EPA-450/2-76-006
STATE AIR POLLUTION
IMPLEMENTATION PLAN
PROGRESS REPORT,
JULY 1 TO DECEMBER 31, 1975
Prepared by
U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
Office of Air and Waste Management
Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards
Research Triangle Park, North Carolina 27711
and
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Office of Enforcement
Washington, D.C.
U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
Office of Air and Waste Management
Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards
Research Triangle Park, North Carolina 27711
April 1976
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This report has been reviewed by the Office of Enforcement and the Office of Air Quality Planning
and Standards of the Environmental Protection Agency and approved for publication.
Document is available to the public through the National Technical Information Service,
Springfield, Virginia 22161.
Publication No. EPA-450/2-76-006
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FOREWORD
This is the sixth in a continuing series of reports assessing the
progress made by states in implementing the Clean Air Act, specifically
section 110. Although the report is primarily intended to cover the
last six months of calendar year 1975, more recent information is provided
when available.
The State Implementation Plans were published -in 1972 with an attain-
ment date, in most cases, of May 1975. Measurable increments of progress
are occurring at a slower rate than in the first years these plans were
in effect. The most readily available procedures and technology have
now been implemented for the most part; remaining problems are not yielding
as easily to solution. Some of the procedures and technology that have
been implemented have been challenged in court, and litigation has affected
progress, both by delaying implementation and enforcement and by extending
EPA's responsibilities to such programs as prevention of significant
deterioration and increased attention to air quality maintenance. Situa-
tions that were not anticipated when the Clean Air Act was amended in 1970,
such as the energy crisis, have required that different approaches be
developed, and this development takes time.
This series, of reports 3is undergoing a change in format that reflects
the changing direction and emphasis of EPA 's campaign for clean air. The
first four reports followed similar formats and generally presented infor-
mation summarised by EPA region with national totals. The fifth report in
the series was the first one to be published after the attainment date,
and it provided detailed information by state for the first time. The
series will continue to present data on the individual states in the
reports for January to June of each year. Because change is occurring at
a slower rate, however, these detailed reports will be annual rather than
semiannual. The reports for July to December of each year will instead be,
like this one, primarily summary reports with certain topics singled out
for special focus each time. The feature topics in this issue are the
current SIP evaluation process and the status of carbon monoxide/oxidant
control strategies.
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The preparation of this report resulted from information provided
by the state and local air pollution control agencies, the Environmental
Protection Agency Regional Offices, and various EPA Headquarters groups.
As with earlier reports relating to State Implementation Plan
progress, this edition continues to be a joint effort between the
Division of Stationary Source Enforcement, Office of Enforcement, and
the Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards, Office of Air and
Waste Management.
Information on enforcement activities was provided by the Division
of Stationary Source Enforcement, Office of Enforcement. Additional
specific information on EPA air programs can be obtained by contacting
the EPA Regional Offices.
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CONTENTS
LIST OF TABLES vii
LIST OF FIGURES V1-ji
ABBREVIATIONS . . ix
I. SUMMARY ; . i
Development of SIPs i
SIP Progress 2
Air Quality and Emission Data 3
Stationary Source Compliance 3
Control Agency Resources ... 4
II. DEVELOPMENT OF SIPs . . 5
SIP Evaluation 5
Pollutant-Specific Strategies 9
References ...... 16
III. OVERVIEW OF CARBON MONOXIDE/OXIDANT CONTROL
STRATEGIES 17
Background 17
Reasonably Available Control Measures . . 19
Relationship of EPA's Transportation Control
Measures to Those of Other Federal Agencies 26
References 29
IV. SIP PROGRESS 31
EPA-Initiated Actions 31
State-Initiated Actions 32
References 33
V. AIR QUALITY AND EMISSION DATA 41
Ambient Air Quality Data 41
Trends in Air Quality, 1970-1974 45
Data Reporting 47
Air Pollution Episodes 48
References 48
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CONTENTS (continued)
VI. STATIONARY SOURCE COMPLIANCE
Overview
Major Source Categories
References
VII. CONTROL AGENCY RESOURCES
Summary of Resources
Progress of State and Local Air Pollution
Control Programs
Page
51
51
54
61
63
63
63
VI
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LIST OF TABLES
Table
II-l
IV-1
V-l
V-2
V-3
VI-1
VI-2
Page
Reasonably Available CO and Hydrocarbon
Control Measures 14
Status of Selected Portions of the
State Implementation Plans 34
National Summary of Air Monitoring
Stations Reporting 1974 Data to the
National Aerometric Data Bank by
September 1975 . . 42
National Summary of AQCRs Reporting
Violations of NAAQS to the National
Aerometric Data Bank for 1974 43
Air Pollution Episodes for August
Through December 1975 49
Compliance Status of Major Emitters
by Region December 31, 1975 . .53
Status of Compliance with Emission Limitations
Major Polluting Steel Processes vs. All Major
Stationary Source Installations
February 1976 ..... ,59
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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure
VII-1
VII-2
State and Loca] Air Pollution Control
Agency Funds - Actual vs. Need . .
State and Local Air Pollution Control
Agency Manpower - Actual vs. Need
64
65
viii
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ABBREVIATIONS AND SYMBOLS
AQCR
AQMA
CO
CY
DOT
EPA
FEA
FHWA
FGD
FY
HC
I/M
MPO
NAAQS
N02
OAQPS
°x
SIP
so2
State
TSM
TSP
UMTA
VMT
Air Quality Control Region
Air Quality Maintenance Area
carbon monoxide
calendar year
U.S. Department of Transportation
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Federal Energy Administration
Federal Highway Administration
flue gas desulfurization
fiscal year
hydrocarbons
inspection/maintenance
Metropolitan Planning Organization
National Ambient Air Quality Standards
nitrogen dioxide
Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards
oxidants
/
State Implementation Plan
sulfur dioxide
Refers to the District of Columbia and four U.S.
territories as well as the 50 states
Transportation System Management
total suspended particulate
Urban Mass Transportation Administration
vehicle miles traveled
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I. SUMMARY
DEVELOPMENT OF SIPs
EPA Regional Offices are currently evaluating all State Implementation
Plans (SIPs) to identify those that will need revising before the National
Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) may be attained. The schedule is:
0 July 1, 1976 EPA Regional Offices will call for revisions
to SIPs that are determined to be "substantially inadequate"
to achieve the NAAQS.
0 July 1, 1977 States submit revisions that require, as needed,
all achievable emission limitations.
0 July 1, 1978 -- States submit revisions, if needed, requiring
, other control measures (generally transportation control and
land use measures).
These calls for revision will as a minimum address all areas in which
the SIPs are found to be substantially inadequate for attainment, and all
Air Quality Maintenance Areas (AQMAs). The evaluation will address each
of the five criteria pollutants -- total suspended particulate (TSP),
sulfur dioxide (S02), carbon monoxide (CO), oxidants (Ox), and nitrogen
dioxide (N02). Preliminary analysis indicates the following:
0 TSP More plan revisions will problably be required for TSP
than for any other pollutant. In some areas, emission limitations
for traditional sources, like fuel combustion and process emis-
sions, are not sufficiently stringent and will need to be revised.
In many areas, however, emphasis is changing from the generally
well-controlled process stack emissions to fugitive emissions
(those from material handling, metallurgical operations, etc.,
that do not come from a stack or vent). Regulations being
developed for fugitive emissions depend on reasonably available
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controls to be effective. Control programs are also being developed
for some nontraditional sources of TSP, such as fugitive dust and
secondary particulates.
0 S02 Enforcement of existing regulations is expected to result
in attainment of S02 standards in most areas, so relatively few
revisions are anticipated for this pollutant.
0 CO/0 -- Attainment of CO and 0 standards depends primarily on
A . X
control of emissions from transportation-related sources. In
addition to the Federal new motor vehicle pollution control pro-
gram, reasonably available categories of control measures include
inspection/maintenance, transit improvements, employer incentives,
and parking and traffic management. The Department of Transpor-
tation and the Federal Energy Administration now have transporta-
tion-related programs that should facilitate further progress in
this area. In addition, stationary sources of hydrocarbons may
be controlled to reduce 0 through such measures as vapor controls
A
for organic solvent usage and gasoline vapor recovery in market-
ing operations.
0 NOp Valid data, though limited, indicate that the N02 problem
is much less severe and pervasive than the TSP or 0 problems;
A
maintenance of N02 standards will be more of a problem than attain-
ment. The vast majority of NO emissions is produced by fuel
A «
combustion in both stationary and mobile sources. Stationary
source control measures will become increasingly important as
additional mobile source control regulations are implemented.
SIP PROGRESS
The SIPs continue to be amended. No plan is currently fully approved,
although the degree to which each plan is disapproved varies from state
to state.
During this report period, EPA proposed regulations for air quality
maintenance, an S02 control strategy for the State of Ohio, and regula-
tions for certain smelters in Montana and Arizona. The Agency promulgated
nationally applicable regulations for state programs for continuous
monitoring of emissions from four categories of existing sources.
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Regulations were also promulgated for a copper smelter in Utah, for public
comment provisions for previously published new source review regulations
in five states, and for public availability of data in 24 SIPs. During
this period, 34 state plan proposals and 26 approvals of state-initiated
actions were published in the Federal Register.
AIR QUALITY AND EMISSION DATA
The status of air quality in the United States in 1974 was in many
respects similar to that for 1973. Approximately the same percentages
of reporting stations are still exceeding air quality standards, with one
exception: an apparent decline in the proportion of stations exceeding the
8-hour CO standard.
The historical data base is sufficient to determine air quality trends
in many areas for TSP and S02. Based on composite annual average data from
1096 TSP monitoring sites, the ambient concentrations of TSP have been
reduced by about 17 percent during the period 1970-1974. Similar data from
258 S02 monitoring sites indicate that ambient concentrations of S02 have
been reduced by approximately 32 percent during the same period.
STATIONARY SOURCE COMPLIANCE
Enforcement of standards at stationary sources has focused on the
21,670 identified major emitters which account for about 85 percent of all
air pollution from stationary sources. By December 1975, EPA and the states
had brought 18,327 of them into final compliance or placed them on firm
schedules leading to compliance. A recent study indicates that since
the passage of the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1970, compliance with
Federal, state and local laws kept over 26 million tons of TSP and 7.6
million tons of S02 out of the nation's air. However, ambient standards
are still being violated in a number of AQCRs. The states and EPA are
now conducting extensive analyses to determine the reasons for non-
attainment, including the identification of specific major and minor sources
contributing to the problem. Analyses have indicated that several cate-
gories of minor sources (e.g., small boilers, incinerators, etc.) are
contributing to air quality problems. In addition, several major source
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categories are not achieving compliance with standards. These are coal-
fired power plants, integrated iron and steel facilities and coking plants,
and primary smelters.
CONTROL AGENCY RESOURCES
In 1975, 55 state and territorial agencies and 236 local agencies,
working in coordination with states, expended approximately $148 million
and 7000 man-years to carry out the major portions of the regulatory and
enforcement aspects of the national air pollution control effort. In
Fiscal Year 1975, state and local funds for air pollution programs
increased 20 percent ($17 million) over FY 74 levels, and Federal support
during this period increased by 2 percent ($1.6 million).
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II. DEVELOPMENT OF SIPs
SIP EVALUATION
The attainment date for primary National Ambient Air Quality Standards
(NAAQS) for most states was May 31, 1975. Since that date, EPA has intensi-
fied its efforts to identify those areas that are not now attaining the NAAQS
and that are not expected to attain the NAAQS after full State Implementation
Plan (SIP) implementation, which has been delayed in some cases. Preliminary
assessments of the areas not expected to attain were given in the previous
report in this series. EPA Regional Administrators are now examining all
SIPs more closely to identify those that will require revisions before the
NAAQS may be attained. These evaluations are being performed for all areas
of the nation for each of the five criteria pollutants: total suspended
particulate (TSP), sulfur dioxide (S02)s carbon monoxide (CO), oxidants
(Ox), and nitrogen dioxide (NOp).
Section 110(a)(2)(H)(ii) of the Clean Air Act as amended requires that
SIPs provide "for revision, after public hearings, of such plan . . .
whenever the Administrator finds on the basis of information available to
him that the plan is substantially inadequate to achieve the national
ambient air quality primary or secondary standard which it implements"
(emphasis added). Prior to July 1, 1976, the Agency plans to call for
revisions to those existing SIPs that are determined to be substantially
inadequate for attainment. These calls for revisions will specify the
schedule for submission of revisions and require that, to the extent needed
to meet national standards, all achievable emission limitations must be
submitted by the state as SIP revisions by July 1, 1977. The term
"achievable" is intended to require reasonable "technology forcing" if
necessary, rather than simply "off the shelf" technology. Any other control
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measures (generally referring to transportation control and land use
measures) necessary for attainment and maintenance must be submitted by the
state by July 1, 1978. (NOTE: This is not intended to imply that some land
use and transportation measures are not considered reasonable. These
measures, though considered reasonable, generally require more time to
implement due to need to obtain enabling legislation.)
These calls for revision will address as a minimum (1) all areas in
which the SIPs are found to be substantially inadequate for attainment, and
(2) all Air Quality Maintenance Areas (AQMAs). In many AQMAs, a formal
demonstration of maintenance will be needed. However, flexibility is
necessary in determining what constitutes an adequate demonstration of
maintenance.
In general, SIPs deficient in maintenance provisions should be cor-
rected as expeditiously as practicable and at the same time as attainment
deficiencies are corrected. Nonetheless, action to correct those mainte-
nance deficiencies may need to be deferred if immediate action would not
be sensible or would interfere with actions needed to expeditiously correct
attainment deficiencies. Similarly, action to correct deficiencies in
plans to attain the secondary NAAQS may need to be deferred if that action
would interfere with actions needed to expeditiously correct deficiencies
in plans to attain the primary NAAQS.
The decision to call for a plan revision will be made only after
(1) detailed analysis of the status of air quality, the restrict!'veness of
the existing regulations, and the status of major compliance actions; and
(2) thorough discussions with all pertinent program elements in the Regional
Office and with the affected state and local control agencies.
The Agency must exercise good judgment in determining whether the
control strategy portion of an approved SIP is inadequate to achieve
national standards on a timely basis. It is the Agency's policy to request
such plan revisions only where they are clearly necessary. To declare that
a SIP is substantially inadequate will imply a need for new and more strin-
gent emission limitations. It will take some time to develop such limita-
tions. Pollution sources might use this opportunity to resist coming into
compliance with existing regulations and, thus, ongoing abatement actions
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could be inhibited. Further, frequent revisions, particularly where they
affect emission control requirements, are undesirable in that they confront
source owners with a "moving target."
Another factor to be considered is that any plan revision submitted
by a state that changes some part of the SIP or that adds a new part could
result in a challenge by the affected sources to the changed or added part.
(Section 307 of the Act provides for a process of judicial review of the
Agency's action in approving or promulgating any implementation plan or
revision thereof.) Experience indicates that substantial delays in enforce-
ment can result from such challenges. Nevertheless, if revisions are
clearly necessary, EPA will not hesitate to call for them. The Agency has
published guidance on criteria to be considered in deciding whether
revision is necessary.
Determining whether a SIP is substantially inadequate to attain
national standards will, in general, be a difficult task. The basic prob-
lem is to determine whether Air Quality Control Regions (AQCRs) are progres-
sing satisfactorily toward attainment of national standards as sources come
into compliance with emission limitations contained within the SIP. The
decision must be based on consideration of the following types of factors:
1. Factors favoring a finding that the SIP is not substantially
inadequate:
a. Available data provide a reasonable expectation that NAAQS
have been or will be achieved by the currently approved SIP
under provisions of the existing control strategy.
b. The most recent air quality data are below or not far
above NAAQS.
c. Much abatement work is ongoing or yet to be completed
under existing regulations.
d. Air quality and emission data are not yet extensive in
terms of time and geographical coverage.
e. Air quality levels have varied erratically up and down
in recent years and a clear trend is not yet determinate.
f. Emission control regulations have been made more stringent
or more comprehensive in the past 1 to 3 years but are not
yet fully implemented.
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g. Existing regulations are very stringent -- at or bordering
on a requirement that all reasonable control measures that
can be implemented are being used.
h. Major reductions in emissions have been made in the past
year or two and perhaps more reductions are programmed for
the near future.
i. The governmental air pollution control program has grown
substantially in the past few (1 to 3) years and enforce-
ment actions are being intensified.
Factors favoring a finding that the SIP ^substantially inadequate:
a. There is good evidence that compliance with existing
regulations will not result in achieving NAAQS by the existing
attainment data.
b. Recent air quality levels are substantially above NAAQS, and
air quality and emission data are generally accurate and
extensive as to time series and geographic coverage.
c. Most existing regulations have been fully implemented;
future improvement in air quality under existing regulations
will not be substantial.
d. Air quality levels over the past few years show an evident
trend which, in consideration of anticipated abatement,
shows clearly that NAAQS will not be attained by existing
control measures.
e. Emission control regulations have not changed greatly in
recent years.
f. Existing regulations are not particularly stringent and
do not include all emission limitations which it is reasonable
to anticipate will be achievable within a reasonable period
of time.
g. Air quality has shown little change over the past 1 to 3
years (and levels are above NAAQS).
h. Governmental control activities have been reasonably
adequate for the past few years (1 to 3) and regulations are
probably enforced well.
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It should be noted that judgments about ambient air quality data can-
not be based on numbers alone. The fact that ambient data exceed a national
standard by 10 or 15 percent does not in itself indicate an immediate
need for a plan revision. Clearly, the normal variation of ambient air
quality due to meteorological conditions, etc., may cause such a condition
to exist. The requirement of "substantially inadequate" provides the
Regional Office with flexibility in assessing the need for, and especially
the timing of, a call for plan revision. In some cases, little or no
ambient air quality data exist to allow for a determination of the adequacy
of the SIP. For example, in many cases, nitrogen dioxide data may not be
available due to the controversy concerning the original reference method.
While adequate and sufficient data should exist in many major urban areas
(due to the special field projects over the past few years), sufficient
data may not be available for some areas. In these cases, any decision
on attainment and the need for plan revisions may have to be delayed.
POLLUTANT-SPECIFIC STRATEGIES
This discussion of the current SIP evaluation process has thus far
dealt only with general considerations. In the actual analysis of a SIP,
however, the problems affecting attainment and maintenance of NAAQS for
each of the criteria pollutants must be treated separately. Described
below are pollutant-specific strategies that may be considered if a SIP is
determined to be inadequate for that pollutant.
Total Suspended Particulate (TSP)
As discussed in the previous report in this series,1 many areas are not
expected to attain the NAAQS for TSP, and EPA anticipates that more plan
revisions will be required for TSP than for any other pollutant. The
regulations in many cities do not now require all reasonably available con-
trol technology, and additional measures for making further improvements
are becoming better understood. Also, most of the initial abatement efforts
for TSP are nearing completion, and in most situations SIP revisions should
not interfere with current control efforts.
In order to determine that a SIP is substantially inadequate to attain
the NAAQS for TSP, a preliminary analysis of the problems and possible
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control strategies must be made. This must be followed by a more detailed
investigation of the factors affecting attainment and the efficacy of
candidate control strategies. These investigations will rely on a variety
of techniques for determining the factors affecting attainment. A number of
these techniques (analysis of ambient and source data, modeling, etc.) have
been used for some time. However, a few techniques (microscopy, directional
and short-interval sampling) are newer and have not been widely applied.
They are nonetheless useful and constitute one input into the decision
process.
The first step in a problem investigation is a review of air quality
data. Trends, variations between sites and neighborhoods, meteorological
influences, patterns in 24-hour readings between sites, and wind direction
when the sample was taken are all useful parameters in determining the
potential factors affecting each site. A critical review of the compliance
status of industries subject to present regulations must then be made.
Based on this review and using data from stack tests, emission factors and
operating parameters, an inventory of emissions in the area is made. Point
sources are assigned to grids on an area map, and smaller (area) sources
and transportation sources are apportioned to these grids by population and
other factors. Finally, a dispersion model can be used to simulate the air
quality patterns over the study area, which will help predict new air quality
patterns due to growth or due to changes in regulations and emissions from
enforcement. When properly evaluated and interpreted, inventories and
modeling are useful tools for air quality planning.
A second technique being used is the analytical and physical examination
of filter samples to determine their elemental, chemical and morphological
properties. Provided that sufficient quality assurance measures are taken,
these analyses in concert can provide valuable information on the aerosol
constituents and thus the sources of ambient particles. These analyses are,
however, still under development and have not been routinely applied.
Special field studies are also being used to determine sources of
atmospheric particles. Particle size sampling, directional sampling, and
sampling for short consecutive time intervals and at various distances and
heights from suspected sources provide valuable information. Unfortunately,
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the long lead time required to set up such a field study and the develop-
mental nature of some of the sampling equipment have hindered widespread
application.
Studies within EPA, ' » while not yet complete, are identifying the
factors affecting attainment in many urban areas. Traditional sources such
as fuel combustion and process emissions still play an important part, but
nontraditional sources such as sources of fugitive dust, secondary particu-
lates and automotive particulates are being recognized as a major element in
the particulate problem. In addition, variations in meteorology play an
active role in determining regional variations in particulate levels. The
impacts of certain parameters such as rainfall, windspeed, and heating degree
days are being investigated.
Through implementation of existing SIPs, most traditional sources have
been effectively controlled in many areas. In those areas where regulations
are less stringent and traditional sources are a significant problem, the
regulations will be strengthened. Methods of determining compliance must
also be reviewed in these same areas. As more and more traditional sources
are controlled, the emphasis of control strategies for TSP in these areas
will be changing from control of traditional sources to the newer issue of
control of nontraditional sources. The following sections on control
strategy alternatives outline some of the possible strategies which may be
considered for both traditional and nontraditional sources. Final deter-
mination of the most effective control strategy must be made within each
area.
Control Strategy Alternatives; Traditional Sources Emissions from tradi-
tional sources such as process emissions are still significant contributors
to the particulate problem, but emphasis is changing from the generally
well-controlled process stack emissions to fugitive emissions (emissions
from material handling, metallurgical operations, etc., that do not come
from a stack or vent). Most agencies do not yet have specific regulations
for control of fugitive emissions; they rely on nuisance regulations or
general regulations requiring the use of reasonable precautions in abating
these emissions. A few agencies, however, have used regulations, of more
effective types. These require the use of proper operating procedures,
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control devices or other prescriptive measures. Both the general and the
specific regulations depend upon the existence of reasonably available con-
trol technology to be effective.
Other traditional sources such as fuel combustion for power generation
and smaller boilers are generally within existing emission limits for par-
ti cul ate matter; however, some tightening of these limitations could be
applied in selected areas. For example, small boilers and furnaces burning
fuel oil can improve combustion with good maintenance, and new or replace-
ment units can be designed more efficiently.
Reasonably available control technology (RACT) may be required for
selected industries and in those areas where traditional source emissions
are a particular problem.
Control Strategy Alternatives: Nontraditional Sources Fugitive dust is
the term generally used to describe windblown dust or nonindustrial dust
generated by human activity, e.g., dust from construction, unpaved roads, and
parking, and resuspended dust from paved roads. Construction dust may be
partially controlled by minimizing the acreage disturbed and watering the
site. Watering can also reduce the dust from demolition areas. Unpaved
roads can be paved in inhabited areas with high traffic densities. Heavily
used parking areas can be paved, or treated to suppress dust. Control of
spillage and carryout from muddy, unpaved surfaces can reduce the amount of
dust on paved roads, and cleaning by vacuuming may be justified in extreme
cases.
Secondary particulates are formed by the reaction of gases in the
atmosphere. Sulfates, nitrates, ammonium salts and organics are commonly
found secondary particles. Sulfate, the most commonly found secondary
particulate, is formed by the atmospheric oxidation of S02. Current policy
calls for continuation of existing regulations in high S0? areas to prevent
c t-
increased health risk from sulfates. Control strategies for secondary
particulates are presently being investigated; final action must wait until
health risks can be determined. ;
Total automotive particulates are reduced significantly by the low-
lead and no-lead gasolines and will be increasingly reduced as the per-
centage of cars which rely on these blends of gasoline increases.
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Other source categories which will probably receive less direct
regulation are rubber tire fragments, agricultural tilling, and windblown
dust.
Sulfur Dioxide (SO,,)
Non-attainment of NAAQS for S02 at this point is considered to result
primarily from delayed implementation of existing regulations for emissions
from power plants and non-ferrous smelters. The keys to maintenance of the
standards are regarded to be new source review, enforcement of non-
significant deterioration regulations, and optimum implementation of the
provisions of the Energy Supply and Environmental Conservation Act. There-
fore, relatively few SIP revisions are expected to be necessary for this
pollutant.
Carbon Monoxide and Oxidants (CO and 0 )
X
Oxidant and carbon monoxide concentrations are expected to improve
somewhat in most areas of the country as controlled automobiles replace
older, uncontrolled vehicles. Even with substantial improvement in air
quality for oxidants and carbon monoxide, however, a large number of AQCRs
are expected to experience violations of the ambient standards during the
next 10 years. At least 63 urban areas will require transportation control
measures in order to attain standards by 1985. Twenty-nine of those areas
currently are required to implement transportation control measures, while
transportation control measures are in some stage of development for nine
additional areas and are likely to be required for the remaining 25 areas7
(see Chapter III).
Table II-l presents a list of reasonably available categories of CO
and hydrocarbon control measures, which are described in more detail in
Chapter III. The emission reduction potential of each measure varies among
areas, depending on available technology and the relative contributions of
stationary and mobile sources. Feasibility is generally defined in terms of
cost-effectiveness and ease of implementation (i.e., political, administra-
tive, and technological viability). The feasibility also varies among
areas -- particularly regarding the transportation measures. It is impor-
tant to note that the Department of Transportation (DOT) is now requiring
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Metropolitan Planning Organizations (MPOs) to develop and implement an
annual Transportation Systems Management (TSM) Plan (see Chapter III) which
should consider the transportation measures listed in Table II-l. Every
strategy in this table is considered reasonably available and should be ;
included in SIP revisions where necessary for attainment. However, the most
cost-effective mix of measures must be locally determined.
Table II-l. REASONABLY AVAILABLE CO AND HYDROCARBON
CONTROL MEASURES8
Source control measures
Transportation measures
1. Inspection/maintenance
2. Vapor controls for organic
solvents
3. Petroleum refinery, chemical
plant and other industry controls
4. Vapor controls for gasoline
marketing
5. Heavy duty vehicle retrofits
1. Transit improvements
2. Employer incentives
3. Parking management/restrictions
4. Traffic management/restraint
The process for identifying needed SIP revisions in non-attainment
areas is the same for areas with an existing CO/0 SIP as for areas without
A
such a plan. Generally, the schedule will require states to submit by ;
June 30, 1977, reasonably available measures needed to meet the NAAQS. If
necessary, states will be allowed until June 30, 1978, to submit certain
measures that require longer development and implementation times. This
special category of reasonably available measures generally includes land
use and transportation control measures that often require longer lead
times to obtain regulatory authority and funding.
Therefore, during the next several months EPA Regional Offices will
concentrate first on validating and documenting the data base which demon-
strates the need for CO/0 SIP revisions. Where pervasive oxidant problems
A
exist, states may elect to work jointly in developing uniform control
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strategies over a broad multi-station region. Where resources permit, the
regions are also encouraged to develop draft strategies jointly with the
local transportation agencies responsible for planning implementation. EPA
is preparing guidance material to assist states in formulating SIP revisions
for oxidants.9'10'11
Nitrogen Dioxide
On a national basis, the NCL problem is much less severe and pervasive
than the TSP or QX problems. Valid data indicate that only a few areas of
the country have ambient N02 concentrations in excess of the NAAQS for NCL.
The typical N02 problem, where it does exist, is in an urban area where
observed N02 concentrations are either slightly above or below the NAAQS.
Such conditions generally represent a potential problem for maintenance
rather than for attainment of the NAAQS. Further, it is now believed that
continued growth of nitrogen oxide (NO ) emissions from mobile and station-
X
ary sources in a number of cases will make it impossible to maintain
national standards, even if they are not presently exceeded, without
additional emission control measures.
On a national basis, stationary sources and mobile sources currently
contribute 60 percent and 40 percent of the NO emissions, respectively.
A
In both emission categories, the vast majority of NO emissions is produced
by fuel combustion (fossil fuel-fired power plants, industrial boilers,
commercial/residential space heating units, gasoline-powered automobiles,
diesel-powered trucks, aircraft, etc.).
Stationary source control measures will become increasingly important
as additional mobile source control regulations are implemented. Future
violations of the N02 standard are predicted to occur in some areas regard-
less of whether more restictive automotive NO emission limitations are
A
adopted because of growth of stationary source emissions. Control measures
are reasonably available and will be required (as needed) for utility-type
boilers. Additional control measures will be required if necessary;
however, NO control techniques are not reasonably available for all source
12
categories. EPA is writing a manual on preparing SIP revisions for NOp,
and it will contain an assessment of the methods available for controlling
existing sources.
15
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Difficulties with ambient N02 monitoring techniques have been resolved,
and the continuous chemiluminescent measurement principle and associated
calibration procedure have been proposed as the new Federal Reference
Method.13
REFERENCES
1. State Air Pollution Implementation Plan Progress Report. January
1 to June 30, 1975, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency,
EPA-450/2-75-008, September 1975.
2. Guidelines for Determining the Need for Plan Revisions to the
Control Strategy of the Approved SIP. OAQPS Guideline No. 1.2-011,
November 1975.
3. National Assessment of Particulate Problem, study in progress for
EPA by GCA Technology Division.Estimated completion date April 1976.
4. Guideline Development for Reasonable Control of Fugitive Dust, study
in progress for EPA by TRW, Inc. Estimated completion date July 1976.
5. Southwest Pennsylvania Particulate Study, study in progress for EPA
by H. E. Cramer.Estimated completion date January 1977.
6. Position Paper on Regulation of Atmospheric Sulfates, U.S. Environ-
mental Protection Agency, EPA-450/2-75-007, September 1975.
7. Transportation Controls. Part III: "Air Quality Data," paper prepared
by EPA's Office of Transportation and Land Use Policy for the Senate
Committee on Public Works, January 16, 1976.
8. "Policies for the Inclusion of Carbon Monoxide and Oxidant Controls in
State Implementation Plans (TCP Policy Paper)," EPA position paper
prepared by the Office of Transportation and Land Use Policy,
December 1975.
9. 0 Control Strategy Manual. scheduled for distribution to Regional
Uffices, May 19767
10. "Guidelines for Control of Volatile Organic Emissions from Existing
Stationary Sources," draft scheduled for distribution to Regional
Offices in April 1976.
11. "Policy Statement on Use of the Concept of Photochemical Reactivity
of Organic Compounds in SIPs for Oxidant Control," distributed
to Regional Offices January 29, 1976.
12.
NO Control Strategy Manual, scheduled for distribution to Regional
Wfices May 19/b.
13. Federal Register. Vol. 41, p. 11252, March 17, 1976.
16
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III. OVERVIEW OF CARBON MONOXIDE/OXIDANT CONTROL STRATEGIES
BACKGROUND
EPA's primary methods of dealing with carbon monoxide and oxidants
(and oxidants1 precursor, hydrocarbons) can be divided into two categories:
stationary source control and transportation control measures. The primary
emphasis of this chapter will be on transportation control measures.
Programs for the control of transportation-related air pollution have
had a number of problems from the startproblems which new policies and
proposed amendments to the Clean Air Act will attempt to resolve. First,
information on the effectiveness, cost, and implementability of transporta-
tion options in 1973 was limited. The extremely tight court-imposed time
constraints did not allow for the investigation of social and economic
effects on a case-by-case basis. In addition, experience was lacking at all
levels of government to plan and implement effective measures. Due to the
time restrictions, many of the transportation control requirements could not
be adapted to the existing institutional framework, to ongoing planning
schedules and processes, and to agency budget cycles. The 1977 deadline for
achieving health-related national ambient air quality standards also did not
allow credit for long-range measures such as mass transit improvements.
Consequently, the alternatives considered and the effects analyzed were both
limited, and governmental and citizen interaction was insufficient.
.Litigation has hampered implementation of transportation control
measures. When required by court decision to develop transportation plans
for many states in 1973, EPA realized that it would be undesirable (and
impractical) to promulgate local transportation control measures which
would be administered at the Federal level. EPA thus promulgated implemen-
tation plan regulations requiring state and local agencies to abate
transportation-related pollution.
17
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Several states tested the legality of this approach in the Federal
Courts. In 1974, the First and Third Circuit Courts of Appeal generally
supported EPA's promulgations. In 1975, however, three Courts rejected
p
EPA's promulgations in whole or in part.
The Fourth and Ninth Circuits basically ruled that the Act does not
allow EPA to promulgate regulations which would impose civil or criminal
sanctions on a state or its officials for failure to administer EPA-
promulgated regulations or to provide legislation in accordance with those
regulations. While these Courts technically based their decisions on inter-
pretations of the Clean Air Act, they left little doubt that they would
view the Act as unconstitutional if it did authorize EPA to require states
to control such air pollution. Neither decision suggested that EPA could
not directly control the polluting activities or that the states could not
if they chose to do so.
The decision of the D.C. Circuit took a middle ground between the
Third Circuit on one hand and the Fourth and Ninth Circuits on the other
hand. The D.C. Circuit decision considered both the statutory and constitu-
tional issues and held that EPA could require states to conduct certain
activities (such as bus lanes) because in these areas the state was
effectively the owner or manager of a pollution source, e.g., highways.
But the Court said EPA could not require states to pass legislation neces-
sary to implement programs regulating private pollution sources (e.g.,
inspection or retrofit of individual autos). States could, however, be
required to comply with rules regulating commerce (e.g., auto registration),
which would result in helping to enforce EPA regulations.
Because of the conflicting decisions on this issue, the Justice
Department has asked for Supreme Court review. A decision on the cases
appealed will probably take many months.3
Prior to the recent judicial decisions concerning EPA's enforcement
authority, EPA had issued notices of violation under section 113 of the
Act to several state and local governments, particularly for the failure
to implement periodic emission inspection programs for in-use vehicles.
Since the judicial decisions have been'rendered, EPA has not pursued any
of these enforcement actions, although it is not precluded from doing so
18
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in several of the affected areas. Because of these decisions, EPA finds
itself in the situation where the areas most heavily affected by mobile
source-related pollutants have plans on the books to reduce their pollution
problems, but EPA is unable to effectively require these areas to imple-
ment the necessary control measures.
In all, 29 general areas now require the use of some type of trans-
A
portation control measure.
1. Boston, Mass.
2. Springfield, Mass.
3. New York, N.Y.
4. Rochester, N.Y.
5. Northern New Jersey
(Newark, N.J.)
6. Southern New Jersey
(Camden-Trenton)
7. Philadelphia
8. Pittsburgh
9. Baltimore
10. Washington, D.C.
11. Cincinnati
12. Indianapolis
13. Chicago
14. Minneapolis
15. San Antonio
16. Houston-Galveston
17. Dallas-Ft. Worth
18. Denver, Colorado
19. Salt Lake City, Utah
20. Phoenix-Tucson
21. Fresno
22. San Francisco
23. San Diego
24. Los Angeles
25. Sacramento
26. Seattle
27. Spokane
28. Fairbanks
29. Portland
In addition, the following cities are in some stage of development
of transportation control strategies:
6. Beaumont, Texas
7. Corpus Christij, Texas
8. Albuquerque, N.M.
9. Las Vegas, Nev.
1. Hartford, Conn.
2. Providence, R.I.
3. New Haven, Conn.
4. St. Louis, Mo.
5. Tampa, Fla.
REASONABLY AVAILABLE CONTROL MEASURES5
No entire CO/0 control strategy has been implemented to date, but
A
progress has been made in implementing individual control measures. Several
of these measures, which have been categorized as "reasonably available"
(see Chapter II), are discussed in the following sections. These measures
include both transportation control measures, such as inspection/maintenance,
transit improvements, employer incentives, traffic management/restraint, and
parking management/restrictions, and stationary source control measures such
as vapor controls for gasoline marketing.
19
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Inspection/Maintenance
Motor vehicle inspection and maintenance (I/M) is a program of periodic
inspection of vehicles to determine the levels of emissions from the
vehicles. I/M is part of the transportation control strategies in 27 areas,
which contain over 30 percent of the nation's automobiles. Six areas are
currently operating I/M programs: New Jersey; Chicago; Cincinnati;
Portland, Oregon; Riverside, California; and Phoenix-Tucson, Arizona.
Under I/M, vehicles found to emit excessive amounts of pollutants are
either required or requested to be repaired and reinspected. (Three of the
six I/M programs currently in operation call only for voluntary maintenance.)
Two types of inspection tests are used. An idle test measures tailpipe
emissions by an exhaust gas analyzer while the vehicle is in neutral. In
the more accurate and more costly loaded test, the vehicle is run under
simulated driving conditions on a dynamometer.
Air quality improvements from I/M are difficult to quantify, but some
emission reduction figures are available. Depending upon the mix of
stationary and mobile sources in an area, it is estimated that I/M programs
can obtain 2 to 6 percent of needed reductions in hydrocarbon emissions and
5 to 10 percent of the needed carbon monoxide reductions.6
Transit Improvement
Transit improvement measures refer to any upgrading of transit services
intended to attract additional ridership. These measures will, in most
cases, have an impact on air quality. To attract new riders, a transit
system must have sufficient vehicles to carry the new riders, provide
service of a quality comparable to automobiles, and be provided at an
attractive cost.
There are three main types of transit improvement measures:
1. Fare reduction Transit has always suffered a significant cost
disadvantage because of the underpricing of automobile use. This can be
adjusted by reducing fares or increasing the cost of automobile use. A
fare reduction from 40 cents to 15 cents in Atlanta brought about a 28
percent increase in ridership. This type of fare decrease generally
increases ridership at off-peak times.
20
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2. Fleet expansion -- Increases in the number of transit vehicles can
promote ridership increases by allowing for more frequent service on exist-
ing lines and enabling the development of new lines and new types of transit
service. The Metropolitan Transportation Commission in Minneapolis nearly
tripled its bus fleet between 1970 and 1976, with a resulting ridership
increase from 45,000,000 to 63,000,000. Service expansion may also include
the use of smaller transit vehicles designed to fill the gap between con-
ventional transit and the private automobile, e.g., demand-responsive
transit.
3. Passenger amenities -- Shelters, vehicle design, better schedule
information, and terminal facilities are aspects of transit service that
are most visible to the public. The potential passenger's attitude toward
transit service, based in large part on these amenities, will influence
his decision between transit and the automobile.
Employer Incentives
An employer incentive program is one in which employers develop pro-
grams to encourage their employees to participate in carpools, vanpools,
mass transit, etc. In several areas, such as northern New Jersey and
Boston, employer incentive programs were promulgated as part of trans-
portation control plans. Generally, they require assistance from the
employers in carrying out pooling programs.
An effective carpool program can potentially reduce automobile emis-
sions by 5 to 10 percent. Individuals can save from $200 to $350 per
year in operating costs by participating in a pool and another $500 per
year in ownership expenses if a car can be eliminated. Vanpooling
programs have similar benefits. For example, an eight-member vanpool in
which all of the members previously drove 30 miles to work would reduce
vehicle miles of travel by 82,000 per year and save 6,000 gallons of
gasoline per year. The 3M Company of St. Paul has the most extensive van-
pool program in the countryover 75 12-passenger vans. A $1 fare per day
per rider covers the full fixed and operating costs. At the 3M Company,
calculations based on in-use operation of 57 vans showed that these vans
saved over 340 parking spaces, 1.4 million vehicle miles of travel, and
108,000 gallons of gasoline each year. In addition, the company has been
able to save close to $3 million by eliminating the need for a new
parking garage.
21
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Traffic Management/Restraint
Several traffic management and traffic restraint measures are
available:
1. Preferential treatment of high-occupancy vehicles -- EPA views
preferential treatment of buses and carpools as a critical incentive which
must be in use before selective automobile disincentives, such as parking
restrictions, can be considered. Bus/carpool priorities have been provided
on freeways, urban arterials, and secondary city streets. Freeway measures
include exclusive lanes (both grade-separated and reserved) and rarnps,
contraflow lanes, and right-of-way bypass privileges at ramps and toll
plazas. Priority treatment on city streets includes bus-only streets, bus-
only lanes (both median and contraflow), contraflow lanes, and bus preemption
of traffic signals. Bus priority treatment can attract a significant number
of auto travelers to transit during the peak period, thereby increasing bus
speeds and service reliability and decreasing congestion.
Cities that have implemented priority bus/carpool measures on freeways
include Washington, D.C., Los Angeles, Seattle, Long Island, and San
Francisco/Oakland. Preferential treatment for buses on city streets has
been initiated in Philadelphia, Minneapolis, Chicago, New Orleans, and
Washington, D.C., among others.
2. Road user charges Tolls are being increasingly used to spread
out peak-hour traffic and selectively control traffic patterns. This
trethod of controlling traffic patterns creates a pricing structure for the
use of the road, thereby creating an incentive/disincentive situation. A
big advantage of road user charges is that the rate can be readily increased
or decreased depending upon the situation and the result desired. A differ-
ential license road use charge has been used in Singapore with dramatic
decreases in vehicle miles traveled.
3, Traffic flow improvements -- Reductions in air pollution are avail-
able through optimizing traffic flow. Improvements can be made in three
general ways:
a. Traffic surveillance and control use various techniques aimed
at increasing the supply of usable roadway or controlling the
demand for existing roadways. This method might include,
22
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for example, planning, redesigning facilities, monitoring
ramp usage, roadway surveillance and information communication
ito individual vehicles.
b. Traffic simulation models are planning tools used to predict
the consequences of various alterations in the pattern of traffic
flow, either on the macroscopic or microscopic level.
c. The maximum use of existing street facilities can be achieved
through the use of signalization, land use, and directional
control and channelization of turning traffic.
4. Staggered work hours Staggered work hours can help reduce
peak loads on transit facilities and vehicle loads on streets and highways
by altering the working hours of employees. By spreading out the peak
period, transit capacity can be increased. This measure is primarily a
congestion control device and not a direct air pollution control device.
However, peak hour pollution may be reduced by changing the emission pat-
terns of mobile source pollution during these periods.
The effect of any staggered work hour program on pollution reduction
depends on a variety of factors. Major factors include the degree of
flexibility of the program, extent of mobile source pollution in the area,
and availability of alternative modes of transportation and nearby parking
facilities. A staggered work hour program may have wide-ranging effects
on various social institutions, and these impacts should be given full
consideration before any such program is implemented.
The New York Port Authority directed a staggered work-hour project,
and surveys indicate that congestion decreased significantly in elevators,
transit facilities, and surrounding streets.
5. Auto-free zones -- Auto-free zones are geographic areas which are
partially or fully restricted to vehicular traffic in order to facilitate
pedestrian flow. The basic types of zones can be defined as follows:
Fully pedestrian: All traffic is banned from the streets at all
times, the streets are repaved. to facilitate pedestrian flow, and
various environmental improvements are made.
Partially pedestrian: Similar to a fully pedestrian zone except
that limited vehicular traffic (delivery vehicles, public transpor-
tation) is allowed during restricted hours.
23
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Selected traffic bans: Selected classes of vehicles are banned and
various environmental improvements are made.
Occasionally pedestrian: Total vehicular ban during certain specified
occasions.
Because of the nature of-this air pollution control technique, the
various projects should be instituted in stages to cause as few disloca-
tions as possible. Since vehicular flow is prohibited in given areas,
suitable alternative traffic patterns must be established to accommodate
the dislocated traffic.
The extent of the benefits conferred by this type of program depends
on the amount of mobile source air pollution in the region, geographical
area of the zones, and alternative modes of transportation provided. CO
levels and noise pollution have been dramatically reduced in several of
the cities having auto-free zones. Significant auto-free zones have been
created and are in the process of being constructed in major United States
cities (Minneapolis, Fresno and Baltimore, among others) and abroad
(Copenhagen, Cologne, Leeds and Montreal).
\
Parking Management/Restri ctions
Parking control strategies include measures that affect both the avail-
ability and the cost of parking. These strategies include a wide range of
measures which can be implemented alone or in combination with other park-
ing, transit, and carpool strategies. Measures designed to influence the
availability of parking include park-and-ride lots at outlying transit
stops, on-street commuter parking bans, residential permit systems for
neighborhoods greatly affected by on-street commuter parking, zoning law
changes where excessive amounts of parking are required with new building
construction, and review of nev; proposed parking facilities for air quality
acceptability.
Other parking measures are designed to directly affect the cost of
parking and thereby influence the demand for parking. These measures
are generally more controversial and politically sensitive than parking
availability measures and include parking rate increases, parking surcharges,
changes in the parking rate structure to eliminate the current advantages
given to long-term commuter parking, and elimination of free or low-cost
employer-subsidized parking for employees.
24
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These measures collectively are referred to as parking management.
Parking management is a relatively new concept designed to partially
redress traditional nolicies of nearly unrestrained support of the automo-
bile by helping to achieve a better balance between automobile use on the
one hand, and ouhlic transit, carpooling, bicycling and walking on the
other.
Gasoline V'apor Recovery
Gasoline vapor control regulations require the control of evaporative
hydrocarbon emissions during the storage, transport and dispensing of
gasoline. Stage I regulations require control during loading at the bulk
terminal and during delivery to the service station storage tank. Stage
II regulations require control during the fueling of automobiles at the
service station.
Stage I equipment consists primarily of hoses and couplings to estab-
lish a "closed loop" between the delivery tanker and the underground storage
tank. Stage II vapor recovery involves two basic control approaches.'
Balance systems create a "closed loop" by achieving a tight seal between a
gasket on the dispensing nozzle and the neck of the vehicle gasoline tank.
Vapors are forced back to the underground tank through a vapor return hose.
Vacuum-assist systems, which are more efficient than balance systems, use
a slight vacuum to capture the vaoors. They do not require a tight seal,
which is often difficult to achieve because of the variety of automobile
designs. ,
Controls on gasoline marketing operations will capture about 11 pe!r-
cent of the needed HC reductions in most urban areas and may capture as
much as 20 percent. In addition, millions of gallons of gasoline will be
saved that would otherwise evaporate. <
EPA regulations or local regulations require vapor control in 13
metropolitan areas. In addition to controlling emissions, these systems
will remove potentially explosive vapors and make service station areas
safer.
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RELATIONSHIP OF EPA's TRANSPORTATION CONTROL MEASURES TO THOSE OF OTHER
FEDERAL AGENCIES7
In 1973 whej^i -transportation control strategies were first promulgated,
EPA was the only agency requiring such plans. However, current Congres-
sional review of the Clean Air Act is focusing on closer coordination of
EPA's transportation control requirements with the legal requirements and
regulations of other Federal agencies.
Department of Transportation (DOT) Transportation Improvement Program
Regulation
On September 17, 1975, DOT issued the Transportation Improvement
Program regulations which govern the planning and programming of all urban
transportation improvements administered by both the Federal Highway Admin-
o
istration (FHWA) and the Urban Mass Transportation Administration (UMTA).
From EPA's viewpoint the most significant aspect of the DOT regulation
is the requirement for the annual preparation of a Transportation System
Management (TSM) element. The TSM plan is designed to meet short-term
transporation needs and thus emphasizes making efficient use of existing
facilities. The emphasis on short-range measures is consistent with EPA's
need to achieve the air quality standards as expeditiously as possible.
TSM measures include: traffic flow improvements, preferential transit
treatment, bike and pedestrian facilities, parking management, work
schedule changes ,_ pricing policies, carpooling programs, auto-free zones,
park-ride bus service, express bus service, etc. The first plans are due
in March 1976. In summary, TSM employs a variety of locally conceived
operating, regulatory and pricing policies to bring about a more rational
organization of the public transportation system and a better balanced
use of the private auto.
The TSM plan is to be developed by the Metropolitan Planning Organi-
zation (MPO) in each urban area. The MPO will provide a forum for coopera-
tive decision-making by principal elected officials of general -purpose
local government.
Both UMTA and FHWA planning funds can be used for developing a TSM
plan. Ttie assistance, however, is funded out of exisiting FHWA and UMTA
programs. All UMTA and FHWA funding is conditional on developing a TSM
26
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plan. However, only UMTA funding will be conditional on reasonable
implementation progress.
DOT and EPA are currently working on development of procedural guide-
lines to coordinate,their transportation requirements. Such guidelines
should result in products that better meet the objectives of both agencies.
For example, DOT could receive wider agency and citizen support for TSM plans
if such plans are based on a process that explicitly considers air quality
objectives. EPA's regulatory authority and sanctions could better ensure
that TSM measures are programmed and implemented. EPA would receive trans-
portation improvement plans that have been locally generated and adopted
by the responsible decisionmakers; in many cases these measures could
replace EPA .promulgations. Parallel Federal requirements could also be
streamlined and made more efficient, resulting in one integrated process
and product. Ideally EPA and DOT requirements should be merged.
FHWA 109(j) Consistency Determination Requirement
Section 109(j) of the 1970 Federal-/>1d Highway Act directed DOT to
develop and promulgate guidelines to ensure that highways constructed with
Federal funds are consistent with the State Implementation Plan for achieving
the air quality standards. The FHWA Regional Administrator, after consulta-
tion with the EPA Regional Administrator, is responsible for making the
annual consistency determination.
The 109(j) consistency requirement serves to formally coordinate on an
annual basis FHWA's highway and EPA's transportation control planning
processes. Consistency determinations between proposed highway and trans-
portation control plans are made for future years depending on the severity
of the existing and future air pollution problem. Hence, a mechanism is
established that exolicitly links highway and air quality objectives.
Energy Policy and Conservation Act (Part C, Section 362, State Energy
Conservation Plans)
This legislation, signed by the President in December 1975, means that
many transportation control measures that reduce total vehicle miles
traveled are now required by the Federal Energy Administration to be included
in State Energy Conservation Plans if the states are to receive Federal
27
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energy planning assistance. For example, those states choosing to develop
an energy plan are required to include programs to promote carpools, van-
pools, and public transportation. Furthermore, these plans may include
transportation controls which are defined as "incentives, disincentives,
restrictions and requirements designed to reduce the amount of energy
consumed in transportation."
Clean Air Act Amendments
In at least two instances Congress has passed legislation affecting
Federally promulgated transportation control measures. In 1974 a new
section 110(c)(2) was added to the Act directing EPA to revoke parking
surcharge regulations, delay regulations for preconstruction review of park-
ing facilities, and conduct a study of other types of transportation control
regulations. In both 1974 and 1975, EPA's appropriations act prohibited the
expenditure of funds during the applicable fiscal years for administering
programs to "tax, limit, or otherwise regulate parking."
The Committees of the Congress are currently considering several amend-
ments to the Clean Air Act and are proceeding with an awareness of the
recent Circuit Court Decisions. Partly as a result of these decisions, the
present Senate staff version contains funding provisions and utilizes
funding sanctions to ensure implementation of transportation measures. The
current Act's method of requiring EPA to promulgate transportation measures
for local communities where the state has failed to do so is not likely to
be retained in the Clean Air Act Amendments. Rather, decisions will be
left to the local communities with, hopefully, financial incentives/disincen-
tives to spur action.
The amendment process has been slower than originally anticipated. It
may well be mid-1976 or later before any law is enacted. Whatever final
form the new amendments take, it is clear at least that transportation
controls are becoming an important part of air quality management programs
and vn'll have an even larger role as growth becomes a more-critical factor.
28
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REFERENCES
1.
2.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
South Terminal Corp. v. EPA and Pennsylvania v. EPA.
Brown v. EPA, 9th Circuit; Maryland v. EPA, 4th Circuit; and D.C. v.
Train, D.C. Circuit.
Transportation Controls, Part I: "History of Transportation Control
Plans,1' paper prepared by EPA's Office of Transportation and Land
Use Policy for the Senate Committee on Public Works, January 16, 1976,
Ibid., Part III: "Air Quality Data."
Ibid., Part V: "Introduction to Individual Control Measures."
A Review of Control Strategies for In-Use Vehicles, prepared for EPA
under contract by the Environmental Programs Group of the Aerospace
Corporation, EPA-460/3-74-021, December 1974.
Transportation Controls, Part VII: "Relationship of Transportation
Control Plans to Other Federal Programs."
Federal Register. Vol. 40, p. 42976, September 17, 1975.
29
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IV. SIP PROGRESS
The SIPs continue to be amended to correct deficiencies found by the
courts as well as to meet technical changes required by emerging issues.
No state plan is currently fully approved although the degree to which each
plan is disapproved varies from state to state. The most significant
actions of the past 6 months are summarized below.
EPA-INITIATED ACTIONS
Air Quality Maintenance
On October 20, 1975, EPA proposed regulations for the analysis and
development of plans for Air Quality Maintenance Areas (AQMAs). These
regulations specify procedures to be used for estimating future air quality
concentrations and for developing new control strategies necessary to ensure
the maintenance of the National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS). The
substantive measures needed for this purpose are to be chosen by each state
within the technical and procedural framework of these regulations. Final
regulations are expected to be promulgated in May 1976.
Continuous Monitoring
On October 6, 1975, EPA promulgated regulations for the continuous
2
monitoring of emissions from four categories of existing sources. States
must revise implementation plans by October 6, 1976, to include legally
enforceable procedures to assure continuous monitoring of certain large
fossil fuel-fired steam generators, fluid bed catalytic cracking unit
catalyst regenerators, sulfuric acid plants and nitric acid plants.
All sources subject to these requirements shall have installed all the
necessary equipment and shall have begun monitoring and recording data
within 18 months of either approval of state plan monitoring requirements
for that source or EPA promulgation of such monitoring requirements.
31
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Non-Ferrous Smelters
In October 1975, ERA proposed final regulations for the Anaconda
copper smelter in Montana and for all smelters in the Phoenix-Tucson AQCR
in Arizona and in the Arizona portion of the Arizona-New Mexico Southern
Border AQCR. Of the seven regulations proposed for copper smelters in
Arizona, four allowed the facility subject to the regulation to attain
ambient standards through the use of dispersion technology (i.e., tall
stacks and/or supplementary control systems). These dispersion techniques
are allowed as a temporary measure until technology sufficient to attain
the standards becomes available. In November 1975, the Agency promulgated
emission limitations for the Kennecott copper smelter near Magna, Utah.5
New Source Review
EPA promulgated public comment provisions in October 1975 for previ-
ously published new source review regulations concerning Arizona, California,
Indiana, Michigan and Nevada.6 ' :
SOg Control Strategy-Ohio
EPA proposed a sulfur dioxide control strategy for the State of Ohio
in November 1975. Four public hearings have been held, and the extensive
comments generated by the proposed regulations are now under review.
Public Availability of Emission Data
In November 1975, EPA published final regulations correcting 24 state
plans whose confidentiality clauses had not provided for free public access
to source emission data which has been correlated with air quality data.8
STATE-INITIATED ACTIONS
During this 6-month reporting period, a number of implementation plan
actions have been initiated by the states, including the following:
- EPA has approved Indirect Source Review submissions for New York,
U.S. Virgin Islands, West Virginia and Nevada (Clark County). New
Hampshire has a plan submitted and under consideration for approval.
- Oregon has gained EPA approval of a plan revision correcting
deficiencies in regulation of public availability of emission data.
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- Montana submitted an EFA-approved S02 regulation for a smelting
plant at East Helena.
- Idaho received partial approval of S02 regulations to control a
zinc/lead smelter complex near Kellogg.
During the period July 1 to December 31, 1975, 34 state plan proposals
and 26 approvals of state-initiated actions were published in the Federal
Register. Table IV-1 gives the status of each state on three selected
portions of the SIPs.
REFERENCES
1. Federal Register, Vol. 40, p. 49048, October 2, 1975.
2. Ibid., p. 46240, October 6, 1975.
3. Ibid., p. 48521, October 16, 1975.
4. Ibid., p. 49362, October 22, 1975.
5. Ibid., p. 54786, November 26, 1975.
6. Ibid., p. 50267, October 29, 1975.
7. Ibid., p. 52410, November 10, 1975.
8. Ibid., p. 55326, November 28, 1975.
33
-------
Table IV-1. STATUS OF SELECTED PORTIONS
OF THE STATE IMPLEMENTATION PLANS
Region/state
New source
review
Transportation
measures
Emission
limitations
Region I
Connecticut
Approved
Maine
Massachusetts
Approved
Approved
New Hampshire
Approved
Measures are re-
quired for Hartford
New Haven-Spring-
field AQCR and New
York-New Jersey-
Conn. AQCR
None required
Boston transpor-
tation controls
promulgated
6/12/75
None required
Approved
Rhode Island
Vermont
Approved
Approved
Measures required;
hearing 11/75
None required
Approved
Promulgation for
SO? (12/75-
suifur content
of fuel),
Approved for
other pollu-
tants
Promulgation
for TSP
(11/75),
approved for
other pollu-
tants
Approved
Approved
Region II
New Jersey
Approved
New York
Approved
9/15/75
Measures promul-
gated for Phil-
adelphia and New
York, New Jersey
and Conn. AQCRs
TCP measures needed
for New York-New
Jersey-Conn. AQCR,
Gennessee-Finger
Lakes AQCR, and
Central New York
AQCR
EPA promul-
gation (7/73)
for HC,
approved for
other pollu-
tants
Rulemaking
for S02 (6/75),
approved for
other pollu-
tants
34
-------
Table IV-1 (continued). STATUS .OF SELECTED PORTIONS
OF THE STATE IMPLEMENTATION PLANS
Region/state
New source
review
Transportation
measures
Emission
limitations
Region II cont.
Puerto Rico
Approved
None required
U.S. Virgin
Islands
Approved for
all except
public com-
ment pro-
visions
(9/10/75)
None required
Deficient in
part for S00
(9/75), 2
approved for
other pollu-
tants
Approved
Region III
Delaware
District of
Columbia
Maryland
Approved
Approved
Approved
None required
Measures promul-
gated for National
Capital AQCR
Measures promul-
gated for
Baltimore and
National Capital
AQCRs
Pennsylvania
Approved
Measures promul-
gated for Phil-
adelphia and
Southwest Pennsy-
lvania AQCRs
Approved
Approved
TSP limita-
tions proposed
(10/6/75); S02
regulation
amended to
delete reduc-
tion from 1.0
to 0.5% sulfur
fuel for all
AQCRs except
Baltimore where the
reduction is only
deferred until 7/1/76
(12/5/75); aooroved
for other pollutants
State
proposals for
TSP and S02;
approved for
other pollu-
tants
35
-------
Table IV-1 (continued). STATUS OF SELECTED PORTIONS
OF THE STATE IMPLEMENTATION PLANS
Region/state
New source
review
Transportation
measures
Emission ,
limitations
Region III cont.
Virginia
West Virginia
Approved
Approved
(11/10/75)
EPA promulgation
for National
Capital AQCR
None required
Approved
Approved
Region IV
Alabama
Florida
Georgia
Kentucky
Mississippi
North Carolina
Approved
Approved
Approved
Approved
Approved
Approved
None required
None required
None required
None required
None required
None required
Proposal for
S02 (9/75,1/76),
promulgations
for TSP (5/75,
8/75), proposal
for TSP (7/75),
approved for
other pollu-
tants
Promulgation
for S02 (10/75),
Approved for
other pollu-
tants
Promulgation
for TSP
(10/75), pro-
mulgation for
N02 (5/75),
Approved for
all other
pollutants
Approved
Approved
Approved
36
-------
Table IV-1 (continued). STATUS OF SELECTED PORTIONS
OF THE STATE IMPLEMENTATION PLANS
Region/state
Region IV cont.
South Carolina
Tennessee
Region V
Illinois
Indiana
Michigan
Minnesota
Ohio
Wisconsin
Region VI
Arkansas
Louisiana
New source
review
Approved
Approved
Approved
EPA promul-
gations
(5/73 & 2/74)
EPA promul-
gation (10/72]
Approved
EPA promul-
gation (4/74)
Approved
Approved
Approved
Transportation
measures
None required
None required
Measures promul-
gated for Chicago
AQCR
EPA promulgation
(4/74) for
Indianapolis AQCR
None required
Measures for
Minneapolis-
St. Paul AQCR
Measures promul-
gated for
Cincinnati AQCR
None required
None required
None required
Emission
limitations
Approved
Approved
CO strategy
disapproved
6/73; approved
for other
pollutants
Approved
Approved
Approved
HC strategy
disapproved,
S02 strategy
proposed
(11/75),
approved for
other pollu-
tants
Approved
Approved
Approved
37
-------
Table IV-1 (continued). STATUS OF SELECTED PORTIONS
OF THE STATE IMPLEMENTATION PLANS
Region/state
Region VI cont.
New Mexico
Oklahoma
Texas
Region VII
Iowa
Kansas
Missouri
Nebraska
Region VIII
Colorado
Montana
North Dakota
New source
review
Approved
Approved
Approved
Approved
Approved
Approved
Approved
Approved
Approved
Approved
Transportation
measures
None required
None required
Measures being
prepared for
Austin-Waco,
Corpus Christi,
Houston-
Gal veston,
Dallas, San
Antonio, El Paso
None required
None required
Measures submitted
for St. Louis AQCR
None required
Measures promul-
gated for Denver
AQCR
None required
None required
Emission
limitations
Revocation
of EPA promul-
gation for SO,
proposed 11/75,
approved for
other pollu-
tants
Approved
EPA promul-
gations for
HC (11/73);
approved for
other pollu-
tants
Approved
Approved
Approved
Approved
Approved
Proposal for
S02 (10/75),
approved for
other pollu-
tants
Approved
38
-------
Table IV-1 (continued). STATUS OF SELECTED PORTIONS
OF THE STATE IMPLEMENTATION PLANS
Region/state
Region VIII cont.
South Dakota
Utah
Wyoming
Region IX
American Samoa
Arizona
California
Guam
Hawaii
New source
review
Approved
Disapproved
for TSP in
Wasatch
Front AQCR,
other sec-
tions
approved
Approved
Approved
Approved,
except for
Pima County
EPA promul-
gation (4/73)
for part of
state
Approved
Approved
Transportation
measures
None required
EPA promulgation
for Wasatch Front
AQCR (11/73)
None required
None required
Measures in effect
for Phoenix-
Tucson AQCR
Measures promul-
gated for San
Francisco, Los
Angeles, San
Diego, Fresno,
and Sacramento
AQCRs
None required
None required
Emission
limitations
Approved
EPA promul-
gations for
S09 and TSP
(10/74 and
9/74), TSP pro-
mulgation
(smelter) 11/75,
approved for
other pollu-
tants
Approved
Approved
EPA promul-
gations for
S0? (3/73 and
3/74), TSP (5/73).,
proposal for S02
from smelters (10/75),
approved for other
EPA proposals
for TSP and
promulgation
for HC,
approved for
other pollu-
tants
Approved
Approved
39
-------
Table IV-1 (continued). STATUS OF SELECTED PORTIONS
OF THE STATE IMPLEMENTATION PLANS
Region/state
New source
review
Transportation
measures
Emission
limitations
Region IX cont.
Nevada
EPA promul-
gation (4/73)
for Washoe
County
None required
EPA promul-
gation for
S02 (2/75),
disapproved
for TSP (no
promulgation
to date),
approved for
other pollu-
tants
Region X
Alaska
Idaho
Oregon
Washington
Approved
Approved
Approved
Approved
EPA promulgation
for Northern
Alaska AQCR
None required
None required
Promulgations
for Seattle
and Spokane
AQCRs
Revisions
needed for
CO, approved
for other
pollutants
Promulgation
for S02 (11/75),
approved for
other pollu-
tants
Approved
Approved
40
-------
V. AIR QUALITY AND EMISSION DATA
EPA bases its assessments of national air quality to a major extent
on the data collected by air monitoring networks operated by state and
local agencies. Before the formal status of compliance with a standard
can be determined for an Air Quality Control Region (AQCR), a reasonable
history of data (at least one year) must be compiled from a representative
network of monitors. A single station reporting a second high value over
the short-term standard is sufficient to document a violation of that
standard; similarly, a single station reporting an annual average of values
that exceeds the annual standard is enough to document a violation of that
standard. Compliance must usually be demonstrated by more extensive
evidence from a multi-station network. The target date for completing these
networks was, in most cases, July 1974. Table V-l summarizes the progress
made by the states through 1974 in completing the networks proposed in their
SIPs. The number of AQCRs reporting second high values that violate the
standards is summarized in Table V-2. (This number of AQCRs reporting
violations is different from the number of AQCRs listed in the previous
report as being unlikely to attain standards by the statutory date because
that assessment was based on a number of factors, only one of which was air
quality data.)
AMBIENT AIR QUALITY DATA
The status of air quality in the United States in 1974 was in many
respects similar to that reported for 1973. Approximately the same percent-
age of reporting stations are still exceeding air quality standards, with
one exception: an apparent decline in the proportion of stations exceeding
the 8-hour carbon monoxide standard.
41
-------
Table V-l. NATIONAL SUMMARY OF AIR MONITORING
STATIONS REPORTING 1974 DATA TO THE NATIONAL
AEROMETRIC DATA BANK BY SEPTEMBER 1975
Air monitoring stations
No. proposed for 1974a
No. reporting minimum data
No. reporting valid annual data
TSP
3,510
3,788
2,004
so2
2,132
2,241
1,030
CO
457
377
-
°x
458
343
-
aNumber of stations proposed by states in their SIPs to be operating
in 1974.
bAt least three 24-hour values for intermittent monitors or 400
hourly values for continuous monitors.
cFour consecutive quarters (a calendar year) of statistically valid
data. There are no annual standards for CO and QX, so no annual
averages are calculated.
42
-------
/-2. NATIONAL SUMMARY OF AQCRs REPORTING VIOLATIONS
OF NAAQS TO THE NATIONAL AEROMETRIC DATA BANK FOR 1974
Air Quality Control
Regions (AQCRs)3
No. reporting minimal datab
No. exceeding 24-hour primary
standard
No. exceeding annual primary
standard
No. exceeding 1-hour standard0
No. exceeding 8-hour standard0
TSP
236
99
111
--
so2
210
22
11
CO
92
13
58
0
86
76
aTotal number of AQCRs =247.
At least three 24-hour values for intermittent monitors or 400
values for continuous monitors.
An AQCR must have all reported stations showing no violations to be
conS1dered an "attainment AQCR." If a single station in an AQCR
AQcT"S a Vlolat1on' the ent1re AQCR 1s considered a "non-attainment
43
-------
All 247 AQCRs are required to be reporting at least one monitoring
station for total suspended participate (JSP). Of these, 198 AQCRs had at
least one sampler station reporting enough data to compute a yearly average
(four consecutive quarters of statistically valid data) for the primary
annual TSP standard. Of the 2004 monitoring stations reporting a valid
year's data, 1537 (77 percent) reported values achieving the annual stand-
ard. The 460 stations that had readings exceeding the standard were located
in 111 of the 198 AQCRs reporting data sufficient to compute a yearly
average.
All but 11 AQCRs reported minimal data for the primary 24-hour TSP
standard. Of the 3788 monitoring stations in these 236 AQCRs, 3462 (90
percent) reported values achieving the standard. The 326 stations that had
readings exceeding the standard were located in 99 of the 236 AQCRs sub-
mitting minimal data.
As with particulates, all 247 AQCRs are required to be operating at
least one sulfur dioxide (S02) monitoring station. Of these, 155 AQCRs
reported a valid year's data for at least one station. Of the 1030 monitor-
ing stations reporting a valid year's data, 999 (97 percent) reported values
achieving the primary annual S02 standard. The 31 stations that reported
values exceeding the standard were located in 11 of the 155 AQCRs submitting
data sufficient to compute a yearly average.
All but 37 AQCRs reported minimal data for the primary 24-hour S02
standard. Of the 2241 reporting stations in these 210 AQCRs, 2142 (over
95 percent) reported values achieving the standard. The 99 stations that
had readings exceeding the standard were located in 22 of the 210 AQCRs
submitting data.
Carbon monoxide (CO) data were reported from 377 stations in 92 AQCRs
(30 AQCRs are required to have CO monitors). The 1-hour CO standard was
achieved by 350 stations (93 percent) in 13 AQCRs; the 8-hour CO standard
was achieved by 166 stations (44 percent in 58 AQCRs.
Oxidant/ozone (0 /Oz) data were reported from 343 stations in 86 AQCRs
X
(55 AQCRs are required to have C^/Oz monitors). The 1-hour standard was
achieved by 70 of those stations (20 percent) representing 76 AQCRs.
Minimal data are defined for all pollutants as at least three 24-hour
samples from a hi-vol or a bubbler; or 400 hourly values from a continuous
monitor.
44
-------
Nitrogen dioxide (NCL) measurement methods have been reviewed and
the continuous chemiluminescent measurement principle has been proposed as
the Federal reference method. Valid annual data for N00 were reported from
' - ' . ' ;<'>*',..£. r : : .-.
582 stations using methods that are deemed candidates for the status of
reference or equivalent methods. These 582 stations are located in 101
AQCRs. Only 18 stations in four AQCRs exceeded the annual standard for N02.
TRENDS IN AIR QUALITY, 1970-1974
Historical trends in air quality levels suggest the rate and extent
of progress in the control of air pollution. For some pollutants, lack of
historical data on a national basis limits the inferences that may be made.
However, the recent expansion of air pollution monitoring networks is
providing data that will serve as a baseline for future trend assessment.
Currently, a sufficient historical data base on the national level is avail-
able for total suspended parti oil ate and sulfur dioxide primarily in
urbanized areas. For oxidants, carbon monoxide, and nitrogen dioxide, his-
torical data are limited and the geographical distribution is very sparse.
Therefore, trends for these three pollutants are considered as a series of
special cases. The present status of historical air quality data reflects
the evolution of air pollution monitoring efforts, which initially were
concentrated on the assessment of total suspended particulate and sulfur
dioxide in center city areas
Based on composite averages from 1096 sites, TSP levels have decreased
from 1970 to 1974. During this period, the composite annual average
2
declined from 80 to 66 yg/m . This is an overall decrease of 17 percent, or
slightly less than 5 percent per year. This improvement was generally
reflected throughout the nation but specific localities are still experi-
encing TSP levels in excess of the National Ambient Air Quality Standards.
The principal control problems are fugitive emissions and urban background
(secondary particulates, fugitive dust, and transportation-related emis-
sions). During this period, the estimated reduction.in particulate
emissions was 29 percent.
Sulfur dioxide levels have declined from an annual composite average
of 38 yg/m3 in 1970 to 26 yg/m3 in 1974. These averages are based on data
from 258 sites and represent an overall decrease of 32 percent, or
45
-------
approximately 9 percent per year. However, over 90 percent of these sites
are located in urbanized areas and caution must be used in generalizing
these results. During this period, the decrease in estimated emissions was
8 percent. The much greater reduction in ambient S02 levels may reflect the
shift in S02 emissions away from center city areas. Thus, the overall
decline in SCL levels may be the combined result of emission reductions and
redistribution of emission patterns. The principal remaining control
problems are major sources such as power plants and smelters. Data for 1975
are expected to show some additional decline in S02 in response to the
mid-1975 compliance deadline.
Carbon monoxide trends in the few cities having historical data suggest
general improvement. This is consistent with the automobile emission
reductions during the same period. Data from the States of California, New
Jersey, New York, and Washington show reductions in the percent of time the
8-hour CO standard is exceeded. The peak hourly values have been relatively
stable, but in the majority of urban areas the 8-hour standard is the more
serious problem and this is where improvement is being shown. Los Angeles
and New Jersey monitoring data indicate that the percent of time the 8-hour
CO standard was exceeded was reduced by approximately 50 percent from
1970-1971 to 1973-1974 (roughly 12 percent to 6 percent). The State of
Washington showed consistent progress during the 1971-1973 period, and New
York State and San Francisco data showed that less than 0.5 percent of the
8-hour values were above the standard. On a national basis, the number of
CO monitoring sites increased consistently during 1970-1974 from 73 to 377,
more than a 500 percent increase. The increase from 1973 to 1974 was 25
percent (299 to 377 sites).
Oxidant trends in California continue to show long-term improvement.
Data in the Los Angeles and San Francisco areas show 20 to 50 percent
decreases in the number of times the 1-hour oxidant standard was exceeded.
However, an important characteristic of the oxidant problem is the recog-
nition of the wide spatial distribution of high oxidant levels. Recent
studies have focused attention on oxidants as an area-wide phenomenon
extending even to rural areas. The number of oxidant or ozone monitors
has increased nationally by more than 600 percent between 1970 and 1974
(51 to 343), with a 30 percent increase in 1974 over 1973 (265 to 343).
46
-------
As these sites continue to report data, it will become possible to examine
oxidant trends on a much broader geographical basis.
Measurements of oxidants at rural stations from Ohio into Maryland and
Pennsylvania through the summer of 1974 have confirmed earlier reports of
high oxidant concentrations remote from urban areas. The history of air
masses, plus the presence of distinctive man-made pollutants in the air
masses, strongly suggests that the observed oxidant concentrations are the
product of man-made emissions received by the air masses in passing over an
urban area. These ingredients continue to react, forming photochemical
oxidants, as the air masses move across the countryside.
Nitrogen oxide emissions have increased nationally since 1970 and
upward trends in MOp have been seen in Los Angeles and Philadelphia.
Because of recent changes in measurement methodology for monitoring nitro-
gen dioxide, very few areas have sufficient historical data to assess NO^
trends during the 1970-1974 period. However, between 1973 and 1974, the
number of stations reporting a complete year of acceptable fK^ data
increased by almost 800 percent so that future reports should be able to
more accurately assess national trends in N02 levels.
Nationwide estimates of pollutant emissions from 1970 through 1974 show
steady declines in the tonnages of particulates and carbon monoxide being
emitted into the air. Emissions of sulfur oxides and hydrocarbons evidence
only slight declines. Nitrogen oxides show a slight increase in total
emissions.
DATA REPORTING
Although data reporting is improving, some difficulties persist in
acquiring or reporting a full year's data for many monitoring stations.
This situation continues to handicap the evaluation of the nation's air
quality. From a preceding section it can be observed that of the 3788
TSP monitoring stations and 2241 SOp monitoring stations reporting
minimal data in 1974, only 53 percent and 46 percent, respectively,
reported data sufficiently complete to permit calculating a valid annual -
mean. This not only means that the annual standards for these pollutants
can only be evaluated at about half the existing stations, but also that
the incidence of 24-hour standard violations is inconclusive wherever the
47
-------
data record is incomplete. Thus, expediting the flow of data from the
state and local monitoring agencies to EPA's national data bank is being
given increased emphasis.
AIR POLLUTION EPISODES
Within this last report period, EPA has established a standardized
reporting system for air pollution episodes. Table V-3 presents by EPA
region the number and type of episodes that occurred August through
December 1975. These data may be summarized as follows:
0 High ozone/oxidant levels were responsible for 111 of the 136
episodes. The greatest frequency and highest stage ozone/oxidant
episodes occurred in the Los Angeles Basin. The national frequency
of ozone/oxidant episodes dropped sharply during the 5-month
period, reflecting the seasonal decrease in photochemical activity.
0 The national frequency of TSP episodes increased during the
period August - December, reflecting the seasonal increase in
periods of air stagnation. The highest frequency of TSP episodes
occurred in a four-county area in Eastern Ohio.
0 The most severe episode was the Emergency Stage episode for
TSP in Allegheny County, Pennsylvania, during November.
0 Carbon monoxide episodes occurred during November and December
only, and were most frequent in Fairbanks, Alaska.
0 Sulfur dioxide episodes were confined to two counties in
Arizona and did not exceed Alert Stage levels. These were
associated with emissions from non-ferrous smelters.
0 With minor exceptions, each episode area had only one
pollutant responsible for all its episodes.
REFERENCES
1. State Air Pollution Implementation Plan Progress Report, January 1 "
to June 30, 1975.EPA-450/2-75-008.September 1975.'
48
-------
Table V- 3. AIR POLLUTION EPISODES FOR AUGUST THROUGH DECEMBER 1975*
Area
Region I
Massachusetts
Massachusetts, S.E. portion
Region II
None recorded for any
pollutant
Region III
Pennsylvania
S. Allegheny County'
Region IV
Alabama
Jefferson County
Kentucky
Louisville
Newport
Tennessee
Chattanooga
Region V
Indiana
Floyd, Clark, and
Dearborn Counties
Michigan
Michigan, lower portion
Ohio
Ohio, most of state
Hamilton and Clermont Go's.
Ohio, most of state
Beltmont, Coumbiana, Jef-
ferson, and Monroe Go's.
Lawrence County
Jefferson County
Wisconsin
Wisconsin, S.E. district
and Milwaukee County
Wisconsin, southern third
of state
Racine County
Ozaukee County
Pollutant
0
X
TSP
TSP
0
ox
X
TSP
0
X
0
X
0
ox
TS£
TSP
TSP
TSP
0
X
0
X
0
ox
X
Q
Number of episodes
Aug.
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
1
0
1C
0
0
0
1"
1
1
1
Sept.
0
0
0
0
1
1
0
1
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
1
0
0 '
0
Oct.
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
4
0
0
0
0
0
0
Nov.
0
0
0
1
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
lc
lc
1
0
0
0
0
Dec.
0
0
lb
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
Total
1
0
1
3
1
1
1
. 1
1
1
1
1
6
1
1
2
1
1
1
49
-------
Table V-3 (continued). AIR POLLUTION EPISODES FOR AUGUST THROUGH DECEMBER 1975£
Area
Region VI
None recorded for any
pollutant
Region VII
None recorded " for any
pollutant
Region VIII
None recorded for any
pollutant
Region IX
California
Los Angeles Co.
Orange Co.
Western San Bernardino
County
Western Riverside Co.
Kern County
Ventura County
San Francisco Bay Area
Santa Barbara
Los Angeles Co.
Lennox
Arizona
Hay den
Miami
Phoenix
Region X
Alaska
Fairbanks
Idaho
Boise
Washington
Spokane
Pollutant
0
ox
ox
X
0
ox
ox
ox
ox
Cx
CO
so
SO2,
CO2
CO
CO
CO
Q
Number of episodes
Aug.
0
0
0
18
1
16C
6
1
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
Sept.
0
0
0
11
6
17
4
0
0
1
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
Oct.
0
0
0
6C
1
6
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
1
0
0
0
0
Nov.
0
0
0
1
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
1
1
0
0
Dec.
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
3
1
1
Total
0
0
o ^
36
9
39
11
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
4
1
1
Criteria for episodes include three main stages that are increasingly hazardous:
alert, warning, and emergency. Concentrations at which each stage is attained
for each pollutant are specified in Appendix L of 40 CFR 51. If not otherwise
indicated, episodes are for the alert stage.
Emergency stage episodes.
warning stage episodes.
Source: EPA National Air Data Branch, Research Triangle Park, N. C.
50
-------
VI. STATIONARY SOURCE COMPLIANCE
OVERVIEW
The Clean Air Act establishes a stringent timetable for EPA and states
to abate air pollution. With a few notable exceptions (e.g., sulfur oxide
emission limitations for the States of Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois), all
states now have fully enforceable emission limitations at levels protective
of health and welfare for stationary installations, which are the source of
the large majority of all particulate and sulfur oxide emissions. The Act
provides 3 years from the date of state plan approval for EPA and states
to enforce SIP emission limitations and achieve health-related air quality
standards. Except for portions of 16 states, where an extension of up to 2
years has been granted for one or more pollutants, these ambient air quality
standards were required to be met by May 31, 1975.
To reach the target air quality levels, state, local and Federal
enforcement programs have the responsibility for ensuring that stationary
sources attain and maintain compliance with emission limitations established
by SIPs. Enforcement responsibilities for state-developed, EPA-approved
emission limitations are shared by EPA and the states. The Clean Air Act
recognizes that states have primary responsibility for achieving clean
air within their jurisdictions. When states do not enforce air pollution
standards, however, the Act requires EPA to take action. In accordance with
the intent of the Act, the EPA air enforcement program is designed to
ensure that all sources achieve compliance with applicable standards. EPA
bolsters state air enforcement efforts by supporting state control
agencies through control agency grants, providing specialized skill and
expertise or special contractual efforts, and by taking enforcement actions
against selected sources when the states cannot or will not enforce.
51
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Enforcement of standards at stationary sources is an immense task since
it is estimated that over 200,000 stationary sources are now subject to SIP
emission limitations. Of this number, however, nearly 22,000 are major
emitters (facilities individually capable of emitting over 100 tons of a
pollutant each year). As a class, these sources produce about 85 percent of
all air pollution from stationary sources. Therefore, enforcement programs
have first focused on ensuring compliance by such emitters in order to have
the greatest impact on reducing emissions in the least amount of time.
Concentrated efforts expended in this area have resulted in a highly suc-
cessful program. As shown in Table VI-1, by December 1975 EPA and states
had identified 21,670 such major sources and had brought 18,327 (85
percent) of them into final compliance or placed them on firm schedules
leading to compliance in the very near future (16,969 in final compliance
and 1,358 complying with schedules). Compliance levels are expected to
climb to about 90 percent by the end of FY 1976. In the past 6 months, EPA
initiated nearly 400 enforcement actions and conducted some 4,500 field
inspections in accomplishing this goal. At the same time, states undertook
a large part of the compliance program by conducting around 95,600 field
investigations and initiating about 12,000 enforcement actions to bring
major sources into compliance with SIP emission limitations. These actions,
and those of the past several years, have resulted in substantial achieve-
ments in reducing emissions of TSP and SO pollutants to the atmosphere.
X
A recent study shows that since enactment of the amendments to the .Clean Air
Act in 1970, industry compliance with Federal, state, and local air pollu-
tion laws had, by 1974, kept over 26 million tons of particulate matter and
7.6 million tons of SO out of the nation's air. These reductions in
/\
emissions from stationary sources represent achievement of about three-
quarters of the reduction goals needed for full SIP compliance for particu-
lates and about half of the goal for SO^.
However, 2,464 or 11 percent of major sources still violate emission
standards or compliance schedules, and nearly 900 must now be inspected to
determine their compliance status. These last violators are expected to
be the most difficult sources to bring into compliance because they are
for the most part such large sources as power plants and steel mills that
have to date demonstrated a great reluctance to make necessary commitments
52
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to curb emissions to the atmosphere. Thus, despite decided progress in SIP
enforcement, state and Federal tasks with respect to compliance by large
sources are not yet complete.
Most of the remaining major violators and most of the major sources
of unknown status are located in Air Quality Control Regions (AQCRs) that
are not expected to attain the primary NAAQS for TSP and/or S02 in a
timely way. Therefore, enforcement against such sources is now of para-
mount importance. In addition, it is estimated that about 130,000 smaller
emitters (each having potential emissions of between 10 and 100 tons per
year) are located in these areas where standards are not expected to be
met. States and EPA are now conducting extensive analyses to determine
the reasons for poor air quality in each of the non-attainment areas in the
country. These analyses will for the most part be complete by July 1976,
and will specifically identify in each AQCR those major and minor sources
that are contributing to non-attainment problems. Preliminary analysis
indicates that the minor sources making the largest contribution to air
quality problems include such stationary sources as small industrial, com-
mercial, and residential boilers; small incinerators, such as apartment
house incinerators; dry cleaning operations; bulk storage tanks; cement
handling equipment; cotton gins; feed and grain mills; and chemical plants.
As the causes of non-attainment are identified in these complex analyses,
and as the problem categories of sources are pinpointed, strategies will be
worked out for each area to bring violating sources into compliance and
therefore improve air quality in deficient areas of the country.
MAJOR SOURCE CATEGORIES
Several categories of major sources are still posing substantial
problems across the nation in not achieving compliance with emission stand-
ards within the time limits prescribed by the Clean Air Act. Notable among
these sources are coal-fired power plants, integrated iron and steel manu-
facturing plants and coking facilities, and primary smelters. EPA has set
up special efforts to achieve compliance by these sources and continues to
pressure owners and operators of these sources to bring their plants into
compliance with emission limitations.
54
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In general, these three source categories have the most difficult air
compliance problems because of the amount of.control required and the
associated costs of the control techniques that need to be applied. For
coal-fired power plants, control of sulfur dioxide emissions is the major
concern. Flue gas desulfurization systems (scrubbers) and low-sulfur fuels
.are two major approaches to the reduction of power plant emissions. On the
other hand, control of fugitive particulate emissions is the most difficult
problem for iron and steel mills and coke plants. This problem is under-
scored by the large degree of noncompliance at coking facilities. For
primary copper, lead, and zinc smelters, control of sulfur dioxide emissions
is a major difficulty; plants producing sulfuric acid are commonly required
to remove the sulfur dioxide from stack gases. These industries accounted
for about one-third of the total emissions of particulates and about two-
thirds of the total emissions of sulfur dioxide in 1974. For this reason,
compliance by all of these sources is crucial to the attainment of the
NAAQS in many AQCRs.
Coal-Fired Power Plants
Control of emissions from power plants is essential to the attainment of
the health-related air quality standards for sulfur oxides in many areas of
the nation. As a class, coal-fired steam electric plants emit about 60
percent of the total S0x produced by all sources. During the summer of 1973,
it became increasingly apparent to EPA that progress to meet applicable
state S0x emission limitations by this sector of industry was lagging
severely. New supplies of low-sulfur coal, the favored approach to reducing
sulfur oxide emissions, were becoming increasingly scarce, and utilities
were extremely reluctant to use flue gas desulfurization systems (scrubbers)
to remove S0x from the stack after burning high-sulfur coal.
National public hearings were held in the fall of 1973 to determine the
validity of the utilities' contentions regarding optional means of compliance.
After hearing testimony from a variety of expert witnesses and other
interested parties, the 1973 Hearing Panel concluded that the basic techno-
logical problems associated with flue gas desulfurization (FGD) had been
solved or were within the scope of current engineering and, further, that
FGD could be applied at reasonable cost. A special EPA enforcement program
was then initiated for power plants on the basis of these findings.
55
-------
At that time it was estimated that approximately 50 percent of some 394
coal-fired power plants in the nation were violating applicable SIP emission
limitations. Significant progress has been made in improving compliance
levels since these hearings. Of the total 394 coal-fired power plants in
the country, 261 plants now comply with final emission limitations or abate-
ment schedules, up from an estimated 200 in the fall of 1973. Forty-seven
of the total U.S. plants are located in Ohio where no SO plan is now in
X
effect. In November 1975, EPA proposed emission limitations for SO appli-
X
cable to power plants, and these regulations are expected to be promulgated
in mid-1976. Another 29 of these plants are located in Indiana where the
State Circuit Court recently vacated the SO plan. The State of Indiana is
X
currently appealina this decision, but EPA, may yet have to promulgate a new
SIP requirement to cover these plants. An additional 26 of the total 394
plants are in Illinois, where the SO plan was also vacated recently. EPA
X
and Illinois are now gathering data in support of a new plan for SO The
X
remaining 31 plants are known to be out of compliance and action is being
taken where possible. SIP revisions are underway for seven of these plants;
standards for six plants are being challenged under section 307 of the Act;
a legal stay to enforcement is in effect for one plant pending outcome of
litigation; ten of these plants are part of the TVA system, with which EPA
is currently negotiating for a consent agreement; three plants are subject
to conversion orders by the Federal Energy Administration and will require
compliance date extensions; notices of violation have been issued to two
plants; one utility company is in the process of negotiating a consent agree-
ment with EPA; and action is now being planned for the final remaining
source. The primary compliance problems remaining with power plants center
on resolving the regulatory problems in Indiana, Illinois, and Ohio.
Another measure of EPA.'s effectiveness in cleaning up SO emissions
/\
from power plants is the increased commitment to F6D systems since the 1973
public hearings. At that time, some 44 units were installed, under con-
struction s or planned around the country, and by December 1975, this figure
had more than doubled to a total of 115 plants, 28 of which are operational,
18 of which are under construction, and 69 of which are in some stages of
planning. These units total nearly 45,000 megawatts of generating capacity,
about half the estimated need to achieve 100 percent compliance with SO
56
-------
regulations by 1980. The number of units now on line has nearly tripled,
from 10 to 28, and the bulk of these 115 units will have started up before
1980. Some are scheduled for startup beyond 1980 and others have unknown
dates because their installations must await the startup dates of new plants,
Primary Non-Ferrous Smelters
Though small in number, the nation's 25 non-ferrous smelters account
for about 10 percent of the total sulfur oxides emitted by stationary
sources. Most of the Agency's problems in assuring compliance by non-
ferrous smelters have centered in the western U.S., where six State Imple-
mentation Plans for sulfur dioxide affecting 13 smelters were disapproved
in 1972 as inadequate to meet the NAAQS unless the smelters were controlled.
Another smelter was affected when EPA disapproved the entire Ohio SIP for
S02 in April 1974. Regulations have been promulgated for four of these
smelters and proposed for the remaining ten. These regulations require
application of reasonably available retrofit control technology and, if
necessary, allow the interim use of supplementary control systems (SCS) and
tall stacks until adequate constant emission control techniques become
reasonably available. Each smelter using SCS is further required to conduct
a research and development program to hasten the development of such tech-
nology. One regulation that EPA recently promulgated was upheld by the
Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals, but this case has been appealed to the
Supreme Court. Two other challenges under section 307 of the Clean Air Act
are still outstanding. All five smelters in the eastern U.S. are now in
compliance with applicable regulations or are on appropriate schedules. In
one case, EPA issued an administrative order to enforce the regulations;
in another, EPA issued a finding of violation. Generally, however, state
agencies are responding adequately to the situation and Federal action ts
not required.
About half of the primary non-ferrous smelters are located in AQCRs
where statutory attainment dates have been extended to July 1977. No
major obstacles are anticipated that might prevent achievement of primary
ambient standards in the vicinity of these sources by the mid-1977 dead-
lines by using SCS; however, installation of some constant control devices
may not be completed before the attainment date. Those subject to mid-1975
deadlines are, for the most part, nearing compliance.
57
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Iron and Steel Mills/Coke Plants
The iron and steel industry presents one of the most difficult com-
pliance problems for state and Federal air pollution enforcement programs.
There are 246 steel and coke making installations in the United States, of
which 218 produce iron and steel (and may or may not produce coke), while
the remainder produce solely coke to be used in metallurgical and other
industries. Nearly all of these installations are located in areas where
the health-related ambient air quality standards are not expected to be
attained.
Within steel facilities are a number of basic processes, each of which
presents tough technical problems to control. The processes that are the
greatest sources of air pollution in the industry are by-product coke bat-
teries, blast furnaces, sintering lines, open hearth furnaces, basic oxygen
furnaces, and electric arc furnaces. There are nearly 1,200 of these major
emitting steel processes; they characterize the basic means of producing
iron and steel and are the subject of intensifying EPA and state enforcement
attention. As indicated in Table VI-2, the steel industry lags far behind
other stationary sources in complying with SIP requirements; 50 percent
(589) of the industry's 1,178 major polluting processes have yet to comply
with SIP emission limitations while the level of noncompliance for all
major stationary source installations stands at 11 percent.
To date state, local, and EPA enforcement programs have placed 367 of
the 589 violating steel processes on schedules to achieve final compliance.
As of December 31, 1975, EPA had initiated 79 enforcement actions (43 notices
of violation and 36 enforcement orders or referrals to the Department of
Justice for prosecution) at nearly 50 steel installations. Reflecting the
increased emphasis EPA has given steel industry compliance, 46 of these
actions were taken in 1975, compared to 25 such actions in 1974 and 8 in
1973.
While the reasons for continued violations by any of the major polluting
steel processes are complex and related to unique conditions at each
facility, the steel industry has regularly raised a number of issues to
argue for more time or for relaxation of air pollution control requirements.
A summary of these issues and EPA's position is outlined below:
58
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1. Impact of fugitive process emissions Fugitive process emissions
are pollutants that are formed during industrial processes and escape to
the air without having been ducted to a smoke stack; characteristically,
fugitive process emissions are emitted from parts of the steel making
operations that are difficult to seal or enclose. The heart of the steel
industry's complaints about abating air pollution is their contention that
fugitive process emissions are either harmless or inconsequential. Over
the past year, however, EPA and state efforts have documented that fugitive
particulate emissions are large in terms of mass and that fugitive particu-
late emissions have a large impact on ambient air quality.
2. Conflicts with proposed OSHA requirements In June 1975, the Coke
Oven Standards Advisory Committee (composed of representatives of the steel
companies and unions) within the Occupational Safety and Health Administra-
tion (OSHA) made a number of recommendations to the Department of Labor
regarding new occupational safety standards for coke oven workers. One of
these, Resolution #7, called for a complete ban on the construction of coke
oven sheds (one method of collecting a portion of coke oven fugitive emis-
sions by enclosing part of the battery with a shed-like structure). EPA
testified to the committee that the NIOSH (National Institute of Occupational
Safety and Health) test data used to support Resolution #7 was improperly
construed and that it in fact showed that the addition of a coke oven shed
caused no statistically significant increase in worker exposure to air
pollutants. Data from EPA tests of coke oven sheds also support this
position. After reviewing the record of the committee, the Department of
Labor agreed with EPA's position and proposed regulations on July 31, 1975,
stating that "... it is OSHA's opinion that the application of well
designed emission control technology will not necessarily preclude the attain-
2
ment of the level of worker health protection provided by this proposal."
3. Economic problems In general, the steel industry has made a
variety of arguments that the costs of controlling air pollution (especially
fugitive emissions) far exceed any benefits. Nearly all U.S. steel mills
were established prior to World War II and many continue to operate older,
less profitable equipment. Profits for the steel industry are consequently
among the lowest for principal U.S. manufacturing industries (typically 5
to 10 percent of net worth). Much of the problem in air pollution control
60
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at existing steel installations, therefore, centers on controlling
fugitive air pollutants from equipment, such as coke ovens, designed
prior to the emergence of widespread concern for air quality.
The industry's complaints about costs were summarized in a report
prepared for the American Iron and Steel Institute which concluded that
about twice as much money would be needed to comply with clean air require-
ments as had been previously estimated.3 EPA has reviewed its cost studies
and has concluded that the industry's cost figures are much too high. The
complexity of the industry mekes estimates difficult, but a comparison of
industry and EPA abatement cost estimates (in billions of dollars through
1983) is summarized below:
COSTS FOR ABATING:
Stack emissions
Fugitive emissions
Total air pollution
abatement costs
EPA
INDUSTRY
$4.27
$6.88
4. Energy issues The steel industry contends that the large amounts
of energy needed to abate air pollution conflict with national energy policy.
The American Iron and Steel Institute has argued this issue in eight case
studies prepared for the Federal Energy Administration and in the study it
commissioned Arthur D. Little to conduct. For. each case EPA has shown that
the industry's estimates of energy needs are greatly exaggerated because they
are based on application of the most energy-intensive control techniques
and do not consider the recycling of energy now wasted in heat and combustible
gases.
REFERENCES
1. Particulate and Sulfur Oxide Reduction Achieved Nationwide for Selected
Industrial Source Categories. 1970-1974. bPA-MO/1 -76-001. February 1976.
2- Federal Register. Vol. 40, p. 32273, July 31, 1975.
3- Steel and the Environment: A Cost Impact Analysis, report prepared by
the Arthur D. Little Company for the American Iron and Steel Institute,
May 1975.
61
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VII. CONTROL AGENCY RESOURCES
SUMMARY OF RESOURCES
The total funds (state and Federal) available for air pollution control
in agencies supported by Federal grants or receiving special assistance in
the form of contractor work were approximately $143 million in FY 1975. In
addition, approximately $7 million of non-Federally supported activities
were carried on at the local and state levels of government, for a total of
$150 million.
Since FY 73 Federal support of control agencies has remained .relatively
constant at approximately $51.5 million each year. In FY 75 this amount
increased slightly to $52.7 million, and in FY 76 Federal funds available
for support of state and local air pollution control agencies will approx-
imate $55.2 million. The contribution of non-Federal funds by state and
local agencies approximated $91 million in FY 75 for those agencies
receiving Federal support, and totaled $98 million when other agencies,
such as local health departments with air pollution control funds, are
included.
Preliminary estimates indicate that approximately 6700 man-years of
effort (directly related to SIP activities assisted by Federal support)
were devoted to controlling air pollution at the state and local level in
1975. It is estimated that all air pollution control activities approxi-
mated 7100 man-years in 1975 when other agencies are included.
PROGRESS OF STATE AND LOCAL AIR POLLUTION CONTROL PROGRAMS
Figures VII-1 and VII-2 show in terms of both dollars and manpower the
historical growth of the nation's capability to control air pollution. The
total expenditures for the support of air pollution control programs have
grown at an average annual rate of approximately 28 percent, from
63
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$13.8 million in FY 65 to approximately $150 million in FY 75. The per-
centage of these expenditures provided by Federal financial assistance has
increased from approximately 31 percent in FY 65 to a peak 43 percent in
FY 72 and has since been on a slight downward trend to approximately 36
percent in FY 75.
Since 1965 the man-years of effort in control work have tripled. Man-
power requirements contained in the 55 State Implementation Plans submitted
by the states in April 1971 indicated that approximately 8500 man-years
would be necessary to implement Clean Air Act programs. However, state
and local agencies have provided some additional estimates made on the
basis of changing strategies for programs such as transportation control
activities, prevention of significant deterioration, and the attainment
and maintenance of standards. A 1973 estimate indicated that 9500
man-years would be required by 1975 and 10,300 man-years would be needed
by 1977 to meet anticipated program demands. On the basis of these
estimates, the state and local control agencies had approximately 75 percent
of the manpower and funds stated as being needed in 1975.
In 1975, 80 percent of the states (including local agencies) expended
an effort in man-years and dollars equivalent to 60 percent or more of
their stated needs. The number of states with greater than 60 percent of
their manpower needs increased from 33 in 1974 to 44 in 1975. Funding
increased over 1974 by approximately 14 percent ($18 million) and man-
years of effort by 9 percent (600 man-years, all sources). These increases
were approximately the same as in previous years. Improvement in resources
was principally due to the state and local increase in funds of approxi-
mately 20 percent over 1974.
66
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TECHNICAL REPORT DATA
(Please read Instructions on the reverse before completing)
i. REPORT NO.
EPA-450/2-76-006
3. RECIPIENT'S ACCESSION-NO.
4. TITLE AND SUBTITLE
State Air Pollution Implementation Plan Progress Report,
July 1 to December 31, 1975
5. REPORT DATE
April 1976
6. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION CODE
7. AUTHOR(S)
8. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION REPORT NO.
9. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION NAME AND ADDRESS
J.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Air and
.ste Management, Office of Air Quality Planning and
Standards, Research Triangle Park, N.C., and Office of
Enforcement, Washington, D. C.
10. PROGRAM ELEMENT NO.
11. CONTRACT/GRANT NO.
12. SPONSORING AGENCY NAME AND ADDRESS
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
)ffice of Air and Waste Management
)ffice of Air Quality Planning and Standards
Research Triangle Park, North Carolina 27711
13. TYPE OF REPORT AND PERIOD COVERED
Progress, 7/1 to 12/31/75
14. SPONSORING AGENCY CODE
15. SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES
16. ABSTRACT
This report features two topics: (1) the current evaluation of all State Implementa-
tion Plans (SIPs) to determine by July 1, 1976, those that are "substantially inade-
quate" and need revisions to attain and maintain the National Ambient Air Quality
Standards (NAAQS); and (2) an overview of EPA's carbon monoxide/oxidant control
strategies, with an emphasis on control of transportation-related sources of these
jollutants. Also included in this report are summaries of SIP-related actions pub-
lished in the Federal Register during this reporting period, ambient air quality and
trend data for 1974, and stationary source compliance information. Since the last
report in this series (EPA-450/2-75-008, September 1975), the number of major sources
identified has increased by 2,463 to 21,823; 84 percent of these are now in compliance
th an emission standard or on an acceptable compliance schedule.
KEY WORDS AND DOCUMENT ANALYSIS
DESCRIPTORS
b.IDENTIFIERS/OPEN ENDED TERMS
c. COSATI Field/Group
Air pollution
Air Quality Maintenance Areas
Air quality monitoring
Air quality standards
State Implementation Plans
Enforcement
13. DISTRIBUTION STATEMENT
Release unlimited
19. SECURITY CLASS (ThisReport)
Unclassified
21. NO OF PAGES
65
20. SECURITY CLASS (Thispage)
Unclassified
22. PRICE
EPA Form 2220-1 (9-73)
67
*U.S.'GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1976-6417317/5505 Rsgioh'.No. 4
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