EPA-450/2-78-030
                          OAQPS No. 1.2-106
   Control of Volatile
   Organic  Emissions
            from
      Manufacture of
Pneumatic  Rubber Tires
    Emission Standards and Engineering Division
       Chemical and Petroleum Branch
    U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
    Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards
    Research Triangle Park, North Carolina 27711

           December 1978

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                                      OAQPS GUIDELINE SERIES
The guideline series of reports is being issued by the Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards (OAQPS) to
provide information to state and local air pollution control agencies; for example, to provide guidance on the
acquisition and processing of air quality data and on the planning and analysis requisite forthe maintenance of air
quality. Reports published in this series will be available - as supplies permit -from the Library Services(Office
(MD-35), U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina 27711, or, for a nominal
fee, from the National Technical Information Service, 5285 Port Royal Road, Springfield, Virginia 22161.
                                   Publication No. EPA-450/2-78-030
                                    (OAQPS Guideline No. 1.2-106)

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                     ABBREVIATIONS AND CONVERSION FACTORS

     EPA policy is to express all measurements in agency documents in metric
units.  Listed below are abbreviations and conversion factors for British
equivalents of metric units for the use of engineers and scientists accustomed
to using the British system.
     Abbreviations
     Mg - Megagrams
     kg - kilograms
     m  - cubic meters

     Conversion Factors
     liters X .264 = gallons
     gallon X 3.785 = liters
     gram X 1 X 10  = 1 Megagram = 1  metric ton
     1 pound = 0.454 kilograms •
     °C = .5555 (°F - 32)
     Mg/yr X 0.907 = tons/yr
     1 psi = 6,895 pascals (Pa)

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                           TABLE OF CONTENTS
                                                                     Page
Chapter 1.0  Introduction 	   1-1
        1.1  Need to Regulate	   1-2
        1.2  Regulatory Approach	   1-2
        1.3  Summary	   1-3
        1.4  References	   1-5
Chapter 2.0  Sources and Types of Emissions 	   2-1
        2.1  Processes and Emissions	   2-5
             2.1.1  Rubber Stock Processing	   2-5
                    2.1.1.1  Compounding  	  .   2-5
                    2.1.1.2  Milling  ..'...	  "2N-1T
                    2.1.1.3  Tread and Sidewall Preparation ....  _2-9
                    2.1.1.4  Undertread Cementing 	   2-10
             2.1.2  Fabric Treatment  . . .	   2-10
                    2.1.2.1  Latex Dipping  	   2-10
                    2.1.2.2  Calendering	 .   2-11
                    2.1.2.3  Bead Dipping	   2-11
             2.1.3  Tire Building	   2-12
             2.1.4  Tread End Cementing	   2-13
             2.1.5  Green Tire Spraying	 .   2-13
             2.1.6  Molding and Curing  . .	   2-14
             2.1.7  Finishing	   2-14
             2.1.8  References	   2-16
Chapter 3.0  Applicable Systems of Emission Control 	   3-1
        3.1  Undertread Cementing 	   3-1
             3.1.1  Summary of Control Technology 	   3-1
             3.1.2  General Description	   3-1

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        3.2  Tread End Cementing	   3-3 ;
             3.2.1  Summary of Control Technology  	   3-3
             3.2.2  General Description  	   3-3 ;
        3.3  Bead Cementing	   3-4 ;
             3.3.1  Summary of Control Technology  	  .3-4 ;
             3.3.2  General Description  	   3-4
        3.4  Green Tire Spraying	   3-5
             3.4.1  Summary of Control Technology	   3-5 ;
             3.4.2  General Description  	   3-5 i
        3.5  References	   3-8
Chapter 4.0  Cost Analysis	   4-1
        4.1  Introduction	   4-1
             4.1.1  Purpose	   4-1
             4.1.2  Scope	   4-1
             4.1.3  Model Plant Parameters ... 	   4-1
             4.1.4  Bases for Capital Cost Estimates	  .   4-1
             4.1.5  Bases for Annualized Cost Estimates	   4-3'
                                                                             i
        4.2  Control of VOC Emissions from, Selected Facilities  ....   4-3 >
             4.2.1  Parameters of Model Plants  	   4-3
             4.2.2  Costs of Control	   4-7
        4.3  Cost-Effectiveness	   4-16
        4.4  Summary	   4-17
        4.5  References	   4-18
 Chapter 5.0  Adverse  Effects of Applying Technology   	   5-1
        5.1  Air Impacts	   5-1
        5.2  Carbon Adsorption Control  Systems  . 	   5-1

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     5.3  Incineration	  5-2
     5.4  Water and Solid Waste Impact	  .  5-2
Appendix A	 . . . .'	  A-l
Appendix B - Calculations to Estimate VOC Emissions from Vent
             Processing of Rubber  	  .......  B-l
                                    Til

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                               LIST OF TABLES                                 :

Table 1-1  Control Systems for Tire Manufacture	   1-4
     "2-1  Estimated Tire Production by Plant as of January 1, 1978 . . .    2-2
      2-2  Annual Domestic Production of Passenger Car and Truck Tires
           for Original Equipment and Replacement Market	   2-;4
      2-3  Annual Consumption of Raw Materials for the Use in Tire
           Cords and Belts	......	   2-5
      2-4  Ranges of Operating Paramters for Existing Tire Manufacturing    2-7
           Plants	   2-7
      2-5  Operating Parameters for an Average Tire Manufacturing Plant .   2-8
      2-6  Emissions Data for Finishing	 .   2-15
      3-1  Composition of  Water-Based  Inside Tire Sprays   	   3-7
      4-1  VOC  Emission Sources and Control Systems  	   4-2
      4-2  Items  Included  in  Capital Costs of Retrofitted  Control
           Systems	   4-4
      4-3  Items  Included  in  Annualized Costs of Retrofitted  Control          ;
           Systems		   4-5
      4-4  Parameters for  a Typical Plant Manufacturing
           16,000 tires/day	   4-6
      4-5  Assumptions Used  in  Developing Cost  Estimates  for  Catalytic
           and  Thermal Incinerators  	   4-8
      4-6  Assumptions Used  in  Developing Cost  Estimates  for  Carbon
           Adsorbers	•  •   4-10
      4-7  Estimated  Capital  Costs, Annualized  Costs,  and Cost-
           Effectiveness  of  Control Systems for Undertread Cementing   .  .   4-11
      4-8  Estimated  Capital  Costs, Annualized  Costs,  and Cost-               ;
           Effectiveness  of  Control Systems for Bead Dipping   .......   4-12
      4-9  Estimated  Capital  Costs, Annualized  Costs,  and Cost-
           Effectiveness  of  Control Systems for Tire Building	   4-13
      4-10 Estimated  Capital  Costs, Annualized  Costs,  and Cost-
           Effectiveness  of  Control Systems for Tread  End Cementing  .  .  .   4-14
      4-11 Estimated  Capital  Costs, Annualized  Costs,  and Cost-
           Effectiveness  of  Control Systems for Green  Tire Spraying  ...   4-15

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       A-l   Total  Volatile Organic Compound Emissions from the
            Tire Manufacturing Plants 	    A-l
       A-2   Calculations for Annual Mass VOC Emissions	    A-2
       A-3   Emission Data for Undertread Cementing  	    A-3
       A-4   Emission Data for Bead Dipping	    A-4
       A-5   Emission Data for Tire Building	    A-5
       A-6   Emission Data for Green Tire Spraying	    A-6
       B-l   Calculations to Estimate VOC Emissions from Heat
            Processing of Rubber. . . .  .	    B-l
                             LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 2-1 Tire Manufacturing Flow Diagram  	 .....   2-6

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                            1.0  INTRODUCTION               ,

     This document is concerned with emissions of volatile organic compounds
(VOC) from rubber tire manufacturing plants and applicable air pollution control
technology.  Tire manufacture includes passenger car, light and medium duty
truck tires, and tires manufactured on assembly lines using automated equipment
and processes fundamentally the same as those described in this document.
     Methodology described in this document represents the presumptive norm    l
or reasonably available control technology (RACT) that can be applied to
existing tire manufacturing plants.  RACT is defined as the lowest emission
limit that a particular source is capable of meeting by the application of
control technology that is reasonably available considering technological
and economic feasibility.  It may require technology that has  been applied
to similar, but not necessarily identical, source categories.   It is not
intended that extensive research and development be conducted  before a given
control technology can be applied to the source.  This does not, however,
preclude requiring a short-term evaluation program to permit the application
of a given technology to a particular source.  The latter effort is an
appropriate technology forcing aspect of RACT.
     The VOC's emitted are predominately white gasoline and pertroleum naphtha
solvent used in rubber tire manufacturing.  Toluene, xylene, ketbnes, and esters
are used for many purposes, but generally in lesser amounts.  Other hydrocarbons
of importance include plasticizers and softeners that have low volatility at
ambient temperatures but evaporate during curing and other high temperature
processing steps.
                                  1-1

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1.1  NEED TO REGULATE                                                       .1
     Tire manufacturing tends to be concentrated in areas where the oxidant  :
National Ambient Air Quality Standard (NAAQS) is likely to be exceeded.
In 1976, VOC emissions resulting from production activities carried out
                                                    8                        '
by the rubber industry were estimated to be 1.4 x 10  kilograms.  The tire
industry represented 63 percent of that total or about 0-6 percent of the
national organic emissions from stationary sources.  The average tire plant  ,
is estimated to release 4,000 kg per day emissions or 1,000 metric tons  per  ,
year VOC.
1.2  REGULATORY APPROACH                                                     '
     VOC emission reductions from tire manufacturing can be attained through :
tight control of solvent operations and the use of effective capture systems
and exhaust gas treatment devices"."Sources and the factors affecting emissions
are described in Chapter 2.  Control systems for specific processes are
described in Chapter 3.  Costs are presented in Chapter 4.
1.3  SUMMARY
     The purpose of this document is to inform State and local air pollution
control agencies of techniques available for reducing emissions of volatile  ;
organic compounds  (VOC) from rubber tire manufacturing.  Volatile organic
compounds are added to rubber components to  aid in mixing, promote elasticity,
produce tack (stickiness), or extend (replace) a portion of the rubber
hydrocarbons.  Tire production includes the  operations of component manufacture,
assembly, and cure.  Essentially  all solvents used in tire manufacturing evaporate
in the  process.
     Recommendations to reduce solvent  emissions from tire manufacture are based
upon exhaust gas treatment  and process  changes  (principally  lowering the solvent
content of  raw materials).
                                    1-2

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     Tires are manufactured in a series of operations and processes using
large quantities of solvents.  These result in the emission of large
quantities of vapors and mists into work room air.  To meet OSHA workplace
standards, increased ventilation and dilution air is generally used.  Well
designed hooding and ventilation systems are necessary both to meet OSHA
requirements and to facilitate the application of air pollution control
equipment.  Two manuals are suggested as references on the design and
                                            1 ?
operation of industrial ventilation systems. *
     It is estimated that 97 percent of VOC emissions from tire manufacturing
are organic solvents; the rest are reaction products generated during curing.
Green tire spraying, undertread cementing, tread end cementing, and bead
dipping represent 75-85 percent of emissions and tire building 12-20 percent.
Green tire spraying and undertread cementing are the dominant VOC emitters
as shown in Table 1-1.  Control of tire building is not presently recommended
because of the very large areas over which these emissions occur (i.e., 50 tire
building machines per average plant, occupying about 25 percent of the plant
floor space).  Retrofit control would have to be applied to very large air volumes
with low VOC concentrations.
     Other emission points not considered in this document are latex dipping,
compounding, calendering, extrusion, milling, and curing.  Latex dipping is
moving from tire plants to the textile mill operations.  Research and development
has been initiated by EPA with industry participation to determine hood design
criteria, emission levels, and feasibility of control technologies, of emissions
from the passenger tire curing process.  It is estimated that the emissions from
these six sources represent 3-6 percent of tire plants total  emissions.
                                    1-3

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               The following table summarizes the four major sources of VOC emissions

          from tire manufacturing and the control technology for each that is considered

          reasonably available.

                                          TABLE 1-1
                            Control Systems for Tire Manufacture    ,
                        (typical 16,000 tires daily production rate)
Affected Facility
            Uncontrolled   Capture  2  Efficiency Across     Overall
  Control     Emissions   Efficiency    Control Device     Efficiency
Technology     kg/day      percent         percent           percent
Undertread
Cementing


Tread-End
Cementing


Bead
Dipping


Green Tire
Spraying




Carbon 1 520
Adsorption
or
Incineration
Carbon 240
Adsorption
or
Incineration
Carbon 1 30
Adsorption
or
Incineration
Water Based 1600
Coating
Carbon 1600
Adsorption
or
Incineration
65-85


65-85
65-85


65-85
75-85


75-85
NA

80-90


80-90
95


90
95


90
95


90
NA

95


90
62-81


59-77
62-81


59-77 ^
71-81


68-77
~973

76-86


72-81
  Based on an average tire weight of 11.4 kg.

 ^Percent capture efficiency for a retrofit will vary depending on the design and layout
  of the individual affected facility; minimum acceptable percent capture should be
  determined on an individual plant basis.                                         '

 3This number depends upon the formulation.                                        :
                                              1-4

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     Water based coatings are available to replace organic solvent based
coatings commonly used in green tire spraying.   Use of water based coatings
will reduce VOC emissions by nearly 100 percent.  These are already in
use at tire plants.
     The other three principal VOC sources can  be controlled by applying
stack gas treatment—adsorption or incineration—together with an  effective
capture system.  In many existing facilities,  the layout and method of
operation for undertread cementing, bead dipping, and tread end cementing
systems make it difficult to achieve a high capture efficiency.  For the  latter
two sources in particular, this means that VOC  levels may often be low  (less
than 75 ppm) with resultant air pollution control costs ranging from
1140 to 3880 $/Mg of VOC controlled.  Undertread cementing operations can
usually be hooded more effectively, such that VOC levels will be more concentrate^.
and control costs more reasonable, i.e., from 166 to 505 $/Mg.  Application
of adsorption or incineration to those installations where effective capture
systems can not be installed could have severe economic impact and require
substantial energy penalties.
                                1-5

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                       2.0  SOURCES AND TYPES OF EMISSIONS
     The purpose of this chapter is to describe the current industry, provide
a brief process description, indicate" eraiss!oh~pbints and identifythe "
VOC species that are emitted.
     Pneumatic tires are constructed from strong fibers (rayon, nylon, polyester,
glass or steel) impregnated with polymers (synthetic and natural rubber)  and
overlayed with a tread of wear-resistant polymer such as styrene-butadiene
rubber (SBR).  These are built up individually by .a skilled tire builder,
and cured into the familiar toroidal shape under pressure in a heated mold.
Many kinds of tires are made.  These include truck, trailer, tractor,
construction equipment, bicycle, plane, and passenger car.  The passenger
car tire is the  most   produced tire representing about 70 percent of the
tires produced in the U. S.
     Table 2-1 provides a listing of the United States tire company's production
                                               12
facilities, and estimated 1977 tire production. '   Since 1975, four plants
have been closed.3' »   Construction of three new plants, one by Goodyear and
two by Michelin, has been announced.   Firestone also plans to double the production
  4                                                    '
capacity of its heavy-duty radial truck tire plant in Nashville, Tennessee,
by 1982.7
     Table 2-2 shows the number of passenger car and truck tires produced for
the original equipment and the replacement tire markets for the years 1974
through 1977. ' *  '  During :the period 1974 through 1977, total production
of truck tires has shown a growth rate of approximately six percent per year;
however, the growth rate for passenger car tires during the same period was
less than three percent per year.
                                    2-1

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    TABLE  2-1.   ESTIMATED  TIRE  PRODUCTION BY PLANT  AS OF JANUARY  1,  1978]
                                                               T1rps produced. thou-.ands/ton Tire and
Rubber Co.
Ssi Darling Tire and
Rubber Co.
General Tire and Rubber Co.






B. f. Goodrich Co.




Plant location
Des Moines, IA
Hanford, CA
Natchez. MS
West Haven. CT
Nashville. TN
Clinton, TN

Carlisle. PA
Find! ay, OH
Tsxarkana, AR

barren, OH
Buffalo, NY
Huntsville, AL

Akrcn, OH
Albany, GA
Sloortington, IL
Decatur, IL
•Des rioines, IA
Los Angsles, CA
hemphis, TN
Nashville, TN
Potts town, PA
Salinas, CA
Wilson, NC


Daytcr., OH
Oklahoma City, OK
Sarberton, OH

Akron, OH
Bryan, OH
Charlotte, NC
Hayfield, KY
Waco, TX
Ht. Vernon, IL

Akron, OH
Ft. Wayne, IN
Miami, OK
Oaks, PA
Tuscaloosa, AL
Passenq»r tires
11.0
11.0
8.0
12.0
8.5

50.5
,
8.4
16.6
25.0
1.5
11.1
14.0
25.1
16.0
24.0
-
21.5
15.0
8.3
15.5
-
21.5
12.5
15.0
150.3

10.0
20.0
6.0
35 . 0
_
.
17.0
25.0
15.7
9.9
67.6
_
18.4 •
5.6
18.0
30.0
"AVI othe--.~
3.5
.
5.5
-
9.0

18.0
" 16.0
5.0
2.0
7.0
2.0
5.1
' _Z_
5. 2
4.5
l.C
0.1
2.9
3.5
2.C
7.C
1.5
2.0
2.4
.
26.9

7.0
2.C
2.5
11.5.
8.5
0.1
-
9.0
5.3
0.1
23.0
0.5
6.1
7.0
1.0
	 ;_
Total tire's
14.5
11.0
13.5
12,0
17.5

is
16.0
13.4
18,6
32,0
3.5
16.2
14.0
• jO-2
20.5
25. C
0.1
2«.4
19.5
1C. 3
22.5
1.5
23.5
14.9
15.0
m.g

17. C
22.0
10.5
-         86J
                                                                                  (continued;
Oisn?s indicate plant doss  not produce type of tire listed; blanks indicate inform-•!:)'• no;
                                         2-2

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                                      TABLE  2-1.    (continued)
Company
Goodyear Tire and Rubber
Company





Goosyesr Subsidiaries
Kelly-Springfield Tire
Company
i-?s Tiro and Rubber
Company

Plant location
Akron, OH
Danville. VA
Gadsden, At
Jackson, HI
Los Angeles, CA
Topeka. KS
Union City. TN
Madisonville, KY


Cumberland, MO
Faystteville. NC
Freeport, !L
Tyler, TX
Consnohocken, PA


Tires p-od'jo

10. C
26.5
91 n
c 1 . U
23. C
38 0

718.5
_
10.5
34.0
14.5
13.0

SL£
•-•• "WJj&u.
° -??L' '°-«
It ^
7.C
n 5
3.5
5.0
b.5

45.5

8.5
0.5
5.C
*
— —
14. C

! tir-r'
2!.C
7.-C
24! =
5.0
23.5
33. C
154. S

19.0
34.5
13.5
25. Q
13.0
lli.C
.'•ir-rfeli Tire and
  ?.w309- CO.
!"cC-eary Tire and Rubier Co.

.":err',in Tire Corp.

Hcna»< Ru3bsr Co.
Ur.iroyal, Inc.
Louisville, KY

Tupelo. MS
  {plan: cosed tenporarily, has
  now  reopened)
                                                                     0-6
                                                                                                 0.6
TOTAL
Indiana, PA
G-eenvilla, SC
Akron., OH
West Hs'lana, AR
Saler, VA

Chicooe* Falls. PA
Cetrj-'t, MI
Eau Ciair, v,'l
Cpsiikd, AL
Ardmcre, OX


2.5
20.0

S.5
13.0
2ZJ,
22.5
' 14. C
17.5
n.o
32. C
"CG.O
73!. 1
2.5
-

2. 1
0.5
0.5
JLl
4.C
2.C
7.C
. 3.0
JJLS
205.2
5.C
2C.O

2.1
10.0
13.5
' -25-6
26.5
16.0
24.5
17.0
32.0
116. C
995.3
aDashes  indicate plant does  not produce type of tire listed;  blanks indicate information no: available.
                                             2-3

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TABLE 2-2.  ANNUAL  DOMESTIC  PRODUCTION OF PASSENGER CAR
            AND TRUCK  TIRES  FOR  ORIGINAL EQUIPMENT AND
            REPLACEMENT  MARKETS^.5,7,8
Voay
1974
1975
1975
1977

Orlqinal equipment
44
40
50
58
12fLCar 	
Replacement
127
123
125
126.5

TotaT
171
163
175
184.5

Original equip
9.6
8.3
9.2
11.2
Truck
rcent Replacement
21.3
20.0
20.6
25.2

30. «
28.:
29. £
36.4
TABLE 2-3    ANNUAL CONSUMPTION  O.F RAW  MATERIAL
             FOR USE IN TIRE  CORDS AND  BELTS9-11

                   Consumption,  10s kg
            Synthetic  tabrlcs        Glass	
Year   Nylon    Polyester
1973
1974
1975
1976
123
130
107
100
112
103
86
99
42
33
15
12
15
12
12

O UCC I
27
44
54
*J~
                      2-4

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     A significant trend in raw material consumption is developing within
the tire manufacturing industry.  As noted in Table 2-s]2»13 the use of
woven synthetic fabrics (nylon, polyester, rayon) for tire cords and belts is
gradually declining and giving way to steel.  This is primarily due to the
growing popularity of radial passenger car tires, 84 percent of which
                              14                                                :
contained steel belts in 1977.

2.1  PROCESSES AND EMISSIONS
     The general process for tire manufacturing consists of:  (1) preparation
or compounding of raw materials, (2) transformation of these compound materials
into tire components, (3) tire assembly, and (4) molding of the final product.
Each step is a source of VOC emissions.
     The average annual mass of VOC emissions, from Table 2-4, for tire
manufacturing was estimated to be between 56,300 and 72,500 metric tons per year.
Table A-l lists total annual VOC emissions for each of 42 tire plants.  Calculations
and assumptions are presented in A-2.
     Table 2-4 presents a summary range of operating parameters for existing tire
manufacturing plants for uridertread cementing, tread end cementing, bead dipping,
tire building and green tire spraying.
     Table 2-5 presents a summary of the same parameters for an average 16,000 tire
per day manufacturing plant.                           .
     The following detailed descriptions may be more easily followed by referring
to the flow diagram presented in Figure 2-1.
2.1.1  Rubber Stock Processing
2.1.1.1  Compounding - In the compounding operation, raw crumb rubber  is combined
with a variety of fillers, extenders, accelerators, antioxidants and pigments
using Banbury internal mixing devices.  Carbon black and oil are also added during
                                     2-5

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                                        2-8

-------
compounding, and baghouse particulate collectors are normally used to control
airborne dust generated by this operation.    After mixing,  the  rubber  is
 transferred to  roll mills which  form the  material  into  sheets.   The  tacky
 sheets  of  rubber  stock  are  then  coated  with  a material  such  as soapstone
 to  prevent them from  sticking  together  during storage.
     No data on emissions of volatile organic compounds from mixing are available
at this time.  Using a modified temperature loss correlation proposed by
Rappaport   , and an average tire mass, an emission factor for compounding is estimated
to be 1 gram per tire.  Calculations are presented in Appendix B.
2.1.1,2  Milling - After compounding, sheeted rubber is fed manually to a warmup
roller mill to make the stock more flexible for further processing.
From the warmup mill, the heated rubber passes to a strip-feed mill for final
mixing.  The temperature of the rubber mixture leaving the mill is typically
70°C to 90°C.
     Data on milling emissions are also limited.  At an operating temperature of
only 80°C,  50 percent of the volatile organic compounds emitted during milling
are assumed to condense to an aerosol soon after formation.  Again, using the
modified Rappaport equation, an estimated factor for milling is 0.6 gram per tire.
2.1.1.3  Tread and Sidewall Preparation - the two types of rubber stock to be used
for tread and sidewall are peeled from two separate strip mills and continuously
fed to an extruder.  The two strips  are joined together, one on top of the other,
by mechanically generated heat and pressure, to form the tire tread and two black
sidewalls.  After extrusion, a cushioning layer is added to the underside of
the tread-sidewall combination which is then cut to the desired width, cooled
in a water trough and labeled.
                                   2-9

-------
     Quantitative information on emissions from extrusion operations in tire
manufacturing plants is not available.  However, temperatures of 70°C to 90°C,
depending on the mass of the extruded product, are reached during extrusion.
Assuming that 50 percent of the VOC emissions condense to an aerosol soon after
emitted and usinq the modified Rappaport equation, an emission factor for
extrusion is 0.6 gram per tire.
2.1.1.4  Undertread Cementing - Before being transferred to the tire building
area, the tread is tackified by the application of a solvent-based cement.    '
     Data on emissions from undertread cementing have been reported by the
tire industry. '  *  '  '  Table 2-4 presents summary emission data^and
operating parameters for existing tire plants.  Table 2-5 presents emission data and
operating parameters for an average 16,000 tires per day manufacturing plant. <
Table A-3 presents operating parameters for those plants having capture
systems.  Solvents typically used for this purpose include heptane, hexane,
isopropanol, naphtha, and toluene.  The average number of undertread cementing lines
per plant is four, each line having an average exit gas flow rate of approximately
2.8 cubic meters per second.  Using the methodology described in Appendix A-2,
the emission factor for undertread cementing  is 94 grams per tire.

2.1.2  Fabric Treatment
2.1.2.1  Latex Dipping - Tire cords and belts are constructed from woven synthetic
fabrics such as nylon, polyester, and rayon as well as steel and glass fiber.  Upon
arrival at a tire manufacturing plant, a roll of fabric is first spliced, either by
adhesive or by a high-speed sewing machine, onto the tail of the previously
processed roll.  This continuous sheet of fabric is then fed under controlled
tension to a latex dip tank.  After latex dipping, the fabric travels past either
rotating beater bars or vacuum suction lines to remove excess dip and then through
a drying oven to remove excess solvent.
                                    2-10

-------
     At the present time,  more and more fabric which has undergone latex
dipping at the textile mills is being purchased by tire manufacturers.   Some
of the reasons are:22  (i) a small dipping operation requires disproportionately
large capital expenditures; (2) latex dipping is a high-speed process which
can readily over-supply a tire plant with fabric; and (3) on a weight basis,
shipping costs for dipped and undipped fabric are nearly the same.  Only one •
                                                                            po
tire plant reported to EPA consumption of solvent for on-site latex dipping.
Only pne_ other plant is believed to be performing their own latex dipping.
    • i'               .-•.-.
2.1.2.2  Calendering - After the fabric has been latex-dipped, it is passed
through  a calendering machine which impregnates the fabric with rubber.
Both sides of the fabric are coated simultaneously on the four-roll calenders
most commonly used.  Before being sent to the tire building operation, the
rubberized fabric is cooled and cut to the proper angle and length for the
tires  in which it will be used.
     The plasticity of the rubber stock as it is bonded to the fabric, steel
mesh,  or glass fiber is maintained by heating the calender rolls with steam,
typically to temperatures of 70°C to 80°C.  Therefore, VOC emissions from
calendering  should be very similar in character and magnitude to those from
milling or extrusion and the estimated emission factor is 0.6 gram per tire.
2.1.2.3  Bead Dipping -   Tire beads are rubber-covered wires which insure
                                                                            9 A.
a  seal between a tire and the steel rim of the wheel on which it is mounted.
Rubber is simultaneously extruded onto several strands of brass-plated steel
wire.  Several layers of control wire are fashioned into a ring.
A  layer  of rubber coated fabric is usually wrapped around the bead.  The assembly
is dipped into a solvent-based cement to tackify the rubber to insure proper
adhesion when the bead is anchored into the sidewall when the tire is built.
     Table A-4 presents emission and operating data for actual plant bead
dipping operations.  Table 2-4 presents summary emission data and operating
parameters for existing tire plants.  Table 2-5 presents emission data and
                                  2-11

-------
operating parameters for an average 16,000 tire per day manufacturing plant.
Solvents consumed for bead dipping activities were reported to be gasoline,
hexane, isopropanol, naphtha, and toluene.  No tire plant has more than four
separate bead dipping operations.  Some units have individualized ventilation !
systems.  For these, the average exit gas flow rate per unit is approximately
2.7 cubic meters per second.  The average VOC emission factor for bead dipping
is 8.2 grams per tire.
2.1.3  Tire Building
     Bias-ply passenger car and truck tires are built as cylinders on a collapsible
rotating drum.  (Radial tires and large off-the-road tires require different
building equipment or techniques.)  First, the inner liner, which makes the      >
finished tire airtight, is wrapped around the drum, followed by the layers of
cord.  Next, the edges of the cord fabric are folded over the beads to secure
them to the tire.  Then, the fabric, steel, or glass fiber belts are laid onto the
cord.  Finally, the tread is placed over the cords and belts and wrapped around
the beads.
     Rubber cement containing organic solvents such as gasoline, heptane,
                                                 25,26,27.28,2?
hexane, isopropanol, methanol, naphtha, or toluene            is used during  this
building process to tackify the rubberized tire components.  An average VOC
emission factor for tire assembly is 33 grams per tire.  Table A-5 presents emission
and operating data for actual tire building.  Table 2-4 presents summary emission
data and operating parameters for existing tire plants.  Table 2-5 presents
emission data and operating parameters for an average 16,000 tire per day
manufacturing plant.
     The discussion so far has described a typical bias tire manufacturing process
and as it applies to the production of passenger tires.  There are, however,
several variations. ,
                                     2-12

-------
     Truck and industrial  tires generally haV© a higher ratio of natural  to
synthetic rubber than passenger tires.   Natural  rubber is much harder than
synthetic and usually requires more solvent to render it tacky.  There are
also major differences in  the building  and molding of larger tires.  For
example, assembly of "off-the-road" tires may require the efforts of a two man
team, two or three shifts, where as a passenger tire can be assembled in
5 minutes or less.  Larger tires are also cured in molds so large that they are
not usually automatically operated.  Radial tires, like truck tires, contain more
natural rubber.  However,  emission sources for radial tire manufacture are
similar to those for the bias passenger tire, i.e., emissions principally come
from the evaporation of solvent contained in the rubber cement and mold release
sprays.
2.1.4  Tread End Cementing
     Tread end cementing is the operation of applying cement to tread ends.  This
may be performed in two ways.  In the first, the ends are .automatically sprayed
with cement after undertread cementing  and prior to stacking in trays and
transport to tire building.  In the second, cement is manually applied to the
ends of the rubber to splice them together after the tread is wrapped around the
tire building drum.  The drum is then collapsed and the green tire is removed.
White gasoline, hexane, isopropanol, naphtha, and toluene are typically used
                        30 31 32 33 34
for tread end cementing.  '  '  »JJ,OT   ^n average ygc emission factor for tread
end cementing is 15 grams per tire.  Table A-6 presents emission data for actual
tire plant tread end cementing operations.  Table1 2-4 presents summary emission
data and operating parameters for existing tire plants.  Table 2-5 presents emission
data and operating parameters for an average 16,000 per day manufacturing plant.
2.1.5 -Green Tire Spraying
     Before molding and curing, "green" tires are sprayed, inside and out, with
release agents which help to remove air from the tire during molding and  prevent
the tire from sticking to the mold after curing.  Either organic-based or
water-based sprays can be used.35  Water-based sprays yield a significant reduction
in volatile organic compound emissions  from green tire spraying; this alternative
is discussed further in Sections 3.1 and 3.2.

-------
     Table A-7 summarizes emission data and operating parameters for green tire
spraying.  The average VOC emission factor from these data is 100 grams per tire.
Table 2-9 presents emission data and operating parameters for an average plant.
2.1.6  Molding and Curing
     Passenger car tires are molded and cured.in automatic presses.  A rubber
bladder is inflated inside the tire, causing it to assume the characteristic
toroidal shape.  As the bladder inflates, the mold is closed.  Steam heat is
applied to the outside of the tire through the mold and to the inside through
the bladder.  After a timed, temperature-controlled cure, the bladder is
deflated and the tire is removed from the mold.  Curing usually takes
                                                    oc
20 to 60 minutes at a temperature of 100°C to 200°C.    After removal from
the mold, cured tires are inflated and allowed to cool.
                     oy. op
     Four tire plants '»  provided sufficient data to estimate the emissions
of volatile organic compounds from curing.  The emission factor is 2.0 grams
per tire from these data.  This compares favorably to the value of 2.2 grams
per tire using the modified Rappaport equiation when a temperature of 150°C
and a tire mass of 11.4 kilograms is assumed (see Appendix B).
2.1.7  Finishing                                                            ;
     After the tires have cooled, any excess rubber which escaped through   :
"weepholes" in the mold is ground off.  Final buffing and grinding of the tire
is performed to insure balance.  White side wall tires have the black rubber
protective strip ground away.  The white wall receives a protective blue or green
water base protective coating to minimize scruffing during shipping and mounting
on rims.  Some tires may receive decals, or other manufacturer markings prior to
inspection and shipping.  These operations may involve solvent-based inks, paints,
or sprays.
     Volatile  organic compound  emissions  from finishing were  calculated39'40'41'42'43
and the resulting  values  are given  in Table  2-6.  The  average VOC  emission       .
factor  for  tire finishing was  calculated  to  be  5.7  grams per  tire.
                                    2-14

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 TABLE 2-6.   EMISSIONS DATA FOR FINISHING17'18'19'20'21
Plant
code
A
B
C
0
E
I
K
L
M
0
P
Q
R
T
V
W
X
Y
Z
B3
DD
Calculated
VOC emissions,
metric tons/year


17.1
23.7
1.2

17.9

1.4

8.5


17.2



116.5

3.3

Plant
code
EE
FF
GG
HH
JJ
LL
NN
00
PP
QQ
RR
SS
TT
UU
UW
XX
YY
II
AAA
BBB
CCC
Calculated
VOC emissions,
metric tons/year
0.7
1.1
31.4
3.0
99.1

12.8
8.6


9.8
11.3
16.0
. 14.9

43.8


1.1

2.6
Blanks indicate that annual mass of VOC
emissions could not be calculated.
                2-15

-------
2.1.8  REFERENCES
     1.  "A Look at the Tire Industry," Rubber World, _177(5):38-42»  February,
1978.
     2.  Letter from R. C. Miles, UniRoyal Inc. to D.  R.  Goodwin,  U.S.  EPA,  ;
July 13, 1978.                                                              i
     3.  Op. Cit., Reference 1.
     4.  Op. Cit., Reference 2.
     5.  'Outlook, 1976," Rubber World, r73(4):23-29, January, 1976.
     6.  Op. Cit., Reference 1.
     7.  "A Look at the Tire Industry," Rubber World,  V75(5):42-46,  February,
1977.
     8.  Op. Cit., Reference 1.
     9.  Op. Cit., Reference 5.
     10.  Op. Cit., Reference 5.
     11.  Textile Organon, Textile Economics Bureau, Inc., New York,  New York,
1974-1976.
     12.   Current  Industrial Reports, Series M22T.4, U. S. Department of
Commerce,  Bureau of Census, Washington, D. C., 1974-1976.                   ,
     13.   Letter from  R.  C. Niles, UniRoyal,  Inc., to D. R. Goodwin, U.S. EPA,
May  24,  1978.
     14.   Op.  Cit., Reference  1.
     15.   "Development Document  for Effluent  Limitation Guidelines and New
Source Performance Standards for the  Tire and  Synthetic Segment of the
Rubber Processing  Point Source Category," EPA-440/1-74-013as U. S. Environmental
Protection Agency,  Washington, D. C.,  1974, p. 193.
     16.   Rappaport, S. M.,  "The Identification of  Effluents from Rubber
Vulcanization," Paper  presented  at the  Conference on Environmental Aspects  ;
of Chemical  Use in Rubber Processing, Akron,  Ohio,  March 12-14, 1975.
                                   2-16

-------
     17.  Letter, Armstrong Rubber Company to ESED, OAQPS, U. S. Environmental
Protection Agency, 1978.
     18.  Letter, E. J. Burkett, The Goodyear Tire and Rubber Company,  to
D. R. Goodwin, ESED, U. S. Environmental Protection Agency, May 17,  1978.
     19.  Op. Cit., Reference 2.
     20.  Op. Cit., Reference 13.
     21.  Letter, L. B. Cooper, Michelin Tire Corporation to D. R.  Goodwin,
ESED, U. S. Environmental Protection Agency, March 13, 1978.
     22.  Miller, I., and J. E. Freund, "Probability and Statistics  for
Engineers," 2nd Edition, Prentice-Hill, Inc., Englewood Cliffs, 1977, p.  529.
     23.  Op. Cit., Reference 2.
     24.  Op. Cit., Reference 22.                         .
     25.  Op. Cit., Reference 17.
     26.  Op. Cit., Reference 18.
     27.  Op. Cit., Reference 2.
     28.  Op. Cit., Reference 13.
     29.  Op. Cit., Reference 21.
     30.  Op. Cit., Reference 17.
     31.  Op. Cit., Reference 18.
     32.  Op. Cit., Reference 2.
     33.  Op. Cit., Reference 13.
     34.  Op. Cit., Reference 21.
     35.  Op. Cit., Reference 16.
     36.  Hughes, T. W., T.  E. Ctvntnicek,  D. A.  Horn, and R.  W.  Serth,
"Source Assessment:  Rubber  Processing, State of  the Art," Preliminary
report submitted to EPA for  review,  August, 1975,  p. 152.
                                2-17

-------
     37.  Op. Cit., Reference 18.
     38.  Letter, N. Onstott, Mohawk Rubber Company to  K.  J.  Zobel,  ESED,
U. S. Environmental Protection Agency,  March 21,  1978.
     39.  Op. Cit., Reference 17.
     40.  Op. Cit., Reference 18.
     41.  Op. Cit., Reference 2.
     42.  Op. Cit., Reference 13.
     43.  Op. Cit., Reference 21.
                                   2-18

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                3.0  APPLICABLE SYSTEMS OF EMISSION CONTROL

     Thic chapter reviews air pollution control technology applicable to four
major VOC emission sources within the tire manufacturing industry.
The emission sources addressed are:  (1) undertread cementing,  (2) tread
end cementing, (3) bead preparation, and (4) green tire spraying.  These are
large VOC emission sources and the emissions are the direct result of solvent
evaporation.  Emissions from tire building, compounding, mining, and curing are
not addressed at present.                                        •

3.1  UNDERTREAD CEMENTING
3.1.1   Summary of Control Technology
                         Control  System or        Expected          Percent  Control  of
Affected Facility            Strategy         Percent Capture      Captured Emissions
Undertread Cementer      Carbon Adsorption           85                   95
                         Incineration                85                  90
3.1.2  General Description
     In this operation, rubber cement is applied to tackify the underside of
tire tread before it is sent to the tire building operation.   The VOC emissions
may be reduced by two techniques:  adsorption and incineration.  Adsorption is
the only method currently being used and it is only used at one tire plant.
This control system,  a retrofit,  consists of a capture hood and a standard
dual bed carbon adsorber.  The hood is  designed to capture  evaporating solvent
from cement holding tanks, carpet rolls, and the tread stock as it moves along
                                 3-1

-------
the conveyor.  Armstrong estimated that the hood system resulted in an estimated
80 percent capture efficiency,  even though it was retrofitted to a tire line-
constructed in 1968.  The capture efficiency is limited to relatively low value
in the retrofit installation by the length of conveyor available for hooding.
The hood is short and residence time of the tread in the hood likewise short.
The overall efficiency of this installation is estimated to be about 80 percent
(95 percent carbon adsorption and 85 percent capture efficiency).  Because of
down time and control equipment and other system inadequacies, the efficiency
over the past 3 years ranged from 30-75 percent.
     The hood system is designed to provide:   (1) adequate dilution, to
25 percent LEL, of volatile organic compound vapors; (2) maximum residence time
of cement sprayed tread in the hood; and  (3) operator accessability to areas
within the hood for tread changes (startup) and scheduled maintenance.  For the
reasons discussed above, older plants may not  be able to install a 100 percent
efficient capture hood.
     The plant with the carbon adsorber also investigated the feasibility of
incineration.  On a comparative cost basis, adsorption and incineration
result in essentially the same annual costs, assuming continuous operation
of the undertread cementer.  However the cost  of incineration increases because
of an eight  hour period daily when the undertread cementer is not operating, j
resulting in reduced solvent evaporation.  Additional fuel would be needed
to incinerate the lower VOC gas stream during  the period of low solvent evaporation.
During periods of reduced solvent evaporation, longer periods of adsorption Would
result with  less frequent stripping of the carbon.  This would result in a decrease
in steam and water costs to operate the adsorption system.  For these reasons,
adsorption control has a definite cost edge over incineration, even without a credit
for recovered solvent.
                                   3-2

-------
     Both thermal and catalytic incineration have been used in the rubber
industry to control VOC emissions.2'3  Both technologies should be transferable
to emission sources having similar VOC concentrations and exhaust flow rates.
      Thermal  incineration  is  used  at a plant producing braided rubber
      P       -                             ....-..'
 hose.   A solvent (toluene) based  cement is  applied  to the outermost  textile
 cover to improve bondage and  obtain  desirable surface properties.   The  hose  is
 then passed through a drying  oven  where solvent is evaporated.  The exhaust  gas
 is vented to the thermal incinerator.  A destruction efficiency of 91 percent  is
 reported.
      In  another  hose plant, a braided polyester cord is  passed through  a  cement
 dip  tank.  The cord is  then passed through a drying  oven prior to  being woven
 around unvulcanized rubber hose.   The oven exhaust gases are  then  heated  to
 260°C (500°F)  and catalytically incinerated.   The  removal  efficiency  ranges
 between  90 and 94 percent, which is  similar  to that  obtained,in the thermal
 incinerator described above.
      Incineration has also been used to control  VOC  emissions of similar
 concentrations in other industries.
 3.2   TREAD END CEMENTING
 3.2.1 Summary of Control  Technology         .            .  .
                         Control System or       Expected        Percent  Control  of
 Affected Facility          Strategy         Percent Capture     Captured Emissions
 Tread End Cementer      Carbon Adsorption         85       ,           95
                         Incineration              85                  90
 3.2.2 General Description
      Emissions from tread end cementing are  similar  to undertread  cementing.   However,
 only about 10 percent of the  cement  is used  and exhaust flow  rates are  generally
 about 50 percent higher than  undertread cementing.  Therefore, the concentration  of
 VOC  in tread end cementing exhausts  is approximately 10 percent of that in undertread
 cementing.  In this operation rubber cement  is applied to the ends of tire tread
before tire building.  VOC emissions  may again be reduced by two techniques,
adsorption and incineration, although neither has been employed by  the industry.
                                   5-3

-------
An emission capture system is again used to provide:  (1) adequate dilution to
VOC vapors, (2) maximum residence time of cement sprayed tread in the hood,  i
(3) operator accessability to areas within the hood for tread change and
scheduled maintenance, and (4) maximum collection efficiency.
     For this process step, operating procedures and equipment arrangement vary
considerably from plant to plant.  Because of this there is a great difference
between plants in the volume and concentration of the VOC vapors collected, even
by well designed capture systems.  In some plants a combination of large air
volume and low VOC concentration may make retrofit emission control expensive,in
relation to benefit.

3.3  BEAD DIPPING
3.3.1  Summary of Control Technology
                      Control System or         Expected          Percent Control of
Affected Facility         Strategy           Percent Capture      Captured Emissions
Bead Dip Tank         Carbon Adsorption            85                     95 |
                      Incineration                 85                     90
3.3.2  General Description
     Neither adsorption nor incineration has been used by the industry to
control VOC emissions from bead dipping.  However, thermal and catalytic
incineration have been reported as methods of controlling VOC emissions from
fabric cementing in the rubber hose manufacture industry. '   Both should be
transferrable to bead cementing in the tire industry.  The gas stream and concentrations
are similar and should provide confidence in applicability of control.  Both
thermal and catalytic incineration as used in the rubber hose industry to control
VOC emissions are discussed in Section 3.2.2.
     As in tread end cementing above, operating procedures and equipment variations
between plants cause a difference in the volume and concentration of the VOC vapor  A.
collected, even by well designed capture systems.  In some plants a combination of
                                     3-4

-------
large air volume and low VOC concentration may make retrofit emission control
expensive in relation to benefit.

3.4  GREEN TIRE SPRAYING
3.4.1  Summary of Control Technology
                      Control System or          Expected        Percent Control ?f
Affectecj Facility        Strategy             Percent Capture    Captured Emissions
Green Tire Spray      Water Based Sprays            NA                  NA
   Booth
                      Carbon Adsorption             90                  95
                      Incineration                  90                  90
3.4.2  General Description
     In this operation a solvent-based mold release compound is applied to
both the inside and outside of a green tire before the tire is cured.  VOC
emissions may be reduced by three techniques:  change to water-based sprays,
adsorption, and incineration.  Neither adsorption nor incineration has been
employed by the industry to control VOC emissions from green tire spraying.
Incineration would be applicable to this source by applying the technology
as used to control similar sources as discussed in Section 3.2.2.  At least
six   plants manufacturing passenger tires have switched to water-based sprays.
One manufacturer estimated a cost penalty of three cents per tire when using water-
base sprays.
     Organic solvents such as heptane, hexane, and toluene are contained in
the mold release sprays that are used within the industry.  Such solvent-based
formulations can be replaced by water-based sprays, available from commercial
sources.  These water based mixtures eliminate VOC emissions from the spraying
of both the inside and outside of green tires.
     Water-based inside sprays are available from Dow Corning Corporation,
General Electric Company, and SWS Silicones Corporation.  These sprays,
containing no organic solvents, are aqueous dispersions of silicone solids.
                                     3-5

-------
Typical compositions are:  solids, 30-60 percent by weight; water, 35 to 60
percent; nonionic emulsifiers, 3 to 4 percent; bactericides, less than 1 percent;
and corrosion inhibitors, less than 1 percent.  Individual commercial supplier
specifications for inside tire sprays are summarized in Table 3.1.  In
addition, mica is added sometimes to further promote mold release.
     Water-based outside sprays contain approximately 35 weight percent solids,
most of which is carbon black, and are available from SWS Silicones Corporation.
                                     3-6

-------
              TABLE 3-1.	Composition of Water-Based
                       Inside Tire Sprays8^

Dow


Supplier
Corning Corporation

„
Component
Solids
Water
Fmiil «i -F 101


,t&
Amount,
weiqht percent
60
_a
a
General Electric Company
SWS Silicones Corporation
Solidsc
Water
Emulsifiers
Bactericide6
Corrosion inhibitorf
Solids9
Water
EmuUifiersb
                                                         50
                                                        3-4
                                                      35-60
                                                         a
 Amount not specified.
 Composition not specified.
cPolydimethylsiloxane.
 Ethoxylated alkylphenols.
e6-acetoxy-2,2-dimethyl-m-dioxane.
 Sodium benzoate.
9Polydimethylsiloxane, other silicone compounds,  and/or mica.
                            3-7

-------
3.5  REFERENCES
1.  Trip Report, Karl J. Zobel, Armstrong Rubber Company, Westhaven,  Connecticut,
    December 21, 1976.
2.  Melchiori, E. A., Supportive Document for Air Pollution Permit Application:
    Red Oak, Iowa, Hose Plant, UniRoyal, Inc., Middleburg, Connecticut,  1973.'
3.  Harris, H. D., Colorado Department of Health Air Contaminant Emission
    Notice, Gates Rubber Company, December, 1976.
4.  Hughes, T.W., T. E. Ctvrtnicek, D. A. Horn, and R. W. Serth, Source
    Assessment, Rubber Process, State of the Art.  Preliminary report submitted
    to U. S. Environmental Protection Agency for review August, 1975, 152 pgs.
5.  Reference 2, Op. Cit.
6.  Reference 3, Op. Cit.
7.  Letter, Frank M. Luysterborghs, Armstrong Rubber Company to Robert T. Walsh,
    ESED, U. S. Environmental Protection Agency, December 5, 1978.
8.  Personal communication, 6. Nelson, Dow Corning Corporation to 6.  M.  Rinaldi,
    Monsanto Research Corporation, August 22, 1978.
9.  Personal communication, R. Wittekind, SWS Silicones Corporation to
    G. M. Rinaldi, Monsanto Research Corporation, August 22, 1978.
                                                                                     €»
                                     3-8

-------
                             4.0  COST ANALYSIS
 4.1  INTRODUCTION
 4.1.1  Purpose
      The purpose of this chapter is to present capital and annualized costs
 associated with control of volatile organic compound (VOC) emissions from
 selected processes and operations in the tire manufacturing industry.  An
 analysis of cost-effectiveness is included to provide a comparison of the
. various control alternatives.
 4.1.2  Scope
      Estimates of capital  and annualized costs are developed for control  of
 VOC emissions from undertread cementing,  bead dipping,  tire building, tread
 end cementing, and green tire spraying.   Industry sources not addressed  in-
 clude compounding, milling,  calendering,  extrusion,  and curing.   Estimates  are
 limited to  the sources and control  systems  shown  in  Table 4-1.
 4.1.3  Model  Plants Parameters
      Costs  were developed  for  a model tire  plant  producing 16,000 tires per
 day.  The plant parameters are estimates  from technical  information gathered
 by others during the development  of  this  document.   Although  projecting costs
 of pollution  control for a model  plant yield  results that  may differ  from
 actual  costs,  this  procedure offers  the best  means of comparing relative costs
 and cost-effectiveness of various control measures.
 4.1.4   Bases  for Capital Cost  Estimates
     Capital  costs  represent the  investment required to retrofit a control
                                     4-1

-------
             TABLE 4-1.  VOC EMISSIONS SOURCES AND CONTROL SYSTEMS
Emission sources
Control systems
Undertread cementing
Bead dipping
Tire building
Tread end cementing
Green tire spraying
Incineration
Carbon adsorption

Incineration
Carbon adsorption

Incineration
Carbon adsorption

Incineration
Carbon adsorption

Incineration
Carbon adsorption
Water-based spray
                                     4-2

-------
system, including basic collection devices and auxiliary equipment, installa-
tion, contingencies, and taxes.  Estimates of capital costs are based on data
reported in Section 12 of Reference 1, except that the cost of water-based
sprays used in green tire spraying was obtained from a representative of the
                  2 3
Armstrong Tire Co. '   The data from Reference 1 concern the costs of con-
trolling VOC emissions from tire building, green tire spraying, and undertread
and tread end cementing.  All capital  costs are expressed in January 1978
dollars.  Table 4-2 lists the items included in the capital costs of retro-
fitted control systems.
4.1.5  Bases for Annualized Cost Estimates
     Annualized costs are those associated with operation and maintenance of
the control systems and with recovery of capital investment.   Operating costs
include the cost of materials consumed or used in operating the control
system, utilities, and normal maintenance.  As in the case of capital  cost,
the data utilized come from References 1,2, and 3 and are adjusted to January
1978 dollars.   Table 4-3 lists the items included in annualized costs.

4.2  CONTROL OF VOC EMISSIONS FROM SELECTED FACILITIES
4.2.1  Parameters of Model  Plants
     Table 4-4 presents the technical  parameters of facilities in a typical
tire manufacturing plant.  The listed  production rates,  VOC emission rates,
exhaust rates, and VOC concentrations  in the exhaust gas are  average values,
not those of a specific facility.
     Three main systems to  control  VOC emissions from the listed facilities
are discussed for all  purposes within  the scope of this  chapter.   These  sys-
tems are thermal  incineration, catalytic incineration, and carbon adsorption.
In addition, a change  from  solvent to  water-based sprays is considered as  a
                                     4-3

-------
               TABLE 4-2.   ITEMS INCLUDED IN CAPITAL COSTS  OF
                         RETROFITTED CONTROL SYSTEMS
Basic collection equipment

Auxiliary equipment

     Air movement equipment

          Fans and blowers
          Hoods, ducts
          Electrical motors, starters, wire conduits,  switches,  etc.

     Liquid movement equipment

          Pumps
          Electrical motors, starters, wire conduits,  switches,  etc.
          Pipes and valves
          Settling tanks

     Instrumentation to measure and control :

          Air and/or liquid flow
          Natural gas and/or fuel oil flow
          Temperature and/or pressure
          Operation and capacity
          Power

Research and development, including stream measurement, pilot plant operations,
and personnel costs

Installation

     Labor
     Cleaning the site
     Yard and underground work
     Building modifications
     Inspection
     Support construction
     Protection  of  existing facilities
     Supervision and engineering
     Startup

Storage and disposal equipment

Contingencies

Sales  tax
                                      4-4

-------
              TABLE 4-3.   ITEMS  INCLUDED  IN ANNUALIZED COSTS OF
                        RETROFITTED CONTROL SYSTEMS
Capital charges

Operating costs

     Utilities needed to operate control equipment
     Materials consumed, such as fuel, in operating the control system
     Waste disposal operations

Overhead

     Property taxes
     Insurance

Maintenance costs

     Replacement of parts and equipment
     Supervision and engineering
     Repairs
     Lubrication
     Surface protection, such as cleaning and painting

Offsetting cost benefits from operating control  system
(such as recovery of valuable byproduct)
                                     4-5

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method of pollution control  for green  tire  spraying.  Depending on the facility,
the  efficiency of  these control options  ranges from 59 to 97 percent.
     Tables 4-5 and 4-6 list the assumptions behind the cost estimates in
Reference 1 for catalytic and thermal  incinerators and carbon adsorption
systems.  The cost analysis  is based solely on the model plant parameters, the
data from Reference 1, and the assumptions  listed.
4.2.2  Costs of Control
     Data concering each of  the three main  control systems were abstracted
from Reference 1,  plotted on log-log paper, and subjected to a least-squares
fit; and curves were constructed for both annualized and capital costs versus
the exhaust flow rate for each system.  The exhaust volumes specified in Table
4-4 were used to estimate capital and annualized costs for all  the combina-
tions of main control systems and facilities.  Tables 4-7 through 4-11 present
the estimates.  Table 4-9 also lists costs of using water-based sprays in
green tire spraying.
     Because the estimated costs of gas cleaning pertain to specific  exhaust
stream conditions, cost factor assumptions, and facility sizes,  costs could
increase or decrease with a  change in parameters.   For example,  90 percent
reduction of VOC emissions from an undertread or tread end cementer might
require additional expenditures for enclosing and/or extending  the conveyor,
increasing the duct work,  and using a larger fan motor to ensure adequate
solvent capture during drying.
     Each cost given in Tables 4-7 through 4-11  represents the  total  costs for
manifolding all  operating  units in each facility.   Thus,  the  control  option
costs in Table 4-7 represent the cost of treating  exhaust gases  from  four
undertread cementers with  one piece of control  equipment.   This  treatment

                                      4-7

-------
   TABLE 4-5.  ASSUMPTIONS USED IN DEVELOPING COST ESTIMATES FOR CATALYTIC
                          AND THERMAL INCINERATORS'


Catalytic incinerator assumptions:

     0    Designed for natural gas and propane operation

     0    Capable of operation at 425°C (SOOT) below 6% lower explosive limit (1EL)
          at 650°C (1200°F) from 6% to 25% LEL

     0    Catalyst life, 3 years

     The catalytic afterburner was costed on two design bases:  425°C (800°F)
     and 650°C (1200°F).  The higher temperature design is required for LEL
     levels exceeding 6%.  At a 6% LEL condition and a minimum initiation
     temperature of 315°C (600°F), the outlet temperature of the catalyst
     is approximately 425°C (800°F).  At a 25% LEL condition and a minimum
     initiation temperature of 260°C (500°F), the outlet temperature of the
     catalyst is around 650°C (1200°F).

Thermal incinerator assumptions:

     0    Designed for oil and natural gas operation

          Capable of operation at 815°C (1500°F)

     0    Residence time, 0.5 s

     0    Nozzle mix burner capable of firing No. 2 through No. 6 oil

     0    Forced mixing of the burner combustion products by a slotted-cylinder
          mixing arrangement  (The cylinder allows the burner flame to establish
          itself before radial entry of the effluent through slots in the far
          end of the cylinder.)

     0    Ducting a portion of the effluent to the burner to be incinerated      :
          and serve as combustion air (Such ducting allows the burner to act
          as a raw gas burner and saves fuel, compared with conventional
          nozzle mix burners.  This design, however, can only be used when
          the oxygen content of the oven exhaust is 17% or more by volume.)

Common assumptions:

     0    Outdoor location

     0    Rooftop installation requiring structural  steel

     0    Fuel cost of $1.45/GJ ($1.50/million Btu) gross

          (Correction factors are provided to determine operating costs at
          higher fuel prices.)

(continued)                          4_g

-------
TABLE 4-5  (continued)
          Electricity cost of $0.03/kWh

          Depreciation and interest, 16% of capital  costs;  annual  maintenance,
          5% of capital costs; taxes and insurance,  2% of capital  costs;
          building overhead,  2% of capital  costs.

          Direct labor cost:   0.5 h/shift x 730 shifts/yr x $8 =  $2920/yr

          Operating time:   2  shifts/day x 8 h/shifts x 365  days/yr =  5840 h/yr
                                     4-9

-------
          TABLE 4-6.   ASSUMPTIONS USED IN DEVELOPING  COST  ESTIMATES
                            FOR CARBON ADSORBERS'
Fuel cost of $1.42 GJ ($1.50/million Btu)
Electricity cost of $0.03/kWh
Activated carbon cost of $1.50/kg ($0,68/lb)
Water cost of $10.57/m3 ($0.04/103 gal)
Steam cost of $4.40/Mg ($2/103 Ib)
Life of activated carbon,  5 yr
Adsorber operating temperature of 38°C (100°F)
Market value (Decembsr 1975) of benzene =  $0.23/liter ($0.85/gal)
Market value (December 1975) of hexane  =  $0.12/liter ($0.47/gal)
Normal retrofit situation
Direct labor cost:  0.5 h/shift x 730 shifts/year x $8/h = $2920/yr
Annual maintenance, taxes, insurance, building overhead, depreciation,
     and interest on borrowed money:  25% of capital costs investment
Operating time of 5840 h/yr
                                      4-10

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would require manifolding of the four units to the control  system.  The tire
building facility contains 50 units producing a total  exhaust gas flow rate of
          o
600,000 ft /min, which is much larger than can be handled by a single control
device.  Therefore, the 50 tire builders were manifolded into groups of 5 and
exhausted to 10 control devices.  This design yields a flow rate of 60,000
ft /min to each control device.  In Table 4-9, therefore, each control system
                       3
was costed at 60,000 ft /min; and this cost was multiplied by 10 to yield the
total cost for tire building.
     The use of water-based mold release agents in green tire spraying repre-
sents a process change.  This change normally does not involve any additional
capital expenditures over that required for spraying solvent-based agents.  In
some instances, however, expenditures of approximately $15,000 may be required
                           2 3
for equipment modification.  '   There are no additional operating or main-
tenance costs, except for the higher cost of the water-based spray.  This
amounts to approximately $0.03 per tire for direct annualized costs.  The
indirect annualized costs for this control option are based on a capital
recovery factor of 13.1 percent and an additional 4 percent for taxes and
insurance.

4.3  COST-EFFECTIVENESS
     The most cost-effective control system for all facilities is catalytic
incineration with primary and secondary heat recovery.  For green tire spray-
ing, a change to water-based spraying appears to be about as cost-effective as
solvent-based spraying.  Because no large capital investment is required and
because there are more tax benefits for an expense item than a capital item,
water-based sprays appear more economically attractive.  In all cases, the
                                     4-16

-------
most expensive option is thermal incineration because of the high costs of
fuel.
4.4  SUMMARY
  '  The cost analyses presented represent the costs associated with all units
in a facility and are based on data contained in Reference 1, except for green
tire spraying.
     Catalytic incineration with primary and secondary heat recovery proved to
be  the most cost-effective control option for bead dipping, tire building,
green tire spraying, and undertread and tread end cementing.  The large ex-
pense requirements of changing  to water-based sprays, however, could make this
option more attractive  than exhaust gas incineration for green tire spraying.
     The  costs of controlling VOC emissions  are much higher for  the tire
 building  operations  than for any other facilities; however, cost-effectiveness
 at such operations would be enhanced  by modifying ventilation and capture
 systems to  reduce volume and increase concentrations of VOC emissions.
                                      4-17

-------
                                 REFERENCES
1.   Monsanto Research Corporation.  Draft Report on Identification and Con-
     trol of Hydrocarbon Emssions from Rubber Processing Operations.  Prepared
     under EPA Contract No. 68-02-1411.  November 23, 1977.

2.   Personal communication between R. Schummer, PEDCo Environmental, Inc.,
     Cincinnati, and P.M. Lysterborgh, Armstrong Tire Co., New Haven, Conn.
     phone call memorandum No. 1,  December 8, 1978.

3.   Personal communication between R. Schummer, PEDCo Environmental, Inc.,
     Cincinnati, and P.M. Lysterborgh, Armstrong Tire Co., New Haven, Conn.
     phone call memorandum No. 2, December, 8, 1978.
                                     4-18
f>

-------
                   5.0  ADVERSE EFFECTS OF APPLYING TECHNOLOGY
5.1  AIR IMPACTS
     No significant adverse impacts should result from these regulations.
although negligence in maintenance and operation of control devices
could increase emissions in individual cases.  Examples are carbon adsorption
systems operating with spent or saturated adsorbent, and excessive ventilation
rates.
     Boiler emissions will increase due to steam required to regenerate carbon,
but these increases will be insignificant compared to reduction in VOC emissions
by control equipment.  There are few current measurements of oxides of
nitrogen (NOX) levels in gas streams from incinerators.  In most instances these
emissions will be insignificant compared to reduction in VOC emission by control
equipment.
5.2  CARBON ADSORPTION  CONTROL SYSTEMS
     The increased energy required to operate carbon adsorption systems  is a
potential disadvantage.  The quantity of energy will depend on the size  of
adsorbers and the concentrations of the solvent entering the bed.  Any
reduction which can be made in air flow from the capture system will permit
smaller adsorbers with attendant reductions in energy.
     Proper maintenance and operation of carbon adsorption systems are
necessary to ensure effective significant reductions in VOC emissions.
Carbon adsorption systems should be equipped with instrumentation to time
regeneration cycles.  The cycle should be adjusted to start before break-
                                   5-1

-------
 through occurs.  With age, a heel of heavier organics can accumulate in
 the carbon, thus reducing its working capacity.   Breakthrough can go
 undetected unless a sensing device is installed  at the outlet.  An
 indicator for most applications,  sensitive to 25-75 ppm of vapor, should
 suffice.  The breakthrough sensing device should be required to be connected
 to (1) a direct readout meter, (2) an alarm, bell  or light,  or (3) a device
 that initiates the regeneration cycle.
      A beneficial impact of carbon adsorption control  is that solvent can
 normally be recovered for reuse.   Thus,  a valuable and increasingly
 scarce material can be conserved.  However,  recovery is generally limited to
 water (from steam regeneration)  immiscible solvents.
 5.3  INCINERATION
      The major disadvantage of incineration  is the auxiliary fuel  that is
 generally required.   This  can  be  partially offset  when heat  is  recovered
 to preheat inlet  gas  streams or to use in  other  processes.
      At the time  of installation  thermal  and; catalytic incinerators  should be
 required to be equipped  with temperature  indicators.   Temperature  sensors
 should also be required  on  both inlet and  outlet streams of  catalytic  units
 to provide a continuous  indication of catalytic  activity.
 5.4  WATER AND SOLID  WASTE  IMPACT
      The largest  impact  on water  quality would result  from use of  carbon
 adsorption.   Steam  used  to desorb  the solvent is condensed with the solvent
 and separated  by  gravity.  Some solvent will remain in the water and eventually
 enter  the  sewer system.
     There appears to be no  significant solid waste impact resulting from the
 control  of VOC from tire manufacturing.  The only problem could arise from
 carbon.  Carbon used  in  carbon adsorption beds is discarded periodically.
Vendors  and users have estimated the life of carbon at up to 30 years but
replacement is generally recommended every 10 to  15 years.
                                   5-2

-------
APPENDIX A

-------

-------
_ Table A-l. JQTAL VOLATILE ORGANIC COMPOUND EMISSIONS
.FROM THE MANUFACTURING PLANTS2 .3,4,12-21
Plant Calculated VOC emissions, Plant Calculated VOC emissions,
code metric tons/year code metric tons/vear
A
B '
C
D
E
I
K
I
K
0
P
Q
R
T
V
W
X
Y
Z
88
DO
1,042
33
567
962
774
852
1,296
249
2,578
1,719
1,341
1,371
1,218
712
1,705
266
1,025
1,188
1,546
56
790
EE
FF
GG
HH
JJ
LL
NN
00
PP
QQ
RR
SS
TT
UU
WW
XX
YY
II
AAA
BBB
CCC
963
209
1,564
1,342
1,334
4,387
624
856
385
1,213
476
673
1,334
1,032
1,719
1,287
1,058
202
605
743
223
     In order to calculate the masses of VOC emissions given in Table A-l,
                                       PP
densities of specific organic compounds   were used to convert reported solvent
consumption in gallons to mass.  The following assumptions were made:  (1) the
density of naphtha and any "rubber solvents" of unspecified composition is
645 kg/m ,  3, and (2) the density of gasoline is equal to that of octane,
          3 22
702.5 kg/m .    No solvent was assumed to remain in the final  tire product.
                                    A-l

-------
         APPENDIX A-2  CALCULATIONS FOR ANNUAL  MASS VOC EMISSIONS
          Confidence Limit = ± tg/2> Y  sx/N-n \1/2
0)
where    to/2    = Student's t value for 100 (l-a) percent confidence
                  limits and -y degrees of freedom
              sx = standard deviation
              n = number of samples
              N = size of total population
     The number of degrees of freedom for this case is 41, which is
equal to the  number of samples, n (i.e., 42 from Table 3-4), minus  one.
The size of the total population of tire manufacturing plants is 62
(from the number of plants listed in Table 3-1).  For 95 percent con-
fidence, tQ 05/2  ., can be approximated by tn n,j-   , which equals
          U.U.J/C., 11                         U.UCO, °°         ~
1.960.    Therefore, the 95% confidence limits for the mean annual
mass of VOC emisions per tire manufacturing plant are:
        ± (1.960H755) /62-42\1/2 = ^ ... metric tons
               ^     ^62-1 )       ~ m —ylaT-(2)
     To obtain the mean VOC emission factor on a mass-per-tire basis3
with the appropriate confidence limits, the above values are divided
by the average tire production per plant, which is 16,100 tires per
operating day, or 3,563,000 tires per year, using data from Tables  3-1
and 3-2.  The mean VOC emission factor and its 95 percent confidence
limits are thus 291 ± 37 grams per tire.  Therefore, total emissions of
volatile organic compounds due to solvent consumption by the tire in-
dustry in the United States can be estimated to be between 56,300 and
72,500 metric tons per year.
 Emission factors were calculated on this basis because the majority
 of plants responding to the Section 114 survey provided production
 data in terms of the number, not the mass, of tires produced.  Al-
 though VOC emissions per tire will be greater for larger, more
 massive tires such as those used for trucks and buses, the calculated
 confidence limits will encompass 95 percent of the possible values.
                              A-2

-------
TABLE A-3".   EMISSIONS DATA FOR UNDERTREAD  CEMENTING2'3'4'12'21
Plant
code
A
8
C
0
E
1
K
L
H
0
P
Q
R
T
y.
w
X
Y
' Z
OB
oo
OD
EE
FF
GG
HH
JJ
U
UN
00
PP
00,
RR
ss
Tt
UU
UH
XX
YY
ZZ '
AAA
BBB
rrr
Number of
undertread
cementing
1 ines
_a '
.« •
2
3
4
2
2
-*
, _a
.*
'' ,3
_a
3
8
8
2
13
1
_a
a
—
a
a
1
4
_a
2
5
2
. ,a
4
-a
2
2
-*
4
3 . .
_a .
• . 3 ' ' '
-a
_a
-'

Flow rate.
Average
.b
_b
1-5
2.0
2.8
2.6
3.8
.b
.b
.b
' 1.9
_b
2.5
3.6
3.8
3.3
3.3
5.7
.b
b
-
.b •
.b
2.6
2.8
* -b
2.4
1.4
1-5
_b
LO
-b
r.o
3.2
.b
1.8
3.8
-b
4.4
_b
-b
-b
Exit gas
m'/s per line
Range
.a
.«
0.6-2.4
_d
1.2-4.4
_d
_d
_a
.•
.*' • -
_d
-*
-"
1.9-3.8.
-d
3.2-3.5
_d
-e
_•
a .
-
.»
.*.
-'
_d
a
,d
_d
_d
_a
_d
-'
1.4-2.6
-d '
.*
.* :
.d
."
-d
.*
_a
_a
properties
Temperature.
•C
_a
.a
. jt
_c
.e
,c
' _c
.e .
a
.a
.c
-*
-e
.c
_c
_c
_c
_c
• .•
_a '

_a
.*
_c
_c
.»
.e
_c
.c
.a •
25-30
_c
-c
27
_a
" _C
21
_a
_c
.c
_e
_a

6auge pressure.
Pa
.a
•j»
530-800
0
0
0
0
0
a
_a
530
_8
0
130
' - .»
0
0
0
_a
a

_a
.»
530
_a
a
800
_a
530.
_a
0
0
270-2 .SCO
_a
.«
0 • '
0
^8
0
0
0
-'
Calculated
VOC emissions.
metric tons/year
-b
_b
203
296
494
189
305
15
.b
]b
S8E
197
361
64]
J> '
230
472
511
_b

26

248
177
968
-b
416
236
195
_b
81
.°
301
113
479
459

470 .
758
_b •
94
297
  '.Not available.
  bNot calculated.
  'Ambient
   All units have same exit gas flow rate.
  eOn.lj one value reported.
                                  A-3

-------
                                                                                                       ^
\
                              ~TABLE A-4."  EMISSIONS  DATA FOR  BEAD  DIPPING
2,3,4,12-21
Plant
code
A
e
C ,
0
E
I
K
L
M
0
P
Q
R
T
V
•W
X
Y

Z
BS
00
It
JT
GG
HK
OJ
LL
NN
00
PP
QQ
RR
SS
TT
UU
WW
XX
YY
ZZ
AAA
pen
ODD
ccc
Number of
bead dipping
operations
1
_c
1
.c
-c.
1
1
_c
1
-c
3
c
1
_c
_c
_c
1
_c
£
•
-c
, _c
_c
1
4
c
1
-c
1
2
_c
_c
1
_c
_c
_c
4
1
_=
_c
_c_
• c
,~ •
_c

Flo* rate, m'/s
Average
3.0
jt
0.9
_d
-d
4.7
,a
' -d
_d
.d
2.4
_d
3.6
-"
.4
_d
_d
6
_d

-d
.d
_d
d
_d
-d
2.4
-d
2.4
3.3
_d
_d
_d
.d
_d
-d
0.1
3.8
_d
_d
_d
d
*
_d
Exit gas
per operation
Ranqe
.»
_c
a
_c
_c
_a
_e
.c
_B
_C
.9
-c
-fl
_c
-c
.c
.«
_c
^
-
_e
.c
e
_e
.e
-c .
-a
_c
-a
_a
_c
_c
_e
'.c
.e
_c
-9
-a
_c
_c
_c
_e

_d
properties
Temperature.
•C
_b
.e •.
_»
c
_b
.°
_f
' _c
_f
_c
>
_c
.b
_c
_c
_c
_f 1
_c
f

_f
_c
_f
f
_f
_c
_b
_c
,D
21
_c
_c
_f
_c
_f
_c
21
_b
_c
.c,
_c
_f

_c

^auge pressure,
: Pa
'•,-, :0
:. ' ' _e
• 4
_c ., •.- ,
.0,
0
f
_c
_f
_c
4
_c
0
.'
_c
_c
• '.f
:,c
f
~
_f
_c
_f
f
f
_c
2,000
_c
1.470
.c
.c
_c
_f
_c
_f
_c
0
0
_c
_c
_c
f

_c
Calculated
VOX emissions,
wetric tons/year
3.4
jt
73.6
' _ _d
. . 7.7
17.9
: , 9.3

'. 2-1
^d
31.3

106.6
13.7
d
d
7.7


4.0

_d
2.4
1.1

13.2
59.5
_d
93.9
15.8
d
_d
53.2
_d
28.4
-d
36.6
59.9
_d
.d
_d

2.3
_d
                          Only one value reported.
                         bA/noient.
                         cNot available.
                          Not calculated.
                         eNo individualized  ventilation system(s).
                          Not applicable.
                         ^All units have same exit gas flow rate.
                                                            A-4

-------
TABLE  A-5.  EMISSIONS DATA FOR TIRE BUILDING2'3'4'12'21>'
Plant
cods
A
, 8
C
D
E
I
K
1
K
0
P
Q
R
T
V
W
X
Y
Z
BS
DD
Number of Calculated
tire-building VOC emissions,
machines metric tons/year
134

' 63 ' 91
67
139


148
585
268
53 69
254



18
10

102
8

Plant
code
EE
FF
GG
HK
JJ
LI
NN
00
PP
QC
RR
ss
TT
UU
WW
XX
YY
ZZ
AAA
BBS
CCC
Number of
tire-building
machines

33 "


61

50



67


42







Calculated
VOC emissions,
metric tons/year
255
2

12
109

22
26
216

65
8
80
56

443



23
2
 Blanks  indicate that, the number of machines was not available or that VOC
 emissions could not be calculated.
                           A-5

-------
-THBtfc A-64? EMISSIONS DATA FOR TREAD END CEMENTING2'3'4'12"'
Calculated Calculated
Plant VOC emissions, Plant VOC emissions,
.code metric tons/year code metric tons/vear
A
B
C
D
E
I
K
L
M
0
P
Q
R
T
V
W
X
Y
Z
BB
DD
7

22
75
12
30
40



120
158
18

10
18
29
52



. EE
FF
GG
HH
JJ
LI-
NN
00
PP
QQ
RR
SS
TT
UU
WW
XX
YY
ZZ
AAA
BBB
CCC
31
21
28

135
22
57
36


33
210
89
167
18
46
22

4
31
9
3Blank indicates that annual  mass of VOC
 emissions could not be calculated.
               A-6

-------
                            TABLE A-7.    EMISSIONS  DATA  FOR GREEN TIRE SPRAYING2'3'4'12"21
f
Number of
Plant spray
code booths
A
B
C
D
E
1
K
I
H
0
P
Q
R
T
V
w
X
Y
7
BS
CD
£t
FF
GG
KH
JJ
LL
NI-
00
PP
QQ
RR
55
rr
uu
ww
XX
YY
u
AAA
BS3
CCC
_a
2
2
3
a
-a
4
-a
10
7
6
_a
7
a
8
a
5
1
2
_a
a
8
_a
8
3
4
13
2
4
_4
1
-a
3
8
_a
9
a
a
1
a
4
3
Type of
spray
Water-based
Organic-based
Organic-based
Organic-based
a
Organic-based
Organic-based
Organic-based
Organic-based
Organic-based
Organic-based
Organic-based
Organic -based
a
Organic-based
_a
Organic-based
Organic-based
Organic-based
Water-based
Organic-based
Organic-based
Waw-b«sed
Organic-based
Organic-based
Organic-based
Organic-based
Organic-based
Organic-based
a
Organic-based
.Water-hised
Hater-based
Organic-based
Water-based
Organic-based
_a
Organic-based
Organic-based
Organic-based
Organic-based
Organic-based

Flow rate.
Average
_b
3.3
2.4
_b
_b
-b
3.0
_b
8.4
-b
4.0
-b
3.1
_b
3.5
_b
0.9
16.8
3.7
_b
-b
3.8
_b
3.8
3.9
7.0
1.7
5.7
3.0
_b
4.7
_b
3.7
4.3
_b
5.2
_b
_b
9.9
_b
3.4
2.0
Exit gas
m'/s per booth
Range
a
_d
1.5-3.3
.«
.•
-"
•2.6-3.3
-a
3.1-29.3
a
1.5-5, 7
-a
1.5-4.1
a
.<*
_a
_d
-f
1.7-5.7
_a
a
1.3-6.0
.»
_d
a
3.8-11.3
1.0-2.8
-d
2.4-3.3
_a
_f
-a
i. 6-3.3
1.7-5.7
_a
3.2-9.4
a
_a
_f
_a
1.4-5.7
0.6-E.7
properties

Temperature, Gauge pressure,
•C Pa
_c
27e
_c
_c
_«
.«
-c
_c
_c
-e
_e
_a
kc
.»
_c
_a
_c
_c
_c
_•
a
_c
_»
.c
21-29
-c
-c
_c
21-38
a
_c
-»
13- ?4
_c
a
21
a
a
c
c
_c
_c
0
.«
530
0
_a
a
0
0
_a
a
530-2 ,000
_a
0
_»
a
_a
0
0
_»
.a
.«
.«
_a
.»
0
930-2 .000
-a
1,470
a
a
0
_»
.a '
_a
.»
0
a
a
0
a
_a
0
Calculated
VOC emiiiiorti.
metric tons/year
_b
30
158
439

116
776
61
932
624
512
502
255
_b
475
.b
157
34J
675
-b
.b.
433

457
78
499
157
230
428

_b
J>
.b
444

864
_b
76
_b
28
382
180
a.Noi available.
Not calculated.
cAmbient.
                       All units have same exit gas flow rate.
                      eMaximun: value.
                       Only one value reported.
                                                        A-7

-------
APPENDIX  B




                                                    €>

-------
   APPENDIX B.   CALCULATIONS TO ESTIMATE VOC EMISSIONS FROM HEAT PROCESSING
                                .  OF RUBBER

	.__	_....      	  A temperature-weight  loss  correlation
   proposed  by  S.  M.  Rappaport 6 has been  used to estimate emissions
   from curing.  Emissions from other processes can be approximated
   using the ratio of the operating temperature to 180°C  (the  temperature
   at which  curing emissions were measured) as a correction factor.  In
   addition, Rappaport's  numerical constants must be  reduced by a factor
   of ten when  estimating volatile organic compound emissions, because
   .90 percent of the  weight losses that he observed could  be attributed
                           27
   to evaporation  of  water.    The modified Rappaport equation is thus:
   t
                        C = 1.27 x 10-3  T
   where   C = weight  loss, grams per kilogram
   t
           T = operating  temperature, °C

      In  compounding,  the mechanical  release of heat  normally raises the
 temperature of  the rubber stock  to  100aC.  Twenty percent of the vola-
 tile species emitted  can be  assumed  to  be  adsorbed on carbon black
 particulate that are  simultaneously  generated.  The  emission factor
 for compounding is therefore:
                (0.8)  (1.27 x ID-3)  (100) = 0.1 g/kg                 (4)
      A representative tire mass  is  required to convert the above
 emission factor to grams per tire.   A  passenger car  tire  was chosen
 for this purpose because it  represents  80  percent of the  total  number
 of tires produced by  the industry according to the information shown
 in Table~2-T.   Data supplied by  two  Armstrong Rubber Company plants2
 that produce only passenger  car  tires were used to calculate an average
 tire mass  of 11.4 kilograms.  Using  this value, the  estimated  emission
 factor for compounding is one gram  per  tire.
                               B-l

-------
                                   TECHNICAL REPORT DATA
                           (Please read Instructions on the jvww be fore f
 REPORT NO.
  EPA-450/2-78-030
 TITLE AND SUBTITLE
 Control  of Volatile Organic  Emissions from
 Manufacturing of Pneumatic Rubber Tires
                                3. RECIPIfNT'S ACCESSION NO.


                                5~REPORT~DATE"" "
                                  Jtecember 1978
                                n. I'tinronMiNO orioANi/A) ION mint
. AUTHOR(S)
   Karl  J.  Zobel, ESED
Neil Efird,  SASD
8. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION R6POHT NO.

   OAQPS No. 1.2-106     |
, PERFORMING ORGANIZATION NAME AND ADDRESS
 U.S.  Environmental Protection  Agency
 Office  of  Air, Noise and Radiation
 Office  of  Air Quality Planning and Standards
 Research Triangle Park,  North  Carolina  27711
                                                            10. PROGRAM ELEMENT NO.
                                 11. CONTRACT/GRANT NO.
2. SPONSORING AGENCY NAME AND ADDRESS
                                                            13. TYPE OF REPORT AND PERIOD COVERED
                                                            14. SPONSORING AGENCY CODE
5. SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES
6. ABSTRACT
         Th-'s document  provides the necessary guidance for development of regulations
    to limr: emissions  of volatile organic  compounds (VOC) from manufacture of
    pneumat"c rubber tire operations.  Emissions are characterized  and reasonably
    available control technology (RACT)  is  defined for each of four major sources:
    green tire spraying,  undertread cementing, tread-end cementing, and bead dipping.
    Information on cost of control and environmental impact is also included.
17.
                                KEY WORDS AND DOCUMENT ANALYSIS
                  DESCRIPTORS
                                               b.lDENTIFIERS/OPEN ENDED TERMS
                                                                          c. COSATI Field/Group
    Air Pollution
    Pneumatic Rubber Tire Manufacturing
    Emissions and  Control
    Regulatory  Guidance
                     Air Pollution Controls
                     Stationary Sources
                     Organic  Vapors
                     Pneumatic Rubber Tires
18. DISTRIBUTION STATEMENT

    Unlimited
                    19. SECURITY CLASS (ThisReport)
                     Unclassified
               21. NO. OF PAGES
                    59
                                               20. SECURITY CLASS (Thispage)
                                                Unclassified
                                                                          22. PRICE
EPA Form 2220-1 (Rev. 4-77)   PREVIOUS EDITION is OBSOLETE

-------