Volunteer Lake
Monitoring:
A Methods Manual
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Office of Wetlands, Oceans, and Watersheds
Assessment & Watershed Protection Division
WH-553
401 M Street, S.W.
Washington, D.C. 20460
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This document was prepared under cooperative agreement
No. CX-816068 from the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency,
Office of Wetlands, Oceans, and Watersheds, to the North
American Lake Management Society.
Citation: Simpson, J. T. 1991. Volunteer Lake Monitoring: A
Methods Manual EPA 440/4-91-002.
NOTICE:
This document has been reviewed in accordance with U.S. Environ-
mental Protection Agency policy and approved for publication.
Mention of trade names or commercial products does not constitute
endorsement or recommendation for use.
$& Printed on Recycled Paper
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FOREWORD
Foreword
The need to gather information on conditions in our Nation's lakes has never
been greater. Local, state, and Federal agencies, as well as private citizens, seek
monitoring information for a variety of educational, planning, and regulatory
purposes. Unfortunately, public funding and staffing to carry out water sam-
pling activities have not always kept pace with this need.
To fill this information gap, many state agencies have organized cost-effective
programs that train local citizens to monitor the quality of their lakes. Volunteer
programs have been found to be of enormous value to states, which can gain a
baseline of useful information on lakes that might otherwise have gone
unmonitored. States also benefit from new partnerships with educated and
involved citizens who actively work to protect their lake resources.
Citizen volunteers benefit from monitoring programs as well. Volunteers
learn about water sampling, lake biology, and the impacts of land use activities.
In gathering information about the condition of their individual lakes, volunteers
also often become involved in lake and watershed management activities.
The experience of successful volunteer programs shows us that the spirit of
stewardship and teamwork engendered by these volunteer efforts is of great help
in protecting our Nation's lakes for future generations to use and enjoy. The U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency recognizes the value of these efforts and has
developed this methods manual to provide a useful tool to those who are in-
volved, or would like to become involved, in lake monitoring activities.
Martha G. Prothro
Director, Office of Water
Regulations and Standards
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Washington, DC 20460
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The EPA project officers were Alice Mayio and Margaret
Kerr. The principal author was Jonathan T. Simpson. JT&A,
Inc. provided editorial support. Special thanks are extended to
the many reviewers who provided valuable comments on the
content and organization of this manual.
Layout/graphics (except where indicated): Jonathan T. Simpson.
Cover art: Candlewood Lake, Connecticut
by Terri Talas (courtesy of Northeast Utilities).
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Contents
Foreword iii
Acknowledgments iv
Contents v
Executive Summary vii
Chapter 1 Introduction ...... 1
l.A Purpose of this Manual 2
l.B Manual Organization 3
l.C Planning a Monitoring Program 4
Chapter 2 Focusing on a Lake Condition ..... ............... .. 9
2.A Introduction 10
2.B Algae 12
2.C Aquatic Plants 14
2.D Dissolved Oxygen 16
2.E Other Lake Conditions 21
Chapter 3 Monitoring Algae 25
3.A Algal Condition Parameters 26
3.B Where to Sample 31
3.C Where to Sample in the Water Column 36
3.D Frequency of Sampling 39
3.E Length of the Sampling Season 40
3.F How to Sample 41
3.G Notes on Equipment 51
Chapter 4 Monitoring Aquatic Plants ...... .... ....... 57
4.A Aquatic Plant Condition Parameters 58
4.B Sampling Considerations 60
4.C How to Sample 60
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CONTENTS
Chapter 5 Monitoring Dissolved Oxygen .......................................... 69
5.A Dissolved Oxygen Parameters 70
5.B Sampling Considerations 71
5.C How to Sample 72
Chapter 6 Monitoring Other Lake Conditions.................................. 79
6.A Monitoring Sedimentation 80
6.B Monitoring Suspended Sediment 81
6.C Monitoring Acidification 82
6.D Monitoring the Bacteria at Bathing Beaches 84
Chapter 7 Training Citizen Volunteers 87
7.A The Training Process 88
7.B Creating a Job Analysis 89
7.C Planning the Training 90
7.D Presenting the Training 93
7.E Evaluating the Training 94
7.F Follow-up Coaching, Motivation, and Feedback 95
Chapter 8 Presenting Monitoring Results.............. 97
8.A Overview of Data Presentations 98
8.B Algae Results 104
8.C Aquatic Plant Results 112
8.D Dissolved Oxygen Results 116
Appendix Scientific Supply Houses .......... ...... ...... 119
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Executive Summary
Overview
Increasingly, State, local, and Federal agencies are finding that citizen volun-
teers are valuable partners in programs to monitor and protect our Nation's
water resources. Among the most developed and widespread of these volunteer
programs are those that monitor existing or potential lake pollution problems.
The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has supported the volunteer
monitoring movement since 1987 by sponsoring two national volunteer monitor-
ing symposia, publishing a newsletter for volunteers and a directory of volunteer
organizations, developing guidance manuals, and providing technical assistance.
These activities have been designed to help State and other agencies understand
the value of volunteer monitoring programs, both as potential sources of credible
data and as catalysts for developing an educated and involved citizenry.
The EPA has developed this manual to present specific information on
volunteer lake water quality monitoring methods. It is intended both for the
organizers of the volunteer lake monitoring program, and for the volunteer who
will be actually be sampling lake conditions. Its emphasis is on identifying
appropriate parameters to monitor and setting out specific steps for each selected
monitoring method. Careful quality assurance/quality control procedures are
advocated throughout this manual to ensure that the data collected by volunteers
are useful to States and other agencies.
This manual begins by summarizing the steps necessary to plan and manage
a volunteer monitoring program, including setting general goals, identifying the
uses and users of collected data, and establishing sound quality assurance
procedures. Rather than addressing every parameter and method that might be
monitored by the citizen volunteer, this manual concentrates special attention on
three of the most common lake pollution problems: increased algal growth;
increased growth of rooted aquatic plants; and lowered or fluctuating levels of
dissolved oxygen. All three are common symptoms of human-induced (cultural)
eutrophication. Other lake conditions that can be monitored by volunteers are
also briefly discussed including sedimentation, turbidity, lake acidification, and
bacteriological condition.
Increased Algal Growth
This manual discusses three parameters most commonly used by volunteer
monitoring programs to measure the algal condition of a lake: Secchi disk
transparency (a measure of water clarity and, indirectly, of algal density);
chlorophyll a (a more reliable indicator of algal density); and total phosphorus
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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY;
(a measure of water fertility). Ideally, all three should be measured in a monitor-
ing program. Step-by-step instructions are provided on sampling procedures.
Increased Growth of Rooted Aquatic Plants
Three procedures are recommended for assessing the overgrowth of rooted
aquatic plants: mapping the distribution of plant beds in the lake; estimating the
density of plants along a transect line in a selected part of the lake; and collecting
plant specimens for professional identification. Specific procedures are outlined.
Lowered or Fluctuating Levels of Dissolved Oxygen
Dissolved oxygen conditions are best characterized by measuring the dis-
solved oxygen and temperature profiles of the lake (measurements taken from
the lake surface to the lake bottom at set intervals).
In addition to discussing specific sampling methods and equipment, this
manual outlines a specific volunteer training process. Training the citizen
volunteer is an essential component of a successful monitoring program. Time
and resources should be budgeted up front to plan, present, and evaluate volun-
teer training, both at the start of the program and as periodic follow-up and
"continuing education." The payoff includes: more effective, involved, and
confident volunteers; better data; and more efficient use of the coordinator's (and
volunteer's) time and energy.
This manual concludes with advice on how to present volunteer-collected
data. After all, a volunteer program is of little value if the generated data are not
translated into information useful both to the volunteers and to the managers of
the program. Hints and examples are provided on presenting data results to
meet the needs and level of knowledge of the data users.
This manual attempts to provide a comprehensive overview of standard lake
volunteer monitoring methods. However, it cannot claim to cover every conceiv-
able approach. Methods and equipment other than those described here may be
perfectly acceptable and meet the needs of the programs that employ them.
Reference documents and material from existing lake volunteer monitoring
programs are cited at the end of each chapter to provide the reader with addi-
tional detailed information on methods, limnology, data quality considerations,
and program planning. Anyone interested in establishing a lake volunteer
monitoring program is strongly encouraged to consult these references and to
evaluate the experiences, goals, and techniques of the many successful volunteer
lake monitoring programs already underway.
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Chapter 1
Introduction
r-r
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CHAPTER 1
1.A Purpose of {his Manual
The purpose of this manual is to
present methods for monitoring
important lake conditions using citizen
volunteers. This information will be
helpful to agencies, institutions, and
private citizens wishing to start new
volunteer monitoring efforts, as well
as those who may want to improve an
existing program. The citizen volun-
teer who uses these techniques will be
able to collect reliable data that can be
used with confidence for a variety of
resource management purposes.
This document is
designed as a companion
manual to a guide pro-
duced by the U.S. Environ-
mental Protection Agency
(EPA) entitled Volunteer
Water Monitoring: A Guide
for State Managers. The
EPA guide describes the
role of citizen volunteer
monitoring in state pro-
grams and discusses how a
state monitoring program
can best be organized and
administered.
Copies of the EPA's Volunteer Water
Monitoring: A Guide for State Managers
may be obtained by contacting:
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Office of Wetlands, Oceans, and
Watersheds
Assessment & Watershed Protection Div.
WH-553
401M Street, S.W.
Washington, D.C. 20460
Volunteer Lake Monitoring: A
Methods Manual extends the concepts
and procedures developed by the EPA
guide and puts them in a "how to do
it" context specifically for volunteer
lake monitoring programs.
1DLUNTEER WATER
MONITORING:
A Guide
For State
Managers
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INTRODUCTION
1.B Manual Organization
Volunteer Lake Monitoring: A
Methods Manual is organized into eight
chapters.
Chapter 1: Introduction
This chapter provides an over-
view for the manual and dis-
cusses planning a lake monitoring
program. Topics include setting
general goals, identifying uses
and users of the data, and devel-
oping quality assurance and
quality control procedures.
Chapter 2: Focusing on a Lake
Condition
This chapter introduces the three
lake conditions most suitable for
volunteer monitoring: algae;
(rooted) aquatic plants; and
dissolved oxygen. Other condi-
tions that could be considered for
monitoring are also discussed.
ChapterS: Monitoring Algae
Chapter 4: Monitoring Aquatic
Plants
Chapters: Monitoring Dissolved
Oxygen
Chapter 6: Monitoring Other Lake
Conditions
These four chapters identify
monitoring parameters that can
be used to characterize each of
the lake conditions introduced in
Chapter 2. Sampling design
issues discussed include where
and how often volunteers should
sample. Procedures for sampling
are also defined in a step-by-step
manner.
Chapter 7: Training Citizen Volun-
teers
This chapter defines a training
process that can be used to
educate volunteers on sampling
procedures. Included are sections
on how to write a job description
for volunteers and how to plan,
present, and evaluate volunteer
training.
ChapterS: Presenting Volunteer
Monitoring Results
This chapter recommends ways
to present the lake monitoring
data results using graphs and
summary statistics.
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CHAPTER 1
1.C Planning a Monitoring
Program
The steps necessary to plan and
manage a successful volunteer moni-
toring program are well covered in
EPA's Volunteer Water Monitoring: A
Guide for State Managers. Topics in this
guide include how to establish goals,
identify data uses and users, assign
staff responsibilities, establish a pilot
program, prepare a quality assurance
plan, and fund a program.
The purpose of this companion
manual is not to repeat material
presented in the Guide for State Manag-
ers but rather to provide specific
information concerning the adminis-
tration of a lake monitoring program.
To do this adequately, however, a few
of the guide's key concepts need to be
highlighted in the context of planning
a lake monitoring program.
Setting General Goals
Volunteers or agencies that begin a
volunteer lake monitoring program
face an almost bewildering array of
planning decisions. Therefore, EPA
has set out certain guidelines to help in
planning and implementing volunteer
programs.
As a first step, organizers of
volunteer programs should establish
their general goals. Are they inter-
ested in providing credible informa-
tion on water quality conditions to
State and local agencies? Or are they
primarily interested in educating the
public about water quality issues? Do
they wish to build a constituency of
involved citizens?
All three goals can be achieved by a
well-organized and maintained
program, but it is important to deter-
mine which of these goals is para-
mount. This methods manual is
directed primarily to those volunteer
programs that seek to improve the
understanding of lake conditions and
protection needs by supplementing
State-collected water quality data with
credible volunteer-collected data.
Identifying Data Uses
Early in the planning stage, orga-
nizers should identify how data
collected by the lake volunteer pro-
gram will be used and who will use it.
Data can be used to establish baseline
conditions, determine trends in water
quality, or identify current and
emerging problems.
Prospective users of volunteer-
collected data include State water
quality analysts, planners, fisheries
biologists, agricultural agencies, and
parks and recreation staffs; local
government planning and zoning
agencies; university researchers; and
Federal agencies such as the U.S.
Geological Survey, U.S. Fish and
Wildlife Service, U.S. EPA, and U.S.
Department of Agriculture. A plan-
ning committee made up of represen-
tatives from the identified data users
should be convened early in the
development of a program.
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INTRODUCTION 3 15
Initially, the planning committee
must make several important deci-
sions in the development of a volun-
teer monitoring program. Basically,
the committee must decide:
What the major goal of the
program will be;
What existing or potential lake
condition will be the focus of
monitoring;
What sampling parameters
should be used to characterize the
selected lake condition;
What procedures volunteers
should use to sample each
parameter;
How volunteers will be trained;
and
How the results of monitoring
will be presented.
Once the monitoring program is
established, the planning committee
should meet periodically to evaluate it,
update objectives, and fine-tune
activities. This review should ensure
that the volunteer monitoring efforts
continue to provide useful information
to those who need lake data.
Establishing Quality Assurance
and Quality Control
Many potential users of volunteer
data believe that only professionals
can conduct sampling and generate
high quality results.
This is not true. Given proper
training and supervision, dedicated
volunteers can conduct monitoring
activities and collect samples that yield
high quality data. To ensure that this
occurs, any volunteer lake monitoring
program that seeks to have its data
used must adopt effective quality
assurance/quality control (QA/QC)
responsibilities.
The planning of QA/QC proce-
dures begins with the development of
data quality objectives. The objectives
are defined by data users and establish
the uncertainty that can be tolerated
for their specific purposes. There are
five major areas of uncertainty that
should be evaluated when formulating
data quality objectives.
Accuracy is the degree of agree-
ment between the sampling result
and the true value of the param-
eter being measured. Accuracy is
most affected by the equipment
and the procedure used to
measure a sample parameter.
Precision, on the other hand,
refers to how well you are able to
reproduce the data result on the
same sample (regardless of
accuracy). Human error in
sampling techniques plays an
important role in estimating
precision.
Representativeness is the degree
to which the collected data
accurately and precisely represent
the lake condition being mea-
sured. It is most affected by
sample site location. For ex-
ample, if the monitoring objective
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CHAPTER 1
is to characterize the algal condi-
tion in a lake, taking a sample
along the shore near an inlet
stream may not be a good repre-
sentation of the conditions in the
lake as a whole.
Completeness is a measure of the
amount of valid data obtained
versus the amount expected to be
obtained as specified by the
original sampling design objec-
tives. It is usually expressed as a
percentage. For example, if 100
samples were scheduled, but
volunteers only sampled 90 times
because of bad weather, broken
equipment, and so forth, the
completeness record would be 90
percent.
Comparability is very important
to the manager of a citizen
monitoring program because it
represents how well data from
one lake can be compared to data
from another. As part of a
statewide or regional report on
the volunteer monitoring pro-
gram, most managers compare
one lake to another. It is vital,
therefore, that sampling methods
and procedures are the same from
lake to lake.
When forming data quality objec-
tives, the planning committee must
also examine the program budget.
Sophisticated analysis of some param-
eters (yielding high precision and
accuracy) usually comes at higher
costs in terms of equipment, proce-
dures, laboratory fees, agency time,
and citizen training. These higher
costs may be worthwhile if the pro-
gram is oriented toward supplement-
ing agency data collection.
For programs oriented more
toward public education and partici-
pation, the use of less sensitive equip-
ment and procedures may be in order.
In this case, budget money could be
better spent for public awareness
materials and supporting an increase
in citizen monitors. An efficient
sampling design is one that balances
cost components with acceptable
levels of uncertainty in context with
program goals and objectives.
It is important to be aware that EPA
requires that all its national program
offices, regional offices, and laborato-
ries participate in a centrally planned,
directed, and coordinated Agencywide
QA/QC program. As stated in the
EPA document, Volunteer Water
Monitoring: A Guide for State Managers,
"This effort also applies to efforts
carried out by the States and interstate
agencies that are supported by EPA
through grants, contracts or other
formalized agreements."
The EPA QA program is based
upon EPA Order 5360.1, "Policy and
Program Requirements to Implement the
Quality Assurance Program," which
describes the policy, objectives, and
responsibilities of all EPA program
and regional offices.
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EPA Order 5360.1 also requires
State monitoring programs supported
by EPA grants to prepare Quality
Assurance Project Plans. There are 16
major elements contained in a Quality
Assurance Project Plan.
1. Title Page: includes the name of
the project officer, the immediate
supervisor, the funding organiza-
tion and others with major
responsibility for the project.
2. Table of Contents: lists the
included elements and appendi-
ces in the report.
3. Project Description: states the
purpose of the project.
4. Project Organization and Re-
sponsibility: identify the struc-
ture or organization responsible
for the implementation of the
program.
5. QA Objectives: list the QA
objectives for each major mea-
surement parameter for precision,
accuracy, representativeness,
completeness, and comparability.
6. Sampling Procedures: describe
how parameters are monitored.
7. Sample Custody: identifies chain
of custody for field sampling and
laboratory operations.
- #j
8. Calibration Procedures and
Frequency: describe methods for
maintaining accuracy and preci-
sion of sampling equipment.
9. Analytical Procedures: docu-
ment how parameters are ana-
lyzed.
10. Data Reduction, Validation, and
Reporting: address the activities
involved in an overall data
management plan.
11. Internal Qualify Control Checks:
discuss quality control proce-
dures.
12. Performance and System Audits:
evaluate all components of the
measurement system including
equipment, personnel, and
procedures.
13. Preventive Maintenance:
ensures there are no gaps in the
data gathering activities.
14. Specific Routine Procedures
Used to Assess Data Precision,
Accuracy, and Completeness:
identify the methods to calculate
precision and accuracy and how
calibration and comparability
studies are undertaken.
15. Corrective Action: identifies
limits for data acceptability and
corrective procedures if data are
found unacceptable.
16. Quality Assurance Reports:
describe the format and schedule
for the submission of reports that
assess data accuracy, precision
and completeness, the results of
QC sessions and audits, and any
significant QA problems with
recommended solutions.
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CHAPTER 1
Data documentation is another
crucial aspect of QA/QC procedures.
Careful and thorough documentation
of any data base used to store and
manage volunteer data ensures that it
can be used with confidence. Appro-
priate documentation is especially
important if data are to be entered into
a State (or other formal) data base.
Volunteer Water Monitoring: A Guide
for State Managers provides additional
specific direction on developing data
quality objectives, quality assurance
project plans, and data documentation
files. Chapter 8 of this manual further
discusses how to analyze and present
volunteer data.
References
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 1980. Guidelines and Specifications for
Preparing Quality Assurance Project Plans. QAMS-005/80. Washington, DC.
. 1984. The Development of Data Quality Objectives, Washington, DC.
_. 1984. Guidance for Preparation of Combined Work/Quality Assurance
Project Plans for Environmental Monitoring. OWRS QA-1. Washington, DC.
. 1988. Guide for Preparation of Quality Assurance Project Plans for the
National Estuarine Program, Interim Final. EPA 556-2-88-001. Washington
D.C: Off. Mar. Estuarine Prot., Washington, DC.
_. April 1990. Rhode Island Sea Grant College Program. National
Directory of Citizen Volunteer Environmental Monitoring Programs. EPA 440/9-
90-004. Off. Water, Washington, DC.
. August 1990. Volunteer Water Monitoring: A Guide for State Manag-
ers. EPA 440/4-90-010. Off. Water, Washington, DC.
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Chapter 2
Focusing on a
Lake Condition
i<
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10 CHAPTER 2
2.A Introduction
It is beyond the scope of any
monitoring program to sample for
every condition that can be found in a
lake. Therefore, an initial task is to
decide where to focus sampling
efforts. This chapter discusses lake
conditions that make good candidates
for citizen monitoring.
Of all the water quality issues
facing lakes nationwide, it is those
conditions associated with a phenome-
non known as eutrophication that cause
the greatest concern among lake users.
Eutrophication is a term used to
describe the aging of a lake. This aging
process results from the accumulation
of nutrients, sediments, silt, and
organic matter in the lake from the
surrounding watershed.
Eutrophication can be accelerated
when human activity occurs in the
watershed. If proper controls are not
in place, pollutants from agricultural,
urban, and residential developments
can easily be carried into lakes and
their tributaries.
Accelerated Eutrophication
PLUS
Nutrients
Sediments
Silt
Organic matter
Adapted from:
The Lake and Reservoir
Restoration Guidance Manual
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FOCUSING ON A LAKE CONDITH
Symptoms of human-induced (or
cultural) eutrophication are:
increased algal growth (stimu-
lated by increased supply of
nutrients);
increased rooted aquatic plant
growth (stimulated by the
increased supply of nutrients as
well as the creation of additional
shallow growing areas via the
accumulation of sediments, silt
and organic matter); and
lower dissolved oxygen concen-
trations in all or parts of the lake
(as a result of increased plant
respiration and the decomposi-
tion of organic matter by bacteria
and other microorganisms. This
lack of oxygen can kill fish and
other aquatic life).
The emphasis of this manual is on
how citizen volunteers can monitor
one or more of the lake conditions
listed above. These conditions are
usually considered symptomatic of
cultural eutrophication.
Although related, each condition
nevertheless has a unique set of
parameters that characterize its
attributes. It is important to remember
that sampling for one condition will
not necessarily yield information
about another. If, for example, a lake
has an aquatic plant problem, a
monitoring program that focuses on
algae will not provide the necessary
answers to solve that problem.
The reader should be aware that
there are several other lake conditions
that could be a potential focus for a
citizen monitoring program. Four
notable candidates are:
sedimentation on the lake bottom
(reduction of water depth);
sediment turbidity (reduction of
water clarity as a result of sus-
pended sediment);
lake acidification; and
bacterial pollution of bathing
beaches.
Each of these conditions has the
potential to severely affect the water
quality and recreational use of a lake.
In many lakes, they are monitored by
agency staff or contracted profession-
als. These lake conditions can, how-
ever, be monitored by volunteers. For
this reason, they also will be briefly
discussed in this manual.
The following sections provide
background on each of the lake
conditions that could be considered
candidates for a citizen monitoring ;
program.
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12 CHAPTER 2
2.8 Algae
Algae are photosynthetic plants
that contain chlorophyll and have a
simple reproductive structure but do
not have tissues that differentiate into
true roots, stems, or leaves. They do,
however, grow in many forms. Some
species are microscopic single cells;
others grow as mass aggregates of
cells (colonies) or in strands (fila-
ments). Some even resemble plants
growing on the lake bottom.
The algae are an important living
component of lakes. They:
convert inorganic material to
organic matter through photosyn-
thesis;
oxygenate the water, also through
photosynthesis;
serve as the essential base of the
food chain; and
affect the amount of light that
penetrates into the water column.
Like most plants, algae require
light, a supply of inorganic nutrients,
and specific temperature ranges to
grow and reproduce. Of these factors,
it is usually the supply of nutrients
that will dictate the amount of algal
growth in a lake. In most lakes,
increasing the supply of nutrients
(especially phosphorus) in the water
will usually result in a larger algal
population.
ALGAE GROWTH FORMS
Single cell algae
Colonial algae
Filamentous algae
Drawings from:
Standard Methods for the Examination of
Water and Wastewater
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FOCUSING ON A LAKE CONDITION
Factors that Affect Algal
Growth
There are a number of environmen-
tal factors that influence algal growth.
The major factors include:
the amount of light that pen-
etrates the water (determined by
the intensity of sunlight, the
amount of suspended material,
and water color);
the availability of nutrients for
algal uptake (determined both by
source and removal mechanisms);
water temperature (regulated by
climate, altitude, et cetera);
the physical removal of algae by
sinking or flushing through an
outflow;
grazing on the algal population
by microscopic animals, fish, and
other organisms;
parasitism by bacteria, fungi, and
other microorganisms; and
competition pressure from other
aquatic plants for nutrients and
sunlight.
It is a combination of these and
other environmental factors that
determines the type and quantity of
algae found in a lake. It is important
tp npte, however, that these factors are
always in a state of flux. This is
because a multitude of events, includ-
ing the change of seasons, develop-
ment in the watershed, and rainstorms
constantly create "new environments"
in a lake.
These environmental changes may
or may not present optimal habitats
for growth or even survival for any
particular species of algae. Conse-
quently, there is usually a succession
of different species in a lake over the
course of a year and from year to year.
The Overgrowth of Algae
Excessive growth of one or more
species of algae is termed a bloom.
Algal blooms, usually occurring in
response to an increased supply of
nutrients, are often a disturbing
symptom of cultural eutrophication.
Blooms of algae can give the water
an unpleasant taste or odor, reduce
clarity, and color the lake a vivid
green, brown, yellow, or even red,
depending on the species. Filamen-
tous and colonial algae are especially
troublesome because they can mass
together to form scums or mats on the
lake surface. These mats can drift and
clog water intakes, foul beaches, and
ruin many recreational opportunities.
Citizen programs designed to
monitor the algal condition of a lake
usually require the volunteers to
measure:
the water clarity;
the density of the algal popula-
tion; and
the concentration of the critical
algal nutrient, phosphorus.
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14 CHAPTER 2
2.C Aquatic Plants
Aquatic plants have true roots,
stems, and leaves. They, too, are a
vital part of the biological community
of a lake. Unfortunately, like algae,
they can overpopulate and interfere
with lake uses.
Aquatic plants can be grouped into
four categories.
Emergent plants are rooted and
have stems or leaves that rise well
above the water surface. They
grow in shallow water or on the
immediate shoreline where water
lies just below the land surface.
They are generally not found in
lake water over two feet deep.
Rooted floating-leaved plants have
leaves that rest on, or slightly
above, the water surface. These
plants, whose leaves are com-
monly called lily pads or "bon-
nets," have long stalks that
connect them to the lake bottom.
Submergent plants grow with all
or most of their leaves and stems
below the water surface. They
may be rooted in the lake bottom
or free-floating in the water.
Most have long, thin, flexible
stems that are supported by the
water. Most submergents flower
above the surface.
Free-floating plants are found on
the lake surface. Their root
systems hang freely from the rest
of the plant and are not connected
to the lake bottom.
Aquatic Plant Growth Types
Emergent Rooted floating-leaved Submergent Free-floating Open water
Adapted from:
Diet for a Small Lake: A New Yorker's
Guide to Lake Management
-------
FOCUSING ON A LAKE CONDITION
Through photosynthesis, aquatic
plants convert inorganic material to
organic matter and oxygenate the
water. They provide food and cover
for aquatic insects, crustaceans, snails,
and fish. Aquatic plants are also a
food source for many animals. In
addition, waterfowl, muskrats, and
other species use aquatic plants for
homes and nests.
Aquatic plants are effective in
breaking the force of waves and thus
reduce shoreline erosion. Emergents
serve to trap sediments, silt, and
organic matter flowing off the water-
shed. Nutrients are also captured and
utilized by aquatic plants, thus pre-
venting them from reaching algae in
the open portion of a lake.
Factors that Affect Aquatic
Plant Growth
There are many factors that affect
aquatic plant growth including:
the amount of light that pen-
etrates into the water;
the availability of nutrients in the
water (for free-floating plants)
and in the bottom sediments (for
rooted plants);
water and air temperature;
the depth, composition, and
extent of the bottom sediment;
wave action and/or currents; and
competition pressure from other
aquatic plants for nutrients,
sunlight, and growing space.
The Overgrowth of Aquatic
Plants
Excessive growth of aquatic plants
is unsightly and can severely limit
recreation. Submergents and rooted
floating-leaf plants hinder swimmers,
tangle fishing lines, and wrap around
boat propellers. Fragments of these
plants can break off and wash up on
beaches and dog water intakes.
For many species, fragmentation is
also a form of reproduction. An
overgrowth problem can quickly
spread throughout a lake if boat
propellers, harvesting operations, or
other mechanical actions fragment the
plants, allowing them to drift and
settle in new areas of the lake.
Free-floating plants can collect in
great numbers in bays and coves due
to prevailing winds. Emergent plants
can also be troublesome if they ruin
lake views and make access to open
water difficult. In addition, they
create areas of quiet water where
mosquitoes can reproduce.
Citizen monitoring programs
designed to characterize the aquatic
plant condition usually:
map the distribution of plant beds
in the lake;
estimate the density of plants
along a transect line in a selected
area; and
collect specimens for professional
identification.
-------
16 CHAPTER 2
2.D Dissolved Oxygen
The amount of oxygen in the water
is an important indicator of overall
lake health. In fact, much information
can be learned about a lake by examin-
ing just this parameter.
Oxygen plays a crucial role in
determining the type of organisms
that live in a lake. Some species, such
as trout, need consistently high
oxygen concentrations to survive.
Other aquatic species are more toler-
ant of low or fluctuating concentra-
tions of oxygen.
Oxygen is supplied naturally to a
lake by:
the diffusion of atmospheric
oxygen into the water; and
the production of oxygen through
photosynthesis by aquatic plants
and algae.
Oxygen is easily dissolved in
water. In fact, it is so soluble that
water can contain a greater percentage
of oxygen than the atmosphere.
Because of this phenomenon, oxygen
naturally moves (diffuses) from the air
into the water. Agitation of the water
surface by winds and waves enhances
this diffusion process.
Vertical mixing of the water, aided
by winds, distributes the oxygen with-
in the lake. In this manner, it becomes
available to the lake's community of
oxygen-breathing organisms.
Water temperature affects the
capacity of water to retain dissolved
oxygen. Cold water can hold more
oxygen than warm water. Therefore, a
lake will typically have a higher
concentration of dissolved oxygen
during the winter than the summer.
Factors that Determine Dis-
solved Oxygen Concentration
There are a number of factors that
determine the amount of oxygen
found in a lake including:
climate;
water temperature and thermal
stratification of the water column;
wind and waves that create
movement on the surface and aid
diffusion from the atmosphere;
the amount of algae and aquatic
plants (oxygen is added to the
water as a by-product of photo-
synthesis);
the amount of respiring life forms
including algae, aquatic plants,
fish, bacteria, fungi, and protozo-
ans (respiration removes oxygen
from the water and produces
carbon dioxide);
the rate at which organic matter
reaches the lake bottom and is
decomposed by respiring micro-
organisms (influenced by growth
and death rates of life forms in
the lake and the input of organic
material from incoming streams
and surface runoff);
-------
FOCUSING ON A LAKE CONDITION
the oxygen content of incoming
ground water and surface
streams; and
the shape and depth of the lake
basin.
Fluctuating Oxygen
Concentrations
Oxygen is essential for aquatic life.
Without oxygen, a lake would be an
aquatic desert devoid of fish, plants,
and insects. For this reason, many
experts consider dissolved oxygen to
be the most important parameter used
to characterize lake water quality.
Algae and aquatic plants produce
oxygen as a by-product of photosyn-
thesis but also take in oxygen for
respiration. Respiration occurs all the
time, but photosynthesis occurs only
in the presence of light. Consequently,
a lake that has a large population of
algae or plants can experience a great
fluctuation in dissolved oxygen
concentration during a 24-hour period.
During a sunny day, photosynthe-
sis occurs and can supersaturate the
water with oxygen. At night, plants
no longer produce oxygen; however,
they continue to consume oxygen for
respiration. In some lakes after dark,
dissolved oxygen can be depleted by
the plants at a rate faster than it can be
diffused into the lake from the atmos-
phere. In extreme cases, the oxygen in
the water can become depleted. This
lack of oxygen will cause fish and
other aquatic organisms to suffocate.
Extreme fluctuations of dissolved
oxygen concentrations place great
stress on the oxygen-breathing crea-
tures in the lake. Only tolerant species
can survive in this type of environ-
ment. Unfortunately, tolerant species
are usually the least desirable for
recreational purposes. Carp are an
example of a tolerant fish. Trout, on
the other hand, are highly intolerant of
fluctuating oxygen levels.
In addition to the impact on living
organisms, the lack of oxygen in a lake
also has profound effects on water
chemistry and eutrophication. To
explain this situation, one must
understand the temperature cycle,
how it affects water density, and the
phenomena of lake overturn and thermal
stratification.
The Temperature Cycle
Most U.S. lakes with a depth of 20
feet or more stratify into two tempera-
ture-defined layers during the summer
season. The water in the upper layer
(epilimnion) is warm, well lit, and
circulates easily in response to wind
action. The deep layer (hypolimnion) is
dark, cold, more dense, and stagnant.
These two layers are separated by a
transition zone (metalimnion) where
temperatures change rapidly with
depth. The metalimnion functions as a
barrier between the epilimnion and
the hypolimnion.
-------
18 CHAPTER 2
The magnitude of the temperature
difference between the two layers
defines how resistant they are to
mixing. A large temperature differ-
ence means that the layers are stable
and that it would take a great deal of
wind energy to break down the
stratification and mix the layers.
In the fall, lowered air tempera-
tures eventually cool the waters in the
upper layer to a point where they
become the same temperature (and
density) as the lower layer. At this
time, the resistance to mixing is
removed and the entire lake freely
circulates in response to wind action.
This action is known as fall overturn.
Layers again form during the
winter. However, it is the upper zone
that is slightly colder than the deeper
layer. In the spring, increasing air
temperatures warm the upper layer to
a point that it becomes the same
temperature as the bottom zone.
Wind action then mixes the entire lake
and spring overturn occurs.
Oxygen Depletion in the Lower
Layer
Bacteria, fungi, and other organ-
isms living on the lake bottom break
down organic matter that originates
from the watershed and the lake itself.
Algae, aquatic plants, and animals all
provide food for these decomposers
when they excrete, shed, and die. Like
higher forms of life, most decomposers
need oxygen to live and perform their
important function.
The mixing action of spring and fall
overturn distributes oxygen through-
out the water column. During sum-
mer stratification, however, the lower
layer is cut off from the atmosphere.
There is also usually too little light to
support photosynthesis by algae or
aquatic plants. Therefore, with no
supply source, what oxygen there is
in the lower layer can be progressively
depleted by an active population of
decomposers.
When the dissolved oxygen
concentration is severely reduced, the
bottom organisms that depend on
oxygen either become dormant, move,
or die. Fish and other swimming
organisms cannot live in the lower
layer. As a result, trout and other
game fish that require deep, cold
water and high oxygen levels may be
eliminated from the lake altogether.
-------
A TYPICAL THERMALLY STRATIFIED LAKE IN MIDSUMMER
I = Water Temperature
O = Dissolved Oxygen in
an Unproductive Lake
= Dissolved Oxygen in
a Productive Lake
32 41 50 59 68 77
Temperature (°F)
0 2 4 6 8 10
I !
Dissolved Oxygen (mg/L)
The temperature profile (curved solid line) illustrates how rapidly the water temperature
decreases in the metalimnion compared to the nearly uniform temperatures in the epilimnion
and hypolimnion. The metalimnetic density gradient associated with this region of rapid
temperature change provides a strong, effective barrier to water column mixing during the
summer. Open circles represent the dissolved oxygen profile in an unproductive lake.
Oxygen increases slightly in the hypolimnion because oxygen solubility is greater in colder
water. In contrast, the solid circles represent the oxygen profile in a productive (eutrophic)
lake in which the rate of organic matter decomposition is sufficient to deplete the oxygen
content of the hypolimnion.
Adapted front:
The Lake and Reservoir
Restoration Guidance Manual
-------
20 CHAPTER 2
Other Problems Caused by
Lower Layer Oxygen Depletion
Oxygen depletion in the lower
layer occurs "from the lake bottom
up." This is because most decompos-
ers live in or on the lake sediments.
Through respiration, they will steadily
consume oxygen. When oxygen is
reduced to less than one part per
million on the lake bottom, several
chemical reactions occur within the
sediments. Notably, the essential
plant nutrient, phosphorus, is released
from its association with sediment-
bound iron and moves freely into the
overlying waters.
If wind energy breaks down a
lake's stratification, this phosphorus
may be transported into the upper
layer where it can be used by algae
and aquatic plants. This internal pulse
of phosphorus (often termed internal
loading) can thus accelerate algal and
aquatic plant problems associated with
cultural eutrophication.
Iron and manganese are also
released from the sediments during
anoxic (no oxygen) periods. These
elements can cause taste and odor
problems for those who draw water
from the lower layer for drinking or
domestic purposes.
Fortunately, many of the negative
effects of anoxic conditions are elimi-
nated during overturn. As the waters
of the lake are mixed and re-oxygen-
ated, many of the constituents re-
leased from the sediments chemically
change and precipitate bade on to the
lake bottom. Others are reduced in
concentration by their dilution into the
waters of the entire lake.
Overturns do also bring nutrients
back up to the surface where they
become available to the algae. There-
fore, it is not unusual to see algal
blooms associated with overturns.
Citizen monitoring programs
designed to characterize the dissolved
oxygen condition in lakes have
volunteers:
measure dissolved oxygen from
the surface to bottom; and
measure water temperature from
the surface to bottom.
These temperature and dissolved
oxygen profiles help define the ther-
mal layers and identify any oxygen
deficit within the water column.
-------
FOCUSING ON A LAKE CONDITION
2.E Other Lake Conditions
Sediment Deposition
The gradual filling-in of a lake is a
natural consequence of eutrophication.
Streams, stormwater runoff, and other
forms of moving water carry sand, silt,
clays, organic matter, and other
chemicals into the lake from the
surrounding watershed. These
materials settle out once they reach
quieter waters. The rate of settling is
dependent on the size of the particles,
water velocity, density, and tempera-
ture.
The sediment input to a lake can be
greatly accelerated by human develop-
ment in the watershed. In general, the
amount of material deposited in the
lake is directly related to the use of
watershed land. Activities that clear
the land and expose soil to winds and
rain (e.g., agriculture, logging, and site
development) greatly increase the
potential for erosion. These activities
can significantly contribute to the
sediment pollution of a lake unless
erosion and runoff is carefully man-
aged.
Sediment material from the water-
shed tends to fertilize aquatic plants
and algae because phosphorus,
nitrogen, and other essential nutrients
are attached to incoming particles. If a
large portion of the material is organic,
dissolved oxygen can decrease as a
result of respiration of decomposers
breaking down the organic matter.
Sedimentation also can ruin the
lake bottom for aquatic insects,
crustaceans, mussels, and other
bottom-dwelling creatures. Most
important, fish spawning beds are
almost always negatively affected.
The input of sediments to a lake
makes the basin more shallow, with a
corresponding loss of water volume.
Thus, sedimentation affects navigation
and recreational use and also creates
more fertile growing space for plants
because of increased nutrients and
exposure to sunlight.
Citizen volunteer programs that
focus on sedimentation generally
measure sediment buildup over time
at a few select sites (e.g., near the
mouth of a stream).
Sediment Turbidity
Not all sediment particles quickly
settle to the lake bottom. The lighter,
siltier particles often stay suspended in
the water column or settle so lightly on
the bottom that they can be easily
stirred up and resuspended with even
slight water motion. This causes the
water to be turbid and brownish in
appearance. Sediment blocks light
from penetrating into the water
column. It also interferes with the gills
of fish and the breathing mechanism
of other creatures.
Volunteer programs that focus on
sediment turbidity will usually
monitor water clarity and the amount
of suspended solids in the water.
-------
22 CHAPTER 2
Lake Acidification
Acidity is a measure of the concen-
tration of hydrogen ions on a pH scale
of 0 to 14. The lower the pH, the
higher the concentration of hydrogen
ions. Substances with a pH of 7 are
neutral. A reading less than 7 means
the substance is acidic. If the pH is
greater than 7, it is basic (alkaline).
Because the pH scale is logarithmic,
each whole number increase or
decrease on the 0 to 14 scale represents
a 10-fold change in acidity.
Acidic lakes occur in areas where
the watershed soils have little natural
buffering capacity. Acidic deposition
(commonly called acid rain) and other
artificial or natural processes can
further contribute to lake acidity.
Most aquatic plants and animals are
sensitive to changes in pH. Thus,
acidic lakes tend to be clear because
they contain little or no algae. Fish are
also thought to be negatively affected
by lowered pH. In fact, many acidic
lakes have no fish populations.
Acid rain occurs in areas where
the combustion of fossil fuels increases
the concentration of sulfuric and nitric
acids in the atmosphere. These acids
can be transported thousands of miles
and eventually deposited back to earth
in rain or snow.
Acidity may also enter lakes from
drainage that passes through naturally
acidic organic soils. These soils may
become more acid through land use
practices such as logging and mining.
Acidic drainage from abandoned
mines affects thousands of miles of
streams and numerous lakes through-
out Appalachia. Acid mine drainage
also occurs in the Midwest coalfields
of Illinois, Indiana, and Ohio, and in
coal and metal mining areas of the
western United States.
Volunteer programs that focus on
acidification generally sample for pH
and alkalinity. These are two mea-
surements that provide an indication
of the acid/base status and the buffer-
ing capacity of the water, respectively.
Bacteriological Conditions at
Beaches
The sanitary quality of bathing
beaches is a special concern to swim-
mers. There are a wide variety of
disease-causing bacteria, viruses,
parasites, and other microorganisms
that can enter the water and be trans-
mitted to humans. Some are indig-
enous to natural waters. Others are
carried from wastewater sources
including septic systems and runoff
from animal and wildfowl areas.
Infected swimmers themselves are also
a source of pathogens.
The ideal way to determine poten-
tial health hazards at natural bathing
beaches is to test directly for disease-
causing organisms. Unfortunately, the
detection of these organisms requires
very complex procedures and equip-
ment. In addition, there are hundreds
of different kinds of pathogens; to test
for each one would be impractical.
-------
Most public health officials, there-
fore, simply test for the presence of an
indicator organism. The relative abun-
dance of the indicator organism in a
sample can serve as a warning of the
likely presence of other, more danger-
ous pathogens in the water.
Citizen volunteer programs that
focus on bacterial quality at bathing
beaches as the lake condition to be
monitored generally sample for one or
more indicator organisms throughout
the swimming season.
The indicator organisms most often
chosen for monitoring are fecal
coliform bacteria or enterococci
bacteria. The latter group of bacteria is
more disease-specific and may be most
appropriate for routine sample analy-
sis. Usually, health departments
recommend weekly sampling for
bathing areas.
Swimmer's Itch
In some regions, schistosome cercarial dermatitis or swimmer's itch is a
problem condition. Swimmer's itch is caused by a parasitic flatworm that
lives in the bloodstream of a host aquatic bird species. The eggs of the
flatworm are passed into the lake in the excrement of the bird.
Once in the water, the eggs will hatch and the larvae searches for and
penetrates into a certain species of snail. The larvae grows in the snail and
eventually emerges as a second larval stage known as a cercaria.
The cercaria normally penetrates the skin of the host species of bird
and the life cycle begins again. The cercaria can also, by mistake, pen-
etrate the skin of swimmers. Since humans are not the host needed for
growth, the larvae soon dies. Although harmless, the cercaria can leave
the swimmer with an itchy welt for a few days.
Because of the prevelance of swimmer's itch in some regions, another
potential candidate for citizen monitoring can be the presence of cercaria
in bathing beach waters.
-------
24 CHAPTER 2
References
New York State Dept. of Environmental Conservation and Federation of
Lake Associations, Inc. 1990. Diet for a Small Lake: A New Yorker's Guide to
Lake Management. Albany.
Olem, H. and G. Flock, eds. August, 1990. The Lake and Reservoir Restoration
Guidance Manual 2nd ed. EPA 440/4-90-006. Prep. N. Am. Lake Manage.
Soc. for U.S. Environ. Prot. Agency, Off. Water, Washington, DC.
Standard. Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater. 16th ed. 1985.
Am. Pub. Health Ass., Am. Water Works Ass., and Water Pollu. Control
Fed. 1985. American Public Health Association. Washington, DC.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. April, 1990. Rhode Island Sea Grant
College Program. National Directory of Citizen Volunteer Environmental
Monitoring Programs. EPA 440/9-90-004. Off. Water, Washington, DC.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. August 1990. Volunteer Water
Monitoring: A Guide for State Managers. EPA 440/4-90-010. Off. Water,
Washington, DC.
-------
Chapter 3
Monitoring Algae
ff
-------
26 CHAPTERS
3.A Algal Condition
Parameters
Monitoring the algal condition in
lakes is the focus of the majority of
citizen volunteer monitoring programs
operating today. There are three
prominent reasons for this decision.
Most citizen volunteers desire
lakes that have clear water with a
slight blue tinge. Deviation from
this accepted standard raises
public interest about water
quality. In many lakes, it is the
algae population that decreases
clarity and colors the water.
Parameters commonly used to
measure the algal condition of a
lake can be sampled easily by
volunteers using basic equip-
ment.
Parameters that measure the algal
condition form the basis for many
commonly used trophic state
indices. These indices provide a
quantitative means of describing
the level of lake aging (eutrophi-
cation). Using a trophic state
index, program officials can rank
lakes according to the results of
the monitoring program.
Three parameters are most often
used by citizen monitoring programs
to measure algal conditions in lakes.
Secchi disk transparency
This parameter is a measurement
of water clarity. In many lakes, a
reduction of clarity occurs as the
algal population grows. In these
cases, a Secchi disk reading can
be used as an indirect measure of
algal density.
Chlorophyll a
This parameter is a more reliable
indicator of algal quantity be-
cause chlorophyll a is a chemical
extracted directly from the algal
cells present in a water sample.
Total phosphorus
This parameter is an essential
plant nutrient that stimulates the
growth of algae in many lakes
(the more phosphorus in the lake,
the more algae). By measuring
phosphorus concentration,
monitors can get an indication of
water fertility.
Each of the three parameters, if
measured by itself, will not provide a
complete picture of the algal condition
of a lake. Measured together, how-
ever, they can provide valuable
information about the relationship
between water fertility and algal
growth. Volunteers are especially
interested in how algal growth affects
water clarity, the lake trait most
noticed by the majority of lake resi-
dents and users.
-------
MONITORING ALGAE ^1 27=
Secchi Disk Transparency
First developed by Professor
P.A. Secchi in 1865 for a Vatican-
financed Mediterranean oceano-
graphic expedition, the Secchi disk
has since become a standard piece
of equipment for lake scientists. It is
simply a weighted circular disk 20
centimeters (about eight inches) in
diameter with four alternating black
and white sections painted on the
surface.
The disk is attached to a mea-
sured line that is marked off either
in meters (subdivided by tenths of
meter), if using metric units, or feet
(subdivided by tenths of feet or
inches), if using English units.
The Secchi disk is used to
measure how deep a person can see
into the water. It is lowered into the
lake by the measured line until the
observer loses sight of it. The disk is
then raised until it reappears. The
depth of the water where the disk
vanishes and reappears is the Secchi
disk reading.
In extremely clear lakes, disk
readings greater than 10 meters can be
measured. On the other hand, lakes
affected by large amounts of algal
growth, suspended sediments, or
other conditions often have readings
of less than one-half meter.
In some shallow lakes, it is impos-
sible to get a Secchi disk reading
because the disk hits the bottom before
vanishing from sight. This means the
true Secchi disk reading is greater than
the depth of the lake in that particular
location.
TAKING A SECCHI DISK MEASUREMENT
The Secchi disk is lowered into
the water until it disappears
from view. The disk is then
slowly raised until it reappears.
The depth of the water at which
the disk vanishes and reappears
is the Secchi disk reading.
Adapted from:
The Lake and Reservoir
Restoration Guidance Manual
-------
28 CHAPTER 3
English or Metric Units?
Citizen volunteers in the United States are most comfortable
with English units of measurement. Scientists, however, usually
report lake measurements in metric units.
In general, citizen monitoring programs should use metric
units when reporting results, especially if a program goal is to
provide information to government agencies. Even if the data will
be used for educational purposes, incorporating metric units into
the sampling protocol will introduce the volunteers and the public
to the scientific way of monitoring lakes.
Unfortunately, Secchi disk data are
among the most abused and misinter-
preted measurements in monitoring
programs because people often
directly equate Secchi disk readings
with algal density. There are, how-
ever, many other factors found both
inside and outside the lake that affect
how deep a person can see into the
water.
Inside the lake, water transparency
can be reduced by:
microscopic organisms other than
algae;
natural or unnatural dissolved
materials that color or stain the
water; and
suspended sediments.
Factors outside the lake can also
affect a Secchi disk reading. These
outside factors can include:
the observer's eyesight and other
sources of human error;
the angle of the sun (time of day,
latitude, season of the year);
weather conditions (cloud cover,
rain); and
water surface conditions (waves,
sun glare, surface scum).
In sum, the Secchi disk should
always be considered simply as an
instrument to measure water transpar-
ency. Algae can play an important
role in reducing transparency; how-
ever, this assumption must be proven
by measuring a parameter directly
associated with the algal population.
For many citizen monitoring pro-
grams, this parameter is chlorophyll a.
-------
MONITORING '"A*
Chlorophyll a
Chlorophyll a is the green photo-
synthetic pigment found in the cells of
all algae. By taking a measured
sample of lake water and extracting
the chlorophyll a from the algae cells
contained in that sample, monitors can
get a good indication of the density of
the algal population.
The chlorophyll a concentration
cannot be considered a precise mea-
surement of algal density, however,
because the amount of chlorophyll a
I found in living cells varies among
algal species. Thus, two lakes can
have identical densities of algae yet
have significantly different concentra-
tions of chlorophyll a because they are
dominated by different species.
Direct comparability, even within a
single lake, is further complicated by
the fact that the amount of chlorophyll
a in an algal cell varies with light
conditions. Healthy algal cells con-
stantly try to maintain chlorophyll
concentrations at a level for maximum
photosynthetic efficiency. Chlorophyll
I in a cell usually decreases during high
light conditions and increases during
the night or low light conditions.
Similarly, a cell that is sinking
down into the water column (away
from the sun) may also produce more
chlorophyll to compensate for the
lower light levels found at greater
depths. Changing seasons also create
higher or lower light conditions
according to the position of the sun
which, in turn, affects chlorophyll
production.
Despite these drawbacks, the ease
of sampling and relatively low cost of
analysis makes chlorophyll a an
attractive parameter for characterizing
the algal density in lakes, especially
for volunteer monitoring programs.
Chlorophyll a is analyzed in a
laboratory from a sample collected by
a volunteer. The simplest protocol is
to ship the water sample to the labora-
tory for analysis.
Alternatively, some citizen moni-
toring programs have volunteers pass
a measured volume of lake water
through a filtering apparatus contain-
ing a prepared filter paper disk. The
filter paper lets the water pass through
but retains the algae cells on its
surface. The volunteer then removes
the disk and places it in a special tube
to be forwarded to the laboratory for
chlorophyll a analysis.
In some instances, this procedure
may produce lower than actual results
for chlorophyll a concentrations if the
filtering procedure is not followed
exactly. QA/QC considerations will
determine if this method is a feasible
alternative for a volunteer program.
-------
30 CHAPTER 3
Total Phosphorus
Phosphorus is one of several
essential nutrients that algae heed to
grow and reproduce. In many lakes,
phosphorus is in short supply. There-
fore, it often serves as a limiting factor
for algal growth.
Phosphorus migrates to lake water
from only a few natural sources. As a
result, lakes located in pristine wilder-
ness settings rarely have problems
with algal blooms. Humans, on the
other hand, use and dispose of phos-
phorus on a daily basis. Phosphorus is
found in such common items as
fertilizers, foods, and laundry deter-
gents.
Lakes with developed watersheds
often receive a portion of this human-
generated phosphorus through runoff,
septic leachate, and other sources.
This phosphorus fertilizes the water
and can stimulate increased algal
growth.
Algae most readily consume a form
of phosphorus known as orthophos-
phate, the simplest form of phospho-
rus found in natural waters. In fact,
orthophosphate is so quickly taken up
by a growing algal population that it
often is found only in low concentra-
tions in lakes.
Phosphorus is found in lakes in
several forms other than ortho-
phosphate. For example, when
phosphorus is absorbed by algae, it
becomes organically bound to a living
cell. When the cell dies, the phospho-
rus is still bound to particles even as it
settles to the lake bottom. Once the
decomposer organisms break down
the cell, the phosphorus can become
attached to calcium, iron, aluminum,
and other ions.
Under anoxic conditions, chemical
reactions can release phosphorus from
the sediments to the overlying waters.
Spring or fall overturn may then
redistribute it back to the surface
where it can be taken up by another
algal cell.
Phosphorus, therefore, is in a
constant state of flux as environmental
conditions change and plants and
animals live, die, and decompose in
the lake. Because the forms of phos-
phorus are constantly changing and
recycling, it is generally most appro-
priate for citizen monitoring programs
to measure all forms of phosphorus
together. This one "umbrella" mea-
surement is known as total phosphorus.
This manual describes a method
that instructs the volunteer to collect a
water sample, transfer it into a sample
bottle that contains an acid preserva-
tive, and then ship it to a laboratory
for total phosphorus analysis.
Alternatively, there are test kits on
the market for total phosphorus
analysis. To conduct the test, how-
ever, volunteers must be well-trained
and possess special laboratory equip-
ment. For these reasons, phosphorus
test kits are not generally appropriate
for volunteer monitoring programs.
-------
MONITORING ALG
In some instances, orthophosphate
may be a parameter of interest since it
is the form of phosphorus available for
uptake by algae. Like total phospho-
rus, orthophosphate is best measured
in a laboratory.
3.B Where to Sample
Analyzed together, the three
parameters Secchi disc, chlorophyll«,
and total phosphorus can provide
information on the quantity of free-
floating algae, the critical nutrient that
feeds the population, and how the
algae affect water transparency.
Where the parameters are sampled on
the water surface and in the water
column is an important consideration
when planning a program to monitor
algal conditions.
A lake and its water quality are not
uniform from shore to shore or from
surface to bottom. Lake morphom-
etry, exposure to winds, incoming
streams, watershed development, and
human activity can greatly influence
the algal conditions found at any one
location in the lake.
Thus, the planning committee or
supervising staff is challenged to select
sample locations that will best charac-
terize the algal condition in accordance
with the goals and objectives of the
monitoring program. Increasing the
number of sampling sites will reduce
uncertainty, but it will come at in-
creased cost.
-------
32 CHAPTER 3
Where to Sample on the Water
Surface
The majority of citizen monitoring
programs are designed to measure
average algal conditions in the lake's
pelagic (deep, open water) zone. For
these programs, the number and
location of sampling sites are most
influenced by the size and shape of the
lake basin.
In most cases, a site over the
deepest section of the lake best repre-
sents average conditions. In natural
lakes that are circular in shape, the
deepest section is usually near the
middle. In reservoirs, the deepest
section is usually near the dam.
Many lakes, however, possess
significant arms or bays. In this
instance, it is often useful to sample
the deepest section in each individual
arm or bay. In many cases, monitors
will find a significant difference
between sites, especially if one arm of
the lake is more populated.
Some monitoring programs, on the
other hand, are designed to character-
ize the algal condition at its worst
location. For these types of programs,
certain known problem areas may be
targeted for sampling. For example, a
particular bay may be monitored
because it "collects" algae and other
materials because of prevailing winds.
SELECTING SAMPLING SITES
Many programs instruct
volunteers to sample in
the deepest section of the
lake. If desired, another
site can be located in an
individual arm or bay.
Sample Sites
VOLUNTEER LAKE
-------
MONITORING At
More often, however, "worst area'
sampling is designed to monitor how
point or nonpoint sources of nutrient
pollution affect water quality and algal
growth. Examples of potential sources
of nutrient pollution include farms,
residential developments, and sewage
outfalls. This monitoring can provide
evidence that specific watershed
management efforts are needed to
manage the algal population.
The number and location of
sampling sites can also be influenced
by the basic goal of the program. A
program managed primarily for public
education, for example, may wish to
include stations for various non-
scientific reasons such as their proxim-
ity to residential neighborhoods or
convenience of access. Such a pro-
gram may even include additional
stations in a lake so more volunteers
can participate in monitoring.
Sample site selection should be
consistent within a program in order
to get results worthy of lake-to-lake
comparison. For example, if the
deepest part of the lake is chosen as
the location for sampling, all the lakes
in the program shouldthen be
sampled at the deepesFsite.
To select the location of a sampling
site, the manager must possess some
preliminary information about the lake
including:
a bathymetric (depth contour)
map (or general knowledge of the
location of maximum depth so
that soundings can be taken in the
field and a suitable sampling
location identified);
a watershed map with the lake's
major inflows and outflows;
a historical summary of water
quality including the location of
previous sampling sites and
documentation of any lake
problems (algal blooms, weed
growth, fish kills);
updates of any current activities
in the watershed that may affect
sampling results (point sources
such as sewage plant or storm
drain outfalls and nonpoint
sources such as agricultural,
urban, logging, and construction
areas); and
updates of any current lake
activities that may affect sam-
pling results, including dredging,
water level drawdowns, and
chemical applications.
All this information will influence
the selection of the sampling site. It is
also important for interpreting the
results of data collection efforts.
In the field, the program manager
and the volunteer should work
together to identify and locate the
proper sampling site location. Once
identified, the site should be dearly
marked on a lake map. The task of
locating the site can be practiced by
the volunteer under the supervision of
the program manager.
-------
34 CHAPTER 3
For shoreline or near-shore sta-
tions, finding the site will probably not
be a problem. Many programs,
however, will require volunteers to
sample over the deepest portion of the
lake. This usually means the monitor-
ing site will be somewhere in the
middle of the waterbody. For volun-
teers to return consistently to the same
sampling site location, they must use a
method.
Two simple ways to find the site
are by:
locating the site by using
landmarks visible on the shore;
or
setting a permanent marker
buoy at the sampling location.
Shoreline Landmark Method
On land, volunteers know where
they are located by finding familiar
landmarks. The same process can be
used on water, except that the land-
marks are located on the shoreline. On
an initial training trip, the volunteer
and the program manager must
designate an "official" site location.
Once securely anchored at the site,
the volunteer should pick out two
permanent landmarks on shore (a
dwelling, tall tree, large rocks) that
align one behind the other. This
alignment forms an imaginary bearing
line through the objects to the site.
Then, at about a 90 degree angle,
two more aligning landmarks should
be identified. These landmarks then
form a second bearing line to the
sampling site. Volunteers should
mark these landmarks and bearing
lines on their lake map for future
reference. They should also practice
finding the site location with the
program manager.
To further verify that volunteers
have found the proper sampling site,
the program manager may also
require that they perform a depth
check using the anchor rope, a
weighted calibrated sounding line, or
an electric "fish-finder" apparatus that
indicates bottom depth.
Marker Buoy Method
If the lake is small and protected
from strong winds and waves, a
marker buoy may be the simplest way
to designate a sample site location. In
many public lakes, however, it is
illegal to set out buoys without proper
permits. The rules and regulations
regarding buoys should be checked
before any placement
There is a risk that a marker buoy
will be moved by winds, waves, and/
or lake users. Thus, volunteers should
also be trained to verify that the buoy
is in the proper location using the
shoreline landmark method before
Starting the sampling procedure. This
training will be useful if the buoy is
lost or needs to be repositioned.
-------
UJ
LU
CO
111
-------
36 CHAPTER 3
3.C Where to Sample in the
Water Column
Free-floating algae grow and
reproduce in the photic zone. This
zone constitutes the upper portion of
the water column where sunlight
penetrates and stimulates photosyn-
thesis in the algal cells. In programs
designed to measure the algal condi-
tion of a lake, water samples are taken
from the photic zone and analyzed in a
laboratory for their chlorophyll a and
total phosphorus content.
Where these samples are taken in
the photic zone is another important
decision that must be made by the
planning committee. There are two
basic choices for water sampling in the
photic zone. Volunteers can collect:
a point sample taken at a specific
depth; or
an integrated sample from a
range of depths.
Point Sampling
Point sampling refers to the collec-
tion of a water sample from a specific
depth in the water column. Also
known as grab sampling, it is the
method most often used in monitoring
programs.
When measuring the algal condi-
tion parameters, a sample is usually
taken at a selected depth between one-
half and two meters. (Water samples
are generally not collected directly at
the surface because floating substances
such as pollen and gasoline residue
will contaminate them.)
If a depth of one-half meter is
selected, volunteers can collect the
sample by simply submerging the
sample bottle to about elbow depth.
For deeper point sampling, some type
of water sampler instrument must be
used.
A Kemmerer or Van Dorn water
sampler is commonly used to collect
water at a specific depth. These
devices are cylindrical tubes with
stoppers at each end. After the
sampler has been lowered to the
desired depth (marked on the lower-
ing line), the volunteer slides a weight
(called a messenger) down the line.
When the messenger reaches the
sampler, it hits a trigger mechanism
and the two stoppers snap shut,
trapping the sample of water from that
depth. The sampler is then hauled
back into the boat and the sample
water poured into a container.
-------
MONITORING ALGAE
WATER SAMPLERS
Kemmerer Sampler
Van Dorn Sampler
Drawings from:
Standard Methods for the Examination of
Water and Wastewater
The goals of the monitoring
program and how the water quality
data will be used will help the plan-
ning committee determine where a
point sample should be collected. A
depth of one meter is selected many
times as a representative depth of
photic zone conditions for chlorophyll
a and total phosphorus analyses.
If a water sampler is used, other
depths in the water column also can be
easily sampled by the volunteer. Total
phosphorus is an especially interesting
parameter to monitor at different
points in the water column, in addi-
tion to the upper layer photic zone.
As discussed in Chapter 2, phos-
phorus is released from bottom
sediments under anaerobic conditions.
If the lake is strongly stratified in the
summer, and wind energy does not
mix the water column, the bottom-
released phosphorus cannot reach the
photic zone and stimulate increased
algal growth. In some lakes, however,
summer stratification occasionally
breaks down and the bottom phospho-
rus does reach the surface waters,
causing sudden algal blooms.
This internal loading of phospho-
rus is often important when analyzing
the algal condition of productive lakes.
For this reason, the planning commit-
tee should consider having volunteers
collect point samples from the bottom
and middle of the water column for
total phosphorus analysis, as well as in
the photic zone.
-------
38 CHAPTER 3
Integrated Sampling
An integrated sample combines
water from a range of depths in the
water column. It is essentially a
mixture of point samples designed to
represent more of the photic zone than
a single sample. The simplest way for
volunteers to collect an integrated
sample is to use a hose and bucket.
Basically, a measured length of
hose is weighted on one end and then
lowered into the lake. While the hose
descends, it collects a vertical column
of water. By plugging the surface end
and then bringing the lowered end to
the surface with a line, an intact
column of water can then be emptied
into a bucket and a sample drawn for
laboratory analysis.
A basic drawback is that this
method can not be easily standard-
ized. Each volunteer will develop his/
her own variation of this sample
collection technique. Losing a portion
of the sample while bringing up the
hose may also be a problem for some
volunteers. For these reasons, many
monitoring programs rely on point
sampling for measuring the algal
conditions of lakes.
TAKING AN INTEGRATED SAMPLE
J
1. Lowertheweightedendofthehose,makingsurethe
at tucked line is loose. When thehose is at the proper
depth, crimp the hose closed at water level.
3. Placethewdghtedendmthebucket,holdthecrimped
end high, and release the crimp.
2. Maintain a firm grip to keep the hose crimped shut
and pull up the weighted end of the hose with the
open end of the hose facing upward.
4. Pass thehose throughyourraisedhandsuntilall the
water from the hose empties into the bucket. Swirl
the bucket to mix the sample water thoroughly.
Adapted from:
The Vermont State Lay Monitoring Manual
-------
MONITORING ALGA
3.D Frequency of Sampling
There is usually a change in the
quantity and species of algae occur-
ring in a lake throughout the year.
Often algal density increases in the
spring and early summer as water
temperatures increase and nutrients
become available in the well-lit upper
layer as a result of spring overturn.
When summer arrives and the lake
stratifies, the algae population may
change as the supply of orthophos-
phate in the upper layer becomes
depleted and/or microscopic animals
(zooplankton) graze on the popula-
tion. After the summer, fall overturn
can once again bring fresh nutrients to
the well-lit upper zone and stimulate
increased algal growth.
A variety of other factors can also
affect algal habitat and growth re-
sponse, especially during the summer
growing season. Storms can churn the
lake and cause a temporary upwelling
of nutrients from the lake bottom.
Phosphorus-rich runoff can escape
from residential or agricultural areas
after rainstorms, drain into the lake,
and stimulate growth. On the other
hand, chemicals or herbicides that are
toxic to algae may be released to the
water and cause a (planned or
unplanned) population crash.
The planning committee should
base its decision on how often to
sample on data quality criteria, costs,
and other practical considerations.
A TYPICAL SEASONAL SUCCESSION OF LAKE ALGAE
Diatom Algae
^/Bluegreen Algae
Green Algae 0 * *
A/S
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
-------
40 CHAPTER 3
Many citizen monitoring programs
have found it appropriate to sample
algal conditions on a two-week or bi-
monthly cycle. In most cases, this time
period has proven adequate to moni-
tor changes in the algal parameters
and, at the same time, fit into volun-
teers' participation schedules.
However, if conditions are known
to change at more frequent intervals (if
lake water flushes quickly through an
inlet and outlet), the committee may
determine that weekly sampling is
more appropriate.
More frequent sampling also
improves the odds of measuring a
short-term event such as an algal
bloom or a sudden pulse of phospho-
rus input because of storm runoff or a
sewage plant bypass. Expense be-
comes a key factor when determining
sampling frequency because each
sampling round will increase program
costs.
3.E Length of the Sampling
Season
An ideal monitoring program runs
year-round to collect the full amount
of seasonal data on the lake. This
regime would test the dedication of
citizen volunteers to an extreme,
however. A more practical sampling
period for citizen monitoring is from
spring overturn to the end of the
summer growing season.
Spring overturn is important
because it is when wind action circu-
lates the entire volume of water.
Importantly, citizens can sample the
spring algal blooms that are some-
times observed as a result of increased
nutrient availability and warming
water temperatures.
The summer growing season
corresponds with the main recre-
ational season. It is during this time
that increased algal growth is most
objectionable because it can interfere
with swimming, water-skiing, fishing,
and other activities.
Fall overturn is another time when
the water circulates and algal blooms
typically occur. This season is not as
important to the general public,
however, because it comes at the end
of the recreational season. Thus, fall
algal blooms are not usually perceived
as a problem. Volunteer interest also
wanes as the weather turns cooler and
more unpredictable. For these rea-
sons, it is often prudent to stop
monitoring at the end of summer.
-------
MONITORING AtGAEjtl---:41
Section 3.F How to Sample
Presented in this section are
suggested procedures for sampling
Secchi disk depth, chlorophyll a, and
total phosphorus concentration for a
citizen monitoring program. Basically,
these sampling activities are divided
into four main segments.
Confirming the sampling date
and weather conditions and
going through boating safety and
sampling equipment checklists
prior to launching the sampling
boat (Tasks 1 through 3).
Finding the sampling site and
documenting observations about
the water and weather conditions
(Tasks 4 and 5).
Taking a Secchi disk measure-
ment and collecting water
samples for chlorophyll a and
total phosphorus analysis (Tasks
6 and 7).
Returning to shore and preparing
the chlorophyll a and total
phosphorus samples for shipment
to a laboratory (Tasks 8 and 9).
The program manager should
provide volunteers with a sampling
schedule and a sampling protocol
sheet In general, monitors should be
instructed to conduct sampling
between 10 a.m. and 3 p.m. Volun-
teers must understand, however, that
there is flexibility in both the day and
time, especially in .consideration of
weather conditions.
Volunteers' common sense and
good judgment dictate when it is
appropriate to sample. Both good and
unacceptable weather conditions
should be defined for volunteers
during training sessions. Under no
circumstances should volunteers be on
the water during rain or electrical
storms, high winds (white caps), or
other unsafe conditions.
-------
42 CHAPTER 3
TASK1
Confirm sampling day and weather
conditions.
Elements of Task 1
Q Check the sampling date on the
program sampling schedule.
Q Check the current and forecasted
weather and decide if the condi-
tions allow for safe sampling.
The volunteer should also be
instructed to confirm this decision
after personally inspecting lake
conditions prior to launching the
boat and beginning the sampling
trip.
TASK 2
J
Go through the boating safety
equipment checklist
Before leaving shore, volunteers
must confirm that all needed safety
equipment is on board. Boating safety
is a subject that volunteers need to
take seriously because they will be
moving around the boat, leaning over
the edge, and working with equip-
ment.
Volunteers should wear a life
preserver (Type 1,2 or 3 personal
flotation device) at all times. Volun-
teers should educate themselves about
safe boating laws and the rules of the
road.
Elements of Task 2
Q Confirm that the following
boating safety equipment is on
board the sampling boat.
Personal flotation device for
each person. Devices must be
Coast Guard-approved, readily
available, and the proper size
First aid kit
Other equipment that may be
required by State and local
boating laws. For example,
boats may be required to carry
fire extinguishers and sound-
producing devices. Also, the
boat must be registered accord-
ing to State and local laws
-------
MONITORING ALGA13 43
TASKS
Go through sampling equipment and
supply checklist
Before leaving shore, volunteers
must make sure that they have all the
needed sampling equipment and
supplies on board the boat. They must
also confirm that other items are left
on shore.
Elements of Task 3
Q Confirm that the following
sampling equipment and supplies
are on board the sampling boat.
Anchor (with a measured line if
a depth check is required). Two
anchors are helpful on windy
days, one off the bow and the
other off the stern.
Secchi disk with a measured
line and a clothespin
Water sampler instrument (for
integrated or point sampling)
Water sample collection con-
tainer
Ice cooler (with a closable lid)
with frozen ice packs
Clipboard and pencils
Map of lake with sampling site
and landmarks marked
Sampling protocol sheet
Sampling form
Q Confirm that the following
supplies are on shore.
Phosphorus sample shipping
bottle (with a small amount of
acid to preserve the sample)
New pair of vinyl gloves
Chlorophyll a sample shipping
bottle
Shipping box with frozen ice
packs
-------
44 CHAPTER 3
TASK 4
j
Position boat at the designated
sample site.
Volunteers must locate the sample
site on the water. Whether or not a
marking buoy is used, the position
should be verified using the shoreline
landmark method.
Once the site is located, volunteers
can anchor the boat. Repositioning the
anchor once it is dropped should be
discouraged, especially in shallow
lakes, because it can stir up sediments
from the lake bottom. Increasing
sediment turbidity may alter data
results.
After anchoring, volunteers should
allow the boat to stabilize. Then a
depth check can be done.
TASKS
Complete the observations portion of
the sampling form.
Volunteers should record their
observations about the lake and
weather conditions on the sampling
form. In addition, they should write
down any unusual conditions that
may affect the sampling results. A
suggested format for a data form is
presented on page 45.
Reporting visual conditions such as
water color and appearance will aid in
interpreting data results. For example,
if the sampling trip was conducted
after a storm, the water may tempo-
rarily be more brownish and turbid
than usual.
This turbidity probably will lower
the Secchi disk reading and elevate the
total phosphorus concentration.
Without the information concerning
the rainstorm, an analyst might
conclude that other factors could have
caused a decrease in water quality.
Elements of Task 5
Q Record the name of the lake and
site, the date, the time of sam-
pling, and the names of volun-
teers doing the sampling.
Q Record water condition observa-
tions at the site including water
color, suspended sediment and
algae, aquatic plants, waterfowl
activity, and odor.
-------
MONITORING AL|AE
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-------
46 CHAPTER 3
Task 5 Continued
Q Record weather conditions on the
form including the amount of
cloud cover (when taking the
Secchi disk reading), the approxi-
mate air temperature, the wind
speed and direction, and water
surface conditions. Indicate any
unusual weather conditions that
may have occurred in the past
week including storms, high
winds, and temperature ex-
tremes.
Q Record any other factors or
conditions that make the sam-
pling trip unusual or that may
potentially influence sample
results. For example, report any
chemical, mechanical, or biologi-
cal control of algae or aquatic
weeds that may have been done
recently on the lake.
TASK 6
J
Measure the Secchi disk depth.
The Secchi disk is used to measure
the depth that a person can see into the
water (transparency). A Secchi disk
reading is a personal measurement; it
involves only two pieces of equip-
ment, the disc and the person's
eyesight.
Because it so individualistic, the
Secchi disc measurement may have
low comparability between lakes and
even between volunteers on the same
lake. The key for consistent results is
to train volunteers to follow standard
sampling procedures for every mea-
surement. It is preferable to have the
same individual take the reading at a
site throughout the entire sampling
season.
The line attached to the Secchi disk
must be marked according to the units
and increments designated by the
planning committee. Many programs
use meters as the measurement unit
and require volunteers to measure to
the nearest one-tenth meter.
The line markings must be made
using waterproof ink. Meter intervals
on the line can be tagged with a piece
of duct tape with the interval measure-
ment indicated on the tag.
-------
MONITORING ALG,
Elements of Task 6
Q Check to make sure that the
Secchi disk is securely attached to
the measured line.
Q Lean over the side of the boat and
lower the Secchi disk into the
water, keeping your back toward
the sun to block glare.
Q Continue to lower the disk until it
just disappears from view. Lower
the disk another one third of a
meter and then slowly raise the
disc until it just reappears.
Continue to move the disk up
and down until the exact vanish-
ing/reappearing point is found.
Q Attach a clothespin to the line at
the point where the line enters the
water. This is the point the
measurement will be read.
Q Slowly pull the disk out of the
water and record the measure-
ment based on the location of the
clothespin on the line.
This procedure can be repeated as a
quality control check; an average of
the two readings should be recorded
on the sampling form.
A SECCHI DISK AND LINE
By moving the Secchi disk up and
down, the volunteer will find the
exact vanishing/reappearing point.
The depth that this occurs is the
Secchi disk reading.
f
f
-------
48 CHAPTER 3
TASK 7
J
Collect a point sample for chloro-
phyll a and total phosphorus.
Described below are two point
sampling procedures. Procedure A
describes how to hand-collect a
sample approximately one-half meter
below the surface. Procedure B de-
scribes how to collect a sample at a
select depth using a sampler such as a
Kemmerer Bottle.
Procedure A. Elements of hand sampling
just below the surface
Q Remove the cap from the sam-
pling container, taking care not to
touch the container mouth.
Q Rinse the container with lake
water by holding it by the bottom
and plunging it mouth-first into
the lake to about elbow depth.
Your hand should always move
in a forward motion so that water
will not slide over it into the
bottle. Fill the container, turn the
mouth upwards, bring it above
the surface, and empty the
container.
Q Rinse the cap at the same depth,
holding the outside of the cap
when plunging.
Q Using the same motion, collect
the sample of water in the con-
tainer. Tip out some of the water
to leave some air space and cap
the container.
Q Store the container in the cooler.
Procedure B. Elements of point sam-
pling using a water sampler
Q Check to make sure that the water
sampler is securely attached to
the measured line (marked in
meters like the Secchi disk line).
U Lower the sampler gently into the
water to the desired depth
marked on the line (rough
treatment can trigger the closing
. mechanism prematurely).
Q Slide the messenger down the
line to dose the stoppers.
Q Gently haul the sampler to the
surface, then release some of
sample water into the container.
Swirl it in the container to rinse
and then pour it out. Rinse the
cap in the same manner.
Q Release sample water into the
container until it is almost full,
leaving some air space at the top.
Cap the container.
Q Store the container in the ice
cooler away from the light.
-------
TASKS
Transferring sample water into
shipping bottles.
Volunteers must bring the boat
back to shore and unload the sampling
equipment and supplies. Next, they
must move indoors or find an outdoor
location that is dry and shielded from
the wind.
Volunteers then transfer the water
from the sample container into the two
bottles that will be shipped to the
laboratory for analysis of chlorophyll«
and total phosphorus concentrations.
During the training session,
volunteers should be made aware how
easy it is to contaminate the phospho-
rus sample unless precautions are
taken. Volunteers should be in-
structed to leave the cap on the
phosphorus shipping bottle until they
are ready to pour the sample water
into it.
Volunteers should wear clean vinyl
gloves and should not smoke. They
must always be aware that the phos-
phorus sample bottle contains an acid
that preserves the sample during
transport to the laboratory. This acid
must be treated cautiously because it
can burn skin or clothing if spilled or
mishandled. Volunteers should also
not breathe the vapors from the
opened bottle.
Because of the potential for spills or
mishaps, the planning committee
should prepare an information sheet
about the preservative acid. The sheet
should include warnings and emer-
gency care instructions should the
acid accidentally come in contact with
volunteers' skin or clothes. Volunteers
should be told to keep the sheet
nearby when working with this bottle.
Elements of Task 8
A. Phosphorus Sample Bottle
Q Make sure the phosphorus
sample bottle is labeled with:
the parameter to be analyzed
(total phosphorus)
the date and the sample lake,
location, and depth
any additional information such
as an accession number for
laboratory identification and the
acid content
Q Put on a new pair of vinyl gloves
U Confirm that there is acid present
in the bottom of the bottle by
visual inspection
U Move the total phosphorus
sample bottle into position and
remove the cap, being careful not
to spill the acid contents or
breathe in the vapors
Q Gently shake the container with
the sample water to re-suspend
any settled material
-------
50 CHAPTER 3
Task 8 Continued
Q Gently pour the sample water
into the phosphorus bottle until
the liquid reaches the fill line
Q Cap the sample bottle and place it
and the frozen ice packs in the
shipping container
B. Chlorophyll a Sample Bottle
Q Move the chlorophyll a sample
bottle into position and remove
cap
Q Gently shake the container with
the sample water to re-suspend
any settled material
Q Gently pour the sample water
into the chlorophyll a bottle until
the liquid reaches the fill line
Q Cap the chlorophyll a sample
bottle and place it into the
shipment container with the
frozen ice packs and close the lid
so sunlight cannot reach it
TASK 9
Cleanup and shipment of samples
and forms.
Volunteers must clean the sam-
pling and laboratory equipment for
the next sampling trip. The Secchi
disk and water sampler should be
rinsed off with fresh tap water and the
sampling container rinsed with
distilled water.
Volunteers must pack and forward
the shipping container with the
samples to the laboratory as soon as
possible. In addition, the sampling
form with the Secchi disk measure-
ment and sampling observations must
be sent to the coordinating agency.
-------
MONITORING
3.G Notes on Equipment
A partial listing of companies that
provide equipment and supplies for
volunteer monitoring programs are
listed in the appendix. Alternatively,
some programs have volunteers
construct some of their equipment.
Secchi Disks
Some programs have volunteers
make their own Secchi disks. A
construction plan prepared by the
Michigan Department of Natural
Resource's Self-Help Water Quality
Monitoring Program is illustrated
here.
MAKING A SECCHI DISK
Metal
weight
Measured line
(!' intervals)
Disk made from metal or
plexiglass 8" in diameter with
alternate black and white
quadrants
3" to 4" Eye bolt
-------
52 CHAPTERS
Water Samplers
Instead of purchasing commercial
water samplers, some programs have
volunteers construct their own.
Construction plans for the sampler
used by the Wisconsin Self-Help Lake
Monitoring Program are illustrated
here.
MAKING A WATER SAMPLER
lowering cord
air-out stopper
air-out tube
wood block
1 qt. Mason jar
mill!
H 1
)
\ \ \
k
"I
A
concrete ballast
stopper cord
water-in stopper
water-in tube
lid & ring for wide-
mouth Mason jar
60 ml sample bottle
-------
MONITORING ALGAE^l
References
New York State Dept. of Environmental Conservation and Federation of
Lake Associations, Inc. 1990. Diet for a Small Lake: A New Yorker's Guide to
Lake Management. Albany.
Olem, H. and G. Flock, eds. August, 1990. The Lake and Reservoir Restoration
Guidance Manual. 2nd ed. EPA 440/4-90-006. Prep. N. Am. Lake Manage.
Soc. for U.S. Environ. Prot. Agency, Off. Water, Washington, DC.
Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater. 16th ed. 1985.
Am. Pub. Health Ass., Am. Water Works Ass., and Water Pollu. Control
Fed. 1985. American Public Health Association. Washington, DC.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. August 1990. Volunteer Water
Monitoring: A Guide for State Managers. EPA 440/4-90-010. Off. Water
Washington, DC.
Additional program material on volunteer monitoring of algae can be
obtained from the following State programs:
Florida
Florida LAKEWATCH
79922 NW 71st Street
Gainsville, FL 32606
Illinois
Volunteer Lake Monitoring Program
Division of Water Pollution Control
Illinois Environmental Protection Agency
2200 Churchill Road
P.O. Box 19276
Springfield, IL 62794-9276
Maine
Volunteer Lake Monitoring Program
Division of Environmental Evaluation and Lake Studies
Maine Department of Environmental Protection
State House, Station 17
Augusta, ME 04333
-------
54 CHAPTERS
Michigan
Self-Help Water Quality Monitoring Program
Department of Natural Resources
Land and Water Management Division
P.O. Box 30028
Lansing, MI 48909
Minnesota
Citizen Lake Monitoring Program
Division of Water Quality-Program Development Section
Minnesota Pollution Control Agency
520 Lafayette Road North
St. Paul, MN 55155
New Hampshire
New Hampshire Lakes Lay Monitoring Program
University of New Hampshire
PeteeHall
Cooperative Extension
Durham, NH 03824
New Hampshire Volunteer Lake Assessment Program
Department of Environmental Services
6 Hazen Drive
Concord, NH 03301
New York
New York Citizens Statewide Lake Assessment Program
New York State Department of Environmental Conservation
Division of Water-Lake Services Section
50 Wolf Road, Room 301
Albany, NY 12233-3502
Rhode Island
Watershed Watch Program
Department of Natural Resource Science
210B Woodward Hall
University of Rhode Island
Kingston, RI02881-0804
-------
MONITORING ALGAE
Tennessee
TVA Citizen Water Quality Monitoring Program
Tennessee Valley Authority
Water Quality Department
2S-270C Haney Building
311 Broad Street
Chattanooga, TN 37402-2801
Vermont
Vermont Lay Monitoring Program
Department of Environmental Conservation
Water Quality Division
103 S. Main Street
Waterbury, VT 05676
Washington
Washington's Citizen Lake Monitoring Project
Department of Ecology
7171 dean Water Lane, Building 8 MS LH-14
Olympia, WA 98504
Wisconsin
Self-Help Lake Monitoring Program
Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources
Bureau of Water Resources Management
P.O. Box 7921
Madison, WI53707-7921
-------
-------
Chapter 4
Monitoring
Aquatic Plants
-------
58 CHAPTER 4
4. A Aquatic Plant Condition
Parameters
In many lakes across the country,
an abundance of rooted aquatic plants
impairs the use and enjoyment of
recreational waters. A program that
focuses on rooted aquatic plants as the
lake condition to be monitored should
train citizen volunteers to:
map the distribution of rooted
plants;
determine the relative density of
rooted plant types along a
transect line running perpendicu-
lar from shore in select areas; and
collect specimens for professional
identification.
Mapping the Distribution of
Rooted Plants
In healthy lakes, several different
species of rooted aquatic plants
usually occupy the littoral (shallow)
zone. Submergent, rooted floating-
leaved, free-floating, and emergent
plants are all important for the overall
ecology of a lake. Traveling around
the shoreline with a lake map, volun-
teers can draw in the location of
significant aquatic plant beds and note
where growth has reached the surface.
This effort will serve as an historical
record for studying changes in vegeta-
tive location. In addition, these maps
can be useful for planning the applica-
tion of aquatic plant control methods,
such as harvesting.
Determining the Relative Den-
sity of Rooted Plant Types
It is often useful to take a closer
look at the types of rooted aquatic
plants in the littoral zone. A healthy
lake usually has many different kinds
aquatic plants. Many lakes, however,
have littoral zones that have been
disturbed, fertilized, and/or invaded
by more aggressive plant species. In
these instances, the least tolerant
species are often eliminated and one or
two more-tolerant species begin to
take over the zone. In fact, in the
majority of lakes where aquatic plant
overgrowths occur, it is the result of a
population explosion of only one or
two species.
Several exotic plant species (origi-
nally from other continents) are
notorious for displacing native plants
and dominating the littoral zone.
They can become major nuisance
problems primarily because no natural
check and balance system controls
their growth. A lack of predators and
pathogenic organisms allows exotics
to out-compete native species for
growing space, light, and nutrients.
The relative density of different
plants growing in the littoral zone can
be examined by volunteers. The
method described in this chapter has
volunteers collect plants at specific
intervals along a transect line. Addi-
tionally, the volunteers are directed to
measure the length and depth of the
littoral zone along the line.
-------
Identification of Rooted
' Aquatic Plants
Eurasian watermilfoil
(Myriophyllum spicatum) and water *
hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes) are
examples of exotic (non-native) species
that can flourish and cause problems
in waters of the United States. One
purpose of a citizen program focused
on monitoring rooted aquatic plant
conditions on lakes should be to
inventory locations where there are
significant amounts of plants.
The identification of plant species
is important because the effectiveness
of lake management techniques differ
according to plant type. In many
instances, the early detection (and
elimination) of aggressive exotic
species can save a lake from severe
infestation problems later.
The Vermont Department of
Environmental Conservation, for
example, has established a Milfoil
Watchers Program to train volunteers
to identify Eurasian watermilfoil.
Then, at least once or twice a summer,
citizens survey lakes where the plant
has not been seen. If watermilfoil is
spotted, volunteers contact the depart-
ment.
Eurasian water milfoil
Drawing from:
Common Aquatic Plants of Michigan
Water hyacinth
-------
60 CHAPTER 4
4.B Sampling Considerations
The location of sample collection
and transect sites in a lake are defined
on a lake-by-lake basis from an initial
site visit by the program manager.
Some lakes have extensive weed
growth throughout the lake, others
have small, well-defined problem
areas.
In general, it is best to assign a
team of two volunteers no more than
four hours of sampling work. What
can be accomplished in this period
depends on the size of the lake, the
length of the littoral zone, and the
extent of the rooted plants.
In some lakes, the aquatic plant
population is relatively stable through-
out the growing season. In other
lakes, there is a definite pattern of
succession. If the lake is small,
volunteers may need to examine plant
growth only once or twice a year (in
spring and late summer). The pro-
gram manager may wish to break a
large lake with a significant weed
problem into segments and send
volunteers out every two weeks to
sample different areas.
The density, diversity, and growth
patterns of aquatic plants are unique
to each lake. Therefore, many of the
details concerning sample site loca-
tions and other program aspects must
be worked out by the program man-
ager on a lake-by-lake basis.
4.C How to Sample
Presented in this section are
procedures for mapping the distribu-
tion of rooted aquatic plants, collect-
ing, and determining the relative
density of plant types along a transect.
Basically, these sampling activities
are divided into four main segments.
Confirming the sampling date
and weather conditions and
going through boating safety and
sampling equipment checklists
prior to launching the sampling
boat (Tasks 1 through 3).
Touring the shoreline and map-
ping the location of aquatic plants
at or near the surface (Task 4).
Finding the sampling site, setting
up a transect line, collecting
plants along that line, and esti-
mating plant densities (Task 5).
Returning to shore and shipping
the data forms and plant samples
(Task 6).
The program manager should
provide volunteers with a sampling
schedule and a sampling protocol
sheet. Volunteers' common sense and
good judgment dictate when it is
appropriate to sample. Both good and
unacceptable weather conditions
should be defined for volunteers
during training sessions. Under no
circumstances should volunteers be on
the water during rain or electrical
storms, high winds (white caps), or
other unsafe conditions.
-------
MONITORING AQUATIC PJLAWi
TASK 1
Confirm sampling day and weather
conditions.
Elements of Task 1
Q Check the sampling date on the
program sampling schedule.
Q Check the current and forecasted
weather and decide if the condi-
tions allow for safe sampling.
The volunteer should also be
instructed to confirm this decision
after personally inspecting lake
conditions prior to launching the
boat and beginning the sampling
trip.
TASK 2
Go through the boating safety
equipment checklist
Before leaving shore, volunteers
must confirm that all the safety
equipment is on board. Boating safety
is a subject that volunteers need to
take seriously because they will be
moving around the boat, leaning over
the edge, and working with equip-
ment.
Volunteers should wear a life
preserver (Type 1,2 or 3 personal
flotation device) at all times. Volun-
teers should educate themselves about
safe boating laws and the rules of the
road.
Elements of Task 2
Q Confirm that the following
boating safety equipment are on
board the sampling boat:
A personal flotation device for
each person that is Coast
Guard-approved, readily
available, and the proper size
First aid kit
Other equipment that may be
required by State and local
boating laws
-------
62 CHAPTER 4
TASKS
Go through equipment and supply
checklist for sampling tasks.
Before leaving shore, volunteers
must make sure that they have all the
needed sampling equipment.
Elements of Task 3
Q Confirm that the following
sampling equipment is on board.
Anchor
Calibrated transect line (floating
line marked off in meters) with
anchor and buoy
Weighted calibrated sounding
line for measuring water depth
Weighted rake with throwing
line
Plastic bags for plant specimens
labeled with the lake name, the
date, and the site location
(Transect #1, Site #1).
Clipboard, pencils and water-
proof marker
Map of lake with sampling
site(s) marked
Protocol sheet
Data recording sheets
Q Confirm that the shipping box
with frozen ice packs is on shore.
TASK 4
Map the location of aquatic plants at
or near the surface.
For this task, volunteers must take
a tour of the shoreline and observe
areas of the lake where aquatic vegeta-
tion is on or near the surface. Using a
clean copy of a lake map, volunteers
draw a sketch showing the extent of.
rooted aquatic plant beds (see map on
page 63).
-------
AN AQUATIC PLANT MAP
Emergents and
Floating Leaf
Plants
VOLUNTEER LAKE
-------
64 CHAPTER 4
TASKS
Estimate plant type density and
collect a sample for professional
identification.
From shore, the volunteer will
locate the sampling site designated
by the program manager and
establish a transect line perpendicu-
lar from shore. Following along this
line at specified intervals, the
volunteer will cast a weighted rake
to the lake bottom and pull up
aquatic vegetation.
This vegetation will be sorted,
and the volunteer will make a
qualitative estimate of the percent-
age and density of plant types.
Specimens of each type will be
bagged for shipment to a botanist
for identification.
Elements of Task 5
Q Find the designated sampling
site and tie the end of the
transect line securely to a tree
or stake at the water's edge.
Q Move the boat away from
shore and stretch the transect
line to the desired length.
Q Attach the buoy and anchor so
that the line remains floating,
thus forming the transect.
Q Measure and record the lake
depth at the end of the transect
using the weighted calibrated
sounding line.
Q Confirm that the throwing line
is securely attached to the .
weighted rake (can be an
ordinary garden rake).
Q Facing the shore, pitch the
weighted rake straight ahead
(the 12 o'clock position) about
six feet from the boat.
Q Allow the rake to settle to the
lake bottom and then pull the
line so that the teeth of the rake
drag along the floor of the lake.
Q Bring the rake back into the
boat and remove all the vegeta-
tion trapped on the teeth. Sort
different plant types into
separate piles.
Q Examine the piles and estimate
the percentage of each plant
type found. Record on the
sampling form. The total must
add up to 100 percent.
Q Repeat the procedure at the 3,6
and 9 o'clock positions.
Q After all four samplings are
completed, examine the sorted
piles and give each plant type a
density rating. (See the density
rating chart on the figure,
Example of an Aquatic Plant
Sampling Form on page 67.)
If a plant type was found in all
four casts and for each cast the
teeth of the rake were full,
mark 5. If the plant was found
moderately on all four casts,
mark 4. If the plant type was
found in only three of the four
casts, mark 3, and so on.
-------
ESTIMATING PLANT TYPE DENSITY
Sampling Points I
A transect line is stretched from the shoreline to the end of the littoral
zone. Sample sites are marked on the line for the raking survey.
A rake is pitched at each o'clock position and then dragged along the
lake bottom. The rake is then hauled back into the boat, and the
Collected vegetation is sorted into plant types.
-------
66 CHAPTER 4
Task 5 Continued
Q Remove a few healthy specimens
from each of the sorted piles of
plant types, shake off excess
water, and place them in a
properly labeled collection bag.
Q Move the boat along the transect
line to the next sampling point
and repeat these activities. (The
number of sampling points
should be determined by the
program manager.)
Q If practical, keep all collected
plant fragments in the boat for
proper disposal on land since
many nuisance species reproduce
from fragments.
TASK 6
Shipment of samples and forms
Volunteers pack and forward the
shipping container with the plant type
samples to the program botanist for
identification. In addition, the data
sheet with the density rating for each
plant type and sampling observations
must be sent to the coordinating
agency for analysis. Volunteers
should also request additional sup-
plies or equipment as needed.
Elements of Task 6
Q Confirm that the bags containing
the plant type specimens are
securely sealed and properly
labeled.
O Place the bags and ice packs in
the mailing box and seal the
container.
Q Ship the box as soon as possible.
Q Confirm that all the sections of
the sampling forms have been
completed. Write down any
additional observations of
activities that may affect sam-
pling results, such as harvesting,
herbicide application, or in-
creased recreation.
,Q Send the sampling information to
the program coordinator.
-------
MONITORING AQUATIC PLANT''
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68 CHAPTER 4
References
Jessen, R. and R. Lound. 1962. An Evaluation of a Survey Technique for
Submerged Aquatic Macrophytes. Game Investigational Rep. No. 6. MN
Dept. Conserv, Div. of Game Fish.
Olem, H. and G. Flock, eds. August, 1990. The Lake and Reservoir Restoration
Guidance Manual 2nd ed. EPA 440/4-90-006. Prep. N. Am. Lake Manage.
Soc. for U.S. Environ. Prot. Agency, Off. Water, Washington, DC.
State of Michigan Dept. of Natural Resources. December, 1987. Common
Aquatic Plants of Michigan. Land Water Mgt. Div., Lansing, MI.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. August 1990. Volunteer Water
Monitoring: A Guide for State Managers. EPA 440/4-90-010. Off. Water,
Washington, DC.
Additional program material relating to volunteer monitoring of aquatic
plants is available from these States:
New York
New York Citizens Statewide Lake Assessment Program
New York State Department of Environmental Conservation
Division of Water - Lake Services Section
50 Wolf Road, Room 301
Albany, NY 12233-3502
Vermont
Vermont Lay Monitoring Program
Department of Environmental Conservation
Water Quality Division
103 S. Main Street
Waterbury,VT 05676
-------
Chapter 5
Monitoring
Dissolved Oxygen
-------
70 CHAPTER 5
5.A Dissolved Oxygen
Parameters
The amount of dissolved oxygen in
the water is an important indicator of
overall lake health. When oxygen is
reduced, organisms are stressed.
When oxygen is absent, all oxygen-
breathing life forms must either move
to an oxygenated zone or die.
There are also many chemical
reactions that occur depending on
whether or not oxygen is in the water.
For example, an essential plant nutri-
ent, phosphorus, can be released from
bottom sediments when oxygen is
reduced in the lower layer of a lake.
Dissolved oxygen conditions are
best characterized by measuring the:
dissolved oxygen profile (mea-
surements from the surface to the
bottom at set intervals); and
temperature profile (at the same
intervals).
Dissolved Oxygen Profile
When characterizing the oxygen
condition in a lake, it is important to
know how oxygen concentrations
differ from the surface to the bottom.
In lakes that have a problem with low
dissolved oxygen, it is not unusual to
measure high dissolved oxygen levels
at the surface during the day because
algae in the photic zone are photosyn-
thesizing and producing oxygen. At
night, these same algae respire and
consume oxygen.
Near the bottom, however, there
may be low or no oxygen because
decomposers are absorbing it while
breaking down the "rain" of organic
matter (dead algae cells, zooplankton,
fish) falling from above.
A profile of oxygen measurements
taken from top to bottom may provide
insight on the relative populations of
oxygen-producing plants and bottom-
dwelling decomposers.
Temperature Profile
Water temperature plays an
important role in determining the
amount of oxygen found in the lake.
Oxygen is more soluble in cold than
warm water. Most lakes over 20 feet
deep stratify during the summer into a
warm, lighted upper layer (epilim-
nion) and a cold, dark lower layer
(hypolimnion). Thus, the cold lower
layer can potentially hold more
oxygen than the warmer upper layer.
Usually these layers do not mix;
thus, the bottom layer is cut off from
atmospheric oxygen and oxygen-
producing plants. Consequently,
bottom oxygen can become depleted if
there is an active population of decom-
posers in the bottom sediments. For
these reasons, it is important to define
the thermal layers in a lake when
characterizing dissolved oxygen
conditions.
-------
MONITORING DISSOLVED OXYGEN
5.B Sampling Considerations
Temperature and oxygen profiles
should be taken at a site directly over
the deepest portion of the lake basin.
If the lake has several distinct basins,
the program manager may require
volunteers to sample each at the
deepest location.
Temperature and oxygen profile
measurements should begin with
spring overturn. At that time, both
temperature and oxygen concentration
are uniform from top to bottom in
most lakes. Sampling should continue
throughout the summer season. It
may be even useful to extend the
program to fall overturn.
To track the progress of oxygen
depletion in the lower layer, sampling
should be conducted every two weeks.
In some cases, it may be useful to
build some flexibility into the program
and encourage volunteers to gather
profile data after large, windy storms.
This effort will document whether lake
stratification breaks down under
storm or high wind conditions.
Additionally, if there is a large crop
of aquatic weeds or algae, the plan-
ning committee may wish to have
volunteers sample the oxygen concen-
tration in the photic zone in the early
morning to evaluate the impact of
nighttime respiration.
There are two methods of measur-
ing dissolved oxygen in a lake. Volun-
teers can use a dissolved oxygen field
kit, or a submersible oxygen meter.
Field kite are available from many
manufacturers. All kits basically
require that volunteers take a water
sample and analyze dissolved oxygen
using a titrimetric procedure. The
sample must be analyzed immediately
after collection.
To get meaningful results, volun-
teers must observe strict sample
handling protocol. Contact with the
air, agitation, exposure to strong
sunlight, and temperature and pres-
sure changes will affect the oxygen
content of a sample.
These factors, plus the fact that
several dissolved oxygen measure-
ments are needed to make up a profile,
makes the use of field kite generally
unsuitable for volunteer programs that
are monitoring the dissolved oxygen
profile in lakes. If the goal of the
program, however, is to simply
sample oxygen in the photic zone and
not create a full water column profile,
a dissolved oxygen kit may be an
attractive and less expensive alterna-
tive.
The most convenient method for
taking both oxygen and temperature
profiles, however, is to use a portable
oxygen meter that incorporates a
thermistor. The meter displays a
dissolved oxygen readout based on the
rate of diffusion of molecular oxygen
across a membrane. The thermistor
component of the instrument provides
a temperature readout.
-------
72 CHAPTER 5
Each meter manufacturer provides
detailed instructions on sampling
protocol and how and when to cali-
brate the meter to obtain guaranteed
precision and accuracy. Calibration
should be done by experienced
program personnel at the manufac-
turer-recommended intervals. This
means the instrument will have to be
transported between the volunteer and
program officials between those
intervals.
For convenience, citizen monitor-
ing programs can purchase a meter
with a permanent membrane to avoid
having to calibrate it before each trip.
5.C How to Sample
Suggested procedures for measur-
ing temperature and oxygen profiles
of a lake are described in this section.
Sampling activities can be divided into
three sections:
Confirming the sampling date
and weather conditions and
going through boating safety and
sampling equipment checklists
prior to launching the sampling
boat (Tasks 1 through 3).
Finding the sampling site and
documenting observations about
water and weather conditions
(Tasks 4 and 5).
Taking a temperature and oxygen
profile, entering the readings on
the sampling form, and then
mailing the form to program
officials (Tasks 6-8). To take a
profile measurement, lower a
thermistor and oxygen probe on a
calibrated cable through the
water column. At specified
intervals, read and record the
temperature and dissolved
oxygen concentration.
The program manager should
provide a sampling schedule and a
sampling protocol sheet to volunteers.
In general, monitors should be in-
structed to conduct sampling between
10 a.m. and 3 p.m. Volunteers must
understand, however, that there is
flexibility in both the day and time,
especially in consideration of weather
conditions.
Volunteers' common sense and
good judgment should dictate when it
is appropriate to sample. Both good
and unacceptable weather conditions
should be defined during training
sessions. Under no circumstances
should volunteers be on the water
during rain or electrical storms, high
winds (white caps), or other unsafe
conditions.
-------
MONITORING DISSOLVED OXY
-------
74 CHAPTER 5
TASKS
Go through equipment and supply
checklist for sampling tasks.
Before leaving shore, volunteers
must confirm that they have all the
needed sampling equipment.
Elements of Task 3
Q Confirm that the following
sampling equipment and supplies.
are on board the boat
Anchor (with a measured line if
a depth check is required). Two
anchors are helpful on windy
days.
Weighted calibrated sounding
line for measuring depth
Clipboard and pencils
Map of lake with sampling site
and landmarks marked
Sampling protocol sheet
Sampling form
Dissolved oxygen meter with
thermistor
TASK 4
J
Position boat at the designated
sample site.
The volunteer must locate the
sample site on the water. Whether or
not a marking buoy is used, the
position should be verified using a
shoreline landmark method (described
in Chapter 3).
Once the site is located, the volun-
teer can anchor the boat. Reposition-
ing the anchor once it is dropped
should be discouraged, especially in
shallow lakes, because it can stir up
sediments from the lake bottom.
Increasing sediment turbidity may
alter the data collected at the site.
After anchoring, volunteers should
allow the boat to become stable.
-------
MONITORING DISSOLVED Ovyif|\Bi
TASKS
Complete the observations portion of
the sampling form.
Volunteers should record their
observations about the lake and
weather conditions on the sampling
form. In addition, they should write
down any unusual conditions that
may affect the sampling results. A
suggested format for a data form is
presented on page 76.
Reporting visual conditions such as
water color and appearance will aid in
the interpretation of data results. For
example, if the sampling trip was
conducted after a storm, thermal
stratification may have broken down
and caused mixing of the layers.
Elements of Task 5
Q Record the lake and site name,
the date, the time of sampling,
and the names of volunteers
doing the sampling.
Q Record weather and water
condition observations.
O Record any other factors or
conditions that make the sam-
pling trip unusual or may poten-
tially influence results. For
example, report any chemical,
mechanical, or biological control
of algae or rooted aquatic plants.
TASK 6
Measure the depth of the site.
Using the weighted calibrated
sounding line, volunteers should
measure the depth of the site and
record it on the sampling form. It is
important to know the depth because
the oxygen probe must not be allowed
to come in contact with the lake
bottom.
-------
76 CHAPTER 5
s/i crt
\
o Q
5 do
* !
3 I
-------
MONITORING DISSOLVED OXYGEN
TASK 7
Measure the temperature and dis-
solved oxygen profile.
The thermistor and oxygen probe is
lowered into the water at the specific
intervals designated by the program
manager. Volunteers will record
readings on the data form.
Elements of Task 7
Q Check to make sure that the
oxygen probe is securely attached
to the measured line.
Q Lower the probe into the water
just below the surface, let the
probe acclimate according the
manufacturer's instructions, take
a temperature and oxygen
reading, and record it on the data
sheet.
Q Lower the thermistor to the next
deeper interval and repeat these
steps.
Q Continue to collect readings at
each interval until the probe is
approximately one to two meters
above the bottom.
TASKS
Ship forms.
This task requires volunteers to
forward the data sheet with the
temperature and oxygen profile data
and the observation information to the
coordinating agency.
-------
78 CHAPTER 5
References
Olem, H. and G. Hock, eds. August, 1990. The Lake and Reservoir Restoration
Guidance Manual. 2nd ed. EPA 440/4-90-006. Prep. N. Am. Lake Manage.
Soc. for U.S. Environ. Prot. Agency, Off. Water, Washington, DC.
Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater. 16th ed. 1985.
Am. Pub. Health Ass., Am. Water Works Ass., and Water Pollu. Control
Fed. 1985. American Public Health Association. Washington, DC.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. August 1990. Volunteer Water
Monitoring: A Guide for State Managers. EPA 440/4-90-010. Off. Water,
Washington, DC.
Additional program material relating to the monitoring of dissolved oxygen
and temperature is available from the following States:
New York
New York Citizens Statewide Lake Assessment Program
New York State Department of Environmental Conservation
Division of Water-Lake Services Section
50 Wolf Road, Room 301
Albany, NY 12233-3502
Tennessee
TVA Citizen Water Quality Monitoring Program
Tennessee Valley Authority
Water Quality Department
2S-270C Haney Building
311 Broad Street
Chattanooga, TN 37402-2801
-------
Chapters
Monitoring Other
Lake Conditions
<i
-------
80 CHAPTER 6
6.A Monitoring Sedimentation
Sedimentation problems occur
when erosion is taking place in the
watershed. Surface runoff washes
sand and silt into the lake where it
settles to the bottom and creates
shallow areas that interfere with lake
use and enjoyment. In addition,
sediments often carry significant
amounts of nutrients that can fertilize
rooted aquatic plants and algae.
Citizens can characterize the build-
up of sediments by measuring water
depth and the depth of unconsolidated
(soft bottom) sediments in key areas
(mouths of tributary streams or near
an eroding shoreline). In this manner,
a historical record of sedimentation
can be developed.
To measure sediment, set up a
transect line and sample at specified
intervals along it. A basic procedure
involves the use of two dowels
(probes) about one inch in diameter
and long enough to stick above the
surface at the deepest point of mea-
surement. Securely attached to the
bottom of one probe is a nine-inch
plate (a pie pan works well). Both
probes are calibrated in meters and
tenths of meters.
Working along a transect line,
volunteers can:
locate the sample site along a
transect;
measure and record the depth of
the water from the surface to the
top of the sediments using the
probe with the plate on the end;
push the other probe into the
sediments until first refusal (it
becomes hard to push) and
measure and record the depth.
The difference between the two
depths is the thickness of the
unconsolidated sediments.
The number of transects and the
location of sites along those transects
will be decided by the planning
committee. By participating in a
sediment recording program, the
volunteers will gain appreciation that
erosion and sedimentation is an
important lake management problem.
-------
MONITORING OTHER LAKE CONDITION'
6.B Monitoring Suspended
Sediment
Some of the silt and organic matter
that enters a lake does not settle to the
lake bottom. Instead it remains
suspended in the water. These sus-
pended solids decrease water trans-
parency and can affect the suitability
of the lake habitat for some species. In
addition, solids often carry in signifi-
cant amounts of nutrients that fertilize
rooted aquatic plants and algae.
Total solids is a term used to de-
scribe all the matter suspended or
dissolved in water. Total suspended
solids is that portion of the total solids
that are retained on filter paper after a
sample of water is passed through.
Citizens can monitor the sus-
pended sediment condition by mea-
suring two parameters:
water transparency using a Secchi
disk; and
total suspended solids.
The Secchi disk is a instrument that
measures water clarity. The reader is
referred to Chapter 3 of this manual
for a thorough explanation of its use in
lake monitoring.
The concentration of total sus-
pended solids in a water sample is
analyzed in a laboratory. Procedures
involve the use of a filtering appara-
tus, a special drying oven that can
maintain a constant temperature
between 103° and 105° F and a sensi-
tive analytical balance capable of
weighing material to 0.1 milligrams.
In most cases, volunteers will take
a grab sample just below the surface in
an area designated by the planning
committee. The sample must be kept
cold and shipped to the laboratory as
soon as possible after collection to
minimize microbiological decomposi-
tion of solids.
This monitoring is particularly
useful for analyzing trends in sus-
pended material after storm events.
For this reason, the planning commit-
tee may wish to instruct volunteers to
sample on a two-week schedule for
baseline purposes and then to conduct
additional sampling after storms.
-------
82 CHAPTER 6
6.C Monitoring Acidification
A citizen monitoring program that
focuses on lake acidification usually
examines:
pH, a measure of lake acidity
status; and
alkalinity, a measure of the acid
neutralizing capacity of a sub-
stance.
The pH is measured on a scale of 0
to 14. The lower the pH, the higher
the concentration of hydrogen ions
and the more acidic the solution. Acid
rain typically has a pH of 4.0 to 4.5. In
contrast, most lakes have a natural pH
of about 6.0 to 9.0.
Alkalinity, or acid-neutralizing
capacity, refers to the ability of a
solution to resist changes in pH by
neutralizing acid input. In most lakes,
buffering is accomplished through a
complex interaction of bicarbonates,
carbonates, and hydroxides in the
water. The higher the alkalinity, the
greater the ability of the water to
neutralize acids.
Lakes with low alkalinity are not
well buffered. These lakes are often
adversely affected by acid inputs.
After a short time, their pH levels will
drop to a point that eliminates acid-
intolerant forms of aquatic life. Fish
are particularly affected by low pH
waters.
The planning committee can
designate pH and alkalinity sampling
to occur at the lake's center or at
special areas of interest. The depth
where samples are taken can vary with
program objectives, but one meter is
usually sufficient for a general charac-
terization of the lake.
Sampling should occur from spring
overturn until the end of the summer
season. Both pH and alkalinity are
affected by biological activity; there-
fore, the planning committee may
direct volunteers to sample every two
weeks. The time of the day that the
sample is taken should be noted on the
sampling form. The pH normally rises
during active photosynthetic periods.
The pH of a lake sample can be
easily determined by using a portable,
battery-powered pH meter. In gen-
eral, pH meters are accurate and easy
to use. However, they do need to be
calibrated at regular intervals accord-
ing to the manufacturer's instructions.
Training on both meter use and
calibration is important. A pH meter
can also be used in the analysis of
alkalinity.
As an alternative to a pH meter,
volunteers can use a pH test kit. To
conduct the test, volunteers add an.
indicator dye to a measured amount of
water sample. The dye produces a
color based upon the pH. Volunteers
can then compare the color with a
standard color of a known pH.
-------
MONITORING OTHER LAKE CONDITIONS
The pH test kits come in several
varieties. Some can test for a wide pH
range, others are designed to test
narrow ranges. It is best to know the
approximate pH of the lake to be
sampled and choose the kit best suited
to the planning committee's purpose.
The program manager should plan to
conduct regular quality control checks
because when the dyes age, they
sometimes give erroneous results.
The objectives of the volunteer
monitoring program, economic
considerations, and the data quality
requirements of the users will guide
the decision on whether to use a
colorimetric test kit or a pH meter.
The other parameter used to
characterize a lake's acidification
condition is alkalinity. Volunteers can
measure alkalinity in the field by using
a test kit. The procedure involves
monitoring the changes in pH of a
water sample as an acid is dripped
into it. Volunteers calculate alkalinity
based on the amount of acid it took to
reach an end point pH.
The end point pH for determining
alkalinity varies according to the
approximate actual alkalinity of the
sample.
Alkalinity
(mgCaCO3/L)
30
150
500
Routine (unsure)
Endpoint
pH
4.9
4.6
4.3
4.5
When titrating, the end point pH
can be determined in two basic ways:
by using a pH meter; or
by mixing a standard indicator
solution into the sample and
watching for a color change
that will occur when the
desired end point pH is
reached.
There are several kits on the market
that can be used to measure alkalinity.
Each kit has its own procedures that
should be followed carefully.
As with pH, the objectives of the
volunteer monitoring program and the
data quality requirements of the
program customers will guide the
decision on which test kit to purchase.
The Gran analysis method is an
alternative technique for charac-
terizing a lake's acidification con-
dition. Commonly used in scien-
tific studies of acidic deposition,
the method provides information,
referred to as acid neutralizing ca-
pacity because it includes carbon-
ate, bicarbonate, and hydroxide
alkalinity plus the additional
buffering capacity of organic
acids and other compounds.
-------
84 CHAPTERS
6.D Monitoring Bacteria at
Bathing Beaches
A wide variety of disease-causing
organisms can be transmitted to
humans at bathing beaches. Sources
of pathogens include sewage, runoff
from animal or wildfowl areas, and
even swimmers themselves.
Because of the risk of waterborne
disease, it is good public health
practice to test beaches periodically
during the swimming season. Public
health officials usually monitor for the
presence of one or more indicator
organisms as part of a regular sam-
pling program. The relative abun-
dance of an indicator organism found
in a water sample serves as a warning
for the likely presence of other, more
dangerous pathogens in the water.
The indicator organisms most often
used to indicate sanitary conditions at
bathing beaches are:
fecal coliform bacteria; and
enterococcus bacteria.
Coliforms belong to the enteric
bacteria group, Enterobacteriaceae,
which consists of various species
found in the environment and in the
intestinal tract of warm-blooded
animals. Fecal coliforms are the part
of the coliform group that are derived
from the feces of warm-blooded
animals. The fecal test differentiates
between coliforms of fecal origin and
those from other sources.
Enterococcus are a subset of the
fecal coliform group. Like fecal
coliforms, they, too, indicate fecal
contamination by warm-blooded
animals. They are useful because they
are found only in certain animals.
Examination of the ratio of fecal
coliform to enterococcus can, there-
fore, indicate whether the bacterial
pollution is from humans or animals.
Most public health officials recom-
mend weekly testing of swimming
beach areas. Sampling should occur
at one or more sampling sites in water
three to four feet deep. A sterilized
sampling bottle should be prepared by
the laboratory.
The number of sites needed will
vary with the length and configuration
of the beach. One site is generally
adequate if the beach shoreline is 300
linear feet or less. If the shoreline is
between 300 and 700 linear feet, a
minimum of two sites is recom-
mended. A beach shoreline greater
than 700 feet requires three or more
sample sites.
There are six steps in most basic
procedures:
Remove the cap from a sterile
collection bottle without touching
the inside of the cap or the inside
of the bottle.
Grip the bottle at the base and
plunge it in a downward motion
into the water to a depth of 12 to
18 inches.
-------
MONITORING OTHER LAKE CONfimONS
Using a forward sweeping
motion (so water is not washed
over the hand into the bottle),
invert the bottle and bring it to
the surface.
Empty it slightly to leave ap-
proximately one inch of air at the
top.
Re-cap the container, then label
and store it at a temperature
between 39° and 45° F.
Transport the bottle to the
laboratory as soon as possible
after sampling.
Sampling for bacteria at beaches
should be conducted under the
auspices of the local health depart-
ment. Analysis should be done at a
certified laboratory. If a problem is
found, program officials should notify
health authorities for follow-up testing
and mitigation activities.
The sampling protocol for monitor-
ing bacteria concentrations at natural
bathing beaches will also vary accord-
ing to program objectives and the
requirements of data users who, in
many instances, are officials of the
local health department. Most health
departments have strict criteria and
procedures that must be followed
when sampling for indicator organ-
isms like fecal coliform or enterococ-
cus bacteria. The volunteer sampling
protocol, therefore, must follow the
protocol used by the health depart-
ment.
-------
86 CHAPTERS
References
Connecticut Dept of Health Services. 1989. Guidelines for Monitoring Bathing
Waters and Closure Protocol. CT Dept. Environ. Prot, Hartford.
Olem, H. and G. Flock, eds. August, 1990. The Lake and Reservoir Restoration
Guidance Manual. 2nd ed. EPA 440/4-90-006. Prep. N. Am. Lake Manage.
Soc. for U.S. Environ. Prot. Agency, Off. Water, Washington, DC.
Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater. 16th ed. 1985.
Am. Pub. Health Ass., Am. Water Works Ass., and Water Pollu. Control
Fed. 1985. American Public Health Association. Washington, DC.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. August 1990. Volunteer Water
Monitoring: A Guide for State Managers. EPA 440/4-90-010. Off. Water,
Washington, DCi
-------
Chapter 7
Training
Citizen Volunteers
t'
-------
88 CHAPTER 7
7.A The Training Process
Training the volunteers to do their
jobs properly is an essential compo-
nent of a successful monitoring
program. Significant amounts of time
and resources should be budgeted
specifically to plan, present, and
evaluate volunteer training.
The payoff from effective volunteer
training rises well above the initial
costs. From the program manager's
perspective, good training means less
time and energy spent answering and
re-answering basic procedural ques-
tions.
From the volunteers' perspective,
effective training stimulates confi-
dence and increases the desire to do
the job right. In addition, the data
collected by well-trained volunteers
tend to be of higher quality and thus
more valuable to users.
Training is a dynamic process. It
does not simply begin and end with a
kickoff classroom session for new
volunteers. For example, follow-up
training must occur to resolve specific
operating problems discovered in an
on-going program.
Even experienced volunteers
benefit from occasional continuing
education sessions, which help every-
one stay in touch with the program
and foster the ideal of team effort.
The planning committee should
plan volunteer training from three
basic perspectives:
training new volunteers;
training experienced volunteers
(about new equipment, improved
methods, or simply to provide a
refresher course on sampling
protocol); and
solving specific operating prob-
lems.
Each of the three training perspec-
tives requires the presentation of
unique material. The training pro-
cesses involved in presenting mis
material, however, are similar.
Basically, the volunteer training
process can be broken down into five
phases.
Phase 1: Creating a Job Analysis
Phase 2: Planning the Training
Phase 3: Presenting the Training
Phase 4: Evaluating the Training
Phase 5: Conducting Ongoing
Coaching, Motivation, and
Feedback
Each of these phases are discussed in
the following sections.
-------
TRAINING CITIZEN VOLUNTEERS
7.B Creating a Job Analysis
The job analysis phase is the
hardest yet the most important part of
training development. The job analy-
sis is a list of all the tasks volunteers
must accomplish when sampling a
parameter. Its purpose is to ensure
that sampling procedures are per-
formed by volunteers consistently
throughout all the program lakes.
When job tasks are performed with
consistency:
quality standards can be devel-
oped;
time and cost requirements can be
evaluated;
performance evaluation criteria
can be developed; and
the data user can have greater
confidence in the data results
(especially when comparing the
data from one lake with another).
There are four steps in creating a
job analysis:
developing a list of sampling
tasks;
determining the required quality
level for each task;
defining the job elements that
comprise each task; and
creating a sample protocol or job
description handout for the
volunteers.
The sampling protocols presented
in the previous chapters can be used as
a basic outline for crea'ting job analy-
ses. The planning committee can take
the job tasks, quality levels, and
elements described in the chapters and
add the detail unique to the operation
of their individual program.
The job description handout is an
important product of this phase. An
overall objective of this job description
is to provide each program volunteer
with clear instructions of what to do
when performing each monitoring
task.
A well-written handout can have
several other uses, as well. For
example, the job description:
can be used as a volunteer
recruitment tool. (Potential
volunteers can preview the tasks
involved before committing to the
program);
can serve as the basic outline for
planning a training session; and
can be used as a management tool
for supervising and evaluating
volunteer performance.
Once a job description is proposed,
members of the planning committee
(and a few volunteers) should test it in
the field. The feedback will be useful
in fine-tuning the job description
document.
-------
90 CHAPTER 7
7.C Planning the Training
Once the job analysis is completed
and a job description prepared, the
planning committee can start design-
ing the actual training session. The
committee must decide if the training
is to occur in a group setting or on a
one-on-one basis.
Group training saves money and
time, especially when there are many
volunteers who must be trained
simultaneously. This approach has its
drawbacks because every lake has
unique characteristics. Thus, there
may be circumstances or problems
that can be addressed only on an
individual basis.
For example, training the volunteer
to locate a sampling site is best done
on that lake. One-on-one training is
more time consuming and expensive
but allows program managers to
instruct and demonstrate procedures
under actual conditions experienced
by the volunteer. For those programs
operating under strict quality assur-
ance/quality control guidelines,
individual one-on-one training is
essential.
In practice, it is often best to
structure the training program so that
there are group sessions as well as
individual follow-up sessions for each
lake. Given this scenario, the group
presentation can be used to introduce
program personnel and educate the
volunteers about the following topics:
purpose, goals, and objectives;
basic lake ecology, preservation,
and management;
how the collected data will be
used and by whom;
the role of volunteers;
lake condition being monitored;
parameters to monitor the
condition;
procedures to measure the
parameters;
distribution and preparation of
the sampling equipment; and
how the results are reported to
the data users and to the
volunteers.
On-lake follow-up sessions will
reinforce what was taught in the
classroom and allow program officials
to adapt any special variations of
training protocol. Topics such as how
to find a sampling site and how to
prepare samples for shipment can be
discussed and practiced at the actual
locations.
In most instances, the job descrip-
tion document will serve as the
foundation of the training session.
Thus, the training session can be
broken down into a series of mini
lessons designed to teach the skills
needed to perform each of the tasks in
the job description. An example of
how to plan a mini lesson is presented
on the following pages.
-------
TRAINING CITIZEN VOLUNTEERS
Sample
Mini Lesson:
Secchi Disk
The content and activities of the mini lesson need
to be planned so that the task is covered thoroughly
within the time allotted. The lessons should include
volunteer participation wherever possible. Active
participation usually stimulates questions and en-
hances the learning experience.
Training Topic: Measuring Algae
Mini Lesson: Taking a Secchi disk measurement
Objective: To train volunteers how to use a Secchi disk and
record the reading on the data sheet.
Time Allotted: 30 minutes
Equipment: Secchi disks (to be distributed to volunteers)
Rope lines (to be attached by the volunteers)
Clothes pins
Data sheet
Pencils
Topic A: Introduce the Secchi disk
Distribute the equipment to the
volunteers.
Explain that the basic purpose
of the Secchi disk is to measure
water transparency.
Discuss the historical signifi-
cance of the Secchi disk mea-
surement.
Explain standard characteristics
of the disk.
Topic B: Note factors influencing
water transparency
readings
Have the volunteers name
factors that may influence
Secchi disk readings (eyesight/
glare or water reflection/cloud
cover/algae in the water/
sediment/waves).
Discuss the factors that influ-
ence readings.
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92 CHAPTER 7
Topic C: Purpose of the Secchi
disk measurement
Discuss how the Secchi disk
data collected by the volunteers
will be used and by whom.
Discuss the importance of data
quality.
Topic D: How to take a Secchi
disk measurement
Demonstrate how a reading is
taken.
Discuss the range of Secchi disk
depths likely to be encountered
;n the field.
Topic E: Attaching, marking, and
flagging the line
Demonstrate how the line is tied
to the Secchi disk.
Demonstrate how a Secchi disk
line is measured and marked (in
inches).
Demonstrate how to attach and
label duct tape flags to the line at
six-inch intervals.
II Instruct the class to attach,
measure, mark, and flag their
Secchi disk lines.
Topic F: Learning the motions
Demonstrate the task of making
Secchi disk measurements
(including placing the clothes
pins on the line at the point the
Secchi disk disappears and
reappears).
Instruct the class to practice
attaching the clothes pins to the
line and making a reading.
Topic G: Filling out the data sheet
Demonstrate how to record the
Secchi disk measurement on the
data sheet.
Topic H: Quality control
Discuss standard operating
procedures (including the impor-
tance of taking the measurement
on the shady and calm side of the
boat, not wearing sunglasses, and
so forth).
Topic I: Closing the lesson
Review the Secchi disk measure-
ment procedure and ask for
questions.
-------
TRAINING CITIZEN VOLilRTE
7.D Presenting the Training
The time and effort spent on the
first two phases of volunteer training
pay off during the third phase, the
presentation. Volunteers appreciate a
well-organized and well-paced
training session.
There are four steps that go into
presenting an effective training
session:
preparation,
presentation,
demonstration, and
review.
Preparation
There is nothing more important
than good preparation. The lesson
planning phase discussed in the
previous section will provide the
trainer with the basic agenda for the
session. The trainer, however, will
have the responsibility to adapt the
lesson to the expectations, knowledge,
and experience of the audience. An
effective trainer, for example, will
prepare separate sessions for new
volunteers and experienced volun-
teers.
The person presenting the training
must know the material and be
organized. Lectures, activities, and
discussions should be planned and
kept to a timetable.
Similarly, demonstration materi-
als, audio/visual equipment, and
handouts must be accessible and easily
incorporated into the presentation.
The trainer must be able to anticipate
and respond to problems and ques-
tions that may occur during an actual
training session.
The trainer must always rehearse
the session to work out any presenta-
tion bugs. Additionally, members of
the planning committee should be
given an opportunity to critique the
performances of the trainers.
Presentation
Given all the planning and prepa-
ration work that goes into it, the actual
presentation may be the easiest part of
the whole training process. A relaxed
presentation that fulfills the education
objectives is the basic goal. While
trainers will bring their own styles to
the training session, there are basic
public speaking techniques that
should be used, which include:
establishing rapport with the
audience;
enunciating dearly and distinctly;
using effective body language;
using eye contact; and
encouraging questions and
comments.
-------
94 CHAPTER 7
Demonstration
Whether in the classroom or in the
field, volunteers must be allowed to
demonstrate what they have learned.
The trainer should observe volunteers
closely and offer immediate feedback
in terms of positive reinforcement or
corrective assistance. This portion of
the session is usually when the real
learning takes place.
Review
During the review portion of the
training session, the trainer summa-
rizes what was learned and the
audience is given an opportunity to
ask questions. The session should
close with the reassurance that volun-
teers will continue to receive training
throughout their tenure with the
monitoring program.
7.E Evaluating the Training
Has the training been successful?
Have the learning objectives been met?
The trainer and planning committee
will never know unless the training is
evaluated.
Training evaluation encompasses
the entire training process and in-
cludes the volunteer's perspective as
well as that of the planning committee.
Basically, training evaluation
focuses on:
training methods,
training content, and
training environment.
To gain immediate feedback about
training, have volunteers fill out
evaluation forms at the end of the
session. Perhaps more effective,
however, is to observe volunteers in
action during the sampling season. If
there are problems or if techniques are
not performed according to desired
sampling protocol, trainers may need
to apply new methods in subsequent
training sessions.
-------
TRAINING CITIZEN VOLUNTEER?!
7.F Follow-up Coaching,
Motivation, and Feedback
As stated previously, training is
conducted throughout the life of the
monitoring program. Follow-up
coaching is an integral part of the
training process.
Coaching usually occurs on a one-
on-one basis and serves many pur-
poses. Specifically, it:
maintains communication
between the volunteer and
program officials;
allows the volunteer to ask
questions and resolve problems;
motivates the volunteer and
conveys a sense of teamwork; and
provides a format for implement-
ing new or improved sampling
techniques.
The key to follow-up coaching is
I personal contact. In many cases,
however, it is enough to call volun-
teers periodically to find out how they
feel the program is going and ask if
they have questions. This personal
touch, which increases volunteer
satisfaction, should be maintained
throughout the life of the program.
The companion manual to this
document, Volunteer Water Monitoring:
A Guide for State Managers, discusses
several other ways to maintain volun-
teer interest. These techniques in-
clude:
sending volunteers regular data
reports;
keeping volunteers informed
about all uses of their data;
preparing a regular newsletter;
having program officials be easily
accessible for questions and
requests;
providing volunteers with
educational opportunities;
keeping the local media informed
of the goals and findings of the
monitoring effort;
recognizing the efforts of the
volunteers through certificates,
awards, or other means; and
providing volunteers with
opportunities to grow with the
program through additional
training, learning opportunities,
and changing responsibilities.
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96 CHAPTER 7
References
Zaccarelli, H.E. 1988. Training Managers to Train: A Practical Guide to Improve
Employee Performance. Crisp Publ., Inc., Los Altos, CA.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. August 1990. Volunteer Water
Monitoring: A Guide for State Managers. EPA 440/4-90-010. Off. Water,
Washington, DC.
-------
Chapter 8
Presenting
Monitoring
Results
r
-------
98 CHAPTER 8
8.A Overview of Data
Presentations
One of the basic tenets of successful
volunteer monitoring programs is that
sampling data must be properly
analyzed and presented. Volunteers
need to see their sampling data
interpreted and presented as findings
if they are to maintain their interest in
the program. Organizing agencies and
other data users also need to see that
the program is generating useful
information.
Techniques for presenting volun-
teer data may vary depending on the
technical background of the target
audience. This chapter will focus on
reporting monitoring results to those
citizen volunteers who participate in
the program; however, the methods
that are outlined here should prove
useful to other data users as well.
The Importance of
Credible Data
Volunteer monitoring programs
must ensure that data released to the
public are absolutely accurate. Misin-
formation can occur when data are too
hastily or sloppily collected, stored,
analyzed, or presented. When this
happens, the credibility and hence, the
utility of the volunteer program is
thrown into question.
To ensure that volunteer-collected
data are credible and defensible,
program managers must carefully
plan and maintain a quality assurance
program. Approved data collection
methods must be established and
followed; data must be stored and
documented according to specific
quality assurance protocols; incoming
data must be constantly reviewed; and
staff time should be committed in
advance to conduct concise, clear,
accurate analyses and presentations of
volunteer-collected data. Further
information on these quality assurance
considerations is available in the EPA
document, Volunteer Water Monitoring:
A Guide for State Managers.
Presenting the Data
Some citizen monitoring programs
issue annual reports at the end of the
sampling season. Others rely on
regularly-issued newsletters or
bulletins. Whatever the format, it is
always important to keep in mind the
interest, background, and level of
technical understanding of the target
audience.
Three rules apply when presenting
data to volunteers.
The data presentation should
not be overly technical or
insultingly simple. Graphics are
extremely helpful.
The data presentation should
convey information with a
specific purpose in mind (e.g.,
to show a trend, to illustrate
seasonal variations or variations
with depth, or to identify
problem sites).
-------
PRESENTING MONITORING RESULTS
THREE COMMON GRAPHS
The Bar Graph
The Pie Graph
The Line Graph
Ye«r
The data presentation must be
timely and relevant to the lake
condition. Volunteers and other
data users will lose interest in
the program if significant delays
occur between the sampling
season and the presentation of
data results.
It is not enough to simply list the
data when preparing a summary
report for volunteers. Instead, the
author of the report should use an
appropriate combination of graphs,
summary statistics, maps, and narra-
tive interpretation. Some common
options for presenting the data are
discussed below.
Graphs
Choosing a graphic format that will
best transfer information about the
monitoring data requires careful
thought. Three basic types of graphs
are often used to present volunteer
monitoring information:
bar graph,
pie graph, and
line graph.
The bar graph uses column bars of
varying lengths to compare data. This
graph places special emphasis on
individual values in the data set rather
than overall trends.
The pie graph compares parts to
the whole. In a pie graph, each value
in the data set is represented by a
wedge in a circular pie. The pie as a
-------
100 CHAPTER 8
whole equals 100 percent of the total
values in the data set. The size of any
individual wedge, therefore, corre-
sponds to the percentage that the
value represents to the total.
The line graph effectively shows
changes (or trends) over a period of
time or space. Unlike bar graphs, it
does not place emphasis on the
individual values in the data set.
Listed below are some basic rules
when creating graphs.
Prepare the graph with an
informational purpose in mind.
Limit the number of elements
used in the graph. The number of
wedges in a pie graph should be
five or less. The bars in a bar
graph should fit easily. Limit the
number of overlaying lines in a
line graph to three or fewer.
Expand elements to fill the
dimensions of the graph. Unless
there is a specific reason to
emphasize magnitude or scale,
trends and patterns can be
distorted if the graph is off-
balance. Strive to balance the
height and width so that informa-
tion is represented accurately.
Choose scales that quickly and
easily illustrate values.
Title the graph to describe clearly
what it presents.
Label the axes clearly and do not
overcrowd points along axis lines.
Use a legend (or key) when
appropriate.
Present information concerning
sampling time or conditions
when appropriate.
Summary Statistics
Summary statistics are useful for
conveying information about a data
set. These statistics should succinctly,
yet efficiently, transfer facts about the
measured variable.
Textbook statistics assume that if a
parameter is measured a large number
of times under a common universe of
circumstances, the measurement
values will be distributed at random
around an average value. If the
relative frequency of these values are
plotted against value magnitude, the
result will be the familiar Gaussian
(normal or bell-shaped) curve. The
specific shape of this curve is defined
by two statistics, the mean (or average)
of the data set values and the standard
deviation.
The mean is a statistic that de-
scribes the central tendency of the data
set. Standard deviation describes the
variability or spread of the data
around the mean. Traditionally, the
mean and standard deviation are the
statistics used to summarize a set of
lake data.
In practical application, however,
the mean and standard deviation are
not always the appropriate summary
statistics to use because lake data do
-------
PRESENTING MONITORING RESI
not usually follow textbook patterns of
normal distribution around an average
value. Instead, the data are frequently
skewed in one direction or the other.
This skewness occurs because there
are many important factors that
influence lake conditions, including
the changing seasons, weather condi-
tions, and activity in the lake and
watershed. As a result, the parameters
used to describe lake conditions are
constantly in a state of flux.
Thus, skewness can usually be
expected, especially when measuring
the parameters that characterize an
algal condition (Secchi disk transpar-
ency, chlorophyll a, and total phospho-
rus concentration). Chlorophyll a
concentration, for example, may go
through several cycles each year. It
may be low in the spring, high during
a mid-summer algae bloom, and low
again in the fall.
GAUSSIAN (NORMAL) AND SKEWED DATA CURVES
Data Values
-------
102 CHAPTER 8
Robust Statistics
Whenever there is an irregular or
uncertain pattern of data values for a
lake parameter, robust summary
statistics should be used. A robust
statistic conveys information under a
variety of conditions. It is not overly
influenced by data values at the
extremes of the data distribution.
Median and interquartile range are
robust statistics that describe central
tendency and spread around the
median, respectively. Both these
summary statistics are unaffected by
extreme points. Consequently, they
are usually more appropriate for
summarizing lake data than the
traditional mean and standard devia-
tions.
Both the median and interquartile
ranges are based on order statistics.
They are derived by ordering data
values from high to low. The median
is simply the middle value of the data
set. The interquartile range is the
difference between the value at the 75
percent level and the value at the 25
percent level.
The Box Plot
The box plot is a convenient
method of presenting lake data based
on the robust order statistics. In one
simple graphic, the box plot can
provide information on:
the median,
data variability around the
median,
data skew,
data range, and
the size of the data set.
A box plot is constructed using the
following steps:
1. Order the data from lowest to
highest.
2. Plot the lowest and highest values
on the graph as short horizontal
lines. These are the extreme
values of the data set and repre-
sent the data range.
3. Determine the 75 percent value
and 25 percent value of the data
set. These values define the
interquartile range and are
represented by the location of the
top and bottom lines of the box.
4. The horizontal length of the lines
that define the top and bottom
lines of the box (the box width)
can be used as a relative indica-
tion of the size of the data set.
For example, the box width that
describes a lake data set of 20
-------
PRESENTING MONITORING RESULTS
ELEMENTS OF
THE BOX PLOT
Maximum
value
I
75%
value
Median
value
25%
value
Minimum
value
3-.
fir
values can be displayed twice as
wide as a lake with a data set of
10 values. Alternatively, the
width may be set as proportional
to the square root of the sample
size. Any proportional scheme
can be used as long as it is
consistently applied.
5. Close the box by drawing vertical
lines that connect to the ends of
the horizontal lines.
6. Plot the median as a dashed line
in the box.
-------
104 CHAPTER 8
8.6 Algae Results
The information in this section will
be presented by using a data set from
a fictitious lake appropriately named
Volunteer Lake.
Volunteer Lake was sampled on
the 1st and 15th of the month from
May 15 to October 15. The lake depth
at the sampling station was 30 feet. At
one sampling site over the deepest
part of the lake, volunteers:
measured Secchi disk trans-
parency,
took a chlorophyll a sample at
a depth of 3 feet, and
took total phosphorus samples
at depths of 3 feet and 26 feet.
DATA FROM VOLUNTEER LAKE
Secchi disk
Sampling Reading
Date (feet)
May 15
Junel
June 15
Julyl
July 15
August 1
August 15
September 1
September 15
October 1
October 15
10.6
10.4
6.3
6.8
7.4
6.1
5.5
3.1
2.7
7.2
10.0
Chloro-
phyll a
(Mg/L)
2.3
3.9
8.4
8.5
7.3
16.4
19.7
42.7
85.1
16.0
8.7
Total P
at 3 feet
(Mg/L)
31.7
54.3
32.5
26.4
13.9
12.6
13.0
18.9
10.4
42.3
41.7
Total P
at 26 feet
(Mg/L)
30.4
36.4
35.7
41.0
64.8
102.7
98.4
112.6
54.3
42.3
43.5
-------
PRESENTING MONITORING RESULTS
Secchi Disk Transparency
Secchi disk transparency is a
parameter that interests volunteers.
Data are easily understandable and
can be presented by a modified bar
graph. The horizontal axis presents
the sampling dates and the vertical
axis represents the lake's water
column. Miniature Secchi disks
extend down from the surface to the
actual Secchi disk reading.
General trends in Secchi disk
measurements can be noted in this
data presentation, but the graphic
emphasis is on the individual reading
on each sampling date.
BOX PLOT OF
SECCHI DISK DATA
12 -r
a
IE
to
SECCHI DISK MEASUREMENTS
Q
3
a
o
-2
-4
6
-8
-10
-12
-14
-16
-18'
-2Q.
-22'
-24-
-26'
-28-
-30
6/1 6/15 7/1 7/15 8/1 8/15 9/1 9/15 10/1 10/15
Sampling Date
-------
106 CHAPTER 8
Chlorophyll a
Chlorophyll a is usually best
presented in a traditional bar graph.
By examining this data presentation,
volunteers can observe when chloro-
phyll « concentrations were high and
low during the sampling season.
The horizontal axis presents the
sampling dates. The vertical axis is a
scale of chlorophyll a values. Like the
Secchi disk graph, general trends can
be noted, but the graphic emphasis is
on the chlorophyll a concentration on
each sampling date.
BOX PLOT OF
CHLOROPHYLL a DATA
I.
O
O
'S
£
m
i
a
s
CL
g
O
5
1UU
90-
80 -
70-
60-
50-
40-
30-
20-
10-
0
i
CHLOROPHYLL a MEASUREMENTS
!
8
O
s/is en ens 7/1 7/is en ens 9/1 «/is i
-------
PRESENTING MONITORING RESULTS
Total Phosphorus
The total phosphorus graph
displays the surface and bottom data
together. By examining this double
bar graph, volunteers can observe
when phosphorus concentrations
were high and low in each zone. In
addition, they can compare surface
and bottom concentrations on each
sampling date.
The horizontal axis presents the
sampling dates. The vertical axis is a
scale of total phosphorus values. As
with the other bar graphs, general
trends in measurements can be noted,
but the graphic emphasis is on phos-
phorus concentrations measured on
each sampling date.
TOTAL PHOSPHORUS
MEASUREMENTS
BOX PLOTS OF TOTAL
PHOSPHORUS DATA
1
Q.
8
120
115
110
105
100
95 -
90-
85-
80-
75 -
70
65
60-
55-
50-
45-
40-
35-
30-
25-
20-
15-
10-
5-
0
Phosphorus Phosphorus
3' depth 26' depth
sns m ens m 7/15 m an sn wis i»i «vis
Sampling Date
Phos. at 3' depth
Phos. at 26* depth
-------
108 CHAPTER 8
Data Interpretation
In addition to displaying graphs,
box plots, and summary statistics, the
report author must provide interpreta-
tion of what the data presentations
mean. The interpretation process
begins with a data analysis by an
experienced limnologist. The report
author then has the critical job of
putting technical analysis into terms
that can be understood by volunteers.
Toward this end, data interpretation is
often best presented in the context of
an explanation of how the lake func-
tions during a seasonal cycle.
Although time-consuming, a
thoughtful explanation by the report
author rewards volunteers with
greater insight and understanding of
their lake.
Examples of observations and
reasonable conclusions based on the
data from Volunteer Lake may include
the following:
Secchi disk readings were highest
in May and October, and lowest
in September.
Chlorophyll a concentrations
were relatively low from May
through July. After July 15,
concentrations increased, reach-
ing a maximum concentration on
September 15.
Phosphorus concentrations at a
depth of 3 feet were generally
moderate in May and October
and relatively low in the summer.
Phosphorus concentrations near
the lake bottom were generally
moderate in May, June, and
October. Concentrations in-
creased during the summer,
reaching a maximum on Septem-
ber 1.
The algal population can affect
water clarity during the summer
and early fall. This is evidenced
by the fact that Secchi disk
readings and chlorophyll«
concentration followed opposite
paths. When one was high, the
other was low. Notably, the
lowest Secchi disk reading
occurred on the same date as the
highest chlorophyll a concentra-
tion (September 15).
The reduction of water transparency
on June 15 may be due to algae, but
it may also be due to increased water
turbidity from a spring rain. A check
of the field data sheet can often
explain sudden variations in data
magnitude.
Algae take up and then remove
phosphorus from the surface
waters as they die and sink to the
lake bottom. This is evidenced by
lowered phosphorus concentra-
tions during the summer.
The lake probably stratifies into a
warmer upper layer (epilimnion)
and a colder lower layer (hy-
polimnion). Also, the lower layer
probably is also anoxic in the
summer. This theory is sup-
-------
PRESENTING MONITORING RESAJL
ported by the large concentration
of phosphorus found in the lower
layer during those months. The
likely source of this phosphorus is
lake bottom sediments that leach
phosphorus to the overlying
waters under anoxic conditions.
In all likelihood, Volunteer Lake
experiences a spring and fall
overturn. This is evidenced by
nearly equal shallow and deep
total phosphorus concentrations
on May 15 (spring overturn),
October I, and again on October
15 (fall overturn). The nearly
equal concentrations indicate that
the lake is mixing vertically and
distributing phosphorus evenly
throughout the water column.
There may be a problem with fall
algal blooms, which will reduce
water clarity. Fall overturn may
be stimulating increased growth
when it brings phosphorus
(released from the sediments
during anoxic conditions) to the
surface waters. Algae often
reproduce rapidly when given
this new pulse of nutrients.
Trophic State
Secchi disk transparency, chloro-
phyll a, and total phosphorus are often
used to define the degree of eutrophi-
cation, or trophic status of a lake. The
concept of trophic status is based on
the fact that changes in nutrient levels
(measured by total phosphorus)
causes changes in algal biomass
(measured by chlorophyll a) which in
turn causes changes in lake clarity
(measured by Secchi disk transpar-
ency).
A trophic state index is a conve-
nient way to quantify this relationship.
One popular index was developed by
Dr. Robert Carlson of Kent State
University. His index uses a log
transformation of Secchi disk values as
a measure of algal biomass on a scale
from 0-110.
Each increase of ten units on the
scale represents a doubling of algal
biomass. Because chlorophyll a and
total phosphorus are usually closely
correlated to Secchi disk measure-
ments, these parameters can also be
assigned trophic state index values.
The Carlson trophic state index is
useful for comparing lakes within a
region and for assessing changes in
trophic status over time. Thus it is
often valuable to include an analysis of
trophic state index values in summary
reports of a volunteer monitoring
program.
-------
110 CHAPTER 8
The program manager must be
aware, however, that the Carlson
trophic state index was developed for
use with lakes that have few rooted
aquatic plants and little non-algal
turbidity. Use of the index with lakes
that do not have these characteristics is
not appropriate.
The formulas for calculating the
Carlson trophic state index values for
Secchi disk, chlorophyll a, and total
phosphorus are presented below.
Also presented is a table that lists the
trophic state values and the corre-
sponding measurements of the three
parameters.
TSI
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
TSI = 60 - 14.41 In Secchi disk (meters)
TSI = 9.81 In Chlorophyll a (ug/L) + 30.6
TSI = 14.42 In Total phosphorus (ug/L) + 4.15
where:
TSI = Carlson trophic state index
In = natural logarithm
Secchi Surface Total Surface
disk Phosphorus Chlorophyll a
(meters) (ug/L) (ug/L)
64 0.75 0.04
32 1.5 0.12
16 3 0.34
8 6 0.94
4 12 2.6
2 24 6.4
1 48 20
0.5 96 56
0.25 192 154
0.12 384 427
0.062 768 1,183
-------
PRESENTING MONITORING RESULT
Ranges of trophic state index
values are often grouped into trophic
state classifications. The range be-
tween 40 and 50 is usually associated
with mesotrophy (moderate produc-
tivity). Index values greater than 50
are associated with eutrophy (high
productivity). Values less than 40 are
associated with oligotrophy flow
productivity).
Presented below are Carlson
trophic state index values for Volun-
teer Lake. Summer averages (June 15
September 1) are used in the calcula-
tions. As seen from the TSI values,
Volunteer Lake can be classified
somewhere near the border of
mesotrophy and eutrophy.
Secchi Disk
Average Summer Secchi disk = 5.9 feet = 1.8 meters
TSI = 60 -14.41 (In Secchi disk (meters))
TSI = 60-(14.41) (0.59)
TSI = 51.5
Total Phosphorus
Average Summer Surface Total Phosphorus = 19.6 ug/L
TSI = 14.42 (In Total phosphorus (ug/L)) + 4.15
TSI = (14.42) (2.98) = 4.15
TSI = 47.1
Chlorophyll a
Average Summer Chlorophyll a = 17.2 ug/L
TSI = (9.81) (In Chlorophyll a (ug/L)) + 30.6
TSI = (9.81) (2.84)+30.6
TSI = 58.5
-------
112 CHAPTER 8
8.C Aquatic Plant Results
Chapter 4 describes three activities
that volunteers can use to monitor the
rooted aquatic plant condition:
mapping the distribution of
plants at or near the surface;
estimating percent composi-
tion and relative density of
plant types at stations located
along a transect line that runs
perpendicular from shore; and
collecting plant types for
professional identification.
Reporting the results of these
activities can be relatively straightfor-
ward. The rough aquatic plant map
drawn by volunteers can be cleaned-
up and reproduced (see below).
Estimates of the percent composi-
tion of the different plant types at each
transect station are best displayed by
using a pie graph. Relative density
information can also be incorporated
into the graph. Identified plants can
be listed along with a sketch and a
short description.
AQUATIC PLANT MAP
FOR VOLUNTEER LAKE
-------
PRESENTING MONITORING RESULTS
SITE #1 AQUATIC PLANTS:
PERCENTAGE OF COMPOSITION AND DENSITY
Water Depth: 15 feet
Plant Type #1
Plant Type #2
Plant Type #3
SITE #2 AQUATIC PLANTS:
PERCENTAGE OF COMPOSITION AND DENSITY
Water Depth: 6 feet
Plant Type #1
Plant Type #2
Plant Type #3
Plant Type #4
Plant Type #5
-------
114 CHAPTER 8
AQUATIC PLANTS IN VOLUNTEER LAKE
Plant Type #1
Common Name:
Scientific Name:
Description:
Eurasian watermilfoil
Myriophyllum spicatum
Long, hollow stem with
whorled leaflets. Leaflets are
unforked and arranged in a
feather-like pattern. Spacing
between whorls are often
varied so that plants may
appear bushy or long and
stringy.
Plant Type #2
Common Name:
Scientific Name:
Description:
Coontail
Ceratophyttum demersum L.
A submerged plant without
roots. Leaves are whorled
around the stem. Leaflets
are forked. Most plants are
bushy in appearance,
especially towards the tip,
which resembles the tail of a
raccoon.
Drawings on pages 114 and 115 front: Common Aquatic Plants of Michigan
-------
PRESENTING MONITORING RESULTS^* I-IT5
Plant Type #3
Common Name:
Scientific Name:
Description:
Sago pondweed
Potamogeton pectinatus L.
Leaves are alternate, long,
and threadlike. The leaves
form dense clumps on the
branches and appear
broomlike in the water.
Plant Type #4
Common Name:
Scientific Name:
Description:
Clasping-leaf pondweed
Potamogeton richardsonti
Leaves are alternate, wide,
and wavy with parallel
venation. The leaves also
have a broad base that clasps
the stem. The plant often
branches toward the tip.
Plant Type #5
Common Name:
Scientific Name:
Description:
Bushy pondweed
Najas flexilis
Slender stem with many
branches. Leaves are
whorled, narrow, and
ribbonlike, and enlarged at
the base. Leaves are tapered
to a fine point. Because
spacing between whorls
varies, plants appear bushy.
-------
116 CHAPTER 8
8.D Dissolved Oxygen Results
As in Section 8.B, this information
will be presented using fictitous data
set from Volunteer Lake.
Temperature and oxygen profiles
were measured at one sampling site
located over the deepest part of the
lake on April 15 and July 15. Using a
temperature/oxygen meter, volun-
teers recorded readings at five-foot
intervals from the surface to the lake
bottom. A data table of the results is
presented below.
Results of the temperature and
dissolved oxygen measurements
(profiles) can be presented together on
the same line graph (page 117). The
horizontal axis displays a range of
values that can be read both as dis-
solved oxygen units (mg/L) and
temperature units (°C). The vertical
axis represents the water column of
the lake with the surface at the graph's
top and the lake bottom at the graph's
bottom.
TEMPERATURE AND OXYGEN DATA
FROM VOLUNTEER LAKE
Lake
Depth
(feet)
Surface
5
10
15
20
25
30
April 15
Temp. Oxygen
(°C) (mg/L)
7.8
7.8
7.9
7.9
7.9
7.9
8.0
11.5
11.5
11.5
11.5
11.4
11.4
11.4
July 15
Temp. Oxygen
(°C) (mg/L)
26.1 9.0
25.0 8.8
25.0 8.1
15.3 2.9
11.5 1.2
11.0 0.1
11.0 0.1
-------
PRESENTING MONITORING RESULTS
TEMPERATURE AND OXYGEN PROFILES IN VOLUNTEER LAKE
SL
3
£
2
-5
-10
-15-
-20
-25
-30
APRIL 15
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28
Temperature (°C) and Oxygen (mg/L)
Temperature
Oxygen
3
JULY 15
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28
Temperature (°C) and Oxygen (mg/L)
-------
118 CHAPTER 8
References
Carlson, R.E. 1977. A Trophic State Index for Lakes. Limnol. Oceanogr.
22363-369.
Cooke, G.D., Welch, E.B., Peterson, S.A. and Newroth, P.R. 1986. Late and
Reservoir Restoration. Butterworth Publ. Stoneham,MA.
State of Michigan Dept. of Natural Resources. December, 1987. Common
Aquatic Plants of Michigan. Land Water Mgt. Div., Lansing, MI.
New York State Dept. of Environmental Conservation and Federation of
Lake Associations, Inc. 1990. Diet for a Small Lake: A New Yorker's Guide to
Lake Management. Albany.
Reckhow, K.H. and S.C. Chapra. 1983. Engineering Approaches for Late
Management. Vol 1 Data Analysis of Empirical Methods. Butterworth Publ.
Woburn, MA.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. August 1990. Volunteer Water
Monitoring: A Guide for State Managers. EPA 440/4-90-010. Off. Water,
Washington, DC.
-------
Appendix
Scientific Supply Houses
-------
120 APPENDIX
-------
SCIENTIFIC SUPPLY HOUSES
A partial list of chemical and scientific equipment companies that supply volun-
teer lake monitoring programs
Fisher Scientific
711 Forbes Ave.
Pittsburgh, PA 15219-4785
800/766-7000
HACH Company
P.O. Box 389
Loveland, CO 80539
800/525-5940
Hydrolab Corporation
P.O. Box 50116
Austin, TX 78763
512/255-8841
LaMotte Chemical Products
P.O. Box 329
Chestertown, MD 21620
800/344-3100
Millipore Corporation
397 Williams Street
JVIarlborough, MA 01752
800/225-1380
Thomas Scientific
99 High Hill Road at 1-295
P.O. Box 99
Swedesboro, NJ 08085-0099
609/467-2000
VWR Scientific
P.O. Box 2643
Irving, TX 75061
800/527-1576
Wildlife Supply Company
301 Cass Street
Saginaw, Ml 48602
517/799-8100
YSI Incorporated
1725 Brannum Lane
Yellow Springs, Ohio 45387
513/767-7241
Cost ranges for some typical monitoring equipment
Secchi disc $20 - $40
Water Samplers $100 - $400
Dissolved Oxygen Meter $500 - $1,000
Dissolved Oxygen Sampling Kit $40 -$60
pH Meter $300 - $500
pH Test Kit $40 - $60
Alkalinity Test Kit $20 - $50
Phosphate Test Kit $100 - $400
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