e _
WO 5 88
Draft
8/30/88
AMBIENT AQUATIC LIFE WATER QUALITY CRITERIA FOR
ANTIMONY(III)
U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
OFFICE OF RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT
ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH LABORATORIES
DULUTH, MINNESOTA
NARRAGANSETT, RHODE ISLAND
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NOTICES
This document has been reviewed by the Criteria and Standards Division, Office
of Water Regulations and Standards, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, and
approved for publication.
Mention of trade names or commercial products does not constitute endorsement
or recommendation for use.
This document is available to the public through the National Technical
Information Service (NTIS), 5285 Port Royal Road, Springfield, VA 22161.
ii
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FOREWORD
Section 304(a)(l) of the Clean Water Act requires the Administrator of
the Environmental Protection Agency to publish water quality criteria that
accurately reflect the latest scientific knowledge on the kind and extent of
all identifiable effects on health and welfare that might be expected from the
presence of pollutants in any body of water. Pursuant to that end, this
document proposes water quality criteria for the protection of aquatic life.
These criteria do not involve consideration of effects on human health.
This document is a draft, distributed for public review and comment.
After considering all public comments and making any needed changes, EPA will
issue the criteria in final form, at which time they will replace any
previously published EPA aquatic life criteria for the same pollutant.
The term "water quality criteria" is used in two sections of the Clean
Water Act, section 304(a)(l) and section 303(c)(2). In section 304, the term
represents a non-regulatory, scientific assessment of effects. Criteria
presented in this document are such scientific assessments. If water quality
criteria associated with specific stream uses are adopted by a State as water
quality standards under section 303, then they become maximum acceptable
pollutant concentrations that can be used to derive enforceable permit limits
for discharges to such waters.
Water quality criteria adopted in State water quality standards could
have the same numerical values as criteria developed under section 304.
However, in many situations States might want to adjust water quality criteria
developed under section 304 to reflect local environmental conditions before
incorporation into water quality standards. Guidance is available from EPA to
assist States in the modification of section 304(a)(l) criteria, and in the
development of water quality standards. It is not until their adoption as
part of State water quality standards that the criteria become regulatory.
Martha 6. Prothro
Director
Office of Water Regulations and Standards
iii
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Loren J. Larson
(freshwater author)
University of Wisconsin-Superior
Superior, Wisconsin
Robert S. Carr
(saltwater author)
Battelle Ocean Sciences
Duxbury, Massachusetts
Charles E. Stephan
(document coordinator)
Environmental. Research Laboratory
Duluth, Minnesota
David J. Hansen
(saltwater coordinator)
Environmental Research Laboratory
Narragansett, Rhode Island
IV
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CONTENTS
Page
Foreword. . . ' i i
Acknowledgments iv
Tables vi
Introduction 1
Acute Toxicity to Aquatic Animals 4
Chronic Toxicity to Aquatic Animals 5
Toxicity to Aquatic Plants 6
Bioac cumulation ; 7
Other Data 7
Unused Data 8
Summary . . 9
National Criteria 10
Implementation 11
References,
28
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TABLES
Page
1. Acute' Toxicity of Antimony(111) to Aquatic Animals 16
*;
2. Chronic Toxicity of Antimony( III) to Aquatic Animals 19
3. Ranked Genus Mean Acute Values with Species Mean Acute-Chronic
Ratios 21
4. Toxicity of Antimony( 111) to Aquatic Plants 24
5. Bioaccumulation of Antimony( 111) by Aquatic Organisms 25
6. Other Data on Effects of Antimony(111) on Aquatic Organisms 26
VI
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Introduction
Antimony occurs naturally in the environment. Geologic formations and
minerals such as stibnik, kermesite, senarmonite, and jamesonite are comprised
in part of antimony. Water-borne antimony can result from natural weathering
of these formations or from anthropogenic sources such as effluents of mining,
manufacturing and municipal wastes. Important uses of antimony, as antimony
oxide, include its incorporation into various materials as a flame retardant.
There are no known biological functions for antimony (Wood and Wang 1985).
Oxidation states of antimony include -3, 0,. +3, and +5. According to
Callahan et al. (1979), the +3 state occurs under "moderately oxidizing
conditions," whereas +5 predominates in highly oxidizing environments. Field
data from Andreae et al. (1981) indicated that in natural waters antimony(V)
greatly predominates, although their samples appear to have been taken from
we 11-oxygenated waters. The possible effect of dissolved oxygen levels
approaching or entering anoxia on the ratio of Sb(111)/Sb(V) is unknown.
Callahan et al. (1979) stated that important processes influencing the
/'
fate of antimony in the aquatic environment include chemical speciation
(determined by ambient oxygen levels), volatilization, and sorption to
sediments. Andreae et al. (1981) indicated that biomethylation is also an
important process which may, in addition to the volatilization of stibine
(SbH3) from reducing sediments, act to remobilize antimony from bed
sediments. These processes and reactions are similar to those found for
certain other metals and metalloids (e.g., arsenic, selenium, mercury) and are
important in assessing environmental impacts (Wood and Wang 1985).
Precipitation of antimony, primarily as antimony trioxide (Sb203) or
antimony oxychloride (SbOCl) can be an important factor in limiting soluble
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antimony levels in natural waters, and can influence the results of toxicity
tests. Antima
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antimony(III). Results from studies on freshwater organisms in which antimony
trioxide was used were placed in Table 6, if otherwise acceptable. In all
cases, toxicity tests utilizing antimony trioxide produced "greater than"
values. Only acute toxicity tests utilizing antimony trichloride were
included in the freshwater section of Table 1 and used to derive freshwater
criteria. Data from acceptable tests on both antimony trichloride and
antimony trioxide were used in the derivation of the saltwater criterion.
Unless otherwise noted, all concentrations of antimony(111) in water
reported herein from toxicity and bioconcentration tests are expected to be
essentially equivalent, to acid-soluble antimony(111) concentrations. All
concentrations are expressed as antimony, not as the chemical tested.
Although antimony(V) is expected to be the predominant oxidation state at
chemical equilibrium in oxygenated alkaline water (Andreae et al. 1981), it
was assumed that whin antimony(III) was introduced into stock or test
solutions, it would persist as the predominate state throughout the test, eVen
if no analyses specific for the antimony(111) oxidation state were performed.
A comprehension of the "Guidelines for Deriving Numerical National Water
Quality Criteria for the Protection of Aquatic Organisms and Their Uses"
(Stephan et al. 1985), hereinafter referred to as the Guidelines, and the
»
response -to public comment (U.S. EPA 1985a) is necessary in order to
understand the following text, tables, and calculations. Results of such
intermediate calculations as recalculated LCSOs and Species Mean Acute Values
are given to four significant figures to prevent round-off error in subsequent
calculations, not to reflect the precision of the value. The criteria
presented herein supersede the aquatic life information in the previous .
criteria document for antimony (U.S. EPA 1980a) because these criteria were
^
derived using improved procedures and additional information. The latest
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comprehensive literature search for information for this document was
conducted in July, 1986; some more recent information was also included.
Acute Toxicitv to Aquatic Animals
Acceptable data on the acute toxicity of antimony(111) to freshwater
organisms are available for seven species (Table 1). Five of those species,
an annelid, amphipod, caddisfly, the rainbow trout, and the bluegill, have
reported LCSOs greater than the highest soluble antimony(111) levels
attained. These values were greater than about 26,000 ng/L (Brooke et al.
1986; Spehar 1987).
Finite LCSOs were reported by Brooke et'al. (1986), Kimball (Manuscript),
and Spehar (1987) for the fathead minnow, Pimeohales promelaa. the cladocerans
Daphnia magna and Ceriodaohnia dubia and a hydra, Hvdra oligactis. The minnow
$'
and cladoceran Species Mean Acute Values* were 21,800 ng/L, 18,140 /jg/L,
and 3,470 Hg/L, respectively. The hydra was considerably more sensitive to
antimony(III) with a 96-hr LC50 of 500 ng/L. Antimony(111) was more toxic
to fi. magna in tests in which the organisms were fed. The 48-hr EC50 was 33%
lower when the cladoceran was fed.
Freshwater Species Mean Acute Values (Table 1) were calculated as
\
geometric means of the available acute values, and then Genus Mean Acute
Values (Table 3) were calculated as geometric means of the available Species
Mean Acute Values. Of the nine freshwater genera for which mean acute values
are availably the most sensitive genus, Hvdra. is at least 51 times more
sensitive than the most resistant genus. The freshwater Final Acute Value for
antimony(lll) was calculated to be 175.0 ng/L, using the procedure
described in the Guidelines. The Final Acute Value is lower than the lowest
freshwater Species Mean Acute Value.
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The acute toxicity of antimony(111) to saltwater animals has been
determined with seven invertebrate and four fish species (Table 1). The range
of acute values extends from 3,780 pg/L for adult sea urchins, Hvtechinus
nictus (Bettelle Ocean Sciences 1987) to > 1,000,000 jig/L for the
muramichog, Fundulus heteroclitus (Dorfman 1977)., Acute values were similar
from tests with antimony trichloride and antimony trioxide with the sheepshead
minnow, Cvprinodon variegatus. and possibly with the mysid, Mvsidopsis bahia
(Battelle Ocean Sciences 1987; Heitmuller et al. 1981; U.S. EPA 1978). Hughes
and Boothman (1987) reported unstable antimony in flow-through tests with
Menidia beryl 1ina caused by the hydrolysis of antimony trichloride to antimony
oxychloride. The acute value of 7,830 /ig/L from their test differed little
from the acute value of 21,900 pg/L from a static test with the same
species (Battelle Ocean Sciences 1987), probably because most of the mortality
in both tests occurred during the first 24 hours of the 96-hr tests.
Acute values for the seven most sensitive species, four invertebrate
species from three phyla, and three fish species, differed by only a factor of
3.4: The saltwater Final Acute Value is 2,934 Mg/L, which is lower than
the lowest saltwater Species Mean Acute Value. The saltwater Final Acute
Value is much higher than the freshwater Final Acute Value, probably because
chloride reduces the toxicity of antimony(111).
Chronic Toxicity to Aquatic Animals
The available data that are usable according to the Guidelines concerning
the chronic toxicity of antimony(111) are summarized in Table 2. Kimball
(Manuscript) conducted a life-cycle test with a cladoceran, Daohnia magna. In
relatively hard water (220 mg/L as CaC03), survival of the cladoceran was
reduced.to 40% at a concentration of 4,160 ng/L, although reproduction of
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the survivors was equal or better than that of the controls. Survival of
cladocerans exposed to 2,490 pg/L was equal to that of the controls. The
chronic value for this test was 3,218 pg/L and the acute-chronic ratio was
5.633. The 28-day LC50 was 4,510 pg/L.
An early Ilife-stage chronic exposure with the fathead minnow (Pimephales
promelas) was also conducted by Kimball (Manuscript). Growth of juveniles was
the most sensitive effect, and was reduced at a concentration of
2,310 psg/L. No significant reduction in survival or growth was observed at
1,130 pg/L. The resulting chronic value and acute-chronic ratio were
1,616 ng/L and 13.51, respectively.
The chronic toiicity of antimony(111) has been determined in two early
life-stage tests with a saltwater fish, the inland silverside, Menidia
bervllina (Hughes and Boothman 1987). Results from the testa were similar,
with concentrations > 8,770 ng/L reducing survival, and concentrations
> 4,030 ng/L reducing weights of surviving fish. No effects were detected
at < 2,230 ng/L. Chronic values for the two tests were 2,874 and
/
3,016 /ig/L; the acute.-chronic ratios were 2.724 and 2.596, respectively.
The available Species Mean Acute-Chronic Ratios are 5.633, 13.51, and
2.659 (Table 3). The geometric mean of these three values is 5.871, which is
the Final Acute-Chronic Ratio. Division of the freshwater and saltwater Final
Acute Values by 5.871 results in freshwater and saltwater Final Chronic Values
of 29.81 and 499.7 pg/L, respectively.
Toxicitv to Aquatic Plants
Data on the effects of antimony(III) on aquatic plants are summarized in
Table 4. In a 4-day exposure with the green alga Selenastrum capricornutum.
the EC50 (chlorophyll a.) was 610 jig/L.(U.S. EPA 1978). Within the obvious
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limitations of this restricted data set, this might indicate a high relative
toxicity of antimony(111) to freshwater algae compared to other freshwater
organisms. Brooke et al. (1986) reported the EC50 for duckweed (Lemna minor)
to be greater than solubility. No effects were observed at the highest
concentration attainable, 25,200 ng/L.
Information on the toxicity of antimony(111) to saltwater plants is
limited to one 96-hr test with the diatom, Skeletonema costatum (U.S. EPA
1978). No effect was observed on chlorophyll A at 4,200 -fig/L.
A Final Plant Value, as defined by the Guidelines, cannot be obtained
because no test has been conducted with a sensitive aquatic plant species in
which the concentration of antimony(111) was measured.
Bioaccumulation
Barrows et al. (1980) studied uptake of antimony(111) in bluegills (Table
5). In a 28-day exposure, no antimony residues significantly greater than
those of the controls were found. Antimony is known to occur in the tissues
of saltwater organisms (Hall et al. 1978; Goldberg 1972; Chattopadhyay et al.
1979; Greig and Jones 1976). No data are available on the magnitude of
bioconcentration of antimony(111) in salt water. Antimony is one of several
elements known to form methyl-metal compounds in environmental exposures which
readily bioaccumulate (Wood and Wang 1985).
No U.S. FDA action level or other maximum acceptable concentration in
tissue, as defined in the Guidelines, is available for antimony(111), and,
therefore, no Final Residue Value can be calculated.
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Other Data
Additional data concerning the lethal and sublethal effects of
antimony(III) on aquatic species are presented in Table 6. Birge (1978) and
Birge et al. (1979,1980) conducted studies on the mortality and teratogenic
effects of antimony trichloride on embryo-larval stages of rainbow trout
(Salmo gairdneri). goldfish (Carassius auratus). and a toad (Gastrophvrne
carolinensis). ECSOs (death and deformity) were calculated at 4 days
post-hatch. The goldfish was significantly more resistant to antimony(111),
with an EC50 of 11,300 Mg/L, than the rainbow trout and the toad, which had
ECSOs of 660 and 300 (ig/L, respectively.
Also included in Table 6 are results of toxicity tests on antimony
triozide (SboOo). Results are available for a cladoceran (Daphnia magna).
fathead minnow (Pimeohales promelas) and a bluegill (Lepomis macrochirus).
Presumably due to the low solubility of this salt, all results were reported
as "greater than" values. Independent of nominal concentrations, soluble
antimony(III) levels in all these tests were probably about 4,000 ng/L
(Brooke et al. 1986), which is below the known acute sensitivity of most
freshwater fish and invertebrates to antimony(III).
Unused Data
Some data on the effects of antimony on aquatic organisms were not used
because the studies were conducted with species that are not resident in North
America (e.g., Juhnke and Ludemann 1978). Results were not used when the test
procedures (e.g., Amiard 1976; Knie et al. 1983) or test material (e.g.,
Tfoodiwiss and, Fretweli 1974) were not adequately described. Results by .
Taraulinus (1979) were not used because the dilution water was renewed only
once a week. Data were not used when antimony was a component of. an effluent.
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mixture, or sediment (e.g., Hildebrand and Carter 1976; Jay and Muncy 1979;
Payer and Runkel 1978; Seeleye et al. 1982; Thomas et al. 1980b). Tests
conducted with too few test organisms (e.g., Tarzwell and Henderson 1960) were
not used. Results of tests conducted on antimony(V) were not used (e.g.,
Hollibaugh et al. 1980; Thomas et al. 1980a).
Reports of the concentrations of antimony in wild aquatic organisms.(e.g.,
Brezina and Arnold 1977; Chassard-Bouchard and Balvay 1978; Chattopadhyay et
al. 1979; Cherry et al. 1979,1980; DeGoey et al. 1974; Friant and Koerner
1981; Friant and Sherman 1980; Goldberg 1972; Greig and Jones 1976; Hall et
al. 1978; Hert and Klusek 1985; Korda et al. 1977; Lucas et al. 1970; Moller
et al. 1983; Payer et al. 1976; Shuman et al. 1977; Smock 1983a,b; Telitchenko
et al. 1970; Tong et al. 1974; Uthe and Bligh 1971) were not used to calculate
bioaccumulation factors when the number of measurements of the concentration
in water was too small.
Summary
Acute toxicity of antiraony(IIl) to several freshwater species did not
occur below the limits of solubility of antimony salts. These species
included an annelid, an amphipod, a caddisfly, and rainbow trout. Four
species were reported to be acutely sensitive to antimony(111). Mean acute
values for the fathead minnow, Daphnia magna. Ceriodaphnia dubia. and a hydra
were 21,800, 18,140, 3,470, and 500 /ig/L, respectively. Chronic toxicity
of antimony(III) to Daphnia magna and the fathead minnow has been studied.
Chronic values were 3,218 and 1,616 pg/L, respectively.
The freshwater alga Selenastrum capricornutum had an EC50 of 610 Mg/L
in a 4-day exposure to antimony(III). There was no effect on a freshwater
vascular plant, Lemna minor, at the highest concentration attainable in
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water. Negligible uptake of antimony(111) was reported in the bluegill
(Lepomi s macrochi rus).
Acute toxicity tests have been conducted on antimony(111) with eleven
genera of saltwater animals and the acute values range from 3,780 ng/L for
the sea urchin, Lvtechinus pictus. to > 1,000,000 ng/L for the mummichog,
Fundulus heteroclitus. The values for the seven most sensitive genera,
including representatives of four phyla, differed by only a factor of 3.4.
The chronic values from two early life-stage-tests with the inland silverside,
Menidia bervllina. were 2,874 and 3,016 ng/L; the acute-chronic ratios were
2.724 and 2.596, respectively. The diatom, Skeletonema costatum. was not
affected by 4,200 fig/L.
National Criteria
The procedures described in the "Guidelines for Deriving Numerical
National Water Quality Criteria for the Protection of Aquatic Organisms and
Their Uses" indicate that, except possibly where a locally important species
is very sensitive, freshwater aquatic organisms and their uses should not be
affected unaoceptably if the four-day average concentration of antimony(111)
does not exceed 30 pg/L more than once every three years on the average
and if the one-hour average concentration does not exceed 88 ng/L more
than once every three years on the average.
The procedures described in the "Guidelines for Deriving Numerical
National Water Quality Criteria for the Protection of Aquatic Organisms and
Their Uses" indicate that, except possibly where a locally important species
is very sensitive, saltwater aquatic organisms and their uses should not be
affected unacceptably if the four-day average concentration of antimony(111)
10
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does not exceed 500 ng/L more than once every three years on the average
and if the one-hour average concentration does not exceed 1,500 /ug/L more
than once every three years on the average. Because sensitive saltwater
animals appear to have a narrow range.in susceptibilities to antimony(111),
this criterion will probably be as protective as intended only when the
magnitudes and/or duration of excursions are appropriately small.
Implementati on
Because of the variety of forms of antimony!111) in ambient water and the
lack of definitive information about their relative toxicities to aquatic.
species, no available analytical measurement is known to be ideal for
expressing aquatic life criteria for antimony(III). Previous aquatic life
criteria for metals and metalloids (U.S. EPA 1980b) were expressed in terms of
the total recoverable measurement (U.S. EPA 1983a), but newer criteria for
metals and metalloids have been expressed in terms of the acid-soluble
measurement (U.S. EPA 1985b). Acid-soluble antimony!Ill) (operationally
defined as the antimqny(111) that passes through a 0.45 urn membrane filter
after the sample has been acidified to a pH between 1.5 and 2.0 wi.th nitric
acid) is probably the best measurement at the present for the following
reasons:
1. This measurement is compatible with nearly all available data concerning
toxicity of antimony(III) to, and bioaccumulation of antimony(III) by,
aquatic organisms. It is expected that the results of tests used in the
derivation of the criteria would not have been substantially different if
they had been reported in terms of acid-soluble antimony(111).
2. On samples of ambient water, measurement of acid-soluble antimony(111)
will probably measure all forms of antimony(III) that are toxic to
11
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aquatic life or can be readily converted to toxic forms under natural
conditions. In addition, this measurement probably will not measure
several forms, such as antimony(111) that is occluded in minerals, clays,
and sand or is strongly sorbed to particulate matter, .that are not toxic
and are not likely to become toxic under natural conditions.
Although water quality criteria apply to ambient water, the measurement
used to express criteria is likely to be used to measure antimony(111) in
aqueous effluents. Measurement of acid-soluble antimony(111) is expected
to be "applicable to effluents. If desired, dilution of effluent with
receiving water before measurement of acid-soluble antimony(111) might be
used to determine whether the receiving water can decrease the
concentration of acid-soluble antimony(III) because of sorption.
The acid-soluble measurement is expected to be useful for most metals and
metalloids, thus minimizing the number of samples and procedures that are
necessary.
The acid-soluble measurement does not require filtration of the sample at
the time of collection, as does the dissolved measurement.
For the measurement of total acid-soluble antimony, the only treatment
required at the time of collection is preservation by acidification to a
pH between 1.5 and 2.0, similar to that required for the total
recoverable measurement.
Durations of 10 minutes to 24 hours between acidification and filtration
of most samples of ambient water probably will not substantially affect
the result of the measurement of total acid-soluble antimony. However,
acidification might not prevent oxidation or reduction of antimony(111)
and antimony(V). Therefore, measurement of acid-soluble antimony(111)
12
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and/or antimony(V) might require separation or measurement at the time of
collection of the sample or special preservation to prevent conversion of
one oxidation state of antimony to the other.
8. Ambient waters have much higher buffer intensities at a pH between 1.5
and 2.0 than they do at a pH between 4 and 9 (Stumm and Morgan 1981).
9. Differences in pH within the range of 1.5 to 2.0 probably will not affect
the result substantially.
10. The acid-soluble measurement does not require a digestion step, as does
the total recoverable measurement.
11. After acidification and filtration of the sample to isolate the
acid-soluble antimony, the analysis for total acid-soluble antimony can
be performed using either atomic absorption spectrophotometric or
ICP-atomic emission spectrometric analysis (U.S. EPA 1983a), as with the
total recoverable measurement. It might be possible to separately
measure acid-soluble antimony(111) and acid-soluble antimony(V) using the
methods described by Andreae et al. (1981).
Expressing aquatic life criteria for antimony(III) in terms of the acid-
soluble measurement has both toxicological and practical advantages. The U.S.
EPA is considering development and approval of just such a method.
Metals and metalloids might be measured using the total recoverable method
(U.S. EPA 1983a). This would have two major impacts because this method
includes a digestion procedure. First, certain species of some metals and
metalloids cannot be measured because the total recoverable method cannot
distinguish between individual oxidation states. Second, in some cases these
criteria would be overly protective when based on the total recoverable method
because the digestion procedure might dissolve antimony that is not toxic and
cannot be converted to a toxic form under natural conditions. Because no
13
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measurement 1st known to be ideal for expressing aquatic life criteria for
antimony(III) or for measuring antimony(111) in ambient water or aqueous
effluents, measurement of acid-soluble antimony(111), acid-soluble antimony,
and total recoverable antimony in ambient water or effluent or both might be
useful. For example, there might be cause for concern when total recoverable
antimony is much above an applicable limit, even though acid-soluble
antimony(III) is below the limit.
In addition, metals and metalloids might be measured using the dissolved
method, but this would also have several impacts. First, whatever analytical
method is specified for measuring antimony(111) in ambient surface water will
probably also be used to monitor effluents. If effluents are monitored by
measuring only the dissolved metals and metalloids, the effluents might
contain some antimony(111) that would not be measured but might dissolve, due
to dilution or change in pH or both, when the effluent is mixed with receiving
water. Second, measurement of dissolved antimony(111) requires filtration of
the sample at the time of collection. Third, the dissolved measurement is
especially inappropriate for use with such metals as aluminum that can exist
as hydroxide and carbonate precipitates in toxicity tests and in effluents.
Use of different methods for different metals and metalloids would be
unnecessarily complicated. For these reasons, it is recommended that aquatic
life criteria, for antimony(III) not be expressed as dissolved antimony(111).
As discussed in the Water Quality Standards Regulation (U.S. EPA 1983b)
and the Foreword to this document, a water quality criterion for aquatic life
has regulatory impact only after it has been adopted in a state water quality
standard. Such a standard specifies a criterion for a pollutant that is
consistent with a particular designated use. With the concurrence of the U.S.
14
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EPA, states designate one or more uses for each body of water or segment
thereof and adopt criteria that are consistent with the use(s) (U.S. EPA
1983c,1987). In each standard a state may adopt the national criterion, if
one exists, or, if adequately justified, a site-specific criterion.
Site-specific criteria may include not only site-specific criterion
concentrations (U.S. EPA 1983c), but also site-specific, and possibly
pollutant-specific, durations of averaging periods and frequencies of allowed
excursions (U.S. EPA 1985c). The averaging periods of "one hour" and "four
days" were selected by the U.S. EPA on the basis of data concerning how
rapidly some aquatic species react to increases in the concentrations of some
pollutants, and "three years" is the Agency's best scientific judgment of the
average amount of time aquatic ecosystems should be provided between
excursions (Stephan et al. 1985; U.S. EPA 1985c). However, various species
and ecosystems react and recover at greatly differing rates. Therefore, if
* '«.
adequate justification is provided, site-specific and/or pollutant-specific
concentrations, durations, and frequencies may be higher or lower than those
given in national water quality criteria for aquatic life.
Use of criteria, which have been adopted in state water quality standards,
for developing water quality-based permit limits and for designing waste
treatment facilities requires selection of an appropriate fwasteload allocation
*'
model. Although dynamic models are preferred for the application of these
criteria (U.S. EPA 1985c), limited data or other considerations might require
the use of a steady-state model (U.S. EPA 1986). Guidance on mixing zones and
the design of monitoring programs is also available (U.S. EPA 1985c,1987),
15
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37
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