&EPA
United States
Environmental Protection
EPA 440/6-90-004
April 1990
Citizen's Guide To
Ground-Water
Protection
x
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ACKNOWLEDMENTS
This document was prepared under the direction of Marian Mlay, Director of the Office of
Ground-Water Protection (OGWP) and written by OGWP Project Manager Jan Gallagher.
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Citizen's Guide To
Ground-Water Protection
Office of Ground-Water Protection
Office of Water
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
April 1990
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CONTENTS
Page
PREFACE iii
CHAPTER I. Introduction 1
What is Ground Water, and Where Does It Come From? 1
Where is Ground Water Stored? 1
Does Ground Water Move? 2
How is Ground Water Used? 2
CHAPTER II. Ground-Water Quality 3
How Does Ground Water Become Contaminated? 3
What Kinds of Substances Can Contaminate Ground Water,
and Where Do They Come From? 4
What Can Be Done After Contamination Has Occurred? 6
CHAPTER III. Government Ground-Water Protection Activities 8
Are There Federal Laws and Programs to Protect Ground Water? 8
Do the States Have Laws or Programs to Protect Ground Water? 9
CHAPTER IV. Citizen and Community Roles 11
What Information Do You and Your Community Need? 11
What Can Your Community Do to Protect Its Ground Water? 13
How Can You Clean Up Your Own Act? 17
REFERENCES 23
APPENDICES
New Information for the 1999 Reprinted Edition 27
Appendix 1. Potentially Harmful Components of Common Household Products 28
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PREFACE
Half of all Americans and more than 95
percent of rural Americans get their house-
hold water supplies from underground
sources of water, or ground water. Ground
water also is used for about half of the
nation's agricultural irrigation and nearly
one-third of the industrial water needs.
This makes ground water a vitally
important national resource.
Over the last 10 years, however, public
attention has been drawn to incidents of
ground-water contamination. This has led
to the development of ground-water
protection programs at federal, state, and
local levels. Because ground-water supplies
and conditions vary from one area to
another, the responsibility for protecting a
community's ground-water supplies rests
substantially with the local community.
If your community relies on ground water
to supply any portion of its fresh water
needs, you, the citizen, will be directly
affected by the success or failure of a
ground-water protection program. Equally
important, you, the citizen, can directly
affect the success or failure of your
community's ground-water protection
efforts.
This guide is intended to help you take an
active and positive role in protecting your
community's ground-water supplies. It will
introduce you to the natural cycle that
supplies the earth with ground Water,
briefly explain how ground water can
become contaminated, examine ways to
protect our vulnerable ground-water
supplies, and, most important of all,
describe the roles you and your commu-
nity can play in protecting valuable
ground-water supplies.
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CHAPTER I. Introduction
Many people have never heard of ground
water. That's not really so surprising since it
isn't readily visible-ground water can be
considered one of our "hidden" resources.
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What Is Ground Water, and
Where Does It Come From?
Actually, ground water occurs as part of
what can be called the oldest recycling
program-the hydrologic cycle. The
hydrologic cycle involves the continual
movement of water between the earth and
the atmosphere through evaporation and
precipitation. As rain and snow fall to the
earth, some of the water runs off the
surface into lakes, rivers, streams, and the
oceans; some evaporates; and some is
absorbed by plant roots. The rest of the
water soaks through the ground's surface
and moves downward through the unsatu-
rated zone, where the open spaces in rocks
and soil are filled with a mixture of air and
water, until it reaches the water table. The
water table is the top of the saturated zone,
or the area in which all interconnected
spaces in rocks and soil are filled with
water. The water in the saturated zone is
called ground water, In areas where the
water table occurs at the ground's surface,
the ground water discharges into marshes,
lakes, springs, or streams and evaporates into
the atmosphere to form clouds, eventually
falling back to earth again as rain or snow-
thus beginning the cycle all over again.
Where Is Ground Water Stored?
Ground water is stored under many types
of geologic conditions. Areas where
ground water exists in sufficient quantities
to supply wells or springs are called
aquifers, a term that literally means "water
bearer." Aquifers store water in the spaces
between particles of sand, gravel, soil, and
rock as well as cracks, pores, and channels
in relatively solid rocks. An aquifer's
storage capacity is controlled largely by its
porosity, or the relative amount of open
space present to hold water. Its ability to
transmit water, or permeability, is based in
part on the size of these spaces and the
extent to which they are connected.
Basically, there are two kinds of aquifers:
confined and unconfined. If the aquifer is
sandwiched between layers of relatively
impermeable materials (e.g., clay), it is
called a confined aquifer Confined aquifers
are frequently found at greater depths than
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unconfined aquifers. In contrast, unconfined
aquifers are not sandwiched between these
layers of relatively impermeable materials,
and their upper boundaries are generally
closer to the surface of the land.
Does Ground Water Move?
Ground water can move sideways as well as
up or down. This movement is in response
to gravity, differences in elevation, and
differences in pressure. The movement is
usually quite slow, frequently as little as a
few feet per year although it can move as
much as several feet per day in more per-
meable zones. Ground water can move even
more rapidly in karst aquifers, which are
areas in water soluble limestone and similar
rocks where fractures or cracks have been
widened by the action of the ground water
to form sinkholes, tunnels, or even caves.
How Is Ground Water Used?
According to the U.S. Geological Survey,
ground-water use increased from about 35
billion gallons a day in 1950 to about 87
billion gallons a day in 1980. Approximately
one-fourth of all fresh water used in the
nation comes from ground water. Whether
it arrives via a public water supply system
or directly from a private well, ground
water ultimately provides approximately 35
percent of the drinking water supply for
urban areas and 95 percent of the supply
for rural areas, quenching the thirst and
meeting other household needs of more
than 117 million people in this nation.
Overall, more than one-third of the water
used for agricultural purposes is drawn
from ground water Arkansas, Nebraska,
Colorado, and Kansas use more than 90
percent of their ground-water withdrawals
for agricultural activities. In addition,
approximately 30 percent of all ground
water is used for industrial purposes.
Ground-water use varies among the states,
with some states, such as Hawaii, Mississippi,
Florida, Idaho, and New Mexico, relying on
ground water to supply considerably more
than three-fourths of their household water
needs and other states, such as Colorado
and Rhode Island, supplying less than
one-quarter of their water needs with
ground water.
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CHAPTER II.
Ground-Water Quality
Until the 1970s, ground water was believed
to be naturally protected from contamina-
tion. The layers of soil and particles of
sand, gravel, crushed rocks, and larger
rocks were thought to act as filters, trap
ping contaminants before they could reach
the ground water. Since then, however,
every state in the nation has reported cases
of contaminated ground water, with some
instances receiving widespread publicity.
We now know that some contaminants can
pass through all of these filtering layers
into the saturated zone to contaminate
ground water
Between 1971 and 1985, 245 ground-water-
related disease outbreaks, with 52,181
associated illnesses, were reported. Most of
these diseases were short-term digestive
disorders. About 10 percent of all ground-
water public water supply systems are in
violation of drinking water standards for
biological contamination. In addition,
approximately 74 pesticides, a number of
which are known carcinogens, have been
detected in the ground water of 38 states.
Although various estimates have been
made about the extent of ground-water
contamination, these estimates are difficult
to verify given the nature of the resource
and the difficulty of monitoring its quality.
How Does Ground Water
Become Contaminated?
Ground-water contamination can originate
on the surface of the ground, in the ground
above the water table, or in the ground
below the water table. Table 1 shows the
types of activities that can cause ground-
water contamination at each level. Where a
contaminant originates is a factor that can
affect its actual impact on ground-water
quality For example, if a contaminant is
spilled on the surface of the ground or
injected into the ground above the water
table, it may have to move through numer-
ous layers of soil and other underlying
materials before it reaches the ground water
As the contaminant moves through these
layers, a number of processes are in opera-
tion (e.g., filtration, dilution, oxidation, bio-
logical decay) that can lessen the eventual
impact of the substance once it finally
reaches the ground water. The effectiveness
of these processes also is affected by both
GROUND SURFACE
Infiltration of polluted
surface water
l.irnl disposal of wastes
Stockpiles
Dumps
Sewage sludge disposal
Dp-icing salt use & storage
Animal teedlftls
Fertilizers & pesiiciiti s
Accidental spiOs
Airborne source paniruk
ptii lanK tergroundpipefine 1
welU
WaMi- di>|xisal in fx(.».';
I .ndcr^TouMfl slonigf tank leaks
WATER TABLE
Vaste dis]K)Si»l in wcll.s
J J J Drainage wells and canals
!« Underground storage
« Mines
* "
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Kxploratory viclLs
Abandoned wells
Water-supply wrlls
(round-water withdraw
TABLE 1. Activities That Can Cause Ground-Water Contamination
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the distance between the ground water and
where the contaminant is introduced and
the amount of time it takes the substance to
reach the ground water. If the contaminant
is introduced directly into the area below
the water table, the primary process that
can affect the impact of the contaminant is
dilution by the surrounding ground water
In comparison with rivers or streams,
ground water tends to move very slowly
and with very little turbulence. Therefore,
once the contaminant reaches the ground
water, little dilution or dispersion normally
occurs. Instead, the contaminant forms a
concentrated plume that can flow along
the same path as the ground water. Among
the factors that determine the size, form,
and rate of movement of the contaminant
plume are the amount and type of contami-
nant and the speed of ground-water move-
ment. Because ground water is hidden from
view, contamination can go undetected for
years until the supply is tapped for use.
What Kinds of Substances Can
Contaminate Ground Water, and
Where Do They Come From?
Substances that can contaminate ground
water can be divided into two basic cate-
gories: substances that occur naturally and
substances produced or introduced by
man's activities. Substances that occur natu-
rally include minerals such as iron,
calcium, and selenium. Substances result-
ing from man's activities include synthetic
organic chemicals and hydrocarbons (e.g.,
solvents, pesticides, petroleum products);
landfill leachates (liquids that have dripped
through the landfill and carry dissolved
substances from the waste materials),
containing such substances as heavy metals
and organic decomposition products; salt;
bacteria; and viruses. A significant number
of today's ground-water contamination
problems stem from man's activities and
can be introduced into ground water from
a variety of sources.
Septic Tanks, Cesspools, and Privies
A major cause of ground-water contamina-
tion in many areas of the United States is
effluent, or outflow, from septic tanks,
cesspools, and privies. Approximately one-
fourth of all homes in the United States
rely on septic systems to dispose of their
human wastes. If these systems are improp-
erly sited, designed, constructed, or main-
tained, they can allow contamination of the
ground water by bacteria, nitrates, viruses,
synthetic detergents, household chemicals,
and chlorides. Although each system can
make an insignificant contribution to
ground water contamination, the sheer
number of such systems and their wide
spread use in every area that does not have
a public sewage treatment system makes
them serious contamination sources.
Surface Impoundments
Another potentially significant source of
ground-water contamination is the more
than 180,000 surface impoundments (e.g.,
ponds, lagoons) used by municipalities,
industries, and businesses to store, treat,
and dispose of a variety of liquid wastes
and wastewater Although these impound-
ments are supposed to be sealed with
compacted clay soils or plastic liners, leaks
can and do develop.
Agricultural Activities
Agricultural activities also can make signifi-
cant contributions to ground-water con-
tamination with the millions of tons of
fertilizers and pesticides spread on the
ground and from the storage and disposal
of livestock wastes. Homeowners, too, can
contribute to this type of ground-water pol-
lution with the chemicals they apply to
their lawns, rosebushes, tomato plants, and
other garden plants.
Landfills
There are approximately 500 hazardous
waste land disposal facilities and more than
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16,000 municipal and other landfills nation-
wide. To protect ground water, these facili-
ties are now required to be constructed
with clay or synthetic liners and leachate
collection systems. Unfortunately these
requirements are comparatively recent, and
thousands of landfills were built, operated,
and abandoned in the past without such
safeguards. A number of these sites have
caused serious ground-water contamina-
*
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*
tion problems and are now being cleaned
up by their owners, operators, or users;
state governments; or the federal govern-
ment under the Superfund program (see
p. 8). In addition, a lack of information
about the location of many of these sites
makes it difficult, if not impossible, to
determine how many others may now be
contaminating ground water.
Underground Storage Tanks
Between five and six million underground
storage tanks are used to store a variety of
materials, including gasoline, fuel oil, and
numerous chemicals. The average life span
of these tanks is 18 years, and over time,
exposure to the elements causes them to
corrode. Now, hundreds of thousands of
these tanks are estimated to be leaking, and
many are contaminating ground water.
Replacement costs for these tanks are esti-
mated at $1 per gallon of storage capacity;
a cleanup operation can cost considerably
more.
Abandoned Wells
Wells can be another source of ground-
water contamination. In the years before
there were community water supply sys-
tems, most people relied on wells to pro
vide their drinking water. In rural areas this
can still be the case. If a well is abandoned
without being properly sealed, however it
can act as a direct channel for contami-
nants to reach ground water.
Accidents and Illegal Dumping
Accidents also canresult in ground-water
contamination. A large volume of toxic
materials is transported throughout the
country by truck, train, and airplane. Every
day, accidental chemical or petroleum
product spills occur that, if not handled
properly, can result in ground-water con-
tamination. Frequently, the automatic reac-
tion of the first people at the scene of an
accident involving a spill will be to flush
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the area with water to dilute the chemical.
This just washes the chemical into the soil
around the accident site, allowing it to
work its way down to the ground water. In
addition, there are numerous instances of
ground-water contamination caused by the
illegal dumping of hazardous or other
potentially harmful wastes.
Highway De-icing
A similar flushing mechanism also applies
to the salt that is used to de-ice roads and
highways throughout the country every
winter More than 11 million tons of salt are
applied to roads in the United States annu-
ally, As ice and snow melt or rain subse-
quently falls, the salt is washed into the
surrounding soil where it can work its way
down to the ground water. Salt also can
find its way into ground water from
improperly protected storage stockpiles.
What Can Be Done After
Contamination Has Occurred?
Unlike rivers, lakes, and streams that are
readily visible and whose contamination
frequently can be seen with the naked eye,
ground water itself is hidden from view Its
contamination occurs gradually and gener-
ally is not detected until the problem has
already become extensive. This makes
cleaning up contamination a complicated,
costly, and sometimes impossible process.
In general, a community whose ground-
water supply has been contaminated has
five options:
Contain the contaminants to prevent
their migration from their source.
Withdraw the pollutants from the
aquifer.
Treat the ground water where it is
withdrawn or at its point of use.
Rehabilitate the aquifer by either
immobilizing or detoxifying the contami-
nants while they are still in the aquifer.
Abandon the use of the aquifer and
find alternative sources of water
Which option is chosen by the community
is determined by a number of factors,
including the nature and extensiveness of
the contamination, whether specific
actions are required by statute, the geologic
conditions, and the funds available for the
purpose. All of these options are costly. For
example, a community in Massachusetts
chose a treatment option when the wells
supplying its public water system were con-
taminated by more than 2,000 gallons of
gasoline that had leaked into the ground
from an underground storage tank less
than 600 feet from one of the wells. The
town temporarily provided alternative
water supplies for its residents and then
began a cleanup process that included
pumping out and treating the contami-
nated water and then recharging the aqui-
fer with the treated water. The cleanup
effort alone cost more than $3 million.
Because of the high costs and technical
difficulties involved in the various contain-
ment and treatment methods, many com-
munities will choose to abandon the use of
the aquifer when facing contamination of
their ground-water supplies. This requires
the community to either find other water
supplies, drill new wells farther away from
the contaminated area of the aquifer,
deepen existing wells, or drill new wells in
another aquifer if one is located nearby. As
Atlantic City, New Jersey, found, these
options also can be very costly for a
community The wells supplying that city's
public water system were contaminated by
leachate from a landfill. The city estimated
that development of a new wellfield would
cost approximately $2 million.
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CHAPTER III.
Government Ground-Water
Protection Activities
Given the importance of ground water as a
source of drinking water for so many
communities and individuals and the cost
and difficulty of cleaning it up, common
sense tells us that the best way to guarantee
continued supplies of clean ground water
is to prevent contamination.
Are There Federal Laws
or Programs to Protect
Ground Water?
The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
(EPA) is responsible for federal activities
relating to the quality of ground water.
EPA's ground-water protection activities are
authorized by a number of laws, including:
The Safe Drinking Water Act, which
authorizes EPA to set standards for maxi-
mum levels of contaminants in drinking
water, regulate the underground disposal
of wastes in deep wells, designate areas that
rely on a single aquifer for their water
supply, and establish a nationwide program
to encourage the states to develop pro-
grams to protect public water supply wells
(i.e., wellhead protection programs).
The Resource Conservation and
Recovery Act, which regulates the storage,
transportation, treatment, and disposal of
solid and hazardous wastes to prevent con-
taminants from leaching into ground water
from municipal landfills, underground
storage tanks, surface impoundments, and
hazardous waste disposal facilities.
The Comprehensive Environmental
Response, Compensation, and Liability Act
(Superfund), which authorizes the govern-
ment to clean up contamination cati£d by
chemical spills or hazardous
could (or already do) pose threats*
environment, and whose 1986;
include provisions authorizing citizens to
sue violators of the law and establishing
"community right-to-know" programs
(Title III).
The Federal Insecticide, Fungicide,
and Rodenticide Act, which authorizes EPA
to control the availability of pesticides that
have the ability to leach into ground water.
The Toxic Substances Control Act,
which authorizes EPA to control the manu-
facture, use, storage, distribution, or disposal
of toxic chemicals that have the potential to
leach into ground water.
The Clean Water Act, which authorizes
EPA to make grants to the states for the
development of ground-water protection
strategies and authorizes a number of pro-
grams to prevent water pollution from a
variety of potential sources.
The federal laws tend to focus on controlling
potential sources of ground-water contami-
nation on a national basis. Where federal
laws have provided for general ground-
water protection activities such as wellhead
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protection programs or development of
state ground-water protection strategies,
the actual implementation of these pro
grams must be by the states in cooperation
with local governments.
A major reason for this emphasis on local
action is that protection of ground water
generally involves making very specific
decisions about how land is used. Local
governments frequently exercise a variety
of land-use controls under state laws.
Do the States Have Laws
or Programs to Protect
Ground Water?
According to a study conducted for EPA in
1988, most of the states have passed some
type of ground-water protection legislation
and developed some kind of ground-water
policies. State ground-water legislation can
be divided into the following subject
categories:
Statewide strategies - Requiring the
development of a comprehensive plan to
protect the state's ground-water resources
from contamination.
Ground-water classification - Identify-
ing and categorizing ground-water sources
by how they are used to determine how
much protection is needed to continue
that type of use.
Standard setting - Identifying levels at
which an aquifer is considered to be
contaminated.
Land-use management - Developing
planning and regulatory mechanisms to
control activities on the land that could
contaminate an aquifer.
Ground-water funds - Establishing
specific financial accounts for use in the
protection of ground-water quality and the
provision of compensation for damages to
underground drinking water supplies (e.g.,
reimbursement for ground-water cleanup,
provision of alternative drinking water
supplies).
Agricultural chemicals - Regulating
the use, sale, labeling, and disposal of pesti-
cides, herbicides, and fertilizers.
Underground storage tanks - Estab-
lishing criteria for the registration, con-
struction, installation, monitoring, repair,
closure, and financial responsibility associ-
ated with tanks used to store hazardous
wastes or materials.
Water-use management - Including
ground-water quality protection in the
criteria used to justify more stringent water
allocation measures where excessive ground-
water withdrawal could cause ground-water
contamination.
Appendix 1 presents a matrix showing the
types of ground-water protection legisla-
tion enacted by the states.
In addition to ground-water protection
programs states may have developed under
their own laws, one state ground-water pro-
tection program is required by federal law.
The 1986 amendments to the Safe Drink-
ing Water Act established the wellhead
protection program and require each state
to develop comprehensive programs to
protect public water supply wells from con-
taminants that could be harmful to human
health. Wellhead protection is simply pro-
tection of all or part of the area surround-
ing a well from which the well's ground
water is drawn. This is called a wellhead
protection area (WHPA). The size of the
WHPA will vary from site to site depending
on a number of factors, including the goals
of the state's program and the geologic
features of the area.
The law specifies certain minimum compo
nents for the wellhead protection programs:
The roles and duties of state and local
governments and public water suppliers in
the management of wellhead protection
programs must be established.
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The WHPA for each wellhead must be
delineated (i.e., outlined or defined).
Contamination sources within each
WHPA must be identified.
Approaches for protecting the water
supply within the WHPAs from the contami-
nation sources (e.g., use of source controls,
education, training) must be developed.
Contingency plans must be developed
for use if public water supplies become
contaminated.
Provisions must be established for
proper siting of new wells to produce max-
imum water yield and reduce the potential
for contamination as much as possible.
Provisions must be included to ensure
public participation in the process.
For a program to be successful, all levels of
government must participate in the well-
head protection program. The federal
government is responsible for approving
state wellhead protection programs and for
providing technical support to state and
local governments. State governments must
develop and implement wellhead protec-
tion programs that meet the requirements
of the Safe Drinking Water Act. Although
the responsibilities of local governments
depend on the specific requirements of
their state's program, these governments
often are in the best position (and have the
greatest incentive) to ensure proper protec-
tion of wellhead areas. They have the most
to lose if their ground water becomes
contaminated.
Although the Clean Water Act does not
require states to develop ground-water pro-
tection strategies, the legislation does auth-
orize states to take this action. As of 1989,
all 50 states have at least begun to develop
ground-water protection strategies, and
some of these are in advanced stages. Pro-
ceeding at varying paces, the states are tailor-
ing their efforts to fit their own perceived
needs and budgets.
101
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CHAPTER IV.
Citizen and Community Roles
In the first three chapters of this guide, you
learned how dependent our nation is on
ground water to provide water for drink-
ing and other household uses, agriculture,
and industry You also learned a little about
the many substances that can contaminate
our ground-water supplies, where they can
come from, and how difficult and costly it
is to try to clean up ground water once it
has been contaminated. Finally, you were
given some information about current
national and state programs to protect
ground water. This chapter will focus on
what actions you and your community can
take to protect your ground-water supplies.
What Information Do You and
Your Community Need?
Because no two communities are exactly
alike in terms of hydrogeologic conditions,
resources, or problems, ground-water pro-
tection efforts should be tailored specifically
to meet the needs of each community.
Thus, before you can begin to help your
community develop an effective program
to manage its ground-water resources, you
will need the answers to some very specific
questions.
What Has Your State Done to Protect
Ground Water?
As you saw in Chapter III, the Safe Drinking
Water Act requires all states to develop
programs to protect public water supply
wells from contaminants that could be
harmful to human health. Information on
your state's wellhead protection program
should be available from the agency in
your state that is managing this program.
(Appendix 2 contains a list of the state
agencies managing wellhead protection
programs.) Chapter III also mentioned that
all 50 states are in the process of
developing comprehensive ground-water
protection strategies. Such a strategy can
provide you with information on who has
what ground-water responsibility in the
state and on how any existing state
programs fit together A copy of your
state's ground-water protection strategy
should be available from the agency in
your state that is managing this effort
(Appendix 2 also contains a list of these
state agencies.)
Does Your Community's Drinking
Water Come from Ground Water,
and What Information Is Available
About Your Community's Wells?
If your community's drinking water comes
from ground water, you will need some
basic information about your community's
hydrogeologic setting, including the types
111
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of soil conditions and geologic formations
and the type, location, and depth of the
aquifer that stores the ground water In
addition, information on the community's
wells will be needed, including whether
they are public or private, shallow or deep;
their locations; and how they are con-
I,
a**
structed. It also could be important to
know if sites have been identified for
future wells. Potential sources for this
information include your local library your
local water supply agency, your state
geological survey, a local office of the U.S.
Geological Survey (USGS), a county
agricultural extension agent, or even the
geology or engineering department of a
local university or college.
What Is the Current Quality of
Your Ground-Water Supply, and
What Actual or Potential Sources
of Contamination Are Present in
Your Community?
You will need to know if your water is
currently free from bacterial and chemical
pollution and what kinds of procedures
are in place to test or monitor ground-
water quality. Initial information on the
quality of your community's ground water
should be available from your local water
supply agency or your local health
department.
closely related to the issue of ground-water
quality is determining whether there are
activities in the community that produce or
use toxic or hazardous substances and
where underground storage tanks are
located. Information on activities using or
producing toxic or hazardous materials
may be more difficult to obtain, but the
community right-to-know provisions in the
1986 Superfund amendments may give you
a starting point These provisions require
the establishment of state planning
commissions, emergency planning districts,
and local emergency planning committees.
They also require companies that use
certain toxic or hazardous substances to
report to these committees. Companies
also are required to report serious environ
mental releases immediately All of this
information is required to be available to
the public.
Another source of information on envi-
ronmental releases is available in a data
121
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base developed by EPA called the Toxic
Chemical Release Inventory that is publicly
accessible through the National Library of
Medicine. The data include the names,
addresses, and public contacts of plants
manufacturing, processing, or using the
reported chemicals; the maximum amount
stored onsite; the estimated quantity
emitted into the air, discharged into bodies
of water, injected underground, or released
to land, methods used in waste treatment
and their efficiency, and information on
the transfer of chemicals offsite for treat-
ment and disposal. (To obtain additional
information on this data base, see Appen-
dix 2.) On a local level, your community's
fire department also may be helpful in
providing information on both companies
using toxic or hazardous materials and the
location of underground storage tanks.
What Can Your Community Do
to Protect Its Ground Water?
If your community relies on ground water
for its water supplies, it has a strong incen-
ive to protect that ground water Before a
plan or program can be developed to pro-
tect ground water, it is important to identify
existing or potential threats to the ground
water. This will generally mean conducting
an inventory to leam the location of facili-
ties using, manufacturing, or storing
materials that have the potential to pollute
ground water.
How your community conducts this inven-
tory will depend largely on the resources
available, particularly the number of people
available to do the work and funds. A num-
ber of communities, however, have had great
success in using groups of volunteers to
conduct their inventories. For example, the
city of El Paso, Texas, has mobilized its
senior citizens with the help of the federally
funded Retired Senior Volunteer Program
(RSVP) and the Texas Water Commission.
The inventory of existing or potential
threats to the community's ground water
may be quite long, and it is unlikely that
^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^H ^^^^^^M
your community will have the resources to
address all of these threats. How do com-
munity officials decide which threats are
the most serious or set priorities? One way
is to assess these threats on the basis of
their relative risks to the community's
ground water This requires determining
which of the specific pollutants are most
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likely to be released and reach the ground
water in concentrations high enough to
pose health risks.
In addition to having an incentive to protect
its ground water, your community has a
number of powers that can be used for that
purpose. These include implementing zon-
ing decisions; developing land-use plans;
overseeing building and fire codes; imple-
menting health requirements; supplying
water, sewer, and waste disposal services;
and using their police powers to enforce
regulations and ordinances. A few commu-
nities have begun developing their own
ground-water protection programs using a
variety of management tools based on
these powers.
These management tools include:
Zoning Ordinances - To divide a
municipality into land-use districts and
separate incompatible land uses such as
residential, commercial, and industrial;
zoning also defines the type of activity that
can occur within a district and specifies
appropriate regulations that can be used to
prevent activities that could be harmful to
the community's ground water.
Subdivision Ordinances - Applied
when a piece of land is actually being
divided into lots for sale or development to
ensure that growth does not outpace
available local facilities such as roads,
schools, and fire protection; subdivision
ordinances also can be used to set density
standards, require open space set asides,
and regulate the timing of development, all
of which can have significant impacts on
ground-water quality.
Site Plan Review - To determine if a
proposed development project is compatible
with existing land uses in the surrounding
area and if existing community facilities will
be able to support the planned develop-
ment; this review also can be used to deter-
mine compatibility of the proposed project
with any ground-water protection goals.
Design Standards - To regulate the
design, construction, and ongoing opera-
tion of various land-use activities by impos-
ing specific physical requirements, such as
the use of double-walled tanks to store
chemicals underground.
Operating Standards - To ensure the
safely of workers, other parties, and the
environment by specifying how an activity
is to be conducted, these can take the form
141
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of best management practices (BMPs) that
define a set of standard operating proce-
dures for use in a particular activity to limit
the threat to the environment (e.g., limits
on pesticide applications or animal feedlot
operations).
Source Prohibitions - To prohibit the
storage or use of dangerous materials in a
defined area; these can take the form of
prohibitions of certain activities or of
restrictions on the use of certain materials.
Purchase of Property or Development
Rights - To guarantee community control
over the activities on lands that feed water
into an aquifer, this may involve outright
purchase of the land or of a more limited
interest, such as surface-use rights.
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Public Education - To build commu-
nity support for regulatory programs, such
as controls on pollution sources in special
zoning districts, and to motivate voluntary
ground-water protection efforts, such as
water conservation or household hazard-
ous waste management.
Ground-Water Monitoring - To assess
the quality of local aquifers by sampling
public and private wells for selected
contaminants.
Household Hazardous Waste
Collection - To alleviate the threat to
ground water from the disposal in regular
trash pick ups, sewers, or septic systems of
household products that contain hazardous
substances or other materials that can be
harmful to ground water, such as paints,
solvents, or pesticides.
Water Conservation - To reduce the
total quantity of water withdrawn from
ground-water aquifers and to protect
against contamination by reducing the
rate at which contaminants can spread in
the aquifer (e.g., excessive withdrawals
from an aquifer located near the ocean
can draw salt water into the aquifer and
contaminate wells).
Hi I
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How Can You Clean Up
Your Own Act?
So far, the emphasis has been on how you
can help your community to protect its
ground water through the development of
community-wide policies and programs.
But ground-water protection also begins at
home. How do your personal habits affect
your community's ground-water quality?
What can you, as an individual, do to
protect your community's ground water?
How Do You Dispose of the Polluting
Materials Used in Your Home?
You may be surprised to learn that the way
you dispose of products you use at home
can contribute to the contamination of
your community's ground water. You may
be even more surprised to leam that a
number of the products you use at home
contain hazardous or toxic substances. The
truth is, however, that products like motor
oil, pesticides, leftover paints or paint cans,
mothballs, flea collars, weedkillers, house.
hold cleaners, and even a number of medi-
cines contain materials that can be harmful
to ground water and to the environment in
general. (See Appendix 3 for a list of the
types of products commonly found around
homes and their potentially harmful com-
ponents.) The average American disposes
of approximately one pound of this type of
waste each year So, although the amount
of any of these substances that you pour
down your drain, put in your trash, or
dump on the ground may seem insignifi-
cant to you, try multiplying it by the num-
ber of people in your community. That
amount may not seem so insignificant
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Don't Pour It Down the Drain! Anything
you pour down your drain or flush down
your toilet will enter your septic system or
your community's sewer system. Using this
method to dispose of products that contain
harmful substances can affect your septic
system's ability to treat human wastes. Once
in the ground, these harmful substances
can eventually contaminate the ground
water. In addition, most community waste
water treatment plants are not designed to
treat many of these substances. Thus, they
can eventually be discharged into bodies of
surface water and cause contamination.
tsl
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Don't Put It in the Trash! Community
landfills also generally are not equipped to
handle hazardous materials. As rain and
snow pass through the landfill, the water
can become contaminated by these
products and eventually carry them into
the ground water and surface water
Don't Dump It on the Ground!
Hazardous wastes that are dumped on or
buried in the ground can contaminate the
soil and either leach down into the ground
water or be carried into a nearby body of
surface water by runoff during rainstorms.
Do Use and Dispose of Harmful Materials
Properly! There are very few options for
disposing of hazardous products used in
your home, so the first step may be to limit
your use of such products. Whenever possi-
ble, substitute a nonhazardous product.
When that is not possible, buy only as
much as you need. Larger quantities may
be less expensive, but they leave you with
the problem of disposing of them safely.
Finally, urge community officials to spon-
sor periodic household hazardous waste
collection days if they have not established
this policy By helping your community to
centralize collection of hazardous house-
hold wastes for appropriate disposal, you
will be helping your community to make a
major contribution toward protecting its
ground water The saying "Garbage in,
garbage out" applies to more than
computer data bases.
119
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How Do You Take Care of
Your Septic System?
Your septic system is designed to have its
effluent discharge into a drainage field
where it undergoes some decomposition by
microorganisms in the soil as it works its
way down to the ground water. If your
system is not pumped out frequently
enough, solid materials can leave the tank
and enter the drainage field. Any substances
poured down your drains also will enter
that drainage field-and eventually the
ground water
To prevent ground-water contamination
from your septic system:
Have your septic system inspected
annually and pumped out regularly no
chemical or other additive can be a substi-
tute for this, and these septic system chemi-
cals actually can prevent your septic system
from functioning properly
Be cautious about what you put into
your system; substances like coffee
grounds, cigarette butts, sanitary items, or
fats do not break down easily in septic sys-
tems, and chemicals like paints, solvents,
oil, and pesticides will go from your septic
system into the ground water.
Limit the amount of water entering
your system by using water-saving fixtures
and appliances.
How Does Your Garden Grow?
If you are a homeowner, you probably take
a lot of pride in your home and the yard
surrounding it. You may apply fertilizers to
make your grass thick and green, your
flowers colorful, and your vegetable crop
abundant You also may use pesticides to
keep bugs from ruining what the fertilizers
have helped to produce. What you may not
know, however, is that many of these ferti-
lizers and pesticides contain hazardous
chemicals that can travel through the soil
and contaminate ground water. If you feel
you must use these chemicals, use them in
moderation. This is not a case of "more is
better." Your county extension agent can
provide information on natural ways to
control lawn, garden, and tree pests that
can reduce reliance on chemicals.
20!
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What Else Can You Do?
Get informed and get involved! Around the
country, citizens are getting involved in
their communities, volunteering their time
and energy and making a difference. If
you think one person can't change the sys-
tem, help form a group. You, alone or as
part of a group, can help to educate your
family, friends, and neighbors about the
importance of ground water to your com-
munity, And, after you've cleaned up your
own act, you can help your community
clean up its act.
I 21
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REFERENCES
Born, Stephen M., Douglas A. Yanggen, and Alexander Zaporozec. A Guide to Groundwater Quality
Planning and Management for Local Governments. Wisconsin Geological and Natural History Survey,
Madison, WI, 1987.
Concern, Inc. Groundwater: A Community Action Guide. Washington, D.C., 1989.
Cross, Brad L. and Jack Schulze. City of Hurst (A Public Water Supply Protection Strategy). Texas Water
Commission, Austin, TX, 1989.
Curtis, Christopher and Teri Anderson. A Guidebook for Organizing a Community Collection Event:
Household Hazardous Waste. Pioneer Valley Planning Commission and Western Massachusetts Coalition
for Safe Waste Management, West Springfield, MA, 1984.
Curtis, Christopher, Christopher Walsh, and Michael Przybyla. The Road Salt Management Handbook:
Introducing a Reliable Strategy to Safeguard People & Water Resources. Pioneer Valley Planning
Commission, West Springfield, MA, 1986.
Cordon, Wendy. A Citizen's Handbook on Groundwater Protection. Natural Resources Defense Council,
New York, NY, 1984.
Harrison, Ellen Z. and Mary Ann Dickinson. Protecting Connecticut's Groundwater: A Guide to
Groundwater Protection for Local Officials. Connecticut Department of Environmental Protection,
Hartford, CT, 1984.
Hrezo, Margaret and Pat Nickinson. Protecting Virginia's Groundwater: A Handbook for Local Government
Officials. Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, VA, 1986.
Jaffe, Martin and Frank Dinovo. Local Groundwater Protection. American Planning Association, Chicago,
IL, 1987.
Loomis, George and Yael Calhoon. "Natural Resource Facts: Maintaining Your Septic System."
University of Rhode Island, Providence, RI, 1988.
Maine Association of Conservation Commissions. Ground Water. . . Maine's Hidden Resource. Hallowell,
ME, 1985.
Massachusetts Audubon Society. "Groundwater and Contamination: From the Watershed into the Well."
Groundwater Information Flyer #2. Lincoln, MA, 1984.
Massachusetts Audubon Society. "Local Authority for Groundwater Protection." Groundwater
Information Flyer #4. Lincoln, MA, 1984.
Massachusetts Audubon Society. "Mapping Aquifers and Recharge Areas." Groundwater Information
Flyer #3. Lincoln, MA, 1984.
Massachusetts Audubon Society. "Road Salt and Groundwater Protection." Groundwater Information
Flyer #9. Lincoln, MA, 1987.
McCann, Alyson and Thomas P. Husband. "Natural Resources Facts: Household Hazardous Waste."
University of Rhode Island, Providence, RI, 1988.
Mecozzi, Maureen. Groundwater: Protecting Wisconsin's Buried Treasure. Wisconsin Department of Natural
Resources, Madison, WI, 1989.
Miller, David W. Groundwater Contamination: A Special Report. Geraghty & Miller Inc., Syosset, NY, 1982.
Mullikin, Elizabeth B. An Ounce of Prevention: A Ground Water Protection Handbook for Local Officials.
Vermont Departments of Water Resources and Environmental Engineering, Health, and Agriculture,
Montpelier, VT, 1984.
Murphy, Jim. "Groundwater and Your Town: What Your Town Can Do Right Now." Connecticut
Department of Environmental Protection, Hartford, CT.
23
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REFERENCES (continued)
National Research Council. Ground Water Quality Protection: State and LjoaA Strategies. National Academy
Press, Washington, DC., 1986.
New England Interstate Water Pollution Control Commission. "Groundwater: Out of Sight Not Out of
Danger" Boston, MA, 1989.
Noake, Kimberly D. Guide to Contamination Sources for Wellhead Protection. Draft. Massachusetts
Department of Environmental Quality Engineering, Boston, MA, 1988.
Office of Drinking Water A Local Planning Process for Ground-water Protection. U.S. EPA, Washington, DC.,
1989.
Office of Ground-Water Protection. Guidelines for Delineation of Wellhead Protection Areas. U.S. EPA,
Washington, DC., 1987.
Office of Ground-Water Protection. Survey of State Ground Water Quality Protection Legislation Enacted
From 1985 Through 1987. U.S. EPA, Washington, DC., 1988.
Office of Ground-Water Protection. Wellhead Protection: A Decision-Makers' Guide. U.S. EPA, Washington,
DC., 1987.
Office of Ground-Water Protection. Wellhead Protection Programs: Tools for Local Governments. U.S. EPA
Washington, DC., 1989.
Office of Pesticides and Toxic Substances. Citizen's Guide to Pesticides. U.S. EPA, Washington, DC., 1989.
Office of Underground Storage Tanks. Musts for USTs: A Summary of the New Regulations for
Underground Storage Tank Systems. U.S. EPA, Washington, D.C., 1988.
Ohio Environmental Protection Agency. Ground Water. Columbus, OH.
Redlich, Swan. Summary of Municipal Actions for Groundwater Protection in the New England/New York
Region. New England Interstate Water Pollution Control Commission, Boston, MA, 1988.
Southern Arizona Water Resources Association. "Water Warnings: Our Drinking Water. ... It Takes
Everyone to Keep It Clean." Tucson, AZ.
Sponenberg, Torsten D. and Jacob H. Kahn. A Groundwater Primer for Virginians. Virginia Polytechnic
Institute and State University, Blacksburg, VA 1984.
Texas Water Commission. "On Dangerous Ground: The Problem of Abandoned Wells in Texas."
Austin, TX, 1989.
Texas Water Commission. The Underground Subject: An Introduction to Ground Water Issues in Texas.
Austin, TX, 1989.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Seminar Publication: Protection of Public Water Supplies from
Ground-Water Contaminants. Center for Environmental Research Information, Cincinnati, OH, 1985.
Waller, Roger M. Ground Water and the Rural Homeowner. U.S. Geological Survey, Reston, VA, 1988.
24
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APPENDIX
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NEW INFORMATION FOR THE 1999 REPRINTED EDITION
Appendices 1 and 2 are not included in this edition since they are
outdated. The following information replaces them:
New Drinking Water Protection Information for Communities
As a result of new requirements in the 1996 amendments to the Safe
Drinking Water Act, states are now implementing Source Water
Assessment Programs, which build on existing wellhead protection
programs. In these assessments, states will identify the most
significant potential sources of contamination for each public water
system - whether served by ground water or surface water. These
assessments, which should be completed for all public water systems
in each state by 2003 and made available to the public, will provide
valuable information for communities on priority drinking water
protection needs.
Contacts for more information
For additional information about the source water assessment and
ground water protection programs in your state, contact the agency in
your state that manages the environmental and/or the public health
protection programs. These contacts and links to specific states and
EPA regions can be found on the EPA's web page at
www.epa.gov/safewater/protect.html or by calling the Safe Drinking
Water Hotline at 1-800-426-4791.
For local information on ground water protection efforts in your
community, contact your local environmental or public health office.
Contact information can be found by looking in the government
section of your telephone directory. If your drinking water comes
from a water company or local government, contact them for
information as well. Contact information can be found on your
water bill or in the telephone directory.
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APPENDIX 1. POTENTIALLY HARMFUL COMPONENTS OF
COMMON HOUSEHOLD PRODUCTS
Product
Antifreeze (gasoline or coolant systems)
Automatic transmission fluid
Battery acid (electrolyte)
Degreasers for driveways and garages
Degreasers for engines and metal
Engine and radiator flushes
Hydraulic fluid (brake fluid)
Motor oils and waste oils
Gasoline and jet fuel
Diesel fuel, kerosene, #2 heating oil
Grease, lubes
Rustproofers
Car wash detergents
Car waxes and polishes
Asphalt and roofing tar
Paints, varnishes, stains, dyes
Paint and lacquer thinner
Paint and varnish removers, deglossers
Paint brush cleaners
Floor and furniture strippers
Metal polishes
Laundry soil and stain removers
Spot removers and dry cleaning fluid
other solvents
Rock salt (Halite)
Refrigerants
Bug and tar removers
Household cleansers, oven cleaners
Draincleaners
Toilet cleaners
Cesspool cleaners
Disinfectants
Pesticides (all types)
Photochemicals
Printing ink
Wood preservatives (creasote)
Swimming pool chlorine
Lye or caustic soda
Jewelry cleaners
Toxic or Hazardous Components
methanol ethylene glycol
petroleum distillates, xylene
sulfuric acid
petroleum solvents, alcohols, glycol ether
chlorinated hydrocarbons, toluene, phenols,
dichloroperchloroethylene
petroleum solvents, ketones, butanol, glycol ether
hydrocarbons, fluorocarbons
hydrocarbons
hydrocarbons
hydrocarbons
hydrocarbons
phenols, heavy metals
alkyl benzene sulfonates
petroleum distillates, hydrocarbons
hydrocarbons
heavy metals, toluene
acetone, benzene, toluene, butyl, acetate,
methyl ketones
methylene chloride, toluene, acetone, xylene,
ethanol benzene, methanol
hydrocarbons, toluene, acetone, methanol,
glycol ethers, methyl ethyl ketones
xylene
petroleum distillates, isopropanol, petroleum naptha
petroleum distillates, tetrachloroethylene
hydrocarbons, benzene, trichloroethylene,
1,1,1 trichloroethane
acetone, benzene
sodium concentration
1,1,2 trichloro - 1,2,2 triflourothane
xylene, petroleum distillates
xylenols, glycol ethers, isopropanol
1,1,1 trichloroethane
xylene, sulfonates, chlorinated phenols
tetrachloroethylene, dichlorohenzene,
methylene chloride
cresol, xylenols
napthalene, phosphorus, xylene, chloroform,
heavy metals, chlorinated hydrocarbons
phenols, sodium sulfite, cyanine, silver halide,
potassium bromide
heavy metals, phenol-formaldehyde
pentachlorophenols
sodium hypochlorite
sodium hydroxide
sodiumcyanide
Reprinted from "Natural Resources Facts: Household Hazardous Wastes," Fact Sheet No. 88-3,
Department of Natural Science, University of Rhode Island, August 1988.
28
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