United States
Environmental Protection
Agency
Office of Water
Regulations and Standards
Criteria and Standards Division
Washington, DC 20460
EPA-440/5-87-006
September 1987
Ambient
Water Quality
Criteria for
Selenium — 1987
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AMBIENT AQUATIC LIFE WATER QUALITY CRITERIA FOR
SELENIUM
U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
OFFICE OF RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT
ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH LABORATORIES
DULUTH, MINNESOTA
, NARRAGANSETT, RHODE ISLAND
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NOTICES
This document has been reviewed by the Criteria and Standards Division, Office
of Water Regulations and Standards, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, and
approved for publication.
Mention of trade names or commercial products does not constitute endorsement
or recommendation for use.
This document is available to the public through the National Technical
Information Service (NTIS), 5285 Port Royal Road, Springfield, VA 22161.
Order number: PB88-142 237
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FOREWORD
Section 304(a)(l) of the Clean Water Act of 1977 (P.L. 95-217) requires
the Administrator of the Environmental Protection Agency to publish water
quality criteria that accurately reflect the latest scientific knowledge on
the kind and extent of all identifiable effects on health and welfare that
might be expected from the presence of pollutants in any body of water,
including ground water. This document is a revision of proposed criteria
based upon consideration of comments received from other Federal agencies,
State agencies, special interest groups, and individual scientists. Criteria
contained in this document replace any previously published EPA aquatic life
criteria for the same pollutant(s).
The term "water quality criteria" is used in two sections of the Clean
Water Act, section 304(a)(l) and section 303(c)(2). The term has a different
program impact in each section. In section 304, the term represents a
non-regulatory, scientific assessment of ecological effects. Criteria
presented in this document are such scientific assessments. If water quality
criteria associated with specific stream uses are adopted by a State as water
quality standards under section 303, they become enforceable maximum
acceptable pollutant concentrations in ambient waters within that State.
Water quality criteria adopted in State water quality standards could have the
same numerical values as criteria developed under section 304. However, in
many situations States might want to adjust water quality criteria developed
under section 304 to reflect local environmental conditions and human exposure
patterns before incorporation into water quality standards. It is not until
their adoption as part of State water quality standards that criteria become
regulatory.
Guidance to assist States in the modification of criteria presented in
this document, in the development of water quality standards, and in other
water-related programs of this Agency has been developed by EPA.
William A. Whittington
Di rector
Office of Water Regulations and Standards
111
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Loren J. Larson
Larry T. Brooke
(freshwater contributors)
University of Wisconsin-Superior
Superior, Wisconsin
Jeffrey L. Hyland
Jerry M. Neff
(saltwater contributors'
Battelle Ocean Sciences
Duxbury, Massachusetts
Charles E. Stephan
(document coordinator)
Environmental Research Laboratory
Duluth, Minnesota
David J. Hansen
(saltwater coordinator)
Environmental Research Laboratory
Narragansett, Rhode Island
IV
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CONTENTS
Page
Foreword i i i
Acknowledgments i v
Tables. . . vi
Introduction 1
Acute Toxicity to Aquatic Animals 7
Chronic Toxicity to Aquatic Animals 12
Toxicity to Aquatic Plants 18
Bioaccumulation 20
Other Data. 23
Unused Data. 29
Summary 32
National Criteria :: 34
Implementation 35
References 78
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TABLES
Page
1. Acute Toxicity of Selenium to Aquatic Animals 40
2. Chronic Toxicity of Selenium to Aquatic Animals 51
3. Ranked Genus Mean Acute Values with Species Mean Acute-Chronic
Ratios 54
4. Toxicity of Selenium to Aquatic Plants 61
5. Bioaccumulation of Selenium by Aquatic Organisms 64
6. Other Data on Effects of Selenium on Aquatic Organisms 67
VI
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Introduction
Selenium is unique among pollutants because of its following attributes:
1. Selenium is located immediately below sulfur in group 6A in the periodic
table. Thus selenium is a metalloid, not a metal. More importantly, the
chemical and physical properties of selenium and sulfur are so similar
that these elements are related in a variety of ways. For example,
selenium can replace sulfur in some minerals and biologically important
compounds (Callahan et al. 1979; Cooper et al. 1974; Ewan 1979; Shamberger
1983). Also, sulfate reduces the toxicity of selenium to some species
(Bennett et al. 1986; Ewan 1979; Halverson and Monty 1960; Kumar and
Prakash 1971; Martin 1973; Sarma and Jayaraman 1984; Shrift 1954a,b, 1961;
Wheeler et al. 1982). However, if selenium and sulfur were
9
physiologically and toxicologically interchangeable, selenium would not be
more toxic than sulfur (Brown and Shrift 1982; Shamberger 1983; Shrift
1973). Some of the proposed modes of action of selenium involve reaction
with or substitution for the sulfur in such biologically relevant natural
compounds as sulfur-containing amino acids (Foe and Knight, Manuscript;
Magos and Webb 1980).
2. Substantial quantities of selenium enter surface waters from both natural
and anthropogenic sources. It is abundant in the drier soils of North
America from the Great Plains to the Pacific Ocean. Some ground waters in
•>
California, Colorado, Kansas, Oklahoma, South Dakota, and Wyoming contain
elevated concentrations of selenium due to weathering of and leaching from
rocks and soils. Selenium also occurs in sulfide deposits of copper,
lead, mercury, silver, and zinc and can be released during the mining and
smelting of these ores. In addition, selenium occurs in high concen-
trations in coal and fuel oil and is emitted in flue gas and in fly
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ash during combustion. Some selenium then enters surface waters in
drainage from fly-ash ponds and in runoff from fly-ash deposits on land.
3. Three oxidation states (selenide = -2, selenite = +4, and selenate = +6)
can exist simultaneously in aerobic surface water at pH = 6.5 to 9.0. A
fourth oxidation state (elemental = 0) exists in sediment, but is
insoluble in water. Chemical conversion from one oxidation state to
another often proceeds at such a slow rate in aerobic surface water that
thermodynamic considerations do not determine the relative concentrations
of the oxidation states. Thus although selenium(VI) is thermodynamically
favored in oxygenated alkaline water, substantial concentrations of both
selenium(-I I) and selenium(IV) are not uncommon (Burton et al. 1980;
Cutter and Bruland 1984; Measures and Burton 1978; North Carolina
Department of Natural Resources and Community Development 1986; Robberecht
and Van Gricken 1982; Takayanagi and Cossa 1985; Takayanagi and Wong
1984a,b; Uchida 1980).
4. Living organisms can affect selenium in a variety of ways, and Shrift
(1964) postulated a selenium cycle in which some species reduce the most
oxidized form and others oxidize the reduced form(s). For example,
organisms can oxidize elemental selenium to selenium(IV) (Sarathchandra
and Watkinson 1981), reduce selenium(VI) to selenium(IV) (Lipinski et al.
1986), produce gaseous dimethyl selenide and dimethyl diselenide (Chau et
-i
al. 1976; Doran 1982; Reamer and Zoller 1980), and reduce selenium(IV) and
selenium(VI) to selenium(-II) and incorporate it into amino acids and
proteins, such as selenomethionine (Bottino et al. 1984; National Research
Council 1976; Stadtman 1974; Wrench 1978,1979).
5. Although selenium can be quite toxic, it has been shown to be an essential
trace nutrient for many aquatic and terrestrial species and it
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ameliorates the effects of a variety of pollutants. Selenium deficiency
has been found to affect humans (Fishbein 1984; Frost and Ingvolstad
1975; Raptis et al. 1983; Wilber 1980,1983), sheep and cattle (Shamberger
1983), fish (Bell et al. 1984,1985,1986; Fjolsand and Heyarass 1985;
Gatlin 1983; Gatlin and Wilson 1984; Heisinger and Dawson 1983; Hilton et
al. 1980; Hodson and Hilton 1983; Ostroumova 1986; Poston et al. 1976;
Wilson et al. 1984), an aquatic invertebrate (Cowgill et al. 1985,1986;
Keating and Dagbusan 1984), and algae (Lindstrom 1984; Wehr and Brown
1985). In addition, selenium protects biota from the toxic effects of
arsenic, cadmium, copper, inorganic and organic mercury, silver, and the
herbicide paraquat in both aquatic and terrestrial environments (Beijer
and Jernelov 1978; Eisler 1985; Ganther 1980; Heisinger and Scott 1985;
Heisinger et al. 1979; Hutchinson and Stokes 1975; Kim et al. 1977;
Levander 1977; Magos and Webb 1980; Pelletier 1986b; Shamberger 1983;
Skerfving 1978; Van Puymbroeck et al. 1982; Wilber 1983; Winner 1984).
Birge et al: (1978,1979a,b,1981) and Huckabee and Griffith (1974),
however, reported that selenium and mercury acted synergistically toward
fish embryos. Selenium pretreatment protected 128-hr old, but not 6-hr
old, embryos of Orvzias latipes from cadmium and mercury (Heisinger
1981), whereas prior exposure to selenium did not affect the sensitivity
of white suckers to cadmium (Duncan and Klaverkamp 1983). Selenium is
^
reported to reduce the uptake of mercury by some aquatic species
(Klaverkamp et al. 1983; Moharram et al. 1987; Rudd et al. 1980; Turner
and Rudd 1983; Turner and Swick 1983), to have no effect on uptake of
mercury by a mussel (Pelletier 1986a), and to increase the uptake of
mercury by mammals and some fish (Heisinger et al. 1979; Kim et al. 1977;
Luten et al. 1980; MacKay et al. 1975; Ringdal and Julshamn 1985; Shultz
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and Ito 1979). Selenium augmented accumulation of cadmium in some tissues
of the shore crab, Carcinus maenas (Bjerregaard 1982,1985). The available
data do not show whether the various inorganic and organic compounds and
oxidation states of selenium are equally effective sources of selenium as
a trace nutrient or as protection against pollutants.
6. Not only has selenium been demonstrated to be toxic to aquatic species
when it is dissolved in water, it has also been demonstrated that uptake
of selenium from food can adversely affect aquatic species (e.g., Bennett
et al. 1986; Goettl and Davies 1978; Hicks et al. 1984; Hilton et al.
1980; Hodson and Hilton 1983) and mallard ducks (Heinz et al. 1987;
Hoffman and Heinz 1987).
7. In some situations aquatic organisms accumulate more selenium from food
than from water (Birkner 1978; Fowler and Benayoun 1976a,b,c; Rudd et al.
1980; Sandholm et al. 1973; Turner and Swick 1983). Turner and Swick
(1983) also found that under some conditions pike accumulated equal
amounts from food and water. Shrimp lost selenium that had been
accumulated from water faster than that accumulated fron/ food (Fowler and
Benayoun 1976a).
8. Selenium(-I I) as selenomethionine is sometimes more biologically active
than either selenium(IV) or selenium(VI). Fish accumulated
selenomethionine more efficiently than selenium(IV) or selenium(VI) from
both the gastrointestinal tract (Kleinow 1984; Kleinow and Brooks 1986a)
and from water (Sharma and Davis 1980). Sandholm et al. (1973) found that
algae accumulated selenomethionine much more than se1enium(IV), but the
opposite was true for daphnids and fish. Also, Kumar and Prakash
(1971) and Niimi and LaHam (1976) reported that selenium as
selenomethionine was more toxic to algae and fish, respectively, than
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were selenium(IV) and selenium(VI). Selenopurine was as toxic to algae as
selenomethionine (Kumar and Prakash 1971), but selenocystine was less
toxic to fish (Niimi and LaHam 1976). Heinz et al. (1987) and Hoffman and
Heinz (1987) found that selenium as selenomethionine is more toxic to
mallards than selenium(IV) and that mallards contained more selenium in
eggs, liver, and breast muscle when fed selenomethionine than when fed
selenium(IV).
9. The concentration of selenium in specific tissues can depend on the
exposure route, concentration, and form of selenium. For example, Lemly
(1982) found relatively low concentrations of selenium in gonads of
centrarchids exposed to selenium(IV) in laboratory tests, whereas Cumbie
and Van Horn (1978) found high concentrations in gonads of centrarchids
from Belews Lake, which contained a moderately high concentration of
selenium. In another case, at low levels of selenium(IV) in food or
water, the kidneys of rainbow trout contained more selenium than the
livers, whereas the converse was true at higher concentrations (Hilton et
al. 1982; Hodson and Hilton 1983; Hodson et al. 1980). Similarly, "he
relative distribution of selenium in tissues of shrimp depended on whether
the selenium was accumulated from water or from food (Fowler and Benayoun
1976b). Also, Heinz et al. (1987) found that when mallards were fed
selenium(IV), more selenium was deposited in the egg yolk than in the egg
-i
white. When mallards were fed selenomethonine, however, more selenium was
found in the white than in the yolk. In addition, the relative
distribution between tissues might depend on the duration of the exposure
and on whether the organisms are in the uptake or depuration phase
(Kleinow and Brooks 1986a).
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10. Selenium occurs in a variety of forms in organisms. Because of "alkali
disease" and "blind staggers" among livestock, the characterization of
selenium in terrestrial plants has received much attention. The
water-soluble fraction from plants contained selenite, selenate,
seleno-amino acids, and possibly other compounds. After treatment of the
insoluble fraction with proteolytic enzymes, various seleno-amino acids
were found (Allaway et al. 1967;. Brown and Shrift 1982; Olson et al.
1970). Selenium in algae has been found in free and combined ami no acids
(Bottino et al. 1984; Burton et al. 1980; Wrench 1978) and bound to lipids
(Gennity et al. 1984). Similarly, saltwater animals contained selenium in
proteins and lipids (Braddon-Galloway and Sumpter 1986; Lunde 1973; Maher
1985; Wrench 1979). Cappon (1984) and Cappon and Smith (1981,1982a,b)
found that 8 to 47% of the selenium in the edible portions of various
freshwater and saltwater species was selenium(VI) and that 35 to 80% was
water-soluble.
Although other pollutants possess some of these attributes, selenium is the
only pollutant for which all of these have been demonstrated. Many of these
attributes make it difficult to design and conduct tests on selenium and to
decide how the data should be interpreted and used to derive aquatic life
water quality criteria for selenium. On the other hand, comparison of the
form and location of selenium in affected and unaffected organisms from
•v
laboratory and field exposures might be helpful in determining the route by
which aquatic organisms in field situations accumulate toxic amounts of
selenium.
Unless otherwise noted, all concentrations of selenium in water reported
herein from toxicity and bioconcentration tests are expected to be essentially
equivalent to acid-soluble selenium concentrations. All concentrations are
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expressed as selenium, not as the chemical tested. Although VI is expected to
be the predominant oxidation state at chemical equilibrium in oxygenated
alkaline water, the rate of conversion of IV to VI seems to be slow in most
natural waters. Therefore, it was assumed that when IV was introduced into
stock or test solutions, it would persist as the predominate state throughout
the test, even if no analyses specific for the IV oxidation state were
performed. Similarity, it was assumed that when VI was introduced into stock
or test solutions, it would persist as the predominant state throughout the
test, even if no analyses specific for VI were performed.
An understanding of the "Guidelines for Deriving Numerical National Water
Quality Criteria for the Protection of Aquatic Organisms and Their Uses"
(Stephan et al. 1985), hereinafter referred to as the Guidelines, and the
response to public comments (U.S. EPA 1985a) is necessary in order to
understand the following text, tables, and calculations. Results of such
intermediate calculations as recalculated LCSOs and Species Mean Acute Values
are given to four significant figures to prevent roundoff error in subsequent
calculations, not to reflect the precision of the value. The criteria
presented herein supersede previous national aquatic life water quality
criteria for selenium (U.S. EPA 1976,1980a) because these new criteria were
derived using improved procedures and additional information. The latest
comprehensive literature search for information for this document was
~!
conducted in July, 1986; some more recent information was included.
Acute Toxicity to Aquatic Animals
Selenium(IV)
Data that may be used, according to the Guidelines, in the derivation of
Final Acute Values for selenium(IV) and selenium(VI) are presented in Table
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1. The LC50 for selenium(IV) sometimes decreased substantially as the
duration of the test increased. For example, Halter et al. (1980) reported
the LC50 for the amphipod, Hvalella azteca. to be 940 ng/L at 2 days,
340 Mg/L at * days, and 70 pg/L at 14 days. (Although Halter et al.
(1980) did not specify the oxidation state used in their studies, Adams and
Johnson (1981) stated that the tests were conducted on sodium selenite.)
Similarly, Adams (1976) reported that the average LC50 for the rainbow trout,
Salmo gairdneri. was 4,350 jUg/L at 4 days, 500 jjg/L at 48 days, and
280 ng/L at 96 days, and for the fathead minnow, Pimephales promelas. the
average LC50 was 10,900 ^g/L at 4 days and 1,100 at 48 days.
Adams (1976) found that the acute toxicity of selenium(IV) to the fathead
minnow was related to water temperature with average 96-hr LCSOs of
10,900 jug/L at 13°C, 6,700 ng/L at 20°C, and 2,800 ng/L at
25°C. A daphnid, a midge, and the striped bass, Morone saxati1i s were more
sensitive to selenium(IV) in soft than in hard water (Mayer and Ellersieck
1986; Palawski et al. 1985). These results might be explained by the findings
of Lemly (1982) that both temperature and hardness influenced the rate of
uptake of selenium by centrarchids in short exposures, but that neither
temperature nor hardness had a significant effect on the final concentration
in any tissue after exposure to selenium(IV) for 120 days.
Invertebrates are both the most sensitive and most resistant freshwater
^
species to selenium(IV) with acute values ranging from 210 ng/L for the
crustacean, Daohnia magna (Adams and Heidolph 1985) to 203,000 pg/L for the
leech, Nephelopsis obscura (Brooke et al. 1985). The acute values for fishes
range from 620 ng/L for the fathead minnow (Kimball, Manuscript) to
35,000 /ig/L for the common carp, Cyprinus carpio (Sato et al. 1980).
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Boyura (1984) reported a 48-hr LC50 of 6 jjg/L for Daphnia pulicaria.
Other acute values reported for species in the genus Daphnia ranged from
210 ng/L (Adams and Heidolph 1985) to 3,870 ng/L (Reading 1979; Reading
and Buikema 1983), so the value of 6 ^g/L is surprisingly low. Boyum
(personal communication, 14 February 1986) stated that the survival of Daphnia
pulicaria in the lowest concentration tested was only 47% in the test that
produced the LC50 of 6 ng/L. Because of the high mortality at the lowest
concentration, the value of 6 ng/L was not considered acceptable for use in
calculating a criterion. However, the results of this and similar unreported
tests by Boyum (personal communication, 14 February 1986) indicate that the
acute value for this species might be less than 100 M8/L-
Just as the nine acute values for Daphnia magna cover a rather large
range from 210 to 2,500 Mg/L. the acute values for the fathead minnow range
from 620 to 11,300ng/l. The values reported by Kimball (Manuscript) were
the lowest for the fathead minnow, but not for Daphni a magna. The seven acute
values for the rainbow trout range from 1,800 to 12,500 ^g/L.
Freshwater Species Mean Acute Values (Table 1) were calculated as
geometric means of the available acute values for selenium(IV), and Genus Mean
Acute Values (Table 3) were then calculated as geometric means of the Species
Mean Acute Values. Of the twenty-two genera for which freshwater mean acute
values are available, the most sensitive genus, Hvalel la. is 597 times more
-i
sensitive than the most resistant, Nephelopsi s. The range of sensitivities of
the four most sensitive genera is a factor of 5. The freshwater Final Acute
Value for selenium(IV) was calculated to be 371.8 A*g/L using the procedure
described in the Guidelines and the Genus Mean Acute Values in Table 3. The
Final Acute Value is higher than the lowest Species Mean Acute Value.
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Acute toxicity data that can be used to derive a saltwater criterion for
selenium(IV) are available for eight species of invertebrates and eight
species of fish that are resident in North America (Table 1). The range of
acute values for saltwater invertebrates extends from 850 MSA for adults
of the copepod, Acartia tonsa (Lussier 1986) to greater than 10,000 ng/L
for embryos of the blue mussel, Mvtilus edulis (Martin et al. 1981) and
embryos of the Pacific oyster, Crassostrea £igas (Glickstein 1978; Martin et
al. 1981). The range of acute values for fish is slightly wider than that for
invertebrates, extending from 599 pg/L for larvae of the haddock,
Me 1 anogrammus aeglefinus. to 17,350 A*g/L for adults of the fourspine
stickleback, Apeltes ouadracus (Cardin 1986). No consistent relationship was
detected between life stage of invertebrates or fish^nd their sensitivity to
selenium(IV), and few data are available concerning the influence of
temperature or salinity on the toxicity of selenium(IV) to saltwater animals.
Acute tests with the copepod, Acartia tonsa. at 5 and 10°C gave similar
results (Lussier 1986).
Of the fifteen genera for which saltwater mean acute values are available
(Table 3), the most sensitive genus, Melanogrammus. is nearly 29 times more
sensitive than the most resistant, Apeltes. The sensitivities of the four
most sensitive genera differ by a factor of only 2.1, and these four include
three invertebrates and one fish, which is the most sensitive of the four.
^
The saltwater Final Acute Value for selenium(IV) is 587.7 ng/L, which is
slightly lower than the lowest Species Mean Acute Value.
Seleniumfvn
Among freshwater invertebrates, amphipods and cladocerans are quite
sensitive to selenium(VI). Gammarus pseudolimnaeus. with a mean acute value
of 65.38 /ig/L, is the most sensitive tested freshwater species, and another
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amphipod, Hralella azteca. with an LC50 of 760 ng/L, is the third most
sensitive species. The EC50 for Daphni a pu 1 i c a r i a is 246 Mg/L ( Boyum 1984)
whereas the ECSOs for Daphnia magna range from 570 to 5,300 pg/L from three
independent studies.
The fathead minnow is the most sensitive freshwater fish species with
which an acute test has been conducted on selenium(VI). Five 96-hr exposures
resulted in LCSOs ranging from 2,300 to 12,500 ng/L. One test (Spehar
1986) was a flow-through test in which the concentrations were measured. The
tests conducted with the fathead minnow in the hardest water (323 mg/L as
CaCOg) gave 96-hr LCSOs from 11,000 to 12,500 ng/L (Table 1) and a 48-day
LC50 of 2,000 jUg/L (Table 6). The hydroid, Hydra sp., was about as
sensitive to selenium(VI) as the fathead minnow (Table 1). Other species were
j
quite resistant with LCSOs ranging from 20,000 ng/L for a midge,
Paratanvtarsus parthenogeneticus. to 442,000 jig/L for a leech, Nephelopsi s
obscura.
Of the eleven genera for which freshwater mean acute values are available
for selenium(VI), the most sensitive, Gammarus. is 6,760 times more sensitive
than the most resistant, Nephelopsis. The range of sensitivities of the four
most sensitive genera is a factor of 84. The freshwater Final Acute Value for
selenium(VI) was calculated to be 25.65 Mg/L. This Final Acute Value is
substantially below the acute value of the most sensitive freshwater species,
^
because data are available for only eleven genera and because of the large
differences between the values for the four most sensitive genera.
The only species with which acute tests have been conducted on
selenium(VI) in salt water is the striped bass (Table 1). Klauda (1985)
obtained 96-hr LCSOs of 9,790 and 85,840 ng/L with prolarvae and juvenile
striped bass, respectively.
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Species Mean Acute Values have been determined for both selenium(IV) and
selenium(VI) with ten freshwater species (Table 3) and one saltwater species
(Table 1). For ten of these eleven species selenium(IV) is 1.6 to 6.3 times
more toxic than selenium(VI). For the freshwater Gammarus pseudolimnaeus.
however, selenium(VI) is 41 times more toxic. Acute tests were conducted on
both selenium(IV) and selenium(VI) with this gammarid by the same
investigators in 1985 and in 1987 (Brooke 1987; Brooke et al. 1985). This
species is moderately sensitive to selenium(IV) but is very sensitive to
selenium(VI). The Final Acute Value for selenium(VI) is fourteen times lower
than that for selenium(IV) because fewer Genus Mean Acute Values are available
for selenium(VI) and because of the low acute value obtained with Gammarus
pseudolimnaeus. t
Chronic Toxicity to Aquatic Animals
Selenium(IV) .
The available data that are usable according to the Guidelines concerning
the chronic toxicity of selenium(IV) and selenium(VI) are presented in Table
2. Chronic toxicity tests have been conducted on selenium(IV) with five
freshwater species, four of which are acutely sensitive species (Table 3).
The rainbow trout is both the most acutely resistant of these five species,
and the most chronically sensitive, and thus has a much larger acute-chronic
i
ratio than the other four species. Goettl and Davies (1977) exposed rainbow
trout to selenium(IV) for 27 months, and they found that survival of fish
exposed to 60 ng/L was similar to survival of control fish. Survival of
fish exposed to 130 pg/L was about 50% of that of the controls and about
16% of these survivors were deformed, even though no control fish were
deformed. Hodson et al, (1980) found that 47 to 53 /ig/L caused a small
12
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reduction in percent hatch of rainbow trout, but did not reduce survival of
sac or swim-up fry. The small reduction in percent hatch is not considered
unacceptable for the purposes of deriving water quality criteria. The data of
Goettl and Davies (1977) indicated that the acute-chronic ratio was less than
187.2, and the data of Hodson et al. (1980) gave a ratio of 141.5.
In 90-day exposures starting with newly hatched fry, Hunn et al. (1987)
found that selenium(IV) at concentrations of 12 ^g/L and greater
significantly reduced the concentration of calcium in bone of rainbow trout.
However, the expected resulting decrease in the toughness and/or strength of
the bone did not occur. A 90-day LC50 of 55.2 Mg/L was calculated from the
published data on percent survival, allowing for 8.9% spontaneous mortality
(Table 6). The Guidelines (page 17) specify division of an LC50 by 2 to
calculate a concentration that will not severely affect too many of the
organisms. Division of 55.2 pg/L by 2 results in 27.6 ng/L.
The other four freshwater species with which chronic tests have been
conducted on selenium(IV), including one fish species, are all acutely more
sensitive, and chronically more resistant, than the rainbow trout. Kimball
(Manuscript) conducted an early life-stage test on selenium(IV) with fathead
minnows. A selenium(IV) concentration of 153 jug/L reduced survival by 32%
and reduced weight by 18.5%. At a concentration of 83 Mg/L, survival was
reduced by 2% and weight was reduced by 9.6%. The resulting chronic value and
i
acute-chronic ratio were 112.7 jig/L and 6.881, respectively.
Kimball (Manuscript) also studied the effects of selenium(IV) on survival
and reproduction of Daphnia magna in a 28-day renewal test. Survival and
reproduction of Daphnia magna exposed to 70 fig/L were similar to those of
control animals. Survival at 120 jig/L was 100%, but reproduction,
expressed as mean young per adult, was reduced 27% compared to the control
13
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animals. The chronic value and acute-chronic ratio were 91.65 pg/L and
13.31, respectively. Adams and Heidolph (1985) also reported results of a
life-cycle test with Daphnia magna on selenium(IV). The test was at a
hardness of 240 to 310 mg/L and the chronic value was 161.5 ng/L. An
acute-chronic ratio cannot be calculated from this chronic value, however,
because it appears that the acute test reported by Adams and Heidolph (1985)
was conducted in a different water.
Owsley (1984) and Owsley and McCauley (1986) reported the results of an
exposure of four successive generations of the cladoceran, Ceriodaphnia
affinis, to selenium(IV), but the concentrations in the test solutions were
not adequately measured. A concentration of 200 ng/L severely affected all
four generations, and the amount of effect increased with each successive
generation. A concentration of 100 jig/L caused an unacceptable effect on
only the second generation. The chronic value from this test would probably
be close to 100 /Jg/L, and the acute-chronic ratio would be close to 6.
Reading (1979) and Reading and Buikema (1983) reported the chronic
effects of selenium(IV) on the survival, growth, and reproduction of Daphnia
pulex in a 28-day renewal test. At the end of the test, survival, total
number of young per adult, and mean brood size at 600 ^g/L were equal to or
greater than those of the control daphnids, even though some differences were
observed for some broods during the test. A concentration of 800 ng/L
•^
caused about a 40% reduction in the mean total number of live young per
adult. The resulting chronic value was 692.8 ng/L and the acute-chronic
ratio was 5.586.
Data on the chronic toxicity of selenium(IV) are available for two
saltwater species, the mysid, Mvsidopsis bahia. and the sheepshead minnow,
Cvprinodon variegatus (Table 2). The life-cycle test with Mvsidopsis bahia
14
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was started with 48-hr post-release juveniles and lasted for 28 days (Ward et
al. 1981). Exposure to concentrations of 320 ng/L or greater significantly
reduced survival of the first-generation mysids. No offspring were produced
by mysids that survived exposure to 580 pg/L, and the number of offspring
produced per female was significantly lower in 320 ng/L than in the control
treatment. All offspring produced in all treatments survived until the end of
the test. At 140 pg/L, survival and reproduction were reduced 18% and 22%,
respectively, compared to the controls, but these reductions were not
statistically significant. The chronic value for Mvsidopsi s bahia is
211.7 ng/L and the acute-chronic ratio is 7.085.
An early life-stage test was performed with the sheepshead minnow (Ward
et al. 1981). The test was started with newly-fertilized eggs and extended
for two weeks after hatch to measure survival and growth of juveniles.
Percent hatch was reduced 0 to 4% by concentrations of 970, 1,900, and
3,600 ng/L. Survival of juveniles was reduced 4% by 470 ^ug/L, 24% by
970 pg/L, and more than 90% at higher concentrations. Growth was reduced
8% by selenium concentrations of 470 and 970 pg/L. The resulting chronic
value for Cyprinodon variegatus is 675.2 jxg/L and the acute-chronic ratio
is 10.96.
Acute-chronic ratios have been determined for selenium(IV) with three of
the seven most acutely sensitive freshwater species. These ratios range from
1
5.586 to 13.31 (Table 3). The two acute-chronic ratios that were determined
with saltwater species also fall within this range. The Final Acute-Chronic
Ratio of 8.314 was calculated as the geometric mean of these five ratios. The
high acute-chronic ratio obtained with the rainbow trout was not used in the
calculation of the Final Acute-Chronic Ratio because this is an acutely
resistant species. Division of the Final Acute Values by the Final
15
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Acute-Chronic Ratio results in freshwater and saltwater Final Chronic Values
of 44.72 and 70.69 ng/L, respectively. Based on the data reported by Hunn
et al. (1987) for rainbow trout, the freshwater Final Chronic Value is lowered
to 27.6 ng/L to protect this important species. The saltwater Final
Chronic Value is quite a bit lower than the two saltwater chronic values, but
neither of the saltwater species with which chronic tests have been conducted
is acutely sensitive to selenium(IV).
Selenium(VI)
Chronic tests have been conducted on selenium(VI) with three freshwater
species (Table 2). Some additional chronic tests have been conducted by
exposing freshwater animals to selenium(VI) in food and water simultaneously.
Dunbar et al. (1983) conducted a 32-day renewal life-cycle test with D.
j
magna. Selenium(VI) at concentrations of 1,730 and 2,310 Mg/L reduced the
total young production by 3.3 and 25%, respectively. The chronic value was
1,999 and the acute-chronic ratio was 2.651.
Boyum (1984) conducted three life-cycle tests on selenium(VI) with
daphnids but did not measure the concentrations of selenium in any of the
tests. In all three tests, the nominal concentrations of selenium were 0, 50,
100, 500, and 1,000 /ig/L. In one test with Daphnia magna and in one test
with I), pul icari a. the animals were fed algae that had grown for 48 hours in
the same concentration of selenium(VI) to which the daphnids themselves were
•^
exposed. In the third test, I), magna was fed algae that had been raised in
control water. In this third test, the intrinsic growth rate was reduced 52%
at the concentration of 50>g/L. In the tests in which the algae contained
selenium, the intrinsic growth rates of D. magna and I), pul icaria were reduced
8.6 and 13%, respectively, by 50 ng/l. When the daphnids were fed algae
that contained selenium, D. pul icari a was affected more than I), magna at each
16
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concentration of selenium. Also at each concentration of selenium, I), magna
was affected less when it received selenium from both food and water than when
it received selenium from only water. Separate tests showed that
selenomethionine in water and selenium in algae independently reduced the
uptake of selenium(VI) from water by D. magna.
Daphnia magna was much more sensitive to selenium(VI) in the tests
reported by Boyum (1984) than in those reported by Dunbar et al. (1983). It
is interesting that the dilution water used by Boyum contained 21.5 mg
sulfate/L, whereas that used by Dunbar et al. contained about 174 mg
sulfate/L.
Spehar (1986) reported results of a 90-day early life-stage test with
rainbow trout. No fish survived at 6,300 jzg/L or higher concentrations. A
concentration of 3,800 jzg/L reduced survival and weight by 93% and 24%,
respectively. Survival and weight were reduced 77, and 12% by 2,200 pg/L.
The chronic value was 2,891 ^g/L and the acute-chronic ratio was 16.26.
Spehar (1986) also reported results of a 32-day early life-stage test with
the fathead minnow. No fish survived at 2,900 ng/L, and 1,520 ng/L
reduced both survival and weight by more than 60%. At 820 Aig/L, survival
was as good as in the control treatment, but weight was reduced by 34%.
Weight was reduced only 3% by 390 /ig/L. Thus this test resulted in a
chronic value of 565.5 pg/L and an acute-chronic ratio of 9.726. Brooks et
•>
al. (1984) exposed fathead minnows throughout a life cycle to selenium(VI) in
the range of 40 to 50 Mg/L. The fish were fed a food that was specially
prepared (see also Bertram and Brooks 1986) to simulate a food chain in water
that contained the same concentration of selenium(VI). Although a malfunction
of the diluter caused the concentration of selenium to be 2 to 5 times higher
for up to one week, no adverse effects on survival, growth, or reproduction
were observed.
17
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The three available acute-chronic ratios for selenium(VI) show a
consistent pattern in that the more acutely sensitive species have a lower
ratio (Table 3). Because it is meant to apply to sensitive species, the Final
Acute-Chronic Ratio was set equal to 2.651, the ratio obtained with the most
acutely sensitive species with which a chronic test has been conducted.
Division of the freshwater Final Acute Value for selenium(VI) by the Final
Acute-Chronic Ratio results in a freshwater Final Chronic Value of
9.676 MgAi which is substantially below the three available experimentally
determined chronic values.
No data are available concerning the chronic toxicity of selenium(VI) to
saltwater animals.
Chronic toxicity tests have been conducted on both selenium(IV) and
selenium(VI) with three species (Table 2). With all three species,
selenium(IV) was 5 to 32 times more toxic than selenium(VI), which is similar
to the relative acute toxicities of these two oxidation states. Nine Species
Mean Acute-Chronic Ratios are available for the two oxidation states (Table
3). The ratio determined for selenium(IV) with rainbow trout is 141.5, but
the other eight ratios are all between 2.6 and 17.
Toxicitv to Aquatic Plants
Selenium(IV)
*>
Data are available on the toxicity of selenium!IV) to nine species of
freshwater algae (Table 4). Results ranged from an LC50 of 30,000 ng/L for
the blue-green alga, Anacvsti s nidulans (Kumar and Prakash 1971) to
522 jug/L f°r incipient inhibition of the green alga, Scenedesmus
quadricauda (Bringmann and Kuhn 1977a,1978a,b,1979,1980b). Foe and Knight
(Manuscript) found that 75 pig/L decreased the dry weight of Selenastrum
18
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capricornutum (Table 6). Wehr and Brown (1985) reported that 320 jug/L
increased the growth of the alga Chrysochromulina brevi turrita. Thus the
sensitivities of freshwater algae to selenium(IV) cover about the same range
as the acute and chronic sensitivities of freshwater animals.
The 96-hr EC50 for the saltwater diatom, Skeletonema costatum. is
7,930 MS/L. based on reduction in chlorophyll a. (Table 4). Growth of
Chlorella sp., Platvmonas subcordiformi s. and Fucus soi rali s increased at
selenium(IV) concentrations from 10 to 10,000 ng/L (Table 6). These data
suggest that saltwater plants will not be adversely affected by concentrations
of selenium(IV) that do not affect saltwater animals.
Selenium(vn
Growth of several species of green algae were affected by concentrations
ranging from 10 to 300 ng/L (Table 4). Blue-green algae appear to be much
more resistant to selenium(VI) with 10,000 Mg/L being the lowest
concentration reported to affect growth. Kumar (1964) found that a blue-green
alga developed and lost resistance to selenium(VI). The difference in the
sensitivities of green and blue-green algae to selenium(VI) -taight be of
ecological significance, particularly in bodies of water susceptible to
nuisance algal blooms. For example, Patrick et al. (1975) reported that a
concentration of 1,000 f*g/L caused a natural assemblage of algae to shift
to a community dominated by blue-green algae.
At 10,000 ng/L, selenium(VI) is lethal to four species of saltwater
phytoplankton and lower concentrations increase or decrease growth (Table 6).
Concentrations as low as 10 ^g/L reduced growth of Porphyridium cruentum
(Wheeler et al. 1982).
Although selenium(IV) appears to be more acutely and chronically toxic
than selenium(VI) to most aquatic animals, this does not seem to be true for
19
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aquatic plants. Selenium(IV) and selenium(VI) are about equally toxic to the
freshwater algae Anabaena cvlindrica. Anabaena variabi1i s. Anacvst1s nidulans.
and Scenedesmus dimorohus (Kumar and Prakash 1971; Moede et al. 1980). The
two oxidation states equally stimulated growth of Chrvsochromulina
breviturrita (Wehr and Brown 1985.) On the other hand, selenium(VI) is more
toxic than selenium (IV) to the freshwater Selenastrum capricornutum (Richter
1982) and the saltwater Chorella sp. and Platvmonas subcordiformis (Wheeler et
al. 1982). In addition, Fries (1982) found that growth of thalli of the brown
macroalga, Fucus spiralis. was stimulated more by exposure to selenium(IV) at
2.605 jugA than to the same concentration of selenium(VI).
A Final Plant Value, as defined in the Guidelines, cannot be obtained
because no test in which the concentrations of selenium(IV) or selenium(VI)
were measured and the endpoint was biologically important has been conducted
with an important aquatic plant species.
Bioaccumulation
Selenium(IV)
Bioconcentration factors (BCFs) for selenium(IV) that have been obtained
with freshwater species range from 2 for the muscle of rainbow trout to 452
for the bluegill (Table 5). Adams (1976) studied both uptake and elimination
of selenium-75 by fathead minnows at average concentrations of 12, 24, and
i
50 pg/L. He found that concentrations in whole fish and in individual
tissues increased at a rapid rate during the first eight days and at a slower
rate for the next 88 days. Steady-state was approached, but not reached, in
96 days. The highest concentrations were found in viscera, possibly due to
uptake of selenium adhering to food. Elimination of selenium was curvilinear
and became asymptotic with the time axis after 96 days. Elimination was most
20
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rapid from the viscera with a half-life of 5.1 days, but the half-life of
selenium in other tissues was greater than 50 days.
Adams (1976) also conducted uptake studies with rainbow trout exposed for
48 days to selenium(IV) at concentrations ranging from 310 to 950 Aig/L.
Some of the trout died, and concentrations were somewhat higher in dead fish
than in survivors. As with the fathead minnow, the viscera contained more
selenium than gill or muscle. Based on his tests with the two species, Adams
(1976) concluded that there was an inverse relationship between BCF and the
concentration of selenium(IV) in water.
Hodson et al. (1980) exposed rainbow trout to selenium(IV) from
fertilization until 44 weeks posthatch. At 53 MgA in the water the BCF
ranged from 8 for whole body to 240 for liver. They concluded that selenium
»
in tissues did not increase in proportion to selenium(IV) in water.
Barrows et al. (1980) exposed bluegills to selenious acid for 28 days.
They reported a maximum BCF in the whole fish of 20 and a half-life of between
one and seven days. If bluegills bioconcentrate selenium in'the same manner
as the rainbow trout used by Adams (1976), the 28-day exposure might not have
been long enough to reach steady-state.
Lemly (1982) exposed bluegills and largemouth bass to 10 ^g/L for 120
days to determine the effect of hardness and temperature on uptake and
elimination. For bluegills, the geometric mean whole-body BCF at 20° and
30°C was 452. For largemouth bass in similar tests, the BCF was 295. For
both species, the spleen, liver, kidney, and heart had higher concentrations
than the whole body. Neither water temperature nor hardness had a significant
effect on concentrations in tissue after 90 days, although earlier values were
influenced. After 30 days in clean water, selenium concentrations remained
unchanged in spleen, liver, kidney, and white muscle, but the half-life for
selenium in gills and erythrocytes was less than 15 days.
21
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Steady-state BCFs with two saltwater species ranged from 2.88 in chela
muscle of adult shore crab, Carcinus maenas (Bjerregaard 1982,1985) to 200 in
whole adult euphausiids, Meganvctiphanes norvegica (Fowler and Benayoun
1976c). Selenium was accumulated to a higher concentration in gill than in
hepatopancreas or muscle of the shore crab during exposure to 250 ng/L.
The authors suggested that much of the selenium associated with the gill might
be sorbed to the gill surface.
Ingestion of food organisms that had been exposed to selenium(IV) can be
an important source of exposure of fish to selenium (Hodson and Hilton 1983;
Sandholm et al. 1973; Turner and Swick 1983). Addition of selenium(IV) to
food reduced survival of rainbow trout (Goettl and Davies 1978). Rudd and
Turner(1983a,b) found that the bioaccumulation of selenium by fish was reduced
by sediment and by increased primary productivity. Fowler and Benayoun (1976)
reported that the BAF for selenium(IV) from food plus water was four times
higher for an euphausiid than the BCF (uptake from water alone). The blue
mussel, Mv'tilus edulis. accumulated selenium at a slow rate when exposed to
selenium(IV), but did not accumulate selenium when exposed to bis(2-carboxy-
benzyl)selenium (Pelletier 1986a).
SeleniumfVI)
Bertram and Brooks (1986) exposed adult fathead minnows to sodium selenate
in water, in food, and in food and water together. The food was specially
•>
prepared by raising algae in a medium containing selenium(VI), feeding the
algae to daphnids, mixing the exposed daphnids with unexposed daphnids,
dewatering to form a "cake", and freezing. Uptake of selenium(VI) from only
water reached steady-state within 28 days. The whole-body BCFs ranged from 21
to 52 and decreased as the concentration in water increased (Table 5). Uptake
of selenium(VI) from food alone or from food and water together did not reach
22
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steady-state in eight and eleven weeks, respectively. Uptake from food and
water were additive.
When juvenile striped bass were exposed in salt water for 60 days to
selenium(VI) at concentrations of 90 and 1,290 ng/L, the whole-body
concentrations were within a factor of two of the concentrations in control
fish (Klauda 1985).
Selenium(IV) was bioconcentrated more than selenium(VI) by saltwater
phytoplankton communities (Wrench and Measures 1982), a freshwater duckweed
(Bulter and Peterson 1967), and two saltwater invertebrates (Fowler and
Benayoun 1976a).
No U.S. FDA action level or other maximum acceptable concentration in
tissue, as defined in the Guidelines, is available for selenium and,
therefore, no Final Residue Value can be calculated.
Other Data
SeleniumfIV)
Additional data on the lethal and sublethal effects of selenium on
aquatic species are presented in Table 6. Bringmann and Kuhn (1959a,b,1976,
1977a,1979,1980b,1981), Jakubczak et al. (1981), and Patrick et al. (1975)
reported the concentrations of selenium(IV) that caused incipient inhibition
(defined variously, such as the concentration resulting in a 3% reduction in
i
growth) for algae, bacteria, and protozoans (Table 6). Although incipient
inhibition might be statistically significant, its ecological importance is
unknown. Jones and Stadtman (1977) reported stimulation of growth of an
anaerobic bacterium exposed to 49 /Jg/L. Selenium(IV) at a concentration of
100 Mg/L did not affect crustacean communities in enclosures in a lake
contaminated by mercury (Salki et al. 1985).
23
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Short and Wilber (1980) reported that the calcium balance in the
crayfish, Orconectes immunis. was altered by a 30-day exposure to a selenium
concentration of 10 ng/L. Hodson et al. (1980) found delayed mortality
during a 4-day period following cessation of exposure to selenium(IV). Hilton
et al. (1982) studied the uptake from food, distribution, and elimination of
selenium(IV) by rainbow trout. Mancini (1983) calculated detoxification rates
for selenium in various fishes.
SeleniumfVI)
Dunbar et al. (1983) exposed fed J). magna to selenium(VI) for seven days
and obtained an LC50 of 1,870 ng/L. This value is in the range of the
48-hr ECSOs in Table 1.
Watenpaugh and Beitinger (1985a) found that fathead minnows did not avoid
11,200 Mg/L during 30-minute exposures (Table 6). These authors also
reported (1985b) a 24-hr LC50 of 82,000 ng/L for the same species and they
found (1985c) that the thermal tolerance of the species was reduced by
22,200 ^g/L. Bennett et al. (1986) raised rotifers on algae that had been
exposed to se1enium(VI). Fathead minnow larvae that were fed the contaminated
rotifers weighed less than larvae that were fed control rotifers. Westerman
and Birge (1978) exposed channel catfish embryos and newly hatched fry for 8.5
to 9 days to an unspecified concentration of se1enium( VI). Albinism was
observed in 12.1 to 36.9% of the fry during the five years of such exposures.
-i
The respiratory rate of the eastern oyster, Crassostrea vi rginica. was
unaffected by exposure to selenium(VI) at 400 MgA f°r 1* days (Fowler et
al. 1981). Embryos of the striped bass were quite resistant to selenium(VI)
in dilute salt water (Klauda 1985). There was a 93% successful hatch of
embryos at 200,000 /ig/L, but 50% of 72-day-old juveniles died after four
days at 87,000 ^g/L. Exposure of juvenile fish for up to 65 days to
24
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concentrations of seleniuro(VI) between 39 and 1,360 pg/L caused
developmental anomalies and pathological lesions.
Field Studies
Studies on Belews Lake in North Carolina (e.g., Cumbie as quoted in
Hodson et al. 1984; Cumbie and Van Horn 1978; Finley 1985; Lemly 1985a,b;
Sorensen et al. 1984) and Hyco and Catfish Reservoirs in North Carolina
(Baumann and Gillespie 1986; Gillespie and Baumann 1986; Sager and Cofield
1984) suggest that selenium might be more toxic to certain species of
freshwater fish than has been observed in chronic toxicity tests. Other
bodies of water in which the effects of selenium on aquatic organisms have
been studied include a farm pond in New York (Furr et al. 1979; Gutenmann et
al. 1976), various lakes and reservoirs in Colorado and Wyoming (Birkner 1978;
Kaiser et al. 1979), a drainage system in South Carolina (Cherry and Guthrie
1978; Cherry et al. 1976,1979a,b,1984; Guthrie and Cherry 1976.1979), Martin
Creek Reservoir in Texas (Garrett and Inman 1984; Sorensen and Bauer 1984a,b;
Sorenson et al. 1982), and Kesterson Reservoir in California- (Burton et al.
1987; Ohlendorf et al. 1986a,b; Saiki 1986a,b).
Such studies, however, have provided circumstantial, rather than
definitive, data on the effects of selenium on aquatic life for two major
reasons:
•5
1. Few, if any, data are available concerning the oxidation state of
selenium in the water. Because there are, as yet, no data to show that
selenium(IV) and selenium(VI) are toxicologically or ecologically
equivalent, it is difficult to interpret the results of field studies
that do not use analytical methods (e.g., Oppenheimer et al. 1984;
Robberecht and Van Grieken 1982; Uchida et al. 1980) that can separately
25
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measure selenium(IV) and selenium( VI). On the other hand, it is likely
that most ambient waters contain substantial concentrations of two or
more oxidation states of selenium (see item 3 on page 2).
2. Unless the investigator controls the addition of the test material,
rarely can a field study conclusively pinpoint the cause of any observed
effects, because it is possible that the effects were caused by a
combination of agents or by an unmeasured agent. However, if
circumstantial evidence from a number of dissimilar situations points in
the same direction, the inference becomes stronger.
In spite of the limitations of the available results of field studies, they do
raise such important questions as:
a. What are the highest concentrations in water of selenium(-I I),
t
• selenium(IV), selenium(VI), and their combinations that do not
unacceptably reduce reproduction, and survival of the resulting young, of
sensitive warmwater fishes?
b. What are the relative toxicities of seleniumf-II), selenium(IV),
selenium(VI), and their combinations in food and in water and are the two
sources additive?
c. Are selenium(-II), selenium(IV), and selenium(VI) toxicologically or
ecologically equivalent in aquatic ecosystems?
Such questions are important and can be answered with properly designed field
T
and laboratory studies.
The severe effects that were observed on the fish community in Belews
Lake have been attributed, with differing degrees of certainty by various
authors, to the 10 fig selenium/L in the lake. Although selenium is
certainly a good candidate for the cause of the observed effects, studies on
Belews Lake cannot establish a cause-effect relationship because a variety of
26
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other inorganic and organic materials undoubtedly entered the lake with the
selenium. Studies on other bodies of water that contain selenium at
concentrations in the range of 1 to 30 pg/L could help confirm or refute
the theory that selenium is the primary cause of the effects observed in
Belews Lake, especially if the selenium in the other bodies of water did not
come from fly ash.
Several laboratory studies have attempted to confirm that selenium
affected the fish community in Belews Lake. For example, Lemly (1982) exposed
bluegills and largemouth bass to selenium(IV) at a concentration of 10 pg/L
for 120 days. No mortality occurred in the test, whereas bluegills stocked
into Belews Lake died in 3 to 4 months when kept in cages and died almost
immediately when released into the lake (Cumbie as quoted in Hodson et al.
1984).
In a novel experiment, Gillespie and Baumann (1986) mated male and female
bluegills from Hyco Reservoir, which contained a high concentration of
selenium, with bluegills from Roxboro City Lake, which contained very little
selenium. The young survived when females from Roxboro City Lake were mated
with males from either source. When females from Hyco Reservoir were mated
with males from either source, the young hatched but died before attaining the
swim-up stage. The young that died also contained high concentrations of
selenium, which they must have received from their mothers. It is, of course,
possible that the young also received one or more toxicants in addition to
selenium from their mothers because Hyco Reservoir is a cooling reservoir for
a coal-fired electric power plant.
For 44 days Finley (1985) fed mayfly nymphs obtained from Belews Lake to
four bluegills and fed cultured mealworms to four other bluegills. The nymphs
contained 13.6 pg selenium/g (wet weight). The four fish fed mealworms
27
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appeared healthy throughout the test, whereas three of the four fish fed the
nymphs died. It is possible that bluegills were affected by Finley (1985) but
not Lemly (1982) because the nymphs also contained one or more toxicants in
addition to selenium, because the nymphs provided proportionately more
selenium, or because the nymphs contained a more toxic form of selenium.
Several feeding studies have shown that aquatic species can be adversely
affected by consuming food that contains 10 to 13 ng selenium/g. Thus
these studies support the idea that the effects observed by Finley (1985) were
caused by selenium. In two 42-week feeding studies, mortality of rainbow
trout increased when their food contained selenium(IV) at a concentration of
9 Mg/g (Goettl and Davies 1978). Hilton et al. (1980) reported that when
rainbow trout were fed a food containing selenium(IV) at a concentration of
!3 Mg/g f°r twenty weeks, growth decreased and mortality increased. Hilton
and Hodson (1983) obtained similar effects when trout consumed food containing
11 to 12 ng/g for sixteen weeks. In a fourth feeding study with rainbow
trout, selenium(IV) at 11.4 Mg/g (°n a freeze-dried basis) reduced growth
and increased mortality in a sixteen-week test (Hicks et al. 1984).
Although their tests on early life stages and smoltification of chinook
salmon were possibly confounded by the presence of other pollutants, the
results reported by Hamilton et al. (1986) support the results of other
investigators that concentrations greater than 13 Mg/g (reportedly as
•5
organoselenium) in food will unacceptably affect salmonids.
Heinz et al. (1987) fed adult mallards and their ducklings feed that
contained selenium(IV) or selenomethionine. The number of 21-day old
ducklings per hen was 9.7 for the controls and 2.0 for the animals that
received food containing 10 jug selenium/g as selenomethionine. The
treatments receiving 10 and 25 ng/g as selenium(IV) produced 8.1 and 0.2
28
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ducklings per hen, respectively. Food containing 10 ng selenium/g as
se lenomethionine resulted in nearly ten times as much selenium in eggs as did
food containing 10 pg/g &s sel eni um( I V ) . Selenomethionine resulted in more
selenium in egg white than yolk, but the opposite was true with selenium( I V) .
These data indicate that rainbow trout, chinook salmon, and mallard ducks
were affected when they consumed food that contained selenium in the range of
10 to 13 M6/2- Most of these studies were conducted by adding selenium(IV)
to food, but it is likely that at least some of the selenium accumulated in
food chain organisms would be in a more toxic form. These studies strongly
indicate that the effects observed by Finley (1985) were indeed caused by
selenium and that the 10 /ug/L in Belews Lake caused the effects observed
there. The concentration of selenium in an unaffected upper arm of Belews
Lake was near or below the detection limit of 5 pg/L (North Carolina
Department of Natural Resources and Community Development 1986).
The freshwater Criterion Continuous Concentration (CCC) should be between
10 Mg/L and the concentration in the unaffected portion of Belews Lake,
which is near or below 5 /ig/L. Therefore, the CCC will be set at
5.0 pg/L. Eight of the nine Acute-Chronic Ratios in Table 3 are between
2.651 and 16.26, with a geometric means of 7.993. If the Final Acute-Chronic
Ratio is assumed to be 7.993, the Final Acute Value would be 39.96 ng/L,
and the Criterion Maximum Concentration would be 19.98
Unused Data
Some data on the effects of selenium on aquatic organisms were not used
because the studies were conducted with species that are not resident in North
America (e.g., Asanullah and Brand 1985; Asanullah and Palmer 1980; Fowler and
Benayoun 1976a,b; Gotsis 1982; Hiraoka et al. 1985; Juhnke and Ludemann 1978;
29
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Niimi and LaHam 1975,1976; Ringdal and Julshamn 1985; Shultz and Ito 1979;
Srivastava and Tyagi 1983/1984; Wrench 1978). Results (e.g., Okasako and
Siegel 1980) of tests conducted with brine shrimp, Artemia sp., were not used
because these species are from a unique saltwater environment. Adams and
Johnson (1981), Biddinger and Gloss (1984), Brooks (1984), Chapman et al.
(1968), Davies (1978), Eisler (1985), Hall and Burton (1982), Hodson and
Hilton (1983), Hodson et al. (1984), Jenkins (1980), Kay (1984), LeBlanc
(1984), McKee and Wolf (1963), National Research Counci.l (1976), North
Carolina Department of Natural Resources and Community Development (1986),
Phillips and Russo (1978), Thompson et al. (1972), and Versar (1975) compiled
data from other sources.
Greenberg and Kopec (1986) and Hutchinson and Stokes (1975) did not
specify the oxidation state of the selenium used in their tests. Data were
not used when selenium was a component of an effluent, fly ash, formulation,
mixture, sediment, or sludge (e.g., Burton et al. 1983; Fava et al. 1985; Hall
et al. 1984; Hamilton et al. 1986; Hildebrand et al. 1976; Jay and Muncy 1979;
MacFarlane et al. 1986; Phillips and Gregory 1980; Ryther et al. 1979; Seelye
et al. L982; Specht et al. 1984; Thomas et al. 1980b; Wong et al. 1982)
unless data were available to show that the toxicity was the same as for
selenium alone.
Braddon (1982), Christensen and Tucker (1976), Freeman and Sangalang
•}
(1977), and Olson and Christensen (1980) exposed enzymes, excised tissue, or
tissue extracts. Results were not used when the test procedures, test
material, or results were not adequately described (e.g., Bovee 1978;
Gissel-Nielsen and Gissel-Nielsen 1973,1978; Greenberg and Kopec 1986; Nassos
et al. 1980). Kaiser (1980) calculated the toxicities of selenium(IV) and
selenium(VI) to Daphnia magna based on physiochemical parameters. Kumar
30
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(1964) did not include a control treatment in the toxicity tests. The
daphnids were probably stressed by crowding in the tests reported by Schultz
et al. (1980). Siebers and Ehlers (1979) exposed too few test organisms, as
did Owsley (1984) in some tests. Data were not used when the organisms were
exposed to selenium by gavage or injection (Hilton et al. 1982; Kleinow 1984;
Kleinow and Brooks 1986a,b; Sheline and Schmidt-Nielson 1977).
BCFs and BAFs from laboratory tests were not used when the tests were
static or when the concentration of selenium in the test solution was not
adequately measured or varied too much, (e.g., Nassos et al. 1980; Sharma and
Davis 1980). Reports of the concentrations of selenium in wild aquatic
organisms (e.g., Baumann and Gillespie 1986; Baumann and May 1984; Brezina and
Arnold 1977; Birkner 1978; Cappon 1984; Cappon and Smith 1981,1982a,b; Cumbie
j
and Van Horn 1978; Davoren 1986; Fowler et al. 1975; Froslie et al. 1985;
Gillespie and Baumann 1986; Greig and Jones 1976; Heit and Klusek 1985; Heit
et al. 1980; Johnson 1987; Kaiser et al. 1979; Lemly 1985a; Lowe et al. 1985;
Lucas et al. 1970; Lytle and Lytle 1982; May and McKinney 1981; Mehrle et al.
1982; Moharram et al. 1987; Ohlendorf et al. 1986a,b,c; Okazaki and Panietz
1981; Pakkala et al. 1972; Payer and Runkel 1978; Payer et al. 1976;
Pennington et al. 1982; Sager and Cofield 1984; Saiki 1986a,b; Shultz and Ito
1979; Seelye et al. 1982;' Sorensen and Bauer 1984a,b; Sorensen et al.
1982,1983,1984; Speyer 1980; Uthe and Bligh 1971; Walsh et al. 1977; Weber
1985; Winger and Andreasen 1985; Winger et al. 1984; Woock and Summers 1984;
Zatta et al. 1985) were not used to calculate BAFs when either the number of
measurements of the concentration in water was too small or the range of the
measured concentrations was too large.
31
-------
Summary
Selenium(IV)
Acute values for 23 freshwater fish and invertebrate species in 22 genera
range from 340 pg/L for the amphipod, Hvalel la azteca. to 203,000 ng/L
for the leech, Neohelopsis obscura. Although twelve of the twenty-three
species are fishes, both the two most sensitive and the two most resistant
species are invertebrates. Chronic values are available for two fishes and
two invertebrates and range from >47 to 692 Mg/L. In a separate test, a
90-day LC50 of 54 ng/L was obtained with rainbow trout. The acute-chronic
ratios for the acutely more sensitive species range from 5.6 to 13.3.
Toxicity values for nine species of freshwater algae range from 500 to
30,000 ng/L. Uptake of selenium(IV) by fish takes about 100 days to reach
steady-state and bioconcentration factors from 2 to 452 have been reported.
Acute toxicity values are available for 16 species of saltwater animals,
including 8 invertebrates and 8 fishes, and range from 599 flg/L for larvae
of the haddock, Melanogrammus aeglefinus. to 17,350 ^g/L for adults of the
fourspine stickleback, Apeltes quadracus. Fish and invertebrates have similar
ranges of sensitivities, and the acute values for the seven most sensitive
species differ only by a factor of 3.2. There was no consistent relationship
between life stage of invertebrates or fish and their insensitivity to
selenium(IV).
•>
Chronic toxicity data are available for two saltwater animals, the mysid,
Mysidoosi s bahia. and the sheepshead minnow, Cyprinodon variegatus. The
chronic values and the acute-chronic ratios are 211.7 jig/L and 7.085 for
the mysid, and 675.2 Mg/L and 10.96 for the sheepshead minnow. At a
concentration of 7,930 ng/L, selenium(IV) caused a 50% reduction in
chlorophyll a in a test with the saltwater diatom, Skeletonema costatum. but
32
-------
growth of three species of algae was stimulated by concentrations of 10 to
10,000 A*gA- The steady-state bioconcentration factors for two saltwater
species range from 3.88 in chela muscle of adult shore crabs, Carcinus maenas.
to 200 in whole adult euphausiids, Meganyctiphanes norvegica.
SeleniumfVI)
The acute toxicity of selenium(VI) has been determined with twelve
freshwater animal species. The acute values range from 75 pg/L with the
amphipod, Gammarus pseudolimnaeus. to 442,000 Mg/L with the leech,
Nephelopsis obscura. Chronic toxicity tests have been conducted with Daphnia
magna. the fathead minnow, and the rainbow trout. The chronic values range
from 565.5 to 1,999 MgA, and the acute-chronic ratios range from 2.651 to
16.26. Selenium(VI) affected nine algal species at concentrations ranging
from 10 to 39,000 jJg/L. Bioaccumulation factors obtained with the fathead
minnow ranged from 21 to 52 pg/L.
Few data are available concerning the effects of selenium(VI) on
saltwater species. Acute toxicity tests with prolarvae and juveniles of
striped bass, Morone saxati1 is. resulted in 96-hr LCSOs of 9,790 and
85,840 Mg/L, respectively. No chronic tests have been conducted on
selenium(VI) with saltwater animals. The growth of an alga was increased by
10 ^g/L. Steady-state bioconcentration factors of 1 to 16 were obtained
with juvenile striped bass.
Other
For ten of the eleven freshwater and saltwater fish and invertebrate
species for which comparable acute data are available, selenium(IV) is 1.6 to
3.6 times more toxic than selenium(VI). For the eleventh species,
selenium(IV) is 57 times less toxic. Chronic toxicity tests have been
conducted on both selenium(IV) and selenium(VI) with three freshwater species
33
-------
and no saltwater species. For all three animals selenium(IV) was 5 to 32
times more toxic than selenium(VI). Eight of the nine acute-chronic ratios
available for the two oxidation states are between 2.6 and 17; the ninth ratio
is 141.5 and was obtained with an acutely resistant species. In contrast to
the data obtained with aquatic animals, selenium(VI) is either as toxic as or
more toxic than selenium(IV) to aquatic plants. Selenium(IV) seems to be
bioconcentrated more than selenium(VI) by aquatic plants and animals.
Salmonids and mallard ducks were severely affected when they consumed
food that contained selenium at concentrations of 10 to 13 Mg/g- It is
likely that the populations of several species of warmwater fishes were
destroyed by selenium at a concentration of 10 ^g/L in Belews Lake.
National Criteria
The procedures described in the "Guidelines for Deriving Numerical
National Water Quality Criteria for the Protection of Aquatic Organisms and
Their Uses" indicate that, except possibly where a locally important species
is very sensitive, freshwater aquatic organisms and their uses should not be
affected unacceptably if the four-day average concentration of selenium does
not exceed 5.0 ng/L more than once every three years on the average and if
the one-hour average concentration does not exceed 20 ^g/L more than once
every three years on the average.
•}
The procedures described in the "Guidelines for Deriving Numerical
National Water Quality Criteria for the Protection of Aquatic Organisms and
Their Uses" indicate that, except possibly where a locally important species
is very sensitive, saltwater aquatic organisms and their uses should not be
affected unacceptably if the four-day average concentration of selenium does
not exceed 71 ng/L more than once every three years on the average and if
34
-------
the one-hour average concentration does not exceed 300 f*g/L more than once
every three years on the average. If selenium is as toxic to saltwater fishes
in the field as it is to freshwater fishes in the field, the status of the
fish community should be monitored whenever the concentration of selenium
exceeds 5.0 pg/L in salt water.
Implementation
Because of the variety of forms of selenium in ambient water and the lack
of definitive information about their relative toxicities to aquatic species,
no available analytical measurement is known to be ideal for expressing
aquatic life criteria for selenium. Previous aquatic life criteria for metals
and metalloids (U.S. EPA 1980b) were expressed in terms of the total
recoverable measurement (U.S. EPA 1983a), but newer criteria for metals and
metalloids have been expressed in terms of the acid-soluble measurement
(•1985b). Acid-soluble selenium (operationally defined as the selenium that
passes through a 0.45 ^m membrane filter after the sample has been
acidified to a pH between 1.5 and 2.0 with nitric acid) is probably the best
measurement at the present for the following reasons:
1. This measurement is compatible with nearly all available data concerning
toxicity of selenium to, and bioaccumulation of selenium by,
aquatic organisms. It is expected that the results of tests used in the
»i
derivation of the criteria would not have changed substantially if they
had been reported in terms of acid-soluble selenium.
2. On samples of ambient water, measurement of acid-soluble selenium will
probably measure all forms of selenium that are toxic to aquatic life or
can be readily converted to toxic forms under natural conditions. In
addition, this measurement probably will not measure several forms, such
35
-------
as selenium that is occluded in minerals, clays, and sand or is strongly
sorbed to particulate matter, that are not toxic and are not likely to
become toxic under natural conditions.
3. Although water quality criteria apply to ambient water, the measurement
used to express criteria is likely to be used to measure selenium in
aqueous effluents. Measurement of acid-soluble selenium is expected to
be applicable to effluents. If desired, dilution of effluent with
receiving water before measurement of acid-soluble selenium might be used
to determine whether the receiving water can decrease the concentration
of acid-soluble selenium because of sorption.
4. The acid-soluble measurement is expected to be useful for most metals and
metalloids, thus minimizing the number of samples and procedures that are
t
necessary.
5. The acid-soluble measurement does not require filtration of the sample at
the time of collection, as does the dissolved measurement.
6. For the measurement of total acid-soluble selenium the only treatment
required at the time of collection is preservation by acidification to a
pH between 1.5 and 2.0, similar to that required for the total
recoverable measurement.
7. Durations of 10 minutes to 24 hours between acidification and filtration
of most samples of ambient water probably will not substantially affect
•>
the result of the measurement of total acid-soluble selenium. However,
acidification might not prevent oxidation or reduction of selenium(-I I),
selenium(VI), or selenium(IV) (May and Kane 1984). Therefore,
measurement of acid-soluble selenium(IV) and/or acid-soluble
selenium(VI) might require separation or measurement at the time of
collection of the sample or special preservation to prevent conversion of
one oxidation state of selenium to the other.
36
-------
8. Ambient waters have much higher buffer intensities at a pH between 1.5
and 2.0 than they do at a pH between 4 and 9 (Stumm and Morgan 1981)
9. Differences in pH within the range of 1.5 to 2.0 probably will not affect
the result substantially.
10. The acid-soluble measurement does not require a digestion step, as does
the total recoverable measurement.
11. After acidification and filtration of the sample to isolate the
acid-soluble selenium, the analysis for total acid-soluble selenium can
be performed using either furnace or hydride atomic absorption
spectrophotometric or ICP-atomic emission spectrometric analysis (U.S.
EPA 1983a), as with the total recoverable measurement. It might be
possible to separately measure acid-soluble selenium(IV) and acid-soluble
selenium(VI) using the methods described by Oppenheimer et al. (1984),
Robberecht and Van.Grieken (1982), and Uchida et al. (1980).
Thus, expressing aquatic life criteria for selenium in terms of the
acid-soluble measurement has both toxicological and practical advantages. The
U.S. EPA is considering development and approval of a method for a measurement
such as acid-soluble.
Metals and metalloids might be measured using the total recoverable
method (U.S. EPA 1983a). This would have two major impacts because this
method includes a digestion procedure. First, certain species of some metals
-i
and metalloids cannot be measured because the total recoverable method cannot
distinguish between individual oxidation states. Second, in some cases these
criteria would be overly protective when based on the total recoverable method
because the digestion procedure will dissolve selenium that is not toxic and
cannot be converted to a toxic form under natural conditions. Because no
measurement is known to be ideal for expressing aquatic life criteria for
37
-------
selenium or for measuring selenium in ambient water or aqueous effluents,
measurement of both acid-soluble selenium and total recoverable selenium in
ambient water or effluent or both might be useful. For example, there might
be cause for concern when total recoverable selenium is much above an
applicable limit, even though acid-soluble selenium is below the limit.
In addition, metals and metalloids might be measured using the dissolved
method, but this would also have several impacts. First, whatever analytical
method is specified for measuring selenium in ambient surface water will
probably also be used to monitor effluents. If effluents are monitored by
measuring only the dissolved metals and metalloids, the effluents might
contain some selenium that would not be measured but might dissolve, due to
dilution or change in pH or both, when the effluent is mixed with receiving
water. Second, measurement of dissolved selenium requires filtration of the
sample at the time of collection. Third, the dissolved measurement is
especially inappropriate for use with such metals as aluminum that can exist
as hydroxide and carbonate precipitates in toxicity tests and in effluents.
Use of different methods for different metals and metalloids would be
unnecessarily complicated. For these reasons, it is recommended that aquatic
life criteria for selenium not be expressed as dissolved selenium.
As discussed in the Water Quality Standards Regulation (U.S. EPA 1983b)
and the Foreword to this document, a water quality criterion for aquatic life
has regulatory impact only after it has been adopted in a State water quality
standard. Such a standard specifies a criterion for a pollutant that is
consistent with a particular designated use. With the concurrence of the U.S.
EPA, States designate one or more uses for each body of water or segment
thereof and adopt criteria that are consistent with the use(s) (U.S.EPA
38
-------
1983c,1987). In each standard a State may adopt the national criterion, if
one exists, or, if adequately justified, a site-specific criterion.
Site-specific criteria may include not only site-specific criterion
concentrations (U.S. EPA 1983c), but also site-specific, and possibly
pollutant-specific, durations of averaging periods and frequencies of allowed
excursions (U.S. EPA 1985c). The averaging periods of "one hour" and "four
days" were selected by the U.S. EPA on the basis of data concerning how
rapidly some aquatic species react to increases in the concentrations of some
pollutants, and "three years" is the Agency's best scientific judgment of the
average amount of time aquatic ecosystems should be provided between
excursions (Stephan et al. 1985; U.S. EPA 1985c). However, various species
and ecosystems react and recover at greatly differing rates. Therefore, if
adequate justification is provided, site-specific and/or pollutant-specific
concentrations, durations, and frequencies may be higher or lower than those
given in national water quality criteria' for aquatic life.
Use of criteria, which have been adopted in State water quality
standards, for developing water quality-based permit limits and for designing
waste treatment facilities requires selection of an appropriate wasteload
allocation model. Although dynamic models are preferred for the application
of these criteria (U.S. EPA 1985c), limited data or other considerations might
require the use of a steady-state model (U.S. EPA 1986). Guidance on mixing
^
zones and the design of monitoring programs is also available (U.S. EPA 1985c,
1987).
39
-------
Toble I. Acute Toxicity of Seleniu* to Aquatic Aniaols
Species
Hydro (odult),
Hydro sf.
Leech (adult),
Nephel ops i s obs c u r a
Snail (adult).
Apl exo hypnorum
Snail (adult).
Apl exa hypnorum
-P- . — *— — mi
O
Snai 1 ,
Physo sp
Cladoceran (<24 hr) ,
Ceriodaphnia affinis
Clodoceran (36-60 hr) ,
Ceriodaphnia affinis
Cladoceran (84-108 hr) ,
Ceriodaphnia affinis
Cladoceran (72-120 hr) ,
Ceriodaphnia affinis
Method"
j
s, y
s, u
S, M
S, U
S. U
S, U
s, u
s, u
s, u
Chemical
Sodium
seleni te
Sodium
sel eni te
Sodi urn
seleni te
Sodi urn
seleni te
Sodium
sel eni te
Sodi urn
sel eni te
Sodi urn
sel eni te
Sodi um
seleni te
Sod i um
sel eni te
Hardness LC50
(•g/l as or EC50
CaCO i Ina/Llb
FRESHWATER SPECIES
Seleniu»(lV)
1 . 700
49 8 203,000
50.6 53,000
49 8 23.000
457 24,100
100 8 600
100 8 720
100 8 640
100.8 <480
Species Mean
Acute Value
(JJQ/U
1,700
203,000
-
34,910
24,100
-
<603 6
Reference
Brooke et ai I98S
Brooke et ol. 1985
Brooke et al. 1985
Brooke et ol 1985
Reading 1979
Owsiey 1984; Onsley
and UcCouley 1986
Onsley 1984
Onsley 1984
O.sley 1984
-------
Table 1, (continued)
Species
Cl odoceran ,
Oaphni a maqna
Cl odoceron.
Dophni a inoqna
Cladoceran,
Dophn I a moqno
Cladoceran ,
Oophnio mating
Cladoceran (<24 hr) ,
Oaphni a inoqna
Cl adoceran (<24 hr) ,
Daphni o mog.no
Cladoceron (<24 hr) .
Daphni o moqno
Cladoceran ,
Oaphni g tnogno
Cladoceran,
Dophn j g pul ex
Hardness
(«9/L «s
Method* Chemical CaCO,)
S, U Sodium 214
seleni te
S, U Selenious 72
acidc
S, H Sodium 129.5
sel eni t e
S, U Sodium 138
selenite
S. U Sodium
sel eni te
S, U Sodium 40
seleni t*
S, U Sodium 280
seleni te
S. U Selenious 220d
acid
S, U Sodium 46.4
seleni t e
LC5D Species Mean
or EC50 Acute Value
f/ja/nb (iiq/l) Reference
2,500 - Briiigmann and Kuhn
I959o
430 - LeBlonc 1980
1 .100 - Dunbar et al . 1981
450 - Boyum 1984
215 - Adams and Heidolph
1985
870 - Mayer and Cllersieck
I9B6
2,370 - Mayer and Cllersieck
1986
1,220 855.8 Kimboll, Manuscript
3,870 3,870 Reading 1979; Readin
and Buikemo 1983
-------
Table I. (continued)
Species Method"
Amphipod (adult), S, U
Commorus pseudol imnoeus
Amphipod (adult), S, tl
Cammorus pseudol imnoeus
Amphipod, F, M
Hyolel 1 o ozteco
Midge, S, U
Chironomus pi umosus
Midge, S, U
Ch i ronomus pi ymosjis
Midge, F, M
Tonytarsus dissimilis
Rai nbow trout , S, U
Sol mo qai rdneri
Rai nbow trout , S , U
Sal mo qoi rdneri
Rai nbow trout , S, U
So Imp qoi rdneri
Rai nbow trout , F , M
Solmo qoirdneri
Rainbow trout, F, M
Sal ma qairdneri
Chemical
Sodium
seleni te
Sodi um
seleni te
Sodi um
seleni te
Sodi um
seleni te
Sodium
sel en i te
Seleni um
dioxi de
Sodi um
sel en i t e
Sodi um
seleni te
Sodi um
seleni te
Sodi um
set eni te
Sodi um
seleni te
Hardness LC50 Species Uea*
(•g/L as or F.C50 Acute Value
C«C03J Ifia/Ub (jjfl/U
48.3 4.300
53.6 1,700 2,704
»
329 340 340
39 24,150
280 27,850 25,930
48.0 42,500 42,500
330 4,500
330 4,200
272 1,800
30 12,500
135 8,800 10,490
Reference
Brook* et al, 1985
Brooke 1987
Halter et al. 1980
(layer and Ellersieck
1986
Mayer and Ellersieck
1986
Call et al. 1983
Adams 1976
Adams 1976
Hunn et al. 1987
Coettl and Oavies
1976
Hodson et al 1980
-------
Table I. (continued)
Species Method"
Brook trout (odult). F, M
Solve! ! nus font i nol is
Goldfish, F, U
Corossius ourotus
Common carp, R, 0
Cyprj nus corpi o
Fathead minnow, S, U
PiiBtPJiQi.es promelos
Fathead minnow, S, U
Pimepholes promel as
Fathead minnon, S, U
Pimephales promelas
Fathead minnow, S, U
Pimepholes promelas
Fathead minnow, S, U
Pimephales promelas
Fathead minnow, S, U
Pimephales promelas
Fathead minnow (30 days), S, M
Pimephol es promel as
Chemical
Sel eni ura
di oxide
Seleni um
di oxide
Sodi um
selenit*
Sodi um
seleni te
Sodium
seleni te
Sodi um
sel eni te
Sodi um
sel eni te
Sod! um
Seleni te
Sodi um
seleni te
Hardness
(•a/Las
CaCO,)
157
157
312
(ire)
312
(I3*C)
303
(20"C) .
303
(20*C)
292
(25'C)
292
(25"C)
51.1
LC50 Species Mean
or CC50 Acute Value
k
lfi
-------
Table 1. (continued)
Species Method"
Fathead minnot (juvenile), S, U
Pimephales promelos
Fathead minnot (fry), F, M
Pimephales promelas
Fathead minnot (juvenile), F, U
Pimephales promelas
Fathead minnot, F, M,
Pimephales promelas
Fathead minnot, F, M
Pimephales promelas
•o White sucker, F, M
Cotostomus commersoni
White sucker, F, M
Catostomus commersoni
Striped bass (63 days), S, U
Uorone saxat i 1 is
Striped bass (63 days), S. U
Morone saxat i 1 is
Channel catfish (juvenile), S, U
Ictalurus punctatus
Chemical
Sodium
seleni te
Seleni urn
dioxide
Selenium
dioxide
Selenious
acid
Selenious
acid
Sodium
seleni te
Sodium
seleni te
Sodi urn
seleni te
Sodi urn
seleni te
Sodi urn
set eni te
Hardness
(«s/i «
CaCCU
40
157
157.
220d
220*
10.2
18
40
28S
49,8
LCSO
or CC50
(u«/l)b
7.760
2,100
5.200
620
970
29,000
31,400
1.325
2,400
16,000
Spec its Meat
Acute Value
(ca/l) Reference
Mayer and Cl
1986
Cardtell et
I976a,b
Cardtell et
I976a. b
Kimbol 1 .
Manuscript
1,601 Kimball,
Manuscr i pt
lersi eck
al.
al.
Klaverkanp et al .
I983a
30,180 Duncan and
Klaverkamp 1
PaloMski et
1 ,783 Palatski et
Brooke et ol
983
al. 1985
al. 1985
. 1985
-------
Table 1. (continued)
Spec i es Method"
Channel catfish (juvenile), S, U
Ictolurus punctqtus
Channel catfish, F, M
Ictolurus punctatus
riagfish, F. II
Jordanello f i or i doe
Uosqui tof ish, S, U
Combus i o of f i nis
Bluegill (juvenile). S, M
Lepomis macrochirus
Bluegill , F. U
Lepoinis macrochirus
Yellow perch, F, U
Perca f 1 avescens
Hydra (adult), S, M
Hydro sp.
Leech (adult), S, U
Hephel ops i s obscura
Hardness LC50 Species Mea*
(•9/L es or CCSO Acute V«U*
Chemical CoCQj (v
-------
Table 1. (continued)
O
Species Vet hod"
Snail. S, U
Aplexa hvpnorum
Cladoceran, S, U
Oaphn i o moqno
Cladoceran, S. U
Dophn i o moqno
Cladoceran, S, tl
Dophn j a mogna
Cladoceran, S, M
Daphni a pul icor io
Amphipod (adult), S, M
Gammarus pseudol imnaeus
Amphipod (adult), S, U
Gammarus pseudol imnaeus
Amphipod, F, U
Hyalel la azteca
Uidge (3rd instar), S, U
Para t any t arsus
par t henoqenet i cus
Rainbow trout (juvenile), S, M
Solmo qairdneri
Rai nfaoN trout , F . U
Salmo qoirdneri
Che-icol
Sodi um
seienate
Sodium
seienate
Sodi um
. seienate
Sodi um
seienate
Sod! um
seienate
Sodi um
sel enate
Sodi um
sel enate
Sodi um
seienate
Sod! um
sel enate
Sod i um
seienate
Sodi um
seienate
Hardness LC50 Species Ueo*
(»g/L as or CC50 Acute Vain*
CoCO,) (m/L)k («q/L) Reference
51 0 193,000 193,000 Brooke et al. 1985
129.5 5,300 - Dunbar et oi. 1983
138 1,010 - Boyum 1984
48 I 570 1,450 Brooke et al . 1985
138 246 246 Boyum 1984
46.1 75 - Brooke et al . 1985
51 .0 57 65 38 Brooke 1987
336 8 760 760 Adams 1976
49 4 20,000 20,000 Brooke et al 1985
51 0 24.000 - Brooke et al 1985
45 47,000 47.000 Spehor 1986
-------
Toble 1. (continued)
Species Method"
Fathead minno*, S, U
Piroephales promt! es
Fathead minnow, S, U
Pimephal es promeles
Fathead minnow, S, U
Pjmephal eg promel es
Fathead minnow (juvenile), S, H
Pimephales promelas
Fathead minno*, F, U
Pimephales promelos
Channel catfish S, M
( juveni le) ,
Ictalurus punctatus
Bluegill (juvenile), S, U
Lcpomi s mac.rochi rus
Che»icol
Sodi um
selenate
Sodi um
selenote
Sodium
selenate
Sodi um
selenate
Sodi um
selenate
Sodi urn
selenote
Sodium
selenate
Hardness
(rngfl es
CoCOj
323
323
J23
47 9
46
51.0
50,4
LC50
or CCSO
(im/ll*
11,800
1 1 , 000
-
12,500
2.300
5,500
66,000
63,000
Species Hea*
Acute Value
(u*/l\ Reference
Adams 1976
Adams 1976
Adorns 1976
Brooke et ol . 1985
5,500 Spehar 1986
66.000 Brooke et al 1985
63,000 Brooke et al 1985
-------
Table I. (continued)
00
Spec its Method"
Blue mussel (embryo), S, U
Myt i 1 us edul is
Pacific oyster (embryo), S, U
Crossostreo ql gas
Pacific oyster (embryo), S, U
Crossostrea qiqos
Copepod (adult), S, U
Acartia clausi
Copepod (adult), S, U
Acort i a tonso
Mysid (juvenile), S. U
Mys idopsi s bahi a
Mysid (juvenile), F, M
Mysidoosis bohio
Brown shrimp (juvenile), S, U
Penaeus oztecus
Dungeness crab (zoeo 1), S, U
Cancer mnqist er
LC50 Species Mean
Salinity or EC50 Acute Vain*
Chemical (q/kq) (wq/L) («q/L)
SALTMATEB SPECIES
Seleni »«M»)
Selenium 33.79 > 10. 000 >l 0.000
oxide
Selenium 33.79 >IO.OOO
oxide
Sodium 33.79 >IO,000 XO.OOO
selenite
Selenious 30 2. 110 2,110
oc id
Seienious 30 839 839
acid
Selenious - 600
ac id
Selenious 15-20 1,500 1,500
ac id
Sodium 30 1.200 1.200
seleni te
Selenium 33.79 1,040 1.040
ox i de
Reference
Martin et al, 1981
Glickstein 1978;
Martin et al. 1981
Glickstein 1978
Lussier 1986
Ussier 1986
U.S. EPA 1978
Ward et al. 1981
Ward et al 1981
Glickstein 1978
-------
Table I. (continued)
Species Method"
Slue crob (juvenile), S, U
Col 1 i nectes saoidus
Haddock (larva), S, U
Mel onogrommus oeqlef inus
Sheepshead minnow S, U
(j uveni le) ,
Cyri nodon vor i egg t us
Sheepshead minnow f, H
( j uveni 1 e) ,
Cyr i nodon vor i eqotus
Atlantic silverside S, U
( j uveni le) ,
Uen i di o men! di a
Fourspine stickleback S, U
(adult).
Ape| t es quadrocus
Str i ped boss , S, U
Worone saxat i I is
Pinfish (juvenile), S, U
I ago don rhomboi des
Summer flounder (embryo), S, U
Poro 1 i cht hys dentat us
Chemical
Sodium
seleni te
Selenious
aci d
Seienious
acid
Sodi urn
seleni te
Selenious
acid
Sel en i ous
acid
Sodi urn
seleni f e
Sodi urn
seleni te
Seleni ous
aci d
LCSO Species Mean
Salinity or CCSO Acute Value
(«A«} (fif/M (n4/L)
30 4,600 4,600
30 599 599
6,700
30 7,400 7,400
30 9.725 9.725
30 17.350 17,350
1 1.550 1.550
30 4,400 4.400
30.2 3,497 3,497
Reference
Ward et al. 1981
Cardin 1986
Heitffluller et al
198)
Ward et al 1981
Cardin 1986
Cardin 1986
Palansk i et a I.
1985
iard et at 1981
Cardin 1986
-------
Table 1, (continued)
Ui
o
Species Method0
Winter flounder (larva), S, U
Pseudopl euronectes
americonus
wauuuuuiji !___•. jnr: ••- ^
Winter flounder (larva), S, U
Pseudopleuronectes
omericanus
Striped bass (prolarvae), F,M
Moroae soxot 1 i is
Striped bass (juvenile), f,li
Morone saxaf His
LC50
Salinity or CCSO
Che.ical la/kal («q/L)b
Selenious 30 • 14,240
acid
Selenious 28 15,070
aci d
Se !«•!«•( VI)
Sodium 3.5-4.2 9,790
selenote
Sodium 6.0-6.5 85,840f
selenate
Species Mean
Acute Value
(04/1) Reference
Cordin 1986
14,650 Cardin 1986
Klouda 1985
9.790 Klaudo 1985
S = Static; R = Ren«*ol; F = Flow-through; U « Measured, U * Unmeasured,
Concentration of selenium, not the chemical.
c Reported by Barrovs et al. (1980) in nork performed in the same laboratory under the same contract.
d From Smith et al. (1976).
Calculated from regression equation.
Not used in calculation of Species Mean Acute Value because data are available for a more sensitive life stage
-------
Table 2. Chronic Toxicity of Seleniim to Aquatic Ani»ols
Species
CI adoceran ,
Oophni o moqno
CI adoceran.
Dophni a maqna
CI adoceran,
Doph n i a pu 1 ex
Rainbon trout ,
Salmo qairdneri
Rai nbow trout ,
Sol mo qairdneri
Fathead minnow,
Pimephgl es promelos
CI adoceran ,
Daphni o mogna
Rai nbo* trout ,
Salmo qairdneri
Fathead minnov,
Pimephal es frame los
Hardness Chronic
(*g/L as limits Chronic Value
tt It
Test Chemical CaCO,]__ (|«|/t.l (nfl/L)
FRESHWATER SPECIES
LC Sodium 240-310 1 10-237 161.5
selenite
LC Selenious 220C 70-120 91.65
acid
LC Sodium 46.4 600-800 692.8
selenite
CLS Sodium 30 60-130 88.32
seleni te
ELS Sodium 135 . >47d >47
seleni te
ELS Seienious 220C 83-153 112.7
ac id
SeleniumtVM
LC Sodium 129.5 1,730-2.310 1,999
sel enate
ELS Sodium 45 2,200-3,800 2,891
selenate
ELS Sodium 45-47 390-820 565.5
sel enate
Reference
Adams and Heidoiph 1985
Kimboll. Manuscript
Reading 1979; Reading
and Buikema 1983
Goettl and Davies
1977
Hodson et al . 1980
Kimbai 1 , Uanuscr i pt
Dunbar et al .
1983
Spehar 1986
Spehar 1986
-------
Table 2. (continued)
Mysid,
Uysi dopsi s bohiq
Sheepshead minnow,
CyprInodon vori eqotus
Salinity
Test
Chenical
LC
ELS
Selenious
acid
Sodium
seleni te
Chronic
limits
lWUh
SALTWATER SPECIES
26
27
140-321}.
470-970
Chronic Vain*
211 .7
675.2
Reference
U.S. EPA 1978; Word
et ol. 1981
Ward et al. 1981
Cn
to
LC = life-cycle or partial life-cycle; CIS = early life-stage.
Measured concentrations of selenium
c From Smith et ol. (1976).
d
None of the tested concentrations caused effects that *ere considered unacceptable.
Species
Cladoceran,
Oafhn i o mag no
Clodoceran,
Daphnia pulex
Acule-Chronic Ratio
Hardness
(ng/L as Acute Value
Seleniu«(IV)
220 1,220
46.4
3,870
Chronic Value
91 65
692 8
Ratio
13 31
5.586
-------
Table 2. (continued)
Ul
CO
Species
Rainbow trout,
Solmo floirdneri
Rainbow trout,
Solmo gal rdneri
Fathead minnow,
Pimepholes promelos
Mysid.
Mvsidopsis bohio
Sheepshead minnow,
Cypri nodon vgri eqgtus
Cladoceron,
Dophni o ma q n o
Hardness
(mg/l as
CoCOJ
30
135
220
26b
27b
129.5
Acvte Value Cbroiic Valve
luall) (04/1 )
12.500 88.32
8.800 >47
775.5° 112.7
1.500 211.7
7.400 675.2
Sele»iiH»(Vll
5.300 1.999
Ratio
141. 5
-------
Table 3. Ranked Genus yea* Acute Values with Species Mean Acute-Chronic Ratios
Ce*us Vea*
Acute Value
Ra*k* (iia/ll
Species Ueon Species yea*
Acute Value Acute-Chronic
22 203.000
21
20
19
18
17
16
15
14
42.500
35,000
34.910
30.180
28,500
26,100
25,930
24,100
Species (fig/I)"
FRESHWATER SPECIES
Sele»iu»(lV)
Leech. 203.000
Nephelops Is obscuro
Uidge, 42,500
Tonytorsus dissimiI is
Common carp, 35,000
Cypr i nus carpi a
Snail, 34,910
Aplexo hypnorum
White sucker, 30,180
Cotostomus commersoni
Bluegill, 28,500
Lepomis mocroch i rus
Goldfish. 26 100
Caross i us gurotus
Midge, 25.930
Chi ronomus piumosus
Snail. 24.100
Physo sp.
Ratio6
-------
Table 3. (continued)
Genus Uean
Acute Value
Kant8 fm/U
Species Mean
Acute Value
Species Uean
Acute-Chronic
Ratio*
13,600
Channel catfish,
Ictolurus punctotus
13,600
12
12,600
Uosquitof i sh,
Gqmbusi o off i nis
I 2,600
tl
11,700
Yel1o* perch,
Perco flavescens
11,700
10
10,490
Rainbow trout,
So I TOO qoi rdneri
10,490
141.5
10,200
Brook trout,
Solvjl inus foBttnoJ is
10,200
6.5QU
Flagfish,
Jordanello floridae
6,500
2,704
Amph ipod,
Camniarus pseudol imnoeus
2.704
1,820
Clodoceron,
Daphnio moana
855,8
13.31
Clodoceran,
Dophnio pulex
3,870
5.586
,783
Striped bass,
Uorone saxat ills
1,783
-------
Table 3. (continued)
Honk"
Genus Mean
Acute Value
(iia/L)
1,700
1.601
Species
Hydra,
Hydro sp.
Fathead minnow,
Pimepholes promelos
Species yean
Acute Value
(«a/Ub
1,700
1,601
Species Mean
Acute-Chronic
Ratioc
6.881
<603.6 Cladoceran.
Ceriodophnio aff i nis
<603.6
340
Amphi pod,
Hyolel I a ozteco
340
o\
It
442,000
Sele«iu»(VI)
Leech,
Nephelops!s obscuro
442.000
10
193,000
Snai I ,
Aplexa hypnorum
193.000
66.00U
Channel catfish,
Ictolurus punctatus
66,000
63,000
Bluegi11,
Lepomis mocrochirus
63,000
47,000
Rai nbo» trout,
Sal mo qoi rdneri
47,000
16.26
-------
Table 3. (continued)
Genus Mean
Acute Value
20.000
Uidge.
Porotonytorsus
porthenoqeneti cus
Species Mean
Acute Value
20,000
Species Ifean
Acute-Chroftic
Ratio*
7.300 Hydra. - 7.300
Hydro sp.
5,500 Fathead minnon. 5.500
Pimepholes promelas
760 Amphipod, 760
Hyolello aiteco
9 726
597.2
Cladoceron.
Daphni o moo, no
1,450
2.651
Cladoceran,
Daphni o pul i carlo
246
65.38 Amphipod,
Gofnmorus pseudol ironoeus
65.38
-------
Table 3. (continued)
Rank'
Genus Mean
Acute Valve
(m/U
Species Mean
Acute Value
Species yean
Acute-Chronic
Ratio6
14
17,350
14,650
SALTWATER SPECIES
Seleniua ||¥|
Fourspine stickleback,
Apeltes quodrocus
Winter flounder,
Pseudopleurontctes
omeri canus
17.350
14,650
13
>I 0.000
Blue mussel,
Mytilus edulis
>I 0,000
Ul
00
12
II
>10.000
9,725
Pacific oyster,
Crassastrea qiqos
Atlantic silverside,
Menidia menidia
)I 0.000
9,725
7,400
Sheepshead mjnno«,
Cypri nodon vor ieggt us
7,400
10.96
4.600
4.400
Blue crab,
Col 1i neetes sapi dus
Pinfish,
Logodon rhomboldes
4,600
4,400
-------
Table 3. (continued)
Rank
Genus liean
Acute Value
(OT/H
3,497
Summer flounder,
Porolichthys dent at us
Species Mean
Acute Vain*
3,497
Species Ueai
Acute-Chronic
1,550
Striped bass,
Horone squat 11 is
1,550
1,500
1,330
Vvsid,
ilysidopsis boh I o
Copepod.
Ac or tI a cIPUS i
1,500
2,110
7.085
Copepod,
Acort i a toasa
839
,200
Broun shrimp,
Penoeus oztecus
1.200
,040
Dungeness crab,
Cancer mgqjsttr
1 , 040
599
Haddock,
Melonoqrommus oeqlefi nus
599
Ranked from most resistant to most sensitive based on Genus Mean Acute Value.
Inclusion of "greater than" and "less than" values does not necessarily imply a true
ranking, but does allow use of all genera for *hich data are available so that the
Final Acute Value is not unnecessarily layered
From Table I.
From Table 2.
-------
Table 3. (continued)
Selenium(IV)
Fresh water
Final Acute Value = 371.8 /ig/L
Criterion Maximum Concentration = (371.8 /jg/L) / 2 = 185.9 /jg/L
Final Acute-Chronic Ratio = 8.314 (see text)
Final Chronic Value = (371 .8 |<9/L) / 8.314 = 44.72 /jg/l
Final Chronic Value = 27.6/jg/L (lowered to protect rainbow trout; see text)
Salt water
Final Acute Value = 587.7 pg/L
en
0 Criterion Maximum Concentration = (587.7 /*g/L) / 2 = 293.8 /ig/L
Final Acute-Chronic Ratio = 8.314 (see text)
Final Chronic Value = (587.7 /jg/L) / 8.314 = 70.69 /jg/L
SeleniumlVI)
Fresh water
Final Acute Value = 25 65 /jg/L
Criterion Maximum Concentration = (25 65 /Jg/L) / 2 = 12 82
Final Acute-Chronic Rat To = 2.651 (see text)
Final Chronic Value = (25 65 ^g/L) / 2 651 = 9.676 //g/L
-------
Table 4. loxictty of Selenium to Aquatic Plants
Species
Green alga,
Chi orel la vul qar is
Green alga,
Scenedesmus dimorphus
Green alga,
Scenedesmus quadricaudo
Green alga,
Scenedesmus quodr icaudo
Blue-green alga,
Microcystis aeruqinisa
B 1 ue-green alga,
Anabaena cylindriea
Blue-green alga,
Anaboena variabilis
Blue-green alga,
Anaeyst is ni dul ans
Hardness
(»g/L as
Chenical CoCO>)
Sodium
seleni t*
Sodium
seleni te
Sodium
seleni te
Sodium
seleni (e
Sodium
seleni te
Sodium
sel eni t e
Sodium
seleni te
Sodium
sel eni t e
Duration Concentration
(days) Effect (pa/it*
FRESHWATER SPECIES
Seleniu»(lV)
90-120 Reduced 5,480
gro*th
14 Reduced 24,000
gro»th
8 Incipient 522
inhibi t ion
8 Incipient 2.500
inhibi t ion
8 Incipient 9,400
inhibition (9,300)
14 Reduced 24,000
grout h
6-18 LC50 I5.000b
10-18 LC50 30,000b
Refereace
Green alga. Sod iurn
Sel enost rum copr i corny!um selettite
CC50
2,900
Oe Jong 1965
Woede et al I960
Bringmann and Kuhn
I977a;l978a,b;l9?9;
I980b
Bringmann and Kuhn
t 959o
Bringmann and Kuhn
f976;l978o,b
Uoede et al 1980
Kumar and Prakash
1971
Kumar and Proltash
1971
Richter 1982
-------
Table 4. (continued)
M
Species
Alga,
Euqlena qraci 1 is
Duckweed,
Lenin o minor
Blue-green alga.
Anoboeno cyl i ndrico
Blue-green alga,
Microcol eus yogi notus
Green alga.
Ank ist rodesmus
f al cat us
Green alga,
Scenedesmus
dimorphus
Green alga.
Scenedesmus
obi i quus
Green alga.
Selenostrum
capri cornut urn
Hardness
(»g/L «
Chenical CoCQj)
.
. '
Sodium
selenat*
Sodium
sel enate
Sodium
selenate
Sodium
set enate
Sodium
selenate
Sodium
selenate
Duration
(days) . Effect
IS Reduced
growth
4 CC50
**>
Seleniu«(Vl|
14 Reduced
growth
14 Reduced
growth
14 Did not re-
duce growth
14 Reduced
growth
14 Reduced
growth
14 Reduced
growth
Concentration
liit/D*
5,920
2.400
22,100
10,000
10
22,100
100
300
Reference
Barioud and Uestre
1984
Wang 1986
Moede et at. I960
Vocke et at, 1980
Vocke tt al. 1980
Uoede et al. 1980
Vocke et al 1980
Vocke et al. 1980
-------
Table 4. (continued)
OJ
Spec i ts
Green alga,
Sel enostrum
copr i cornut urn
Blue-green alga,
Anocyst is nidulons
Blue-green alga,
Anabaena viriabilis
Diatom,
Stel et onemo cost at urn
Oi nof I agel late,
PeridJ no ps is barge i
Hardness
{•9/1 «
Chemical CoCO,)
Sodium
selenate
-
Sodium
selenate
Sodium
selenate
Selenious
. ,c
acid
Selenium
oxide
Duration Concentration
(days) Effect (iia/D* Reference
4 CCSO 199 Richter 1982
6-18 CCSO 39,000b Kumar and Prakosh
1971
10-18 EC50 17,000b Kumar and Prakosh
1971
S*LTf*TER SPECIES
Seleniu«(VI)
4 CCSO (redyction 7,930 U.S. EPA 1978
in chlorophyll a)
70-75 Maximum 0.01-0. OS Lindstrom 1985
growth
Concentration of selenium, not the chemical.
Estimated from published graph.
0 Reported by Borrows et ai. (I960) in work performed under the same contract.
-------
Table 5. BiooccumuIotion of Selenium by Aquatic Organises
Species
Rainbow trout,
Sal mo qoi rdner i
Rai nfaow trout ,
S g 1 mo qoi rdner i
Rainbow trout (embryo),
So 1 mo qoi rdner i
fathead mi nnow ,
Pimephales promel os
fathead minnow,
Pimephales promajos
Bluegi It ,
Lepomis macrochirus
Bluegi 1 1 ,
Lepomis macrochirus
Lorgemouth bass.
Micropterus solmoides
Chemical
Sodium
seleni te
Sodium
seleni te
Sodium
seleni te
Sodi urn
seleni te
Sodium
seleni te
Set eni ous
aci d
Sodium
seleni te
Sodi urn
seleni te
Hardness
(»g/L as
CoCOjl
325
. 325
135
320-360
320-360
-
25
25
200
200
25
25
200
200
Concentration Duration
in Water fiiq/l)° (d«*s)
FRESHWATER SPECIES
Seleniu«(IVl
48
- ' 48
t
308
(post hatch)
96
- . 96
28
10 120
10 120
10 120
10 120
10 120
10 120
10 120
10 I2U
Tissue
Muscle
Whole body
Whole body
(estimate)
Muscle
Whole body
Whole body
Whole body
Whole body
Whole body
Whole body
Whole body
Whole body
Whole body
Whole body
ICE or
IAfk Refer.-ce
2 Adams 1976
IOC Adams 1976
8 Hodson et ol .
1980
116 Adams 1976
17.6 Adams 1976
20 Barrows et ol
1980
450 Lemly 1982
47U
430
460
310 Lemly 1982
300
300
270
-------
Table 5. (continued)
Spec i es
Fathead minno*
(6-9 mo),
Pimephales^ promel as
Fathead minnow
(6-9 mo),
Pimephol es promel as
Fathead minno*
(6-9 mo) ,
Pimephol es promel as
Cuphausi id (adult J ,
Ueqanyct i phones norveqica
Euphausi i d (adul t ) ,
Meqonyct i phones norveqi co
Shore crab (adult) ,
Carcinus maenas
Shore crab (adul t ) ,
Carcinus maenas
Shore crab ( adul t ) ,
Core i nus maenos
Hardness
(»g/L as Concentration Duration
Chemical CaCO,) in Water (jiq/L)a (days)
Selenium VI
Sodium - 10 7 56
selenate
Sodium - 21 5 56
selenate
Sodium - 43 5 56
selenate
SALT WATT R SPECIES
Sele»iu«(lV)
Sodi urn - 28
sel en i t e
Sodium - - • 28
seleni te
Sodium - 250 29
sel en i te
Sodium - 250 29
sel eni te
Sodium - 250 29
sel eni t e
ICF or
Tissue l*Fk
Whole 52d
body
Whole 26d
body
Whole 2ld
body
Whole 200
animal
Whole 800e
animal
Gill 14 4(lf
Hepato- 4 080f'9
pancreas
Muscle 2 88Uf'9
Reference
Bertram and Brooks
1986
Bertram and Brooks
1986
Bertram and Brooks
1986
Fouler and Benayoun
I976c
Fowler and Benayoun
I976c
Bjerregaard 1982
Bjerregaard 1982
Bjerregaard 1982
-------
Table 5. (continued)
Species
Striped bass
(juvenile, fed),
Morone soxot His
Striped bass
(juvenile, starved),
Uorone saxat i 1 i s
Striped bass
( juveni le, fed) ,
Morone saxat i 1 is
Striped bass
(juvenile, starved),
Horone soxot i 1 is
Chemical
Sodium
selenate
Sodium
selenate
Sodium
selenate
Sodium
selenate
Salinity Concentration Duration
(a/kg) in Water dn/U" (days) Tissue
Seleniu* VI
90 60 Whole
body
90 60 Whole
body
1,290 SO Whole
body
1,290 60 Who]*
body
ICr or
BAF Reference
No Increase Klaudo 1985
11.78 Klouda 1985
0 68 Klaudo 1985
0 69 Kaudo 1985
Measured concentration of selenium.
Bioconcentration factors (BCFs) and bioaccumulation factors (BAFs) are based on measured concentrations of selenium in voter
and in t issue.
Estimated from graph.
Calculated by dividing the reported equilibrium concentration in tissue (steady-state body burden) by the average measured
concentration in voter.
Includes uptake from food.
Factor *as converted from dry weight to wet weight basis (see Guidelines)
" Concentration of selenium was the same in exposed and control animals.
-------
Table 6. Other Data an Effects of Selenium ON Aquatic Organisms
Hardness
Species
Green alga,
Scenedesmus quodri couda
Green alga,
Sel enostrum copri cornut um
Green alga,
Sel enostrum copri cornut um
Green alga,
Selenastrum capr i cornut um
Alga,
Chrysochromul i no
brev i t urr i to
Al goe ( di atoms) ,
Mixed population
Bacter i um,
Escher i chia col i
Bacteri um,
Pseudomonus put i da
(mg/L as
Chemical CaCO,)
Sodium
seleni te
Sodium
sel eni te
Sodium
seleni te
Sodium
sel eni te
Selenious
ac id
Sodium
sel eni te
Sodium
seleni te
Sodium
sel eni te
Concentration
Duration Effect (
-------
Table 6. (continued)
00
Species •
Protozoan,
Cntosi ption s u 1 c a t urn
Protozoan,
Mi croreqma het erost omo
Protozoan,
Chi | omonos paramec i urn
Protozoan ,
Uronemo porduezi
Snai 1 ,
Lvmnaea st aanal is
Cladoceran,
Dophni a magna
Cladoceran,
Oqphni a mo gnu
Cladoceran,
Dophni q mogna
Cl odoceron ,
Daphn i a mag no
Hardness
(«g/L as
Ckewical CoCO.)
Sodium
seleni te
Sodium
seleni te
Sodium
seleni te
Sodium
seleni te
Sodium
sel eni te
Sodium
seleni te
Sodium 214
seleni te
Sodium 214
seleni te
Sodium 329
sel eni te
Durot io«
72 hr
28 hr
48 hr
20 hr
75 days
48 hr
24 hr
24 hr
48 hr
96 hr
14 days
CoRcent rot i o*
Effect (iiQ/t)
Incipient 1 . 8
inhibition (1,9)
Incipient 183,000
i nhi bi t ion
Incipient 62
i nhi bi t ion
Incipient 1 IB
inhibition
IT50 3,000
ECSO (river 2,500
•ater)
LC50 (6,000
ECSO 99
(swimmi ng)
ECSO 710
(fed) 430
430
Reference
Bringmonn 1978;
Bringmann and Kuhn
I979,l980b;l98l
Bringmann and Kuhn
19596
Bringmann and Kuhn 1981
Bringmonn et ol , 1980
Bringmann and Kuhn
I98UQ.I98I
Von Puymbroeck et al .
1982
Bringmonn and Kuhn
1959o.b
Bringmann and Kuhn
Bringmann and Kuhn
1977b
Halter et al 1980
-------
Table 6. (continued)
Hardness
Chemical
Conceptrotio*
Durot ion
Effect
Cladoceran (<24 hr).
Daphnio maqno
C 1 adoceran.
Oophnia moqno
Ostracod,
Cyc I ocypr is sp.
Aniphi pod ,
Hyu 1 el 1 a azteca
Coho salmon (fry) ,
Oncorhynchus k i s u t c h
vo Rainbow trout (fry).
Salmo qairdneri
Rai nbow trout ( f ry ) ,
Salmo qairdneri
Roi nbow trout ,
Salmo qairdneri
Rai nbo* trout ,
Solmo qairdneri
Rai nbow trout ,
S_o 1 mo qai rdneri
Sodium
seleni te
Seienious 220
acid
Sodium 100 8
selenite ,
Sodium 329
seleni te
Sodium 325
seleni te
Sodium 334
seleni te
Sodium 334
seleni te
Sodi urn 330
seleni te
Sodium 325
seleni te
Sodium 325
selen i te
48 hr
21 days
48 hr
48 hr
14 days
43 days
21 days
21 days
5 days
48 days
96 days
CC5Q
(fed)
LC50
-------
Table 6, (continued)
Species
Rainbow trout.
Salmo qairdneri
Rainbo* trout,
So Imp go i rdner i
Roi nbow trout ,
So Imo go i rdner i
Rai nbo* trout ,
So Imo da i rdner i
Rainbo* trout ,
Salmo qairdneri
o
Rainbow trout (embryo),
Salmo qairdneri
Ra i nbo* trout ,
Salmo go i rdneri
Northern pike,
Csox lucius
Goldfish,
Coross i us aurot us
Hardness
(«i/L as
Chemical CaCOj
Sodium 135
seleni t*
Sodium 135
seleni te
Sodium 135
seleni te
Sodium 135
seleni te
Sodi urn 1 35
seleni te
Sodium
seleni te
Sodium 272
seleni te
Sodi urn 10,2
seleni te
Seleni urn 1 57
dioxide
Duration
9 days
96 hr
9 days
96 hr
9 days
41 days
50 «k
120 hr
90 days
76 hr
14 days
Effect
LC50
LC50
(fed)
LC50
(fed)
Reduced
hatch of eyed
embryos
Decreased iron
in blood
Did not reduce
survival or
time to hatch
LC50
LC50
LC50
Concentration
(tt«/L)B
7,020
7,200
5,410
8,200
6,920
47
53
10,000
55,2*
11 , 1 00
6,300
Reference
Hodson et ol.
Hodson et al .
Hodson et ol .
Hodson et al .
Hodson et al .
Klaverkomp et
I983b
1980
1980
1980
1980
1980
al
Hunn et al, 1987
Kloverkamp et
I983a
Cordwell et al
I976a,b
al.
-------
Table 6. (continued)
Spec i os
Goldfish,
Corossius aurotus
Goldfish,
Corossius aurotus
Goldfish,
Carasstus auratus
Goldfish,
Corossius aurotus
Goldfish,
Carossi us ourotus
Fathead minnow,
Pimephol es promel as
Fathead minnow,
Pimephal es promel as
Fathead minnow,
Pimephal es promelas
Fathead minnow.
Pimephales promelas
Fathead minnow.
Pimephales promelas
Hardness
(•5/L as
Chenicol CoCOT) Duration
Sodi urn - 10 days
selenite
Sodium - 46 days
selenite
Seleni urn - 7 days
dioxide
Selenium - 48 hr
dioxide
Sodium - 24 hr
sel enate
Sodium 338 48 days
selenate
Selenium 157 9 days
di ox i de
Sodium 329 96 hr
sel eni te
Sodium 329 14 days
sel eni te
Selenious 220d 8 days
act d
Effect
Mortality
Gradual
anorexia and
mortal i ty
LC50
Condi t i onal
avoidance
BCF = 1.42
BCF = 1.15
BCF =1.47
BCF = 0.88
BCF = I .54
LC50
LC50
LC50
(fed)
IC50
(fed)
LC50
(fed)
Conce*trat i OR
(*ifl/L)
5.000
2,000
1 2 , 000
250
0.45
0.9
1.35
2.25
4.5
I .100
2,100
1,000
600
420
Reference
Ellis 1937; Ellis
et al 1937
Ellis et al. 1937
Weir and Hine 1970
Weir and Hine 1970
Shortna and Davis
1980
Adorns 1976
CardnelI et al.
I976a,b
Halter et al. 1980
Halter et al. 1980
KimbalI, Manuscri pt
-------
Table 6. (continued)
ISJ
Species
Creek chub,
Semotilus otromocul otus
Bluegi 1 1 ,
Lepomis mocrochi rus
Bluegill.
Lepomis macrochirus
Yel 1 ow perch ,
Perco f 1 avescens
African clawed frog,
Xenopus ! oev i s
African clawed frog,
Xenopus loevis
Alga,
Chrysochromu 1 i no
brevi turr i to
Snai 1 ,
Lymnoeo stoqnol is
Cladoceran,
Daphn i o irioqna
Hardness
(•g/L os
Chemical CoCOj
Selenium
dioxide
Sodium 318
seleni te
Selenium 157
dioxide
Sodium 10.2
seleni te
Sodium
seleni te
Sodium
seleni te
- -
Sodi urn
selenate
Sodium 129 5
sel enate
Concentration
Duration Effect lua/ll0
48 hr Mortality >.I2.000
48 days LC50 400
14 days LC50 12.500
10 days LC50 4,800
7 days LC50 1 ,520
1-7 days Cellular damage 2.000
Seleniu«(Vl)
30 days Increased 50
growth
6 days LT50 15.000
7 days LC50 (fed) 1,870
Reference
Kim et al. 1977
Adams 1976
Cardwel 1 et al .
I976a,b
Kl averkomp et al .
1983
Browne and Dumont
1979
Browne and Oumont
1980
Wehr and Brown 1985
Van Puymbroeck et al
1982
Dunbor et al 1983
-------
Table 6. (continued)
Species
Rainbow trout
(embryo, larva),
Salmo qoirdneri
Goldfish
(embryo , larva) ,
Carassius ouratus
Fathead mi nnow,
Pimepli aies promel as
Fathead minnow,
Pimephales promelas
Fathead minnow,
Pimephales promelas
fathead minnow,
Pimephales promelas
Channel catfish
( embryo, fry) ,
Ictalurus punctatus
Narrow-mouthed toad
(embryo, 1 arva) ,
Hardness
(•f/L as Concentration
Chemical CoCO,) Duration Effect (/J«j/L)°
Sodium 104 28 days EC50 (death 5.000
selenatt (92-110) and deformity) (4,180)
(5,170)
Sodium 195 7 days CCSO (death 8,780
selenate and deformity)
Sodium 337.9 48 days LCSQ 2,000
selenate
51 30 min No avoidance 11,200
24 hr LC50 82,000
24 hr Reduced thermal 22,200
tolerance
Sodium 90 8,5-9 days Induced albinism
sel enot e
Sodium 195 7 days CCSO (death and 90
selenate deformity)
Reference
Birge 1978; Birge and
Black 1977; Birge et at
1980
Birge 1978
Adams 1976
Watenpaugh and
Beitinger 1 985a
Watenpaugh and
Beitinger I985b
Watenpaugh and
Beitinger 1 986c
Westermon and
Birge 1978
Birge 1978; Birge and
Black 1977; Birge et al
Costrojihrvne carol i nensis
I979a
-------
Table 6. (continued)
Species
Anaerobic bacterium.
Met hanococcus vannielli
Green alga,
Chlorel la sp.
Green alga,
Plotymonos subcordi f ormis
Green alga,
Dunal i el 1 a primolecto
Di atom,
Thai lossiosi ro oest it/alls
Brown alga,
Fucus spi ral i s
Red alga,
Porphyridium cruentum
Chemical
Sodi um
seleni te
Sodi um
seleni te
Sodi um
sel eni te
Sod i um
sel eni te
Seleni um
ox i de
Sodi um
sel eni t e
Sod i um
sel eni t e
Salinity
(q/kq) Duration
SALTWATER SPECIES
SeleniuM(IV)
110 hr
32 14 days
32 14 days
32 20 days
29-30 72 hr
61) days
32 27 days
Effect
Stimulated
grout h
5-I2Z increase
in growth
23Z increase
in growth
1 ncreased
growth; induced
gl utathi one
perox i dase
No effect on
cell morphology
13557 increase
i n growt h
of thalli
1 ncrease
growth ; i nduced
Concentration
(«q/Lia
79 01
10-10.000
100-10.000
4.600
78 96
2.605
4,600
Reference
Jones and Stadtman
1977
Wheeler et ol. 1982
Wheeler et al. 1982
Gennity et al . I985o,b
Thomas et al I980a
Fries 1982
Gennity et al. I985a,b
glutathi one
peroxidase
-------
Table f». (continued)
Spec i es
Green alga.
Chi orel |q sp.
Green alga,
Chi orel la sp.
Green 0)90,
D u n o 1 let la primal ecto
Green alga,
Ounaliella primolecta
-•4
*"" Green alga,
Dunaliella primolecta
Green alga,
Platymonos subcordi f ormis
Che»icol
Sodium
selenoje
Sod i urn
selenote
Sodi urn
selenate
Sodium
selenote
Sod! urn
sel enate
Sodium
selenate
Salinity
(a/ka)
32
32
32
32
32
32
Dura t i on
Seleniu«(Vl)
14 days
4-5 days
14 days
14 days
4-5 days
14 days
Concentration
Effect liio/Li"
No effect on 10-1000
rate of eel 1
1002 mortality 10,000
No effect on 10-100
rate of eel I
population growth
7IZ reduction I ,000
i n rate of eel 1
population gronth
100% mortality 10,000
No effect 10
on rate of
Reference
Wheeler *t al. 1982
Wheeler et ol . 1982
Wheeler et al . (982
Wheeler et al . 1982
Wheeler et al 1982
Wheeler et al . 1982
cell population
growth
Green alga, Sodium
P.I otymonos subcordi formis selenote
Green alga. Sodium
PIaiymonos subcordi formis selenate
32
32
14 days
14 days
I6X decrease
i r> rate of
cell population
groHth
50% decrease in
rate of c«lI
populat i on
grout h
100
I ,000
Wheeler et al. 1982
Wheeler et al 1982
-------
Table 6. (continued)
Species
Green olgo,
Plotymonos sufacordi formis
Brown alga,
Fucus spi rol is
Red alga,
Porphr idi urn cruentum
Red alga,
Porphvridi urn cruentum
Eastern oyster (adult),
Crassostrea virqinica
Striped bass (embryo),
Uorone soxat i 1 i s
Striped bass (larva),
Morone saxat i 1 is
Striped bass (juvenile),
Uorone saxat i 1 is
Sol ini ty
Chemical (q/kq) Duration
Sodium 32 4-5 days
selenate
Sodium - 60 days
selenate
Sodium 32 14 days
selenate
Sodium 32 4-5 days
selenate
Sodium 34 14 days
sel enate
Sodium 7 2-7 5 4 days
sel enate
Sodium 4 0-5.0 4 days
selenate
Sodium 3.5-5 5 9-65 days
selenate
Effect
IOOZ mortality
160* increase
in growth
rate of thai 1 i
23-35* reduction
in rate of eel 1
population growth
100* mortal i ty
No significant
effect on respir-
at i on rate of gi 1
t issue
93* successful
hatch and
surv i ve
LC50 (control
survi val = 77Z)
Signi f icant
i ncidence of
Concentration
10.000
2.605
10-1000
10,000
400
1
200,000
13.020
39-1 ,360
Reference
Wheeler *t al. 1982
Fries 1982
Wheeler et al. 1982
Wheeler et al. 1982
Fowler et al. 1981
Klauda 1985
Klauda 1985
Klauda 1985
development ano-
malies of lower
jaw
-------
Table 6. (continued)
Species
Striped bass (juvenile).
Morone soxot i 1 is
CfceRMcol
Sodium
selenate
j
Salinity
(o/kq)
3.5-5.5
CoRcectrat io«
Duration Effect f Pi/Li*
45 days Significant 1,290
incidence of
severe blood
cy topathology
Reference
Klauda 1985
Concentration of selenium, not the chemical.
Converted from dry weight to «et Height basis (see Guidelines).
Growth of algae was inhibited.
4 from Smith et ai. (1976).
6 Calculated from the published data using probit analysis and aliening for 8.9Z spontaneous mortality.
-------
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