fairly
          concentrated solutions, resulting  in a very compact
          system.  Again, this process varies according to appli-
                               757

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           cation,  but the regeneration cycle generally begins
           with  caustic being pumped through the anion exchanger,
           carrying out hexavalent chromium, for example,  as
           sodium dichromate.  The |sodium dichromate stream then
           passes through a cation exchanger,  converting the
           sodium dichromate to chromic acid.   After concentration
           by  evaporation or other means,  the chromic acid can be
           returned to the process line.   Meanwhile, the cation
           exchanger is regenerated with sulfuric acid,  resulting
           in  a  waste acid stream containing the metallic  impuri-
           ties  removed earlier.   Flushing the exchangers  with
           water completes the cycle.   Thus, the wastewater is
           purified and,  in this  example,  chromic acid is  recov-
           ered.   The ion exchangers,  with newly regenerated
           resin,  then enter the  ion removal cycle again.

Application   and  Performance.    The list of  pollutants for which
the  ion exchange system has proven effective   includes   aluminum,
arsenic,   cadmium,   chromium  (hexavalent and trivalent),  copper,
cyanide, gold,  iron,  lead,  manganese,  nickel,   selenium,   silver,
tin, zinc, and  others.   Thus,  it can be applied to a wide variety
of   industrial   concerns.   Because of  the heavy concentrations of
metals  in their   wastewater,   th<=?  metal   finishing  industries
utilize    ion  exchange  in  several   ways.    As  an  end-of-pipe
treatment, ion  exchange is certainly feasible,  but  its  greatest
value  is  in   recovery applications.   It  is commonly  used as an
integrated treatment  to  recover;  rinse  water   and   process
chemicals.    Some   electroplating ifacilities use ion exchange to
concentrate and  purify   plating   baths.   Also,   many  industrial
concerns,  including  a  number  of aluminum forming plants,  use ion
exchange to reduce salt  concentrations  in incoming water  sources.

Ion  exchange  is  highly   efficient!  at   recovering  metal-bearing
solutions.  Recovery  of  chromium,  nickel, phosphate solution,  and
sulfuric   acid  from anodizing  is common.  A chromic acid  recovery
efficiency of 99.5  percent  has been demonstrated.    Typical  data
for  purification of rinse water  are displayed in Table  VII-25.

Advantages    and    Limitations.    Icrt'  exchange  is  a  versatile
technology  applicable   to   a  great    many   situations.     This
flexibility,  along  with  its  compact nature  and  performance,  makes
ion  exchange  a   very   effective method  of wastewater  treatment.
However, the  resins in  these systems can  prove  to be a  limiting
factor.  The  thermal  limits  of the anion  resins,  generally  in  the
vicinity  of  60°C,   could prevent its  use  in  certain situations.
Similarly, nitric  acid,  chromic  acid, and hydrogen  peroxide  can
all  damage   the resins,  as  will  iron, manganese,  and copper when
present  with  sufficient   concentrations  of   dissolved  oxygen.
Removal  of   a  particular   trace contaminant may be uneconomical
because  of   the  presence   of   other   ionic  species  that   are


                               758

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preferentially  removed.  The regeneration of the. resins presents
its own problems.  The cost of the regenerative chemicals can  be
high.   In  addition,  the  waste  streams  originating  from the
regeneration   process   are   extremely   high   in    pollutant
concentrations,  although  low  in volume.  These must be further
processed for proper disposal.

Operational  Factors.   Reliability:   With  the   exception   of
occasional  clogging  or  fouling of the resins, ion exchange has
proved to be a highly dependable technology.

Maintainability:  Only the normal maintenance of  pumps,  valves,
piping,  and  other  hardware used in the regeneration process is
required.

Solid Waste Aspects:  Few, if any, solids accumulate  within  the
ion  exchangers,  and  those  which  do appear are removed by the
regeneration process.  Proper prior treatment  and  planning  can
eliminate solid buildup problems altogether.  The brine resulting
from  regeneration of the ion exchange resin most usually must be
treated to remove metals before  discharge.   This  can  generate
solid waste.

Demonstration  Status.   All  of  the  ion  exchange applications
discussed in this section are in  commercial  use,  and  industry
sources  estimate  the  number of ion exchange units currently in
the field at well over 120.  The research and development in  ion
exchange  is  focusing on improving the quality and efficiency of
the resins, rather than new applications.   Work  is  also  being
done  on a continuous regeneration process whereby the resins are
contained on a fluid-transfusible belt.  The belt passes  through
a compartmented tank with ion exchange, washing, and regeneration
sections.    The   resins  are  therefore  continually  used  and
regenerated.  No such system, however, has been  reported  beyond
the pilot stage.

21.  Insoluble Starch Xanthate

Insoluble starch xanthate is essentially an ion  exchange  medium
used to remove dissolved heavy metals from wastewater.  The water
may  then  either  be reused (recovery application) or discharged
(end-of-pipe  application).   In  a   commercial   electroplating
operation,  starch  xanthate is coated on a filter medium.  Rinse
water containing dragged out heavy metals is  circulated  through
the  filters and then reused for rinsing.  The starch-heavy metal
complex is disposed of  and  replaced  periodically.   Laboratory
tests  indicate  that  recovery  of  metals  from  the complex is
feasible, with regeneration  of  the  starch  xanthate.   Besides
electroplating,  starch xanthate is potentially applicable to any
other industrial plants where dilute metal wastewater streams are
                               759

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generated.
plant.
            Its present use  is


22.   Peat Adsorption
limited  to  one  electroplating
Peat moss is a complex natural organic material containing  lignin
and cellulose as major constituents.  These constituents, partic-
ularly lignin, bear polar functional groups,  such  as  alcohols,
aldehydes,  ketones, acids, phenolic hydroxides, and ethers, that
can be involved in chemical bonding.  Because of the polar  nature
of the material, its  adsorption  of  dissolved  solids  such  as
transition  metals  and  polar  o'rganic  molecules is quite high.
These properties have led to the [use of peat as an agent for  the
purification of industrial wastew|ater.

Peat  adsorption  is a "polishing" process which can achieve very
low effluent concentrations for several pollutants.  If the con-
centrations of pollutants are above 10 mg/1, then peat adsorption
must  be  preceded  by pH adjustment for metals precipitation and
subsequent clarification.   Pretrjeatment  is  also  required  for
chromium  wastes  using  ferric chloride and sodium sulfide.  The
wastewater is then pumped into a jlarge  metal  chamber  called  a
kier  which  contains  a  layer  of  peat through which the waste
stream passes.  The water flows to  a  second  kier  for  further
adsorption.   The  wastewater  is, then ready for discharge.  This
system may be automated or manually operated.

Application and Performance.  Peat  adsorption  can  be  used  in
aluminum  forming plants for removal of residual dissolved  metals
from clarifier effluent.  Peat moss may be used to  treat   waste-
waters  containing  heavy  metals such as mercury, cadmium, zinc,
copper, iron, nickel, chromium, and  lead,  as  well  as  organic
matter  such  as  oil,  detergents, and dyes.  Peat adsorption is
currently used commercially  at  a  textile  plant,  a  newsprint
facility, and a metal reclamation operation.

Table  VII-26  contains  performance  figures obtained from pilot
plant studies.  Peat adsorption was preceded by pH adjustment for
precipitation and by clarification.
                                 i
In addition, pilot plant studies |have shown that  chelated  metal
wastes,  as  well as the chelating agents themselves, are removed
by contact with peat moss.

Advantages and Limitations.  The major advantages of  the   system
include  its  ability  to yield low pollutant concentrations, its
broad scope in  terms  of  the  pollutants  eliminated,  and  its
capacity to accept wide variations of wastewater composition.
                               760

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Limitations  include the cost of purchasing, storing, and dispos-
ing of the peat moss; the necessity for  regular  replacement  of
the peat may lead to high operation and maintenance costs.  Also,
the pH adjustment must be altered according to the composition of
the waste stream.

Operational  Factors.   Reliability:   The  question of long-term
reliability is not yet fully answered.  Although the manufacturer
reports it to be a highly reliable system,  operating  experience
is needed to verify the claim.

Maintainability:   The  peat  moss  used  in  this  process  soon
exhausts its capacity to adsorb pollutants.  At  that  time,  the
kiers  must  be  opened,  the peat removed, and fresh peat placed
inside.  Although this procedure is  easily  and  quickly  accom-
plished,  it  must  be done at regular intervals, or the system's
efficiency drops drastically.

Solid Waste Aspects:  After removal from the kier, the spent peat
must be eliminated.  If incineration is used, precautions  should
be  taken  to ensure that those pollutants removed from the water
are not released again in the combustion  process.   Presence  of
sulfides in the spent peat, for example, will give rise to sulfur
dioxide  in  the fumes from burning.  The presence of significant
quantities of toxic heavy metals in aluminum  forming  wastewater
will  in  general  preclude incineration of peat used in treating
these wastes.

Demonstration  Status.   Only  three  facilities  currently   use
commercial  adsorption  systems  in the United States - a textile
manufacturer, a newsprint facility, and a metal reclamation firm.
No data have been reported showing the use of peat adsorption  in
aluminum forming plants.

23.  Membrane Filtration

Membrane filtration is a treatment system for  removing  precipi-
tated  metals  from  a  wastewater  stream.  It must therefore be
preceded by those treatment techniques which will  properly  pre-
pare  the  wastewater  for solids removal.  Typically, a membrane
filtration unit is preceded by pH adjustment or sulfide  addition
for precipitation of the metals.  These steps are followed by the
addition  of a proprietary chemical reagent which causes the pre-
cipitate to  be  non-gelatinous,  easily  dewatered,  and  highly
stable.   The  resulting  mixture  of  pretreated  wastewater and
reagent is continuously recirculated through a filter module  and
back into a recirculation tank.  The filter module contains tubu-
lar  membranes.   While  the  reagent-metal hydroxide precipitate
mixture flows through the inside of the tubes, the water and  any
dissolved  salts  permeate  the membrane.  When the recirculating
                               761

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slurry reaches a concentration of 10 to 15 percent solids, it
pumped out of the system as sludge.
                                     is
Application  and  Performance.  Membrane filtration appears to be
applicable to any wastewater or process  water  containing  metal
ions  which can be precipitated using hydroxide, sulfide, or car-
bonate precipitation.  It could function as the primary treatment
system, but also might find application as a polishing  treatment
(after precipitation and settling) to ensure continued compliance
with  metals  limitations.  Membrane filtration systems are being
used in a number of industrial applications, particularly in  the
metal  finishing area.  They have also been used for heavy metals
removal in the metal fabrication Industry and the paper industry.

The permeate is claimed by one manufacturer to contain less  than
the  effluent concentrations shown in Table VI1-27, regardless of
the influent concentrations.  These claims have been largely sub-
stantiated by the analysis of water samples at various plants  in
various industries.

In  the  performance  predictions  for this technology, pollutant
concentrations are reduced to the levels shown  in  Table  VI1-27
unless lower levels are present in the influent stream.

Advantages  and  Limitations.
      A major advantage of the membrane
 installations  can  use  most  of  the
 systems  that may already be in place.
claimed  to  be  excellent,  even  with
pollutant  input  rates;  however,  the
filtration system is that
conventional  end-of-pipe
Removal efficiencies are
sudden   variation   of
effectiveness of the membrane filtration system can be limited by
clogging of the filters.  Because pH changes in the waste  stream
greatly  intensify  clogging  problems,  the pH must be carefully
monitored and controlled.  Clogging can force the shutdown of the
system and may  interfere  with  production.   In  addition,  the
relatively high capital cost of this system may limit its use,,

Operational  Factors.  Reliability;  Membrane filtration has been
shown to be a very reliable  system,  provided  that  the  pH  is
strictly  controlled.  Also, surges in the flow rate of the waste
stream must be controlled in order to prevent solids from passing
through the filter and into the elf fluent.

Maintainability:  The membrane filters must  be  regularly  moni-
tored,  and  cleaned  or replaced as necessary.  Depending on the
composition of the waste  stream | and  its  flow  rate,  frequent
cleaning  of  the  filters may be required.  Flushing with hydro-
chloric acid for six  to  24  hoiirs  will  usually  suffice.   In
addition,  the  routine  maintenance  of pumps, valves, and other
plumbing is required.
                               762

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Solid Waste Aspects:  When the recirculating  reagent-precipitate
slurry  reaches  10 to 15 percent solids, it is pumped out of the
system.  It can then be disposed of directly to a landfill or  it
can  undergo  a dewatering process.  Because this sludge contains
toxic metals, it requires proper disposal.

Demonstration Status.  There are more than 25 membrane filtration
systems  presently  in  use  on  metal  finishing   and   similar
wastewaters.   Bench-scale  and pilot-studies are being run in an
attempt to expand the list of pollutants for which this system is
known to be effective.  Although there are no data on the use  of
membrane  filtration  in aluminum forming plants, the concept has
been  successfully  demonstrated   using   coil   coating   plant
wastewater.

24.  Reverse Osmosis

The process of osmosis involves the passage of a liquid through a
semipermeable membrane from a dilute to a more concentrated solu-
tion.  Reverse osmosis (RO) is an operation in which pressure  is
applied  to  the more concentrated solution, forcing the permeate
to diffuse through the membrane and into the  more  dilute  solu-
tion.   This filtering action produces a concentrate and a perme-
ate on opposite sides of the membrane.  The concentrate can  then
be  further treated or returned to the original production opera-
tion for continued use, while the permeate water can be  recycled
for  use as clean water.  Figure VI1-26 depicts a reverse osmosis
system.

As illustrated in Figure VII-27, there are three basic configura-
tions  used  in  commercially  available  RO  modules:   tubular,
spiral-wound,  and  hollow  fiber.   All  of these operate on the
physical principle described above, the  major  difference  being
their mechanical and structural design characteristics.

The  tubular  membrane module uses a porous tube with a cellulose
acetate membrane-lining.  A common tubular module consists  of  a
length  of  2.5-cm  (1-inch)  diameter tube wound on a supporting
spool and encased in a plastic shroud.  Feed water is driven into
the tube under pressures varying from 40 to 55 atm  (600  to  800
psi).   The  permeate passes through the walls of the tube and is
collected in a manifold while the concentrate is drained  off  at
the end of the tube.  A less widely used tubular RO module uses a
straight  tube  contained  in a housing, under the same operating
conditions.

Spiral-wound membranes consist of  a  porous  backing  sandwiched
between  two  cellulose  acetate membrane sheets and bonded along
three edges.  The fourth edge of the composite sheet is  attached
to  a  large  permeate  collector  tube.  A spacer screen is then
                               763

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placed on top of the membrane sandwjLch and the  entire  stack  is
rolled  around  the centrally located tubular permeate collector.
The rolled up package is inserted into a pipe able  to  withstand
the  high  operating pressures employed in this process, up to 55
atm (800 psi) with the spiral-wound;module.  When the  system  is
operating,  the  pressurized product water permeates the membrane
and flows through the backing material to the  central  collector
tube.   The concentrate is drained off at the end of the container
pipe  and can be reprocessed or sent to further treatment facili-
ties.                                ',

The hollow fiber membrane configuration is made up of a bundle of
polyamide fibers of approximately Oi.0075 cm (0.003  in.)  OD  and
0.043  cm  (0.0017  in.) ID.  A commonly used hollow fiber module
contains several hundred thousand of the fibers placed in a  long
tube,   wrapped  around  a  flow screen, and rolled into a spiral.
The fibers are bent in a U-shape and their ends are supported  by
an  epoxy  bond.   The hollow fiber unit is operated under 27 atm
(400 psi), while the feed water is Dispersed from the  center  of
the  module  through  a  porous distributor tube.  Permeate flows
through the membrane to the hollow  interiors of the fibers and is
collected at the ends of the fibers,.

The hollow fiber and spiral-wound modules have a distinct  advan-
tage over the tubular system in that they are able to load a very
large membrane surface area into a relatively small volume.  How-
ever,  these two membrane types are much more susceptible to foul-
ing  than  the  tubular  system, which has a larger flow channel.
This characteristic also makes the tubular membrane  much  easier
to  clean  and  regenerate than either the spiral-wound or hollow
fiber  modules.   One  manufacturer  claims  that  their  helical
tubular  module  can  be physically;wiped clean by passing a soft
porous polyurethane plug under pressure through the module.
                                    i
Application and Performance.  In a  |number  of  metal  processing
plants,  the  overflow  from  the first rinse in a countercurrent
setup is directed to a reverse osmosis unit, where  it  is  sepa-
rated into two streams.  The concentrated stream contains dragged
out  chemicals and is returned to the bath to replace the loss of
solution due to evaporation and dragout.  The dilute stream  (the
permeate)  is  routed to the last rinse tank to provide water for
the rinsing operation.  The rinse flows from the last tank to the
first tank and the cycle is complete.

The closed-loop system described above may be supplemented by the
addition of a vacuum evaporator after the RO  unit  in  order  to
further  reduce  the  volume of reverse osmosis concentrate.  The
evaporated vapor can be condensed and returned to the last  rinse
tank or sent on for further treatment.
                               764

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The largest application has been for the recovery of nickel solu-
tions.   It  has  been  shown that RO can generally be applied to
most acid metal baths with a high degree of performance,  provid-
ing  that  the  membrane  unit is not overtaxed.  The limitations
most critical here are the allowable pH range and maximum operat-
ing pressure for each particular configuration.

Adequate prefiltration is also essential.   Only  three  membrane
types  are  readily  available  in commercial RO units, and their
overwhelming use has been for the recovery of various acid  metal
baths.  For the purpose of calculating performance predictions of
this  technology,  a rejection ratio of 98 percent is assumed for
dissolved salts, with 95 percent permeate recovery.
Advantages and  Limitations.   The  major  advantage
osmosis   for  handling  process  effluents  is  its
                                                      of  reverse
                                                      ability  to
concentrate dilute solutions for recovery of salts and  chemicals
with  low  power requirements.  No latent heat of vaporization or
fusion is required for effecting  separations;  the  main  energy
requirement  is for a high pressure pump.  It requires relatively
little floor space for  compact,  high  capacity  units,  and  it
exhibits  good  recovery  and  rejection  rates  for  a number of
typical process solutions.  A limitation of the  reverse  osmosis
process  for  treatment  of  process  effluents  is  its  limited
temperature range  for  satisfactory  operation.   For  cellulose
acetate  systems,  the preferred limits are 18°C to 30°C (65°F to
85°F); higher temperatures will increase  the  rate  of  membrane
hydrolysis  and reduce system life, while lower temperatures will
result in decreased  fluxes  with  no  damage  to  the  membrane.
Another  limitation  is  inability  to  handle certain solutions.
Strong oxidizing agents,  strongly  acidic  or  basic  solutions,
solvents,  and  other  organic compounds can cause dissolution of
the membrane.  Poor rejection of some compounds such  as  borates
and low molecular weight organics is another problem.  Fouling of
membranes  by slightly soluble components in solution or colloids
has caused failures, and fouling of membranes by feed waters with
high levels of suspended  solids  can  be  a  problem.   A  final
limitation  is  inability  to treat or achieve high concentration
with  some  solutions.   Some  concentrated  solutions  may  have
initial  osmotic  pressures  which  are  so high that they either
exceed available  operating  pressures  or  are  uneconomical  to
treat.

Operational  Factors.  Reliability:  This system is very reliable
as long as the proper  precautions  are  taken  to  minimize  the
chances of fouling or degrading the membrane.  Sufficient testing
of  the  waste  stream  prior to application of an RO system will
provide  the  information   needed   to   ensure   a   successful
application.
                                765

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 Maintainability:    Membrane  life ;is estimated to range from six
 months to three years,  depending on  the use of the system.    Down
 time  for  flushing  or  cleaning is on the order of two hours as
 often as once each week;  a  substantial  portion  of  maintenance
 time  must be spent on  cleaning any  prefilters installed ahead of
 the reverse osmosis unit.

 Solid Waste Aspects:   In  a closed loop system utilizing RO   there
 is   a  constant  recycle   of  concentrate and a minimal amount of
 solid waste.   Prefiltration eliminates many  solids  before  they
 reach  the module and helps keep the buildup to a minimum.   These
 solids require proper disposal.

 Demonstration Status.   There are presently at least  one hundred
 reverse   osmosis   wastewater   applications  in  a  variety  of
 industries.   In addition  to these, ithere are 30 to 40 units being
 used to  provide   pure  process  water  for  several  industries.
 Despite  the many types and configurations of membranes,  only the
 spiral-wound  cellulose  acetate  membrane  has  had   widespread
 success in commercial applications.

 25.   Sludge Bed Drying

 As  a waste treatment  procedure,  sludge bed drying is employed  to
 reduce  the  water  content  of  a variety of sludges to the point
 where they are amenable to mechanical  collection and removal  to a
 landfill.   These  beds usually consist  of 15 to 45  cm  (6   to  18
 in.)   of  sand over a  30 cm-(12 in. )<  deep gravel drain system  made
 up  of 3  to 6  mm (1/8  to 1/4 in.)  graded  gravel  overlying   drain
 tiles.   Figure VII-32 shows the  construction of a drying  bed.

 Drying  beds   are  usually  divided  into sectional  areas  approxi-
 mately 7.5 meters (25 ft)  wide x  30,  to 60 meters (100 to  200   ft)
 long.    The  partitions may be  earth  embankments,  but  more often
 are  made  of planks and  supporting grooved posts.

 To  apply  liquid sludge  to  the sand bed,  a  closed  conduit  or  a
 pressure  pipeline with  valved outlets  at each  sand  bed  section  is
 often  employed.   Another  method  of  application is  by means of  an
 open  channel  with appropriately placed side  openings  which  are
 controlled by  slide gates.   With either type  of delivery system,
 a concrete splash slab  should be  provided to receive  the  falling
 sludge and prevent erosion  of  the sand surface.

Where   it   is necessary to  dewater sludge continuously  throughout
 the year  regardless of  the  weather,  sludge  beds  may  be  covered
with   a   fiberglass  reinforced   plastic or other  roof.  Covered
drying beds permit  a greater  volume  of  sludge  drying  per year   in
most   climates  because of   the  prptection  afforded  from rain  or
snow  and   because  of   more   efficient   control   of   temperature.
                               766

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 Depending on the climate, a combination of open and enclosed beds
 will provide maximum utilization of the sludge bed drying facili-
 C. .L ^Jo •

 Application  and  Performance.   Sludge drying beds are a means of
 dewatering sludge  from  clarifiers  and  thickeners.    They  are
 widely  used  both  in municipal and industrial treatment facili-
 ties .

 Dewatering of sludge on sand beds occurs by two mechanisms:   fil-
 tration of water through the bed and evaporation of  water  as  a
 result of radiation and convection.   Filtration is generally com-
 P  u®  uin °"e to two days and may res"lt in solids concentrations
 as high as 15 to 20 percent.  The rate of filtration  depends  on
 the drainability of the sludge.            .

 The rate of air  drying of sludge is  related to temperature,  rela-
 tive  humidity,   and air velocity.   Evaporation will proceed at a
 constant rate to a critical  moisture content,  then at   a  falling
 rate to an equilibrium moisture  content.   The average  evaporation
 rate  for  a sludge is about  75  percent of that from a free  water
 surface.

 Advantages and Limitations.   The main  advantage of sludge drying
 beds  over other types of sludge dewatering is the relatively low
 cost of construction,  operation,  and maintenance.

 Its  disadvantages  are  the large  area of land   required  and   long
 drying  times that depend,  to a  great extent,  on  climate and
 weather.

 Operational  Factors.    Reliability:    Reliability   is   high   with
 favorable  climatic conditions,  proper   bed  design,  and care  to
 avoid  excessive  or  unequal sludge application.   If  climatic   con-
 ditions  in  a given area  are  not  favorable for  adequate dryinq   a
 cover  may be  necessary.

 Maintainability:    Maintenance   consists   basically  of  periodic
 removal   of   the  dried sludge.   Sand  removed  from  the drying bed
 with the  sludge must be replaced and the sand  layer  resurfaced.

 The  resurfacing of  sludge beds   is   the  major  expense  item   in
 sludge  bed  maintenance,  but   there   are  other areas which may
 require attention.  Underdrains occasionally become  clogged  and
 have to be cleaned.  Valves or sludge gates that control  the flow
 of   sludge  to  the  beds must be kept watertight.   Provision for
 drainage  of lines in winter should be provided to prevent  damaae
 from  freezing.   The  partitions between beds should  be  tight so
 that sludge will not flow from one compartment to  another    The
outer walls or banks around the beds should also be watertight
                               767

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Solid  Waste  Aspects:  The full sludge drying bed must either be
abandoned or the collected solids must be removed to a  landfill.
These  solids  contain  whatever  metals  or other materials were
settled in the clarifier.  Metals will be present as  hydroxides,
oxides,  sulfides,  or  other salts.  They have the potential for
leaching and contaminating ground water, whatever the location of
the semidried solids.  Thus the abandoned bed or landfill  should
include provision for runoff control and leachate monitoring.

Demonstration  Status.   Sludge  beds  have been in common use in
both municipal and industrial facilities for  many  years.   How-
ever, protection of ground water from contamination is not alwciys
adequate.                         i

26.  Ultrafiltration              :

Ultrafiltration (UF)  is a process [which uses semipermeable  poly-
meric  membranes  to  separate  emulsified or colloidal materials
suspended in a liquid phase by pressurizing the liquid so that it
permeates the membrane.  The membrane of an ultrafilter  forms   a
molecular screen which retains molecular particles based on their
differences in size,  shape, and chemical structure.  The membrane
permits passage of solvents and lower molecular weight molecules.
At  present, an ultrafilter is capable of removing materials with
molecular weights in  the range of 1,000 to 100,000 and  particles
of comparable or  larger sizes.

In  an  ultrafiltration  process,   the  feed  solution  is pumped
through a tubular membrane unit.  Iwater and  some  low  molecular
weight  materials  pass  through  the  membrane under the applied
pressure of 10 to 100 psig.  Emulsified  oil  droplets  and  sus-
pended particles  are  retained, concentrated, and removed continu-
ously.   In  contrast  to ordinary  filtration, retained materials
are washed off the  membrane  filter  rather  than  held  by   it.
Figures VII-29 and VII-34 represent the ultrafiltration process.

Application   and  Performance.   Ultrafiltration  has  potential
application to aluminum  forming plants  for separation of oils  and
residual solids from  a variety of   waste  streams.   In  treating
aluminum  forming wastewater, its ^greatest applicability would be
as a polishing treatment to remove  residual  precipitated  metals
after   chemical  precipitation  and  clarification.   Successful
commercial use, however, has been,  primarily  for  separation  of
emulsified oils from  wastewater.  Over  one hundred such units  now
operate  in  the  United  States, treating emulsified oils from  a
variety of  industrial processes.  Capacities of  currently   oper-
ating  units  range   from  a few hundred gallons a week to 50,000
gallons per day.  Concentration of  oily emulsions  to  60  percent
oil or more are possible.  Oil  concentrates of 40  percent or more
are  generally suitable  for  incineration, and the  permeate can be
                                768

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treated further and  in some cases recycled  back  to   the  process.
In this way,  it is possible to eliminate  contractor  removal  costs
for oil from  some oily waste streams.

Table  VII-28  indicates ultrafiltration performance  (note that UF
is  not   intended  to  remove  dissolved  solids).   The  removal
percentages   shown   are typical, but they can be  influenced  by pH
and  other  conditions.   The  permeate   or  effluent  from   the
ultrafiltration  unit is normally of a quality that  can be reused
in  industrial  applications   or   discharged    directly.    The
concentrate   from  the ultrafiltration unit can be disposed  of as
any oily  or solid waste.

Advantages and  Limitations.   Ultrafiltration   is   sometimes  an
attractive  alternative  to  chemical  treatment  because of  lower
capital equipment, installation, and operating costs,  very  high
oil  and  suspended  solids removal, and little required pretreat-
ment.  It  places  a positive  barrier   between  pollutants  and
effluent  which  reduces  the  possibility of extensive pollutant
discharge due to operator error or upset  in settling and skimming
systems.  Alkaline values in alkaline cleaning solutions  can  be
recovered and reused in the process.

A   limitation   of  ultrafiltration  for  treatment  of  process
effluents is  its narrow temperature  range  (18°C  to  30°C)  for
satisfactory  operation.   Membrane  life  decreases  with higher
temperatures,  but   flux  increases  at  elevated    temperatures.
Therefore,  surface  area requirements are a function of tempera-
ture and become a tradeoff between initial costs  and  replacement
costs  for  the  membrane.   In  addition, ultrafiltration cannot
handle certain solutions.   Strong oxidizing agents,  solvents, and
other organic compounds can dissolve the  membrane.   Fouling  is
sometimes a problem, although the high velocity of the wastewater
normally  creates enough turbulence to keep fouling  at a minimum.
Large solids particles can sometimes puncture  the  membrane  and
must  be  removed  by gravity settling or filtration prior to the
ultrafiltration unit.

Operational  Factors.   Reliability:   The  reliaiblity   of   an
ultrafiltration  system  is  dependent  on the proper filtration,
settling,  or other treatment of incoming waste streams to prevent
damage to the membrane.   Careful pilot studies should be done  in
each  instance  to determine necessary pretreatment steps and the
exact membrane type  to be used.   It is advisable  to  remove  any
free,   floating  oil prior to ultrafiltration.   Although free oil
can be processed,  membrane performance may deteriorate.

Maintainability:  A  limited  amount  of  regular  maintenance  is
required  for the pumping system.   In addition,  membranes must be
periodically  changed.    Maintenance  associated  with   membrane
                               769

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plugging  can  be reduced by selection of a membrane with  optimum
physical characteristics and sufficient  velocity  of   the  waste
stream.   It  is  occassionally  necesary  to  pass  a   detergent
solution occasionally through the system to  remove  an oil  and
grease  film  which  accumulates  on  the  membrane.  With proper
maintenance, membrane life can be (greater than 12 months.

Solid  Waste  Aspects:   Ultrafiltration  is  used  primarily   to
recover  solids and liquids.  It therefore eliminates solid waste
problems when the solids (e.g., paint solids) can be recycled   to
the  process.   Otherwise,  the  stream containing solids  must be
treated by end-of-pipe equipment, j  In the most probable applica-
tions within the aluminum forming category, the  ultrafilter would
remove  concentrated oily wastes which can be recovered for reuse
or used as a fuel.

Demonstration  Status.   The  ultraf iltration  process   is  we'll
developed  and commercially available for treatment of  wastewater
or recovery of certain high molecular  weight  liquid   and  solid
contaminants.   Currently,  one  pliant  in  the  aluminum  forming
category uses ultraf iltration.  Thjis plant ultrafilters its spent
rolling  oils.   Ultrafiltration  is  well  suited   for   highly
concentrated emulsions (e.g., rolling and drawing oils), although
it is not suitable for free oil.

27.  Vacuum Filtration
     ..-ujin_.m__.-.i .   rj-ji.M.r.--ULjri-"iw.nj.-ijii.-i T".- LT.-.T :i_- vj_i            (

In wastewater treatment plants, sludge dewatering by vacuum fil-
tration  generally  uses  cylindrical  drum filters.  These drums
have a filter medium which may be cloth made of  natural or syn-
thetic fibers or a wire-mesh fabri|c.  The drum is suspended above
and  dips into a vat of sludge.  As the drum rotates slowly, part
of its circumference is subject to!  an internal vacuum that  draws
sludge  to  the filter medium.  Waiter is drawn through  the porous
filter cake through the drum fabric to a discharge port, and  the
dewatered sludge, loosened by compressed air, is scraped from  the
filter  mesh.  Because the dewatering of sludge  on vacuum  filters
is relatively expensive per kilogram of water removed,  the liquid
sludge is frequently thickened prior  to  processing.    A   vacuum
filter is shown in Figure VII-30.

Application  and Performance.  Vacuum filters are frequently used
both in municipal treatment plants,  and  in  a   wide  variety   of
industries.   They  are  most commonly used in larger facilities,
which may have a thickener to double the solids  content of clari-
fier sludge before vacuum filtering.  Often a precoat is used   to
inhibit filter blinding.
                                770

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The  function of vacuum filtration  is to reduce  the water  content
of sludge, so that the solids  content  increases  from  about  5
percent to between 20 and 30 percent.

Advantages  and  Limitations.  Although the  initial cost and area
requirement of the vacuum filtration system  are  higher than those
of a centrifuge, the operating cost  is  lower,  and  no   special
provisions  for sound and vibration protection need be made.  The
dewatered sludge from this process  is in the form of a moist cake
and can be conveniently handled.

Operational Factors.  Reliability:  Vacuum   filter  systems  have
proven  reliable  at  many  industrial  and  municipal  treatment
facilities.  At present, the largest municipal installation is at
the  West  Southwest  wastewater  treatment  plant  of   Chicago
Illinois,   where  96  large  filters  were  installed  in  192s'
functioned approximately 25 years, and then  were  replaced  with
larger  units.  Original  vacuum filters at Minneapolis-St. Paul
Minnesota now have over  28  years  of  continuous  service,  and
Chicago has some units with similar or greater service life.
                                                the  cleaning  or
                                               ,  drainage piping,
                                                Experience  in  a
                                                that  maintenance
                                                total  time.   If
                                               ly severe, mainte-
                                               this reason, it is
Maintainability:    Maintenance    consists   of
replacement of  the  filter media,  drainage grids
filter pans, and other parts  of  the equipment.
number   of  vacuum  filter   plants   indicates
consumes approximately 5 to  15 percent of   the
carbonate buildup or  other problems are unusual
nance  time may be  as high as 20  percent.   For
desirable to maintain one or  more spare units.

If  intermittent operation is  used, the filter equipment should be
drained and washed  each time  it  is  taken   out  of  service.   An
allowance for this  wash time  must  be made in filtering schedules.

Solid  Waste Aspects:  Vacuum filters generate a solid cake which
is  usually trucked  directly   to   landfill.   All  of  the  metals
extracted  from the  plant   wastewater  are  concentrated in the
filter cake as  hydroxides, oxides, sulfides, or other salts.

Demonstration Status.  Vacuum filtration has been widely used for
many years.  It is  a  fully proven,  conventional  technology  for
sludge  dewatering.   At least nine aluminum forming plants report
the use of vacuum filtration  to dewater their sludge.

IN-PLANT TECHNOLOGY                                       '-

The intent of in-plant technology for the aluminum forming  point
source  category is to reduce or eliminate the wa^ste load requir-
ing end-of-pipe treatment and thereby improve the.  efficiency  of
an  existing  wastewater  treatment system or reduce the require-
                               771

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merits of a new treatment system.   In-plant  technology  involves
improved  rinsing, water conservation, process bath conservation,
reduction of dragout, automatic controls, good housekeeping prac-
tices, recovery and reuse of process solutions, process modifica-
tion,  and  waste  treatment.   Specific  in-plant   technologies
applicable to this category are discussed below.
                                i
28.  Process Water Recycle      |

Recycling of process water is the practice of recirculating water
to be used again for the same purpose.  An example  of  recycling
process  water  is the return of casting contact  cooling water to
the casting process after the  water  passes  through  a   cooling
tower.   Two  types of recycle are possible—recycle with  a bleed
stream (blowdown) and total recycle.  Total recycle may  be  pro-
hibited  by  the  presence of dissolved solids.   Dissolved solids
(e.g., sulfates and chlorides) entering a totally recycled waste
stream may precipitate, forming scale if the solubility limits of
the  dissolved solids are exceeded.  A bleed stream may be neces-
sary to prevent maintenance problems  (pipe plugging  or  scaling,
etc.)  that  would  be  created by the precipitation of dissolved
solids.  While the volume of bleed required is  a  function  of  the
amount  of  dissolved  solids in the waste stream, 4 or 5  percent
bleed is a common value for a variety of process  waste streams in
the aluminum forming category.  The recycle of  process  water  is
currently  practiced  where  it , is  cost  effective, where  it is
necessary due to water shortage, or where  the   local  permitting
authority  has  required   it.   Recycle, as compared to the once-
through use of process water, is an effective method of  conserv-
ing water.                      ;

Application  and  Performance.   Required  hardware  necessary for
recycle is highly site-specific.;  Basic  items  include  pumps  and
piping.   Additional  materials  are  necessary  if water treatment
occurs before the water  is recycled.  These  items will  be  dis-
cussed  separately   with   each  iunit  process.    Chemicals may be
necessary to control scale buildup, slime,  and  corrosion  prob-
lems,  especially  with   recycled cooling water.  Maintenance and
energy use are  limited  to that  required  by  the  pumps,   and  solid
waste generation  is dependent  oin the  type  of  treatment system  in
place.

Recycling through  cooling towers^  is   the most   common  practice.
One   type of application  is  shown  in  Figure  VI1-36.   Direct  chill
casting cooling water  is  recycled through a  cooling  tower  with   a
blowdown discharge.             :

A  cooling   tower  is   a  device which cools  water by bringing  the
water into  contact   with   air.  :  The   water   and  air   flows  are
directed   in such a  way as to  provide maximum heat  transfer.   The
                                772

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heat is transferred to air primarily  by  evaporation   (about  75
percent),  while the remainder is removed by sensible heat trans-
fer.

Factors influencing the rate of heat  transfer  and,  ultimately,
the  temperature  range of the tower, include water surface area,
tower packing and configuration, air flow, and packing  height.  A
large water surface area promotes evaporation, and sensible  heat
transfer  rates are lower in proportion to the water surface area
provided.  Packing (an  internal  latticework  contact  area)  is
often  used  to  produce  small droplets of water which evaporate
more easily, thus increasing the total surface area per  unit  of
throughput.   For  a  given  water  flow, increasing the air flow
increases the  amount  of  heat  removed  by •maintaining  higher
thermodynamic potentials.  The packing height in the tower should
be  high  enough  so  that  the air leaving the tower is close to
saturation.

A mechanical-draft cooling tower consists of the following  major
components:

     (1)  Inlet-water distributor
     (2)  Packing
     (3)  Air fans                          :
     (4)  Inlet-air louvers
     (5)  Drift or carryover eliminators
     (6)  Cooled water storage basin.

Advantages  and  Limitations.  Recycle offers economic  as well as
environmental  advantages.   Water  consumption  is  reduced  and
wastewater  handling  facilities (pumps, pipes, clarifiers, etc.)
can thus be sized for smaller flows.  By concentrating  the pollu-
tants in a  much  smaller  volume   (the  bleed  stream),  greater
removal  efficiencies  can  be  attained by any applied treatment
technologies.   Recycle  may  require  some  treatment  /such   as
sedimentation or cooling of water before it is reused.

The  ultimate benefit of recycling process water is the reduction1
in total wastewater discharge and the  associated  advantages  of
lower  flow  streams.   A potential problem is the buildup of dis-
solved solids which could result in scaling.  Scaling can usually
be controlled by depressing the pH and increasing the bleed flow.

Operational Factors.   Reliability and  Maintainability:  Although
the principal construction material in mechanical-draft towers is
wood,  other  materials  are used extensively.   For long life and
minimum maintenance,  wood is generally  pressure-treated  with  a
preservative.   Although  the  tower structure is usually made of
treated redwood, a reasonable amount of treated fir has been used
in recent years.  Sheathing and louvers  are  generally  made  of
                               773

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asbestos  cement,  and  the fan stacks of fiberglass.  There is a
trend to use fire-resistant  extracted  PVC  as  fill  which,  at
little  or no increase in cost, offers the advantage of permanent
fire-resistant properties.      :

The major disadvantages of wood are its susceptibility  to  decay
and  fire.   Steel  construction|is occasionally used, but not to
any great extent.  Concrete may be used but has  relatively  high
construction labor costs, although it does offer the advantage of
fire protection.

Various  chemical  additives are used in cooling water systems to
control scale, slime,  and  corrosion.   The  chemical  additives
needed  depend  on the character of the make-up water.  All addi-
tives have definite limitations and cannot eliminate the need for
blowdown.  Care should be taken in selecting nontoxic or  readily
degraded additives, if possible.

Solid  Waste Aspects:  The only solid waste associated with cool-
ing towers may be removed scale. ••

Demonstration Status.  Many different types  of
      	                             streams  in  the
forming category are currently recycled.  The degree of
                                                     in
aluminum
recycle of these streams is 50 percent or more, most commonly
the  96 to TOO percent range as shown in the water use and waste-
water tables in Section V (Tables V-64 and 65, pp.  404  and  406
respectively).   Recycling  process waters is a viable option for
many aluminum forming process wastewaters as shown by the current
practices in the industry.  This can be  seen  by  examining  the
amount of recycle in place for two major streams.

The  direct  chill casting contact cooling water stream is repre-
sentative of cooling water streams.  Of the 61 plants  with  this
stream,  31  recycle  more than 96 percent of the flow used, nine
recycle between 90 and 96 percent of  the  flow  used,  and  four
plants  recycle  less than 90 percent of the flow.  The remainder
of the plants with direct chill casting either  did  not  recycle
the  cooling  water used, or did not supply enough data to calcu-
late the amount recycled.  Several of the  plants  recycling  the
cooling  water stream use cooling towers and in-line oil skimming
devices.                        i
                                i
All of the plants that use hot rcblling  oil  emulsions  and  that
gave  enough  information  to  calculate discharge rates reported
using recycle of the emulsion with either a bleed stream or peri-
odic discharge.  The recycled flow would often pass  through  in-
line  filters  to  prevent the buildup of solids.  Settling tanks
and oil skimming devices were also used  to  separate  spent  and
tramp oils from the emulsion.
                               774

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 |rLg?s;n^°aT^9or^r^-fr^^i??tybeor^^?dniseLaar;
 •tch'iSE.1  inca°In-neai?ng o^SSS.w^rLf^JStn^fSSlnSi
 tne  low water quality necessary as make-up water.  Foraina
 uion neat treatment contact ronlinn u/at-av-o ^^^ u^,	?_j
 manner
 29.   Process Water Reuse
                      n-H
 production process.   An example is the reuse of the  rinse  water
 SrS.'011 "' Clea"in9 aS •*-»*™«?%


                                             -r
        through a  cooling  tower  and  an  oil   ikimming  device
        Haifminur- Plant(s>  re"se the contact  coolTng wateTfrom
       chill casting in their reduction scrubbers.
 Neat oil rolling,  emulsion rolling, drawing,  and forging solution
       -
                            ,                              ry
cautic  and   «r-      K  n  cleanin<3  or etching rinses following
S^JiLi-   i  f?ldlc  baths,  as  casting  cooling  water,   heat
treatment solution contact cooling water,  or die cleaning rinsls.

Advantages and  Limitations.  Advantages of reuse are similar to
the advantages of recycle.   Water  consumption  is  ?e^ced  and
wastewater treatment  facilities can be sized for smalle? flows
           Fact°rs.   The hardware necessary for reuse of process
wastewaters varies, depending on the specific  application    The
   '                          and pi^'  CheSi«l  addUion iS
                             treatment   is  required prior  to
bv th  numn                   y use are lilted to that^equired
by the  pumps.  Solid  waste generated is dependent upon the  type
                             775

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of treatment used and will be discussed separately with each unit
process.

30.  Countercurrent Cascade Rinsing

Rinsing is used  to  dilute  the  concentration  of  contaminants
adhering  to  the  surface  of a workpiece to an acceptable  level
before the workpiece passes on to the next step in  the  cleaning
or etching operation.  The amount of water required to dilute the
?inle  solution  depends on the qukntity of  chemical drag-in from
the upstream rinse or cleaning or | etching   tank   the  allowable
concentration of chemicals in the frinse water, and the contacting
efficiency between the workpiece and the water.

Process   variations  such  as  countercurrent cascade rinsing may
cause I decrease in process water use.   This ^technique   reduces
water   use by multiple stage rinsing with  a  water  flow counter  to
the movement of  the workpiece.  Clean water  contacts the  aluminum
in the  last rinse  stage.   The water, somewhat more contaminated,
is routed  stage  by stage up the [rinsing  line.  After use in  the
first rinse  stage,  the   contaminated  water   is  discharged   to
treatment.                        :

As an   example,   Figure   VII-37  illustrates three rinsing opera-
tions'?  eSch designed  to remove  the  residual  acid in  the  water   on
the   su?fSce   of  a workpiece.    In  Figure VII-37a  the Piece is
dipped  into one tank with continuously flowing   water.    In  this
 case,   the  acid  on   the surface:of the  workpiece is  essentially
 diluted to the required level.
                                  j
 In Figure VII-37b, the first step'towards  countercurrent  opera-
 tion   is taken with the addition of a second tank.  The workpiece
 is now moving in a direction opposite to the  rinse  water.   The
 niece  is rinsed with fresh makeup water prior to moving down the
 IsSSmbly line   However,  the fresh water from  this  final  rinse
 tank  is  directed to a second tank, where  it meets the incoming,
 more-contaminated workpiece.  Fresh makeup water is used to  give
 a  final  rinse to the article before it moves out of the rinsing
 section  but the slightly contaminated water is reused  to  clean
 the  article just coming  into the! rinsing section.  By increasing
 Ihe number of stages, aS  shown in! Figure VII-37c,  further  water
 reduction  can  be  achieved.  Theoretically, the amount of water
 required is the amount of  acid  being  removed  by  single-stage
 requirements  divided  by  the highest tolerable  concentration  in
 the outgoing rinsewater.  This theoretical'reduction of water   by
 a countercurrent multistage operation is  shown  in the curve graph
 in  Figure  VI1-38.   The actual   flow   reduction  obtained  is a
 function of the dragout  and the type of contact occurring  in_  the
 tanks.   If reasonably good contact  is maintained  major  reductions
 in water use are  possible.
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Application  and   Performance.   As  mentioned  above,  rinse  water
requirements and  the benefits of countercurrent  rinsing  may   be
influenced  by  the  volume of  solution dragout carried into each
rinse stage by the material being  rinsed,  by  the number of   rinse
stages  used,  by the  initial  concentrations of impurities  being
removed, and by the  final  product  cleanliness  required.    The
influence  of  these factors is expressed  in  the rinsing equation
which may be stated simply as:

     Vr = Co Vn  x VD
          Cf

     Vr is the flow through each rinse stage.
     Co is the concentration of the contaminant(s)  in  the initial
        process bath.
     Cf is the concentration of the contaminant(s)  in  the final
        rinse to  give acceptable product cleanliness.
      n is the number of rinse  stages employed.
     VD is the dragout  carried  into each rinse  stage,  expressed
        as a flow.

For a multi-stage rinse, the total volume  of  rinse  wastewater   is
equal  to  n  times Vr  while for a countercurrent rinse the  total
volume of wastewater discharge  equals Vr.

To calculate the  benefits of countercurrent rinsing for  aluminum
forming,  it  can be   assumed  that  a  two-stage  countercurrent
cascade  rinse  is  installed   after  the  cleaning  or   etching
operations.   The mass  of aluminum in one square meter of  sheet
that is 6 mm (0.006 m)  in thickness can be calculated  using   the
density of aluminum,  2.64 kkg/m3 (165 Ib/cu ft), as follows:

          (0.006  m) x (2.64 kkg/m3) « 0.016 kkg/m2 of  sheet


Using the mean cleaning or etching rinse water  use from Table  V-
51 (p. 324), Vr can then be calculated as  follows:

     Vr = 0.016 kkg/m2  x 32,380 1/kkg •- 518.1 1/m2 of  sheet

Drag-out  is  solution  which   remains on  the surface  of material
being rinsed when  it is removed from  process   baths   or  rinses.
Without  specific  plant data available to determine drag-out,  an
estimate of rinse water reduction to be achieved  with  two-stage
countercurrent rinsing  can be made by assuming  a thickness of  any
process  solution  film  as it  is introduced  into the  rinse  tank.
If the film on a  piece of aluminum sheet is 0.015  mm  (0.6  mil)
thick,  (equivalent  to  the  film  on  a  well-drained  vertical
surface) then the volume of process solution,  VD,  carried  into
the rinse tank on one square meter of sheet will be:
                               777

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     VD = (0.015 mm)  x
1    m/mm x (1000 1/m3)
                        1000

           0.015 1/m2 of sheet
     Let r = Co, then r 1/r\ = Vr
             Cf               VD  ;

For single stage rinsing n = 1,  therefore r =Vr
                                              VD

and r =518.1 = 34,540
       0.015

For  a 2-stage countercurrent cascade rinse to obtain the same r,
that is the same product cleanliness,
                                  I
     Vr = r V2, therefore   Vr = 185.8
     VD                      VD   i

But VD = 0.015 1/m2 of sheet; therefore, for 2-stage
countercurrent cascade rinsing, Vr is:
                                  i
     Vr = 185.8 x 0.015 = 2.79 1/m2 of sheet

In this theoretical calculation, a. flow reduction of 99.5 percent
can be achieved.   The  actual  numbers  may  vary  depending  on
efficiency  of  squeegees  or  air  knives,  and  the rinse ratio
desired.

Advantages  and Limitations.  Significant flow reductions  can  be
achieved  by  the addition of only one other stage  in the rinsing
operation,  as discussed above.  As! shown   in  Figure  VI1-38   the
largest  reductions  are  made  by  adding  the first few stages.
Additional  rinsing stages  cost  additional  money.   The  actual
number  of  stages added depends on| site-specific  layout  and oper-
ating conditions.  With higher costs  for water and  waste  treat-
ment,  more stages  might   be  economical.   With  very  low water
costs, fewer stages would be economical.   In considering retrofit
applications, the space available for additional  tanks  is  also
important.   Many  other  factors i will  affect   the economics of
countercurrent  cascade rinsing; an| evaluation must  be   done   for
each  individual plant.

Operational Factors.   If   the  flow  from stage to stage can be
effected by gravity, either  by raising   the   latter rinse  stage
tanks  or   by   varying the height !of  the overflow weirs, counter-
current cascade rinsing is usually quite economical.   If, on   the
                                778

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    uJ hand/  PumPs and level controls must be used, then another
 method,  such as spray rinsing, may be more feasible.

 Another  factor is the need for agitation, which will reduce short
 circuiting of the flow.  Large amounts of  short  circuiting  can
 reduce  the  flow  reduction  attained by adding more stages.  In
 cases where water is cascading  in  enormous  quantities  over  a
 workpiece,  the  high flow usually provides enough agitation   As
 more staging is applied to reduce the amount of water,  the  point
 will  be reached where the flow of the water itself is  not suffi-
 cient to provide agitation.    This  necessitates  either  careful
 battling of the tanks or additional mechanical agitation.

 Demonstration  Status.    Countercurrent  cascade rinsing has been
 widely used as a flow reduction technique in the metal   finishing
 industry.    In aluminum conversion coating lines that are subject
 to  the coil coating limitations,  countercurrent  cascade  rinsing
 is   currently  used  in  order  to  reduce  costs  of  wastewater
 treatment   systems   (through   smaller   systems)    for   direct
 dischargers and to reduce sewer costs for indirect dischargers.

 Countercurrent  cascade  rinsing   is  currently  practiced at two
 aluminum forming plants.    In  addition,   although  not  strictly
 countercurrent  rinsing,  two plants reuse the  rinse water  follow-
 ing  one  etch bath for the rinse of a preceding  bath.    Based on
 ?u!?t  visits  to  28 aluminum forming sites,  the Agency believes
 that there is enough  available floorspace for  the installation of
 countercurrent cascade  rinsing technology at existing sources.

 31 *  Regeneration of_  Chemical  Baths

 Regeneration of  chemical  baths is  used to remove  contaminants and
 recover  and reuse the bath chemicals,  thus minimizing the   chemi-
 cal  requirements  of the bath  while achieving zero discharge.

 Application  and   Performance.   Chemical   bath   regeneration is
 applicable  to recover and reuse chemicals  associated  with  caustic
 cleaning or etching   baths,   sulfuric   acid  etching,   conversion
 coating  or  anodizing  baths,  chromic   acid  etching,  conversion
 coating or  anodizing  baths, and alkaline  cleaning baths.

 Some metal  salts  can  be precipitated out   of   chemical   baths  by
 applying  a  temperature  change   or shift  to  the bath.   Once  the
metal salts  are precipitated out of solution the  chemical  prop-
 erties  and   utility  of  the  bath  can then be restored  by adding
 fresh chemicals.  The addition of  lime may aid  in  precipitating
dissolved metals  by forming carbonates.

Ultrafiltration,  previously  discussed   in  this section, can be
used to remove  oils  and  participates  from  alkaline, cleaning
                               779

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baths, allowing the recovery of the water and alkali values to be
reused  in  the  .make-up  of  fresh  bath rather than treated and
discharged.

Ultrafiltration membranes allow only low molecular weight solutes
and water to pass through and return to  the  bath;  particulates
and oils are held back in a concentrated phase.  The concentrated
material is then disposed of separately as a solid waste.
Advantages
are:  (1)
water; {2)
efficient
strength;
with  the
chemicals
  and Limitations.  The advantages of bath regeneration
'it reduces the volume of discharge of the chemical bath
 the cleaning  or  etching  operations  are  made  more
 because  the bath can be kept at a relatively constant
(3) it results in reduced maintenance labor  associated
 bath;  and  (4) it reduces chemical costs by recovering
and increasing bath life.
Operational Factors.  Reliability and  Maintainability:  Chemical
bath  regeneration results in lower maintenance  labor because  the
bath life is extended.  Regeneration also  increases  the  process
reliability in that  it eliminates extended periods of downtime to
dump the entire bath solution.

It  may be necessary to allow baths normally operated at elevated
temperatures to cool prior to regeneration.  As  an   example,   hot
detergent  baths  will require  cooling prior to  introducing mate-
rial into the ultrafiltration membrane.

Solid Waste Aspects:  Regeneration of caustic  detergent  chromic
acid and sulfuric acid baths results in  the formation of precipi-
tates.   These  precipitates  ar
-------
num forming plants using ultrafiltration to recover spent  lubri-
cant.   Performance  data for these two systems is shown in Table
VI1-2.  Since alkaline cleaning baths are used  to  remove  these
lubricants from the aluminum surface prior to further processing,
it  is  reasonable to assume that ultrafiltration will be equally
applicable for separating these  same  lubricants  from  alkaline
cleaning baths.

32.  Process Water Use Reduction

Process water use reduction is the decrease in the amount of pro-
cess water used as an influent to a production process  per  unit
of  production.  Section V discusses water use in detail for each
aluminum forming operation.  A range of water  use  values  taken
from  the data collection portfolios is presented for each opera-
tion.  The range of values indicates that some plants use process
water more  efficiently  than  others  for  the  same  operation.
Therefore, some plants can curb their water use; in some cases  it
may  be as simple as turning down a few valves.  Noncontact cool-
ing water may replace contact cooling water in some applications;
air cooling may also be an alternative to contact cooling  water.
Conversion  to  dry  air  pollution  control equipment, discussed
further on in this section, is another way to reduce water use.

Many production units in aluminum forming plants  operate  inter-
mittently or at widely varying production rates.  The practice  of
shutting  off  process water streams during periods when the unit
is inoperative and of adjusting flow rates during periods of  low
activity  can  prevent  much  unnecessary  dilution of wastes and
reduce the volume of water to be treated and  discharged.   Water
may  be  shut  off and adjusted manually or through automatically
controlled valves.  Manual adjustment  involves  minimal  capital
cost  and  can be just as reliable in actual practice.  Automatic
shut off valves are used in some aluminum forming  operations   to
turn  off  water flows when production units are inactive.  Auto-
matic adjustment of flow rates  according  to  production  levels
requires more sophisticated control systems incorporating temper-
ature  or  conductivity  sensors.  Further reduction  in water use
may  be made possible by  changes  in  production  techniques  and
equipment.

The  potential for reducing the water use at many aluminum forming
facilities  is  evident  in the water use and discharge data pre-
sented in Section V of this report.  While it may be  argued  that
variations in water flow per unit of production are the necessary
result  of variations in process conditions, on-site  observations
indicate that they are more frequently the  result  of  imprecise
control  of  water  use.  This is confirmed by analysis data from
cleaning and etching rinses which show a very wide range  of  the
                                781

-------

concentrations of  materials  removed  from product  surfaces,  and  by
on-site  temperature  observations  in  contact  cooling  streams.

Reduction  of water  use  in quenches  may also significantly  reduce
discharge volumes.   Design of  spray  quenches  to   ensure  that   a
high percentage of the water contacts  the product and  adjustments
of  make-up  water •  flow rates on quench baths and  recirculating
spray quench systems to  the  minimum  practical  value  can  signifi-
cantly reduce effluent volumes.

Pollutant  discharges from  cleaning  and etching operations may
also be  controlled through the use of  drag-out   reduction   tech-
nologies.   The  volume  of water  used  and discharged from rinsing
operations may be  substantially reduced without adversely affect-
ing the  surface condition of the  product  processed.   Available
technologies to achieve  these  reductions include  techniques  which
limit  the amount  of material  to  be  removed  from  product surfaces
by rinsing.

On automatic  lines   which   continuously  process strip  through
cleaning  and  etching operations, measures  are normally taken  to
reduce the amount  of process bath ;solutions  which are  dragged out
with the product into subsequent  rinses.  The  most commonly  used
means of accomplishing this  are through the  use of squeegee  rolls
and  air knives.   Both mechanisms are  found  at the point at  which
the strip exits from the process  bath.  Squeegee  rolls, one  situ-
ated above the strip and another  below, return process  solutions
as  they  apply pressure to  both  s;ides of the  continuously moving
strip.  Air knives continuously force  a jet  of   air   across  the
width  of  each side of  the  strip,; forcing solutions to remain  in
the process tank or  chamber.   These  methods   are also  used   to
reduce  drag-out   from   soap  and other lubricant tanks which are
often found as a final step  in automatic strip lines.

Heating the tank containing  the process bath can  also  help reduce
drag-out of process  solutions  in  two  ways:    by   decreasing  the
viscosity  and the surface tension; of  the solution.  A lower vis-
cosity allows the  liquid to  flow more rapidly  and therefore drain
at a faster rate from the  product'  following  application   in  a
process  bath,   thereby  reducing  the amount  of  process solution
which dragged out  into succeeding j rinses.    Likewise,  a  higher
temperature will result  in lower sbrface tension  in  the solution.
The  amount  of  work  required   tb  overcome  the adhesive force
between a liquid film and a  solid surface is a  function  of  the
surface  tension  of  the liquid and the contact  angle.  Lowering
the surface tension  reduces  the amount of work required to remote
the liquid and reduces   the  edge  effect  (the   bead  of  liquid
adhering to the edges of a product).
                               782

-------
 Operator   performance  can  have a substantial  effect on the amount
 of  drag-out  which  results  from manual  dip tank   processes.    Spe-
 cifically,   proper  draining   time  and  techniques  can reduce the
 amount  of  process  solution dragged out into rinses.    After  dip-
 ping  the  material into  the process tank,  drag-out  can be reduced
 significantly  by simply  suspending the product  above the  process
 tank  while  solution drains off.   Fifteen to  20 seconds generally
 seems sufficient to accomplish  this.    When  processing  tubing,
 especially,  lowering  one end of the  load during this drain  time
 allows  solution to run off from inside the tubes.

 All of  the water   use  reduction  techniques  discussed  in  this
 section may  be   used  at aluminum forming plants  to achieve the
 average production normalized  flows at   plants which  presently
 discharge  excessive amounts of wastewater to  treatment.

 33.  Wastewater Segregation

 Application  and Performance.   The segregation  of   process  waste
 streams is  a  valuable control  techology and  may reduce treatment
 costs.   Individual  process   waste streams  may   exhibit    very
 different  chemical  characteristics,  and separating the streams
 may permit applying  the  most effective  method  of   treatment or
 disposal   to  each  stream.    Relatively  clean waters,   such as
 annealing  atmosphere scrubber  liquor,  should  be kept  segregated
 from  contaminated  streams.    Dissimilar  streams   should  not be
 combined;  for  example,   an oily   stream  such  as   direct  chill
 casting contact cooling water  should  not  be  combined with  a  non-
 oily  stream  such  as   cleaning   or   etching  scrubber   liquors.
 Segregation  should  be  based   on   the   type  of treatment to be
 performed  for  a given  pollutant,  avoiding  oversizing of  equipment
 for treating flows unnecessarily.

 Consider two waste streams, one  high in  chromium and  other   dis-
 solved  solids;  the  other,   a   noncontact cooling  water without
 chromium.  Significant advantages  exist  in segregating  these  two
 waste   streams.    If the combined waste  streams are  being treated
 to reduce chromium,  the resulting  high   treatment   cost  will  be
 impractical.    Also, if chromium  removal by lime precipitation is
 being practiced, reduced removal  efficiencies   will   result   from
 combining  the  waste streams due  to dilution of chromium concen-
 tration.   In addition,  recycle of the  noncontact  cooling  water
will  be  made difficult by mixing  the relatively pure noncontact
 cooling water with the high dissolved  solids  stream.   Many   com-
 binations  of waste  streams exist throughout  the aluminum forming
 industry where segregation affords  distinct advantages.

Equipment  necessary  for  wastewater  segregation   may   include
piping,   curbing,   and possibly pumping.  Chemicals are not needed
and maintenance and  energy use is limited to  the pumps.
                               783

-------
Advantages.   The   segregation  i of   stormwater   runoff   from
process-related  streams  can  eliminate overloading of sewer and
treatment  facilities.   Some  plants  located  lower  than   the
surrounding  terrain  have  built!  flood  control  dams at higher
elevations to minimize the  passage  of  stormwater  runoff  onto
plant  property.   The  use  of  curbing  is an excellent control
practice for minimizing the commingling of  runoff  with  process
wastewaters.   Also,  retention ponds should be lined to minimize
infiltration of spring water during periods of local flooding and
exfiltration of the wastewaters to a nearby aquifer.

34.  Lubricating Oil and Deoiling Solvent Recovery

Application and Performance.  The recycle of lubricating oils  is
a  common  practice  in  the  industry.  The degree of recycle is
dependent upon any in-line treatment (e.g., filtration to  remove
aluminum  fines  and  other contaminants), and the useful life of
the specific oil in  its  application.   Usually,  this  involves
continuous  recirculation  of the oil, with losses in the recycle
loop from evaporation, oil carried off by the aluminum, and minor
loses from in-line treatment.  Some plants  periodically  replace
the  entire  batch  of  oil  once  its  required  properties  are
depleted.  In other cases, a continuous bleed or blowdown  stream
of  oil is withdrawn from the recycle loop to maintain a constant
level of oil quality.  Fresh make-up oil is added  to  compensate
for the blowdown and other losses, and in-line filtration is used
between cycles.

Reuse  of  oil  from spent emulsions used in aluminum rolling and
drawing is practiced at some plants.  The free oil  skimmed  from
gravity oil and water separation, following emulsion breaking, is
valuable.   This  free  oil  contains some solids and water which
must be removed before the oil can be  reused.   The  traditional
treatment  involves  acidifying the oil in a heated cooker, using
steam coils or  live steam to heat the  oil  to  a  rolling  boil.
When  the  oil  is sufficiently heated, the steam is shut off and
the oil and water  are  permitted  to  separate.   The  collected
floating  oil   layer  is  suitable for use as supplemental boiler
fuel or for some other type  of  ;in-house  reuse.   Other  plants
choose  to  sell their oily wastes to oil scavengers, rather than
reclaiming the  oil themselves.  The water phase from this  opera-
tion is either  sent to treatment  or,  if of a high enough quality,
it can be recycled and used to make up fresh emulsion.    —

Advantages.   Some  plants  collect  and recycle rolling oils via
mist eliminators.   In the rolling process, oils are sprayed as   a
fine  mist  on  the rollers for cooling and lubricating purposes,
and some of this oil  becomes airborne and may be lost via exhaust
fans or volatilization.  With the rising price  of  oils,   it   is
becoming a more common practice to prevent these losses.  Another
                                784

-------
reason  for using hood and mist eliminators is the improvement in
the working environment.

Demonstration Status  and  Operational  Factors.   Using  organic
solvents to deoil or degrease aluminum is usually performed prior
to  sale or subsequent operations such as coating.  Recycling the
spent solvent can be economically attractive along with its envi-
ronmental advantages.  Some plants (seven out of 30) are known to
use distillation units to reclaim spent  solvent  for  recycling.
Sludges  are normally disposed of by contractor hauling, although
some plants may incinerate this waste.  Of  the  30  plants  cur-
rently  performing aluminum degreasing with organic solvents, two
plants are known to discharge part of their spent solvent and oil
mixtures to a POTW.

35.  Dry Air Pollution Control Devices

Application and  Performance.   The  use  of  dry  air  pollution
control devices would allow the elimination of waste streams with
high  pollution  potentials.  The choice of air pollution control
equipment is complicated, and  sometimes  a  wet  system  is  the
necessary  choice.   The important difference between wet and dry
devices is that wet devices control gaseous pollutants as well as
particulates.

Wet devices may be chosen over dry devices when any of  the  fol-
lowing factors are found:  (1) the particle size is predominantly
under  20  microns,  (2)  flammable  particles or gases are to be
treated at minimal combustion risk, (3) both vapors and particles
are to be removed from the carrier medium, and (4) the gases  are
corrosive and may damage dry air pollution control devices.

Equipment for dry control of air emissions includes cyclones, dry
electrostatic  precipitators,  fabric  filters, and afterburners.
These devices remove  particulate  matter,  the  first  three  by
entrapment and the afterburners by combustion.

Afterburner  use is limited to air emissions consisting mostly of
combustible particles. - Characteristics of the  particulate-laden
gas  which affect the design and use of a device are gas density,
temperature, viscosity,  flammability,  corrosiveness,  toxicity,
humidity,  and  dew  point.   Particulate  characteristics  which
affect the design and use of a device are particle  size,  shape,
density,  resistivity,  concentration,  and  other physiochemical
properties.

Melting prior to casting requires wet air pollution control  only
when  chlorine gas is present in the offgases.  Dry air pollution
control methods with inert gas or salt furnace fluxing have  been
demonstrated  in the industry.  It is possible to perform all the
                               785

-------
metal treatment tasks of removing jhydrogen,  non-metallic  inclu-
sions, and undesirable trace elements and meet the most stringent
quality  requirements without furnace fluxing, using only in-line
metal treatment units.  To achieve this, the molten  aluminum  is
treated  in  the  transfer system ^between the furnace and casting
units by flowing the metal through a region of very fine,  dense,
mixed-gas  bubbles  generated  by a spinning rotor or nozzle.  No
process wastewater is generated in this operation.   A  schematic
diagram depicting the spinning nozzle refining principle is shown
in  Figure VII-39.  Another similar alternate degassing method is
to replace the chlorine-rich degassing agent with  a  mixture  of
inert  gases  and a much lower proportion of chlorine.  The tech-
nique provides adequate degassing while permitting dry scrubbing.

Scrubbers are used in  forging  because  of  the  potential  fire
hazard  of baghouses used in this capacity.  The oily mist gener-
ated in this operation is highly flammable and also tends to plug
and bind fabric filters, reducing jtheir efficiency.

Caustic etch and extrusion die cleaning wet air pollution control
may be necessary due to the corrosive nature of the gases.

Advantages and Limitations.  Proper application of a dry  control
device  can  result  in  particulate removal efficiencies greater
than 99 percent  by  weight  for  fabric  filters,  electrostatic
precipitators,  and  afterburners,  and  up  to  95  percent  for
cyclones.

Common wet air pollution control devices  are  wet  electrostatic
precipitators,  venturi  scrubbers/  and  packed tower scrubbers.
Collection efficiency for gases will depend on the solubility  of
the  contaminant  in the scrubbing liquid.  Depending on the con-
taminant removed, collection  efficiencies  usually  approach  99
percent for particles and gases.  :

Demonstration  Status.  The aluminum forming industry reports the
use of dry air pollution controls for degassing and forging.

36.  Good Housekeeping

Good housekeeping and proper equipment maintenance are  necessary
factors  in reducing wastewater loads to treatment systems.  Con-
trol of accidental spills of oils, process chemicals, and  waste-
water  from  washdown  and  filter cleaning or removal can aid in
abating or maintaining the  segregation  of  wastewater  streams.
Curbed areas should be used to contain or control these wastes.

Leaks  in pump casings, process piping, etc., should be minimized
to maintain efficient water use.  One particular type of  leakage
which may cause a water pollution problem is the contamination of
                               786

-------
noncontact  cooling  water  by hydraulic oils, especially if this
type of water is discharged without treatment.

Good housekeeping is also important in chemical, solvent, and oil
storage areas  to  preclude  a  catastrophic  failure  situation.
Storage  areas should be isolated from high fire-hazard areas and
arranged so that if a fire or explosion occurs, treatment facili--
ties will not be overwhelmed nor excessive groundwater  pollution
caused  by  large  quantities  of  chemical-laden fire-protection
water.

Bath or rinse waters that drip off the aluminum while it is being
transferred  from  one  tank  to  another  (dragout)  should   be
collected  and  returned to their originating tanks.  This can be
done with simple drain boards.

A conscientiously applied program of water use reduction can be a
very effective method of curtailing unnecessary wastewater flows.
Judicious use of  washdown  water  and  avoidance  of  unattended
running hoses can significantly reduce water use.

37.  Product Substitution

Cyanide containing compounds are proprietary  compounds  used  as
additives  to quench water to impart surface treatment qualities.
Other commercially  available  compounds  which  do  not  contain
cyanide  can  be used for the same purpose.  This is demonstrated
by the absence of cyanide in the same waste  streams  from  other
plants  producing the same product.  These non-cyanide containing
compounds are commercially available and used by other plants  in
this category; therefore, product substitution would be an effec-
tive means for controlling cyanide at an aluminum forming plant.
                               787

-------
                              Table  VII-1
                 pH CONTROL  EFFECT  ok METALS  REMOVAL
                 Day  1
             In        Out
                          Day 2
                      In        Out
                                 Day 3
                             In        Out
pH Range
(mg/1)
TSS
Copper
Zinc
2.4-3.4   8.5-8.7   1.0-3.0   5.0-6.0   2.0-5.0   6.5-8.1
  39
 312
 250
8
0.22
0.31
 16
120
 32.5
19
 5.12
25.0
 16
107
 43.8
7
0.66
0.66
                                 788

-------
                     Table VII-2

EFFECTIVENESS OF SODIUM HYDROXIDE  FOR  METALS  REMOVAL
         Day 1
     In        Out
    Day 2
In        Out
    Day 3
In
pH Range
(mg/1)
Cr
Cu
Fe
Pb
Mn
Ni

Zn
TSS
2.1-2.9

0.097
0.063
9.24
1.0
0.11
0.077
\
0.054

9.0-9.3

0.0
0.018
0.76
0.11
0.06
0.011

0.0
13
2.0-2.4

0.057
0.078
15.5 .
1.36
0. 12
0.036

0.12

8.7-9.1

0.005
0.014
0.92
0.13
0.044
0.009

0.0
1 1
2.0-2.4

0.068
0.053
9.41
1.45
0. 1 1
0.069

0.19

\S \*L L,
8.6-9.1

0.005
0.019
0.95
0.11
0.044
0.01 1

0.037
11
                         789

-------
                Table;VII-3

EFFECTIVENESS OF LIME,AND SODIUM HYDROXIDE
            FOR METALS REMOVAL
    Day 1
Day 2
Day 3

pH Range
(mg/1)
Al
Co
Cu
Fe
Mn
Ni
Se
Ti
Zn
TSS 4,
In
9.2-9.6

37.3
3.92
0.65
137
175
6.86
28.6
143
18.5
390
Out
8.3-9.8

0.35
0.0
0.003
0.49
0.12
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.027
9 3,
In
9.2

38.1
4.65
0.63
110 :
205 !
5.84
30.2
125
16.2
595
Out
7.6-8.1

0.35
0.0
0.003
0.57
0.012
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.044
13 2,
In
9.6

29.9
4.37
0.72
208
245
5.63
27.4
115
17.0
805
Out
7.8-8.2

0.35
0.0
0.003
0.58
0.12
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.01
13
                   790

-------
                             Table VII-4


         THEORETICAL SOLUBILITIES OF HYDROXIDES AND SULFIDES
                  OF SELECTED METALS IN PURE WATER
     Metal


Cadmium (Cd++)


Chromium (Cr+++)


Cobalt (Co++)


Copper (Cu++)


Iron  (Fe++)


Lead  (Pb++)


Manganese  (Mn++)


Mercury  (Hg++)


Nickel  (Ni++)


Silver  (Ag+)


Tin (Sn++)


Zinc (Zn++)
As Hydroxide


 2.3 x 1CT5


 8.4 x 10~4


 2.2 x 10'1


 2.2 x TO'2


 8.9 x 1CT1


 2.1


  1.2


  3.9 x 10-4


  6.9 x 10-3


 13.3


  1.1 x  10~4


  1.1
                             Solubility of Metal Ion, mg/1	
                                                       As Sulfide
As Carbonate


 1.0 x ID'4
  7.0  x  ID'3





  3.9  x  10-2


  1.9  x  1.0-1


  2.1  x  10-1




  7.0  x  10-4
 6.7 x 10-10


No precipitate


 1 .0 x 10-8
                   5.8 x
                           ~1 8
 3.4 x 10-5


 3.8 x 10- 5


 2.1 x TO'3


 9.0 x 10-20


 6.9 x 10-8


 7.4 x 10-12


 3.8 x 10-8


 2.3 x 10-7
                                 791

-------
























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-------
                  Table VII-6
SULFIDE PRECIPITATION-SEDIMENTATION PERFORMANCE
     Parameter
        Cd
     Cr (Total)
        Cu
        Pb
        Hg
        Ni
        Ag
        Zn
Treated Effluent (mg/1)
         0.01
         0.05
         0.05
         0.01
         0.03
         0.05
         0.05
         0.01
                     793

-------
                    Table  VII-7



       FERRITE CO-PRECIPITATION  PERFORMANCE





  Metal       Influent  (mg/1)     Effluent  (mg/1)



Mercury           .    7.4             0.001



Cadmium             240                0.008



Copper                10                0.010





Zinc                  18                0.016



Chromium              10               <0.010



Manganese             12                0.007





Nickel            1,000                0.200



Iron                600   i             0.06



Bismuth             240                0.100





Lead                475                0.010^
                       794

-------
             .Table VII-8



CONCENTRATION OF TOTAL CYANIDE (mg/1)
  Plant



  1057
  33056
  12052
Method
FeS04
FeS04
 In



2.57



2.42



3.28





0.14



0.16





0.46



0.12
  Mean
 Out



0.024



0.01 5



0.032





0.09



0.09





0.14



0.06





0.07
                795

-------
Plant ID #
  06097
  13924

  18538
  30172
  36048
  Mean
         Table VII-9
MULTIMEDIA FILTER PERFORMANCE

      TSS Effluent Concentration, mg/1
   0.0, 0.0, 0.5   ;
   1.8, 2.2, 5.6, 4.0, 4.0, 3.0, 2.2, 2.8
   3.0, 2.0, 5.6, 3.6, 2.4, 3.4
   1.0
   1.4, 7.0, 1.0
   2.1, 2.6, 1.5
   2.61
                          796

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-------
                Table VII-11
            SKIMMING PERFORMANCE
Plant     Skimmer Type
06058         API
06058         Belt
Oil & Grease (mg/1)
  In          Out
224,669
     19.4
17.9
 8.3
                     798:

-------
                      Table VII-12

           TRACE ORGANIC  REMOVAL BY SKIMMING
                 API  PLUS BELT SKIMMERS
                   (From  Plant 06058)
Oil  &  Grease

Chloroform

Methylene Chloride

Naphthalene

N-nitrosodiphenylamine

Bis(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate

Butyl  benzyl phthalate

Di-n-octyl phthalate

Anthracene - phenanthrene

Toluene
Influent
(tng/1)
225,000
.023
.013
2.31
59.0
11.0
.005
.019
16.4
.02
Effluent
(mg/1)
14.6
.007
.012
.004
.182
.027
.002
.002
.014
.012
                          799

-------
                 Table  VII-13
                        !



COMBINED METALS  DATA EFFLUENT VALUES (mg/1)
Cd
Cr
Cu
Pb
Ni
Zn
Fe
Mn
TSS
Mean
0.079
0.084
0.58
0.12
0.74
0.33
0.41
0.21
12.0
One -Day
Max.
0.34
0.44
1.90
0.15
1.92
1.46
1.23
0.43
41 .0
10 -Day Avg.
Max.
0.15
0.18
1.00
0.13
1.27
0.61
0.63
0.34
; 20.0
30 -Day Avg.
Max.
0.13
0. 12
0.73
0.12
1.00
0.45
0.51
0.27
15.5
                     800

-------
Pollutant
   Sb
   As
   Be
   Hg
   Se
   Ag
   Th
  Al
  Co
  F
                 Table VII-14
               L&S PERFORMANCE
            ADDITIONAL POLLUTANTS
Average Performance (ing/ll
           0.7
           0.51
           0.30
           0.06
           0.30
           0.10
           0.50
           2.24
           0.05
          14.5
                   801

-------
                  Table VI!-15
COMBINED METALS DATA SET - UNTREATED WASTEWATER
Pollutant
   Cd
   Cr
   Cu

   Pb
   Ni
   Zn

   Fe
   Mn
   TSS
           Min. Gone, (mg/1)
                  4.6
Max. Cone, (mg/1)
        3.83
      116
      108

       29.2
       27.5
      337.

      263
        5.98
    4,390
                        802

-------
                  Table VII-16

MAXIMUM POLLUTANT LEVEL IN  UNTREATED  WASTEWATER
           .  ADDITIONAL POLLUTANTS
       .               (mg/1)
Pollutant As & Se
As 4.2
Be ;
Cd <0.1
Cr ' 0. 18
Cu 33.2
Pb ,6.5
, Ni • . --
: Ag
Zn 3.62
• F
Fe " ' '
O&G . 16.9
TSS 352
Be
-- '.
10.24
--
8.60
1 . 2'4
0.35
--
--
0.12
--
646
-.-
796
•:. Ag
'
--
<0.1
0.23
110.5
11.4
100
4.7
1,512

.
16
587.8
F
-
-
<0
22
2
5
0
-
<0
760
-
2
5

-
-
•1
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.2
.35
.69
-
. 1

-
.8
.6
                       803

-------
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-------
                            Table VII-21

              CHEMICAL EMULSION BREAKING EFFICIENCIES
Parameter

   O&G
   TSS
   O&G
   TSS


   O&G


   TSS


   O&G
Concentration (mg/1)
InfluentEffluent
  6,060
  2,612
 13,000
 18,400
 21,300
    540
    680
  1,060
  2,300
 12,500
 13,800
    650
    200
1
2,
3,
    470
  7,200
 98
 46
277

189
121
 59
140
 52
 27
 18
187
153
 63
 80
                                Reference
                      Sampling data*

                      Sampling data+
                      Sampling data**
                      Katnick and Pavilcius,  1978++
 *0il and grease and total suspended solids were taken as grab
  samples before and after batch emulsion breaking treatment which
  used alum and polymer on emulsified rolling oil wastewater.

 +0il' and grease (grab) and total suspended solids (grab) samples
  were taken on three consecutive days from emulsified rolling
  oil wastewater.  A commercial demulsifier was used  in this batch
  treatment.

**0il and grease (grab) and total suspended solids (composite)
  samples were taken on three consecutive days from emulsified
  rolling oil wastewater.  A commercial demulsifier (polymer)
  was used in this batch treatment.
                                    !
++This result is from a full-scale batch chemical treatment system
  for emulsified oils from a steel rolling mill.
                                   808

-------
                                        Table  VII-22

      TREATABILITY RATING  OF  PRIORITY POLLUTANTS UTILIZING
                                  CARBON ADSORPTION
Priority Ftollutant                 'Removal Rating

1.  acenaph thene                       H
2.  acrolein                           L
3.  acrylonitrile                      L
4.  benzene                            M
5.  benzidine                          H
6.  carbon tetrachloride               M
    (tetrachloromethane)
7.  chlorobenzene                      H
8.  1,2,4-trichlorobenzene             H
9.  hexachlorobenzene                  H
10. 1,2-dichloroethane                 «
11. 1,1,1-trichlorcethane              M
12. hexachioroethane                   H
13. 1,1-dichloroethane                 M
14. 1,1,2-trichloroethane              M
13. 1,1,2,2-tetrachloroethane           H
16. chloroethane                       L
17. bis(chloromethyl)ether
18. bis(2-chloroethyl)ether            M
19. 2-chlorcethyl vinyl ether           L
    (mixed)
20. 2-chloronaphthalene                H
21. 2,4,6-trichlorophenol              H
22. parachlorometa cresol              H
23. chloroform (trichloromethane)       L
24.'2-chlorophenol                     H
25. 1,2-dichlorobenzene                H
26. 1,3-dichlorcbenzene               ,H
27. 1,4-dichlorobenzene                H
28. 3,3'-dichlorobenzidine             H
29. 1,1-dichloroethylene               L
30. 1,2-trans-dichloroethylene          L
31. 2,4-dichlorophenol                 H
32. 1,2-dichloropropane                M
33. 1,2-dichloropropylene              H
    (1,3,-dichloropropenfc)
34. 2,4-dimethylphenol                 H
35. 2,4-dinitrotoluene                 H
36. 2,6-dinitrotoluene                 H
37. 1,2-diphenylhydrazine              H
38. ethylbenzene                       M
39. fluoranthene                       R
40. 4-chlorophenyl phenyl ether         H
41. 4-bromophenyl phenyl ether          H
42. bis(2-chloroisopropyl)ether         M
43. bis(2-chloroethoxy)methane          M
44. methylene chloride                 L
    (dichloromethane)
45. methyl chloride (chlororethane)     L
46. methyl bromide (bromomethane)       L
47. bromoform (tribroncmethane)         H
48. dichlorobromomethane               M
                                                         Priority
                                                                                     •Removal  Rat ira
49.
50.
51.
52.
53.
54.
55.
56.
57.
58.
59.
60.
61.
62.
63.
64.
65.
66.
67.
68.
69.
70.
71.
72.

73.

74.

75.

76.
77.
78.
79.

80.
81.
82.

83.

84.
85.
86.
87.
88.

106.
107.
108.
109.
110.
111.
112.
trichlorofluoromethane
dichlorodifluorome thane
chlorodibromome thane
hexachlorobutadiene
hexachlorocyclopentad iene
isophorone
naphthalene
nitrobenzene
2-nitrophenol
4-nitropbenol
2 , 4— dinitrophenol
4 , 6-dinitro-o-cresol
N-n i trosod imethy 1 amine
N-nitrosodiphenylamine
N-nitrosodi-r>-propylamine
pentachlorophenol
phenol
bis ( 2-ethylhexyl ) phthalate
butyl benzyl phthalate
di-n-butyl phthalate
di-n-octyl phthalate
diethyl phthalate
dimethyl phthalate
1,2-benzanthracene {benzo
( a ) anthracene )
benzo(a)pyrene {3,4-benzo-
pyrene)
3 , 4-benzof luoranthene
{ benzo ( b ) fl uoran thene )
11 , 12-benzof luoranthene
(benzo ( k) fluoranthene )
chrysene
acenaphthylene
anthracene
1,12-benzoperylene (benzo
(ghi)-perylene)
fluorene
phenanthrene
1,2,5 , 6— d 1 henzathracene
(dibenzo (arh) anthracene)
indeno (1,2,3-cd) pyrene
(2,3-o-phenylene pyrene)
pyrene
tetrachloroethylene
toluene
trichlorcethylene
vinyl chloride
( chloroethylene )
PCB-1242 (Arcchlor 1242)
PCB-1254 (Arcchlor 1254)
PCB-1221 (Arochlor 1221)
PCB-1332 (Arochlor 1232)
PC&-1248 (Arochlor 1248)
PCB-1260 (Arochlor 1260)
PCB-1016 (Arochlor 1016)
M
L
M
R
H -,,-..
R
H
H
R
R
H
H
M
H
M
R
M
R
R
H
R
R
R
R

H

R

R

R
H
H
H

H
R
R

R

—
M
M
L
L

R
H
H
R
R
H
R
*  M3TE;   Explanation of Removal  RAtirigs

Category  H (high removal)
     adsorbs at levels >_ 100 mg/g carbon at C,  -  10 nq/1
     adsorbs at levels >_ 100 mg/g carbon at C^  <  1.0 mg/1

Category  M (moderate renewal)
     adsorbs at levels >_ 100 mg/g carbon at C,  -  10 mg/1
     adsorbs at levels £ 100 mg/g carbon at C^  <  1.0 nig/1

Category  L (low removal)
     adsorbs at levels < 100 mg/g carbon at C.  «  10 rag/1
     adsorbs at levels < 10 mg/g  carbon at Cf < 1.0 mg/1

Cj » final concentrations  of priority pollutant at equilibrium
                                                   809

-------
                                  Table: VII-23

             CLASSES OF ORGANIC COMPOUNDS ADSORBED  ON CARBON
Organic Chemical Class

Aromatic Hydrocarbons

Polynuclear Aromatics


Chlorinated Aromatics



Phenolics


Chlorinated Phenolics
High Molecular Weight Aliphatic  and
Branch Chain Hydrocarbons

Chlorinated Aliphatic Hydrocarbons
High Molecular Weight Aliphatic  Acids
and Aromatic Acids

High Molecular Weight Aliphatic  Amines
and Aromatic Amines

High Molecular Weight Ketones, Esters,
Ethers and Alcohols

Surfactants

Soluble Organic Dyes
      Examples of Chemical Class

      benzene, toluene,  xylene

      naphthalene,  anthracene
      bephenyls

      chlorobenzene,  polychlorinated
      biphenyls,  aldrin,  endrin,
      toxaphene,  DDT

      phenol,  cresol,  resorcenol
      and polyphenyls

      trichlorophenol,  pentachloro-
      phenol

      gasoline, kerosine
      carbon tetrachloride,
      perchloroethylene

      tar acids,  benzoic acid
      aniline,  toluene diamine


      hydroquinone,  polyethylene
      glycol

      alkyl benzene  sulfonates

      melkylene blue,  Indigo  carmine
High Molecular Weight includes  compounds
carbon atoms.
in the broad  range  of  from  4  to  20
                                        810

-------
      Table VII-24

ION EXCHANGE PERFORMANCE
   (All Values mg/1)
 Plant A
Parameter
Al
Cd
Cr+3
Cr+6
Cu
CN
Au
Fe
Pb
Mn
Ni
Ag
S04
Sn
Zn
Prior to
Purifica-
tion
5.6
5.7
3.1
7.1
4.5
9.8
--
7.4
--
4.4
6.2
1.5
--
1 .7
14.8
After
Purifica-
tion
0.20
0.00
0.01
0.01
0.09
0.04
--
0.01
--
0.00
0.00
0.00
--
0.00
0.40
Plant B
                     Prior to
                     Purifica-
                       tion
                       43.0

                        3.40

                        2.30



                        1.70



                        1.60

                        9.10

                      210.00

                        1 .10
        After
      Purifica-
        tion
        0.10

        0.09

        0.10



        0.01



        0.01

        0.01

        2.00

        0.10
          811

-------
                   Table VII-25
           PEAT ADSORPTION  PERFORMANCE
Pollutant
  Cr+6
  Cu
  CN
  Pb
  Hg
  Ni
  Ag
  Sb
  Zn
Influent (mg/1)
   35,000
      250 ;
       36.0
       20.0
        1.!0
        2.5
        1.0
        2.5
        1.5
Effluent (mg/1)
     0.04
     0.24
     0.7
     0.025
     0.02
     0.07
     0.05
     0.9
     0.25
                     812'

-------
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-------
                             TabJLe VII-27

                     ULTRAFILTRATION PERFORMANCE
           Parameter

           Oil  (freon
            extractable)


           COD

           TSS
           Total Solids
Feed (mg/1)

      95
   1, 540
   1,230

   8,920

     791
   1,262
   5,676
   1 ,380
   2,900
.Permeate  (mg/1)

       22*
       52*
       4
      148

      19*
      26*
      13*
      13
     296
*From samples at aluminum forming Plant B,
                              814

-------
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  to-'1
  10
   -13
                                                       Ag(OH)
                                                       Cd(OH)2 -
PbS
                     I
                                               I	I
      23,4     S    »     7     8     9

                               pH
                                               10    11    12   13
FIGURE VIM. COMPARATIVE SOLUBILITIES OF METAL HYDROXIDES

              AND SULFIDE AS A FUNCTION OF pH
                                 815

-------
0.40
                                                   SODA ASH AND
                                                   CAUSTIC SODA
  8.0
                                                                    10.5
        FIGURE VII-2. LEAD SOLUBILITY IN THREE ALKALIES
                                 816

-------








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-------
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                                                            ALUM
                                                          POLYMER
                                                           THREE WAY VALVE
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              FIGURE VIM4.  GRANULAR BED FILTRATION
                                         828  .

-------
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               FIGURE VII-15. PRESSURE FILTRATION
                              829

-------
SEDIMENTATION BASIN

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       FIGURE VIM6.  REPRESENTATIVE TYPES OF SEDIMENTATION
                                      830:

-------
                                         FLANGE
WASTE WATER
 WASH WATER
                                             SURFACE WASH
                                             MANIFOLD
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                                                   BACKWASH
                                                   REPLACEMENT CARBON
                                          CARSON REMOVAL PORT
TREATED WATER
                                              SUPPORT PLATE
     FIGURE VIM7. ACTIVATED CARBON ADSORPTION COLUMN
                              831

-------
CONVEYOR DRIVE

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                           FIGURE VII-18. CENTRIFUGATION
                                             832

-------
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-------
     CONTROLS
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FIGURE VII-20. TYPICAL OZONE PLANT FOR WASTE TREATMENT
                             834

-------
           MIXER
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FEED TANK
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FIGURE Vll-21.  UV/OZONAT10N
                835

-------
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-------
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                     FIGURE VII-23. DISSOLVED AIR FLOTATION
                                           837

-------
   CONDUIT
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                     FIGURE VII-24. GRAVITY THICKENING
                                      838

-------
WASTE WATER CONTAINING
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FOR REUSE OR DISCHARGE
                  FIGURE VII-25. ION EXCHANGE WITH REGENERATION
                                               839

-------

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                    840

-------
                          PERMEATE
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          FIGURE Vll-27. REVERSE OSMOSIS MEMBRANE CONFIGURATIONS
                                            841

-------


















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                     FIGURE VII-28.  SLUDGE DRYING BED
                                          842

-------
 ULTRAFILTRATION
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                        843

-------
                                                                                                   II
            FABRIC OR WIRE
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SOLIDS SCRAPED
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                          FIGURE VII-30. VACUUM FILTRATION
                                               844

-------
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                                 Figure VII-32

                           FILTER CONFIGURATIONS
 (a)  Single-Media Conventional Filter.
 Cb)  Single-Media Upflow Filter.
 (c)  Single-Media Biflow Filter.
                        (d)  Dual-Media Filter.
                        (e)  Mixed-Media  (Triple-
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                                       846

-------
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-------
                          EVAPORATION
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 TOWER
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                                      DISCHARGE
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                                 MAKE-UP WATER
                 Figure VII-36

 FLOW DIAGRAM FOR RECYCLING'WITH A COOLING TOWER
                      850

-------

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                                     WORK MOVEMENT
                                     INCOMING WATER
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             COUNTER CURRENT  RINSING (TANKS)
                            851

-------
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                 Figure VII-38



 EFFECT OF ADDED RINSE  STAGES ON WATER USE






                      852

-------
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-------

-------
                          SECTION VIII

            COST OF WASTEWATER TREATMENT AND CONTROL

This  section presents estimates of the costs of implementing the
major wastewater treatment and control technologies described  in
Section  VII.   These cost estimates, together with the estimated
pollutant reduction performance for each  treatment  and  control
option  presented in Sections IX, X, XI, and XII, provide a basis
for evaluating the options presented and  identification  of  the
best  practicable  technology  currently  available  (BPT),  best
available technology economically achievable (BAT),  best  demon-
strated technology (BDT), and the appropriate technology for pre-
treatment.   The cost estimates also provide the basis for deter-
mining the probable economic impact on the aluminum forming cate-
gory of regulation at different pollutant discharge  levels.   In
addition,  this  section addresses nonwater quality environmental
impacts of wastewater treatment and control alternatives,  includ-
ing air pollution, solid wastes, and energy requirements.

GENERAL APPROACH

Capital and  annual costs  associated  with  compliance  with  the
aluminum  forming  regulation have been  calculated on a plant-by-
plant  basis  for  124 plants and  extrapolated  for  the  remainder
 (seven plants)   in   the aluminum forming category that discharge
wastewater.  These costs have been used  as the  basis for economic
 impact analysis  of the  category.  Prior  to proposal,  costs  were
generated for  104 aluminum  forming  plants using the pre-proposal
cost estimation  methodology  described below.  After proposal,   26
additional   plants were costed  and  added to the total;  six plants
were removed because  of closure or  because the  plants   no   longer
discharge wastewater;   and   12 plants  were recosted because of  a
methodological  error  that substantially overstated   the  cost   to
 small  plants.    A  total of 124  plants were  costed  for the  final
 rulemaking.  Costs estimated before proposal  were   made   by   the
 pre-proposal  contractor  (Contractor   A)  and   the  post-proposal
 costs  estimated by the  post-proposal contractor  (Contractor   B).
 Cost   methodologies   of  the  two  contractors   were  compared by
 costing  the  identical plants and found  to compare favorably.

 Prior  to estimating  any new costs after proposal,  a comparison of
 costs  generated by the  pre-proposal and post-proposal   methodolo-
 gies  was  performed.   A study previously done in 1982,  in which
 wastewater treatment system costs were  estimated for 10 porcelain
 enameling plants was used to compare the pre-proposal   and  post-
 proposal  cost  methodologies.    The results of this study showed
 that the costs generated by the two  methodologies  agreed  well.
 The sum of the total capital costs estimated for the 10 plants by
 the  post-proposal  methodology was 5.5.percent higher than those
                                855

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 obtained from the pre-proposal methodology.   The  average  of   the
 ?0S? n^n?rCe™ deviations between the  costs for each plant  was
 i£;i P TS ?        'corresponding figures  for  the  annual  costs
 costs bl^d nSSfh     and -17'] P^cent,  respectively  (the annual
 costs based on the pre-proposal methodology are   higher)    These
 results  indicate that costs generated by the two cost methodolo-
 gies are comparable, considering the accuracy of  cost estimation
 The principal cost factor differences  between  the  pre-proposai
 and post-proposal costs are tabulated in Table VIII-1
   «i-ln  J98£\a  10-Plant cost study (using the same porcelain
 enameling plants) was performed simultaneously by three  separate
 contractors  and  compared with actual industry costs for five of
 the plants.  The cost methodologies of all three contractors were
 within +20 percent of the mean for each plant and the  mean  cost
 was  within  ±20  percent  of the i estimated industry costSon the
 five plants.   The pre-proposal contractor was one  of  the  threJ
 contractors  that participated in the study.   As discussed abovl
 *nS P?st~Proposal contractor also estimated the  same  10  plants
 and  had  capital  costs  about  5 percent above the pre-proposal
 ro£n^2°r^°StS; •  Addj,tionaHy'  °ne  Of  the  three  contactors'
 compared  the estimated compliance costs for  80 steel plants with
 actual costs  incurred by the companies and found the model  costs
 to  overestimate  actual  costs  by  about 10 percent.   The costs
 actually incurred  included  siteHspecif ic  costs  such  as  line
 segregation,  area rehabilitation,  and retrofit of equipment.   All
 farX?2M£?  A Tre S601"3^ comPe"sated by the cost  estimating
 factors included in the methodology.
 ™ JL rK?UlJ  °f  fc£iS  comParison,  the Agency concluded that it was
 reasonable  to perform post-proposal  costing efforts using the new
 cost methodology and  to  combine  these new costs  with those gener-
 ated prior  to proposal.            .

 COST ESTIMATION  METHODOLOGY;   PRE-PROPOSAL

 Sources of_  Cost  Data
       i,-       C°St data  for  the  selected  treatment processes
were collected from four sources:   (!)  literature,  (2) data   col-
lection portfolios, (3) equipment manufacturers, and  (4)  in-house
nb?*?n^Pf°JeC^;   ?e  ma^ty i  of   the  cost   information wK
citSd Jbf^n^ ^Jerature sources. !  Many of the  literature sources
cited obtained their costs from surveys of  actual  design  proi-
^'^J°r  e^amPler  Black  & Veatch prepared  a cost manual  that
aJ  a  SiS /nd const^u^ion  cost data  from 76  separate  projects
as  a  basis  for  establishing average construction costs.   Data
collection portfolios completed  by  companies  in  the  aluminum
forming  category contained a limited amount of chemical and  unit
process cost information.   Most of  the  dcp's  did  not  include
                               856

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treatment   plant   capital   or   information  was  annual  cost
information,  and  reported  for  the  entire  treatment   plant.
Therefore,  little  data  from the data collection portfolios was
applicable for  the  determination  of  individual  unit  process
costs.  Additional data was obtained from equipment manufacturers
and   design   projects   performed  by  Sverdrup  &  Parcel  and
Associates.

Determination of Costs

To determine capital and annual costs for the selected  treatment
technologies,  cost data from all sources were plotted on a graph
of capital or annual costs versus  a  design  parameter   (usually
flow).   These  data  were  usually spread over a range of flows.
Unit process cost data gathered from all sources include a  vari-
ety  of  auxiliary  equipment,  basic construction materials, and
geographical locations.  A single line was  fitted  to  the  data
points  thus  arriving at a final cost curve closely representing
an average of all the cost references for a unit process.   Since
the  cost  estimates presented in this section must be applicable
to treatment needs in varying circumstances and geographic  loca-
tions,  this  approach  was  felt  to be the best for determining
national treatment costs.  For consistency in determining  costs,
accuracy   in  reading the final cost curves, and in order to pre-
sent all cost relationships concisely, equations  were  developed
to  represent  the  final  cost  curves.   The  cost  curves  are
presented  in Figures VIII-1 through VIII-30, capital  and  annual
cost equations are listed in Table VII1-2.

All  cost   information was standardized by backdating or  updating
the costs  to first quarter 1978.  Two indices were used:  (1)  EPA
-  Standard  Treatment  Plant  index  and  (2)  EPA  - Large City
Advanced Treatment (LCAT) index.  The  national  average,  rather
than  an  index value for a particular city, was used for  the EPA-
LCAT  index.  The  national average was used because  the   regional
differential  of  the supporting cost data was dampened by averag-
ing the cost data.
                                857

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Capital.   All  capital  cost  equations  include:

      (!)   Major  and  auxiliary  equipment
      (2)   Piping and pumping
      (3)   Shipping
      (4)   Sitework
      (5)   Installation
      (6)   Contractors'  fees      i
      (7)   Electrical and  instrumentation
      (8)   Enclosure               \
      (9)   Yard piping             !
     (10)   Engineering             <
     (11)   Contingency

Items  (1)  through (7)  are included  to  the  extent   that   they   are
provided   for  in each  source in  the literature.   In  cases where a
certain item(s)  is missing, an estimate is made in order to aver-
age  the cost values.   Enclosure  costs  are estimated  separately
and  are included only  for those  technologies' performances deemed
subject to weather conditions.   Contingencies and  engineering  are
assumed  to  be  15 and 10 percent,  respectively, of  the  installed
equipment  cost.   Yard  piping is  estimated  at 10  percent  of   the
installed  equipment  cost.

The  cost  of  land has not  been  considered in the  cost estimates.
Based on engineering visits at 22 aluminum forming plants, it  is
believed that  most wastewater  treatment and supporting facilities
can  be  constructed  in  existing  buildings or on land currently
owned by the plants.   Also, the  plant  wastewater  flows  in   the
aluminum   forming  category are  low (majority of plants less than
50,000 gpd); thus, land requirements for treatment facilities  are
small for  most plants.            ,

For  new plants,  the  amount of  land  necessary to house the  waste-
water treatment  system is assumed to be insignificant relative to
other  capital   costs.  This is  particularly true  since the plant
design would optimize  the space  available.

The  non-water  quality  aspects  associated  with  capital  costs
include  sludge  handling  for precipitation and skimming systems
generating large quantities of   sludge.    Capital  investment  is
required only for systems generating greater than  140,000 gallons
per  year  in order  to  dewater the  sludge  prior to hauling.   This
is based on economic assessment  of  the  break  point  for  sludge
hauling  and   landfilling.  The  14p,000 gallon per year volume is
the volume at which  contract hauling at a  cost  of  thirty  cents
per  gallon  (discussed  later   in  this section)   would equal the
investment costs for   a  vacuum  filtration  system.    Investment
includes   costs for  vacuum filtration and  holding  tanks.   See the
cost calculation example for further detail.
                               858

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 Annual.   All  annual  cost equations include:

         Operation  and maintenance labor
         Operation  and maintenance materials
         Energy
         Chemicals

 Operation and maintenance labor  requirements  for each   unit  pro-
 cess  were recorded from all  data sources  in terms of manhours per
 year.    A  labor rate of 20  dollars per manhour,  including fringe
 benefits and  plant overhead, was  used  to  convert the  manhour
 requirements  into  an annual  cost.

 Operation and maintenance material  costs  account for the replace-
 ment, repair, and  routine maintenance of  all  equipment  associated
 with  each unit   process.   Material costs were developed solely
 from  data reported in the literature.

 Electrical energy  requirements for  process equipment  were  tabu-
 lated in terms of  kilowatt-hours per year.  The  cost of  electric-
 ity   used  is 4.0  cents per kilowatt-hour,  based on the average
 value of electricity costs as reported  in the   aluminum  forming
 category  data  collection   portfolios.   Fuel oil  and natural  gas
 costs used were also obtained from  the  data   collection   portfol-
 ios.   The average   fuel oil cost  was  26 cents  per therm and  the
 average  natural gas  cost was 22  cents per therm.

 Chemicals used in  the treatment  processes presented in  this  sec-
 tion  are  sulfuric   acid and caustic for pH  adjustment,  hydrated
 lime  for heavy metals precipitation, sulfur dioxide for   hexaval-
 ent   chromium reduction,  and alum and polymer for  emulsion break-
 ing.

 Although not  included in the annual  cost  equations, amortization,
 depreciation, and  sludge disposal are considered  in the  plant-by-
 plant cost analysis.    See the   example   which   follows   in  this
 section.

 Capital   costs  are  amortized over  a 10-year period at  12  percent
 interest.   The corresponding capital recovery  factor   is  0.177.
 The annual  cost of depreciation  was  calculated on  a straight line
 basis over a  10-year  period.   The costing methodology resulted in
 double-counting  the   value  for  depreciation.    The annual cost
 estimates  were corrected  by subtracting 10 percent  of the  capital
 cost from  the annual   cost.

 Many of  the unit processes chosen as treatment technologies  pro-
 duce a residue or sludge  that must be discarded.  Sludge disposal
 costs  presented   in   this  section  are based on  charges made by
private  contractors for sludge hauling services.  Costs  for haul-
                               859

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ing vary with a number of factors including quantity of sludge to
be hauled, distance to disposal sitp, disposal method used by the
contractor, and variation in landfill policy from state to state.
Costs for contractor hauling of sludges are based  on  data  col-
lected  in  the  development of effluent guidelines for the paint
industry  in  which  511  plants  reported   contractor   hauling
information.                       ;

A  cost  of  30 cents per gallon was used for the paint guideline
development as a sludge hauling and landfill ing cost and is  used
in  this  report.   This value is conservative since many sludgers
hauled in the paint industry are considered hazardous wastes  and
require   more   expensive  landfilling  facilities  relative  to
landfill facilities required for nonhazardous wastes.

Cost Data Reliability              ,-    •    • '

To check the validity of the capital cost data, the capital costs
developed for  this  category  were,  compared  to  capital  costs
reported  in  the data collection portfolios.  As stated earlier,
the cost information reported in the data  collection  portfolios
was  for  treatment systems rather |than individual unit processes
and therefore was not used to develpp costs for  existing  treat-
ment facilities in the aluminum forming category.

Nineteen  plants  reported treatment system capital cost informa-
tion.  The total reported capital cost for all 19  facilities  is
equal  to  $3,600,000.   The  sum of the cost estimates developed
with the costing methodology described herein  for  the  same  19.
treatment systems is equal to $4,300,000.  Although variations at
individual  plants  were  occasionally  much greater, the overall
difference of capital costs  was  19  percent.   Detailed  design
parameters  (i.e.,  retention  times, chemical dosages, etc.) for
the data  collection  portfolio  treatment  systems  were  seldom
reported.   Therefore,  the  costs : developed in this section are
based on one set of design parameters which may differ  from  the
design  parameters  actually used at the 19 plants which reported
cost information.  This could result in large variances at  indi-
vidual  facilities, but the effect of the possible design differ-
ences is dampened when a large number of facilities  are  consid-
ered  as   is  indicated by the 19 percent difference in costs for
the 19 treatment systems studied.

Treatment Technologies and Related ICosts

Costs have been determined for the following wastewater treatment
and sludge disposal technologies to be used  in the various treat-
ment alternatives:                     ,

     -  Skimming                   ;
                                860 ;

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                      items  which
        Chemical  emulsion breaking
        Dissolved air flotation      ;
        Thermal emulsion breaking
        Multimedia filtration
        pH adjustment
     -  Lime and settle (L&S)
     -  Hexavalent chromium reduction
     -  Cyanide oxidation
        Cyanide precipitation
     -  Activated carbon adsorption
        Vacuum filtration
        Contractor hauling
     -  Countercurrent cascade rinsing
     -  Regeneration of chemical baths

Costs have also been determined for  the  following
relate to the operation of a treatment plant:

        Flow equalization
     -  Pumping
        Holding tank
        Recycle
     -  Monitoring

A  discussion of the design parameters used and major and auxili-
ary equipment  associated  with  each  treatment  technology  and
related items  is contained below.

Skimming.   Skimming is included as a wastewater treatment option
to remove free oils commonly found in  aluminum  forming  plants.
The equipment  used as the basis for developing capital and annual
costs for skimming are as follows:

        Gravity separation basin
     -  Oil skimmer
     -  Bottom sludge scraper

It  is  assumed that the oil to be removed has a specific gravity
of 0.85 and a  temperature of 20°C.  Sludge quantities,   in  terms
of  gallons  of sludge per 1,000 gallons of wastewater generated,
are tabulated  in Table VIII-3, based on sampling data.   The basis
for energy requirements  is the use of a 1/2-HP motor  for skimming
based on  TOO gal/hr of oil.  Figure VIII-4 presents   capital  and
annual  costs of oil skimming.

Chemical   Emulsion  Breaking.   Alum  and  polymer   addition   to
wastewater aids  in the separation of oil from water,  as  discussed
in Section VII  (p. 736).  To determine  the  capital  and  annual
costs,   400 mg/1 of alum and 10 mg/1 of polymer are assumed to  be
added to  waste streams containing such emulsified oils   as  spent
861

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 rolling  emulsions.    The  equipment
 annual  costs are as  follows:       '

      -   Chemical feed system
included in the capital  and
         1.   Storage units
         2.   Dilution tanks         ,
         3.   Conveyors and chemical  feed lines
         4.   Chemical feed pumps

      -   Rapid  mix  tank (detention time,  5  minutes)

         1.   Tank
         2.   Mixer                  ;
         3.   Motor  drive  unit

      -   Skimming

         1.   Gravity separation basin
         2.   Surface skimmer
         3.   Bottom sludge scraper

Costs were derived based on a composite  of various systems  which
included  the  above  equipment.   Alum  and  polymer   costs were
obtained from  vendors:  dry alum at $0.15 per pound  and  polymer
at  $3.00  per  pound.   Energy requirements were also  composited
from various literature sources to  be   included  in  the  annual
costs.   Capital   and  annual costs for chemical emulsion breaking
are presented  in Figure VII1-5.

Dissolved Air Flotation.  Dissolved air  flotation  (DAF)  can  be
used  by  itself,   in  conjunction w,ith gravity separation for the
removal of free oil, or also in conjunction  with  coagulant  and
flocculant  addition   to  increase  oil  removal efficiency.  The
capital and annual  cost equations in Table VII1-2  provide"  costs
only for the dissolved air flotation unit; other systems, such as
flocculant addition, may be added in separately.

The  equipment  used   to develop capital and annual costs (Figure
VII1-6) for the DAF system is as follows:

     -  Flotation unit
     -  Surface skimmer
     -  Bottom sludge scraper
     -  Pressurization unit
     -  Recycle pump
     -  Electrical and instrumentation
     -  Concrete pad,  1 ft.  thick
                               862

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a recycle ratio of 30 percent.  All costs and energy requirements
were derived as composites of various  sytems  presented  in  the
literature.   Energy  requirements  are  estimated  to range from
54,000 Kw-hr/yr at 30,000 GPD to 35,000,000 Kw-hr/yr at  10  MGD.
Below  30,000 GPD flowrate, energy requirements are considered to
be constant.

Thermal Emulsion Breaking.  Thermal emulsion breaking is used  to
treat  spent  emulsion  wastes potentially yielding a salable oil
by-product.  The system and its components which were costed  for
this  technology is described in detail in Section VII.  Standard
"off the shelf" thermal emulsion breaking  systems  were  costed.
The  Agency  believes  that  custom  design  to account for site-
specific requirements  might  significantly  reduce  the  overall
cost'.   A separate boiler was costed for heat supply to the unit.
Equipment sizing was based on continuous operation.  Influent oil
concentration was assumed to be 5 percent and  the  effluent,  80
percent.  For economic assessment purposes, a credit of $0.20 per
gallon  of  treated oil was assumed.  Capital and annual costs of
thermal emulsion breaking are presented on Figure VII1-7.

In determining annual costs, the energy requirements were  calcu-
lated  using  1.5  pounds of steam per pound of water evaporated.
In practice, low-grade waste heat may be available to support the
thermal emulsion breaking process.  To be conservative,  however,
capital and annual costs  include the boiler operation.  The usage
of energy was found to range from 8,500 therms/year at 150 GPD to
680,000 therms/year at 12,000 GPD.

Multimedia  Filtration.   Multimedia, filtration  is  used  as   a
wastewater treatment polishing device to remove suspended  solids
not  removed  in  previous  treatment processes.  The filter beds
consist of graded layers  of gravel, coarse anthracite  coal,  and
fine  sand.   The  equipment used to determine capital and annual
costs  (Figure VIII-8) are as follows:

     -  Filter tank and media
     -  Surface wash system
     -  Backwash system
     -  Valves
     -  Piping
     -  Controls
     -  Electrical system

The  filters were sized based on a hydraulic  loading  rate  of   4
gpm/ft2  and  pumps  were sized  based  oh a backwash rate of  16
gpm/ft2.   All costs and energy requirements  were  derived  as   a
composite  of a variety of literature sources and vendor  contacts.
Energy  requirements for the filtration operation are estimated  to
range   from  300  Kw-hr/yr at  1,000 GPD to 300,000 Kw-hr/yr at  10
                                863

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 MGD.   Energy  requirements  are  constant   between
 10,000 GPD.
1,000  GPD  and
    Adjustment.    The   adjustment  of  pH  is  particularly  important
 for treatment  of  wastewater streams such as cleaning   or  etching
 streams.    Sulfuric  acid   and   caustic   are used  as  the chemical
 agents  for  addition  to   the  wastewater   stream.    The  following
 equipment are  used in determining  capital and annual  costs:

     -  Chemical  feed system      ;

        —  Bulk  storage tank
        —  Dry tank              ;
        ~  Mixer                 !
        —  Flow  regulator         |

     -  Concrete  tank (detention time, 15 minutes)

     -  Mixing equipment

     -  Instrumentation

     -  Sump pump

 Operating costs are  based on  the following  assumptions:

     -  Sulfuric  acid dose  rate of 0.5 pound  per 1,000 gallons of
        wastewater.

     -  Caustic dose rates  of 0.5, 5, and 20  pounds per  1,000
        gallons of wastewater.

     -  Caustic (NaOH) cost of $175 per  ton for 50 percent
        solution  (Chemical  Marketing Reporter).

     -  Sulfuric  acid cost  of $41 per ton for  63 percent
        solution  (Chemical  Marketing Reporter).

Labor  and  energy  costs were assumed to be  equal for all alkali
and acid dose rates.  Energy requirements on  a system  basis  are
linear  from  10,000  GPD   to  500,000  GPD   at  660 Kw-hr/yr and
increase to 14,000 Kw-hr/yr at 10 MGD.

Capital  and  annual  costs  for  pH  adjustment  with  acid  are
presented  on  Figure  VIII-9,  pH  adjustment  with  caustic are
presented on Figure VIII-10.       >
      and  Settle  (L&S) .    Quicklime  (CaO)  or  hydrated   lime
[Ca(OH)2J can be used to precipitate heavy metals.  Hydrated lime
is commonly used for wastewaters with low lime requirements since
                               864

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the  use  of  slakers, required for quicklime usage,  is practical
only for large-volume application of lime.   Wastewater  sampling
data  were  analyzed  to  determine  lime dosage requirements and
sludge production for those waste streams in the aluminum forming
category that contain heavy metals .selected as  pollutants.   The
results  of  this analysis are tabulated in Table VII1-4.  Due to
the low lime dosage requirements in this industry, hydrated  lime
is used for costing.

The  pH  of  waste  streams  treated  with lime precipitation may
require readjustment before discharge.  Sulfuric acid is used  to
adjust  the  pH  to  an  acceptable  discharge level  (pH 6 to 9).
Thus, hydrated lime, sulfuric acid storage and feed systems,  and
a  clarifier  are  included  in  the  lime and settle capital and
annual costs.  Optional treatment systems which have been  costed
separately  and  which  may be used in conjunction with the above
lime and settle systems are a polymer feed system  and  floccula-
tor.

The  following  equipment  were  included in the determination of
capital and annual costs (Figure  VIII-11)  based  on 'continuous
operation:

     -  Lime feed system

        —  Storage units
        —  Dilution tanks
            Feed pumps

     -  Acid neutralization system

        —  Storage units
        —  Mixer                  :
        —  Flow regulator
        —  Instrumentation

Other annual cost bases are as follows:                      .

     -  Lime dosage rates include 200 mg/1 and 2,000 mg/1.

     -  Hydrated lime cost of $35.75,per ton (Chemical Marketing
        Reporter).

The lime dosage was selected based on raw wastewater characteris-
tics.    Those  waste streams with low contaminant levels required
200 mg/1 of lime.  Those with higher contaminant levels  required
2,000  mg/1.   The  lime  dosages  used for each waste stream are
summarized in Table VIII-4.
                               865

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Cost equations are presented for both of the  above  lime  dosage
rates.   All  cost equations and energy requirements for lime and
settle were  based  on  composited  values  of  various  systems.
Energy  requirements  which  were found to vary with flowrate are
estimated to range from 2,000 Kw-hr/yr at 1 GPM  to  225,000  Kw-
hr/yr at 10,000 GPM.
                                 i
Hexavalent  Chromium  Reduction.   Chromium  present  in aluminum
forming wastewaters is considered to be in the hexavalent  state.
The  addition of sulfur dioxide at low pH values reduces hexaval-
ent chromium to trivalent chromium, which  forms  a  precipitate.
The  equipment  included  in  the capital and annual costs are as
follows:

        Reaction vessel (detention time, 45 minutes) .,
     -  Sulfuric acid storage and feed system
     -  Sulfonator               !
     -  Oxidation reduction potential meter
        Associated pressure regulator and appurtenances

This system has been costed both on a continuous and batch basis.
The composite-based capital cost  equations  presented  in  Table
VIII-2 include batch operation for flows greater than 0.2 gpm and
less  than  20  gpm.   Above  20  gpm,  the system is continuous.
Capital and annual costs for chromium reduction are presented  on
Figure VIII-12.

Operation  and  maintenance  costs  include labor, chemicals, and
repair parts.  The labor rate used is $20.00 per manhour;  it  is
estimated  that  supply and labor costs contribute equally to the
O&M cost.

Energy requirements include electricity for  pumps,  mixers,  and
monitors.  The combined energy requirement for this equipment was
determined  to  be  constant over the range of flowrates at 9,480
Kw-hr/yr.                        !

Cyanide Oxidation.  In this technology, cyanide is  destroyed  by
reaction  with  sodium hypochlorite under alkaline conditions.  A
complete system for this operation  includes  reactors,  sensors,
controls,  mixers,  and chemical feed equipment.  Control of both
pH  and  chlorine  concentration  through   oxidation   reduction
potential (ORP) is important for effective treatment.

Capital  costs  for  cyanide  oxidation  as shown in Table VIII-2
include reaction tanks, reagent  storage,   mixers,  sensors,  and
controls  necessary  for operation.  Costs are estimated for both
batch and continuous systems, with the operating mode selected on
a least cost basis.  Specific costing assumptions are as follows:

                               866

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 For  both  continuous  and batch  treatment,   the  cyanide  oxidation
 tank  is   sized  as an above-ground  cylindrical  tank with a reten-
 tion time of  four hours  based  on   the  process  flow.    Cyanide
 oxidation is  normally done  on  a  batch 'basis;  therefore,  two iden-
 tical   tanks  are employed.   Cyanide is  removed  by the addition of
 sodium hypochlorite  with sodium  hydroxide added to  maintain  the
 proper pH level.    A  60-day  supply  of sodium hypochlorite is
 stored in an  in-ground covered concrete tank, 0.3 m (1  ft)  thick.
 A  90-day  supply  of sodium hydroxide also   is  stored  in  an  in-
 ground covered concrete tank,  0.3 m (1  ft)  thick.

 Mixer   power  requirements for  both  continuous and batch  treatment
 are  based on  2 horsepower for  every 11,355 liters (3,000 gal)   of
 tank  volume.    The  mixer is assumed to be operational  25 percent
 of the time that the treatment system is  operating.
A  continuous control system  is  costed  for  the
ment alternative.  This system  includes:
continuous  treat-
     -   2  immersion pH probes and transmitters
         2  immersion ORP probes and transmitters
         2  pH and ORP monitors
         2  2-pen recorders
     -   2  slow process controllers
     -   2  proportional sodium hypochlorite pumps
         2  proportional sodium hydroxide pumps
     -   2  mixers
     -   3  transfer pumps
         1  maintenance kit
     -   2  liquid level controllers and alarms and miscellaneous
         electrical equipment and piping                          ;

A complete manual control system is costed for the batch treat-  '"'•
ment alternative.  This system includes:

     -   2  pH probes and monitors
         1  mixer
         1  liquid level controller and horn                       :
         1  proportional sodium hypochlorite pump
     -   1  on-off sodium hydroxide pump and PVC piping from the.
         chemical storage tanks

Operation  and  maintenance  costs  for cyanide oxidation include
labor requirements to operate and maintain the  system,  electric
power  for  mixers,  pumps,  controls,  and  treatment chemicals.
Labor requirements for operation  are  substantially  higher  for
batch treatment than for continuous operation.  Maintenance labor
requirements  for  continuous treatment are fixed at 150 manhours
per year for flow rates below 23,000 gph and thereafter  increase
according to:
                               867

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Labor = .00273 x (Flow - 23,000);+ 150

Maintenance labor requirements for batch treatment are assumed to
be negligible.

Annual  costs for treatment chemicals are determined from cyanide
concentration, acidity, and flow!rates of the  raw  waste  stream
according to:

Ibs sodium^hypochlorite = 62.96 x Ibs CN

Capital  and  annual costs for cyanide oxidation are presented in
Figure VIII-13.

Cyanide Precipitation.  Cyanide ;precipitation  is  a  two  stage
process  to  remove  free and non-complexed cyanide as a precipi-
tate.  For the first step, the wastewater is  contacted  with  an
excess  of  FeS04.7H20  at  pH  9.0 to ensure that all cyanide is
converted to the complex form:
     FeS04 • 7H20 + 6 CN-
                                          7H20
The hexacyanoferrate is then routed to the  second  stage,  where
additional FeSO* .  7H2O and acid are added to lower the pH to 4.0
or  less,  causing  the  precipitation of Fe4(Fe(CN)6)3 (Prussian
blue) and its analogues:        >

                                     pH <4.0
     4 FeSCu • 7H20 + 3 Fe((N)6*-r
     Fe«. (Fe(CN)6)3 + 7H2O      ;

The blue  precipitate  is  settled
discharged for further treatmentf
                                    and  the  clear  overflow  is
The cyanide precipitation system! includes chemical feed equipment
for   sodium   hydroxide,  sulfuric  acid,  and  ferrous  sulfate
addition, a reaction vessel, agitator, control system, clarifier,
and pumps.                      ;
                                i
Costs can be estimated for both batch and continuous systems with
the operating mode selected on a,least cost basis.  This decision
is a direct function of flowratei.   Capital costs are composed  of
five  subsystem  costs:  (1)  FeS04  feed  system,  (2) NaOH feed
system,  (3) reaction vessel with agitator, (4) sulfuric acid feed
system,  (5) clarifier, and (6) recycle  pump.   These  subsystems
include  the following equipment:!

(1)  Ferrous sulfate feed system;

             ferrous sulfate steel storage hoppers with dust
             collectors (largest hopper size is 6,000 ft3; 15
                               868

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             days storage)
             enclosure for storage tanks
             volumetric feeders (small installations)
             mechanical weigh belt feeders (large installations)
             dissolving tanks (5 minute detention time, 6 percent
             solution)
          -  dual-head diaphragm metering pumps
          -  instrumentation and controls

    (2a)  Caustic feed system (less than 200 Ib/day usage)

          -  volumetric feeder
             mixing tank with mixer (24-hour detention, 10
             percent solution)
             feed tank with mixer (24-hour detention)
             dual-head metering pumps
             instrumentation and controls

    (2b)  Caustic feed system (greater than 200 Ib/day usage)

             storage tanks (15 days, FRP tanks)
             dual-head metering pumps including standby pump
          -  instrumentation and controls

     (3)  Reaction tank (60 minutes detention time, stainless
          steel, agitator mounting, agitator, concrete slab)

     (4)  Sulfuric acid feed system (93 percent H2S04)

             acid storage tank (15 days retention)
             chemical metering pump
          -  instrumentation and control
     (5)  Clarifier [based on 700 GPD/ft2; to include a
          steel or concrete vessel (depending on flow rate),
          support structure, sludge scraper assembly and
          drive unit]

     (6)  Recycle pumps (for sludge or supernatant)

Operation and maintenance costs for cyanide precipitation include
labor  requirements  to operate and maintain the system, electric
power for mixers, pumps, clarifier and  controls,  and  treatment
chemicals.   Electrical  requirements  are  also included for the
chemical storage enclosures for lighting and ventilation  and  in
the case of caustic storage, heating.  The following criteria are
used in establishing O&M costs:

     (1)  Ferrous sulfate feed system

             maintenance materials - 3 percent of/ manufactured
                               869

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        equipment  cost       i
     -   labor  for  chemical  unloading
        —5  hrs/50,000  Ib  for  bulk  handling
        —8  hrs/16,000  Ib  for  bag feeding  to the hopper
        —routine  inspection and adjustment  of  feeders is
         10 min/feeder/shift
        maintenance labor    ,
        —8  hrs/yr for  liquid  metering pumps
        —24 hrs/yr for solid  feeders and  solution tank
     -   power  [function of instrumentation and  control,
        metering pump HP and volumetric feeder  (bag feed-
        ing)]                :

(2)   Caustic feed  system    i

        maintenance materials  - 3 percent  of manufactured
        equipment  cost  (excluding storage  tank  cost)
     -   labor/unloading
        —dry  NaOH - 8  hrs/16,000  Ib
        — liquid 50 percent |NaOH -  5  hrs/50,000 Ib
        labor  operation (dry NaOH only) -  10 min/day/feeder
     -   labor  operation for metering  pump  - 15  min/day
        annual maintenance -; 8 hrs
     -   power  includes  metering pump  HP, instrumentation
        and control, volumetric feeder (dry NaOH)

(3)   Reaction  vessel with agitator

     -   maintenance materials  - 2 percent  of equipment cost
     -   labor                ;
        —15 min/mixer/day routine  O&M
        —4 hrs/mixer/6 mos -  oil  changes
        —8 hrs/yr - draining, inspection, cleaning
     -   power  - based on horsepower requirements for
        agitator

(4)   Sulfuric  acid feed system

        labor  unloading - .25  hr/drum acid
     -   labor  operation - 15 min/day
     -   annual maintenance - 8 hrs
     -   power  (includes metering pump)
     -   maintenace materials - 3 percent of capital cost

(5)   Clarifier

     -  maintenance materials range from 0.8 percent to
        2 percent as a function of  increasing size
        labor - 150 to 500 tjrs/yr  (depending on size)
        power - based on horsepower requirements for sludge
                          870

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             pumping and sludge scraper drive unit

     (6)  Recycle pump

          -  maintenance materials - percent of manufactured
             equipment cost variable with flowrate
          -  50 ft TDK; motor efficiency of 90 percent and pump
             efficiency of 85 percent

Annual  costs for treatment chemicals are determined from cyanide
concentration, pH, metals concentrations, and flowrate of the raw
waste stream.

Activated Carbon Adsorption.  Activated carbon is used  primarily
for  the  removal  of  organic  compounds  from  wastewater.  The
capital and annual costs for this process are based on  a  system
using  granular  activated  carbon  (GAC) in a series of downflow
contacting columns.  Separate cost equations  are  presented  for
GAC contacting units and GAC replacement.

Two  methods  of  replacing  spent  carbon  were  considered: (1)
thermal regeneration of spent carbon and (2) replacement of spent
carbon with new carbon and disposal  of  spent  carbon.   Thermal
regeneration  of spent activated carbon is economically practical
only  at  relatively   large  carbon  exhaustion  rates.    Simply
replacing  spent  carbon  with  new carbon is more practical jbhan
thermal regeneration for plants with low carbon usage.

An analysis was performed to determine the carbon usage  rate  at
which thermal regeneration of spent carbon becomes practical.  It
was determined that thermal regenerating facilities are practical
above  a carbon usage  of 400,000 Ibs per year.  Carbon exhaustion
rates for all waste streams are presented in Table VII1-5.   Data
from  the  literature  were  analyzed to determine a  relationship
between TOC concentration and carbon exhaustion rate.  These data
were applied  to sampling data to  obtain  the  carbon  .exhaustion
rates shown  in Table VII1-5.

A  30-minute  empty-bed contact time was used to size  the downflow
contacting units.  The activated carbon used in the   columns  was
assumed  to   have  a bulk density of 26 pounds per cubic foot and
cost 53 cents per pound.  Included in the capital  for  a   carbon
contacting  system  are carbon contacting columns, initial  carbon
fill, carbon  inventory and  storage backwash  system,   and   waste-
water pumping.

Thermal  regeneration  is assumed to be accomplished with multiple
hearth  furnaces at a  loading rate of  40  pounds  of   carbon  per
square  foot  of   hearth  area per day.  Activated carbon thermal
regeneration  facilities  include a multiple hearth furnace,  spent
                                871

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carbon
veyors,
storage and dewatering equipment, quench tank, screw con-
and regenerated carbon refining and storage tanks.
Energy  requirements  for  activatedlcarbon   systems   are   two-fold;
heating  for   thermal  regeneration (above  400,000  Ibs carbon  used
per year) and  electricity.    The   Btu   requirements for  heating
range   from  1   x  TO10 Btu/yr at  400,000 Ibs  carbon to  2.1  x  1011
Btu/yr  at 30 x TO6 Ib  carbon.   Electrical  requirements   are  from
250,000  Kw-hr/yr  at  200,000 Ibs carbon up to  1.5  x 106 Kw-hr/yr
at 30 x 106 Ibs  carbon.

Capital and annual costs for  activated   carbon   adsorption  are
presented on Figure  VIII-14.

Vacuum  Filtration.   Vacuum filtration  is a technology utilized  in
sludge   dewatering.    This  system  is  included  in  the  wastewater
treatment train  depending on  the  amount of sludge  generated  from
precipitation  systems.  Per   the  discussion  presented  in  the
costing example, vacuum  filtration is  costed  if sludge  generation
exceeds 140,000  gallons  per year.   Below this value,  it  is  not
economically attractive  to dewater the sludge prior to  disposal.

Capital  costs  are  based  on  the area of filter  required,  or a
solids  loading rate  of 4 pounds per hour per square foot,  and an
operating period of  six  hours per day.  The equipment included in
the vacuum filtration  unit are  as follows:

     -   Motor  and drive           :
     -   Auxiliaries
     -   Piping and ductwork
     -   Instrumentation
     -   Electrical                •
         Insulation
     -   Paint                     ;
     -   Accessories               I
     -   Vacuum system             ;

A  minimum capital cost  of $66,000  is assumed.  Annual  costs  were
developed in terms of the amount  of  sludge to be dewatered.   The
assumed  influent suspended solids  concentration is 7 percent and
the effluent,   30 percent.  Energy  requirements are  based on   fil-
ter  size  and flow  rate, as  in the  case of capital costs.  These
are estimated  to range from 45,000  kw-hr/yr for  100  ft2   filter
area to  268,000  kw-hr/yr for  960  £t2.

Capital  and   annual costs for vacuum filtration are presented in
Figure  VIII-15.

Contract Hauling.  As  stated  previously,   information  obtained
from  511  plants in an EPA Effluent Guidelines Division study of
                               872

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 the  paint  industry   was   used   to   determine   contractor  hauling
 costs.   Costs   in   the  paint  study ranged  from  1  cent  to over  50
 cents per  gallon.   A value  of  30 cents  per  gallon,  selected as   a
 reasonable estimate in  the paint  study,  was  used  in  the develop-
 ment of  the aluminum forming guidelines for the  disposal cost   of
 sludge   and  wastewater   by contractor  hauling.   The  cost   of
 contract hauling  is presented  in Figure VIII-16.

 Countercurrent Cascade Rinsing.  Countercurrent  cascade  rinsing
 is   a  technique  used   to  reduce  wastewater flows  from rinsing
 operations.  This technology has   been   described   in  detail   in
 Section  VII (p. 775).

 Capital  costs are  based  on the number  of tanks  needed  to achieve
 a required flow reduction,  and pumping  if water  cannot   be  moved
 between  the  tanks  by  gravity flow.   Each tank is assumed to  be
 rectangular, of dimensions  15  feet by 5 feet,  by   8  feet  deep.
 Capital    cost  estimating  for  Countercurrent  cascade  rinsing
 systems  is highly   site-specific.    Tank  sizing,   in  particular
 cross-sectional  area,  may be  determined  by  or  limited by the
 cross-sectional area  of   the  workpiece.    No piping  costs are
 included  since it  is assumed  that pumping  will  not be  necessary.
 Final rinse stage tanks can be easily raised, or variable  height
 overflow  weirs  can  be  installed  in a  single large tank to allow
 gravity  flow of the rinse water.    No   retrofit  land  costs are
 included.   Based   on  plant visits  to  22 aluminum  forming sites,
 the  Agency  believes  that there  is  enough  floor  space for
 installation  of  Countercurrent   cascade   rinsing  operations  at
 existing plants.

 The  capital expenditure   involved   in   installing   Countercurrent
 cascade  rinsing  technology  will  be   in  part offset  by reduced
 water use  and sewer fees, and the  overall reduction in   the size
 of   the  required waste treatment system, which is designed on the
 basis of volumetric flow.

 There are  no significant operation and  maintenance  costs   associ-
 ated  with tanks so the annual cost estimates include only annual
 depreciation and amortization.

Regeneration of. Chemical Baths.  Bath "  regeneration   is   used   to
 recover  or  replenish  the  bath  chemicals,   reduce contaminant
 levels in  the bath,  and to  achieve zero discharge.   As   discussed
 in  Section  VII  (p. 779),  regeneration of chromic acid  and sul-
 furic acid baths is accomplished   through  periodic   addition   of
solid  chromic  acid  or sulfuric  acid.   Salts formed in  the bath
constantly precipitate and must be drawn off  the  bottom   of  the
tank.  In general, there are no additional capital   costs  required
for  equipment  to  regenerate  these types of baths.   Removal  of
settled precipitates is accomplished by existing  pumping   equip-
                               873

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ment  used for emptying the bath in plants not currently regener-
ating baths.  Chemical costs associated  with  regeneration  were
costs for replenishing chromic acid and sulfuric acid.

For  caustic  baths,  addition  of lime and elevation of the bath
temperature is required for  regeneration.   The  Agency  assumed
that  plants  have sufficient waste heat available to elevate the
bath temperature.  Chemical costs associated with regeneration of
caustic baths were costs for lime.|

The capital expenditures  required  for  recovering  and  reusing
alkaline  cleaning bath chemicals |was the cost of an ultrafiltra-
tion system.  Membrane life was assumed  to  be  one  year  as  a
result  of discussions with equipment manufacturers.  The cost of
the membranes was assumed to be $100 per membrane.  One hour  per
week was used for maintenance labor.  Alkaline cleaning chemicals
were assumed to cost $0.50 per pound.  In addition, the ultrafil-
ter  was assumed to be washed with a cleaner, one time each week.
The cleaner cost was assumed to be $2.00 per pound.

In considering the costs discussed above associated with regener-
ation, EPA concluded that the costs incurred will  be  offset  by
decreased  chemicals cost through recovery, reduced water, use and
sewer fees, the overall reduction in the  size  of  the  required
treatment  system,  and  the reduced labor requirements for main-
taining the baths.

Flow  Equalization.   Flow  equalization  is  used  in  order  to
minimize potentially wide fluctuations in raw wastewater flow and
characteristics.   Equalization  has  been  included  in the costs
associated with each treatment option presented.

The equipment included in the capital  and  annual  costs  is  an
equalization  tank  with associated mixing equipment.  The deten-
tion time assumed is four hours.  For  this  technology,  capital
and  annual  costs  (Figure  VIII-17) were derived by compositing
various system costs from the  literature.   Energy   requirements
are expected to range from 2,500 Kw-hr/yr at 1 gpm to 300,000 Kw-
hr/yr at 10,000 gpm.

Pumping.  The cost of pumping raw wastewater to a treatment plant
was  considered,  as was the cost for a dry well enclosure of the
pumping facility.  Costs for wet Wells have not  been  considered
since  the  equalization  basin f(br treatment plant operation can
function as a wet well.  The pump; station electrical  requirements
are based on a total dynamic  head  of  30  feet  and  a  pumping
efficiency  of  65  percent.  These requirements are  estimated to
range from  54 Kw-hr/yr for 1,000 gpd to 550,000 Kw-hr/yr  for  10
MGD flowrate.                     ;
                                874

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Capital
VIII-18.
and  annual  costs  for  pumping are presented in Figure
Holding Tank.  The cost of holding tanks has been  considered   for
the  storage  of  sludges  removed  from  skimming, dissolved  air
flotation, and lime and settle  operations.   The  equations   can
also   be   used  for  the  storage  of  dewatered  sludge  cake.
Allowances are made for storage of two weeks of sludge production
to a minimum of 150  gallons  for  sludges  requiring  contractor
hauling.
Capital  and  annual
Figure VIII-19.
             costs  for  holding  tanks are presented in
Recycle of Cooling Water.  As discussed in Section VII  (p.  772),
direct  chill  casting contact cooling water is commonly recycled
at rates of 96 percent or greater.  For those plants that do  not
recycle  direct  chill casting contact cooling water, the cost of
recycle has been determined.  Recycle  capital  costs   include  a
cooling tower, a pump station, and piping.  The capital costs for
a  cooling tower assume the use of a mechanical draft tower.  The
sizing of the tower is based on a temperature range of  25°F,  an
approach  of  10°F,  and  a  wet  bulb  temperature of  70°F.  The
cooling tower equipment include the following:

     -  Cooling tower
     -  Basin
     -  Handling and setting (installation)
     -  Piping
     -  Concrete foundations and footings
        Instrumentation
     -  Plant mechanical draft system
        Accessories

A minimum cost is assumed to be $62,000.  Energy requirements are
a function of the fan size and horsepower required, depending  on
recirculation  ratio.   These requirements are estimated to range
from 14,600 Kw-hr/yr at 0.1 MGD to 1,460,000 Kw-hr/yr at 10 MGD.

To account for  recycle  piping  requirements,   costs  have  been
determined for 1,000 feet of installed force main.  Capital costs
for recycle piping include the following:

        Concrete-lined ductile iron pipe

     -  3,  4,  8,  12, 16,  or 24 inch pipe diameters

     -  0,  10, 20,  or 40 ft.  static heads

     -  3 feet per second water velocity
                               875

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        Pipe fittings           ;

        —  3 gate valves
        —  1 standard tee
        —  4 long sweep elbows

     -  Installation with excavation and backfill (below ground)

Energy requirements for pumping are the same as those given above
in the pumping discussion'.       i

Capital  and annual costs associated with recycling are presented
in Figure VIII-20.              |

Enclosures.  The cost of an enclosure is included in the  capital
cost   equations   for   all  unit  processes  except  skimmming,
equalization, lime and settle (lime and sulfuric acid storage and
chemical  feed  systems  are  enclosed)  and  the  cooling  tower
associated  with  recycle  since  the  performance  of these unit
processes is not typically affected by  inclement  weather.   The
cost of enclosure includes the following:

     -  Roofing
     -  Insulation              |
        Sitework
     -  Masonry
     -  Glass
        Plumbing
     -  HVAC and electrical     |

The  total capital cost is calculated by determining the required
area to be enclosed and applying $30 per square foot.

Cost Calculation Example

Capital and annual costs for each of the  treatment  alternatives
presented  in  Sections  X and XII can be estimated both from the
cost equations in Table VII1-2 and, depending on the alternative,
from the data on oily sludge production,  lime  dosage  and  lime
sludge  production,  and  carbon  exhaustion rate shown in Tables
VIII-3 through VIII-5.  Once the;wastewater flows are determined,
the costs associated with a treatment alternative are  calculated
systematically using the following steps.

     1.  Determine capital and annual costs for each of the
         treatment processes in the alternative using Table
         VIII-1.                '•

     2.  Determine capital and operating costs for pumping,
                               876

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3.
4.
         equalization,  and monitoring  using  Table VIII-1.

         Calculate daily production, if  any, of  oily  sludge  and
         lime sludge  from Tables VIII-3  and  VIII-4.   Determine
         the costs associated with  the disposal  of  these  residues
         using Table  VIII-2.

         Determine total capital and annual  costs for the alter-
         native by summing up all cost data  obtained  in Steps 1
         through 3.   The annual cost so  determined  does not
         include amortization and depreciation of capital  invest-
         ment.  Obtain  the total annual  cost by  including 17.7
         percent and  10 percent of  the capital cost for amortiza-
         tion and depreciation, respectively.

As  described  previously, capital  and operating costs associated
with the lime and settle (L&S) and  activated carbon processes are
influenced by the lime  dosage  and  carbon  replacement   require-
ments,  respectively.   Therefore, Tables VIII-3  and VIII-4 should
be consulted first to determine lime dosage  for  the particular
wastewater, stream under consideration  or to evaluate  the  economic
choice between thermal  regeneration and  throwaway of  spent carbon
for the activated carbon process.

Disposal  of  lime sludge is based on  vacuum filtration,  with the
resulting cake hauled   by  contractor  or  contractor-hauling  of
undewatered liquid sludge.  The economic choice between these two
methods  depends  upon  the quantity of sludge requiring disposal,
with the dividing line  being approximately   140,000   gallons  per
year.   Direct contractor-hauling of liquid sludge is less expen-
sive for smaller .sludge quantities, while the  opposite   is  true
for  greater  sludge  quantities.   The  cost  components for the
former are holding  tank  capital  cost  (minimum  capacity,  150
gallons)  and contractor-hauling cost,  while those for the latter
are holding tank capital cost (both for liquid sludge and  cake),
vacuum  filtration  cost,  and  contractor-hauling cost for cake.
The cost components for oily sludge  disposal  are  holding  tank
capital  cost  (minimum  capacity,   150  gallons) and contractor-
hauling cost.

The cost calculating procedures described above  are  illustrated
for  a plant in the Forging Subcategory with the following condi-
tions:

     Wastewater source:   Forging solution heat treatment contact
                         cooling water
     Operating time:   24 hours per  day, 7 days per week,
                      52 weeks per  year
     Wastewater flow:   200 gallons  per  minute
     Treatment alternative:   BPT consisting of (1)  cyanide'
                          877

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                             oxidation, (2) chromium reduction,
                             (3) pkimming, and (4) lime and
                             settle (see Figure IX-4)

Step 1 :                           :
Determine the capital and annual costs of the three treatment
processes shown above using appropriate equations in Table
VIII-2.   For example, the capital cost (C) of chromium reduction
for a flow (x) of 200 gpm can be calculated as:
                                 t
     C = antilog [-0.0248 (log 200)'] + 0.108 (log 200)2 +
         0.213 (log 200) + 4.107 + 384.8  (200)°.«7
       = antilog (4.86) + 13,390 !
       = 86,000

The forging solution heat treatment contact cooling water  stream
requires 2,000 mg/1 lime dosage for precipitation (Table VIII--4);
use  cost  equations  for  lime  and settle corresponding to this
dosage.   A summary of Step 1 costs is shown below.
     Cyanide oxidation
     Chromium reduction
     Skimming
     Lime and settle
       Subtotal
Capital

166:, 000
 86,000
 55,000
221,000
528,000
 Annual ($/yr)

 17,000
 10,000
 10,000
 63,000
100,000
Step 2:
Capital and annual costs are calculated  for  flow  equalization,
pumping,  and  monitoring.  By using the appropriate equations  in
Table VIII-2, the following costs are obtained for flow equaliza-
tion and pumping.  Monitoring costs are  constant  at  a  capital
cost of $8,000 and an annual cost of $5,000.
     Flow equalization
     Pumping
     Monitoring
       Subtotal
Capital ($)

103,000
 31,000
  8,000
142,000
 Annual ($/yr)

 10,000
 14,000
  5,000
 29,.000
Step 3:
 (a)   Determine  daily  production of oil skimmings  (oily sludge)
 using data in Table VIII-3, required holding tank  capacity,, and
 associated disposal costs from Table VIII-2.

 Oil Skimmings =                  [
                               878

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0.07 gallons skimmings x 200 gallons x 1,440 min = 20 gallons
    1,000 gallons            min          day         day

As  discussed  previously, holding tanks are sized for two weeks'
sludge production, or a  minimum  of  150  gallons  holding  tank
capacity.  Required holding tank capacity is:
   20 gallons x 7 days
        day      week
   x 2 weeks = 280 gallons
The capital cost (holding tank) and annual cost (contractor haul-
ing) for the disposal of oily sludge are then calculated as:
Oil skimmings disposal
    Capital  ($)

          2,100
      Annual  ($/yr)

             2,200
(b)   Determine  daily  production  of  lime sludge using data in
Table  VII1-4,  then  determine  whether  the  sludge  should  be
dewatered by vacuum filtration prior to disposal.

Lime sludge =
6 gallons sludge x 200 gallons x 1,440 minutes = 1,700 gallons
 1,000 gallons         min            day             day

At  365  days per year operation, this quantity corresponds to an
annual lime sludge production  of  620,000  gallons.   Therefore,
vacuum  filtration  and  cake hauling is more cost-effective than
liquid sludge hauling.

To estimate the required size of vacuum filters and the  volume of
filter cake,,  lime slpdge from the settling  tank  and  the  filter
cake  are  assumed  to  contain  7 percent  and 30  percent solids,
respectively, and have a specific gravity of  1.0.

Vacuum filter area required  must be determined before the capital
cost equation for vacuum filtration in Table  VIII-2 can  be  used.
At  7  percent  solids,  6   hours  of  operation   per day and a  4
Ibs/hour/sq ft  loading rate, one square  foot  of  vacuum  filter
area can dewater 40 gallons  of sludge per day.  The vacuum filter
area requirement for  this example is presented below:
    1,700 gallons x
           day
       1
40 gallons/day/sq ft
= 43 sq ft
 Daily production of filter cake is

    1.700 gallons x  7% solids = 400 gallons
           day      30% solids       day
                                879

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 Two  storage  tanks  are  required  for vacuum filtration, one to
 store the daily clarifier underflow to  facilitate  a  controlled
 flow into the vacuum filter, and the other to store the dewatered
 sludge.   Therefore,  a  1,700-gallon storage tank is required to
 store daily clarifier underflow.  The filter cake storage tank is
 sized as follows:

    400 gallons x 7 days x 2 weeks > 5,600 gallons
          day       week          :

 COST ESTIMATION METHODOLOGY;  POST-PROPOSAL

 Sources of_ Cost Data             ;

 Capital and annual cost data for the selected treatment processes
 w?re obtained fr°m three sources: ;  (1)   equipment  manufacturers,
 (2)  literature data, and (3) cost ;data  from existing  plants.   The
 ma^or  source of equipment  costs was contacts with equipment  ven-
 dors,  while the majority of annual  cost information was  obtained
 from  the  literature.    Additional  cost  and  design  data  wore
 obtained from data collection portfolios when possible.

 Components  of Costs

 Capital   Costs.    Capital   costs jconsist  of   two   component's:
 equipment  capital  costs   and  system   capital  costs.  -Equipment
 costs  include:   (1)  the   purchase  price   of  the  manufactured
 equipment  and   any  accessories assumed  to be  necessarv  (2)
 delivery charges,  which  account  for  the cost  of shipping   the
 purchased   equipment   a    distance   of   500   miles;   and   ("3)
 installation, which includes labor,  excavation,   site  work,   and
 materials.    The correlating equations  used  to generate equipment
 costs are shown  in Table VIII-6.    Capital system  costs   include
 contingency,  engineering,   and  contractor's fees.   These system
 costs, each  expressed as a   percentage   of   the   total  equipment
 cost, are combined into  a factor which  is multiplied  by the total
 equipment  cost  to  yield   the  tptal   capital   investment.   The
 components of the  total  capital  investment are   listed  in  Table
 V JL X J.""" / •                           t

Annua*  Costs.   The  total   annualized   costs  also  consist of a
direct and a system component as in  the   case  of   total  capital
   £S^   WT?T Components of  the  total annualized  costs are listed
   Table  VIII-8.  Direct annual  costs include the  following:

     o  Raw materials -  These costs are for chemicals used in
        the treatment processes, which include lime, sulfuric
        acid, alum, polyelectrolyte, and sulfur dioxide.

     o  Operating labor and materials - These costs account for
                               880

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       the labor and materials directly associated with opera-
       tion of the process equipment.  Labor requirements are
       estimated in terms of manhours per year.  A labor rate
       of 21 dollars per manhour was used to convert  the man-
       hour requirements into an annual cost.  This composite
       labor rate included a base  labor rate of nine  dollars
       per hour for skilled labor,  15 percent  of the  base labor
       rate for supervision and plant overhead at  100 percent of
       the total labor rate.  Nine dollars per hour  is the
       Bureau of Labor national wage rate for  skilled labor
       during 1982.

     o  Maintenance and repair - These costs account  for the
       labor and materials required for repair and routine
       maintenance of the equipment.  Maintenance  and repair
       costs were usually assumed  to be 5 percent  of  the direct
       capital  costs  based on  information from literature
       sources  unless more reliable data could be  obtained  from
       vendors.

     o  Energy - Energy,  or power,  costs are  calculated based
       on total nominal  horsepower requirements  (in  kw-hrs),
       an electricity charge  of  $.0483/kilowatt-hour and an
       operating  schedule of  24  hours/day,  250 days/year unless
       specified  otherwise.   The electricity charge  rate (March
        1982)  is based on the  industrial  cost derived from the
       Department of  Energy's Monthly  Energy Review.

System annual  costs include  monitoring,  insurance  and  amortiza-
tion  (which  is  the major  component).   Monitoring refers to the
periodic  sampling  analysis of  wastewater to ensure that discharge
limitations are being met.   The annual   cost  of  monitoring  was
calculated  using  an  analytical   lab fee of .$120 per wastewater
sample and a sampling frequency based on the wastewater discharge
rate, as  shown in Table VIII-9.

Insurance cost is assumed to be one percent of the total depreci-
able capital investment  (see Item  23 of Table  VIII-7).

Amortization costs, which account  for depreciation and  the  cost
of   financing,  were  calculated   using a capital recovery factor
(CRF).  A CRF value of 0.177 was   used,  which  is  based  on  an
interest  rate of 12 percent, and  a taxable lifetime  of  10 years.
The  CRF is multiplied by  the  total  depreciable  investment  to
obtain  the annual amortization costs (see Item 24 of Table viii-
8).
                                881

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 Cost Update Factors

               stndardized
                                adjusting  to  the  first   quarter   of
                                               components  of  costs
         Investment - Investment costs
                                        were
                                              adjusted  using   the
 EPA-Sewage Treatment Plant Construction Cost Index.  The value of
 this index for March 1982 is 414.0.                      v«*iut or

            and  Maintenance  Labour  - The Engineering News-Record
                          iS USed to adjust the Portion  of  Qper-
                                 attributable to labor.  The March


 Maintenance Materials - The producer price index published bv  the
 Department of Labor, Bureau of Statistics  is  used    The  March
 1982 value of this index is 276.5:                           warcn

 Chemicals  -  The  Chemical  Engineering Producer Price Index  for
 industrial chemicals is used.   This indL is  published  biwJeklv
                           magazine'  The MarchP1982 value o? Sis
Energy  -  Power  costs  are  adjusted  by  using  the  nrice  of
electricity  on the desired date and multiplying^ by the energy
requirements for the treatment module in kw-hr equivalent!.

Cost Estimation Model
                — _^__^_             ^

                Was Accomplished lising  a  computer  model  which
                S^i^1"9 th\^ui^ treatment system chemJJal
                of the raw waste Streams, flow rates  and  treat-
                           °f th^e stre^s, and operating scSd-
                 .         f 9omP"ter-aided design  of  a  waste-
                 system containing modules that are configured to
                     te equipment at  an  individual  plant.   The
                     t^atment m°dule and then executes a costing
                      the cost data for each module.   The capital
ules
       A  ®
        ?5i?nS
tion f^om^hr^hn^10?6?-^ c?uPlin9 theoretical design  informa-
tion trom the technical literature with actual desian  data  fr-nm
operating  plants.   This  permits: the most repr Sedative design
approach possible to be used, which is a very  important  elSeS
and  ™^Sly estimating costs.  The fundamental Snits for dSiJn
and  costing  are  not  the modules themselves but the components
                               882

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within each module, e.g., the lime feed system within the  chemi-
cal  precipitation module.  This is a significant feature of this
model for two reasons.  First, it does not  limit  the  model  to
certain  fixed  relationships  between various components of each
module.  For instance, cost data for chemical precipitation  sys-
tems  are  typically  presented graphically as a family of curves
with lime (or other alkali) dosage as a parametric function.  The
model, however, sizes the lime feed system as a  funtion  of  the
required  mass  addition  rate  (kg/hr)  of lime.  The model thus
selects a feed  system  specifically  designed  for  that  plant.
Second, this approach more closely reflects the way a plant would
actually  design and purchase its equipment.  The resulting costs
are thus closer to the actual costs that would be incurred by the
facility.

Overall Structure.  The cost estimation  model  consists  of  two
main  parts:  a design portion and a costing portion.  The design
portion uses input provided  by  the  user  to  calculate  design
parameters for each module included in the treatment system.  The
design  parameters are then used as input to the costing routine,
which contains cost equations for each discrete component in  the
system.   The  structure  of  the program is such that the entire
system is designed before any costs are estimated.
The pollutants or parameters which are tracked by the
shown in Table VI11-10.
model  are
An  overall logic diagram of the computer programs is depicted in
Figure VIII-1.   First, constants are initialized and certain var-
iables such as the modules to be included, the system  configura-
tion,  plant and wastewater flows, compositions, and entry points
are specified by the user.  Each module is designed utilizing the
flow and composition  data  for  influent  streams.   The  design
values are transmitted to the cost routine.  The appropriate cost
equations  are applied, and the module costs and system costs are
computed.  Figures VIII-2 and VIII-3 depict the logic  flow  dia-
grams in more detail for the two major segments of the program.

Costing  Input Data.  Several data inputs are required to run the
computer model.  First, the treatment modules to  be  costed  and
their  sequence must be specified.  Next, information on hours of
operation per day and number of days of operation  per  year  for
the  particular  plant being costed is required.  The flow values
and characteristics must be specified for each wastewater  stream
entering  the treatment system, as well as each stream's point of
entry into the wastewater treatment system.   These  values  will
dictate  the size and other parameters of equipment to be costed.
The derivation of each of these inputs for costed plants  in  the
aluminum forming category will be discussed in turn.
                               883

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Choice  of the appropriate modules and their sequence for a plant
that is to be costed are determined  by  applying   the  treatment
technology  for each option  (see Figures X-l through X-5).  These
option diagrams were adjusted to accurately reflect the treatment
system that the plant being  costed would actually   require.   For
example,  if  it  were determined by examining a plant's dcp that
sodium bichromate would not  be used in the plants pickling  oper-
ation,  then a chromium reduction module would not  be included  in
the treatment required for that plant.  In addition, if  a  plant
had a particular treatment module in place, that module would not
be  costed.   Flow  reduction  modules were not costed for plants
whose waste stream flow rates were Already lower than the regula-
tory flows.  The information on hoiirs of operation  per  day  and
days  of operation per year was obtained from the data collection
portfolio of the plant being costed.
                                   I
The flows used to size the treatment equipment  were  derived   as
follows:   production  (kkg/yr)  and  flow (1/yr) information was
obtained from the plant's dcp, or from sampling data where possi-
ble, and a production normalized flow in liters per kkg was  cal-
culated  for  each  waste  stream. > This flow was compared to the
regulatory flow, also in liters per kkg, and the lower of the two
flows was used to size the treatment equipment.  Regulatory  flow
was also assigned to any stream for which production or flow data
was not reported in the dcp.

The  raw  waste concentrations of influent waste streams used for
costing were based on sampling data and the assumption  that  the
total  pollutant  loading (mg/hr) in a particular waste stream  is
directly proportional to the production rate (kkg/hr)  associated
with  that  waste stream.  The procedure used for determining the
pollutant concentrations (mg/1) to :be used as input to  the  cost
model  was  as  follows:   for  a given input waste stream to the
model during actual costing, the  average  production  normalized
raw  waste  values (mg/kkg) are divided by the production normal-
ized costing flow (1/kkg) (actual or regulatory based,  whichever
is lower) to obtain the pollutant concentration for costing.  The
underlying  assumption  is that the amount of pollutant generated
corresponds directly with the amount of product produced.  A sig-
nificant result of this assumption [is that  the  total  pollutant
loading  (mg/hr)  remains constant when in-process flow reduction
techniques are used (e.g.,  for a stream that is reduced by a fac-
tor of two via a flow reduction measure, the pollutant concentra-
tions will increase correspondingly by a factor of two).

Model Results.  For  a  given  plant,   the  model  will  generate
comprehensive  material  balances  for each parameter (pollutant,
temperature and flowrate) tracked at any point in the system.    It
will also summarize design  values  for  key  equipment  in  each
treatment  module,   and  provide  a  tabulation of costs for each
                               884

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piece of  equipment  in  each  module,  module  subtotals,  total
equipment costs, and system capital and annual costs.

Cost Estimates for Individual Treatment Technologies

Introduction.   Treatment  technologies  have  been selected from
among the larger  set  of  available  alternatives  discussed  in
Section  VII  after considering such factors as raw waste charac-
teristics, typical plant characteristics (e.g., location, produc-
tion schedules, product mix, and land availability), and  present
treatment   practices.    Specific  rationale  for  selection  is
addressed in Sections IX, X, XI, and  XII.   Cost  estimates  for
each  technology  addressed  in  this  section include  investment
costs and annual costs for depreciation, capital,  operation  and
maintenance,  and  energy.   Capital  and  annual  costs  for each
technology are presented in Figures VIII-21 through VIII-30.

The specific assumptions for each wastewater treatment  module are
listed under the subheadings to follow.  Costs are presented as  a
function of  influent wastewater flow rate  except where  noted  in
the unit process assumptions.

Costs  are   presented  for  the  following control  and treatment
technologies:

     -  Lime Precipitation and Gravity Settling,
     -  Vacuum  Filtration,
        Flow Equalization,
     -  Multimedia Filtration,
        Chemical Emulsion Breaking,
        Oil  Skimming,
        Chromium Reduction,
     -  Recyde-Cool ing,
     -  Countercurrent Cascade Rinsing,  and
     -  Contract Hauling.

Cyanide  treatment  was  not  costed  because  only  two   plants  were
found  to  have  cyanide  in their wastewaters.   Additionally,  plants
are expected   to  choose chemical  substitution as  a  means of  con-
trolling  the discharge of  cyanide as opposed  to the   installation
of cyanide  treatment.

Lime  Precipitation   and  Gravity  Settling.   Precipitation using
 lime followed  by  gravity settling is a fundamental technology for
metals removal.  In  practice,  either quicklime (CaO) or  hydrated
 lime (Ca(OH)2)  can be used to precipitate toxic and other metals.
Hydrated  lime is  more economical for low lime requirements since
 the use of  slakers,  which are necesary for quicklime  usage,   are
practical only for large-volume application of lime.
                                885

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Lime  is  used to adjust the pH of the influent waste stream to a
value of approximately 9, at which optimum precipitation  of  the
metals  is  assumed  to occur  (see Section VII, page 701), and to
react with the metals to form metal hydroxides.  The lime  dosage
is  calculated  as a theoretical stoichiometric requirement based
on the influent metals concentrations and pH.   The  actual  lime
dosage  requirement  is  obtained  by  assuming  an  excess of 10
percent  of  the   theoretical   lime   dosage.    The   effluent
concentrations  are  based  on  thb Agency's combined metals data
base lime precipitation treatment effectiveness values.

The costs of lime precipitation and gravity settling  were  based
on  one of three operation modes, depending on the influent flow-
rate:  continuous, normal batch, and "low flow" batch.   The  use
of  a  particular  mode  for costing purposes was determined on a
least (total annualized) cost basis for a  given  flowrate.   The
economic breakpoint between continuous and normal batch was esti-
mated  to be 11,800 liters/hour.  Below 2,000 liters/hour, it was
found that the "low flow" batch system was most economical.

For a continuous operation,  the following equipment were included
in the determination of capital and annual costs:
                                  I
     -  Lime feed system (continuous)
                                  I
                                  r
        1.   Storage units (sized for 30-day storage)
        2.   Slurry mix tank  (5 minute retention time)
        3.   Feed pumps
        4.   Instrumentation  (pH control)

     -  Polymer feed system

        1.   Storage hopper        !
        2.   Chemical mix tank     ;
        3.   Chemical metering pumpi
                                  i
     -  pH  adjustment system      !

        1.   Rapid mix tank,  fiberglass  (5 minute retention time)
        2.   Agitator (velocity gradient  is 300/second)
        3.   Control  system        ;
                                  i
     -  Gravity settling system   \
        1 .

        2.
Clarifier, circular, steel (overflow rate is 0.347
gpm/sq. ft., underflowisolids is 3 percent)
Sludge pumps (1), (to transfer flow to and from
clarifier)
                               886

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Ten percent of the clarifier underflow stream is recycled to  the
pH  adjustment  tank  to  serve as seed material for the incoming
waste stream.

The direct capital costs of the lime and polymer feed were  based
on  the  respective chemical feed rates (dry Ibs/hour), which are
dependent on the  influent  waste  stream  characteristics.   The
flexibility of this feature (i.e., costs are independent of other
module components) was previously noted in the description of the
cost  estimation model.  The remaining equipment costs  (e.g., for
tanks, agitators, pumps) were developed  as  a  function  of  the
influent  flowrate  (either  directly or indirectly, when coupled
with the design assumptions).

Direct annual costs for the continuous system  include  operating
and maintenance labor for the feed systems and the clarifier, the
cost  of lime and polymer, maintenance materials and energy costs
required to run the agitators and pumps.

The normal batch treatment system  (used  for  2,000  liters/hour
flow  11,800 liters/hour) consists of the following equipment:

        Lime feed system  (batch)

        1.  Slurry tank (5 minute retention time)
        2.  Agitator
        3.  Feed pump

     -  Polymer feed system

        1.  Chemical mix  tank
        2.  Agitator
        3.  Chemical metering pump

        pH adjustment system

        1.  Reaction tanks  (2),  (8 hour retention time  each)
        2.  Agitators  (2),  (velocity gradient is 300/second)
        3.  Sludge pump (1),  (to  transfer sludge to dewatering)
        4.  pH control system

The  reaction  tanks  used  in pH  adjustment are sized to hold the
wastewater volume accumulated for one batch period  (assumed  to be
8  hours).  The tanks are  arranged in a  parallel  setup so  that
treatment  occurs in one  tank while wastewater  is accumulating in
the other tank.  A separate  gravity  settler   is  not  necessary
since  settling  will occur  in  the reaction tank after  precipita-
tion has taken place.  The  settled sludge is then pumped   to  the
dewatering stage.
                                887

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 If  additional  tank capacity is required in the pH adjustment sys-
 tem  in  excess of 25,000 gallons (largest single fiberglass tank
 capacity for which cost data were compiled),  additional  tanks are
 added in pairs.  A sludge pump and agitator are costed  for  each
 tank.
                                 * i
 The  cost of operating labor is the major component  of the direct
 annual  costs for the normal batch system.   For operation  of  the
 batch  lime  feed  system,  labor requirements range  from 15 to 60
 minutes per  batch,  depending on the lime feed rate  (5  to  1,000
 pounds/batch).   This labor  is associated with the manual addition
 of   lime  (stored in 50 pound bags).   For pH  adjustment, required
 labor is assumed to be  one  hour  per  batch  (for   pH   control,
 sampling,  valve  operation,   etc,).   Both the pH adjustment tank
 and the lime feed system are assumed to require 52 hours per year
 (one hour/week) of  maintenance labor.   Labor  requirements for the
 polymer  feed   system  are   approximately  one  hour/day,    which
 accounts for manual addition of dry polymer and maintenance asso-
 ciated  with  the chemical feed pump and agitator.
                                  i1
 Direct   annual   costs  also  include the cost of chemicals (lime,
 polymer)  and energy required for the pumps and  agitators.    The
 costs   of lime  and  polymer used in the model are  $47.30/kkg of
 lime ($43/ton)  and  $4.96/kg of polymer  ($2.25/pound),   based  on
 rates   obtained  from  the   Chemical   Weekly   Reporter (lime)  and
 quotations from vendors (polymer) .;

 For small  influent  flowrates  (less than 2,000 liters/hour)  it  is
 more economical  on  a total annualized cost basis  to select the
 'low flow" batch  treatment  system,   The lower flowrates  allow  an
 assumption   of   five  days   for the batch  duration,  or holdup,  as
 opposed to eight  hours for  the  normal   batch  system.    However,
 whenever  the   total   batch  volume  (based on a five  day  holdup)
 exceeds 25,000  gallons,  the maximiim single batch   tank  capacity,
 the  holdup  is  decreased accordingly  to maintain  the batch volume
 under this level.   Capital  and annual   costs   for  the  low  flow
 system  are based  on the following  equipment:

     -  pH adjustment  system      i
        1 .
        2.
        3.
Rapid mix/holdup tank I (5 days or less retention time)
Agitator
Transfer pump         !
Only  one  tank is required for both holdup and treatment because
treatment is assumed  to  be  accomplished  during  non-operating
hours  (since  the  holdup  time  is  much  greater than the time
required for treatment).  A lime feed system is not costed  since
lime  addition at low application rates can be assumed to be done
manually by the operator.  A common pump is used for transfer  of
                               888

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both  the  supernatant  and sludge through an appropriate valving
arrangement.  Addition of polymer was assumed to  be  unnecessary
due to the extended settling time available.

As in the normal batch case, annual costs are comprised mainly of
labor  costs  for  the low flow batch system.  Labor requirements
are constant at 1.5 hours  per  batch  for  operation  (e.g.,'  pH
control,  sampling,  etc.)  and  52  hours per year (one hour per
week) for maintenance.  Labor is also  required  for  the  manual
addition of lime directly to the batch tank, ranging from 0.25 to
1.5  hours  per batch depending on the lime requirement (1 to 500
pounds per  batch).   Annual  costs  also  include  energy  costs
associated with the pump and agitator.

Capital  and  annual  costs  for  these  three operation modes of
chemical  precipitation  and  settling  (lime  and  settle)   are
presented  in Figure VIII-21.  The curves shown in Figure VIII-21
cannot be extrapolated beyond the points shown.

Vacuum Filtration.   The underflow from the clarifier is routed to
a rotary precoat vacuum  filter,  which  dewaters  the  hydroxide
sludge  (it  may  also include calcium sulfate and fluoride) to a
cake of 20 percent dry solids.  The dewatered sludge is  disposed
of  by contract hauling and the filtrate is recycled to the rapid
mix tank as seed material for sludge formation.

The capacity of the vacuum filter, expressed as  square  feet  of
filtration  area,  is  based  on  a yield value of 14.6 kg of dry
solids/hr per square meter of filter area (3 lbs/hr/ft2), with  a
solids capture of 95 percent.  It was assumed that the filter was
operated 8 hours/day.

Cost  data  were  compiled for vacuum filters ranging from 0.9 to
69.7 m2 (9.4 to 750 ft2) in filter  surface  area.   Based  on  a
total annualized cost comparison, it was assumed that it was more
economical  to directly contract haul clarifier underflow streams
which were less than 42 1/hr  (0.185 gpm), rather than dewater  by
vacuum filtration before hauling.
The  capital
ing:
costs for the vacuum filtration include the follow-
        Vacuum filter with precoat but no sludge conditioning,
        Housing, and
        Influent transfer pump.

Operating labor cost is the  major  component  of  annual  costs,
which  also  include  maintenance  and energy costs.  Capital and
annual  costs  of  vacuum  filtration  are  presented   in  Figure
VIII-22.
                               889

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 Flow   Equalization.    Flow  equalization  is accomplished  through
 steel  equalization  tanks  which  are sized  based  on   a   retention
 time   of   eight  hours  and an excess capacity factor  of  1.2.   Cost
 data were  available for steel equalization tanks  up  to  a capacity
 of  500,000 gallons;  multiple units  were   required   for  volumes
 greater  than  500,000 gallons.  ;The tanks are  fitted with agita-
 tors with  a horsepower requirement of 0.006 kw/1,000 liters  (0.03
 hp/1,000 gallons)   of  capacity   to  prevent sedimentation.    An
 influent   transfer   pump   is also  included in  the equalization
 system.                          ;
Capital and annual  costs  for  flow  equalization  are
Figure VIII-23.
presented  in
Multimedia  Filtration.   Multimedia   filtration   is   used   as   a
wastewater  treatment polishing device  to  remove suspended   solids
not  removed   in  previous   treatment  processes.   The  filter beds
consist of  graded layers of  grave'l, coarse  anthracite   coal,  and
fine  sand.    The  equipment used  to determine capital  and  annual
costs are as follows:

        Influent storage tank sized for one backwash volume;

     -  Gravity flow, vertical steel cylindrical filters with
        media  (anthracite, sand, and garnet);

     -  Backwash tank sized  for one backwash volume;
                                 i
        Backwash pump to provide .necessary  flow and head for
        backwash operations;

        Influent transfer pump; and

        Piping, valves, and  a control  system.

The hydraulic  loading rate is 7,335 lph/m2  (180 gph/ft2) and  the
backwash loading rate is 29,340 lph/m2 (720 gph/ft2).   The  filter
is  backwashed  once  per  24 hours for 10  minutes.  The backwash
volume is provided from the  stored filtrate.

Effluent pollutant concentrations are  based on the Agency's  com-
bined  metals data base for  treatability of pollutants  by filtra-
tion technology.

Cartridge-type filters are costed to treat  small flows  (less than
1,150 liters/hour) since they are;  more  economical  compared  to
multimedia  filters  (based  on  |a  least   total  annualized cost
comparison)  at these flows.   It was  assumed  that  the  effluent
quality achieved by cartridge-typ^ filters was at least the  level
attained  by  multimedia  filters.    The costs for cartridge-type
                               890

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filters are based on a two-stage  filter  unit,  a  holding  tank
(capacity  is  equal to the total batch volume of preceding batch
chemical precipitation tank) and an influent transfer pump.

The majority of the annual cost is attributable to replacement of
the spent cartridges which depends  upon  the  amount  of  solids
removed.  The maximum loading for each cartridge is assumed to be
0.225  kg of suspended solids.  The annual energy and maintenance
costs associated with the pump are also  included  in  the  total
annual costs.

Capital and annual costs for cartridge and multimedia filters are
presented in Figure VIII-24.

Chemical  Emulsion Breaking.  Chemical emulsion breaking involves
the  separation  of  relatively  stable  oil-water  mixtures   by
chemical addition.  Alum, polymer, and sulfuric acid are commonly
used  to destabilize oil-water mixtures.  In the determination of
capital and annual costs based on continuous operatibn, 400  mg/1
of  alum  and  2  mg/1  of  polymer  are  added  to waste streams
containing emulsified oil.  The equipment included in the capital
and annual costs for continuous chemical emulsion breaking are as
follows:

        Alum and polymer feed systems:

        1.  Storage units
        2.  Dilution tanks
        3.  Conveyors and chemical feed lines
        4.  Chemical feed pumps

        Rapid mix tank (retention time of 15 minutes; mixer
        velocity gradient is 300/sec)

        Flocculation tank (retention time of 45 minutes;
        mixer velocity gradient is 100/sec)

        Pump

Following the flocculation tank, the stabilized oil-water mixture
enters the oil skimming module.  In the determination of  capital
and annual costs based on batch operation,  sulfuric acid is added
to  waste  streams  containing  emulsified oil until a pH of 3 is
reached.  The following equipment is included in  the  determina-
tion of capital and annual costs based on batch operation:

        Sulfuric acid feed systems

        1.  Storage tanks or drums
                               891

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        2.  Chemical feed  lines
        3.  Chemical feed  pumps    '

        Two tanks equipped with agitators  (retention  time  of
        8 hrs., mixer velocity gradient  is  300/sec)

        Two belt oil skimmers

        Two waste oil pumps        |
                                   [

     -  Two eff1uent water pumps   j                            •
                                   \
        One waste oil storage tank ,(sized to retain the waste
        oil from ten batches)      [         .                •

The  capital  and  annual  costs for continuous and batch chemical
emulsion breaking (Figure  VII1-25) were  determined by summing  the
costs from the above equipment.  Alburn, polymer and sulfuric  acid
costs  were  assumed  to be $.257 p!er kg  ($.118 per pound), $4.95
per kg ($2.25 per pound) and $0.08 per   kg  of  93  percent  acid
($.037  per  pound  of  93  percent  acid),  respectively.   (See
Chemical Weekly Reporter,  March, 1982).

Operation and maintenance  and  energy  costs  for  the  different
types  of  equipment  which  comprise  the  batch  and continuous
systems were  drawn  from  various  literature  sources  and   are
included in the annual costs.

The cutoff flow for determining the operation mode (batch  or con-
tinuous)  is  5,000  liters  per hour, above which the continuous
system is costed; at lower flows, the batch system is costed.

For annual influent flows  to the chemical emulsion breaking  sys-
tem  of  91,200  liters/year (24,00:0 gallons/year) or less, it is
more economical to directly contract haul rather than  treat   the
waste stream.  The breakpoint flow is based on a total annualized
cost  comparison  and  a contract hauling rate of $.40/gallon  (no
credit was given for oil resale),  i
Oil Skimming.  Oil skimming costs apply
water mixtures using a coalescent plate
essentially    an   enhanced   API-ltype
Coalescent plate separators were  not
chemical  emulsion  breaking since jthe
with a belt type oil skimmer, served as
tank.   The cost of the belt skimmer in
part of the chemical emulsion breaking
 to the separation of oil-
>-type separator  (which   is
   oil-^-water   separator).
required  following  batch
batch tank, in conjunction
 the oil-water   separation
 this case was included  as
costs.
Although the required separator capacity  is  dependent  on  many
factors,  the  sizing  was based primarily on the influent waste-
                               892

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water flow rate, with the following design values assumed for the
remaining parameters of importance:
     Parameter

     Specific gravity of oil
     Operating temperature (°F)
     Influent oil concentration (mg/1)
Nominal Design Values

          0.85
         68
     30,000
Extreme operating conditions, such as influent oil concentrations
greater than 30,000 mg/1, or temperatures much  lower  than  68°F
were accounted for in the sizing of the separator.

The  capital  and  annual  costs of oil skimming  (Figure VIII-26)
included the following equipment:

     -  Coalescent plate separator with automatic shutoff
        valve and level sensor

        Oily waste storage tanks (2-week retention time)

     -  Oily waste discharge pump

        Effluent discharge pump

Influent flow rates up to 159,100 1/hr  (700 gpm)  are costed for a
single unit; flows greater than 700 gpm require multiple units.

The direct annual costs for oil  skimming  include  the  cost  of
operating  and  maintenance  labor and replacement parts.  Annual
costs for the coalescent separators alone are minimal and involve
only periodic clean out and replacement of the coalescent plates.

Chromium Reduction.  This technology  can  be  applied  to  waste
streams   containing  significant  concentrations  of  hexavalent
chromium.  Chromium in this form will not  precipitate  until  it
has  been  reduced  to  the  trivalent form.  The waste stream is
treated by addition of acid and gaseous S02 dissolved in water in
an agitated reaction vessel.  The  S02  is  oxidized  to  sulfate
while it reduces the chromium.

The equipment required for this continuous stream includes an S02
feed  system (sulfonator), an E^SO^ feed system,  a reactor vessel
and agitator, and a pump.  The reaction pH is  2.5  and  the  S02
dosage  is  a  function  of  the  influent  loading of hexavalent
chromium.  A conventional sulfonator is used to meter S02 to  the
reaction vessel.  The mixers velocity gradient is 100/sec.

Annual costs are as follows:
                               893

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         1.


         2.

         3.
S02 feed system          j
1.   S02 cost at $0.1 I/kg ($0.25/lb)
2.   Operation and maintenance labor requirements vary
     from 437 hrs/yr at 4.5 kg S02/day (10 Ib S02/day')
     to 5,440 hrs/yr at 4!,540 kg S02/day (10,000 Ibs
     SO2/day),
3.   Energy requirements ;at> 570 kwh/yr at 4.5 kg S02/day
     (10 Ibs S02/day) to >31,000 kwh/yr at 4,540 kg SO,/
     day (10,000 Ibs SO2/day).                       '  .

H2S04 feed system        i

  Operating and maintenance labor at 72 hrs/yr at
  37.8 Ipd (10 gpd) of 93 percent H2S04 to 200
  hrs/yr at 3,780 Ipd (1 ,1000 gpd),
  Maintenance materials at 3 percent of the equip-
  ment cost,              i
  Energy requirements for metering pump and storage
  heating and lighting.   |
        Reactor vessel and agitator

        1.  Operation and maintenance  labor at  120 hrs/yr,
        2.  Electrical requirements for agitator.

Capital  and  annual costs of chromium reduction are presented  in
Figure VIII-27.

Cooling Towers/Tanks.  Cooling towers  are used  to recycle  direct
chill  casting and solution heat treatment contact cooling waters
for recirculating flow rates above ; 3,400  1/hr  (15  gpm).   The
minimum   flow   rate   represents '. the  smallest  cooling  tower
commercially available from the vendors contacted.   Conventional
holding tanks are used to recycle flow rates less than  15 gpm.

The  required  cooling  tower  capacity is based on the amount  of
heat removed, which takes into account both  the  flow  rate  and
temperature  range   (decrease in cooling water  temperature).  The
recirculation flow rate through the cooling tower is based on the
BPT (option 1) flow allowance, and the bleed stream which  enters
the  treatment  system is based on the BAT (Option 2) flow allow-
ance.  For solution heat treatment cooling water, this results  in
a recycle rate of 73.6.percent (e.g.,  7705 1/kkg  -  2037  1/kkg/
7705  1/kkg).  A recycle rate of 85; percent was assumed for cool-
ing of direct chill casting cooling water since recycle is a  BPT
technology  for this waste stream. ! The range was based on a cold
water temperature of 85°F and an average  hot  water  temperature
for  each  particular waste stream calculated from sampling data.
When the hot water temperature was not  available  from  sampling
data,  or  found  to  be below 95°F, a value of 95°F was assumed,
                               894

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resulting  in  a  range  of  10°F   (95-85°F).    The   remaining
significant  design parameters, the wet bulb temperature (ambient
temperature at 100 percent relative humidity)  and  the  approach
(of  cold  water  temperature  to  the  wet bulb temperature) are
assumed to be constant at 77°F and 8°F, respectively.

The capital costs of cooling tower systems include the  following
equipment:

        Cooling tower (crossflow, mechanically-induced) and
        typical accessories

        Piping and valves (305 meters  (1000 ft.) 'carbon steel)

        Cold water storage tank  (1 hour retention time)

     -• Recirculation pump, centrifugal

        Chemical treatment system (for pH, slime and corrosion
        control)

For  nominal  recirculation  flow rates greater than 159,100  1/hr
(700 gpm), multiple cooling towers are assumed to be required.
A holding- tank system would consist  of
recirculation pump.
a  holding  tank  and  a
The  direct  capital  costs  include  purchased  equipment  cost,
installation and delivery.  Installation costs for cool ing' towers
were assumed to be 200 percent of the cooling tower cost based on
information supplied, by vendors.

Direct annual costs included raw chemicals for  water   treatment,
fan  energy requirements, and maintenance and operating labor was
assumed to be constant at 60 hours per year.  The water treatment
chemical cost was based on  a  rate  of  $5/gpm  of  recirculated
water.
Capital and annual costs for cooling towers  and holding  tanks
presented in Figure VIII-28.
                     are
Countercurrent  Cascade  Rinsing.    This   technology   is  used  to
reduce water use  in  rinsing  operations   for  BAT  options.    It
involves  multiple-stage  rinsing,  with   product and  rinse water
moving in opposite directions  (see Section VII for  more   details
on  theory).  This allows for a  significant reduction  in flow  over
single  stage   rinsing, while achieving the same product cleanli-
ness by contacting the most contaminated   rinse  water with  the
incoming product.
                                895

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 The costs for countercurrent cascade rinsing apply to a two-stage
 rinse system, each consisting of the following equipment:

      o  Two fiberglass rectangular tanks (Existing source  costs
         include only one tank since the other tank was assumed
         to be already in place).

      o  One centrifugal,  transfer pump,

      o  One sparger (air diffuser)  for  agitation,

      o  One blower (including motpr)  for supplying air to  the
         sparger.

 Tanks  were  sized  based  on the production rate  associated  with
 each  rinsing operation,  as  follows:
           Production  Rate
               (kkg/yr)

               1,000
            1,000  - 5,000
               5,000
Tank Volume
 (gallons)

  1,500
  3,600
  8,000
The above tank volumes and breakpoints were based on   information
obtained  from  dcp's and a  telephone survey of several anodizina
plants.                                                        ' y

For the case of multiple rinsing operations  undergoing  counter-
current  rinsing,  each operation was costed individually because
of the wide variability in the rinsing flowrates due to the vary-
ing production rates (since  reduced flowrates are  determined  by
multiplying the flow allowance by the production).

When  it  was  determined from a pflant's dcp that two-stage coun-
tercurrent cascade rinsing could be achieved  by  converting  two
existing  adjacent  rinse  tanks, only piping and pump costs were
accounted for.  A constant value of $1,000 was estimated for  the
piping costs.                     |

Capital  and  annual costs for countercurrent cascade rinsing are
presented in Figure VII1-29.

Contract Hauling.  Concentrated sludge and waste oils are removed
on a contract basis for off-site disposal.  The cost of  contract
hauling  depends  on  the  classification  of  the waste as being
either hazardous or nonhazardous. j  For  nonhazardous  wastes   a
rate  of  $0.106/liter  ($0.40/gallon)  was  used  in determining
contract  hauling  costs.    This  value  is  based  on  reviewing
information  from  several  sources,  including  a paint industry
                               896

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 survey,  comments  from  the   aluminum   forming   industry,   and  the
 literature.   The  contract  hauling  cost  for  nonhazardous  waste was
 used  in  this  cost estimation  because  the  Agency believes that the
 wastes generated  from  aluminum  forming  plants  are  not   hazardous
 as  defined   under  40 CFR 261.  The  capital cost associated with
 contract  hauling  is  assumed to   be zero.   The  annual   cost  of
 contract  hauling  is  presented in Figure VIII-30.

 Regeneration.   As  discussed  in  Section  X,   the  regeneration
 technology applicable  to cleaning  or  etching baths is no  longer
 included  in   the Option 2 and  Option 3 model  treatment  technolo-
 gies.  For the plants  costed  after proposal, the  flows attributa-
 ble to cleaning or etching baths were added to  the  total   flow
 treated   through   the  appropriate  end-of-pipe  treatment  technolo-
 gies.                       •
            o
 SUMMARY OF COSTS

 A summary of  the  capital and  annual costs   associated with   com-
 pliance   with  the  aluminum  forming  regulation is  presented in
 Table VIII-ll  for  each  subcategory.

 NORMAL PLANT

 In order  to estimate   costs,  pollutant removals,  and   nonwater
 quality   aspects   for   new sources, the Agency  developed a normal
 plant for each of  the  six  subcategories.  A normal   plant   is a
 theoretical  plant which has  each  of  the manufacturing operations
 covered by the subcategory and production   that  is   the average
 level  of each operation in that subcategory.   (The total produc-
 tion for  the  core  operation and  for each ancillary operation   in
 the  subcategory  'was divided by the  number of  plants in the  sub-
 category.)  The normal  plant  flows are  the  characteristic produc-
 tion times the  production  normalized  flow  allowance   at   each
 option.   In   addition,  a  normal plant was assumed  to  operate 8
 hours per day, 5 days per  week,   50 weeks per year.  Tables  VIII-
 12  to  VIIIH7  present the  composition of the normal plants  for
 each subcategory.   The  capital and  annual  costs  generated   for
 each  normal  plant  for the  three options  are  presented in Table


 NONWATER QUALITY ASPECTS

 The elimination or reduction of one form of pollution may  aggra-
 vate  other  environmental  problems.    Therefore,  Sections 304(b)
 and 306 of the Act require EPA to  consider  the  nonwater  quality
 environmental  impacts  (including energy requirements) of certain
 regulations.    In compliance with these provisions, EPA   has  con-
 sidered  the  effect  of   this regulation on air pollution,.solid
waste generation,  water scarcity, and energy  consumption.   This
                               897

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regulation  was  circulated  to  and  reviewed  by  EPA personnel
responsible for nonwater quality environmental  programs.   While
it  is difficult to balance pollution problems against each other
and against energy utilization, the Administrator has  determined
that  the  impacts identified belo^ are justified by the benefits
associated with compliance with the  limitations  and  standards.
The  following  are  the  nonwater  quality environmental impacts
(including energy requirements) associated with  compliance  with
the aluminum forming regulation.  ;

Air Pollution                     :

Imposition  of BPT, BAT, NSPS, PSES, and PSNS will not create any
substantial air pollution problems because the wastewater  treat-
ment   technologies   required  to  meet  these  limitations  and
standards do not cause air pollution.               ^

Solid Waste                       ;

EPA estimates that aluminum forming facilities  generated  79,000
kkg  (87,000 tons) of solid wastes  (wet basis) in 1977 due to the
treatment of wastewater.  These wastes were comprised  of  treat-
ment  system sludges containing toxic metals, including chromium,
zinc, and cyanide; aluminum; and oil removed during oil  skimming
and chemical emulsion breaking that contains toxic organics.

EPA  estimates  that BPT will contribute an additional 52 kkg (57
tons) per year of solid wastes over that which is currently being
generated by the aluminum forming industry.  BAT  and  PSES  will
increase  these wastes by approximately 77 kkg (85 tons) per year
beyond BPT levels.  These sludges will necessarily contain  addi-
tional quantities  (and concentrations) of toxic metal pollutants.
The  normal  plant  was  used to estimate the sludge generated at
NSPS and PSNS and  is estimated to be a 3  percent  increase  over
BAT and PSES.

The Agency considered the solid wastes that would be generated at
aluminum forming plants by lime anjd settle treatment technologies
and  believes  that  they are not hazardous under Section 3001 of
the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA).  This judgment
is made based on the recommended technology  of   lime  precipita-
tion.   By  the  addition of a small excess of lime during treat-
ment, similar sludges, specificalljy toxic metal  bearing  sludges
generated  by  other industries such as the iron and steel indus-
try, passed the EP toxicity test.   See 40 CFR 261.24 (45 FR 33084
(May 19, 1980)).

The Agency requested specific data  and information in response to
comments from three companies that  claimed that aluminum  forming
lime and settle treatment sludges should be classified as hazard-
                                898

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ous.   The   responses   did   not  support  their  comments  that  solid
wastes generated by  treatment   of   aluminum   forming   wastewater
would be classified  as  hazardous under RCRA.   The  Agency  believes
that  the  proper  treatment  of this  wastewater through  the recom-
mended lime  and settle  treatment technology would  create  a   non-
hazardous  sludge.   Since these  aluminum forming solid  wastes are
not believed to be hazardous, no estimates were made of costs for
disposing of them  as hazardous wastes  in accordance   with   RCRA
requirements.

Wastes  which  are  not  hazardous must be disposed of in  a manner
that will not violate the open   dumping   prohibition  of  Section
4005. of RCRA.  The Agency has calculated as part of the costs for
wastewater   treatment   the cost  of hauling and disposing  of  addi--
tional wastes generated  as a result  of these requirements.

Only wastewater treatment sludge generated by   cyanide  treatment
is  likely   to  be  hazardous  under the regulations implementing
subtitle C of  RCRA.   Wastewater  sludge generated  by  cyanide
treatment  of  aluminum  forming solution heat treatment contact
cooling water may  contain cyanides   and   may   exhibit   extraction
procedure  (EP)  toxicity.   Therefore,   these wastes may require
disposal as  a hazardous  waste.   Wastewater treatment sludge   from
cyanide  treatment   of   a process waste  stream is  generated  sepa-
rately from  lime and settle  sludge and may be  disposed  of   sepa-
rately.   Disposal costs for these hazardous wastes were  based on
$0.80 per gallon ($0.21  per  liter).  The disposal  cost  is   based
on  information  obtained  from  a   number of  sources including a
study of battery manufacturing plants in 1981,  comments   received
on  the  proposed  battery   manufacturing regulation, and a  study
performed by Charles River Associates, Inc., and the  costs   have
been  updated  to  1982  dollars.  We estimate  that  five plants in
the category may need to have cyanide  precipitation,   generating
an  estimated  3,200  kkg  of  potentially hazardous sludge.  The
additional   total  annual  disposal  cost for  this  sludge   is
$283,200.

Generators   of  these  wastes must test  the waste  to determine if
the wastes meet any of the characteristics  of  hazardous  waste.
See  40  CFR 262.11  (45  FR 12732-12733 (February 26, 1980)).  The
Agency may also list these sludges as hazardous  pursuant  to  40
CFR  260.11   (45   FR  33121   (May 19, 1980)),   as amended at  45 FR
76624 (November 19,  1980)).

If these wastes are  identified  as  hazardous,  they  will   come
within the scope of RCRA's "cradle-to-grave" hazardous waste man-
agement  program,   requiring regulation  from the point of genera-
tion to point of final disposition.   EPA's  generator  standards
would  require generators of hazardous aluminum forming wastes to
meet containerization,    labeling,  recordkeeping,    and  reporting
                               899

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requirements.   In  addition, if;aluminum formers dispose of haz-
ardous wastes off-site, they would have  to  prepare  a  manifest
which would track the movement of the wastes from the generator's
premises  to a permitted off-site treatment, storage, or disposal
facility.  See 40 CFR 262.20 (45iFR 33142 (May 19,  1980)).   The
transporter  regulations require - transporters of hazardous wastes
to comply with the manifest system to assure that the wastes  are
delivered  to  a  permitted  facility.   See 40 CFR 263.20 (45 FR
33151 (May 19, 1980)), as amended at 45 FR  86973  (December  31,
1980)).    Finally,  RCRA regulations establish standards for haz-
ardous waste treatment, storage,'and disposal facilities  allowed
to receive such wastes.  See 40 CFR Parts 264 and 265.

Consumptive Water Loss          ;

Treatment   and   control  technologies  that  require  extensive
recycling and reuse of  water  may  require  cooling  mechanisms.
Evaporative  cooling  mechanisms  can  cause  water loss and con-
tribute to water scarcity problems—a primary concern in arid and
semi-arid regions.  While this regulation  assumes  water  reuse,
the  overall  amount  of reuse through evaporative cooling mecha-
nisms is low and the quantity of water involved is  not  signifi-
cant.  In addition, most aluminum forming plants are  located east
of  the  Mississippi  where  watfer scarcity is not a  problem.  We
conclude that the consumptive water  loss  is  insignificant  and
that  the  pollution  reduction  benefits of recycle  technologies
outweigh their impact on consumptive water loss.

Energy Requirements
                                i
EPA estimates that the achievement of  BPT  effluent  limitations
will  result in a net increase in electrial energy consumption of
approximately  65  million  kilowatt-hours  per  year.   The  BAT
effluent  technology should not substantially increase the energy
requirements of BPT because reducing the flow reduces the pumping
requirements, the agitation requirement  for  mixing  wastewater,
and other volume-related energy requirements.  Therefore, the BAT
limitations  are assumed to require an equivalent energy consump-
tion to that of the BPT limitations.  To achieve the  BPT and  BAT
effluent  limitations,  a typical direct discharger will increase
total energy consumption by less than 1  percent  of  the  energy
consumed for production purposes.
                                i
The  Agency  estimates that PSES will result in a net increase in
electrical   energy  consumption  of  approximately    50   million
kilowatt-hours  per  year.   To  achieve PSES, a typical existing
indirect discharger will increase energy consumption  by less than
1 percent of the total energy consumed for production purposes.
                                9100

-------
NSPS will not significantly add to total  energy  consumption  of
the  energy.   A  normal  plant  for each subcategory was used to
estimate the energy requirements for new sources.  A  new  source
wastewater  treatment  system  will  add  approximately 1 million
kilowatt-hours per year to the  total  industry  energy  require-
ments.   PSNS,  like  NSPS,  will  not significantly add to total
energy consumption.
                               901

-------
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-------
                      Table VIII-3

OILY SLUDGE PRODUCTION ASSOCIATED WITH ALUMINUM FORMING
           Operation

      Direct chill casting
      Continuous casting
      Extrus ion
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          heat treatment contact
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          dummy block contact
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(gal/1,000 gal)

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      0.07
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      0.32
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                           909

-------
                           Tab;ie
       LIME DOSAGE REQUIREMENTS AND  LIME  SLUDGE  PRODUCTION
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Direct chill casting
Continuous casting
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     dummy block contact
      cooling
     die cleaning
 Hot rolling oil
 Etch line
     acid rinse
     deoxidant dip
     deoxidant rinse
  -  caustic rinse
     water rinse
     leveler rinse
     scrubber
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 Forging heat treatment
  contact cooling
 Forging scrubber
 Drawing oil
 Drawing heat treatment contact
  cooling                      •
 Cold rolling oil
 Cold rolling heat treatment
  contact cooling
 Foil rolling oil
 Lime
Dosage
(mg/1)
 2,000
 2,000
 2,
 2,
 2,
 2,
 2,
 2,
  000
  000
  000
  000
  000
  000
2,000
2,000
  200

  200
2,000
 2,000
 2,000
            Lime Sludge
            Production
          (gal/1,000 gal)
46
38

63
63
63
63
63
63
63
63
 6

 6
38
                38
                38

-------
                      Table VIII-5

CARBON EXHAUSTION RATES ASSOCIATED WITH ALUMINUM FORMING
           Operation

      Direct chill casting
      Continuous casting
      Extrusion
          contact cooling
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            cooling
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      Drawing heat treatment
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      Cold rolling oil
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       ment contact cooling
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    Carbon
Exhaustion Rate
 (Ibs carbon/
  1,000 gal)

       2
       2
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      10

       0.
       0.
       0.
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-------
                 Table VIII-9

WASTEWATER SAMPLING FREQUENCY  - POST-PROPOSAL
 Wastewater Discharge
   (Liters Per Day)
        0

   37,851

  189,251

  378,501

  946,250+
 37,850

189,250

378,500

946,250
Sampling Frequency

Once per month

Twice per month

Once per week

Twice per week

Three times per week
                    918

-------
                      Table VIII-10

           COST PROGRAM POLLUTANT PARAMETERS
     Parameter

Flowrate
pH
Temperature
Total Suspended Solids
Acidity (as CaC03)
Aluminum
Ammon i a
Antimony
Arsenic
Cadmium
Chromium (trivalent)
Chromium (hexavalent)
Cobalt
Copper
Cyanide (free)
Cyanide (total)
Fluoride
Iron
Lead
Manganese
Nickel
Oil and Grease
Phosphorous
Selenium
Silver
Thallium
Zinc
Units

liters/hour
pH units
°F
mg/1
mg/1
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mg/1
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mg/1
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mg/1
mg/1
mg/1
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                                Compute
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                                 Costs
                                Output
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                      Figure  VIII-18

GENERAL  LOGIC  DIAGRAM  OF COMPUTER  COST MODEL
                              945

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LOGIC DIAGRAM OF MODULE DESIGN PROCEDURE
                   946

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               DESIGN VALUES
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OUTPUT
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             Figure VIII-20

LOGIC DIAGRAM  OF THE COSTING ROUTINE

                    947

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-------
                           SECT-ION  IX

     BEST PRACTICABLE CONTROL TECHNOLOGY CURRENTLY AVAILABLE


This section  defines  the  effluent  characteristics  attainable
through  the  application  of best  practicable  control technology
currently available  (BPT), Section  301(b)(1)(A).   BPT   reflects
the  existing  performance  by plants of various sizes, ages, and
manufacturing processes within the  aluminum  forming category,  as
well  as  the established performance of the recommended  BPT sys-
tems.  Particular consideration  is  given to  the treatment already
in place at plants within the data  base.

The factors considered in identifying BPT  include the total  cost
of  applying the technology in relation to the  effluent reduction
benefits from such application,  the age of. equipment and  facili-
ties  involved,  the  manufacturing processes  employed,  nonwater
quality environmental impacts  (including  energy  requirements),
and  other  factors  the Administrator considers appropriate.  In
general, the BPT level represents the average of the best exist-
ing  performances of plants of various ages,  sizes, processes, or
other common characteristics.  Where existing performance is uni-
formly inadequate, BPT may be transferred  from  a  different  sub-
category  or category.  Limitations based on  transfer of  technol-
ogy are supported by a rationale concluding  that  the  technology
is,  indeed,  transferable,  and  a reasonable  prediction that it
will be capable of achieving the prescribed  effluent limits.  See
Tanner's Council of America v. Train, 540  F.2d 1188  (4th  Cir.
1976).   BPT focuses on end-of-pipe treatment rather than process
changes or internal controls, except  where   such  practices  are
common industry practice.

TECHNICAL APPROACH TO BPT

The  Agency studied the aluminum forming category to identify the
manufacturing processes used  and   wastewaters  generated during
aluminum  forming.  Information was collected from industry using
data collection portfolios, and wastewaters  from specific plants
were  sampled  and  analyzed.  The  Agency used  these data to sub-
categorize the  operations  and  determine  what  constitutes  an
appropriate BPT.  The factors which were considered in establish-
ing  subcategories  are  discussed  fully in  Section IV.   Nonwater
quality impacts and energy requirements are  considered in Section
VIII.

The category has been subcategorized, for the purpose of  regula-
tion,  on  the basis of forming operations.  On examining each of
these  forming  operations,  several  additional  or   subsidiary
processes  were  identified.    To   organize  the principal forming


                               959

-------
process and subsidiary processes into a workable matrix  for  the
purpose of regulation, the primary forming process 'and subsidiary
operations  usually  associated  with it at plants throughout the
industry have been grouped together in what is known as  a  core.
Additional  subsidiary  processes which may or may not be present
at a facility with a given core are called ancillary  operations.
The  basis  of  regulation  at  any  facility  is the set of core
operations plus those ancillary operations actually found at  the
specific facility.

In  making technical assessments of data, reviewing manufacturing
processes,  and  evaluating   wastewater   treatment   technology
options,  both  indirect and direct dischargers have been consid-
ered as a single group.  An examination of plants  and  processes
did  not  indicate  any  process differences based on the type of
discharge, whether it be  direct  or  indirect.   Hence,  BPT  is
described  in  substantial detail for direct discharge subcatego-
ries/ even though there may be no direct discharge plants in that
subcategory.

Wastewater produced by the deformation operations contains signi-
ficant concentrations of oil and grease, suspended solids,  toxic
metals, and aluminum.  Surface cleaning produces a rinse water in
which  significant  concentrations  of  oil and grease, suspended
solids, toxic metals, and aluminum are found.  The other  surface
treatment  wastewaters  have similar characteristics.  Wastewater
from anodizing and conversion coating, which  are  considered  as
cleaning  or  etching  operations,  also may contain chromium and
cyanide.  Contact cooling water is associated with  some  methods
of casting and heat treatment and contains significant concentra-
tions   of  oil  and  grease,  suspended  solids,  toxic  metals,
aluminum, and cyanide.

BPT for the aluminum forming category is based upon common treat-
ment of combined streams  within  each  subcategory.   Sixty-five
percent  of  the  aluminum  forming plants with treatment combine
waste streams in a common treatment system.  The BPT treatment is
similar throughout the  category  to  the  extent  that  oil  and
grease,  suspended solids, and metals removal are required within
each subcategory.  The general, treatment scheme  for  BPT  is  to
apply  oil skimming technology,.to ^remove ^oil and grease, followed
or combined with lime and sejs-ffle technology to remove metals  and
solids  from  the  combined  wastewaters.   Separate  preliminary
treatment steps for chromium reduction,  emulsion  breaking,  and
cyanide  removal  are  utilized  when required.  The BPT effluent
concentrations are based on the performance of chemical  precipi-
tation  and  sedimentation  (lime  and  settle) when applied to  a
broad range of metal-bearing wastewaters.  The basis for lime and
settle performance is set forth in substantial detail in  Section
VII.   The BPT treatment train varies somewhat between subcatego-
                               960

-------
 ries  to  take   into   account  treatment  of  hexavalent   chromium,
 cyanide,  and  emulsified oils.

 For   each  of the subcategories,  a specific approach was followed
 for the  development  of  BPT mass  limitations.   To account for pro-
 duction  and flow variability from  plant  to  plant, a  unit . of
.production  or production normalizing parameter (PNP)  was deter-
 mined for each waste stream which could then be  related  to  the
 flow   from  the process  to determine a production normalized flow.
 Selection of  the PNP for each process  element  is  discussed  in
 Section   IV.    Each   process  within  the  subcategory   was  then
 analyzed to determine (1)  whether  or  not  operations  included
 generated  wastewater,  (2) specific flow rates generated,  and (3)
 specific production  normalized  flows  for  each  process.    This
 analysis is  discussed  in general in Section V and summarized for
 the core operations  in  each subcategory  and  for  the   ancillary
 operations.

 Whenever possible,  the Agency establishes wastewater limitations
 in terms of mass rather than concentration.  The production  nor-
 malized   wastewater  flow (1/kkg  or gal/ton) is a link between the
 production  operations and the effluent limitations.   The  pollu-
 tant   discharge attributable to each operation can be  calculated
 from  the normalized  flow and effluent concentration achievable by
 the treatment technology.

 Normalized  flows were analyzed to determine which flow  was to  be
 used  as  part  of the  basis for BPT mass limitations.   The selected
 flow  (sometimes referred to as a BPT regulatory flow or BPT flow)
 reflects the  water use  controls  which are common practices within
 the industry.   The BPT  normalized flow is based on the  average of
 all   applicable data.    Plants   with  existing  flows   above the
 average  may have to  implement some method of  flow  reduction  to
 achieve  the BPT normalized flow  and thus the BPT limitations.   In
 most   cases,   this will involve  improving housekeeping  practices,
 better maintenance to limit water  leakage,  or  reducing  excess
 flow  by  turning down a  flow valve.   Except for the case of direct
 chill casting which  requires  water recycle, it is not believed
 that  these  modifications would incur any costs for the  plants.

 The BPT  model treatment technology assumes that  all wastewaters
 generated  within  a subcategory were combined for treatment in a
 single or common treatment  system  for  that  subcategory,   even
 though  flow   and  sometimes pollutant characteristics  of process
 wastewater  streams varied within the subcategory.  A disadvantage
 of common treatment  is  that some loss in pollutant removal effec-
 tiveness will result where  waste  streams  containing  specific
 pollutants  at treatable levels are combined with other  streams in
 which these   same   pollutants  are absent or present at very low
 concentrations.  Under  these circumstances a plant may  prefer  to


                               961

-------
segregate  these  waste  streams  and  bypass  treatment.   Since
treatment systems considered under BPT are primarily for  metals,
oil  and  grease, and suspended solids removal, and many existing
plants usually had one common treatment system in place, a common
treatment system for each subcategory is reasonable in  terms  of
cost  and  effectiveness.   Both  treatment  in place at aluminum
forming plants and treatment in other categories  having  similar
wastewaters were evaluated.

The  overall  effectiveness  of  end-of-pipe  treatment  for  the
removal of wastewater pollutants is improved by  the  application
of  water flow controls within the process to limit the volume of
wastewater requiring treatment.  The controls or in-process tech-
nologies recommended under BPT include only those measures  which
are  commonly  practiced  within  the category or subcategory and
which reduce flows to meet the  production  normalized  flow  for
each operation.

For  the  development of effluent limitations, mass loadings were
calculated for each  operation  within  each  subcategory.   This
calculation  was  made  on  a process-by-process basis, primarily
because plants in this category may perform one or  more  of  the
ancillary  operations  in  conjunction  with  the core operations
present.  The mass loadings (milligrams of pollutant  per  metric
ton  of  production unit - mg/kkg) were calculated by multiplying
the BPT normalized flow (1/kkg) by the  concentration  achievable
using  the  BPT  model treatment system (mg/1) for each pollutant
parameter to be regulated under BPT.

Regulated Pollutant Parameters

Pollutant parameters are selected for regulation in the  aluminum
forming  subcategories  because  of  their  frequent  presence at
treatable concentrations in  raw  wastewaters.   Total  suspended
solids, oil and grease, pH, chromium, zinc, aluminum, and cyanide
have been selected for regulation in each subcategory.  Treatment
of  wastewater  from  all  subcategories  is presumed for BPT and
therefore it  is  necessary  to  regulate  (provide  a  discharge
allowance)  for  all  regulated  pollutants  in  each subcategory
wastewater discharge.

Total suspended solids, in addition to being present at high con-
centrations in raw wastewater from aluminum  forming  operations,
is  an important control parameter for metals removal in chemical
precipitation and settling treatment  systems.   The  metals  are
precipitated  as insoluble metal hydroxides, and effective solids
removal is required in order to ensure reduced  levels  of  toxic
metals  in the treatment system effluent.  Total suspended solids
are also regulated as a conventional pollutant to be removed from
the wastewater prior to discharge.
                               962

-------
Oil and grease is regulated under BPT since a number of   aluminum
forming  operations  (i.e., rolling with emulsions, roll grinding,
continuous rod casting,  and  drawing  with  emulsions)   generate
emulsified  wastewater  streams which may  be discharged.   As  seen
in Section V, several waste streams have high   concentrations  of
oil and grease.  As  will be discussed in detail  in Section X,  the
organic  pollutants  considered  for regulation  in Section VI are
soluble in the oil and grease fraction and are   found  associated
with  the  concentrated  oily wastes.  Data across oil and grease
treatment at sampled aluminum forming  plants   show  that  effec-
tively  removing  the  oil  also  removes  97 percent of the toxic
organics  (see Table  X-21, p. 1106).

The importance of pH control is documented in   Section   VII   (p.
701),  and  its  importance in metals removal technology cannot be
over emphasized.  Even small excursions from the optimum  pH level
can result in less than optimum functioning  of   the   system   and
inability  to  achieve  specified results.  The optimum operating
level for most metals  is usually found to  be pH 8.8 to 9.3;  when
aluminum  is  also being removed, the optimum pH may be as low as
7.5 to 8.0.  To  allow  a  reasonable  operating margin   and  to
preclude  the  need  for  final pH adjustment,  the effluent pH is
specified to be  within the range of 7.0 to 10.

Total chromium is regulated since it includes both the hexavalent
and trivalent forms  of chromium.   Only  the  trivalent   form  is
removed   by the  lime and settle technology.  Therefore, the hexa-
valent form must be  reduced in order to meet  the limitation  on
total  chromium  in  each  subcategory.  Chromium may  be  found at
high  levels in wastewaters from anodizing  and conversion   coating
operations.

.Zinc  has  been  selected  for  regulation under BPT since it and
chromium  are the predominant toxic  metals present   in   aluminum
forming   wastewaters.  The Agency believes that when these param-
eters are controlled with the application  of chemical  precipita-
tion  and  sedimentation,  control  of  the other toxic metals is
assured.

Aluminum  has been selected for regulation  under BPT  since  it  is
found  at  high  concentrations  in process  wastewater streams  from
aluminum  forming facilities and since  it  is the metal  being  pro-
cessed,  it  is found  in all aluminum forming process  wastewaters.

Cyanide   is  being   regulated  because   it was  found  in  treatable
concentrations  in two  solution  heat   treatment  contact   cooling
water  streams,  one  associated with  a  forging operation and the
other a drawing  operation.  Sampling data  after proposal  indicate
that  cyanide was also  present  in one extrusion  press  heat  treat-
ment  contact cooling water stream.  Data  indicate that cyanide is
                                963

-------
sometimes   used   as   a  corrosion  inhibitor  in the heat  treatment
operations.   Since such  corrosion  inhibitors are   not  unique  to
these  three plants,  cyanide  is  selected  for  regulation.   However,
representatives  of the industry have indicated that other process
chemicals   can   be   used  to replace cyanide in these  operations.
Therefore,  the most   effective   means for   a  plant  to  control
cyanide may be for that  plant to merely  avoid the  use  of cyanide.
A  special   monitoring provision for cyanide which allows for the
owner  or operator of a plant to  forego periodic  analysis   for
cyanide  if  certain  conditions  are met   is included  in  this
regulation.

The wastewaters  generated  during coil coating of  aluminum   are
relatively   similar   to  the wastewaters  generated  in aluminum
forming in  that  both wastewaters contain oil  and  grease,   sus-
pended solids,   toxic  metals,  aluminum, and sometimes cyanide.
Concentrations of pollutants may vary somewhat.    For  instance,
toxic  metals  and   aluminum concentrations  tend to  be slightly
higher in coil coating wastewaters;  however,  in terms  of  treat-
ability,  the  characteristics   of   the  wastewaters from aluminum
coil coating and aluminum  forming  are essentially  similar,   and
the  same   treatment  should be  equally effective when properly
applied to  either.   Eighteen aluminum   forming plants   reported
that   they   also do  aluminum coil  coating.   Aluminum coil  coating
is a subcategory of  the  coil coating point source   category.    To
simplify compliance  with two regulations at  these  18 plants,  mass
limitations  have been  established for both categories based on
the application  of the  same treatment.   Permissible  discharge
would  be   calculated  by  simply  adding  the masses  that may be
discharged  for each  category.   In  addition,  the same  pollutants
are  limited for both  aluminum  coil  coating  and aluminum forming,
thus making  it easier  for  plants  to co-treat wastewaters   from
these  processes.

The  Agency  based the proposed  limits for the pollutant aluminum
on data from one aluminum  forming plant  and   one   aluminum   coil
coating plant.   Since  proposal  the Agency sampled  four additional
aluminum forming  plants  that treated wastewaters through lime  and
settle  treatment.   Aluminum concentration data from two of these
plants were  incorporated with the proposed data and  the  treatment
effectiveness concentrations for  aluminum   were   revised.    The
Agency  did  not  use  data from  the  other aluminum  forming plants
sampled since proposal because   they were   improperly  operating
their  treatment  systems.    One  plant had an  effluent  TSS concen-
tration coming out of  the  clarifier  of greater  than  50  mg/1   and
an  effluent  pH  above 10.0.  The effluent pH  of the second plant
was below 7.0.
                               964

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ROLLING WITH NEAT OILS SUBCATEGORY
Production Operations and Discharge Flows
The primary
a  rolling
production
annealing,
degreasing,
treatment,
listed in
  operation in this subcategory is rolling aluminum  in
  mill  using neat oil as a lubricant.  Other ancillary
 operations in this subcategory include roll  grinding,
  stationary  casting,  homogenizing, artificial aging,
   sawing,   continuous  sheet  casting,  solution  heat
  and  cleaning or etching.  These unit operations were
Section IV (p. 151 ),   along  with  the  waste  streams
generated  by  these  operations  and  the production normalizing
parameters.  Table IX-1 lists these production operations,  sepa-
rating  them  into  core and ancillary operations, and identifies
the production normalized wastewater flows generated  from  each.
The  core  allowance  for  the Rolling with Neat Oils Subcategory
without an annealing furnace scrubber is 55.31 1/kkg (13.27  gal/
ton).   This  one  allowance represents the sum of the individual
allowances for the core waste  streams  which  have  a  discharge
allowance.   These  streams  are  roll  grinding  spent emulsion,
sawing spent lubricant and miscellaneous  nondescript  wastewater
sources.   The  core  allowance  for  the  Rolling with Neat Oils
Subcategory with an annealing scrubber is 81.66 1/kkg (19.60 gal/
ton).  This one allowance represents the sum • of  the  individual
allowances  for  the  core  waste  streams 'listed above plus the
wastewater discharge allowance for the annealing scrubber liquor.
The following paragraphs discuss these operations and  wastewater
discharge allowances.

Core Operations

Rolling  with  Neat  Oils.   The  mineral  oil  (kerosene)  based
lubricants used in neat oil rolling are  recycled  with  sediment
removal  or filtration.  After extended use, the rolling oils are
periodically disposed of by reclamation or incineration.  None of
the 50 plants  rolling  aluminum  with  neat  oils  reported  any
discharge  of  these  oils  to  surface  waters or publicly owned
treatment  works  (POTW).   For  this  reason,   the   production
operation   has   been   assigned  a  zero  wastewater  discharge
allowance.

Roll  Grinding.   Nine  facilities  that  perform  emulsion  roll
grinding were contacted; one did not supply enough information to
characterize  the  water  use or discharge, and two achieved zero
discharge through complete recycle of  the -roll  grinding  emul-
sions.   The  remaining  six  plants  provided  information about
either their water use or wastewater generation related  to  roll
grinding  (see Table V-7 p. 210).  The BPT discharge flow for this
stream  is  5.50 1/kkg (2.2 gal/ton) of aluminum rolled, based on
                               965

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 the mean  normalized  flow  of   the   five  plants   which  reported
 discharge of  this  stream.

 Annealing.    As  discussed in Section III (p.  110  ),  the annealing
 operation does not use  process  water.    The  annealing   operation
 has   been  included in  the core of  all  six subcategories,  because
 it is not specifically  associated with  any of the major  forming
 processes  (rolling,  extruding,  forging,   drawing),  it is  a  dry
 operation and it can  be found at plants throughout the   category.
 One   of   the  plants surveyed in this study anneals aluminum  which
 is rolled with neat oils and derives the   inert   gas   atmosphere
 used  in its annealing process from  furnace off  gases.   Because of
 the   sulfur   content  of  furnace   fuels,   the  off  gases  require
 cleaning  with wet  scrubbers to  remove contaminants.  The scrubber
 used  involves a  large flow of water with  more  than  99  percent
 recycle   of the  normalized flow and less than 1 percent blowdown.
 The blowdown  at  this  plant  is 26.35 1/kkg  (6.320   gal/ton).
 Another   plant   visited  by the Agency  uses  an  electrostatic
 precipitator  on  their  annealing furnace.    No  flow   data  v/ere
 available from this plant;  however,  it  does generate a  wastewater
 discharge.

 Because   particulate  removal is necessary  to  the  operation of  the
 annealing furnace,  an allowance has been included as part  of   the
 core   of   the Rolling   with Neat Oils  Subcategory.  Other plants
 purchase  cleaned gases  or  burn  natural  gas  to  provide   an  inert
 atmosphere.   These plants do  not  need any air pollution  control
 devices,   therefore,  the   Agency   has   established   two  core
 limitations   for the  Rolling with Neat  Oils Subcategory.   Because
 most plants do   not  have   an   annealing  scrubber   liquor  flow,
 separate   allowances  will  be  established  for  core  waste  streams
 without an annealing  furnace scrubber and  for core waste  streams
 with an annealing  furnace  scrubber.

 The  annealing scrubber  liquor  allowance has  been included in  the
 core to maintain consistency in the regulation.    For   the other
 five   subcategories,  all annealing  operations are performed using
 no process water and  annealing  has  been  assigned  a zero  pollutant
 allowance and is included  in the core.

 Stationary Casting.   In  stationary  casting,   molten  aluminum   is
poured  into  specific shapes for rolling and further processing.
 It was observed  that  in  14 plants that  reported   this  operation,
stationary  casting   is  performed  without   the  discharge of  any
 contact cooling  water.   Frequently,  the  aluminum   is  allowed   to
air    cool   and   solidify.   Often,  the   stationary  molds   are
 internally cooled  with noncontact cooling water.   In some  plants,
a small amount of  water  or mist  is  applied  to  the  top   of   the
stationary cast  aluminum to promote more rapid solidification  and
allow  earlier handling.   In most cases, contact  cooling water  is
                               966

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either collected  and  recycled  or  it
stationary  casting  is  included in the
Neat Oils Subcategory with no wastewater
evaporates.   Therefore,
core of the Rolling with
discharge allowance.
Homogenizing.   Homogenizing  is  a  type  of  heat  treatment  to
control  physical  properties  of  the  aluminum which frequently
follows casting.  Two plants indicate the use  of  water  to  aid
final cooling after homogenizing; however, the water flow is very
small.    Twenty-seven   other   plants  performing  homogenizing
reported no water  use  in  this  process.   Therefore,  no  flow
allowance   has   been   provided   for  this  operation.   Since
homogenizing is a zero discharge process, it is included  in  the
core of the Rolling with Neat Oils Subcategory with no wastewater
discharge allowance.

Artificial  Aging.   Artificial aging is a type of heat treatment
to control physical properties  of  the  aluminum.   Because  the
process  is  a  dry  process,  it  is included in the core of the
Rolling with Neat Oils Subcategory with no  wastewater  discharge
allowance.

Degreasing.    Thirty-four   plants   with   solvent   degreasing
operations were surveyed, and only two indicated  having  process
wastewater  streams  associated with the operation/  One facility
uses a water rinse after solvent  degreasing,  while  the  second
discharges   solvent   recovery  sludge  to  the  facility's  oil
treatment system.  Because 32 plants practice solvent  degreasing
without  wastewater discharge, the Agency believes zero discharge
of wastewater is an appropriate discharge allowance.

Spent degreasing solvents which are used in the aluminum  forming
category  have  been  listed as hazardous wastes from nonspecific
sources  (45 FR 33123).  If degreasing spent solvents are combined
with any other aluminum forming wastewaters and discharged,  then
that  discharge could be a hazardous waste and may become subject
to the requirements of the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act
(RCRA) (see 45 FR 33066).  Thus, this waste should  not  be  com-
bined  with  wastewater treatment sludges because disposal of the
combined discharge would be difficult and costly to achieve under
the RCRA requirements.

Sawing.  Although the sawing operation is assumed to  be  present
at  all  facilities, only  12 plants specifically stated that they
perform  this operation.  Some of these plants  reported  using   a
neat oil for lubrication,  although emulsified lubricants are also
used.  One plant reported  no oils disposal due to evaporation and
carryover.   Six  other plants supplied wastewater discharge flow
data which were used to calculate a mean  value  of  4.807  1/kkg
(1.153 gal/ton) of aluminum rolled for the BPT discharge flow for
this stream (see Table V-29 p. 260).
                                967

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Miscellaneous  Nondescript  Wastewater Sources.  A  flow allowance
of 45.0 1/kkg  (10.8 gal/ton) of aluminum  processed  through   the
core   operations   is   being   established   for  miscellaneous
nondescript  wastewater  streams  such  as  ultrasonic   testing,
maintenance and clean-up, roll grinding of caster rolls, and seal
and  dye baths when not followed by a rinse.  These miscellaneous
wastewaters were observed during site visits and sampling  visits
at  some  facilities  and  are characterized by intermittent,  low
flow discharges.  The flow allowance was calculated by  averaging
three flow values of this waste stream submitted by industry/  two
are  ultrasonic testing flows and one is a maintenance and clean-
up flow (see Table V-79 p. 460).

Ancillary Operations

Continuous Sheet Casting.  Contact cooling water is not  normally
used in continuous casting of aluminum sheet; however, lubricants
may  be  required  in  the  associated smoothing roller.  Fifteen
plants with continuous sheet  or  strip  casting  were  surveyed;
seven  reported  no  lubricants  used, two claimed to achieve  100
percent recycle of lubricants without disposal,  three  indicated
periodic  disposal  of recycled material was necessary, and three
provided insufficient  data.   For  the  three  plants  reporting
disposal  of the lubricant, the mean normalized discharge flow is
1.964 1/kkg (0.471 gal/ton) of aluminum cast;  this  is  the  BPT
wastewater discharge flow for the stream (see Table V-71 p. 429).
When  a  plant  performs  roll  grinding of these caster rolls on
site, the  discharge  from  that  operation  is  covered  by  the
miscellaneous nondescript flow allowance.
Solution  Heat
contain data
solution   and
subcategories.
used   does
therefore, the
7,705  1/kkg
solution heat
 Treatment.   Tables V-39 through V-49 (pp. 285-317)
taken  from  dcp's  on  the  wastewater  flow  from
   press  heat  treatment  quenching  for  all  the
  It has been determined that the amount  of  water
not   vary   significantly  between  subcategories;
 data are grouped, and the mean normalized flow  of
(1,848  gal/ton)   of  aluminum  quenched  following
treatment is the BPT discharge flow.
Of the 89 heat treatment quenching processes surveyed, 52  report
no  recycle of quench water, 25 recycle varying amounts of quench
water, and 12 claimed no discharge of this wastewater  stream  by
practicing total recycle.  It is possible that the plants report-
ing no discharge of cooling water inadvertently failed to mention
necessary  periodic  blowdown  of  the  cooling  tower to prevent
solids  accumulation.   Since  no  technology  for  avoiding  the
buildup  of  solids in completely recycled cooling water is known
to be applied in this category, only  nonzero  wastewater  values
were  used  as  a data base for selecting the BPT discharge flow.
                               968

-------
This includes plants that vary from
recycle.
no  recycle  to  99  percent
Cleaning or Etching.  Cleaning or etching functions are performed
in  approximately  20  percent  of  the  rolling  with  neat oils
facilities.  Wastewaters  are  or  may  be  produced  from  three
segments  of  cleaning  or  etching  operations.   These are from
process baths, which are usually batch dumped;  product  rinsing;
and air pollution control scrubbing.

All  of  the  subcategories  include  a wide range of cleaning or
etching operations including caustic baths and rinses, acid baths
and rinses, detergent baths and rinses,  and  conversion  coating
and  anodizing  baths  and rinses.  The Agency has concluded that
these processes are similar in that a workpiece is  placed  in  a
bath for the time necessary to obtain the desired result, removed
and  rinsed  to remove excess solution and undesired dragout from
the bath.  In many cases, a workpiece is sequentially exposed  to
several etch line baths and rinses.  The generation of wastewater
from  these operations is generally similar and any known differ-
ences have been taken into account by inclusion of all wastewater
generated by the entire  cleaning  and  etching   line.   Separate
consideration  of  each  and  every possible cleaning and etching
operation  would  severely  increase  the   complexity   of   the
regulation.   Therefore, the Agency believes" that it  is appropri-
ate to  combine these operations  into a single allowance.

The ancillary operation  of  cleaning  or  etching  includes  all
surface treatment operations, including chemical  or electrochemi-
cal  anodizing  and conversion coating when performed as an  inte-
gral part  of the aluminum forming process.  For the   purposes  of
this  regulation,   surface treatment of aluminum  is considered to
be an integral part of aluminum  forming whenever  it is
at  the same plant site where aluminum is formed.
etching operation is  defined  as   a  cleaning  or
followed   by  a  rinse.   Multiple  baths are considered multiple
cleaning or etching operations with  a  separate   limitation  for
each  bath which  is followed by  a rinse.  Multiple  rinses  follow-
ing a single  bath will be regulated by a single limitation.

     Process  Baths.  Of   the  34 plants  reporting   cleaning  or
     etching  operations, three  indicated that  the  chemical  baths
     used  for cleaning or etching of formed  aluminum  products are
     discharged  continuously  into the wastewater  from the  rinsing
     operation;  12  plants  indicated that  the  process  baths are
     discharged   periodically   in   a batch discharge  mode;  and  14
     operate  indefinitely without   discharge  by   adding   make-up
     chemicals    and  water   to   offset   the  dragout  loss  from
     processing.    The   remaining    five   plants   supplied   no
      information about  discharges  from  cleaning or  etching baths.
                   performed
                A  cleaning  or
                etching   bath
                                969

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      While  it  is assumed that the majority of plants dispose of
      the chemical bath by a solid waste contractor  or  eliminate
      the  bath  in  other  ways, some plants do in fact treat and
      discharge their process baths.  For BPT, it is assumed  that
      the   process  baths  will  be  periodically  discharged  to
      treatment by bleeding them over a long  period  of  time  to
      achieve  an  equal  distribution  of  flow. Based on 16 flow
      values from  the  12  plants  which  reported  a  wastewater
      ?/!!£  /ge  flow'  a  mean  normalized  discharge flow of 179
      1/kkg (43 gal/ton) of aluminum etched is the flow  allowance
      for  this  stream.   A  summary of this data is presented in
      Table V-52 (p.  326).

      Product Rinses.   A  summary  of  water  use  and  wastewater
      discharge from  product rinses is presented in Table V-55 (p
      349).    This shows  that  some  plants discharge very small
      volumes  of  wastewater  even  though  their  water  use  is
      substantial.  These data have been restructured in Table IX-
      2  to more clearly show the rinse line characteristic of this
      data.    All  plants  with  cleaning  or  etching  operations
      reported discharging   their  rinses.    For  the  purpose  of
      establishing BPT  limitations,   all   44  data  points  were
      averaged  on a    per-rinse-operation   basis.   '  The   mean
      ^5iDal/Zed  wastewater  flow per rinsing operation is 13,912
      1/kkg  (3,339 gal/ton)  of aluminum rinsed,  which is  the  BPT
      discharge flow for this stream.

      Air Pollution   Control   Scrubbers.    Seven  plants surveyed
      reported  using wet air pollution control devices on cleaning
      or  etching operations.   As presented  in Table V-58 (p  391)
      data were available to calculate normalized wastewater  flows
      from four of  the seven plants,  and the mean wastewater   flow
      is   15,900  1/kkg  (3,816   gal/ton)   of  aluminum cleaned  or
      etched.

Pollutants

The pollutants considered for regulation under BPT  are  listed   in
Section   VI,   along   with   an   explanation   of why  they have been
selected.  The pollutants selected  for  regulation  under BPT  are
chromium  (total),  cyanide   (total),   zinc,  aluminum,  oil  and
grease, TSS, and pH.     The  toxic   organic   pollutants,  cadmium,
copper,   lead,  nickel,  and  selenium,  listed  in Section  VI  are not
specifically regulated  under BPT for  the   reasons  explained   in
Section X (p.  1058).

Table IX-3 lists the pollutants considered  for regulation associ-
o u   .Wlth  each  wastewater stream in  the Rolling with Neat Oils
Subcategory and the corresponding maximum and minimum   concentra-
tions detected  for each pollutant.
                               970

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Treatment Train

The  BPT  model  treatment  train  for the Rolling with Neat Oils
Subcategory consists of  preliminary  treatment  when  necessary,
specifically  emulsion breaking and skimming, hexavalent chromium
reduction, and cyanide precipitation.  The effluent from prelimi-
nary treatment is combined  with  other  wastewaters  for  common
treatment  by  skimming and lime and settle.  Sawing spent lubri-
cants, roll grinding spent emulsions, and  casting  spent  lubri-
cants  require  emulsion  breaking  and skimming, and may require
hexavalent chromium reduction  prior  to  combined  treatment  by
skimming  and  lime  and settle.  Solution heat treatment contact
cooling water may require cyanide precipitation,  while  cleaning
or etching wastewaters may require chromium reduction in addition
to  cyanide  precipitation.  Following the preliminary treatment,
these wastewaters are then treated by oil skimming and  lime  and
settle.  This treatment train is presented in Figure IX-1.

Cyanide precipitation is practiced on coil coating wastewaters at
six  plants, two of which have both aluminum forming and aluminum
coil coating operations.  Although it is not currently  practiced
at  plants  which  perform  only aluminum forming operations, the
same cyanide and metallocyanide complexes  would  be  present  in
these  wastewaters  as  in  the  coil coating wastewaters.  These
wastewaters include heat treatment contact cooling water  streams
and  cleaning  or etching  (conversion coating) wastewater streams
which are  subject  to  the  aluminum  forming  regulation.   The
cyanide  precipitation  technology  demonstrated  on coil coating
wastewater would be applicable to aluminum forming wastewaters.

The process, which is described in  detail  in  Section  VII   (p.
706),  involves  the addition of ferrous sulfate heptahydrate and
pH adjustment chemicals to the raw  wastewater  in  a  rapid  mix
tank.   The  resulting  sludge is settled in a clarifier or other
settling device, and the treated water is  routed  to  downstream
processing.  Advantages of the cyanide precipitation process over
the conventional oxidation route are reported to  include  better
removal of complexed cyanide and significant cost savings.

Technology transfer of cyanide precipitation is justified because
existing  treatment in the aluminum forming category is uniformly
inadequate since no plants  are  currently  treating  wastewaters
from  aluminum  forming  with any cyanide removal technology.  In
addition, as discussed previously in  this  section,  the  waste-
waters  generated  during  coil coating of aluminum are similar to
the wastewaters generated  in aluminum forming.

Transfer of cyanide precipitation technology from the coil  coat-
ing  category  to  the  aluminum  forming category is appropriate
because the cyanide is derived from processing aluminum  in  both


                               971

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 categories  and the raw wastewater matrices are homogeneous.   The
 homogeneity of these raw wastewaters has been tested  during   the
 development   of   the   combined  metals  data  base  and  their
 homogeneity confirmed.   Full  details  of  this  examination   are
 presented in the administrative record of this rulemaking.

 Data  available  to the Agency,  discussed in Section VII (p.  706)
 and  presented  in  Table  VII-8  (p.   795),  indicate  that   the
 application  of  cyanide precipitation technology can achieve the
 cyanide treatment effectiveness concentration presented in Table
 VII-20  (p.  807),  even over a wide range of cyanide concentration
 in  the raw waste.

 Effluent Limitations

 Table VII-20  (p.   807),   presents  the  treatment  effectiveness
 corresponding  to  the  BPT  model  treatment train for pollutant
 parameters considered in the Rolling with Neat Oils  Subcategory.
 Effluent  concentrations  (one  day  maximum  and ten day  average
 values)   are  multiplied  by  the  normalized   discharge   flows
 summarized  in  Table  IX-1   to   calculate the mass of pollutants
 allowed to be discharged per mass of  product.    The  results of
 these calculations are shown in  Table  IX-4.

 Benefits

 In   establishing BPT,  EPA must consider  the cost  of treatment and
 control  in relation to   the   effluent   reduction   benefits.    BPT
 costs  and  benefits are  tabulated along  with BAT costs and bene-
 fits  in  Section X.   As  shown in  Table  X-3 (p.  1076),  the applica-
 tion  of  BPT  to the total  Rolling With  Neat Oils Subcategory   wi'll
 remove   approximately  1,725,611.3  kg/yr  (3.796 million Ibs/yr) of
 pollutants.   As shown  in  Table X-l,  (p.  1074), the  corresponding
 capital   and   annual   costs   (1982  dollars)  for  this  removal  are
 $13.5 million  and  $10.7 million  per  year,  respectively.  As shown
 in Table X-9  (p.  1089), the  application of  BPT   to direct   dis-
 chargers only, will  remove approximately  1,448,032.2 kg/yr (3.186
 million   Ibs/yr) of  pollutants.  As  shown in Table X-2  (p. 1075),
 the corresponding  capital  and  annual   costs   (1982   dollars)   for
 this  removal  are  $9.55  million  and   $8.20  million per year,
 respectively.  The Agency  concludes  that  these pollutant removals
 justify  the costs  incurred by  plants in   the Rolling   with   Neat
Oils Subcategory.

ROLLING  WITH EMULSIONS SUBCATEGORY

Production Operations and Discharge Flows

The  primary operation in this Subcategory  is rolling aluminum in
a rolling mill using emulsified oil as a  lubricant.   Other  sub-
                               972

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sidiary  production  operations  in  the subcategory include roll
grinding, annealing, stationary casting, homogenizing, artificial
aging, degreasing, sawing, direct chill  casting,  solution  heat
treatment,  and  cleaning or etching.  These unit operations were
tabulated with the waste streams generated and production normal-
ized parameters in Section IV (p. 154).  Table IX-5  lists  these
production  operations,  separating  them into core and ancillary
operations, and identifies the production  normalized  wastewater
flows  generated  from  each.  The core allowance for the Rolling
with Emulsions Subcategory is 129.8 1/kkg (31.2  gal/ton).  _..This
one allowance represents the sum of the individual _a_lJLow-an'ces for
the  core  waste streams which have a discharge "alTowance.  These
streams are rolling with emulsions spent emulsions, roll grinding
spent emulsions, sawing spent lubricant  and  miscellaneous  non-
descript  wastewater  sources.   The following paragraphs discuss
these operations and wastewater discharge flows.

Core Operations

Rolling with Emulsions.  The oil in  water  emulsion  used  as  a
lubricant  in many rolling operations is frequently discharged to
surface waters or a POTW.  All of the 29 plants in this  subcate-
gory  recycle their emulsions.  Five plants report recycle with a
continuous bleed, and the remaining plants dump  their  emulsions
periodically.

In selecting the BPT discharge flow appropriate for spent rolling
emulsions,  a  number of variables were analyzed for their effect
on the wastewater generated:

     -  Degree of recycle.
     -  Degree of reduction.
        Product type.
     -  Annual production.

The data presented  in Table V-4  (p.  196)  show  the  production
normalized  volume  of spent lubricant which is discharged by the
plants in the Rolling with  Emulsions  Subcategory.   The  median
value  is  extremely  small  in comparison to the discharge flows
from the plants with  higher  production  normalized  discharges.
Therefore, the BPT discharge flow is based on the normalized mean
of  all  available  data for spent rolling emulsions and  is 74.51
1/kkg (17.87 gal/ton).

Recycle rates at plants with a bleed discharge varied from 85  to
99  percent.  The remaining plants discharge periodically, imply-
ing recycle, but  in most cases percent recycle values  cannot  be
assigned.   Neither  the  degree  of recycle nor the mode of dis-
charge significantly  affected  the  normalized  wastewater  flow
distributions.
                               973

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 Although  most  of  the cold rolling operations surveyed use neat
 oil lubricants,  a few plants indicated the use of  emulsions  for
 cold  rolling  operations.   Analysis of the data showed that cold
 rolling with emulsions results in discharge values comparable  to
 those  associated  with  hot  rolling processes.  Normalized dis-
 charge flows vary from plant to  plant;  especially  high  values
 were noted at one plant for both their cold rolling and hot roll-
 ing operations.   Since the  process itself may be considered to be
 confidential,  a  thorough   discussion of this data is precluded.
 The data which are available suggest that the reduction of  plate
 to  sheet  or  foil  by emulsion cold rolling results in emulsion
 discharge comparable to the amount discharged by the hot  rolling
 of ingot to plate.   Discharge rates from these two operations are
 compared below for the same plants:

                       Cold  Rolled
Cold Roll
1/kkq
183.5
7.26
0.584
0.668
Discharge
qpt
44
1 .74
0.14
0.16
Product

Sheet
Sheet and
Sheet and
Sheet and


Foil
Foil
Foil
Hot Roll
1/kkq
304.4
0.392
89.4
Discharqe
qpt
73
0.094
21 .44
Therefore,   the Agency  is  not  distinguishing  between  cold  rolling
emulsions  and  hot   rolling   emulsions   to   establish   the   BPT
normalized discharge  flow.

Roll  Grinding.   Roll  grinding  is associated with virtually all
rolling operations and  is, therefore,  included in  the core of the
Rolling with Emulsions  Subcategory.  This operation was  described
previously in the discussion of rolling  with  neat   oils.   Roll
grinding   operations   and  wastewater  discharges   are  similar
throughout the industry; therefore, the same BPT   technology  and
normalized  flow  is  applied  to  roll  grinding  in  both  rolling
subcategories.

Annealing.  Annealing is a type of heat treatment  which  is often
associated with aluminum forming operations.  The  basic  operation
is  dry,  although  water can  be used  to clean furnace off gases.
In the Rolling with Emulsions  Subcategory, no annealing  operation
uses water for scrubbing; therefore, this stream   is  assigned  a
zero  discharge  allowance  and  is  included  in  the   core  for
regulatory convenience.

Stationary Casting.   Stationary casting is similar throughout the
aluminum forming category, and no discharge of process wastewater
was ever reported.  Therefore, stationary casting  is  included  in
the  core  of  the  Rolling  with  Emulsions  Subcategory  with no
                               974

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wastewater discharge allowance.  For a more detailed  discussion,
refer to the Rolling with Neat Oils Subcategory description.

Homogenizing.   Homogenizing   is  a  heat  treatment process that
frequently follows casting.  For  the  reasons  discussed  previ-
ously,  it  has  been assigned a zero discharge allowance and is,
therefore,  included  as  a  core  stream  in  this  subcategory.
Homogenization  operations  are  similar throughout the industry.
For a more detailed description of the operation,  refer  to  the
Rolling with Neat Oils Subcategory discussion.

Artificial  Aging.   Artificial  aging,  a common heat treatment,
does not  generate  process  wastewater.   Therefore,  artificial
aging  is  included  in  the   core  of the Rolling with Emulsions
Subcategory as a regulatory convenience.

Deqreasing.  All plants surveyed in  this  subcategory  reporting
degreasing operations indicated that no wastewater is discharged;
therefore,  this  stream  has  no wastewater discharge allowance.
Degreasing operations are similar in  all  subcategories  of  the
industry.   For  a  more  detailed  description of the operation,
refer to the Rolling with Neat Oils section.

Sawing.  Sawing is assumed to  be  associated  with  all  rolling
operations  and has been included in the core of the Rolling with
Emulsions Subcategory.  On the basis of  available  data,   sawing
operations and lubricant discharge practices appear to be similar
throughout  the  aluminum forming category.  For a description  of
the normalized discharge flow  associated with  sawing,  refer   to
the Rolling with Neat Oils Subcategory description.

Miscellaneous  Nondescript  Wastewater Sources.  An allowance for
miscellaneous wastewater sources  is  included  in  the core of each
subcategory.   A  description  of  this  allowance  and  the  BPT
discharge flow  designated  for   these  miscellaneous  wastewater
sources  was presented  in  the  discussion of the  Rolling with Neat
Oils  Subcategory.

Ancillary Operations

Direct Chill Casting.   At  20 of  the  29  plants   surveyed   in   the
Rolling   with  Emulsions   Subcategory,  aluminum  is   cast  by  the
direct chill method  before it  is  rolled.   As   a   regulatory  con-
venience,   direct   chill  casting  has been  designated  as  an  ancil-
lary  operation associated  with this   subcategory.    In  addition,
primary   aluminum   reduction   plants  and  some  secondary  aluminum
plants covered by  the  nonferrous  metals  category use  direct chill
casting.   The direct chill  casting process used  in   the   aluminum
forming   and primary  aluminum plants is  identical.   Direct chill
casting  has been  included  in  the  aluminum  forming category   as   a
                                975

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 regulatory convenience.
 limitat'
                          Therefore, it is appropriate to consider

                           °m  a11  the plants\n\hese categories
                       casting  when  establishing  BPT   effluent
  »A       61  aiuminul!1 forming plants, 25 primary aluminum plants,
 and five secondary aluminum  plants  have  direct  chill  casting

 dir^10"h-nThe ^ibution of wastewater rates associated with
 AHA =L ^    casting  is presented in Tables V-64 and V-65 (pp.
 404 and 406,  respectively).    Recycle  of  the  contact  cooling

 JnS  »t? pr-?ctlced aV° Aluminum forming, nine primary aluminum?
 3 2-   I. f?!ve  secondary  aluminum  plants.   Of these, 13 plants
 indicated that total  recycle of this Stream made it  possible  t?

 3T=id  a"Y dlscharge of wastewater; however,  the majority of the
 plants discharge a bleed stream.   The BPT discharge flow for this

 SSrSiSSi-8  ^ed ?n the avera9e of the best,  which is the aver-
 age normalized discharge flow of  the 23 plants  with  90  percent
 recycle  or  greater.    That flow is 1,329 1/kkg (319 gal/ton)  of
 aluminum cast by direct  chill methods.                   ^/^n,  or


          Hgat Treatment .   Solution heat treatment is practiced  by

                  ^   aluminum  forming   subcategories.    Solution

 rultsn   n/T^r5  rter   <*uenchir>9 ^  the hot metal anS
 results in substantial   water use  requirements.    Due  to the
 similarity in  Water  use requirements  among the various subcate-
 gories,  the water  use  data were combined and analyzed as a single

            5? solution  heat treatment  operation Yand  normalised
            .flow  .for   the  associated  wastewater  streams are

 Subctegory1"  Con:|unctlon  with   fche  Rolling   with   Neat   Oils



 Cleaning    or  Etching.    Cleaning   or   etching   operations   were
 described  in  detail in the Rolling   with   Neat   Oils   sibcJtegSry
 description.   Wastewater  streams  associated with these  operations

               chemical baths,  rinse  water,  and air  pollution con?

               ' ^RefSr t0  Rollin9 with  Neat Oils section  for  a
            of  these wastewater streams  and discharge  flows.

Pollutants
 o
Section
                considered for regulation under BPT are listed in
            along with an  explanation  of  why  they  have  been

                 P°llutants selected for regulation unde? IPT ate

                   CnidH (t?tal)'  ZinC'  aluminum,  oil  and
                 u T     . Th?  toxic or9anic pollutants, cadmium,
              nickel,  and selenium, listed in Section VI are  not

                                                               in
                               976

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 Table  IX-6  lists  the  pollutants  considered  for   regulation
 associated  with  each  wastewater  stream  in  the  Rolling with
 Emulsions Subcategory and the corresponding maximum  and  minimum
 concentrations detected for each pollutant.

 Treatment Train

 The   BPT   model  treatment  train  for  the Rolling with Emulsions
 Subcategory consists of  preliminary treatment  when  necessary,
 specifically  emulsion breaking  and skimming,  hexavalent chromium
 reduction,  and cyanide precipitation.   The effluent from prelimi-
 nary  treatment is combined  with  other  wastewaters  for  common
 treatment  by   oil  skimming  and  lime and settle.   Sawing spent
 lubricant,  roll  grinding  spent  emulsions,   and  casting  spent
 lubricants  require   emulsion breaking  and  skimming,   and  may
 require hexavalent chromium reduction prior  to combined treatment
 by skimming and lime and settle.   Solution heat treatment contact
 cooling water  may require cyanide precipitation,   while  cleaning
 or etching wastewaters may require chromium  reduction in addition
 to  cyanide precipitation.   Following  the preliminary treatment,
 these wastewaters are then  treated by  skimming  and  lime  and
 settle.   This  treatment train is presented in  Figure IX-2.

 Effluent  Limitations

 Table  VII-20   (p.   807)   presents  the  treatment   effectiveness
 corresponding  to  the BPT  model   treatment  train  for  pollutant
 parameters   considered in the Rolling with Emulsions  Subcategory.
 Effluent  concentrations (one  day   maximum  and  ten   day  average
 values)    are   multiplied   by   the normalized  discharge  flows
 summarized  in  Table  IX-5  to   calculate   the  mass of  pollutants
 allowed   to  be   discharged   per  mass of product.  The results of
 these calculations are shown  in  Table IX-7.

 Benefits

 In establishing BPT,   EPA  must consider  the cost of treatment  and
 control   in  relation   to  the  effluent reduction benefits.  BPT
 costs and benefits are  tabulated  along  with BAT costs  and   bene-
 fits in Section X.  As  shown  in Table X-4  (p.  1078), the applica-
 tion  of BPT to the  total Rolling  with  Emulsions  Subcategory will
 remove approximately  12,300,000   kg/yr   (2.7  million  Ib/yr)  of
pollutants.   As  shown  in Table  X-l (p. 1074), the corresponding
 capital and annual costs  (1982  dollars)   for   this  removal  are
 $14.7 million and $15.2 million per year, respectively.  As shown
 in  Table  X-10   (p.   1091), the application of BPT to direct dis-
 chargers  only,  will   remove  approximately   10,730,699.0  kg/yr
 (23.607  million Ib/yr) of pollutants.   As shown  in Table X-2 (p.
 1075), the corresponding capital  and annual costs (1982  dollars)
for  this removal are $13.96 million and $14.48 million per year
                               977

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respectively.  The Agency concludes that these pollutant removals
justify  the  costs  incurred  by  plants  in  the  Rolling  with
Emulsions Subcategory.

EXTRUSION SUBCATEGORY

Production Operations and Discharge Flows

The primary operation in this subcategory is extrusion, including
die  cleaning and dummy block cooling operations.  Other subsidi-
ary production operations in the subcategory  include  annealing,
stationary  casting,  homogenizing, artificial aging, degreasing,
sawing, direct chill casting,  extrusion  press  hydraulic  fluid
leakage,  solution and press heat treatment, cleaning or etching,
and degassing.  These unit operations  were  tabulated  with  the
waste  streams  generated and production normalized parameters in
Section IV (p. 156).  Table IX-8 lists  these  production  opera-
tions,  separating  them  into core and ancillary operations, and
identifies the production normalized wastewater  flows  generated
from  each.   The core allowance for the Extrusion Subcategory is
363.82 1/kkg  (87.4 gal/ton).  This one allowance  represents  the
sum of the individual allowances for the core waste streams which
have  a  discharge  allowance.   These  streams are extrusion die
cleaning bath, rinse and scrubber liquor, sawing spent lubricant,
and miscellaneous non-descript wastewater sources.  The following
paragraphs discuss  these  operations  and  wastewater  discharge
flows.

Core Operations

Extrusion Die Cleaning Bath and Rinse.  The cleaning of extrusion
dies  by  immersion   in caustic baths is described in Section III
(p. 101).  Although most of the plants  contacted  discharge  the
caustic  bath  (with or without treatment) to surface waters or  a
POTW, the solution is hauled from at  least  four  plants  by  an
outside  contractor.  Thirteen plants reported discharge rates as
shown in Table V-10 (p. 220).  One plant reported no discharge of
the die cleaning bath, and 27 plants did not report  enough  data
to calculate  a normalized discharge flow.

The  volume   of  caustic required will depend on the intricacy of
the die orifice, the  temperature  of  extrusion,  the  lubricant
used,  and many other factors.  Sufficient data are not available
to investigate these possibilities.  Furthermore,  it  is  likely
that  the  effect  of  individual  plant practices (e.g., dumping
prior to saturation)  may  mask  the  effect  of  these  factors.
Therefore,   the mean  normalized discharge flow,  12.9 1/kkg (3.096
gal/ton) of  aluminum  extruded, based on all 13 plants  that  dis-
charge  die   cleaning baths, has been chosen as  the basis for BPT
limitations.  In addition, any effect of  these  factors  on  the
                                978

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discharge  flow  is  taken into account by the use of the 13 flow
values collected by industry.

As discussed in Section V (Table V-ll, p.  221),  the  wastewater
flows  for  extrusion die cleaning rinses are available for 13 of
the 37 plants known to have die cleaning operations.  Of  the  13
plants,  one  reports  no  discharge of die cleaning rinse water.
The normalized mean  of  the  other  12  is  25.62  1/kkg  (6.145
gal/ton).

Although  many factors could influence the amount of water needed
for rinsing the dies, it appears that individual plant  practices
are the most significant factor.  Frequently, the dies are simply
hosed  off,  and the quantity of water used is not carefully con-
trolled.  It  is  anticipated  that  plants  discharging  volumes
greater  than the mean will be able to reduce the volume of water
discharged by applying tighter controls  on  the  water  used  to
rinse the dies.

The normalized discharge flow for the BPT limitations of the com-
bined  bath  and rinse streams is the summation of the two means,
12.90  1/kkg  and  25.62  1/kkg,  which  is  38.52  1/kkg  (9.245
gal/ton).

Extrusion  Die  Cleaning Scrubber.  A wet scrubber can be used to
control caustic fumes from the die cleaning bath.  Although  only
two  plants  with  die  cleaning  baths reported scrubbers, it is
believed that most employ wet scrubbers.  The two plants supplied
enough information to  calculate  a  normalized  discharge  flow.
These flows were averaged to be 275.5 1/kkg  (66.08 gal/ton) which
will be used as the BPT wastewater discharge flow.

Two  plants  reported  the  use of wet scrubbers at the extrusion
presses  to remove caustic  fumes.   One  of  these  scrubbers  is
operated  only  when the die cleaning process is in operation and
serves to remove the caustic  fumes  generated  by  cleaning  the
dies.    This  scrubber  is  considered  an extrusion die cleaning
scrubber and will have the same flow allowance of 275.5 1/kkg.

The second scrubber operates  at  all  times,  although  the  die
cleaning  process  is  in  operation  only   intermittently.  This
scrubber serves to remove fumes from various sources in the  area
as  well  as  the  die  cleaning  caustic fumes.  This scrubber is
considered an area scrubber as well as a die  cleaning  scrubber.
Because  area  scrubbers are included in the miscellaneous nonde-
script wastewater allowance, this scrubber will receive both flow
allowances:  extrusion die   cleaning  scrubber  liquor  at  275.5
1/kkg  and miscellaneous nondescript wastewater at 45 1/kkg.
                                979

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Dummy  Block  Cooling.   Of  the  163  plants  that  practice  extrusion,
only three  report  discharge  of   a   dummy   block   contact   cooling
stream.   Air  cooling  of  the dummy blocks is  used  for  cooling  by
the vast majority  of  extrusion  plants.  For this  reason,   dummy
block  contact   cooling has been classified  as  a  zero pollutant
discharge allowance stream.

Annealing.  Annealing is a type of heat treatment which is   often
associated  with aluminum forming operations.   The basic operation
is  dry,  although water  can be used  to  clean furnace  off  gases.
In the Extrusion Subcategory, no annealing operation  uses   water
for   scrubbing;   therefore,  this  stream  is assigned   a  zero
discharge allowance and is included in the  core  for   regulatory
convenience.

Stationary  Casting.    Stationary  casting is associated with most
of the aluminum forming subcategories  and is designated as  a zero
discharge operation.  The  operation is   similar  throughout the
industry  and  was never  found to generate a wastewater  stream.
Therefore,  stationary casting is included  in  the  core  of the
Extrusion   Subcategory  with  no  wastewater discharge  allowance.
For a more  detailed   description,   refer   to   the  discussion  of
stationary  casting   operations  associated with  the Rolling with
Neat Oils Subcategory.

Homogenizing.   Homogenizing  is   a   heat   treatment  process   that
frequently  follows   casting.    For the  reasons  discussed previ-
ously, it has been assigned  a zero discharge   allowance and is,
therefore,  included  as   a  core   stream  in  this  Subcategory.
Homogenization  operations  are similar  throughout   the  industry.
For  a  more  detailed  description of the operation, refer  to the
Rolling with  Neat  Oils  Subcategory discussion.

Artificial  Aging.  Artificial aging,  a   common   heat   treatment,
does  not   generate   process  wastewater.   Therefore,  artificial
aging is included  in  the core of the Extrusion Subcategory   as  a
regulatory  convenience.

Degreasing.   All  of  the extrusion plants  surveyed which reported
having degreasing  operations   indicated   that those   operations
generated   no wastewater discharge; therefore, this stream has  no
wastewater  discharge   allowance.   Degreasing   operations   are
similar  in   all   subcategories  of  the   industry.    For  a  more
detailed description  of the operation, refer to the Rolling   with
Neat Oils Subcategory description.

Sawing.    Because  sawing is associated with extrusion operations,
it has been included  in the core of  the   Extrusion  Subcategory.
On  the  basis  of  available data,  sawing  operations and lubricant
discharge practices appear to be similar  throughout the  aluminum
                               980

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forming  category.  For a description of  the  normalized  discharge
flow associated with sawing, refer  to the Rolling with Neat  Oils
Subcategory description.

Miscellaneous  Nondescript  Wastewater Sources.  An allowance for
miscellaneous wastewater sources  is  included  in  the core of  each
subcategory.   A  description- of   this   allowance  and   the  BPT
discharge flow  designated  for   these  miscellaneous  wastewater
sources  was presented in the discussion  of the  Rolling  with Neat
Oils Subcategory.

Ancillary Operations
       Chill Casting.  At 44 of the  163 plants  surveyed   in  the
Extrusion  Subcategory,  aluminum  is  cast  by  the direct chill
method before extrusion.  In  addition,  rolling  with  emulsions
plants  as  well  as  primary  and secondary aluminum plants fre-
quently use direct chill casting.  See the Rolling with Emulsions
Subcategory for a discussion of how  the BPT  discharge  flow  for
direct chill casting was determined.

Extrusion   Press   Hydraulic  Fluid  Leakage.   Extrusion  press
hydraulic  fluids  are  used  in  extrusion  presses.   Neat  oil
hydraulic  fluids  are most commonly used and are not discharged.
Oil-water emulsions are also used, primarily in conjunction  with
the  processing  of  hard aluminum alloys and for processing very
large extrusions.  Five plants reported the  use  and  wastewater
discharge  of  oil-water  emulsion   hydraulic  fluids as shown in
Table V-75 (p.  436).   Data  and  information  collected  during
engineering  plant visits indicate that a flow allowance for this
wastewater source is necessary because emulsion hydraulic  fluids
tend  to  leak  thereby  generating  a  wastewater source.  A BPT
discharge flow allowance of 1,478 1/kkg (355  gal/ton)  for  this
waste stream is based on the average of the production normalized
flow  data  for  the  three  plants  that did not perform recycle.
This flow allowance is applicable when extrusion press  hydraulic
fluid leakage is treated and discharged by a plant.

Solution  and  Press  Heat Treatment.  Solution heat treatment is
practiced by plants in all of the aluminum forming subcategories.
Solution heat treatment involves water quenching  of  the  heated
metal  and  results in substantial water use requirements.  Press
heat treatment is a water spray operation which cools  the  metal
immediately  after  extrusion.    Water use for all heat treatment
contact cooling operations  show  the  similarity  in  water  use
requirements  among  solution  and  press  heat treatment and the
various subcategories.   Due to this  similarity,  the  water  use
data  were  combined  and  analyzed  as  a  single data set.  The
solution heat treatment operation and  the  normalized  discharge
                               981

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flow  for  the  associated  wastewater  stream  are  described in
conjunction with the Rolling with Neat Oils Subcategory.

Cleaning or Etching.  Wastewater streams associated with cleaning
or etching operations may include chemical  baths,  rinse  water,
and  air  pollution control scrubbers.  Refer to the Rolling with
Neat Oils section for a description of these  wastewater  streams
and the associated discharge flows.

Degassing.   In remelting aluminum prior to casting or continuous
casting/ it is sometimes necessary to remove significeint  amounts
of  magnesium or dissolved gases through the addition of chlorine
to the molten metal mass.   When  this  is  performed  to  remove
magnesium,  it  is  called  demagging  and  is  a common refining
practice in the secondary aluminum  industry.   In  the  aluminum
forming   industry,  chlorine  or  inert gases are used to remove
dissolved gases in a similar operation  called  degassing,  which
does  not  change  the  metal content of the melt.  The degassing
processes and  scrubber  liquor  wastewater  characteristics  are
similar   for  aluminum  forming  and  primary  aluminum  plants.
Demagging  is  subject  to  the   secondary   aluminum   effluent
limitations,  while  degassing  is  considered  part  of aluminum
forming when it is performed as an integral part of  an  aluminum
forming process.

Only  one aluminum forming plant employs a wet scrubber for their
degassing operation, and no data are available to calculate  that
discharge  flow.  Therefore, the BPT discharge flow for degassing
scrubber liquor blowdown is based on  the  mean  normalized  flow
from  four  primary  aluminum  subcategory plants using degassing
scrubbers and is 2,607 1/kkg (626 gal/ton) as shown in Table V-72
(p. 430).

Pollutants

The pollutants considered for regulation under BPT are  listed   in
Section  VI,  along  with  an  explanation  of why they have been
selected.  The pollutants selected for regulation under  BPT  are
chromium  (total),  cyanide  (total),  zinc,  aluminum,  oil  and
grease, TSS, and pH.   The  toxic  organic  pollutants,  cadmium,
copper,  lead, nickel, and selenium,  listed  in Section VI are not
specifically regulated under BPT for  the  reasons  explained   in
Section X (p. 1058).

Table IX-9 lists the pollutants considered for regulation associ-
ated with each wastewater stream in the Extrusion Subcategory and
the corresponding maximum and minimum concentrations detected for
each pollutant.
                                982

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Treatment Train

The  BPT  model  treatment  train  for  the Extrusion Subcategory
consists of preliminary treatment  when  necessary,  specifically
emulsion  breaking  and  skimming, hexavalent chromium reduction,
and cyanide precipitation.  The effluent from preliminary  treat-
ment  is  combined with other wastewaters for common treatment by
skimming and lime and settle.  Sawing  spent  lubricants  require
emulsion  breaking  and skimming and may require hexavalent chro-
mium reduction prior to combined treatment by skimming  and  lime
and  settle.  Solution  and  press heat treatment contact cooling
water  may  require  cyanide  precipitation,  while  cleaning  or
etching  and die cleaning wastewaters may require chromium reduc-
tion in addition to cyanide precipitation.  Following the prelim-
inary treatment, these wastewaters are then treated  by  skimming
and lime and settle.  This treatment train is presented in Figure
IX-3.

Effluent Limitations

Table  VI1-21   (p.  807)  presents  the  treatment  effectiveness
corresponding to the BPT  model  treatment  train  for  pollutant
parameters  considered  in  the  Extrusion Subcategory.  Effluent
concentrations  (one day maximum and ten day average  values)  are
multiplied  by the normalized discharge flows summarized in Table
IX-8 to calculate the mass of pollutants allowed to be discharged
per mass of product.  The results of these calculations are shown
in Table IX-10.

Benefits

In establishing BPT, EPA must consider the cost of treatment  and
control  in  relation  to  the  effluent reduction benefits.  BPT
costs and benefits are tabulated along with BAT costs  and  bene-
fits in Section X.  As shown in Table X-5 (p. 1080), the applica-
tion  of  BPT  to  the  total  Extrusion  Subcategory will remove
approximately 4,207,477.7 kg/yr (9.26 million  Ib/yr)  of  pollu-
tants.   As  shown  in  Table  X-l  (p.  1074), the corresponding
capital and annual costs  (1982  dollars)  for  this  removal  are
$34.6 million and $25.5 million per year, respectively.  As shown
in  Table  X-l1   (p.  1093),  the  application  of  BPT to direct
dischargers only, will  remove  approximately  2,831,772.1  kg/yr
(6.23  million  Ib/yr)  of pollutants.  As shown in Table X-2 (p.
1075), the corresponding capital and annual costs  (1982  dollars)
for  this  removal  are $21.1 million and $13.0 million per year,
respectively.  The Agency concludes that these pollutant removals
justify  the  costs  incurred  by   plants   in   the   Extrusion
Subcategory.
                               983

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 FORGING SUBCATEGORY

 There   are  no   direct  discharging   facilities  which  use forging
 processes  to form aluminum.   Consequently,  the Agency  is  exclud-
 ing  the  Forging  Subcategory   from  this  regulation for existing
 direct  dischargers (BPT and  BAT).  The  discussion   which  follows
 is presented for consistency and completeness.   In  addition,  this
 discussion  forms  the  basis  for pretreatment  standards for the
 Forging Subcategory presented in Section XII.

 Production Operations  and  Discharge Flows

 The production  operations  that  may be present at a  forging plant
 include forging,  annealing,  artificial  aging, degreasing,  sawing,
 forging scrubbing,  solution  heat treatment,  and  cleaning or etch-
 ing.  These unit operations  were tabulated  with  the waste streams
 generated  and production normalizing  parameters  in  Section IV (p.
 158).    Table IX-11  lists  these production  operations,  separating
 them into  core  and  ancillary   operations,  and identifies   the
 production  normalized wastewater flows generated from  each.   The
 core allowance  for the Forging  Subcategory  is 49.8  1/kkg (11.95
 gal/ton).     This   one allowance  represents   the sum  of   the
 individual allowances  for  the core waste  streams   which  have a
 discharge   allowance.    These  streams  are  sawing spent lubricant
 and miscellaneous non-descript  wastewater sources.  The following
 paragraphs discuss   these  operations  and   wastewater   discharge
 flows.

 Core Operations

 Forging.    As  discussed  in  Section  III   (p.  102), the forging
 process  itself does  not use  any process water; therefore,  forging
 is assigned a zero  discharge  allowance  and   is   included  in   the
 core for regulatory  convenience.

 Annealing.   Annealing  is  a  type of heat treatment  which is often
 associated with   all   aluminum   forming operations.    The basic
 operation  is dry,  although water can  be used to  clean furnace  off
 gases.   In  the  Forging Subcategory, no annealing  operation uses
 water for  scrubbing; therefore,  this  stream  is   assigned  a  zero
 discharge   allowance   and  is included  in the core  for  regulatory
 convenience.

Artificial  Aging.  Artificial aging,   a common  heat   treatment,
does  not   generate  wastewater.   Therefore, artificial  aging is
 included in the core of  the Forging Subcategory  as  a   regulatory
convenience.

Degreasinq.  All plants  reporting degreasing operations  indicated
that  no  wastewater is  discharged;  therefore, this stream has no
                               984

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wastewater  discharge  allowance.   Degreasing   operations   are
similar  in  all  subcategories  of  the  industry.   For  a more
detailed description of the operation, refer to the Rolling  with
Neat Oils section.

Sawing.   Because  sawing  can  be associated with forging opera-
tions, it has been included in the core of the  Forging  Subcate-
gory.   On  the  basis  of  available data, sawing operations and
lubricant discharge practices appear to be similar throughout the
aluminum forming category.  For a description of  the  normalized
discharge  flow  associated  with  sawing,  refer to the previous
discussion in the Rolling with Neat Oils section.

Miscellaneous Nondescript Wastewater Sources.  An  allowance  for
miscellaneous  wastewater sources is included in the core of each
subcategory.  A description of this allowance and  the  BPT  dis-
charge  flow designated for these miscellaneous wastwater sources
was presented previously in the discussion of  the  Rolling  with
Neat Oils Subcategory.

Ancillary Operations

Forging Scrubbing.  Particulates and smoke are generated from the
partial  combustion  of  oil-based lubricants used in the forging
process.  Of the 16 forging plants surveyed, four indicated  that
wet  scrubbers  are used to control the emissions associated with
this process.  Three of these plants reported discharge rates for
the scrubber blowdown.  Three indicated that  dry  air  pollution
control devices are employed.  The mean normalized discharge flow
from  three  wet scrubbers, 1,547 1/kkg (371.0 gal/ton), has been
selected as the BPT  discharge  flow  for  the  forging  scrubber
liquor stream.

Solution Heat Treatment.  Solution heat treatment is practiced by
plants  in  all  of the aluminum forming subcategories.  Solution
heat treatment involves water quenching  of  the  hot  metal  and
results  in  substantial  water  use  requirements.   Due  to the
similarity  in  water  use   requirements   among   the   various
subcategories, the water use data were combined and analyzed as a
single  data  set.  The solution heat treatment operation and the
BPT normalized  discharge  flow  for  the  associated  wastewater
stream  are , described  in conjunction with the Rolling with Neat
Oils Subcategory.

Cleaning or Etching.  Wastewater streams associated with cleaning
or etching operations may include chemical  baths,  rinse  water,
and  air  pollution control scrubbers.  Refer to the Rolling with
Neat Oils section for a description of these  wastewater  streams
and the associated BPT discharge flows.
                               985

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Pollutants

The  pollutants  considered  for  regulation  under  BPT  are  listed  in
Section VI, along with  an   explanation   of  why   they  have   been
selected.   The  pollutants selected  for regulation  under  BPT are
chromium   (total),   cyanide  (total),   zinc,   aluminum,  oil  and
grease,  TSS,  and   pH.   The   toxic  organic pollutants, cadmium,
copper, lead, nickel, and selenium, listed in Section VI are  not
specifically  regulated under  BPT   for the reasons explained  in
Section X  (p. 1058) .

Table  IX-12 lists the pollutants  considered for  regulation asso-
ciated with each wastewater stream in the  Forging Subcategory and
the corresponding maximum and minimum concentrations detected for
each pollutant.

Treatment Train

The  BPT  model  treatment  train  for  the Forging Subcategory  con-
sists  of  preliminary  treatment when necessary,  specifically
emulsion  breaking   and skimming, hexavalent chromium reduction,
and cyanide precipitation.   The effluent from preliminary  treat-
ment   is  combined with other wastewaters  for common treatment  by
skimming and lime and settle.  Sawing  spent   lubricants   require
emulsion   breaking  and  skimming  and may   require  hexavale;nt
chromium reduction prior to combined  treatment  by   skimming  and
lime  and  settle.   Solution heat treatment contact  cooling water
may require cyanide  precipitation, while cleaning or etching  and
forging  scrubber  wastewaters  may require chromium reduction  in
addition to cyanide  precipitation.   Following   the preliminary
treatment,  these  wastewaters  are   then  treated by skimming and
lime and settle.  The treatment train is presented in Figure  IX-
4.

Effluent Limitations

Table VII-20 (p. 807) presents the treatment  effectiveness of BPT
model  treatment train  for  pollutant  parameters  considered in the
Forging Subcategory.  Effluent concentrations (one  day  maximum
and  ten  day  average  values)   are  multiplied  by the normalized
discharge flows summarized  in Table IX-11  to  calculate  the   mass
of  pollutants allowed  to be discharged  per mass  of  product.  The
results of these calculations are shown  in  Table  IX-13.

Benefits

BPT level costs and  benefits are  tabulated  along  with  BAT  costs
and  benefits in Section X.   As shown in Table X-6 (p.  1082), the
application  of  BPT  level  technology  to  the  total   Forging
Subcategory  will  remove   approximately   767,120.6  kg/yr (1.688
                               986

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million Ib/yr) of pollutants.  As shown in Table X-l  (p.  1074),
the  corresponding  capital  and  annual costs (1982 dollars) for
this removal are $11.45  million  and  $8.28  million  per  year,
respectively.

DRAWING WITH NEAT OILS SUBCATEGORY

Production Operations and Discharge Flows

The  primary  operation  in  this subcategory is drawing aluminum
using neat oil as a lubricant.  Other subsidiary production oper-
ations in this subcategory include annealing, stationary casting,
homogenizing,  artificial  aging,  degreasing,  sawing,  swaging,
continuous  rod casting, solution heat treatment, and cleaning or
etching.  These unit operations were  tabulated  with  the  waste
streams  generated  and production normalizing parameters in Sec-
tion IV (p. 160).  Table IX-14 lists these production operations,
separating them into core and ancillary operations,  and  identi-
fies  the  production  normalized wastewater flows generated from
each.   The  core  allowance  for  the  Drawing  with  Neat  Oils
Subcategory  is  49.8  1/kkg (11.95 gal/ton).  This one allowance
represents the sum of the  individual  allowances  for  the  core
waste  streams  which  have a discharge allowance.  These streams
are  sawing  spent  lubricants  and   miscellaneous   nondescript
wastewater  sources.   The  following  paragraphs  discuss  these
operations and wastewater discharge flows.

Core Operations

Drawing with Neat Oils.  Of the 64  plants  using  neat  oils  as
drawing  lubricants, none were found to discharge this oil either
directly or indirectly.  The most common practice appears  to  be
filtration and recycle.  Frequently, carryover is the only method
of  disposal, but in other cases the oil is periodically disposed
of either to a contractor or an incinerator.  A number  of  tele-
phone  contacts  with  industry  and trade associations confirmed
this information.  Because no plants are known to be  discharging
drawing  neat  oils to receiving waters or a POTW, the stream has
been assigned a zero discharge allowance.

Annealing.  Annealing is a type of heat treatment which is  often
associated with aluminum forming operations.  The basic operation
is  dry,  although  water can be used to clean furnace off gases.
In the Drawing with Neat Oils Subcategory, no annealing operation
uses water for scrubbing; therefore, this stream  is  assigned  a
zero  discharge  allowance  and  is  included  in  the  core  for
regulatory convenience.

Stationary Casting.  Stationary casting is associated  with  most
of  the  aluminum forming subcategories and is designed as a zero


                               987

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discharge process.    The   operation   is   similar   throughout   the
industry  and   was   never   found to  generate a  wastewater  stream.
Therefore,  stationary casting  is included  in  the  core   of   the
Drawing  with   Neat  Oils Subcategory with no wastewater discharge
allowance.   For  a   more   detailed   description,   refer   to   the
discussion  of  stationary casting operations associated with  the
Rolling with Neat Oils Subcategory.

Homogenizing.   Homogenizing is  a heat   treatment  process  that
frequently  follows   casting.    For   the  reasons discussed previ-
ously, it has been assigned a  zero discharge allowance  and   is,
therefore,  included  as   a core stream  in  this   Subcategory.
Homogenization  operations  are  similar throughout   the  industry.
For  a  more  detailed description of the operation,  refer to  the
Rolling with Neat Oils Subcategory discussion.

Artificial  Aging.  Artificial  aging,   a   common heat treatment,
does  not   generate   wastewater.   Therefore, artificial aging is
included in the core of the Drawing  with  Neat Oils Subcategory as
a regulatory convenience.

Degreasinq.  All plants in this  Subcategory  reporting degreasing
operations  indicated that  no wastewater is discharged; therefore,
this  stream  has  no wastewater discharge allowance.  Degreasing
operations  are  similar in  all  subcategories  of  the industry.   For
a more detailed description  of the operation,   refer   to   the
Rolling with Neat Oils section.

 >awinq.   Because  sawing   is  typically   associated  with  drawing
 Derations, it  has been included in  the core of the Drawing  with
i,,.dt  Oils  Subcategory.    On  the basis of available  data, sawing
operations  and  lubricant discharge practices appear to be  similar
throughout  the  aluminum forming  category.  For  a   description   of
the  normalized discharge  flow associated  with sawing, refer to
the previous discussion in the Rolling with  Neat Oils section.

Sw  4*vj.  Swaging operations point the end of   tube   or  wire   to
prepute it  for  drawing.  Although swaging  may require lubricants,
no  r"^nt   was  found to discharge wastewater from  this operation.
Therefore,   zero
appropriate.
discharge   of   wastewater   is   considered
Miscellaneous  Nondescript  Wastewater Sources.  An allowance for
 •'scellaneous wastewater sources is included in the core of  each
^ubcategory.   A  description  of  this  allowance  and  the  BPT
^'.scharge flow  designated  for  these  miscellaneous  wastewater
sources was presented previously in the discussion of the Rolling
'••'ith Neat Oils Subcategory.
                               988

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Ancillary Operations

Continuous  Rod  Casting  Cooling.   A  method  of casting rod in
preparation for drawing is continuous casting.  A stream of water
is circulated through  the  casting  wheel  to  cool  the  molten
aluminum  as  it  is  cast.   This  water is in theory noncontact
cooling water; however, many of  the  plant  personnel  contacted
have  indicated  that  it is impossible to prevent the water from
coming into contact with the product.  Only one of  the  aluminum
forming  plants   surveyed  supplied  sufficient  information  to
calculate a production normalized flow. The BPT normalized  flow,
1,555  1/kkg  (249.9  gal/ton) of aluminum cast is based on these
data, as shown in Table V-68 (p. 426).

Data obtained from dcp's .for primary aluminum plants were  subse-
quently  considered.   Two plants provided sufficient information
to calculate a discharge flow.  One plant reported  a  production
normalized  discharge flow of 415 1/kkg and the other 11.3 1/kkg.
Both of the primary aluminum  plants  employ  a  high  degree  of
recycle  (99  percent).   The former plant uses approximately the
same amount of water as the single aluminum forming  plant.   The
latter  plant  uses  approximately  40 times as much water as the
other two plants.  There is no apparent reason  to  believe  that
the  casting  operations  at these three plants are different and
that they would require significantly differing amounts of water.
As such, the Agency  believes  that  the  primary  aluminum  data
support  the  selection  of  the BPT normalized flow based on the
aluminum forming data.

Continuous Rod Casting Lubricant.   An  emulsion  is  used  as  a
lubricant  for  rolling  of aluminum rod, part of the rod casting
process, and not to be confused with the Rolling  with  Emulsions
Subcategory.   Of  the  three  plants with continuous rod casting
operations, one reported 100 percent recycle of their  lubricants
without  discharge,  and  two plants periodically dispose of this
waste stream with  contractor  hauling.   Neither  of  these  two
plants  reported  sufficient information to calculate a discharge
flow.  The Agency has transferred the normalized  discharge  flow
for  continuous sheet casting lubricant, 1.9 1/kkg (0.442 gal/ton)
of   aluminum  cast to apply to continous rod casting.  The Agency
believes these processes are similar and the amount of  lubricant
required  per  pound of sheet cast is comparable to the lubricant
used per pound of rod produced.

Solution Heat Treatment.  Solution heat treatment is practiced by
plants in all of the aluminum  forming  subcategories.   Solution
heat treating   involves  water quenching of the heated metal and
results in  substantial  water  use  requirements.   Due  to  the
similarity    in   water   use   requirements  among  the  various
subcategories, the water use data were combined and analyzed as a


                                989

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 single data set.   The solution heat treatment operation  and  the
 BPT normalized data flow for the associated wastewater stream are
 described   in  conjunction  with  the  Rolling   with   Neat  Oils
 Subcategory.

 Cleaning  or Etching.   Wastewater streams associated with  cleaning
 or  etching  operations may include chemical   baths,   rinse  water,
 and  air  pollution control scrubbers.   Refer to  the Rolling with
 Neat Oils section  for a  description of these  wastewater   streams
 and the associated BPT discharge flows.

 Pollutants

 The  pollutants considered  for regulation under BPT are listed in
 Section VI,  along  with an  explanation  of   why   they   have  been
 selected.    The pollutants selected for regulation under BPT are
 chromium  (total),   cyanide  (total),   zinc,   aluminum,   oil  and
 grease,   TSS,   and  pH.   The  toxic organic pollutants,  cadmium,
 copper, lead,  nickel,  and selenium,  listed  in Section  VI  are  not
 regulated  under   BPT for  the reasons explained  in Section X (p.
 1058).

 Table  IX-15   lists  the pollutants  considered  for   regulation
 associated  with   each wastewater stream in the Drawing with Neat
 Oils   Subcategory   and  the  corresponding   maximum and   minimum
 concentrations  detected  for each  pollutant.

 Treatment Train

 The  BPT  model treatment   train  for  the  Drawing  with Neat Oils
 Subcategory consists  of   preliminary  treatment   when   necessary,
 specifically  emulsion breaking and  skimming,  hexavalent  chromium
 reduction, and  cyanide precipitation.   The  effluent  from  prelimi-
 nary  treatment  is  combined   with   other   wastewaters   for  common
 treatment  by   skimming  and lime  and settle.   Sawing spent  lubri-
 cants  require emulsion breaking   and  skimming  and  may   require
 hexavalent  chromium   reduction   prior   to   combined treatment by
 skimming and lime  and  settle.  Solution   heat  treatment   contact
 cooling  water  may require cyanide  precipitation,  while  cleaning
 or  etching wastewaters may  require chromium  reduction  in  addition
 to  cyanide precipitation.   Following  the  preliminary   treatment,
 these  wastewaters  are   then  treated   by   skimming and  lime and
 settle.  The treatment train  is presented in  Figure  IX-5.

 Effluent Limitations

 Table VII-20 (p. 807) presents the treatment effectiveness  of the
BPT model treatment train for pollutant parameters  considered  in
 the  Drawing with Neat Oils Subcategory.  Effluent  concentrations
 (one day maximum and ten day average values)  are  multiplied  by
                               990

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the  normalized  discharge  flows  summarized   in  Table IX-14 to
calculate the mass of pollutants allowed  to  be  discharged  per
mass  of product.  The results of these calculations are shown in
Table IX-16.

Benefits

In establishing BPT, EPA must consider the cost of treatment  and
control  in  relation  to  the  effluent reduction benefits.  BPT
costs and benefits are tabulated along with BAT costs  and  bene-
fits in Section X.  As shown in Table X-7 (p. 1085), the applica-
tion  of BPT to the total Drawing with Neat Oils Subcategory will
remove approximately 756,582.6 kg/yr  (1.664  million  Ib/yr)  of
pollutants.   As  shown in Table X-l (p. 1074), the corresponding
capital and annual costs (1982  dollars)  for  this  removal  are
$4.69 million and $2.94 million per year, respectively.  As shown
in  Table  X-l2  (p. 1095), the application of BPT to direct dis-
chargers only, will remove approximately 536,194.5  kg/yr   (1.180
million  Ib/yr)  of pollutants.  As shown in Table X-2 (p.  1075),
the corresponding capital and annual  costs  (1982  dollars)  for
this  removal  are  $3.03  million  and  $1.75  million per year,
respectively.  The Agency concludes that these pollutant removals
justify the costs incurred by plants in  the  Drawing  with  Neat
Oils Subcategory.

DRAWING WITH EMULSIONS OR SOAPS SUBCATEGORY

Production Operations and Discharge Flows

The  primary  operation  in  this Subcategory is drawing aluminum
using emulsified oil or soap as a  lubricant.   Other  subsidiary
production  operations  in  this  Subcategory  include annealing,
stationary casting, homogenizing, artificial  aging,  degreasing,
sawing,  continuous  rod  casting,  solution  heat treatment, and
cleaning or etching.  These unit operations were  tabulated  with
the waste streams generated and production normalizing parameters
in  Section  IV  (p.  162).   Table  IX-17 lists these production
operations, separating them into core and  ancillary  operations,
and   identifies   the  production  normalized  wastewater  flows
generated from each.  The core allowance  for  the  Drawing  with
Emulsions  or  Soaps  Subcategory is 466.3 1/kkg (111.9 gal/ton).
This  one  allowance  represents  the  sum  of   the   individual
allowances  for  the  core  waste  streams which have a discharge
allowance.  These streams are drawing  with  emulsions  or  soaps
spent  lubricants, sawing spent lubricants and miscellaneous non-
descript wastewater sources.   The  following  paragraphs  discuss
these operations and wastewater discharge flows.
                               991

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Core Operations

Drawing  with  Emulsions  or  Soaps.   Of the  13 plants which use
emulsions or soap solutions for drawing,  eight  provided  enough
data  to calculate normalized discharge flows.  Table IX-18 shows
the wide range of values.

Surface area of product,  or  wire  gauge,   is  one  factor  that
affects  water  use.  However, there are also many other factors,
including wire hardness, reduction  in  diameter  per  die  stage,
drawing  speed,  alloys  used,  and mechanisms for recovering and
reusing the lubricant.  The Agency examined  the  dcp  information
and  found  that  there are plants that draw fine wire gauges and
are currently meeting the BPT flows and limitations; thus, it   is
demonstrated  that  plants drawing fine wire are able to meet the
limitations and flows.

Comparison of Table V-26 (p. 254)  and  Table  IX-18  shows  that
plant  8  does not recycle its soap solutions, while plant 6 does
recycle soap solutions.  This partially  explains  the  extremely
large  wastewater flow of plant 8 and is the reason for eliminat-
ing plant 8's flow from the mean flow calculation.  A  comparison
of  wastewater  from plant 6 using soap as a lubricant and waste-
water from other plants using emulsions shows that  the  type   of
lubricant  does  not  seem  to influence the lubricant normalized
discharge flow.

The mean normalized discharge flow of the six plants that recycle
and discharge drawing emulsions has been chosen as the  basis   of
BPT, 416.5 1/kkg (99.89 gal/ton) of aluminum drawn.

Annealing.   Annealing is a type of heat treatment which is often
associated with  all  aluminum  forming  operations.   The  basic
operation is dry, although water can be used to clean furnace off
gases.   In  the  Drawing with Emulsions or  Soaps Subcategory,  no
annealing operation uses water  for  scrubbing;  therefore,  this
stream  is assigned a zero discharge allowance and is included  as
a core stream for regulatory convenience.

Stationary Casting.  Stationary casting is associated  with  most.
of  the  aluminum forming subcategories and  is designed as a zero
discharge operation.  The operation  is  similar  throughout  the
industry  and  was  never  found to generate a wastewater stream.
Stationary casting is, therefore, included in  the  core  of  the
Drawing  with  Emulsions  or Soaps Subcategory with no wastewater
discharge allowance.  For a further  description,  refer  to  the
discussion  of  stationary casting operations associated with the
Rolling with Neat Oils Subcategory.
                               992

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 Homogenizing.   Homogenizing is  a  heat  treatment  process  that
 frequently  follows  casting.    For  the reasons discussed previ-
 ously,  it has  been assigned a  zero discharge  allowance  and  is
 therefore,  included  as  a  core  stream  in  this  Subcategory!
 Homogenization operations are  similar  throughout  the  industry
 For  a   more  detailed description of the operation,  refer to the
 Rolling with Neat Oils Subcategory discussion.

 Artificial Aging.   Artificial  aging,   a  common  heat  treatment
 does not  generate  wastewater.    Therefore,  artificial aging is
 included in the core of  the  Drawing  with  Emulsions  or  Soaps
 Subcategory as a regulatory convenience.

 Degreasing.    All   plants  surveyed in this Subcategory reporting
 degreasing operations indicated that  no wastewater is discharged-
 therefore,  this stream has  no  wastewater  discharge  allowance'
 Degreasing  operations  are similar   in all  subcategories of the
 industry.   For a more  detailed  description   of  the  operation,
 refer to the Rolling with Neat Oils section.               "tion,

 Sawing.    Because   sawing  is   typically  associated  with  drawing
 operations,  it has  been included  in the core of the Drawing  with
 Emulsions   or  Soaps Subcategory.   On  the  basis  of  available data
 sawing  operations and lubricant discharge practices appear to be
 similar  throughout  the aluminum forming category.   For  a descrip-
 tion  of  the   normalized  discharge  flow associated  with  sawing
 reier to the previous discussion  under  Rolling  with Neat Oils.

 Swaging.   Swaging operations point  the  end of   tube  or  wire to
 prepare  it  for  drawing.   Although  swaging may require lubricants
 no  plant  was  found  to discharge  wastewater from  this operation
 Therefore, zero  discharge of wastewater  is  considered   appropri-
Miscellaneous  Nondescript  Wastewater Sources.  An allowance for
miscellaneous wastewater sources is included in the core of  each
Subcategory.   A  description  of  this  allowance  and  the  BPT
discharge flow  designated  for  these  miscellaneous  wastewater
sources  was presented in the discussion of the Rolling with Neat
Oils Subcategory.

Ancillary Operations
                                                               in
Continuous Rod Casting Cooling.  Rod casting forms the  metal  m
preparation  for  rolling  or  drawing.   In the process, cooling
water is circulated through the casting wheel and often  contacts
the  molten  metal.   As  discussed in the Drawing with Neat Oils
section   only  one  plant  supplied  sufficient  information  to
calculate a normalized flow which is designated the BPT discharge
flow of 1,042 1/kkg (249.9 gal/ton) of aluminum cast.
                               993

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Continuous  Rod  Casting  Lubricant.   Part  of  the  rod casting
process involves rolling the cast aluminum with an emulsion as  a
lubricant.  Of the three plants with continuous rod casting oper-
ations,  one  reported 100 percent recycle of lubricants, and two
plants periodically dispose of this waste stream with  contractor
hauling.   As discussed in the Drawing with Neat Oils section, it
is assumed that the discharge flow is equal to that of continuous
sheet casting lubricant, 1.843 1/kkg (0.442 gal/ton) of  aluminum
cast.

Solution Heat Treatment.  Solution heat treatment is practiced by
plants  in  all  of the aluminum forming subcategories.  Solution
heat treating involves water quenching of the  heated  metal  and
results  in  substantial  water  use  requirements.   Due  to the
similarity  in  water  use   requirements   among   the   various
subcategories, the water use data were combined and analyzed as a
single  data  set.  The solution heat treatment operation and the
BPT normalized data flow for the associated wastewater stream are
described  in  conjunction  with  the  Rolling  with  Neat   Oils
Subcategory.

Cleaning O£ Etching.  Wastewater streams associated with cleaning
or  etching  operations  may include chemical baths, rinse water,
and air pollution control scrubbers.  Refer to the  Rolling  with
Neat  Oils  section for a description of these wastewater streams
and the associated BPT discharge flows.

Pollutants

The pollutants considered for regulation under BPT  are  listed   in
Section  VI,  along  with  an  explanation  of why  they  have been
selected.  The pollutants selected  for regulation under  BPT  are
chromium   (total),  cyanide   (total),  zinc,  aluminum,  oil  and
grease, TSS, and pH.   The  toxic   organic  pollutants,  cadmium,
copper,   lead, nickel, and selenium,  listed  in Section  VI are not
regulated  under BPT for the reasons explained  in  Section  X   (p.
1058).

Table   IX-19  lists the pollutants  considered for regulation asso-
ciated  with each wastewater stream  in  the Drawing with   Emulsions
or  Soaps  Subcategory  and the  corresponding maximum  and minimum
concentrations detected for each pollutant.

Treatment  Train

The BPT model  treatment train  for  the  Drawing with   Emulsions   or
Soaps   Subcategory  consists  of  preliminary  treatment  when  neces-
sary,  specifically emulsion   breaking   and   skimming,   hexavalent
chromium  reduction, and cyanide  precipitation.   The effluent  from
preliminary   treatment   is  combined  with   other wastewaters  for
                                994

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common treatment by skimming and lime and settle.   Sawing  spent
lubricants require emulsion breaking and skimming and may require
hexavalent  chromium  reduction  prior  to  combined treatment by
skimming and lime and settle.  Solution  heat  treatment  contact
cooling  water  may require cyanide precipitation, while cleaning
or etching wastewaters may require chromium reduction in addition
to cyanide precipitation.  Following the  preliminary  treatment,
these  wastewaters  are  then  treated  by  skimming and lime and
settle.  The treatment train is presented in Figure IX-6.

Effluent Limitations

Table VII-20 (p. 807) presents the treatment effectiveness of the
BPT model treatment train for pollutant parameters considered  in
the  Drawing with Emulsions Subcategory.  Effluent concentrations
(one day maximum and ten day average values)  are  multiplied  by
the  normalized  discharge  flows  summarized  in  Table IX-17 to
calculate the mass of pollutants allowed  to  be  discharged  per
mass  of product.  The results of these calculations are shown in
Table IX-20.

Benefits

In establishing BPT, EPA must consider the cost of treatment  and
control  in  relation  to  the  effluent reduction benefits.  BPT
costs and benefits are tabulated along with BAT costs  and  bene-
fits  in  Section  X.   As  shown  in  Table  X-8 (p. 1087 ), the
application of BPT to the total Drawing with Emulsions  or  Soaps
Subcategory  will  remove  approximately  134,342.9  kg/yr (0.296
million Ib/yr) of pollutants.  As shown in Table X-l  (p.  1074),
the  corresponding  capital  and  annual costs (1982 dollars) for
this removal are  $1.05  million  and  $0.82  million  per  year,
respectively.   As shown in Table X-l3 (p. 1097), the application
of BPT to direct  dischargers  only,  will  remove  approximately
53,036.9  kg/yr (0.117 million Ib/yr) of pollutants.  As shown in
Table X-2 (p. 1075), the corresponding capital and  annual  costs
(1982  dollars)  for  this  removal  are  $0.73 million and $0.47
million per year, respectively.  The Agency concludes that  these
pollutant  removals  justify  the costs incurred by plants in the
Drawing with Emulsions or Soaps Subcategory.

APPLICATION OF LIMITATIONS IN PERMITS

The purpose of these limitations (and standards)  is  to  form  a
uniform  basis for regulating wastewater effluent from the alumi-
num forming category.  For direct  dischargers,  this  is  accom-
plished  through  NPDES  permits.   Since  the  aluminum  forming
category is regulated on an individual  waste  stream  "building-
block"  approach,  two  examples of applying these limitations to
                               995

-------
determine  the  allowable
facilities are included.
discharge   from   aluminum   forming
Some  process wastewater streams may not be covered by this regu-
lation or other effluent guidelines  but  are  'generated  in  the
aluminum  forming  plant  and  must  be  dealt with either in the
permit or pretreatment context.  Whenever  such  wastewaters  are
encountered,  the  permit writer or control authority should take
into account the minimum necessary  water  use  for  the  process
operation and the treatment effectiveness of the model technology
using  these  factors  to  derive a mass discharge amount for the
unregulated process wastewater.  As an example painting, which is
not specifically regulated in aluminum forming  sometimes  gener-
ates  a  wastewater.  Metal preparation prior to painting such as
chromate conversion coating should be included as  an  etch  line
operation  while  other  process wastewater such as a water spray
curtain should be allowed an added discharge allowance  based  on
the  minimum  necessary  water  use and the appropriate treatment
effectiveness.

Example J_

Plant X forms aluminum using an extrusion  process  and  operates
250  days per year.  The total plant production is 50,000 kkg/yr.
All of the aluminum is degassed and  cast  by  the  direct  chill
method;  70 percent of the aluminum is solution heat treated; and
50 percent of the aluminum is etched with caustic.  The plant has
a degassing scrubber, and the etch line consists of a single bath
followed by a  two-stage  rinse.   Table  IX-21  illustrates  the
calculation of the allowable BPT discharge of TSS.

The  daily  production  from  the extrusion operation would equal
50,000 off-kkg/yr divided by 250 days/yr to get 200  off-kkg/day.
This  production  rate  is  then multiplied by the extrusion core
limitation (mg/off-kkg) to get the daily discharge limit for  the
core at Plant X.  A production of 200 off-kkg/day is also used to
multiply  with  the limitation of direct chill casting, since 100
percent of the direct chill  casting  product  is  extruded.   To
determine the mass of aluminum that is processed through solution
heat treatment the mass of aluminum extruded (200 off-kkg/day) is
multiplied  by  70  percent  to  achieve a production rate of 140
off-kkg/day.  The same procedure is followed for the cleaning  or
etching  operation  and  the  sum  of  the  daily  limits for the
individual operations becomes the plant limit.

Example 2,

Plant Y, which operates 300 days per year, forms 10,000  off-kkg/
yr  of  aluminum  sheet  by rolling with emulsions and also forms
2,000 off-kkg/yr of aluminum by drawing with emulsions.   All  of
                               996

-------
 the   rolled   aluminum   is  cast  by  the  direct  chill  method;  all  of
 the drawn  aluminum  is  cast by the  continuous  rod  casting  method-
 70  percent   of   the rolled aluminum is  solution  heat  treated-  30
 percent of the rolled  aluminum  is   etched   with   caustic-   and   5
 percent  of   the  drawn aluminum is etched  with caustic.   The  etch
 line  consists of  a  caustic bath followed by a single-stage  rinse
 followed   by  a   detergent bath followed by a second single-stage
 £™S!:  Jable IX~22 iHustrates the calculation of  the allowable
 BPT discharge of  zinc.

 The   first step in determining  the daily limits for Plant Y is  to
 ?n nnn6 ^Od,UCti^n  Jn  terms of  off-kkg/day.   The  plant  produces
 10,000  kkg/yr of aluminum sheet,  all  of which is cast on-site  by
 direct chill  casting.   Thus,  the   daily  production   for   direct
 chill casting is  10,000 off-kkg/yr  divided by 300 days/yr or  33  3
 off-kkg/day.   Following the casting operation the aluminum ingot
 is heated then processed through   the  rolling  mill   to  produce
 plate  and  removed to  cool.  The  aluminum plate is then returned
 to the rolling mill and processed  once   more  to  produce   sheet,
 thus  the same off mass of  aluminum undergoes two process cycles'
 The production parameter used to obtain  the daily limit from  the
 rolling  process  is two times  the production of the direct chill
 casting process or 66.6 off-kkg/day.  The  production  and  daily

performe^t flan? y?"  ™*   "-"  ^   aU  <* the operations
                               997

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-------
                            Table IX-4

 BPT MASS LIMITATIONS FOR THE ROLLING WITH NEAT OILS SUBCATEGORY
Rolling With Neat Oils - Core Waste Streams Without An Annealing
                         Furnace Scrubber
   Pollutant or
Pollutant Property
    Maximum for
    Any One Day
  Maximum for
Monthly Average
    mg/kg (Ib/million Ibs) of aluminum rolled with neat oils
118  Cadmium
119  Chromium*
120  Copper
121  Cyanide*
122  Lead
124  Nickel
125  Selenium
128  Zinc*
     Aluminum*
     Oil & Grease*
     Total Suspended
       Solids*
     pH*     	
       0.019
       0.024
       0.105
       0.016
       0.023
       0.106
       0.068
       0.081
       0.356
       1 .106
       2.268
     0.008
     0.010
     0.055
     0.007
     0.011
     0.070
     0.030
     0.034
     0.174
     0.664
     1.079
Within the range of 7.0 to 10.0 at all times
  Rolling With Neat Oils - Core Waste Streams With An Annealing
                        ' Furnace Scrubber
   Pollutant or
Pollutant Property
    Maximum for
    Any One Day
  Maximum for
Monthly Average
    mg/kg (Ib/million Ibs) of aluminum rolled with neat oils
118  Cadmium
119  Chromium*
120  Copper
121  Cyanide*
122  Lead *
124  Nickel
125  Selenium
128  Zinc*
     Aluminum*
     Oil & Grease*
     Total Suspended
       Solids*
     pH*
       0.027
       0.036
       0.155
       0.024
       0.035
       0.157
         100
         119
         525
         634
         348
     0.012
     0.015
     0.082
     0.010
     0.017
     0.104
     0.045
     0.050
     0.257
     0.980
     1.593
Within the range of 7.0 to 10.0 at all times
*Regulated pollutants.
                                 1003

-------
                       Table  IX-4 (Continued)

 BPT MASS  LIMITATIONS  FOR  THE  ROLLING  WITH  NEAT  OILS  SUBCATEGORY


            Continuous  Sheet Casting  - Spent  Lubricant
   Pollutant  or
Pollutant Property
    Maximum  for
    Any One  Day
                    Maximum for
                 .Monthly Average
  mg/kg  (Ib/million  Ibs)  of  aluminum  cast by  continuous methods
 118  Cadmium
 119  Chromium*
 120  Copper
 121  Cyanide*
 122  Lead
 124  Nickel
 125  Selenium
 128  Zinc*
     Aluminum*
     Oil & Grease*
     Total Suspended
       Solids*
     pH*	
        0.0007
        0.0009
        0.0037
        0.0006
        0.0008
        0.0038
        0.0024
        0.0029
        0.0127
        0.0393
        0.0805
                       0.00035
                       0.0004
                       0.0020
                       0.00024
                       0.0004
                       0.0025
                       0.0011
                       0.0012
                       0.0063
                       0.0236
                       0.0383
Within the range of 7.0 to 10.0 at all times
         Solution Heat Treatment - Contact Cooling Water
   Pollutant or
Pollutant Property
    Maximum for
    Any One Day
                    Maximum for
                  Monthly Average
           mg/kg (Ib/million Ibs) of aluminum quenched
118  Cadmium
119  Chromium*
120  Copper
121  Cyanide*
122  Lead
124  Nickel
125  Selenium
128  Zinc*
     Aluminum*
     Oil & Grease*
     Total Suspended
       Solids*
     pH*	
       2.62
       3.39
      14.64
       2.24
       3.
      14.
       9.
      11,
      49.55
     154.10
     315.91
24
79
48
25
    16
    39
    71
    93
    54
    79
    24
  4.70
 24. 66
 92.46
150.25
1.
1,
7.
0.
1.
9.
4.
Within the range of 7.0 to 10.0 at all times
*Regulated pollutants.
                                 1004

-------
                      Table IX-4 (Continued)

 BPT MASS LIMITATIONS FOR THE ROLLING WITH NEAT OILS SUBCATEGORY


                    Cleaning or Etching - Bath
   Pollutant or
Pollutant Property
                  Maximum  for
                  Any  One  Day
  Maximum for
Monthly Average
      mg/kg (Ib/million Ibs) of aluminum cleaned or etched
118  Cadmium
119  Chromium*
120  Copper
121  Cyanide*
122  Lead
124  Nickel
125  Selenium
128  Zinc*
     Aluminum*
     Oil & Grease*
     Total Suspended
       Solids*
     pH*	
                      0.061
                      0.079
                      0.340
                      0.052
                      0.075
                      0.344
                      0.220
                      0.262
                      1.150
                      3.580
                      7.339
     0.027
     0.032
     0.179
     0.022
     0.035
     0.227
     0.098
     0.109
       ,573
       ,148
       ,491
0,
2,
3,
               Within the range of 7.0 to 10.0 at all times
                   Cleaning or Etching - Rinse,
   Pollutant or
Pollutant Property
                   Maximum for
                   Any One Day
  Maximum for
Monthly Average
 1 18
 119
 120
 121
 122
 124
 125
 128
      ma
   /kg '(Ib/million Ibs) of aluminum cleaned or etched
Cadmium               4.730
Chromium*             6.121
Copper               26.433
Cyanide*              4.034
Lead                  5.843
Nickel               26.711
Selenium             17.112
Zinc*                20.312
Aluminum*            89.454
Oil & Grease*       278.240
Total Suspended     570.390
  Solids*
pH*	
      2.
      2.
     13.
      1.
      2.
     17.
      7.
      8.
     44.
    166.
    271.
  087
  504
  912
  669
  783
  668
  652
  486
  518
  944
  284
                     Within the range of 7.0 to 10.0 at all times
 *Regulated pollutants
                                 1005

-------
                        Table IX-4 (Continued)

   BPT MASS LIMITATIONS FOR THE ROLLING WITH NEAT OILS SUBCATEGORY


                Gleaning or Etching - Scrubber Liquor
    Pollutant  or
 Pollutant  Property
Maximum for
_Any  One Day
  Maximum for
Monthly Averas
       mg/kg  (Ib/million  Ibs)  of  aluminum cleaned or etched
118
119
120
121
122
124
125
128



Cadmium
Chromium*
Copper
Cyanide*
Lead
Nickel
Selenium
Zinc*
Aluminum*
Oil & Grease*
Total Suspended
Solids*
PH* wi
5.406
6.996
30.210
4.611
6.678
30.528
19.557
23.214
102.237
318.000
651.900
thin the range of 7.0 to
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190.800
310.050
10.0 at all tiroes.
*Regulated pollutants.
                                 1006

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-------
                             Table IX-7

 BPT  MASS  LIMITATIONS  FOR THE ROLLING WITH EMULSIONS  SUBCATEGORY


            Rolling With  Emulsions - Core  Waste  Streams
   Pollutant  or
Pollutant Property
                         Maximum for
                         Any One Day
                      Maximum  for
                    Monthly Average
    mg/kg  (Ib/million  Ibs)  of  aluminum rolled with  emulsions
 118  Cadmium
 11 9  Chromium*
 120  Copper
 121  Cyanide*
 122  Lead
 124  Nickel
 125  Selenium
 128  Zinc*
     Aluminum*
     Oil & Grease*
     Total Suspended
       Solids*
     pH*	
                            0.044
                            0.057
                            0.247
                            0.038
                            0.055
                            0.249
                            0.160
                            0. 190
                            0.835
                            2.596
                            5.323
                         0.019
                         0.024
                         0.130
                         0.016
                         0.026
                         0.165
                         0.071
                         0.079
                         0.416
                         1.558
                         2.531
                    Within the range of  7.0 to  10.0 at all times
           Direct Chill Casting - Contact Cooling Water
   Pollutant or
Pollutant Property
                        Maximum for
                        Any One Day
                      Maximum for
                    Monthly Average
mg/kg (Ib/million Ibs) of aluminum cast by direct chill methods
118  Cadmium
119  Chromium*
120  Copper
121  Cyanide*
122  Lead
124  Nickel
125  Selenium
128  Zinc*
     Aluminum*
     Oil & Grease*
     Total Suspended
       Solids*
     pH*	
                           0.452
                           0.585
                           2.525
                           0.385
                           0..558
                           2.552
                             ,635
                             ,940
                             545
                          26.580
                          54.489
1,
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 0. 199
 0.239
 1.329
 0.159
 0.266
 1 .688
 0.731
 0.811
 4.253
15.948
25.916
                    Within the range of 7.0 to 10.0 at all times

*Regulated pollutants.
                               1010

-------
                      Table IX-7 (Continued)

 BPT MASS LIMITATIONS FOR THE ROLLING WITH EMULSIONS SUBCATEGORY


         Solution Heat Treatment - Contact Cooling Water
   Pollutant or
Pollutant Propert
                  Maximum tor
                  Any One Day
                 (Ib/million Ibs) of aluminum quenched
118  Cadmium
1 1 9  Chromium*
120  Copper
121  Cyanide*
122  Lead
124  Nickel
125  Selenium
128  Zinc*
     Aluminum*
     Oil & Grease*
     Total Suspended
       Solids*
     pH*	
                           2.620
                           3.390
                          14.640
                           2.234
                           3.236
                          14.794
                           9.477
                          11.249
                          49.543
                          154.100
                          315.905
                                              1.156
                                              1.387
                                              7.705
                                              0.925
                                              1.541
                                              9.785
                                              4.238
                                              4.700
                                              24.656
                                              92.460
                                             150.248
                    Within the  range of  7.0 to 10.0 at all times
                     Cleaning or Etching - Bath
    Pollutant or
 Pollutant Property
                                            Maximum for
                                          Monthly Average
             Hb/million Ibs) of aluminum cleaned or etched
 1.18
 119
 120
 121
 122
 124
 125
 128
Cadmium
Chromium*
Copper
Cyanide*
Lead
Nickel
Selenium
Zinc*
Aluminum*
Oil & Grease*
Total Suspended
  Solids*
pH*	
                            0.061
                            0.079
                            0.340
                            0.052
                            0.075
                            0.344
                            0.220
                            0.262
                              151
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0.032
0.179
0.022
0.036
0.227
0.098
0.109
  ,573
  .149
  .491
0.
2.
3.
                     Within  the  ran;
                                                 10.0  at  all  times
  *Regulated  pollutants
                                1011

-------
                        Table IX-7 (Continued)

   BPT MASS LIMITATIONS FOR THE ROLLING WITH EMULSIONS SUBCATEGORY


                     Cleaning or Etching - Rinse
     Pollutant  or
  Pollutant  Property
 Maximum for
 Any One Day
   Maximum
 Monthly AA
for
       mg/kg  (Ib/million  Ibs)  of  aluminum  cleaned  or  etched
118
119
120
121
122
124
125
128



Cadmium
Chromium*
Copper
Cyanide*
Lead
Nickel
Selenium
Zinc*
Aluminum*
Oil & Grease*
Total Suspended
Solids*
PH* W
4.730
6.121
26.433
4. 034 •>
5.843
26.711
17.112
20.312
89.454
278.240
570.392
ithin the range of 7.0 to
2. 087

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7.652
8. 486
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               Cleaning or Etching - Scrubber Liquor
    Pollutant  or
 Pollutant  Property
Maximum for
Any One Day
  Maximum for
Monthly Average
      mg/kg  (Ib/million Ibs)  of aluminum cleaned or etched
118
119
120
121
122
124
125
128



Cadmium
Chromium*
Copper
Cyanide*
Lead
Nickel
Selenium
Zinc*
Aluminum*
Oil & Grease*
Total Suspended
Solids*
PH* w
5.406
6.996
30.210
4.611
6.678
30.528
19.577
23.214
102.237
318.000
651.900
ithin the range of 7.0 to
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9.699
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10.0 at all times.
*Regulated pollutants.
                              1012

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-------
Table IX-9
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BPT REGULATION IN CORE AND ANCILLARY WASTE STREAMS -
EXTRUSION SUBCATEGORY
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-------
                             Table IX-10

         BPT MASS  LIMITATIONS  FOR THE  EXTRUSION SUBCATEGORY


                    Extrusion - Core Waste  Streams
    Pollutant or
 Pollutant Property
 Maximum for
 Any One Day
                       Maximum  for
                     Monthly Average
 118
 119
 120
 121
 122
 124
 125
 128
            mg/kg  (Ib/million Ibs) of aluminum extruded
Cadmium
Chromium*
Copper
Cyanide*
Lead
Nickel
Selenium
Zinc*
Aluminum*
Oil & Grease*
Total Suspended
  Solids*
pH*	
 0
 0
 0
 0.
 0.
 0.
 0.
 0.
 2.
 7.
14.
      124
      161
      695
      106
      153
      702
      450
      534
      34
      314
      994
                           0
                           0
                           0
                           0.
                           0.
                           0.
                           0.
                           0.
                           1.
                           4.
                           7.
                                                       055
                                                       066
                                                       366
                                                       044
                                                       073
                                                       464
                                                       201
                                                       223
                                                       16
                                                       338
                                                       131
                     Within the range of 7.0 to 10.0 at all times
            Direct Chill Casting - Contact Cooling Water
    Pollutant  or
 Pollutant  Property
Maximum for
Any One Day
                       Maximum  for
                     Monthly Average
mg/kg  (Ib/million  Ibs)  of  aluminum cast  by direct  chill  methods
118  Cadmium
119  Chromium*
120  Copper
121   Cyanide*
122  Lead
124  Nickel
125  Selenium
128  Zinc*
     Aluminum*
     Oil & Grease*
     Total Suspended
       Solids*
     pH*	
 0,
 0,
 2.
 0.
 0.
 2.
 1.
 1.
 8.
26.
54.
                              452
                              585
                              525
                              385
                              558
                              552
                              635
                              940
                              545
                              580
                              489
                          0
                          0
                          1.
                          0.
                          0.
                          1 .
                          0.
                          0.
                          4.
                        15.
                        25.
                              199
                              239
                              329
                              159
                              266
                              688
                              731
                              81 1
                              253
                              948
                              916
                    Within the range of 7.0 to 10.0 at all tim<
*Regulated pollutants.
                            1016

-------
                     Table IX-10 (Continued)

        BPT MASS LIMITATIONS FOR THE EXTRUSION SUBCATEGORY


    Solution and Press Heat Treatment - Contact Cooling Water
   Pollutant or
Pollutant Property
    Maximum for
    Any One Day
                        Maximum for
                      Monthly Average
           mg/kg (Ib/million Ibs) of aluminum quenched
118  Cadmium
119  Chromium*
120  Copper
121  Cyanide*
122  Lead
124  Nickel
125  Selenium
128  Zinc*
     Aluminum*
     Oil & Grease*
     Total Suspended
       Solids*
     pH*	
       2.620
       3.390
      1 4.640
       2.234
       3.236
      14.794
       9.477
         249
         543
         100
         905
 11
 49
154
315
   ,156
    387
   ,705
    925
   ,541
    785
    238
  4.700
 24.656
 92.460
150.248
                           1,
                           1.
                           7.
                           0.
                           1.
                           9.
                           4.
Within the range of 7.0 to 10.0 at all times,
                    Cleaning or Etching - Bath
   Pollutant or
Pollutant Property
    Maximum for
    Any One Day
                        Maximum for
                      Monthly Average
      mg/kg (Ib/million Ibs) of aluminum cleaned or etched
118  Cadmium
119  Chromium*
120  Copper
121  Cyanide*
122  Lead
124  Nickel
125  Selenium
128  Zinc*
     Aluminum*
     Oil & Grease*
     Total Suspended
       Solids*
     pH*	
       0.061
       0.079
       0.340
       0.052
       0.075
       0.344
       0.220
       0.261
         151
         580
         339
  1,
  3,
  7.
  0.027
  0.032
  0.1 79
  0.022
  0.036
  0.227
    098
    109
    573
    148
    491
Within the range of 7.0 to 10.0 at all times
*Regulated pollutants.
                             1017

-------
                      Table  IX-10  (Continued)

        BPT MASS  LIMITATIONS  FOR  THE  EXTRUSION  SUBCATEGORY


                   Gleaning or Etching  - Rinse
   Pollutant or
Pollutant Property
                         Maximum  for
                         Any One  Day
  Maximum  for
Monthly Average
      mg/kg  (Ib/million Ibs) of aluminum cleaned or etched
118  Cadmium               4.730
119  Chromium*             6.121
120  Copper               26.433
121  Cyanide*              4.034
122  Lead                  5.843
124  Nickel               26.711
125  Selenium             17.112
128  Zinc*                20.312
     Aluminum*            89.454
     Oil & Grease*       278.240
     Total Suspended     570.392
       Solids*
	pH*	
                                                     2.
                                                     2.
                                                    13.
                                                     •1.
                                                     2.
                                                    17.
                                                     7.
                                                     8.
                                                    44.
                                                   166.
                                                   271.
       087
       504
       912
       669
       783
       668
       652
       486
       518
       944
       284
                    Within the range of  7.0 to  10.0 at all times.
              Cleaning or Etching - Scrubber Liquor
   Pollutant or
Pollutant Property
                        Maximum for
                        Any One Day
  Maximum for
Monthly Average
      mg/kg (Ib/million Ibs) of aluminum cleaned or etched
118  Cadmium               5.406
119  Chromium*             6.996
120  Copper               30.210
121  Cyanide*              4.611
122  Lead                  6.678
124  Nickel               30.528
125  Selenium             19.557
128  Zinc*                23.214
     Aluminum*           102.237
     Oil & Grease*       318.000
     Total Suspended     651.900
       Solids*
     pH*	
                                                    2.385
                                                    2,
                                                   15.
                                                    1 .
                                                    3.
                                                   20.
                                                    8.
                                                    9.
                                                   50.
                                                  190.
                                                  310.
       862
       900
       908
       180
       193
       745
       699
       880
       800
       050
           	Within the range of 7.0 to 10.0 at all times

*Regulated pollutants.
                             1018

-------
                      Table IX-10 (Continued)

         BPT  MASS  LIMITATIONS  FOR THE EXTRUSION SUBCATEGORY


                    Degassing  -  Scrubber Liquor
   Pollutant  or
Pollutant Property
                         Maximum for
                         Any One Day
                       Maximum  for
                    Monthly Average
 118
 119
 120
 121
 122
 124
 125
 128
           mg/kg  (Ib/million  Ibs)  of  aluminum  degassed
      Cadmium               0.887
      Chromium*              1.1 48
      Copper                 4.957
      Cyanide*               0.757
      Lead                   1.096
      Nickel                 5.009
      Selenium               3.209
      Zinc*                  3.809
      Aluminum*             16.776
      Oil & Grease*         52.180
      Total Suspended      106.969
       Solids*
      pH*	
                          0.
                          0.
                          2,
                          0.
                          0.
                          3.
                          1.
                          1.
                          8.
                        31.
                        50.
    391
    470
    609
    313
    552
    313
    435
    591
    349
    308
    876
                    Within the range of 7.0 to 10.0 at all times
             Extrusion Press Hydraulic Fluid Leakage
   Pollutant or
Pollutant Property
                        Maximum for
                        Any One Day
                      Maximum for
                    Monthly Average
      mg/kg (Ib/million Ibs) of aluminum cleaned or etched
118  Cadmium
119  Chromium*
120  Copper
121  Cyanide*
122  Lead
124  Nickel
125  Selenium
128  Zinc*
     Aluminum*
     Oil & Grease*
     Total Suspended
       Solids*
     pH*	
                             .503
                             .650
                             ,808
                           0.429
                           0.621
                             ,838
                             818
                             ,158
                             504
                          29.560
                          60.60
0,
0,
2,
2,
1,
2.
9.
 0.222
 0.266
 1.478
 0.177
 0.296
 1.877
 0.813
 0.902
 4.730
17.736
28.821
                    Within the range of 7.0 to 10.0 at all times

*Regulated pollutants.
                              1019

-------
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1022

-------
                            Table  IX-13

         BPT MASS LIMITATIONS FOR  THE FORGING  SUBCATEGORY*


                    Forging - Core Waste Streams
    Pollutant or
 Pollutant Property
                   Maximum  for
                   Any  One  Day
                      Maximum  for
                    Monthly Average
             mg/kg (Ib/million Ibs) of aluminum forged
 118
 119
 120
 121
 122
 124
 125
 128
Cadmium
Chromium
Copper
Cyanide
Lead
Nickel
Selenium
Zinc
Aluminum
Oil & Grease
Total Suspended
  Solids
0,
0.
0,
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
2.
017
022
095
014
021
096
061
073
320
996
042
0,
0.
0,
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
007
009
050
006
010
063
027
030
159
598
971
                     Within the range of 7.0 to 10.0 at all times
                     Forging -  Scrubber Liquor
   Pollutant or
Pollutant Property
                   Maximum for
                   Any One Day
                      Maximum for
                    Monthly Average
            mg/kg  (Ib/million  Ibs)  of  aluminum forged
1 18
119
120
121
122
124
125
128





Cadmium
Chromium
Copper
Cyanide
Lead
Nickel
Selenium
Zinc
Aluminum
Oil & Grease
Total Suspended
Solids
pH Within
0.526
0.681
2.939
0.449
0.650
2.970
1.903
2.259
9.947
30.940
63.427

the range of 7.0 to
0.232
0.278
1 .547
0. 186
0.310
1 .965
0.851
0.944
4. 950
18.564
30.167

10.0 at all times.
*A11 pollutants shown in Table IX-13 are not regulated at  BPT
 since there are no existing forgers who are direct dischargers
                             1023

-------
                     Table IX-13 (Continued)

         BPT MASS LIMITATIONS FOR THE FORGING SUBCATEGORY


         Solution Heat Treatment - Contact Cooling Water
   Pollutant or
Pollutant Property
                        Maximum for
                        Any One Day
                       Maximum for
                     Monthly Average
           mg/kg (Ib/million Ibs) of aluminum quenched
1 1 8
1 1 9
1 20
1 21
1 22
1 24
1 25
128
     Cadmium
     Chromium
     Copper
     Cyanide
     Lead
     Nickel
     Selenium
     Zinc
     Aluminum
     Oil & Grease
     Total Suspended
       Solids
 2.620
 3.390
14.640
 2.234
 3.236
14.794
 9.477
   249
   543
   100
 11
 49
154
315
                             905
    156
    387
    705
    925
    541
    785
    238
  4.700
 24.656
 92.460
150.248
                           1 .
                           1.
                           7.
                           0.
                           1.
                           9.
                           4.
                    Within the range of 7.0 to 10.0 at all times
                    Cleaning or Etching - Bath

Pollutant or
Pollutant Property

118
119
120
121
122
124
125
128




mg/kg (Ib/million
Cadmium
Chromium
Copper
Cyanide
Lead
Nickel
Selenium
Zinc
Aluminum
Oil & Grease
Total Suspended
Solids
Maximum for Maximum for
Any One Day Monthly Average
Ibs) of aluminum cleaned or
0.061
0.079
0.340
0.052
0.075
0.344
0.220
0.261
1.151
3.580
7.339

pH Within the range of 7.0 to 10.0
etched
0.027
0.032
0.179
0.021
0.036
0.227
0.098
0.109
0.573
2.148
3.491

at all times.
                              1024

-------
                     Table IX-13 (Continued)

         BPT MASS LIMITATIONS' FOR THE FORGING SUBCATEGORY


                   Cleaning or Etching - Rinse
   Pollutant or
Pollutant Property
Maximum for
Any One Day
  Maximum for
Monthly Average
      mg/kg (Ib/million Ibs) of aluminum cleaned or etched
118
119
120
121
122
124
125
128





Cadmium
Chromium
Copper
Cyanide
Lead
Nickel
Selenium
Zinc
Aluminum
Oil & Grease
Total Suspended
Solids
pH
4.730
6.121
26.433
4. 034
5.843
26.711
17.112
20.312
89.454
278.240
570.392 *-•'-•

Within the range of 7.0 to
2.087
2.504
13.912
1.699
2.783
17.668
7.652
8.486
44.518
166.944
271.284

10.0 at all times.
              Cleaning or Etching - Scrubber Liquor
   Pollutant or
Pollutant Property
Maximum for
Any One Day
  Maximum for
Monthly Average
      mg/kg (Ib/mjllion Ibs) of aluminum cleaned or etched
1 18
119
120
121
122
124
125
128





Cadmium
Chromium
Copper
Cyanide
Lead
Nickel
Selenium
Zinc
Aluminum
Oil & Grease
Total Suspended
Solids
pH
5.406
6.996
30.210
4.611
6.678
30.528
19.557
23.214.
102.237
318.000
651.900

Within the range of 7.0 to
2.385
2.862
15.900
,1.908
3.180
20.193
8.745
9.699
50.880
190.800
31.0.050

10.0 at all times.
                              1025

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                                                               1028

-------
                           Table IX-1 6

 BPT MASS LIMITATIONS FOR THE DRAWING WITH NEAT OILS SUBCATEGORY


           Drawing With Neat Oils - Core Waste Streams
   Pollutant or
Pollutant Property
                   Maximum for
                   Any One Day
                      Maximum for
                    Monthly Average
118
119
120
121
122
124
125
128
     mg/kg (Ib/million Ibs) of aluminum drawn with neat oils
Cadmium
Chromium*
Copper
Cyanide*
Lead
Nickel
Selenium
Zinc*
Aluminum*
Oil & Grease*
Total Suspended
  Solids*
0.017
0.022
0.097
0.015
0.021
0.096
0.061
0.073
0.320
0.996
2.042
                       0.007
                       0.009
                       0.050
                       0.005
                       0.010
                       0.063
                       0.027
                       0.031
                       0.160
                       0.598
                       0.972
                    Within the  ranee of  7.0  to  10.0  at  all  times
          Continuous Rod  Casting  - Contact  Cooling Water
    Pollutant  or
 Pollutant  Property
                   Maximum  for
                   Any One  Day
                      Maximum  for
                    Monthly Average
 118
 119
 120
 121
 122
 124
 125
 128
         (Ib/million Ibs)  of  aluminum cast  by continuous  methods
 Cadmium
 Chromium*
 Copper
 Cyanide*
 Lead
 Nickel
 Selenium
 Zinc*
 Aluminum*
 Oil & Grease*
 Total Suspended
   Solids*
 pH*
 0.
 0,
 2.
 0,
 0,
 2.
 1
 2
10
31
63
529
684
955
451
653
986
913
,271
,00
,100
,755
 0.
 0,
 1,
 0,
 0,
 1
 0
 0
 4
18
30
 233
 28
 555
,187
,311
,975
,855
,949
.976
.660
.322
                     Within the range
           of 7.0 to 10.0 at all times
 *Regulated pollutants
                                1029

-------
                      Table IX-16  (Continued)

  BPT MASS LIMITATIONS FOR THE DRAWING WITH NEAT OILS SUBCATEGORY


              Continuous Rod Casting - Spent Lubricant
    Pollutant or
 Pollutant Property
                    Maximum for
                    Any One Day
                      Maximum for
                    Monthly Average
   mg/kg (Ib/million Ibs) of aluminum cast by continuous methods
 118
 119
 120
 121
 122
 124
 125
 128
 Cadmium
 Chromium*
 Copper
 Cyanide*
 Lead
 Nickel
 Selenium
 Zinc*
 Aluminum*
 Oil & Grease*
 Total Suspended
   Solids*
0.0007
0.0009
0.0037
0.0006
0.0008
0.0038
0.0024
0.0029
0.0126
0.0393
0.0805
   0.0003
   0.0004
   0.0020
   0.0003
   0.0004
   0.0025
   0.001 1
   0.0012
   0.0063
   0.0236
   0.0383
      pH*
                Within the  range of  7.0  to  10.0  at  all  times
          Solution  Heat  Treatment  -  Contact  Cooling Water
    Pollutant orMaximum  for
Pollutant Property	Any One  Day
                                            Maximum for
                                          Monthly Average
 118
 119
 120
 121
 122
 124
 125
 128
           mg/kg  (Ib/million  Ibs) of aluminum quenched
Cadmium                2.620
Chromium*              3.390
Copper               14.640
Cyanide*               2.235
Lead                   3.236
Nickel               14.794
Selenium               9.477
Zinc*                11.249
Aluminum*            49.543
Oil & Grease*       154.100
Total Suspended     315.905
  Solids*
                         1.
                         1 ,
                         7.
                         0.
                         1.
                         9.
   ,156
   ,387
   ,705
   ,925
    541
    785
  4.238
  4.700
 24.656
 92.460
150.248
     pH*
               Within the range of 7.0 to 10.0 at all time!
*Regulated pollutants.
                             1030

-------
                     Table IX-16 (Continued)

 BPT MASS LIMITATIONS FOR THE DRAWING WITH NEAT OILS SUBCATEGORY


                    Cleaning or Etching - Bath
   Pollutant or
Pollutant Property
    Maximum for
    Any One Day
                      Maximum for
                    Monthly Average
      ing/kg (Ib/million Ibs) of aluminum cleaned or etched
118  Cadmium
1 1 9  Chromium*
120  Copper
121  Cyanide*
122  Lead
124  Nickel
125  Selenium
128  Zinc*
     Aluminum*
     Oil & Grease*
     Total Suspended
       Solids*
     pH*	
       0.061
       0.079
       0.340
       0.052
       0.075
       0.344
       0.220
       0.261
         150
         580
         339
1,
3,
7,
0.027
0.032
0.179
0.022
0.036
0.227
0.098
0.109
0.573
2.148
3.491
Within the range of 7.0 to 10.0 at all times,
                   Cleaning or Etching - Rinse
   Pollutant or
Pollutant Property
    Maximum for
    Any One Day
                      Maximum for
                    Monthly Average
      mg/kg (Ib/million Ibs) of aluminum cleaned or etched
118  Cadmium
1 19  Chromium*
120  Copper
121  Cyanide*
122  Lead
124  Nickel
125  Selenium
128  Zinc*
     Aluminum*
     Oil & Grease*
     Total Suspended
       Solids*
     pH*	
       4.730
       6. 121
      26.433
       4.034
       5.843
      26.711
      17.112
      20.312
      89.454
     278.240
     570.392
                         2.087
                         2.504
                        13.912
                         1.669
                         2.783
                        17.668
                         7.652
                         8.486
                        44.518
                       166.944
                       271.284
Within the range of 7.0 to 10.0 at all times
*Regulated pollutants.
                             1031

-------
                       Table  IX-16  (Continued)

  BPT MASS  LIMITATIONS FOR THE  DRAWING WITH  NEAT  OILS  SUBCATEGORY


               Cleaning or Etching  - Scrubber Liquor
    Pollutant or
 Pollutant Property
                    Maximum  for
                    Any  One  Day
  Maximum for
Monthly Average
 118
 119
 120
 121
 122
 124
 125
 128
       mg/kg (Ib/million Ibs) of aluminum cleaned or etched
Cadmium                5.406
Chromium*              6.996
Copper                30.210
Cyanide*               4.611
Lead                   6.678
Nickel                30.528
Selenium              19.557
Zinc*                 23.214
Aluminum*           102.237
Oil & Grease*       318.000
Total Suspended     651.900
  Solids*
pH*	
     2
     2,
    15,
     1.
     3,
    20.
     8.
     9.
    50.
   190.
   310.
385
862
900
908
180
193
745
699
880
800
050
                     Within the range of 7.0 to 10.0 at all time:
*Regulated pollutants.
                                . 1032

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-------
                            Table IX-18

              COMPARISON OF WASTEWATER DISCHARGE RATES
               FROM DRAWING EMULSION AND SOAP STREAMS
                                    Order of
Plant Wastewater Increasing Lubricant
Number (gal/ton) (1/kkg) Production TvtJe
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
0
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2.810
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1,113
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3
2
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1
4
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7
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Emulsion
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Soap
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Emulsion
Product
Type
Tube
Wire
Wire
Wire
Wire
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 13
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*Sufficient data not available to calculate  these values
                               1034 -

-------
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-------
                          Table  IX-20

      BPT MASS LIMITATIONS  FOR THE  DRAWING WITH EMULSIONS.
                      OR  SOAPS SUBGATEGORY
      Drawing With  Emulsions  or  Soaps  -  Core  Waste Streams
Pollutant or
Pollutant Property
rag/kg
1 18
119
120
121
122
124
125
128





(Ib/million Ibs)
Cadmium
Chromium*
Copper
Cyanide*
Lead
Nickel
Selenium
Zinc*
Aluminum*
Oil & Grease*
Total Suspended
Solids*
pH* Wi
Maximum for
Any One Day
of aluminum drawn
0.159
0.205
0.886
0.135
0.196
0.895
0.574
0.680
2.998
9.326
19.118

thin the range of
Maximum for
Monthly Average
with emulsions or soaps
0.070
0.084
0.466
0.056
0.094
0.592
0.256
0.285
1.492
5.596
9.093

7.0 to 10.0 at all times.
          Continuous  Rod Casting - Contact Cooling Water
Pollutant or Maximum for
Pollutant Property Any One Day
mp
118
1 19
120
121
122
124
125
128





/kg (Ib/million Ibs)
Cadmium
Chromium*
Copper
Cyanide*
Lead
Nickel
Selenium
Zinc*
Aluminum*
Oil & Grease*
Total Suspended
Solids*
pH* Withi
of aluminum
0.529
0.684
2.955
0.450
0.653
2.986
1.913
2.270
9.999
31.100
63.755

.n the range
Maximum for
Monthly Average
cast by continuous methods
0.233
0.28
1 .555
0.187
0. 311
1.975
0.855
0.949
4.976
18.660
30.323

of 7.0 to 10.0 at all times.
*Regulated pollutants
                             1037

-------
                      Table  IX-20  (Continued)

        BPT  MASS  LIMITATIONS  FOR THE  DRAWING WITH  EMULSIONS
                        OR SOAPS SUBCATEGORY
              Continuous  Rod  Casting  -  Spent Lubricant
    Pollutant or
Pollutant Property
                   Maximum for
                   Any One Day
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  mg/kg  (Ib/million  Ibs) of aluminum cast by continuous methods
 118
 119
 120
 121
 122
 124
 125
 128
Cadmium
Chromium*
Copper
Cyanide*
Lead
Nickel
Selenium
Zinc*
Aluminum*
Oil & Grease*
Total Suspended
  Solids*
0.0007
0.0009
0.0037
0.0006
0.0008
0.0038
0.0024
0.0029
Oi0126
0.0393
0.0805
0.0003
0.0004
0.0020
0.0003
0.0004
0.0025
0.0011
0.001
0.0063
0.0236
0.0390
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               Within the range of 7.0 to 10.0 at all times.
         Solution Heat Treatment - Contact Cooling Water
   Pollutant or
Pollutant Property
                   Maximum for
                   Any One Day
                      Maximum for
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           mg/kg (Ib/million Ibs) of aluminum quenched
118  Cadmium
119  Chromium*
120  Copper
121  Cyanide*
122  Lead
124  Nickel
125  Selenium
128  Zinc*
     Aluminum*
     Oil & Grease*
     Total Suspended
       Solids*
     pH*	
                      2.620
                      3.390
                     14.640
                      2.234
                      3.236
                     14.794
                      9.477
                     11.249
                     49.549
                    154.100
                    315.905
                         1.156
                         1.387
                         7.705
                         0.925
                         1.541
                         9.785
                         4.238
                         4.700
                        24.656
                        92.460
                       150.248
               Within the range of 7.0 to 10.0  at  all  times
*Regulated pollutants.
                            1038

-------
                    Table  IX-20  (Continued)

      BPT MASS LIMITATIONS.FOR THE  DRAWING WITH EMULSIONS
                      OR SOAPS SUBCATEGORY
                    Cleaning  or  Etching -  Bath
  Pollutant or
                        Maximum for
                        Any One Day
                         Maximum for
                       Monthly Average

1 18
119
120
121
122
124
125
128





mg/kg (Ib/mill
Cadmium
Chromium*
Copper
Cyanide*
Lead
Nickel
Selenium
Zinc*
Aluminum*
Oil & Grease*
Total Suspended
Solids*
pH*
ion Ibs) of aluminum cleaned or
0.061
0.079
0.340
0.052
0.075
0.344
0.220
0.262
1 .151
3.580
7.339

Within the range of 7.0 to 10.0
etched
0.027
0.032
0.179
0.022
0.036
0.227
0.098
0.109
0.573
2. 148
3.491

at all times.
                   Cleaning or Etching - Rinse
                                                 Maximum for
                                               Monthly Average
   Pollutant or
Pollutant Property
Maximum for
Any One Day
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118  Cadmium
119  Chromium*
120  Copper
121  Cyanide*
122  Lead
124  Nickel
125  Selenium
128  Zinc*
     Aluminum*
     Oil & Grease*
     Total Suspended
       Solids*
     pH*	
                           4.730
                           6.121
                          26.433
                           4.034
                           5.843
                          26.71 1
                          17
                          20
                          89
                         278
                         570
     112
     312
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     240
     ,392
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 13.
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  8.
 44,
166,
271,
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504
912
669
783
668
652
486
519
944
284
                    Within the range of  7.0  to  10.0  at  all  times
*Regulated pollutants
                             1039

-------
                      Table IX-20 (Continued)

        BPT MASS LIMITATIONS FOR THE DRAWING WITH EMULSIONS
                        OR SOAPS SUBGATEGORY
               Cleaning or Etching - Scrubber Liquor
    Pollutant or
 Pollutant Property
                   Maximum  for
                   Any  One  Day
  Maximum for
Monthly Average
 118
 119
 120
 121
 122
 124
 125
 128
       mg/kg (Ib/million Ibs)  of aluminum cleaned or etched
Cadmium                5.406
Chromium*              6.996
Copper                30.210
Cyanide*               4.611
Lead                   6.678
Nickel                30.528
Selenium              19.557
Zinc*                 23.214
Aluminum*           102.237
Oil & Grease*       318.000
Total Suspended     651.900
  Solids*
     2,
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     8.
     9.
    50.
   190.
   310.
385
862
900
908
180
193
745
699
880
800
050
     pH*
               Within the range of 7.0 to 10.0 at all times
*Regulated pollutants.
                              1040

-------
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-------
                            SECTION X

        BEST AVAILABLE TECHNOLOGY ECONOMICALLY ACHIEVABLE
The effluent limitations in this section apply to existing direct
dischargers.  A direct discharger is a facility which  discharges
or  may  discharge  pollutants  into waters of the United States.
These effluent limitations, which must be  achieved  by  July  1,
1984,  are  based  on  the  best control and treatment technology
employed by a specific point source within the  industrial  cate-
gory  or  subcategory, or by another industry where it is readily
transferable.  Emphasis is placed on additional  treatment  tech-
niques  applied  at  the  end  of the treatment systems currently
employed for BPT, as well as  improvements  in  reagent  control,
process control, and treatment technology optimization.

The  factors  considered  in  assessing best available technology
economically achievable (BAT) include the age  of  equipment  and
facilities  involved, the process employed, process changes, non-
water quality environmental impacts  (including  energy  require-
ments),  and  the  costs  of application of such technology.  BAT
technology represents the best existing  economically  achievable
performance of plants of various ages, sizes, processes, or other
characteristics.   Those categories whose existing performance is
uniformly inadequate may require a transfer of BAT from a differ-
ent subcategory or category.  BAT may include process changes  or
internal  controls,  even  when  these  are  not  common industry
practice.  This level of technology also  considers  those  plant
processes  and  control and treatment technologies which at pilot
plant and other levels have demonstrated both technological  per-
formance  and economic viability at a level sufficient to justify
investigation.

TECHNICAL APPROACH TO BAT

The Agency reviewed a wide range of technology options and evalu-
ated the available possibilities to ensure that the  most  effec-
tive  and  beneficial technologies were used as the basis of BAT.
To accomplish this, the Agency elected to examine at least  three
significant  technology  alternatives  which  could be applied to
aluminum forming as BAT options and which  would  represent  sub-
stantial  progress toward prevention of polluting the environment
above and beyond  progress  achievable  by  BPT.   The  statutory
assessment  of  BAT  considers  costs,  but  does  not  require  a
balancing  of  costs  against  effluent  reduction  benefits  see
Weyerhaeuser v. Costle, 11 ERC 2149 (D.C. Cir. 1978); however, in
assessing  the  proposed  BAT,  the  Agency has given substantial
weight to the reasonableness of costs.
                               1049

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EPA evaluated six levels of BAT for  the  category  at  proposal.
Option  1  is BPT treatment.  Option 2 is BPT treatment plus flow
reduction and in-plant controls.  Options 3, 4, 5, and 6  provide
additional  levels  of  treatment.   Options  1,  2,  3, 4, and 5
technologies are, in  general,  equally  applicable  to  all  the
subcategories of the aluminum forming category, while Option 6 is
applicable  to  one subcategory (forging).  Eacn treatment option
produces similar concentrations of pollutants in the the effluent
from all subcategories.   Mass  limitations  derived  from  these
options  may  vary;  however,  because of the impact of different
production normalized wastewater discharge flow allowances.

Options 1, 2,  and 3 are based on the chemical  emulsion  breaking
technology  from  the BPT technology train,  whereas Options 4, 5,
and 6 are based on thermal emulsion breaking.

In summary form, the treatment technologies which were considered
for aluminum forming are:

     Option 1  (Figure X-l) is based on:

          Oil  skimming,

          Lime and settle (chemical precipitation of metals
          followed by sedimentation),  and

          pH adjustment;  and,  where required,

          Cyanide removal,

          Hexavalent chromium reduction,  and

          Chemical  emulsion breaking.

     (This option is equivalent  to the technology on which
     BPT is based.)

     Option 2  (Figure X-2)  is  based on:

          Option 1,  plus process wastewater  flow reduction by
          the  following methods:

          - Heat treatment contact cooling  water recycle through
            cooling towers.
          - Continuous rod casting contact  cooling  water
            recycle.
          - Air pollution control  scrubber  liquor recycle.
          - Countercurrent cascade rinsing  or  other  water effi-
            cient methods applied  to  cleaning  or  etching and
            extrusion  die cleaning rinses.
                              1050

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         -  Regeneration or contract hauling of  cleaning or
            etching baths  (proposed but not promulgated)
            Use of extrusion die  cleaning  rinse  for bath
            make-up water
         -  Alternative fluxing or in-line refining methods,
            neither of which require wet air pollution  control,
            for degassing  aluminum melts.

     Option  3  (Figure  X-3)  is based on:

         Option 2, plus multimedia filtration  at the  end
         of the Option 2 treatment train.

     Option  4  (Figure  X-4)  is based on:

         Option 1 plus process wastewater  flow reduction  by  the
         following methods:

         -  Thermal emulsion breaking  or contractor hauling  for
            concentrated emulsions.
         -  Heat  treatment contact cooling water recycle  through
            cooling towers.
            Continuous rod casting contact cooling water
            recycle.
         -  Air pollution  control scrubber liquor recycle.
         -  Hauling or regeneration  of spent  cleaning or  etching
            baths.
         -  Countercurrent cascade rinsing or  other water effi-
            cient methods  applied to cleaning  or etching  and
            extrusion die  cleaning rinses.
            Alternative  fluxing  or  in-line refining methods,
            which do  not  require wet air pollution control,  for
            degassing aluminum melts.

     Option  5  (Figure  X-5)  is  based on:

         Option  4,  plus  multimedia filtration at the  end of
          the  Option 4 treatment  train.

     Option  6  (Figure  X-6)  is  based on:

          Option  5,  plus  granular activated carbon treatment
          as a preliminary treatment  step to remove toxic
          organics.

Option 1_

Option 1 represents the  BPT  end-of-pipe  treatment  technology.
This  treatment  train  consists  of   preliminary  treatment when
                              1051

-------
necessary of emulsion breaking and skimming, hexavalent  chromium
reduction,  and  cyanide  removal.  The effluent from preliminary
treatment is combined with other wastewaters for  central  treat-
ment by skimming and lime and settle.

Option 2^

Option  2  builds upon the BPT end-of-pipe treatment technologies
of skimming, lime and settle with preliminary treatment to reduce
chromium, remove cyanide and  break  emulsions.   Flow  reduction
measures,  based  on  in-process  changes, are the mechanisms for
reducing  pollutant  discharges  at  Option  2.   Flow  reduction
measures  eliminate  some  wastewater streams and concentrate the
pollutants in others.  Treatment of a  more  concentrated  stream
allows  a  greater  net  removal  of  pollutants and economies of
treating a reduced flow.  Methods for reducing process wastewater
generation or discharge include:
Heat Treatment Contact
Towers.   The  cooling
Cooling  	
and  recycle
                                 Water  Recycle  Through  Cooling
    	                          _     of  heat  treatment contact
cooling water is practiced by  15 plants.  The  function  of  heat
treatment  contact  cooling  water is to remove heat quickly from
the aluminum.  Therefore, the  principal requirements of the water
are that it be cool and not contain dissolved solids at  a  level
that  would  cause  water  marks  or other surface imperfections.
There is sufficient industry experience to assure the success  of
this   technology   using  cooling  towers  or  heat  exchangers.
Although four plants have reported that they do not discharge any
quench water by reason of continued  recycle,  some  blowdown  or
periodic cleaning is likely to be needed to prevent a build-up of
dissolved and suspended solids.

Scrubber  Liquor  Recycle.   The  recycle of scrubber liquor from
cleaning or etching process baths is practiced by two plants,  on
forging scrubbers at two plants, and by one plant for its anneal-
ing scrubber.  The scrubber water picks up particulates and fumes
from  the  air.   Scrubbers  have  relatively  low  water quality
requirements for efficient  operation,  accordingly,  recycle  of
scrubber  liquor  is appropriate for aluminum forming operations.,
A blowdown or periodic  cleaning  is  necessary  to  prevent  the
buildup of dissolved and suspended solids.

Countercurrent Cascade Rinsing Applied to Cleaning or Etching and
Die   Cleaning  Rinses.   Countercurrent  cascade  rinsing  is  a
mechanism commonly encountered in aluminum forming,  electroplat-
ing, and other metal processing operations (Section VII, p.     ).
The cleanest water is used for final rinsing of an item, preceded
by  rinse stages using water with progressively more contaminants
to partially rinse the item.   Fresh make-up water is added to the
final rinse, and contaminated  rinse water is discharged from  the
                              1052

-------
initial  rinse  stage.   The  make-up water for all but the final
rinse stage is from the following stage.

The countercurrent cascade rinsing process substantially improves
efficiencies of water use for rinsing.  For example, the use of a
two-stage countercurrent cascade rinse can reduce water usage  to
approximately  one-tenth  of that' needed for a single-stage rinse
to achieve the same level of product cleanliness.   Similarly,  a
three-stage countercurrent cascade rinse would reduce water usage
to  approximately  one-thirtieth.  Countercurrent cascade rinsing
is practiced at least four aluminum forming plants.  In addition,
although not strictly countercurrent cascade rinsing, two  plants
reuse  the rinse water following one cleaning or etching bath for
the rinse of a preceding bath.  The installation  of  countercur-
rent  cascade  rinsing is applicable to existing aluminum forming
plants in that the cleaning and etch operations are usually  dis-
crete  operations and space is generally available for additional
rinse tanks following these operations.

Alternative Fluxing Methods.  There are a number of  alternatives
available   to   replace  systems  requiring  wet  scrubbers  for
degassing operations  (melting  furnace  air  pollution  control).
Among the alternatives are fluxes not requiring wet air pollution
control  and in-line refining methods that eliminate the need for
fluxing.  All aluminum forming plants but one  have  adopted  the
alternative   fluxing   methods   and  thereby  eliminated  their
scrubbers.

If enough metal refining is taking place that  large  amounts  of
gases  are being emitted and a wet scrubber is necessary, this is
considered metal manufacturing and is covered under the  aluminum
subcategories of the nonferrous metals manufacturing point source
category.

Regeneration  or  Contract  Hauling of Cleaning or Etching Baths.
The Agency proposed a zero discharge allowance  for  cleaning  or
etching  baths  based  on regeneration or contract hauling of the
baths.   The  Agency  has  reevaluated  the  basis  of  the  zero
discharge allowance and is establishing a flow allowance for this
waste  stream.   New  information  and  comments submitted on the
proposed  rule  indicated  that  regeneration  is  not  a   fully
developed   technology   applicable  to  all  facilities  in  the
category.  Further, contract hauling  produces  no  environmental
benefit  since  these  wastes are generally hauled to an off-site
waste treatment facility which would treat them in much the  same
manner as they would be treated at the aluminum forming plant.
                              1053

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Option 3_

Option  3  builds  upon the technical requirements of Option 2 by
adding conventional mixed-media filtration  after  the  Option  2
technology  train  and  the  in-process  flow reduction controls.
There are two  aluminum  forming  plants  which  presently  treat
wastewaters  with  a  polishing  filter.   Option  3 differs from
Option 5 only in the type of emulsion treatment it is  based  on.
Option  3  is based on the chemical emulsion breaking technology,
which does not achieve zero discharge.

Option 4_

Option 4 builds upon the technologies established for  Option  2.
Thermal emulsion breaking is the principal mechanism for reducing
pollutant discharges at Option 4.

Thermal  Emulsion  Breaking or Contractor Hauling to Achieve Zero
Discharge of Concentrated Emulsions.  The Agency has "noted  that
recycle  or  contractor  hauling  of several waste streams (e.g.,
continuous rod casting lubricant, rolling emulsions, roll  grind-
ing  emulsions, drawing emulsions, and saw oils) are common prac-
tices.  Organics were found to be constituents of  these  wastes.
Contractor  hauling  eliminated  potential wastewater discharges,
obviated  the  need  for  organics  removal  (granular  activated
carbon),  and  was  the  most  cost-effective  approach  for many
plants.  It was, therefore, the method suggested and included  in
the  cost  estimate  for  many  of these waste streams when small
volumes were considered.

Thermal emulsion breaking also eliminates any discharge from  the
concentrated  emulsion waste streams by concentrating the oil and
distilling the water.  The  water  can  then  be  reused  in  the
process.   EPA  is  aware  of one application of thermal emulsion
breaking in this category.  In addition, it is being used at four
copper forming plants to treat their emulsified lubricants.   The
processes  performed  and  lubricants  used in copper forming are
similar to those in aluminum forming, and  as  such  the  thermal
emulsion  breaking  technology  is  applicable  to  the  aluminum
forming concentrated emulsion waste streams.

Thermal emulsion breaking does not eliminate  contractor  hauling
of spent lubricants, but it does reduce the volume of waste to be
disposed of, an important consideration in the face of the rising
disposal costs.

Two  aluminum forming plants reported achieving zero discharge of
their emulsified wastes  through  treatment.   One  plant  treats
their  emulsion  with  chemical  emulsion  breaking,  followed by
ultrafiltration, with the concentrate being recycled back through
                              1054

-------
chemical emulsion breaking, and the  filtrate  is  clarified  and
reused  elsewhere in the plant.  The second plant applies gravity
separation to their emulsions and skims the oil, which is further
processed and used as fuel.   The  water  fraction,  which  still
contains 0.1 percent oil, is sprayed onto a field.

Option 5_

Option  5  builds  upon the technical requirements of Option 4 by
adding conventional mixed-media filtration.  The filter suggested
is of the gravity, mixed-media type, although other filters, such
as rapid sand or pressure filters would perform equally well.

Option 6_

Option 6 builds upon the  technical  requirements  of  Option  5.
Option  6 complements the other technologies by applying granular
activated carbon (GAC) to waste streams for which toxic  organics
were  selected.   By  applying  granular  activated  carbon  as a
preliminary treatment step rather than end-of-pipe treatment  for
waste  streams  where  organics were found at significant levels,
treatment efficiency is improved, and total treatment  costs  are
reduced.

The  Agency  considered  options  2 through 6 for BAT technology.
Options 4 and 5 were rejected  before  proposal  because  of  the
extremely  high  energy  requirements  and  costs associated with
retrofitting thermal emulsion breaking technology  into  existing
aluminum  forming  plants.   Option  6  was  also eliminated from
consideration early in the decision process because of  the  high
cost  associated with its application and the minimal incremental
removals of toxic organics achieved.

The Agency proposed BAT limitations based on Option 2 and  stated
that it would give equivalent consideration to Option 3, which is
Option 2 with end-of-pipe polishing filtration added.

Industry Cost and Environmental Benefits of the Various Treatment
Options

As  a  means  of evaluating the economic achievability of each of
these options, the Agency developed estimates of  the  compliance
costs  and  benefits for Options 2 and 3.  An estimate of capital
and annual costs for BAT options 2 and 3 was  prepared  for  each
subcategory as an aid in choosing best BAT model technology.  The
cost  estimates  for the total subcategory are presented in Table
X-l.   Plant-by-plant cost estimates were made for 49 of 59 direct
dischargers and extrapolated to the remaining direct  dischargers
in  the  category.   These  estimates are presented in Table X-2.
All costs are based on 1982 dollars.
                              1055

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The cost methodology has been  described  in  detail  in  Section
VIII.   Standard  cost  literature sources and vendor quotes were
used for module capital and  annual  costs.   Data  from  several
sources were combined to yield average or typical equipment costs
as  a  function  of  flow or other wastewater characteristics and
design parameters.  The resulting costs for individual pieces  of
equipment  were  combined  to  yield module costs.  The cost data
were coupled with specific flow data from each plant to establish
system costs for each plant.

The total costs presented in Tables X-l and X-2  represent  esti-
mates  which were revised after proposal to consider plants which
reported discharge flow from  anodizing  and  conversion  coating
operations,  and  the  treatment  technology  required  for those
wastewater streams which were not considered to be in-scope waste
streams when the  original  cost  estimates  were  prepared.   In
addition,  the preproposal annual cost estimates were adjusted by
subtracting 10 percent of the capital cost from the annual  cost.
This   was   done  because  an  error  in  the  original  costing
methodology doublecounted the value for depreciation.

Pollutant reduction benefit estimates were  calculated  for  each
option  for  each  subcategory.   The benefits that the treatment
technologies can achieve are presented in Tables X-3 through X-8.
The benefits that the treatment  technologies  will  achieve  for
direct dischargers are presented in Tables X-9 through X-l3.  The
benefits  that  the  treatment  technologies  can  achieve  for a
"normal plant" in each subcategory are presented in  Tables  X~14
through  X-l9.   The  characteristics  of  the  normal plants are
presented in Section VIII (p. 897).

The first step in the calculation of the benefit estimates is the
calculation of production normalized raw  waste  values   (mg/kkg)
for  each  pollutant  in  each waste stream.  These values, along
with raw waste  concentrations,  are  presented  in  Tables  X-20
through  X-25.   raw  waste  values  were calculated using one of
three methods.  When analytical  concentration  data  (mg/1)  and
sampled  production normalized flow values (1/kkg) were available
for a given waste stream, individual raw waste  values  for  each
sample  were calculated and averaged.  This method allows for the
retention of any relationship between  concentration,  flow,  and
production.   When  sampled  production normalized flows were not
available for a given waste stream, an average concentration  was
calculated   for  each  pollutant,  and  the  average  raw  waste
normalized flow taken from the dcp  information  for  that  waste
stream  was  used to calculate the raw waste.  When no analytical
values were available for a given waste  stream,  the  raw  waste
values  for a stream of  similar water quality was used.  The raw
waste concentrations (mg/1) in  Tables  X-20  through  X-25  were
                              1056

-------
 calculated  by  dividing  the  raw  waste  values (mg/kkg) by the
 average raw waste production normalized flow (1/kkg).

 The total flow (1/yr) for each option for  each  subcategory  was
 calculated  by  summing  individual  flow  values  for each waste
 stream in the subcategory for each option.  The  individual  flow
 values  were calculated by multiplying the total production asso-
 ciated with each waste stream in each subcategory (kkg/yr) by the
 appropriate production normalized flow  (1/kkg)  for  each  waste
 stream for each option.

 The raw waste mass values (kg/yr) for each pollutant in each sub-
 category  were  calculated by summing individual raw waste masses
 for each waste stream in the  subcategory.   The  individual  raw
 waste  mass  values were calculated by multiplying the total pro-
 duction associated with  each waste  stream  in  each  subcateqorv
 (kkg/yr)   by  the  raw waste value (mg/kkg)  for each pollutant in
 each waste stream.

 The mass discharged (kg/yr)  for  each pollutant  for   each  option
 for,each subcategory was calculated by multiplying the total flow
 u /ii:)   f0* those waste  streams  which enter  the treatment system,
 by  the  treatment  effectiveness concentration (mg/1)   (Table  VII-
 20,  p.  807)  for each pollutant for the appropriate option.

 The total  mass  removed (kg/yr) for each pollutant for each option
 for each  subcategory was calculated by subtracting the total mass
 discharged (kg/yr)  from  the  total raw mass (kg/yr).

 Total   treatment  performance  values  for  each subcategory were
 calculated by using  the  total production (kkg/yr)  of   all   plants
 in   the  subcategory  for  each waste stream.   Treatment performance
 values  for direct dischargers in  each subcategory were calculated
 by  using  the total production (kkg/yr)  of  all  direct   dischargers
 in   the subcategory  for  each waste stream.   Treatment performance
 values  for  normal plants" in each subcategory  were  calculated by
 the  same method described above,  based  on  normal  plant   produc-
 tions and  flows.

 SELECTED OPTION FOR  BAT

 The  Agency  evaluated   the  compliance  costs   and   benefits for
Options 2  and 3 presented in Tables X-l  through  X-19  to select  a
 final  option  as  BAT.   Both  of  the options  (2 and 3) provided
additional pollutant reduction beyond that provided by BPT.

EPA has selected Option  2 as the  basis for BAT   effluent   limita-
tions.   This  option was selected because it provides protection
of the environment consistent with proven operation of in-process
controls and treatment effectiveness.  The  reduction  of  pollu-
                              1057

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tants  in  the  effluent, especially toxic metals, is substantial
and economically achievable thus resulting in a minimal impact on
the industry.

Option 2 builds upon the technologies established for BPT.   Flow
reduction  measures  are  the  principal  mechanisms for reducing
pollutant discharges at Option 2.  Flow reduction measures result
in eliminating some  wastewater  streams  and  concentrating  the
pollutants  in  others.   Treatment of a more concentrated stream
allows a greater net removal of pollutants  and  may  reduce  the
cost  of treatment by reducing the flow and hence the size of the
treatment equipment.

All of the flow reduction technologies  or  control  methods  are
presently  employed  in  at  least one aluminum forming plant.  The
application  of  technologies  such  as  countercurrent   cascade
rinsing  to  cleaning  or   etching lines is not expected to cause
serious  interruptions  in production since these   operations  tend
to be used during one  shift each day, five days per week allowing
preliminary  changes to be scheduled.

The  Agency  has decided not to  include filtration as part of the
model BAT treatment technology.  EPA estimates that 29,000  kg/yr
 (64,000  Ib/yr) of toxic  metal pollutants will be  discharged after
the   installation  of  BPT  treatment   technology;  the model BAT
treatment technology is  estimated  to remove an additional   15,000
kg/yr   (33,000   Ib)  of  toxic metals.   The addition of filtration
would remove approximately  4,300 kg/yr   (9,500   Ib/yr)  of  toxic
pollutants   discharged after BAT or a  total removal of 94 percent
of the  total current discharge.  This  additional  removal of 4,300
kg/yr achieved  by filtration  is  equal  to  an additional removal  of
approximately  1  kg  (2.2  Ib) of  toxic  pollutants  per  day  per
discharger.    The   incremental  costs of these effluent reductions
 are  $8.2 million in  capital cost and $2.5  million in  total  annual
 costs for all   direct  dischargers.    In   addition,   18   aluminum
 forming plants  also  perform   coil   coating.    The   Agency   has
 structured  the  aluminum  forming   regulation  and   coil   coating
 regulation   to  allow   cotreatment  of  wastewaters  at  integrated
 facilities.   The BAT limitations for  the   coil   coating   category
 are   based   on technology not  including filtration.   Establishing
 aluminum forming limitations based  on  polishing  filters  would
 have  the   effect  of   requiring  such  integrated   facilities  to
 install polishing filters.   The Agency believes  that  given  all  of
 these factors,  the costs involved  do  not  warrant   selection  ot
 filtration as a part of  the BAT model  treatment  technology.

 REGULATED POLLUTANT PARAMETERS

 The  raw wastewater concentrations from individual  operations and
 the subcategory as a whole were examined to select   those  pollu-


                               1058

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 tant  parameters  found  at  frequencies  and  concentrations  warrant-
 ing regulation.   Several toxic  metals  and  aluminum were   selected
 for regulation  in each  subcategory.

 Many  of   the   toxic  organic compounds  were  detected  above  their
 level of quantification in wastewaters  containing  oils   or  oil
 emulsions.   Organic  compounds  are   known   to   be  insoluble or
 slightly soluble  in water  and highly soluble  in   oil   and,   as  a
 result   of   the  normal mixing  processes during  wastewater
 treatment, equilibrium  distribution  of  pollutants between  the
 wastewater  and   oil  should occur readily.   Then by applying  oil
 removal  processes  (i.e.,  oil-water  separation   or   emulsion
 breaking), the organic  pollutant  levels  are reduced.

 The  laboratory   procedure of  extracting  a compound from organic
 and aqueous phases  is  analogous  to  the removal of   nonpolar
 organic  pollutants  by oil skimming during wastewater treatment.
 Work on extraction of toxic organic pollutants, using  the hydro-
 carbon  solvent hexane, has demonstrated extractions ranging from
 88 to 97 percent  for polynuclear  aromatic  hydrocarbons when  using
 a one-part hexane to 100-parts  wastewater  matrix.   Addition   of
 ionizable  inorganic  compounds enhances the  extraction of pollu-
 tants by hexane.  Equilibrium distribution of the  pollutants   is
 achieved by two minutes of shaking.

 Extraction  of  pollutants by  oil  removal  treatment processes
 varies in effectiveness with the  relative solubilities  of  the
 pollutant.   The  chemical  nature of the process produces  a pollu-
 tant concentration in the  effluent (water), which is   a   function
 of  the  influent  (oil  and water) concentration of  the pollutant.
 In some cases, the water resulting from the oil treatment process
 contains organics at concentration levels  which are treatable   bv
 GAC.                                                              .

 For  aluminum forming wastewaters, effective  oil  removal  technol-
 ogy (such as oil  skimming  or emulsion,  breaking)   is   capable   of
 removing  approximately 97  percent   of the  total  toxic  organics
 (TTO) from the raw waste.  As shown in Table  X-26,  the achievable
 TTO concentration is approximately 0.69 mg/1.   The  influent   and
 effluent  concentrations   presented for each  pollutant were  taken
 from the data presented in Section  V  for  several  plants  with
 effective  oil removal  technologies in place.   In calculating  the
 concentrations,  if only one day's sampling datum  was  available,
 that  value  was used;  if  two day's sampling  data were available,
 the higher of the values was used; and, if three  day's  sampling
data  were  available,  the  mean  or  the median value was  used,
whichever was higher.    The Agency  assumes  that  the  0.69  mg/1
value is an appropriate basis for effluent limitations, since  the
highest values were used in the calculation.
                              1059

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In addition to the pollutants listed in Table X-26, several other
toxic organic pollutants are considered.  These include p-chloro-
m-cresol  (022),  2-chlorophenol (024), 2,4-dinitrotoluene (035),
1,2-diphenylhydrazine  (037),  fluoranthene   (039),   isophorone
(054),  bis(2-ethylhexyl)  phthalate   (066), di-n-butyl phthalate
(067), di-n-ethyl phthalate  (068), benzo(a)pyrene  (073), 3,4-ben-
zofluoranthene   (074),  benzo(k)fluoroanthene   (075),   chrysene
(076),  acenaphthylene  (077), benzo(ghi)perylene  (079), dibenzo-
(a,h)anthracene  (082),  indeno(1,2,3-c,d)pyrene    (083),   vinyl
chloride  (088),  and  endrin aldehyde  (099).  This list includes
all the polynuclear  aromatic  hydrocarbon   (PAH)   compounds  and
several toxic organics found in drawing spent emulsions not found
in rolling spent emulsions.  These compounds are included because
the  Agency  believes  that any of the  PAH's and these other com-
pounds can be substituted for one another to  serve  as  pressure
building   compounds   in  the  formulations  of   the  emulsified
lubricants.

The total toxic organic benefit estimate values (kg/yr) presented
in Tables X-3 through X-19 are calculated by multiplying the  oil
and  grease  mass  (kg/yr) by 0.0015.   From  the data presented in
Section V, it has been determined that  the sum of  the  concentra-
tions of the toxic organics  in any given sample is  on the average
equal to 0.15 percent of the oil and grease  concentration in that
sample.

Since  effective  oil and grease removal can remove 97 percent of
the TTO, no TTO  limitation will be set  at BAT because the  Agency
believes  that   the oil and  grease removals  under  the BPT limita-
tions should provide adequate removal  of toxic organics.

As discussed in  Section VII  (p. 701),  maintaining  the correct  pH
in  the  treatment system is  important  to assure adequate removal
of toxic metals.  The Agency believes   that  by  maintaining  the
correct  pH  range  for  removal of chromium, zinc, and aluminum,
adequate removal of the  other  toxic   metals,  cadmium,  copper,
lead,  nickel,   and  selenium,  should  be   assured.   The Agency
believes that the mechanism  and the  chemistry  of toxic  metals
removal  in  a  lime and settle system  are the same for all of the
toxic metals.   This theoretical analysis is  supported empirically
by performance  data of lime  and settle systems collected  by  the
Agency.   The   theoretical background  for toxic metals removal as
well as the performance data have been presented in Section  VII.
Since  chromium,  zinc,  and aluminum are present at the highest
concentrations  in raw wastewater streams, these  pollutants  have
been  selected  to be used to ensure adequate removal of the other
toxic metals listed above.   Chromium and zinc are   considered  to
be   indicator   pollutants  for cadmium, copper, lead, nickel, and
selenium, which were found at treatable levels.
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Effluent pH should be maintained within the range of 7.0 to  10.0
at  all  times.  This pH range applies to the clarifier effluent.
Maintaining the pH in this range should ensure effective  removal
of the vast majority of the toxic metals.

ROLLING WITH NEAT OILS SUBCATEGORY

Discharge Flows

Table  X-27 lists the BAT wastewater discharge flows for core and
ancillary streams that received an allowance under BPT.  The flow
allowances for BAT for core operations are identical to those  of
BPT.

Ancillary streams with a BAT discharge allowance are from contin-
uous  sheet  casting  lubricant,  solution heat treatment contact
cooling, and cleaning or etching baths,  rinses,  and  scrubbers.
The  bath  allowance at BAT is identical to the bath allowance at
BPT.

The BAT wastewater discharge flow for the solution heat treatment
contact cooling water (heat treatment  quench)  stream  is  2,037
1/kkg  (488.5  gal/ton).   Of the 89 heat treatment quench opera-
tions surveyed, 18 reported recycle of  this  stream.   Eight  of
these  appear to achieve zero discharge of this wastewater stream
by practicing total recycle.  It is  likely,  however,  that  the
plants  reporting  no  discharge  failed to mention periodic dis-
charge, such as occasional  blowdown  or  discharge  with  annual
cleaning  of the cooling tower.  Because no technology for avoid-
ing the buildup of solids in completely recycled cooling water is
known to be applied in  this  industry,  only  nonzero  discharge
values  were  used as a basis for the BAT discharge flow. The BAT
discharge flow for the solution heat  treatment  contact  cooling
water  stream  is the mean of four plants using recycle for which
sufficient data are available on both normalized  discharge  flow
and  water  use flow (i.e., the percent recycle).  The normalized
discharge flows for these plants ranged from 881 to  3,059  1/kkg
(211 to 733 gal/ton), with a mean of 2,037 1/kkg (488.5 gal/ton),
which is selected as the BAT discharge flow.

The  BAT wastewater discharge flows for cleaning or etching oper-
ations are 179 1/kkg (43 gal/ton) for cleaning or etching  baths,
1,391  1/kkg  (339.8 gal/ton) for cleaning or etching rinses, and
1,933 1/kkg (463.5 gal/ton) of aluminum  cleaned  or  etched  for
cleaning or etching scrubber liquor.

The  BAT  discharge for cleaning or etching baths is identical to
that of BPT.  At proposal, consideration was given to not  estab-
lishing a BAT discharge allowance based upon hauling or regenera-
tion of bath solutions.  Based on comments received from industry


                              1061

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and  data  obtained  since proposal, the Agency has established a
bath allowance at BAT.

The BAT wastewater discharge flow for  the  cleaning  or  etching
rinse is based upon flow reduction using two-stage countercurrent
cascade  rinsing  or  other suitable rinsing techniques including
but not limited to spray rinsing and simply  rinsewater  recircu-
lation.   The  allowance  is per bath and associated rinse opera-
tion.  Plants which have more than one cleaning or  etching  bath
are  given  an  allowance  for  the rinse that follows each bath.
Eighteen of the 44 rinse dischargers reported throughout  all  of
the  subcategories  meet the BAT flow without further flow reduc-
tion.  Eleven are known to use  recirculating  or  spray  rinsing
techniques  or  a  combination  of  the two.  Hot water rinses or
treatment of recirculating rinse water are used by four of  these
11  plants.   Stagnant rinsing is used by three plants which meet
the BAT discharge flow, as well as two which do not.

Most of the plants with  discharge  flows  higher  than  the  BAT
allowance are forging plants.  Five utilize once-through overflow
rinsing, two use stagnant rinsing, and two reuse rinse water from
one   rinse  operation  for  another.   Two-stage  countercurrent
cascade rinsing is used by one plant which  could  meet  the  BAT
discharge  flow  by adding a third countercurrent cascade rinsing
stage combined with a slight reduction in the  rinse  ratio.   By
using  two-stage countercurrent cascade rinsing, with an expected
90 percent reduction  in rinse water use, 20 of 26 plants can meet
the BAT discharge flow. The other six plants would  need  to  add
additional  countercurrent  cascade  rinsing stages, reduce their
rinse ratio, or use other more efficient  rinsing  techniques  to
conserve  water.  As  shown in an example presented in Section VII
(p. 776), the reduction in the flow that is achievable with  two-
stage  countercurrent  cascade  rinsing  can  be  as high as 99.5
percent.   For  the   aluminum  forming  category  the  BAT   flow
allowance is based on 90 percent recycle.

Three  of the seven plants with wet air pollution control devices
on cleaning or etching operations use  water  recycle.   The  BAT
wastewater  discharge  flow  for the cleaning or etching scrubber
liquor stream is 1,933 1/kkg (463.5 gal/ton), which is  based  on
the  mean  normalized  discharge  flow  of  the  two plants using
recycle.

The BAT discharge for continuous sheet casting  spent   lubricants
is identical to that  of BPT  1.964 1/kkg  (0.471 gal/ton).  This is
based  upon recycle of this stream.
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Pollutants

The  pollutants considered for regulation under BAT are listed in
Section VI, along with an  explanation  of  why  they  have  been
selected.   The  pollutants selected for regulation under BAT are
chromium (total),  cyanide  (total),  zinc,  and  aluminum.   The
organic  pollutants, cadmium,  copper, lead, nickel, and selenium,
listed in Section VI are not regulated under BAT.   As  discussed
previously,  oil  removal  and  the  limitation placed on oil and
grease at BAT should result in reduction in the amount of organic
pollutants which are  discharged,  and  by  achieving  the  zinc,
chromium, and aluminum limitations, the other metals listed above
should also be removed.

Treatment Train

EPA  has  selected Option 2 as the basis for BAT in this subcate-
gory.  Again, this option uses the same end-of-pipe technology as
BPT, with the addition of  measures  to  reduce  the  flows  from
selected  waste streams.  The end-of-pipe treatment configuration
is shown in Figure X-2.  The combination  of  in-process  control
and technology significantly increases the removals of pollutants
over that achieved by BPT and is cost effective.

Effluent Limitations

Table  VII-20  (p.  807)  presents  the  treatment  effectiveness
corresponding to the BAT  model  treatment  train  for  pollutant
parameters  considered in the Rolling with Neat Oils Subcategory.
Effluent concentrations (one day  maximum  and  ten  day  average
values)  are  multiplied by the normalized discharge flows summa-
rized in Table X-27 to calculate the mass of  pollutants  allowed
to  be  discharged  per  mass  of  product.  The results of these
calculations are shown in Table X-28.

Benefits

In establishing BAT, EPA considered the  cost  of  treatment  and
control and the pollutant reduction benefits to evaluate economic
achievability.   As  shown in Table X-3 the application of BAT to
the total Rolling with Neat Oils Subcategory will remove approxi-
mately 1,790,870.2 kg/yr (3.940 million Ib/yr) of pollutants.  As
shown in Table X-l the corresponding  capital  and  annual  costs
(1982  dollars)  for  this  removal  are  $16.2 million and $8.13
million per year, respectively.  As shown in Table X-9 the appli-
cation of BAT to direct dischargers only,  will  remove  approxi-
mately 1,511,558.8 kg/yr (3.325 million Ib/yr) of pollutants.  As
shown  in  Table  X-2  the corresponding capital and annual costs
(1982 dollars) for this  removal  are  $12.5  million  and  $6.13
million per year, respectively.


                              1063

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ROLLING WITH EMULSIONS SUBCATEGORY

Discharge Flows

Table  X-29 lists the BAT wastewater discharge flows for core and
ancillary streams that received an allowance under BPT.  The flow
allowances for the core operations are identical to BPT.

Ancillary streams with a BAT discharge allowance are  from  solu-
tion  heat  treatment contact cooling, cleaning or etching baths,
rinses, and scrubbers, and direct chill casting contact  cooling.
The  BAT  wastewater  discharge  flow  for the solution treatment
contact cooling water stream is 2,037 1/kkg (488.5 gal/ton).  The
BAT wastewater discharge flows for cleaning or etching operations
are 179 1/kkg (43 gal/ton) for  the  cleaning  or  etching  bath,
1,686  1/kkg  (404.4  gal/ton) for the cleaning or etching rinse,
and 1,933 1/kkg (463.5 gal/ton) for cleaning or etching  scrubber
liquor.   Refer to the Rolling with Neat Oils Subcategory portion
of this section for further discussion of these flow allowances.

The BAT wastewater discharge flow for direct chill casting opera-
tions is 1,329 1/kkg  (318.96 gal/ton).  This is the same  as  the
BPT  discharge  flow and is based upon the average of plants that
recycle this stream.

Pollutants

The pollutants considered for regulation under BAT are listed  in
Section  VI,  along  with  an  explanation  of why they have been
selected.  The pollutants selected for regulation under  BAT  are
chromium  (total),  cyanide  (total),  zinc,  and  aluminum.  The
organic pollutants, cadmium, copper, lead, nickel, arid  selenium,
listed  in  Section VI are not regulated under BAT. . As discussed
previously, oil removal and the  limitation  placed  on  oil  and
grease at BPT should result in reduction in the amount of organic
pollutants  which  are  discharged,  and  by  achieving the zinc,
chromium, and aluminum limitations, the other metals listed above
should also be removed.

Treatment Train

EPA has selected Option 2 as the basis for BAT in  this  subcate-
gory.  Again, this option uses the same end-of-pipe technology as
BPT,  with  the  addition  of  measures  to reduce the flows from
selected waste streams.  The end-of-pipe treatment  configuration
is  shown  in  Figure X-2.  The combination of in-process control
and technology significantly increases the removals of pollutants
over that achieved by BPT and is cost effective.
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Effluent Limitations

Table  VII-20   (p.  807)  presents   the   treatment   effectiveness
corresponding   to  the  BAT  model   treatment  train  for pollutant
parameters considered in the Rolling with Emulsions  Subcategory.
Effluent  concentrations  (one  day  maximum   and ten day  average
values) are multiplied by the normalized  discharge   flows  summa-
rized  in  Table X-29 to calculate the mass of pollutants  allowed
to be discharged per mass  of  product.   The  results  of  these
calculations are shown in Table X-30.

Benefits

In  establishing  BAT,  EPA  considered the cost of  treatment and
control and the pollutant reduction benefits to evaluate economic
achievability.  As shown in Table X-4 the application of   BAT  to
the total Rolling with Emulsions Subcategory will remove approxi-
mately  12,338,901.1  kg/yr  of pollutants (27.15 million  Ib/yr).
As shown in Table X-l the corresponding capital and  annual   costs
(1982.  dollars)  for  this  removal  are  $16.5 million and  $8.71
million per year, respectively.   As  shown  in  Table  X-10  the
application  of  BAT  to  direct  dischargers  only,  will remove
approximately   10,762,880.8  kg/yr   (23.68  million   Ib/yr)   of
pollutants.   As shown in Table X-2 the corresponding capital and
annual costs (1982 dollars) for this removal  are  $15.1   million
and $7.97 million per year, respectively.

EXTRUSION SUBCATEGORY

Discharge Flows

Table  X-31 lists the BAT wastewater discharge flows for core and
ancillary streams that received an allowance under BPT.  The core
allocation for BAT is less than BPT due to flow reduction  applied
to the die cleaning waste streams.  The Extrusion BAT  core  flow
allowance is 340.1 1/kkg (81.6 gal/ton).

The  BAT  wastewater discharge flow for the die cleaning bath and
rinse stream  is  12.9  1/kkg  (3.1  gal/ton).    This  normalized
discharge  flow is based upon zero allowance for the die cleaning
rinse using flow reduction by countercurrent cascade rinsing  and
total  reuse  of  the  reduced  rinse' flow as make-up to  the die
cleaning bath.   The allowance for the die cleaning bath contribu-
tion is the same as the die cleaning bath BPT  allowance.    Three
plants currently practice total reuse of die cleaning rinse water
from  bath  make-up.    Because the average amount of die cleaning
rinse discharge, 26.52 1/kkg (6.354 gal/ton),  is greater than the
average die cleaning bath water use,  17.56 1/kkg (4.212 gal/ton),
rinse water flow reduction may be required at  BAT.    Countercur-
                              1065

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rent  cascade  rinsing  is  the
achieving the flow reduction.
model  treatment  technology for
The BAT wastewater discharge flow for the die  cleaning  scrubber
liquor  stream  is 275.5 1/kkg (66.08 gal/ton), which is the same
as the BPT flow.  The BAT discharge flow  for  the  miscellaneous
nondescript   wastewater  sources  stream  Is  45.0  1/kkg  (10.8
gal/ton).

Ancillary streams with a BAT discharge allowance are  from  solu-
tion and press heat treatment, direct chill casting contact cool-
ing,  extrusion  press  hydraulic  fluid leakage, and cleaning or
etching baths, rinses and scrubbers.

The BAT wastewater discharge flow for the solution and press heat
treatment contact cooling water  stream  is  2,037  1/kkg  (488.5
gal/ton),   as discussed in the Rolling with Neat Oils Subcategory
of this section.

The BAT wastewater discharge flows for cleaning or etching opera-
tions are 179 1/kkg (43 gal/ton) for cleaning or  etching  baths,
1,391  1/kkg  (334  gal/ton)  for cleaning or etching rinses, and
1,933 1/kkg (463.5 gal/ton)  for  cleaning  or  etching  scrubber
liquor.   Refer  to the discussion for the Rolling with Neat Oils
Subcategory of this section.

The BAT wastewater discharge flow for direct chill  casting  con-
tact  cooling  is 1,329 1/kkg (318.96 gal/ton).  This is the same
as the BPT discharge flow and is based upon the average of plants
that recycle this stream.

The BAT wastewater discharge flow for extrusion  press  hydraulic
fluid  leakage is the same as the BPT discharge flow and is based
on the average of plants that do not recycle  this  stream.   EPA
visited  several  plants  with emulsion-based hydraulic extrusion
presses after the public comment period to  study  the  potential
for  recycle  of  the hydraulic medium because we were aware that
there were plants that were currently doing  so.   We  determined
that  the  modifications  required  for  an  existing plant would
include rerouting of  collection  pits  and  channels  which  are
generally  a  part of the floorspace and foundation, installation
of pumps to transfer the collected hydraulic fluid to  a  central
point  for  recycle,  and  possibly  installation of a corrugated
plate separator-to separate insoluble oils and a filter to remove
dirt and debris.  Recycle was considered for BAT and  PSES;  how-
ever,  it  was ultimately rejected because of the expense and the
complexity of these process changes that would  be  required  for
existing plants to install recycle systems.
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The  degassing  scrubber  liquor stream is zero allowance at BAT.
Application of  the  alternative  fluxing  and  in-line  refining
methods discussed in Section VII (p.    ), eliminate the need for
wet  air pollution controls associated with degassing of aluminum
melts prior to casting.  Because  this  technology  is  currently
available and in use at most aluminum forming plants with casting
operations,  dry air pollution control has been identified as the
BAT control.  Aluminum refining is regulated under the nonferrous
metals manufacturing category and any  predefining  step  before
casting  that  requires  air  pollution control which generates a
wastewater stream should be regulated under the appropriate  sub-
category of nonferrous metals manufacturing.

Pollutants

The  pollutants considered for regulation under BAT are listed in
Section VI, along with an  explanation  of  why  they  have  been
selected.   The  pollutants selected for regulation under BAT are
chromium (total),  cyanide  (total),  zinc,  and  aluminum.   The
organic  pollutants, cadmium, copper, lead, nickel, and selenium,
listed in Section VI are not regulated under BAT.   As  discussed
previously,  oil  removal  and  the  limitation placed on oil and
grease at BPT should result in reduction in the amount of organic
pollutants which are discharged, and by achieving the zinc, chro-
mium, and aluminum limitations, the  other  metals  listed  above
should also be removed.

Treatment Train

EPA  has  selected Option 2 as the basis for BAT in this subcate-
gory.  Again, this option uses the same end-of-pipe technology as
BPT, with the addition of  measures  to  reduce  the  flows  from
selected  waste streams.  The end-of-pipe treatment configuration
is shown in Figure X-2.  The combination  of  in-process  control
and technology significantly increases the removals of pollutants
over that achieved by BPT and is cost effective.

Effluent Limitations

Table  VII-20  (p.  807)  presents  the  treatment  effectiveness
corresponding to the BAT  model  treatment  train  for  pollutant
parameters  considered  in  the  Extrusion Subcategory.  Effluent
concentrations (one day maximum and ten day average  values)  are
multiplied  by the normalized discharge flows summarized in Table
X-31 to calculate the mass of pollutants allowed to be discharged
per mass of product.  The results of these calculations are shown
in Table X-32.
                              1067

-------
Benefits

In establishing BAT, EPA considered the  cost  of  treatment  and
control and the pollutant reduction benefits to evaluate economic
achievability.   As  shown in Table X-5 the application of BAT to
the  total  Extrusion  Subcategory  will   remove   approximately
4,465,352.6  kg/yr  (9.824 million Ib/yr) of pollutants.  As shown
in Table X-l the corresponding capital  and  annual  costs  (1982
dollars) for this removal are $34.5 million and $23.7 million per
year,  respectively.   As  shown in Table X-ll the application of
BAT  to  direct  dischargers  only,  will  remove   approximately
3,002,188.1  kg/yr  (6.605 million Ib/yr) of pollutants.  As shown
in Table X-2 the corresponding capital  and  annual  costs  (1982
dollars)-for this removal are $18.3 million and $10.1 million per
year, respectively.

FORGING SUBCATEGORY

There are no direct discharging facilities which use forging pro-
cesses  to  form aluminum.  Consequently, the Agency is excluding
the Forging Subcategory from regulation under BPT and  BAT.   The
discussion   which  follows  is  presented  for  consistency  and
completeness.

Discharge Flows

Table X-33 lists the BAT wastewater discharge flows for core  and
ancillary streams that received an allowance under BPT.  The pro-
duction normalized discharge flow for the core under BAT is equal
to the core discharge flow under BPT.

Ancillary streams with a BAT discharge allowance are from forging
scrubbers,  solution heat treatment contact cooling, and cleaning
or etching baths, rinses,  and  scrubbers.   The  BAT  wastewater
discharge  flow  for  the forging scrubber liquor stream is 94.31
1/kkg (22.65 gal/ton).  Three aluminum forming  plants  with  dry
air  pollution  control  systems  use  baghouses or afterburners.
Because of high operating and maintenance costs and fire  hazards
associated  with the baghouses, dry air pollution control systems
have not been selected for BAT. Of the  three  plants  using  wet
scrubbers,  two  recirculate  the  scrubber  water  with periodic
discharge, while one plant does not  recirculate  and  discharges
continuously.  The BAT discharge flow is the average of the flows
for the two plants with recirculating scrubbers.

The BAT wastewater discharge flow for the solution heat treatment
contact  cooling  water stream is 2,037 1/kkg (488.5 gal/ton),  as
discussed in the Rolling  with  Neat  Oils  Subcategory  of  this
section.
                              1068

-------
The BAT wastewater discharge flows for cleaning or etching opera-
tions  are  179  1/kkg  (43  gal/ton) for the cleaning or etching
bath, 1,391 1/kkg (334  gal/ton)  for  the  cleaning  or  etching
rinse,  and  1,933  1/kkg (463.5 gal/ton) for cleaning or etching
scrubber liquor.  Refer to the discussion for  the  Rolling  with
Neat Oils Subcategory of this section.

Pollutants

The  pollutants considered for regulation under BAT are listed in
Section VI, along with an  explanation  of  why  they  have  been
selected.   The  pollutants selected for regulation under BAT are
chromium (total),  cyanide  (total),  zinc,  and  aluminum.   The
organic  pollutants, cadmium, copper, lead, nickel, and selenium,
listed in Section VI are not regulated under BAT.  As  previously
discussed,  oil  removal  and  the   limitation  placed on oil and
grease should result in reduction in the amount of organic pollu-
tants which are discharged, and by achieving the zinc,  chromium,
and  aluminum   limitations,  the other metals listed above should
also be removed.

Treatment Train

EPA has selected Option 2 as the basis for BAT in  this  subcate-
gory.   Again,  this option uses the same technology as BPT, with
the addition of measures to reduce the flows from selected  waste
streams.   The  end-of-pipe  treatment  configuration is shown in
Figure X-2.  The combination of in-process control and technology
significantly  increases the  removals  of  pollutants  over  that
achieved by BPT and is cost effective.

Effluent Limitations

Table  VI1-20   (p.  807)  presents   the  treatment  effectiveness
corresponding  to the BAT treatment train for pollutant parameters
considered in  the Forging Subcategory.   Effluent  concentrations
(one  day  maximum  and ten day average values)  are multiplied by
the  normalized  discharge  flows  summarized   in  Table  X-33  to
calculate  the  mass  of  pollutants allowed to  be discharged per
mass  of product.  The results of these calculations are shown  in
Table X-34.

Benefits

In  establishing  BAT,  EPA  considered  the  cost of treatment and
control  and the pollutant reduction  benefits to  evaluate economic
achievability.  As  shown  in  Table  X-6   the  application   of  BAT
level   technology   to   the   total Forging  Subcategory will  remove
approximately   794,745.9   kg/yr    (1.748    million   Ib/yr)   of
pollutants.    As  shown  in Table X-l  the  corresponding capital and
                               1069

-------
 annual  costs  (1982  dollars)  for  this  removal   are  $4.87   million
 and  $2.32 million per  year,  respectively.

 DRAWING WITH  NEAT OILS SUBCATEGORY

 Discharge Flows

 Table   X-35 lists the  BAT  wastewater  discharge flows  for  core and
 ancillary streams that received  an  allowance  under  BPT.   The  BAT
 discharge  flow  from   the  core is the  same  as the BPT discharge
 flow.

 Ancillary streams with a BAT discharge allowance are  from contin-
 uous rod casting, solution heat  treatment   contact  cooling,   and
 cleaning or etching  baths, rinses,  and scrubbers.

 The  continuous  rod  casting contact   cooling stream is reduced
 under BAT to  193.3  1/kkg (46.4 gal/ton)  of  aluminum  cast,   with
 the  application  of recycle.  The  flow  allowance is  based on the
 average of three flows, two  of which  are from  primary   aluminum
 plants  practicing recycle.   The  third is based on the application
 of 90 percent recycle  of the one aluminum forming flow available.
 One  aluminum  forming plant reported recycle with only  periodic
 discharge of  the continuous  rod  casting  cooling stream,   however,
 they  did  not provide data  to calculate their production normal-
 ized flows.  Seventeen aluminum   forming   plants,  five   primary
 aluminum plants and  one secondary aluminum  plant, which recycle a
 similar  type of cooling stream  to  direct chill casting,  reported
 recycle rates of greater than 90 percent.   Therefore, the Agency
 believes  that  the  flow  based on the  application of recycle is
 appropriate for this waste stream.

 The BAT wastewater discharge flow for the solution  heat treatment
 contact cooling water  stream is  2,037 1/kkg (488.5  gal/ton),  as
 discussed  in  the   Rolling   with   Neat  Oils  Subcategory of  this
 section.

 The BAT wastewater discharge flows  for cleaning or  etching opera-
 tions are 179 1/kkg  (43 gal/ton)  for  the  cleaning  or   etching
 bath,   1,391   1/kkg  (334  gal/ton)   for  the  cleaning or etching
 rinse,  and 1,933 1/kkg  (463.5 gal/ton) for  the cleaning or  etch-
 ing  scrubber  liquor.   Refer   to  the discussion for the Rolling
with Neat Oils Subcategory of this  section.

Pollutants

The pollutants considered for regulation under  BAT  are listed  in
Section  VI,   along  with  an  explanation  of  why  they have  been
selected.   The pollutants selected  for regulation under   BAT  are
chromium  (total),    cyanide   (total),   zinc,   and   aluminum.   The
                              1070

-------
organic pollutants, cadmium, copper, lead, nickel, and  selenium,
listed  in  Section VI are not regulated under BAT.  As discussed
previously, oil removal and the  limitation  placed  on  oil  and
qrease at BPT should result in reduction in the amount of organic
pollutants  which  are  discharged,  and  by  achieving the zinc,
chromium, and aluminum limitations, the other metals listed above
should also be removed.

Treatment Train

EPA has selected Option 2 as the basis for BAT  in  this  subcate-
aorv.  Again, this option uses the  same end-of-pipe technology as
BPT   with  the  addition   of  measures  to reduce the flows  from
selected waste streams.  The end-of-pipe treatment configuration
is  shown   in  Figure  X-2.  The combination of  in-process control
and technology significantly increases the removals of pollutants
over  that  achieved by  BPT and  is cost effective.

Effluent Limitations

Table VII-20   (p.  807)  presents   the   treatment effectiveness
corresponding   to  the BAT model   treatment  train for  pollutant
parameters considered  in  the Drawing with Neat Oils   Subcategory.
Effluent   concentrations   (one day  maximum   and ten day  average
values)  are   multiplied  by   the   normalized    discharge    flows
summarized  in  Table   X-35   to  calculate  the mass of pollutants
allowed  to be  discharged  per mass  of  product.    The   results  of
these calculations are shown  in Table X-36.

Benefits

 In  establishing  BAT,  EPA  considered the cost of  treatment and
 control  and the pollutant reduction benefits to evaluate economic
 achievability.  As shown in Table X-7 the application of  BAT  to
 the total  Drawing with Neat Oils  Subcategory will remove approxi-
 mately  788,995.7  kg/yr (1.736 million Ib/yr) of pollutants.  As
 shown in Table X-l the corresponding  capital  and  annual  costs
 (1982  dollars)  for  this  removal  are  $3.96 million and $1.96
 million per year, respectively.    As  shown  in   Table  X-l2  the
 application  of  BAT  to  direct  dischargers  only,   will remove
 approximately 559,481.0 kg/yr (1.231  million  Ib/yr)  of  pollu-
 tants.   As  shown  in  Table  X-2  the corresponding capital and
 annual costs  (1982 dollars) for this removal   are $2.21  million
 and  $1.00 million per year, respectively.
                                1071

-------
  DRAWING  WITH  EMULSIONS OR SOAPS SUBCATEGORY
  Discharge  Flows

  Table  X-37 lists  the  BAT wastewater  discharge  flows  for
  3iSchi?X  SJ"™. that received an  allowance'unde? IPT     he
  BP?CS?s?harge°fl0w?r ^  COre °f thiS sub-tegory is  equal  to   he

  Ancillary  streams with a  BAT discharge allowance are  from  contin-
  uous rod casting, solution heat  treatment   contact  coolinS   and
  cleaning or etching baths, rinses,  and scrubbers    COOlinq'  and
                              "??? f?C cleani^ or etching opera-



 Pollutants
chrium(tota,,cyne   Uol    - -^ulatlon   der BAT are
organic. pollutiita^SSSiu. Copper, lead,' niSkel^an^^ienium6
Treatment Train
,  with the
                          - -
                       of  measures  to  reduce  the  flows  from
                              1072

-------
selected waste  streams.  The end-of-pipe treatment configuration
is  shown  in  Figure X-2.  The combination of in-process control
and technology significantly increases the removals of pollutants
over that achieved by BPT and is cost effective.

Effluent Limitations

Table  VII-20  (p.  807)  presents  the  treatment  effectiveness
corresponding  to  the  BAT  model  treatment train for pollutant
parameters considered in the  Drawing  with  Emulsions  or  Soaps
Subcategory.   Effluent  concentrations  (one day maximum and ten
day average values) are multiplied by  the  normalized  discharge
flows  summarized  in  Table X-37 to calculate the mass of pollu-
tants allowed to be discharged per mass of product.  The  results
of these calculations are shown in Table X-38.

Benefits

In  establishing  BAT,  EPA  considered the cost of treatment and
control and the pollutant reduction benefits to evaluate economic
achievability.  As shown  in Table X-8  the application of  BAT   to
the total Drawing with  Emulsions or Soaps Subcategory will remove
approximately   140,583.4   kg/yr    (0.309   million    Ib/yr)   of
pollutants.  As shown  in  Table X-l the corresponding  capital  and
annual  costs   (1982  dollars) for this removal are $0.62 million
and $0.27 million per year, respectively.  As shown in  Table X-l3
the application of BAT  to direct dischargers  only,   will  remove
approximately 57,501.6  kg/yr  (0.127 million  Ib/yr) of pollutants.
As  shown  in Table X-2  the  corresponding  capital  and  annual costs
 (1982  dollars)  for this  removal  are  $0.41  million  and  $0.18
million per year,  respectively.
                               1073

-------
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