EPA-450/3-85-025a
Calciners and Dryers
in Mineral Industries-
Background Information
for Proposed Standards
Emission Standards and Engineering Division
U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
Office of Air and Radiation
Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards
Research Triangle Park, North Carolina 27711
October 1985
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This report has been reviewed by the Emission Standards and Engineering Division of the Office of Air Quality Planning
and Standards, EPA, and approved for publication. Mention of trade names or commercial products is not intended to
constitute endorsement or recommendation for use. Copies of this report are available through the Library Services
Office(MD-35), U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, N.C. 27711, orfrom National, Technical
Information Services, 5285 Port Royal Road, Springfield, Virginia 22161.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
LIST OF FIGURES vii,.
LIST OF TABLES x
CHAPTER 1. SUMMARY 1_1
1.1 Regulatory Alternatives 1_1
1.2 Environmental Impact 1_2
1.3 Economic Impact 1_5
CHAPTER 2. INTRODUCTION 2-1
2.1 Background and Authority for Standards 2-1
2.2 Selection of Categories of Stationary Sources... 2-4
2.3 Procedure for Development of Standards of
Performance 2-6
2.4 Consideration of Costs 2-8
2.5 Consideration of Environmental Impacts 2-9
2.6 Impact on Existing Sources 2-10
2.7 Revisions of Existing Standards of '
Performance 2-11
CHAPTER 3. THE MINERAL PROCESSING INDUSTRIES 3_l
3.1 General Description of Processing Equipment 3-2
3.1.1 Dryers 3.2
3.1.2 Calciners 3_19
3.2 Description of Industries 3.31
3.2.1 Alumina 3_31
3.2.2 Ball Clay 3.35
3.2.3 Bentonite 3-33
3.2.4 Diatomite 3_41
3.2.5 Feldspar '•. 3.45
3.2.6 Fire Clay 3.49
3.2.7 Fuller's Earth 3.53
3.2.8 Gypsum 3_56
3.2.9 Industrial Sand 3.53
3.2.10 Kaolin 3_61
3.2.11 Lightweight Aggregate.. 3_68
3.2.12 Magnesium Compounds 3_71
3.2.13 Perlite 3.74
3.2.14 Roofing Granules 3_78
3.2.15 Talc 3_31
3.2.16 Titanium Dioxide i 3_85
3.2.17 Vermiculiite 3_92
iii
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TABLE OF CONTENTS (continued)
Page
3.3 Variables Affecting Emissions/Uncontrolled
Emissions Data 3-97
3.3.1 Dryers 3-97
3.3*2 Calciners 3-107
3.4 Emissions Allowed Under Current State
Regul ations 3-113
3.5 References for Chapter 3 3-121
CHAPTER 4. EMISSION CONTROL TECHNIQUES 4-1
4.1 Description of Control Techniques 4-1
4.1.1 Centrifugal Separators 4-1
4.1.2 Fabric Filters 4-6
4.1.3 Met Scrubbers 4-15
4.1.4 Electrostatic Precipitators 4-29
4.2 Application of Control Techniques to Calciners
and Dryers in the Mineral Industries 4-34
4.2.1 Centrifugal Separators 4-34
4.2.2 Fabric Filters 4-34
4.2.3 Wet Scrubbers 4-37
4.2.4 Electrostatic Precipitators 4-37
4.3 Performance of Emission Control Systems 4-41
4.4 References for Chapter 4 4-52
CHAPTER 5. MODIFICATION AND RECONSTRUCTION 5-1
5.1 Modification 5-1
5.1.1 Provisions for Modification 5-1
5.1.2 Applicability to Dryers and Calciners.... 5-2
5.2 Reconstruction 5-4
5.2.1 Provisions for Reconstruction 5-4
5.2.2 Applicability to Dryers and Calciners.... 5-5
CHAPTER 6. MODEL FACILITIES AND REGULATORY ALTERNATIVES 6-1
6.1 Model Facilities 6-1
6.2 Regulatory Alternatives 6-2
6.3 References for Chapter 6 6-59
CHAPTER 7. ENVIRONMENTAL AND ENERGY IMPACTS 7-1
7.1 Air Pollution Impacts 7-1
7.1.1 Primary Air Pollution Impacts 7-2
7.1.2 Secondary Air Pollution Impacts 7-5
7.2 Water Pollution Impacts 7-5
7.3 Solid Waste Impacts 7-6
iv
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TABLE OF CONTENTS (continued)
Page
7.4 Energy Impacts '.. 7-6'
7.5 Other Environmental Impacts 7-7
7.6 Other Environmental Concerns 7-7
7.6.1 Irreversible and Irretrievable
Commitment of Resources 7-7
7.6.2 Environmental Impact of Delayed
Standards 7_7'
7.7 References for Chapter 7 7-41
CHAPTERS. COST ANALYSIS OF CONTROL OPTIONS 8-1
8.1 Introduction 8-1
8.2 Cost Analysis for New Facilities 8-1
8.2.1 Basis for Estimating Capital and
Annualized Costs of Pollution
Control Equipment 8-2
8.2.2 Capital Costs of Pollution Control
Equipment for Each Regulatory
Al ternati ve 8-2
8.2.3 Annualized Costs of Pollution Control
Equipment for Each Regulatory
Alternative 8-3
8.2.4 Cost Effectiveness of Pollution
Control 8-4
8.2.5 Five-Year Projection of Nationwide
Capital and Annualized Pollution
Control Costs for Each Regulatory
Alternative 8-5
8.3 Cost Analysis of Model Facility Process
Units 8-5
8.3.1 Basis for Estimating Capital Costs of
Process Unit Equipment 8-5
8.3.2 Comparison of Capital Costs of Pollution
Control Equipment to Capital Costs of
Uncontrolled Process Units 8-6
8.4 Cost Analysis for Modified/Reconstructed
Faci 1 ites 8-6
8.5 Other Cost Considerations 8-7
8.5.1 Other Air Pollution Costs 8-7
8.5.2 Continuous Opacity Monitors 8-8
8.5.3 Water Pollution Control Act 8-8
8.5.4 Resource Conservation and Recovery Act... 8-9
8.5.5 Occupational Safety and Health
Administration Act 8-9
8.5.6 Resource Requirements Imposed on
Regional, State, and Local Agencies 8-9
8.6 References for Chapter 8 8-49
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TABLE OF CONTENTS (continued)
CHAPTER 9. ECONOMIC IMPACT.
9.1 Industry Economic Profile.
.3
.4
.5
9.2
,1.1
.1.2
.1
.1
.1
.1.6
.1.7
9.1.8
9.1.9
9.1.10
9.1.11
9.1.12
9.3
9.4
Alumina.
The Clay Industries
Diatomite
Feldspar
Gypsum
Industrial Sand
Magnesium Compounds
Perlite
Roofing Granules
Talc
Titanium Dioxide
Vermiculite
Economic Analysis
9.2.1 Introduction
9.2.2 Executive Summary
9.2.3 General Methodology of the Analysis.
9.2.4 Percent Price Increase
9.2.5 Individual Industry Review
Socio-Economic Assessment
9.3.1 Executive Order 12291
9.3.2 Regulatory Flexibility
References for Chapter 9
Page
9-1
9-1
9-5
9-7
9-15
9-16
9-18
9-20
9-22
9-24
9-25
9-26
9-28
9-30
9-32
9-32
9-32
9-33
9-34
9-44
9-50
9-50
9-54
9-57
APPENDIX A. EVOLUTION OF THE BACKGROUND INFORMATION DOCUMENT A-l
APPENDIX B. INDEX TO ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT CONSIDERATIONS B-l
APPENDIX C. SUMMARY OF TEST DATA C-l
APPENDIX D. EMISSION MEASUREMENT AND MONITORING D-l
VI
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LIST OF FIGURES
Page
Figure 3-1 Direct rotary dryer 3_6
Figure 3-2 Typical arrangements of direct rotary dryers 3-7
Figure 3-3 Types of indirect-heated rotary dryers 3.9
Figure 3-4 Schematic of fluidized bed system. 3.10
Figure 3-5 Typical fluidized bed dryer system 3.13
Figure 3-6 Schematic of a flash dryer system 3_14
Figure 3-7 Types of spray dryers 3_16
Figure 3-8 Vi brat ing-grate dryer 3.18
Figure 3-9 Rotary kiln configurations 3_20
Figure 3-10 Flash calcining—aluminum 3.22
Figure 3-11 Direct contact flash calciner. 3_24
Figure 3-12 Multiple hearth furnace 3.25
Figure 3-13 Diagram of a continuous kettle calciner..... 3-27
Figure 3-14 Vertical perlite expansion furnace 3_29
Figure 3-15 Horizontal rotary perlite expansion furnace 3-30
Figure 3-16 Simplified process flow diagram for alumina
production 3_33
Figure 3-17 Ball clay process flow diagram 3.37
Figure 3-18 Bentonite processing 3_40
Figure 3-19 Alternate process flow diagrams for dlatomite
production 3.44
Figure 3-20 Feldspar flotation process 3.43
Figure 3-21 Partial flow diagram for fire clay plant (handling
and processing of new material prior to use in
refractory manufacturing plant) 3.51
Figure 3-22 General flow diagram for fuller's earth
production 3_55
vii
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LIST OF FIGURES (continued)
Figure 3-23
Figure 3-24
Figure 3-25
Figure 3-26
Figure 3-27
Figure 3-28
Figure 3-29
Figure 3-30
Figure 3-31
Figure 3-32
Figure 3-33
Figure 3-34
Figure 3-35
Figure 3-36
Figure 3-37
Figure 3-38
Figure 4-1
Figure 4-2
Figure 4-3
Figure 4-4
Figure 4-5
Process flow diagram for gypsum production
Process flow diagram for industrial sand
production
Dry kaolin mining and processing
Typical wet mining and process for high grade
kaol in products
Schematic of a typical LWA plant
Typical process flow diagram for the production of
magnesias from natural brine solutions
Flow diagram for perlite ore processing
Roofing granules production
Process flow diagram for talc processing
Simplified flow diagram of chloride
process— Ti02 „
Simplified flow diagram of sulfate
process— Ti02
Flow diagram of vermiculite ore processing
Vermicul ite expansion system
Dust carryout versus drum gas velocity
Typical flights used in rotary dryers
-\
Discrete particle size distribution for
various clay raw materials
Typical simple cyclone collector
Mechanisms of fabric filtration
Shaker-type baghouse
Reverse air baghouse
Pulse jet baghouse
viii
Page
3-57
3-60
3-64
3-65
3-70
3-73
3-76
3-80
3-84
3-88
3-90
3-95
3-96
3-98
3-101
3-105
4-4
4-7
4-9'
4-10
4-11
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LIST OF FIGURES (continued)
Figure 4-6
Figure 4-7
Figure 4-8
Figure 4-9
Gravity spray tower.
Cross sectional view of a typical venturi
scrubber
Venturi scrubber comparative fractional efficiency
curves
Theoretical efficiency curve for a venturi scrubber
illustrating effect of throat velocity...
Figure 4-10 Theoretical efficiency curve for a venturi scrubber
illustrating effect of I1qu1d-to-gas ratio
Figure 4-11
Figure 4-12
Figure 4-13
Figure 4-14
Figure 4-15
Figure 4-16
Figure 4-17
Figure 4-18
Figure 4-19
Figure 4-20
Typical packed bed scrubber ,
Cyclonic scrubber
Impingement plate scrubber
Generalized depiction of a dynamic wet scrubber.
Typical ESP with insulator compartment
Basic processes Involved in electrostatic
precipitation
EPA-conducted project test data for dryers
EPA-conducted project test data for calciners...
Controlled particulate emission data for dryers,
Controlled particulate emission data for
calciners
Page
4-17
4-18
4-20
4-21
4-22
4-23
4-25
4-26
4-28
4-30
4-31
4-44
4-45
4-46
4-47
ix
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LIST OF TABLES
Page
Table 1-1 Environmental and Economic Impacts of Regulatory
Alternatives II and III Compared to Regulatory
Alternative I (Baseline) in the Fifth Year
(1990) 1-3
Table 1-2 Matrix of Environmental and Economic Impacts for
Regulatory Alternatives 1-4
Table 3-1 Types of Dryers Used by Each Industry 3-3
Table 3-2 Types of Calciners Used by Each Industry 3-4
Table 3-3 Uncontrolled Particulate Emission Data—Dryers 3-104
Table 3-4 Summary of Inlet Particle Size Distribution
Tests—Dryers 3-106
Table 3-5 Process Fugitive Emission Measurements—Dryers 3-108
Table 3-6 Uncontrolled Particulate Emission Data—Calciners.... 3-111
Table 3-7 Summary of Inlet Particle Size Distribution
Tests—Calciners 3-112
Table 3-8 Process Fugitive Emission Measurements—Calciners.... 3-114
Table 3-9 Sulfur Dioxide, Nitrogen Oxides (as N02), and
Hydrocarbon Emissions from Mineral Calciners 3-115
Table 3-10 Specific Processes Addressed Under State
Regulations 3-116
Table 3-11 SIP Allowable Emissions 3-117
Table 3-12 State Visible Emissions Standards 3-119
Table 3-13 Specific Plants Addressed Under State Regulations 3-120
Table 4-1 Emission Control Techniques for Dryers and Calciners
in the Mineral Industries 4-2
Table 4-2 Maximum Recommended Operating Temperatures, and
Chemical and Abrasion Resistance of Common
Commercial Fabrics 4-14
Table 4-3 Typical Operating Parameter Ranges for Dryer and
Calciner Baghouses 4-35
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LIST OF TABLES (continued)
Table 4-4
Table 4-5
Table 4-6
Table 4-7
Table 4-8
Table 4-9
Table 4-10
Table 6-1
Table 6-2
Table 6-3
Table 6-4a
Table 6-4b
Table 6-5
Table 6-6
Table 6-7
Table 6-8
Table 6-9
Typical Operating Parameter Ranges for Dryer and
Caldner Wet Scrubbers
Typical Operating Parameter Ranges for Dryer and
Calclner Electrostatic Precipltators
Summary of Controlled Emissions Data from EPA Test
Program
EPA-Approved Compliance Test Data for Dryers
EPA-Approved Compliance Test Data for Caldners
Summary of Visible Emission Data
Summary of Particle Size Distribution Tests at
Control Device Outlet
Affected Facilities—Dryers Used in Each
Industry
Affected Facilities—Calciners Used in Each
Industry .
Model Facility Sizes for Process Units in the
Mineral Industries
Control Levels and Associated Control Equipment for
Regulatory Alternatives (Metric Units)
Control Levels and Associated Control Equipment for
Regulatory Alternatives (English Units)
Model Facility Parameters for Flash Calciner—
Alumina Industry
Model Facility Parameters for Rotary Calciner—
Alumina Industry
Model Facility Parameters for Indirect Rotary
Dryer— Ball Clay Industry
Model Facility Parameters for Indirect Vibrating-
grate Dryer— Ball Clay Industry
Model Facility Parameters for Fluid Bed Dryer —
Bentonite Industry.
Page
4-38
4-40
4-42
4-48
4-49
4-50
4-51
6-3
6-4
6-5
6-7
6-10
6-13
6-14
-6-15
6-16
6-17
xi
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LIST OF TABLES (continued)
Table
Table
Table
Table
Table
Table
Table
Table
Table
Table
Table
Table
Table
Table
Table
Table
6-10
6-11
6-12
6-13
6-14
6-15
6-16
6-17
6-18
6-19
6-20
6-21
6-22
6-23
6-24
6-25
Model Facility Parameters
Bentonlte Industry
Model Facility Parameters
Diatomite Industry
Model Facility Parameters
Diatomite Industry ,
Model Facility Parameters
Diatomite Industry ,
Model Facility Parameters
Feldspar Industry ,
Model Facility Parameters
Feldspar Industry
Model Facility Parameters
Fire Clay Industry ,
Model Facility Parameters
Dryer—Fire Clay Industry.
Model Facility Parameters
Fire Clay Industry
Model Facility Parameters
Fuller's Earth Industry..,
Model Facility Parameters
Fuller's Earth Industry..,
Model Facility Parameters
Fuller's Earth Industry..,
Model Facility Parameters
Gypsum Industry
Model Facility Parameters
Gypsum Industry
Model Facility Parameters
Gypsum Industry
Model Facility Parameters
Industrial Sand Industry.,
for
for
for
for
for
for
for
for
for
for
for
for
for
for
for
for
Rotary Dryer-
Flash Dryer--
Rotary Dryer —
Rotary Calciner—
Fluid Bed Dryer-
Rotary Dryer-
Rotary Dryer—
Vi brat ing-grate
Rotary Calciner—
Fluid Bed Dryer—
Rotary Dryer—
Rotary Calciner—
Rotary Dryer-
Flash Calciner—
Kettle Calciner—
Fluid Bed Dryer-
Page
6-18
6-19
6-20
6-21
6-22
6-23
6-24
6-25
6-26
6-27
6-28
6-29
6-30
6-31
6-32
6-33
X11
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LIST OF TABLES (continued)
Table 6-26
Table 6-27
Table 6-28
Table 6-29
Table 6-30
Table 6-31
Table 6-32
Table 6-33
Table 6-34
Table 6-35
Table 6-36
Table 6-37
Table 6-38
Table 6-39
Table 6-40
Table 6-41
Model Facility Parameters for
Industrial Sand Industry
Model Facility Parameters for
Kaolin Industry
Model Facility Parameters for
Kaolin Industry.....
Model Facility Parameters for
Kaolin Industry
Model Facility Parameters for
Furnace—Kaolin Industry
Model Facility Parameters for
Kaolin Industry ,
Model Facility Parameters for
Lightweight Aggregate Industry
Model Facility Parameters for
Furnace—Magnesium Compounds ]
Model Facility Parameters for
Magnesium Compounds Industry.,
Model Facility Parameters for
Perlite Industry
Model Facility Parameters for
Perlite Industry.
Model Facility Parameters for
Roofing Granules Industry
Model Facility Parameters for
Roofing Granules Industry
Model Facility Parameters for
Talc Industry
Model Facility Parameters for
Talc Industry
Model Facility Parameters for
Talc Industry
Rotary Dryer—
Rotary Dryer—
Spray Dryer--
Flash Calciner—
Multiple Hearth
Rotary Calciner—
Rotary Calciner--
1
Multiple Hearth
Industry
Rotary Calciner—
Rotary Dryer —
Expansion Furnace—
Fluid Bed Dryer —
Rotary Dryer--
Flash Dryer-
Rotary Dryer-
Rotary Calciner—
Page
6-34
6-35
6-36
6-37
6-38
6-39
6-40
6-41
6-42
6-43
6-44
6-45
6-46
6-47
6-48
6-49
xiii
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LIST OF TABLES (continued)
Page
Table 6-42 Model Facility Parameters for Flash Dryer-
Titanium Dioxide Industry 6-50
Table 6-43 Model Facility Parameters for Fluid Bed Dryer-
Titanium Dioxide Industry 6-51
Table 6-44 Model Facility Parameters for Rotary Dryer-
Titanium Dioxide Industry 6-52
Table 6-45 Model Facility Parameters for Indirect Rotary
Dryer—Titanium Dioxide Industry 6-53
Table 6-46 Model Facility Parameters for Spray Dryer-
Titanium Dioxide Industry 6-54
Table 6-47 Model Facility Parameters for Rotary Calciner—
Titanium Dioxide Industry 6-55
Table 6-48 Model Facility Parameters for Fluid Bed Dryer—
Vermicul ite Industry 6-56
Table 6-49 Model Facility Parameters for Rotary Dryer—
Vermicul ite Industry 6-57
Table 6-50 Model Facility Parameters for Expansion Furnace—
Vermiculite Industry 6-58
Table 7-1 Projection of Production from New/Replaced Facilities
(1985-1990) 7.9
Table 7-2 Production Subject to NSPS for Each Affected Facility
(1985-1990) 7_io
Table 7-3 Annual Particulate Emissions from Dryers and
Caldners (1990) 7_12
Table 7-4 Annual Particulate Emission Reduction Below Baseline
Levels (1990) 7_14
Table 7-5 Total and Incremental Nationwide Annual Emissions and
Reductions (1990) 7_16
Table 7-6 General Modeling Parameters 7_17
Table 7-7 Summary of Source Data for Dryers and Calciners 7-18
Table 7-8 Summary of Annual Arithmetic Average Concentrations.. 7-20
xiv
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LIST OF TABLES,(continued)
Table 7-9
Table 7-10
Table 7-11
Table 7-12
Table 7-13
Table 7-14
Table 7-15
Table 7-16
Table 7-17
Table 7-18
Table 7-19
Table 8-1
Table 8-2
Table 8-3
Table 8-4a
Table 8-4b
Summary of 24-hour Average Concentrations
Incremental Solid Waste Generated by Wet Scrubbers
Over Baseline Level (1990)
Annual Amount of Electric Energy Required to Operate
Control Devices (1990)
Amount of Energy Required Over Baseline Levels to
Operate Control Devices and Annual Amount of Energy
Required to Operate Facilities
Projection of Production from New/Replaced Facilities
(1985-1993).... »
Projection of Production from New/Replaced Facilities
(1988-1993) , . ...
Production Subject to NSPS in 1993 for Each Affected
Facility (Proposal in 1985) ,
Production Subject to NSPS in 1993 for Each Affected
Facility (Proposal in 1988).
Eighth-Year .(1985-1993) Annual Part 1 cul ate £ miss ions
from Dryers and Calciners..
Fifth-Year (1988-1993) Annual Particulate .
Emi ssions
Environmental Impact of Delayed Standard—
Particulate. Emission Reduction in 1993..
Capital and Annual 1 zed Cost Data Sources for Pollution
Control Equipment... ....*
Pollution Control Equipment Capital Cost Factors for
New Facilities
Pollution Control Equipment Annual ized Cost Factors
for New Facilities..
Capital Costs of Pollution Control Equipment for
Regulatory Alternative I
Capital Costs of Pollution Control Equipment for
Regulatory Alternative II
Page
7-22
7-25,
7-26.
7-28
7^30
7-31
•
7-32
7-34
:'-'." - t
7-36
7-38
7-40
8-10
18-11
8-12
8-13
8^15
XV
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LIST OF TABLES (continued)
Table 8-4c
Table 8^4d
Table 8-5a
Table^Sb
Table.8-5c
Table.8-5d
Table 8-6
Table 8-7
Table 8-8
Table 8-9
Table 8-10
Table 8-11
Table 8-12
Table 8-13
Table 9-1
Table 9-2
Table 9-3
Capital Costs of Pollution Control Equipment for
Regulatory Alternative III..
Total Capital Costs of Pollution Control Equipment
for Each Regulatory Alternative
Annual ized Costs of ^Pollution Control Equipment for
Regulatory Alternative I
Annual ized Costs of Pollution Control Equipment for
Regulatory Alternative II
Annual ized Costs of Pollution Control Equipment for
Regulatory Alternative III.
Total Annual ized Costs of Pollution Control Equipment
for Each Regulatory Alternative.
Product Values Used to Cal cu 1 ate Product Recovery
Credits for Pol Tut ion Control Equipment
Cost Effectiveness of Regulatory Alternatives
Cost "Effectiveness of Regulatory Alternatives versus
Uncontrolled Conditions.
Five-Year Projection of Nationwide Capital and
Annualized Control Costs of Each Regulatory
Alternative
Capital Cost Data Sources for Mineral Dryer and
Calciner Process Units.
Dryer and Calciner Process Unit Capital Cost Factors
for New Facilities
Capital Costs of Process Units
Comparison of Capital Costs of Pollution Control
Equipment to Capital Costs of Uncontrolled Process
Units
Mineral Industries: Product Uses
Mineral Industries: Summary Statistics
Example: Percent Price Increase Calculation
Page
8-17
8-19
8-22
8-24
8-26
8-28
8-31
8-33
8-37
8-41
8-43
8-44
8-45
8-47
9-2
9-3
9-37
xvi
-------
LIST OF TABLES (continued)
Page
Table 9-4 Percent Price Increase 9_38
9-51
Table 9-5 Summary of Fifth-Year Nationwide Incremental
Annual1zed Control Costs
xvii
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1. SUMMARY
1.1 REGULATORY ALTERNATIVES
Standards of performance for new stationary sources are developed
under Section 111 of the Clean Air Act (42 U.S.C. 7411), as amended.
Section 111 requires the establishment of standards of performance for
any new stationary source which ". . . causes, or contributes signifi-
cantly to air pollution which may reasonably be anticipated to endanger
public health or welfare." The Act requires standards of performance
for such sources to ". . . reflect the degree of emission limitation and
the percentage reduction achievable through application of the best
technological system of continuous emission reduction which (taking into
consideration the cost of achieving such emission reduction, any nonair
quality health and environmental impact and energy requirements) the
Administrator determines has been adequately demonstrated." The standards
apply only to stationary sources, the construction, modification, or
reconstruction of which starts after regulations are proposed in the
Federal Register.
Regulatory alternatives were considered for particulate matter
emissions from calciners and dryers in 17 mineral processing industries.
In this document, a mineral processing plant is defined as any facility
that processes or produces any of the following minerals or their
concentrates: alumina, ball clay, bentonite, diatomite, feldspar, fire
clay, fuller's earth, gypsum, industrial sand, kaolin, lightweight
aggregate, magnesium compounds, perlite, roofing granules, talc,
titanium dioxide, and vermiculite.
The affected facility for mineral processing plants in each of the
industries listed above would be each calciner and each dryer. The
1-1
-------
types of dryers included in the regulatory alternative analysis are:
rotary (direct), rotary (indirect), fluid bed, vibrating-grate, flash,
and spray dryers. The types of calciners considered include: rotary,
flash, and kettle calciners, and multiple hearth furnaces. Expansion
furnaces in the perlite and vermiculite industries and rotary kilns in
the lightweight aggregate industry were also included because their
operations and emissions are similar to those of calciners.
Three regulatory alternatives were evaluated for calciners and
dryers in mineral industries. Regulatory Alternative I (RA I), baseline,
is equivalent to no additional action beyond that required by current,
typical State implementation plans (SIP's). This alternative is the
baseline condition against which the impacts of the other alternatives
are compared. Regulatory Alternative II (RA II) is equivalent to an
emission control level for both calciners and dryers of 0.09 grams per
dry standard cubic meter of gas (g/dscm) (0.04 grains per dry standard
cubic foot [gr/dscf]). Regulatory Alternative III (RA III) is equivalent
to an emission control level for calciners of 0.09 g/dscm (0.04 gr/dscf)
and an emission control level for dryers of 0.057 gr/dscf (0.025 gr/dscf).
These alternatives are discussed further in Chapter 6.
1.2 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT
The beneficial and adverse environmental impacts associated with
the levels of RA II and RA III are compared with the baseline emission
level in Tables 1-1 and 1-2. These impacts are discussed in detail in
Chapter 7.
Nationwide emissions of particulate matter would decrease by
7,500 megagrams (Mg) (8,300 tons) and 7,900 Mg (8,800 tons) under RA II
and RA III, respectively, compared with projected baseline emissions in
the fifth year, if standards of performance based on these three alter-
natives are implemented. These figures represent a 74 percent emission
reduction for RA II and a 78 percent emission reduction for RA III.
Wet scrubbers are the only control devices on calciners and dryers
in the mineral industries that generate wastewater streams requiring
treatment or disposal. Typically, a particulate-contaminated water
stream from a scrubber is pumped to a settling pond on the site and not
1-2
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TABLE 1-2. MATRIX OF ENVIRONMENTAL AND ECONOMIC IMPACTS
FOR REGULATORY ALTERNATIVES
Reg.
Alt.
I
II
III
Air
impact
0
+3**
+3**
Water
impact
0
0
0
Solid
waste
impact
0
+3**
+3**
Energy
impact
0
0 to +4***
0 to +4***
Noise
i mpact
0
0
0
Economic
impact
0
+3**
+3**
aA range of impacts is indicated based upon the range of possible energy
increases shown in Table 1-1.
KEY: + = Beneficial impact.
- = Adverse impact.
* = Short-term impact.
** = Long-term impact.
*** = Irreversible impact.
0 = No impact.
1 = Negligible impact.
2 = Small impact.
3 = Moderate impact.
4 = Large impact.
1-4
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discharged into navigable waters. The solids settle in the pond, and
the water is recirculated to the scrubber. When solids fill the pond,
the pond can be dredged and the solids can be landfilled, or a new pond
can be constructed. Therefore, there would be no adverse water pollution
impact due to implementation of any of the regulatory alternatives.
The main source of solid waste from control of particulate matter
emissions from calciners and dryers in mineral industries would be the
sludge produced by wet scrubbers, which is composed primarily of the
processed minerals. The nationwide increase in solid waste (as sludge
containing 70 percent moisture) in 1990 compared to the baseline level
would be 7,000 Mg (7,700 tons) for RA II and 7,500 Mg (8,300 tons) for
RA III. These represent increases over the baseline level of 72 percent
and 77 percent, respectively.
The same air pollution control devices used to meet current SIP's
could be used to meet standards of performance based on the regulatory
.alternatives. Therefore, no noise or radiation impacts will be caused
by the implementation of RA II or RA III.
The increase in nationwide energy consumption for mineral calciner
and dryer control devices would be at most 16,000 megawatt hours (MWh)
for RA II and 17,000 MWh for RA III in the fifth year compared to the
demand under the SIP's. The incremental energy requirements to operate
control equipment are less than 1 percent of the energy demands to
operate the calciner and dryer process units.
1.3 ECONOMIC IMPACT
The economic impacts of each regulatory alternative are summarized
in Tables 1-1 and 1-2. These impacts are discussed in detail in Chapters 8
and 9. Capital and annualized costs are presented as ranges because in
7 out of the 17 mineral processing industries, process units could
utilize more than one type of control device to meet standards of
performance based upon these regulatory alternatives.
Five years after implementation of RA II, the total nationwide
incremental pollution control equipment capital costs would range from
$2.1 to $2.9 million. Under RA III, the total nationwide incremental
pollution control equipment capital costs would range from $2.2 to
1-5
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$3.0 million. The range in costs is due to the process units for which
either a fabric filter or a wet scrubber could be installed. If only
wet scrubbers were installed, the capital costs would be lower than if
only fabric filters were installed. In most cases the capital costs are
essentially the same for RA II and RA III because the capital investment
in a particular control device does not change for the two alternatives.
It is the operation and maintenance of these devices that enables the
same control device to achieve a lower emission level under RA II or
RA III than under RA I (e.g., same scrubber is operated at a higher
pressure drop). The total incremental annualized costs nationwide to
the industries would range from $0.6 million to $1.0 million for RA II
and would range from $0.7 million to $1.0 million for RA III.
While general market conditions may affect the economic viability
of some of the industries discussed, the addition of particulate matter
emission controls does not represent an adverse economic impact for most
of the industries. The typical size facilities in all 17 industries
would have a maximum product price increase of less than 1.75 percent
for both RA II and RA III.
Although some of the individual industries are concentrated in a
particular region, when the 17 industries are considered as a group, the
plants are widely dispersed geographically. If standards of performance
based upon these alternatives are implemented, it is not likely that a
significant regional or employment economic effect will result. Similarly,
if the industries are considered together, a substantial effect on small
businesses should not result, as defined by the Regulatory Flexibility
Act of 1980.
1-6
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2. INTRODUCTION
2.1 BACKGROUND AND AUTHORITY FOR STANDARDS
Before standards of performance are proposed as a Federal regulation,
air pollution control methods available to the affected industry and the
associated costs of installing and maintaining the control equipment are
examined in detail. Various levels of control based on different techno-
logies and degrees of efficiency are expressed as regulatory alternatives.
Each of these alternatives is studied by EPA as a prospective basis for
a standard. The alternatives are investigated in terms of their impacts
on the economic well-being of the industry, the impacts on the national
economy, and the impacts on the environment. This chapter summarizes
the types of information obtained by EPA through these studies in the
development of the proposed standards.
Standards of performance for new stationary sources are established
under Section 111 of the Clean Air Act (42 U.S.C. 7411) as amended,
hereafter referred to as the Act. Section 111 directs the Administrator
to establish standards of performance for any category of new stationary
source of air pollution which ". . . causes, or contributes significantly
to air pollution which may reasonably be anticipated to endanger public
health or welfare."
The Act requires that standards of performance for stationary
sources reflect ". . . the degree of emission limitation and the percent-
age reduction achievable through application of the best technological
system of continuous emission reduction which (taking into consideration
the cost of achieving such emission reduction, any nonair quality health
and environmental impact and energy requirements) the Administrator
determines has been adequately demonstrated." The standards apply only
2-1
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to stationary sources, the construction or modification of which commences
after the standards are proposed in the Federal Register.
The 1977 amendments to the Act altered or added numerous provisions
that apply to the process of establishing standards of performance.
Examples of the effects of the 1977 amendments are:
1. The EPA is required to review the standards of performance
every 4 years and, if appropriate, revise them.
2. The EPA is authorized to promulgate a standard based on design,
equipment, work practice, or operational procedures when a standard
based on emission levels is not feasible.
3. The term "standards of performance" is redefined, and a new
term "technological system of continuous emission reduction" is defined.
The new definitions clarify that the control system must be continuous
and may include a low- or non-polluting process or operation.
4. The time between the proposal and promulgation of a standard
under Section 111 of the Act may be extended to 90 days.
Standards of performance, by themselves, do not guarantee protection
of health or welfare because they are not designed to achieve any specific
air quality levels. Rather, they are designed to reflect the degree of
emission limitation achievable through application of the best adequately
demonstrated technological system of continuous emission reduction,
taking into consideration the cost of achieving such emission reduction,
any nonair quality health and environmental impacts and energy require-
ments.
Congress had several reasons for including these requirements.
First, standards having a degree of uniformity are needed to avoid
situations where some States may attract industries by relaxing standards
relative to other States. Second, stringent standards enhance the
potential for long-term growth. Third, stringent standards may help
achieve long-term cost savings by avoiding the need for more expensive
retrofitting when pollution ceilings may be reduced in the future.
Fourth, certain types of standards for coal-burning sources can adversely
affect the coal market by driving up the price of low-sulfur coal or by
effectively excluding certain coals from the reserve base. Congress
does not intend that new source performance standards contribute to
2-2
-------
these problems. Fifth, the standard-setting process should create
incentives for improving technology.
Promulgation of standards of performance does not prevent State or
local agencies from adopting more stringent emission limitations for the
same sources. States are free under Section 116 of the Act to establish
even more stringent emission limits than those established under
Section 111 or than those necessary to attain or maintain the National
Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) under Section 110. Thus, new
sources may in some cases be subject to State limitations that are more
stringent than standards of performance under Section 111, and
prospective owners and operators of new sources should be aware of this
possibility in planning for such facilities.
A similar situation may arise when a major emitting facility is to
be constructed in a geographic area that falls under the prevention of
significant deterioration of air quality provisions of Part C of the
Act. These provisions require, among other things, that major emitting
facilities to be constructed in such areas are to be subject to best
available control technology. The term "best available control
technology" (BACT), as defined in the Act, means
... an emission limitation based on the maximum degree of
reduction of each pollutant subject to regulation under this
Act emitted from or which results from any major emitting
facility, which the permitting authority, on a case-by-case
basis, taking into account energy, environmental, and economic
impacts and other costs, determines is achievable for such
facility through application of production, processes and
available methods, systems, and techniques, including fuel
cleaning or treatment or innovative fuel combustion techniques
for control of each such pollutant. In no event shall
application of "best available control technology" result in
emissions of any pollutants which will exceed the emissions
allowed by any applicable standard established pursuant to
Section 111 or 112 of this Act. (Section 169(3))
Although standards of performance are normally structured in terms
of numerical emission limits where feasible, alternative approaches are
sometimes necessary. In some cases, physical measurement of emissions
from a new source may be impractical or exorbitantly expensive.
Section lll(h) provides that the Administrator may promulgate a design
or equipment standard in those cases where it is not feasible to prescribe
2-3
-------
or enforce a standard of performance. For example, emissions of hydro-
carbons from storage vessels for petroleum liquids are greatest during
tank filling. The nature of the emissions (i.e., high concentrations
for short periods during filling and low concentrations for longer
periods during storage) and the configuration of storage tanks make
direct emission measurement impractical. Therefore, a more practical
approach to standards of performance for storage vessels has been equip-
ment specification.
In addition, under Section lll(j) the Administrator may, with the
consent of the Governor of the State in which a source is to be located,
grant a waiver of compliance to permit the source to use an innovative
technological system or systems of continuous emission reduction. To
grant the waiver, the Administrator must find that: (1) the proposed
system has not been adequately demonstrated, (2) the proposed system
will operate effectively and there is a substantial likelihood that the
system will achieve greater emission reductions than the otherwise
applicable standards require or at least an equivalent reduction at
lower economic, energy, or nonair quality environmental cost, (3) the
proposed system will not cause or" contribute to an unreasonable risk to
public health, welfare, or safety, and (4) the waiver, when combined
with other similar waivers, will not exceed the number necessary to
achieve conditions (2) and (3) above. A waiver may have conditions
attached to ensure the source will not prevent attainment of any NAAQS.
Any such condition will be treated as a performance standard. Finally,
waivers have definite end dates and may be terminated earlier if the
conditions are not met or if the system fails to perform as expected.
In such a case, the source may be given up to 3 years to meet the standards
and a mandatory compliance schedule will be imposed.
2.2 SELECTION OF CATEGORIES OF STATIONARY SOURCES
Section 111 of the Act directs the Administrator to list categories
of stationary sources. The Administrator "... shall include a category
of sources in such list if in his judgment it causes, or contributes
significantly to air pollution which may reasonably be anticipated to
2-4
-------
endanger public health or welfare." Proposal and promulgation of
standards of performance are to follow.
Since passage of the Clean Air Amendments of 1970, considerable
attention has been given to the development of an approach for assigning
priorities to various source categories. The approach specifies areas
of interest by considering the broad strategy of the Agency for imple-
menting the Clean Air Act. Often, the concern is for pollutants that
are emitted by stationary sources rather than the stationary sources
themselves. Source categories that emit these pollutants were evaluated
and ranked considering such factors as: (1) the level of emission control
(if any) already required by State regulations, (2) estimated levels of
control that might be required from standards of performance for the
source category, (3) projections of growth and replacement of existing
facilities for the source category, and (4) the estimated incremental
amount of air pollution that could be prevented in a preselected future
year by standards of performance for the source category. Sources for
which new source performance standards were promulgated or which were
under development before or during 1977, were selected using these
criteria.
The Act amendments of August 1977 establish specific criteria to be
used in determining priorities for all source categories not yet listed
by EPA. These are: (1) the quantity of air pollutant emissions which
each such category will emit, or will be designed to emit, (2) the
extent to which each such pollutant may reasonably be anticipated to
endanger public health or welfare, and (3) the mobility and competitive
nature of each such category of sources and the consequent need for
nationally applicable new source performance standards. The Administrator
is to promulgate standards for these categories according to the schedule
referred to earlier.
In some cases, it may not be immediately feasible to develop
standards for a source category with a high priority. This might happen
if a program of research is needed to develop control techniques or if
techniques for sampling and measuring emissions require refinement. In
the development of standards, differences in the time required to complete
the necessary investigation for different source categories must also be
2-5
-------
considered. For example, substantially more time may be necessary if
numerous pollutants must be investigated from a single source category.
Further, the schedule for completion of a standard may change late in
the development process. For example, inability to obtain emission data
from well-controlled sources in time to pursue the development process
in a systematic fashion may force a change in scheduling. Nevertheless,
priority ranking is, and will continue to be, used to establish the
order in which projects are initiated and resources are assigned.
After the source category has been chosen, the types of facilities
within the source category to which the standard will apply must be
determined. A source category may have several facilities that cause
air pollution, and emissions from these facilities may vary according to
magnitude and control cost. Economic studies of the source category and
of applicable control technology may show that air pollution control is
better served by applying standards to the more severe pollution sources.
For this reason, and because there is no adequately demonstrated system
for controlling emissions from certain facilities, standards often do
not apply to all facilities at a source. For the same reasons, the
standards may not apply to all air pollutants emitted. Thus, although a
source category may be selected to be covered by standards of performance,
not all pollutants or facilities within that source category may be
covered by the standards.
2.3 PROCEDURE FOR DEVELOPMENT OF STANDARDS OF PERFORMANCE
Standards of performance must: (1) realistically reflect best
demonstrated control practice, (2) adequately consider the cost, the
nonair quality health and environmental impacts, and the energy require-
ments of such control, (3) be applicable to existing sources that are
modified or reconstructed as well as to new installations, and (4) meet
these conditions for all variations of operating conditions being
considered anywhere in the country.
The objective of a program for development of standards is to
identify the best technological system of continuous emission reduction
that has been adequately demonstrated. The standard-setting process
involves three principal phases of activity: (1) information gathering,
2-6
-------
(2) analysis of the information, and (3) development of the standards of
performance.
During the information gathering phase, industries are questioned
through telephone surveys, letters of inquiry, and plant visits by EPA
representatives. Information is also gathered from other sources,
including a literature search. Based on the information acquired about
the industry, EPA selects certain plants at which emission tests are
conducted to provide reliable data that characterize the pollutant
emissions from well-controlled existing facilities.
In the second phase of a project, the information about the industry
and the pollutants emitted is used in analytical studies. Hypothetical
"model plants" are defined to provide a common basis for analysis. The
model plant definitions, national pollutant emission data, and existing
State regulations governing emissions from the source category are then
used in establishing regulatory alternatives. These regulatory alter-
natives are essentially different levels of emission control.
The EPA conducts studies to determine the cost, economic, environ-
mental and energy impacts of each regulatory alternative. From several
alternatives, EPA selects the single most plausible regulatory alternative
as the basis for standards of performance for the source category under
study.
In the third phase of a project, the selected regulatory alternative
is translated into performance standards, which, in turn, are written in
the form of a Federal regulation. The Federal regulation, when applied
to newly constructed plants and to modified or reconstructed facilities,
will limit emissions to the levels indicated in the selected regulatory
alternative.
As early as is practical in each standard-setting project, EPA
representatives discuss the possibilities of a standard and the form it
might take with members of the National Air Pollution Control Techniques
Advisory Committee. Industry representatives and other interested
parties also participate in these meetings.
The information acquired in the project is summarized in the
background information document (BID). The BID, the proposed standards,
and a preamble explaining the standards are widely circulated to the
2-7
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industry being considered for control, environmental groups, other
government agencies, and offices within EPA. Through this extensive
review process, the points of view of expert reviewers are taken into
consideration as changes are made to the documentation.
A "proposal package" is assembled and sent through the offices of
EPA assistant administrators for concurrence before the proposed standards
are officially endorsed by the EPA Administrator. After being approved
by the EPA Administrator, the preamble and the proposed regulation are
published in the Federal Register.
The public is invited to participate in the standard-setting process
as part of the Federal Register announcement of the proposed regulation.'
The EPA invites written comments on the proposal and also holds a public
hearing to discuss the proposed standards with interested parties. All
public comments are summarized and incorporated into a second volume of
the BID. All information reviewed and generated in studies in support
of the standards of performance is available to the public in a "docket"
on file in Washington, D.C. Comments from the public are evaluated, and
the standards of performance may be altered in response to the comments.
The significant comments and the EPA's position on the issues
raised are included in the preamble of a promulgation package, which
also contains the draft of the final regulation. The regulation is then
subjected to another round of review and refinement until it is approved
by the EPA Administrator. After the Administrator signs the regulation,
it is published as a final rule in the Federal Register.
2.4 CONSIDERATION OF COSTS
Section 317 of the Act requires an economic impact assessment with
respect to any standard of performance established under Section 111 of
the Act. The assessment is required to contain an analysis of: (1) the
costs of compliance with the regulation, including the extent to which
the cost of compliance varies depending on the effective date of the
regulation and the development of less expensive or more efficient
methods of compliance, (2) the potential inflationary and recessionary
effects of the regulation, (3) the effects the regulation might have on
small business with respect to competition, (4) the effects of the
2-8
-------
regulation on consumer costs, and (5) the effects of the regulation on
energy use. Section 317 requires that the economic impact assessment be
as extensive as practicable.
The economic impact of proposed standards upon an industry is
usually addressed both in absolute terms and by comparison with the
control costs that would be incurred as a result of compliance with
typical, existing State control regulations. An incremental approach is
taken because both new and existing plants would be required to comply
with State regulations in the absence of Federal standards of performance.
This approach requires a detailed analysis of the economic impact of the
cost differential that would exist between proposed standards of perfor-
mance and typical State standards.
Air pollutant emissions may cause water pollution problems, and
captured potential air pollutants may pose a solid waste disposal problem.
The total environmental impact of an emission source must, therefore, be
analyzed and the costs determined whenever possible.
A thorough study of the profitability and price-setting mechanisms
of the industry is essential to the analysis so that an accurate estimate
of potential adverse economic impacts can be made for proposed standards.
It is also essential to know the capital requirements for pollution
control systems already placed on plants so that the additional capital
requirements necessitated by these Federal standards can be placed in
proper perspective. Finally, it is necessary to assess the availability
of capital to provide the additional control equipment needed to meet
the standards of performance.
2.5 CONSIDERATION OF ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS
Section 102(2)(C) of the National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA)
of 1969 requires Federal agencies to prepare detailed environmental
impact statements on proposals for legislation and other major Federal
actions significantly affecting the quality of the human environment.
The objective of NEPA is to build into the decision-making process of
Federal agencies a careful consideration of all environmental aspects of
proposed actions.
2-9
-------
In a number of legal challenges to standards of performances for
various industries, the United States Court of Appeals for the District
of Columbia Circuit has held that environmental impact statements need
not be prepared by the Agency for proposed actions under Section 111 of
the Clean Air Act. Essentially, the Court of Appeals has determined
that the best system of emission reduction requires the Administrator to
take into account counterproductive environmental effects of proposed
standards, as well as economic costs to the industry. On this basis,
therefore, the Courts established a narrow exemption from NEPA for EPA
determinations under Section 111.
In addition to these judicial determinations, the Energy Supply and
Environmental Coordination Act of 1974 (PL-93-319) specifically exempted,
proposed actions under the Clean Air Act from NEPA requirements. According
to Section 7(c)(l), "No action taken under the Clean Air Act shall be
deemed a major Federal action significantly affecting the quality of the
human environment within the meaning of the National Environmental
Policy Act of 1969." (15 U.S.C. 793(c)(l))
Nevertheless, the Agency has concluded that the preparation of
environmental impact statements could have beneficial effects on certain
regulatory actions. Consequently, although not legally required to do
so by Section 102(2)(C) of NEPA, EPA has adopted a policy requiring that
environmental impact statements be prepared for various regulatory
actions, including standards of performance developed under Section 111
of the Act. This voluntary preparation of environmental impact state-
ments, however, in no way legally subjects the Agency to NEPA requirements.
To implement this policy, a separate section is included in this
document that is devoted solely to an analysis of the potential environ-
mental impacts associated with the proposed standards. Both adverse and
beneficial impacts in such areas as air and water pollution, increased
solid waste disposal, and increased energy consumption are discussed.
2.6 IMPACT ON EXISTING SOURCES
Section 111 of the Act defines a new source as ". . . any stationary
source, the construction or modification of which is commenced ..."
2-10
-------
after the proposed standards are published. An existing source is
redefined as a new source if "modified" or "reconstructed" as defined in
amendments to the General Provisions (40 CFR Part 60, Subpart A), which
were promulgated in the Federal Register on December 16, 1975 (40 FR 58416)
Promulgation of standards of performance requires States to establish
standards of performance for existing sources in the same industry under
Section lll(d) of the Act if the standards for new sources limit emissions
of a designated pollutant (i.e., a pollutant for which air quality
criteria have not been issued under Section 108 or which has not been
listed as a hazardous pollutant under Section 112). If a State does not
act, EPA must establish such standards. General procedures for control
of existing sources under Section lll(d) were promulgated on November 17,
1975, as Subpart B of 40 CFR Part 60 (40 FR 53340).
2/7 REVISION OF EXISTING STANDARDS OF PERFORMANCE
Congress was aware that the level of air pollution control achievable
by any industry may improve with technological advances. Accordingly,
Section 111 of the Act provides that the Administrator ". . . shall, at
least every four years, review and, if appropriate, revise ..." the
standards. Revisions are made to ensure that the standards continue to
reflect the best systems of emission reduction that become available in "
the future. Such revisions will not be retroactive but will apply to
stationary sources constructed or modified after the proposal of the
revised standards.
2-11
-------
-------
3. THE MINERAL PROCESSING INDUSTRIES
The source category mineral dryers and calciners includes process
equipment used to dry and calcine metallic and nonmetallic minerals
in 17 selected mineral processing industries. Drying is defined as the
removal of uncombined (free) water from the mineral material through
direct or indirect heating. Calcining is the removal of combined
(chemically bound) water and/or gases from the mineral material through
direct or indirect heating. Calcining also refers to the heating, at
high temperatures, of certain clay materials to create a ceramic change
in the raw material.
: In addition to the typical dryer and calciner process units, other
process equipment is included for evaluation whose primary purpose is
not to remove water, although water is removed as a secondary considera-
tion. These special cases include expansion furnaces in the perlite and
vermiculite industries and rotary kilns in the lightweight aggregate
industry. Grinding or milling equipment such as roller or hammer mills,
that also dry mineral materials, are not included in this study. These
grinding and milling operations are regulated as process sources under
the nonmetallic minerals new source performance standards.
The 17 industries under consideration are found in 43 States and
the U.S. Virgin Islands. Several of the industries or segments of «
industries are composed of a large number of individual facilities
located in a large number of States. Others are limited to a relatively
few plants located near natural deposits of the minerals being processed.
Pollutant emissions from these sources that are considered in this
study are primarily particulate matter emissions, including products of
combustion, from the dryers and calciners. Some information on NO and
S0x was gathered to define these emissions. Additionally, fugitive
3-1
-------
particulate matter emissions from raw material feed systems into the
dryer/calciner and product outlet points from the dryer/calciner were
observed, and opacities were recorded.
Section 3.1 provides a general description of each dryer and calciner
type. In Section 3.2, a background discussion and general process
description for each of the 17 industries is provided, along with descrip-
tions of the dryers and/or calciners used in each industry. Section 3.3
presents the variables that affect emissions from dryers and calciners.
The uncontrolled particulate and particle size distribution data collected
for each industry are also presented and discussed in Section 3.3. The
baseline level of emissions for each industry is given in Section 3.4.
3.1 GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF PROCESSING EQUIPMENT
The industries being considered in this source category utilize a
wide variety of processing equipment for the drying, calcining, and
expansion of raw materials. The types of equipment used in each industry
are listed in Tables 3-1 and 3-2. Of the six dryer types presented in
Table 3-1, direct-fired rotary and fluid bed are the most common; all of
the industries that use dryers utilize one or both of these two types.
Similarly, as shown in Table 3-2, rotary units are the most common type
of calciner used by industries that calcine. Expansion furnaces are
used in two industries. A further discussion of dryer and calciner
types follows.
3.1.1 Dryers
A variety of dryer designs have been developed to remove unbound
moisture from raw materials. The dryer types used in the mineral
industries include direct rotary, indirect rotary, fluid bed, flash,
spray, and vibrating-grate. Dryers use either a convection (direct) or
a conduction (indirect) method of drying. In the convection method, a
heating medium, usually air or the products of combustion, is in direct
contact with the wet material. In the conduction method, heat is trans-
mitted indirectly by contact of the wet material with a heated surface.1
The thermal efficiency of direct-fired dryers is higher than the thermal
efficiency of indirect dryers.2 The process material flow in direct
rotary dryers may be cocurrent or countercurrent to the gas flow.
3-2
-------
TABLE 3-1. TYPES OF DRYERS USED BY EACH INDUSTRY5
Industry
Ball clay
Bentonite
Diatomite
Feldspar
Fire clay
Fuller's earth
Gypsum
Industrial sand
Kaolin
Perl He
Roofing granules
Talc
Titanium dioxide
Vermiculite
Rotary Rotary
(direct) (indirect)
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X X
X
Fluid Vibrating
bed grate Flash Spray
xb
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X XX
X
Dryers are not used in the alumina, lightweight aggregate, and magnesium
.compounds industries.
Indirect.
3-3
-------
TABLE 3-2. TYPES OF CALCINERS USED BY EACH INDUSTRY'
Industry .
Alumina
Diatomite
Fire clay
Fuller's earth
Gypsum
Kaolin
Lightweight aggregate
Magnesium compounds
Perlite
Talc
Titanium dioxide
Vermiculite
Rotary
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
Multiple
hearth Expansion
Flash furnace Kettle furnace
X
X X
X X
X
X
X
aCalciners are not used in the ball clay, bentonite, feldspar, industrial
sand, and roofing granules industries.
3-4
-------
Dryers may be operated in a batch mode or in a continuous mode. In
several of the clay industries, batch operations are used to process
several different materials through a given unit. Most dryers used in
the mineral industries are operated in the continuous mode.
The most important parameters to consider in the selection of a dryer
are: (1) physical properties of the material to be dried (particle size,
geometric shape, moisture content, abrasiveness), (2) drying characteristics
of the material, (3) production rate, and (4) product quality desired.3
3.1.1.1 Rotary Dryers. A rotary dryer consists of a cylindrical
shell, ranging in length from 4 to 10 times its diameter, into whiclv wet
charge is fed at one end and from which dried product is discharged at
the other end. The movement of the material through the dryer is due to
the combined effects of the inclination of the shell to the horizontal
and the action of lifting flights within the shell. As the shell rotates,
the lifting flights pick up the material and shower it as a curtain in
the path of hot gases. Flights may be installed as continuous strips
down the length of the dryer or may be staggered to improve showering
and distribution of the material being dried. Rotary dryers are the
most frequently used dryer type. They require minimal labor to operate,
and if properly maintained, they can be operated continuously over long
periods of time using automatic controls.
3.1.1.1.1 Direct rotary dryers. Direct rotary dryers are used in
the mineral industries when the materials to be dried can be safely
brought into contact with heated air or combustion gases and when volatile,
flammable, or noxious components are absent or are present in only small
amounts. The drying medium, heated air or combustion gases, is fed into
the dryer at one end and is drawn out the other end, coming into contact
with the mineral as it flows through the dryer. The movement of the
gases may be either cocurrent or countercurrent with the movement of the
process material.1 Cocurrent dryers are used for heat-sensitive material
because air and product leave at about the same temperature. In counter-
current dryers, the exit gas temperature is usually lower than the product
temperature.3 Figure 3-1 is a schematic of a direct rotary dryer. Typical
arrangements of cocurrent and countercurrent direct dryers are shown in
Figure 3-2.
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Direct rotary dryers in the mineral industries range in diameter
from 1.2 to 3.1 meters (m) (4 to 10 feet [ft]). Dryer lengths vary from
6.1 to 19.8 ra (20 to 65 ft). The production rates for mineral rotary
dryers vary within each industry and range from 4.5 to 200 Mg/h (5 to
220 tons/h). The retention times in these dryers are 2 to 45 minutes.
Natural gas, fuel oil, and coal are the predominant fuels used for
direct rotary dryers.
3.1.1.1.2 Indirect rotary dryers. Direct rotary dryers are not
suitable for certain applications in the mineral industries. Indirect-
heat dryers are used if (1) the process material cannot be exposed to
combustion gases, (2) excessive dust carry-over may occur through
entrainment, (3) low cost steam is available, or (4) volatile components
desirable for recovery are present.6 Indirect dryers are required for
ball clay processing and for some phases of titanium dioxide processing.
In indirect dryers, the heat required for drying the feedstock is
supplied by conduction through the dryer shell or from internal heating
tubes usually supplied with steam. Figure 3-3 presents various designs
of indirect dryers.
The steam-tube dryer shown in Figure 3-3(c) is the most common type
of indirect dryer used in the mineral industries. Feed material enters
the dryer through a chute or screw feeder, and the product is discharged
through peripheral openings in the shell at the discharge end. These
openings also admit air to remove moisture and gases from the shell.
Gas flow is countercurrent to material flow. Steam is admitted to the
tubes through a revolving steam joint at the discharge end of the shell.
Condensation is removed continuously through a steam joint to a condensate
receiver. Indirect dryers use a 25 to 40 percent lower gas flow rate
than the flow rate required by direct dryers, thus reducing the size of
the dust collection system.7
3.1.1.2 Fluid Bed Dryers. As shown in Table 3-1, fluid bed dryers
are used in seven of the industries that dry raw materials. A schematic
of a fluidized bed system is shown in Figure 3-4. The major parts of a
fluidized bed system include:8
3-8
-------
TO
CONTROL
DEVICE/\
WATER
VAPOR
EXHAUST
FEED
PRODUCT
DISCHARGE
WATER
VAPOR
EXHAUST
A. INDIRECT-HEATED ROTARY DRYER
TO
CONTROL
DEVICE
COMBUSTION
'GAS EXHAUST
COMBUSTION
HEATER
DISCHARGE
B. DOUBLE-SHELL INDIRECT-HEATED ROTARY DRYER
ROTATION
TO
CONTROL
DEVICE
WET
MATERIAL
FEED
DUST
DRUM
SECTION OF "A-A"
£*v SECTION THROUGH
STEAM MANIFOLD
STEAM
MANIFOLD
f (/STE
$ NE
TEAM
NECK
DRIED MATERIAL
DISCHARGE CONVEYOR
C. INDIRECT STEAM TUBE ROTARY DRYER
Figure 3-3. Types of indirect-heated rotary dryers.
3-9
-------
r
SOLIDS
FEED
FLUID
BED
GAS IN
GAS AND ENTRAINED
SOLIDS
1
GAS
DISEN-
GAGING
SPACE
T
DUST
SEPARATOR
FREEBOARD
DUST
BED DEPTH
SOLIDS
DISCHARGE
WINDBOX OR GAS
PLENUM CHAMBER DISTRIBUTOR OR
CONSTRICTION PLATE
Figure 3-4. Schematic of a fluidized bed system.
11
3-10
-------
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Reaction vessel, .
(a) gas distributor;
(b) fluidized bed portion,
(c) disengaging space or freeboard, and
Solids feeder or flow control;
Solids discharge mechanism;
Dust separator for the exit gases;
Instrumentation; and
Gas supply.
In a fluid bed dryer, a vertically rising, hot stream of gas is
introduced through a dispersion plate (gas distributor) at the base of a
bed or column of particular solids. The velocity of this air stream is
such that the wet feed bed expands to allow the particles to move within
the bed, i.e., the bed becomes fluidized." The process of fluidization
converts a bed of solid particles into an expanded, suspended mass that
resembles a boiling liquid. The upward velocity of the gas through the
bed is usually between 0.15 and 3.1 meters per second (m/s) (0.5 and
10 feet per second [ft/s]). This velocity is based upon the flow through
the empty vessel and is referred to as the superficial velocity.8
The size of solid particles that can be fluidized varies from less
than 1 micrometer (urn) (4 x!0-» inch [in.]) to 6.4 centimeter (cm)
(2.5 in.). It is generally believed that particles between 10 and
210 Mm (4 xlO-* and 8.4 xlO-« in.) are the best size for optimum
fluidization.12
The shapes of fluid bed units can vary from a vertical cylinder to
'oblong and rectangular units. The volumetric flow of gas is determined
by the cross-sectional area and the minimum allowable (fluidizing)
velocity of the gas at operating conditions. The velocity required to
maintain a completely homogeneous bed of solids, in which coarse or
heavy particles will not segregate from the fluidized portion, is higher
than the minimum fluidizing velocity. The maximum allowable flow is
generally determined by the degree of carry-over or entrapment of
solids, and this is related to the dimensions of the disengaging space.*
Feed rate, product discharge rate, and the volumetric gas flow and
gas temperature are monitored on a fluid bed dryer to maintain steady-
state conditions and obtain the desired product moisture content."
3-11
-------
Figure 3-5 presents a schematic of a typical fluidized bed dryer system
used in the mineral industries. Wet feed material charged to the dryer
above the bed is removed as dried product near the base of the vessel.
Gas passing up through the bed is exhausted through the top of the dryer
to a control device. A high pressure air blower is generally used to
dilute high-temperature combustion gases from the furnace and fluidize
the bed.
In a fluid bed dryer, efficient mixing of the solid particles
occurs, resulting in uniform drying. The technique of fluidization can
be applied to a batch of material or to a continuous flow of material.
In either case, however, the gas stream velocity must be controlled to
yield optimum conditions for drying with regard to particle size and
density. This velocity will lie at some point below the point of sub-
stantial entrainment.15
3.1.1.3 Flash Dryers. A flash (pneumatic) dryer is designed to
dry material and convey it by a stream of hot gases from the feed point
to some other point of delivery.16 The feed material must be reasonably
free-flowing and capable of being entrained in the gas stream. Separa-
tion of the dried product from the conveying air usually takes place in
a cyclone followed by further separation in cyclones or baghouses.
Figure 3-6 is a schematic of a flash dryer.
A flash drying system consists of the following equipment:16
1. A source of hot gases—either hot air or combustion gases
produced by an indirect, fuel-fired heat exchanger or a direct,
fuel-fired combustion chamber;
2. A material feeding device;
3. A main drying column or duct usually provided with a venturi
section at the material feed point;
4. A cyclone for material-air separation; and
5. An air exhaust fan.
The source of hot gases and the material feeding device are similar
to those used for direct rotary dryers. The venturi section of the
drying column helps to induce entrainment of the wet material and produces
a point of suction to assist raw material feeding. No mechanical feeder
is required. The majority of the drying takes place in the main drying
3-12
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to
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in
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INLET
FAN
TQ CONTROL/
tC.E/\ EXHAUST
/ A /FAN
DRYING
COLUMN
WITH
VENTURI
SECTION
\ /-CYCLONE FOR PRODUCT
Yl COLLECTION
-| ^DRY PRODUCT
V BACK MIX
WET FEED
BACKMIXER
'"SCREW FEED
Figure 3-6. Schematic of a flash dryer system.
17
3-14
-------
column although further drying is accomplished during transport to the
collection device. The main conveying and drying duct may be circular
or rectangular and should have a smooth inner surface that will not
interfere with air flow or cause a build-up of material. Air and/or
material may be recirculated to improve thermal efficiency and uniformity
of drying. Because of the short retention time (2 to 3 seconds) of
material in a flash dryer, only materials with good drying characteristics
are suitable for processing in these units. Feed materials typically
contain 6 to 60 percent moisture on a weight basis. The ratio of solids
to gas should not be less than 1:2 by weight.18
3.1.1.4 Spray Dryers. Spray dryers are used to dry liquids,
slurries, and pastes. A spray dryer consists of a source of hot gases,
a drying chamber, a means of atomizing the feedstock, some provision for
withdrawing the dried product and exhaust gases from the drying chamber,
and equipment for the separation of the dried product from the exhaust
gases.19
The small droplets formed by the feedstock atomizer have a large
surface area-to-mass ratio so the drying operation in spray dryers is
almost instantaneous. The high rate of evaporation cools the gases and
dries the particles. Because of the short process time, the inlet air
temperature is typically controlled automatically. The exhaust air
temperature and moisture are used to determine the proper dryer feed
rate.20
For most operations, direct-fired combustion chamber air heaters
are used, with natural gas and oil being the most common fuels. Inlet
gas temperatures range from 93° to 760°C (200° to 1400°F) depending upon
the heating method. The spray dryer may have cocurrent, countercurrent,
or mixed air and material flow.21 Countercurrent dryers yield high bulk
density products and are the most common type used in the kaolin and
titanium dioxide industries. Figure 3-7 shows four spray dryer flow
alternatives.
*-t
The design and operation of the atomizing equipment is of major
importance in obtaining uniform feedstock particles. Three methods of
atomization are normally employed: pressure, pneumatic, and centrifugal.
The use of both pressure and pneumatic atomizers is restricted to small
3-15
-------
EXHAUST
t
FEED
OZZLES
HOT AIR
FEED
EXHAUST
HOT
AIR'
NOZZLE
AIR FLOW
AIR FLOW
SPRAY
AIR
PRODUCT
B. MIXED-FLOW
HOT AIR
PRODUCT
A. COUNTERCURRENT
FEED
-r-AIR FLOW
SPRAY
HOT AIR
FEED
DISK ATOMIZER
AIR OUT WHEN
USING DRYING
CHAMBER FOR
INITIAL
OPERATION
PRODUCT
*• EXHAUST
C. COCURRENT-DISK ATOMIZATION
EXHAUST
»-
PRODUCT
D. COCURRENT-NOZZLE ATOMIZATION
Figure 3-7. Types of spray dryers.
3-16
-------
operations, and both types require frequent cleaning of nozzles for
proper atomization. In contrast, centrifugal atomizers use the energy
of centrifugal force set up by a spinning disc or paddle. The liquid
feed forced to the periphery of the disc is accelerated and ejected,
causing the liquid film to break down to droplets. Production capacities
as high as 27 Mg/h (30 tons/h) can be reached with a single, large
centrifugal atomizer. The range of particle sizes produced by spray
dryers is 10 to 1,000 urn (<400 mesh to 18 mesh).22
Product collection may be carried out in various ways. If a con-
siderable amount of product separates out within the dryer chamber in
the conical base, it may be removed continuously under its own weight
through a rotary valve or screw conveyor. If most of the product remains
entrained in the gas stream, separation of the dry material is carried
out first in high-efficiency cyclones followed by baghouses.
3-1-1-5 Vibrating-grate Dryers. Figure 3-8 is a schematic of a
vibrating-grate dryer. Fluidization is maintained by a combination of
pneumatic and mechanical forces. The heated gas is introduced into a
plenum and passes up through a perforated or slotted conveying deck,
through the fluidized bed of solids, and into an exhaust hood.23 To
ensure a uniform velocity distribution through the bed of solids, a
combination pressure blower-exhaust fan system is used.
Vibrating-grate dryers are suitable for free-flowing solids containing
mostly surface moisture. They are not effective on fibrous materials
that form a mat, or on sticky solids that agglomerate or adhere to the
deck. The motion imparted to the material particles may vary, but the
objective is to move the material upward and forward so that it will
travel along the conveyor path in a series of short hops.26 This mechanical
action, combined with the upward velocity of the air flow through the
grate, conveys and dries the raw material. Vibrating-grate dryers in
the mineral industries are 0.3 to 1.5 m (1 to 5 ft) wide and 3.1 to
45.7 m (10 to 150 ft) long. They dry material at a rate of 14 to 23 Mg/h
(15 to 25 tons/h) and have retention times of 2 to 30 minutes. Natural
gas and No. 2 fuel oil are the predominant fuels.
3-17
-------
in
CM
s_
-------
3.1.2 Calclners.
The types of calciners used in mineral industries are rotary,
flash, and kettle calciners, and multiple hearth (Herreshoff) and
expansion furnaces. Rotary calciners, which are the most common type,
are operated in a continuous, direct-heat mode in most cases. Flash
calciners are used in the alumina, gypsum, and kaolin industries.
Kettle calciners are only used in the gypsum industry. Multiple hearth
furnaces are used in the kaolin and magnesium compounds industries, and
expansion furnaces are used in the perlite and vermiculite industries.
Calciners are designed to remove the majority of combined moisture in •
the process material and are operated at higher temperatures than the
dryers discussed in Section 3.1.1.,
3'1-2-1 Rotary Calciners. Rotary calciners are used instead of
rotary dryers when the process requires removal of both combined and
uncombined moisture from the material. A rotary calciner consists of a
cylindrical shell, ranging in length from 10 to 20 times its diameter,
into which wet charge (wet-feed) or predried (dry-feed) material is fed
at one end and calcined product is discharged at the other end. Rotary
calciner shells are lined with refractory brick that insulates the steel
shell and permits operation at high temperatures. Figure 3-9 depicts
typical rotary calciner designs. Rotary calciners used in the mineral
industries are 2.4 to 3.7 m (8 to 12 ft) in diameter and 30.5 to 61.0 m
(100 to 200 ft) in length. The production rate .is 0.9 to 66.4 Mg/h (1 to
73 tons/h) of material and the retention time ranges from 18 minutes
to 14 hours.
Rotary calciners can be used to calcine a variety of materials
including fine to lump-size material and "sticky11 materials such as
clays. The feed is introduced into the elevated end,of the;calciner by
various methods including chutes, overhung screw conveyors, and slurry
pipes. Occasionally, ring dams or chokes made from refractory material
are installed within the calciher to build a deeper bed of material at '
one or more points. In rotary calciners, the material is not showered
through the air stream but is retained in the bottom of the cylinder.28
Approximately 3 to 12 percent of the cylinder's volume is filled with
material.
3-19
-------
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LU O£
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In contrast to rotary dryers, the primary source of heat transfer
in rotary calciners is radiation from the refractory to the material
bed. Secondary heat transfer occurs by convection from the hot gas to
the exposed material bed surface.29
A dry-feed calciner has three zones of heating, and a wet-feed
calciner has four zones. Each zone has a different heat transfer rate.
These zones are:
1. Drying zone—at feed end, where free moisture is removed;
2. Heating zone—where charge is heated to the reaction
temperature;
3. Reaction zone-where process material is burned, decomposed,
reduced or oxidized, and bound moisture is removed; and
4. Soaking zone—wet-feed calciner only; where reacted charge is
superheated or "soaked" at the desired temperature or cooled before
discharge.30
The calcined product is discharged from the lower end of the drum
into quench tanks, conveyors, or cooling devices that may or may not
recover the heat content of the product.
Material movement through the kiln results from the combined effects
.of the kiln inclination and the rotation of the cylinder. Kiln
inclination varies from 2 to 6 percent slope and the peripheral speed of
rotation varies from 0.5 to 5 rpm.27
Most rotary calciners have countercurrent air and material flow to
achieve the most energy efficient reduction in moisture content. Natural
gas, oil, or pulverized coal are the predominant fuels, with natural gas
being used in the greatest number of rotary calcining units.
3-1-2-2 Flash Calciners. Flash calciners are similar to flash
dryers in principle and operation except that they operate at higher
temperatures than flash dryers operate. A flash calciner is a refractory-
lined cylindrical vessel with a conical bottom. Two types of flash
calciner systems are used in the mineral industries: multi-stage and
direct contact.
A flash calcining system used in the alumina industry is depicted
in Figure 3-10. This flash calcining unit consists of a two-stage
cyclone, a preheater, a venturi-type flash dryer, the calciner, a
3-21
-------
FLASH
DRYER
-" tt
CALCINER
CYCLONE
PREHEATER
230°C
SECONDARY
COOLER
COOLING WATER
AIR
Figure 3-10. Flash calcining—aluminum.
31
3-22
-------
multi-stage cyclone cooler, and a secondary fluid bed cooler. The
material enters the calciner from the cyclone preheater at a temperature
of 300° to 400°C (570° to 750°F). The combustion air from the cooler .
enters the calciner at 815°C (1500°F), and a gas temperature of 1100° to
1450°C (2000° to 2640°F) is achieved in the calciner.31 Preheated,
partly calcined material is discharged into the reactor parallel to the
bottom, just above the fuel inlet. The calcined material is retained
for a few seconds and is then separated from hot gases in the separation
cyclone, prior to being discharged into the primary cooler.
Figure 3-11 is a diagram of a direct contact flash calciner used in
the gypsum and kaolin industries. Raw material is fed into the flash
calciner by a fixed-speed screw feeder. The calcined product is formed
in the cylindrical heating zone of the calciner and leaves from the
lower end of the cylinder through a rotary valve.
Natural gas and distillate fuel oil are expected to continue to be
the primary fuels used in the future at flash calciner installations.
Coal is not expected as a future fuel source because of fly ash contam-
ination of the product.
3.1.2.3 Multiple Hearth (Herreshoff) Furnaces. A multiple hearth
furnace consists of a number of annular-shaped hearths mounted one above
the other. Rabble arms on each hearth are driven from a common center
shaft. Multiple hearth furnaces handle granular material and provide a
long countercurrent path between flue gases and process material. These
furnaces are used in the magnesium compounds and kaolin industries.
Figure 3-12 shows a typical multiple hearth furnace design.
Material is fed by a screw conveyor into the furnace at the center
of the upper hearth. Rabble arms connected to a center drive shaft move
the charge to the periphery of the hearth where it falls to the next
lower hearth. The material is then moved to the center of this second
hearth from which it falls to the next hearth, and the cycle continues
down the furnace. The hollow center shaft is cooled internally by
forced air circulation.33 Burners may be mounted at any of the hearths,
and the circulated air is used for combustion.
.3.1.2.4 Kettle Calciners. Kettle calciners have cylindrical metal
shells, which are set in masonry brick and surrounded by a steel jacket.
3-23
-------
FEED
SPOUT
CYLINDRICAL
CALCINING
ZONE
TO DUST
COLLECTOR
BURNER
RECIRCULATION
FAN
PRODUCT DISCHARGE
TO CONVEYOR
Figure 3-n. Direct contact flash calciner.
3-24
32
-------
EXHAUST TO DUST
COLLECTOR
COOLING AIR
DISCHARGE
FEED INLET
COOLING AIR
INLET
RABBLE ARMS
PRODUCT
DISCHARGE
Figure 3-12. Multiple hearth furnace.33
3-25
-------
The inner wall of the masonry is lined with a refractory. Kettle
calciners are equipped with a baffled annular space between the kettle
and the refractory lining. Hot combustion gases from a firebox beneath
or adjacent to the kettle pass through the annular space and through
flues inside the kettle to provide indirect heating. Horizontal arms
attached to a vertical shaft in the center of the kettle agitate the raw
material to provide mixing and thus prevent over-heating of the material.
Ambient air is passed through the kettle to remove the water liberated
by calcination. The calcined material is discharged into "hot pits"
located below the kettle.34 Figure 3-13 depicts a continuous kettle
calciner.
Kettle calciners can be operated in a continuous or a batch mode.
For continuous processes, the material is fed into the calciner using a
variable-speed screw feeder. The temperature of the product is
maintained between 90° and 120°C (200° and 250°F) by varying the feed
rate while the fuel 'firing rate is held constant. The calcined material
is removed continuously either by fluidizing the particles into an
overflow channel that discharges directly into a hot pit or by emptying
the material directly into a discharge spout.34
In batch processes, the dried material is fed to the kettle calciner
by screw type feeders and is heated to between 150° and 180°C (300° and
350°F). The kettle is emptied by means of a discharge spout. The time
required for batch processing varies from 1 to 3 hours depending on the
quality of the feed, the kettle size, and the firing rate.34
Kettle calciners used in the gypsum industry are 3.0 m (10 ft) in
diameter and 4.3 m (14 ft) in height. They have production rates of 4.5
to 12 Mg/h (5 to 13 tons/h) and a retention time of 60 to 180 minutes.
Natural gas and distillate oil are the predominant fuel types used in
most units.
3.1.2.5 Expansion Furnaces. Expansion furnaces are used to process
ores that "expand" up to 20 times their original volume when exposed to
high temperatures. Factors that affect the properties of the final
product include the amount of entrapped water, the degree to which the
crude ore particles approximate a cubic shape, size gradations, rate of
heat application during expansion, and the method of injecting the crude
3-26
-------
TO
CONTROL STEAM
DEVICE VENT
FEED
SPOUT
KETTLE SHELL
STEEL JACKET
SWEEP ARMS
KETTLE
BOTTOM
COMBUSTION
CHAMBER
VENT TO TOP
OF KETTLE
BOTTOM DISCHARGE CLOSED
DURING CONTINUOUS OPERATION
Figure 3-13. Diagram of a continuous kettle calciner.35
3-27
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ore into the expansion zone of the furnace. Expansion furnaces are used
in the perlite and vermiculite industries.
3.1.2.5.1 Perlite. Two types of expansion furnaces are used in
the perlite industry. The stationary vertical furnace is the most
common. Horizontal rotary furnaces are also used to a limited extent.
Figures 3-14 and 3-15 present the general layouts of the two furnace
types.
The stationary vertical expansion furnace consists of a steel tube
insulated with refractory or by means of a shell that provides an air
space around the furnace. Ore is introduced into the furnace just above
the flame located at the base of the furnace cylinder. Expansion of
the material occurs instantaneously as the ore is blown up the furnace
by the combustion gases. The temperature at the point of expansion
ranges from 700° to 1090°C (1300° to 2000°F), depending on the size of
the crude ore to be expanded and its initial moisture content. Most
furnaces process 0.9 to 1.8 Mg/h (1 to 2 tons/h) of material, and natural
gas and fuel oil are used to fire most perlite expansion furnaces.38
The horizontal rotary expansion furnace has a preheating shell
around the direct-fired expansion cylinder. After preheating, the feed
is introduced into the rotating inner shell where it is exposed to the
direct heat of the burner flame. An induced draft fan draws the
particles out of the furnace and up to the product collection equipment.
The product from both furnace types is pneumatically conveyed to a
product collection cyclone system. The primary cyclone removes the
majority of the expanded particles, while the secondary cyclone collects
smaller material. Material from the primary cyclone may then fall
through a cooler/classifier unit that reduces product temperature before
bagging.
At the present time, both horizontal and vertical perlite expansion
furnaces are in use. There are advantages and disadvantages to each
type, however the vertical furnace is expected to be the predominant
design in the future.39 The advantages a horizontal expansion furnace
has over a vertical furnace are: (a) the horizontal furnace can expand
wet ore, (b) it generally has a higher yield of expanded product per
unit of raw ore because of a longer retention time and/or more uniform
3-28
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STORAGE
BIN\
\
MATERIAL FLOW
COOLER
CYCLONE\
r
I
COOLER
CLASSIFIER
FURNACE
SCREW
FEEDERS
BURNER
BLOWER
DUST CHUTE
Figure 3-14. Vertical perlite expansion furnace."
36
3-29
-------
r
O)
3-30
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expansion, and (c) the horizontal furnace is more fuel efficient than
the vertical furnace. Disadvantages of the horizontal furnace versus
the vertical furnace are: (a) it cannot expand coarse grades of raw
ore, (b) there is wear on mechanical parts due to the rotation of the
shell, and (c) the potential for fugitive emissions is greater due to
the methods of ore feed and product discharge.39
3-1-2-5-2 Vermiculite. Vermiculite expansion furnaces are similar
in size to perlite expansion furnaces. Most vermiculite expansion
furnaces are of the vertical type. The vermiculite concentrate is
gravity-fed from the top to the bottom of the furnace instead of being
blown from the bottom to the top as in vertical perlite furnaces. The
combustion burner may be located at the top of the furnace or two hori-
zontally opposed burners may be mounted mid-way in the refractory
expansion chamber. The vermiculite expands 8 to 10 times its initial
size, and its density decreases from approximately 880 kilograms per
cubic meter (kg/m3) (55 pounds per cubic foot [lb/ft3]) to 100 to
130 kg/m3 (6 to 8 lb/ft3). It falls through the furnace and is then
carried through a discharge chute into a finished product elevator. In
some furnace types, the expanded vermiculite passes over a vibrating
screen (stoner) to separate the unexpandable rock. In others, the
expanded vermiculite is air conveyed and unexpandables are dropped out
of the air lift rather than in a mechanical separator. The final product
is bagged for shipment. The air stream passes through air pollution
control equipment (usually a cyclone and a baghouse) prior to being
exhausted to the atmosphere.38
3.2 DESCRIPTION OF INDUSTRIES
3.2.1 Alumina
3.2.1.1 Background. Alumina (A1203) is a white powdery material
that is chemically extracted from bauxite. Deposits of bauxite are
widespread globally, although the major deposits are confined to a belt
extending 20° north and south of the equator.40 Over two-thirds of the
world's bauxite reserves are in four areas: Guinea (27 percent),
Australia (21 percent), Brazil (11 percent), and Jamaica (9 percent).
U.S. bauxite reserves are less than 0.2 percent of the world total.
3-31
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Imports supplied about 90 percent of the U.S. bauxite requirements and
36 percent of the alumina requirements in 1981.41
The main use of alumina is in the production of primary aluminum.
Alumina is also used in refractories and chemicals. The alumina products
used by the refractories industry are tabular alumina, calcined alumina,
and calcium aluminate cement.42 In addition to these products, other
chemical products made from alumina include activated alumina and hydrated
alumina.
The Bayer process has been the standard commercial method for
refining bauxite to alumina for the past 90 years. Although it has been
improved and modified to treat different types of bauxites, the basic
elements of the process remain unchanged. Bauxite is the only ore used
in the commercial production of alumina. Almost 2 Mg (2.2 tons) of
bauxite are required to produce 1 Mg (1.1 ton) of alumina, and almost
2 Mg (2.2 tons) of alumina are required to produce 1 Mg (1.1 ton) of
aluminum.43 Bauxite is comprised of gibbsite (A1203-3H20) or, in some
cases, boehmite (A1203-H20) and various mineral impurities of silicon,
iron, titanium, and other elements.44 Bauxite ores'have an average
alumina content of 40 to 60 percent.
3.2.1.2 Process Description.
3.2.1.2.1 General. A typical flow diagram for the production of
alumina is shown in Figure 3-16. The bauxite ore is crushed in a primary
crusher, screened, and is then further reduced in size by wet milling to
increase the surface area of the ore. In the wet milling process, a
caustic soda solution (a chemical reagent for the Bayer process) is
added to the ore. The bauxite is then sent to slurry mixers.
In the slurry mixers, additional caustic soda solution is mixed
with the bauxite. The resultant slurry is sent to huge digesters where,
under high pressure and heat, the caustic soda dissolves the alumina in
the bauxite, forming sodium aluminate. The reactive silica in the ore
then reacts with the alumina and caustic soda and precipitates as a
sodium aluminum silicate complex. Other impurities such as iron oxide
are also insoluble and are removed by sedimentation or clarification.
In the clarification step, sodium aluminate remains in solution
while the insoluble materials drop to the bottom of the settling tanks
3-32
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SPENT
LIQUOR
STREAM
BAUXITE
STORAGE
PRIMARY
CRUSHER
&
SCREEN
WET
MILLING
SLURRY
MIXERS
DIGESTERS
CLARIFICATION
PRECIPITATION
CALCINING
ALUMINA
-»RED MUD TO DISPOSAL POND
Figure 3-16. Simplified process flow diagram for alumina production.
3-33
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as "red mud" and are pumped to a disposal pond. The sodium aluminate
solution from the settling tanks passes through filters to remove
suspended solids. The clear sodium aluminate solution is then cooled,
agitated, and seeded with a small amount of aluminum hydroxide crystals
to precipitate aluminum hydroxide. The precipitated aluminum hydroxide
is separated, filtered, and then calcined to produce alumina.
The Bayer-Sinter method for processing high silica, low-grade,
Arkansas Bauxite was developed by the Aluminum Company of America (Alcoa)
in 1942.45 This process is a modification of the Bayer process to
recover most of the alumina and caustic soda from the red mud. The red
mud of the Bayer process is sintered with limestone and soda ash. The
silica forms a water-insoluble dicalcium silicate, and the soda ash is
converted to water-soluble sodium aluminate, which is separated and
returned to the Bayer process. The Bayer-Sinter process is also known
as the Alcoa Combination process and is used at two plants in the United
States.
3.2.1.2.2 Calcining. The calcining step in the production of
alumina occurs in either rotary calciners (76 percent of the U.S. alumina
production capacity in 1983) or flash calciners (24 percent of the U.S.
alumina production capacity in 1983). The design production capacity of
alumina rotary calciners ranges from 15 to 45 Mg/h (20 to 50 tons/h).
The production capacities of alumina flash calciners are confidential.
The retention time of rotary units ranges from 45 to 180 minutes.
The calciners are fired with either natural gas or fuel oil, and the
heating method is countercurrent. The feed material to the calciners
contains about 10 percent free moisture and about 31 percent bound
moisture. The calcined alumina contains less than 1 percent bound
moisture.
Although flash calcining is a relatively new technology, the industry
trend appears to be toward flash calciners. The following are the main
advantages of flash calciners over rotary calciners.46
1. Heat consumption is 25 to 33 percent lower.
2. Investment costs are lower.
3. Flash calciners require less floor area due to a more compact
design.
3-34
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4. Maintenance costs are lower, mainly due to a prolonged life of
the calciner lining.
There are also some drawbacks to the use of flash calciners compared
to rotary calciners.46
1. Power consumption is 53 to 61 percent higher.
2. There is less product flexibility with respect to the product
quality produced.
3. Degree of particle breakdown is generally higher.
3,2.2 Ball Clay
3.2.2.1 Background. Ball clay is a fine-grained, sedimentary-type
material composed of clay and nonclay materials. The principal component
of ball clay (greater than 70 percent) is kaolinite (Al2OV2Si02-2H20).
Clay minerals other than kaolinite in ball clay are illite, smectite,
chlorite, and mixed-layer clay. Quartz is the most abundant nonclay
mineral found in ball clay and ranges from 5 to approximately 30 percent
of the clay. Other non-clay minerals present in minor amounts are plagio-
clase, potassium feldspar, and calcite. Organic matter is also common in
most ball clays.
The color of ball clay deposits ranges from light buff through
shades of gray to nearly black, depending on the amount of carbonaceous
material present. Properties of ball clay are high plasticity, high wet
and dry strength, high shrinkage due to drying and firing, and a wide
vitrification range. The fusion or melting point is usually slightly
lower than that for pure kaolins, and the fired colors are light ivory to
cream. Specifications for ball clays are based on the method of prepara-
tion (crude, shredded, air-floated, water-washed, or slurry) and pertinent
physical and chemical tests, which are much the same as those for kaolin.47
Ball clay production in 1980 was reported from 42 mines in eight
States. Tennessee provided 65 percent of total production, followed in
order by Kentucky, Mississippi, Texas, Maryland, New York, and California.
Ball clay is primarily mined in a 48-kilometer (km) (30-mile [mi]) -wide
area extending southward from Mayfield, Kentucky, to Huntingdon, Tennessee.
Gleason, Tennessee, is roughly the center of the industry.
3-35
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Most ball clay plants are highly integrated operations capable of
mining, processing, packaging, and shipping the finished product. Major
uses for ball clay are as follows: sanitary ware—24 percent; pottery—
22 percent; tile—16 percent; china/dinnerware—6 percent; electrical
porcelain—2 percent; firebrick—2 percent; exports—11 percent; and
other—17 percent. Other uses include adhesives, animal feed, drilling
mud, paper coating, and pesticides.48
3.2.2.2 Process Description. A general process flow diagram for
ball clay production is shown in Figure 3-17. Ball clay is strip mined
without blasting and trucked about 1.6 to 8 km (1 to 5 mi) to mills. The
crude clay, containing 27 to 28 percent moisture, is stockpiled in drying
sheds for approximately 2 months. During shed drying, the moisture
content is reduced to 20 to 24 percent. Approximately 7 percent of the
clay is marketed in this form.49
The clay is then passed through a "disintegrator" that slices or
chops the material into 1.3- to 2.5-cm (0.5- to 1-in.) pieces before it
is conveyed to the dryer. Both indirect-fired rotary and indirect-fired
vibrating-grate dryers are used in ball clay production. According to
an industry spokesperson, direct-fired rotary units were once used by
some ball clay producers; however, these units have been replaced by
vibrating-grate dryers.50
In rotary dryers, indirect heating is accomplished by having the
combustion gases from the firebox pass through a cylinder mounted on the
dryer axis. The clay is dried by radiant and convective heat transferred
from the cylinder to the air in the dryer. The vibrating-grate dryers
are also indirect-fired. The combustion gases from the firebox pass
through an air-to-air heat exchanger to heat the drying and fluidizing
air to 300°C (575°F). This air is injected below, and passes up through,
a screen over which the clay travels in air suspension. The screen bed
vibrates horizontally along the longitudinal axis of the dryer. This
motion and a slight drop in the dryer bed cause the clay to move toward
the discharge end. Heat is introduced below the dryer bed over about
80 percent of its length. The clay leaves the dryer at a temperature of
about 24°C (78°F). The moisture, content of the clay after drying ranges
3-36
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MINE
SHED STORAGE
-^•SHIPPED
DISINTEGRATOR
DRYER
SHIPPED
\
HAMMER
MILL
WATER
ROLLER MILL
MIXER
'SHIPPED
SHIPPED
MIXER
SLURRY BULK
LOADED
WATER
SLURRY BULK LOADED
Figure 3-17. Ball clay process flow diagram.
3-37
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from 8 to 10 percent.51 Overdrying often results in a significant
reduction of the clay's plasticity, thus lowering its value.
3.2.3 Bentonite
3.2.3.1 Background. Bentonite is a clay consisting essentially of
smectite minerals (montmorillonite group). The montmorillonite group
can be represented by means of ion substitutions in the chemical formula
of the related mineral pyrophyllite (AlaSi^oCOH^). In a typical
montmorillonite ore, about one-sixth of the aluminum is replaced by
magnesium and such exchangeable ions as calcium, sodium, and potassium.52
All bentonite contains mineral impurities that vary considerably in type
and quantity.
Bentonite can be classified based on its swelling capacities when
wet. Bentonite with sodium as the dominant exchangeable ion typically
has very high swelling capacities and forms gel-like masses when added
to water.52 Bentonite with calcium as the more abundant ion is termed a
low-swelling bentonite because it swells little more than common clay.
Mixed types contain both calcium and sodium in sizable concentrations
and swell moderately. Types of bentonite outside these groups are
hectorite (a high-swelling lithium-bearing variety of smectite occurring
in California and adjacent States), the potassium type (K-bentonite
which occurs in the Appalachian and Mississippi Valley regions), and
other bentonites with magnesium or hydrogen as the most abundant
exchangeable ions.52
The high-swelling (sodium) bentonite deposits are located primarily
in Wyomimg and adjacent States and are often called "Wyoming" or "Western"
bentonites. Low-swelling (calcium) bentonite occurs in States bordering
the Gulf of Mexico and is commonly called "Southern bentonite." Wyoming
led all States in 1980 production with 69 percent of the total production,
followed by Montana and Mississippi with 14 and 7 percent, respectively.53
Bentonite was first used as a drilling mud in the late 1920's and
is still one of the most efficient materials for drilling muds where the
rock penetrated contains only fresh water. Another use of bentonite,
also begun in the 1920's, is to bind foundry sands into desired shapes
in which metals can be cast. Because of the fine particle size and the
nature of its water adsorption, bentonite gives the mold a higher green,
3-38
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dry, and hot strength than does any other type of clay.52 Bentonite is
also used in the pelletizing of taconite iron ore. The fine iron
particles produced during the concentration process are pelletized with
the aid of bentonite.
Bentonite is used in making catalysts for petroleum refining,
although this market has been declining since World War II. Acid-
activated bentonite is used for bleaching oils and in making
multiple-copy paper. Bentonite is used as a filtering agent for
clarifying water and treating wastewater. It is also used for preventing
seepage loss from reservoirs, irrigation ditches, and waste-disposal
ponds. Bentonite is also used as an ingredient in cosmetics, animal
feed, Pharmaceuticals, colloidal fillers for certain types of paints,
fire-retardant materials, and as an additive to ceramic raw materials
to increase plasticity.
3.2.3.2 Process Description. A simplified flow diagram for
bentonite processing is shown in Figure 3-18. Virtually all bentonite
is mined by stripping, that is, removing the overburden.54 After the
overburden is removed, the clay is loaded onto trucks using draglines or
front-end loaders. The thickness of the overburden varies considerably.
Most bentonite in Wyoming has less than 9 m (30 ft) of overburden,
although in a few places the overburden can be as much as 12 m (40 ft)
thick. The overburden for Southern bentonite can be as thick as 30 m
(100 ft). Bentonite deposits can range from 180 m (590 ft) to 320 km
(200 mi) in length and from 0.3 to 9 m (1 to 30 ft) in depth.54
In Wyoming, the mined bentonite is spread on the ground at the mine
site to air dry. The initial 30 to 35 percent moisture content is
reduced to 16 to 18 percent moisture to facilitate subsequent drying and
grinding processes.54 The field drying is assisted by plowing the
bentonite ore. From the mine site, the ore is trucked to the mill and
stored in open stockpiles. Because of variable physical properties,
bentonite from a single location may be separated into as many as three
stockpiles at the mill. Bentonite is often blended as it is dumped on
stockpiles using earth-moving or cultivating equipment to obtain a
uniform clay. The bentonite passes through a grizzly and a crusher that
reduces the ore to less than 2.5 cm (1 in.). The crushed ore is dried
3-39
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OPEN PIT MINE
OPEN STOCKPILE
CRUSHER
DRYER
i
ROLLER MILL'
AIR-
CLASSIFICATION
PRODUCT
LOADOUT
Figure 3-18. Bentonite processing.
3-40
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by rotary or fluid bed dryers that reduce the moisture from 16 to
18 percent to 7 to 8 percent.54 Soda ash (Na2C03) may be added to the
ore to improve the swelling properties.
Bentonite rotary dryers range from 2 to 3 m (8 to 10 ft) in diameter
and 14 to 20 m (45 to 65 ft) in length. Design production rates range
from 16 to 55 Mg/h (18 to 60 tons/h). Temperature in the dryer varies
with the intended use of the clay.51 The desirable properties of
bentonite are reduced greatly if the clay is overheated. Typical gas
temperatures in these dryers are 800°C (1470°F) at the inlet, 400° to
500°C (750° to 930°F) inside, and 100° to 200°C (210° to 390°F) at the
outlet.52 The temperature of the bentonite itself is kept at less than
140°C (300°F). The retention time in bentonite dryers is approximately
20 minutes.54 In the past, the fuels used most frequently were natural
gas and oil. However, since the 1970's, coal has been frequently
selected as the primary fuel with natural gas used as a standby.
3.2.4 Diatomite
3.2.4.1 Background. Diatomite is a chalky, sedimentary rock
consisting mainly of an accumulation of skeletons formed by diatoms,
which are single-celled microscopic aquatic plants. The skeletons
are essentially amorphous hydrated or opaline silica, but occasionally
include some alumina. The unique physical properties of diatomite
derive from the size, shape, and structure of individual diatom skeletons
and the packing characteristics of a mass of the particles. Diatoms
range in diameter from about 10 pm (4 xlO-4 in.) to over 500 urn (0.02 in.)
and generally have a spiny structure with intricately pitted surfaces.
Contact between particles is chiefly at the outer points of the irregular
surfaces. Ground diatomite is a microscopically porous material with an
apparent density of 80 to 255 kg/m3 (5 to 16 Ib/W), giving this
material exceptional filtering and thermal characteristics.55
The separation of diatomite products into various grades is based
on different performance characteristics determined by empirical tests.
Processed diatomite powders are classified into three general types
based on production methods. These types are: (1) natural, which is
produced by simple milling, drying, and air classification, (2) calcined
or pink, which results from further heat treatment of the natural, and
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(3) flux-calcined or white, which is from a similar heat treatment but
with the addition of a fusible alkali salt. These process designations
do not translate directly into the market classifications. The major
processed diatomite products are powders and aggregates of variable
sizes and grades. Diatomite products are used primarily as filter aids
and fillers.
Calcined diatomite has a number of unique physical properties and
therefore has diversified uses. The widest use (66 percent in 1980) for
diatomite is as a filter aid for the separation of suspended solids from
fluids. The greatest growth potential for diatomite use is in this area
of application because of increased emphasis on water purification and
the removal of objectionable impurities in manufactured products and
reusable process fluids. Diatomite is processed into filter aids for
all types of food and nonfood processing applications. The more commonly
known applications are in the filtration of dry cleaning solvents;
Pharmaceuticals; beer, whiskey, and wine; raw sugar liquors; antibiotics;
industrial, municipal, and swimming pool waters; fruit and vegetable
juices; lube, rolling mill, and cutting oils; jet fuels; organic and
inorganic chemicals; and varnishes and lacquers.
The second largest use of diatomite is as a filler or extender for
paint, paper, asphalt products, and plastic, which accounted for
21 percent of production in 1980. Other uses of diatomite include
abrasives, absorbents, catalysts, fertilizer coatings, insulation, and
lightweight aggregates, which collectively consumed 13 percent of the
total production in 1980.
All domestic diatomite production comes from the western States of
California, Nevada, Oregon, and Washington, with California accounting
for more than half of the total national production.
3.2.4.2 Process Description. Most diatomite deposits occur at or
near the surface and can be mined by open pit methods or quarrying.
Diatomite mining in the United States is all open pit, normally using
some combination of bulldozers, scraper-carriers, powershovels, and
trucks to remove overburden and the crude material. In most cases,
fragmentation by drilling and blasting is not necessary. The crude
3-42
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diatomite is loaded onto trucks and transported to the mill or to stock
piles. Figure 3-19 shows two alternative flow diagrams for diatomite
processing.
The processing of uncalcined or natural-grade diatomite consists of
crushing and drying. Crude diatomite commonly contains as much as
40 percent moisture, and in many cases contains over 60 percent. Primary
crushing to aggregate size (normally done by a hammermill) is followed
by simultaneous milling-drying, with suspended particles of diatomite
carried in a stream of hot gases.57 The suspended particles pass through
a series of fans, cyclones, and separators to a baghouse. These
sequential operations result in the separation of the powder into various
sizes, in the removal of waste impurities, and in the expulsion of the
absorbed water. These natural milled diatomite products, without
additional processing, are then bagged or handled in bulk, principally
for fillers and uses other than filter aids.
For filtration uses, natural grade diatomite is calcined by heat
treatment in a rotary calciner, with or without a fluxing agent. For
straight-calcined grades, the powder is heated to the point of incipient!
.fusion in large rotary calciners and is then subjected to further milling
and classifying. Straight calcining is used for adjusting the particle
size distribution for filter aid applications where medium flow rates
are required and results in a product with a pink cast. The color,
which is caused by the oxidation of iron in the crude, becomes more
intense with an increasing iron oxide content.
Further adjustment of particle size is brought about by the addition
of a flux, usually soda ash, before the calcining step. The addition of
a fluxing agent sinters the diatomite particles and increases the particle
size, thereby increasing the flow rate during liquid filtration. The
resulting products are referred to as flux calcined. Flux calcining
produces a white product that is believed to be formed by the conversion
of the iron to complex sodium-aluminum-iron silicates rather than con-
version to the oxide. Further milling and classifying follow calcination.
3.2.4.2.1 Dryers. The presence of moisture and other impurities
is undesirable for the many end uses of diatomite. Therefore, nearly
100 percent of the total mined diatomite is dried at low temperatures.
3-43
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RECYCLE OF
KILN EXHAUST]
FOR
FLASH
DRYING
-> PROCESS FLOW
*• AIRFLOW
Figure 3-19. Alternate process flow diagrams for diatomite production.56
3-44
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The flash dryer is the most common dryer type, although rotary dryers
are also used to produce uncalcined or natural diatomite. The furnace
temperature ranges from 760° to 820°C (1400° to 1500°F) in the flash
drying system.56 Operating temperatures within the flash drying system
range from 70° to 430°C (150° to 800°F) with an average of about 200°C
(400°F). The exhaust gas temperature from these dryers is typically
70°C (150°F). These dryers reduce the moisture content to approximately
15 percent.
As the diatomite is dried within the heated gas stream, it is
classified to remove waste materials, such as ash, clay, and opalite (a
nonporous mineral not suitable as a filtering medium). These waste
materials constitute a small percentage (typically less than 7.5 percent)
of the raw diatomite and are disposed of in a tailings pond. After this
initial classification, approximately 90 percent of the diatomite
particles are less than 44 urn (325 mesh) in diameter.56 The retention
time of the diatomite in the flash dryer is approximately 60 seconds.
3-2-4.2.2 Calciners. Industry representatives indicate that
rotary calciners are used for straight-calcined and flux-calcined diato-
mite processing. Calcining is done in a standard rotary kiln where the
flux-mixed crude diatomite is calcined to obtain a desired product.
Desired physical properties of the "burn" are achieved by controlling
the calciner feed, calciner gas temperature, calciner draft, and varia-
tions in the flux additions. The calciner burn is a critical part of •
the operation. During the burn, a cementing action occurs between the
particles of diatomite and the fluxing agent so that the discharge
material from the calciner is coarser than the calciner feed.
Design production rates in diatomite rotary calciners range from
4.5 to 10 Mg/h (5 to 11 tons/h). Temperature in the kiln varies and
ranges from 650° to 1200°C (1200° to 2200°F). Either natural gas or <
fuel oil can be used as fuel for the calciner. Residence time of
material in the calciner averages 30 to 80 minutes.
In general, both calciner operating temperature and residence time
are functions of the type of product being made. Impurities not removed
from fused slag are subsequently removed in "finish end" separators.
Organic matter is removed by combustion. Flux calcination is carried
3-45
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out by adding soda ash as the fluxing agent. The product is discharged
from the kiln by gravity and goes to the finish and classification
system. The waste heat from the calciner (calciner draft) may be used for
drying the crude in the secondary drying circuit discussed earlier.
3.2.5 Feldspar
3.2.5.1 Background. Feldspar is the most abundant mineral of the
igneous rocks and designates a group of closely related minerals, con-
sisting essentially of aluminum silicates in combination with varying
amounts of potassium, sodium, and calcium.58 Feldspar can be divided
into soda feldspar (7 percent or higher Na20) and potash feldspar
(10 percent or higher I<20). Feldspar-silica mixtures can either be a
naturally occuring material, such as sand deposits, or a processed
mixture obtained from flotation of mined and crushed rock. Feldspar
flotation concentrates can be classified as either soda, potash, or
"mixed" feldspar, depending on the relative amounts of Na20 and K20
present.
The three largest feldspar-producing States are North Carolina,
Connecticut, and Georgia. These States produced 90 percent of the 1983
production.59 Approximately 55 percent of the 1983 feldspar production
was used in glassmaking, and 41 percent was used for porcelain enamels.
The remaining 4 percent was used in miscellaneous applications.59
Raw materials most often substituted for feldspar are aplite and
nepheline syenite.60 Aplite, a granitic rock, is mined in Virginia and
is used mostly in glassmaking. Nepheline syenite is a coarse crystalline
rock resembling granite; all nepheline syenite consumed in the United
States is imported from Ontario, Canada. The glass industry, because of
its ability to use a variety of alumina sources, can switch from feldspar
to nepheline syenite, aplite, or feldspathic sand (feldspar-quartz
mixtures) by relatively simple reformulation.58
3.2.5.2 Process Description.
3.2.5.2.1 General. Most pegmatite, alaskite, and granite ores
containing feldspar are mined by conventional open-pit methods: removal
of overburden, drilling and blasting, loading, and transport by trucks.58
Most feldspar ores are beneficiated by a froth flotation process. The
flotation process removes the contaminating impurities, keeps the alumina
3-46
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content at 19 percent, and recovers slime-free granular products, all
minus 841 Mm (20 mesh), usually with less than 10 percent finer than
74 |jm (200 mesh).61
A process flow diagram of the flotation process is shown in
Figure 3-20. The ore passes through primary and secondary crushers and
through fine grinding in jaw crushers, cone crushers, and rod mills,
respectively.60 The ore is then further reduced to 841 Mm (20 mesh) by
rod mills.61,6* A three-stage, acid-circuit flotation process occurs
next with each stage preceded by desliming and conditioning. The rod
mill discharge is deslimed in a rake classifier producing a sand and a
slime in a hydroclassifier. The overflow, generally minus 44 pm (325
mesh), is discarded. The underflow enters the rake classifier just
above the liquid level. The product enters the first conditioner at 65
to 70 percent solids.60
The first flotation step uses an amine collector to float off and
remove mica. Sulfuric acid, pine oil, and fuel oil are also added.
After the feed is dewatered in a classifier or cyclone for reagent
removal, the pH is lowered by addition of sulfuric acid. Petroleum
sulfonate (mahogany soap) is used as the collector to remove iron-bearing
minerals, most notably garnet. In the last step, the discharge from the
second flotation step is again dewatered, and the feldspar is floated
away from the quartz in a hydrofluoric acid environment (pH of 2.5 to
3.0) using a cationic amine as the collector.63
If feldspathic sand is the raw material, no size reduction may be
required. Also, if little or no mica is present, the first flotation
step may be bypassed so that the mill feed goes directly to the condi-
tioning step before the garnet removal stage. Sometimes the final
flotation stage is omitted and this product is marketed as a feldspar-
silica mixture (often referred to as sandspar), usually for consumption
in glassmaking.60
The feldspar float concentrate, whether from sands or hard-rock
sources, is dewatered to 5 to 9 percent moisture in drainage bins, over
a vacuum filter, or in a centrifuge.60 A rotary dryer then reduces the
moisture content to 0 to 1 percent.6*,63 Magnetic separation is then
used as a backup process to remove any iron minerals present. Dry
3-47
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CRUSHING, GRINDING
VIBRATING SCREEN
HYDROCLASSIFIER
UNDERFLOW
CONDITIONER
FLOTATION CELLS
>20 HESH
• OVERFLOW SLIME
TO WASTE
— AMINE, HoSO/i,
PINE OIL* FUEL OIL
•OVERFLOW (MICA)
CYCLONE
CONDITIONER
FLOTATION CELLS
•H2S04, PETROLEUM SULFONATE
•OVERFLOW (GARNET)
CYCLONE
DRYER
AMINE ,
HF *
CONDITIONER
FLOTATION CELLS
DRYER
GLASS PLANTS
GLASS PLANTS
MAGNETIC SEPARATION
PEBBLE HILLS
POTTERY
Figure 3-20. Feldspar flotation process.
3-48
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grinding may then occur to reduce the material to 74 urn (200 mesh) for
use in ceramics, paints, and tiles. Final processing steps are often
accomplished simultaneously by passing the dewatered cake through a
rotating gas-fired cylinder lined with ceramic blocks and charged with
ceramic grinding balls.60 Screening or air classification with oversize
return is required to ensure particle-size specifications.
3.3.5.2.2 Dryers. The rotary dryer is the most common dryer type
used, although fluid bed dryers are also used. Design production rates
for most feldspar dryers are confidential. Some rotary feldspar dryers
are fired with No. 2 oil and natural gas, operate at 230°C (450°F), and
have a retention time of 10 to 15 minutes. Similar parameters for
feldspar fluid bed dryers are confidential.
3.2.6 Fire Clay
3.2.6.1 Background. Fire clay is mineral aggregate composed of
hydrous silicates of aluminum (Al203-2Si02-2H20) with or without free
silica. Fire clay is plastic or formable when sufficiently pulverized
and wetted, rigid when subsequently dried, and suitable for use in com-
mercial refractory products.64 Fire clay deposits are seldom pure
hydrous aluminum silicates. The impurities found in the clay deposits
help determine the properties of refractory products made from the clay.
Often materials from several deposits are mixed to produce fire clay
products with differing refractoriness. Refractoriness is the ability
of a material to retain its physical shape and chemical identity in the
presence of high temperatures.64 A variety of materials including
bauxites, flint clays, ball clays, and kaolin are considered to be fire
clay material.
Most fire clay plants are highly integrated operations capable of
mining, processing, packaging, and shipping the finished product. As a
result of economic considerations and limited availability from domestic
sources, the refractory industry is, however, becoming more dependent
upon imported high alumina and bauxitic clay from South America and
China. However, these materials are seldom imported as raw clays and
are usually shipped into the U.S. already calcined.
3-49
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Raw materials are dried, calcined, and processed into firebrick and
other refractory shapes prior to packaging and shipping. Specialty
refractory products are generally made from the same raw materials as
their brick counterparts and include gunning, ramming, or plastic mixes;
granular materials; hydraulic-setting castables; and mortars. Flint
clays and high-grade kaolins impart high refractoriness to fire clay
products. Plastic clays facilitate forming and impart bonding strength,
and calcined clays control the drying and firing shrinkage of fire
bricks. The materials used in the production of refractories must be
hard, dense, and crushable to form particles that can be accurately
sized. Bauxite is normally calcined for refractory use at temperatures
of 1650° (3000°F) or less.65
In 1982, fire clay was produced at 153 mines in 17 States. In
order of decreasing volume, Missouri, Ohio, Pennsylvania, West Virginia,
and Alabama accounted for 88 percent of the total domestic output of
986,000 Mg (1,087,000 tons).66
3.2.6.2 Process Description. Most materials used in the manufacture
of refractories must be dried or calcined, or both, before entering the
manufacturing plant for forming, firing, and final processing. A flow
diagram of these preliminary processing steps for refractory raw materials
at one plant is shown in Figure 3-21. Clays are mined locally or trucked
in from other sources and are stored in stockpiles at the plant. There
is a trend in the industry toward the increased use of covered storage
areas to reduce the cost of drying the raw materials. In some cases, it
is beneficial to allow the raw materials to weather (freeze and thaw).
Weathering causes the clay platelets to break up, which generates small
particles and improves plasticity. Flint clays are allowed to weather
for about one year, and plastic clays are allowed to weather for about
six months.
Clay is moved from open or covered storage areas to crushing and
grinding equipment where the clay chunks are reduced to less than 6.4 cm
(2.5 in.). The clay is then stored in bins and removed as needed for
drying or calcining. The initial moisture content of most raw materials
is 10 to 15 percent. If the desired final moisture content is in the
range of 0 to 7 percent, the material must be mechanically dried. Rotary
3-50
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and vibrating-grate dryers are used to accomplish this procedure.
Overdrying often results in excessive dusting; therefore, dried material
may be blended with wet stockpile material to improve its handling
characteristics and to achieve the desired moisture content for further
processing.
Rotary dryers used in the fire clay industry range from 2.3 to
2.4 m (7.5 to 8 ft) in diameter and 15 to 18 m (50 to 60 ft) in length.
A typical vibrating-grate dryer is 1.5-m (5-ft) high, 1.5-m (5-ft) wide,
and 18-m (60-ft) long. Production rates are 7 to 35 Mg/h (8 to 40 tons/h),
and drying temperatures are in the range of 80° to 260°C (180° to 500°F).
The retention time varies between 15 and 60 minutes. Both cocurrent and
countercurrent heating methods are used. The dryers operate in a continu-
ous mode. Natural gas and No. 2 fuel oil are the most common fuels for
fire clay dryers. Fuel use rates range from 420 to 900 kilojoules per
kilogram (kJ/kg) (3.6 to 7.7 xlO5 British thermal units per ton [Btu/ton])
of product. Personnel at one plant indicated that fuel-efficient units
such as fluid bed dryers or multiple hearth furnaces would be considered
if additional capacity were needed.
Calcining of fire clay materials is necessary to produce products
with refractoriness greater than that of only dried materials. Calcining
removes all moisture and volatile material and causes a chemical reaction
to take place between the alumina and the silica, resulting in the
formation of "mullite." This material has better mineralogical proper-
ties with respect to refractories production (hard, dense, and crushable)
than does noncalcined material.
After drying and/or calcining, the raw materials are crushed,
ground, and screened to proper sizes for making brick or specialty
products. After screening, the materials are blended in proper propor-
tions and thoroughly mixed—often with the addition of organic or other
types of binders—and the prepared batches are fed to the forming
machines. In the production of bulk refractory products such as high-
temperature mortars, ramming mixes, and castables, blending and mixing
usually complete the process of preparation.
3-52
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Molded refractory bricks or shapes are typically dried in long,:
heated chambers (tunnel dryers) under controlled temperature and humidity
conditions. Most refractory bricks are then fired in tunnel kilns at
high temperatures to give the brick permanent strength.
A unique process of preparing the raw material for calcining, which
may be the future trend in the industry, is currently used at one plant.
Mixed, pulverized clay is extruded to form pellets. The pellets are
dried to remove surface moisture and are then used as feed material for
the rotary calciners at this plant.
3.2.7 Fuller's Earth . ...
3.2.7.1 Background. Fuller's earth is a category of mineral
materials that consists chiefly of nonplastic clay or claylike materials.
It is usually high in magnesia and has specialized decolorizing and
purifying properties.68 Major uses of fuller's earth by U.S. producers
in 1981 were as follows: oil, grease, and pet waste absorbents
(59 percent), pesticide carriers and related products (13 percent);
drilling mud (13 percent), fertilizers (5 percent), oil treatment
(1 percent), and miscellaneous uses (7 percent). Miscellaneous uses
include adhesives, animal feed, medical-pharmaceutical-cosmetic, paint,
paper filling, and rubber products.68
Two types of material are considered to be fuller's earth clay.
Attapulgite is a lath-shaped clay mineral that occurs in deposits pre-
dominantly in Decatur County, Georgia, and Gadsden County, Florida. It
is used as both an absorbent and a thickener. Mineral thickeners are
used in such diverse markets as paints, joint compound cement, polishes,
and plastics. Most of the fuller's earth produced in the United States
other than in Florida and Georgia contains varieties of the second type
of fuller's earth clay, montmorillonite. Granular products produced
from montmorillonite are used as all-purpose oil and grease absorbents.
Fuller's earth production in 1982 was reported from 30 mines in
11 States. Georgia (34 percent) and Florida (52 percent) accounted for
86 percent of the 780,000 Mg (860,000 tons) of attapulgite produced.
Nevada and Texas produced the remaining 14 percent. In 1982, 750,000 Mg
(830,000 tons) of montmorillonite was produced in the U.S. Approximately
29 percent of the montmorillonite produced came from Georgia, with the
3-53
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remaining 71 percent coming from Illinois, Mississippi, Missouri, Nevada,
South Carolina, Tennessee, Utah, and Virginia.68
3.2.7.2 Process Description.
3.2.7.2.1 General. Figure 3-22 shows a general process flow
diagram for fuller's earth production. Fuller's earth is usually mined
by dragline from open pits and hauled to the plant by truck. At the
plant, the material is typically processed through crushing and/or
grinding equipment prior to temporary storage in covered sheds. The
material withdrawn from storage is further reduced in size to increase
the bulk surface area and facilitate moisture removal. The material is
dried or calcined, ground, screened, and packaged according to the
specific product requirements.
3.2.7.2.2 Drying. In the fuller's earth industry, the drying
process is of fundamental importance in producing a marketable product.
Process parameters (i.e., temperature, degree of drying, residence time
in dryer, and process rate) vary with the intended end-use of the product.
Typically, either low- or high-temperature drying is used. Both cocurrent
and countercurrent heating methods are used. Operating temperatures
range from 100°C (210°F) for colloidal grades (attapulgite) to 675°C
(1250°F) for absorbent granules (attapulgite and montmorillonite). The
desirable properties of the product are substantially lost if the
material is overdried. In most cases, the moisture content is reduced
from an initial 40 to 50 percent to 0 to 10 percent.
Rotary dryers are the most common dryer type used in the fuller's
earth industry, and they range from 1.8 to 3.1 m (6 to 10 ft) in diameter
and from 12 to 37 m (40 to 120 ft) in length. Fluid bed dryers are also
used at one plant. Production rates range from 5 to 55 Mg/h (6 to
60 tons/h). Natural gas is the most common fuel used in the fuller's
earth industry, with Nos. 4 and 5 fuel oils and propane used as alternate
fuels in some cases. Personnel at one facility indicated that fuel-
efficient fluid bed dryers would be installed in the future if additional
drying capacity was required.69
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OPEN PIT
MINING
TRUCK
CRUSHING,
GRINDING
TEMPORARY
COVERED
STORAGE
SECONDARY
GRINDING
LOW/HIGH
TEMPERATURE
DRYING
GRINDING,
SCREENING,
PACKAGING
Figure 3-22. General flow diagram for fuller's earth production,
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3.2.7.2.3 Calcining. A small number of plants use rotary calciners
to process fuller's earth raw material. These calciners operate with
material flow countercurrent to the gas flow and are fired with natural
gas. The operating temperature in these units is approximately 675°C
(1250°F).
3.2.8 Gypsum
3.2.8.1 Background. Gypsum is calcium sulfate dihydrate
(CaS04*2H20), a white, crystalline, naturally occurring mineral. Mined
gypsum ore is processed into a variety of products. The ore can be
(a) sized and screened for use as an additive for Portland cement;
(b) sized, screened, dried, and ground for use as an agricultural
fertilizer; or (c) sized, screened, dried, and calcined to CaS04'35H20
for use in plasters and pre-fabricated building products.70
3.2.8.2 Process Description. A flow diagram for a typical gypsum
plant producing both crude and finished gypsum products is shown in
Figure 3-23. Gypsum ore, mined from quarries and underground mines, is
stockpiled at the plant. The mined ore is crushed and screened, with
oversize ore returned to the crusher. If the free moisture content of
the mined rock is greater than about 0.5 percent by weight, the sized
ore is dried, typically in a rotary dryer.
3.2.8.2.1 Ore dryers. The feed to the dryer consists of crushed
and screened gypsum ore, generally minus 5 cm (2 in.) in diameter.
In its mined form, the ore typically contains from 5 to 10 percent
gangue (clays and other insoluble impurities) and varying amounts
(usually less than 10 percent) of free water. The wet ore is heated in
the dryer to about 65°C (150°F), and essentially all of the free water
is evaporated. The length of time required to dry the ore is a function
of both the temperature of the heated air and the amount of water to be
removed. For an ore containing 8 percent free moisture, the appropriate
drying time and temperature are 6 to 10 minutes at 100°C (220°F).71
In most plants, clean fuels, such as natural gas and distillate
oil, are used to fire rotary dryers. Natural gas is currently the most
common fuel source. One industry spokesman indicated that some plants
are choosing to dry the ore in Raymond roller mills instead of rotary
dryers. However, rotary dryers will still be used and will continue to
3-56
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3-57
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be of the direct-fired type. Natural gas and distillate oil will also
continue to be the primary fuels.72,73 The design capacities of most
ore dryers employed by the gypsum industry range from 45 to 80 Mg/h (50
to 90 tons/h). Operating capacities of these dryers range from 50 to
100 percent of the design capacities.
3.2.8.2.2 Calciners. Kettle and flash calciners are employed in
the gypsum industry to remove three quarters of the chemically bound
water bf hydration from CaS04-2H20 to form CaSO^^HgO. The heat required
for the calcination reaction represents a major portion of the energy
required for the processing of gypsum. The crushed, ground gypsum fed
to the calciners contains less than 20 percent (by weight) chemically
bound water and has a particle size of about 90 percent minus 149 pm
(100 mesh). The stucco produced contains from 4 to 6 percent chemically
bound water. • «•
Kettle calciners can be operated in either the batch or continuous
mode. In batch calcining operations, the gypsum ore is heated to between
150° and 175°C (300° and 350°F) before the kettle is emptied. The time
required for batch calcination varies from 1 to 3 hours depending on the
quality of the gypsum feed, the kettle size, and the firing rate.
In continous kettle calcining operations, the stucco is maintained
between 90° and 120°C (200° and 240°F) by varying the gypsum feed rate
to the kettle while the fuel firing rate is held constant. The
production rate averages 10 Mg/h (11 tons/h).
Flash calciners operate only in a continuous mode. Fine gypsum
dust is fed spirally downward through a cylindrical zone into which
heated air is injected tangentially. The stucco product formed in the
cylindrical heating zone of the calciner is removed at a temperature of
about 180°C (360°F).74,75 The production rate in gypsum flash calciners
is approximately 6 Mg/h (7 tons/h).
3.2.9 Industrial Sand
3.2.9.1 Background. Industrial sand is defined as naturally
occurring unconsolidated or poorly consolidated rock particles that pass
through a 4.8 mm (4 mesh) sieve and are retained on a 74 pm (200 mesh)
sieve.76 Industrial sands are often called silica sands and are composed
primarily of quartz (Si02).77 The quartz content is typically greater
3-58
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than 95 percent with some ores containing more than 99 percent. In
order of decreasing volume, the five leading States in the production of
industrial sand in 1983 were Illinois, Michigan, New Jersey, Texas, and
California. Their combined production represented 51 percent of the
national total. Only 17 States did not produce industrial sand in 1983.
By region, the production quantity was North Central—44 percent, South—
33 percent, and West—11 percent.76
The most frequent use of industrial sand is for glassmaking. In
1983, approximately 43 percent of the industrial sand product was used
in glassmaking, that is, in the manufacture of glass containers, windows,
fiberglass, and specialty glass. The iron content of the product is
less than 1 percent. Other impurities present to a minor extent are
clay slime, garnet, zircons, alumina, and calcium or magnesium oxides.
The second most frequent use (25 percent) of industrial sand is for
foundry sands, which are used for cores and molds for casting of common
metals and as a component of refractory products.77 Industrial sand is
most commonly used for foundry and molding sands although materials such
as zircon, olivine sands, staurolite, or chromite sands may be also
used. In some uses, such as in steel foundries, these materials are
preferred over industrial sand due to their lower thermal expansion
rates.
3.2.9.2 Process Description. Figure 3-24 is a process flow diagram
for industrial sand processing. Industrial sand is frequently mined by
open pit methods from naturally occurring quartz-rich sand and sandstone.
The ore is typically crushed at the mine site before being transported
by trucks to a crushing, screening, and grinding process. The sand is
washed to remove detrital material, screened to produce a minus 841 urn
(20 mesh) product, and then classified. From classification, the sand
(containing 25 to 30 percent moisture) goes to an attrition scrubbing
system that removes surface stains from the sand grains by rubbing the
grains in an agitated, high density pulp. The scrubbed sand is diluted
with water to 25 to 30 percent solids and pumped to a set of cyclones
for further desliming. Some sands require a two-stage attrition scrubbing
with classification and slime removal between stages. If the deslimed
sand contains mica, feldspar, and iron bearing minerals, the sand enters
3-59
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COARSE
\
VACUUM
i
SAND
FILTER
DRYER
SCREENING &
HANDLING
Figure 3-24. Process flow diagram for industrial sand production.7^
3-60
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a froth flotation process where sodium silicate and sulfuric acid are
added. For foundry sand, the flotation circuit may be bypassed. By
entering a series of spiral classifiers, the impurities are floated in a
froth product and are diverted to waste. After being classified, the
flotation product has a moisture content of 15 to 25 percent and is belt
conveyed to drainage bins where moisture is reduced to about 6 percent.
After being stored for a day or more, the drained sand is dried and then
conveyed to a size classification or screening process. The screened
sand is either conveyed to mills for size reduction or sent as unground
sand directly to bulk storage. The industrial sand product is then
shipped by truck or rail car.
3.2.9.2.1 Dryers. Dryers in the sand industry reduce the moisture
content of the sand from 4 to 9 percent to less than 0.5 percent.78
Types of dryers used in the industry are rotary and fluid bed. According
to several industry representatives, the trend is towards the fluid bed
dryer because of its fuel economy compared to rotary units.80,81 However,
another industry representative predicts that the trend will be an equal
split in the use of rotary and fluid bed dryers.82
The feed rate for fluid bed dryers varies from 7 to 160 Mg/h (8 to
180 tons/h) with an average process rate of about 90 Mg/h (110 tons/h).
For rotary dryers, the feed rate varies from 14 to 140 Mg/h (15 to
150 tons/h) with an average of 60 Mg/h (70 tons/h). Rotary units are
1.8 to 2.4 m (6 to 8 ft) in diameter and 10.7 to 12.7 m (35 to 40 ft) in
length. A typical fluid bed dryer is 3.3-m (11-ft) high, 6.3-m (21-ft)
wide, and 9.6-m (32-ft) long. Before drying, the process material has
an unbound moisture content of 5 to 6 percent. In addition, 12 percent
of the sand is less than 420 urn (40 mesh), and 77 percent of the sand is
less than 210 pm (70 mesh).
3.2.10 Kaolin
3.2.10.1 Background. Kaolin is a clay that consists primarily of
kaolinite, which is a hydrated aluminum silicate (Al203-2Si02-2H20).
Pure kaolin particles are hexagonal, flat platelets. Above the 2 pm
(8 xlO-5 in.) particle size, the particles usually consist of stacks of
plates ("books"), while below the 2 jjm size they occur as individual
platelets. Because these individual platelet particles have the most
3-61
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desirable coating and flow characteristics, particle size fractions of
2 urn and smaller comprise the largest part of industry production.82
Commercial deposits of kaolin occur in several areas of the U.S.,
but approximately 93 percent of the kaolin produced in this country
comes from Georgia and South Carolina.83 A total of 5.7 xlO6 Mg (6.4
xlO6 tons) were produced in 1982. Twelve other States contributed to
the total. Major end uses of kaolin sold or used in the U.S. in 1982
were as follows: paper coating (39 percent), paper filling (17 percent),
refractories (8 percent), alum (6 percent), oil refining catalysts
(4 percent), rubber (4 percent), paint (2 percent), and miscellaneous
uses such as pesticides and waterproofing and sealing materials
(2 percent).84 Under normal conditions, kaolin is chemically inert to
the action of acids and alkalis. It is this inertness, along with other
physical characteristics such as high reflectance and index of refraction,
particle shape and size distribution, and compatibility with other
chemicals and minerals, which has given kaolin its wide range of end
uses.85
Most kaolin plants are highly integrated operations capable of
mining, processing, packaging, and shipping the finished product. The
processing of kaolin is complex and is accomplished with many different
types of equipment. Dryers and calciners are used in 90 percent of the
kaolin production. The dry process is simple, yields a low cost and low
quality product, and accounts for 20 percent of dried/calcined kaolin
products. The wet process comprises the remaining 70 percent of the
dried/calcined kaolin production and is much more complex than the dry
process.
3.2.10.2 Process Description.
3.2.10.2.1 Mining and degritting. Kaolin is mined using standard
equipment such as shovels, draglines, front-end loaders, and scrapers.
If the material is to be dry-processed, the mined clay is dried and
pulverized, and coarse material removed by an "air-floated" process.
Grinding occurs in Raymond roller mills incorporating whizzer separators
and cyclone collectors. If the material is to be wet-processed, the
crude clay is fed into a blunger (agitator), which breaks down the clay
and disperses it, with the aid of a dispersing agent, to form a slurry.
3-62
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Grit is removed by passing the material through screens, a hydrocyclone
circuit, or a drag classifier. The material then passes to preliminary
holding or dewatering tanks to await refining.
Significant processing losses result during the production of
kaolin; as much as 40 percent of the material delivered to the processing
plant is discarded. Waste material from processing consists mostly of
off-grade clays and minor quantities of quartz, mica, feldspar, and iron
minerals. The bulk of the loss is discharged with the wastewater to
settling ponds for potential recovery and use.
3.2.10.2.2 Dry processing. A general process diagram for dry
processing is shown in Figure 3-25. In the dry process, the physical
properties of the finished kaolin are similar to the physical properties
of the crude kaolin. Therefore, deposits containing the desired
qualities of brightness, low grit content, and particle size distribution
must be located by drilling and testing. In the dry process, the kaolin
is crushed to the desired size, dried in rotary dryers, pulverized, and
air-floated. The air-floating process removes most of the coarse grit.
The product of the dry process is used mainly in the rubber industry,
with lesser amounts going into fiberglass, paper filling, and sanitary
ware.
3.2.10.2.3 Wet processing. Figure 3-26 shows the basic steps in
the wet processing of kaolin. During wet processing, clay is fed into a
blunger to produce a kaolin slurry. The slurry is degritted using drag
boxes, bowl classifiers, or cyclones before being dried or stored for
further processing. Wet processed kaolin is used extensively in the
paper manufacturing industry.
Various chemical, physical, and magnetic methods are used to improve
the clay's whiteness and brightness. For example, kaolin used in the
paper industry is bleached to remove iron-bearing minerals. During this
process, sodium hydrosulphite or a similar reducing agent is added to
the kaolin in a low pH environment, flotation is used to remove iron and
titanium minerals, and del ami nation is used to break down the books of
kaolin into individual platelets by attrition grinding or extrusion.
Magnetic filtration uses high intensity magnets to remove fine particles
of iron, titania, mica, etc.
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TRUCK
OPEN
PIT
k
to,.
MILLING
DRYING AND
CLASSIFICATION
,. .... .
I
PRODUCT TO
SHIPPING
TO ON-SITE
REFRACTORY
MANUFACTURING
SETTLING
PONDS
RAINWATER
GROUND WATER
SOLID
WASTE
V
EFFLUENT
Figure 3-25. Dry kaolin mining and processing.
86
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Pit Pumpout
DEGRITTING
AND
CLASSIFICATION
BLEACHING
AND/OR
CHEMICAL TREATMENT
Water
Tailings to
"Settling pond
70% Slurry Product
^•Product
^•Product
Figure 3-26.. Typical wet mining and process
for high grade kaolin products.88
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Before drying, the slurry (55 to 70 percent solids) is dewatered
using either a filter press, centrifuge, rotary vacuum filter, or tube
filter. The various types of equipment used for drying include apron,
rotary, and spray dryers, and cage mills. Recent trends indicate that
spray dryers and cage mills are being selected to fill the need for
additional drying capacity. This trend is anticipated to continue,
although an increase in the shipment of high-solid slurry may tend to
decrease the need for additional drying capacity. The number of drying
units depends on the size of the plant and presently ranges from 1 to
10 units per plant.
Approximately 73 percent of the total amount of kaolin produced is
dried.87 Kaolin to be calcined is always dried first. Calcination is a
process used to produce either a filler (low temperature) or refractory
(high temperature) kaolin. When kaolin is heated to approximately
1050°C (2000°F), it is converted to mullite. The product is whiter,
brighter, has better hiding properties when used in thin film applica-
tions, and is more abrasive than noncalcined kaolin. Calcined kaolin is
being used in increasing quantities as a paper filler and in the manu-
facture of paint, rubber, and plastics. According to the industry trade
association, there are currently no more than 20 calciners operated by
kaolin producers in Georgia; however, the demand for calcined kaolin is
growing, and it is expected that additional calciners will be added in
the next 5 years.87
Kaolin products are shipped in bulk form from beneficiation plants
in boxcars or in covered hopper cars, and in slurry form (70 percent
solids) in tank cars or in tank trucks. Kaolin is also shipped in 25-kg
(50-lb) multi-wall bags when the customer cannot handle the material in
bulk. Kaolin-is supplied commercially in pulverized form, in lump form
(generally in the shape of small extruded noodles), in spray-dried bead
form, in small pellets, or in flake form. The density of the kaolin
will vary depending on its form.
Although the traditional method of shipping kaolin in the dried
state still dominates, slurry transportation is increasing in popularity.
A number of the kaolin industry's customers, the paper industry in
particular, use kaolin in a wet process. Therefore, if the clay can be
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shipped economically in a slurry form, the cost of filtering and drying
the kaolin during production can be reduced, and the savings is passed
on to the consumer.
3.2.10.3 Drying. Over 90 percent of the kaolin processing plants
that use dryers and/or calciners are located in Georgia. Most (60 to
65 percent) of the kaolin industry wet processors use spray dryers. The
remaining wet processing plants and the plants that use the air-floated
dry processes utilize rotary and other types of dryers.
When the filter cake from the wet process is discharged from the
filter, it is in a plastic state and has an acid pH (3.5 to 4.0). If it
is dried in this condition, it is known as an acid clay. However, by
adding a dispersing agent and repulping the cake, it becomes fluid
even at the high solids concentration of 60 to 65 percent. When dried,
this cake is known as dispersed or pre-dispersed clay. Rotary dryers
are used for drying acid cakes. The feed must be mixed with recycled
dry material to produce a friable, non-balling material.82 Kaolin
rotary dryers have production rates ranging from 7 to 25 Mg/h (8 to
28 tons/h).
For drying dispersed clay slurries, the spray dryer has found wide
acceptance in recent years. Spray dryers are simple, inexpensive, and
efficient. In general, feed must be wet enough to spray; therefore,
solutions, thin slurries, or pumpable paste are possible candidates for
this device. Typically, in a spray dryer the predispersed filter product
at 55 to 70 percent solids is mechanically atomized through a spray
machine. Kaolin particles are dried by a stream of hot air, fall to the
bottom of the collection chamber, and are discharged through a rotary
air lock. Fabric filters collect most of the 20 percent of the product
that is carried out with the outlet air. The recovered dust is usually
blended with the dryer product. The spray dryer product consists of
small beads 45 to 180 urn (325 to 80 mesh) in diameter that are free-
flowing and relatively dust free.89 Kaolin spray dryers are typically
4 m (32 ft) in diameter and 26 m (85 ft) in height, and they have
production rates ranging from 11 to 28 Mg/h (12 to 30 tons/h).
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Coating-grade clays are those with all particles smaller than 15 |jm
(6 xlO-4 in.) and at least 70 percent of the particles less than 2 urn
(8 xlO-5 in.). These clays also have 50 percent or more of the particles
smaller than 1 urn (4 xlO-5 in.) in size. The extremely fine grades of
coating clay currently being produced approach the range of 100 percent
minus 2 urn (8 xlO-5 in.).82
3.2.10.4 Calcining. Because kaolin consists primarily of the
mineral kaolinite, it is considered to be a fire clay. Low-temperature
calcining produces a kaolin used for filler. High-temperature calcining
produces a kaolin for use in the refractory industry. Section 3.2.6
(Fire clay) discusses kaolin use as a refractory material. Multiple
hearth furnaces are the most common type of calciner; however, flash and
rotary calciners are also used. Multiple hearth furnaces require less
space and maintenance than flash calciners although they have a longer
startup time.
3.2.11 Lightweight Aggregate
3.2.11.1 Background. The lightweight aggregate (LWA) industry
encompasses the processing of clay-like materials into a low-density
product. Lightweight aggregate is produced by calcining clay, shale, or
slate. The raw materials used to produce LWA are chosen for their
bloating properties when heated. When these materials are heated to
temperatures of about 1000°C (1800°F), they become plastic and begin to
flow like a viscous fluid.90 As the plastic state is achieved, carbona-
ceous compounds in the material -form gas bubbles, the material begins to
expand, and the gas bubbles are trapped in the viscous plastic material.
The material is then cooled in the expanded condition to form a porous,
solid LWA. Substitutes for the more common raw materials in the produc-
tion of LWA products are natural pumice and blast furnace slag.
Lightweight aggregate is used principally for the manufacture of
structural concrete products such as concrete blocks and prestressed
structural units. Concrete made with LWA has about the same strength
and approximately two-thirds the weight of concrete made with natural
aggregate. Other properties of concrete made with LWA, such as fire
resistance and thermal and accoustical insulating qualities, make it
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desirable as a building material. Lightweight aggregate is a substitute
for more dense, naturally occurring aggregate (granite, limestone) and
is used by companies that further process the material into other products.
Other applications of LWA include accoustical plaster, roofing granules,
highway surfacing, insulating fills, horticulture applications, and
running tracks.91 The end uses of LWA in 1980 were: concrete block
(65 percent), structural concrete (25 percent), highway surfacing
(6.5 percent), and other uses (3.5 percent).92 Fine, medium, and coarse
grades of LWA are available, ranging in diameter from dust to 3.8 cm
(1.5 in.). Seven companies produce approximately 50 percent of the LWA
processed in the United States. Typically, LWA cannot be economically
shipped beyond approximately a 480-km (300-mi) radius of the production
facility. Local demand for LWA may be greater in areas where natural
aggregates are scarce.
The U.S. Bureau of Mines (BOM) categorizes the raw materials used
to produce LWA as clays and stone. Clays are classified as kaolin, ball
clay, fire clay, bentonite, fuller's earth, and common clay and shale.
Approximately 11 percent of the clays mined in the U.S. in 1980 were
used for the production of LWA.91 Crushed slate is the only stone used
in LWA production. Approximately 0.05 percent of the crushed stone
mined in the U.S. in 1980 was used for the production of LWA.91 Light-
weight aggregate was produced at 34 plants in 24 States in 1981. The
BOM estimated that consumption of clay and shale used in the production
of LWA was 4.4 xlO6 Mg (4.9 xlO6 tons) in 1981, compared to 2.15 xlO5 Mg
(2.4 xlO5 tons) of slate and 7.3 xlO5 Mg (8.0 xlO5 tons) of slag.91
Two methods are used to produce LWA. The rotary kiln method is
used by approximately 88 percent (30 of 34) of the operating plants in
the United States. The remaining 12 percent of the operating plants use
the traveling-grate method, or process naturally occurring LWA. Because
of the energy intensive nature of the traveling-grate process, no future
growth in the use of this process for LWA production is anticipated.
3.2.11.2 Process Description.
3.2.11.2.1 General. The operations involved in producing LWA are
quarrying or mining, crushing and screening, calcining or sintering,
product cooling, and materials handling and storage. Figure 3-27 shows
3-69
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o
(t)
i.
o
1 5
2.2 3 I
5 i S S
i
1= S O _l
t
d)
3-70
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a diagram of a typical LWA plant. Raw material is usually strip-mined
from open fields by earth movers. Cone crushers, jaw crushers, hammer-
mills, or pugmills are used to reduce the size of the raw material,
which is then passed through screens. Any oversize material that does
not pass through the screens initially may be returned to the crushers
for secondary crushing. Material passing through the screens (about
minus 3.8 cm [1.5 in.] in diameter) is transferred by conveyor belts to
feed hoppers for charging to the calciner.
3.2.11.2.2 Rotary calciners. Rotary calciners are fired from the
discharge end with fuel oil, natural gas, or coal. As the cost of fuel
oil and natural gas increases, the trend is toward the use of pulverized
coal. The burner used to fire the calciner is installed in the center of
a fixed or movable calciner hood. The pilot flame of the burner is
normally fueled by natural gas.
Rotary calciner production capacities range from 230 to 910 Mg (250
to 1,000 tons) per day per calciner.90 Lightweight aggregate plants
typically have two or three rotary calciners. One manufacturer of rotary
calciners states that the smallest rotary calciner considered to be eco-
nomical for LWA production in the U.S. is one that produces 450 Mg
(500 tons) per day and that is approximately 3.4 m (11 ft) in diameter
and 50 m (175 ft) long.93
Normal feed sizes range from 2.4 mm (8 mesh) to 33 mm (1.5 in.).90
When the clay, shale, or slate is not closely screened, segregation of
the various size chunks of raw material occurs as the calciner rotates.
This segregation of particles is avoided by some calciner operators who
screen the feed material so that a narrow range of particle sizes is fed
to the calciner.92 The fines are calcined by direct sol id-to-solid heat
transfer from the calciner walls, and the larger (coarser) particles are
calcined by solid-to-gas heat transfer from the hot gas. The intermediate-
size particles are protected from the heat by the layers of fine and
coarse particles and may not be completely calcined.
3.2.12 Magnesium Compounds
3-2.12.1 Background. Natural brine solutions, such as sea, lake,
and wellwaters are the primary source of domestically produced magnesium
compounds. Magnesium compounds are also produced from natural magnesite
3-71
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deposits found in Nevada. The magnesium compounds produced are mainly
magnesia (magnesium oxide), magnesium hydroxide, magnesium chloride,
magnesium sulfate, and precipitated magnesium carbonate. Only magnesia
producing plants are significant users of dryers or calciners; therefore,
this study focused only on magnesia producing plants.
Two types of magnesium oxides (MgO) are produced on commercial scale.
These are dead-burned magnesia (also called refractory magnesia) and
caustic-calcined magnesia (includes specified magnesia). Dead-burned
magnesia is produced at temperatures in excess of 1450°C (2640°F), while
caustic-calcined magnesia is produced at temperatures lower than 900°C
(1650°F).94,95
The term "high-grade" refers to refractory magnesia containing
roughly 96 percent MgO and having a specific gravity greater than 3.2.94
The terms "high-purity" or "super high-purity" have been used in the
industry for magnesia being supplied to the refractory industry and
refer to the amount of accessory oxides rather than to a specific amount
of MgO.94 '
Dead-burned magnesia is used almost entirely as a refractory
material. It can be used directly or as a constituent of brick, ramming
mixes, gunning mixes, or castables. Refractories made from magnesia are
used mainly in the steel, cement, glass, and copper industries. The
desirable features of magnesia-based refractories are their ability to
resist basic slags at high temperatures and their low cost.96
Caustic-calcined magnesia is used in the production of magnesium
oxychloride and oxysulfate cements, animal feeds, fertilizers, rayon,
pulp and paper, construction materials, chemicals, electrical heating
rods, fluxes, and petroleum additives.
3.2.12.2 Process Description.
Most of the plants in the U.S. produce magnesias from natural brine
solutions. Only one plant uses magnesite ore to produce magnesia, and
the plant considers its process confidential. Therefore, only the
process that uses natural brine solution is described below.
A typical flow diagram for the production of magnesias from natural
brine solutions is shown in Figure 3-28. Magnesium-rich brine, which
contains magnesium chloride, is reacted with dolomitic lime (CaO-MgO) in
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BRINE
REACTOR
V
Mg(OH).
THICKENERS AND
CLARIFIERS
DRUM
FILTERS
DOLOMITIC LIME
LIQUID DISPOSAL
ROTARY
CALCINERS
ROTARY
COOLERS
Y
CAUSTIC-CALCINED
OR
DEAD-BURNED
MAGNESIA
DISC
FILTERS
u
HERRESHOFF
FURNACE
CAUSTIC-CALCINED
MAGNESIA
PELLETIZING
VERTICAL
SHAFT
FURNACE
BIN COOLERS
DEAD-BURNED
MgO
Figure 3-28. Typical process flow diagram for
the production of magnesias from natural brine solutions,
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reactors to form magnesium hydroxide (Mg(OH)2). The magnesium hydroxide
is insoluble and precipitates out as a slurry. The slurry is thickened,
washed, and filtered before being calcined in rotary calciners or in
Herreshoff furnaces (multiple hearth furnaces). Occasionally additives
such as lime are added prior to calcination to meet the product specifica-
tions of customers. Rotary calciners can produce either caustic-calcined
magnesia or dead-burned magnesia. Herreshoff furnaces produce caustic-
calcined magnesia. Vertical shaft kilns are also used in the production
of dead-burned magnesia. However, these kilns are used to sinter the
calcined product from Herreshoff furnaces. They are not used to calcine
the magnesia slurry.
3.2.13 Perlite
3.2.13.1 Background. Perlite is a glassy, volcanic rock having a
pearl-like luster and usually exhibiting numerous concentric cracks that
cause it to resemble an onion skin in appearance. Chemically, crude
perlite is an amorphous aluminum silicate. A typical chemical analysis
of perlite would show 71 to 75 percent silicon dioxide (Si02), 12.5 to
18.0 percent alumina (A1203), 4 to 5 percent potassium oxide (K20), 1 to
4 percent sodium and calcium oxides, and trace amounts of metal oxides.97
When particles of crude perlite are heated to a plastic state
(softening point), the combined water (2 to 5 percent) vaporizes, forming
steam that expands each particle into a mass of glass foam. The original
volume of the crude perlite may be expanded 4 to 20 times at temperatures
between 760° and 1090°C (1400° and 2000°F). Expanded perlite can be a
fluffy, highly porous material or can be composed of glazed, glassy
particles having a low porosity.98
Crude perlite ore is normally dried, crushed, and screened at the
mine before shipment to expansion plants. The normal size of crude
perlite expanded for use in plaster aggregates ranges from plus 250 [jm
(60 mesh) to minus 1.4 mm (12 mesh). Crude perlite expanded for use as a
concrete aggregate ranges from 1 mm (1/8 in., plus 16 mesh) to 0.2 mm
(1/2 in., plus 100 mesh). Crude perlite ore expanded for horticultural
uses is 90 percent greater than 841 urn (20 mesh).99
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Industrial uses for expanded perlite are many and varied. In 1981,
the percentages of expanded perlite sold and used by U.S. producers
were: formed products (accoustical ceiling tile, pipe insulation, roof
insulation board, etc.) (54 percent), filter aid (20 percent), horticul-
tural aggregate and fertilizer carriers (9 percent), concrete aggregate
(5 percent), masonry and cavity fill insulation (4 percent), plaster
aggregate (4 percent), fillers (1 percent), low-temperature insulation
(1 percent), and other uses (includes high-temperature insulation, paint
texturizer, and refractories) (3 percent).100 A total of 430,800 Mg
(475,000 tons) of expanded perlite were sold and,used in 1981. To
produce this amount of expanded product, ,644,100 Mg (710,000 tons) of
crude perlite were mined, and 536,200 Mg (591,000 tons) were sold to or
used by expanders.100
In the U.S., perlite rocks are widely distributed throughout the
western States; deposits are known in 12 States. New Mexico deposits
account for 80 to 90 percent of the total U.S. crude perlite mined on an
annual basis.97 In 1982, crude perlite was produced by 10 companies at
12 mines in 6 States.101
Crude ore is mined, crushed, dried in a rotary dryer, ground,
screened, and shipped to expansion plants. Expansion takes place in
horizontal rotary, or vertical stationary expansion furnces. In 1982,
expanded perlite was produced by 42 companies at 73 plants in 32 States.101
3.2.13.2 Process Description.
3.2.13.2.1 Crude ore. Crude perlite is mined by open pit methods
and moved to the plant site where it is stockpiled. Figure 3-29 is a
flow diagram of crude ore processing. The first processing step .js to
reduce the ore to approximately 1.6 cm (0.6 in.) in a primary jaw crusher.
The crude ore is then passed through a rotary dryer to reduce the moisture
content from an initial 4 to 10 percent down to less than 1 percent.
After the ore is dried, secondary grinding is accomplished in a
closed-circuit system using screens, air classifiers, hammer mills, and
rod mills.97 The various-sized materials are then stored for later
blending and shipment to expansion plants. Any oversized material
produced from the secondary circuit is returned to the primary crusher.
Large quantities of fines, up to 25 percent of the mill feed, are
3-75
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CD CD
o
o
Q.
O)
o
S-.
QJ
CL
I
fO
CD
(C
i
CO
CD
S-
=3
cn
3-76
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produced throughout the processing stages but are removed by air
classification at designated stages.97
3.2.13.2.2 Expanded perlite. Because of the low density (48 to
320 kg/m3 [3 to 20 lb/ft3]) of expanded perlite, it is not economical to
ship the expanded product long distances. Therefore, many small perlite
expansion plants are utilized to produce the expanded product near ,
market areas. Different furnace types have been designed for expanding
perlite, but the two most common types in use today are variations of
the horizontal rotary furnace and the stationary vertical furnace.97
The expansion characteristics of the crude perlite are influenced
by factors such as the amount of combined water present and the amount
of moisture driven off in the furnace. The processing temperature used
is influenced by the softening point of the sized crude product. It is,
therefore, often necessary to have a preheater attached to the furnace
to preheat the crude perlite to approximately 430°C (800°F) before its
injection into the furnace. Preheating reduces the amount of fines
produced in the expansion process, which increases usable output and
controls the uniformity of product density.97 When the perlite ore has
reached a temperature of 760° to 980°C (1400° to 1800°F), it begins to
soften to a plastic state, and the entrapped combined water is released
as steam. This causes the hot perlite particle to be expanded.103 The
retention time in the furnace is 2 to 3 seconds. In most cases, fines
are removed at the mill by air classifying during screening. This also
reduces the amount of fines in the ore to be expanded.
After the perlite particles in the furnace expand 4 to 20 times
their original volume, they are drawn out of the furnace by a suction
fan and are transported pneumatically to a cyclone classifier system for
collection. The air-suspended perlite particles are also cooled as they
travel through the ductwork to the collection equipment. The cyclone
classifier system collects the sized products, removes the excessive
fines, and discharges gases to a baghouse or wet scrubber for air pollu-
tion control.
The grades of expanded perlite produced can also be adjusted by
blending various crude sizes, changing the heating cycle, and altering
the cutoff points for size collection. All processed products are
3-77
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graded for specific uses and are usually delivered to storage bins or
surge hoppers prior to bagging and shipping.97 Most production rates
are less than 1.8 Mg/h (2 tons/h), and expansion temperatures range from
870° to 980°C (1600° to 1800°F). Natural gas is the most common fuel
with No. 2 oil and propane used in a few cases. Fuel consumption varies
from 2,800 to 8,960 kJ/kg (2.4 to 7.7 xlO6 Btu/ton) of product. Expanded
perlite is graded by density and classified by product number or trade
name for producer and user identification. The most common product
density range is 112 to 240 kg/m3 (7 to 15 lb/ft3).
3.2.14 Roofing Granules
3.2.14.1 Background. Roofing granules are defined as particles of
rock or fired clay, about 0.9 mm (9 mesh) in size, used in the manu-
facture of asphalt roofing shingles.104 Roofing granules may be coated
with sodium silicate pigmented with iron oxides. Coating helps to protect
the roofing base material, which is usually asphaltic, from embrittlement
and rapid breakdown by ultraviolet light.105
No single type or family of rock or minerals is considered as a
class to be an acceptable ore source, but rigid physical and chemical
specifications must be met. The following rock types found in the
United States are being used as a granule base: East Coast--rhyolite,
diabase, greenstone, arkosic quartzite; Midwest—andesite, graystone,
granite, nepheline syenite; West—basaltic river gravels, dacite
porphyry.106 Rock deposits must provide enough raw material for a 30-
to 50-year period to justify the capital expenditure required for a new
plant.106
Other required properties for rock deposits used in the manufacture
of roofing granules are:106
1. Weathering resistance. Granules provide necessary protection
to the asphalt product from differential thermal expansion of the various
rock-forming minerals and by moisture that seeps into voids around
mineral crystals causing disintegration of the rock upon freezing. Also,
chemical weathering results chiefly from the dissolution of carbonates
and sulfates in the rock and from the hydration or oxidation of certain
mineral substances;
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2. Acceptance of coloring process. After crushing, the surface
characteristics of many rocks make it difficult to apply a coating. If
the rock has a high percentage of iron compounds, the rock becomes
brownish-red when heated and changes the appearance of the coated
granules;
3. Uniformity. To conform to customer specifications, the rock
should be uniform in quality and physical properties, and homogeneous in
color;
4. Low porosity. High porosity granules would allow the seepage
of water into the interior of the asphalt shingle, causing blistering
and cracking;
5. Complete opaqueness to ultraviolet light. Ultraviolet light
can rapidly deteriorate roofing asphalt;
6. Toughness. This minimizes attrition breakdown in handling; and
7. Ability to fracture equidimensionally upon crushing. A cubical
fracture helps to eliminate color differences that result from the
viewing at different angles of flat, roll, or splintery granules.
3-2.14.2 Process Description. The mineral types suitable -for use
as a roofing granule are basalt, dorite, porphyry, andesite, argillite,
granite, nepheline syenite, rhyolite, diabase, greenstone, and arbosic
quartzite.106 A process flow diagram showing the steps involved in
roofing granule production is presented as Figure 3-30. In many
respects, the operation of a roofing granule quarry is similar to that of
a crushed rock aggregate quarry. The main difference is the need for
uniform quality in the mineral. The mining operation consists of over-
burden removal, drilling and blasting, followed by secondary breakup.
The mineral is then loaded by power shovel into quarry trucks and hauled
to the mill site. At the mill site, the mineral passes through a primary
crusher, which is a jaw or gyratory type. Secondary crushing is then
performed by cones, crushers, or roll or hammer mills in closed circuit
with vibrating screens. Next the crushed rock is dried, usually in a
rotary dryer, and screened prior to tertiary crushing.
The crushed rock is trucked or belt-conveyed to the coating plant
where it is further crushed to granule size. The granules are mixed
with pigments and other coating materials in rotary-type mixers. The
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PIGMENTS
UNCOATED
GRANULES
COATED GRANULES
Figure 3-30. Roofing granules production.106
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silicate-clay process is the basis for much of the present technology •
and consists of coating the granules with a mixture of !sodium silicate
and inorganic clay pigments.106 The coated granules are fed to a
coating kiln where they ;are dried and fired. Granules are discharged
from the kiln into a rotary-type cooler or similar device. Rescreening
on vibrating screens is usually necessary after the firing and cooling
process to maintain granule grade. The rescreening is performed before
storage or in the shipping and loading process.
3.2.14.2.1 Dryers. Rotary dryers are the primary ore dryer
type used in the industry. (Fluid bed dryers are used by one company
to dry a coal-fired boiler slag, which is an atypical granule material.)
The function of the ore dryer is to process the crushed rock so that
it will not clog the screens that are used to classify the rock. '
3.2.15 Talc
3.2.15.1 Background. Talc is a soft, hydrous magnesium silicate
(3MgO'4Si02-H20), theoretically composed of 63.4 percent Si02,
31.9 percent MgO, and 4.7 percent H20.107 The actual composition of
commercial talc may vary widely from these levels. Talc may also contain
one or more of the following oxides, ranging in concentration from a
trace to several percent: iron, titanium, aluminum, calcium, potassium,
sodium, nickel, chromium, cobalt, and phosphorus. For most end-uses,
these impurities are undesirable and are removed to the extent feasible.
The color of talc varies from snow-white to greenish-gray and various
shades of green. Its specific gravity ranges from 2.6 to 2.8.108
Talc deposits can be found in many parts of the world. In 1980,
talc minerals were produced at 40 mines in 11 States. Mines in four
States produced about 90 percent of the nationwide annual total.109 The
States producing the highest tonnage, in decreasing order, were Montana,
Texas, New York, and Vermont.109
The word talc refers to a wide variety of rocks and rock products.
Soapstone reportedly contains up to 50 percent talc.109 It has a
slippery feeling and can be carved by hand. Steatite contains a
high-purity talc suitable for making electrical insulators. These
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talc-containing minerals (soapstone and steatite) will be treated as
talc in this section.
Talc is one of the most versatile inorganic materials used by
industry. The end-uses for talc are determined by variables such as
chemical and mineralogical composition, particle size and shape, specific
gravity, hardness, and color. According to 1981 statistics, the largest
use of talc-group minerals is for the manufacture of ceramics (31 percent),
which includes kiln furniture, sanitary ware, floor and wall tile,
dinnerware glazes, and electrical porcelains. For these end-products,
the addition of talc to the usual clay-silica-feldspar body mixtures
facilitates the firing of the ware and improves the quality.109
The second major use of talc minerals is as a filler and/or a
pigment for paints (22 percent of total 1981 U.S. production).109 The
plastics industry is the third major user (12 percent) of talc, followed
by coating and/or loading of high-quality papers (11 percent). Other
applications for talc are cosmetics (7 percent), rubber (4 percent), and
roofing (2 percent).109
Grades of talc are most frequently identified with the end use.
Some of the important desirable properties are softness and smoothness,
color,, luster, high slip tendency, moisture content, oil and grease
absorption, chemical inertness, fusion point, heat and electrical con-
ductivity, and high dielectrical strength.
More specific requirements for talc are described below for the
major end uses.107
Ceramics. Uniform chemical and physical properties are required.
Manganese and iron are objectionable, and for high-frequency insulators,
no more than 0.5 percent CaO, 1.5 percent iron oxide, and 4 percent
A1203 are usually tolerated.
Paints. Impurities that turn the talc to colors other than white
are highly objectionable. To obtain the desired smooth paint film, at
least 98.5 percent must pass a 44 urn (325 mesh) screen.
Paper. The main requirements are chemical inertness, softness,
freedom from grit, satisfactory ink acceptance, brightness, and dispersi-
bility in water.
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Rubber. Ground talc is used as filler in the compounding formula-
tions of synthetic rubbers. Volume changes, amount of filler, and
particle size all affect the stress-strain relationship of the product.
Roofing. A low-grade, offcolor, and impure talc is acceptable.
Insecticides. The main requirements are chemical inertness with
respect to toxicants, satisfactory bulk density, and low abrasive
characteristics.
Cosmetics and Pharmaceuticals. Talc must be grit free, finely
sized, chemically pure, and pleasing in color.
3.2.15.2 Process Description. More than half the total domestic
output of talc is derived from open-pit operations, although underground
mines continue to be important sources of this mineral. Mining operations
usually consist of conventional drilling and blasting methods.107 The
softness of talc makes it easier to mine and process than most other
minerals.
3.2.15.2.1 Dryers. Figure 3-31 is a process flow diagram for a
typical Eastern U.S. talc plant. Talc ore is generally trucked to the
plant from a nearby mine. The ore is crushed and screened, and coarse
(oversize) material is sent through a gyratory crusher. Drying of the
two separate fractions is accomplished by a rotary dryer. Secondary
grinding is achieved with pebble mills and/or roller mills, producing a
product that is 44 to 149 urn (325 to 100 mesh) in size.110 Air classifiers
(separators), generally in closed circuit with the mills, separate the
material into coarse, coarse plus fine, and fine fractions. The coarse
and coarse plus fine fractions are then stored. The fines undergo a
tabling process to remove sulfides (about 1 to 2 percent) and a one-step
flotation process. The resultant talc slurry is dewatered and filtered
prior to passing through a flash dryer. The flash dried product is then
stored for shipment, or it may be further ground to meet customer
specifications.
3.2.15.2.2 Calciners. Talc deposits mined in the Western U.S.
contain organic impurities and must be calcined prior to additional
processing to yield a product with uniform chemical and physical
properties. Generally, a separate product line will be used to produce
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TALC MINES
ROTARY
CALCINER
ROTARY
COOLER
PLANT YARD
STORAGE
CONVEYOR
JAW CRUSHER
SCREEN
UNDERSIZE ORE
OVERSIZE ORE
GYRATORY
CRUSHER
ROTARY
DRYER
PEBBLE MILL
ROLLER MILL
AIR CLASSI-
FIERS
CLASSIFIER FINES
PRODUCT
FLOTATION
DEWATERING
FILTRATION
FLASH
DRYER
PRODUCT
CUSTOM
GRINDING
PRODUCT
Figure 3-31. Process flow diagram for talc processing.110
3-84
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the calcined talc. Prior to calcining, the mined ore passes through a
crusher and is ground to a specified screen size. After calcining is
accomplished by a rotary kiln, the material passes through a rotary
cooler. The cooled calcine (0 percent moisture) is then stored for
shipment or it may be further processed. Calcined talc may be mixed
with dried talc from other product lines and passed through a roller
mill prior to bulk shipping.
3.2.16 Titanium Dioxide
3.2.16.1 Background. Titanium dioxide (Ti02) pigments are produced
by two processes, the chloride process and the sulfate process. For the
chloride process, rutile or ilmenite ore may be used; however, rutile
ore is the preferred raw material because the chloride-ilmenite process
involves simultaneous beneficiation and chlorination. The sulfate
process uses ilmenite or a titanium slag as the raw material. The final
product is an anatase pigment, although a rutile pigment can also be
produced.
Rutile ore occurs as reddish-brown to red crystals of tetragonal
structure or in granular masses. It contains 94 to 98 percent Ti02.
Virtually all of the rutile ore used in the United States is imported.
Ilmenite is iron black and crystallizes in the hexagonal system. It
contains 37 to 65 percent Ti02, 30 to 55 percent iron oxide, and trace
amounts of silica, alumina, and other metals. Titanium slag may also be
considered as an ore. It is produced by smelting a mixture of carbon
and titanium-bearing material to yield molten iron and slag containing
70 to 90 percent Ti02.lxl
Of the 1981 production of titanium dioxide, 74 percent was produced
by, the chloride process and 26 percent was produced by the sulfate
process. Of the chloride production, 92 percent was rutile pigment, and
8 percent was anatase pigment. Of the sulfate production, 11 percent
was rutile pigment, and 89 percent was anatase pigment. The rutile
pigment is used primarily in the paint, varnish, and lacquer industry,
while the anatase pigment is used primarily in the paper industry.
The uses of Ti02 pigment are numerous. Ninety-two percent of the
1979 titanium consumption in the United States was in the form of Ti02
pigments.112 Because of its high refractive index (anatase--2.55,
3-85
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rutile—2.72), which imparts whiteness, opacity, and brighteners, the
largest market for the pigment is in the paint, varnish, and lacquer
industry.113 The tinting strength and opacity of Ti02 surpasses any
other white pigment. Over one-half of all nonpermanent, white, or
light-colored surface coatings utilize Ti02 pigment. A typical exterior
white paint contains about 40 percent pigment, of which 60 percent is
TiOa- The remainder is made up of zinc oxide (ZnO) and fillers such as
mica, silica, silicates, or calcium carbonate.114 The paint manufacturer
selects which Ti02 type to use (anatase or rutile). The differences in
crystalline structures give different covering and chalking charac-
teristics. Other lower quality paints can be produced by mixing or
co-precipitating Ti02 with cheaper pigments of low hiding power.
Anatase is used as a paper coating or as a paper filler to improve
opacity, brightness, and printability. It is used in photographic
paper; paper boxes that need a light-colored, high-gloss coating; and in
practically all printing paper except newsprint.112 The purposes of a
filler are to occupy space between fibers, thus giving a smoother surface,
a more brilliant whiteness, increased printability, and increased
opacity.114
Titanium dioxide is also used in plastics due to its resistance to
degradation by ultraviolet light, high refractive index, whiteness, and
chemical inertness to most plastic materials.112 Miscellaneous uses are
as the universal delusterant for all man-made fibers, and in dielectrics
due to its high dielectric constant. Also, Ti02 pigment is used for
welding rod coatings, rubber tires, roof coatings, printer's ink, floor
coverings, and porcelain enamel.112
A number of materials, such as ZnO, talc, clay, silica, and alumina
can be used in place of Ti02 pigment, but a lesser quality pigment (in
regard to opacity and brightness) is produced, or higher costs are
incurred.112
3.2.16.2 Process Description.
3.2.16.2.1 Chloride process. The chloride process is used to
produce mostly rutile pigment. It requires a feedstock with a high
titanium content and a low iron content. Both rutile and ilmenite ores
can be used; however, rutile ore is the preferred raw material. The
3-86
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estimated Mg (tons) of raw materials required to produce one Mg (ton) of
Ti02 are:
Rutile ore 1.0-1.1 (1.1-1.2)
Chlorine 0.09-0.18 (0.1-0.2)
Petroleum coke 0.09-0.18 (0.1-0.2)
A1C13 0.027 (0.03)
Figure 3-32 is a simplified flow diagram of the chloride process.
The ore, after being dried in an ore dryer, is mixed with petroleum coke
and is chlorinated in a fluid bed reactor at about 1000° to 1100°C
(1830° to 2010°F). The main product is titanium tetrachloride (TiCl4),
but iron and other impurities are also chlorinated. Titanium tetra-
chloride leaves the reactor as a hot vapor in the presence of other
vaporized metal chlorides. The TiCl4 prepared usually contains free
chlorine and small amounts of dissolved compounds of iron, silicon,
vanadium, and other elements and is of a yellowish or reddish color.
The discoloration has been ascribed to vanadium oxychloride (VOC13),'
ferric chloride, and uncombined chlorine. Ferric chloride is removed by
filtration after cooling to room temperature. The other constituents
can be readily separated by fractional distillation.115 In the recovery
system, the metal chlorides can be totally condensed, forming a slurry
of TiCl4 and solid metal chlorides. In this case, TiCl4 is separated
from the waste solids by settling and decantation. A particle condensa-
tion recovery system can be used where the solid metal chlorides, which
are less volatile than TiCl4, are condensed as powders. The remaining
vapor, greatly enriched in TiCl4, is then totally condensed giving a
liquid relatively free of the metal chloride solids. Selective reduction
prior to a final distillation removes VOC13, or vanadium can be removed
as a sulfide by the addition of hydrogen sulfide.116
Purified TiCl4 vapor is fed to a reaction chamber with oxygen to
react at temperatures above 1000°C (1800°F). Aluminum chloride is added
to the TiCl4 to ensure that virtually all of the titanium is oxidized to
the rutile crystalline form rather than the anatase form. The reactor
must be designed to minimize the accumulation of solid products on the
walls and burner parts and to give a product of optimum crystal size
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(0.2 urn). Chlorine is regenerated in the oxidation step, and after
cooling and separation from the product, it is recycled to the
chlorinator.117
After being dry milled by ring roller mills or fluid energy mills,
or wet milled in ball or sand mills, the raw Ti02 is coated by adding an
aqueous acid or alkali. The individual pigment particles are further
coated by the successive addition of salt solutions such as titanyl
sulfate, aluminum sulfate, and acids or alkalies to reduce their photo-
catalytic activity and to improve dispersibility.117 Many variations of
this process are used to optimize the surface characteristics of the
pigments for different applications. After coating, the pigments are
filtered, washed, dried (in pigment dryers), and enter a fluid energy
mill prior to packaging. There is no drying performed at the fluid
energy mill.
The several hundred commercial grades of pigments vary in their
Ti02 crystal structure, particle size and shape, type of hydrous oxide
coating, and content of additives for specific applications. These
pigments contain 80 to 99 percent Ti02, the remainder being principally
alumina and silica hydrates.117
3.2.16.2.2 Sulfate process. The sulfate process is used to produce
mostly anatase pigment. The raw material used in the sulfate process is
finely ground ilmenite or high-Ti02 slag. There are no rigid specifica-
tions for feed materials, but certain impurities such as chromium,
vanadium, manganese, and phosphorus are known to impair pigment properties.
The Ti02 content must be high enough to be recovered economically, and
the concentrate must be capable of being dissolved in sulfuric acid at a
practical temperature. The Ti02 content ranges from about 45 percent
for unaltered ilmenite concentrate to 70 to 72 percent for slag.
The raw material requirements for one Mg (ton) of pigment produced
by the sulfate process are 1.5 to 2.4 Mg (1.6 to 2.6 tons) of ilmenite
or titanium slag, 2.7 to 3.6 Mg (3 to 4 tons) of sulfuric acid, and 0.09
to 0.19 Mg (0.1 to 0.2 tons) of scrap iron.116
A flow diagram of the sulfate process is shown in Figure 3-33.
Slag or ilmenite is dried in an ore dryer to drive off moisture. The
dried ore is ground and then digested with concentrated sulfuric acid
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forming a solid, porous cake, which is then dissolved in dilute acid and
water to yield a solution of titanyl sulfate (TiOS04) and iron sulfate
(FeS04). The process occurs as a batch operation in large, conical
concrete or steel tanks. The digestion process leaches sulfates of iron
and titanium from the ore. Any iron present in the ferric state is
reduced to the ferrous state by adding scrap iron. This is done to
avoid precipitation of ferric iron late in the process and to facilitate
washing the precipitated Ti02. One company does not add scrap iron in
the digestion step.
The solution resulting from the digestion process is clarified in
thickeners, cooled, and sent to a vacuum crystal!izer. Ferrous sulfate
crystallizes as FeS04-7H20 (copperas). These crystals are separated
from the TiOS04 by centrifugation. The next step involves clarification
of the TiOS04 by filtration and concentration by vacuum evaporation.114
Depending on the form of the product desired, either anatase or rutile
seed crystals are added to the concentrated liquor, and the mixture is
steam heated or boiled for 6 or 3 hours, respectively. During the steam
heating period, about 95 percent of the titanium is hydrolized to in-
soluble titanium hydrate or metatitanic acid (H2Ti03). To remove residual
iron sulfate, the hydrate is vacuum filtered, washed by repulping, and
filtered twice more, with repulping between filtrations. The first
filtrate may be reworked to remove residual amounts of ferrous sulfate
and sulfuric acid. The other two filtrates are sent to settling tanks
to recover the finely divided titanium hydrate that passed through the
filter media.
Following filtration, the titanium hydrate filter cake is repulped
and treated with various conditioning agents. The conditioning agents
usually include a potassium salt and phosphate and may also include
zinc, antimony, and aluminum compounds.118 The nature of the various
special treatments determines the grade and type of finished pigment,
that is, whether it is anatase or rutile, chalking or nonchalking, oil-
or water-dispersable. For anatase production, 0.75 percent potassium
carbonate is used as a conditioning agent and to develop the greatest
tinting strength and color quality.114 For rutile production, rutile
promoters are added.
3-91
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The titanium hydrate is then calcined to drive off water and
residual sulfuric acid from the hydrate. The product from the calciners
(raw Ti02) is then finished by pulverizing, milling, screening, coating
with hydrous oxides, filtering, and drying. Sometimes, organic reagents
are added (to aid dispersion of pigments for customer's use) before the
Ti02 is dried. Drying is performed in a pigment dryer followed by final
grinding by attrition in the fluid-energy mills.
3.2.16.2.3 Dryers/calciners in the chloride process. Dryers are
used in the chloride process for ore drying and for pigment drying.
Calciners are only used in the chloride-ilmenite process. Rotary dryers
are used in the chloride process for drying of rutile ore. Operating
temperatures range from 150° to 650°C (300° to 1200°F). Natural gas is
the most common fuel used. The most commonly used pigment dryers are
spray dryers, although flash dryers are also used. Operating tempera-
tures for spray dryers range from 130° to 700°C (275° to 1300°F).
3.2.16.2.4 Dryers/calciners in the sulfate process. Dryers and
calciners are used in the sulfate process for ore drying, ore calcining,
and pigment drying. The most commonly used ore dryers are rotary indirect
dryers, though rotary direct dryers are also used. Operating tempera-
tures range from 120° to 130°C (250° to 275°F). Natural gas is the most
commonly used fuel, although fuel oil is also used.
The Ti02 hydrate (~65 percent water and some H2S04) from the digester
is calcined in direct-fired rotary calciners. As material passes through
the calciner, it is first dried, then combined water and sul fate are
driven off. The calciner temperature is carefully controlled according
to the grade of pigment being made, that is, either anatase or rutile.
An increase in temperature favors the formation of rutile. The calcining
operation converts Ti02 from an amorphous to a crystalline state thereby
raising the refractive index.113 Calcined material is approximately
99 percent Ti02 and contains no moisture.115
3.2.17 Vermiculite
3.2.17.1 Background. Vermiculite is the geological name given to
a group of hydrated laminar minerals that are aluminum-iron-magnesium
silicates and that resemble mica in appearance. When subjected to heat,
3-92
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vermiculite has the unusual property of exfoliating, or expanding, due
to the interlaminar generation of steam.119
The world's largest deposit of vermiculite is mined near Libby,
Montana, with other major deposits located near Enoree, South Carolina,
and in the Republic of South Africa. Vermiculite is also mined and
beneficiated at a mine in Louisa County, Virginia. Deposits of economic
significance contain 25 to 95 percent vermiculite.120
Estimated world production of crude vermiculite in 1981 was
522,000 Mg (576,000 tons), more than 80 percent of which came from five
mines.121 The United States and Republic of South Africa accounted for
92 percent of world production. Estimated U.S. production of crude
vermiculite sold or used by producers in 1982 was 281,000 Mg
(310,000 tons).122
Vermiculite ore is mined using open-pit methods. Beneficiation
includes screening, flotation, drying in rotary or fluid bed dryers, and
expansion by exposure to high heat. All mined vermiculite is dried and
sized at the mine site prior to exfoliation. Approximately 84 percent
of U.S. mined vermiculite is expanded. Uses of unexpanded vermiculite
are minor and include muds for oil-well drilling and fillers in
fire-resistant wall board.123
Exfoliated vermiculite was produced at 48 plants in 31 States in
1981. The principal producing States were, in order of decreasing
exfoliated vermiculite output, Ohio, California, Texas, Florida, South
Carolina, New Jersey, and Illinois.124 The main uses of exfoliated
vermiculite in 1981 were: concrete aggregate (22 percent); premixes
(20 percent); fertilizer carriers (14 percent); block insulation
(13 percent); and loose fill insulation (12 percent). Other uses
included plaster aggregates (2 percent), horticultural uses (8 percent),
and soil conditioners (6 percent).125
Commercial exfoliation of vermiculite is achieved by heating the
pre-sized crude vermiculite in a furnace chamber. The bulk volume of
commercial grades increases 8- to 12-fold, but individual vermiculite
particles may expand as much as 30-fold compared to the raw ore.126
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3.2.17.2 Process Description.
3.2.17.2.1 Crude ore processing. Figure 3-34 is a flow diagram of
vermiculite ore processing. Crude ore from open-pit mines is brought to
the mill by truck where it is stored in outdoor stockpiles. Primary
processing consists of removing the plus 1.6 cm (5/8 in.) waste
rock and returning the raw ore to stockpiles. Blending is accomplished
as material is removed from stockpiles and conveyed to the mill feed
bin. The blended ore is fed to the mill where it is separated into
fractions by wet screening and concentrated by gravity. All concentrates
are collected, dewatered, and dried in a fluid bed or rotary dryer. The
dryer products are separated by standard screens and are stored in bins
or silos for later shipment or exfoliation.127
The rotary dryer is the most common dryer type used in the industry,
although one fluid bed dryer is used. Drying temperatures are 120° to
480°C (250° to 900°F), and fuel oil is the most common fuel. One plant
has recently switched from No. 2 fuel oil to propane as the fuel for its
rotary vermiculite dryer. Personnel at another plant indicated that the
capacity for burning oil or wood may be added to their dryer or heat may
be recovered from the dryer stack gases.
3.2.17.2.2 Exfoliation. Figure 3-35 depicts a typical vermiculite
expanding process. Sized crude vermiculite is dropped continuously
through a gas- or oil-fired vertical furnace. Exfoliation occurs after
a residence time of less than 8 seconds in the furnace, and immediate
removal of the expanded material from the furnace prevents damage to the
structure of the vermiculite particle. Flame temperatures of more than
540°C (1000°F) are used for exfoliation. Proper exfoliation requires a
high rate of heat transfer and rapid generation of steam within the
vermiculite particles.128 The expanded product falls through the furnace
and is air conveyed to a classifier system, which collects the vermicu-
lite product and removes excessive fines. Most units operate at
production rates of approximately 0.9 Mg/h (1 ton/h).
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OPEN PIT MINE
RAW ORE STORAGE
CLEAN WATER RESERVOIR
PRODUCT-
LOADING
Figure 3-34. Flow diagram of vermiculite ore processing.
129
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3.3 VARIABLES AFFECTING EMISSIONS/UNCONTROLLED EMISSION DATA
3.3.1 Dryers
3.3.1.1 Variables Affecting Emissions. Particulate matter emissions
from dryers result from entrainment of dust and fly ash particles in the
gas stream through the dryer with subsequent carryover to the exhaust
system. Conditions necessary for the entrainment of particulates in a
dryer include: (1) a moving gas stream of sufficient velocity,
(2) available particles for entrainment, and (3) sufficient mixing or
contact between the gas stream and the particles. While there are -»
many process and design variables and factors that affect emissions
from dryers, each can be considered in terms of its effect on one
or more of the conditions noted above.
3.3.1.1.1 Rotary dryers.
Gas velocity. The gas velocity in a rotary dryer is a function of
the volumetric gas flow rate and the dryer diameter. Gas velocity has a,
significant effect on the amount of dust entrained in a rotary dryer.
In 1960, the Barber-Greene Company performed a study on rotary dryers
used in the asphalt concrete industry.131 For a given drum, it was
found that the increase in dust carryout was proportional to the square
of the exhaust gas volumetric flow rate, with all other factors held
constant. As shown in Figure 3-36, an increase of 50 percent in asphalt
aggregate rotary dryer gas velocity from 180 to 275 m/min (600 to
900 ft/min) increased dust carryout by 125 percent.131
To ensure low material loss, a low gas velocity or a large diameter
dryer should be used.132 Within a given industry, similar dryer types
have variations in the volumetric flow rate per unit of product because
of different moisture contents in the raw material processed. In direct -
rotary dryers, the gas stream must supply the heat necessary to remove
moisture from the raw material and must remove the evaporated moisture
from the dryer. For minimum particle entrainment and minimum energy
consumption, gas volumes, and consequently gas velocities, should be
minimized.133
3-97
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3-98
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Indirect rotary dryers require only enough gas flow through the
cylinder to remove evaporated moisture.131 Material is dried by contact
with the indirectly heated inner shell. When used in simple drying
operations, as in the mineral industries, a damper-equipped dryer admits
only sufficient outside air to sweep moisture from the cylinder. In
this way, gas velocities and dust entrainment are minimized.134 Steam-
tube dryers are, therefore, especially suited for fine, dusty particles
because of the low internal gas velocities required for their operation.134
Available particles for entrainment. The amount of readily
entrainable fines has a direct impact on the amount of emissions from a
rotary dryer. There are three sources of fines, namely, the fines
generated by attrition during drying due to the friability of the
material, the existing fines in the feed material, and the fly ash
generated from burning fuel oil or pulverized coal.
For fine materials and materials that have a tendency to fractionate,
a dryer should have a low gas velocity to minimize the amount of particle
entrainment. Coarse-grained materials, such as industrial sand, can be
processed in small diameter dryers with high gas velocities because
these materials contain a limited amount of fines and the coarse material
does not become entrained easily.
Rotary dryers in the mineral industries are fired with natural gas,
fuel oil, and coal. Of the three fuel types, pulverized coal has the
greatest impact on the uncontrolled emissions from a rotary drying unit
because of the generation of fly ash particles during combustion.
For a typical pulverized coal-fired rotary dryer processing 27 Mg/h
(30 tons/h) of raw material and having an air flow of 12 mVs (25,000 acfm),
the additional emissions due to coal firing can be estimated as follows:
Assume—500,000 Btu/ton of product
—11,500 Btu/lb coal
—10 percent ash content
--100 percent of fly ash generated is carried out in the
exhaust gas stream
500,000 Btu 30 tons
ton h 11,500 Btu
lb coal 0.10 Ib ash _ 130.4 Ifa ash
Ib coal Ti
130.4 Ib ash 7,000 gr h
h Ib x 60 min
x
25,000
gr/acf
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A similar analysis for fuel oil, assuming
—500,000 Btu/ton of product
—150,000 Btu/gal
—0.10 percent ash content
—100 percent of fly ash is carried out in gas stream
predicts additional particulate emissions of 6 xlO-5 gr/acf from fuel oil
firing. Firing natural gas would not contribute particulate emissions to
the dryer exhaust gas stream.
Gas/solids mixing. The direct-heat rotary dryer is usually equipped
with flights on the interior of the shell for lifting and showering of
solids through the gas stream as material passes through the cylinder.135
Figure 3-37 is a schematic of flights used in rotary dryers. The effi-
ciency of .a direct rotary dryer is affected by the ability of the flights
to produce a uniform curtain of material across the full area of the
dryer and along its entire effective length. For this reason, the shape
of the flights is an important dryer design factor.136 While lifting
flights improve heat transfer within the dryer, they also increase the
amount of particle attrition due to increased material agitation.. With
low-density materials and materials that are dusty or become dusty by
attrition through the cascading effect of the flights, air velocities
must be kept at-levels where carry-over is minimized.137
3.3.1.1.2 Fluid bed dryers. In fluid bed dryers, the gas velocity
in the disengaging space is influenced by the dimensions of the
disengaging space (height and cross-sectional area), the volume of gas
flow through the dryer, and the size of the particles being dried. As a
bubble of gas reaches the upper surface of a fluidized bed, the gas
breaks through the thin upper layer of solid particles. Some of these
particles become entrained by this action and are carried upward by the
gas flow. The downward force of gravity and the upward force of the gas
stream act on the particles simultaneously.139 The large, dense particles
generally fall back to the top of the bed due to the reduced gas velocity
in the free space above the bed and are eventually discharged with the
dryer product.140 The finer and lighter particles are carried further
upward until at some height, known as the transport disengaging height
(TDH), a constant loading and size distribution are reached. The amount ,
of material entrained at this point is a function of the viscosity of the
3-100
-------
Figure 3-37. Typical flights used in rotary dryers.138
3-101
-------
gas in the dryer, the gas velocity, the disengaging height, and the
particle size of the material being dried.
3.3.1.1.3 Flash dryers. The variables that affect emissions from
flash dryers used in the mineral industries include the production rate,
the gas volume, and the characteristics of the material being dried. In
a flash dryer, 100 percent of the process material is pneumatically
conveyed to a cyclone for product collection. Therefore, uncontrolled
mass loadings to a baghouse, wet scrubber, or electrostatic precipitator
following the cyclone can be calculated directly from the production rate
if the cyclone efficiency is known. Variations in the particle size
distribution of the product material will affect the efficiency of the
product collection equipment. Larger particles will be removed more
effectively from the gas stream by a cyclone than will finer-sized
particles.
3.3.1.1.4 Spray dryers. The variables that affect emissions from
spray dryers in the mineral industries are the characteristics of the
feed material, the type and operation of the atomizer device, and the
spray chamber configuration.
Spray dried particles are usually spherical.141 The particles of
dried product may be solid or hollow, depending on the drying conditions
and nature of the feed.141 Particle size will usually depend on the
type and operation of the atomizer device, the spray chamber
configuration, and the relative movement of product and drying medium.141
3.3.1.1.5 Vibrating-grate dryers. Vibrating-grate dryers are used
exclusively in the clay industries. The variables that affect emissions
from vibrating-grate dryers are the feed particle size, the gas velocity
through the dryer, and the amount of turbulence in the dryer. The feed
particle size affects the emissions from a vibrating-grate dryer because
smaller particles have a greater tendency to become entrained than do
larger feed materials. The velocity of the gas through the dryer
directly affects the degree of turbulence and the extent to which
particles are entrained in the gas stream. As the velocity of the gas
increases, the uncontrolled emission rate also increases. The mechanical
agitation produced in a vibrating-grate dryer directly affects the
quantity of dust available for entrainment. An increase in the degree
3-102
-------
of agitation will increase the turbulence in the dryer and may (to a
limited degree) increase the uncontrolled particulate emission rate.
3.3.1.2 Uncontrolled Emission Data. Table 3-3 presents uncon-
trolled particulate matter emission data for dryers in five different
mineral industries. These data were collected from EPA-conducted tests
of representative facilities.
Fire clay is a generic term that encompasses 40 to 50 different
materials, all of which may be processed in the same dryer or calciner.
Because of the extreme variability in the physical properties of these
materials, feedstock composition is the most important variable that
affects mass loadings and particle size distributions from fire clay
calciners and dryers. The discrete particle size distributions for
various fire clay raw materials as reported by an industry representative
are presented in Figure 3-38. Flint clay raw materials are much "harder"
than plastic clays and tend to fracture or break apart, thus creating
fine (entrainable), discrete dust particles. Conversely, plastic clays
tend to agglomerate and not fracture as easily when dried or calcined.
One industry representative indicated that emissions from processing of
flint clays are more difficult to control during drying/calcining than
are those from plastic clays.142 Another industry representative
indicated that plastic clays tend to be dustier once they are dried,
making them more difficult to work with in subsequent processing.143
The particle size distribution data given in Table 3-4 shows that
38 percent of the plastic clay particles suspended in a fire clay dryer
outlet gas stream were smaller than 10 pm (4 xlO-4 in.) in diameter. As
expected, the particle size distribution for the flint clay was smaller
than that for the plastic clay. Table 3-4 shows that 54 percent of the
entrained flint clay particles were smaller than 10 urn in diameter.
Particle size data from gypsum ore dryers indicate approximately
50 percent of the particles in the gas stream following dryer.process
cyclones were below 10 urn in diameter.
In addition to the data presented in Tables 3-3 and 3-4, the EPA
conducted a test on a bentonite rotary dryer controlled by a baghouse
(Plant Cl). Because testing was not feasible at the baghouse inlet,
particulate and particle size samples were collected upstream of a
3-103
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product recovery cyclone. Particulate matter emissions from the dryer
were 258.8 g/dscm (113.1 gr/dscf) and 6 percent of the suspended
particles were less than 10 urn in diameter.
Process fugitive emissions were monitored during all testing where
they were likely to occur. Table 315 presents a summary of these fugitive
emission measurements. Actual measurements are presented in Appendix C.
3.3.2 Calciners
3.3.2.1 Variables Affecting Emissions. The variables that affect
emissions from calciners include'the gas velocity through the unit, the
characteristics of the feed material, and the fuel type.
3.3.2.1.1 Rotary calciners. The calciner should be designed for
adequate calcination without significant entrainment of solids. As the
percentage of fines in the feed material increases, the gas velocity
within the drum must decrease to prevent excessive material losses in
the exit gas stream. Because rotary calciners do not usually use flights
to shower the material through the gas stream, the attrition rates for
friable materials tend to be lower in rotary calciners than the attrition
rates of materials in rotary dryers. Gas velocities in rotary calciners
used in the mineral industries range from 1.0 to 5.1 m/s (3.3 to 16.5 ft/s),
Pulverized coal is the fuel that has the greatest influence on
uncontrolled emissions from rotary calciners because of the fly ash
generated during its combustion. However, natural gas is the fuel most
commonly used to fire rotary calciners in the mineral industries.
Therefore, few particulate emissions can be attributed to fuel combustion.
3.3.2.1.2 Flash calciners. In a flash calciner, 100 percent of
the process material is pneumatically conveyed to a cyclone for product
collection. Therefore, the mass loading of uncontrolled emissions to a
control device (baghouse, scrubber, ESP) from this unit is directly
related to the production rate and the efficiency of the product recovery
cyclone. The efficiency of the product collection equipment decreases
as the particle size of the product material decreases.
3.3.2.1.3 Multiple hearth furnaces. The variables that affect
emissions from multiple hearth furnaces include the exit gas velocity
from the unit and the particle size of the feed material. The exit gas
velocity from a multiple hearth furnace is usually designed to be
3-107
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3-108
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approximately 1.5 to 3.1 m/s (5 to 10 ft/s).152 The actual velocity
will vary depending on the gas volume and the particle size of the
material to be calcined. In most clay calcining applications, less than
3 to 4 percent of the product is lost by entrainment.152
3.3.2.1.4 Kettle calciners. The variables that influence emissions
from batch and continuous kettle calciners include the degree of
mechanical agitation, the velocity of the gas through the unit, the
particle size of the feed material, and the production rate. The degree
of mechanical agitation directly affects the quantity of dust available
to be entrained in the air passing through the inside of the kettle.
Gas velocity through the kettle directly affects the degree of
turbulence and the extent to which particles are entrained. As gas
velocity increases, the uncontrolled emission rate should increase.
Increases in production rate will also increase uncontrolled
emissions from continuous kettle calciners. The rate at which material
is fed to the kettle affects the quantity of dust available to be
entrained in the exit gases.
Emissions from batch calcining operations will vary widely with the
phase of the cycle. Dust concentration in the air stream exiting the
kettle is highest during charging, immediately after charging, and
during discharging operations.153
3.3.2.1.5 Expansion furnaces.
Perlite. The variables that affect emissions from perlite expansion
furnaces include the particle size of the ore being expanded and the
temperature at which the ore is expanded. The perlite ore is injected
into the furnace above the combustion burner. Preheating the ore prior
to injection into the flame reduces the amount of fractionation that
occurs and thereby reduces the amount of fines generated during expansion.
Ores having a small particle size (<200 mesh) are not preheated because
the distance between the combined water inside the ore particle and the
particle surface is so short that preheating causes the water to be lost
before particle expansion can take place in the furnace.154 As in flash
drying units, 100 percent of the product material is pneumatically
conveyed to product collection equipment. The efficiency of these
collection units is directly related to the particle size distribution
3-109
-------
of the expanded product, i.e., the smaller the product, the less
efficient the collector.
The ore must be expanded at the proper temperature to ensure uniform
product quality. If the temperature is too high, the expansion process
occurs too quickly, fracturing the ore particles and generating fines.
The temperature range for perlite expansion is 760° to 980°C (1400° to
1800°F). Most perlite ore is expanded at temperature of 980°C (1800°F).
Vermiculite. The factors that influence emissions from vermiculite
expansion furnaces are the characteristics of the feed material and the
gas velocity through the furnace. The feed material contains a percentage
of unexpandable rock that is removed by a "stoner" following the expansion
process. The presence of these rock impurities reduces the amount of
vermiculite expanded. As the vermiculite expands it assumes an
"accordian-like" shape instead of popping like popcorn as perlite does.
The less violent expansion of the vermiculite ore at a lower temperature
(583°C [1000°F]) results in a smaller amount of fines than are generated
during perlite expansion.
The gas velocity through the furnace directly affects the amount of
entrained particles that are carried to the control equipment. The
expanded vermiculite is not pneumatically conveyed to collection
equipment as in a perlite system. The mass loading of a vermiculite
furnace to a product recovery device has been estimated by industry
personnel to be approximately 45 kg/h (100 Ib/h) compared to 900 kg/h
(2,000 Ib/h) for pneumatically conveyed perlite.155
3.3.2.2 Uncontrolled Emission Data. Table 3-6 presents
uncontrolled particulate emission data for calciners in five mineral
industries. These data were collected from EPA-conducted and State-
conducted tests of representative facilities. The highest calciner
emissions were generated by a natural gas-fired gypsum kettle calciner.
Table 3-7 presents uncontrolled particle size distribution data for
mineral calciners.
The rotary calciner system tested at Plant PI has two parallel
control systems. The exhaust gas stream from the rotary calciner splits
into an east and a west system, each consisting of a conditioning tower
and a wet ESP. The parallel lines then come together and enter a common
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scrubber. Tests were performed at the inlets to the two conditioning
towers and the two ducts leading to the common scrubber.
Particle size data obtained on a gypsum flash calciner at Plant H4
indicate 50 percent of the particles to be less than 7 urn (2.8 xlO-4 in.)
in diameter upstream of a baghouse that is the only control device.
Process fugitive emission rates were monitored using EPA Method 9
where they were likely to occur. A summary of these fugitive emission
measurements is presented in Table 3-8. Actual measurements are presented
in Appendix C. Sulfur dioxide (S02), nitrogen oxides (as N02), and
hydrocarbon (as methane) emission data from mineral calciners are presented
in Table 3-9.
3.4 EMISSIONS ALLOWED UNDER CURRENT STATE REGULATIONS
Individual States currently use a variety of regulations and formulas
to determine allowable particulate matter emissions under SIP's. Only
three States (Georgia, New York, and New Mexico) have promulgated emission
limitations for specific mineral industries. Process equipment in the
kaolin and fuller's earth industries have a specific regulation in
Georgia, the lightweight aggregate and gypsum industries in New York,
and the perlite industry in New Mexico. Table 3-10 presents these
industry-specific regulations. In most cases, calciners and dryers in
the mineral industries are regulated as miscellaneous industrial processes.
Regulations limiting particulate matter emissions from process sources
are based on general process rate equations, concentration, and/or
visible emission regulations. Tables 3-11 and 3-12 present these miscel-
laneous industrial process particulate mass emission regulations and
visible emission limitations, respectively.
In addition to the miscellaneous industrial process regulations, two
States (Arkansas and Indiana) have specific emission limits for some plants
in this source category within their jurisdiction. Table 3-13 presents
these plant-specific regulations. It should be noted that the miscellaneous
industrial process emission limitations are not specific for each of the
mineral industry sources and, therefore, do not represent a definite level
of control based upon the performance of certain control devices at these
sources. As a result, many existing plants are currently controlling some
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TABLE 3-11. SIP ALLOWABLE EMISSIONS
Maximum allowable emissions (E)
States
Allowable emissions in Ib/h
E = 4.1 p0-67 p :g30 tons/h
(p = tons of material processed)
E = 55 p°«"-40 p >30 tons/h
E = 0.045 p0-60
E = 1.10 p0-25
E = 3.59 p0-62
E = 17.31 p0-16
E = 2.54 p<>
E = 24.8 p0-16
p <9,250 Ib/h
P £9,250 Ib/h
p ^30 tons/h
p >30 tons/h
p <450 tons/h
p §450 tons/h
E - Linear interpolation from table;
^0.05 gr/dscf; or E = 55p°-11-40
for p >30 tons/h
E =
E = 0.024 p°.66s
E = 0.05 gr/dscf
p <100,000 tons/h
p >100,000 tons/h
For emission rate (E), in Ib/h, and
production rate (R), in tons/h:
R = 1-30
R = 30-100
R = 1,000-3,000
E = 0.551
E = 4.1 p0-67
E = 55 p°-"-40
E = 4p°-677; except when
R = 10 E = 19
E = 20.421 Po.i997. except
when R = 100 E = 50
E = 38,147 pO.1072
p ^0.05 ton/h
0.05 tons/h > p £30 tons/h
p > 30 tons/h
Alabama, Arizona,
Georgia, Iowa, Kansas,
Louisiana, Michigan,
Mississippi, Missouri,
Montana, Nevada, New
Hampshire, North Dakota,
Oklahoma, Oregon, South
Carolina, South Dakota,
Viginia, Wyoming
Idaho
Alabama, Arizona,6
Arkansas, Colorado,
Connecticut, Florida,
Kentucky, Minnesota,
Tennessee, Wisconsin
Illinois
Mary1 and
Massachusetts
New York
North Carolina9
Ohio
(continued)
3-117
-------
TABLE 3-11. (continued)
Maximum allowable emissions (E)
States
E = 0.04
E = 6.000EG-1
E = 0.02
E =lo.048q°-62
EG <150,000
dscf/min
150,OOOS EG g
300,000 dscf/min
EG >300,000
dscf/min
(EG = effluent gas
volume
(q = acfm)
E = 0.50 for calcining processes
E = 0.21 for all other processes
Allowable emissions in gr/dscf
E = 0.02 or 99% collection efficiency
(whichever is more stringent)
E = 0.03
E = 0.05
E = 0.06 or linear interpolation from table
(whichever is more stringent)
E = 0.10
E = 0.20
E = 0.30
Pennsylvania
Texas
West Virginia
New Jersey
Indiana, Maryland1
Marylandh
Vermont
Washington
Delaware
New Mexico
For Alabama, a Class I source is located in a county with 50 percent
or more of its population in urban areas, and where secondary national
.ambient air quality standards are exceeded.
For Arizona, if located outside Gila, Maricopa, Pima, Paral, or Santa
Cruz Counties.
^For Mississippi, Equation Set 1 except IB for p = 30 tons/h.
For Alabama, a Class II source is in a county not satisfying Class I
conditions.
-For Arizona, if located in Arizona counties listed in b above.
For sources with New York State environmental rating of B or C.
yFor North Carolina, 95 percent collection efficiency, by weight of
.particulate matter, for lightweight aggregate.
•For Maryland new sources in Areas III and IV.
For Maryland, new sources in Areas I, II, V, VI.
3-118
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TABLE 3-12. STATE VISIBLE EMISSIONS STANDARDS^
Visible emissions
(percent)
States
10
20
30
40
Illinois,5 Missouri, Montana,0 New York,d
West Virginia
Alabama, Arizona, Colorado, Connecticut,
Delaware, Florida, Idaho, Kansas, Kentucky,
Louisiana, Maryland, Massachusetts, Michigan,
Minnesota, Montana, Nevada, New Hampshire,
New Jersey, New Mexico, New York, North
Carolina, North Dakota, Ohio, Oklahoma,
Oregon, Pennsylvania, South Carolina, South
Dakota, Tennessee, Texas, Vermont, Virginia,
Virgin Islands, Washington, Wisconsin,
Wyoming
Illinois
Arizona, Georgia, Indiana/ Iowa,
Mississippi, Utah, North Carolina
General long term standards are included for new sources where applicable.
Exceptions to individual State regulations due to manfulctions, start-ups,
band shutdowns have been excluded.
For Illinois, perlite—10 percent opacity; gypsum and industrial sand—
30 percent opacity.
For Montana, vermiculite—10 percent opacity; bentonite and gypsum—
d20 percent opacity.
For New York, industrial sand, lightweight aggregate, and talc—10 percent
eopacity; gypsum—20 percent opacity.
For North Carolina, feldspar, gypsum, lightweight aggregate, and perl He—
f20 percent opacity; industrial sand—40 percent opacity.
For Indiana and Utah, attainment areas—40 percent opacity, nonattainment
areas—30 percent opacity.
3-119
-------
TABLE 3-13. SPECIFIC PLANTS ADDRESSED UNDER STATE REGULATIONS
Industry
Plant/location
Alumina
ALCOA
Bauxite, Ark.
Reynolds Aluminum Co.
Bauxite, Ark.
Clays
Porocel Chemical
Little Rock, Ark.
Fire clay
A. P. Green
Little Rock, Ark.
Gypsum
Temple Gypsum
West Memphis, Ark.
LWA
Arkansas LWA Corp.
England, Ark.
Arkansas LWA Corp.
West Memphis, Ark.
Perlite
U.S. Gypsum Co.
Shoals, Ind.
Roofing granules
3M Company
Little Rock, Ark.
Silica, glass, blasting sand
Silica Products
Guion, Ark.
Allowable
emissions,
Ib/h
5
20
25
30
35
55
75
80
100
60
.
95
32
130
120
140
140
40
«a
0.278a
0.2993
50
25
200
32
72
Process unit(s)
13 dryers
1 calciner
6 calciners
3 calciners
2 calciners
1 calciner
1 calciner
1 calciner
1 calciner
9 rotary kilns
1 dryer
2 calciners
1 calciner
1 dryer
2 calciners
Old calciner
New calciner
1 dryer
1 expansion furnace
1 dryer
1 calciner
2 calciners
1 dryer
1 calciner
3
Ib/ton of material produced.
3-120
-------
sources to a more stringent level than required by the SIP limitations.
The mass emission limitations may also vary with the capacity of the
individual process unit.
The rationale used to determine RA I (baseline) emission limits for
each of the 17 industries is described below. Initially, the number and
type of control devices used in each industry were tabulated, and repre-
sentative (typical) units were selected for use as baseline control
devices.165 To determine the range of emissions allowed by States for a
particular industry, equivalent concentration emission limits for each
size and type of model process unit were calculated from State regulations.
Typical-size process units were then used to develop a single, nationwide
average SIP limit, using a weighted average based on total production by
State.166 If the calculated baseline emission limit was greater than
0.20 gr/dscf and the industry typically uses baghouses for control, it
was assumed that the State opacity limits of 20 percent are more stringent
than the corresponding SIP mass emission limits. Therefore, the baseline
emission limit selected for evaluation was the emission grain loading
estimated to result in an exhaust gas opacity of 20 percent, i.e.,
0.15 gr/dscf.
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9. Reference 1, p. 138.
10. Reference 1, p. 139.
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3-125
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78. Memo from Hamilton, H. L., Jr., Research Triangle Institute to
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143. Memo from Nelson, A., MRI, to Neuffer, W., EPA/ISB. November 10,
1983. Trip report for North American Refractories Company, Farber,
Missouri, p. 4.
3-129
-------
144. Confidential Reference 3-2.
145. Confidential Reference 3-3.
146. Confidential Reference 3-4.
147. Confidential Reference 3-5.
148. Confidential Reference 3-6.
149. Confidential Reference 3-7.
150. Besalke, Robert E., A. P. Green Refractories Company, Mexico,
Missouri. Air Pollution Control in the Refractories Industry.
(Presented at the 73rd National AICHE Meeting, Minneapolis,
Minnesota, August 28, 1972.) p. 13.
151. Confidential Reference 3-8.
152. Telecon. Larson, J., MRI, with Morrison, L., Mine & Smelter, Inc.
February 17, 1984. Information about multiple hearth furnaces.
153. Letter from Purse!!, L. A., U. S. Gypsum Company, to Stelling, J.,
Radian Corp. January 9, 1981. Comments on draft Chapters 3-6 of
Gypsum BID. 2 p.
154. Telecon. Kowalski, A., MRI, with Sharpe, M., Chemrock Corp.
January 20, 1984. Information about expansion furnaces.
155. Telecon. Nelson, A., MRI, with Eaton, F., W. R. Grace & Company.
March 3, 1983. Information about expansion furnaces.
156. Confidential Reference 3-9.
157. Confidential Reference 3-10.
158. Confidential Reference 3-11.
159. Confidential Reference 3-12.
160. Confidential Reference 3-13.
161. Confidential Reference 3-14.
162. Confidential Reference 3-15.
163. Confidential Reference 3-16.
164. Confidential Reference 3-17.
165. Memo from Doshi, Y. N., MRI, to File. May 31, 1984. Baseline
control technology summary.
3-130
-------
166. Memo from Doshi, Y. N., and J. A. Shular, MRI, to Neuffer, W. J.,
EPA/ISB. May 31, 1984 (revised September 7, 1984). Final model
facilities, baseline control emission levels, and regulatory
alternatives.
3-131
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4. EMISSION CONTROL TECHNIQUES
This chapter presents the particulate matter emission control
techniques used for dryers and calciners in 17 mineral processing
industries. Significant design variables and factors that affect the
performance of applicable control devices are discussed in Section 4.1.
The applications and performance of the various techniques for controlling
dryer and calciner emissions are discussed in Sections 4.2 and 4.3,
respectively.
4.1 DESCRIPTION OF CONTROL TECHNIQUES
The primary control systems used to reduce particulate matter
emissions from dryer and calciner systems are fabric filters, wet scrubbers,
and electrostatic precipitators (ESP's). Single and multiple cyclone
(centrifugal) separators are also used for emission control in a few
cases. However, in the majority of dryer and calciner systems, cyclones
are primarily used to recover product material from the exhaust gas
stream before the gas is ducted to the primary control device. Table 4-1
summarizes the use of emission control techniques on dryers and calciners
in mineral industries.
4.1.1 Centrifugal Separators
4.1.1.1 General Description. Centrifugal separators, or cyclones,
rely on centrifugal force to separate particles from a gas stream.
Figure 4-1 is a schematic of a typical cyclone. A circular flow pattern
is induced in the carrier gas by a tangential inlet or by inlet vanes.1
As a result, particles of sufficient mass impinge on the cyclone wall
and fall into a hopper.
Single cyclones of medium efficiency design are capable of handling
high gas volumes at a pressure drop of 1.0 to 1.5 kilopascals (kPa)
4-1
-------
TABLE 4-1. EMISSION CONTROL TECHNIQUES FOR DRYERS AND CALCINERS
IN THE MINERAL INDUSTRIES
Industry/Process unit
Al umi na
Flash calciner
Rotary calciner
Ball Clay
Rotary dryer (indirect)
Vibrating-grate dryer (indirect)
Bentonite
Fluid bed dryer
Rotary dryer
Diatomite
Flash dryer
Rotary dryer
Rotary calciner
Feldspar
Fluid bed dryer
Rotary dryer
Fire Clay
Rotary dryer
Vibrating-grate dryer
Rotary calciner
Fuller's Earth
Fluid bed dryer
Rotary dryer
Rotary calciner
Gypsum
Rotary dryer
Flash calciner
Kettle calciner
Industrial Sand
Fluid bed dryer
Rotary dryer
Control device(s) used
Fabric Wet Electrostatic
filter scrubber precipitator
X
X
X
X
X X
X X
X X
X X
X X
X X
X X
X X
X
X X
X
X X
X X
X X
X
X X
X X
X
(continued)
4-2
-------
TABLE 4-1. (continued)
Control device(s) used
Industry/Process unit
Fabric
filter
Wet
scrubber
Electrostatic
precipitator
Kaolin
Rotary dryer
Spray dryer
Flash calciner
Multiple hearth furnace
Rotary calciner
Lightweight Aggregate
Rotary calciner
Magnesium Compounds
Multiple hearth furnace
Rotary calciner
Perlite
Rotary dryer
Expansion furnace
Roofing Granules
Fluid bed dryer
Rotary dryer
Talc
Flash dryer
Rotary dryer
Rotary calciner
Titanium Dioxide
Flash dryer
Fluid bed dryer
Rotary dryer (direct)
Rotary dryer (indirect)
Spray dryer
Rotary calciner
Vermiculite
Fluid bed dryer
Rotary dryer
Expansion furnace
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
4-3
-------
TOP
VIEW
GAS
FRONT
VIEW
CYLINDRICAL
SECTION
GAS OUTLET TUBE
DUST OUTLET TUBE
DUST OUT
Figure 4-1. Typical simple cyclone collector.
4-4
-------
(4 to 6 inches of water column [in. w.c.]).2 High efficiency cyclones
are generally less than 1 m (3.3 ft) in diameter and operate at a
pressure drop of 2.0 to 2.5 kPa (8 to 10 in. w.c.).2
A multiple cyclone separator consists of a number of cyclones that
operate in parallel.3 The individual cyclones are typically from 15 to
60 cm (6 to 24 in.) in diameter and operate at pressure drops from 0.5
to 1.5 kPa (2 to 6 in. w.c.). The number of cyclones used in a multiple
cyclone separator is limited by the amount of space available and the
system pressure drop.
Centrifugal separators are typically used upstream of a fabric
filter, wet scrubber, or an ESP for product recovery or to reduce the
dust loading to the primary control device.
4.1.1.2 Factors Affecting Performance. The efficiency of a single
cyclone separator increases with an increase in any of the following
parameters: (1) density of the particulate matter, (2) gas velocity
into the cyclone, (3) cyclone body length, (4) number of gas revolutions,
(5) particle diameter, (6) amount of dust entrained in the gas stream,
and (7) smoothness of the cyclone inner wall.3
Conventional cyclones seldom remove particles with an efficiency
greater than 90 percent unless the particle size is 25 urn (1 xlO-3 in.)
or larger.1 For effective removal of particles down to 5 urn (2 xlO-4 in.)
in diameter, small-diameter, high efficiency cyclones are available.
They typically remove 95 to 99 percent of particles having diameters of
15 to 40 |jm (6 xlO-4 to 1.6 xlO-3 in.), 80 to 95 percent of particles
from 5 to 20 urn (2 xlO-4 to 8 xlO-4 in.), and 50 to 80 percent of particles
with diameters less than 5 jjm (2 xlO-4 in.).1 Overall cyclone efficiency
ranges from about 50 to 95 percent.1
Other factors affecting performance for a given cyclone are the
volumetric flow rate and reentrainment of particulate matter. If the
actual volumetric flow rate is lower than the design flow rate, then the
actual collection efficiency will be lower than the design collection
efficiency. As the gas temperature rises, the gas viscosity increases,
which causes a reduction in the cyclone's efficiency. Ambient air
leaking into the cyclone impairs the gas flow within the cyclone. Once
the flow becomes irregular, the cyclone is susceptible to both abrasion
4-5
-------
of the internal surfaces and reentrainment of particles in the cleaned
gas stream.
4.1.2 Fabric Filters
4-1-2.1 General Description. A fabric filter system (baghduse)
consists of a number of filtering elements (bags), a bag cleaning system,
a main shell structure (that is usually divided into compartments and
equipped with dust hoppers), a dust removal system, and a fan. Particu-
late matter is filtered from the gas stream as the gas passes through the
bag fabric. Accumulated dust on the bags is periodically removed using
mechanical or pneumatic mechanisms. Typical design and operation informa-
tion for fabric filters used to control particulate matter emissions from
mineral dryers and calciners is presented in Section 4.2.2.
As particle-laden gas passes through the porous bag fabric, dust
particles are deposited on individual fiber surfaces and within the
interstices of the fiber matrix. Continued particle deposition on the
fabric creates a uniform dust cake that functions as a porous filter
medium. Because the pores of the fabric matrix are large relative to
the diameter of most of the incoming particles, some particles at the
dust cake/fabric interface will migrate through the fabric and escape
into the effluent gas stream. The outlet dust concentration is relatively
constant over time and substantially independent of the dust concentra-
tion entering the fabric filter.5-7
Figure 4-2 depicts the mechanisms of fabric filtration. The most
important particle collection mechanisms of fabric filtration are inertia!
impaction, Brownian diffusion, and interception. Filtration theory
predicts that particle size will have a limited effect on the efficiency
of particle capture. For particles less than approximately 1 urn
(4 xlO-5 in.) in diameter, diffusion is the primary capture mechanism;
for particles greater than approximately 2 urn (8 xlO-5 in.), impaction
is the primary capture mechanism.9,10
The superficial (face) velocity through a fabric filter is calculated
by dividing the total gas flow rate (at operating temperature and pressure)
by the total cloth area available for filtration. This parameter is
referred to as the air-to-cloth (A/C) ratio. Baghouse operation at A/C
ratios higher than those recommended by the manufacturer may lead to
4-6
-------
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03
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03
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excessive particle penetration or blinding of the fabric, which results
in reduced collection efficiency and reduced fabric life.11
The static pressure drop is an indicator of the resistance to gas
flow through the filter fabric and the dust cake. Pressure drop is
controlled by the cleaning cycle. At regular intervals, the dust cake
that accumulates on the fabric must be removed to reduce the resistance
to gas flow. Cleaning systems are designed to allow the isolation and
cleaning of one compartment at a time while the remaining compartments
continue to filter "dirty" gas. The cleaning frequency of baghouses can
be controlled by a timer, or sensors can be installed that start the
cleaning cycle when a specified pressure drop occurs across the system.
The primary fabric cleaning mechanisms are mechanical shaking, reverse
air cleaning, and pulse jet cleaning. Pulse jet cleaning is the method
selected for most baghouse applications on calciners and dryers in
mineral industries.
A conventional shaker-type fabric filter is shown in Figure 4-3.
Mechanical shaking is normally accomplished by a rapid horizontal motion
of the filter bag, induced by a mechanical shaker bar. The shaking
causes flexing of the fabric and the release of the dust cake from the
fabric surface. In shaker-type fabric filters the A/C ratio is normally
less than 1 cubic meter of gas per minute per square meter of cloth area
(mVmin-m2) (3.3 cubic feet per minute per square foot [ft3/min-ft2]).
A reverse air baghouse is shown in Figure 4-4. Reverse air cleaning
is accomplished by reversal of the gas flow through the filter fabric to
release the dust cake from the bag. The reverse air flow may be supplied
by cleaned exhaust gases or by a secondary high pressure fan supplying
ambient air.14 Typical A/C ratios for reverse air baghouses in mineral
industries range from 0.32 to 2.2 m3/min-m2 (1 to 7 ft3/min-ft2).
A pulse jet baghouse is shown in Figure 4-5. In pulse jet cleaning,
a sudden pulse of compressed air is injected into the top of the bag.
This pulse creates a traveling wave in the fabric that separates the
cake from the surface of the fabric. The cleaning normally proceeds by
rows, all bags in the row being cleaned simultaneously. The compressed
air pulse, delivered at 550 to 800 kPa (80 to 116 lb/in2 [psi]) results
in local reversal of the gas flow. The cleaning intensity is a function
4-8
-------
FAN
DOOR
Figure 4-3. Shaker-type baghouse.12
4-9
-------
O)
0)
-------
CLEAN AIR PLENUM
PLENUM ACCESS
BLOW PIPE
INDUCED FLOW
TO CLEAN AIR OUTLET
AND EXHAUSTER
DIRTY AIR INLET & DIFFUSES
Figure 4-5. Pulse jet baghouse.15
4-11
-------
of the compressed air pressure, the pulse duration, and the pulse
frequency.14 Typical A/C ratios for pulse jet baghouses in mineral
processing industries range from 0.95 to 2.5 m3/min-m2 (3 to
8 ft3/min-ft2).
Fabric filters are characterized as positive pressure or negative
pressure depending on the location of the fan. In positive pressure
systems, the effluent gas is forced through the fabric filter by a fan
on the inlet side of the filter. In negative pressure fabric filters,
the effluent gas is drawn through the bag fabric by a fan on the outlet
side of the filter. Negative pressure filters require less fan maintenance
(because of less abrasion) and less operating horsepower than the positive
pressure type.16 Negative pressure baghouses are the most common design
used in the mineral processing industries.
4.1.2.2 Factors Affecting Performance. The physical characteristics
of the gas stream to be cleaned are the predominant factors affecting
the design of a fabric filter. Important parameters include gas temperature
and particle size.17 In many calciner systems and in high temperature
dryer systems, the exit gas temperature must be reduced before the gas
enters the baghouse. The most common methods of cooling the gas stream
from dryers and calciners are dilution and radiant cooling (heat
exchangers). The use of dilution air to lower gas temperature is the
simplest approach, but it increases the operating cost because the
volume of ambient air required necessitates a larger baghouse and fan.
The use of radiant cooling reduces collector size, but it requires an
initial investment in additional ductwork.18
The particle size distribution of the particulate matter in the gas
stream affects both dust cake porosity and abrasion of the fabric.19 A
smaller overall particle size distribution will result in greater pene-
tration into the fabric. Although greater penetration causes more
abrasion to the fabric strands, the small particles create a more uniform
dust cake than larger particles, thus reducing porosity and improving
filtration. Because larger particles are more easily filtered out and
smaller particles create a more efficient filter cake, fabric filters
are relatively insensitive to inlet particle size variations. The
outlet dust concentration is however, relatively constant over time and
4-12
-------
substantially independent of the dust concentration entering the fabric
filter.5,6
Fabric selection is usually based on the experience of the
manufacturer with similar baghouse applications. Important factors to
consider in the selection of a fabric are: (a) dust penetration,
(b) continuous and maximum operating temperatures, (c) chemical degradation,
(d) abrasion resistance, (e) cake release, (f) pressure drop, (g) cost,
(h) cleaning method, and (i) fabric construction.20
Woven and felted materials are used to make bag filters. Woven
filters are made of yarn with a definite repeated pattern and felted
filters are composed of randomly placed fibers compressed into a mat and
attached to a loosly woven backing material. Woven filters are used
with low energy cleaning methods such as shaking and reverse air.
Felted fabrics are used with pulse jet cleaning.21 A tightly woven
fabric has a low permeability and is better for the capture of small
particles, at the cost of increased pressure drop. Felted filters are
generally 2 to 3 times thicker than woven filters and each fiber acts as
a target for particle capture by impaction and interception. Felted
bags should not be used in high humidity situations, especially if the
particles are hygroscopic, because clogging and blinding could occur.21
Table 4-2 shows the continuous maximum operating temperatures
recommended by fabric manufacturers and the chemical and abrasion
resistance of common commercial fabrics. Some filters are made from
natural fibers such as cotton or wool. These fibers are relatively
inexpensive but have temperature limitations (<100°C [212°F]) and only
average abrasion resistance. Synthetic fibers such as nylon, Orion®,
and polyester have slightly higher temperature limitations and chemical
resistance. Synthetic fibers are more expensive than natural fibers.
(R)
Nomex is a registered trademark of fibers made by DuPont. DuPont makes
the fibers, not filter fabrics or bags. Nomex® is widely used due to
its relatively high temperature resistance and its resistance to abrasion.
Other fibers such as Teflon® and Fiberglas® can be used in very high
temperature situations (230° to 260°C [446° to 500°F]). Both materials
have good resistance to acid attack, but are generally more expensive
4-13
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4-14
-------
than other fibers.21 The most common bag materials for dryer and calciner
baghouses are Nomex, Dacron, Fiberglas®, and polyester.
4.1.3 Wet Scrubbers
4.1.3.1 General Description. The types of wet scrubbers used to
control particulate matter emissions from dryers and calciners in the
mineral industries are spray towers, venturi scrubbers, packed bed
scrubbers, cyclonic scrubbers, impingement plate scrubbers, and dynamic
scrubbers. Specific details about wet scrubbers used to control
particulate matter emissions from mineral dryers and calciners are
presented in Section 4.2.3. ,
The most important mechanism by which all scrubbers remove
particulates from gas streams is the inertia! impaction of the particu-
late onto the water droplet.22 Removal of particles from the collecting
surfaces is accomplished by flushing with a liquid. Particles can be
wetted by the following mechanisms: ,
1. Impingement by spray droplets. Liquid droplets in a spray
directed across the path of the dust particles impinge upon the dust
particles with an efficiency proportional to the number of droplets in
the spray and to the force imparted to the droplets.
2. Diffusion. When liquid droplets are dispersed among, dust
particles, the dust particles are deposited on the droplets by Brownian
movement or diffusion. This is the principal mechanism in the collection
of submicron particles. Diffusion as the result of fluid turbulence may
also be a significant mechanism in the deposition of dust particles on
spray droplets.
3. Condensation. When a gas is cooled below its dew point in
passing through a wet collector, condensation of moisture occurs, because
the dust particles act as condensation nuclei. Condensation is an
important mechanism only for gases that are initially hot.
To be wetted, particulate matter must either make contact with a
spray droplet or impinge upon a wetted surface. Particles that have
been wetted increase in mass and are more easily removed from the gas
stream than are dry particles. Wetted particles may be separated from
the gas stream by impingment against surfaces placed in the path of the
gas flow (mist eliminator); centrifugal action may be used to throw them
4-15
-------
to the outer walls of the collector; or simple gravity settling may be
employed.
The difficulty of removing particulate material from a gas stream
by impingement on water droplets increases with a decrease in particle
size. Higher relative velocities (between particles in the gas stream
and the water droplets) and more acute changes in direction are required
to remove small particles from the gas stream by impingement than are
required to remove large particles.24
4.1.3.1.1 Spray towers. One of the simplest types of wet scrubber
is the spray tower. Liquid droplets, produced by either spray nozzles
or atomizers, fall through a rising gas stream containing dust particles.
The terminal settling velocity of the spray droplets must be greater
than the velocity of the rising gas stream to prevent spray droplet
entrainment and carryover. In most applications, this gas velocity
ranges from 0.6 to 1.5 m/s (2 to 5 ft/s).25 For higher velocities (over
1.8 m/s [6 ft/s])s a mist eliminator must be used in the top of the
tower to capture spray droplets that become entrained in the gas stream.23
Figure 4-6 is a schematic of a spray tower.
Operating characteristics of spray towers include a low pressure
drop (^0.75 kPa [3 in. w.c.]), liquid requirements ranging from 0.4 to
2.7 liters per 1,000 cubic meters (Ji/1,000 m3) (3 to 20 gallons per
1,000 cubic feet [gal/1,000 ft3]) of gas treated, and typical gas reten-
tion times within the tower of 20 to 30 seconds. An advantage of spray
towers is their ability to handle large gas volumes. The chief disadvan-
tage of spray towers is their relatively low scrubbing efficiency for
particles less than 5 |jm (2 xlO-4 in.) in diameter.25
4.1.3.1.2 Venturi scrubbers. Figure 4-7 shows a cross-section of
a venturi scrubber. As water is introduced into the throat, the gas is
forced to move at a higher velocity and the water will shear into droplets.
Particles in the gas stream then impact onto the water droplets produced.
Moving a large volume of gas through a small constriction gives a high
gas velocity and a high pressure drop across the system. Collection
efficiency for small particles increases with increased velocities (and
corresponding increased pressure drops) since the water is sheared into
more and smaller droplets than at lower velocities. The large number of
4-16
-------
TOP VIEW
SIDE VIEW
GAS INLET.
\/\
/\ \
/v
\
/v\
/\ \
LIQUID IN
•STRAINER
PIPE
PIPE
MIST ELIMINATOR
SPRAY NOZZLES
GAS DISTRIBUTOR PLATE
WATER AND SLUDGE .DRAIN
Figure 4-6. Gravity spray tower.26
4-17
-------
GAS OUTLET
SCRUBBING
LIQUID
SPRAY
NOZZLES
THROAT
SECTION
GAS INLET
I
FLOODED ELBOW
t
SLURRY OUTLET
Figure 4-7. Cross sectional view of a
typical venturi scrubber.2?
CYCLONIC
SEPARATOR
TANGENTIAL
INLET'DUCT
4-1.8
-------
small droplets combined with the turbulence in the throat section provides
numerous impaction targets for particle collection.28
The venturi is a gas conditioner and must be followed by a device
for the elimination of entrained droplets. The entrained droplets are
removed from the gas stream in a cyclone separator that may be followed
by other mechanical means of mist elimination.29
Figure 4-8 shows the relationship among pressure drop, particle
size, and removal efficiency for a typical venturi scrubber. As shown
in this figure, collection efficiency increases with increasing pressure
drop for a given particle size. The pressure drop of a scrubber is an
indicator of the efficiency that can be achieved and the energy required
for its operation.
Collection efficiency increases as the gas velocity in the throat
increases.31 Theoretical efficiency curves showing the effect of variable
throat velocity for a typical venturi are presented in Figure 4-9.
Collection efficiency increases as the liquid-to-gas (L/G) ratio and the
pressure drop increase.33-35 At very high L/G ratios, however, liquid
may flood the system and cause efficiency to decrease. The effect of
different L/G ratios on the operation of a typical venturi scrubber is
shown in Figure 4-10. As particles become smaller, the relative difference
in velocity between the particles and the water droplets must be increased
to achieve collision. (Small particles tend to follow gas flow streams
around water droplets rather than collide with the droplets.) A typical
L/G ratio for dryer and calciner venturi scrubbers is 30 £/l,000 m3
(8 gal/1,000 ft3),
4.1.3.1.3 Packed bed scrubbers. A typical packed bed scrubber is
shown in Figure 4-11. Packed bed scrubbers are vertical columns that
have been filled with material that has a high surface area to volume
ratio. Water is distributed over, and trickles down through, the packed
bed, exposing the gas to a large, wetted surface area.
The modes of gas-liquid contact in packed bed scrubbers may be
cocurrent, countercurrent, or crossflow. The packed towers most commonly
used for dryer and calciner emission control are countercurrent scrubbers.
Gas velocities in countercurrent scrubbers range from 0.9 to 1.8 m/s (3
to 6 ft/s). Bed depth in packed countercurrent scrubbers is typically
4-19
-------
COLLECTION EFFICIENCY VS. PARTICLE SIZE
99.39
LU
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LU
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LU
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PARTICLE DIAMETER IN MICROMETERS
Figure 4-8. Venturi scrubber comparative fractional efficiency curves.30
4-20
-------
0 -
20
S 40
u_
z:
O
I-H
O
O
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60
80
TOO
THROAT VELOCITIES:
5,000 cm/s (164 ft/s)
7,500 cm/s (246 ft/s)
10,000 cm/s (328 ft/s)
12,500 cm/s (410 ft/s)
15,000 cm/s (492 ft/s)
0
1 2 3
AERODYNAMIC PARTICLE DIAMETER, ym*
4
*The aerodynamic particle diameter is the diameter of a unit density
sphere having the same aerodynamic characteristics as the actual
particle.
Figure 4-9. Theoretical efficiency curve for a venturi
scrubber illustrating effect of throat velocity.32
4-21
-------
0 -
,20 -
o
LU
£40
o
UJ
o
0
60 -
80 -
100 L
1234
AERODYNAMIC PARTICLE DIAMETER, ym
Figure 4-10. Theoretical efficiency curve for venturi
scrubber illustrating effect of liquid to gas ratio.36
4-22
-------
Discharge
Liquid Inlet
Liquid
Spray Distributor
Gas
Inlet
Pump
Suction
Drain
Figure 4-11. Typical packed bed scrubber.37
4-23
-------
0.9 to 3.1 m (3 to 10 ft). Countercurrent scrubbers are also the most
efficient of the three packed bed scrubber types for the collection of
particulates as small as 3 to 5 urn (1 xlO-4 to 2 xlO-4 in.)-
Coarsely packed beds are used for removing coarse dusts with particle
diameters greater than 10 urn (4 xlO-4 in.) and with velocities through
the bed of approximately 2 m/s (6.7 ft/s). Finely packed beds may be
used for removing smaller particulates, but the velocity through the bed
must be kept below 0.3 m/s (0.8 ft/s) to achieve particulate removal.
Finely packed beds have a tendency to plug, and their applications are
generally limited to gas streams with low grain loadings.
4.1.3.1.4 Cyclonic scrubbers. Figure 4-12 shows a standard type
of cyclonic scrubber. The gas enters tangentially at the bottom of the
scrubber and follows a spiral path upwards. Liquid spray is introduced
into the gas stream from an axially located manifold in the lower part
of the unit. The atomized fine-spray droplets are caught in the gas
stream and are swept to the walls of the cylinder by centrifugal force,
colliding with, absorbing, and collecting particulate matter en route.
The scrubbing liquid and collected particles run down the walls and out
of the bottom of the unit; the clean gas leaves through the top.
Because impaction is the principal collecting mechanism, collection
efficiency is by enhanced comparatively high gas velocities. Pressure
drops vary from 0.5 to 2 kPa (2 to 8 in. w.c.), and L/G ratios vary from
0.6 to 1.3 A/1,000 m3 (4 to 10 gal/1,000 ft3). The particulate collec-
tion efficiency of cyclonic scrubbers is low compared to venturi
scrubbers but superior to spray towers and packed bed scrubbers.39
4.1.3.1.5 Impingement plate scrubbers. Figure 4-13 shows an
impingement plate scrubber. This scrubber is a tower consisting of a
vertical shell in which a large number of equally spaced, circular,
perforated (orifice) plates are mounted. Downstream of each orifice
plate is a target plate for impingement of the gas stream. At one side
of each orifice plate, a conduit (downspout) is provided to pass the
liquid to the plate below. At the opposite side of the orifice plate, a
similar conduit feeds liquid from the plate above.
Gas flowing upward is divided into thousands of jets by the orifices.
Each jet aspirates liquid and creates a wetted surface on the target
4-24
-------
CLEANED GAS OUTLET
DIRTY GAS INLET
WATER WATER
OUTLET INLET ,
SPRAY MANIFOLD
Figure 4-12. Cyclonic scrubber.38
4-25
-------
Target plate
SIS"
Water
level
Gas flow
ARRANGEMENT OF "TARGET PLATES"
IN IMPINGEMENT SCRUBBER
Water droplets atomized
at the edges of orifices
Downspout to
lower stage
MECHANISM OF IMPINGEMENT SCRUBBER
IMPINGEMENT
BAFFtE STAGE
AGGLOMERATING
SLOT STAGE
Figure 4-13. Impingement plate scrubber.lf°
4-26
-------
plate at the point of maximum jet velocity. As the jet impinges on a
wetted target, particles are entrapped in the scrubbing liquid. On
impingement, each jet forms minute gas bubbles that rise through, and
create turbulence in, the liquid blanket. This provides close gas-liquid
contact for maximum cleaning. Continuous violent agitation of the
blanket by the bubbles prevents settling of entrapped particles and
flushes them away in the scrubbing liquid.
Gas velocities of 4.6 to 6 m/s (15 to 20 ft/s) through the orifices
are common.40 Overall collection efficiencies for a single plate may
range from 90 to 98 percent for 1 urn (4 x 10-5 in.) particles, and
pressure drops from 0.3 to 2 kPa (1 to 8 in. w.c.) are typical. Water
requirements usually range from 0.4 to 0.7 2/1,000 m3 (3 to 5 gal/
1,000 ft3) of gas.40
4.1.3.1.6 Dynamic scrubbers. Figure 4-14 is a generalized depiction
of a dynamic scrubber. In this type of collector, the scrubber liquid
is introduced just prior to the fan. The fan acts as a propeller of the
gas stream, a mixer for the gas and liquid streams, and an impingment
surface for particles and contaminated liquid. Water is typically added
at a rate of. 75 to 150 A/1,000 m3 (0.5 to 1 gal/1,000 ft3) of gas.
Several manufacturers offer improvements on the dynamic scrubber design
by adding preconditioning sections to the scrubber. These preconditioning
sections utilize cyclonic flows and liquid additions to provide an
initial mixing of the scrubber liquid and the gas stream.
4.1.3.2 Factors Affecting Performance. The most important parameters;
to be considered in analyzing the performance of wet scrubbers include
the energy imparted in the liquid-gas mixing process (measured as pressure
drop), the amount of scrubber water used per volume of gas (L/G ratio),
and the inlet particle size and concentration. High pressure drops
across a wet scrubber increase the likelihood of contact between the
scrubbing liquid and individual particles. High particle removal
efficiencies thus require high energy input if the inlet particle size
is small.
The difficulty of removing particulate matter with scrubbers
increases markedly with decreased particle size. As particle diameter
decreases, higher velocities and more acute changes in direction are
4-27
-------
Water Spray
Vanes
"?">.t)1rt Laden
••• _ . *^
A1r
Figure 4-14. Generalized depiction of a dynamic wet scrubber.41
4-28
-------
required to separate particles from the gas stream. A typical 2.5 kPa
(10 in. w.c.) pressure drop venturi scrubber can remove particles of
approximately 2 urn (8 xlO-5 in.) with almost 100 percent efficiency,
while a 15 kPa -(60 in. w.c.) pressure drop venturi may be required to
remove 100 percent of the particles as small as 0.4 urn (1.6 xlO-5 in.).42
4.1.4 Electrostatic Precipitators
4.1.4.1 General Description. Electrostatic precipitators ,are used
; , - _. i; A '. t
to remove particulate matter from an exhaust gas stream based on the
attraction between particles of one electrical charge,and a collection
electrode of opposite charge. Specific details about. ESP's used to
control particulate matter emissions from mineral dryers and, calciners
are presented in Section 4.2.4.
Figure 4-15 presents a diagram of a typical ESP that is used to
control particulate matter emissions from mineral dryers and calciners.
Particulate matter collection in an ESP involves three steps: the
electrical charging of particles in the gas stream, the collection of
the particles on the collection plates or electrodes, and the removal of
the collected particulate matter. Electric fields are established by
applying a direct-current voltage across a pair of electrodes: a discharge
electrode (a negatively charged metal rod or plate) and a collection
electrode (a metal plate). Particles in the inlet gas stream acquire a
negative electrical charge as they pass through the electric fields
around the discharge electrodes. The negatively charged particles then
migrate toward the positively charged collection electrodes. The
particulate matter is separated from the gas stream by retention on the
collection electrode. Figure 4-16 presents the basic processes involved
in electrostatic precipitation.
Once collected, the particulate matter must be removed from the
collection electrode. This removal is generally accomplished by rapping
the electrodes to dislodge the accumulated dust layer, which falls into
a hopper for subsequent removal. Rapping of collection electrodes is
done at regular, predetermined intervals. Successful rapping depends
upon accumulation of sufficient material on the electrodes such that the
dust layer falls in large chunks into the hopper, thus reducing the
possibility of particle reentrainment in the gas stream. The depth
4-29
-------
INSULATOR
COMPARTMENT
HIGH VOLTAGE
SYSTEJMJPPER
SUPPORT FRAME
GAS
FLOW
TRANSFORMER/
RECTIFIER
COLLECTING
SURFACES
HIGH VOLTAGE
ELECTRODES
WITH WEIGHT
COLLECTING
SURFACE
RAPPERS
HOPPER
Figure 4-15. Typical ESP with insulator compartment.
43
4-30
-------
o
-p
-------
of the ESP is significant in determining the extent of particle
reentrainment.
4.1.4.2 Factors Affecting Performance. An ESP must be designed
for specific process conditions. The process variables that affect ESP
performance include:
1. Gas flow rate and moisture content;
2. Particle size distribution; and
3. Particle resistivity.
The ESP design parameters that affect ESP performance are:
1. Plate area (of the collecting electrodes);
2. Electrode spacing and configuration;
3. Voltage; and
4. Uniform flow distribution.
The gas flow rate is critical in determining the ESP collection
plate area. Proper design of the ESP (e.g., size of each compartment
and the number of compartments) ensures adequate time for the particles
to be electrically charged and to migrate to a collection electrode.
Operation at flow rates in excess of the design flow rate will reduce
the residence time for charging and collecting the particles and may
cause an increase in outlet emissions.45 In contrast, operation at
reduced air flows will result in increased particulate matter removal
efficiency. Therefore, ESP's should be designed to accommodate the
maximum air flow expected from the production process.
In sizing an ESP, the total collection area of the plates must be
increased as the fraction of small particles increases. To account for
particle size in new installations, vendors must utilize particle size
data for the specific industry or base the design on their experience
within industries having similar emission characteristics.46
The most effective operation of an ESP is obtained when the particle
resistivity falls between 104 and 1010 ohm-cm.47 If the resistivity is
too low, particles rapidly lose their charge upon reaching the collection
electrode and can become reentrained in the gas stream. If the resistivity
is too high, charged particles reaching the collection electrode cannot
lose their charge because of the low conductivity of the material
deposited earlier; hence, it is difficult to clean the plates.
4-32
-------
The specific collection area (SCA) is defined as the ratio of the
total plate area to the gas flow rate. For a given ESP application,
collection efficiency improves as SCA increases. However, the ESP also
becomes larger, and consequently more expensive, as the SCA is increased.
The collection plate area and gas flow rate have been specifically
related to the overall collection efficiency through the Deutsch-Anderson
equation, which is used to estimate plate area:48
0 = 1 - exp (-wA/Q)
where: n, = collection efficiency
w ~ precipitation rate parameter
A = plate area
Q = volumetric gas flow rate
The precipitation rate parameter is a performance parameter that relates
gas flow rate, collection plate area, and particle capture efficiency. .
This parameter is a function of the physical properties of the emissions
(e.g., particle size distribution and resistivity) and is determined by
tests on pilot units and/or by operation of an ESP on similar emission
sources. This equation shows that ESP collection efficiency increases
with increasing plate area and with increasing (absolute) values of the
precipitation rate parameter. The electrode type, and plate spacing,
height, and length influence the electrostatic forces exerted on the
particles and, thus, affect the collection efficiency. The voltage
applied to the ESP electrodes must be sufficient to ensure an adequate
electric field strength for charging the particles while minimizing
problems of sparking (i.e., arcing or short circuiting between electrodes).
Inlet dust concentration determines both the frequency of rapping
(cleaning) and the size of the dust removal system. Increased inlet
dust concentration reduces ESP performance and requires a higher power
input so that all particles are charged. Alternatively, a larger
collection plate area can compensate for increased dust
concentration.49,50
4-33
-------
4.2 APPLICATION OF CONTROL TECHNIQUES TO CALCINERS AND DRYERS IN THE
MINERAL INDUSTRIES
The application of various control techniques to dryer and calciner
systems is discussed in this section. The use of centrifugal separators
is limited mainly to product collection. Fabric filters are used for
particulate matter emission control in over 90 percent of the mineral
industries included in this study. They are also used for product
collection in some cases. A variety of wet scrubbers are used to control
calciner and dryer emissions in more than 75 percent of the 17 industries.
Electrostatic precipitators are used in 5 of the 17 mineral industries.
4.2.1 Centrifugal Separators
Single and multiple cyclone collectors are used primarily for
product recovery from dryer and calciner systems. In most cases, the
material recovered by these devices is recycled into the process. In
one case, a multiple cyclone collector is used for air pollution control
before a venturi scrubber on a fire-clay rotary calciner.51 The material
collected by this device is landfilled. Particulate matter emission
levels measured in the gas stream following centrifugal separators on
dryers and calciners are presented in Chapter.3.
4.2.2 Fabric Filters
Fabric filters (baghouses) are used to control particulate matter
emissions from dryers and/or calciners in 16 of the 17 mineral industries
being considered in this study. They are also used for product recovery
in the case of flash drying/calcining units. Table 4-3 presents the
range of operating parameters for baghouses used on process units within
each industry.
Baghouses are currently not being used to control particulate
matter emissions from calciners in the alumina industry. However,
baghouses are the predominant control device used on calciners and
dryers in the ball clay, gypsum, kaolin, perlite, talc, and vermiculite
industries.
Pulse jet is the most frequently used cleaning mechanism. Typical
A/C ratios for dryer and calciner pulse jet baghouses range from 0.9 to
4-34
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1.8 m3/min-m2 (3 to 8 ftVmin-ft2). Pressure drops range from 0.5 to
1.2 kPa (2 to 5 in. w.c.).
Baghouses used to control particulate matter emissions from mineral
dryers must either be well insulated or the gas stream must be heated to
prevent moisture condensation that would lead to caking and blinding of
the bags. Maximum baghouse inlet gas temperatures for dryers and calciners
are about 150°C (300°F) and 260°C (500°F), respectively. Consequently,
(R)
high-temperature-resistant filter fabrics are required. Nomex and
glass fabrics are the most common types used for high temperature
applications.
4.2.3 Wet Scrubbers
Table 4-4 presents typical operating data for wet scrubbers on
dryers and calciners. Wet scrubbers are used to control particulate
emissions from dryers and/or calciners in 12 of the 17 mineral industries
being considered in this study. Venturi scrubbers are the most common
type, used by 10 of the 12 industries. Pressure drops range from 0.5 to
15 kPa (2 to 60 in. w.c.). Wet scrubbers are currently not used in the
alumina, bentonite, and talc industries. Wet scrubbers are not being
used to control particulate emissions from gypsum plants built in the
last 13 years. However, in a few older installations, low energy wet
scrubbers are used to control gypsum dryer and calciner emissions.
Scrubbers are not used in newer installations primarily because
particulate matter collected using wet scrubbers cannot be recycled into
the process.
4.2.4 Electrostatic Precipitators
Table 4-5 contains operating information regarding temperature,
pressure drop, and specific collection area (SCA) for existing ESP-
controlled dryer and calciner facilities. Electrostatic precipitators
are used to control particulate emissions from dryers and/or calciners
in 5 of the 17 mineral industries. They are used to control emissions
from two dryer types and four types of calciners, as shown in Tables 4-1
and 4-5. The ranges of operating temperatures for ESP's on dryers and
calciners are 80° to 130°C (175° to 270°F) and 120° to 430°C (250° to
800°F), respectively. The pressure drop across these units ranges from
4-37
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4.3 PERFORMANCE OF EMISSION CONTROL SYSTEMS
The performance of various control systems used to collect
particulate matter emissions from dryers and calciners is discussed in this
section. The data base for this study was developed from EPA-conducted
.tests on selected systems and from EPA-approved compliance tests
conducted by plant owners and State agencies.
Data obtained from the EPA testing program are summarized in
Table 4-6. Four rotary dryers, one fluid bed dryer, and three spray
dryers were tested. The air pollution control devices on these dryers
include fabric filters and wet scrubbers. Seven rotary calciners, one
kettle calciner, one Herreshoff furnace, three flash calciners, and one
expansion furnace were also tested. The calciner control devices tested
include a centrifugal separator,- fabric filters, wet scrubbers, and a
wet ESP. These data are presented graphically in Figures 4-17 and 4-18.
The units tested are representative of the worst-case fuel and feed
materials, as identified by industry representatives. The production
rates of the systems tested range from 80 to 129 percent of design
capacity. The unit tested at 129 percent of capacity was operating at a
rate above normal; however, this high production level is representative
of the worst case particulate loading to the control device. For the
remaining tests, the operating conditions of the process and control
devices are representative of normal plant operating conditions.
Additional information about each test is presented in Appendix C. The
testing and analysis methodologies are described in Appendix D.
Figures 4-19 and 4-20 graphically present emission data obtained
from EPA-approved compliance tests performed by State agencies and plant
owners. [EPA-conducted tests are also contained in these figures.]
Figures 4-17 through 4-20 also show the predicted performance levels of
selected wet scrubbers operating at pressure drops higher than the
pressure drops recorded during emission tests. Tables 4-7 and 4-8
summarize the compliance test data presented in the two figures.
Table 4-9 summarizes visible emission data obtained from the dryers and
calciners tested. Table 4-10 presents the outlet particle size
distribution data obtained for several of the dryer and calciner units.
4-41
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4-47
-------
TABLE 4-7. EPA-APPROVED COMPLIANCE TEST DATA FOR DRYERS149-164
Industry
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
3.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
Alumina
Ball clay
Bentonite
Diatomite
Feldspar
Fire clay
Fuller's earth
Gypsura
Industrial sand
Kaolin
•
Lightweight aggregate
Magnesium compounds
Perlite
Roofing granules
Talc
Titanium dioxide
Verniculite
Plant
code
Bl
C3
El
E2
E3
Gl
12
13
14
J2
J3
04
M2
Nl
P3
Ql
Process unit
No dryers used.
Vibrating-grate
dryer
Rotary dryer
Ho EPA-approved
Rotary dryer
Rotary dryer
Rotary dryer
No EPA-approved
Rotary dryer
No EPA-approved
Fluid bed dryer
Fluid bed dryer
Fluid bed dryer
Spray dryer
Spray dryer
Spray dryer
No dryers used.
No dryers used.
Percent
of
design
capacity Fuel
81
96
compliance
90
100
100
compliance
102
compliance
91
100
103
81
83
104
Rotary dryers (2) 139
Rotary dryer
No EPA-approved
Flash dryer
Rotary dryer
100.
compliance
93
86
Natural gas
Pulverized
coal
data on dryers.
No. 2 oil
No. 2 oil
No. 2 oil
data on dryers.
Natural gas
data on dryers.
Propane
No. 2 oil
Natural gas
Natural gas
Natural gas
Natural gas
No. 2 oil/
reclaimed
engine oil
No. 2 oil
data on dryers.
Natural gas
No. 4 oil
Control device
Baghouse
A/C = 4.5:la
ESP h
SCA = 904°
Wet scrubber
AP = 10. in. w.c.
Wet scrubber
AP = c
Wet scrubber
AP = Not reported
Wet scrubber
AP = 10 in. w.c.
Wet scrubber
AP = 3 in. w.c.
Wet scrubber
AP = Not reported
Wet scrubber
AP = Not reported
Baghouse
A/C = 2.7:1
Baghouse
A/C = 3.8:1
Baghouse
A/C = 2.02:1
Baghouse
A/C = 2.0:1
Wet scrubber
AP = 4.5 in. w.c.
Wet scrubber
AP = c
Wet scrubber
AP = 5 in. w.c.
Parti cu-
late
emissions
g/dscm
(gr/dscf)
0.016
(0.007)
0.014
(0.006)
0.055
(0.024)
0.038
(0.017)
0.010
(0.004)
0.059
(0.026)
0.018
(0.008)
0.013
(0.006)
0.642
(0.018)
0.007
(0.003)
0.060
(0.026)
0.006
(0.003)
0.037
(0.016)
0.012
(0.005)
0.067
(0.029)
0.038
(0.017)
?A/C units are ftVftz-min.
^SCA units are ft2/10» ft3-min.
Confidential data.
4-48
-------
TABLE 4-8. ERA-APPROVED COMPLIANCE TEST DATA
FOR CALCINERS137,139,165-177
Plant
Industry code
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
Alumina Al
A2
Ball clay
Bentonlte
Oiatomite Dl
Feldspar
Fire clay
Fuller's earth
Gypsum HI
H5
Industrial sand
Kaolin 02
Lightweight aggregate K3
K3
K4
K5
Magnesium compounds LI
L2
L3
L4
Perlite M3
Roofing granules
Talc
Titanium dioxide PI
Vermiculite
Percent
of
design
Process unit capacity
Flash calciner 90
Rotary calciner 105
No. 1
Rotary calciner 117
No. 2
Rotary calciners
Nos. 1 and 2
No calciners used.
No calciners used.
Rotary calciner/ 89-
flash dryer 104
No calciners used.
No EPA- approved compliance
No EPA-approved compliance
Kettle calciner 100
Flash calciner 100
No calciners used.
Multiple hearth 110
furnace
Rotary calciner 100
Rotary calciner 109
Rotary calciner 92
Rotary calciner 100
Multiple hearth 85
furnace
Rotary calciner 92
Rotary calciner 95
Rotary calciner 101
Expansion furnace 100
No calciners used.
No EPA-approved compliance
Rotary calciner 85
No EPA-approved compliance
Fuel
Natural gas
No. 6 oil
No. 6 oil
—
Natural gas
data on calciners.
data on calciners.
Natural gas
No. 6 oil
Natural gas
Pulverized coal
Pulverized coal
No. 2 oil
Pulverized coal
No. 6 oil
Natural gas
No. 6 oil
Natural gas
Natural gas
data on calciners.
Natural gas
data on calciners.
Parti cu-
late
emissions
g/dscm
Control device (gr/dscf)
ESP
SCA = a
ESP No. lh
SCA = 146°
ESP No. 2
SCA = 147
ESP Nos. 3 and 4
SCA = 344
Wet scrubber
AP = Not reported
Baghouse
A/C = 2.3:lc
Baghouse
A/C = 3.2:1
Wet scrubber
AP = 18-21 in. w.c.
Wet scrubber
AP = 14 in. w.c.
Wet scrubber
AP = 14 in. w.c.
Wet scrubber
AP = Not reported
Baghouse
A/C =5:1
Baghouse
A/C = 1.38:1
ESP
SCA = 550
Wet scrubber
AP = 10 in. w.c.
ESP
SCA = 1,458
Baghouse
A/C = Not reported
ESP, wet scrubber
SCA = 228
AP = 22-30 in. w.c.
0.056
(0.025)
0.078
(0.034)
0.036
(0.016)
0.038
(0.017)
0.09
(0.04)
0.032
(0.014)
0.085
(0.037)
0.097
(0.028)
0.172d
(0.075)
0.109s
(0.048)
0.070
(0.031)
0,074
(0,032)
0.022
(0.010)
0.037
(0.016)
0.050
(0.024)
0.042
(0.018)
0.012
(0.005)
0.062
(0.027)
^Confidential data.
DSCA units are ftVIO3 acfm.
JJA/C units are ft3/ftz-min.
Multiclone that precedes wet scrubber was bypassed during test.
eMulticlone not bypassed.
4-49
-------
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tested. Particle sizing was not feasible at all of the outlet locations
because of excessive moisture in the exhaust gas stream.
4.4 REFERENCES FOR CHAPTER 4
1. Wark, K., and C. F. Warner. Air Pollution, Its Origin and Control.
New York, Harper and Row. 1976. p. 186.
2. Leith, D., and D. Mehta. Cyclone Performance and Design.
Atmospheric Environment. 7:527-549. 1973.
3. Danielson, J. A., Air Pollution Control District, County of Los
Angeles. Air Pollution Engineering Manual, Second Edition.
Prepared for U. S. Environmental Protection Agency. Research
Triangle Park, North Carolina. Publication No. AP-40. May 1973.
pp. 85-91.
4. PEDCo Environmental, Inc. Control Techniques for Particulate
Emissions From Stationary Sources—Volume I. Prepared for U. S.
Environmental Protection Agency. Research Triangle Park, North
Carolina. Publication No. EPA-450/3-81-005a. September 1982.
p. 4.2-8.
5. Gushing, K. M., and W. B. Smith, Southern Research Institute.
Procedures Manual for Fabric Filter Evaluation. Prepared for U. S.
Environmental Protection Agency. Research Triangle Park, North
Carolina. Publication No. EPA-600/7-78-113. June 1978. p. 11.
6. Letter from Orem, S. R., Industrial Gas Cleaning Institute (IGCI),
to Shular, J. A., MRI. April 1, 1981. Response to information
request (IGCI Report).
7. Reference 4, p. 4.2-11.
8. Theodore, L., and J. Buonicore. Industrial Air Pollution Control
Equipment for Particulates. Cleveland, Ohio, CRC Press. 1976.
p. 260.
9. Telecon. Terry, W. V., MRI, with Demo, J., Texas Air Control •
Board. September 5, 1980. Information about Texas Lime Company.
10. GCA Corp. Handbook of Fabric Filter Technology—Volume I: Fabric
Filter Systems Study. NTIS PB-200648. Springfield, Virginia.
December 1970. pp. 2-14, 2-95, 2-100 - 2-103, 5-9 - 5*-11.
11. Reference 4, pp. 4.4-3, 4.4-10, 4.4-31 - 4.4-37.
12. Reference 4, p. 4.4-2.
4-52
-------
13. MikroPul Corp. Shaker and Reverse Air Fabric Filter Modular Dust
Collectors. Summit, New Jersey. Undated. 14 p.
14. Reference 4, pp. 4.4-1 - 4.4-7.
15. Reference 4, p. 4.4-8.
16. Fennelly, P. F., and P. D. Spawn, GCA. Air Pollutant Control
Techniques for Electric Arc Furnaces in the Iron and Steel Foundry
Industry. Prepared for U. S. Environmental Protection Agency.
Research Triangle Park, North Carolina. Publication
No. EPA-450/2-78-024. June 1978. p. 3-43.
17. Reference 4, p. 4.4-16.
18. Reference 4, p. 4.4-19.
19. Reference 4, p. 4.4-21.
20. Reference 4, p. 4.4-22.
21. Air Pollution Control Association. APTI Course 413~ControT of
Particulate Emissions. Publication No. EPA-450/2-80-066.
Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. October 1981. pp. 8-16 - 8-19.
22. Telecon. Upchurch, M., MRI, with Pirrmann, R. A., Ducon Company.
October 18, 1984. Comments on draft BID.
23. Reference 8, p. 258.
24. Reference 21, p. 5-6.
25. Reference 21, p. 9-39.
26. Reference 21, p. 9-38.
27. U. S. Environmental Protection Agency. Wool Fiberglass Insulation
Manufacturing Industry—Background Information for Proposed
Standards. Research Triangle Park, North Carolina. Publication
No. EPA-450/3-83-022a. December 1983. p. 4-11.
28. Reference 21, p. 9-30.
29. Calvert, S., et al., A.P.T., Inc.. Wet Scrubber System Study:
Volume 1, Scrubber Handbook. Prepared for U. S. Environmental
Protection Agency. Research Triangle Park, North Carolina.
Publication No. EPA-R2-72-118a. July 1972.
30. Joy Manufacturing Company. Type "V" Turbulaire® Variable Venturi
Scrubber. Los Angeles, California. 1978.
31. Reference 4, pp. 4.5-21 - 4.5-23.
4-53
-------
32.
33.
34.
35.
36.
37.
38.
39.
40.
41.
42.
43.
44.
45.
46.
47.
48.
49.
50.
51.
Reference 4, p. 4.5-23.
The Mcllvaine Company. The Mcllvaine Scrubber Manual. Volume I.
Northbrook, Illinois. March 1977. p. 11-17.0.
Reference 4, pp. 4.5-21 - 4.5-22, 4.5-24.
American Air Filter Company, Inc. Type N Roto-clone: Model B
Hydrostatic Precipitator. Bulletin DC-l-277J-Mar-04. Louisville,
Kentucky. Undated.
Reference 4, p. 4.4-22.
Reference 33, p. III-9.
Reference 21, p. 9-43.
Reference 33, p. 111-51.
Reference 8, p. 206.
U. S. Environmental Protection Agency. Metallic Mineral Processing
Plants—Background Information for Proposed Standards. Research
Triangle Park, North Carolina. Publication No. EPA-450/3-81-009a.
August 1982. p. 4-33.
Reference 8, p. 200.
Reference 4, p. 4.3-2.
Reference 4, p. 4.3-10.
Reference 1, p. 224.
Reference 4, p. 4.3-26.
Reference 1, p. 218.
Reference 4, p. 4.3-23.
Szabo, M. F. and R. W. Gerstle, PEDCo Environmental, Inc. Operation
and Maintenance of Particulate Control Devices on Coal-Fired Utility
Boilers. Prepared for U. S. Environmental Protection Agency.
Research Triangle Park, North Carolina. Publication
No. EPA-600/2-77-129. July 1977. pp. 2-9, 3-11.
Telecon. Shular, J. A., MRI, with Brown, R. L., Environmental
Elements Corp. May 22, 1981. ESP design and opperation.
Memo from Kowalski, A. J., MRI, to Neuffer, W. J., EPA/ISB.
April 6, 1984. Trip report for C-E Minerals, Andersonville,
Georgia, p. 7.
4-54
-------
52. Memo from Mumma, C. E., MRI, to Neuffer, W. J., EPA/ISB. May 12,
1983. Trip report for Cyprus Industrial Minerals Company,
Gleason, Tennessee, p. 8.
53. Trull D., Kentucky-Tennessee Clay Company, to Goodwin, 0. R.,
EPA/ISB. May 3, 1982. Response to Section 114.information
request.
54. Memo from Hamilton, H. L., Jr., Research Triangle Institute, to
Neuffer, W. J., EPA/ISB. April 2, 1982. 3. Trip report for
Black Hills Bentonite Company, Mills, Wyoming, p. 3.
55. Gafford, T., American Colloid Company, to Neuffer, W..J., EPA/ISB.
February 7, 1983. Response to Section 114 information request.
56. Letter and attachments from Palmer, R., Dresser Industries, Inc.,
to Neuffer, W. J., EPA/ISB. September 9, 1983. Response to
Section 114 information request.
57. Letter and attachments from Womacks, D., Amoco Minerals Company, to
Farmer, J., EPA/ESED. September 29, 1983. Response to Section 114
information request for Cyprus Mines Corp., Englewood, Colorado.
58. Confidential Reference 4-1.
59. Confidential Reference 4-2.
60. Letter and attachments from Gillespie, A., Jr., Lithium Corporation
of America, to Goodwin, D. R., EPA/ISB. January 20, 1983.
Response to Section 114 information request for Spartan Minerals
Corp., Gastonia, North Carolina, plant.
61. Letter from Cooke, W., Foote Mineral Company, to Pudelek, R., MRI.
February 10, 1983. Information about Kings Mountain, North
Carolina, feldspar and sandspar operations.
62. Morgan, D., Cedar Heights Clay Company, to Goodwin, D. R., EPA/ISB.
February 1983. Response to Section 114 information request.
63. Letter and attachments from Blakely, J., C-E Refractories, to
Farmer, J., EPA/ESED. February 3, 1983. Response to Section 114
information request.
64. Confidential Reference 4-3.
65. Letter and attachment from Pryor, J., Floridin Company, to
Neuffer, W. J., EPA/ISB. August 19, 1983. Response to Section 114
information request.
66. Confidential Reference 4-4.
4-55
-------
67. Letter and attachments from Kleecamp, J., Mid-Florida Mining
Company, to Neuffer, W. J., EPA/ISB. June 21, 1983. Response to
Section 114 information request.
68. Ceding, G., Balcones Minerals Corp., to Goodwin, D. R., EPA/ISB.
February 3, 1983. Response to Section 114 information request.
69. Gypsum Industry-Background Information for Proposed Standards.
U. S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park,
North Carolina. Draft EIS. November 1981. pp. 4-28 - 4-29.
70. Reference 68, p. 4-42.
71. Reference 68, pp. 4-35 - 4-36.
72. Confidential Reference 4-5.
73. Permit No. 3295-081-8369 for J. M. Huber Corp., Wrens, Georgia.
Georgia Department of Natural Resources. March 1, 1982.
74. Permit No. 3295-150-7781 for Cyprus Industrial Minerals Company,
Deepstep, Georgia. Georgia Department of Natural Resources.
September 30, 1980.
75. Confidential Reference 4-6.
76. Permit No. 322-5-150-7207 for Thiele Kaolin Company, Sandersville,
Geo'rgia. Georgia Department of Natural Resources. June 29, 1979.
77. Purcell, R., Energy and Environmental Analysis, Inc., to U. S.
Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, North
Carolina. August 1, 1979. Report of trip to American Industrial
Clay Company, Sandersville, Georgia.
78. Inspection report—-W. R. Grace & Company, Aiken, South Carolina.
South Carolina Department of Health and Environmental Control.
March 14, 1984.
79. Letter and attachments from Sack, M., Burgess Pigment Company, to
Smith, S. G., Jr., MRI. July 8, 1983. Response to Section 114
information request.
80. Telecon. Kowalski, A. J., MRI, with Mortenson, C., Utelite Corp.
June 23, 1983. Information about control equipment at Coalvilie,
Utah, plant.
81. Letter and attachments from Brett, J., Combustion Engineering,
Inc., to Neuffer, W. J., EPA/ISB. October 4, 1983. Response to
Section 114 information request for Gabbs, Nevada, plant.
4-56
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82. Confidential Reference 4-7.
83. Letter and attachments from Siegfried, J., Manville Service Corp.,
to Goodwin, D. G. , EPA/ISB. February 24, 1983. Response to
Section 114 information request.
84. Letter and attachments from May F., U.S. Gypsum Company, to
Goodwin, D. G., EPA/ISB. March 1, 1983. Response to Section 114
information request.
85. Confidential Reference 4-8.
86. Confidential Reference 4-9.
87. Chirico, F., Carolina Perlite Company, Inc. May 19, 1983.
Response to Section 114 information request.
88. Memo from Kowalski, A. J., MRI, to Neuffer, W. J., EPA/ISB. March 9,
1984. Source testing trip report for W. R. Grace & Company,
Irondale, Alabama.
89. Permit No. 0604-0026 for National Gypsum Company, Waukegan,
Illinois. Illinois Environmental Protection Agency. April 9, 1976.
90. Letter and attachments from Guzelian, J., Bird & Son, Inc., to
. Neuffer, W. J., EPA/ISB. February 15, 1983. Response to
Section 114 information request.
91. Miller, K., Windsor Minerals, Inc. July 14, 1983. Response to
Section 114 information request.
92. Erdman, G., Gouveneur Talc Company, Inc. January 11, 1983.
Response to Section 114 information request.
93. Glenn, M., Sr., Southern Talc Company, to Cuffe, S. T., EPA/ISB.
September 22, 1983. Response to Section 114 information request. .
94. Pioneer Talc Company, Allamore, Texas. Undated. Response to
Section 114 information request.
95. Letter and attachments from Zacharhuk, W., G&W Natural Resources
Group, to Goodwin, D. G., EPA/ISB. Response to Section 114
information request for Gloucester, New Jersey, plant.
96. Letter and attachments from Granoff, B., G&W Natural Resources
Group, to Goodwin, D. R., EPA/ISB. February 8, 1983. Response to
Section 114 information request for Ashtabula, Ohio, plant.
97. Memo from York, S., Research Triangle Institute, to Neuffer, W. J.,
EPA/ISB. November 19, 1981. Attachment C to trip report for
American Cyanamid Company, Savannah, Georgia.
4-57
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98. Letter and attachments from Eaton, F., W. R. Grace & Company, to
Neuffer, W. J., EPA/ISB. October 27, 1983. Response to Section
114 information request for Libby, Montana, plant.
99. Reference 97, for Irondale, Alabama, plant.
100. Letter and attachments from Shundler, B., The Schundler Company, to
Neuffer, W. J., EPA/ISB. 1983. Response to Section 114
information request.
101. Memo from Neuffer, W. J., EPA/ISB, to Wood, G., EPA/ISB.
October 6, 1981. Trip report for W. R. Grace & Company, Enoree,
South Carolina.
102. Letter and attachments from Siegfried, J., Manville Products Corp.,
to Goodwin, D. R., EPA/ISB. July 15, 1982. Response to
Section 114 information request for Lompoc, California, plant.
103. Messersmith, R., Oil-Dri Corp., to Neuffer, W. J., EPA/ISB.
August 11, 1983. Response to Section 114 information request.
104. Letter and attachments from Riddle, R., International Minerals
& Chemical Corp., to Goodwin, D. R., EPA/ISB. January 17, 1983.
Response to Section 114 information request for Spruce Pine, North
Carolina, plant.
105. Confidential Reference 4-10.
106. Memo from Kowalski, A., MRI, to Neuffer, W. J., EPA/ISB.
October 21, 1983. Trip report for North American Refractories,
Farber, Missouri.
107. Memo from Mumma, C., MRI, to Neuffer, W. J., EPA/ISB. May 25,
1983. Trip report for A. P. Green Refractories, Mexico, Missouri.
108. Confidential Reference 4-11.
109. Confidential Reference 4-12.
110. Confidential Reference 4-13.
111. Letter and attachments from Castellini, P., Jesse S. Morie & Son,
Inc., to Goodwin, D. R., EPA/ISB. February 8, 1983. Response to
Section 114 information request.
112. Letter and attachments from Bowers, L., Florida Rock Industries,
Inc., to Neuffer, W. J., EPA/ISB. September 14, 1983. Response to
Section 114 information request.
113. Fowler, C., Martin Marietta Aggregates, to Goodwin, D. G., EPA/ISB.
March 31, 1982. Response to Section 114 information request for
Portage (Wisconsin) plant.
4-58
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114. Permit No. 3295-150-4632-0 for Englehard Corp., Mclntyre, Georgia.
November 25, 1981. Georgia Department of Natural Resources.
115. Memo from Nelson, A. J., MRI, to Neuffer, W. J., EPA/ISB., May 13,
1983. Trip report for Tombigbee Lightweight Aggregate Corp.,
Livingston, Alabama.
116. PEDCo Environmental, Inc. Method Development and Testing for Clay,
Shale, and Slate Aggregate Industry: Texas Industries, Inc.,
Clodine, Texas. Prepared for U. S. Environmental Protection
Agency. Research Triangle Park, North Carolina. Preliminary
Draft. May 1981. p. 2-1.
117. Letter and attachments from Day, J., Kaiser Aluminum & Chemical
Corp., to Neuffer, W. J., EPA/ISB. September 19, 1983. Response
to Section 114 information request for Moss Landing, California,
plant.
118. Letter and attachments from Hendricks, R., Armstrong World
Industries, Inc., to Neuffer, W. J., EPA/ISB. February 4, 1983.
Response to Section 114 information request for the Marietta
Ceiling plant. '.-,..
119. Confidential Reference 4-14.
120. Confidential Reference 4-15.
121. Memo from Doshi, Y., MRI, to Neuffer, W. J., EPA/ISB. July 21,
1983. Trip report for American Cyanamid Company, Savannah,
Georgia.
122. Confidential Reference 4-16. .
123. Letter and attachments from Blacker, J., SCM Corp., to
Goodwin, D. G., EPA/ISB. February 10, 1983. Response to
Section 114 information request.
124. Confidential Reference 4-17.
125. Confidential Reference 4-18.
126. Confidential Reference 4-19.
127. Letter and attachments from Brown, W., Ormet Corp., to
Goodwin, D. G., EPA/ISB. February 2, 1983. Response to
Section 114 information request.
128. Confidential Reference 4-20. ,
129. Confidential Reference 4-21.
4-59
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130. Confidential Reference 4-22.
131. Telecon. Cooper, R., MRI, with Crawford, R., Harbison-Walker
Refractories. March 30, 1984. Information about control equipment
at the Fulton, Missouri, plant.
132. Reference 69, pp. C-5 - C-6
133. Telecon. Strait, R., MRI, with Hall, R., Bureau of Air Quality
Control, Baltimore, Maryland. October 17, 1985. Information about
control equipment at Lehigh Portland Cement lightweight aggregate
plant.
134. Confidential Reference 4-23.
135. Confidential Reference 4-24.
136. Confidential Reference 4-25.
137. Confidential Reference 4-26.
138. Confidential Reference 4-27.
139. Confidential Reference 4-28.
140. Confidential Reference 4-29.
141. Confidential Reference 4-30.
142. Confidential Reference 4-31.
143. Confidential Reference 4-32.
144. Confidential Reference 4-33.
145. Confidential Reference 4-34.
146. Confidential Reference 4-35.
147. Confidential Reference 4-36.
148. Confidential Reference 4-37.
149. Confidential Reference 4-38.
150. Confidential Reference 4-39.
151. Confidential Reference 4-40.
152. Confidential Reference 4-41.
4-60
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153. Confidential
154. Confidential
155. Confidential
156. Confidential
157. Confidential
158. Confidential
159. Confidential
160. Confidential
161. Confidential
162. Confidential
163. Confidential
164. Confidential
165. Confidential
166. Confidential
167. Confidential
168. Confidential
169. Confidential
170. Confidential
171. Confidential
172. Confidential
173. Confidential
174. Confidential
175. Confidential
176. Confidential
177. Confidential
178. Confidential
Reference 4-42.
Reference 4-43.
Reference 4-44.
Reference 4-45.
Reference 4-46.
Reference 4-47.
Reference 4-48.
Reference 4-49.
Reference 4-50.
Reference 4-51.
Reference 4-52.
Reference 4-53.
Reference 4-54.
Reference 4-55.
Reference 4-56.
Reference 4-57.
Reference 4-58.
Reference 4-59.
Reference 4-60.
Reference 4-61.
Reference 4-62.
Reference 4-63.
Reference 4-64.
Reference 4-65.
Reference 4-66.
Reference 4-67.
4-61
-------
-------
5. MODIFICATION AND RECONSTRUCTION
Standards of performance apply to facilities for which construction,
modification, or reconstruction commenced (as defined under 40 CFtf 60.2)
after the date of proposal of the standards. Such facilities are termed
"affected facilities." Standards of performance are not applicable to
facilities for which construction, modification, or reconstruction com-
menced on or before the date of proposal of the standards. An existing
facility may become an affected facility and therefore be subject to the
standards if the facility undergoes modification or reconstruction.
Modification and reconstruction are defined under 40 CFR 60.14 and
60.15, respectively. These general provisions are summarized in Sections 5.1
and 5.2. The applicability of these provisions to dryers and calciners
in the mineral industries is also discussed. However, the enforcement
division of the appropriate EPA regional office will make the final
determination as to whether a source is modified or reconstructed and, ;as
a result, becomes an affected facility.
5.1 MODIFICATION
5.1.1 Provisions for Modification
With certain exceptions, any physical or operational change to an
existing facility that would increase the emission rate to the atmosphere
from that facility of any pollutant covered by the standard would be
considered a modification within the meaning of Section 111 of the Clean
Air Act. The key to determining if a change is considered a modification
is whether the total emission rate to the atmosphere from the facility
increased as a result of the change. If an existing facility is determined
to be modified, all of the emission sources of that facility are subject
5-1
-------
to the standards of performance applicable to the pollutant for which the
emission rate increased. A modification to one existing facility at a
plant will not cause other existing facilities at the same plant to
become subject to the standards.
Under the regulations, certain physical or operational changes are
not considered to be modifications even though emissions may increase as
a result of the change (see 40 CFR 60.14(e)). For the most part, these
exceptions are allowed because they account for fluctuations in emissions
that do not cause a facility to become a significant new source of air
pollution. The exceptions as allowed under 40 CFR 60.14(e) are as follows:
.1. Routine maintenance, repair, and replacement (e.g., lubrication
of mechanical equipment; replacement of pumps, motors, and piping;
cleaning of pipes and ductwork; replacement or refurbishing of components
subject to high abrasion and impact);
2. An increase in the production rate, if the increase can be
accomplished without a capital expenditure (as defined in 40 CFR 60.2);
3. An increase in the hours of operation;
4. Use of an alternative fuel or raw material if, prior to proposal
of the standard, the existing facility was designed to accommodate that
alternate fuel or raw material;
5. The addition or use of any system or device whose primary
function is to reduce air pollutants, except when an emission control
system is replaced by a system determined by EPA to be less environ-
mentally beneficial; and
6. Relocation or change in ownership of the existing facility.
An owner or operator of an existing facility who is planning a
physical or operational change that may increase the emission rate of a
pollutant to which a standard applies shall notify the appropriate EPA
regional office 60 days prior to the change, as specified in
40 CFR 60.7(a)(4).
5.1.2 Applicability to Dryers and Calciners
The impact of the modification provision on existing dryer and
calciner facilities at mineral processing plants should be minimal. Repairs
to dryer and calciner components subject to high temperatures, abrasion,
5-2
-------
and impact (e.g., end seals, flights, refractory lining) are routinely
performed and, thus, are not generally considered modifications.
Normal maintenance procedures are similar for most dryers. Typical
maintenance includes replacing refractory brick or patching with castable
refractory once every 2 to 4 years; repairing or replacing dryer lifters
once a year; repairing trunnions and trunnion bearings once every 2 to
5 years; repairing or replacing the dryer liner once a year; rebricktng
the firebox once every 2 to 8 years; replacing the ring and pinion gears
once every 2 to 5 years; replacing the insulation once every 4 years; and
lubricating and greasing moving parts daily. Other maintenance performed
as needed includes replacing belts, sheaves, bearings, and shafts; repairing
or replacing the burner; and replacing gaskets and flexible connectors.
For .spray dryers, additional maintenance includes repairing the spray=
feeding system. .
Normal maintenance procedures for most calciners include rebricking
or replacing the castable refractory once every 2 to 10 years; repairing
kiln trunnions and trunnion bearings every 5 to 10 years; replacing kiln
seals once a year; repairing the shell once every 6 months; and lubricating
and oiling moving parts daily. Maintenance performed as needed includes
replacing kiln flights or spillers; repairing or replacing motor bearings;
repairing kiln drives, feeders, conveyors, and discharge equipment; and
replacing control valves. For flash calciners, additional maintenance
includes repairing or replacing fluid bed gas distribution plates. . .:
Additional maintenance items for multiple hearth,furnaces include replacing
furnace arms and teeth once a year and repairing or replacing the upper
and lower hearths once every 5 to 8 years. Additional maintenance for
expansion furnaces includes repairing or replacing the expansion tube
once every 3 years.
When expansions at existing plants take place, usually a completely
new dryer or calciner is added. .Such an increase in production would not
be considered a modification but rather a new source. Drying and calcining
operations usually operate below 100 percent of capacity and are,capable
of handling increased throughput without additional equipment. If a raw
material or fuel change occurs for which the dryer or calciner was
originally designed, the change is not considered a modification. However,
5-3
-------
if a conversion is made, allowing a unit to burn a fuel or to process a
new material for which it was not originally designed, and an increase in
emissions occurs because of this change, the change is considered to be a
modification. Those changes that result in an increased production rate
above the original design production rate are considered a modification.
Should an applicable enforcement agency determine that a modification
has taken place, there are no known constraints that would preclude the
use of any control devices presently used to control particulate emissions.
5.2 RECONSTRUCTION
5.2.1 Provisions for Reconstruction
An existing facility may become subject to an NSPS if it is recon-
structed. Reconstruction is defined as the replacement of the components
of an existing facility to the extent that (1) the fixed capital cost of
the new components exceeds 50 percent of the fixed capital cost required
to construct a comparable new facility and (2) it is technically and
economically feasible for the facility to meet the applicable standards.
Because EPA considers reconstructed facilities to constitute new
construction rather than modification, reconstruction determinations are
made irrespective of changes in emission rates.
The purpose of the reconstruction provisions is to discourage the
perpetuation of an existing facility for the sole purpose of circumventing
a standard that is applicable to new facilities. Without such a provi-
sibn, all but certain components, such as frames, housings, and support
structures, of the existing facility could be replaced without causing
the facility to be considered a "new" facility subject to NSPS. If the
facility is determined to be reconstructed, it must comply with all of
the provisions of the standards of performance applicable to that facility.
If an owner or operator of an existing facility is planning to
replace components and the fixed capital cost of the new components
exceeds 50 percent of the fixed capital cost of a comparable new facility,
the owner or operator must notify the appropriate EPA regional office !
60 days before the construction of the replacement commences, as required
under 40 CFR 60.15(d).
5-4
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5.2.2 Applicability to Dryers and Calclners
Replacement or refurbishing of equipment parts subject to high
abrasion and impact are performed on a regular basis and could be
considered routine maintenance rather than reconstruction. However, the
cumulative cost of these repairs to any one piece of equipment over a
period of time could exceed 50 percent of the fixed capital cost of
entirely new equipment. 'Final determination regarding reconstruction
considerations would be made by the applicable enforcement agency on a
case-by-case basis.
5-5
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6. MODEL FACILITIES AND REGULATORY ALTERNATIVES
The regulatory alternatives discussed in this chapter are based on
the particulate matter emission control technologies presented in Chapter 4.
To evaluate the environmental, energy, and economic impacts of these
regulatory alternatives, model facilities were developed for dryers and
calciners in the 17 mineral industries.1 Tables 6-1 and 6-2 present the
various dryers and calciners, respectively, used in each industry.
Table 6-3 presents the model facility sizes that have been developed for
process units in each industry. Tables 6-4a and 6-4b summarize the
levels of control in metric and English units, respectively, and
recommended control devices for RA I, II, and III.
6.1 MODEL FACILITIES V
As shown in Table 6-3, three model facility sizes (small, medium,
and large) were developed, based on production capacity, for most of the
dryer/calciner types. For some industries, however, only one model
facility size was developed because the facilities are only built in one .
production capacity. In all cases, the typical-sized units, have been
identified for use in regulatory alternative development.
Tables 6-5 to 6-50 present the model facility parameters for each
dryer/calciner type in each industry. These parameters are a composite
of data from EPA source tests, industry responses to information requests,
and plant visits. Therefore, model facilities do not represent any
particular existing process unit. They represent typical facilities
that may be constructed in the future.
The control device operating parameters shown in Tables 6-5 to 6-50
refer to RA II and RA III. Differences between the control device
6-1
-------
operating parameters shown for RA II and RA III occur for dryers controlled
with wet scrubbers and ESP's.
6.2 REGULATORY ALTERNATIVES
The devices used to control particulate matter emissions from
dryers and calciners in the mineral industries are baghouses, ESP's, and
wet scrubbers (see Chapter 4). For each industry segment and dryer/
calciner type, a control technology and an associated level of emission
control were selected for each of two regulatory alternatives. In
Table 6-4, the control levels presented under the baseline alternative
(RA I) represent the weighted average emission limits determined from
SIP's for typical-sized facilities in each industry.2,3 The control
devices listed in Table 6-4 under RA I are representative of the control
technology necessary for plants in the mineral industries to comply with
SIP requirements.
A control level of 90 mg/dscm (0.04 gr/dscf) is used for RA II for
both dryers and calciners. For RA III, a control level of 57 mg/dscm
(0.025 gr/dscf) is used for dryers and a control level of 90 mg/dscm
(0.04 gr/dscf) is used for calciners. Control equipment parameters for
each alternative have been selected based o.n data and information
presented in Chapters 3 and 4 and from industry responses to information
requests.
In many cases, the control devices used to achieve the baseline
level of control for RA I could be used to achieve the RA II and RA III
levels of control. In these instances, the differences among RA I, II,
and III are the amount and frequency of routine maintenance performed on
the control devices and, in some cases, the control equipment operating
parameters (e.g., different pressure drops for wet scrubbers).
6-2
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TABLE 6-1. AFFECTED FACILITIES—DRYERS USED IN EACH INDUSTRY'
Industry
Rotary Rotary Fluid Vibrating
(direct) (indirect) bed grate Flash Spray
Ball clay
x (indirect)
Bentonite
x
Diatomite
Feldspar
x
Fire clay
Fuller's
earth
Gypsum
Industrial
sand
Kaolin
Perlite
Roof i ng
granules
Talc
Titanium
dioxide
Vermiculite
x x
x x . ,
X ' ' ' ' ....'. r _ ",
X X
x x'
x . •..'••••'.•
X X
X X
X X X XX
x x
aDryers are not used in the alumina, lightweight aggregate, or^magnesium
compounds industries.
6-3
-------
TABLE 6-2. AFFECTED FACILITIES--CALCINERS USED IN EACH INDUSTRY*
Industry
Rotary
Flash
Multiple
hearth
furnace
Kettle
Expansion
furnace
Alumina
Diatomite
x
Fire clay
Fuller's
earth
x
Gypsum
Kaolin
Lightweight
aggregate
Magnesium
compounds
Perlite
Talc
Titanium
dioxide
Vermiculite
Calciners are not used in the ball clay, bentonite, feldspar, industrial
sand, or roofing granules industries.
6-4
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TABLE 6-3. MODEL FACILITY SIZES FOR PROCESS UNITS
. IN THE MINERAL INDUSTRIES
Indus try/ faci 1 ity
Alumina
Flash calciner
Rotary calciner
Ball Clay
Rotary dryer
(indirect)
Vibrating-grate dryer
(indirect)
Bentonite
Fluid bed dryer
Rotary dryer
Diatomite
Flash dryer
Rotary dryer
Rotary calciner
Feldspar
Fluid bed dryer
Rotary dryer
Fire Clay
Rotary dryer
Vibrating-grate dryer
Rotary calciner
Fuller's Earth
Fluid bed dryer
Rotary dryer
Rotary calciner
Gypsum
Rotary dryer
Flash calciner
Kettle calciner
Industrial Sand
Fluid bed dryer
Rotary dryer
Kaolin
Rotary dryer
Spray dryer
Flash calciner
Multiple hearth furnace
Rotary calciner
Production
Small
23 (25)*
18 (20)
' 4 (5)*
4 (5)
a
9 (10)
9 (10)
4 (5)*
4 (5)
45 (50)
45 (50)*
a*
4 (5)*
5 (6)*
capacity^ Mg/h
Medi urn
32 (35)
a*
11 (12)*
40 (45)*
32 (35)*
9 (10)*
a*
18 (20)
27 (30)*
23 (25)*
18 (20)*
14 (15)
23 (25)*
45 (50)*
9 (10)*
11 (12)*
90 (100)*
90 (100)
18 (20)*
14 (15)*
(tons/h)
Large
.-: a* -
45 (50)
23 (25)
54 (60)
11 (12)
11 (12)*
a*
27 (30)*
45 (50)
a*
27 (30)
40 (45)
73 (80)
180 (200)
135 (150)
27 (30)*
(continued)
6-5
-------
TABLE 6-3. (continued)
Industry/ faci 1 i ty
LI ghtwei ght Aggregate
Rotary calciner
Magnesium Compounds
Multiple hearth
furnace
Mg(OH)2 feed
Magnesite feed
Rotary calciner
Mg(OH)2 feed
Magnesite feed
Per lite
Rotary dryer
Expansion furnace
Roofing Granules
Fluid bed dryer
Rotary dryer
Talc
Flash dryer
Rotary dryer
Rotary calciner
Titanium Dioxide
Flash dryer
Fluid bed dryer
Rotary dryer (direct)
Rotary dryer (indirect)
Spray dryer
Rotary calciner
Vermiculite
Fluid bed dryer
Rotary dryer
Expansion furnace
Production
Small
18 (20)
2 (2)
4 (5)*
1 (D*
14 (15)*
a*
4 (5)*
2 (2)
a
a*
1 (D*
capacity, Mg/h
Medi urn
27 (30)*
a
a*
9 (10)
23 (25)*
36 (40)*
54 (60)*
9 (10)*
6 (7)
11 (12)*
a*
a*
9 (10)*
(tons/h)
Large
36 (40)
a*
a
a*
a
200 (220)
18 (20)
23 (25)*
a*
a*
a
54 (60)*
18 (20)
a _
= Confidential information (see Reference 4).
= Typical size facility.
6-6
-------
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>-i-CZO)E 30)3
CT3OJO*CJ czini — in
co o. czinoja> a.
>£-!! .OJEOJOX:
•i- *>
-------
TABLE 6-5. MODEL FACILITY PARAMETERS, FOR FLASH CALCINEJ?-r
ALUMINA INDUSTRY
Parameter/Facility size
Large
PROCESS INFORMATION
Production
Design, Mg/h
(tons/h)
Hours of operation
Design, h/d
Design, h/yr
Actual, h/d
Actual, h/yr
Feed material
Product
Fuel type
Fuel usage, xlO9 Joules/Mg
(xlO6 Btu/ton)
Maximum operating temperature, °C
Confidential4
24
8,000
Confidential4
Confidential4
Alumina triHydrate
Alumina
Natural gas
Confidential4
Confidential4
Retention time, rain
CONTROL DEVICE INFORMATION
Control device inlet
Gas flow rate, m3/min
(acfm)
Gas temperature, °C
Gas moisture, %
ESP3
Specific collection area
AP, kPa
(in. w.c.)
STACK PARAMETERS
Height, m
(ft)
Diameter, m
(ft)
Temperature, °C
(°F)
Moisture, %
Gas flow rate, mVmin
(acfm)
Gas velocity, m/s
(ft/s)
Confidential4
Confidential4
Confidential4
Confidential4
Confidential4
37
(120)
1.9
(6.2)
150
(300)
45
3,100
(108,800)
18
(60)
^Assumed power requirement for ESP is 0.14 watts/m2 (1.5 watts/ft2).
Dm2 per mVmin (ftVl.OOO acfm).
6-13
-------
TABLE 6-6. MODEL FACILITY PARAMETERS FOR ROTARY CALCINER—
ALUMINA INDUSTRY
Parameter/Facility size
PROCESS INFORMATION
Production
Design, Mg/h
(tons/h)
Hours of operation
Design, h/d
Design, h/yr
Actual, h/d
Actual , h/yr
Feed material
Product
Fuel type
Fuel usage, xlO9 Joules/Mg
(xlO6 Btu/ton)
Maximum operating temperature, °C
(°F)
Retention tine, rain
CONTROL DEVICE INFORMATION
Control device inlet
Gas flow rate, mVmin
(acfw)
Gas temperature, °C
(°F)
Gas moisture, % »
ESPa
Specific collection areab
AP, kPa
(in. w.c.)
STACK PARAMETERS
Height, ra
(ft)
Diameter, m
(ft)
Temperature, °C
(SF)
Moisture, %
Gas flow rate, m3/min
(acfm)
Gas velocity, ra/s
(ft/s)
Smal 1
23
(25)
<-
<-
«-
4-
*-
•<-
*-
<-
<-
*-
<-
<-
2,800
(98,000) '
•f-
4-'
*-
<-
4-
•*-
21
(70)
1.8
(5.8)
<-
<.
2,600
(92,600)
*"
Medi um
32
(35)
24
8,000
24
8,000
Alumina tri hydrate
Alumina
Natural gas,
No. 6 fuel oil
5.1
(4.4)
1430
(2600)
120
3,400
(120,000)
330
(620)
42
1.25
(380)
0.12
'(0.5)
-\
24
(80)
2.0
(6.4)
290
(560)
42
3,200
(113,300)
18
(60)
Large
45
(50)
-*•
->
-*•
->
->
->
->
->
->
•>
->
->
4,200
(150-, 000)
->
•+
-»
->
->
->
27
(90)
2.2
(7.1)
^
4,000
(141,700)
•*
^Assumed power requirement for ESP is 0.14 watts/m2 (1.5 watts/ft2).
V per m3/min (ftVl.OOO acfra).
6-14
-------
TABLE 6-7. MODEL FACILITY PARAMETERS FO,R ROTARY DRYER
(INDIRECT)—BALL CLAY INDUSTRY
Parameter/Facility size
Mediurn.
PROCESS INFORMATION
Production
Design, Mg/h
(tons/h)
Hours of operation
Design, h/d
Design, h/yr
Actual , h/d
Actual , h/yr
Feed material
Product
Fuel type
Fuel usage, xlO9 Joules/Mg
(xlO6 Btu/ton)
Maximum operating temperature, °C
Confidential4
24
8,000
Confidential4
Confidential4
Ball clay
Ball clay
Confidential4
Confidential4
Confidential4
Retention time, min
CONTROL DEVICE INFORMATION
Confidential4
Control device inlet
Gas flow rate, mVmin
(acfm)
Gas temperature, °C
(°F)
Gas moisture, %
Baghouse
Cloth type
Air-to-cloth ratio
AP, kPa
(in. w.c.)
STACK PARAMETERS
Height, m
(ft)
Diameter, m
(ft)
Temperature, °C
(°F)
Moisture, %
Gas flow rate, mVmin
(acfm)
Gas velocity, m/s
(ft/s)
480
(17,000)
120
(250)
'28
* •
Nomex
0.9:1
(3:1)
1.1
(4.5)
18
(60)
0.7
(2.4)
110
(225)
28
460
(16,400)
18
(60)
mVmin per m2 (ftVmin per ft2).
6-15
-------
TABLE 6-8. MODEL FACILITY PARAMETERS FOR VIBRATING-GRATE DRYER
(INDIRECT)--BALL CLAY INDUSTRY
Parameter/Facility size
PROCESS INFORMATION
Production
Design, Mg/h
(tons/h)
Hours of operation
Design, h/d
Design, h/yr
Actual, h/d
Actual , h/yr
Feed material
Product
Fuel type
Fuel usage, xlO9 Joules/Hg
(xlO6 Btu/ton)
Maximum operating temperature, °C
(°F)
Retention time, min
CONTROL DEVICE INFORMATION
Control device inlet
Gas flow rate, mVmin
(acfm)
Gas temperature-, °C
(°F)
Gas moisture, %
Baghouse
Cloth type
Air-to-cloth ratio
AP, kPa
(in. w.c.)
STACK PARAMETERS
Height, m
(ft)
Diameter, m
(ft)
Temperature, °C
(°F)
Moisture, %
Gas flow rate, mVmin
(acfm)
Gas velocity, m/s
(ft/s)
Medium
11
(12)
24
8,000
16
4,000
Ball clay
Ball clay
Natural gas
0.7
(0.6)
230
(450)
2.5
700
(25,000)
120
(250)
8
Nomex
1.7:1
(5.6:1)
1.0
(4)
18
(60)
0.9
(3.0)
110
(225)
8
680
(24,100)
18
(60)
Large
23
(25)
24
8,000
16
4,000
Ball clay
Ball clay
Natural gas
0.7
(0.6)
230
(450)
2.5
1,400
(50,000)
120
(250)
8
Nomex
1.7:1
(5.6:1)
1.0
(4)
21
(70)
1.2
(4.1)
110
(225)
8
1,300
(48,200)
18
(60)
mVmin per mz (ft3/min per ft2).
6-16
-------
TABLE 6-9. MODEL FACILITY PARAMETERS FOR FLUID BED DRYER-
BENTONITE INDUSTRY '
Parameter/Facility size Medium
PROCESS INFORMATION
Production
Design, Mg/h
' (tons/h)
Hours of operation
Design, h/d
Design, h/yr
Actual, h/d
Actual, h/yr
Feed material
Product
Fuel type
Fuel usage, xlO9 Joules/Mg
(xlO6 Btu/ton)
Maximum operating temperature, °C
Retention time, min
CONTROL DEVICE INFORMATION
40
(45)
24
8,000
24
6,500
Bentonite
Bentonite
Coal
. 0.37.
(0.32)
815
(1,500)
10
Control device inlet
Gas flow rate, mVmin
(acfm)
Gas temperature, °C
<°F>
Gas moisture, %
Baghouse
Cloth type h
Air-to-cloth ratio
AP, kPa
(in. w.c)
ESPC
Specific collection area
AP, kPa
(in. w.c.)
STACK PARAMETERS
Height, m
(ft)
Diameter, m
(ft)
Temperature, 9C
(°F)
Moisture, %
Gas flow rate, mVmin
(acfm)
Gas velocity, m/s
(ft/s)
1,420
(50,000)
100
(220).
15/253
Nomex
0.9:1
(3:1)
0.74
(3)
1.0/1.156
(300)/(350)
0.12
(0.5)
18
(60)
1.3
(4.2)
90
(200)
15/253
1,400
(48,500)
18
(60)
?First number corresponds to baghouse; second number corresponds to ESP.
•y/min per m2 (ftVmin per ft2).
^Assumed power requirement for ESP is 0.14 watts/m2 (1.5 watts/ft2).
>2 per mVmin (ft2/!,000 acfm).
First number corresponds to Regulatory Alternative II; second number corresponds to Regulatory
Alternative III.
6-17
-------
TABLE 6-10. MODEL FACILITY PARAMETERS FOR ROTARY DRYER-
BENTONITE INDUSTRY
Parameter/Facility size
PROCESS INFORMATION
Production
Design, Mg/h
(tons/h)
Hours of operation
Design, h/d
Design, h/yr
Actual, h/d
Actual , h/yr
Feed material
Product
Fuel type
Fuel usage, xlO9 Joules/Mg
(xlO6 Btu/ton)
Maximum operating temperature, °C
(°F)
Retention time, min
CONTROL DEVICE INFORMATION
Control device inlet
Gas flow rate, mVmin
(acfm)
Gas temperature, °C
Gas moisture, %
Baghouse
Cloth type
Air-to-cloth ratio3
AP, kPa
(in. w.c.)
STACK PARAMETERS
Height, ra
(ft)
Diameter, m
(ft)
Temperature, °C
( F)
Moisture, %
Gas flow rate, mVmin
(acfm)
Gas velocity, m/s
(ft/s)
Small
18
(20)
4-
4-
4-
4-
4-
4-
4-
4-
4-
4-
4-
4-
570
(20,000)
4-
4-
4-
4-
4-
4-
4-
4-
15
(50)
0.8
(2.6)
4-
4-
4-
530
(19,300)
*•
Medi urn
32
(35)
24
8,000
16
5,800
Bentonite
Bentonite
Natural gas, coal
0.6
(0.5)
200
(400)
25
850-
(30,000)
120
(250)
20
Nomex
1.1:1
(3.5:1)
1 0
(4)
15
(50)
1.0
(3.2)
110
(225)
20
820
(28,900)
18
(60)
Large
54
(60)
^
+ .
_^
•»
•*•
^
+
->
^
->
*
1,400
(50,000)
•*
_^
+
^
+
18
(60)
1.2
(4.1)
-*•
1,300
(48,200)
•*
6-18
-------
TABLE 6-11. MODEL FACILITY PARAMETERS FOR FLASH DRYER—
DIATOMITE INDUSTRY
Parameter/Facility size
Small
Large
PROCESS INFORMATION
Production
Design, Mg/h
(tons/h)
Hours of operation
Design, h/d
Design, h/yr
Actual, h/d
Actual, h/yr
Feed material
Product
Fuel type .
Fuel usage, xlO9 Joules/Mg
(xlO6 Btu/ton)
Maximum operating temperature, °C
Retention time, min
CONTROL DEVICE INFORMATION
Control device inlet
4
(5)
24
8,000
24
8,000
Crude diatomite
Diatomite fillers,
absorbents, and
filter aids
Natural gas
4.1
(3.5)
540
(1000)
11
(12.)
24
8,000
24
8,000
Crude,diatomite
Diatomite fillers,
absorbents, and
filter aids
Natural gas
4.1
(3.5)
540
(1000)
Gas flow rate, mVmin
(acfm)
Gas temperature, °C
(°F)
Gas moisture, %
Scrubber
AP, kPa
(in. w.c.) b
Liquid-to-gas ratio
STACK PARAMETERS
Height, m
(ft)
Diameter, m
(ft)
Temperature, °C
(°F)
Moisture, %
Gas flow rate, mVmin
(acfm)
Gas velocity, m/s
(ft/s)
620
(22,000)
120
(250)
10
3.5/6.2a
(14)/(25)
1,335
(10)
15
(50)
0.8 ;,.
(2.8)
60
(140)
20
602
(20,900)
18
(60)
1,100
(40,000)
120
(250)
. 10
3.5/6.2a
(14)/(25)
1,335
(10)
15
(50)
1.1
(3.7)
60
(140)
20
1,080
(38,000)
18
(60)
aFirst number corresponds to Regulatory Alternative II (RA II); second number corresponds to
bRegulatory Alternative III (RA III).
DJ>/1,000 m3 (gal/1,000 acf).
6-19
-------
TABLE 6-12. MODEL FACILITY PARAMETERS FOR ROTARY DRYER-
DIATOMITE INDUSTRY
Parameter/Facility size
Medium
PROCESS INFORMATION
Production
Design, Mg/h
(tons/h)
Hours of operation
Design, h/d
Design, h/yr
Actual, h/d
Actual, h/yr
Feed material
Product
Fuel type
Fuel usage, xlO9 Joules/Mg
(xlO6 Btu/ton)
Maximira operating temperature, °C
(°F)
Retention time, min
CONTROL DEVICE INFORMATION
9
(10)
24
8,000
16
4,200
Crude diatomite
Diatomite fillers & absorbents
Natural gas
5.2
(4.5)
I
760
(1400)
18
Control device inlet
Gas flow rate, mVmin
(acfra)
Gas temperature, °C
(°F)
Gas moisture, %
Baghouse
Cloth type
Air-to-cloth ratio
AP, kPa
(in. w.c. )
STACK PARAMETERS
Height, m
(ft)
Diameter, m
(ft)
Temperature, °C
Moisture, %
Gas flow rate, mVmin
(acfm)
Gas velocity, ra/s
(ft/s)
420
(15,000)
120
(250)
15
Nomex
1.2:1
(4:1)
0.61
(2.5)
15
(50)
0.7
(2.3)
110
(225)
15
410
(14,500)
18
(60)
n3/min per m2 (ftVmin per ft2).
6-20
-------
TABLE 6-13. MODEL FACILITY PARAMETERS FOR ROTARY CALCINER-
DIATOMITE INDUSTRY
Parameter/Facility size
PROCESS INFORMATION
Production
Design, Mg/h
(tons/h)
Hours of operation
, Design, h/d
Design, h/yr
Actual, h/d
Actual , h/yr
Feed material
Product
Fuel type
Fuel usage, xlO9 Joules/Mg
(xlO6 Btu/ton)
Maximum operating temperature, °C
Retention time, min
CONTROL DEVICE INFORMATION
Control device inlet
Gas flow rate, mVmin
(acfm)
Gas temperature, °C
Gas moisture, %
Baghouse
Cloth type
Air-to-cloth ratio-
AP, kPa
(in. w.c.)
Scrubber
AP, kPa
(in, w.c.) k
Liquid-to-gas ratio
STACK PARAMETERS0
Height, m
(ft)
Diameter, m
(ft)
Temperature, °C
Moisture, %
Gas flow rate, mVmin
(acfm)
Gas velocity, m/s
(ft/s)
Small
4
(5)
24
8,000
24
6,500
Crude diatonrite
Diatomite powders
Natural gas
5.2
(4.5)
1150
(2100)
30-80
420
(15,000)
230
(440)
5
Nomex
0.6:1
(2:1)
0.98
(4)
5.7
(23)
1,335
(10)
15
(50)
0.7/0.6
(2. 2)/(2. 1)
180/60
(350)/(140)
5/20
380/340
(13,500)/(11,900)
18
(60)
Large
11
(12)
24
8,000
24
6,500
Crude diatomite
Diatomite powders
Natural gas
5.2
(4.5)
1150
(2100)
30-80
850
(30,000)
230
(440)
5
Nomex
0.6:1
(2:1)
0.98
(4)
5.7
(23)
1,335
(10)
15
(50)
0.9
(3. X)/(2. 9)
180/60
(350)/(140)
5/20
760/670
(27,000)/(23,800)
18
(60)
?m3/min per m2 (ft3/min per ft2).
Vl.OOO m3 (gal/1,000 acf).
First number corresponds to baghouse;
second number corresponds to scrubber.
6-21
-------
TABLE 6-14. MODEL FACILITY PARAMETERS FOR FLUID BED DRYER-
FELDSPAR INDUSTRY
Parameter/Facility size
PROCESS INFORMATION
Production
Design, Mg/h
(tons/h)
Hours of operation
Design, h/d
Design, h/yr
Actual, h/d
Actual, h/yr
Feed material
Product
Fuel type
Fuel usage', xlO9 Joules/Mg
(xlO6 Btu/ton)
Maximum operating temperature, °C
Retention time, min
CONTROL DEVICE INFORMATION
Control device inlet
Gas flow rate, mVmin
(acfra)
Gas temperature, °C
(Of\ '
F)
Gas moisture, %
Baghouse
Cloth type
Air-to-cloth ratio
AP, kPa
(in. w.c. )
STACK PARAMETERS
Height, m
(ft)
Diameter, ra
(ft)
Temperature, °C
fOc\
( F)
Moisture, %
Gas flow rate, mVmin
(acfm)
Gas velocity, ra/s
(ft/s)
Medium
Confidential4
24
8,000
Confidential4
Confidential4
Pegmatite or
alas kite ore
Feldspar
Confidential4
Confidential4
Confidential4
Confidential4
280
(10,000)
120
(250)
6
Nomex
1.4:1
(4.5:1)
0.74
(3)
15
(50)
0 6
(1.9)
110
(225)
6
270
(9,600)
18
(60)
Large
Confidential4
24
8,000
Confidential4
Confidential4
Pegmatite or
alaskite ore
Feldspar
Confidential4
Confidential4
Confidential4
Confidential4
480
(17,000)
120
(250)
6
Nomex
1.4:1
(4.5:1)
0 74
(3)
15
(50)
n 7
u . /
(2.4)
110
(225)
460
(16,400)
ift
J.O
(60)
6-22
-------
TABLE 6-15. MODEL FACILITY PARAMETERS FQR ROTARY DRYER--
FELDSPAR INDUSTRY
Parameter/Facility size
PROCESS INFORMATION
Production
Design, Mg/h
(tons/h)
Hours of operation
Design, h/d
Design, h/yr
Actual , h/d
Actual , h/yr
Feed material
Product
Fuel type
Fuel usage, xlO9 Joules/Mg
(xlO6 Btu/ton)
Maximum operating temperature, °C
Retention time, min
CONTROL DEVICE INFORMATION
•Control device inlet
Gas flow rate, mVmin
(acfm)
Gas temperature, °C
Gas moisture, %
Scrubber
AP, kPa
(in. w.c. ) u
Liquid-to-gas ratio
STACK PARAMETERS
Height, m
(ft)
Diameter, m
(ft)
Temperature, °C
Moisture, %
Gas flow rate, mVmin
(acfm)
Gas velocity, m/s
(ft/s)
Small
Confidential4
<-
Confidential4
Confidential4
4.
*
Confidential4
Confidential4
Confidential4
Confidential4
Confidential4
Confidential4
Confidential4
Confidential4
Confidential4
Confidential4
Confidential4
Confidential4
Confidential4
Confidential4
Confidential4
Medium
18
(20)
24
8,000
16
4,500
Pegmatite or
alaskite ore
Feldspar
No. 2 oil,
natural gas
1.2
(1)
230
(450)
10-15
350
(12,500)
120
(250)
10
1.0/2.53
(4)/(10)
1,335
(10)
12
(40)
0.6
(2.1)
60
(140)
20
340
(11,900)
18
(60)
Large
27
(30)
•»
16
5,200
->
'
No. 2 oil,
natural gas
1.2
(1)
230
(450)
10-15
600
(21,000)
120
(250)
10
a
1.0/2.53
(4)/(lQ)
1,335
(10)
15
(50)
0.6
(2.7)
60
(140)
20
570
(20,000)
18
(60)
?First number corresponds to RA II; second number corresponds to RA III.
Vl.OOO m3 (gal/1,000 acf).
6-23
-------
TABLE 6-16. MODEL FACILITY PARAMETERS FOR ROTARY DRYER-
FIRE CLAY INDUSTRY
Parameter/Facility size
PROCESS INFORMATION
Production
Design, Mg/h
(tons/h)
Hours of operation
Design, h/d
Design, h/yr
Actual, h/d
Actual, h/yr
Feed material
Product
Fuel type
Fuel usage, xlO9 Joules/Mg
(xlO6 Btu/ton)
Maximum operating temperature, °C
(°F)
Retention time, min
CONTROL DEVICE INFORMATION
Control device inlet
Gas flow rate, mVmin
(acfra)
Gas temperature, °C
(°F)
Gas moisture, %
Baghouse
Cloth type
Air-to-cloth ratio
AP, kPa
(in. w.c.)
Scrubber
AP, kPa
(in. w.c.)
Liquid-to-gas ratio
STACK PARAMETERS11
Height, m
(ft)
Diameter, IB
(ft)
Temgerature, °C
Moisture, %
Gas flow rate, mVm
(acfm)
Gas velocity, ra/s
. (ft/s)
Small
9
(10)
<-
<-
<-
<-
«-
4-
<-
<-
<-
<-
<-
<-
310
(11,000)
<-
<•
*•
•e
4-
<-
*
<-
•e-
<-
*•
(40)
0.6
(2.0)
300/310
(10.600)/
(10,900)
*"
Medium
27
(30)
24
8,000
a
3,000
Plastic, flint,
bauxite clays
Dried clays
Natural gas, No. 2 oil
0.8
(0.7)
204
(400)
15-60
'
510
(18,000)
120
(250)
6
Nomex
1.4:1
(4.5:1)
0.98
(2)
2.5/3.5b-
(10)/(14)
1,335
(10)
12
(40)
0.8
(2.5)
110/60
(225)7(140)
6/20
490/510
(17,400)7
(17,900)
18
(60)
Large
45
(50)
.>
->
.» •
•*
^
•»
-»
^.
^.
^
+
710
(25,000)
-*•
^
*
-
^
.>
*
^.
^.
->
*
15
(50)
0.9
(3.0)
680/700
(24,100)7
(24,800)
* '
um3/rain per m2 (ft3/min per ft2).
-First number corresponds to RA II; second number corresponds to RA III.
§2/1,000 m3 (gal/1,000 acf).
First number corresponds to baghouse; second number corresponds to scrubber.
6-24
-------
TABLE 6-17. MODEL FACILITY PARAMETERS FDR VIBRATING-GRATE DRYER-
FIRE CLAY INDUSTRY
Parameter/Facility size
Medium
PROCESS INFORMATION
Production
Design, Mg/h
(tons/h)
Hours of operation
Design, h/d
Design, h/yr
Actual, h/d
Actual , h/yr
Feed material
Product
Fuel type
Fuel usage, xlO9 Joules/Mg
(xlO6 Btu/ton)
Maximum operating temperature, °C
Retention time, min
CONTROL DEVICE INFORMATION
Control device inlet
Gas flow rate, m3/min
(acfm)
Gas temperature, °C
(°F)
Gas moisture, %
Scrubber
AP, kPa
(in. w.c.) 'u
Liquid-to-gas ratio
STACK PARAMETERS
Height, m
(ft)
Diameter, m
(ft)
Temperature, °C
(°F)
Moisture, %
Gas flow rate, mVmin
(acfm)
Gas velocity, m/s
• (ft/s)
23
(25)
24
8,000
6
2,000
Crude clay
Dried clay
Natural gas, No. 2 oil
0.5
(0-4)
260
(500)
10-15
1,760
(62,000)
135
(275)
6
0.8/0.83
270
(5)
15
(50)
1.4
(4.6)
60
(140)
20
1,700
(59,500)
18
(60)
?First number corresponds to RA II; second number corresponds
"Vl.OOO m3 (gal/1,000 acf).
to RA III.
6-25
-------
TABLE 6-18. MODEL FACILITY PARAMETERS FOR ROTARY CALCINER-
FIRE CLAY INDUSTRY
Parameter/Faci 1 i ty s i ze
PROCESS INFORMATION
Production
Design, Mg/h
(tons/h)
Hours of operation
Design, h/d
Design, h/yr
Actual, h/d
Actual , h/yr
Feed material
Product
Fuel type
Fuel usage, xlO9 Joules/Mg
(xlO6 Btu/ton)
Maximum operating temperature, °C
(°F)
Retention time, min
CONTROL DEVICE INFORMATION
Control device inlet
Gas flow rate, mVmin
(acfra)
Gas temperature, °C
(°F)
Gas moisture, %
Scrubber
AP, kPa
(in. w.c.)
Liquid-to-gas ratio
STACK PARAMETERS
Height, m
(ft)
Diameter, m
(ft)
Temperature, °C
(5F)
Moisture, %
Gas flow rate, raVmin
(acfm)
Gas velocity, m/s
(ft/s)
Small
9
(10)
24
8,000
24
8,000
Crude
kaolinitic
clays
Calcined
clays
Natural gas,
No. 2 oil
4.9
(4.2)
1400
(2500)
100
700
(25,000)
230
(450)
14
4.7
(19)
1,335
(10)
11
(35)
0.8
(2.5)
60
(140)
20
500
(17,700)
18
(60)
Medium
18
(20)
24
8,000
24
8,000
Crude
kaolinitic
clays
Calcined
clays
Natural gas,
No. 2 oil
4.9
(4.2)
1400
(2500)
120
1,100
(40,000)
230
(450)
14
4.7
(19)
1,335
(10)
15
(50)
1.0
(3.2)
60
(140)
20
800
(28,400)
18
(60)
a£/l,000 m3 (gal/1,000 acf).
6-26
-------
TABLE 6-19. MODEL FACILITY PARAMETERS FOR FLUID BED DRYER-
FULLER'S EARTH INDUSTRY
Parameter/Facility size
Large
PROCESS INFORMATION
Production
Design, Mg/h
(tons/h)
Hours of operation
Design, h/d
Design, h/yr
Actual, h/d
Actual , h/yr
Feed material
Product
Fuel type
Fuel usage, xlO9 Joules/Mg
(xlO6 Btu/ton)
Maximum operating temperature, °C
°
Retention time, min
Confidential4
Confidential4
Confidential4
Confidential4
Confidential4
Fuller's earth
Fuller's earth
Natural gas, No. 5 oil
Confidential4
980
(1800)
30
CONTROL DEVICE INFORMATION
Control device inlet
Gas flow rate, mVmin
(acfm)
Gas temperature, °C
(°F)
Gas moisture, %
Baghouse
Cloth type
Air- to- cloth ratio
AP, kPa
(in. w.c.)
STACK PARAMETERS
Height, m
(ft)
Diameter, m
(ft)
Temperature, °C
(°F)
Moisture, %
Gas flow rate, m3/min
(acfm)
Gas velocity, m/s
(ft/s)
3,500
(124,000)
150
(300)
24
Nomex
1.4:1
(4.5:1)
0.98
(4)
15
(50)
1.9
(6.3)
110
(235)
24
3,200
(113,400)
18
(60)
m3/min per m2 (ftVmin per ft2).
6-27
-------
TABLE 6-20. MODEL FACILITY PARAMETERS FOR ROTARY DRYER-
FULLER 'S, EARTH INDUSTRY
Parameter/Facility size
PROCESS INFORMATION
Production
Design, Mg/h
(tons/h)
Hours of operation
Design, h/d
Design, h/yr
Actual, h/d
Actual, h/yr
Feed material
Product
Fuel type
Fuel usage, xlO9 Joules/Mg
(xlO6 Btu/ton)
Maximum operating temperature, °C
(°F)
Retention time, min
CONTROL DEVICE INFORMATION
Control device inlet
Gas flow rate, m3/min
(acfm)
Gas temperature, °C
(°F)
Gas moisture, %
Baghouse
Cloth type
Air-to-cloth ratio3
AP, kPa
(in. w.c.)
Scrubber
AP, kPa
(in. w.c.)
Liquid-to-gas ratioc
STACK PARAMETERS'1
Height, m
(ft)
Diameter, m
,(ft)
Temperature, °C
(SF)
Moisture, %
Gas flow rate, mVmin
(acfm)
Gas velocity, m/s
(ft/s)
Small Medium
4 14
(5) (15)
«- 24
*• 8,000
*• 24
*• 7,500
«• Fuller's earth
*• Fuller's earth
*• Natural gas, No. 4 oil
2.6 2.3
(2.2) (2.0)
*• 200
«- (400)
«• 23
(
570 '850
(20,000) (30,000)
«- 145
<- (290)
* 20
*• Nomex
«- 1.2:1
«- (4:1)
«• 1.0
(4)
<- 2.0/2.7b'
*• 1,335
(10)
12 15
(40) (50)
0.8/0.7 1.0/0.9
(2.7)/(2.4) (3.2)/(2.9)
<- 130/60
«- (270)/(140)
«- 20
550/450 830/680
(19,500)/ (29.200)/
(16,000) (24,000)
<- 18
(60)
Large
27
(30)
_>
-*
•»
-V
->
•»
2.3
(2.0)
^.
->
-»
1,300
(45,000)
^
•*
^
^
^
^
•»
^
^.
->
18
(60)
1.2/1.1
(4.0)/(3.6)
1200/1,020
(43.800)/
(36,000)
•*
5nVmin per m2 (ft3/min per ft2).
First number corresponds to RA II; second number corresponds to RA III.
32/1,000 m3 (gal/I,000 acf).
First number corresponds to baghouse; second number corresponds to scrubber.
6-28
-------
TABLE 6-21. MODEL FACILITY PARAMETERS FOR ROTARY CALCINER-
FULLER'S EARTH INDUSTRY
Parameter/Facility size
PROCESS INFORMATION
Production
Design, Mg/h
(tons/h)
Hours of operation
Design, h/d
Design, h/yr
Actual, h/d
Actual , h/yr
Feed material
Product
Fuel type
Fuel usage, xlO9 Joules/Mg
(xlO6 Btu/ton)
Maximum operating temperature, °C
Retention time, min
CONTROL DEVICE INFORMATION
Control device inlet
Gas flow rate, m3/min
(acfm)
Gas temperature, °C
(°F)
Gas moisture, %
Baghouse
Cloth type
Air-to-cloth ratio3
AP, kPa
(in. w.c.)
STACK PARAMETERS
Height, m
(ft)
Diameter, m
(ft)
Temperature, °C
(5F)
Moisture, %
Gas flow rate, mVmin
(acfm)
Gas velocity, m/s
(ft/s)
Small Medium
4 23
(5) (25)
<- 24
<- 8,000
<- 24
*- 8,000
<- Fuller's earth
<- Fuller's earth
*• Natural gas, fuel oil
<- 2.4
<- (2.1)
->
->
•*
18
.(60)
1.1
(3.7)
->
•*
•»
1,100
(37,800)
'-»
"*
m3/min per m2 (ft3/min per ft2).
6-29
-------
TABLE .6-22. .MODEL FACILITY ^PARAMETERS
GYRSUM INDUSTRY
EOR ROTARY DRYER—
Paraaeter/Facility size
PROCESS INFORMATION
Production
Design, Mg/h
(tons/h)
Hours of operation
Design, h/d
Design, h/yr
Actual, h/d
Actual , h/yr
Feed material
Product
Fuel type
Fuel usage, xlO9 Joules/Mg
(xlO6 Btu/ton)
Maximum operating temperature, °C
(°F)
Retention tine, rain
CONTROL DEVICE INFORMATION
Control device inlet
Gas flow rate, mVmin
(acfm)
Gas temperature, °C
(°F)
Gas moisture, %
Baghouse '
Cloth type
Air-to-cloth ratio3
AP, kPa
(in. w.c.)
STACK PARAMETERS
Height, m
(ft)
Diameter, m
(ft)
Temperature, °C
(°F)
Moisture, %
Gas flow rate, mVnrin
(acfm)
Gas velocity, m/s
(ft/s)
Medi urn
45
(50)
24
8,000
16
5,600
Gypsum
Gypsum
Natural gas,
distillate oil
0.17
(0.15)
260
(500)
8
350
(12,500)
120
(250)
8
Nomex
1.2:1
(4:1)
0.98
(4)
15
(50)
0.6
(2.1)
110
(225)
8
340
(12,100)
18
(60)
Large
73
(80)
24
8,000
16
5,600
Gypsum
Gypsum
Natural gas,
distillate oil
0.17
(0.15)
260
(500)
8
470
(16,600)
120
(250)
8
Nomex
1.2:1
(4:1)
0.98
(4)
18
(60)
0.7
(2.4)
110
(225)
Q
450
(16,000)
18
(60)
raVmin per m2 (ftVmin per ft2).
6-30
-------
TABLE 6-23. MODEL FACILITY PARAMETERS FOR FLASH CALCINER-
GYPSUM INDUSTRY
Parameter/Facility size Medium
PROCESS INFORMATION
Production
Design, Mg/h
(tons/h)
Hours of operation
Design, h/d
Design, h/yr
Actual, h/d
Actual , h/yr
Feed material
Product
Fuel type
Fuel usage, xlO9 Joules/Mg
(xlO6 Btu/ton)
Maximum operating temperature, °C
Retention time, s
CONTROL DEVICE INFORMATION
9
(10)
24
8,000
24
5,600
Gypsum
Stucco
Natural gas, distillate oil,
No. 6 oil
0.9
(0.8)
230
(450)
2-5
Control device inlet
Gas flow rate, mVmin
(acfm)
Gas temperature, °C
Gas moisture, %
Baghouse
Cloth type
Air-to-cloth ratio*
AP, kPa
(in. w.c.)
STACK PARAMETERS
Height, m
(ft)
Diameter, m '
(ft)
Temperature, °C
Moisture, %
Gas flow rate, m3/min
(acfm)
Gas velocity, m/s
(ft/s)
120
(4,100) •
180
(350)
40
Fiberglass
0.6:1
(2:1)
0.98
(4)
21
(70)
0.7
(2.2)
165
(325)
40
110
(4,000)
26
(85)
V/min per m2 (ftVmin per ft2).
6-31
-------
TABLE 6-24. MODEL FACILITY PARAMETERS FOR KETTLE CALCINER-
GYPSUM INDUSTRY
Parameter/Faci1i ty Si ze
Medium
PROCESS INFORMATION
Production
Design, Hg/h
(tons/h)
Hours of operation
Design, h/d
Design, h/yr
Actual, h/d
Actual, h/yr
Feed material
Product
Fuel type
Fuel usage, xlO9 Joules/Hg
(xlO6 Btu/ton)
Maximum operating temperature, °C
Retention time, min
CONTROL DEVICE INFORMATION
11
(12)
24
8,000
24
5,600
Gypsum
Stucco
Natural gas, distillate oil
1.2
(1)
230
(450)
120 (batch)
Control device inlet
Gas flow rate, mVmin
(acfm)
Gas temperature, °C
(°F)
Gas moisture, %
Baghouse
Cloth type
Air-to-cloth ratio3
AP, kPa
(in. w.c.)
STACK PARAMETERS
Height, m
(ft)
Diameter, m
(ft)
Temperature, C
(SF)
Moisture, %
Gas flow rate, m3/nrin
(acfm)
Gas velocity, m/s
(ft/s)
120
(4,100)
120
(250)
30
Fiberglass
0.6:1
(2:1) ,
0.98
(4)
21
(70)
0.3
(1.1)
110
(225)
30
110
(4,000)
18
(60)
amVmin per ra2 (ftVmin per ft2).
6-32
-------
TABLE 6-25. MODEL FACILITY PARAMETERS FOR FLUID BED DRYER-
INDUSTRIAL SAND INDUSTRY
Parameter/Facility size
PROCESS INFORMATION
Production
Design, Mg/h
(tons/h)
Hours of operation
Design, h/d
Design, h/yr
Actual , h/d
Actual , h/yr
Feed material
Product
Fuel type
Fuel usage, xlO9 Joules/Mg
(xlO6 Btu/ton)
Maximum operating temperature, °C
Retention time, rain
CONTROL DEVICE INFORMATION
Control device inlet
Gas flow rate, mVmin
(acfm)
Gas temperature, °C
Gas moisture, %
Scrubber
AP, kPa
(in. w.c.) b
Liquid-to-gas ratio
STACK PARAMETERS •
Height, m
(ft)
Diameter, m
(ft)
Temperature, °C
Moisture, %
Gas flow rate, nvVmin
(acfm)
Gas velocity, m/s
(ft/s)
Small Medium
45 90
(50) (100)
n/l
<- £*t
<- 8,000
8 24
2,000 6,400
«- Industrial sand
<- Industrial sand
*- Natural gas,
No. 2 oil, propane
<- • 0.3
(0.3)
*- 260
(500)
<- 4
420 850
(15,000) (30,000)
1 1 A
<- 110
(230)
<- 10
<- 0.8/0.8
*• (3)/(3)
<- 1,335
ft n \
*• (10)
12 15
(40) (50)
0.7 1.0
(2.3) (3.3)
<- 60
(140)
<- 20
410 830
(14,700) (29,300)
«• 18
«- (60)
Large
180
(200)
24
6,400
-*
*
"*
*
*
*
2,000
(70,000)
*
*
~*
"*
^
"*
18
(60)
1.5
(5.0)
t
->•
1,940
(68,500)
~*
fFirst number corresponds to RA II; second
D2/l,000 m3 (gal/I,000 acf).
number corresponds to RA III.
6-33
-------
TABLE 6-26. MODEL FACILITY PARAMETERS FOR ROTARY DRYER-
INDUSTRIAL SAND INDUSTRY
Parameter/Facility size
PROCESS INFORMATION
Production
Design, Mg/h
(tons/h)
Hours of operation
Design, h/d
Design, h/yr
Actual, h/d
Actual , h/yr
Feed material
Product
Fuel type
Fuel usage, xlO9 Joules/Hg
(X106 Btu/ton)
Maximum operating temperature, °C
C°F)
Retention time, min
CONTROL DEVICE INFORMATION
Control device inlet
Gas flow rate, mVrain
(acfw)
Gas temperature, °C
(°F)
Gas moisture, %
Scrubber
AP, kPa
(in. w.c.) b
Liquid-to-gas ratio
STACK PARAMETERS
Height, m
(ft)
Diameter, m
(ft)
Temperature, °C
(°F)
Moisture, %
Gas flow rate, mVmin
(acfm)
Gas velocity, m/s
(ft/s)
Small
45
(50)
«-
<-
8
1,800
«-
<-
«-
<-
•f-
<•
•€-
«•
310
(11,000)
*•
4-
4-
4-
4-
«-
•t-
9
(30)
0.6
(1-9)
<-
<-
«-
300
(10,500)
4-
4-
Medium
90
(100)
24
8,000
8
1,800
Industrial sand
Industrial sand
Natural gas
0.2
(0.2)
260
(500)
9
570
(20,000)
120
.(250)
10
0.8/0.83
(3)/(3)
1,335
(10)
12
(40)
0.8
(2.6)
60
(140)
20
540
(19,000)
18
(60)
Large
135
(150)
->
-*
16
4,000
-»
->•
->
->•
->
->
-»
->•
990
(35,000)
->•
->
->
-*•
-*
15
(50)
1.1
(3.5)
->
->
->
940
(33,300)
->
->
fFirst number corresponds to RA II; second number corresponds to RA III.
DJt/l,000 Bi3 (gal/1,000 acf).
6-34
-------
TABLE 6-27. MODEL FACILITY
KAOLIN
PARAMETERS FOR ROTARY DRYER-
INDUSTRY
Parameter/Facility size
Medi urn
PROCESS INFORMATION
Production
Design, Mg/h
(tons/h)
Hours of operation
Design, h/d
Design, h/yr
Actual , h/d
Actual , h/yr
Feed material
Product
Fuel type
Fuel usage, xlO9 Joules/Mg
(xlO6 Btu/ton)
Maximum operating temperature, °C
Retention time, min .
CONTROL DEVICE INFORMATION
18
(20)
24
8,000
16
3,000
Crude kaolin
Dried kaolin
Natural gas, No. 2 oil
0.1
(0.1)
260
(500)
15 '
Control device inlet
Gas flow rate, m3/min
(acfm)
Gas temperature, °C
(°F)
Gas moisture, %
Baghouse
Cloth type
Air-to-cloth ratio
AP, kPa
(in. w.c.)
STACK PARAMETERS
Height, m
(ft)
Diameter, m
(ft)
Temperature, °C
(°F)
Moisture, %
Gas flow rate, nvVmin
(acfm)
Gas velocity, m/s
(ft/s)
480
(17,000)
120
(250)
8
Nomex
1.1:1
(3.5:1)
1.2
(5)
11 •
(35)
0.7
(2.4)
110
(225)
8
460
(16,400)
18
(60)
m3/min per m2 (ft3/min per ft2).
6-35
-------
TABLE 6-28. MODEL FACILITY PARAMETERS
KAOLIN INDUSTRY
FOR SPRAY DRYER--
Parameter/Facility size
PROCESS INFORMATION
Production
Design, Mg/h
(ton/h)
Hours of operation
Design, h/d
Design, h/yr
Actual, h/d
Actual , h/yr
Feed material
Product
Fuel type
Fuel usage, xlO9 Joules/Mg
(xlO6 Btu/ton)
Maximum operating temperature, °C
(°F)
Retention time, s
CONTROL DEVICE INFORMATION
Control device inlet
Gas flow rate, mVmin
(acfm)
Gas temperature, °C
Gas moisture, %
Baghouse
Cloth type
Air-to-cloth ratio
AP, kPa
(in. w.c. )
STACK PARAMETERS
Height, m
(ft)
Diameter, m
(ft)
Temperature, °C
Moisture, %
Gas flow rate, mVmin
(acfm)
Gas velocity, m/s
(ft/s)
Medi urn
14
(15)
24
8,000
24
8,000
Kaolin clay
Kaolin clay
Natural gas,
No. 2 oil
2.4
(2.1)
590
(1100)
5
990
(35,000)
120
(250)
30
Nomex
0.9:1
(3:1)
1.2
(5) '
27
(90)
1.1
(3.5)
110
(225)
30
960
(33,800)
18
(60)
Large
27
(30)
24
8,000
24
8,000
Kaolin clay
Kaolin clay
Natural gas,
No. 2 oil
2.4
(2.1)
590
(1100)
5
1,700
(60,000)
120
(250)
30
Nomex
0.9:1
(3:1)
1.2
(5)
27
(90)
1.4
(4.6)
110
(225)
30
1,600
(57,900)
18
(60)
in per ra2 (ftVmin per ft2).
6-36
-------
TABLE 6-29. MODEL FACILITY PARAMETERS FOR FLASH CALCINER-
KAOLIN INDUSTRY
Parameter/Facility size
Small
PROCESS INFORMATION
Production
Design, Mg/h
(tons/h)
Hours of operation
Design, h/d
Design, h/yr
Actual, h/d
Actual, h/yr
Feed material
Product
Fuel type
Fuel usage, xlO9 Joules/Mg
(xlO6 Btu/ton)
Confidential4
24
8,000
Confidential4
Confidential4
Dry kaolin
Calcined kaolin
Natural gas, kerosene
Confidential4
Maximum operating temperature, °C
Retention time, s
CONTROL DEVICE INFORMATION
Control device inlet
Gas flow rate, mVmin
(acfm)
Gas temperature, °C
Gas moisture, %
Baghouse
Cloth type
Air-to-cloth ratio
AP, kPa
(in. w.c. )
STACK PARAMETERS
Height, m
(ft)
Diameter, m
(ft)
Temperature, °C
(°F)
Moisture, %
Gas flow rate, mVmin
(acfm)
Gas velocity, m/s
(ft/s)
Confidential4
Confidential4
Confidential4
Confidential4
Confidential4
Fiberglass
0.6:1
(2:1)
0.98
(4)
18
(60)
0.9
(3.1)
180
(350)
4
750
(26,400)
18
(60)
mVmin per m2 (ftVmin per ft2).
6-37
-------
TABLE 6-30. MODEL FACILITY PARAMETERS, FOR MULTIPLE HEARTH FURNACE-
KAOLIN INDUSTRY
Parameter/Facility size
Small
PROCESS INFORMATION
Production
Design, Mg/h
(tons/h)
Hours of operation
Design, h/d
Design, h/yr
Actual, h/d
Actual, h/yr
Feed material
Product
Fuel type
Fuel usage, xlO9 Joules/Hg
(xlO6 Btu/ton)
Maxiswm operating temperature, °C
Retention time, nrin
CONTROL DEVICE INFORMATION
4
(5)
24
8,000
24
8,000
Spray dried kaolin
Calcined kaolin
Natural gas, No. 2 oil
3.5
(3)
1100
(2000)
30
Control device inlet
Gas flow rate, raVmin
(acfm)
Gas temperature, °C
C°F)
Gas moisture, %
Scrubber
AP, kPa
(in. w.c.)
Liquid-to-gas ratio
STACK PARAMETERS
Height, m
(ft)
Diameter, m
(ft)
Temperature, °C
C°F)
Moisture, %
Gas flow rate, mVmin
(acfm)
Gas velocity, m/s
(ft/s)
340
(12,000)
280
(500)
16
5.7
(23)
1,335
(10)
18
(60)
0.5
(1.7)
60
(140)
20
220
(7,900)
18
(60)
"1/1,000 m3 (gal/1,000 acf).
6-38
-------
TABLE 6-31. MODEL FACILITY PARAMETERS FOR ROTARY CALCINER-
KAOLIN INDUSTJY
Parameter/Faci1 i ty s1ze
Small
PROCESS INFORMATION
Production
Design, Mg/h
(tons/h)
Hours of operation
Design, h/d
Design, h/yr
Actual, h/d
Actual , h/yr
Feed material
Product
Fuel type
Fuel usage, xlO9 Joules/Mg
(xlO6 Btu/ton)
Maximum operating temperature, °C
Retention time, min
CONTROL DEVICE INFORMATION
Control device inlet
Gas flow rate, m3/min
(acfm)
Gas temperature, °C
Gas moisture, %
Baghouse
Cloth type
Air-to-cloth ratio
AP, kPa
(in. w.c.)
Scrubber
AP, kPa
(in. w.c.) b
Liquid-to-gas ratio
STACK PARAMETERS1"
Height, m
(ft)
Diameter, m
(ft)
Temperature, C
Moisture, %
Gas flow rate, mVmin
(acfm)
Gas velocity, m/s
(ft/s)
5
(6)
24
8,000
24
8,000
Kaolin clays
Calcined kaolin
Pulverized coal, natural gas
3.5
(3)
820
(1500)
45
680
(24,000)
200
(400)
10
Nomex
0.6:1
(2:1)
0.74
(3)
6.0
(24)
1,335
(10)
37
(120)
0.9/0.8
(2.9)/(2.6)
180/60
(350)/(140)
10/20
640/530
(22,600)/(18,800)
18
(60)
per m2 (ft3/min per ft2).
Vl.OOO m3 (gal/1,000 acf).
First number corresponds to baghouse;
second number corresponds to scrubber.
6-39
-------
TABLE 6-32. MODEL FACILITY PARAMETERS FOR ROTARY CALCINER—
LIGHTWEIGHT AGGREGATE INDUSTRY
Paraneter/Faci 1 i ty si ze
PROCESS INFORMATION
Production
Design, Mg/h
(tons/h)
Hours of operation
Design, h/d
Design, h/yr
Actual , h/d
Actual, h/yr
Feed material
Product
Fuel type
Fuel usage, xlO9 Joules/Mg
(xlO6 Btu/ton)
Maximum operating temperature, °C
(°F)
Retention time, min
CONTROL DEVICE INFORMATION
Control device inlet
Gas flow rate, mVmin
(acfra)
Gas temperature, °C
C°F)
Gas moisture, %
Baghouse
Cloth type
Air-to-cloth ratio
AP, kPa
(in. w.c.)
Scrubber
AP, kPa
(in. w.c.) .
Liquid-to-gas ratio
STACK PARAMETERS6
Height, ra
(ft)
Diameter, m
(ft)
Temperature, °C
(°F)
Moisture, %
Gas flow rate, raVrain
(acfra)
Gas velocity, ra/s
(ft/s)
Smal 1
18
(20)
<-
<-
<-
•t-
<-
•€-
«-
<-
«-
<-
<-
4-
1.800?/
1,200°
(65.000)?/
(44,000)°
4-
4-
4-
<-
4-
<-
4-
4-
<-
4-
4-
4-
15
(50)
1.2/1.1
(3.9)/(3.6)
<-
<-
«-
1.200/
1,000
(41.400)/
(36,800)
4-
4-
Medium
27
(30)
24
8,000
24
8,000
Shale, slate, clay
Lightweight aggregate
Pulverized coal
3.3
(2.8)
1100
(2000)
30-45
2,800u/
1,900° =
(100, OOO)?/
(68,000,5°
425a/205B .
(800)a/(400)°
5
Nomex
1.5:1
(5:1)
0.98
(4)
5.7
(23)
1,335
(10)
18
(60)
1.5/1.4
(4.8)/(4.5)
180/60
(350)/(140)
5/20
1.800/
1,600
(64.000)/
(56,500)
18
(60)
Large
36
(40)
->•
-»
->
->
->
-»
->
-»
-»
->
-»
->
3.700?/
2,500°,
(130,000)£/
(89,000)°
-»
->
->
->
->
^
->
-»• ^
In
->•
-»
->
->
21
(70)
1.7/1.6
(5.5)/(5.2)
->
•»
->
2.400/
2,100
(83.800)/
(73,500)
->
->
scrubber inlet.
"Baghouse inlet.
jraVinin per raz (ftVmin per ft2).
Vl.OOO ra3 (gal/1,000 acf).
First number corresponds to baghouse; second number corresponds to scrubber.
6-40
-------
TABLE 6-33. MODEL FACILITY PARAMETERS FOR MULTIPLE HEARTH FURNACE--
MAGNESIUM COMPOUNDS INDUSTRY
Parameter/Facility size
PROCESS INFORMATION
Production
Design, Mg/h
(tons/h)
Hours of operation
Design, h/d
Design, h/yr
Actual , h/d
Actual , h/yr
Feed material
Product
Fuel type
Fuel usage, xlO9 Joules/Mg
(xlO6 Btu/ton)
Maximum operating temperature, °C
Retention time, min
CONTROL DEVICE INFORMATION
Control device
Control device inlet
Gas flow rate, m3/min
(acfm)
Gas temperature, °C
(°F)
Gas moisture, %
ESPC .
Specific collection area
AP, kPa
(in. w. c.)
Baghouse
Cloth type
Air-to-cloth ratio
AP, kPa
(in. w.c.)
STACK PARAMETERS
Height, m
(ft)
Diameter, m
(ft)
Temperature, °C
Moisture, %
Gas flow rate, mVmin
(acfm)
Gas velocity, m/s
(ft/s)
Small
2
(2)
*-
<-
<-
*•
Mg(OH)2
«•
<-
10.5
(9)
' *
-
ESPa
460
(16,400)
370
(700)
, 25
«.
•e-
•*-
•e-
9
(30)
0.7
(2.3)
290
(550)
25
400
(14,300)
*"
Medi urn
Confidential4
24
8,000
Confidential4
Confidential4
Mg(OH)2/
Magnesite
Magnesia
Confidential4
10.5 (9)a/ .
Confidential4'0
Confidential4
Confidential4
ESPa/Baghouseb
1.400/ ,
Confidential4'0
(50.000)/ h
Confidential4'0
370/180
(700)/(350)
25/Confiden-
tial4'6
1.30
(400)
0.12
(0.5)
Fiberglass
0.4:1
(1.4:1)
1.2
(5)
18/12
(60)7(40)
1.2/0.9
(4.0)7(2.8)
290/165
(550)/(328)
25/3
1,200/630
(43,500)/(22,400)
18
(60)
Large
Confidential4
->
-»
.>.
->
Mg(OH)2/
Magnesite
H>
-»
10.5 (9V
Confidential4'0
*'
-»
ESPa/Baghouseb
2.000/
Confidential4,b
(70,000)7
Confidential4'0
370/180
(700)/(350)
257Confiden-
tial4'0
^
^.
.,.
-»
Fiberglass
0.4:1
(1.4:1)
1.2
(5)
21/15
(70)7(50)
1. 4/1. 1
(4.7)7(3.6)
290/165
(550)/(328)
25/3
1,700/990
(61,000)/(35,000)
-$•
^For Mg(OH)2 feed.
"For magnesite feed.
^Assumed power requirements for ESP is 0.14 watt/m2 (1.5 watts/ft2).
m2 per mVmin (ft2/!,000 acfm).
m3/min per m2 (ftVmin per ft2).
6-41
-------
TABLE 6-34. MODEL FACILITY PARAMETERS FOR ROTARY CALCINER—
MAGNESIUM COMPOUNDS INDUSTRY
Parameter/Facility size
PROCESS INFORMATION
Production
Design, Mg/h
(tons/h)
Hours of operation
Design, h/d
Design, h/yr
Actual , h/d
Actual , h/yr
Feed material
Product
Fuel type
Fuel usage, xlO9 Joules/Mg
(x!0a Btu/ton)
Maximum operating temperature, °C
<°F)
Retention time, min
CONTROL DEVICE INFORMATION
Control device inlet
Gas flow rate, mVmin
(acfm)
Gas temperature, °C
(°F)
Gas moisture, %
ESPa b
Specific collection area
AP, kPa
(in. w.c.)
Baghouse
Cloth type
Air-to-cloth ratio
AP, kPa
(in. w.c.)
STACK PARAMETERS
Height, m
(ft)
Diameter, ra
(ft)
Temperature, °C
(5F)
Moisture, %
Gas flow rate, mVmin
(acfm)
Gas velocity, m/s
(ft/s)
Small
4
(5)
4-
• *-
<-
•*-
Mg(OH)2
<-
«-
11.6
(10)
2100
(3800)
120-270
1,400
(50,000)
280
(500)
45
1.0
(300)
0.12
(0.5)
20
(65)
1.2
(4.1)
220
(425)
45
1,300
(46,100)
18
(60)
Medium
9
(10)
24
8,000
24
8,000
Mg(OH)2
Magnesia
Natural gas, fuel
oils, coal, coke
11.6
(10)
2100
(3800)
120-270
2,100
(75,000)
280
(500)
45
1.0
(300)
0.12
(0.5)
21
(70)
1.5
(5.0)
220
(425)
45
2,000
(69,100)
18
(60)
Large
Confidential4
->
Confidential4
Confidential4
Magnesite
-»
Confidential4
Confidential4
Confidential4
Confidential4
Confidential4
150
(300)
Confidential4
Fiberglass
0.5:1
(1.65:1)
1.23
(5)
21
(70)
1.3
(4.3)
110
(230)
10
Confidential4
Confidential4
^Assumed power requirement for ESP is 0.14 watt/m2 (1.5 watts/ft2).
V per mVmin (ft2/!,000 acfm).
mVmin per m2 (ft3/rain per ft2).
6-42
-------
TABLE 6-35.
MODEL FACILITY
PERLITE
PARAMETERS FOR ROTARY DRYER—
INDUSTRY
Parameter/Facility size
PROCESS INFORMATION
Production
Design, Mg/h
(tons/h)
Hours of operation
Design, h/d
Design, h/yr
Actual , h/d
Actual , h/yr
Feed material
Product
Fuel type
Fuel usage, xlO9 Joules/Mg
(xlO6 Btu/ton)
Maximum operating temperature, °C
(°F)
Retention time, min
CONTROL DEVICE INFORMATION
Control device inlet
Gas flow rate, mVmin
(acfm)
Gas temperature, °C
Gas moisture, %
Baghouse
Cloth type
Air-to-cloth ratio3
AP, kPa
(in. w. c.)
STACK PARAMETERS
Height, m
(ft)
Diameter, m
(ft)
Temperature, °C
Moisture, %
Gas flow rate, mVmin
(acfm)
Gas velocity, m/s
(ft/s)
Medium
23
(25)
24
8,000
8
2,900
Perlite
Perlite
Natural gas,
No. 2 oil
Confidential4
280
(500)
10-20
1,100
(40,000)
120
(250)
13
Nomex
1.2:1
(4:1)
1.5
(6)
9
(30)
1.1
(3.7)
105
(220)
13
1,100
(38,300)
18
(60)
Large
Confidential4
24
8,000
Confidential4
Confidential4
Perlite
Perlite
Natural gas,
No. 2 oil
Confidential4
280-
(500)
10-20
1,800
(65,000)
120
(250)
13
Nomex
1.2:1
(4:1)
1.5
(6)
12
(40)
1 5
(4.7)
105
(220)
13
1,800
(62,300)
18
(60)
m3/min per m2 (ftVmin per ft2).
6-43
-------
TABLE 6-36. MODEL FACILITY PARAMETERS FOR EXPANSION FURNACE-
PERLITE INDUSTRY
Parameter/Facility size Small
PROCESS INFORMATION
Production
Design, Mg/h
(tons/h)
Hours of operation
Design, h/d
Design, h/yr
Actual, h/d
Actual, h/yr
Feed material
Product
Fuel type
Fuel usage, xlO9 Joules/Mg
(xlO6 Btu/ton)
"ax* mum operating temperature, °C
Retention time, s
CONTROL DEVICE INFORMATION
0.9
(1)
24
8,000
8
1,600
Dried perlite
Expanded perlite
Natural gas,
No. 2 oil
2.0
(1.7)
980
(1800)
Control device inlet
Gas flow rate, mVmin
(acfm)
Gas temperature, °C
(°F)
Gas moisture, %
Baghouse
Cloth type
Air-to-cloth ratio
AP, kPa
(in. w.c.)
i'AJs PARAMETERS
Height, m
(ft)
Diameter, tn
.*t>
"twperature, °C
(°F)
Moisture, %
Gas flow rate, mVmin
(acfm)
Gas velocity, m/s
(ft/s)
170
(6,000)
205
(400)
5
Fiberglass
0.6:1
(2:1)
1.5
(6)
11
(35)
0.5
(1-5)
190
(375)
5
160
(5,800)
18
(60)
Bi3/min per m2 (ft3/min per ft2).
6-44
-------
TABLE 6-37. MODEL FACILITY PARAMETERS FOR FLUID BED DRYER-
ROOFING GRANULES INDUSTRY
Parameter/Facility size
Medi urn
PROCESS INFORMATION
Production
Design, Mg/h
(tons/h)
Hours of operation
Design, h/d
Design, h/yr
Actual, h/d
Actual, h/yr
Feed material
Product
Fuel type
Fuel usage, xlO9 Joules/Mg
(xlO6 Btu/ton)
Maximum operating temperature, °C
Retention time, rain
CONTROL DEVICE INFORMATION
Control device inlet
36
(40)
24
8,000
16
4,000
Coal-fired boiler slag
Dried coal-fired boiler slag (uncoated)
Natural gas
0.005
(0.004)
650
(1200)
Gas flow rate, mVrain
(acfm)
Gas temperature, °C
(°F)
Gas moisture, %
Scrubber
AP, kPa
(in. w.c.) L
Liquid-to-gas ratio
STACK PARAMETERS
Height, m
(ft)
Diameter, m
(ft)
Temperature, °C
(°F)
Moisture, %
Gas flow rate, mVmin
(acfm)
Gas velocity, m/s
(ft/s) .
710
(25,000)
135
(275)
5
0.8/0.83
(3)/(3)
1,335
(10)
12
(40)
0.9
(3.0)
60
(140)
20
670
(24,200)
18
(60)
["First number corresponds to RA II; second number corresponds to RA III.
Vl-,000 m3 (gal/1,000 acf).
6-45
-------
TABLE 6-38. MODEL FACILITY PARAMETERS FOR ROTARY DRYER-
ROOFING GRANULES INDUSTRY
Parameter/Facility size
Small
Medium
Large
PROCESS INFORMATION
Production
Design, Mg/h
(tons/h)
Hours of operation
Design, h/d
Design, h/yr
Actual, h/d
Actual, h/yr
Feed material
14 54 200
(15) (60) (220)
•
->
1,100
(40,000)
-»
->
*
-s-
•*
•»
*
12
(40)
1.2
(3.8)
-»
•*
->
1,100-
(40,100)
->
"*
?First number corresponds to RA II; second number corresponds to RA III.
D2/l,000 m3 (gal/1,000 acf).
6-46
-------
TABLE 6-39. MODEL FACILITY PARAMETERS FOR FLASH DRYER—TALC INDUSTRY
Parameter/Facility size Small
PROCESS INFORMATION
Production
Design, Mg/h
(tons/h)
Confidential4
Hours of operation
Design, h/d
Design, h/yr
Actual, h/d
Actual , h/yr
Feed material
Product
Fuel type
Fuel usage, xlO9 Joules/Mg
(xlO6 Btu/ton)
Maximum operating temperature, °C
Retention time, s
CONTROL DEVICE INFORMATION
Control device inlet
Gas flow rate, mVmin
(acfm)
Gas temperature, °C
(°F)
Gas moisture, %
Baghouse
Cloth type
Air-to-cloth ratio3
AP, kPa
(in. w.c.)
STACK PARAMETERS
Height, m
(ft)
Diameter, m
(ft)
Temperature, °C
(°F)
Moisture, %
Gas flow rate, mVmin
(acfm)
Gas velocity, m/s
(ft/s)
24
8,000
Confidential4
Confidential4
Talc ,
Talc
No. 2 oil
Confidential4
Confidential4
5
230 '
(8,000)
150
(300)
11
Nomex
0.9:1
(3:1)
1.5
(6)
15
(50)
0.5
(1.6)
120
(250)
11
210
(7,500)
18
(60)
mVmin per m2 (ftVmin per ft2).
6-47
-------
TABLE 6-40. MODEL FACILITY PARAMETERS FOR ROTARY DRYER
TALC INDUSTRY
Parameter/Facility size
PROCESS INFORMATION
Production
Design, Mg/h
(tons/h)
Hours of operation
Design, h/d
Design, h/yr
Actual, h/d
Actual, h/yr
Feed material
Product
Fuel type
Fuel usage, xlO9 Joules/Mg
(xlO6 Btu/ton)
Maximum operating temperature, °C
<°F)
Retention time, min
CONTROL DEVICE INFORMATION
Control device inlet
Gas flow rate, mVmin
(acfm)
Gas temperature, °C
(°F)
Gas moisture, %
Baghouse
Cloth type
Air-to-cloth ratio3
AP, kPa
(in. w.c.)
STACK PARAMETERS
Height, ra
(ft)
Diameter, ra
(ft)
Temperature, °C
(°F)
Moisture, %
Gas flow rate, m3/rain
(acfra)
Gas velocity, ra/s
(ft/s)
Medium
*
9
(10)
24
8,000
24
7., 400
Talc
Talc
Butane,
No. 2 oil
0.2
(0-2)
200
(400)
20
280
(10,000)
120
(250)
3
Nomex
0.9:1
(3:1)
0.7
(3)
15
(50)
0.6
(2.0)
110
(225)
3
270
(9,600)
18
(60)
Large
18
(20)
24
8,000
24
7,400
Talc
Talc
Butane,
No. 2 oil
0.2
(0.2)
200
(400)
20
990
(35,000)
120
(250)
3
Nomex
0.9:1
(3:1)
0.7
(3)
15
(50)
1.1
(3.5)
110
(225)
3
960
(33,800)
18
(60)
V/roin per m2 (ftVmin per ft2).
6-48
-------
TABLE 6-41. MODEL FACILITY PARAMETERS FOR R0TARY CALCINER-
TALC INDUSTRY
Parameter/Facility size
Small
PROCESS INFORMATION
Production
Design, Mg/h
(tons/h)
Hours of operation
Design, h/d
Design, h/yr
Actual, h/d
Actual, h/yr
Feed material
Product
Fuel type
Fuel usage, xlO9 Joules/Mg
(xlO6 Btu/ton)
Maximum operating temperature, °C
Retention time, min
CONTROL DEVICE INFORMATION
4
(5)
24
8,000
24
8,000
Talc
Talc
Natural gas, butane
4.1
(3.5)
1100
(2000)
30
Control device inlet
Gas flow rate, mVmin
(acfm)
Gas temperature, °C
(°F)
Gas moisture, %
Baghouse
Cloth type
Air-to-cloth ratio
AP, kPa
(in. w. c.)
STACK PARAMETERS
Height, m
(ft)
Diameter, m
(ft)
Temperature,- °C
(°F)
Moisture, %
Gas flow rate, mVmin
(acfm)
Gas velocity, m/s
(ft/s)
570
(20,000)
200
(400)
7
Nomex
0.6:1
(2:1)
0.7
(3)
15
(50)
0.8
(2.6)
180
(350)
7
830
(19,000)
18
(60)
mVmin per m2 (ft3/min per ft2).
6-49
-------
TABLE 6-42. MODEL FACILITY PARAMETERS FOR FLASH DRYER--
TITANIUM DIOXIDE INDUSTRY
Parameter/Facility size
Large
PROCESS INFORMATION
Production
Design, Mg/h
(tons/h)
Hours of operation
Design, h/d
Design, h/yr
Actual, h/d
Actual , h/yr
Feed material
Product
Fuel type
Fuel usage, xlO9 Joules/Mg
CxlO8 Btu/ton)
Maximum operating temperature, °C
23
(25)
24
8,000
24
8,000
Wet Ti02
Dry Ti02
Natural gas
Not reported
Not reported
Retention time, rain
CONTROL DEVICE INFORMATION
Not reported
Control device inlet
Gas flow rate, m3/min
(acfm)
Gas temperature, °C
Gas moisture, %
Scrubber
AP, kPa
(in. w.c.) b
Liquid-to-gas ratio
STACK PARAMETERS
Height, m
(ft)
Diameter, m
(ft)
Temperature, °C
Moisture, %
Gas flow rate, mVmin
(acfm)
Gas velocity, m/s
(ft/s)
2,140
(75,500)
135
(275)
20
8.5/10.73
(34)/(43)
1,335
(10)
37
(120)
1.4
(4.7)
60
. (140)
20
1,700
(61,600)
18
(60)
uFirst number corresponds to RA II; second number corresponds to RA III.
2/1,000 m3 (gal/I,000
6-50
-------
TftBLE 6-
DRYER—
Parameter/Facility size
PROCESS INFORMATION
Production
Design, Mg/h
(tons/h)
Hours of operation
Design, h/d
Design, h/yr
Actual, h/d
Actual, h/yr
Feed material
Product
Fuel type
Fuel usage, xlO9 Joules/Mg
(xlO6 Btu/ton)
Maximum operating temperature,
Retention time, min
CONTROL DEVICE INFORMATION
Control device inlet
Gas flow rate, m3/min
(acfm)
Gas temperature, C
Gas moisture, %
Baghouse
Cloth type ,
Air-to-cloth ratio
AP, kPa
(in. w.c.)
Scrubber
AP, kPa
(in. w.c.) c
Liquid-to-gas ratio
Confidential4
24
8,000
Confidential4
Confidential4
Confidential4
Confidential4
Confidential4
Confidential4
Confidential4
Confidential4
960
(34,000)
200
(400)
10
Nomex
1.2:1
(4.1:1)
0.98
(4)
8.5/10.7°
(34)/(43)
1,335
(10)
STACK PARAMETERS01
Height, m
(ft)
Diameter, m
(ft)
Temperature, °C
(°F> „
Moisture, %
Gas flow rate, mVmin
(acfm)
Gas velocity, m/s
(ft/s)
Per ^corresJondfto'R^II; second number corresponds to RA III.
_ ._ _ _ _. i«\ I
baghouse; second number corresponds to scrubber.
21
(70)
1.0/0.9
180/60
(350)/(140)
10/20
900/760
(32,000)/(26,700)
18
(60)
6-51
-------
TABLE 6-44. MODEL FACILITY PARAMETERS FOR ROTARY DRYER-
TITANIUM DIOXIDE INDUSTRY
Parameter/Facility size
PROCESS INFORMATION
Production
Design, Mg/h
(tons/h)
Hours of operation
Design, h/d
Design, h/yr
Actual, h/d
Actual , h/yr
Feed material
sraauct
Fuel type
Fuel usage, xlO9 Joules/Mg
(xlO6 Btu/ton)
Maximum operating temperature, °C
C°F)
Retention time, rain
CONTROL DEVICE INFORMATION
Control device inlet
Gas flow rate, m3/rain
(acfm)
Gas temperature, °C
(°F)
Gas moisture, %
Baghouse
Cloth type
Air-to-cloth ratio
AP, kPa
(in. w.c. )
STACK PARAMETERS
Height, m
(ft)
Diameter, m
(ft)
Temperature, °C
(°F)
Moisture, %
Gas flow rate, mVmin
(acfm)
Gas velocity, m/s
(ft/s)
Smal 1 Medi urn
2 6
(2) (7)
24
*- 8,000
24 24
8,000 8,000
*- Ti02 ore
*• Dry Ti02 ore
«• Natural gas, No. 2 or
No. 6 fuel oil
*• 1.4
(1-2)
«- 430
(800)
*• 20
70 180
(2,500) (6,500)
«• 170
(340)
*- 7
«- Noraex
«- 1.2:1
(4:1)
«- 1.2
(5)
9 12
(30) (40)
0.3 0.5
(0.9) (1.5)
<- 155
<- (310)
«- 7
70 180
(2,400) (6,300)
*• 18
(60)
Large
Confidential4
-»
-»
Confidential4
Confidential4
-
-
.,.
_,.
•»
^
-
-
370
(13,000)
->
-*
•>
.»
^.
->
j.
•*
15
(50)
0.6
(2.1)
^
+
350
(12,500)
-*•
m3/min per ra2 (ft3/min per ft2).
6-52
-------
TABLE 6-45. MODEL FACILITY PARAMETERS FOR ROTARY DRYER
(INDIRECT)--TITANIUM DIOXIDE INDUSTRY
Parameter/Facility size . Hedl'um
PROCESS INFORMATION
Production
Design, Mg/h
(tons/h)
Hours of operation
Design, h/d
Design, h/yr
Actual, h/d
Actual , h/yr
Feed material
Product
Fuel type
Fuel usage, xlO9 Joules/Mg
(xlO6 Btu/ton)
Maximum operating temperature, °C
Retention time, min
CONTROL DEVICE INFORMATION
11
(12)
24
8,000
24
8,000
Ti02 ore
Dry Ti02 ore
Natural gas
1.2
(1)
135
(275)
20
Control device inlet
Gas flow rate, m3/min
(acfm)
Gas temperature, °C
Gas moisture, %
Scrubber ,
AP, kPa
(in. w.c.) b
Liquid-to-gas ratio
STACK PARAMETERS
Height, m
(ft)
Diameter, m
(ft) -
Temperature, °C
Moisture, %
Gas flow rate, mVmin
(acfm)
Gas velocity, m/s
(ft/s)
80
(2,850)
95
(200)
5
2.5/4.2a
1.1
(8)
11
(35)
03
• O
(1.0)
(107)
8
70
(2,500)
18
(60)
aFirst number corresponds to RA II; second number corresponds
Vl.OOO m3 (gal/1,000 acf).
to RA III.
6-53
-------
TABLE 6-46. MODEL FACILITY PARAMETERS FOR SPRAY DRYER-
TITANIUM DIOXIDE INDUSTRY
Parameter/Facility size
Small
Medium
Large
PROCESS INFORMATION
Production
Design, Mg/h
(tons/h)
Hours of operation
Design, h/d
Design, h/yr
Actual, h/d
Actual, h/yr
Feed material
Product
cs.e' type
Fuel usage, xlO9 Joules/Mg
(xlO6 Btu/ton)
Maximum operating temperature, °C
Retention time, s
CONTROL DEVICE INFORMATION
Confidential4
24
8,000
Confidential4
Confidential4
Ti02 slurry
Ti02
Natural gas
4.9
(4.2)
700
(1300)
Control device inlet
Gas flow rate, mVmin
(acfm)
Gas temperature, °C
(°F)
Gas moisture, %
Baghouse
Cloth type
Air-to-cloth ratio
AP, kPa
(in. w.c.)
STACK PARAMETERS
Height, m
(ft)
Diameter, m
(ft)
Temperature, °C
Moisture, %
Gas flow rate, mVinin
(acfm)
Gas velocity, m/s
(ft/s)
340
(12,000)
<_
*•
<_
<-
«.
«.
*•
18
(60)
0.6
(2.0)
^
330
(11,500)
*•
850
(30,000)
150
(300)
21
Nomex
1.2:1
(4:1)
1.2
(5)
21
(70)
1.0
(3.2)
130
(270)
21
820
(28,800)
18
(60)
1,400
(48,000)
^
->•
_^_
_»
+
+
-»
24
(80)
1.2
(4.1)
*
1,300
(46,100)
*
6-54
-------
TABLE 6-47. MODEL FACILITY PARAMETERS FOR ROTARY CALCINER-
TITANIUM DIOXIDE INDUSTRY
Parameter/Facility size
PROCESS INFORMATION
Production
Design, Mg/h
Hours of operation
Design, h/d
Design, h/yr
Actual, h/d
Actual , h/yr
Feed material
Product
Fuel type
Fuel usage, xlO9 Joules/Mg
(xlO6 Btu/ton)
Maximum operating temperature, °C
Retention time, h
CONTROL DEVICE INFORMATION
Control device inlet
Gas flow rate, mVmin
(acfm)
Gas temperature, °C
Gas moisture, %
Scrubber
AP, kPa
(in. w.c)
Liquid-to-gas ratio
STACK PARAMETERS
Height, m
(ft)
Diameter, m
(ft)
Temperature, °C
Moisture, %
Gas flow rate, mVmin
(acfm)
Gas velocity, m/s
(ft/s)
Small
Confidential4
24
8,000
Confidential4
Confidential4
Ti02 slurry
Ti02
Confidential4
Confidential4
1100
(2000)
12
Confidential4
Confidential4
Confidential4
Confidential4
Confidential4
11
(35)
0.9
(3.1)
60
(140)
20
760
(26,700)
18
(60)
Medium
Confidential4
nA
24
8,000
Confidential4
Confidential4
Ti02 slurry
Ti02
Confidential4
Confidential4
1100
(2000)
12
Confidential4
Confidential4
Confidential4
Confidential4
Confidential4
14
(45)
1.3
(4.4)
60
(140)
20
1,500
(53,300)
18
(60)
Vl.OOO m3 (gal/1,000 acf).
6-55
-------
TABLE 6-48. MODEL FACILITY PARAMETERS FOR FLUID BED DRYER-
VERMICULITE INDUSTRY
Parameter/Faci1 i ty s i ze
Large
PROCESS INFORMATION
Production
Design, Mg/h
(tons/h)
Hours of operation
Design, h/d
Design, h/yr
Actual, h/d
Actual , h/yr
Feed material
Product
Fuel type
Fuel usage, xlO9 Joules/Hg
(xlO6 Btu/ton)
Maximum operating temperature, °C
°
Retention time, rain
54
(60)
24
8,000
24
4,800
Vermiculite
Vermiculite
Propane, No. 5 oil
0.01
(0.01)
450
(850)
CONTROL DEVICE INFORMATION
Control device inlet
Gas flow rate, mVmin
(acfm)
Gas temperature, °C
(°F)
Gas moisture, %
Baghouse
Cloth type
Air-to-cloth ratio
AP, kPa
(in. w. c.)
STACK PARAMETERS
Height, m
(ft)
Diameter, m
(ft)
Temperature, °C
(°F)
Moisture, %
Gas flow rate, mVmin
(acfm)
Gas velocity, m/s
(ft/s) '
990
(35,000)
120
(250)
13
Nomex
1.8:1
(6:1)
2.5
(10)
15
(50)
1.4
(4.6)
110
(225)
13
960
(33,800)
18
(60)
raVmin per m'2 (ft3/rain per ft2).
6-56
-------
TABLE 6-49. MODEL FACILITY PARAMETERS FOR ROTARY DRYER-
VERMICULITE.INDUSTRY
Parameter/Facility size
PROCESS INFORMATION
Production
Design, Mg/h
Hours of operation
Design, h/d
Design, h/yr
Actual, h/d
Actual , h/yr
Feed material
Product
Fuel type
Fuel usage, xlO9 Joules/Mg
(xlO6 Btu/ton)
Maximum operating temperature, °C
(°F)
Retention time, rain
CONTROL DEVICE INFORMATION
Control device inlet
Gas flow rate, m3/min
(acfm)
Gas temperature, °C
(°F)
Gas moisture, %
Scrubber
AP, kPa
(in. w.c.) .
Liquid-to-gas ratio
STACK PARAMETER
Height, m
(ft)
Diameter, m
(ft)
Temperature, °C
(°F)
Moisture, %
Gas flow rate, m3/min
(acfm)
Gas velocity, m/s
(ft/s)
Medi urn
9
(10)
24
8,000
8
2,500
Vermiculite
Vermiculite
No. 2, 4,
5 oil
0.5
(0.4)
200
(400)
25
570
(20,000)
160
(325)
8
0.8/1.0a
(3)/(4)
1,335
(10)
12
(40)
0.8
(2.5)
60
(140)
20
500
(17,600)
18
(60)
Large
18
(20)
24
"8,000
8
2,500
Vermiculite
Vermiculite
No. 2, 4,
5 oil
0.5
(0.4)
200
(400)
25
600
(21,000)
160
(325)
8
0.8/1.0*
(3)/(4)
1,335
(10)
12
(40)
•0.8
(2.6)
60
(140)
20
520
(18,500)
18
(60)
?First number corresponds to RA II; second number corresponds to RA III.
^ n
D£/l,000 m3 (gal/1,000 acf).
6-57
-------
TABLE 6-50. MODEL FACILITY PARAMETERS FOR EXPANSION FURNACE-
VERMICULITE INDUSTRY
Parameter/Facility size Small
PROCESS INFORMATION
Production
Design, Mg/h
(tons/h)
Hours of operation
Design, h/d
Design, h/yr
Actual, h/d
Actual , h/yr
Feed material
Product
Fuel type
Fuel usage, xlO9 Joules/Mg
(xlO6 Btu/ton)
Maximum operating temperature, °C
Retention time, min ,
CONTROL DEVICE INFORMATION
0.9
(1)
24
8,000
16
3,000
Dried vermiculite
Expanded vermiculite
Natural gas, No. 2 oil
2.2
(1.9)
815
(1500)
20
Control device inlet
Gas flow rate, mVmin
(acfm)
Gas temperature, °C
Gas moisture, %
Baghouse
Cloth type
Air-to-cloth ratio3
AP, kPa
(in. w. c. )
STACK PARAMETERS
Height, ra
(ft)
Diameter, m
(ft)
Temperature, °C
(°F)
Moisture, %
Gas flow rate, m3/min
(acfm)
Gas velocity, m/s
(ft/s)
140
(5,000)
120
(250)
4
Fiberglass
0.6:1
(2:1)
0.74
(3)
11
(35)
0.4
(1.3)
110
(225)
4
140-
(4,800)
18
(60)
6-58
-------
6.3 REFERENCES FOR CHAPTER 6
1. Memo from Shular, J. A., and Y. N. Doshi, MRI, to Neuffer, W. J.,
EPA/ISB. Revised final model facility parameters, baseline control
emission levels, and regulatory alternatives. September 7, 1984.
2. Memo from Carney, L., MRI, to 7702-L Project File. Determination
of baseline emission levels. June 29, 1984.
3. Memo from Doshi, Y. N., MRI, to 7702-L Project File. Baseline
control technology selection summary. May 31, 1984.
4. Memo from Kowalski, A. J. , and M. E. Upchurch, MRI, to 7702-L
Project File. Confidential addendum to Calciners and Dryers in
Mineral Industries BID document. July 12, 1985.
6-59
-------
-------
7. ENVIRONMENTAL AND ENERGY IMPACTS
An analysis of the environmental and energy impacts of the regulatory
alternatives specified in Chapter 6 for control of particulate matter
emissions from dryers and calciners in mineral industries is presented
in this chapter. The incremental increase or decrease in air pollution,
water pollution, solid waste, and energy consumption for RA II and
RA III as compared to the baseline emission level (RA I) are discussed.
The baseline control level represents no change from existing regulations.
All impacts are based on the typical-size model facility parameters
presented in Chapter 6 and on industry growth projections discussed in
Chapter 9. Documentation of the calculations that were made to evaluate
the environmental and energy impacts presented in Chapter 7 is provided
in Reference 1.
Table 7-1 presents industry growth projections as the production
subject to new source performance standards (NSPS) in 1990. Table 7-2
presents the production subject to NSPS in 1990 for each affected facility
in each industry. In some industries, the raw material is processed in
more than one affected facility to produce the final product (e.g.,
titanium dioxide industry). Also, in a few industries, only a portion
of the raw material mined is dried or calcined (e.g., ball clay industry).
7.1 AIR POLLUTION IMPACTS
In this section, the impact of each regulatory alternative on air
pollution is considered. Two impacts were addressed in this analysis:
primary impacts, the reduction of particulate matter emissions associated
with each regulatory alternative, and secondary impacts, those pollutants
resulting from generation of the energy necessary to operate the control
devices. The impact on ambient air quality in the vicinity of the
7-1
-------
sources is evaluated by means of dispersion modeling for each model
facility. Dispersion modeling is discussed in Subsections 7.1.1.1 and
7.1.1.2.
7.1.1 Primary Air Pollution Impacts
Table 7-3 presents the total annual particulate matter emissions
under each regulatory alternative from typical-size facilities in each
mineral industry. Table 7-4 presents the annual emission reduction
below the baseline level for each source and each regulatory alternative.
Table 7-5 summarizes the nationwide annual particulate matter emissions
and reductions below baseline.
The total baseline particulate matter emissions from all affected
facilities are 10,200 megagrams. per year (Mg/yr) (11,300 tons/yr). The
particulate matter emissions from all affected facilities for RA II and
RA III are 2,700 Mg/yr (3,000 tons/yr) and 2,300 Mg/yr (2,500 tons/yr),
respectively. The total annual particulate matter emission reduction
below baseline for RA II is 7,500 Mg/yr (8,300 tons/yr), or 74 percent.
The total annual particulate matter emission reduction below baseline
for RA III is 7,900 Mg/yr (8,800 tons), or 78 percent.
Dispersion modeling was used to predict the contribution by dryers
and calciners in each mineral industry to the ambient particulate matter
concentration. The dispersion model used and the results obtained are
discussed in the following subsections.
7.1.1.1 Model Description. The model used in this dispersion
analysis was the Industrial Source Complex (ISC) model in the short-term
mode (ISCST) and in the long-term mode (ISCLT). The ISCST model was
used to calculate 24-hour impacts, and the ISCLT model was used to
calculate annual impacts. General modeling parameters needed for the
ISC models are presented in Table 7-6. The ISC models require input
data on sources, meteorology, and receptors. These items are discussed
below.
7.1.1.1.1 Source data. Table 7-6 also presents the particle size
distribution data included for modeling for all sources and regulatory
alternatives. Sensitivity tests were performed with the model to evaluate
the significance of gravitational settling because only a small fraction
of the emitted particles were larger than 20 urn (8 xlO-4 in.). Analysis of
7-2
-------
modeling results, with particle settling and without settling, indicated
that the differences between downwind concentration impacts were about
6 percent. For this reason, particle settling was not considered in the
final modeling runs, and all emissions were treated as gaseous emissions.2
The following data are required by the ISC models for each facility
and regulatory alternative:
1. Emission height, in meters (m);
2. Exit diameter, in meters (m);
3. Exit velocity, in meters per second (m/s);
4. Exit temperature, in degrees kelvin (K); and
5. Particulate matter emission rate, in grams per second (g/s).
Table 7-7 summarizes these characteristics for each dryer and
calciner for the three regulatory alternatives described in Chapter 6.
7.1.1.1.2 Meteorological data. The STAR meteorological data bases
used with ISCLT are listed in Reference 2, together with the geographic
regions they represent. Wind roses for these sets are also presented in
Reference 2. The mixing height was set at 1,600 m (5,250 ft), and the
atmospheric temperature was set at 298K (77°F) for all ISCLT runs.
The hourly meteorological data bases used with ISCST are presented
in Reference 2. To reduce the amount of meteorological data to be
processed, a program (METSORT) was written to sort a year of data in
decreasing order of maximum estimated 24-hour average concentration
impact, and to select the 10 percent subset of the year (37 days) with
the highest estimated 24-hour impacts for a given emission source. The
only units for which this procedure was not used were rotary dryers
(indirect) in the titanium dioxide industry and expansion furnaces in
the vermiculite industry. These two sources have the short stacks and
would be most severely affected by building downwash. For each of these
two sources, a full year of meteorological data was used.
7.1.1.1.3 Receptor grids. The ISC models calculate concentration
impacts for receptors at specified radial distances from the center of
the source. The set of ring distances used for each source is presented
in Reference 2.
7-3
-------
7.1.1.2 Discussion of Dispersion Calculations. Annual arithmetic
concentrations were calculated by the ISCLT model. Annual geometric
mean concentrations were not calculated because of the problems inherent
in the specification of an appropriate background concentration.
Concentration impact results were computed with an assumed ambient
background concentration equal to zero.
The maximum annual arithmetic mean of total suspended particulate
(TSP) concentrations calculated by the ISCLT model are presented in
Table 7-8 for each of the regulatory alternatives for each source.
Table 7-9 presents maximum 24-hour and highest second-highest 24-hour
TSP concentrations calculated by the ISCST for each of the regulatory
alternatives for each source. Although modeling was performed using
more than one meteorological data set for each source, only the worst
case impacts are listed.
The ambient particulate matter concentrations in Tables 7-8 and 7-9
include those calculated for full-time operation and, where appropriate,
for part-time operation. The latter concentrations are shown in paren-
theses. In the context of 24-hour average concentrations, "full-time"
refers to 24 hours per day of operation, and "part-time" refers to
12 hours per day of operation (applicable to dryers only). In the
context of annual average concentrations, "full-time" refers to
8,000 hours per year of operation, and "part-time" refers to 4,000 hours
per year of operation.
The impacts of the modeled TSP concentrations can be compared to
the following National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS):
Particulate
Averaging time
Annual geometric mean
24-hour maximum (not to be
exceeded more than once
per year)
Standard
Primary
Primary
Secondary
matter
concen-
tration,
pg/m3
75
260
150
7-4
------- An error occurred while trying to OCR this image.
-------
matter from a scrubber is treated and clarified in a pond on the site.
The clarified water is recirculated to the scrubber and the sludge is
periodically removed from the pond. There is no water discharge from
the scrubber into navigable waterways. Therefore, there would be no
adverse water pollution impacts due to implementation of any of the
regulatory alternatives.
7.3 SOLID WASTE IMPACTS
The material collected by baghouses (BH's) and ESP's is typically
recycled back to the production process or is sold directly. Therefore,
there are no solid waste impacts from BH's and ESP's. The only solid
waste impacts would be from the solids in the sludge produced by WS's.
Typical sludge from a settling pond contains about 70 percent water.4,5
The solids in the sludge are composed primarily of minerals that are
processed by dryers and calciners. Table 7-10 presents the amount of
solid waste generated over baseline levels for each process unit under
each regulatory alternative. The nationwide solid waste increase (as
sludge containing 70 percent moisture) over baseline levels in 1990
would be 7,000 Mg/yr (7,700 tons/yr) for RA II and 7,500 Mg/yr
(8,300 tons/yr) for RA III. There are no solid waste impacts from WS's
used in the magnesium compounds and titanium dioxide industries because
the sludge generated by WS's used in these industries is recycled to the
process.
Solid wastes from WS's that are used to control emissions from
dryers and calciners in mineral industries presently are not classified
as hazardous wastes under the regulations adopted to implement the
Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA).5
7.4 ENERGY IMPACTS
Operation of BH's, ESP's, and WS's to control particulate matter
emissions requires the use of electrical energy. The electricity is
used to operate fans to move air through BH's, ESP's, and WS's, and for
pumps to circulate water for WS's. For ESP's, electricity is also
required to create the corona discharge.
Table 7-11 shows the annual amount of energy required to operate
control devices for affected facilities under each regulatory alternative.
7-6
-------
Table 7-12 shows the incremental amount of energy required over baseline
levels to operate control devices for affected facilities and the amount
of energy required to operate the facilities. For RA II and RA III, the
nationwide increase in the amount of energy required to operate control
devices over baseline levels is 16,000 MWh and 17,000 MWh, respectively.
To meet this additional electrical energy demand, less than 1 percent of
the capacity of a new 500 MW power plant would be required. The incre-
mental increase in the amount of energy required to operate control
equipment for RA II and RA III are negligible (less than 1 percent)
compared to the amount of energy required to operate dryers and calciners.
Therefore, the additional amount of electrical energy required to operate
control equipment for RA II and RA III above the baseline level will not
significantly increase the demand for electrical energy at mineral
processing plants.
7.5 OTHER ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS
The noise introduced by air pollution control equipment at new or
modified facilities (e.g., fan noise) will not significantly increase
the noise levels beyond those already produced by processing equipment
at the plant.
7.6 OTHER ENVIRONMENTAL CONCERNS
7.6.1 Irreversible and Irretrievable Commitment of Resources
As discussed in Section 7.4, the regulatory alternatives will cause
an increase in the irreversible and irretrievable commitment of energy
resources. However, this increased demand for energy to operate pollution
control equipment for dryers and calciners is insignificant (less than
1 percent) compared to the energy demands to operate the entire plant.
7.6.2 Environmental Impact of Delayed Standards
The impacts of .delay in proposal of the standards from 1985 to 1988
are discussed in this section. Tables 7-13 and 7-14 present industry
growth projections as the production subject to NSPS in 1993 for proposal
in 1985 and 1988, respectively. Tables 7-15 and 7-16 present the produc-
tion subject to NSPS in 1993 for each affected facility for proposal in
1985 and 1988, respectively.
7-7
-------
Tables 7-17 and 7-18 present the total annual particulate matter
emissions in 1993 under each regulatory alternative from each facility
for proposal in 1985 and 1988, respectively. Table 7-19 summarizes and
compares the emission reduction of delayed standards (proposal in 1988)
with the emission reduction that would be achieved in the same year if
standards were proposed in 1985. As shown, the emission reductions in
1993 would decrease from 12,500 to 8,400 Mg (13,800 to 9,300 tons) under
RA II and would decrease from 13,200 to 9,000 Mg (14,600 to 9,900 tons)
under RA III.
Since there is no water pollution impact and only negligible Inergy
consumption impacts associated with RA II and RA III, there is no
significant benefit to be obtained from delaying the proposed standards.
Furthermore, there does not appear to be any emerging emission control
technology that could further decrease particulate matter emissions or
control costs below that represented by the control devices considered
here. Consequently, there are no benefits or advantages to delaying the
proposed standards.
7-8
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7-11
-------
TABLE 7-3. ANNUAL PARTICIPATE EMISSIONS FROM DRYERS AND CALCINERS (1990)
Industry/f aci 1 i ty
Alumina
Flash calciner
Rotary calciner
Ball clay
Rotary dryer (indirect)
Vibrating-grate dryer
(indirect)
Bentonite
Fluid bed dryer
Rotary dryer
Diatomite
Plash dryer
Rotary dryer
Rotary calciner
Feldspar
Fluid bed dryer
Rotary dryery
Fire clay
Rotary dryer
Vibrating-grate dryer
Rotary calciner
Fuller's earth
Fluid bed dryer
Rotary dryer
Rotary calciner »
Gypsum
Rotary dryer
Flash calciner
Kettle calciner
Industrial sand
Fluid bed dryer
Rotary dryer
Kaolin
Rotary dryer
Spray dryer
Flash calciner
Multiple hearth furnace
Rotary calciner
Lightweight aggregate
Rotary calciner
Magnesium compounds
Multiple hearth furnace
Rotary calciner
Perlite
Rotary dryer
Expansion furnace
Roofing granules
Fluid bed dryer
Rotary dryer
Particulate emissions, Mg/yr (tons/yr)
RA 1
586
2,379
7
81
13
128
112
27
85
13
38
' 73
18
49
16
211
98
530
248
275
600
699
205
1,068
3
113
2
834
121
38
111
13
141
(646)
(2,622)
(8)
(89)
(14)
(141)
(124)
(30)
(94)
(14)
(42) .
(80)
(20)
(54)
(18)
(233)
(108)
(584)
(273)
(303)
(661)
(770)
(226)
(1,177)
(3)
(125)
(2)
(919)
(133)
(122)
(42)
(220)
(14)
(155)
RA II
156
501
2
25
5
57
56
7
34
4
5
19
10
12
10
84
26
141
66
73
114
72
54
267
2
38
1
370
30
32
33
62
4
56
(172)
(552)
(2)
(27)
(60)
(63)
(62)
(8)
(37)
(4)
(6)
(21)
(11)
(13)
(11)
(93)
(29)
(156)
(73)
(81)
(126)
(79)
(60)
(294)
(2)
(42)
(1)
(408)
(33)
(35)
(36)
(68)
(4)
(62)
156
501
9
15
3
35
35
5
34
2
4
12
6
12
6
53
26
88
66
73
72
44
34
167
2
38
1
370
30
32
19
62
2
35
• RA III
(172)
(552)
(1)
(17)
(3)
(39)
(39)
(5)
(37)
(2)
(4)
(13)
. (7)
(13)
(7)
(58)
(29)
(97)
(73)
(81)
(79)
(49)
(38)
(184)
(2)
(42)
(1)
(408)
(33)
(35)
(21)
(68)
(2)
(39)
(continued)
7-12
-------
TABLE 7-3. (continued)
Industry/faci1i ty
, Participate emissions, Mg/yr (tons/yr)
TSTTa —- KA II -—- ----- RA III
Talc
Flash dryer
Rotary dryer
Rotary calciner
368
13
153
(406)
(14)
(169)
71
4
33
(78)
(4)
(36)
44
2
33
(48)
(2)
(36)
Titanium dioxide
Flash dryer10 (11)
Fluid bed dryer 0 (0)
Rotary dryer (direct) 35 (39)
Rotary dryer (indirect) , 32 (35)
Spray dryer 193 (213)
Rotary calciner 48 (53)
Vermiculite
4
0
10
2
64
48
(4)
(0)
(11)
(2)
(71)
(53)
3
0
6
1
40
48
(3)
(0)
(7)
(1)
(44)
(53)
Fluid bed dryer
Rotary dryer
Expansion furnace
TOTAL
ROUNDED TOTAL
15
50
191
10,241
10,200
(17)
(55)
(211)
(11,289)
(11,300)
3
9
44
2,720
2,700
(3)
(10)
(49)
(2,998)
(3,000)
2
5
44
2,269
2,300
(2)
(6)
(49)
(2,501)
(2,500)
Based on control device inlet parameters for wet scrubbers instead of baghouses to represent the
cworst case scenario.
Only one fluid bed dryer (a new unit) is known to be used in this industry.
7-13
-------
TABLE 7-4. ANNUAL PARTICULATE MATTER EMISSION REDUCTIONS
BELOW BASELINE LEVELS3 (1990)
Industry/f aci 1 i ty
Alumina
Flash calciner
Rotary calciner
Ball clay
Rotary dryer (indirect)
Vibrating- grate dryer
(indirect)
Bentonite
Fluid bed dryer
Rotary dryer
Diatomite
Flash dryer
Rotary dryer
Rotary calciner
Feldspar
Fluid bed dryer
Rotary dryer
Fire clay
Rotary dryer
Vibrating-grate dryer
Rotary calciner
Fuller's earth
Fluid bed dryer
Rotary dryer
Rotary calciner
Gypsum
Rotary dryer
Flash calciner
Kettle calciner
Industrial sand
Fluid bed dryer
Rotary dryer
Particulate emission reductions
below baseline, Mg/yr (tons/y$)
RA
430
1,878
5
56
7
71
56
20
52
9
33
54
8
37
6
127
72
388
181
201
485
627
(474)
(2,070)
(6)
(62)
(8)
(78)
(62)
(22)
(57)
(10)
(36)
(59)
(9)
(41)
(7)
(140)
(79)
(428)
(200)
(222)
(535)
(691)
RA
430
1,878
6
65
10
93
77
23
52
11
34
61
12
37
10
159
72
• 442
181
201
527
654
III
(474)
(2,070)
(7)
(72)
(11)
(102)
(85)
(25)
. (57)
i
(12)
(38)
(67)
(13)
(41)
(11)
(175)
(79)
(487)
(200)
(222)
(582)
(721)
(continued)
7-14
-------
TABLE 7-4. (continued)
Particulate emission reduction
Industry/faci 1 i ty
Kaolin
Rotary dryer
Spray dryer
Flash calciner
Multiple hearth furnace
Rotary calciner
Lightweight aggregate
Rotary calcfner '
Magnesium compounds
Multiple hearth furnace
Rotary calciner
Perlite
Rotary dryer
Expansion furnace
Roofing granules
Fluid bed dryer
Rotary dryer
Talc
Flash dryer
Rotary dryer
Rotary calciner
Titanium dioxide
Flash dryer .
Fluid bed dryer
Rotary dryer (direct)
Rotary dryer (indirect)
Spray dryer
Rotary calciner
Vermiculite
Fluid bed dryer
Rotary dryer
Expansion furnace
TOTAL
ROUNDED TOTAL
below baseline,
---- RA
151
801
1
75
1
464
91
79
5
138
9
84
298
9
121
6
0
25
30
129
0
13
41
147
7,521
7,500
II
(166)
(883)
(1)
(83)
(1)
(511)
(100)
(87)
(6)
(152)
(10)
(93)
(328)
(10)
(133)
(7)
(0)
(28)
(33)
(142)
(0)
(14)
(45)
(162)
(8,291)
(8,300)
Mg/yr (tons/yr)
RA
171
901
1
75
1
464
91
79
19
138
11
105
325
11
121
7
0
29
31
153
0
14
44
147
7,973
8,000
III
(188)
(993)
x ^ ** ^* j
(1)
\ -*-j
(83)
v *•*** J
(1)
(511)
(100)
v w y
(87)
(21)
V «—•*-,/
(152)
(12)
(116)
(358)
(12)
\ •*••— j
(133)
(8)
(0)
V v J
(32)
(34)
(169)
(0)
(15)
(49)
(162)
(8,788)
(8,800)
bBaseline is Regulatory Alternative I.
Only one fluid bed dryer (a new unit) is known to be used in this
industry.
7-15
-------
TABLE 7-5. TOTAL AND INCREMENTAL NATIONWIDE ANNUAL
EMISSIONS AND REDUCTIONS3 (1990)
Regulatory
Alternative
I
II
III
Total emissions,
Mg/yr (tons/yr)
10,200 (11,300)
2,700 (3,000)
2,300 (2,500)
Incremental emission
reduction below baseline
Mg/yr (tons/yr)
~b
7,500 (8,300)
7,900 (8,800)
Percentage
__l
73
78
Metric and English units may not convert exactly because values were
.rounded independently.
Regulatory Alternative I is baseline level.
7-16
-------
TABLE 7-6. GENERAL MODELING PARAMETERS
Parameter
Description
Meteorological Data
Geographic terrain1
Setting
Receptor Data
Plant boundaries
Receptors
Source Data
Pollutant
Particle size
Particle settling
Averaging times
Special considerations
Uniform
Rolling
Valley
Rural
Emission source(s) may be as close as
100 meters from plant boundary
See Reference 1
Particulate
0-10 urn (83 percent)
10-20 |jm (14 percent)
20-30 urn (1 percent)
30-40 urn (1 percent)
40-50 jjm (1 percent)
Not included (based on insignificant
differences in modeling results)
Annual arithmetic mean concentrations
Highest and second-highest 24-hour
concentrations
Certain industries have the potential
for downwash of the plume in the wake
of a nearby building (height = 10 meters;
length = 90 meters; width =60 meters)
blnherent in meteorological data.
A single particle size distribution was used for all sources and for all
the regulatory alternatives because complete data for each individual
were not available.
7-17
-------
TABLE 7-7. SUMMARY OF SOURCE DATA FOR DRYERS AND CALCINERS
Case
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
Industry/ faci 1 i ty
Alumina
Flash calciner
Rotary calciner
Ball clay
Rotary dryer (indirect)
Vibrating-grate dryer
(indirect)
Bentom'te
Fluid bed dryer
Rotary dryer
Diatomite
Flash dryer
Rotary dryer
Rotary calciner
Feldspar
Fluid bed dryer
Rotary dryer
Fire clay
Rotary dryer
Vibrating-grate dryer
Rotary calciner
Fuller's earth
Fluid bed dryer
Rotary dryer
Rotary calciner
Gypsum
Rotary dryer
Flash calciner
Kettle calciner
Industrial sand
Fluid bed dryer
Rotary dryer
Kaolin
Rotary dryer
Spray dryer
Flash calciner
Multiple hearth furnace
Rotary calciner
Li qhtwei qht aggregate
Rotary calciner
Magnesium compounds
Multiple hearth furnace
Mg(OH), feed
Magnesite feed
Rotary calciner
Mg(OH)2 feed
Magnesite feed
Stack
height,
m
37a
27a
18
21
18a
18a
15
15
15
15
15
15a
15a
15a
15
18
18
18a
21*
21a
18
15
Ua
27a
189
183
37a
21
21a
15a
21a
21a
Stack
diameter,
ra
1.9
2.2
0.7
1.2
0.9
1.2
1.1
0.7
0.9
0.7
0.8
0.9
1.4
1.1
1.3
1.2
1.1
0.8
0.7
0.3
1.4
1.0
0.7
1.4
0.9
0.5
0.9
1.8
1.4
1.1
1.5
1.3
Exit Exit
velocity, temp. ,
m/s K
18
18
18
18
18
18
18
18
18
18
18
18
18
18
18
18
18
18
26
18
18
18
18
18
18
18
18
18
18
18
18
18
423
563
383
383
383
383
353
383
453
383
338
343
393
423
388
393
473
383
438
383
.
328
343
383
383
453
383
453
453
563
438
488
383
Emission rate
Reg.
Alt. I
6.75
8.55
1.46
4.62
1.70
2.78
2.06
1.44
1.80
1.68
4.03
2.81
3.59
3.61
4.64
2.63
2.63
1.84
0.26
0.34
10.76
9.75
1.88
5.40
1.07
0.81
1.43
3.87
4.12
2.94
3.43
4.91
Reg.
Alt. II
1.80
1.80
0.39
1.42
0.68
1.24
'
1.03
0.41 '
0.72
0.45
0.62,
0.75
2.05
0.85
2.65
1.05
0.70
0.49
0.07
0.09
2.05
1.00
0.50
1.35
0.71
0.27
0.57
1.66
1.03
0.98
0.98
1.51
, g/s
Reg.
Alt. Ill
1.80
1.80
0.24
0.89
0.43
0.78
0.64
0.26
0.72
0.28
0.39
0.47
1.28
0.85
1.66
0.66
0.70
0.31
0.07
0.09
1.28
0.63
0.31
0.84
0.71
0.27
0.57
1.66
1.03
1.98
0.98
1.51
(continued)
7-18
-------
-------
TABLE 7-7. SUMMARY OF SOURCE DATA FOR DRYERS AND CALCINERS
Case Industry/facility
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
Alunnna
Flash calciner
Rotary calciner
Ball clay
Rotary dryer (indirect)
Vibrating-grate dryer
(indirect)
Bentonite
Fluid bed dryer
Rotary dryer
Oiatomite
Flash dryer
Rotary dryer
Rotary calciner
Feldspar
Fluid bed dryer
Rotary dryer
Fire clay
Rotary dryer
Vibrating-grate dryer
Rotary calciner
Fuller's earth
Fluid bed dryer
Rotary dryer
Rotary calciner
Gypsum
Rotary dryer
Flash calciner
Kettle calciner
Industrial sand
Fluid bed dryer -
Rotary dryer
Kaolin
Rotary dryer
Spray dryer
Flash calciner
Multiple hearth furnace
Rotary calciner
Li ghtwei ght aggregate
Rotary calciner
Magnesium compounds
Multiple hearth furnace
Hg(OH), feed
Magnesite feed
Rotary calciner
Hg(OH)2 feed
Magnesite feed
Stack
height,
m
37S
27a
18
21
18a
18a
15
15
15
15
15
15a
15a
15a
15
18
18
18a
21a.
21a
18
15
Ua
27a
18a
18a
37a
21
21a
15a
21a
21a
Stack
diameter,
ra
1.9
2.2
0.7
1.2
0.9
1.2
1.1
0.7
0.9
0.7
0.8
0.9
1.4
1.1
1.3
1.2
1.1
0.8
0.7
0.3
1.4
1.0
0.7
1.4
0.9
0.5
0.9
1.8
1.4
1.1
1.5
1.3
Exit Exit
velocity, temp. ,
m/s K
18
18
18
18
18
18
18
18
18
18
18
18
18
18
18
18
18
18
26
18
18
18
18
18
18
18
18
18
18
18
18
18
423
563
383
383
383
383
353
383
453
383
338
343
393
423
388
393
473
383
438
383
328
343
383
383
453
383
453
453
563
438
488
383
Emission .rate,
Reg.
Alt. I
6.75
8.55
1.46
4.62
1.70
2.78
2.06
1.44
1.80
1.68
4.03
2.81
3.59
3.61
4.64
2.63
2.63
1.84
0.26
0.34 .
10.76
9.75
1.88
5.40
1.07
0.81
1.43
3.87
4.12
2.94
3.43
4.91
Reg.
Alt. II
1.80
1.80
0.39
1.42
0.68
1.24
1.03
0.41
0.72
0.45
0.62
0.75
2.05
0.85
2.65
1.05
0.70
0.49
0.07
0.09
2.05
1.00
0.50
1.35
0.71
0.27
0.57
1.66
1.03
0.98
0.98
1.51
g/s
Reg.
Alt. Ill
1.80
1.80
0.24
0.89
0.43
0.78
0.64
0.26
0.72
0.28
0.39
0.47
1.28
0.85
1.66
0.66
0.70
0.31
0.07
0.09
1.28
0.63
0.31
0.84
0.71
0.27
0.57
1.66
1.03
1.98
0.98
1.51
(continued)
7-18
-------
TABLE 7-7. (continued)
Case Industry/facility
Stack Stack Exit Exit
height, diameter, velocity, temp.,
m ra m/s K
Emission rate, g/s
ReglReg! Reg.
Alt. I Alt,- II Alt. Ill
13. Perlite
Rotary dryer
Expansion furnace
14. Roofing granules
Fluid bed dryer
Rotary dryer
15. Talc
Flash dryer
Rotary dryer
Rotary calciner
16. Titanium dioxide
Flash dryer T
Fluid bed dryer
. Rotary dryer (direct)
Rotary dryer (indirect)
Spray dryer
Rotary calciner
12
11
12
12a
15
15*
15a
36
15a
11^
24?,
14a
1.5
0.5
0.9
1.1
0.5
1.1
0.8
3.3
0.6
0.6
1.2
1.4
18
18
18
18
18
18
18
3.6
18
4
18
18
378
463
353
353
393
383
453
363
428
313
403
328
2.29
0.49
2.59
2.83
1.13
4.09
2.38
5.00
31
78
41
2.03
1.84
0.15
0.74
1.13
0.21
1.09
0.50
1.82
0.35
0.09
1.14
2.03
1.15
0.15
0.46
0.71
0.13
0.68
0.50
1.14
0.22
0.06
0.71
2.03
17. Vermiculite
Fluid bed dryer
Rotary dryer
Expansion furnace
15
12
11
1.4
0.8
0.4
18
18
18
383
363
383
5.63
3.16
0.64
0.98
0.55
0.15
0.61
0.34
0.15
?Consider downwash of plume in the wake of a nearby building.
Only one fluid bed dryer (a new unit) is used in this industry and was not operational when modeling
was performed.
7-19
-------
TABLE 7-8. SUMMARY OF ANNUAL ARITHMETIC AVERAGE CONCENTRATIONS
Industry/facility
Alumina
Flash calciner
Rotary calciner
Ball clay
Rotary dryer
(indirect)
Vibrating-grate dryer
(indirect)
Bentonite
fluid bed dryer
Rotary dryer
Diatomite
Flash dryer
Rotary dryer
Rotary calciner
Feldspar
Fluid bed dryer
Rotary dryer
Fire clay
Rotary dryer
Vibrating-grate dryer
Rotary calciner
Fuller's earth
Fluid bed dryer
Rotary dryer
Rotary calciner
Gypsum
Rotary dryer
Flash calciner
Kettle calciner
Industrial sand
Fluid bed dryer
Rotary dryer
Kaolin
Rotary dryer
Spray dryer
Flash calciner
Multiple hearth
furnace
Rotary calciner
Lightweight aggregate
Rotary calciner
Magnesium compounds
Multiple hearth
furnace
Mg(OH), feed
Magnesite feed
Rotary calciner
Mg(OH)? feed
Magnesite feed
Meteorological
data set
Houston, Tex.
Houston, Tex.
Knoxville, Tenn.
Knoxville, Tenn.
Fort Bridger, Wyo.
Fort Bridger, Wyo.
Long Beach, Calif.
Long Beach, Calif.
Long Beach, Calif.
Long Beach, Calif.
Long Beach, Calif.
St. Louis, Mo.
Akron, Ohio
Akron, Ohio
Miami, Fla.
Miami, Fla.
Miami, Fla.
Austin, Tex.
Austin, Tex.
Austin, Tex.
St. Louis, Mo.
St. Louis, Mo.
Atlanta, Ga.
Atlanta, Ga.
Atlanta, Ga.
Atlanta, Ga.
Atlanta, Ga.
Mi not, N.D.
Long Beach, Calif.
Detroit, Mich.
Long Beach, Calif.
Long Beach, Calif.
Annual average impacts
TSP concentrations, MS/m3
RA I
0.38 (0.19)
0.29 (0.14)
1.02 (0.51)
1.07 (0.54)
4.99 (2.49)
5.54 (2.77)
1.39 (0.7)
1.78 (0.89)
0.96 (0.48)
2.07 (1.04)
5.86 (2.93)
4.3 (2.15)
1.9 (0.95)
2.81 (1.41)
1.49 (0.75)
0.85 (0.43)
0.7 (0.35)
3.22 (1.61)
0.18 (0.09)
1.53 (0.77)
4'.21 (2.11)
6.44 (3.22)
7.22 (3.61)
0.88 (0.44)
0.68 (0.34)
1.71 (0.86)
0.25 (0.12)
0.44 (0.22)
0.48 (0.24)
2.7 (1.35)
0.42 (0.21)
1.5 (0.75)
RA II
0.1 (0.05)
0.06 (0.03)
0.27 (0.14)
0.33 (0.16)
1.99 (1)
2.47 (1.24)
0.7 (0.35)
0.51 (0.25)
0.38 (0.19)
0.56 (0.28)
0.9 (0.45)
1.15 (0.57)
1.09 (0.54)
0.66 (0.33)
0.85 (0.43)
0.34 (0.17)
0.19 (0.09)
0.86 (0.43)
0.05 (0.02)
0.41 (0.2)
0.8 (0.4)
0.66 (0.33)
1.92 (0.96)
0.22 (0.11)
0.45 (0.22)
0.57 (0.28)
0.1 (0.05)
0.2 (0.10)
0.12 (0.06)
0.9 (0.45)
0.12 (0.06)
0.46 (0.23)
RA III
0.1 (0.05)
0.06 (0.03)
0.17 (0.09)
0.21 (0.1)
1.24 (0.62)
1.54 (0.78)
0.43 (0.22)
0.32 (0.16)
0.38 (0.19)
0.35 (0.17)
0.56 (0.28)
0.72 (0.36)
0.68 (0.34)
0.66 (0.33)
0.53 (0.27)
0.21 (0.11)
0.19 (0.09)
0.54 (0.27)
0.05 (0.02)
0.41 (0.2)
0.5 (0.25)
0.41 (0.21)
1.2 (0.6)
0.14 (0.07)
0.45 (0.22)
0.57 (0.28)
0.1 (0.05)
0.2 (0.10)
0.12 (0.06)
0.9 (0.45)
0.12 (0.06)
0.46 (0.23)
Range, m
2,000
2,000
500
750
101
101
500
300
500
300
300
101
101
101
750
750
750
300
600
200
750
500
101
1,000
101
200
1,000
1,500
750
101
750
600
(continued)
7-20
-------
TABLE 7-8. (continued)
Industry/faci1ity
Meteorological
data set
Annual average impacts
TSP concentrations,
RAT
RAII
RA III
Range, m
Perlite
Rotary dryer
Expansion furnace
Roofing granules
Fluid Bed dryer
Rotary dryer
Talc
Flash dryer
Rotary dryer-
Rotary calciner
Titanium dioxide
Flash dryer .
Fluid bed dryer
Rotary dryer (direct)
Rotary dryer (indirect)
Spray dryer
Rotary calciner
Vermiculite
Alamogordo, N. Mex.
Minot, N.D.
Madison, Wis.
Madison, Wis.
Burlington, Vt.
Burlington, Vt.
Burlington, Vt.
Albany, 14. Y.
Albany,
Albany,
Albany,
N.Y.
N.Y.
N.Y.
Albany, N.Y.
0.61 (0.31)
0.88 (0.44)
5.39 (2.69)
4.17 (2.08)
7.19 (3.6)
7.7 (3.85)
6.34 (3.17)
3.91 (1.96)
78.2 (39.1)
0.98 (0.49)
3.06 (1.53)
0.49 (0.25)
0.27 (0.13)
1.54 (0.77)
1.66 (0.83)
1.34 (0.67)
2.05 (1.02)
1.33 (0.67)
1.04 (0.52)
3.95 (1.98)
0.33 (0.16)
3.06 (1.53)
0.31 (0.15)
0.27 (0.13)
0.96 (0.48)
1.04 (0.52)
0.84 (0.42)
1.28 (0.64)
1.33 (0.67)
0.93 (0.46) 0.34 (0.17) 0.21 (0.11)
0.65 (0.33)
2.47 (1.24)
0.2 (0.1)
3.06 (1.53)
750
300
101
101
101
101
101
1,500
101
101
1,000
. 101
Fluid bed dryer
Rotary dryer
Expansion furnace
Helena, Mont.
Helena, Mont.
Atlanta, Ga.
1.44 (0.72)
3.28 (1-64)
2 (1)
0.25 (0.13)
0.57 (0.29)
0.47 (0.23)
0.16 (0.08)
0.36 (0.18)
0.47 (0.23)
1,000
600
300
NOTE: RA = Regulatory Alternative.
aThe first value in each pair is based on 8,000 hours per year of plant operation, and the value in
hparenthesis is based on 4,000 hours per year.
Only one fluid bed dryer (a new unit) is used in this industry and was not operational when modeling
was performed.
7-21
-------
TABLE 7-9. SUMMARY OF 24-HOUR AVERAGE CONCENTRATIONS
Maximum 24-hour impacts3
Industry/faci 1 ity
Alumina
Flash calciner
Rotary calciner
Ball clay
Rotary dryer
(indirect)
Vibrating-grate
dryer (indirect)
Ben torn te
Fluid bed dryer
Rotary dryer
Diatomite
Flash dryer
Rotary dryer
Rotary calciner
Feldspar
Fluid bed dryer
Rotary dryer
Fire clay
Rotary dryer
Vibrati ng-grate
dryer
Rotary calciner
Fuller's earth
Fluid bed dryer
Rotary dryer
Rotary calciner
fSP concentrations, uq/m3
RA I
7.44
6.97
18.2
(12.8)
16.6
(10.2)
22.1
(15.6)
20.7
(12.7)
36.4
(25)
43.5
(29.8)
18.8
(13.3)
19.8
(14)
14.2
24.2
(18.7)
23.1
(16.3)
62.7
(48.5)
58.7
(41.4)
75.5
(67.1)
72.9
(60.3)
51.1
(42.3)
64.6
24.2
(18.7)
22.6
(13.9)
13.4
(10.4)
12.8
(7.88)
11.2
11.1
RA II
1.98
1.47
4.87
(3.44)
4.44
(2.73)
6.8
(4.8)
6.36
(3.91)
14.6
(10)
19.4
(13.3)
9.4
(6.63)
5.64
(3.98)
5.7
6.48
(5.02)
6.18
(4.37)
9.64
(7.46)
9.08
(6.41)
20.1
(17.9)
19.4
(16)
29.2
(24.2)
15.2
13.8
(10.7)
12.9
(7.94)
5.33
(4.13)
5.09
(3.13)
2.99
2.96
RA III
1.98
1.47
3.04
(2.15)
2.78
(1.71)
4.25
(3)
3.98
2.44
9.13
(6.25)
12.1
(8.31)
5.88
(4.14)
3.53
(2.49)
5.7
4.05
(3.14)
3.86
(2.73)
6.03
(4.66)
5.68
(4.01)
12.6
(11.2)
12.1
(10)
18.2
(15.1)
15.2
8.6
(6.69)
8.06
(4.96)
3.33
(2.58)
3.18
(1.96)
2.99
2.96
Range,
m
1,500
2,000
750
500
1,000
1,000
100
100
500
600
750
600
600
600
600
100
100
100
100
1,000
1,000
1,000
1,000
1,000
1,000
Highest
second-highest 24-hour impacts
TSP concentrations, uq/m3
RA I
5.51
5.25
14.8
(10.4)
15.8
(9.72)
18.1
(12.8)
19.5
(12)
29.5
(20.2)
37.4
(25.6)
17
(12)
19.6
(13.8)
12.5
17.1
(13.2)
22.9
(16.2)
45.8
(35.4)
57.9
(40.9)
55.3
(49.1).
60.8
(50.3)
46.4
(38.4)
57.2
16.7
(12.9)
21.3
(13.1)
9.43
(7.3)
12
(7.38)
8.26
10.7
RA II
1.47
1.11
3.95
(2.79)
4.22
(2.6)
5.56
(3.92)
6 '
(3.69)
11.8
(8.09)
16.7
(11.4)
8.5
(6)
5.58
(3.94)
5.01
4.58
(3.54)
6.13
(4.33)
7.05
(5.46)
8.91
(6.29)
14.8
(13.2)
16.2
(13.4)
26.5 .
(23.6)
13.5
9.53
(7.38)
12.2
(7.51)
3.76
(2.91)
4.81
(2.96)
2.2
2.84
RA III
1.47
1.11
2.47
(1.74)
2.64
(1.63)
(3.48)
(2.45)
3.75
(2.31)
7.38
(5.06)
10.4
(7.13)
5.31
(3.75)
3.49
(2.46)
5.01
2.86
(2.21)
3.83
(2.71)
4.41
(3.41)
5.57
(3.93)
9.25
(8.25)
10.13
(8.38)
16.6
(14.7)
13.5
5.96
(4.61)
7.63
(4.69)
2.35
(1.82)
3.01
(1.85)
2.2
2.84
Range,
m
1,500
2,000
500
500
1,000
1,000
100
100
750
600
750
600
600
600
600
100
100
100
100
1,000
1,000
1,000
1,000
1,000
1,000
(continued)
7-22
-------
TABLE 7-9. (continued)
Maximum 24-hour impacts3
Industry/facility
Gypsum
Rotary dryer
Flash calciner
Kettle calciner
Industrial sand
Fluid bed dryer
Rotary dryer
Kaolin
Rotary dryer
Spray dryer
Flash calciner
Multiple hearth
furnace
Rotary calciner
Lightweight aggregate
Rotary calciner
Magnesium compounds
Multiple hearth
furnace
Mg (OH)2) feed
Magnesite feed
Rotary calciner
Mg(OH)? feed
Magnesite feed
Perlite
Rotary dryer
Expansion furnace
Roofing granules
Fluid bed dryer
Rotary dryer
Talc
Flash dryer
Rotary dryer
Rotary calciner
TSP concentrations, ug/m3
RA I
31
(27.6)
1.59
1.36
10.2
9.26
72.6
(52.8)
116
(84.4)
128
(78.8)
15.2
(11.8)
13.7
(8.43)
13.5
25.8
3.55
9.79
13.4
62.6
11
32.7
11.4
(8.29)
15
14.2
149
(102)
141
(96.7)
127
(89.6)
48.4
(43)
43.5
(41.8)
81.1
(72.1)
59.5
RA II
8.26
(7.34)
0.43
0.37
2.71
2.45
13.8
(10)
11.9
(8.65)
34.2
(21)
3.8
(2.94)
3.43
(2.11)
8.97
8.61
1.42
4.21
. 3.35
20.8
3.14
10
9.18
(6.68)
4.59
4.35
42.6
(29.2)
56.5
(38.7)
50.8
(35.8)
9
(8)
8.09
(7.77)
21.6
(19-2)
12.5
RA III
5.16
(4.59)
0.43
0.37
2.71
2.45
8.63
(6.25)
7.44
(5.41)
21.4
(13.1)
2.38
(1-84)
2.14
(1-32)
8.97
8.61
1.42
4.21
3.35
20.8
3.14
10
5.74
(4.18)
4.59
4.35
26.6
(18.2)
35.3
(24.2)
31.7
(22.4)
5.63
(5)
5.06
(4.86)
13.5
(12)
12.5
Range,
m
100
100
100
200
. 200
750
500
100
1,000
1,000
100
100
1,000
1,000
300
100
300
-100
500
300
300
100
100
100
100
100
100
, 100
Highest
second-highest 24-hour impacts
TSP concentrations, uq/m3
RA I
27.7
(24.6)
0.99
1.27
7.62
8.42
70.7
(51.4)
107
(77.8)
118
(72.6)
10.2
(7.9)
13.1
(8.06)
13.3
23.4
3.38
7.54
12.2
58.1
10.3
29.8
9.66
(7.02)
10.9
12.9
97.5
(68.8)
93.3
(64)
94.7
(66.8)
42.3
(37.6)
42.7
(41)
74.2
(66)
53.5
RA II
7.38
(6.56)
0.27
0.34
2.02
2.23
13.5
(9.82)
11
(8)
31.4
(19.3)
2.55
(1.97)
3.27
(2.01)
8.8
7.8
1.35
3.24
3.05
19.4
2.94
9.18
7.76
(5.64)
3.34
3.95
27.8
(19.6)
37.2
(25.5)
37.8
(26.7)
7.86
(6.99)
7.94
(7.62)
19.8
(17.6)
11.2
RA III
4.61
(4.1)
0.27
0.34
2.02
2.23
8.44
(6.14)
6.88
(5)
19.6
(12.1)
1.59
(1.23)
2.04
(1.26)
8.8
7.8
1.35
3.24
3.05
19.4
2.94
9.18
4.85
(3.53)
3.34
3.95
17.4
(12.2)
23.2
(15.9)
23.6
(16.7)
4.91
(4.37)
4.96
(4.76)
12.4
(11)
11.2
Range,
m
100
1,000
100
100
200
750
500
100
1,000
1,000
100
200
1,000
1,000
, 300
100
300
100
, 750
300
300
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
(continued)
7-23
-------
TABLE 7-9. (continued)
Industry/faci1ity
Maximum 24-hour impacts3
TSP concentrati ons, Mg/ni_
M~I RJTTI RA III
Range,
m
Highest
second-highest 24-hour impacts
TSP concentrations, Mg/m*~Range,
RO RTT1RA III m
Titanium dioxide
Flash dryer
Fluid bed dryer
Rotary dryer
(direct)
Rotary dryer
(indirect)
Spray dryer
Rotary calciner
Vermiculite
10.6
(7.71)
60.4
(43.9)
580
(422)
13.3
(9.67)
57.3
3.87
(2.81)
16.1
(11.7)
29.3
(21.3)
4.44
(3.23)
57.3
2.42
(1-76)
10.1
(7.31)
18.3
(13.3)
2.78
(2.02)
57.3
1,500
100
100
1,000
100
9.78
(7.11)
52.8
(38.4)
423
(308)
13
(9.45)
36.2
3.56
(2.59)
14.1
(10.2)
21.4
(15.6)
4.36
(3.17)
36.2
2.23
(1-62)
8.81
(6.38)
13.4
(9.8)
2.73
(1.98)
36.2
1,500
100
100
1,000
100
Fluid bed dryer
Rotary dryer
Expansion furnace
26.6
(20.6)
24.2
(14.9)
52.4
(40.6)
50.4
(31)
30.6
4.64
(3.59)
4.22
(2.6)
9.12
(7.06)
8.78
(5/4)
7.18
2.9
(2.24)
2.64
(1.63)
5.7
(4.41)
5.54
(3.38)
7.18
, 1,000
1,000
600
600
300
17.9
(13.8)
23
(14.2)
36.2
(28)
47.3
(29.1)
27.6
3.12
(2.42)
4
(2.46)
6.29
(4.87)
8.23
(5.06)
6.46
1.95
(1.51)
2.5
(1-54)
3.93
(3.04)
5.14
(3.16)
6.46
1,000
1,000
600
600
300
T/here a pair of concentrations appear, the first value in each pair is based on 24 hours per day
bplant operation. The value in parenthesis presents 12 hours per day of operation.
Only one fluid bed dryer (a new unit) is used in this industry and was not operational when modeling
was performed.
7-24
-------
TABLE 7-10. INCREMENTAL SOLID WASTE GENERATED BY WET
SCRUBBERS OVER BASELINE LEVELS (1990)3
Industry/faci1i ty
Incremental
solid waste generated over baseline
by wet scrubbers, Mg/yr (tons/yr)
-— RA II ----- ----- RA III -
Diatomite
Flash dryer
Rotary calciner
Feldspar
Rotary dryer
Fire clay ,
Rotary dryer
Vibrating-grate dryer
Rotary calciner
Fuller's earth.
Rotary dryer
Industrial sand
Fluid bed dryer
Rotary dryer
Kaolin
Multiple hearth, furnace
Rotary calciner
Lightweight aggregate
Rotary calciner
Roofing granules
188
173
109
179
27
124
424
1,618
2,089
251
4
(207)
(190)
(120)
(197)
(30)
(137)
(467)
(1,783)
(2,303)
(277)
(4)
1,545 (1,703)
257
173
115
203
40
124
530
1,760
2,180
251
4
(283)
(190)
(127)
(224)
(44)
(137)
(584)
(1,940)
(2,403)
(277)
(4)
1,545 (1,703)
Fluid bed dryer
Rotary dryer
Ve run cu lite
Rotary dryer
TOTAL
ROUNDED TOTAL
31
281
136
7,005
7,000
(34)
(310)
(150)
(7,722)
(7,700)
36
351
148
7,544
7,500
(40)
(387)
(163)
(8,316)
(8,300)
Baseline is Regulatory Alternative I.
These units are currently controlled by baghouses and wet scrubbers.
However, for the worst case solid waste impact analysis, it is assumed
that these units will be controlled by only wet scrubbers.
7-25
-------
TABLE 7-11. ANNUAL AMOUNT OF ELECTRIC ENERGY REQUIRED TO OPERATE
CONTROL DEVICES (1990)
Industry/f aci 1 i ty
Al umi na
Flash calciner
Rotary calciner
Ball clay
Rotary dryer (indirect)
Vibrating-grate dryer
(indirect)
Bentonite
Fluid bed dryer
Rotary dryer
Diatomite
Flash dryer
Rotary dryer
Rotary calciner
Feldspar
Fluid bed dryer
Rotary dryer
Fire clay
Rotary dryer
Vibrating-grate dryer
Rotary calciner
Fuller's earth
Fluid bed dryer
Rotary dryer
Rotary calciner
Gypsum
Rotary dryer
Flash calciner
Kettle calciner
Industrial sand
Fluid bed dryer
Rotary dryer
Control
device
ESP
ESP
BH
BH
BH/ESP
BH
WS
BH
BH/WS
BH
WS
BH/WS
WS
WS
BH
BH/WS
BH
BH
BH
BH
WS
WS
Control device
electric energy, MWh
RA I
1,064
6,326
22
221
89/42
541
1,019
51
439/279
33
72
149/236
106
214
103
971/1,430
315
1,242
1,209
842
1,396
852
RA II
1,315
8,029
22
221
89/61
541
1,514
51
439/1,275
33
84
149/473
106
371
103
971/1,790
315
1,242
1,209
842
1,396
852
RA III
1,315
8,029
22
221
89/69
541
2,139
51
439/1,275
33
142
149/561
106
371
103
971/2,185
315
1,242
1,207
842
1,396
852
(continued)
7-26
-------
TABLE 7-11. (continued)
Control device
Industry/facil ity
Kaolin
Rotary dryer
Spray dryer
Flash calciner
Multiple hearth furnace
Rotary calciner
Lightweight aggregate
Rotary calciner
Magnesium compounds
Multiple hearth furnace
Rotary calciner
Perlite
Rotary dryer
Expansion furnace
Roofing granules
Fluid bed dryer
Rotary dryer
Talc
Flash dryer
Rotary dryer
Rotary calciner
Titanium dioxide
Flash dryer
Fluid bed dryer0
Rotary dryer (direct)
Rotary dryer (indirect)
Spray dryer
Rotary calciner
Vermiculite
Fluid bed dryer
Rotary dryer
Expansion furnace
TOTAL
ROUNDED TOTAL
Control
device
BH
BH
BH
WS
BH/WS
BH/WS
•
ESPb
ESPb
BH
BH
WS
WS
BH
BH
BH
WS
BH/WS
BH
WS
BH
WS
BH
WS
BH
electric energy,
RA I
541
3,140
22
839
7/20
4,038/
9,192
376
381
417
1,144
42
681
1,052
23
299
127
0/0
119
18
809
1,543
52
110
324
33,310/
39,266
33,000/
39,000
RA II
541
3,140
22
1,558
7/30
4,038/
14,502
503
481
417
1,144
42
681
1,052
23
299
176
0/0
119
40
809
1,543
52
110
324
36,529/
48,967
37,000/
49,000
MWh
RA III
541
3,140
22
1,558
7/30
4.038/
14,502
503
481
417
1,144
42
681
1,052
23
299
201
0/0
119
51
809
1,543
52
134
324
37,756/
50,685
38,000/
51,000
bBH = baghouse; ESP = electrostatic precipitator; WS = wet scrubber.
cMost of the magnesia is produced by brine process which uses ESP control.
Additional electric energy will not be required because this facility is
not expected to become an affected facility before 1990.
7-27
-------
TABLE 7-12. AMOUNT OF ENERGY REQUIRED OVER BASELINE LEVELS TO OPERATE
CONTROL DEVICES AND ANNUAL AMOUNT OF ENERGY REQUIRED TO OPERATE
FACILITIES (1990)a
Industry/facility
Alumina
Flash calciner
Rotary calciner
Ball clay
Rotary dryer (indirect)
Vibrating-grate
dryer (indirect)
Bentonite
Fluid bed dryer
Rotary dryer
Diatomite
Flash dryer
Rotary dryer
Rotary calciner
Feldspar
Fluid bed dryer
Rotary dryer
Fire clay
Rotary dryer
Vibrating-grate dryer
Rotary calciner
Fuller's earth
Fluid bed dryer
Rotary dryer
Rotary calciner
Gypsum
Rotary dryer
Flash calciner
Kettle calciner
Industrial sand
Fluid bed dryer
Rotary dryer
Incremental electric
energy, MWh
RA II
251
1,703
0
0
47C
0
495
836C
0
12
324C
0
157
819C
0
0
0
0
0
0
RA III
251
1,703
0
0
47C
0
1,120
836C
0
70
412C
0
157
1,214C
0
0
0
0
0
0
Facility
energy requirements
(10)a Btu
4,647
12,747
41
67
26
358
431
234
707
43
80
208
13
311
125
530
632
796
2,124
2,655
1,066
626
MWh"
516,000
1,416,000
4,500
7,500
2,900
39,800
47,900
26,000
78,600
4,800
8,000
23,100
1,400
34,600
13,900
58,900
70,200
88,500
236,000
295,000
118,400
69,600
(continued)
7-28
-------
TABLE 7-12. (continued)
Industry/faci 1 i ty
Kaolin
Rotary dryer
Spray dryer
Flash calciner
Multiple hearth furnace
Rotary calciner
Lightweight aggregate
Rotary calciner
Magnesium compounds'
Multiple hearth furnace
Rotary calciner
Per lite
Rotary dryer
Expansion furnace
Roofing granules
Fluid bed dryer
Rotary dryer
Talc
Flash dryer
Rotary dryer
Rotary calciner
Titanium dioxide
Flash dryer
Fluid bed dryer
Rotary dryer (direct)
Rotary dryer (indirect)
Spray dryer
Rotary calciner
Vermiculite
Fluid bed dryer
Rotary dryer
Expansion furnace
TOTAL
ROUNDED TOTAL
Incremental
energy,
RA II
0
0
0
719r
23C
10,464C
127
100
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
49
0
0
22
0
0
0
0
0
16,148
16,000
electric
MWh
RA III
0
0
0
719r '
23C
10,464C
127
100
0
0
_.
0
0
0
0
0
74
0
0
33
0
0
0
24
0
17,374
17,000
energy
Facility
requirements
(10)a Btu MWh"
75
2,967
6
657
6
5,026
729
670
66
192
0.2
306
274
5
319
14
0
138
58
529
347
0.5
18
154
41,024
41,000
8,300
329,700
700
73,000
700
558,400
81,000
74,400
7,300
21,300
20
34,000
30,400
600
35,400
1,600
0
15,300
6,400
58,800
38,600
60
2,000
17,100
4,556,680
4,557,000
Baseline is Regulatory Alternative I.
cEquivalent electricity produced at power plant.
Worst case incremental electric energy requirement between wet scrubber
and baghouse controls. ,
7-29
-------
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TABLE 7-17. EIGHTH YEAR (1985-1993) ANNUAL PARTICIPATE EMISSIONS
FROM DRYERS AND CALCINERS
Industry/ f aci, 1 i ty
Alumina
Flash calciner
Rotary calciner
Ball clay
Rotary dryer (indirect)
Vibrating-grate dryer
(indirect)
Bentonite
Fluid bed dryer
Rotary dryer
Diatoraite
Flash dryer
Rotary dryer
Rotary calciner
Feldspar
Fluid bed dryer
Rotary dryer
Fire clay
Rotary dryer
Vibrating-grate dryer
Rotary calciner
Fuller's earth
Fluid bed dryer
Rotary dryer
Rotary calciner
Gypsum
Rotary dryer
Flash calciner
Kettle calciner
Industrial sand
Fluid bed dryer
Rotary dryer
Kaolin
Rotary dryer
Spray dryer
Flash calciner
Multiple hearth furnace
Rotary calciner
Lightweight aggregate
Rotary calciner
Magnesium compounds
Multiple hearth furnace
Rotary calciner
'Perlite
Rotary dryer
Expansion furnace
Roofing granules
Fluid bed dryer
Rotary dryer
a Particulate emissions, Mg/yr (tons/yr)
1,034
4,008
12
132
20
210
182
44
139
24
83
119
29
79
27
345
160
870
407
452
967
1,125
336
1,748
5
186
4
1,364
266
255
63
327
20
226
RA I"
(1,140)
(4,418)
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(145)
(22)
(231)
. (201)
(48)
(153)
(26)
(91)
(131)
(32)
(87)
(30)
(380)
(176)
(959)
(449)
(498)
(1,066)
(1,240)
(370)
(1,927)
(6)
(205)
(4)
(1,504)
(293)
(281)
(69)
(361)
(22)
(249)
— — — ••
276
844
4
40
8
93
91
13
55
6
13
32
16
19
15
138
43
231
109
121
184
115
90
437
4
62
2
607
66
73
50
101
5
91
RA II
(304)
(930)
(4)
(44)
(9)
(103)
(100)
(14)
(61)
(7)
(14)
(35)
(18)
(21)
(17)
(152)
(47)
(255)
(120)
(133)
(203)
(127)
(99)
(482)
(4)
(68)
(2)
(669)
(73)
(80)
(55)
(111)
(6)
(100)
276
844
2
25
5
58
57
13
55
4
8
20
10
19
10
86
43
144
109
121
115
73
56
273
4
62
2
607
66
73
31
101
4
56
• RA III
(304)
(930)
(2)
(28)
(6)
(64)
(63)
(14)
(61)
(4)
(9)
(22)
(11)
(21)
(11)
(95)
(47)
(159)
(120)
(133)
(127)
(80)
(62)
(301)
(4)
(68)
(2)
(669)
(73)
(80)
(34)
(111)
(4)
(62)
(continued)
7-36
-------
TABLE 7-17. (continued)
Industry/facility
Participate emissions, Mg/yr (tons/yr)
RA I
RA II
Titanium dioxide
Flash dryer17 (19)
Fluid bed dryerc 0 (0)
Rotary dryer (direct) 57 (63)
Rotary dryer (indirect) 51 (56)
Spray dryer 314 (346)
Rotary calciner 77 (85)
Vermiculite
6
0.
15
3
104
77
(7)
(0)
(17)
(3)
(115)
(85)
RA III —J
Talc
Flash dryer
Rotary dryer
Rotary calciner
608
21
255
(670)
(23)
(281)
116
5
54
(128)
(6)
(59)
73
4
54
(80)
(4)
(59)
4
0
10
2
65
77
(4)
(0)
(11)
(2)
(72)
(85)
Fluid bed dryer
Rotary dryer
Expansion furnace
TOTAL
ROUNDED TOTAL
24
80
302
17,071
17,100
(27)
(88)
(333)
(18,818)
(18,800)
5
14
71
4,522
4,500
(5)
(15)
(78)
(4,985)
(5,000)
3
9
71
3,800
3,800
(3)
(10)
(78)
(4,189)
(4,200)
^Baseline.
.worst case scenario.
Only one fluid bed dryer (a new unit) is known to be used in this industry.
7-37
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TABLE 7-18. FIFTH YEAR (1988-1993) ANNUAL PARTICIPATE EMISSIONS
FROM DRYERS AND CALCINERS
Industry/ f aci 1 i ty
Alumina
Flash calciner
Rotary calciner
Ball clay
Rotary dryer (indirect)
Vibrating-grate dryer
(indirect)
Bentonite
Fluid bed dryer
Rotary dryer
Diatomite
Flash dryer
Rotary dryer
Rotary calciner
Feldspar
Fluid bed dryer
Rotary dryer
Fire clay
Rotary dryer
Vibrating-grate dryer
Rotary calciner
Fuller's earth
Fluid bed dryer
Rotary dryer
Rotary calciner
Gypsum
Rotary dryer
Flash calciner
Kettle calciner
Industrial sand
Fluid bed dryer
Rotary dryer
Kaolin
Rotary dryer
Spray dryer
Flash calciner
Multiple hearth furnace
Rotary calciner
Lightweight aggregate
Rotary cal ci ner
Magnesium compounds
Multiple hearth furnace
Rotary calciner
Perlite
Rotary dryer
Expansion furnace
Roofing granules
Fluid bed dryer
Rotary dryer
Rf
704
2,857
8
88
14
139
119
28
91
15
55
80
19
53
18
230
107
584
273
303
627
731
224
1,167
3
124
2
911
174
166
42
220
13
146
a F
L I3
(776)
(3,149)
(9)
(97)
(15)
(153)
(131)
(31)
(100)
(17)
(61)
(88)
(21)
(58)
(20)
(253)
(118)
(644)
(301)
(334)
(691)
(806)
(247)
(1,286)
(3)
(137)
(2)
(1,004)
(192)
(183)
(46)
(242)
(14)
(161)
'articulate e
RP
188
601
2
27
5
62
60
8
36
5
8
21
11
13
11
92
28
155
73
81
120
75
60
292
2
42
1
405
44
47
34
67
4
58
[missions, Mg/i
i II
(207)
(663)
(2)
(30)
(6)
(68)
(66)
(9)
(40)
(5)
(9)
(23)
(12)
(14)
(12)
(101)
(31)
(171)
(80)
(89)
(132)
(83)
(66)
(322)
(2)
(46)
(1)
(446)
(48)
(52)
(37)
(74)
(4)
(64)
re (tons/yr)
R
188
601
1
17
4
39
37
5
36
3
5
14
7
13
6
57
28
97
73
81
74
47
37
182
2
42
1
405
44
47
21
67
3
36
!A III
(207)
(663)
(1)
(19)
(4)
(43)
(41)
(6)
(40)
(3)
(6)
(15)
(8)
(14)
(7)
(63)
(31)
(107)
(80)
(89)
(82)
(52)
(41)
(201)
(2)
(46)
(1)
(446)
(48)
(52)
(23)
(74)
(3)
\** J
(40)
7-38
-------
TABLE 7-18. (continued)
Industry/faci 1 ity
Talc
FTash dryer
Rotary dryer
Rotary calciner
Titanium dioxide
Flash dryer
Fluid bed dryer
Rotary dryer (direct)
Rotary dryer (indirect)
Spray dryer
Rotary calciner
Verraiculite
Fluid bed dryer
Rotary dryer
Expansion furnace
TOTAL
ROUNDED TOTAL
392
13
163
11
0
38
34
206
50
15
52
198
11,504
11,500
RA I
(432)
(14)
(180)
(12)
(0)
(42)
(37)
(227)
(55)
(17)
(57)
(218)
(12,681)
(12,700)
Particulate emissions, Mg/yr (tons/yr)
-———
74
4
34
4
0
10
2
69
50
3
9
46
3,040
3,000
RA II
(82)
(4)
(38)
(4)
(0)
(11)
(2)
(76)
(55)
(3),
(10)
- (51)
(3,351)
(3/400)
46
2
34
3
0
6
1
43
50
2
5
46
2,559
2,600
• RA III
(51)
(2)
(38)
(3)
(0)
(7)
(1)
(47)
(55)
(2)
(6)
(51)
(2,821)
(2,800)
.Baseline.
Based on control device inlet parameters for wet scrubbers instead of baghouses to represent the
worst case scenario.
Only one fluid bed dryer (a new unit) is known to be used in this industry.
7-39
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TABLE 7-19. ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT OF DELAYED STANDARD—
PARTICULATE EMISSION REDUCTION IN 1993
Regulatory
Alternative
Proposal in 1985C
Proposal in 1988
a
Mg/yrc
tons/yr
Mg/yr
tons/yr
II
III
12,500
13,200
13,800
14,600
8,400
9,000
9,300
9,900
aBaseline emissions in 1993 for the two cases are 17,100 Mg/yr
(18,800 tons/yr)-and 11,500 Mg/yr (12,700 tons/yr),
^respectively.
Metric and English units may not convert exactly because
values were rounded independently.
7-40
-------
7.7 REFERENCES FOR CHAPTER 7
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Memo from Strait, R., MRI, to 7702-L Project File.
for BID Chapter 7. April 10, 1985.
Calculations
P. Gutfreund and L. Mahoney, Systems Applications, Inc. Dispersion
Modeling Analyses of Particulate Control Regulatory Alternatives
for Stack Releases From Dryers and Calciners in the Mineral Industries.
Prepared for U. S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle
Park, North Carolina. November 5, 1984.
Environmental Protection Agency General Regulations on Standards of
Performance for New Stationary Sources. Environment Reporter.
January 22, 1982. pp. 121:1518-121:1526.
U. S. Environmental Protection Agency. Municipal Environmental
Research Laboratory. Process Design Manual: Sludge Treatment and
Disposal. Publication No. EPA-625/1-79-011. September 1979.
p. 9-15.
U. S. Environmental Protection Agency. Municipal Environmental
Research Laboratory. Process Design Manual: Land Application of
Municipal Sludge. Publication No. EPA-625/1-83-016. October 1983.
p. 4-3.
Environmental Protection Agency Regulations for Hazardous Waste
Management. Code of Federal Regulations. Title 40, Chapter I,
-Parts 260, 261. July 1, 1984. Environment Reporter. March 20,
1984. pp. 161:1801-161:1871.
7-41
-------
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8. COST ANALYSIS OF CONTROL OPTIONS
8.1 INTRODUCTION
This chapter presents the cost impacts associated with the
implementation of three regulatory alternatives for the control of
particulate matter emissions from new, modified, or reconstructed mineral
dryer and calciner process units. Capital and annualized costs of
pollution control equipment were developed and used to evaluate the
incremental cost effectiveness of RA II over the baseline alternative,
RA I, and RA III over RA II. The average cost effectiveness of RA III
over RA I and the cost effectiveness of RA I, RA II, and RA III over the
uncontrolled conditions were also calculated. As discussed in Chapter 6,
RA I represents the emission limit required by SIP's, RA II represents
an emission limit of 90 mg/dscm (0.04 gr/dscf) for dryers and calciners,
and RA III represents an emission limit of 57 mg/dscm (0.025 gr/dscf)
for dryers and 90 mg/dscm (0.04 gr/dscf) for calciners. The capital
cost of pollution control equipment was also compared with the capital
cost of mineral dryer and calciner process units. All costs were based
on January 1984 dollars. Control device costs are based on "study"
estimates (±30 percent accuracy) and process unit costs are based on
"order-of-magnitude" estimates (greater than ±30 percent accuracy). The
economic impacts of each regulatory alternative on mineral dryer and
calciner operators are presented in Chapter 9. Documentation of the
calculations made for Chapter 8 is presented in Reference 1.
8.2 COST ANALYSIS FOR NEW FACILITIES
New facilities include any new dryer or calciner installed at a new
plant. Capital and annualized costs of pollution control equipment were
8-1
-------
based on model facility parameters developed from industry information.
The model facility parameters were presented in Chapter 6.
8-2.1 Basis for Estimating Capital and Annualized Costs of Pollution
Control Equipment
The costs of using BH's, WS's, and dry ESP's to achieve the
recommended emission limit of each regulatory alternative were evaluated.
Data sources used to calculate capital and annualized costs of these
pollution control devices and their associated equipment are listed in
Table 8-1. Factors used to calculate the capital and annualized control
costs are listed in Tables 8-2 and 8-3, respectively.
Land costs were not included as a factor because the typical plant
site usually includes enough land for the company to add a new dryer or
calciner and the associated pollution control equipment.
8.2.2 Capital Costs of Pollution Control Equipment for Each Regulatory
Alternative
Tables 8-4a, 8-4b, and 8-4c show the purchased equipment, installa-
tion, and total capital cost of pollution control equipment used on the
typical-size model facility in each mineral industry for RA I, RA II,
and RA III, respectively. As indicated by the total capital cost factors
in Table 8-2, BH installation costs are about 17 percent greater than BH
purchased equipment costs and ESP installation costs are about 22 percent
greater than ESP purchased equipment costs. However, WS installation
costs are about 9 percent less than WS purchased equipment costs.
Table 8-4d summarizes the total capital cost of pollution control
equipment for each of the regulatory alternatives.
Tables 8-4a through 8-4c also present the gas flow rates and the
control equipment design parameters upon which the costs were based.
Net cloth areas were the most critical variable influencing BH capital
costs. However, net cloth areas were held constant for each regulatory
alternative because EPA-approved emission test results for BH's on
existing facilities indicated that existing BH's could meet the recom-
mended emission limits for RA II and RA III (See Chapter 4, Section 4.3).
Therefore, BH capital costs remained constant for all three alternatives.
The most critical variable influencing WS capital costs was the operating
pressure drops. When necessary, the pressure drops were increased to meet
8-2
-------
the more stringent emission limits of RA II and RA III compared to the
pressure drops needed to meet the baseline level of control. In cases
where pressure drops for RA II or RA III are less than or equal to 6 kPa
(25 in. w.c.), WS capital costs for RA II and RA III may be less than or
equal to the WS capital cost for RA I. This occurred when radial-tip
fan costs and damper costs for RA II and RA III decreased enough to
offset increases in the other purchased equipment costs. Radial-tip fan
costs and damper costs decreased with increases in pressure drops because
smaller fan wheel diameters are used to generate higher pressure drops
up to 6 kPa (25 in. w.c.).2 For ESP's, SCA's were the most critical
variable influencing capital costs. Specific collection areas were
increased to meet the more stringent emission limits of RA II and RA III
compared to the SCA's needed to meet the baseline level of control.
8.2.3 Annualized Costs of Pollution Control Equipment for Each Regulatory
Alternative
Tables 8-5a, 8-5b, and 8-5c summarize the costs of utilities;
operator, supervisor, and maintenance labor; overhead; product recovery
or waste disposal; and capital charges that comprise the total annualized
costs of pollution control equipment for RA I, RA II, and RA III,
respectively. Table 8-5d summarizes the total annualized costs of
pollution control equipment for the three regulatory alternatives. The
critical variables influencing BH annualized costs were operating time,
bag lifes, labor costs, and product recovery credits. Wet scrubber
annualized costs were influenced most by operating time, pressure drops,
labor costs, and waste disposal costs. Electrostatic precipitator
annualized costs were influenced by operating time, SCA's, labor costs,
and product recovery credits.
Product recovery credits for the different industries varied with
the amount of particulate matter captured and the product values used
to calculate the credits. Table 8-6 lists prices used to calculate
product recovery credits for control devices on dryers and calciners in
the different industries.3-13 The price of the dried or calcined product
was used to calculate credits for particulate matter recovered from BH's
and ESP's. These prices were based on average annual prices reported by
8-3
-------
the U.S. BOM to account for price fluctuations rather than on a
January 1984 price.
Product recovery credits were calculated for all BH's and ESP's
except for BH's used on lightweight aggregate rotary calciners, perlite
rotary dryers, and vermiculite fluid bed dryers. Particulate matter
captured by BH's used on lightweight aggregate rotary calciners, perlite
rotary dryers, and vermiculite fluid bed dryers is disposed of as
waste. Therefore, a dust disposal charge of $5.51/Mg ($5.00/ton) was
used to estimate the cost of hauling the waste to a landfill. Product
recovery credits were also calculated for WS's used on titanium dioxide
flash dryers, indirect rotary dryers, and rotary calciners. Product
recovery prices were discounted from the final product price by 35 percent
for flash dryers and 40 percent for rotary calciners. The raw ore price
was used to calculate product recovery credits for direct and indirect
rotary dryers.14 Waste disposal costs were calculated for WS's used in
the other mineral industries. Most of the industries typically pump WS
wastewater to a settling pond located at the plant site.15-20 Therefore,
the costs of a pump, motor, and pipe needed to transport the wastewater
to a settling pond were added to the capital cost of the WS and the pump
electricity cost was added to the annualized cost of the WS.
8.2.4 Cost Effectiveness of Pollution Control
The incremental and average cost-effectiveness values of the
regulatory alternatives are summarized in Table 8-7. Incremental cost
effectiveness was calculated by dividing the incremental annualized cost
of RA II over RA I (and RA III over RA II) by the additional amount of
particulate matter removed by RA II over RA I (and RA III over RA II).
Average cost effectiveness was calculated by dividing the additional
annualized cost of RA III over RA I by the additional amount of particulate
matter removed by RA III over RA I. The cost effectiveness of the >
regulatory alternatives versus the uncontrolled process units is summarized
in Table 8-8. These cost-effectiveness values were calculated by dividing
the annualized control cost of each regulatory alternative by the amount
of particulate matter removed under each regulatory alternative for each
model facility.
8-4
-------
8.2.5 Five-Year Projection of Nationwide Capital and Annualized
Pollution Control Costs for Each Regulatory Alternative
Table 8-9 presents projections of capital and annualized pollution
control costs for each regulatory alternative in 1990. Production
projections for 1990 are based on the number of affected facilities
expected in the fifth year. The number of affected facilities was
calculated by dividing incremental production in the fifth year by the
design production capacity of the typical-size facility for each industry.
The number of affected facilities was rounded and multiplied by the
capital and annualized cost of pollution control equipment calculated
for each typical-size facility for each regulatory alternative.
Two total capital and annualized cost figures are listed for each
regulatory alternative at the bottom of Table 8-9. The first total
includes the cost of a BH and the second total includes the cost of a WS
for those facilities that are typically controlled by either control
device. Capital costs for the second total decreased from the first
total by about $4.8 million for RA I and $4.0 million for RA II and
RA III. Annualized costs for the second total increased from the first
total by about $0.5 million for RA I and $0.2 million for RA II and
RA III.
8.3 COST ANALYSIS OF MODEL FACILITY PROCESS UNITS
8.3.1 Basis for Estimating Capital Costs of Process Unit Equipment
Capital costs of mineral dryers and calciners included the cost of
the process unit, a cyclone, and the auxiliary equipment required for
their operation. Data sources used to calculate capital costs of process
unit equipment are listed in Table 8-10.
Except for direct and indirect rotary dryers and kettle calciners;
process unit, auxiliary equipment, and installation capital costs were
obtained from vendors.21-36 Capital costs of rotary dryers were estimated
using a regression equation developed from data provided by industry
responses to EPA information requests.37-40 Capital costs of kettle
calciners were based on gypsum industry information.41 Factors used to
calculate capital costs of new dryers and calciners are listed in
8-5
-------
Table 8-11. Capital costs of process units for the typical-size model
facility in each industry are listed in Table 8-12.
8.3.2 Comparison of Capital Costs of Pollution Control Equipment to
Capital Costs of Uncontrolled Process Units
Capital costs of pollution control equipment are compared to the
capital costs of uncontrolled process units in Table 8-13 by expressing
pollution control equipment costs as a percentage of typical-size process
unit costs. The purpose of the comparison is to show the cost of pollution
control equipment under the baseline case (RA I) relative to the cost of
the process unit and to show how these .relative costs change for RA II
and RA III.
The relative capital cost change between RA I and RA II ranged from
a decrease of 2 percent to an increase of 29 percent and averaged 2 percent.
The relative cost change between RA I and RA III ranged from a decrease
of 2 percent to an increase of 42 percent and averaged 2 percent. The
relative cost change between RA II and RA III ranged from a decrease of
1 percent to an increase of 13 percent and averaged 0 percent.
8.4 COST ANALYSIS FOR MODIFIED/RECONSTRUCTED FACILITIES
Under the provisions of 40 CFR 60.14 and 60.15, an existing facility
must comply with the NSPS if it is modified or reconstructed. However,
the modification and reconstruction provisions should not cause many
calciners and dryers in the 17 mineral industries to become affected
facilities because most of the physical and operational changes made to
existing calciners and dryers are considered routine maintenance.
Calciners and dryers at existing plants are more likely to become affected
facilities when they are replaced by new process units at the end of
their useful lives. Owners and operators of modified, reconstructed, or
replaced facilities controlled by wet scrubbers or ESP's will probably
incur retrofit costs if the design operating parameters of the wet
scrubber or ESP must be increased to achieve the emission limit of the
NSPS. However, the cost of retrofitting wet scrubbers or ESP's would
be similar to the cost of installing wet scrubbers or ESP's on new
facilities because site-specific factors that might normally increase
retrofit costs (e.g., availability of land and configuration of equipment)
8-6
-------
typically are not limiting factors at mineral processing plants. If
site-specific factors are limiting at a plant, the capital cost of
retrofitting wet.scrubbers or ESP's may be greater than the cost of wet
scrubbers and ESP's installed on new facilities (e.g., more ductwork).
However, the annualized cost of retrofitting wet scrubbers or ESP's
would not differ significantly from the annualized costs of wet scrubbers
and ESP's installed on new facilities. Owners and operators of modified,
reconstructed, or replaced facilities controlled by fabric filters
should not incur retrofit costs because the emission limits of the
NSPS can be achieved by increasing the operation and maintenance of
fabric filters.
8.5 OTHER COST CONSIDERATIONS
8.5.1 Other Air Pollution Costs
Other air pollution costs considered in this analysis were the
capital and annualized costs of control equipment for new facilities to
meet existing SIP regulations. These costs were used as the baseline
control costs in RA I to analyze the cost effectiveness of RA II and
RA III. No other air pollution regulations apply directly to controlling
particulate matter emissions from mineral dryer and calciner process
units. However, NSPS are being developed for other process equipment
used in nonmetallic mineral industries. This equipment may either
precede or follow the dryer and calciner process units being considered
in this analysis and includes crushers, grinding mills (including air
separators, classifiers, and conveyors), screens, bucket elevators, belt
conveyors, bagging operations, storage bins, and enclosed truck and rail
car loading stations. Industries considered in this analysis that may be
affected by the standards for nonmetallic mineral industries include
ball clay, bentonite, diatomite, feldspar, fire clay, fuller's earth,
gypsum, industrial sand, kaolin, perlite, talc, and vermiculite.42 New
source performance standards have been promulgated for equipment used to
process ores of metallic minerals. However, this equipment also precedes
or follows the dryer and calciner process units and includes crushing,
ore storage, and product loadout units. Alumina and titanium dioxide
8-7
-------
are the only industries considered in this analysis that are affected by
the metallic mineral NSPS.43
8.5.2 Continuous Opacity Monitors
Continuous opacity monitoring using a transmissometer is an effective
means to ensure that dry control devices are properly operated and
maintained to achieve the maximum emission reduction for which they were
designed. Therefore, the owner or operator of an affected facility
controlled by a BH or an ESP may be required to install a continuous
opacity monitor to demonstrate compliance under this NSPS. The capital
costs associated with installing a transmissometer are estimated to be
$31,500. The capital costs include the cost of equipment, installation,
and training and certifying an operator. The annualized costs associated
with operating and maintaining a transmissometer are estimated to be
$10,700. The annualized costs include the cost of operator and maintenance
labor, electricity, capital recovery, and data reduction.44
Requiring an owner or operator of an affected facility to install a
transmissometer to improve operation and maintenance practices of the
control device will increase the cost effectiveness of the regulatory
alternatives. The annualized cost of the transmissometer was added to
the annualized cost of RA III to analyze the impact that the additional
cost of a transmissometer would have on the average cost effectiveness
of RA III over RA I. Results of this analysis indicate that the average
industry-wide cost effectiveness would increase for calciners by $990/Mg
($900/ton) and for dryers by $430/Mg ($390/ton) as a result of using
continuous opacity monitors.44
8.5.3 Water Pollution Control Act
Standards of performance for point sources specify zero discharge
of wastewater to navigable waters. Wet scrubbers were the only control
devices considered that generate wastewater at the plant site. Industries
using wet scrubbers include diatomite, feldspar, fire clay, fuller's
earth, industrial sand, kaolin, lightweight aggregate, roofing granules,
titanium dioxide, and vermiculite. Plants in these industries typically
discharge wastewater from the scrubber into a settling pond at the plant
site and recycle the clarified water to the scrubber. Therefore, no
discharges to navigable waters occur, and no additional water treatment
8-8
-------
costs are incurred that are attributable to the development of this
NSPS.
8.5.4 Resource Conservation and Recovery Act
The three,regulatory alternatives considered in this analysis are
not expected to increase costs to the mineral industries under RCRA
because the pollution control equipment used to achieve the emission
limits of the regulatory alternatives will not generate wastes that are
considered hazardous under the provisions of RCRA.
8.5.5 Occupational Safety and Health Administration Act
Mineral processing plants considered in this analysis are subject
to the Occupational Safety and Health Administration's (OSHA's) general
industrial health and safety standards. These standards include regula-
tions covering noise exposure; fixed machinery and hand tools; electrical
installations; floor and stair conditions; and lunchroom, toilet, and
first aid provisions. Data were not obtained to evaluate the cost of
complying with these regulations. However, the pollution control equip-
ment associated with the regulatory alternatives should result in minimal
OSHA-related compliance costs. Therefore, no costs of complying with
OSHA regulations were included in this analysis.
8.5.6 Resource Requirements Imposed on Regional, State, and Local
Agencies
The owner or operator of a new, modified, or reconstructed facility
is responsible for applying to the State for a permit to construct and
operate the facility. Regional, State, and local regulatory agencies
are responsible for reviewing the applications and enforcing the regula-
tions. The regulatory alternatives considered in this analysis should
not create major resource requirements for the regulatory agencies
because it is expected that affected facilities will be distributed
throughout the United States (not clustered in a few States) and because
the agencies have developed the resources to regulate particulate matter
emissions from mineral dryer and calciner process units under the authority
of SIP's.
8-9
-------
TABLE 8-1. CAPITAL AND ANNUALIZED COST DATA SOURCES FOR
POLLUTION CONTROL EQUIPMENT
Cost item
A. Capital costs
1. Baghouse (BH)
2. Wet scrubber (WS)
3. Dry electrostatic
precipitator (ESP)
4. Auxiliary equipment
(ductwork, fan
system, stack, and
WS waste disposal
equipment)
5. Cost factors
6. Cost indexes
B. Annuali zed costs
1. Electricity
2. Industrial power
i ndex
3. Water
4. Labor
a. Wage rate
b. Operator, super-
visor, and
maintenance
3. Overhead and
materials
4. Dust disposal
5. Capital charges
Source
EPA/OAQPS/EAB
EPA/OAQPS/EAB
EPA/OAQPS/EAB
EPA/OAQPS/EAB
EPA/OAQPS/EAB
EPA/OAQPS/EAB
Bureau of Labor
Statistics (BLS)
Chemical Engr.
EPA/OAQPS/EAB
BLS
American Water
Works Association
BLS
EPA/OAQPS/EAB
EPA/OAQPS/EAB
EPA/OAQPS/EAB
EPA/OAQPS/EAB
Date
Dec. 1977
Dec. 1977
Dec. 1977
Dec. 1977
Dec. 1977
Dec. 1977
April 1984
June 1984
Dec. 1977
April 1984
May 1984
Apri 1 , May 1984
Dec. 1977
Dec. 1977
Dec. 1977
Dec. 1977
Ref.
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56,57
58
59
60
61
8-10
-------
TABLE 8-2. POLLUTION CONTROL EQUIPMENT
CAPITAL COST FACTORS FOR NEW FACILITIES
Cost item
A. Direct costs
1. Purchased equipment
a. Control device
b. Auxiliary equipment (ductwork,
fan system, and stack)
c. Instruments and controls
d. Taxes
e. Freight
f. Total (la through le)
g. Purchased equipment cost factor,
C = 1.18 (A+B)
2. Installation
a. Foundation and supports
b. Erection and handling
c. Electrical
d. Piping
e. Insulation
f. Painting
g. Total (2a through 2f)
B. Indirect costs
1. Installation
a. Engineering and supervision
b. Construction and field expenses
c. Construction fee
d. Startup
e. Performance test
f. Total (la through le)
2. Contingencies
TOTAL CAPITAL COST FACTOR
Cost factor
BH
C
0.04C
0.50C
0.08C
0.01C
0.07C
0.02C
0.72C
0.10C
0.20C
0.10C
0.01C
0.01C
0.42C
0. 03C
1.17C
WS
- 0.10 (A+B) •
- 0.03 (A+B) •
- 0.05 (A+B) •
- 0.18 (A+B) •
C
0.06C
0.40C
0.01C
0.05C
0.03C
0.01C
0.56C
0.10C
0.10C
0.10C
0.01C
0.01C
0.32C
0.03C
0.91C
ESP
C
0.04C
0.50C
0.08C
0.01C
0.02C
0.02C
0, 67C
0.20C
0.20C
0.10C
0.01C
0.01C
0.52C
0.03C
1.22C
8-11
-------
TABLE 8-3. POLLUTION CONTROL EQUIPMENT
ANNUALIZED COST FACTORS FOR NEW FACILITIES
Cost item
Cost factor
BH WS ESP
A. Direct operating cost
1. Operating labor
a. Operator
b. Supervisor
Maintenance labor
a. Maintenance
2 h/ 2 h/ 0.5 h
shift shift shift
15% of operator labor
h/
and
b. Materials
c. Wage rate
-Alumina
-Magnesium compounds
Titanium dioxide
-Roofing granules
-Ball clay, Bentonite,
Diatomite, Feldspar, Fire
clay, Fuller's earth, Gypsum,
Industrial sand, Kaolin,
Lightweight aggregate,
Perlite, Talc, and
Vermiculite
Utilities
a. Electricity
1-1.25
shift
100% of
1 h/
shift
maintenance
0.5 h
shift
labor
$12.
$12.
- $9.
- $9.
78/h
11/h
,29/h
44/h
$1.55
4. Dust disposal
Indirect operating costs
1. Overhead
2. Property tax
3. Insurance
4. Administration
5. Capital recovery
xlO-7/Ja --
($0.0558/kWh).
$0.18/1,000 JT -
($0.68/1,000 gal)
$5.51/Mgc
($5.00/ton)
80% of operator +
supervisor + maintenance
labor costs
1% of capital costs
1% of capital costs
2% of capital costs
11.746% 16.275%. 11.746%
of of of
capital capital capital
cost cost cost
.$/j = dollars per joule.
°$/l,000 Z = dollars per 1,000 liters.
,$/Mg = dollars per megagram.
Based on 20 year life and 10 percent interest.
Based on 10 year life and 10 percent interest.
8-12
-------
TABLE 8-4a. CAPITAL COSTS OF POLLUTION CONTROL EQUIPMENT FOR
REGULATORY ALTERNATIVE I
(January 1984 Dollars)
Industry/facility
Alumina
Flash calciner
Rotary calciner
Ball clay
Rotary dryer (indirect)
Vibrating-grate dryer
(indirect)
Bentonite
Fluid bed dryer
Fluid bed dryer
Rotary dryer
Oiatomite
Flash dryer
Rotary dryer
Rotary calciner
Rotary calciner
Feldspar
Fluid bed dryer
Fluid bed dryer
Rotary dryer
Fire clay
Rotary dryer
Rotary dryer
Vibrating-grate dryer
Rotary calciner
Fuller's earth
Fluid bed dryer
Rotary dryer
Rotary dryer
Rotary calciner
Gypsum
Rotary dryer
Flash calciner
Kettle calciner
Industrial sand
Fluid bed dryer
Rotary dryer
Kao 1 i n
Rotary dryer
Spray dryer
Spray dryer
Flash calciner
Multiple hearth furnace
Rotary calciner
Rotary calciner
Lightweight aggregate
Rotary calciner
Rotary calciner
Typical
facility
size
L
S
M
M
M
M
M
S
M
L
L
M
L
L
M
M
M
M
L
S
S
M
M
M
M
M
S
M
M
L
S
S
S
S
M
M
Gas
flow,
acfra
116,000
98,000
17,000
25,000
50,000
50,000
30,000
22,000
15,000
30,000
30,000
10,000
17,000
21,000
. 18,000
18,000
62,000
40,000
124,000
20,000
20,000
30,000
12,500
4,100
4,100
30,000
11,000
17,000
35,000
60,000
e
12,000
24,000
24,000
68,000
100,000
Control
device
ESP
ESP
BH
BH
BH
ESP
BH
WS
BH
BH
WS
BH
BH
WS
BH
WS
WS
WS
•
BH
•BH
WS
BH
BH
BH
BH
WS
WS
BH
BH
BH
BH
WS
BH
WS
BH
WS
Design
parameter
SCA = 180h
SCA = 280°
A/C = 3:lc
A/C =5.6:1
A/C =3:1
SCA = 174
A/C = 3.5:1
H
AP = 6°
A/C =4:1
A/C = 2:1
AP = 8
A/C =4.5:1
A/C = 4.5:1
AP = 3
A/C = 4.5:1
AP = 3
AP = 3
AP = 6
A/C = 4.5:1
A/C =4:1
AP = 5
A/C = 2:1
A/C =4:1
A/C =2:1
A/C = 2:1
AP = 3
AP = 3
A/C = 3.5:1
A/C =3:1
A/C = 3:1
A/C =2:1
AP = 8
A/C = 2:1
AP = 10
A/C = 5:1
AP = 10
Purchased
equipment
cost, $000
452
463
180
163
427
426
248
75
141
300
89
104
145
76
148
71
155
97
714
165
69
302
124
69
69
95
55
161
322
505
260
52
268
87
314
204
Installation
cost, $000
•552
564 •.
210
191
499
519
291
69
164
352
80
122
170
69
173
64
141
89
835
193
63
354
145
81
81
86
50
188
376
591
304
48
314
79
367
185
Total ,
$000
1,004
1,027
390
354
926
945
539
144
305
652
169
226
315
145
321
135
296
186
1,549
358
132
656
269
150
150
181
105
349
698
1,096
564
100
582
166
681
389
(continued)
8-13
-------
TABLE 8-4a. (continued)
Industry/facility
Magnesium compounds
Multiple hearth furnace
Mg{OH), feed
Magr.esite feed
Rotary calciner
Mg(OH); feed
Magnesite feed
Perllte
Rotary dryer
Expansion furnace
Roofing aranules
Fluid bed dryer
Rotary dryer
Rotary dryer
Talc
Flash dryer
Rotary dryer
Rotary calciner
Titanium dioxide
Flash dryer
Fluid bed dryer
Fluid bed dryer
Rotary dryer (direct)
Rotary dryer (indirect)
Spray dryer
Rotary calciner
Rotary calciner
Venal cul Ue
Fluid bed dryer
Rotary dryer
Expansion furnace
Typical
facility
sizer
L
H
S
L
H
S
H
S
H
S
M
S
L
L
L
L
M
M
S
H
L
M
S
Gas
flow,
acfra
70,000
e
50,000
e
40,000 .
6,000
25,000
20,000
30,000
8,000
10,000
20,000
e
34,000
•34,000
13,000
2,850
30,000
e
e
35,000
20,000
5,000
Control
device
ESP
BH
ESP
BH
BH
BH
WS
WS
WS
BH
BH
BH
WS
BH
WS
BH
WS
BH
WS
WS
BH
WS
BH
Design
parameter
SCA = 250
A/C = 1.4:1
SCA = 200
A/C = 1.65:1
A/C = 4:1
A/C =2:1
AP = 3
AP = 3
AP = 3
A/C = 3:1
A/C =3:1
A/C =2:1
AP - 20
A/C = 4.1:1
AP = 10
A/C = 4:1
AP = 3
A/C =4:1
AP = e
AP = e
A/C = 6:1
AP = 3
A/C = 2:1
Purchased
equipment
cost, $000
371
351
307
446 ,
285
84
83
74
93
108
128
220
215
250
101
127
39
227
117
208
196
73
48
Installation
cost, $000
453
411
374
522
333
99
76
68
85
127
151
256
195
292
91
148
35
266
106
188
229
66
56
Total ,
$000
824
762
681
968
618
183
1 CQ
159
142
178
235
279
476
410
542
192
275
74
493
223
396
425
139
104
?S * snail, H = aediuni, L = large.
Specific collection area, ftVl.OOO acfm.
5Air-to-cloth ratio, ftVmin per ft2.
.Pressure drop, in. w.c.
"Confidential data.
8-14
-------
TABLE 8-4b. CAPITAL COSTS OF POLLUTION CONTROL EQUIPMENT FOR
REGULATORY ALTERNATIVE II
(January 1984 Dollars)
Industry/faci 1 i ty
Alumina
Flash calciner
Rotary calciner
Ball clay
Rotary dryer (indirect)
Vibrating-grate dryer
(indirect)
Bentonite
Fluid bed dryer
Fluid bed dryer
Rotary dryer
Diatomite
Flash dryer
Rotary dryer
Rotary calciner
Rotary calciner
Feldspar
Fluid bed dryer
Fluid bed dryer
Rotary dryer
Fire clay
Rotary dryer
Rotary dryer
Vibrating-grate dryer
Rotary calciner
Fuller's earth
Fluid bed dryer
Rotary dryer
Rotary dryer
Rotary calciner
Gypsum
Rotary dryer
Flash calciner
Kettle calciner
Industrial sand
Fluid bed dryer
Rotary dryer
Kaolin
Rotary dryer
Spray dryer
Spray dryer
Flash calciner
Multiple hearth furnace
Rotary calciner
Rotary calciner
Lightweight aggregate
Rotary calciner
Rotary calciner
Typical Gas
facility flow,
size acfm
L
S
M
M
M
M
M
S
M
L
L
M
L
L
M
M
M
M
L
S
S
M
M
M
M
M
S
M
M
U
S
S
S
S
M
H
116,000
98,000
17,000
25,000
50,000
50,000
30,000
22,000
15,000
30,000
30,000
10,000
17,000
21,000
18,000
18,000
62,000
40,000
124,000
20,000
20,000
30,000
12,500
4,100
4,100
30,000
11,000
17,000
35,000
60,000
b
12,000
24,000
24,000
68,000
100,000
Purchased
Control Design equipment
device parameter cost, $000
ESP
ESP
BH
BH-
BH
ESP
BH
WS
BH
BH
WS
BH
BH
WS
BH
WS
WS
WS
BH
BH
WS
BH
BH
BH
BH
WS
WS
BH
BH
BH
BH
WS
BH
WS
BH
WS
SCA = b
SCA = 380C
A/C = 3:ld
A/C = 5.6:1
A/C = 3: 1
SCA = 300
A/C = 3.5:1
AP = 14e
A/C =4:1
A/C = 2:1
AP = 23
A/C = 4.5:1
A/C = 4.5:1
AP = 4
A/C = 4.5:1
AP = 10
AP = 3
AP = 19
A/C = 4.5:1
A/C = 4: 1
AP = 8
A/C = 2:1
A/C = 4:1
A/C = 2:1
A/C =2:1
AP = 3
AP = 3
A/C = 3.5:1
A/C = 3:1
A/C = 3:1
A/C = 2:1
AP = 23
A/C = 2:1
AP = 24
A/C = 5:1 '
AP = 23
496
514
180
163
427
486
248
78
141
300
93
104
145
75
148
68
155
111
714
165
69
. . 302
124
69
69
95
55
161
322
505
260
51
268
84
314
261
Installation Total,
cost, $000 $000
604
628 '
210
191
499
"593'
291 .
71
164
352
84
122
170
69 .
173
62
141
101
835
193
62
354
145
81
80
86
50
188
376
591
304
46
314
76
367
237
1,100
1,142
390
354
926
1,079
539
149
305
652
177
226
315
144
321
130
296
212
1,549
358
131
656
269
150
150
181
105
349
698
1,096
564
97
582
160
681
498
(continued)
8-15
-------
TABLE 8-4b. (continued)
Industry/facility
Haanesiura compounds
Multiple hearth furnace
Mg(OH), feed
Hagnesite feed
Rotary calciner
Hg(OH), feed
Hagnesite feed
Perlite
Rotary dryer
Expansion furnace
Roof i no granules
Fluid bed dryer
Rotary dryer
Rotary dryer
Talc
FTash dryer
Rotary dryer
Rotary calciner
Titanium dioxide .
ri3sn dry fit*
Fluid bed dryer
Fluid bed dryer
Rotary dryer (direct)
Rotary dryer (indirect)
Spray dryer
Rotary calciner
Rotary calciner
Veraiculite
Fluid bed dryer
Rotary dryer
Expansion furnace
Typical
facility
size
L
M
S
L
,
M.
S
M
S
M
S
M
S
L
L
L
M
M
S
H
L
H
S
Gas
flow,
acfm
70,000
b
50,000
b
40,000
6,000
25,000
20,000
30,000
8,000
10,000
20,000
34,000
34,000
13,000
2,850
30,000
b
b
35,000
20,000
5,000
Control
device
ESP
BH
ESP
BH
BH
BH
WS
WS
WS
BH
BH
BH
WS
BH
WS
BH
WS
BH
WS
WS
BH
WS
BH
Design
parameter
SCA = 400
A/C = 1.4:1
SCA = 300
A/C = 1.65:1
A/C = 4: 1
A/C = 2:1
AP = 3
AP = 3
AP = 3
A/C =3:1
A/C =3:1
A/C = 2:1
AP - 34
A/C = 4.1:1
AP = 34
A/C = 4:1
AP = 10
A/C = 4:1
AP = b
AP = b
A/C =6:1
AP = 3
A/C = 2:1
Purchased
equipment
cost, $000
440
351
341
446
285
84 '
83
74
93
108
128
220
250
250
112
127
38
227
117
208
196
73
48
Installation
cost, $000
538
411
416
522
333
99
76
68
85
127
151
256
227
292
101
148
34
266
106
188
229
66
56
Total ,
$000
978
762
757
968
618
183
159
142
178
235
279
476
477
542
213
275
72
493
223
396
425
139
104
small, H = nediua, L = large.
"Confidential data.
^Specific collection area, ftz/l,000 acfm.
°Air-to-cloth ratio, ftVmin per ft2.
Pressure drop, in. w.c.
8-16
-------
TABLE 8-4c. CAPITAL COSTS OF POLLUTION CONTROL EQUIPMENT FOR
REGULATORY ALTERNATIVE III
(January 1984 Dollars)
Industry/facility
Alumina
Flash calciner
Rotary calciner
Ball clay
Rotary dryer (indirect)
Vibrating-grate dryer
(indirect)
Bentonite
Fluid bed dryer
Fluid bed dryer
Rotary dryer
Oiatomite
Flash dryer
Rotary dryer
Rotary calciner
Rotary calciner
Feldspar
Fluid bed dryer
Fluid bed dryer
Rotary dryer
Fire clay
Rotary dryer
Rotary dryer
Vibrating-grate dryer
Rotary calciner
Fuller's earth
Fluid bed dryer
Rotary dryer
Rotary dryer
Rotary calciner
Gypsum
Rotary dryer
Flash calciner
Kettle calciner
Industrial sand
Fluid bed dryer
Rotary dryer
Kaolin
Rotary dryer
Spray dryer
Spray dryer
Flash calciner
Multiple hearth furnace
Rotary calciner
Rotary calciner
I i ghtwei ght aggregate
Rotary calciner
Rotary calciner
Typical
facility
size
L
S
M
H
M
M
M
S
M ,
L
L
H
L
L
M
H
M
M
L
S
S
M
M
M
M
H
S
M
M
L
S
S
S
S
M '
M
Gas
flow,
acfm
116,000
98,000
17,000
25,000
50,000
50,000
30,000
22,000
15,000
30,000
30,000
10,000
17,000
21,000
18,000
18,000
62,000
40,000
124,000
20,000
20,000
30,000
12,500
4,100
4,100
30,000
11,000
17,000
35,000
60,000
b
12,000
24,000
24,000
68,000
100,000
Control
device
ESP
ESP
BH
BH
BH
ESP
BH
WS
BH
BH
WS
BH
BH
WS
BH
WS
WS
WS
BH
BH
WS
BH
BH
BH
BH
WS
WS
BH
BH
BH
BH
WS
BH
WS
BH
WS
Design
parameter
SCA = br
SCA = 380C
ft
A/C = 3:1°
A/C = 5.6:1
A/C =3:1
SCA = 350
A/C = 3.5:1
AP = 25e
A/C = 4:1
A/C =2:1
AP = 23
A/C = 4.5:1
A/C = 4.5:1
AP = 10
A/C = 4.5:1
AP = 14
AP = 3
AP = 19
A/C =4.5:1
A/C =. 4:1
AP = 11
A/C =2:1
A/C = 4:1
A/C =2:1
A/C =2:1
AP = 3
AP = 3
A/C = 3.5:1
A/C =3:1
A/C = 3:1
A/C = 2:1
AP = 23
A/C = 2:1
Afi = 24
A/C - 5:1
AP = 23
Purchased
equipment
cost, $000
496
514
180
163
427
512
248
92
141
300
93
104
145
75
148
67
155
111
714 .
165
68
302
124
69
69
95
55
161
322
505
260
51
268
84
314
261
Installation
cost, $000
604
628
210
191
499
625
291
84
164
352
84
122
170
69
173
61
141
101
835
193
62
354
145
81
81
86
50
188
376
591
304
46
314
76
367
237
Total ,
$000
1,100
1,142
390
354
926
1,137
539
176
305
652
177
226
315
144
321
128
296
212
1,549
358
130
656
269
150
150
181
105
349
698
1,096
564
97
582
160
681
498
(continued)
8-17
-------
TABLE 8-4c. (continued)
Industry/facility
Haqnesiua conpounds
Multiple hearth furnace
Hg(OH), feed
Hagnesite feed
Rotary calciner
Hg(OH), feed
Hagnesite feed
Perlite
Rotary dryer
Expansion furnace
Roofing granules
Fluid bed dryer
Rotary dryer
Rotary dryer
Talc
Flash dryer
Rotary dryer
Rotary calciner
Titanium dioxide
Plash dryer
Fluid bed dryer
Fluid bed dryer
Rotary dryer (direct)
• Rotary dryer (indirect)
Spray dryer
. Rotary calciner
Rotary calciner
Veraiculite
Huld bed dryer
Rotary dryer
Expansion furnace
Typical
facility
size
L
H
S
L
H
S
M
S
H
S
M
S
L
L
L
L
H
M
S
M
L
M
S
Gas
flow,
acfm
70,000
b
50,000
b
40,000
6,000
25,000
20,000
30,000
8,000
10,000
20,000
b
34,000
34,000
13,000
2,850
30,000
b
b
35,000
20,000
5,000
Control
device
ESP
BH
ESP
BH
BH
BH
WS
WS
WS
BH
BH
BH
WS
BH
WS
BH
WS
BH
WS
WS
.
BH
WS
BH
Design
parameter
SCA = 400
A/C =1.4:1
SCA = 300
A/C = 1.65:1
A/C =4:1
A/C =2:1
AP = 3
AP = 3
AP = 3
A/C = 3:1
A/C = 3:1
A/C =2:1
AP = b
A/C = 4.1:1
AP = 43
A/C = 4:1
AP = 17
A/C = 4:1
AP = b
AP = b
A/C = 6:1
AP = 4
A/C =2:1
Purchased
equipment
cost, $000
440
351
341
446
285
84
83
74
93
108
128
220
290
250
136
127
38
227
117
208
196
72
48
Installation
cost, $000
538
411
416
522
333
99
76
68
85
127
151
256
265
292
123
148
35
266
106
188
229
66
56
Total ,
$000
978
762
• 757
968
618
183
159
142
178
235
279
476
555
542
259
275
73
493
223
396
425
138
104
hS = snail, H * medium, L = large.
"Confidential data.
dSpedf1c collection area, fWl.OOO acfm.
"Air-to-cloth ratio, ftVnrin per ft*.
Pressure drop, in. w.c.
8-18
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8-21
-------
TABLE 8-5a. ANNUALIZED COSTS OF POLLUTION CONTROL EQUIPMENT
REGULATORY ALTERNATIVE I
(January 1984 Dollars)
Typical
Industry/facil ity
Alumina
Flash calciner
Rotary calciner
Ball clay
Rotary dryer
(indirect)
Vibrating-grate
dryer (indirect)
Bentonite
FluTd bed dryer
Fluid bed dryer
Rotary dryer
Diatonrite
Flash dryer
Rotary dryer
Rotary calciner
Rotary calciner
Feldspar
Fluid bed dryer
Fluid bed dryer
Rotary dryer
Fire clay
Rotary dryer
Rotary dryer
Vibrating-grate dryer
Rotary calciner
Fuller's earth
Fluid bed dryer
Rotary dryer
Rotary dryer
Rotary calciner
Gypsum
Rotary dryer
Flash calciner
Kettle calciner
Industrial sand
Fluid bed dryer
Rotary dryer
Kaolin
Rotary dryer
Spray dryer
Spray dryer
Flash calciner
Multiple hearth
furnace
Rotary calciner
Rotary calciner
faci-
lity
size
L
S
M
M
H
M
H
S
H
L
L
M
L
L
H
M
H
M
L
S
S
M
M
M
M
M
S
M
M
L
S
S
S
S
Control
device
ESP
ESP
BH
BH
BH
ESP
BH
WS
BH
BH
WS
BH
BH
WS
BH
WS
WS
WS
BH
BH
WS
BH
*
BH
BH
BH
WS
WS
BH
BH
BH
BH
WS
BH
WS
Utili-
ties,
$000
20
24
3
5
18
10
9
22
2
12
24
2
3
10
3
5
12
32
36
8
15
12
4
1
1
18
2
3
15
29
15
11
10
30
Operator,
super-
visor,
and
raai n-
tenance
labor.
$000
20
20
32
33
112
14
79
41
36
69
33
50
68
26
30
15 -
10
41
93
52
38
76
60
39
39
32
9
29
74
88
52
41
75
41
Over-
head,
$000
11
11
10
12
20
8
19
25
13
20
20
15
15
16
9
9
6
25
20
23
23
25
17
17
17
20
6
9
25
25
25
25
25
25
Product
recovery
credit,
$000
-1,478
-977
-15
-37
-140
-148
-70
—
-118
-325
"•-
-18
-31
__
-11
—
—
—
-340
-69
—
-90
-6
-18
-138
—
—
-45
-186
-319
-1,454
—
-213
—
Capital ,
charges, Total,
$000
158
162
61
56
146
149
85
29
48
103
35
35
49
30
51
28
60
38
244
57
28
103
43
24
24
37
21
56
110
173
89
19
91
34
$000
-1,269
-760
91
69
156
33
122
117
-19
-121
112
84
104
82
82
57
88
136
53
71
104
126
118
63
-57
107
38
52
38
-4
-1,273
96
-12
130
(continued)
8-22
-------
TABLE 8-5a. (continued)
Industry/facility
Lightweight aggregate
Rotary calciner
Rotary calciner
Magnesium compounds
Typical
faci-
lity
size
M
M
Control
device
BH
WS
Utili-
ties,
$000
27
85
Operator,
super-
visor,
and
main-
tenance
labor,0
$000
84
41
Over-
head,
$000
25
25
Product
recovery
credit,
$000
1476
_ —
Capital
charges,
$000
108
78
A
Total,0
$000
391
229
Multiple hearth furnace
Mg(OH)2 feed
Magnesite feed
Rotary calciner
Mg(OH)? feed
Magnesite feed
Per lite
Rotary dryer
Expansion furnace
Roofing granules
Fluia bed dryer
Rotary dryer
Rotary dryer
Talc
Hash dryer
' Rotary dryer
Rotary calciner
Titanium dioxide
Hash dryer
Fluid bed dryer
Fluid bed dryer
Rotary dryer
(direct)
Rotary dryer
(indirect)
Spray dryer
Rotary calciner
Rotary calciner
Vermiculite
Fluid bed dryer
Rotary dryer
Expansion furnace
L
M
S
L
M
S
M
S
-M
S
M
S
L
L
L
L
M
M
S
M
L
M
S
ESP
BH
ESP
BH
BH
BH
WS
WS
WS
BH
BH
BH
WS
BH
WS
BH
WS
BH
WS
WS
BH
WS
BH
21
13
13
29
9
I
9
11
17
4
3
7
114
14
32
7
2
14
50
99
18
4
1
19
66
19
78
72
16
20
30
30
42
54
79
52
93
46
77
52
95
52
52
41
13
19
10
32
10
32
9
5
12
18
18
17
23
25
32
28
28
32
32
32
32
32
15
8
9
-1,138
-700
-429
-995
6e
-15
— _
—
-45
-89
-151
-4,890
-643
-643
-316
-72
-2,847
-962
-1,929
i *,e
13
--
-41
130
120
108
152
97
28
33
29
36
37
45
75
83
86
39
43
15
77
46
80
68
28
16
-958
-469
-279
-704
193
35
74
88
101
55
36
35
-4,609
-422
-498
-157
29
-2.629
-782
-1,666
155
53
4
f:S = small, M = medium, L = large.
•[Includes materials costs.
jProduct recovery credits are presented as negative costs.
Negative values indicate that product recovery credits are greater than total annualized costs.
Total values may not add exactly because of independent rounding.
eProduct not recovered. Cost incurred from waste disposal.
8-23
-------
TABLE 8-5b.
ANNUALIZED COSTS OF POLLUTION CONTROL EQUIPMENT
REGULATORY ALTERNATIVE II
(January 1984 Dollars)
Typical
Industry/f aci 1 ity
Alumina
Flash calciner
Rotary calciner
Ball clay
Rotary dryer
(indirect)
Vibrating-grate
dryer (indirect)
Bentonite
Fluid bed dryer
Fluid bed dryer
Rotary dryer
Diatontite
Flash dryer
Rotary dryer
Rotary calciner
Rotary calciner
Feldspar
Fluid bed dryer
Fluid bed dryer
Rotary dryer
Fire clay
Rotary dryer
Rotary dryer
Vibrating-grate dryer
Rotary calciner
Fuller's earth
Fluid bed dryer
Rotary dryer
Rotary dryer
Rotary calciner
Gypsum
Rotary dryer
Flash calciner
Kettle calciner
Industrial sand
Fluid bed dryer
Rotary dryer
Kaolin
Rotary dryer
Spray dryer
Spray dryer
Flash calciner
Multiple hearth
furnace
Rotary calciner
Rotary calciner
faci-
lity
size
L
S
M
M
M
M
M
S
M
L
L
M
L
L
M
M
M
M
L
S
S
M
M
M
M
M
S
M
M
L
S
S
S
S
Control
device
ESP
ESP
BH
BH
BH
ESP
BH
WS
BH
BH
WS
BH
BH
WS
BH
WS
WS
WS
BH
BH
WS
BH
BH
BH
BH
WS
WS
BH
BH
BH
BH
WS
BH
WS
Utili-
ties,
$000
24
31
3
5
18
15
9
31
2
12
39
2
3
11
3
9
12
51
36
8
19
12
4
1
1
20
2
3
15
29
15
18
10
44
Operator,
super-
visor,
and
mai n-
tenance
labor,0
$000
20
20
37
38
135
14
95
41
41
81
33
59
81
26
36
15
10
41
112
59
38
89
71
45
45
32
9
34
86
104
59
41
87
41
Over-
head,
$000
11
11
10
13
21
8
20
25
14
21
20
16
16
16
10
9
6
25
21
25
23
26
19
19
19
20
6
10
26
26
26
25
26
25
Product
recovery
credit,
$000
-1,520
-1,016
-16
-38
-142
-150
-71
—
-121
-330
—
-19
-32
-12
—
--
-343
-70
—
-93
-6
-18
-139
—
—
-46
-192
-329
-1,455
-216
Capital .
charges. Total,
$000
174
180
62
56
146
170
84
30
48
103
37
35
49
30
50
27
60
43
244
57
27
104
41
23
23
34
21
55
110
171
89
19
94
32
$000
-1,291
-774
96
74
178
57
137
127
-16
-113
129
93
117
83
87
60
88
160
70
79
107
138
129
70
-51
107
38
56
45
1
-1,266
103
1
142
(continued)
8-24
-------
TABLE 8-5b. (continued)
Typical
faci-
lity
Industry/ facility size
Lightweight aggregate
Rotary calciner
Rotary calciner
Magnesium compounds
Multiple hearth furnace
Mg(OH)? feed
Magnesite feed
Rotary calciner
Mg(OH)? feed
Magnesite feed
Perlite
Rotary dryer
Expansion furnace
Roofing granules
Huia bed dryer
Rotary dryer
Rotary dryer
Talc
Flash dryer
Rotary dryer
Rotary calciner
Titanium dioxide
I- lash dryer
Fluid bed dryer
Fluid bed dryer
Rotary dryer
(direct)
Rotary dryer
(indirect)
Spray dryer
Rotary calciner
Rotary calciner
Vermiculite
fluid bed dryer
Rotary dryer
Expansion furnace
M
M
L
M
S
L
M
S
M
S
M
S
M
S
L
L
L
L
M
M
S
M
L
M
S
Control
device
BH
WS
ESP
BH
ESP
BH
BH
BH
WS
WS
WS
BH
BH
BH
WS
BH
WS
BH
WS
BH
WS
WS
BH
WS
BH
Utili-
ties,
$000
27
124
28
13
16
29
9
1
9
11
17
4
3
7
153
14
58
7
4
14
50
99
18
4
1
Operator,
super-
visor,
and
mai n-
tenance
labor,0
$000'
98
41
19
74
19
90
88
19
20
30
30
48
62
92
" 52
109
46
88
52
110
52
52
47
13
21
Over-
head,
$000
26
25
10
34
10
34
10
5
12
18
18
19
24
26
32
30
28
34
32
34
32
32
16
8
10
Product
recovery
• credit,
$000
1486
-1,174
-714
-440
-1,018
6e
-16
-47
-91
-156
-4,978
-670
-670
-325
-88
-2,906
-962
-1,929
14e
-42
Capital
charges ,
$000
108
101
154
120
120
152
97
29
33
29
36
36
44
75
96
86
43
43
15
78
46
80
68
29
15
Total, d
$000
407
291
-963
-473
-275
-713
210
38
74
88
101
60
42
44
-4,645
-431
-495
-153
15
-2,670
-782
-1,666
163
54
5
bS = small, M = medium, L = large.
Includes materials costs.
.Product recovery credits are presented as negative costs.
Negative values indicate that product recovery credits are greater than total annualized costs.
Total values may not add exactly because of independent rounding.
Product not recovered. Cost incurred from waste disposal.
8-25
-------
TABLE 8-5c. ANNUALIZED COSTS OF POLLUTION CONTROL EQUIPMENT
REGULATORY ALTERNATIVE III
(January 1984 Dollars)
Typical
Industry/facility
Al uai na
Flash calciner
Rotary calciner
Ball clay
Rotary dryer
(indirect)
Vibrating-grate
dryer (indirect)
Bentonite
Fluid bed dryer
Fluid bed dryer
Rotary dryer
Diatoraite
Flash dryer
Rotary dryer
Rotary calciner
Rotary calciner
Feldspar
Fluid bed dryer
Fluid bed dryer
Rotary dryer
Fire clay
Rotary dryer
Rotary dryer
Vibrating-grate dryer
Rotary calciner
Fuller's earth
Fluid bed dryer
Rotary dryer
Rotary dryer
Rotary calciner
Gypsum
Rotary dryer
Flash calciner
Kettle calciner
Industrial sand
Fluid bed dryer
Rotary dryer
Kaolin
Rotary dryer
Spray dryer
Spray dryer
Flash calciner
Multiple hearth
furnace
Rotary calciner
Rotary calciner
faci-
lity
size3
L
S
H
M
M
M
M
S
M
L
L
M
L
L
H
M
H •
H
L
S
S
M
M
M
M
M
S
M
H
L
S
S
S
S
Control
device
ESP
ESP
BH
BH
BH
ESP
BH
WS
BH
BH
WS
BH
BH
WS
BH
WS
WS
WS
BH
BH
WS
BH
BH
BH
BH
WS
WS
BH
BH
BH
BH
WS
BH
WS
Utili-
ties,
$000
24
31
3
5
18
16
9
42
2
12
39
2
3
18
3
11
12
51
36
8
22
12
4
1
1
18
2
3
15
29
15
18
10
44
Operator,
super-
visor,
and
main-
tenance
labor,"
$000
20
20
38
39
136
14
95
41
42
81
33
59
82
26
36
15
10
41
112
60
38
89
71
45
45
32
9
34
87
105
59
41
87
41
Over-
head,
$000
11
11
10
13
22
8
20
25
14
'21
20
16
16
16
10
9
6
25
21
25
23
26
19
19
19
20
6
10
27
27
26
25
26
25
Product
recovery
credit,
$000
-1,520
-1,016
-16
-38
-143
-151
-71
—
-121
-330
-19
-32
-12
--
-344 .
-71
-93
-6
-18
-139
—
-46
-193
-330
-1,455
-216
Capital
charges,
$000
174
180
61
56
146
180
85
36
48
103
37
36
49
29
51
26
60
43
244
58
27
104
42
23
23
37
21
55
110
172
89
19
92
32
Total ,d
$000
-1,291
-774
96
75
179
67
138
144
-15
-113
129
94
118
89
88
61
88
160
69
80
110
138
130
70
-51
107
38
56
46
3
-1,266
103
-1
142
(continued)
8-26
-------
TABLE 8-5c. (continued)
Industry/facility
Typical
faci- Uti 1 I'-
ll ty Control ties,
size device $000
Operator,
super-
visor,
and
mai n-
tenance
labor,0
$000 .
Product
Over- recovery Capital d
head, credit, charges, Total,
$000 $000 $000 $000
L i ghtwe i ght aggregate
Rotary calci her M
Rotary calciner M
Magnesium compounds
Multiple hearth Turnace
Mg(OH), feed L
Magnesite feed M
Rotary calciner
Mg(OH), feed S
Magnesite feed L
Per lite
Rotary dryer M
Expansion furnace S
Roofing granules
Fluid Bed dryer M
Rotary dryer S
Rotary dryer M
Talc
~~FTash dryer S
Rotary dryer M
Rotary calciner S
Titanium dioxide
Flash dryer L
Fluid bed dryer I.
Fluid bed dryer L
Rotary dryer L
(direct)
Rotary dryer M
(indirect)
Spray dryer M
Rotary calciner S
Rotary calciner M
BH
WS
ESP
BH
ESP
BH
BH
BH
WS
WS
WS
BH
BH
BH
WS
BH
WS
BH
WS
BH
WS
WS
27
124
28
13
16
29
9
11
17
173
14
65
7
14
50
99
98
41
19
74
19
90
19
20
30
30
49
63
92
52
110
46
89
52
112
52
52
26
25
10
34
10
34
10
5
12
18
18
19
25
26
32
30
28
34
32
34
32
32
148
-1,174
-714
-440
-1,018
-16
-48
-92
-156
-4,997
-672
-672
-326
-89
-2,917
-962
-1,929
108
101
154
120
120
152
97
29
33
29
36
36
44
75
112
85
52
43
15
78
46
80
407
291
-963
-473
-275
-713
210
38
74
88
101
60
43
44
-4,628
-433
-481
-153
15
-2,679
-782
-1,666
Verraiculite
Fluid bed dryer
Rotary dryer
Expansion furnace
L
M
S
BH
WS
BH
18
5
1
48
13
21
16
8
15
14e
-42
68
28
15
164
54
5
?S = small, M = medium, L = large.
"includes materials costs.
^Product recovery credits are presented as negative costs.
Negative values indicate that product recovery credits are greater than total annualized costs.
Total values may not add exactly because of independent rounding.
Product not recovered. Cost incurred from waste disposal.
8-27
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8-30
-------
TABLE 8-6. PRODUCT VALUES USED TO CALCULATE PRODUCT RECOVERY CREDITS
FOR POLLUTION CONTROL EQUIPMENT
Industry/facility
Alumina
Calciners
Ball clay
Dryers
Bentonite
Dryers
Diatomite
Dryers
Calciners
Feldspar
Dryers
Fire clay
Dryers
Fuller's earth
Dryers
Calciners
Gypsum
Dryers
Calciners
Kaolin
Dryers
Calciners
Magnesium compounds
Multiple hearth furnaces
Rotary calciners
Perlite
Calciners
Talc
Dryers
Calciners
Control
device
ESP
BH
BH
BH
BH
BH
BH
BH
BH
BH
BH
BH
BH
ESP, BH
ESP, BH
BH
BH
BH
Product
$/Mg
297.00
36.38
43.00
197.00
197.00
36.00
17.60
54.00
54.00
9.00
24.00
86.00
132.10
398.00
236.00
181.90
111. 20
111. 20
Value
$/ton
269.00
. 33.00
39.00
179.00
179.00
33.00
16.00
49.00
49.00
8.00
22.00
78.00
120.00
362.00
214.00
165.00
100.90
100.90
(continued)
8-31
-------
TABLE 8-6. (continued)
Industry/faci1itye
Control
device
Product Value
$7Mg
$/ton
Titanium dioxide
Flash dryer
• Fluid bed dryer
Fluid bed dryer
Rotary dryer (direct)
Rotary dryer (indirect)
Spray dryer
Rotary calciner
Vermiculite
Calciners
WS
BH
WS
BH
WS
BH
WS
BH
931.00
1,433.00
330.00
330.00
330.00
1,433.00
687.00
257.00
845.00
1,300.00
300.00
300.00
300.00
1,300.00
633.00
233.00
Particulate matter controlled by wet scrubbers is disposed as waste for
all industries except titanium dioxide. The titanium dioxide industry
recycles scrubber-controlled particulate matter from dryers and calciners
to the process. Particulate matter controlled by BH's on lightweight
aggregate calciners and perlite dryers is disposed as waste.
8-32
-------
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8-40
-------
TABLE 8-9. FIVE-YEAR PROJECION OF NATIONWIDE CAPITAL AND ANNUALIZED
CONTROL COSTS OF EACH REGULATORY ALTERNATIVE
r „ - — - — — — : — ~ -~ : : <
Industry/facility
Al umi na
Flash calciner
Rotary calciner
Ball clay
Rotary dryer (indirect)
Vibrating-grate dryer
(indirect)
Bentonite
Fluid bed dryer
Rotary dryer •
Diatomite
Flash dryer
Rotary dryer
Rotary calciner
Rotary calciner
Feldspar
Fluid bed dryer
Rotary dryer
Fire clay
Rotary dryer
Rotary dryer
Vibrating-grate dryer
Rotary calciner
Fuller's earth
Fluid be'd dryer
Rotary dryer
Rotary dryer
Rotary calciner
Gypsum
Rotary dryer
Flash calciner
Kettle calciner
Industrial sand
Fluid bed dryer
Rotary dryer
Kaolin
Rotary dryer
Spray dryer
Flash calciner
Multiple hearth furnace
Rotary calciner
Rotary calciner
Li ghtwe i ght aggregate
Rotary calciner
Rotary calciner
Magnesium compounds
Multiple hearth furnace
Rotary calciner
Typical
facility
size9
L
S
M
M
M
M
S
M
L
L
M, I
I
M
M
M
M
L
S
S
M
M
M
M
M
S
M
M, L
S
S
S
S
M
M
M, L
S, L
Pollution control equip-
ment capital cost in 1990
Control
device
ESP
ESP
BH
BH
BH, ESPC
BH
WS
BH
BH
WS
BH
WS
BH
WS
WS
WS
BH
BH
WS
BH
BH
BH
BH
WS
WS
BH
BH
BH
WS
BH
WS
BH
WS
ft
BH, ESPj
BH, ESPa
RA I,
$000
3,012
15,405
0
354
0
1,617
432
305
1,304
338
0
0
321
135
0
0
0
2,506
924
1,312
3,497
4,950
4,050
724
840
1,047
7,479
V 0
.-> 600
0
0
4,767
2,723
801
911
RA II,
$000
3,300
17,130
0
354
0
1,617
447
305
1,304
354
0
0
321
130
0
0
0
2,506
917
1,312
3,497
4,950
4,050
724
840
1,047
7,479
0
582
0
0
4,767
3,485
897
926
RA III,
$000
3,300
17,130
0
354
0
1,617
528
305
1,304
354
0
0
321
128
0
0
0
2,506
910
1,312
3,497
4,950
4,050
724
840
1,047
7,479
0
582
0
0
4,767
3,486
897
926
Pollution
control equipment
annuali zed cost in 1990
RA I,
$000
•h
-3,807°
-11,400
0
69
0
366
351
-19
-242
224
0
0
82
57
0
0
0
497
728
252
1,534
2,079
-1,539
428
304
156
216
0
576
0
0
2,730
1,603
-775
-619
RA II,
$000
-3,873
-11,610
0
74
0
411
381
-16
-226
258
0
0
87
60
0
0
0
553
749
276
1,677
2,310
-1,377
428
304
168
279
0
618
0
0
2,849
2,037
-779
-625
RA III,
$000
-3,873
-11,610
0
75
0
414
432
-15
-226
258
0
0
88
61
0
0
0
560
770
276
1,690
2,310
-1,377
428
304
168
288
0
618
0
0
2,849
2,037
-779
-625
(continued)
8-41
-------
TABLE 8-9. (continued)
Industry/facility
Perl ite
Rotary dryer
Expansion furnace
Roofing granules
Fluid bed dryer
Rotary dryer
Talc
Flash dryer
Rotary dryer
Rotary calciner
Titanium dioxide
Flash dryer
Fluid bed dryer
Fluid bed dryer
Rotary dryer (direct)
Rotary dryer (indirect)
Spray dryer
Rotary calciner
yeraicuHte
Fluid bed dryer
Rotary dryer
Expansion furnace
TOTAL6
TOTALf
Typical
facility
size
M
S
M
S, M
S
M
S
L
L
L
L
M
M
S, H
L
M
S
Pollution control equip-
Control
device
BH
BH
WS
WS
BH
BH
BH
WS
BH
WS
BH
WS
BH
WS
BH
WS
BH
ment
RA I,
$000
capital cost
RA II,
$000
618 618
2,379
0
745
2,350
0
1,428
0
0
0
275
74
1,972
676
0
139
936
67,826
63,048
2,379
0
745
2,350
0
1,428
0
0
0
275
72
1,972
676
0
139
936
69,945
65, 934
in 1990
RA III,
$000
618
2,379
0
745
2,350
0
1,428
0
0
0
275
73
1,972
676
0
138
936
70,026
66,006
Pollution
control equipment
annual i zed cost
RA I,
$000
194
455
0
455
550
0
105
0
0
0
-157
29
-10,516
-2,148
0
53
36
-19^705
-20,208
RA II,
$000
210
494
0
455
600
0
132
0
0
0
-153
15
-10,680
-2,148
0
53
45
-19,068
-19,274
in 1990
RA III,
$000
210
494
0
455
600
0
132
o
o
0
-153
15
-10,716
-2,148
(j
54
45
-19,017
-19,209
S * small, H = medium, L = large. For facilities with two typical'sizes, projections were based on a weighted
Average of the number of affected facilities projected for each typical size.
Negative values indicate that product recovery credits are greater than total annualized costs.
dThe projection was based on BH costs because BH's were more cost effective than ESP's.
Baghouses are used to control facilities processing nagnesite feed and ESP's are used to control facilities
processing Hg(OH)2 feed. Therefore, projections were based on a weighted average of the cost of BH's and ESP's
cand the number of affected facilities projected for each typical size.
Total includes diatomite rotary calciner, fire clay rotary dryer, fuller's earth rotary dryer, kaolin rotary
fcalciner, and lightweight aggregate rotary calciner BH costs and not WS costs.
Total Includes diatonite rotary calciner, fire clay rotary dryer, fuller's earth rotary dryer, kaolin rotary
calciner, and lightweight aggregate rotary calciner WS costs and not BH costs.
8-42
-------
TABLE 8-10. CAPITAL COST DATA SOURCES FOR MINERAL DRYER
AND CALCINER PROCESS UNITS
Cost item
Source
Date
Ref.
1. Process units, auxiliary
equipment and insula-
tion
Cyclones, auxiliary
equipment, and
insulation
Cost factors
EPA/OAQPS/EAB
Gypsum NSPS BID
Industry
Vendors
EPA/OAQPS/EAB
EPA/OAQPS/EAB
Dec. 1977
Nov. 1980
1983
June 1984
Dec. 1977
Dec. 1977
48
40
36-39
20-35
61
48
8-43
-------
TABLE 8-11. DRYER AND CALCINER PROCESS UNIT
CAPITAL COST FACTORS FOR NEW FACILITIES
Cost item
Cost factor
A. Direct costs
1. Purchased equipment for process unit
a. Process unit A
b. Auxiliary equipment (burner, instruments and B
controls, structural supports, taxes, and freight)
c. Total (C = A+B) C
2. Installation for process unit,
D = installation cost factor for foundation and
support, erection and handling, electrical,
piping, insulation, and painting costs
3. Purchased equipment for cyclone
a. Cyclone
b. Auxiliary equipment (ductwork and elbows,
structural supports, dust hopper, and scroll)
c. Instruments and controls
d. Taxes
e. Freight
f. Total (3c through 3e)
g. Purchased equipment cost factor, G = 1.18 (E+F)
4. Installation for cyclone
a. Foundation and supports
b. Erection and handling
c. Piping
d. Painting
e. Site preparation
f. Total (5a through 5e)
B. Indirect costs
E
F
0.10 (E+F)
0.03 (E+F)
0.05 (E+F)
0.18 (E+F)
0.04 (G)
0.14 (G)
0.02 (G)
0.01 (G)
0.05 (G)
0.26 (G)
1. Installation for process unit
2. Installation for cyclone
a. Engineering and supervision
b. Construction and field expenses
c. Construction fee
d. Contingencies
e. Total (2a through 2c)
a
0.10(G)
0.10(G)
0.10(G)
0.03(G)
0.33(G)
TOTAL CAPITAL COST FACTOR
(D)(C)+0.59(G)
Indirect installation costs of process units were included in the direct
installation cost factor for process units.
8-44
-------
TABLE 8-12. CAPITAL COSTS OF PROCESS UNITS (January 1984 Dollars)
Indus try/ faci 1 i ty
Alumina
Flash calciner
Rotary calciner
Ball clay
Rotary dryer (indirect)
Vibrating-grate dryer (indirect)
Bentonite
Fluid bed dryer
Rotary dryer
Diatomite
Flash dryer
Rotary dryer
Rotary calciner
Feldspar
Fluid bed dryer
Fluid bed dryer
Rotary dryer
Fire clay
Rotary dryer
Vibrating-grate dryer
Rotary calciner
Fuller's earth
Fluid bed dryer
Rotary dryer
Rotary calciner
Gypsum
Rotary dryer
Flash calciner
Kettle calciner
Industrial sand
Fluid bed dryer
Rotary dryer
Kaolin
Rotary dryer
Spray dryer
Spray dryer
Flash calciner
Multiple hearth furnace
Rotary calciner
Typical
facility
size9
L
S
M
M
M
M
S
M
L
M
L
L
M
M
M
L
S
M
M
M
M
M
S
M
M
L
S
S
S
Capital
cost, $000
4,023
2,105
344
895
456
368
585
201
1,498
254
351
330
327
1,511
1,825
640
177
2,024
442
1,283
864
739
440
266
686
1,128
927
430
1,251
(continued)
8-45
-------
TABLE 8-12. (continued)
Industry/faci 1 ity
Lightweight aggregate
Rotary calciner
Magnesium compounds
Multiple hearth furnace
Mg(OH)2 feed
Magnesite feed
Rotary calciner
Mg(OH)2 feed
Magnesite feed
Perlite
Rotary dryer
Expansion furnace
Roofing granules
Fluid bed dryer
Rotary dryer
Rotary dryer
Talc
Flash dryer
Rotary dryer
Rotary calciner
Titanium dioxide
Flash dryer
Fluid bed dryer
Rotary dryer (direct)
Rotary dryer (indirect)
Spray dryer
Rotary calciner
Rotary calciner
Vermiculite
Fluid bed dryer
Rotary dryer
Expansion furnace
Typical
facility
size
M
L
M
S
L
M
S
M
S
M
S
M
S
L
M
L
M
M
S
M
L
M
S
Capital
cost, $000
2,275
907
526
1,244
1,857
315
194
425
238
520
157
197
1,165
882
457
229
209
407
1,112
1,241
537
208
192
S = small, M = medium, L = large.
8-46
-------
TABLE 8-13. COMPARISON OF CAPITAL COSTS OF POLLUTION
CONTROL EQUIPMENT TO CAPITAL COSTS OF UNCONTROLLED PROCESS UNITS
(January 1984 Dollars)
Industry/facility
Alumina
Flash calciner
Rotary calciner
Ball clay
Rotary dryer (indirect)
Vibrating-grate dryer (indirect)
Bentonite
Fluid bed dryer
Fluid bed dryer
Rotary dryer
Diatomite
Flash dryer
Rotary dryer
Rotary calciner
Rotary calciner
Feldspar
Fluid bed dryer
Fluid bed dryer
Rotary dryer
Fire clay
Rotary dryer
Rotary dryer
Vibrating-grate dryer
Rotary calciner
Fuller's earth
Fluid bed dryer
Rotary dryer
Rotary dryer
Rotary calciner
Gypsum
Rotary dryer
Flash calciner
Kettle calciner
Industrial sand
Fluid bed dryer
Rotary dryer
Kaolin
Rotary dryer
Spray dryer
Spray dryer
Flash calciner
Multiple hearth furnace
Rotary calciner
Rotary calciner
Lightweight aggregate
Rotary calciner
Rotary calciner
Typical
facility
size
L
S
M
M
M
M
M
S
M
L
L
M
L
L
M
M
M
M
L
S
S
M
M
M
M
M
S
M
M
L
S
S
S
S
M
M
Control
device
ESP-
ESP
BH
BH
BH
ESP
BH
WS
BH
BH
WS
BH
BH
WS
BH
WS
WS
WS
BH
BH
WS
BH
BH
BH
BH
WS
WS
BH
BH
BH
BH
WS
BH
WS
BH
WS
Pollution control equipment cost
(percent of facility cost)
RA I
24
48
111
39
213
217
143
24
148
43
11
88
88
43
96
40
20
10
229
195
72
32
60
12
17
24
24
129
100
96
60
23
46
13
29
17
RA II
26
53
111
39
213
248
143
24
148
43
12
88
88
43
39
20
12
OOQ
229
195
71
32
60
12
17
24
24
129
100
96
60
23
46
13
29
21
RA III •
26
53
111
39
213
261
143
29
148
43
12
88
88
43
38
20
12
OOQ
zzy
195
71
32
60
12
17
oyi
i<\
24
129
100
96
60
23
46
13
29
21
8-47
-------
TABLE 8-13. (continued)
Industry/faci 1 ity
Magnesium compounds
Multiple hearth furnace
Hg(OH)? feed
Hagnesite feed
Rotary calciner
Hg(OH)? feed
Hagnesite feed
Perlite
Rotary dryer
Expansion furnace
Roofinq granules
Fluid bed dryer
Rotary dryer
Rotary dryer
Talc
FTash dryer
Rotary dryer
Rotary calciner
Titanium dioxide
Flash dryer
Fluid bed dryer
Fluid bed dryer
Rotary dryer (direct)
Rotary dryer (indirect)
Spray dryer
Rotary calciner
Rotary calciner
Vermiculite
Fluid bed dryer
Rotary dryer
Expansion furnace
Typical
facility
size
L
M
S
L
M
S
M
S
M
S
M
S
L
L
L
L
M
M
S
M
L
M
S
Control
device
ESP
BH
ESP
BH
BH
BH
WS
WS
WS
BH
BH
BH
WS
BH
WS
BH
WS
BH
WS
WS
BH
WS
BH
Pollution control equipment cost
(percent of facility cost)
RA I
89
142
54
52
190
93 .
37
59
34
145
139
41
44
119
42
118
35
119
20
32
78
66
54
RA II
105
142
60
52
190
93
37
59
34
145
139
41
51
119
47
118
34
119
20
32
78
66
54
RA III
105
142
60
52
190
93
37
59
34
145
139
41
60
119
57
118-
35
119
20
32
78
65
54
S = small, M = medium, L = large.
8-48
-------
8.6 REFERENCES FOR CHAPTER 8
1. Memo from Strait, R., MRI, to 7702-L Project File. Calculations
for BID Chapter 8. July 5, 1985.
2. Neveril, R. B., CARD, Inc. Capital and Operating Costs of Selected
Air Pollution Control Systems. Prepared for U. S. Environmental
Protection Agency. Research Triangle Park, North Carolina.
Publication No. EPA-450/5-80-002. December 1977. p. 4-61.
3. Ampian, S. G. Clays. In: Minerals Yearbook, 1981. Washington,
. D.C. U.S. Bureau of Mines, pp. 233-245.
4. Reference 3, 1982 Edition, pp. 217-241.
5. lannicelli, J. Kaolin. Engineering and Mining Journal. March 1983.
p. 118.
6. Telecon. Strait, R., MRI, with Baumgardner, L., U.S. Bureau of
Mines. June 18, 1984. Information about 1982 and 1983 prices for
calcined alumina. • •
7. Meisinger, A. C., Diatomite. Mineral Commodity Summaries. Washington,
D.C. U.S. Bureau of Mines. 1984. p. 46.
8. Potter, M. J. Feldspar. Mineral Commodity Summaries. Washington,
D.C. U.S. Bureau of Mines. 1984. p. 48.
9. Pressler, J. W. Gypsum. Mineral Commodity Summaries. Washington,
D.C. U.S. Bureau of Mines. 1984. p. 64.
10. Telecon. Strait, R., MRI, with Clifton, R., U.S. Bureau of Mines.
June 19, 1984. Information about total quantity, total value, and
average price of talc sold in 1982 and 1983.
11. Telecon. Strait, R., MRI, with Lynd, L., U.S. Bureau of Mines.
June 21, 1984. Information about total quantity, total value, and
average price of caustic calcined and refractory grade magnesium
compounds and titanium dioxide pigments sold in 1982 and 1983.
12. Telecon. Strait, R., MRI, with Meisinger, A., U.S. Bureau of
Mines. June 14 and July 23, 1984. Information about 1982 and 1983
prices for perlite and vermiculite.
13. Meisinger, A. C., Perlite. Mineral Commodity Summaries. Washington,
D.C. U.S. Bureau of Mines. 1984. p. 112.
14. Telecon. Strait, R., MRI, with Trees, W., American Cyanamid Company.
December 13, 1984. Product recovery credit estimates for wet
scrubber wastes recycled to the process.
8-49
-------
15. Telecon. Neuffer, W. J., EPA:ISB, with Werner, G. E., A. P. Green
Refractories Company. November 26, 1984. Information about
treatment of wastewater from scrubbers used to control emissions
from dryers and calciners at a fire clay plant.
16. Telecon. Neuffer, W. J., EPA:ISB, with Roberts, G. L., Dr., American
Cyanamid Company. November 27, 1984. Information about treatment
of wastewater from scrubbers used to control emissions from dryers
at a titanium dioxide plant.
17. Telecon. Neuffer, W. J., EPArlSB, with Galloway, W., Feldspar
Corp. November 29, 1984. Information about treatment of wastewater
from scrubbers used to control emissions from dryers at a feldspar
plant.
18. Telecon. Neuffer, W. J., EPArlSB, with Jain, D., C-E Minerals.
November 29, 1984. Information about treatment of wastewater from
scrubbers used to control emissions from rotary calciners at a fire
clay plant.
19. Telecon. Neuffer, W. J., EPArlSB, with Pryor, J. M., Pennsylvania
Glass Sand Corp. December 19, 1984. Information about treatment
of wastewater from scrubbers used to control emissions from dryers
at industrial sand plants.
20. Telecon. Strait, R., MRI, with Morris, R., National Industrial
Sand Association. January 7, 1985. Information about treatment of
wastewater from scrubbers used to control dryers in the industrial
sand industry.
21. Telecon. Upchurch, M., MRI, with Husick, G., Kennedy Van Saun
Corp. July 5, 1984. Cost estimates for rotary calciners.
22. Telecon. Upchurch, M., MRI, with Baran, S., Proctor and Schwartz,
Inc. July 6, 1984. Cost estimates for spray dryers.
23. Telecon. Upchurch, M., MRI, with Bevacqua, J., Wyssmont Company.
July 6, 1984. Cost estimates for multiple hearth furnaces.
24.
25.
26.
27.
Telecon. Upchurch, M., MRI, with Crawford, D., C-E Raymond Combustion
Engineering, Inc. July 6, 1984. Cost estimates for rotary calciners.
Telecon. Upchurch, M., MRI, with Lancos, S., Niro Atomizer, Inc.
July 6, 1984. Cost estimates for spray dryers.
Telecon. Upchurch, M., MRI, with Locke, M. , Strong Manufacturing
Company. July 6, 1984. Cost estimates for expansion furnaces.
Telecon. Upchurch, M., MRI, with Aiken, F., Signal Swenson Division-
Whiting Corp. July 9, 1984. Cost estimates for flash dryers.
8-50
-------
28. Telecon. Upchurch, M. , MRI, with Cosmos, M., Fuller Company.
July 9, 1984. Cost estimates for flash calciners.
29. Telecon. Upchurch, M., MRI, with Jobus, R., C-E Raymond Combustion
Engineering, Inc. July 9, 1984. Cost estimates for flash dryers.
30. Telecon. Upchurch, M., MRI, with Leichliter, J., F. L. Smidth and
Company, Inc. July 9, 1984. Cost estimates for flash calciners.
31. Telecon. Upchurch, M., MRI, with Metheny, D., Heyl and Patterson,
Inc. July 9, 1984. Cost estimates for fluid bed dryers.
32. Telecon. Upchurch, M., MRI, with Robertson, J., Louisville Drying
Machinery. July 9, 1984. Cost estimates for rotary calciners.
33. Telecon. Upchurch, M., MRI, with Witte, R. , The Witte Company.
July 9, 1984. Cost estimates for vibrating-grate dryers.
34. Telecon. Upchurch, M., MRI, with Moore, P., Jeffrey Manufacturing
Company—Division of Dresser Industries, Inc. July 10 and 12,
1984. Cost estimates for vibrating-grate dryers.
35. Telecon. Upchurch, M., MRI, with Morrison, L., Mine and Smelter
Company. July 10, 1984. Cost estimates for multiple hearth
furnaces.
36. Telecon. Upchurch, M., MRI, with Mullen, J., Dorr-Oliver, Inc.
July 10, 1984. Cost estimates for fluid bed dryers.
37. Confidential Reference 8-1.
38. Confidential Reference 8-2.
39. Confidential Reference 8-3.
40. Confidential Reference 8-4.
41. U. S. Environmental Protection Agency. Gypsum Industry—Background
Information for Proposed Standards. Research Triangle Park, North
Carolina. Publication No. EPA-450/3-81-011a. November 1981.
p. 8-24.
42. U. S. Environmental Protection Agency. Nonmetallic Mineral Processing
Plants—Background Information for Proposed Standards. Research
Triangle Park, North Carolina. Publication No. EPA-450/3-83-001a.
pp. 1-1 - 1-2.
43. U. S. Environmental Protection Agency. Metallic Mineral Processing
Plants—Background Information for Proposed Standards. Research
Triangle Park, North Carolina. Publication No. EPA-450/3-81-009a.
8-51
-------
44.
45.
46.
47.
48.
49.
50.
51.
52.
53.
54.
55.
56.
57.
58.
59.
60.
61.
Memo from Bellin, P., MRI, to Neuffer, W., EPA/ISB. Cost impacts
of requiring continuous monitoring systems to measure the opacity
of particulate emissions. September 13, 1985. 10 pp.
Reference 2, pp. 5-19 - 5-31.
Reference 2, pp. 5-9 - 5-19.
Reference 2, pp. 5-1 - 5-8.
Reference 2, pp. 4-15 - 4-28, 4-57 - 4-75, 4-52 - 4-56.
Reference 2, p. 3-11.
Reference 2, pp. B-2, B-14, B-15, B-17.
Producer Prices and Price Indexes Data for February 1984. Washington
D.C. U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics. April 1984. pp. 122, 124.
Economic Indicators. Chemical Engineering. June 11, 1984. p. 7.
Reference 2, pp. 3-17 - 3-18.
Reference 51, p. 99.
Telecon. Shular, J., MRI, with Kraft, G., American Water Works
Association. May 22, 1984. Information about nationwide residential
and commercial water rates for January 1984.
Telecon. Strait, R., MRI, with Sprinkle, D., U.S. Bureau of Labor
Statistics. May 23, 1984. Information about average hourly earnings
of employees in the mineral industries.
Employment and Earnings. Washington, D.C. U.S. Bureau of Labor
Statistics. April 1984. pp. 116, 118, 124.
Reference 2, pp. 3-12, 3-14.
Reference 2, pp. 3-12, 3-16.
Reference 2, p. 3-12.
Reference 2, pp. 3-18 - 3-19.
8-52
-------
9. ECONOMIC IMPACT
The purpose of this chapter is to describe current economic
parameters and anticipated economic effects resulting from setting a
New Source Performance Standard for each of the 17 mineral industries.
The information provided earlier in Chapter 8 (Cost of Pollution
Control) and below in Section 9.1 (Industry Economic Profile) forms the
basis for formal analyses of the economic effects of the pollution
control regulatory alternatives on the various mineral industries.
These analyses are presented in Section 9.2 and Section 9.3. The ;
references for Chapter 9 are provided in Section 9.4.
9.1 INDUSTRY ECONOMIC PROFILE
The 17 mineral industries are listed in alphabetical order in
Table 9-1. For each industry, the major product uses are listed in the
order of their importance for the industry. Note that a number of
industries share common end product uses, and thus compete with one
another in some cases. Major economic characteristics for each indus-
try such as production, imports, price, number of firms, employment,
and growth rates, are presented in summary form in Table 9-2. In Table
9-2 the six industries that are in the clay "family" are grouped
together because some economic information is only available for the
group as a whole and not for each of the six clay industries individ-
ually. A brief discussion of each industry is provided below. MDre
detailed economic profile information, such as company names, plant
locations, historical prices, and historical production, can be found
in the docket. Unless noted otherwise, tons represent short, tons
(2,000 pounds) .
9-1
-------
TABLE 9-1. MINERAL INDUSTRIES: PRODUCT USES
Mineral Industry (SIC)a
Product uses
1. Alumina (1051, 3334)
2.. Ball clay (1455)
3. Bentonite (1452)
4. Diatomite (1499)
5. Feldspar (1459)
6. Fire clay (1453)
7. Fuller's, earth (1454)
8. Gypsunr (1492, 3275)
9. Industrial sand (1446)
10. Kaolin (1455)
11. Lightweight aggregate (1499)
12. Magnesium compounds (3295)
13. Perlite (1499, 3295)
14. Roofing granules (3295)
15. Talc (1496)
16. Titanium dioxide (2816)
17. Vermiculite (1499, 3295)
Aluminum metal, abrasives, refractories,-
chemicals
Pottery, sanitary ware, tile, china/dinner
ware
Drilling mud, iron ore pelletizing, foundry
sand
Filtration media, fillers
Glassmaking, pottery, porcelain enamel
Refractories, mortars
Pet waste, oil and grease absorbents
Wallboard, building and specialty plasters
Glass, foundry sand
Paper coating, paint
Can-Crete..block,, precast and; prestressed
concrete products
Refractories, livestock feed additives,
chemicals, Pharmaceuticals, fertilizers,
construction materials, electrical heating
rods, fluxes, petroleum additives
Soil conditioners, loose-fill insulation,
construction fillers
Coated and uncoated roofing shingles
Ceramics, paint, plastics
Paint finishes, paper
Soil conditioner, lightweight concrete
aggregates, loose-fill insulation
aStandard Industrial Classification.
9-2
-------
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9.1.1 Alumina
Alumina (A1203) is a white powdery material that is chemically
extracted from bauxite. Deposits of bauxite are widespread globally,
although the major deposits are confined to a belt extending 20° north
and south of the equator.1 Over two-thirds of the world's bauxite
reserves are in four areas: Guinea (27 percent), Australia (21 percent),
Brazil (11 percent), and Jamaica (9 percent). United States bauxite
reserves are less than 0.2 percent of the world total. In 1981,
imports supplied about 90 percent of the U.S. bauxite requirements, and
36 percent of the alumina requirements.2
The main use of alumina is in the production of primary aluminum
metal.- Alumina is also used in refractories and chemicals. The
alumina products used by the refractories industry are tabular alumina,
calcined alumina, and calcium aluminate cement. In addition to these
products, other chemical products made from alumina include activated
alumina, gallium, and hydrated alumina.
The Bayer process has been the standard commercial method for
refining bauxite to alumina for the past 90 years. Although it has
been improved and modified to treat different types of bauxites, the
basic elements of the process remain unchanged. Bauxite is the only
ore used in the commercial production of alumina. Bauxite ores have an
average alumina content of 40 to 60 percent. About 2 Mg (2.2 tons) of
bauxite are required to produce 1 Mg (1.1 ton) of alumina, and almost 2
Mg (2.2 tons) of alumina are required to produce 1 Mg (1.1 ton) of
alumi num metal.
During 1982 and 1983 prices of calcined, heavy hydrated, and
granular activated alumina remained steady at $228, $203, and $352/Mg
($207, $184, and $319/short ton), respectively.3
In 1982, eight U.S. refineries processed an estimated 92 percent .
of all domestic and imported bauxite into alumina, and approximately 90
percent of the alumina was used to produce aluminum metal. Reacting to
weak markets and prices, domestic bauxite mines operated at less than
50 percent of capacity, and output declined 54 percent from the 1981
output. The market remained weak in 1983 with domestic bauxite mines
9-5
-------
and alumina plants operating at 35 to 40 percent of capacity, and mine
production declining 4 percent from the 1982 output. Production of
alumina declined significantly in 1982 compared with 1981. Annual produc-
tion of alumina averaged 6 xlO6 Mg (6.6 xlO6 tons) during the
5-year period from 1978 through 1982. Imports of alumina in 1983
increased 27 percent from the 1982 total.
Possible alternative domestic raw materials for making alumina
include clays, anorthosite, alunite, coal wastes, and oil shales.
Potential resources of aluminum in nonbauxitic materials in the United
States are abundant and could meet domestic aluminum requirements.
However, since no plants have been built to treat such materials
and optimum processes have not been determined, this technology is not
likely to appear in the short-term.
Three major companies operating six refineries control approxi-
mately 80 percent of the total alumina output. With the exception of
the Virgin Islands facility, U.S. refineries are located in Arkansas,
Louisiana, and Texas. The three dominant companies are highly inte-
grated.
The demand for primary aluminum metal in 1983 increased slightly
as the markets recovered from the low levels of 1980 through 1982.
Domestic bauxite production in 1983 was 0.66 xlO6 Mg (0.73 xlO6 tons)
and is expected to increase to 0.73 x 106 Mg (0.8 xlO6 tons)
in 1984. Apparent consumption of bauxite and alumina (in aluminum
equivalent) in 1983 is estimated at 4.2 xlO6 Mg (4.6 xlO6 tons) and
is expected to increase to 4.4 xlO6 Mg (4.8 xlO6 tons) in 1984.
From a 1981 base, apparent aluminum metal demand is projected to grow
at about 6.3 percent a year through 1990.4 However, increasing
imports in the more processed form of aluminum metal will result in a
somewhat lower annual rate of increase in demand for domestic alumina.
There are some changes in capacity that are occurring in the
alumina industry. Aluminum Company of America is currently construct-
ing a specialty alumina plant at Vidalia, Louisiana, that will produce
primarily activated alumina with some production of tabular alumina to
be used in the petrochemical industry. This plant is expected to begin
9-6
-------
operating in 1984. Reynolds Metals Company scheduled the phaseout
of the Hurricane Creek, Arkansas plant in 1984.
9.1.2 The Clay Industries
Clay is a soil material that is composed mainly of fine particles
of hydrous aluminum silicates and other minerals. The United States is
a major world producer of high-quality clays. About 99 percent of the
clay used in the U.S. comes from domestic mines, and about 7 percent of
the total U.S. production is exported. In 1983, 33 firms supplied
about one-half of the total output, and approximately 350 firms pro-
vided the remainder. Together these companies operated about 1,000
mines.
Most of the active clay mines in the United States are in Wyoming,
Texas, Missouri, and Georgia. The major producers of the individual
clays are located in the following states: ball clay in Tennessee,
bentonite in Wyoming, common clay and shale in Texas, fire clay
in Missouri, fuller's earth in Georgia and Florida, and kaolin in
Georgia.
Increases jn unit value were reported for all clays in 1982
because of increased labor, fuel, and material costs. In 1983, the
total quantity of clays sold or used by domestic producers increased
14 percent from 1982. This increase in production reverses a downward
trend that had occurred since 1978. Average annual production during
the 6-year period 1978 to 1983 was 42.4 xlO6 Mg (46.8 x!Q6 tons). It
is estimated that in 1984 domestic mine production will be 39 xlO6 Mg
(43 xlO6 tons). Most clay producers operated at 50 to 70 percent of
capacity during 1983. Imports have declined since 1979, and averaged
28,000 Mg (31,000 tons) during the 6-year period 1978 through 1983.
World and U.S. resources of commercial clays are extremely large.
For example, resources of kaolin in Georgia are estimated at between
4.5 to 9 xlO9 Mg (5 to 10 xlO9 tons). Therefore, development of
clay substitutes is not a high research priority. Clay substitutes and
alternatives, such as talc and whiting, are sometimes used for filler
and extender applications.
9-7
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Average prices for most clays are expected to rise slowly,
reflecting higher quality requirements for the specialty clays and
increasing costs associated with land acquisition, land rehabilitation,
and environmental and energy factors.
According to the U.S. Bureau of Mines, demand for individual types
of clay is expected to increase from a 1982 base at an annual rate of
2 to 4 percent through 1990.5 The growth of the energy-i'ntensive clay-
based industries could be impeded by higher energy costs and lower
construction rates. Characterization of the six specific clays inves-
tigated in this study follows.
9.1.2.1 Ball Clay. Ball clay is a fine-grained, sedimentary
clay composed primarily (>70 percent) of the clay mineral kaolinite
(Al203-2Si02'2H20). Pottery manufacture, which uses the
highest percentage of ball clay produced, consumed nearly one-fourth of
the total output. The average unit value for ball clay reported by
domestic producers rose between 1981 and 1982 to $38.13/Mg ($34.59/ton),
an increase of $1.81/Mg ($1.64/ton).6 Ball clay production declined
significantly in 1982 to 0.58 xlO6 Mg (0.64 xlO6 tons) compared
with 1981 production of 0.77 xlO6 Mg (0.85 xlO6 tons), but production
is estimated to have increased in 1983 to 0.77 xlO6 Mg (0.85 xlO6 tons).
Average annual production for the 6-year period 1978 through 1983 was
0.78 xlO6 Mg (0.86 xlO6 tons).
Ball clay exports in 1982 amounted to 0.13 xlO6 Mg (0.14 xlO6 tons)
valued at $5.2 million, compared with 0.19 xioe Mg (0.21 xlO6 tons)
worth $6.6 million in 1981. Unit value of the exports increased
15 percent to $39.42/Mg ($35.77/ton). Shipments were made to 29
countries; major recipients were Mexico (58 percent) and Canada
(31 percent).
Ball clay imports, largely from Canada and the United Kingdom,
decreased 29 percent to 6,600 Mg (7,300 tons) valued at $856,000
in 1981 to 4,700 Mg (5,200 tons) valued at $368,000 in 1982. The ball
clay industry is not highly integrated. The industry mines, processes,
and packages the material but has no involvement with final product
applications.
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The demand for ball clay is projected to keep pace with that
expected for the clay industry in general, that is, to grow from a 1982
base by an annual average rate of 2 to 4 percent through 1990. Any
industry growth that occurs is expected to take place in Tennessee or
Kentucky. Increased production capacities, modernization, and/or
construction of new plants slowed during 1982. Adequate reserves and
present process technology ensure that domestic production can meet
future increases in demand.
9.1.2.2 Bentonite. Bentonite is a clay consisting essentially
of smectite minerals of the montmorillonite group. Bentonite can be
classified according to its swelling capacities when wet. Bentonite
with sodium as the dominant or the abundant exchangeable ion typically
has very high-swelling capacities and forms gel-like masses when wet.
Calcium is more abundant than other ions in the low-swelling bentonite
that swells little more than common clay. The major use of bentonite
is for drilling mud.
Average annual production of bentonite during the 6-year period
from 1978 through 1983 was 3.6 xlO6 Mg (4 xlO6 tons). Production
has generally declined during this period. Bentonite production in the
U.S. for 1982 decreased 34 percent in tonnage and 31 percent in value
compared to 1981. Bentonite was exported to 71 countries in 1982. The
major recipients were Canada (34 percent), Japan (12 percent), Singapore
(7 percent), and Saudi Arabia and the Netherlands (6 percent each).
Bentonite exports decreased from 0.78 xlO6 Mg (0.86 xlO6 tons) in
1981 to 0.61 xlO6 Mg (0.67 xlO6 tons) in 1982, a 22 percent
decline; total value of exports decreased from $64.5 million in 1981 to
$54.7 million in 1982. The unit value of exported bentonite increased
from $82.50/Mg ($74.83/ton) in 1981 to $90.26/Mg ($81.91/ton) in 1982.
This increase in unit value was attributed to a larger percentage of
the higher cost drilling muds and foundry sand grades being shipped.
Domestic bentonite producers in 1982 faced increased competition in
foreign markets.
Bentonite imports in 1982 (98 percent chemically activated
material) totaled 6,600 Mg (7,000 tons) valued at $2.8 million, com-
9-9
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pared with 9,100 Mg (10,000 tons) valued at $4.8 million in 1981. The
chemically activated bentonite was imported from five countries.
The average price of bentonite in 1982 was $42.64/Mg ($38.69/ton) .7
Prices increased in 1982 compared to 1981. The average value of
bentonite sold or used by producers increased 5 percent in 1982 compared
with 1981. The bentonite industry does not have a high degree of
vertical integration. Although the industry does mine, process, and
package the bentonite product, it has little involvement with final
product application in terms of drilling operations.
During 1982, all the major western and southern bentonite producers
either cancelled or deferred ongoing expansions or modernizations.
This situation was caused by the significant decline in oil-and gas-
well drilling activities at mid-year, compounded by the continued
depression in the steel and foundry industries.
The demand for bentonite is projected to increase from a 1982 base
at an annual rate of 2 to 4 percent through 1990. With successful
conversion to coal from oil and gas firing in dryers, the industry was
continuing to explore the practicality of augmenting coal with wood
chips as a fuel. Producers of low-swelling bentonite, as well as
producers of high-swelling bentonite, prefer rotary dryers to fluid bed
dryers and would use them to replace existing units.
9.1.2.3 Fire Clay. Fire clay is detrital material containing
low percentages of iron oxide, lime, magnesia, and alkalies to enable
the material to withstand temperatures of 1500°C (2700°F) or higher.
Clays that are commonly called fire clay, and are generally used as
refractories, are the flints, plastics, and bauxites.
Annual production of fire clay averaged 1.9 xlO6 Mg (2 xlO6 tons)
during the 6-year period from 1978 through 1983 with an overall down-
ward trend. The industry is dependent to a significant degree on
basic manufacturing industries such as steel and aluminum. The reported
average unit value for fire clay produced in the United States increased
from $17.84/Mg ($16.18/ton) in 1981 to $18.70/Mg ($16.97/ton) in
1982.8
9-10
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Fire clay was exported to 31 countries in 1982. Japan received
28 percent, while Mexico, Belgium, the Federal Republic of Germany, and
Canada received 18 percent, 16 percent, 13 percent and 11 percent,
respectively. Exports of fire clay decreased 38 percent in 1982 to
0.16 xlO6 Mg (0.18 xlO6 tons) valued at $13.6 million, compared
to 0.26 xlO6 Mg (0.29 x!Q6 tons) valued at $19.3 million in 1981.
The price of exported fire clay increased 14 percent to $83.31/Mg
($75.56/ton), indicating a larger percentage of higher quality material
shipped.
No imports of fire clay were reported in 1982. Domestic fire
clay production was reported in 1982 from mines in 17 States. In order
of decreasing volume, Missouri, Ohio, Pennsylvania, West Virginia, and
Alabama accounted for 88 percent of the total domestic output.
Most fire clay companies are highly integrated operations capable
of mining, processing, bagging, and shipping the finished product.
Most companies dry the raw material, process it into firebrick and
other refractory shapes, and calcine the bricks/shapes prior to shipping,
Specialty refractory products include gunning, ramming, or
plastic mixes, granular materials, hydraulic-setting castables, and
mortars. These products are generally made from the same raw materials
as their brick counterparts. According to the U.S. Bureau of Mines,
the demand for fire clay is expected to increase from a 1982 base at an
annual rate of 2 to 4 percent through 1990.
9.1.2.4 Fuller's Earth. Fuller's earth is a nonplastic clay or
clay! ike material, usually high in magnesia, that has specialized
decolorizing and purifying properties. Major uses of fuller's earth
include pet waste absorbent, medical, pharmaceutical, and cosmetic
applications.
Production of fuller's earth has remained relatively constant
over the 6-year period 1978 to 1983, averaging 1.5 xlO& Mg (1.6
xlO6 tons) per year. Production in 1982 increased in quantity and
value from 1981 levels.
The two major types of fuller's earth produced are attapulgite and
montmorillonite. Prices for attapulgite reported by producers in 1982
9-11
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ranged from $54.55 to $77.02/Mg ($49.50 to $69.89/ton); montmorillonite
prices ranged from $11.02 to $68.65/Mg ($10.00 to $62.30/ton).9
In 1982, fuller's earth was exported to 42 countries; exports
decreased 16 percent from 0.10 xlO6 Mg (0.11 xlO6 tons) in 1981 to
0.08 xlO6 Mg (0.09 xlO<5 tons) in 1982. The unit value of exported
fuller's earth decreased 2 percent to $102.16/Mg ($92.68/ton). The
major recipients were: Canada (63 percent), the Netherlands (16
percent), the United Kingdom (6 percent,; and other countries (15
percent). Imports of fuller's earth declined from 196 Mg (216 tons)
valued at $55,000 in 1981 to 36 Mg (40 tons) valued at $8,000 in
1982.
Capacity utilization of fuller's earth processing plants in 1982
was approximately 85 percent. Most companies/plants are highly inte-
grated operations. The majority of the facilities have the capability
to produce the products in their end-use state, i.e., adsorbents,
drilling mud, etc. From a 1982 base, demand for fuller's earth is
projected to increase at an annual rate of 2 to 4 percent through
1990.
9.1.2.5 Kaolin. Kaolin consists essentially of the mineral
kaolinite, which is a hydrated aluminum silicate (Al203-2Si02-2H20).
Two basically different processes, a dry process and a wet process, are
used to produce a kaolin product. The dry process is simple and yields
a lower cost and lower quality product than the wet process. The
dry process accounts for 20 percent of total production, and the wet
process accounts for 70 percent of total production. The remaining 10
percent is not processed in a dryer or calciner. It is estimated that
60 to 65 percent of the industry uses spray dryers. The remaining 35
to 40 percent that use the air-floated dry process utilize rotary and
other types of dryers.
The major use of kaolin is for paper coating applications, utiliz-
ing nearly one-half of the total output. The production and value
of calcined kaolin sold or used by U.S. producers reached a low point
due to.the recession of 1982 but improved in 1983. Annual kaolin
production averaged 6.6 xlO6 Mg (7.2 xlO6 tons) during the 6-year
9-12
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period from 1978 through 1983. Recovery in the automotive and housing
industry helped to boost kaolin sales in the last half of 1983 but the
main source of improvement came from the paper industry. No signifi-
cant new expansions were initiated in 1983. Capital investment was
concentrated in streamlining existing operations, rather than in
building new plants.
The average price in 1983 was $87.91/Mg ($79.76/ton), up slightly
from the 1982 price of $85.33/Mg ($77.42/ton).
Exports of kaolin, as reported by the U.S. Department of Commerce,
decreased 8 percent in 1982 to 1.18 xlQ6 Mg (1.30 x!06 tons) valued
at $147 million, compared to a value of $156 million in 1981. Kaolin,
including calcined, material was exported to 68 countries. The major
recipients were Japan (34 percent), Canada (15 percent), the Netherlands
(14 percent), Italy (8 percent), and Mexico (5 percent).
Imports of kaolin decreased 31 percent in 1982 to 8,500 Mg (9,400 tons)
valued at $800,000. The United Kingdom supplied about 94 percent and
Canada supplied about 6 percent. The demand for kaolin is expected to
increase from a 1982 base at an annual rate of 2 to 4 percent thrqugh •
1990. ! \ !
9.1.2.6 Lightweight Aggregate. Lightweight aggregate (LWA) is
produced by sintering either flyash or claylike materials (i.e., clay,
shale, or slate) to produce an expanded and relatively low-density :
product. Lightweight aggregate is used in concrete in place of sand,
gravel, or stone. Other uses are roofing granules, acoustical plaster,
insulating fills, and landscaping materials. Substitutes for the
more common raw materials (clay, shale, and slate) in the production of
LWA are perlite, vermiculite, natural pumice, and blast furnace slag.
Average annual production of lightweight aggregate during the
6-year period 1978 through 1983 was 4.6 xlO6 Mg (5.0 xlO6 tons). Dur-
ing this time production generally declined. Domestic production of
LWA decreased 18 percent in 1982 to 3.6 xlO6 Mg (4.0 x!Q6 tons) valued
at $25 million, compared with 4.4 xlO6 Mg (4.9 xlO^ tons) valued at $31
million in 1981. 10 -
9-13
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There is no import or export of LWA because of the high transpor-
tation cost. Neither the raw materials nor the products can be shipped
profitably beyond approximately a 485-km (300-mile) radius of a plant.
Also, most countries have local deposits of clays and/or shales that
are adequate for manufacturing structural clay products, cement clinker,
and LWA, and thus they have no need to import such materials.
A typical LWA production facility obtains raw material from
mining/quarrying sites located near the plant. The LWA produced is
sold to companies that further process the aggregate into other products,
therefore most plants are not vertically integrated operations. Only
one company (Solite Corporation) is known to use its aggregate in the
production of end products. Other companies may do so to a lesser
extent.
In 1978, the predominant end use of LWA according to the U.S.
Bureau of Mines was concrete block products, utilizing over 60 percent
of LWA production. The next major use was in structural concrete,
followed by highway surfacing.
The LWA industry faces varying degrees of competition from several
substitutes, including construction sand and gravel, crushed stone,
pumice, and to a lesser degree perlite and vermiculite. Some of these
are closer substitutes than others, depending on the end product
application. Thus, LWA, crushed stone, pumice, perlite and the others
are not perfect substitutes competing "head-to-head" with each other in
every application. But, to varying degrees, there are substitutes
available for LWA, and these must be considered in any economic analy-
sis. For example, in end uses where weight savings are important, such
as in bridge deckings and high-rise buildings, lightweight aggregate
has a significant competitve advantage.
Capacity expansions at existing plants, construction of new
plants and merger activity all slowed during 1982. The construction
industry, which is the largest consumer of heavy clay products, has
experienced a slow rebound in growth in recent years.
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The demand for LWA products is tied directly to the availability
and cost of transportation and raw materials connected with the build-
ing and construction industries. The fluctuations in these industries,
together with the availability of substitute products, makes it diffi-
cult to forecast growth in the LWA industry.
9.1.3 Diatomite
The major processed diatomite products are powders and aggre-
gates of variable sizes and grades that are uncalcined (natural),
straight-calcined, or flux-calcined. All domestic commercial diatomite
originates in the Western States, but the major markets are in the
East. Because the majority of diatomite powders are packaged in 23-kg
(50-lb) bags, transportation costs are a substantial portion of the
total cost.
The United States is the world's largest diatomite producer,
followed by the U.S.S.R. and France.11 Total value of sales declined
in 1982 to $108 million, compared with $113 million in 1981. However,
production increased in 1983 to 0.57 xlO6 Mg (0.63 xlO6 tons),
compared to 0.56 xlO6 Mg (0.61 xlO6 tons) in 1982. Average annual
production during the 6-year period from 1978 through 1983 was 0.60
xlO6 Mg (0.66 xlO6 tons). Prices increased during this period,
reaching $215/Mg ($195/ton) in 1983.12
Principal uses of diatomite have not changed over the years with
the majority (68 percent) used in filtration media, and the remaining
32 percent used in industrial fillers, insulation, and other uses.
Exports of diatomite reached a peak in 1980, and declined in 1981
and 1982. In 1982, exports declined 13 percent to 0.13 xlO6 Mg
(0.14 xlO6 tons), compared with 0.15 xlO6 Mg (0.16 xlO6 tons) in
1981. The quantity of diatomite exported in 1982 represented 23
percent of U.S. production, which has changed very little in recent
years. Exports increased slightly in 1983 to 0.13 xlO6 Mg
(0.15 xlO6 tons). Imports of diatomite, which are relatively small,
declined in 1982 to 229 Mg (252 tons), compared with 349 Mg (385 tons)
in 1981.
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Many alternate materials can be substituted for diatomite;
however, the unique properties of diatomite ensure a continuing accep-
tance for many applications. Expanded perlite, asbestos, and silica
sand compete for filtration purposes, although in most instances
diatomite is a superior material. Alternate filler materials include
talc, ground silica sand, ground mica, clay, perlite, vermiculite, and
ground limestone. For thermal insulation, materials such as brick,
clay, asbestos, mineral wool, expanded perlite, and exfoliated ver-
miculite can be used. World resources of crude diatomite are adequate
for the foreseeable future.
During 1983, seven companies operating nine processing facilities
produced diatomite. California was the principal producing State.
The diatomite industry does not have a high degree of vertical integra-
tion. Although the industry does mine, process, and package the
material, it has no involvement with final product applications.
From a 1982 base, demand for diatomite is expected to increase at
an annual rate of about 2 percent through 1990.13 Industry growth is
expected to take place primarily in California and Nevada.
9.1.4 Feldspar
Feldspar flotation concentrates can be classified as either soda,
potash, or "mixed" feldspar, depending on the relative amounts of
sodium oxide (Na20) and potassium oxide (KgO) present. Feldspar-
silica mixtures (sandspar) can either be a naturally occurring material,
such as sand deposits, or a processed mixture obtained from flotation.
Feldspar production declined between 1979 and 1982, but is esti-
mated to increase slightly in 1983. Average annual production during
the 6-year period from 1978 through 1983 was 0.63 xlO6 Mg (0.69 xlO6
tons). The average price for feldspar in 1983 was $36/Mg ($33/ton) .i1*
In 1982, U.S. exports classified as feldspar, leucite, and
nepheline syenite decreased 23 percent to approximately 9,800 Mg
(10,800 tons) valued at $989,000, compared with 12,700 Mg (14,000 tons)
valued at $1,110",000 in 1981. It is estimated that exports declined
again in 1983. Chief recipients of the exported material were Mexico
(41 percent), Canada (21 percent), the Dominican Republic (8 percent),
9-16
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and Venezuela (8 percent).15 The remaining 22 percent was shared
among 17 other countries.
Most feldspar is ground and sized by the feldspar producers,
although some manufacturers of pottery, soaps, and enamels purchase
feldspar for grinding to preferred specifications in their own mills.
A substantial portion of the material classified as feldspar-silica
mixtures is used in glassmaking without additional processing after it
is mined.
It was estimated that in 1983 the end-use distribution of domestic
feldspar was: glassmaking (55 percent), pottery (41 percent), and
porcelain enamel and miscellaneous applications (4 percent). Imported
nepneline syenite is the major alternative material in the glass making
process. However, imports of nepheline syenite declined 8 percent from
1981 to 1982. Feldspar can also be replaced in some of its end uses by
feldspar-silica mixtures, clays, talc, pyrophyllite, spodumene, or
electric-furnace slag. It is estimated that resources of feldspar are
immense, although not always conveniently accessible from the principal
centers of consumption.
Feldspar is mined in six States with North Carolina, Connecticut,
and Georgia providing 90 percent of the 1983 output. The other produc-
ing states are California, Oklahoma, and South Dakota. In 1982, 11 U.S.
companies operating 16 mines and 12 plants produced feldspar. Most
companies operate mining, processing, and packaging facilities.
However, there is no integration between feldspar producers and the
commercial application for their product.
From a 1981 base, demand for feldspar is expected to increase at
an annual rate of about 2 percent through 1990.16 An increase in hous-
ing construction in 1983 resulted in improved markets for some end use
markets for feldspar. However, competition from plastic bottles kept
the output of glass containers level. One possible area for growth
lies in the ceramic tile market because the United States is considered
the world's largest undeveloped ceramic tile market. It is estimated
that in 1984 domestic mine production of feldspar will be 0.65 xlO6 Mg
(0.72 xlO6 tons) and U.S. apparent consumption will be 0.64 xlO6 Mg
(0.71 xlO6 tons).
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9.1.5 Gypsum
The gypsum industry processes mined gypsum ore into various
finished materials such as cement retarder, agricultural fertilizer
(land plaster), industrial and building plasters, gypsum wall board, and
various specialty plasters. Calcined gypsum, referred to by the trade
term stucco, can be mixed with water and other additives and formed
into wall board, or mixed with various retarders or accelerators and
sold as plaster. Gypsum used as a retarder in portland cement manu-
facture or as an agricultural fertilizer is not calcined but is up-
graded from raw ore by crushing, screening, and, in the case of agri-
cultural fertilizer, grinding and drying.
The United States is the world's leading producer of gypsum,
accounting for 13 percent of the total world output.17 In 1983 the
gypsum industry recovered from its depressed level in 1982 with an
increase in output of crude gypsum of 16 percent, resulting in
11.1 xlO6 Mg (12.2 xlO5 tons) of crude gypsum valued at $110 million.
Average annual production of crude gypsum during the 6-year period from
1978 through 1983 was 11.6 xlO6 Mg (12.7 xlO* tons). Calcined gyp-
sum production also increased in 1983 to 12.1 xlO6 Mg (13.4 xlO6 tons)
representing a 19 percent increase over 1982.
In 1983 the available capacity of operating gypsum wallboard plants
increased to 1.8 x!09m2 (19.5 xlO9 ft2) per year. Sales of
gypsum wallboard products were 1.54 xlO9 m2 (16.6 xlO9 ft2) an
increase of 27 percent compared with 1982, representing a capacity
utilization of 85 percent.18 One existing plant was dismantled in
1983, one new plant came onstream, and two other plants remained
dormant.
About 80 percent of all gypsum is calcined. Most of the gypsum
that is calcined is used in the production of wallboard. With housing
starts showing a dramatic improvement in 1983, calcined gypsum consump-
tion increased significantly and posted a 28 percent increase during
the first 10 months of 1983. Calcined gypsum is also used as a base
for building and industrial plasters, but demand in this sector re-
mained essentially unchanged. The remaining 20 percent of the gypsum
9-18
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market is uncalcined gypsum, used in the cement industry, as a soil
additive in agriculture, and as an inert filler. During the first
10 months of 1983 usage of uncalcined gypsum trailed 1982 by 9 percent,
with only the filler segment of the market showing any gain.
Exports are an insignificant part of the gypsum industry.
Imports of crude gypsum represent approximately 40 percent of the crude
gypsum consumed. Imports increased 24 percent in 1983 compared with
1982. Average annual imports during 1978 through 1983 were 7 xlO6 Mg
(7.7 xlO6 tons). Most of the imports are from Canada (representing
68 percent of the tonnage), from Mexico (20 percent) and from Spain
(12 percent).
In 1983 the total supply of crude gypsum, was 19.0 xlO6 Mg
(20.9 xlO6 tons), of which 15.1 xlO6 Mg (16.6 xlO6 tons) was
calcined for gypsum products, and the remaining 3.9 xlO6 Mg
(4.3 xlO6 tons) was used mainly as cement retarder or as agricul-
tural land plaster. The calcined gypsum was sold as prefabricated
products or as industrial or building plaster.
Other construction materials may be substituted for gypsum,
especially lime, lumber, cement, steel, or masonry. However, there is
no practical substitute for gypsum in portland cement. By-product
gypsum is presently substituting for crude gypsum in special agricul-
tural applications and may, in time, be utilized in place of crude
gypsum for cement set-retarding and manufacturing wall board.
Domestic resources are adequate but are unevenly distributed.
There are no gypsum deposits on the Eastern seaboard of the United
States, and large imports from Canada augment the domestic supply of
crude ore in these industrial demand areas. Large deposits occur in
the Great Lakes region, Mid-continent region, California, and in other
States. Foreign resources are adequate but are not evenly distributed.
The outlook for gypsum is tied to the housing industry. It is
expected that housing starts will be sufficient to maintain operating
capacity for calcined gypsum. In terms of other markets, it is antici-
pated that both the cement and agricultural markets will experience
increases in demand.
9-19
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From a 1981 base, demand for gypsum is expected to increase at an
annual rate of about 3.3 percent through 1990.19 It is estimated that
in 1984 domestic mine production of gypsum will be 11.4 xlO6 Mg
(12.6 xlQS tons) and U.S. apparent consumption will be 19 xlO6 Mg
(21 xlO6 tons).
9.1.6 Industrial Sand
Industrial sand is naturally occurring unconsolidated or poorly
consolidated rock particles that pass through a 4.8 mm sieve (No. 4 mesh)
and are retained on a 74 vm sieve (No. 200 mesh). Industrial
sands are often called silica sands and are primarily composed of the
mineral quartz (Si02). The quartz content is typically greater than
95 percent, with some ores containing more than 99 percent. Deposits
of quartz-rich sand and sandstones, from which most of the industrial
sand is derived, are found throughout the United States, but primarily
in the East and Midwest and in California and Nevada.
Dryers reduce the moisture content of the sand from about 4 to 9
percent down to about 0 to 0.5 percent. The majority of dryers used
in the industry are either rotary or fluid bed. Selection of industrial
sand dryers in the future, i.e., rotary versus fluid bed, will be
determined by both energy costs and cooler requirements.
The total U.S. sand and gravel industry is divided into two parts,
construction sand and gravel, and industrial sand and gravel. By
production volume, the industrial sand and gravel industry represents
only a small part, about 4 to 5 percent, of the total sand and gravel
industry. Product utilization of industrial sand produced or sold in
1983 was: glassmaking (43 percent), foundry sand (25 percent), abrasive
sand (10 percent), hydraulic fracturing sand (6 percent), and other
uses (16 percent).
Most-of the glass sand produced in 1982 was consumed in the South
(33 percent) and the North Central States (32 percent), while most of
the foundry sand was used in the North Central States (69 percent), and
a significantly smaller amount was used in the South (22 percent). Of
the other end uses, most of the abrasive sand was used in the South
(77 percent), and most of the hydraulic fracturing sand was used in the
South (53 percent) and the North Central States (41 percent).
9-20
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The average price of industrial sand in 1983 was $13.17/Mg
($11.95/ton).20 There was virtually no change in price from 1982 to
1983. The highest price sand in 1982 was industrial sand used as
fillers, followed by fiberglass sand, and hydraulic fracturing sand.
Exports of industrial sand decreased 28 percent in 1982 to
742,000 Mg (818,000 tons) valued at $26.3 million of which 71 percent
went to Canada and 20 percent went to Mexico.21 Only minor quanti-
ties of industrial sand are imported. Although imports increased
dramatically in percentage terms in 1982 (with most of the imports
coming from Australia), the total quantity remained insignificant
relative to domestic production and imports declined in 1983.
Of the total industrial sand and gravel produced in 1982, 68
percent was transported by truck from the plant or pit to the site of
the first point of sale or use, 29 percent was transported by rail, arid
3 percent by waterway. Because most of the producers have not kept
records nor reported data regarding the distance which industrial
sand was shipped, or the cost per ton-mile of the shipments, such
information is not available.
Silica sand is the major material used for glassmaking and for
foundry and molding sands; alternative raw materials for these uses are
zircon, olivine, staurolite, and chromite sands.
" Sand and gravel resources of the world are large. However, due
to geographic distribution, environmental restrictions, and quality
requirements for some uses, extraction is sometimes uneconomic. The
most important commercial sources of sand and gravel have been river
flood plains, river channels, and glacial deposits. Marine deposits
could become important in the future. Quartz-rich sand and sandstones,
the main source of industrial silica sand, occur throughout the world.
In 1982 the North Central States led the nation in the production
of industrial sand and gravel with 38 percent of the total, followed by
the South with 36 percent, the West with 14 percent, and the Northeast
with 12 percent. A comparison between 1981 and 1982 shows the produc-
tion in the North Central area declined in 1982 by 14 percent with the
South and the West showing an increase in production.
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The large plants produce a disproportionately large share of
the total production for the industry. The largest number of operations
producing industrial sand and gravel are smaller than 0.27 xlO6 Mg/yr~
(0.30 xlO6 tons/yr). However, most of the total production came from
operations larger than 0.27 xlO6 Mg/yr (0.30 xlO6 tons/yr);
50 operations, representing only 26 percent of the total number of
operations, produced 73 percent of the total tonnage.
In 1983, the five leading States in the production of industrial
sand were Illinois, Michigan, Texas, California, and New Jersey.
Combined production from these five States made up about 51 percent of
the national total.
Most industrial sand plants consist of mining, processing, and
packaging operations. However, there is no vertical integration
between industrial sand producers and the commercial application of the
product.
It was estimated that 1984 production and apparent consumption
was 27 x 106 Mg (30 x 1L)6 tons). From a 197y base> ^^ ^
industrial sand and yravel is expected to increase at an annual rate
of l.b percent through 1990.22
9.1.7 Magnesium Compounds
The United States is a major world producer of magnesium compounds.
Natural brine solutions, such as sea, lake, and wellwaters are the
primary source of domestically produced magnesium compounds. Magnesium
compounds are also produced from natural magnesite in Nevada. The
magnesium compounds produced are mainly magnesia, magnesium hydroxide,
magnesium sulfate, and precipitated magnesium carbonate. Only magnesia
producing plants use dryers and calciners, and, therefore, this study
is concentrated only on magnesia producing plants. However, in some
cases data are only available for magnesium compounds as a group.
Domestic production of caustic-calcined and other magnesias fell
in 1982 to 0.51 xlO6 Mg (0.56 x!Q6 tons) compared with 0.69 xlO6 Mg
(0.76 xlO5 tons) in 1981. It is estimated that production also
declined slightly in 1983. Average annual production during the 6-year
period 1978 through 1983 was 0.70 xlO6 Mg (0.77 xlQ6 tons). The major
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portion of magnesium compounds was used in the production of basic
refractories, which are used in high temperature metallurgical furnaces
for making iron and steel. The remainder was used to prepare caustic-
calcined, specified magnesias, and other magnesium compounds which are
used for animal feeds, construction materials, fluxes and other uses.
United States exports of crude and processed magnesium compounds
declined significantly in 1982 compared with 1981. Exports are esti-
mated to remain approximately the same in 1983.
Total imports of crude and processed magnesite declined signifi-
cantly in 1982 compared with 1981f Additional magnesium compounds
valued at almost $8 million were also imported. Imports rose in 1983.
Annual imports averaged 47,000 Mg (52,000 tons) during the 6-year
period 1978 through 1983.
Alumina and silica can be substituted for magnesia in refractor-
ies, the size of the resources from which magnesium compounds may be
recovered range from large, to virtually unlimited, and are globally
widespread. Identified world resources of magnesite total 11 xlO^ Mg
(12 xlO9 tons), and resources of brucite total several million tons.
Resources of dolomite, forsterite, and magnesium-bearing evaporite
minerals are enormous: magnesia-bearing brines are estimated to
constitute a resource in billions of megagrams, and magnesium hydroxide
can be recovered from seawater at places along world coastlines where
salinity is highest.
Three companies accounted for almost 80 percent of the magnesia
production.23 Estimates are that in 1983 the magnesium compounds
industry operated at almost three-fifths of capacity. Some companies
are highly integrated and include operations from raw material produc-
tion through processing and packaging. Some companies buy magnesium
hydroxide slurry for production of magnesia. Most companies sell their
magnesia, while a few companies use it internally for production of
chemicals or refractories.
It is estimated that in 1984 domestic magnesium compound production
from all sources will be 0.51 xlO6 Mg (0.56 xlO6 tons) and U.S.
apparent consumption will be 0.52 xlO6 Mg (0.58 xlO6 tons). From a
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1978 base, demand for nonmetallie-magnesium is expected to increase at
an annual rate of about 1.8 percent through 1990.2lf
9.1.8 Perlite
Perlite is a glassy volcanic rock with an "onion skin" fracture.
It is characterized by an expansion of up to 20 times its original
volume when heated. Both perlite ore (crude perlite) and the expanded
product (expanded perlite) are typically referred to by the collective
term "perlite." Crude perlite containing approximately 10 percent
moisture is dried in a rotary dryer. All perlite that is mined must be
dried before further processing., Approximately 80 percent of the
dried perlite is expanded.
The United States is the world's largest producer and consumer
of perlite. Production has been declining since 1979 with output
during the 5-year period 1978 through 1982 averaging 0.54 xlO6 Mg
(0.59 xlO6 tons).
Expanded perlite has a variety of industrial and construction
uses. Uses related to the construction industry, particularly formed
products, account for 65 percent of total usage. The remaining uses
are for filter aids and horticultural products.
Alternate materials that compete with perlite in the various use
categories include vermiculite, expanded clay, shale and slag, volcanic
cinders, formed concrete, mineral wood, diatomite, asbestos, and
plastic foams. The domestic resources of perlite can be estimated
conservatively at 635 xlO6 Mg (700 xlO6 tons). According to the
U.S. Bureau of Mines, available information from other perlite-producing
countries is insufficient to permit a reliable estimate of foreign
resources.
In 1983, 12 companies produced crude ore from 14 mines. Five
companies supplied 88 percent of total production. Crude ore was
produced in seven Western States. New Mexico continued to be the major
producing State, accounting for 79 percent of the crude ore mined in
the U.S. Processed perlite was expanded by 42 companies at 70 plants.25
The expansion plants are located in 32 states, and are therefore more
widely dispersed than the crude ore plants.
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The supply of perlite from domestic reserves is expected to ade-
quately meet future requirements. It is estimated that in 1984 domestic
production of processed perlite will be 0.48 xlO6 Mg (0.53 xlO6 tons)
and apparent consumption will be 0.47 xlO6 Mg (0.52 xlO6 tons).
From a 1982 base, demand for perlite is expected to increase at
an annual rate of about 3 percent through 1990. 26
Industry growth in crude perlite production is expected primarily
in Western States. Rotary dryers are the only type utilized for
perlite drying, and any future growth is expected to be in rotary
units. Both stationary vertical and horizontal rotary perlite expansion
furnaces are in use at this time; however, the trend in the industry is
toward the more fuel-efficient vertical units.
No significant changes are currently projected for supply-demand
relationships within the perlite industry in the United States. One
factor that could affect the domestic perlite industry is the cost of
transporting perlite ore from the Western United States, where it is
mined, to the Eastern seaboard, where large markets presently exist.
If future transportation costs from foreign producers become less than
shipping costs from New Mexico to the Eastern States, then perlite
imports in that region are a real possibility.
9.1.9 Roofing Granules
Roofing granules are dried particles of rock or fired clay that
are used as surfacing agents for asphalt roofing and shingles. The
granules are usually coated with pigments and other materials and dried
before being applied to the roofing. Uncoated roofing granules typi-
cally represent about 25 percent of the total annual roofing granules
production.
Annual production, which had declined since 1978, averaged 4.7
xlO6 Mg (5.2 xlO6 tons), during the 4-year period from 1978 through 1981.
Roofing granules are shipped by rail in covered hoppers or boxcars to
asphalt roofing plants. Various colored roofing granules sell at
different prices because of the varying costs of pigments and processing,
9-25
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Two leading companies control approximately 60 percent of total
roofing granules output. There are 16 plants located primarily in
Arkansas, Wisconsin, and California. There are no by-products from
roofing granule manufacture. All granules produced, coated or uncoated,
are dried and sized before sale.
The demand for roofing granules is a function of the demand for
asphalt roofing in housing construction. During the past 10 years, the
compound annual growth rate for asphalt roofing was 2.5 percent. The
growth rate projection for the next 5 years is 1.5 to 2 percent. Also, *
the Bureau of Mines projects a 2 percent annual growth rate to 1990
from a 1979 base for the crushed stone industry.
Ore capacity is not expected to increase. Present ore capacity
is sufficient to meet the demand of roofing manufacturers. However,
there has been some mention by one of the leading manufacturers
about a new granule production facility in the Southeastern United
States.
9.1.10 Talc
Grades of talc are most frequently identified with the end use,
such as ceramics, paints, roofing, insecticides, and paper. The
important properties include softness and smoothness, color, luster,
high slip tendency, moisture content, oil and grease absorption,
chemical inertness, fusion point, heat and electrical conductivity, and
high dielectrical strength.
The United States is currently the world's largest producer of
talc minerals.27 Pyrophyllite is not chemically related to talc but
has similar physical properties, which is the reason it is included
with talc data. Production declined in 1983 to 0.94 xlO6 Mg
(1.0 xlO6 tons) compared with the 1982 level of 1 xlO6 Mg
(1.1 xlO6 tons). Average annual production during the 6-year period
1978 through 1983 was 1.1 xlO6 Mg (1.3 xlO6 tons).
United States exports of talc minerals had shown cyclical growth
in earlier years but the tonnage exported in 1983 was the same as that
in 1982, and the lowest since 1976. Mexico is the major importer of
U.S. talc, accounting for 44 percent of the export tonnage in 1982,
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followed by Canada with 27 percent. Imports of talc, which are rela-
tively small, decreased in 1983 compared with 1982. Most imported talc
is from Italy and Canada.
Prices for crude or ground talc and pyrophyllite vary depending
on the quality and method of processing. There are also regional price
differences as evident by the price for 98% through 44 \sn (325-mesh)
(December 1982) as follows: Vermont, $71/Mg ($64/ton); New York
$81 to $83/Mg ($73 to $75/ton); and Georgia, $44/Mg ($40/ton).28
The talc group is among the most versatile of the inorganic
substances available to industry. Ground talc is used mainly in
ceramics as well as in paints, roofing, paper, plastics, cosmetics, and
rubber. Ground pyrophyllite is used in refractories, ceramics, insec-
ticides and roofing.
In the ceramics market, talc and pyrophyllite compete with each
other as well as with kaolin, fuller's earth, other inorganic fillers,
and feldspar. Talc, mica, and other minerals compete for plastic
(especially polypropylene) filling and reinforcing roles.
The United States is self-sufficient in its supplies of most
grades of talc and related minerals. Domestic and world resources are
estimated to be approximately five times the quantity of reserves.
Most companies are highly integrated operations. In 1983, there
were 21 talc-producing companies in 11 States.2^ Vermont, Montana,
Texas and New York produced 83 percent of the total.
From a 1979 base, demand for talc and related minerals is expected
to increase at an annual rate of about 2 percent through 1990.30 it
is estimated that in 1984 domestic mine production of talc willbe
1.2 xlO Mg (1.3 xlO6 tons) and U.S. apparent consumption will be
0.9 xlO Mg (1.0 xlO6 tons). The quantity of ore produced is a close
reflection of demand, and, since producers customarily maintain only
minor stocks of these minerals, current production usually differs only
slightly from current consumption. Ore capacity is expected to
increase at an annualized rate of 2.6 percent through 1987.
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Producers generally are not planning expansion of capacities in
the present economic climate. However, Vermont Talc Company reports
that the company's exploration program has proven substantial reserves
in a newly developed open-pit mine, and engineering has been completed
for a new froth flotation processing plant.
Research and development efforts in the talc industry have not
produced significant new large markets in the U.S. in recent years in
spite of some important product developments. Surface-modified talcs
are available now for special plastic applications. Further research
efforts could result in substantial growth of talc as a functional
additive as well as an inert filler in plastics.
9.1.11 Titanium Dioxide
The two major processes used to produce titanium dioxide (Ti02)
pigments are the chloride process and the sulfate process. For the
chloride process, mineral rutile (95 percent Ti02) is the preferred
raw material. The final product is usually a rut.ile pigment. The
sulfate process uses ilmenite (37 to 65 percent Ti02),or a titanium
slag .(70 percent Ti02) as the raw material. A rutile pigment can be
produced by the sulfate process, but more frequently an anatase pigment,
which has facial angles different from rutile pigment, is produced.
Because it is a continuous process, the chloride process is
inherently simpler than the sulfate process. The chloride process
requires fewer steps and creates less waste material because it uses
feed materials with a higher Ti02 content and a lower iron content
than does the sulfate process. The sulfate process produces four times
as much waste as the chloride process. Chloride processors are increas-
ing the use of lower grade feed materials but at the expense of creating
more iron chloride or iron oxide waste material. The sulfate process
has the advantage of low raw materials cost.
The 1979 cost of constructing new chloride process pigment plants
was about $1,100 to $l,653/Mg ($1,000 to $l,500/ton) of annual capacity.
Sulfate process plants cost $276/Mg ($250/ton) less at that time. The
operating costs of chloride plants, which may be operated continuously
and are more easily automated, are reportedly 30 percent lower than
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those for sulfate plants.31 However, technical problems during
start-up of a new chloride plant may delay the 30 percent long-term
operating cost advantage for several years after start-up. The cost of
finishing Ti02 pigment for market is about the same for both processes
and comprises a significant portion of total production costs. Raw
materials cost for sulfate process plants is appreciably lower than
that for chloride process plants that use rutile ore as feed material.
Of the 1981 production of titanium dioxide, 74 percent was
produced by the chloride process and 26 percent by the sulfate process.
Of the chloride production, 92 percent was rutile pigment and 8 percent
was anatase pigment. Of the sulfate production, 11 percent was rutile
pigment and 89 percent was anatase pigment. The rutile is used primarily
in paints and finishes, while the anatase is used primarily in the
paper industry. Production of titanium dioxide decreased significantly
in 1982 from 1981 but is estimated to have recovered in 1983. Annual
production averaged 0.65 xlO6 Mg (0.72 xlO6 tons) during the 5-year
period 1978 through 1982.32
Imports of titanium dioxide have been increasing since 1980 with
the main sources being the Federal Republic of Germany (30 percent);
Canada (14 percent); France (13 percent); Spain (11 percent); and
others (32 percent). Average annual imports from 1978 to 1982 were
112,000 Mg (124,000 tons).
Prices for titanium pigment have remained stable from 1981
through 1983. However, in 1983 the list price was being discounted by
approximately 20 percent. In 1983 the price for titanium dioxide
rutile pigment was $1.65/kg ($0.75/lb).33 Major uses of titanium
pigment are in paints, paper, and plastics.
A number of materials such as zinc oxide, talc, clay, silica,
and alumina can be used in place of Ti02 pigment, but use of such
materials will result in production of pigments of lower quality with
respect to brightness or will cause higher costs to be incurred.
In 1983, titanium dioxide pigment was produced by 6 companies
at 13 plants in 8 states. Titanium dioxide plants operated at 75 per-
cent of capacity in 1981. There are no by-products associated with
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Ti02 pigment production. Titanium tetrachloride (TiCl^) is a
co-product for at least one major producer.
The titanium industry is characterized by a moderately high
degree of vertical integration from raw materials to semi-finished
products. Several companies mine and utilize the ore minerals in
producing titanium pigments. In 1979, NL Industries and E.I. duPont de
Nemours & Company owned or controlled 32 percent of the worldwide
titanium dioxide pigment production capacity. From a 1980 base, demand
for TiOa is expected to increase at an annual rate of about 2 percent
through 1990. 34
9.1.12 Vermiculite
Vermiculite is mined by open-pit methods. Beneficiation methods,
which vary with the source material, include screening, flotation,
drying in a rotary or fluid bed dryer, and exfoliation (expansion) by
exposure to high heat. All mined Vermiculite is dried at the mine
site prior to exfoliation. Approximately 84 percent of the mined
vermiculite is expanded. Expansion increases the mineral volume by
approximately 10 times. The expanding process is energy-intensive,
and the expanded material is expensive to transport. Freight and
energy costs are significant portions of the final user's costs.
Transportation costs from the source to exfoliation plants near the
point of end use limit the size of marketing areas as well as
vermiculite's competitive position with regard to other mineral
commodities.
Expanded perlite is a substitute for expanded vermiculite in
lightweight concrete and plaster.35 (Other more dense but less
costly substitutes in these applications are expanded clay, shale,
slate, or slag.) Alternate materials for loose-fill fireproof ing
insulation include fiberglass, perlite, and slag wool. In agriculture,
substitutes include peat, perlite, sawdust, bark and other plant
materials, and synthetic soil conditioners.
Estimated world production of vermiculite in 1982 was 0.51 xlO6 Mg
(0.56 xlO6 tons), a small decrease from that of 1981.36 The
United States and the Republic of South Africa accounted for 92 percent
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of world production. More than 80 percent of worldwide production
comes from five mines, while the balance comes from numerous small
deposits.
Mine production of vermiculite has been decreasing since 1979 as
well as apparent consumption of both the concentrate and exfoliated
vermiculite. Average annual production during the 6-year period 1978
through 1983 was 0.30 xlO6 Mg (0.33 xlO6 tons).
The average value of vermiculite concentrate sold and used by
U.S. producers in 1983 increased 7.6 percent to $107/Mg ($97/ton)
compared with that of 1982. 37
Imports and exports have declined since 1978. Annual imports
during the 6-year period 1978 through 1983 averaged 23,000 Mg (25,000
tons).
The major uses for exfoliated vermiculite in 1983 were: agriculture
(28 percent), insulation (24 percent), plaster and cement premixes
(24 percent), and lightweight concrete aggregate (22 percent).
The principal vermiculite mining and beneficiating operations are
those of W.R. Grace & Co. with operations in Montana and South Carolina.38
Most of the vermiculite concentrate was shipped to 46 exfoliating
plants in 30 States.39
Smaller deposits of vermiculite, which occur in North Carolina,
Texas, Wyoming, Colorado, and Nevada, are estimated to total
1.8 to 2.7 xlO6 Mg (2 to 3 xlO6 tons). Deposits in other countries
usually include material that has exfoliation characteristics considered
inferior to U.S. and South African vermiculite.
According to the U.S. Bureau of Mines, demand for vermiculite is
expected to increase from a 1982 base at an annual average rate of
about 2 percent through 1990.^ It is estimated that in 1984 domestic
mine production of vermiculite concentrate and U.S. apparent consumption
will each be about 0.29 xlO6 Mg (0.32 xlO6 tons).
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9.2 ECONOMIC ANALYSIS
9.2.1 Introduction
This section analyzes the economic effects of the regulatory
alternatives discussed in Chapter 6 on the 17 mineral dryer and calciner
industries. Economic profile information presented earlier in Section
9.1 is a primary input to the analysis. Section 9.3 provides a discus-
sion of the socio-economic effects of the pollution control costs.
As noted in previous chapters, the facilities of interest are
dryers and calciners. For some of the industries both dryers and
calciners are present, while for other industries only dryers, or only
calciners, may be present.
9.2.2 Executive Summary
The economic analysis of the regulatory alternatives proposed
for this New Source Performance Standard (NSPS) indicates that there
are not likely to be significant adverse effects. For three industries
(industrial sand, roofing granules and alumina) the NSPS control costs
are zero or negative for every model facility. For 15 of the 17
industries, the NSPS control costs on the model facilities would result
in price increases ranging from slightly negative to a maximum of 1.72
percent, with the vast majority below 0.50 percent. The other two
industries, lightweight aggregate and fire clay, have price increases
ranging from 1.47 to 2.31 percent, and zero to 2.02 percent, respectively,
Price increases of these magnitudes are not likely to cause
significant adverse effects. In a few cases there may be delays in the
construction of new facilities compared to what would have occurred in
the absence of the NSPS. Substitution effects within the industries
are not likely to be exacerbated by this NSPS because most product
prices will rise by similar but small percentages.
Many of the industries manufacture products that are used as
inputs in construction or other manufacturing industries. They will
therefore be subject to general economic cycles and may experience
lower baseline growth and capacity utilization occasionally. Although
general market conditions may affect the baseline economic variability
of some of the 17 industries, the addition of NSPS controls, by itself,
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does not represent an overall adverse economic impact for any of the
industries.
The total control cost in the fifth year is estimated to be less
than $3 million, thus falling well below the $100 million criterion for
a major rule given in Executive Order 12291. Finally, the industries
involved in this analysis include a substantial number of small busi-
nesses. However, the provisions of the Regulatory Flexibility Act
concerning significant economic effects on small businesses do not
indicate any significant adverse effects for the industries analyzed.
9.2.3 General Methodology of the Analysis
This section provides a general overview of the methodology used
to assess the economic effects of the regulatory alternatives on the 17
industries and the associated model facilities. The sections that
follow will describe the methodology in more detail.
Because each State Implementation Plan (SIP) contains particulate
emission control standards, any new facility would have to meet the SIP
standards even in the absence of an NSPS. Therefore, this analysis
focuses on the incremental increase in pollution control costs above
those "baseline" control costs that,are required to meet the various
SIP standards.
The NSPS only applies to new, modified, or reconstructed dryers
and calciners. The model facilities are described in Chapter 6 and
will not be repeated here. However, some additional discussion of
the model facilities from the perspective of the economic analysis
is worthwhile at this point. The model facilities represent indivi-
dual pieces of equipment (dryers and calciners), and do not represent
an entire plant in the economic sense. Frequently an entire plant
might have two or more dryers, or two or more calciners, or some combi-
nation of dryers and calciners. Also, other pieces of equipment (such
as crushers, conveyors, and silos) are required as part of the total
production process.
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quite likely to be faced with the prospect of replacing individual
dryers and calciners. Therefore, this analysis considers only that
portion of total revenue for an entire plant, which passes through an
individual dryer or calciner. For example, if an entire plant has two
calciners, and one of the calciners is modified (or reconstructed) and
becomes subject to the NSPS, this analysis .only considers one-half of
the total revenue for the plant in evaluating the economic effect of
the NSPS.
The analysis highlights a situation that involves an individual
dryer or an individual calciner. However, 6 of the 17 industries
use both dryers and calciners. Therefore, the potential exists for a
cumulative economic effect that involves a dryer plus a calciner, and
the analysis includes consideration of this possibility.
In the analysis that follows, each model facility is evaluated
as if it is part of an entire plant that stands alone. The economic
effects are evaluated on model facilities whose description is based on
representative characteristics of new or expanded facilities, such as
megagrams per hour of capacity and annual hours of operation. The
model facilities provide an indication of the degree to which all
actual new facilities would be affected, by incorporating into the
models the major characteristics prevailing in various size segments of
the mineral dryer and calciner industries. The model facilities are
not intended to duplicate any particular existing facility as any
actual facility may differ in one or more of the characteristics.
9.2.4 Percent Price Increase
In calculating the percent price increases for the various
industries and model facilities, the pre-NSPS control prices that are
used in the economic analysis are the same prices presented earlier in
Chapter 8 as part of the calculation of product recovery credits. The
prices generally represent the first commercially-saleable product
after the drying or calcining stage that has a published price. As
discussed in Chapter 8, the pollution control costs are based on
January 1984 dollars. Therefore, to maintain internal consistency, no
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prices more recent than January 1984 are used in the economic analysis.
The product prices of some of the 17 industries have a tendency to
fluctuate from one year to the next. Changes in the overall economy
and especially changes in the level of economic activity in the con-
struction industry influence a number of these prices. In these
instances the price for any single year could be atypically high
or low, and thus distort the results of the analysis which is designed
to take a view that is longer than just a single year. In order to
take into consideration fluctuations in prices, am average price over
three years (1983, 1982, and 1981) is generally used rather than a
price at a single point in time. For industries that have experienced
a steady increase in prices over several years with little or no
fluctuation, a price for a single year (1983) is used because an
average would be overly conservative. In the case of titanium dioxide,
Chapter 8 includes four separate prices, three of which represent a
value assigned to product that is recovered at intermediate stages of
the overall production process. For the economic analysis, the only
product price that is used is the price of $l,433/Mg ($l,300/ton),
because that is the price of the product that is offered for sale.
To calculate the expected (or most likely) price increase
for each industry, a standard economic model is utilized. The model
used is the competitive market model in which firms within each industry
are assumed to be competitive rather than oligopolistic. This assump-
tion is reasonable for the industries studied because 11 of 17 indus-
tries have 10 or more firms, and only 2 industries have less than 5
firms. Many of the firms also face competition from substitute pro-
ducts in addition to the competition from other firms within their
industries.
In the competitive market model, each industry is initially, in
equilibrium at the point where its supply and demand curves intersect.
Over time, the demand for each industry's product is expected to
increase, shifting the demand curve outward by 1990. The NSPS control
costs increase (or in a few cases, decrease) each new facility's
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production costs, thereby shifting the industry supply curve upward by
the amount of the control cost per unit produced. The expected price
is found at the intersection of these new supply and demand curves.
The price in 1990 with the NSPS will be greater than the price would
have been in the absence of the NSPS by the amount of the control cost
per unit.
For ease of presentation, the percent price increase is cal-
culated using a simplified but equivalent approach that divides
annualized control costs by revenue, with the result expressed as the
percentage price increase. Table 9-3 shows an example of the percent
price increase calculation. The production rate of 23 megagrams per
hour (Mg/h) (25 tons/h) is multiplied by 4,000 hours of operation per
year to yield 92,000 megagrams per year (101,000 tons/yr) of production,
The annual production of 92,000 megagrams is then multiplied by the
price per megagram of $36 and the result is annual revenue. The
control costs associated with the NSPS regulatory alternative, minus
the baseline control costs, yields the incremental annualized control
cost. In the example, the baseline represents a cost of $86,000 per
year and the NSPS (RA III) represents a cost of $93,000 per year, or a
net increase of $7,000 per year (in this particular case the cost is
slightly lower for RA II). Finally, the incremental annualized control
costs divided by the annual revenue results in the percent price
increase, which in the example is 0.21 percent (about 1/5 of 1 percent).
Table 9-4 shows the results of the percent price increase
calculation for all 17 industries. The results shown are for RA II and
RA III. The annualized control costs for RA III are generally higher
than the control costs for RA II. However, in many cases there is no
difference between the two alternatives. Some industries include
comparative data for a baghouse versus a wet scrubber. For these
industries the two controls are interchangeable from an engineering
viewpoint. In most cases the control costs for the baghouse are lower
than the control costs for the wet scrubber, due to product recovery
credits. Firms will generally choose the lower cost alternative, and
9-36
-------
TABLE 9-3. EXAMPLE: PERCENT PRICE INCREASE CALCULATION
BALL CLAY
(Vibrating-grate Dryer)
23 Mg/hra
X 4,000 x Hrs of operation/yr
92,000 = Mg of production/yr
$ 36 Price/Mg
X 92,000 x Mg of production/yr
$ 3,312,000 = Revenue/yr
$ 93,000 NSPS control costsb
- 86,000 - SIP Baseline control costs
$ 7,000 = Incremental annualized control cost
$ 7,000
Incremental annualized control cost
$ 3,312,000 * Revenue/yr
= 0.21% = Percent price increase
a To convert from megagrams to short tons multiply by 1.102.
b RA III.
9-37
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the percent price increase for the lower cost alternative should
therefore be the more accurate estimate of the industry percent price
increase.
A review of Table 9-4 reveals that for two industries (industrial
sand, roofing granules) the control costs are zero for every model
facility. For one industry (alumina) the control costs are negative
for every model facility. For most of the remaining industries the
control costs for the individual model facilities yield percent price
increases that vary from slightly negative to slightly positive. The
negative price increases (net savings) are due to product recovery
credits. For those cases where model facilities have negative price
increases, the firms would be likely to try to achieve the potential
savings in the long-run regardless of the NSPS. One possible explana-
tion as to why firms are not currently achieving these savings is that
the percent savings are relatively small. Consequently, any changes in
the overall operation of the firm in order to achieve the savings might
have a low priority. Two industries that contain some model facilities
with price increases that are higher than the other industries are the
fire clay industry, 1.18 percent (small rotary calciner), and the
lightweight aggregate industry, 2.31 percent (small baghouse).
Fire clay uses both dryers and calciners and could have a combined
price increase of 2.02 percent. It should also be noted that for
lightweight aggregate, the price increase does, in fact, range as high
as 6.71 percent in the case of the large wet scrubber; however, this
control is not likely to be used given the availability of lower cost
control options.
An economic effect df particular interest is whether industry
output would be reduced in 1990 due to the NSPS-induced price increase.
Because the standard applies only to new, modified or reconstructed
sources, the effect of a price increase, therefore, is to delay the
construction of new sources. If price in 1990 is greater with the NSPS
than it would have been without the NSPS, then output in 1990 will be
less than it would have been in the absence of the NSPS, and some
sources that would have been constructed in the absence of the NSPS
will be delayed until after 1990.
9-43
-------
The extent of any reduction in output caused by a price increase
is measured by the price elasticity of demand. For products such as
minerals that are generally used as inputs to produce other products,
price elasticities commonly fall between -0.2 and -1.0. An elasticity
of -0.5, for example, means that a one percent price increase will lead
to a 0.5 percent decrease in purchases. Price elasticities are computed
holding all other prices constant. If the prices of substitute products
increase along with the price of the product being analyzed, as is the
case for many of the minerals in this study, the net effect on output
will be less than that predicted by the price elasticity.
Since virtually all of the percentage price increases in this
analysis are less than 3.0 percent, 1990 output should be reduced by no
more than 3.0 percent (and considerably less in most industries) due to
the NSPS. Thus, the NSPS will not have a significant effect on output
nor delay construction of new sources significantly.
9.2.5 Individual Industry Review
The purpose of this section is to review each of the industries
and model facilities on an individual basis. For those model facilities
that have control costs that are zero-or negative, little discussion is
necessary.
9.2.5.1 Alumina. The incremental annualized control costs are
negative for all model facilities (RA II and RA III). A negative
control cost means a net savings occurs.
9.2.5.2 Ball Clay. For each model facility in the ball clay
industry the percent price increase is small. The highest price
increase is 0.38 percent. Therefore the NSPS is not likely to have a
significant economic effect on this industry. The control costs for RA
II and RA III are the same for the rotary dryer.
9.2.5.3 Bentonite. The control costs for RA II and RA III
differ slightly for some of the model facilities in the bentonite
industry. However, in both cases, the percent price increases are
small, with the highest price increase being 0.27 percent. As a
result, the NSPS is not likely to have a significant economic effect on
this industry.
9-44
-------
9.2.5.4 Diatomite. All of the individual model facilities for
the diatomite industry have percent price increases of less than 0.60
percent for RA II and RA III. The diatomite industry is one of the
industries that includes dryers and calciners and therefore the possible
cumulative effect needs to be considered. Combinations of the model
dryers and calciners result in price increases of 1.02 percent,
or less. Considering baghouses rather than the more costly wet scrub-
bers, the price increases are 0.57 percent or less.
As described in Section 9.1, the financial and economic condition
of the industry is healthy. The capacity utilization rate for the
industry has been high, prices have been increasing by approximately
5 to 10 percent per year, imports are insignificant, and some new
plants in the industry are being actively considered. Overall, poten-
tial price increases of the magnitude under consideration here are not
likely to have a significant economic effect in this case.
9.2.5.5 Feldspar. Four of the five model facilities in the
feldspar industry have product price increases of less than one-half
of 1 percent, and the fifth model facility is only slightly over
one-half of 1 percent (for both RA II and RA III). Price increases
of this size are not likely to have a significant adverse economic
effect on this industry. .
9.2.5.6 Fire Clay. The control costs for RA II and RA III for
the fire clay industry are either identical or similar for all of the
model facilities. Mast of the rotary dryer model facilities for this
industry have percent price increases of less than 0.50 percent. The
small rotary dryer with a baghouse has a price increase of 0.84 percent,
but with a wet scrubber the price increase is only 0.21 percent. The
vibrating-grate dryer has a zero percent price increase. The two rotary
calciner model facilities have price increases of 1.18 and 0.95 percent.
The fire clay industry is one of the industries that includes dryers
and calciners. Therefore, there is the potential in this industry for
a cumulative economic effect to occur due to NSPS control costs on the
dryers and NSPS control costs on the calciners. Cumulative impacts
9-45
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could be as high as 2.02 percent although it would be only 1.60 percent
if the less costly rotary dryer with a wet scrubber were used.
As described in Section 9.1, the baseline financial and economic
fundamentals for the industry are not strong. The industry is dependent
to a significant degree on the financial health of basic manufacturing
industries such as steel and aluminum. The value of fire clay relative
to the value of final manufactured products is small. Also, there is
no significant competition from imports. These two factors provide a
qualitative indication that demand is not likely to be highly price
elastic. For illustration, even if the relatively high elasticity
figure of -1.0 is assumed, 1990 output reduction would be at most 2.02
percent. Unfortunately, data limitations precluded a more thorough
analysis of the elasticity as was done for lightweight aggregate; this
analysis is provided in the Docket. Therefore, although the industry
is not currently healthy, the NSPS-induced price increase is not likely
to have a significant effect on industry output or on the timing of new
construction.
9.2.5.7 Fuller's Earth. All of the individual model facilities
have percent price increases below 0.60 percent. The control costs
for RA II and RA III are either the same, or nearly the same, for
virtually all of the model facilities.
The fuller's earth industry is one of the industries that
includes dryers and calciners. As a result the possibility exists for
a cumulative economic effect to occur. However, for nearly all of the
potential combinations of a dryer and a calciner, the resulting percent
price increase is about 1 percent, or less. In general, the fuller's
earth industry is not likely to experience significant economic effects
due to the NSPS.
9.2.5.8 Gypsum. The control costs for RA II and RA III are
generally the same for the gypsum industry. All of the model facili-
ties have a percent price increase of 0.58 percent, or less. The price
used in the calculation of the percentage price increase is quite
conservative because it does not include any proportionate share
9-46
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of revenue due to the sale of wail 1 board. Since wall board has a much
higher selling price than gypsum, the revenue figure is conservatively
low and this results in an upward bias in the calculated percent price
increase.
The gypsum industry closely follows the cycles of the construc-
tion industry. The gypsum industry is in a strong financial and
economic condition. The industry is operating at a high capacity
utilization rate, and prices are increasing* Overall, price increases
of the magnitude under consideration here are not likely to have a
significant economic effect on the industry.
The gypsum industry is one of the industries that includes
dryers and calciners, and so there is the possibility of a cumulative
effect on the industry. However, the cumulative price increases are
approximately 1 percent, or less. The strong economic condition of
the industry coupled with the use of a conservative price indicates
that the potential cumulative effect should not be significant.
9.2.5.9 Industrial Sand. This, industry has no incremental
annualized control costs for RA II and RA III since the control
techniques associated with these alternatives are identical to those
used in the baseline (RA I).
9.2.5.10 Kaolin. For the kaolin industry RA II and RA III are
either the same, or nearly the same, for all model facilities. All of
the model facilities have percent price increases of less than 0.25
percent. Although the financial condition of the industry is improving,
it is still not in a strong position due to excess capacity. However,
the price increases for the model facilities do not suggest significant
economic effects.
9.2.5.11 Lightweight Aggregate. The control costs for RA II
and RA III are the same for all model facilities in this industry. The
lightweight aggregate (LWA) industry has the lowest product price of
the 17 industries. To a large degree the low product prices lead to
percent price increases that are higher than for most of the other
industries.
9-47
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For example, the three model facilities with a baghouse each have price
increases of approximately 2 percent (with a wet scrubber the price
increases range from about 5.1 to 6.7 percent).
As described in Section 9.1, total production for the industry
has been depressed over the last few years. The overall baseline
financial and economic condition of this industry is not strong but is
improving. The LWA industry faces varying degrees of competition from
several substitutes, including construction sand and gravel, crushed
stone, pumice, and to a lesser degree perlite and vermiculite, as
discussed earlier in Section 9.1.
Because the price increase is somewhat higher for LWA than for
most of the other minerals, an empirical demand equation for LWA is
developed to gauge the size of its elasticity. (A technical discussion
of the estimation procedure is available in the Docket.) The empirical
estimate of elasticity for LWA is -1.0. This means that a 1 percent
increase in price will lead to a 1 percent reduction in output in 1990
compared to what it would have been in the absence of the NSPS. Or, in
other words, construction of new capacity equal to 1 percent of total
industry output will be delayed until after 1990 because of the NSPS.
Because the price increases for the baghouse control option are
substantially less than the price increases for the wet scrubber
control option, firms will opt for the baghouse. Thus, the baghouse
control option will drive the percent price change in the LWA market.
With an elasticity of -1.0, both the percent price increase and the
percent output decrease for 1990 in the LWA industry will range between
1.47 and 2.31 percent. This is not likely to result in significant
adverse effects for the industry.
9.2.5.12 Magnesium Compounds. The NSPS is not likely to have a
significant economic effect on the magnesium compounds industry. Due
to the high product price the percent price increase for each model
facility is quite small, below 0.10 percent and in many cases it is
negative. The results are the same for RA II and RA III.
9-48
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9.2.5.13. Perlite. The control costs for all three model
facilities in the perlite industry are the same for RA II and RA III.
For the two rotary dryer model facilities the price increase is
below 1 percent (0.48 to 0.69 percent). For the expansion furnace
model facility the price increase is 1.03 percent. Vermiculite is a
close substitute for perlite, and although this might otherwise suggest
that vermiculite would act as a constraint on perlite price increases,
vermiculite is also one of the 17 industries included in the analysis.
Vermiculite and perlite have similar (though not identical) percent
increases and so any net competitive advantage to one or the other, due
solely to the NSPS, should be small. Overall the industry is not
likely to experience significant economic effects due to the NSPS.
9.2.5.14 Roofing Granules. This industry has no incremental
annualized control costs for RA II and RA III since the control
techniques associated with these alternatives are identical to those
used in the baseline (RA I).
9.2.5.15 Talc. All of the four individual model facilities for
the talc industry have percent price increases of under 0.30 percent
for both RA II and RA III. The talc industry includes dryers and
calciners, but no combination of a model dryer and a model calciner
yields a percent price increase of greater than 0.52 percent. The talc
industry is not likely to experience a significant economic effect due
to the NSPS.
9.2.5.16 Titanium Dioxide. Although the annualized control
costs for RA II and RA III differ in most cases, neither alternative is
likely to have a significant economic effect on the titanium dioxide
industry. For all of the model facilities the percent price increases
are small (or negative). The titanium dioxide industry is one of the
industries that includes dryers and calciners. However, the control
costs associated with the rotary calciner are zero for this industry
because the control techniques are identical among regulatory alterna-
tives, including the baseline (RA I).
9-49
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9.2.5.17 Vermiculite. All four of the model facilities for the
veraricirtite industry are below a price increase of 0.20 percent for
both RA II and RA III. Perlite is a close substitute for vermiculite,
and although this might otherwise suggest that perlite would act as a
constraint on vermiculite price increases, perlite is also one of the
17 industries included in the analysis. Perlite and vermiculite have
similar (though not identical) percent price increases and so any net
competitive advantage to one or the other, due solely to the NSPS,
should be insignificant. In general, the industry is not likely to
experience significant economic effects due to the NSPS.
9.3 SOCIO-ECONOMIC ASSESSMENT
9.3.1 Executive Order 12291
The purpose of Section 9.3.1 is to address those tests of
macroeconomic effects as presented in Executive Order 12291, and, more
generally, to assess any other significant macroeconomic effects that
may result from the NSPS. Executive Order 12291 stipulates as "major
rules" those that are projected to have any of the following results:
. An annual effect on the economy of $100 million or more.
. A major increase in costs or prices for consumers; individual
industries; Federal, State, or local government agencies; or
geographic regions.
. Significant adverse effects on competition, employment,
investment, productivity, innovation, or on the ability of
U.S.-based enterprises to compete with foreign-based enter-
prises in domestic or export markets.
9.3.1.1 Annualized Costs. A complete table of the fifth-year
annualized control costs was presented earlier in Chapter 8. The
calculations include the gradual replacement of existing facilities, as
well as additional facilities required to meet increases in demand.
Table 9-5 shows a summary of the fifth-year incremental annualized
control costs. The costs are shown for Regulatory Alternative II and
Regulatory Alternative III. In addition, the costs are shown first
using the baghouse costs, and then using the wet scrubber costs. For
9-50
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TABLE 9-5. SUMMARY OF FIFTH-YEAR NATIONWIDE INCREMENTAL
ANNUALIZED CONTROL COSTS
Typical
facility
Industry/facility size*
Alumina
Flash calciner
Rotary calciner
Ball Clay
Rotary dryer
Vibrating-grate dryer
Bentonite
Fluid bed dryer
Fluid bed dryer
Rotary dryer
Diatomite
Flash dryer
Rotary dryer
Rotary calciner
Rotary calciner
Feldspar
Fluid bed dryer
Fluid bed dryer
Rotary dryer
Fire Clay
Rotary dryer
Rotary dryer
Vibrating-grate dryer
Rotary calciner
Fuller's Earth
Fluid bed dryer
Rotary dryer
Rotary dryer
Rotary calciner
Gypsum
Rotary dryer
Flash calciner
Kettle calciner
L
S
M
M
M
M
M
S
M
L
L
M
L
L
M
M
M
M
L
S
S
M
M
M
M
No. of
typical
facilities
in fifth
yearb
c
15
c
2
0
0
3
3
1
2
2
c
c
1
3
3
1
0
c
6
6
2
19
47
40
Pollution
control
device
rcn
t5P
ESP
mi
BH
BH
nil
BH
ESP
BH
110
WS
BH
BH
WS
BH
. BH
WS
BH
US
WS
WS
BH
BH
WS
BH
BH
BH
BH
Incremental
annual i zed
control cost
in fifth year
RA II-I RA III-I
$000 $000
C.C
-00
-210
0'
10
0
45
Ort
30
3
16
34
9
0
1
1 C
15
9
0
0
0
48
18
24
209
329
240
—DO
-210
12
,0
48
O1
81
4
16
34
1 f\
10
0
7
1 O
lo
12
0
0
0'
54
36
24
228
329
240
9-51
-------
TABLE 9-5. (continued)
Typical
facility
Industry /facility size9
Industrial Sand ~
Fluid bed dryer
Rotary dryer
Kaol i n
Rotary dryer
Spray dryer
Spray dryer
Flash calciner
Multiple hearth furnace
Rotary calciner
Rotary calciner
Lightweight Aggregate
Rotary calciner
Rotary calciner
Magnesium Compounds
Multiple hearth furnace
Mg(OH)2
Magnesite feed
Rotary calciner
Mg(OH)2 feed
Magnesite feed
Perlite
Rotary dryer
Expansion furnace
Roofing Granules
Fluid bed dryer
Rotary dryer
Rotary dryer
Talc
FTash dryer
Rotary dryer
Rotary calciner
M
S
M
M
L
S
S
S
S
M
M
L
M
S
L
M
S
M
S
M
S
M
S
No. of
typical
facilities
in fifth
yeaH3
6
35
10
12
6
c
5
0
0
7
7
c
c
2
c
3
62
0
11
3
c
0
2
Incremental
annual i zed
control cost
Pollution in fifth year
control RA 1 1- 1 RA 1 1 1- 1
devi ce $000 $000
WS
WS
BH
BH
BH
BH
WS
BH
WS
BH
WS
ESP
BH
ESP
BH
BH
BH
WS
Tt%J
WS
Fl*J
WS
BH
BH
LJ| 1
BH
n
\j
0
40
84
42
n
u
35
n
\j
0
119
434
-5
-8
8
0
48
186
0
80
18
0
dn
"U
96
42
35
0
119
434
-5
-8
8
0
48
186
0
80
18
(continued)
9-52
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TABLE 9-5. (continued)
Industry /facility
Typi cal
facility
size3
No. of
typical
facilities
in fifth
ye ar*3
Pollution
control
devi ce
Incremental
annual i zed
control cost
in fifth year
RA II-I RA III-I
$000 $000
Titanium Dioxide
Flash dryer L
Fluid bed dryer M
Rotary dryer (direct) L
Rotary dryer (indirect) M
Spray dryer M
Rotary cal cine r S
Rotary cal cine r M
0
c
c
1
c
c
c
WS
WS
BH
WS
BH
WS
WS
0
0
4
-14
-123
0
0
0
0
4
-14
-150
0
0
Vermiculite
Fluid bed dryer
Rotary dryer
Expansion furnace
TOTAL*
TOTAL6
L
M
S
0
2
30
BH
WS
BH
0
0
30
1,308
1,626
0
0
30
1,406
1,724
aS = small, M = medium, L = large.
bFigures are rounded and include reconstructions, modifications and new grass
roots plants.
cCpnfidential information.
dTotal includes diatomite rotary calciners, fire clay rotary dryer, fuller's
earth rotary dryer, kaolin rotary calciner, and lightweight aggregate rotary
calciner baghouse costs (and not wet scrubber costs).
eTotal includes diatomite rotary calciners, fire clay rotary dryer, fuller's
earth rotary dryer, kaolin rotary calciner, and lightweight aggregate rotary
calciner wet scrubber costs (and not baghouse costs).
9-53
-------
all of the cases the results are far below the $100 million level that
stipulates a major rule. Regulatory Alternative III using wet scrubber
costs, which is the most expensive case, has a total nationwide incre-
mental annualized control cost of less than $3 million per year in the
fifth year for all of the 17 mineral industries combined.
9.3.1.2 Regional Effects and Employment. Although some
of the individual industries are concentrated in a particular region,
if the 17 industries are considered as a group, the plants are widely
dispersed geographically. Similarly, a few of the model facilities
discussed previously might experience financial difficulties separate
from NSPS effects, but if the 17 industries are considered as a group
the NSPS is not likely to cause significant regional or employment
economic effects.
9.3.2 Regulatory Flexibility
The Regulatory Flexibility Act (RFA) of 1980 requires that
differential effects of Federal regulations upon small business be
identified and analyzed. The RFA stipulates that an analysis is required
if a "substantial number" of small businesses will experience "signif-
icant effects". Both measures — substantial numbers of small busi-
nesses and significant effects — must be met, to require an analysis.
If either measure is not met then no analysis is required.
The EPA has developed guidelines to use in implementing the
RFA's general provisions. During the course of writing a large number
of regulatory standards EPA encounters a wide variety of industries.
Due to the diverse economic circumstances of the industries no single
analytical formula is applicabTe for all industries at all times with
respect to an assessment of differential economic effects on small
businesses. Therefore, the EPA guidelines recognize that individual
cases will require the exercise of a degree of judgment in implementing
the Act's provisions.41 if a regulation applies to more than 20
percent of the small businesses in a particular industry, the EPA
defines this as a substantial number of small businesses. The EPA
definition of significant effect involves four tests: (1) prices for
small entities rise 5 percent or more, assuming costs are passed on to
9-54
-------
consumers; or (2) annualized investment costs for pollution control are
greater than 20 percent of total capital spending; or (3) control costs
as a percentage of sales for small entities are 10 percent greater than
control costs as a percentage of sales for large entities; or (4) the
requirements of the regulation are likely to result in closures of
small entities.
The Act's definition of "small business" is based on definitions
developed by the Snail Business Administration (SBA). The SBA's
definitions are listed in 13 CFR Part 121 by Standard Industrial
Classification (SIC) categories. For most of the mineral dryer and
calciner industries, the SBA defines a small business as one with 500
or fewer employees (the 2 exceptions are gypsum and titanium dioxide,
each of which is 1,000 employees) .42 AS part of the development of
this proposed standard a considerable amount of effort has been devoted
to the task of identifying small businesses in the 17 industries.
Steps that have been taken to identify small businesses include
an extensive review of standard financial reference sources such as
Moody's and Standard & Poor's, a mailing of Section 114 information
requests, and an electronic data base search. Most of the mineral
dryer and calciner industries do include small businesses according to
the SBA definition. Because the standard under consideration here is
an NSPS, the standard would apply to all businesses (both small and
large) in the 17 industries, and as a result the test of a substantial
number of small businesses is met.
Although there are a substantial number of small businesses, the
measure of significant effects is not likely to be met. As described
earlier, the absolute level of the percent product price increases is
quite small for most of the industries, typically about one-half of 1
percent or less. Thus, the first test is never triggered. Neither
are the second or fourth tests triggered. The third test is occasional-
ly triggered, but the absolute sizes of the numbers are so small as to
make this test inapplicable. For example, in the diatomite industry, a
small flash dryer (4 Mg/hr) has control costs as a percentage of sales
that are 23 percent higher than the corresponding percentage for
9-55
-------
a larger flash dryer (11 Mg/hr). But the absolute levels of these two
percentages are 0.16 percent and 0.13 percent, and the 23 percent
difference between them is virtually meaningless. Thus, because the
absolute level of the percent product price increases is quite small
for most of the industries, and because the tests are presented as
guidelines, an interpretation of the spirit and purpose of the Act
indicates that the industries do not exceed the Act's tests.
For the fire clay industry and the lightweight aggregate industry
some additional discussion of the RFA will be useful. In the case of
the fire clay industry all of the model facilities (and the combinations
of dryers and calciners) are appreciably below the 5 percent test, and
so this test is not met. The difference in the price increase between
the small model facility and the large model facility is in excess of
the 10 percent test. However, the fact that the industry is well below
the 5 percent test is the more important measure in this case as argued
previously. For perspective, there are about 10 firms in the industry,
of which available information indicates that about 1 to 3 firms could
be small firms. In the case of the LWA industry there are two control
options available — a baghouse or a wet scrubber. The baghouse
control option is technically feasible and has a product price increase
of considerably less than 5 percent, and so the 5 percent test is not
met. There is more than a 10 percent difference in the price increase
for the small model facility versus the large model facility. However,
here again the fact that the industry is well below the 5 percent test
is the more important measure in this case. For perspective, there are
about 32 firms in the LWA industry, of which available information
indicates that about one-half are small firms. The size of the market-
ing area for an LWA firm is generally local or regional in nature,
rather than national or international. Therefore, any single LWA firm
does not compete with all other LWA firms in the country. Consequently,
a small LWA firm that is competitive under baseline conditions will not
necessarily lose its local or regional competitive edge to a large firm
in another part of the country simply as the result of a relative
difference in NSPS control costs. Also, as described earlier, the NSPS
9-56
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only applies to new, modified, or reconstructed dryers and calciners
and so existing small firms will not automatically experience any
change due to the NSPS. y
It should be noted that a small model facility and a small :-.i
business are not necessarily one and the same. However, due to data
limitations, that conservative assumption has been used in the discus-
sion. To the extent that small businesses and small model facilities
', are not the same, the potential differential economic effects would be
reduced or eliminated. For example, if a "small business" owns a
medium or a large model facility (rather than a small model facility)
the Regulatory Flexibility test of a 10 percent difference would not be
met. Overall, adverse economic effects on small businesses are not
likely.
9.4 REFERENCES FOR CHAPTER 9
1. Baumgardner, L. H. and F. X. McCawley. Aluminum. . In: Mineral
Commodity Profiles, 1983. U.S. Department of the Interior,
: Bureau of Mines. Washington, D.C. 1984. p. 6.
2*r Reference.!, p. 2.
3. Bauxite and Alumina. In: Minerals Yearbook 1983 Volume 1.
Bureau of Mines. U.S. Department of the Interior, p. 136.
4. Bauxite. In: Mineral Commodity Summaries, Bureau of Mines (ed.).
:^ U.S. Department of the Interior^ 1984. p. 17.
5. Clays. In: Mineral Commodity Summaries, Bureau of Mines (ed.).
; U.S. Department of the Interior. 1984. p. 35.
6. Clays: Ball Clay. In: Minerals Yearbook 1982 Volume 1.
Bureau of Mines. U.S. Department of the Interior, p. 227.
7. Clays: Bentonite.. In: Minerals Yearbook 1982 Volume 1.
Bureau of Mines. U.S. Department of the Interior, p. 229.
8. Clays: Fire Clay. In: Minerals Yearbook 1982 Volume 1.
Bureau of Mines. U.S. Department of the Interior, p. 228.
\ 9. Clays: Fuller's Earth. In: Minerals Yearbook 1982 Volume 1.
Bureau of Mines. U.S. Department of the Interior, p. 231.
10. Clays: Common Clay. In: Minerals Yearbook 1982 Volume 1.
Bureau of Mines. U.S. Department of the Interior, p. 233.
11. Diatomite. In: Minerals Yearbook 1982 Volume 1. Bureau of
Mines. U.S. Department of the Interior, p. 311.
9-57
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12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
26.
27.
28.
29.
30.
31.
32.
33.
34.
Diatomite. In: Mineral Commodity Summaries, Bureau of Mines
(ed.). U.S. Department of the Interior. 1984. p.46.
Reference 12, p. 47.
Feldspar. In: Mineral Commodity Summaries, Bureau of Mines
(ed.). U.S. Department of the Interior. 1984. p.48.
Feldspar, Nepheline Ayem'te, and Aplite. In: Mineral Yearbook
1982 Volume 1. Bureau of Mines. U.S. Department of the Interior,
p. 317.
Reference 14, p. 49.
Gypsum. In: Minerals Yearbook 1982 Volume 1. Bureau of Mines.
U.S. Department of the Interior, p. 409.
Qypsun. In: Mineral Commodity Summaries, Bureau of Mines (ed.).
U.S. Department of the Interior. 1984. p. 64.
Reference 18, p. 65.
Sand and Gravel. In: Mineral Commodity Summaries, Bureau of
Mines (ed.). U.S. Department of the Interior. 1984. p. 134.
Sand and Gravel. In: Minerals Yearbook 1982 Volume 1. Bureau
U.S. Department of the Interior, p. 747.
135.
of Mines.
Reference 20, p
Magnesium Compounds. In: Mineral Commodity Summaries, Bureau of
Mines (ed.). U.S. Department of the Interior. 1984. p. 94.
Reference 23, p. 95.
Perlite. In: Mineral Commodity Summaries, Bureau of Mines
(ed.). U.S. Department of the Interior. 1984. p. 112.
Reference 25, p. 113.
In: Minerals Yearbook 1983 Volume 1.
Department of the Interior, p. 854.
In: Minerals Yearbook 1982 Volume 1.
Department of the Interior, p. 821.
In: Mineral Commodity Summaries* Bureau
1984. p. 154.
Talc and Pyrophyllite.
Bureau of Mines. U.S.
Talc and Pyrophyllite,
Bureau of Mines. U.S.
Tal c and Pyro phyl 1 i te.
of Mines (ed.) U.S. Department of the Interior.
Reference 29, p. 155.
Titanium. Mineral Commodity Profiles 1983. Bureau of Mines.
U.S. Department of the Interior, p. 13.
Titanium. In: Minerals Yearbook 1982 Volume 1. Bureau of Mines,
U.S. Department of the Interior, p. 851.
Titanium and Titanium Dioxide. In: Mineral Commodity Summaries,
Bureau of Mines (ed.). U.S. Department of the Interior. 1984.
p. 166.
Reference 33, p. 167.
9-58
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35. Vermiculite. Mineral Facts and Problems, 1980 Edition. Bureau
of Mines. U.S. Department of the Interior, p. 6.
36. Vermiculite. In: Minerals Yearbook 1982 Volume 1. Bureau
of Mines. U.S. Department of the Interior, p. 892.
37. Vermiculite. In: Mineral Commodity Summaries, Bureau of Mines
(ed.j. U.S. Department of the Interior. 1984. p, 172.
38. Reference 36, p. 889.
39. Reference 36, p. 890.
40. Reference 37, p. 173.
41 Memorandum from the EPA Administrator. EPA Implementation of the
Regulatory Flexibility Act. February 9, 1982. (Attachment)
Guidelines For Implementing The Regulatory Flexibil ity Act. p. 6.
42. Federal Register. Vol. 49, No. 28. Thursday, February 9, 1984.
p. 5031.
9-59
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-------
CALCINERS AND DRYERS IN MINERAL INDUSTRIES
BACKGROUND INFORMATION FOR DEVELOPMENT OF
NEW SOURCE PERFORMANCE STANDARDS
APPENDICES A-D
October 1985
-------
-------
APPENDIX A
EVOLUTION OF THE BACKGROUND INFORMATION DOCUMENT
In the Federal Register of August 21, 1979, mineral processing
plants were a major source category on the Priority List for development
of new source performance standards. Preliminary information gathering
was conducted in-house by EPA in 1979 and 1980. A screening study was
initiated in August 1980 that led to the decision to develop a background
information document (BID) on calciners and dryers in mineral industries.
The source category survey (Phase I) was undertaken in January 1981.
In October 1982, an effort was begun to obtain the information needed to
develop the BID (Phase II). The information gathering effort included
literature surveys; canvassing of State, regional, and local air pollution
control agencies; plant visits; meetings with industry representatives;
contact with engineering consultants and equipment vendors; and emission
source testing. Significant events relating to the evolution of the BID
are itemized in Table A-l. Information about the gypsum and lightweight
aggregate (LWA) industries was gathered concurrently, prior to becoming
part of this effort. The activities for the gypsum and LWA industries
have been incorporated chronologically into Appendix A.
A-l
-------
TABLE A-l. EVOLUTION OF THE BACKGROUND INFORMATION DOCUMENT
Date
07/19/79
08/01/79
11/13/79
11/14/79
11/15/79
11/15/79
11/16/79
11/28/79
11/29/79
12/26/79
02/25/80
02/26/80
03/12/80
04/17/80
04/18/80
Company,
consultant, or agency/location
A. P. Green Refractories Company
Mexico, Mo.
American Industrial Clay Company
Sandersville, Ga.
Redco, Inc.
North Hollywood, Calif.
Persolite Products, Inc.
Florence, Colo.
Grefco, Inc.
Antonito, Colo.
Silbrico Corp.
Antonito, Colo.
Johns-Manville Perlite Corp.
Antonito, Colo.
United States Gypsum Company
Shoals, Ind.
Flintkote Company
Sweetwater, Tex.
Carolina Stalite Company
Salisbury, N.C.
Texas Industries, Inc.
Houston, Tex.
Hydraulic Press Brick Company
Cleveland, Ohio
National Gypsum Company
Wilmington, N.C.
United States Gypsum Company
Fort Dodge, Iowa
C-E Raymond
Abilene, Kans.
Nature of action
Plant visit
Plant visit
Plant visit
Plant visit
Plant visit
Plant visit
Plant visit
Plant visit
Plant visit
Section 114
information request
Plant visit
Plant visit
Plant visit
Plant visit
Plant visit
(continued)
A-2
-------
TABLE A-l. (continued)
Date
04/21/80
04/21/80
04/23/80
05/06/80
05/19-23/80
05/23/80
05/23/80
05/29/80
05/29/80
06/03-06/80
06/06/80
06/09/80
06/09/80
06/19/80
06/29/80
Company,
consultant, or agency/location
United States Gypsum Company
Sweetwater, Tex.
Flintkote Company
Sweetwater, Tex.
Flintkote Company
Blue Diamond, Tex.
National Gypsum Company
Savannah, Ga.
Plant H2
Solite Corp.
Arvonia, Va.
Amlite Corp.
Snowden, Va.
Carolina Stalite Company
Salisbury, N.C.
United States Gypsum Company
East Chicago, 111.
Plant HI
General Shale Products Corp.
West Memphis, Ark.
Texas Industries, Inc.
Clodine, Tex.
Aglite, Inc.
Minneapolis, Minn.
United States Gypsum Company
Southland, Okla.
National Gypsum Company
Richmond, Calif.
Nature of action
Plant visit
Plant visit
Plant visit
Plant visit
Emission testing
Plant visit
Plant visit
Plant visit
Plant visit
Emission testing
Section 114
information request
Plant visit
Plant visit
Plant visit
Plant visit
(continued)
A-3
-------
TABLE A-l. (continued)
Date
Company,
consultant, or agency/location
Nature of action
07/02/80
07/14/80
07/14-17/80
07/22/80
National Gypsum Company
Charlotte, N.C.
Hydraulic Press Brick Company
Cleveland, Ohio
Plant H4
Chandler Materials Company
Choctaw & Tulsa, Okla.
Galite Corp.
Rockmart, Ga.
Big River Industries
Baton Rouge, La.
Industry meeting
Section 114
information request
Emission testing
Section 114
information request
07/22/80
07/23/80
07/25/80
08/03/80
08/04/80
08/21/80
08/22/80
08/22/80
08/26/80
Texas Industries, Inc.
Clodine, Tex.
Tombigbee Lightweight Aggregate
Corp., Livingston, Ala.
Vulcan Materials Company
Bessemer', Ala.
United States Gypsum Company
Chicago, 111.
United States Gypsum Company
Fort Dodge, Iowa
Arkansas Lightweight Aggregate
Corp., West Memphis, Ark.
Galite Corp.
Rockmart, Ga.
Vulcan Materials Company
Bessemer, Ala.
Tombigbee Lightweight Aggregate
Corp., Livingston, Ala.
Plant visit
Section 114
information
Section 114
information
request*
request.
Industry meeting
Plant visit
Plant visit
Plant visit
Plant visit
Plant visit
(continued)
A-4
-------
TABLE A-l. (continued)
Date
Company,
consultant, or agency/location
Nature of action
08/28/80
09/04/80
09/04/80
09/12/80
09/30/80
10/02/80
10/07/80
10/24-31/80
12/22/80
01/06/81
03/03/81
05/06/81
07/13/81
07/20/81
07/21/81
Big River Industries
Baton Rouge, La.
Lawson-United Feldspar and Mineral
Company, Spruce Pine, N.C.
Harris Mining Company
Spruce Pine, N;C.
Plant K7
W. R. Grace & Company
Enoree, S.C.
Plant H6
Lorusso Corp.
Wai pole, Ma.
Plant H3
Mai lout to industry members, trade
associations, equipment vendors
and consultants
Research Triangle Institute
Research Triangle Park, N.C.
Plant K6
Solite Corp.
Arvonia, Va.
Amlite Corp.
Snowden, Va.
The Fuller Company
Bethlehem, Pa.
F. L. Smidth and Company
Cresskill, N.J.
Plant visit
Plant visit
Plant visit
Emission testing
Plant visit
Emission testing
Section 114
information request
Emission testing
Request for comment
on draft BID
Chapters 3,4, 5,
and 6 (Gypsum)
Project start date
for Phase I
contractor
Emission testing
Section 114
information request
Plant visit
Plant visit
Plant visit
(continued)
A-5
-------
TABLE A-l. (continued)
Date
Company,
consultant, or agency/location
Nature of action
07/29/81 Pennsylvania Glass Sand Corp.
Berkeley Springs, W. Va.
07/29/81 Grefco, Inc.
Lompoc, Calif.
07/31/81 Plant Kl
08/06/81 Freeport Kaolin Company
Gordon, Ga.
08/06/81 U. S. EPA, Research Triangle
Institute, China Clay Producers
Association
Plant visit
Plant visit
Emission testing
Plant visit
Meeting to discuss
development of
mineral drying and
calcining source
category survey
08/07/81
08/12/81
08/13/81
08/17/81
08/18/81
08/25-26/81
10/07/81
11/18/81
11/19/81
Oil-Dri Corp. of America
Ochlocknee, Ga.
American Cyanamid Company
Savannah, Ga.
H. C. Spinks Clay Company
Paris and Gleason, Tenn.
Black Hills Bentonite Company
Mills, Wyo.
Wyo-Ben, Inc.
Lucerne, Wyo.
3M Company
St. Paul, Minn, and
Wausau, Wis.
Eastern Magnesia Talc Company
Johnson, Vt.
A. P. Green Refractories Company
Mexico, Mo.
Allied Chemical Company
Owensville, Mo.
Plant visit
Plant visit
Plant visits
Plant visit
Plant visit
Plant visits
Plant visit
Plant visit
Plant visit
(continued)
A-6
-------
TABLE A-l. (continued)
Date
Company,
consultant, or agency/location
Nature of action
11/20/81 Aluminum Company of America
Point Comfort, Tex.
09/23/82 E. I. du Pont de Nemours & Company
DeLisle, Miss.
10/82 U. S. EPA
Research Triangle Park, N.C.
10/18/82 Midwest Research Institute
Raleigh, N.C.
12/13/82 Reynolds Metals Company
Richmond, Va.
Old Hickory Clay Company
Mayfield, Ky.
Cyprus Industrial Minerals Company
Gleason, Tenn.
IMC Corp.
Mundelein, 111.
American Colloid Company
Lethohatchee, Ala.
N. L. Baroid, N. L. Industries, Inc.
Houston, Tex.
Dresser Industries, Inc.
Dallas, Tex.
I. U. International, International
Management Corp., Philadelphia, Pa.
Cedar Heights Clay Company,
Oak Hill, Ohio
Floridin Company
Quincy, Fla.
Mid-Florida Mining Company
Lowell, Fla.
. Balcones Minerals Corp.
La Grange, Tex.
Plant visit
Plant visit
Draft Source
Category Survey:
Mineral Dryers and
Calciners
Project start date
for Phase II
contractor
Section 114
information
request
(continued)
A-7
-------
TABLE A-l. (continued)
Date
Company,
consultant, or agency/location
Nature of action
12/13/82 Combustion Engineering, Inc.
Windsor, Conn.
Florida Rock Industries, Inc.
Brooksville, Fla.
Whitehead Brothers Company
Leesburg, N.J.
Manley Brothers, Inc.
Chesteron, Ind.
Jesse S. Morie & Son, Inc.
Junction City, Ga.
Southern Talc Company, Inc.
Chatsworth, Ga.
The Milwhite Company, Inc.
Houston, Tex.
Gouverneur Talc, Inc.
Gouverneur, N.Y.
Windsor Minerals, Inc.
Windsor, Vt.
Vermont Talc
Chester, Vt.
12/13/82 Gulf and Western Natural Resources
Group, Nashville, Tenn.
SCM Corp.
New York, N.Y.
Patterson Vermiculite Company
Enoree, S.C.
Virginia Vermiculite, Ltd.
Arlington, Va.
The Schundler Company
Metuchen, N.J.
Strong-Lite Products
Pine Bluff, Ark.
Grefco Minerals, Inc.
Torrance, Calif.
United States Gypsum Company
Chicago, 111.
Armstrong World Industries
Lancaster, Pa.
Section 114
information
request
Section 114
information
request
(continued)
A-8
-------
TABLE A-l. (continued)
Date
Company,
consultant, or agency/location
Nature of action
12/13/82 Carolina Perlite Company
Gold Hill, N.C.
Eagle-Picher Industries, Inc.
Reno, Nev.
Witco Chemical Corp.
Woodcliff Lake, N.J.
Amoco Minerals Corp.
Englewood, Colo.
The Feldspar Corp.
Spruce Pine, N.C.
IMC Chemical Group, Inc.
Spruce Pine, N.C.
Foote Minerals Company
Kings Mountain, N.C. .
Barcroft Company
Lewes, Del.
Basic Chemicals
Gabbs, Nev.
Martin-^Marietta Chemicals
Manistee, Mich.
12/13/82 Harbison-Walker Refractories
Ludington, Mich.
Bird & Son, Inc.
Charleston, S.C.
H. B. Reed, Inc.
Highland, Ind.
Spartan Mi nerals Corp.
Pacoletj S.C.
Oil-Dri Corp. of America, Inc.
Chicago, 111.
Black Diamond Company
Galena, Kans.
Ormet Corp.
Burnside, La.
Frederick J. Dando Company
Irondale, Ohio
Excel-Minerals Company
Buttonwillow, Calif.
Section 114
information
request
Section 114
information
request
(continued)
A-9
-------
TABLE A-l. (continued)
Date
Company,
consultant, or agency/location
Nature of action
12/23/82 Carolina Stallte Company
Salisbury, N.C.
Tombigbee Lightweight Aggregate Corp.
Livingston, Ala.
Vulcan Materials Company
Birmingham, Ala.
Galite Corp.
Rockmart, Ga.
Allied Chemical Company
Morristown, N.C.
Martin-Marietta Aluminum, Inc.
St. Croix, U.S. Virgin Islands
Englehard Minerals Company
Attapulgus, Ga.
Section 114
information
request
12/29/82
12/30/82
03/03/83
03/31/83
03/18/83
03/21/83
03/22/83
03/24/83
Sutherland, Asbill and Brennan
Atlanta, Ga.
W. R. Grace & Company
Cambridge, Mass.
The Feldspar Corp.
Spruce Pine, N.C.
Lawson United Feldspar and Mineral
Company, Spruce Pine, N.C.
Jesse S. Morie & Son, Inc.
Mauri cetown, N.J.
Basic, Incorporated
Gabbs, Nev.
International Minerals & Chemical
Corp., Aberdeen, Miss.
American Colloid Company
Aberdeen, Miss.
Cyprus Industrial Minerals Company
Gleason, Tenn.
Section 114
information
request
Section 114
information
request
Plant visit
Plant visit
Plant visit
Plant visit
Plant visit
Plant visit
Plant visit
(continued)
A-10
-------
TABLE A-l. (continued)
Date
03/31/83 ;
04/05/83
04/07/83
04/08/83
04/13/83
04/14/83
04/19/83
04/28/83
05/04/83
05/04/83
05/10/83
05/11/83
05/12/83
05/17/83
05/18/83
Company,
consultant, or agency/location
New Jersey Silica Sand Corp.
Millville, N.J.
Carolina Perlite Company
Gold Hill, N.C.
C-E Refractories
Vandal ia, Mo.
A. P. Green Refractories Company
Mexico, Mo.
W. R. Grace & Company
Irondale, Ala.
Tombigbee Lightweight Aggregate Corp.
Livingston, Ala.
Floridin Company
Quincy, Fla.
Martin-Marietta Alumina, Inc.
St. Croix, U.S. Virgin Islands
Pioneer Talc Company
Allamore, Tex.
The Mil white Company, Inc.
Van Horn, Tex.
Aluminum Company of America
Point Comfort, Tex.
Virginia Vermiculite, Ltd.
Trevilians, Va.
C-E Minerals
Andersonville, Ga.
Manville Products Corp.
No Agua, N. Mex.
Eagle-Picher Industries, Inc.
Lovelock, Nev.
Nature of action
Plant visit
Plant visit
Plant visit
Plant visit
Plant visit
Plant visit
Plant visit
Plant visit
Plant visit
Plant visit
Plant visit
Plant visit
Plant visit
Plant visit
Plant visit
(continued)
A-ll
-------
TABLE A-l. (continued)
Date
05/24/83
05/25/83
06/02/83
06/07/83
06/07/83
07/12/83
08/22/83
08/04/83
09/13-16/83
09/20-22/83
09/16/83
09/26-29/83
09/30/83
10/17-21/83
10/20/83
11/10/83
Company,
consultant, or agency/location
Harbison-Walker Refractories
Ludington, Mich.
Martin-Marietta Chemicals
Manistee, Mich.
American Cyanamid Company
Savannah, Ga.
Freeport Kaolin Company
Gordon, Ga.
Burgess Pigment Company
Sandersville, Ga.
Plant Cl
C-E Refractories
Vandal i a, Mo.
United States Gypsum Company
Shoals, Ind.
Plant 11 .
Plant Cl
GAP Corp.
Blue Ridge Summit, Pa.
Plant Jl
Plant Fl
Plant F2
Ormet Corp.
Burnside, La.
Kaiser Aluminum and Chemical Corp.
Grame.rcy, La.
Nature of action
Plant visit
Plant visit
Plant visit
Plant visit
Plant visit
Pretest survey
Plant visit
Plant visit
Emission testing
Emission testing
Plant visit
Emission testing
Pretest survey
Emission testing
Plant visit
Plant visit
(continued)
A-12
-------
TABLE A-l. (continued)
Date
Company,
consultant, or agency/location
Nature of action
11/22/83
01/30-2/2/84
02/8-16/84
02/12-15/84
04/16-18/84
07/12-13/84
08/31/84
U. S. EPA, Representatives of the
Perlite Institute
Plant Ml
Plant PI
Plant Fl
Plant F3
Plant P2
Mai 1-out to i ndustry members, trade
associations, equipment vendors,
and consultants
Meeting to discuss
mineral dryers.
and calciners
study
Emission testing
Emission testing
Emission testing
Emission testing
Emission testing
Request for
comment on draft
BID Chapters 3,
4, 5, and 6 and
Preliminary Cost
Analyses
09/17/85
U. S. EPA and industry representatives NAPCTAC meeting
A-13
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-------
APPENDIX B
INDEX TO ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT CONSIDERATIONS
This appendix consists of a reference system, cross-indexed with
the October 21, 1974, Federal Register (39 FR 37419) containing the
Agency guidelines concerning the preparation of environmental impact
statements. This index can be used to identify sections of the document
which contain data and information germane to any portion of the Federal
Register guidelines.
B-l
-------
TABLE B-l. CROSS-INDEXED REFERENCE SYSTEM TO HIGHLIGHT
ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT PORTIONS OF THE DOCUMENT
Agency guidelines for preparing
regulatory action environmental
impact statements (39 FR 37419)
Location within the Background
Information Document
1. BACKGROUND AND SUMMARY OF
REGULATORY ALTERNATIVES
Summary of regulatory alternatives
Statutory basis for proposing
standards
Relationship to other regulatory
agency actions
Industries affected by the
regulatory alternatives
Specific processes affected by
the regulatory alternatives
2. REGULATORY ALTERNATIVES
Control techniques
The regulatory alternatives
from which standards will be
chosen for proposal are
summarized in Chapter 1,
Section 1.1.
The statutory basis for
proposing standards is
summarized in Chapter 2,
Section 2.1.
The relationships between the
regulatory agency actions are
discussed in Chapter 3.
A discussion of the industries
affected by the regulatory
alternatives is presented in
Chapter 3, Section 3.2.
Further details covering the
business and economic nature
of the industry are presented
in Chapter 9, Section 9.1.
The specific processes and
facilities affected by the
regulatory alternatives are
summarized in Chapter 1,
Section 1.1. A detailed
technical discussion of the
processes affected by the
regulatory alternatives is
presented in Chapter 3,
Sections 3.1 and 3.2.
The alternative control
techniques are discussed in
Chapter 4.
(continued)
B-2
-------
TABLE B-l (continued)
Agency guidelines for preparing
regulatory action environmental
impact statements (39 FR 37419)
Location within the Background
Information Document
Regulatory alternatives
3.
ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT OF THE
REGULATORY ALTERNATIVES
Primary impacts directly
attributable to the regulatory
alternatives
Secondary or induced impacts
4. OTHER CONSIDERATIONS
The various regulatory
alternatives, including "no
additional regulatory action,"
are defined in Chapter 6.
A summary of the major
alternatives considered is
included in Chapter 1,
Section 1.1.
The primary impacts on mass
emissions and ambient air
quality due to the alternative
control systems are discussed
in Chapter 7, Sections 7.1,
7.2, 7.3, 7.4, and 7.5. A
matrix summarizing the
environmental impacts is
included in Chapter 1.
Secondary impacts for the
various regulatory
alternatives are discussed in
Chapter 7, Section 7.1.
A summary of the potential
adverse environmental impacts
associated with the regulatory
alternatives is included in
Chapter 1, Section 1.2, and
Chapter 7. Potential socio-
economic and inflationary
impacts are discussed in
Chapter 9, Sections 9.2 and
9.3. Irreversible and
irretrievable commitments of
resources are discussed in
Chapter 7, Section 7.6.
B-3
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, \
APPENDIX C. SUMMARY OF TEST DATA
The results of EPA-conducted and industry-conducted (EPA-approved)
particulate emission tests for dryers and calciners at 46 mineral processing
plants are presented in this appendix. Data on sulfur dioxide (S02),
nitrogen oxide (as N02), trace metals, and controlled visible emissions
and process fugitive emissions measured in conjunction with the particulate
tests are also presented. The particulate emission measurements include
mass emission levels and some particle size distributions. Testing
methodologies are described in Appendix D.
C.I DESCRIPTION OF SOURCES
A brief description of the emission source, operating conditions of
the process unit and control equipment, and a schematic of the system
tested (when available) are presented in this section for each facility
tested. Unless noted, all information has been obtained from the EPA-
conducted and EPA-approved tests cited in Chapters 3 and 4.
C.I.I Alumi na
C.I.1.1 Plant Al—Industry Test. The flash calciner tested at
Plant Al is controlled by an electrostatic precipitator (ESP). The
calciner was operating at 90 percent of capacity and was fired by natural
gas. Opacity data based on 5-minute, 15-second averages at the ESP
outlet ranged from 5 to 6.7 percent. No process or control device
upsets were noted in the test report. Operating parameters and the
schematic of the system tested are given in the Confidential Addendum to
this document.
G.I.1.2 Plant A2—Industry Test. The outlets of four ESP's that
control emissions from two rotary calciners were tested for particulate
emissions at Plant A2. The tests were conducted during normal plant
C-l
-------
operations; no plant upsets were encountered during the test runs. The
calciners, which were fired with No. 6 fuel oil, operated at 105 to
117 percent of design process rates. Two of the ESP's had specific
collection areas (SCA) of 0.5 m2 per mVmin (147 ft2 per 1,000 acfm),
and the other two had SCA's of 1.1 m2 per mVmln (344 ft2 per 1,000 acfm).
Additional operating parameters and the schematic of the system tested
are given in the Confidential Addendum to this document.
C.I.2 Ball Clay
C-1-2-1 Plant Bl—Industry Test. Figure C-l is a schematic of the
system tested. The vibrating-grate dryer was controlled by a pulse-jet
fabric filter. The dryer operated at 81 percent of design capacity
during the test and was fired by natural gas. Two types of ball clay
were blended during the test. Actual operating parameters for the
fabric filter include an air-to-cloth ratio of 4.5:1 and a pressure drop
of 1.0 kPa (4.0 in. w.c.). No plant upsets were noted in the test
report.
C.1.3 Bentonite
C-1-3.1 Plant Cl—EPA Test. Figure C-2 is a schematic of the
system tested. The direct-fired rotary dryer at Plant Cl was controlled
by a fabric filter preceded by a product recovery cyclone. Testing was
performed at the cyclone inlet and the baghouse outlet. Particulate
mass and particle size distribution data were collected at both locations
simultaneously. The dryer operated at 96 percent of capacity during the
tests and was fired with pulverized coal. The normal blend of four
grades of bentonite was processed during the emission tests.
Some fluctuation in the dryer fire box temperature was observed
throughout testing of the dryer. The fluctuations are normal and are
caused by variations in the feed moisture content and amount of fines in
the coal. The coal feed rate was adjusted when the fire box temperature
dropped below 820°C (1500°F).
Additional air was added to the baghouse by a baghouse heating
system. The actual operating air-to-cloth ratio for the reverse-air
fabric filter was 0.9:1. No abnormalities in fabric filter operation
were noted during the testing. The 6-minute average opacity data taken
C-2
-------
at the baghouse exhaust stack during the tests ranged from 0 to
8.3 percent.
C.I.3.2 Plant C3--Industry Test. The rotary dryer at Plant C3 was
controlled by an ESP and operated at 96 percent of capacity during the
particulate emission tests conducted at the ESP outlet. The specific
collection area for the ESP was 2.97 m2 per mVmin (904 ft2 per 1,000 acfm).
Because the isokinetic sampling rate for Run No. 1 did not conform to
EPA requirements, a fourth run was performed. Data from Run No. 1 were
not included in the test report. No equipment operating problems were
noted.
C.I.4 Diatomite
C.I.4.1 Plant D1--Industry Test. Particulate emission tests were
conducted at the outlet of a wet scrubber controlling emissions from a
rotary calciner at Plant Dl. Feed material, which was preheated by kiln
exhaust gases, was pneumatically conveyed through cyclones and air
separators to the kiln. Product cooling air was used to preheat primary
and secondary combustion air. The calciner operated between 89 and
104 percent of design capacity during the tests. No equipment operating
problems were noted in the test report. A schematic of the system
tested is presented in the Confidential Addendum to this document.
C.I.5 Feldspar
C.I.5.1 Plant El--Industry Test. Particulate emission tests were
conducted at the outlet of a wet scrubber controlling a rotary dryer at
Plant El. The dryer operated at 90 percent of capacity during the tests
and was fired by No. 2 fuel oil. The operating pressure drop for the
wet scrubber was 2.5 kPa (10 in. w.c.). No equipment operating problems
were indicated in the test report.
C.I.5.2 Plant E2—Industry Test. Figure C-3 is a schematic of the
system tested. The rotary dryer at Plant E2 was controlled by a wet
scrubber. A multiple cyclone collector preceding the wet scrubber was
used for product recovery. Particulate emission testing was conducted
at the scrubber outlet. The dryer, fired by No. 2 fuel oil, operated at
100 percent of capacity during the test. The operating pressure drop
for the scrubber during the test is given in the Confidential Addendum
to this document. No unusual conditions were noted during sampling.
C-3
-------
C.I.5.3 Plant E3— Industry Test. The rotary dryer tested at
Plant E3 was controlled by a packed-bed wet scrubber. The cyclone
preceding the scrubber was used for product recovery. Particulate
emission testing was conducted at the scrubber outlet. The dryer
operated at 100 percent of capacity during the test and was fired with
No. 2 fuel oil. The operating pressure drop of the scrubber during
testing was not noted. No equipment operating problems were noted in
the test report.
C.I.6 Fire Clay
C.I. 6.1 Plant Fl—EPA Test. Figure C-4 is a schematic of the
system tested. Particulate mass and particle size distribution tests
were performed simultaneously on a rotary dryer at Plant Fl during the
production of two types of fire clay: flint clay (Brohard) and Missouri
plastic clay. The direct rotary dryer was fired with natural gas and
operated at maximum capacity during the test series, based on the
requirements of the material being processed and the desired product
quality. All processes were operating normally during the emission
testing. A trace metal analysis was also performed on a composite
Method 5 partieulate catch from each test location for each clay.
The cyclonic scrubber controlling emissions from the dryer was
preceded by a product recovery cyclone. Particulate emission tests were
conducted at the inlet of the cyclone and at the inlet and outlet of the
scrubber. Particle size distributions were measured at the inlets of
the cyclone and the scrubber. Because of excessive moisture in the
scrubber outlet gas stream, particle size sampling was not possible at
the scrubber outlet. The pressure drop across the cyclone/scrubber
system ranged from 4.1 to 4.5 kPa (16.5 to 18 in. w.c.) throughout the
testing.
During, the first particulate run at the cyclone inlet, heavy
particulate loading caused the positive pitot to plug. The gas velocity
was back-calculated from the scrubber inlet gas flow rate. After the
completion of the first run at the scrubber outlet stack, it was
discovered that the thermocouple temperature readout was measuring low
by approximately 21°C (38°F). The scrubber inlet/outlet temperatures
for the subsequent runs were reviewed, and a representative stack
C-4
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temperature of 54°C (130°F) was used for the emissions calculations.
The temperature adjustment resulted in an isokinetic sampling rate of
114 percent.
Visible emission (VE) observations were made at the outlet stack
simultaneously with the emission testing. Visible emission measurements
were also made of the process fugitive emissions at the rotary dryer
feed inlet. No VE observations were made at the dryer product outlet
because the system was totally enclosed with no visible leaks. All
fugitive emission readings were 0 percent opacity. The 6-minute average
opacity for all test runs ranged from 0.4 to 3.5 percent.
C.1,6.2 Plant F2—EPA Test. Figure C-5 is a schematic of the
system tested. Particulate emission tests were conducted at the inlet
to the multiple cyclone collector and the outlet of the venturi scrubber
controlling emissions from a direct-fired rotary calciner processing
Missouri flint clay. Particle size distribution tests were conducted
simultaneously with the particulate tests at Both locations. Because of
inclement weather, only two sets of visible and process fugitive emission
observations were performed, at the outlet of the scrubber and the
calciner feed inlet, respectively. All VE measurements were 0 percent
opacity at both locations. Fugitive emissions were not monitored at the
product outlet because it was a totally enclosed system with no visible
leaks. , ;
The calciner operated at 100 percent of capacity and was fired with •
natural gas. During the tests, the scrubber liquid-to-gas ratio was
1,272 A/1,000 m3 (12 gal/1,000 ft3). The pressure drop across the
scrubber remained constant at an average value of 6.5 kPa (26 in. w.c.).
Because of a high isokinetic sampling rate (118 percent) during the
first test run, a fourth test run was conducted. Results for Run No. 1
are not included in the overall average. All processes were operating
normally during the emission testing.
C.l.6.3 Plant F3--EPA Test. Figure C-6 is a schematic of the
system tested. Tests were conducted at the inlet of a multiple cyclone
collector, the inlet to a venturi scrubber, and at the outlet of the
venturi scrubber controlling emissions from a rotary calciner processing
kaolin clay at Plant F3. Testing was performed for particulate emissions,
C-5
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visible emissions, particle size distributions, sulfur dioxide and
nitrogen oxide emissions, and trace metal content. All VE observations
were 0 percent opacity from the scrubber stack. Process fugitive
emission observations were not made because both the calciner feed inlet
and product outlet were totally enclosed with no 'visible leaks.
The rotary calciner operated at 98 percent of capacity during all
tests and was fired by pulverized coal. The scrubber flow rate measured
during testing was 1,514 £/min (400 gpm), and the pressure drop was
approximately 4.5 kPa (18 in. w.c.). Other operating parameters of the
scrubber during the test series are presented in the Confidential
Addendum to this document.
Particle size distribution tests were not conducted at the scrubber
outlet because of moisture in the flue gas. At the West induced draft
(I.D.) fan inlet location (scrubber inlet), particle sizing Run Nos. 7B
and 9B were not tabulated in the results due to an extremely low catch
(underloaded) and extremely large catch (overloaded), respectively. No
process upsets were reported.
C.1.7 Fuller's Earth
C.I.7.1 Plant Gl—Industry Test. Figure C-7 is a schematic of the
system tested. Particulate emission tests were performed at the outlet
of the wet scrubber controlling emissions from the rotary dryer at
Plant 61. During the test, the dryer operated at 102 percent of capacity
and was fired with natural gas. The pressure drop of the scrubber was
2.5 kPa (10 in. w.c.) During the initial 14 minutes of Run No. 1, the
make-up water to the scrubber was shut off. High stack temperature
readings and particulate emission rates resulted from this malfunction.
For this reason, data from Run No. 1 are not included in the test summary
averages. No process operating problems were recorded in the test
report.
C.I.8 Gypsum
C.I. 8.1 Plant HI—EPA Tests. Figures C-8 and C-9 are schematics
of the systems tested. Particulate emission tests were performed on
fabric filters controlling emissions from a continuous kettle calciner
and from a rotary dryer at Plant HI. The calciner operated at full
C-6
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capacity during the testing and was fired with natural gas. The direct-
fired, cocurrent rotary dryer operated at 92 percent of capacity during
the emission testing and was fired with natural gas.
The actual air-to-cloth ratios during testing were 2.9:1 and 6.4:1
for the calciner and dryer, respectively. Pressure drops across the
fabric filters controlling the calciner and the rotary dryer ranged from
0.6 to 0.7 kPa (2.5 to 2.8 in. w.c.) and from 0.5 to 0.7 kPa (2.1 to
2.6 in. w.c.), respectively.
Three particle size distribution tests were conducted at the inlet
and one test was conducted at the outlet of the rotary dryer fabric
filter. Particle size distribution tests could not be conducted at the
calciner testing points because a gas stream moisture content of approxi-
mately 70 percent caused condensation problems on the filter substrates.'
At the calciner inlet test point, the dry filter and cyclone catches
were combined, and the resultant sample was submitted for a sedigraph
particle size distribution analysis. No particle sizing was conducted
at the outlet test locations.
Visible emission observations were made at the fabric filter outlets
for both units. The 6-minute average opacities ranged from 0 to
0.6 percent for the kettle calciner and 0 to 0.4 percent for the rotary
dryer. No unusual process operating problems were encountered during
the test periods for either unit.
C.I.8.2 Plant Hi—Industry Test. Emission tests were conducted at
the outlet of a fabric filter controlling emissions from a kettle
calciner at Plant HI. The calciner operated at 100 percent of design
capacity during the test. The first test run was conducted at a high
isokinetic sampling rate (121 percent). Results for Run No. 1 are not
included in the overall average. No process or operating upsets were
noted in the report.
C.I.8.3 Plant H2—• EPA Tests. A direct-contact flash calciner
tested at Plant H2 was controlled by a fabric filter and was fired by
residual fuel oil. The calciner operated at full capacity during the
test series. Particulate emission tests were conducted at the inlet and
outlet of the fabric filter. The actual air-to-cloth ratio during
testing for the calciner baghouse was 5.5:1. Three particle size
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distribution tests were conducted at the baghouse inlet, and one test
was conducted at the fabric filter outlet. Visible emission observations
were also made at the fabric filter outlet. The range of 6-minute
average opacities was 0 to 2.3 percent. No abnormalities in process
operations were noted during the testing.
c-1-8-4 Plant H3--EPA Test. Figure C-10 is a schematic of the
system tested. Particulate emission tests were performed at the fabric
filter inlet and outlet during both continuous and batch operation of a
kettle calciner at Plant H3. The opacity of the fabric filter plume was
monitored during the particulate emission tests. Filter particulate
catches from the six fabric filter inlet emission tests were analyzed
for particle size distribution. The calciner was fired with natural gas
during the testing.
The batch cycle lasted approximately 2 hours and 40 minutes. EPA
Method 5 tests on the outlet of the pulse-jet fabric filter were
conducted over an entire cycle, beginning in the middle of the cycle,
through the dumping and charging, and to the middle of the next batch.
The calciner operated normally during the batch testing.
Condensation in the baghouse during the batch tests caused the filter
bags to become blinded with dust. Immediately following the testing,
all filter bags required replacement. In addition, leaks were found
around three of the cups to which the bags were attached, and the rachet
and clamps on two filter bags had become loose enough to allow some
inlet gases to pass through the baghouse untreated. Therefore, the
batch kettle outlet data collected at the plant do not represent normal
fabric filter operation on a batch kettle calciner and have not been
tabulated. Method 5 tests on the inlet to the fabric filter were
conducted over short intervals (approximately 20 minutes) during the
middle of the batch. The inlet test data do not, therefore, represent
emissions over the entire batch cycle.
The continuous kettle calciner tests were conducted on the same
calciner and control device used for the batch kettle tests. The outlet
portion of continuous test Run No. 4 was repeated at the conclusion of
the other continuous test runs because of anisokinetic sampling
conditions. Therefore, the outlet continuous kettle data do not
C-8
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represent normal fabric filter emission control capabilities and have
not been tabulated. During the testing, the continuous kettle calciner
operated normally and at full capacity. Tests conducted at the inlet of
the continuous kettle calciner fabric filter are representative of
normal inlet loadings for this unit. The actual baghouse air-to-cloth
ratio during testing was 4.6:1. ,
During the batch and continuous kettle tests, an undetached steam
plume existed at the outlet of the baghouse stack. This plume
occasionally caused some difficulty in estimating plume opacity at the
point where the steam plume dissipated. All VE observations recorded
were 0 percent opacity.
C.I.8.5 Plant H4—EPA Test. Emission tests were conducted at the
inlet and outlet of the fabric filter controlling the direct-contact
flash calciner at Plant H4. The calciner operated at greater than
95 percent of capacity during the testing and was fired with natural
gas. No abnormalities in fabric filter operation were noted in the test
report. Visible emission observations were made during the particulate
testing. All readings were 0 percent opacity. Three particle size
distribution tests were conducted at the inlet and one test was conducted
at the outlet of the fabric filter. A shutdown of the calciner at the
beginning of Run No. 1 delayed testing for about 2 hours. The outlet
test of Run No. 1 was subsequently voided and replaced by a later test.
No other process operating problems occurred during the test series.
C.I.8.6 Plant H5—Industry Test. Figure C-ll is a schematic of
the system tested. The direct-contact flash calciner at Plant H5 is
controlled by a fabric filter. Particulate emission tests were conducted
at the fabric filter outlet. The calciner operated at full design
capacity during the testing, and no equipment operating problems were
observed. The calciner was fired with residual fuel oil. The air-to-
cloth ratio for the fabric filter was 3.2:1. Because the isokinetic
sampling ratio was out of specification, Run No. 1 was repeated. Data
.from the first Run No. 1 are not recorded in the test report. Visible
emission measurements were made concurrently with the particulate testing.
The 6-minute average opacities ranged from 0 to 0.6 percent.
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C.I.9 Industrial Sand
C.I.9.1 Plant II—EPA Tests. Figures C-12 and C-13 are schematics
of the systems tested. Participate emission tests were conducted at the
inlets and outlets of wet scrubbers controlling emissions from a fluid
bed dryer and from a rotary dryer at Plant II. Particulate tests were
also conducted at the exhaust duct of a fugitive emissions control hood
for the fluid bed dryer finished product conveyor belt. The hood
represents a source of particulate matter being discharged to the
scrubber inlet and, hence, required testing to evaluate scrubber perfor-
mance. Particle size distribution testing was performed at the fluid
bed dryer hood exhaust outlet and at the rotary dryer scrubber outlet.
Particle size distributions at the fluid bed dryer scrubber outlet could
not be obtained because of entrained water droplets present in the stack
gas.
The direct-fired fluid bed dryer operated at 97 percent of design
capacity and was fired by propane gas. Pressure drop for the fluid bed
dryer's wet scrubber averaged 0.7 kPa (3.0 in. w.c.), and the water flow
rate ranged from 806 to 1,003 £pm (213 to 165 gpm) during the tests.
The rotary dryer operated at 100 percent of capacity during the/tests
and was fired by propane gas. The pressure drop across the rotary
dryer's cyclonic scrubber averaged 0.7 kPa (3.0 in. w.c.) during the
tests. The water flow rate averaged 58.7 2pm (15.5 gpm).
Visible emission observations were made at both wet scrubber exhaust
stacks. Fugitive emission observations were made at the fluid bed dryer
process inlet and outlet and at the rotary dryer process inlet. Six-
minute average opacity measurements at the rotary dryer scrubber outlet
ranged from 0 to 0.6 percent. The 6-minute average opacities for the
fluid bed dryer stack ranged from 0 to 1.5 percent. Fugitive emission
observations at the rotary dryer process inlet resulted in 6-minute
average opacities of 0.2 to 4.2 percent. All fugitive emission observa-
tions at the fluid bed dryer process inlet and outlet were zero percent
opacity. All process conditions were normal during test activities, and
no operating problems occurred.
C.I.9.2 Plant 12—Industry Test. Figure C-14 is a schematic of
the system tested. Particulate emission tests were conducted at the
C-10
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outlet of an impinjet wet scrubber controlling emissions from a fluid
bed dryer at Plant 12. The dryer operated at 91 percent of capacity
during the tests and was fired by propane gas. The scrubber operated
with a water flow rate of approximately 5.68 £/min (150 gpm), The
pressure drop for the scrubber measured 0.8 kPa (3 in.w.c.). No
operating or process difficulties were indicated in the test report.
C.I.9.3 Plant 13—Industry Test. Particulate emission tests were
conducted at the outlet of a venturi scrubber controlling emissions from
a fluid bed dryer at Plant 13. The dryer operated at maximum capacity
during the tests and was fired by No. 2 fuel oil. Actual operating
parameters for the scrubber were not reported. Design parameters of the
wet scrubber include a gas flow rate of 9.12 m3/s (19,300 acfm), liquid
flow rate of 341 £/min (90 gpm), and a gas pressure drop across the
throat of 4.38 kPa (1.75 in. w.c.). No operating or process upsets were
noted in the test report.
C.I.9.4 Plant 14—Industry Test. Figure C-15 is a schematic of
the plant tested. Particulate emissions were conducted at the outlet of
a wet scrubber controlling emissions from a fluid bed dryer/cooler unit
at Plant 14. The scrubber was preceded by twin cyclones. The dryer
operated at 103 percent of design capacity during the tests and was
fired by natural gas. A summary of visible emission observations in the
test report indicated that the 6-minute average opacity ranged from 5 to
10 percent. No equipment operating problems were noted.
C.I.10 Kaolin
C.I.10.1 Plant Jl—EPA Tests. Figures C-16 and C-17 are schematics
of the systems tested. The inlet and outlet of the venturi scrubber
controlling a multiple hearth furnace and the inlet and outlet to the
fabric filter controlling a flash calciner were tested at Plant Jl.
Particle size distribution samples were collected at all test sites
except the outlet of the scrubber. Particle size determinations were
not possible at this location because of the large quantity of water
droplets in the exhaust gases. Visible emission observations were made
at the exhaust stacks of the scrubber and fabric filter, and fugitive
emission observations were made at the product discharge point of the
flash calciner. The product feed and discharge points of the multiple
C-ll
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hearth furnace were totally enclosed; therefore, process fugitive
emissions were not monitored at these locations.
The multiple hearth furnace and flash calciner operated at
115 percent and 82 percent of design capacity, respectively, during the
tests and were fired by natural gas. All process conditions were normal
during the testing except that the multiple hearth furnace was shut down
for a period of 8 minutes during Run No. 2 due to problems with the
product screw conveyor. Testtng was discontinued for this period.
Excessive visible emissions were noted from the exhaust stack of
the fabric filter during Run No. 1 for the flash calciner. Two bags
were found to be loose. This problem was corrected for Run Nos. 2
and 3. Six-minute average opacities for Run No. 1 were 0 to 0.6 percent.
The opacity during all other runs was" 0 percent.
Visible emission observations for the multiple hearth furnace
scrubber were all 0 percent. Process fugitive emission observations of
the flash calciner inlet resulted in 6-minute average opacities of 0.8
to 8.9 percent.
C.I.10.2 Plant J2--Industry Tests. Figures C-18 and C-19 are
schematics of the two systems tested. Particulate emission tests were
conducted at the outlet of a shaker-type fabric filter controlling
emissions from a spray dryer and at the outlet of a wet scrubber
controlling emissions from a multiple hearth furnace at Plant J2. The
spray dryer operated at 81 percent of capacity, and the multiple hearth
furnace operated at 110 percent of capacity during the tests. Each unit
was fired by natural gas.
Actual operating parameters for the two control devices were not
reported. Design parameters for the fabric filter include gas flow rate
of 1,699 mVmin (60,000 acfm), pressure drop of 0.25 kPa (1 in. w.c.),
total cloth area of 2,997 m2 (32,256 ft*), and air-to-cloth ratio of
2.7:1. Design parameters for the wet scrubber include gas flow rate of
5.71 m3/s (12,100 acfm), pressure drop across the entire system of 4.5
to 5.3 kPa (18 to 21 in. w.c.), and liquid flow rate of 511 £/min
(135 gpm). No process upsets were noted in the test report.
C.I. 10.3 Plant J3—Industry Test. Figure C-18 is a schematic of
the system tested. Particulate emission tests were conducted at the
C-12.
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outlet of the fabric filter controlling emissions from a spray dryer.
The dryer operated at 83 percent of design capacity during the tests.
The design air-to-cloth ratio for the fabric filter is 3.8:1, and the
design pressure drop across the unit is 1.5 kPa (6 in. w.c.). The
report noted that isokinetic sampling ratios were 100 percent ±10 percent.
Individual isokinetic ratios were not reported for each run. No process
upsets were noted in the report.
C.I.10.4 Plant J4--Industry Test. Figure C-18 is a schematic of
the system tested. Particulate emission tests were conducted on a
shaker-type fabric filter controlling emissions from a spray dryer. The
dryer operated at 104 percent of maximum capacity during the tests and
was fired by natural gas. Actual baghouse operating parameters were not
reported. Design parameters for the fabric filter include an inlet gas
flow rate of 39.18 m3/s (83,000 acfm), a total cloth area of 4,459 m2
(48,000 ft2), and an air-to-cloth ratio of 1.7:1. No process upsets
were noted in the test report.
C.I.11 Lightweight Aggregate
C.I. 1.1.1 Plant Kl—EPA Test.- Figure C-20 is a schematic of the
system tested. Particulate emission tests were conducted on the inlet
and outlet of a medium-energy wet scrubber controlling emissions from a
rotary calciner at Plant Kl. Other tests included sulfur dioxide,
nitrogen oxide, and hydrocarbon emissions (outlet only) and particle
size distribution (inlet and outlet). Visible emission observations
were made at the scrubber stack, and fugitive emission observations were
made at the calciner seals.
The rotary calciner operated at 83 percent of design capacity
during the te.sts and was fired by pulverized coal. No instrumentation
was present at the test site to indicate water flow rate to the wet
scrubber or the inlet and outlet gas flow rates, temperatures, or
pressure drop. The design pressure drop is 1.5 kPa (6 in. w.c.). The
6-minute average opacities at the scrubber stack ranged from 0 to
3.8 percent. All process fugitive emission observations were zero
percent opacity. No process upsets were reported.
C.I.11.2 Plant K2--EPA Test. Figure C-20 is a schematic of the
system tested. Emission tests were conducted on a rotary calciner at
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Plant K2 that was controlled by a wet scrubber. The production rate
during the test was kept constant at 83 percent of design capacity. The
calciner was fired with pulverized coal. No instrumentation was present
at the plant to measure the scrubber pressure drop, inlet and outlet gas
flow rates and temperatures, or liquid flow rates.
Particulate and particle size tests were conducted simultaneously
at the scrubber inlet and outlet test locations. The first set of
particulate tests at the scrubber inlet was voided due to an excessive
post-test leak and loss of sample during the recovery phase. These data
were not included in the report. The scrubber mist eliminator was not
functional during testing; therefore, outlet data are not representative
of normal scrubber performance and are not included.
Three particle size distribution samples were collected at the
scrubber inlet. Tests for sulfur dioxide were conducted simultaneously
at the scrubber inlet and outlet test locations, and tests for nitrogen
dioxide and hydrocarbon contents in the scrubber exhaust gas were
performed concurrent with the S02 tests. Visible emission observations
and S02 tests performed at the scrubber outlet are not representative
due to the faulty mist eliminator. Fugitive emission observations were
made at the calciner feed inlet and at the calciner seals. The 6-minute
average opacities at the inlet ranged from 6.3 to 10.0 percent, All
opacities were 0 percent at the calciner seals. The process operated
normally for the duration of the tests.
C.I. 11.3 Plant K3—Industry Test. Figure C-21 is a schematic of
the systems tested. Particulate emission tests were conducted at the
outlets of wet scrubbers controlling emissions from two rotary calciners
at Plant K3. The calciners operated at 109 and 100 percent of design
capacity, respectively, and were fired by pulverized coal. The pressure
drop across each of the scrubbers was 3.5 kPa (14 in. w.c.). During the
tests on one calciner, a multiple cyclone collector preceded the wet
scrubber for product recovery. The cyclone collector was bypassed
during the tests on the other calciner. Measurements of S02 concentra-
tion were also made at the multiple cyclone collector inlet. No process
upsets were reported in the test reports.
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C.I.11.4 Plant K4--Industry Test. Figure C-22 is a schematic of
the system tested. Particulate emission tests were conducted at the
outlet of a wet scrubber (gravity spray chamber) controlling emissions
from a rotary calciner. The calciner operated at 92 percent of capacity
during the tests and was fired by No. 2 fuel oil. Visible emission
observations were made at the scrubber outlet after completion of the
third particulate run and have not been tabulated. The design pressure
drop for the wet scrubber is 0.5 kPa (2 in. w.c.). The pressure drop
during the test was not reported. During the period of testing, the
plant and all associated air pollution control equipment were operating
normally.
C.I.11.5 Plant K5--Industry Test. Figure C-23 is a schematic of
the system tested. Particulate emission tests were conducted at the
inlet and outlet of a reverse-air fabric filter controlling emissions
from a rotary calciner. The calciner operated at maximum capacity
during the tests and was fueled by pulverized coal. Actual operating
parameters for the fabric filter were not reported. Design parameters
for the fabric filter include a total cloth area of 520 m2 (5,600 ft2),
a pressure drop of 1.2 to 1.9 kPa (5 to 8 in. w.c.), and an air-to-cloth
ratio of 5:1.
During Run No. 2, a malfunction of the coal mill caused a temporary
shutdown of the system. Testing was resumed in about 2 minutes. No
other process upsets were noted in the test report.
C.I.11.6 Plant K6--EPA Test. Emission tests were conducted on a
medium-energy impinjet wet scrubber controlling emissions from a rotary
calciner. The rotary calciner operated at 100 percent of design capacity
and was fired with pulverized coal. Tests included particulate emissions,
sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxide, and hydrocarbon emissions, and trace
metal content.
Some problems occurred during hydrocarbon sampling due to the high
moisture content of the scrubber exhaust gas. Subsequently, only 1 hour
of continuous hydrocarbon monitoring data was obtained. The hydrocarbon
concentrations varied from 140 to 220 ppm with an average concentration
of 175 ppm as methane. This average concentration corresponds to an
emission rate of 4.2 kg/h (9.3 Ib/h).
C-15
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Visible emission observations were made at the scrubber exhaust
stack, and fugitive emission observations were made at the calciner
seals. The 6-minute average opacity measurements at the scrubber outlet
ranged from 0 to 15 percent. All fugitive emission observations were
0 percent opacity.
No instrumentation was present at the test site to indicate the
water flow rate, the inlet and outlet gas flow rates, or pressure drop
for the wet scrubber. The design pressure drop across the wet scrubber
is 2.5 kPa (10 in. w.c.). Process operations were normal.
C.I. 12 Magnesium Compounds
C.I.12.1 Plant LI—Industry Test. Figure C-24 is a schematic of
the system tested. Particulate emission tests were conducted at the
outlet of a reverse-air fabric filter controlling emissions from a
multiple hearth furnace. The furnace operated at 85 percent of capacity
(based on process feed rates) during the test and was fired by No. 6
fuel oil. The report notes that opacity was observed by State testing
personnel and that all opacity readings were 0 percent. The air-to-cloth
ratio of the fabric filter during the tests was 1.4:1. Process
operations were normal.
C.I. 12.2 Plant L2—Industry Test. Figure C-25 is a schematic of
the system tested. Particulate emission tests were conducted at the
outlet of two ESP's in series controlling emissions from a rotary
calciner. The calciner operated at 92 percent of capacity during the
tests and was fired by natural gas. The combined specific collection
area of the two ESP's was 1.8 m2 per mVmin (550 ft3/1,000 acfm) during
the tests. No process upsets were noted in the report.
C.I.12.3 Plant 13—Industry Test. Emission tests were conducted
at the outlet of the wet scrubber controlling emissions from a rotary
calciner. The scrubber was preceded by a product recovery cyclone.
During the tests, pressure drop across the scrubber was 2.5 kPa (10 in.
w.c.). The calciner operated at 95 percent of capacity during the tests
and was fired by No. 6 fuel oil. No process upsets were noted in the
test report.
C.1.12.4 Plant L4--Industry Test. Particulate emission tests were
conducted at the outlet of an ESP controlling emissions from a rotary
C-16
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calciner. Based on process feed rates, the calciner operated at maximum
capacity during the tests and was fired by natural gas. The specific
collection area of the ESP was 4.8 m2 per mVmin (1,458 ft2/!,000 acfm)
during the tests. No process upsets were noted in the test report.
C.I.13 Perlite
C.I.13.1 Plant Ml—EPA Test. Figure C-26 is a schematic of the
system tested. Emission tests were conducted on the identical East and
West stacks of a fabric filter controlling emissions from a perlite
expansion furnace at Plant Ml. The fabric filter was preceded by a
product collection cyclone. Visible emission observations were made at
the two outlet stacks simultaneously with the particulate tests. Visible
emission measurements of process fugitive emissions were made at the
expansion furnace feed inlet. No VE measurements were taken at the
product outlet because the system is totally enclosed with no visible
leaks. One particle size distribution test (at the fabric filter West
stack) was conducted, and trace metal analyses were performed on the
Method 5 particulate catches from the two stacks. The expansion furnace
operated at 93 percent of design capacity during the test series, and
natural gas was used to fire the furnace. All processes operated
normally during the emission testing.
Two of the four fabric filter fans malfunctioned on three separate
occasions during the test series. Since testing was discontinued, none
of the malfunctions affected any of the Method 5 test runs. As a result
of the malfunctions, Run No. 3 (Method 5) was performed at night, and VE
readings could not be taken. Also, only one 2-hour particle size run
was completed because of the fan malfunctions.
The 6-minute average opacity measurements made at the baghouse
stacks ranged from 0 to 20 percent. Fugitive emissions were observed at
the furnace feed inlet using Method 22 instead of Method 9. The per-
centage of time with visible emissions at this location ranged from 0 to
91 percent.
C.I.13.2 Plant M2--Industry Test. Figure C-27 is a schematic of
the system tested. Particulate emission tests were conducted at the
outlet of the fabric filter controlling emissions from two rotary dryers.
The dryers operated at 139 percent of capacity (combined production) and
C-17
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were fired by diesel fuel. The fabric filter was preceded by dual
cyclones (one on each dryer for product recovery). Visible emission
observations were made by State personnel at the fabric filter outlet.
Average opacities ranged from 0 to 15 percent. Actual fabric filter
operating parameters were not reported. Design parameters of the fabric
filter include a gas flow rate of 1,274 mVmin (45,000 acfm), a total
cloth area of 637 m2 (22,500 ft2), and air-to-cloth ratio of 2.0:1
during normal cycles. The design pressure drop is 0.7 kPa (3 in. w.c.).
No process upsets were noted in the test report.
C.I.13.3 Plant M3--Industry Test. Particulate emission tests were
conducted at the outlet of a reverse-air fabric filter controlling
emissions from an expansion furnace. The furnace operated at maximum
capacity during the tests and was fired by natural gas. No process
upsets were noted in the test report. The baghouse air-to-cloth ratio
was not reported.
C.I.14 Roofing Granules
C.I.14.1 Plant Nl—Industry Test. Particulate emission tests were
conducted at the outlet of a wet scrubber controlling emissions from a
rotary dryer. The dryer operated at maximum capacity during the tests
and was fired by No. 2 fuel oil. The pressure drop for the scrubber was
1.1 kPa (4.5 in. w.c.) during the tests. No process upsets were noted
in the report.
C.I.15 Titanium Dioxide
C.I.15.1 Plant PI—EPA Tests. Figures C-28 and C-29 are
schematics of the systems tested. Tests were conducted on two fabric
filters and a wet scrubber controlling emissions from spray dryer Nos. 1
and 2 at Plant PI during production of titanium dioxide (Ti02) by the
chloride process. Tests were also conducted at the outlets of two I.D.
fans that precede control equipment (conditioning towers, two wet ESP's,
and a wet scrubber) for a rotary calciner during production of Ti02 by
the sulfate process. The spray dryers operated at 80 percent of design
capacity during the tests. The actual air-to-cloth ratio for the spray
dryer No. 1 baghouse was 3.5:1. The rotary calciner operated at
90 percent of capacity during all tests. The dryers and the calciner
were fired with natural gas. Tests included particulate emissions,
C-18
-------
particle size distributions, visible and fugitive emissions, sulfur
dioxide and nitrogen oxide emissions, and trace metal content. The actual
SCA for the calciner ESP's was 0.75 m2 per mVmin (228 ft2/!,000 acfm).
The actual pressure drop for the wet scrubber is given in the Confidential
Addendum.
During dryer Run No. 2, the feed mechanisms of spray dryer No. 1
automatically shut down for no apparent reason, and testing was discon-
tinued. Plant personnel restarted the unit, and within 1 hour the
process achieved a steady state. Testing was then resumed. No particle
size testing was conducted during Run No. 4.
During tests of the rotary calciner, the East conditioning tower
Was partially plugged, causing an uneven distribution in the volume of
exhaust gas coming from the rotary calciner to each of the two con-
ditioning towers. The product quality, uncontrolled emission level, and
overall control process were not affected by this uneven distribution.
During calciner Run Nos. 2 and 3, the West conditioning tower flow
meter was not functioning properly. Between Run Nos. 2 and 3, the
natural gas to the rotary calciner was shut off for approximately
10 minutes because several bricks from the calciner lining plugged the
discharge end of the calciner. The problem was immediately corrected,
and Run No. 3 was started when the kiln achieved normal operation.
Because of the presence of water droplets in the flue gas, particle
sizing was not performed in the spray dryers wet scrubber stack, the
calciner exhaust stack, and the outlets from the East and West ESP's.
Six-minute average opacities measured at the spray dryer's wet
scrubber outlet ranged from 1.5 to 19 percent. Visible emission
observations were not made during Run No. 12 because of cloudy
conditions. Average opacity was 0 percent at the outlet of the rotary
calciner wet scrubber.
C.I.15.2 Plant PI—Industry Test. Figure C-30 is a schematic of
the system tested. Particulate and S02 emission tests were conducted at
the outlet of the ESP controlling emissions from a rotary calciner
producing Ti02 by the sulfate process. The calciner operated at
85 percent of design capacity and was fired by natural gas. The ESP was
C-19
-------
preceded by a conditioning tower and was followed by a wet scrubber. No
process upsets are noted in the report.
C.I. 15.3 Plant P2--EPA Test. Particulate emission tests were
conducted at the outlet of the fabric filter controlling emissions from
a spray dryer at Plant P2. Four particle size distribution tests were
conducted at the fabric filter outlet. However, the results of the
first run were not reported because the impactor stages were loaded
incorrectly with the filter media. Visible emission observations were
made at the fabric filter exhaust stack. The 6-minute average opacities
ranged from 0 to 0.8 percent. A trace metals analysis was also performed
on the Method 5 particulate catch. No process upsets were noted. All
information regarding process operation during testing is presented in
the Confidential Addendum to this document.
C.I.15.4 Plant P3—Industry Test. Particulate emission tests were
conducted at the outlet of a wet scrubber controlling emissions from a
flash dryer. The dryer operated at 93 percent of capacity during the
tests and was fired by natural gas. There were no process upsets noted
in the test report. Actual operating parameters for the wet scrubber
are given in the Confidential Addendum to this document.
C.I.16 Vermiculite
C.I.16.1 Plant Ql—Industry Test. Figure C-31 is a schematic of
the system tested. Particulate emission tests were conducted on the
outlet of a wet scrubber controlling emissions from a rotary dryer. The
dryer operated at 86 percent of capacity during the tests and was fired
by No. 4 fuel oil. Inclement weather prevented measurement of VE's
during the test series. Actual operating parameters for the wet scrubber
were not reported. The design pressure drop for the wet scrubber is
1.2 kPa (5 in. w.c.). No process upsets were noted in the test report.
C.2 SUMMARY OF TEST DATA
The EPA-conducted and EPA-approved test data are summarized in this
section. Metric/English conversions and test series averages may not
convert exactly due to independent rounding of data. Test data collected
at each plant are presented in the following tables and figures:
Plant Al: Tables C-l to C-2
C-20
-------
Plant A2:
Plant Bl:
Plant Cl:
Plant C3:
Plant Dl:
Plant El:
Plant E2:
Plant E3:
Plant Fl:
Plant F2:
Plant F3:
Plant Gl:
Plant HI:
Plant H2:
Plant H3:
Plant H4:
Plant H5:
Plant II:
Plant 12:
Plant 13:
Plant 14:
Plant 01:
Plant J2:
Plant J3:
Plant J4:
Plant Kl:
Plant K2:
Plant K3:
Plant K4:
Plant K5:
Plant K6:
Plant LI:
Plant L2:
Plant L3:
Plant L4:
Plant Ml:
Plant M2:
Plant M3:
Plant Nl:
Plant PI:
Plant P2:
Plant P3:
Plant Ql:
Tables C-3 to C-5
Table C-6
Tables C-7 to C-ll, and Figure C-31
Table C-12
Table C-13
Table C-14
Table C-15
Table C-16
Tables C-17 to C-29,
Tables G-30 to C-31,
Tables C-41 to C-47,
Tables C-48 to C-51,
and Figures C-32 to C-35
and Figure C-36
Tables C-32 to C-39, and Figures C-37 to C-39
Table C-40
and Figure C-40
and Figures C-41 to C-42
Tables C-52 to C-53, and Figures C-43 to C-44
Tables C-54 to C-55, and Figures C-45 to C-46
Tables C-56 and C-57
Tables C-58 to C-65, and Figures C-47 to C-50
Table C-66
Table C-67
Table C-68
Tables C-69 to C-74, and Figures C-51 to C-53
Tables C-75 to C-76
Table C-77
Table C-78
Tables C-79 to C-86,
Tables C-87 to C-91,
Tables C-92 to C-94
Table C-95
Tables C-96 to C-97
Tables C-98 to C-103,
Table C-104
Table C-105
Table C-106
Table C-107
Tables C-108 to C-115,
Tables C-116 to C-119
Table C-120
Table C-121
and Figures C-54 to C-56
and Figure C-57
and Figure C-58
and Figure C-59
Tables C-122 to C-137,
Tables C-138 to C-142
Table C-143
Table C-144
and Figures C-60 to C-63
C.3 TEST DATA NOT USED IN DATA BASE
Emission data from five EPA-conducted source tests were not used in
the data base. The reasons for the exclusion of these data are explained
below.
C-21
-------
Data from emission tests at gypsum Plants H2 and H6 were excluded
because the process unit operating capacity was below the acceptable
level (at least 80 percent) selected as representative of normal operating
conditions.
Data from the scrubber outlet at lightweight aggregate Plant K2
were excluded because the scrubber mist eliminator did not function
properly during testing. Therefore, the outlet data are not representa-
tive of normal scrubber performance.
Data from emission tests at lightweight aggregate Plant K7 were not
used because the scrubber water pump malfunctioned during testing.
Therefore, the test data are not representative of normal scrubber
operation.
Data from the baghouse outlet on the No. 2 spray dryer at titanium
dioxide Plant PI were excluded because the measured outlet concentration
of 4 gr/dscf is not considered representative of a well operated baghouse.
Because of the ductwork configuration at this plant, VE's from the
baghouse outlet cannot be observed; but due to high outlet concentrations,
some bags must have been torn or broken.
C.4 SCRUBBER MODELING
Venturi scrubber performance modeling was performed to predict the
operating pressure drop required to achieve the particulate emission
levels of RA I, II, and III, for process units for which EPA-approved
emission test data on venturi scrubbers are unavailable. Table C-145
summarizes the input variables selected for each unit and the pressure
drop required to achieve the emission levels of RA I, II, and III as
determined by the computer model.
For some process units, inlet mass loading and/or particle size
distribution data were unavailable. In these cases, product particle
size sieve analyses and process unit controllabilities (as indicated
by outlet data) were compared with units for which inlet data were
available, and the input variables were estimated. Table C-146
summarizes the product particle size sieve analysis data.
C-22
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C-26
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Figure C-6. Process schematic and sampling points—Plant F3.
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TABLE C-2. SUMMARY OF VISIBLE EMISSIONS—PLANT Alc
Date
Industry
Process unit
Location of discharge
Height of observation point, ft
Height of point of discharge, ft
Distance from observer to discharge point, ft
Direction of observer from discharge point
Description of background
Description of sky
Wind direction
Wind velocity, mph
Color of plume
Duration of observation, minis
Period of observation
8/19/81
8/20/81
Highest single reading, percent
Highest 6-minute average opacity, percent
8/19-20/81
Alumina
Flash calciner
ESP outlet
120
200; 300; 200
W; E; W
Sky
Partly cloudy and hazy;
partly cloudy; cloudy
NNW; N;N
20; 25; 20
White; white; white;
5:15; 5:15; 5:15
1255-1300:15
1015-1020:15
1640-1645:15
10
6.7
Data based on 5 minute, 15 second periods of observation during 3 runs.
&3
10
15
SET NUMBER
20
25
30
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Figure C-31. Particle size distribution data:
rotary dryer—Plant Cl.
C-61
-------
TABLE C-9. SUMMARY OF VISIBLE EMISSIONS—PLANT Cl
Date
Industry
Process unit
Location of discharge
Height of observation point, ft
Height of point of discharge, ft
Distance from observer to discharge point, ft
Direction of observer from discharge point
Description of background
Description of sky
Wind direction
Wind velocity, mph
Color of plume
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Highest single reading, percent
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9/20/83
Bentonite
Rotary dryer
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45
50
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NW
10-15
White
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1300-1633
10.0
2.5
10
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10
15
SET NUMBER
30
C-62
-------
TABLE C-10. SUMMARY OF VISIBLE EMISSIONS—PLANT Cl
Date
Industry
Process unit
Location of discharge
Height of observation point, ft
Height of point of discharge, ft
Distance from observer to discharge point, ft
Direction of observer from discharge point
Description of background
Description of sky .
Wind direction
Wind velocity, mph
Color of plume
Duration of observation, min
Period of observation
9/21/83
Bentonite
Rotary dryer
Baghouse outlet
45
45
50
Building
Partly cloudy
W
10-15
White
210
1545-1915
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20
25
30
10
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40
45
SET NUMBER
so
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C-63
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TABLE C-ll. SUMMARY OF VISIBLE EMISSIONS—PLANT Cl
Date
Industry
Process unit
Location of discharge
Height of observation point, ft
Height of point of discharge, ft
Distance from observer to discharge point, ft
Direction of observer from discharge point
Description of background
Description of sky
Wind direction
Wind velocity, mph
Color of plume
Duration of observation, min
Period of observation
Highest single reading, percent
Highest 6-minute average, percent
9/22/83
Bentonite
Rotary dryer
Baghouse outlet
45
45
50
Building
Clear
W
5-10
White
204
1030-1354
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C-71
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C-73
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TABLE C-20. SUMMARY OF VISIBLE EMISSIONS—PLANT Fl
Date
Industry
Process unit
Location of discharge
Height of observation point, ft
Height of point of discharge, ft
Distance from observer to discharge point, ft
Direction of observer from discharge point
Description of background
Description of sky
Wind direction
Wind velocity, mph
Color of plume
Duration of observation, min
Period of observation
Highest single reading, percent
Highest 6-minute average, percent
3/13/84
Fire clay
Rotary dryer-Flint clay
Scrubber outlet
60
150
Light grey
Overcast
E
0-5
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164
1445-1645
1647-1731
10
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9
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SET NIHCER
C-75
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TABLE C-21. SUMMARY OF VISIBLE EMISSIONS—PLANT Fl
Date
Industry
Process unit
Location of discharge
Height of observation point, ft
Height of point of discharge, ft
Distance from observer to discharge point, ft
Direction of observer from discharge point
Description of background
Description of sky
Wind direction
Wind velocity, mph
Color of plume
Duration of observation, minis
Period of observation
Highest single reading, percent
Highest 6-minute average, percent
3/14/84
Fire clay
Rotary dryer-Flint clay
Scrubber outlet
60
150
Light grey
Overcast
N
5-10
White
114
1315-1349:15
1420-1545
5
3.5
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SET NUMBER
C-76
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TABLE C-22. TRACE METALS CONCENTRATIONS AND ANALYTICAL RESULTS—PLANT Fl
Industry: Fire clay
Process unit: Rotary dryer—Plastic clay
Sample source: Method 5 particulate catch
Element
Aluminum
Beryllium
Calcium
Chromium
Fl uori ne
Iron
Lead
Magnesium
Manganese
Mercury
Nickel
Silicon
Titanium
Uranium
Vanadium
Zinc
Run No. 11:
Cyclone
inlet3
2,310
(7,439)
0.080
(0.771)
70.5
(153)
5.42
(9.0557)
c
190
(296)
0.898
(0.377)
8.29
(29.6)
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0.0195
(0.00845)
2.80
(4.14)
c
2. 5
(4.54)
c
3.560
(6.07)
2.060
(2.74)
Run No. 14:
Scrubber
inlet
442
(848)
0.012
(0.0690)
12.6
(16.3)
1.09
(1.08)
c
32.3
(29.9)
0.171
(0.0427)
8.56
(18.2)
BDLd
0.005
(0.00129)
0.816
(0.719)
c
0.67
(0.724)
c
0.702
(0.713)
0.288
(0.228)
Run No. 17:;
Scrubber
outlet3
13.9
(7: 15)
BDLb
5,23
(1.81)
0.036
(0.096)
c
1.46
(0.363)
0.0217
(0.00145)
1.68
(0.959)
0.012
(0.00303)
0.0024
(0.000166)
0.042
(0.00992)
c
0.22
.. (0.0637)
c
0.021
(0.00572)
0.113
(0.0240)
,mg (ppm) of impinger solution.
Below detection limit of 0.001 mg.
.Not reported.
Below detection limit of 0.02 mg.
C-77
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C-79
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rotary dryer scrubber inlet (flint clay)---Plant Fl.
C-81
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C-82
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TABLE C-26. SUMMARY OF VISIBLE EMISSIONS—PLANT Fl
Date
Industry
Process unit
Location of discharge
Height of observation point, ft
Height of point of discharge, ft
Distance from observer to discharge point, ft
Direction of observer from discharge point
Description of background
Description of sky
Wind direction
Wind velocity, mph
Color of plume
Duration of observation, min
Period of observation
Highest single reading, percent
Highest 6-minute average, percent
3/14/84
Fire clay
Rotary dryer-Flint clay
Scrubber outlet
60
150
Light grey
Overcast
N
10-15
White
78
1615-1645
1715-1803
5
3.3
9
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1
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35 10 15 20 25 30
SET NUMBER
C-83
-------
TABLE C-27. SUMMARY OF VISIBLE EMISSIONS—PLANT Fl
Date
Industry
Process unit
Location of discharge
Height of observation point, ft
Height of point of discharge, ft
Distance from observer to discharge point, ft
Direction of observer from discharge point
Description of background
Description of sky
Wind direction
Wind velocity, mph
Color of plume
Duration of observation, min
Period of observation
Highest single reading, percent
Highest 6-minute average, percent
3/15/84
Fire clay
Rotary dryer-Plastic clay
Scrubber outlet
60
Grey
Overcast
N
5-10
White
120
1100-1155
1245-1345
5
3.0
s:
10
15
SET NUMBER
20
25
30
C-84
-------
TABLE C-28. SUMMARY OF VISIBLE EMISSIONS—PLANT Fl
Date
Industry
Process unit
Location of discharge
Height of observation point, ft
Height of point of discharge, ft
Distance from observer to discharge point, ft
Direction of observer from discharge point
Description of background
Description of sky
Wind direction
Wind velocity, mph
Color of plume
Duration of observation, min
Period of observation
Highest single reading, percent
Highest 6-minute average, percent
3/15/84
Fire clay
Rotary dryer-Plastic clay
Scrubber outlet
60
150
Grey
Overcast
NNE
5-10
White
108
1415-1600
5
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10
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3
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15
SET NUMBER
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25
30
C-85
-------
TABLE C-29. TRACE METALS CONCENTRATIONS AND ANALYTICAL RESULTS—PLANT Fl
Process unit: Rotary dryer—Flint clay
Sample source: Method 5 particulate catch
Element
Al umi num
Beryllium
Calcium
Chromium
Fluorine
Iron
Lead
Magnesium
Manganese
Mercury
Nickel
Silicon
Titanium
Uranium
Vanadium
Zinc
Run No. 3:
Cyclone
inlet3
955
(3,160)
0.010
(0.099)
9.51
(21.2)
2.72
(4.67)
c
105
(168)
0.484
(2.08)
17.1
(62.8)
0.750
(1.22)
0.005
(0.00213)
5.460
(8.30)
c
1.29
(2.40)
c
0.990
(1-73)
4.99
(6.81)
Run No. 6:
Scrubber
inlet
209
(261)
BDLb
2.79
(2.34)
0.356
(0.231)
c
28.4
(17.1)
0.156
(0.0254)
3.71
(5.14)
BDLd
0.003
(0.000571)
0.206
(0.118)
c
0.68
(0.478)
c
0.262
(0.173)
0.192
(0.0990)
Run No. 9:
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outlet3
13.5
(7.23)
BDLb
2.16
(0.780)
0.044
(0.0122)
c
2.08
(0.539)
0.0228
(0.00159)
0.50
(0.298)
0.016
(0.00421)
0.002
(0.000144)
0.028
(0.00690)
c
0.33
(0.0997)
c
0.028
(0.00795)
0.076
(0.0168)
.jug (ppm) of impinger solution.
Below detection limit of 0.001 mg.
.Not reported.
Below detection limit of 0.01 mg.
C-86
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TABLE C-36. TRACE METALS CONCENTRATIONS AND ANALYTICAL RESULTS—PLANT F3
Industry: Fire clay
Process unit: Rotary calciner
Sample source: Method 5 particulate catch
Element
Aluminum
Beryl 1 i urn
Calcium
Chromium
Fluorine
Iron
Lead
Magnesium
Manganese
Mercury
Nickel
Silicon
Titanium
Uranium
Vanadium
Zinc
?mg (ppm) of impinger solution.
Below detection limit of 0.010
Run No. 2:
Multiclone
inlet9
774
(817)
0.018
(0.0569)
18
(12.8)
1.58
(0.865)
c
69.8
(35.6)
0.431
(0.0592)
5.49
(6.43)
0.162
(0.084)
0.0318
(0.00451)
1.17
(0.567)
c
9.13
(5.43)
c
1.11
(0.62)
4.43
(1. 93.)
mg.
Run No. 11:
Scrubber
outlet9
8.3
(2.84)
BDLb
2.07
(0.477)
0.02
(0.00356)
c
0.88
(0.146)
0.0276
(0.00123)
0.22
(0.0837)
BDLd
0.003
(0.000138)
0.028
(0.00441)
c
0.27
(0, 0521)
c
0.056
(0.01)
0.067
(0.00947)
.Not reported.
Below detection limit of 0.01 mg.
C-97
-------
TABLE C-37. TRACE METALS CONCENTRATIONS AND ANALYTICAL RESULTS—PLANT F3
Industry: Fire clay
Process unit: Rotary calciner
Sample source: Method 5 particulate catch
Element
Aluminum
Beryl 1 i urn
Calcium
Chromium
Fluorine
Iron
Lead
Magnesium
Manganese
Mercury
Nickel
Silicon
Titanium
Uranium
Vanadi urn
Zinc
Run No. 5:
I. D. fan
inlet East
511
(598)
0.02
(0.07)
12.6
(9.92)
0.44
(0.267)
b
44.8
(25.3)
0.292
(0.0445)
5.00
(6.49)
0.088
(0.051)
0.0098
(0.00154)
0.376
(0.202)
b
6.90
(4.54)
b
0.76
(0.471)
0.332
(0.160)
Run No. 8:
I. D. fan
inlet Westa
27
(527)
0.016
(0.0566)
12.5
(9.95)
0.392
(0.240)
b
39.7
(22.7)
0.27
(0.0416)
4.34
(5.69)
0.056
(0.0325)
0.0132
(0.0021)
0.428
(0.233)
b
4.5
(3)
b
0.7
(0.438)
0.430
(0.210)
.mg (ppm) of impinger solution.
Not reported.
C-98
-------
TABLE C-38. SUMMARY OF SULFUR DIOXIDE EMISSIONS DATA—PLANT F3
.Industry: Fire clay
Process unit: Rotary calciner
Location of discharge: Scrubber outlet
Test location
Concen-
Date, tration,
1984 g/dsm3 (ppm)
Mass
emission
rate,
kg/h (Ib/h)
Temp.,
°C (°F)
Scrubber outlet
Run No. 10 4/17 1.15 (432) 56.8 (125) 60 (140)
Run No. 11 4/17 1.16 (434) 58.7 (130) 60 (140)
Run No. 12 4/18 1.07 (402) 55.2 (122) 61 (141)
Average — 1.13 (423) 56.9 (126) 60 (140)
C-99
-------
TABLE 039. SUMMARY OF NITROGEN OXIDE EMISSIONS DATA—PLANT F3
Industry: Fire clay
Process unit: Rotary calciner
Location of discharge: Scrubber outlet
Test location
Date,
1984
Concentration,
g/dsm3 (ppm)
Mass
emission rate,
kg/h (Ib/h)
Scrubber outlet
Sample No. 10A
Sample No. 10B
Sample No. IOC
Sample No. 10D
Average
4/17
4/17
4/17
4/17
0.520 (272)
0.526 (275)
0.503 (263)
0.483 (253)
0.508 (266)
25.6 (56.5)
25.9 (57.2)
24.8 (54.6)
23.8 (52.5)
25.0 (55.2)
Sample
Sample
Sample
Sample
Average
Sample
Sample
Sample
Sample
Average
No.
No.
No.
No.
No.
No.
No.
No.
11A
11B
11C
11D
12A
12B
12C
12D
4/17
4/17
4/17
4/17
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4/18
4/18
4/18
— —
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0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
572
566
612
635
596
577
562
723
596
614
(299)
(296)
(320)
(332)
(311)
(302)
(294)
(378)
(312)
(321)
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28.
31.
32.
30.
29.
29.
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C-105
-------
TABLE C-44. SUMMARY OF VISIBLE EMISSIONS—PLANT HI
Date
Industry
Process unit
Location of discharge
Height of observation point, ft
Height of point of discharge, ft
Distance from observer to discharge point, ft
Direction of observer from discharge point
Description of background
Description of sky
Wind direction
Wind velocity, mph
Color of plume
Duration of observation, min
Period of observation
6/3/80
6/4/80
Highest single reading, percent
Highest 6-minute average, percent
6/3-4/80
Gypsum
Kettle calciner
Baghouse outlet
Ground
Level 2 plus 5 ft
100
SW
Blue sky
Partly cloudy
W
5
White
348
0925-1130
1400-1542
0830-1030
5
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C-106
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C-108
-------
TABLE C-47. SUMMARY OF VISIBLE EMISSIONS—PLANT HI
Date
Industry
Process unit
Location of discharge
Height of observation point, ft
Height of point of discharge, ft
Distance from observer to discharge point, ft
Direction of observer from discharge point
Description of background
Description of sky
Wind direction
Wind velocity, mph
Color of plume
Duration of observation, min
Period of observation
5/5/80
5/6/80
5/6/80
Highest single reading, percent
Highest 6-minute average, percent
6/5-6/80
Gypsum
Rotary dryer
Baghouse outlet
10 ft below stack
Level 2 + 20 ft
15
W
Grey building
Partly cloudy
W
3-5
White
264
1810-1930
0930-1055
1150-1320
Not available
0.4
2.0
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1.6
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£1.0
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0.4
0.2
0.0
0
5 10 15 20 25 3
SET NUMBER
2.0
1.8
1.6
1.4
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0.4
0.2
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30 35 40 45 50 55
SET NUMBER
6C
C-109
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CUMULATIVE % LESS THAN
Figure C-41. Particle size distribution data:
flash calciner baghouse inlet—Plant H2.
99.99
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Figure C-42. Particle size distribution data:
flash calciner baghouse outlet (1 run)--Plant H2.
C-113
-------
TABLE C-50. SUMMARY OF VISIBLE EMISSIONS—PLANT H2
Date
Industry
Process unit
Location of discharge
Height of observation point, ft
Height of point of discharge, ft
Distance from observer to discharge point, ft
Direction of observer from discharge point
Description of background
Description of sky
Wind direction
Wind velocity, mph
Color of plume
Duration of observation, min
Period of observation
Highest single reading, percent
Highest 6-minute average, percent
5/19/80
Gypsum
Flash calciner
Baghouse outlet
10 ft above roof
25
S
Sky
Partly cloudy
W
10-15
White
120
1400-1600
Not available
1.0
2.0
1.8
1.6
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0.4
0.2
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SET NUMBER
20
25
30
C-114
-------
TABLE C-51- SUMMARY OF VISIBLE EMISSIONS—PLANT H2
Date
Industry
Process unit
Location of discharge
Height of observation point, ft
Height of point of discharge, ft
Distance from observer to discharge point, ft
Direction of observer from discharge point
Description of background
Description of sky
Wind direction
Wind velocity, mph
Color of plume
Duration of observation, min
Period of observation
Highest single reading, percent
Highest 6-minute average, percent
5/20/80
Gypsum
Flash calciner
Baghouse outlet
10 ft above roof
25
S
Sky
Partly cloudy
W
10-15
White
204
0934-1113
1333-1513
Not available
2.3
Z.4
2.Z
2.0
1.8
1.6
1.4
1.2
1.0
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0.6
0.4
0.2
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0
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mm
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5 10 IS 20 25 3
SET NUMBER
2.0
1.8
1.6
1.4
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C-115
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Figure C-43. Particle size distribution data:
kettle calciner baghouse inlet (batch)—Plant H3.
C-117
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CUMULATIVE % LESS THAN
Figure C-44. Particle size distribution data:
kettle calciner baghouse inlet (continuous)--Plant H3.
C-119
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CUMULATIVE % LESS THAN
Figure C-45. Particle size distribution data:
flash calciner baghouse inlet—Plant H4.
C-121
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flash calciner baghouse outlet—Plant H4.
C-123
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C-124
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TABLE C-57. SUMMARY OF VISIBLE EMISSIONS—PLANT H5
Date
Industry
Process unit
Location of discharge
Height of observation point, ft
Height of point of discharge, ft
Distance from observer to discharge point, ft
Direction of observer from discharge point
Description of background
Description of sky
Wind direction
Wind velocity, mph
Color of plume
Duration of observation, min
Period of observation
Highest single reading, percent
Highest 6-minute average, percent
3/21/78
Gypsum
Flash calciner
Baghouse outlet
20
50
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SE
3-5
48
a
1429-1445,
1627-1643C
5
0.6
Due to illegibility of the test report, actual time of the first periods
faof observations cannot be determined.
A 4-minute period of observation was made during this time.
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25
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C-125
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Figure C-47. Particle size distribution data:
fluid bed dryer hood exhaust outlet—^Plant II.
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fluid bed dryer scrubber inlet—Plant II.
C-129
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C-130
-------
TABLE C-61. SUMMARY OF VISIBLE EMISSIONS—PLANT II
Date
Industry
Process unit
Location of discharge
Height of observation point, ft
Height of point of discharge, ft
Distance from observer to discharge point, ft
Direction of observer from discharge point
Description of background
Description of sky
Wind direction
Wind velocity, mph
Color of plume
Duration of observation, min
Period of observation
Highest single reading, percent
Highest 6-minute average, percent
9/14/83
Industrial sand
Fluid bed dryer
Scrubber outlet
Ground
80
300
E
Blue sky, white clouds
Scattered
NE
3-4
Light beige
144
0900-0912
0912-10303
1035-11293
5
0.8
Opacity readings were not recorded for every 15-second time interval of
these periods due to interference by a plume from an adjacent stack.
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C-131
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Figure C-49. Particle size distribution data:
rotary dryer scrubber inlet—Plant II.
C-133
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Figure C-50. Particle size distribution data:
rotary dryer scrubber outlet—Plant II.
C-135
-------
TABLE 064. SUMMARY OF VISIBLE EMISSIONS—PLANT II
Date
Industry
Process unit
Location of discharge
Height of observation point, ft
Height of point of discharge, ft
Distance from observer to discharge point, ft
Direction of observer from discharge point
Description of background
Description of sky
Wind direction
Wind velocity, mph
Color of plume
Duration of observation, min:s
Period of observation
Highest single reading, percent
Highest 6-minute average, percent
9/15/83
Industrial sand
Rotary dryer
Scrubber outlet
100; 70
60
120; 600
SE; SW
Blue sky, green foliage
Clear
NE; ESE
7-8; 3-5
White
210
1200-1330
1345-1459:45
1520-1550:45
1551-1610:15
5
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50
55
60
C-136
-------
TABLE C-65. SUMMARY OF PROCESS FUGITIVE EMISSIONS—PLANT II
Date
Industry
Process unit
Period of observation
Location of discharge point
Highest single reading, percent
Highest 6-minute average, percent0
9/15/83
Industrial sand
Rotary dryer
12:00-16:11,
17:00-20:20
Conveyor discharge to dryer
5
4.2
All other 6-minute averages were 0 percent opacity.
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C-140
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C-141
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80
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0.01 0.1 0.5 2 5 10 20 30 50 70 80 90 95 98 99 99.8 99.99
CUMULATIVE % LESS THAN
Figure C-51. Particle size distribution data:
multiple hearth furnace scrubber inlet—Plant 01.
C-142
-------
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C-144
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100
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to
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0.01 0.1 0.5 2 5 10 20 30 50 70 80 90 95 98 99 99.8 99.99
CUMULATIVE % LESS THAN
Figure C-52. Particle size distribution data:
flash calciner baghouse inlet—Plant Jl.
C-145
-------
10
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0.01 0.1 0.5 2 5 10 20 30 50 70 80 90 95 98 99 99.8 99.99
CUMULATIVE % LESS THAN
Figure C-53. Particle size distribution data:
flash calciner baghouse outlet—Plant Jl.
C-147
-------
TABLE 073. SUMMARY OF VISIBLE EMISSIONS—PLANT Jl
Date
Industry
Process unit
Location of discharge
Height of observation point, ft
Height of point of discharge, ft
Distance from observer to discharge point, ft
Direction of observer from discharge point
Description of background
Description of sky
Wind direction
Wind velocity, mph
Color of plume
Duration of observation, min
Period of observation
Highest single reading, percent
Highest 6-minute average, percent
9/28/83
Kaolin
Flash calciner
Baghouse outlet
150
100
100
SE;S
Building; blue sky
scattered
5-10; 3-8
Light grey
144
1646-1710
1710-1910C
5
0.6
Opacity was not recorded for every 15-second time interval for this
period due to interference by a steam plume from an adjacent stack.
2.0
i.a
1.6
*1-4
.1-2
£l.°
o 0.8
£0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0
.
0 5 10 IS ZQ 25 3C
SET NUMBER
C-148
-------
TABLE C-74. SUMMARY OF PROCESS FUGITIVE EMISSIONS—PLANT Jl
Date
Industry
Process unit
Period of observation
Location of discharge point
Highest single reading, percent
Highest 6-minute average, percent3
9/28/83, 9/29/83
Kaolin
Flash calciner
(9/28) 16:35-19:15;
(9/29) 10:19-13:18, 14:33-17:30
I. D. fan on calciner inlet
100
8.9
Six-minute averages taken during testing were all 0 percent opacity unless
noted below.
September 28, 1983
10
9
8
~7
.6
£s
54
£3
2
1
0
-
0 5 10 15 20 25 . 30
SET NUMBER
10
9
8
~'7
.«
September 29, 1983
10
15
SET NUMBER
20
25
30
C-149
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Figure C-56. Particle size distribution data:
rotary calciner scrubber outlet (Run 5)—Plant Kl.
C-158
-------
TABLE C-81. SUMMARY OF VISIBLE EMISSIONS—PLANT Kl
Date
Industry
Process unit
Location of discharge
Height of observation point, ft
Height of point of discharge, ft
Distance from observer to discharge point, ft
Direction of observer from discharge point
Description of background
Description of sky
Wind direction
Wind velocity, mph
Color of plume
Duration of observation, min
Period of observation
Highest single reading, percent
Highest 6-minute average, percent
7/14/81
Lightweight aggregate
Rotary calciner
Scrubber outlet
8
150
400
E
Sky
Scattered
NW
0-5
White
90
1035-1129
1135-1153
1159-1229
1240-1310
1316-1334
5
1.5
2.0
1.8
1.6
-.I:!
£1.0
5 0.8
-------
TABLE C-82. SUMMARY OF VISIBLE EMISSIONS—PLANT Kl
Date
Industry
Process unit
Location of discharge
Height of observation point, ft
Height of point of discharge, ft
Distance from observer to discharge point, ft
Direction of observer from discharge point
Description of background
Description of sky
Wind direction
Wind velocity, mph
Color of plume
Duration of observation, min
Period of observation
Highest single reading, percent
Highest 6-minute average, percent
7/15/81
Lightweight aggregate
Rotary calciner
Scrubber outlet
8
150
400
E
Sky
Clear
NE
0-3
White
84
0900-0954
1000-1054
1100-1142
5
3.8
10
9
8
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SET NUMBER
C-160
-------
TABLE C-83. SUMMARY OF VISIBLE EMISSIONS—PLANT Kl
Date
Industry
Process unit
Location of discharge
Height of observation point, ft
Height of point of discharge, ft
Distance from observer to discharge point, ft
Direction of observer from discharge point
Description of background
Description of sky
Wind direction
Wind velocity, mph
Color of plume
Duration of observation, min
Period of observation
Highest single reading, percent
Highest 6-minute average, percent
7/15/81
Lightweight aggregate
Rotary calciner
Scrubber outlet
10
150
200
SE
Sky
Scattered
S
0-5
White
72.
1355-1613°
5
1.5
12 sets of 6-minute observations were made during this period.
2.0
i.a
1.6
I:1"2
o 0.8
§0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0
10
15
SET NUMBER
20
25
30
C-161
-------
TABLE C-84. SUMMARY OF SULFUR DIOXIDE EMISSIONS DATA—PLANT Kl
Industry: Lightweight aggregate
Process unit: Rotary calciner
Location of discharge: Scrubber inlet and outlet
Test location
Date,
1981
Concen-
tration,
g/dsm3 (ppm)
Mass
emission
rate, Temp. ,
kg/h (Ib/h) °C (0F)
Scrubber inletc
Run No. 1
Run No. 2
Average
Run No.
Run No.
Average
Run No.
Run No.
Average
7/17
7/17
7/17
7/17
7/17
7/17
1.04 (390)
1.76 (660)
1.40 (525)
1.67 (628)
1.69 (635)
1.68 (632)
1.61 (603)
1.69 (635)
1.65 (619)
70.9 (156)
120 (265)
95.6 (211)
114 (252)
116 (255)
115 (254)
110 (242)
116 (255)
113 (248)
Scrubber outlet
417 (782)
417 (782)
417 (982)
417 (782)
417 (782)
417 (782)
417 (782)
417 (782)
417 (782)
Run No. 1
Run No. 2
Average
Run No. 3
Run No. 4
Average
Run No. 5
Run No. 6
Average
7/17
7/17
7/17
7/17
7/17
7/17
0.349 (131)
0.508 (191)
0.429 (161)
0.421 (158)
0.469 (176)
0.445 (167)
0.317 (119)
0.218 (82)
0.268 (101)
24.5 (54)
35.7 (78.6)
30.1 (66.3)
29.6 (65.2)
32.9 (72.6)
31.3 (68.9)
22.2 (48.9)
15.2 (33.6)
18.7 (41.3)
64 (147)
64 (147)
64 (147)
64 (147)
64 (147)
64 (147)
64 (147)
64 (147)
64 (147)
Mass emission rates are based on the average stack gas flow rate deter-
bmined during the inlet particulate tests (19.234 dsmVs [40,755 dscfm].
Mass emission rates are based on the average stack gas flow rate deter-
mined during the outlet particulate tests (19.721 dsmVs [41,788 dscfm]),
C-162
-------
TABLE C-85. SUMMARY OF NITROGEN OXIDE EMISSIONS DATA—PLANT Kl
Industry: Lightweight aggregate
Process unit: Rotary calciner
Location of discharge: Scrubber outlet
Test location
Date,
1981
Concentration,
g/dsm3 (ppm)
Mass
emission rate,
kg/h (Ib/h)
Scrubber outlet1
Sample
Sample
Sample
Sample
Average
Sample
Sample
Sample
Sample
No.
No.
No.
No.
No.
No.
No.
No.
1A
IB
1C
ID
2A
2B
2C
2D
7/17
7/17
7/17
7/17
7/17
7/17
7/17
7/17
Average
Sample
Sample
Sample
Sample
No.
No.
No.
No.
3A
3B
3C
3D
7/17
7/17
7/17
7/17
Average
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
358
331
365
375
357
346
365
335
377
356
337
362
365
350
354
(187)
(173)
(191)
(196)
(187)
(181)
(191)
(175)
(197)
(186)
(176)
(189)
(191)
(183)
(185) ,
25.
23.
26.
26.
25.
24.
25.
23.
26.
25.
23.
25.
25.
24.
25.
4
5
0
6
4
6
9
9
8
3
9
7
9
8
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(56.
(51.
(57.
(58.
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8)
3)
7)
0)
2)
2)
6)
0)
8)
8)
6)
2)
7)
3)
aMass emission rates are based on the average stack gas flow rate deter-
mined during the scrubber outlet particulate tests (19.721 dsmVs
[41,788 dscfm].
C-163
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CUMULATIVE % LESS THAN
Figure C-57. Particle size distribution data:
rotary calciner scrubber inlet—Plant K2.
C-166
-------
TABLE C-88. SUMMARY OF PROCESS FUGITIVE EMISSIONS—PLANT K2
Date
Industry
Process unit
Period of observation
Location of discharge point
Highest single reading, percent
Highest 6-minute average, percent0
2/23-25/82
Lightweight aggregate
Rotary calciner
(2/23) 12:34-15:41;
(2/24) 14:10-15:46;
(2/25) 10:53-11:05; 12:49-13:00
Calciner inlet
10
10
Six-minute averages taken during testing were all 0 percent opacity unless
noted below.
February 23, 1982 •
9
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February 24, 1982
a
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SET NUMBER
February 25, 1982
23 . 3(
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10 U N M . M
SET NUMBER
C-167
-------
TABLE C-89. SUMMARY OF SULFUR DIOXIDE EMISSIONS DATA—PLANT K2
Industry: Lightweight aggregate
Process unit: Rotary calciner
Location of discharge: Scrubber inlet
Test location
Scrubber inleta
Run No. 1
Run No. 2
Average
Run No. 3
Run No. 4
Average
Run No. 5
Run No. 6
Average
Date,
1982
2/26
2/26
—
2/26
2/27
—
2/27
2/27
•""
Concen-
tration,
g/dsm3 (ppm)
4.91 (1,862)
6.09 (2,314)
5.50 (2,088)
•6.17 (2,342)
5.63 (2,135)
5.90 (2,239)
5.52 (2,095)
5.40 (2,052)
5.46 (2,074)
Mass
emission
rate,
kg/h (Ib/h)
205 (452)
255 (562)
230 (507)
258 (569)
235 (519)
247 (544)
231 (509)
226 (499)
228 (504)
Temp. ,
?C (°F)
519 (968)
530 (988)
525 (978)
524 (977)
511 (954)
518 (966)
525 (979)
527 (981)
526 (980)
Mass emission rates are based on the average stack gas flow rate deter-
mined during the inlet particulate tests (11.638 dsmVs [24,659 dscfm].
C-168
-------
TABLE 090. SUMMARY OF NITROGEN OXIDE EMISSIONS DATA—PLANT K2
Industry: Lightweight aggregate
Process unit: Rotary calciner
Location of discharge: Scrubber outlet
Test location
Scrubber
Sampl
Sampl
Sampl
Sampl
e
e
e
e
Date,
1982
Concentration,
g/dsm3 (ppm)
Mass
emission rate,
kg/h (Ib/h)
outlet3
No.
No.
No.
No.
lAfc
IB
1C
ID
2/27
2/27
2/27
2/27
Average
Sampl
Sampl
Sampl
Sampl
e
e
e
e
No.
No.
No.
No.
2A
2B
2C
2D
2/27
2/27
2/27
2/27
Average
Sampl
Sampl
Sampl
Sampl
e
e
e
e
No.
No.
No.
No.
3Ab
3B
3C
3D
2/27
2/27
2/27
2/27
Average
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
363
468
399
439
417
396
394
575
386
392
295
411
380
367
386
(189)
(244)
(208)
(229)
(218)
(207)
(206)
(300)
(201)
(205)
(154)
(215)
(198)
(192)
(202)
30.
39.
33.
36.
35.
33.
33.
48.
32.
36.
24.
34.
31.
4
3
5
8
0
2
0
2
3
7
7
5
9
30.8
32.
4
(67.
(86.
(73.
(81.
(77.
(73.
(72.
1)
6)
8)
2)
2)
3)
8^
(106)
(71.
(72.
(54.
(76.
(70.
(67.
(71.
3)
5)
5)
1)
3)
8)
4)
Mass emission rates are based on the average stack gas flow rate deter-
mined during the scrubber outlet particulate tests (23.321 dsnvVs
b[49,414 dscfm].
Outlier not used in average.
C-169
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C-172
-------
TABLE C-94. SUMMARY OF SULFUR DIOXIDE EMISSIONS DATA—PLANT K3
Industry: Lightweight aggregate
Process unit: Rotary calciner
Location of discharge: Multiple cyclone collector inlet
Test location
Multiple cyclone
Run No. 1
Run No. 2
Run No. 3
Average
Date,
1979
inlet
6/5
6/5
6/6
--
Concen-
• tration,
g/dsm3 (ppm)
2.60 (N/A)a
2.71 (N/A)
3.14 (N/A)
2.82 (N/A)
Mass
emission
rate,
kg/h (Ib/h)
281 (619)
171 (377)
195 (429)
216 (475)
Temp. ,
°C (°F)
146 (295)
164 (328)
166 (330)
159 (318)
N/A = Information not available.
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C-177
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100 .
80
60
40
30
20
£ 10
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-------
TABLE C-99. SUMMARY OF VISIBLE EMISSIONS—PLANT K6
Date
Industry
Process unit
Location of discharge
Height of observation point, ft
Height of point of discharge, ft
Distance from observer to discharge point, ft
Direction of observer from discharge point
Description of background
Description of sky
Wind direction
Wind velocity, mph
Color of plume
Duration of observation, min
Period of observation
Highest single reading, percent
Highest 6-minute average, percent
2/23/81
Lightweight aggregate
Rotary calciner
Scrubber outlet
Ground
100
200, 100
E, SW
Clear sky
Clear
SW
10-15
White
84.
1030-1709C
15
10.0
14 sets of 6-minute observations were made during this period.
9
8
.6
J 4
2
1
0
(
tmm
«•_
) 5 . 10 15 20 25 3C
SET NUMBER
C-179
-------
TA3LE C-100. SUMMARY OF VISIBLE EMISSIONS—PLANT K6
Date
Industry
Process unit
Location of discharge
Height of observation point, ft
Height of point of discharge, ft
Distance from observer to discharge point, ft
Direction of observer from discharge point
Description of background
Description of sky
Wind direction
Wind velocity, mph
Color of plume
Duration of observation, min
Period of observation
Highest single reading, percent
Highest 6-minute average, percent
2/24/81
Lightweight aggregate
Rotary calciner
Scrubber outlet
Ground
100
200, 100
E, SW
Clear sky
Scattered, broken
SW, S
5
White
78
0912-1526a
15
9.8
13 sets of 6-minute observations were made during this period.
10
9
8
v,7
.8
E=S
54
§3
z
1
0
OTM
3
.
MV
mm
—
5 10 IS 20 25 . 3C
SET NUMBER
C-180
-------
TABLE C-101.
SUMMARY OF SULFUR DIOXIDE EMISSIONS DATA—PLANT K6
Industry: Lightweight aggregate
Process unit: Rotary calciner
Location of discharge: Scrubber inlet and outlet
Test location
Scrubber inlet
Run No. 1
Run No. 2
Average
Run No. 3
Run No. 4
Average
Run No. 5
Run No. 6
Average
Scrubber outlet
Run No. 1
Run No. 2
Average
Run No. 3
Run No. 4
Average
Run No. 5
Run No. 6
Average
Date,
1981
2/26
2/26
2/26
2/26
2/26
2/26
2/26
2/26
2/26
2/26
2/26
2/26
Concen-
tration,
g/dsm3 (ppm)
0.718 (273)
0.753 (286)
0.736 (280)
0.785 (299)
0.702 (267)
0.744 (283)
0.660 (251)
0.231a (88)a
0.660 (251)
0.481 (183)
0.509 (194)
0.495 (189)
0.562 (214)
0.485 (185)
0.524 (200)
0.489 (186)
0.537 (204)
0.513 (195)
Mass
emission
rate,
kg/h (Ib/h)
19.9 (43.9)
19.8 (43.7)
19.9 (43.8)
24.3 (53.6)
21.7 (48.0)
23.0 (50.8)
19.2a(42.2)
6.7a (14.7)a.
19.2 (42.2)
17.4 (38.3)
18.4 (40.5)
17.9 (39.4)
20.3 (44.8)
17.5 (38.7)
18.9 (41.8)
17.7 (38.9)
19.4 (42.8)
18.6 (40.9)
Temp. ,
°C (°F)
338 (640)
338 (640)
338 (640)
338 (640)
338 (640)
338 (640)
338 (640)
338 (640)
338 (640)
77 (170)
77 (170)
77 (170)
77 (170)
77 (170)
77 (170)
77 (170)
77 (170)
77 (170)
Outlier—not included in averages.
C-181
-------
TABLE C-102. SUMMARY OF NITROGEN OXIDE EMISSIONS DATA—PLANT K6
Industry: Lightweight aggregate
Process unit: Rotary calciner
Location of discharge: Scrubber outlet
Test location
Scrubber
Sample
Sample
Sample
Sample
Average
Sample
Sample
Sample
Sample
Average
Sample
Sample
Sample
Sample
Average
Date,
1981
Concentration,
g/dsm3 (ppm)
Mass
emission rate,
kg/h (Ib/h)
outlet
No.
No.
No.
No.
No.
No.
No.
No.
No.
No.
No.
No.
1A
IB
1C
ID
2A
2B
2C
2D
3A
3B
3C
3D
2/26
2/26
2/26
2/26
—
2/26
2/26
2/26
2/26
—
2/26
2/26
2/26
2/26
—
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
282
330
325
266
301
268
270
289
300
282
302
231
294
287
279
(147)
(172)
(170)
(139)
(157)
(140)
(141)
(151)
(157)
(147)
(158)
(121)
(153)
(150)
(146)
10.
11.
11.
9.
10.
9.
9.
10.
10.
10.
10.
8.
10.
10.
10.
2
9
8
6
9
7
7
4
8
2
9
3
6
4
1
(22.
(26.
(25.
(21.
(24.
(21.
(21.
(23.
(23.
(22.
(24.
(18.
(23.
(22.
(22.
4)
3)
9)
2)
0)
4)
5)
0)
9)
5)
1)
4)
4)
9)
2)
Mass emission rate in kilograms per hour (kg/h) and pounds per hour
(Ib/h) calculated using average measured flow obtained from the
particula.te tests.
C-182
-------
TABLE C-103. SUMMARY OF TRACE METAL ANALYSIS—PLANT K6a
(Composite samples per category, ppm of impinger solution [unless noted])
Industry: Lightweight aggregate
Process unit: Rotary calciner
Sample source: Method 5 particulate catch
Element
Calcium
Magnesium
Potassium
Sodium
Sil icon
Barium
Manganese
Aluminum
Chrominum
Copper
Zinc
Titanium
Strontium
Vanadium
Lithium
Yttrium
Iron
Coal
3.1%
0.384%
0.568%
0.480%
9.6%
630
470
4.2%
46
100
540
0.244%
250
73
7.5
19
4.0%
Clay
0.65%
0.71%
0.53%
0.40%
28%
370
700
6.6%
62
19
77
0.38%
66
92
40
23
3.2%
Final
product
0.82%
0.79%
0.58%
0.46%
34%
360
430
7.4%
70
24
94
0.490%
80
110
52
25
3.9%
Scrubber
effluent
320
33
10
62
12
0.080
2.2
<0.05
<0.001
< 0.001
0.058
<0.005
1.1
0.008
•:0.18
<0.002
0.040
Elements "-not detected in samples: Phosphorus,
Mercury, Thallium, Molybdenum, Antimony, Gold,
Bismuth, Beryllium, Arsenic, Indium, Selenium,
Cobalt, Tin, and Uranium.
Tungsten, Platinum, Boron,
Tellurium, Nickel,
Silver, Lead, Cadmium,
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C-188
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TABLE C-103:- SUMMARY OF VISIBLE EMISSIONS—PLANT Ml
Date
Industry
Process unit
Location of discharge
Height of observation point, ft
Height of point of discharge, ft
Distance from observer to discharge point, ft
Direction of observer from discharge point
Description of background
Description of sky
Wind direction
Wind velocity, mph
Color of plume
Duration of observation, min
Period of observation
Highest single reading, percent
Highest 6-minute average, percent
2/1/84
Perlite
Expansion furnace
Baghouse stack—West
30
50
50
W
Shaded
Clear
W
5-10
White
126
1150-1350
10
0.8
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1.6
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o 0.8
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0.4
0.2
0.0
0
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5 10 . 15 20 25 3(
SET NUMBER
C-190
-------
TABLE C-110. SUMMARY OF VISIBLE EMISSIONS—PLANT Ml
Date
Industry
Process unit
Location of discharge
Height of observation point, ft
Height of point of discharge, ft
Distance from observer to discharge point, ft
Direction of observer from discharge point
Description of background
Description of sky
Wind direction
Wind velocity, mph
Color of plume
Duration of observation, min
Period of observation
Highest single reading, percent
Highest 6-minute average, percent
2/1/84
Perlite
Expansion furnace
Baghouse stack—West
25
50
60
W
Blue sky
Clear
W
0-5
White
54
1635-1729
10
0.4
2.0
1.8
1.6
".I:!
£1.0
5 0.8
£ 0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0
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25
30
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TABLE G-112. SUMMARY OF VISIBLE EMISSIONS—PLANT Ml
Date
Industry
Process unit
Location Of discharge
Height of observation point, ft
Height of point of discharge, ft
Distance from observer to discharge point, ft
Direction of observer from discharge point
Description of background
Description of sky
Wind direction
Wind velocity, mph
Color of plume
Duration of observation, min
Period of observation
Highest single reading, percent
Highest 6-minute average, percent
2/1/84
Perlite
Expansion furnace
Baghouse stack—East
Ground
55
100
S
Clear
W
5-10
White
120
1145-1345
15
0.6
2.0
1.8
1.6
«1-4
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£li0
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£ 0-6
0.4
0.2
0.0
10
15
SET NUMBER
20
25
30
C-193
-------
TABLE C-113 SUMMARY OF VISIBLE EMISSIONS—PLANT Ml
Date
Industry
Process unit
Location of discharge
Height of observation point, ft
Height of point of discharge, ft
Distance from observer to discharge point, ft
Direction of observer from discharge point
Description of background
Description of sky
Wind direction
Wind velocity, mph
Color of plume
Duration of observation, min
Period of observation
Highest single reading, percent
Highest 6-minute average, percent
2/1/84
Perlite
Expansion furnace
Baghouse stack—East
Ground
55
100
S
Clear
W
5-10
White
60
1631-1731
20
0.8
2.0
1.8
1.6
1.2
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
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5 10 . 15 20 25 3(
SET NUMBER
C-194
-------
TABLE C-114. SUMMARY OF PROCESS FUGITIVE EMISSIONS—PLANT Ml*
Date
Industry
Process unit
Period of observation
Location of discharge point
2/1/84
Perlite
Expansion furnace
11:52-14:00,
16:32-17:32
Feed conveyor to furnace
Method 22 was used to record visible emissions.
averages were 0 percent opacity.
All other 6-minute
100
90
80
70
60
SO
40
30
20
10
•w
HHH
MM
« 5 M 19
SET NUMBER
20
a
30
C-195
-------
TABLE C-115.
TRACE METALS CONCENTRATIONS AND ANALYTICAL RESULTS—PLANT Ml
Industry: Perilte
Process unit: Expansion furnace
Sample source: Method 5 particulate catch
Element
Aluminum
Beryllium
Calcium
Chromium
Fluorine
Iron
Lead
Magnesium
Manganese
Mercury
Nickel
Titanium
Uranium
Vanadium
Zinc
Run No. 5:
Baghouse
West outlet9
4,210 (1.49)
BDLb
17,780 (4.23)
26.7 (0.00490)
1,000 (0.502)
985 (0.168)
16.1 (0.000741)
444 (0.174)
29.4 (0.00510)
1.27 (0.00006)
45.2 (0.00736)
57.0 (0.0114)
c
BDLd
188 (0.0274)
Run No. 5:
Baghouse
East outlet3
5,340 (1.58)
BDLb
13,890 (2,760)
29.5 (0.00452)
2,800 (1.17)
5,920 (0.844)
8.25 (0.000317)
724 (0.237)
54.6 (0.00792)
1.86 (0.000074)
239 (0.0324)
71.8 (0.0119)
c
BDLd
54.1 (0.00659)
.mg (ppm) of impinger solution.
Below detection limit of 0.001 mg.
.Not reported.
Below detection limit of 0.01 mg.
C-196
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C-197
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TABLE C-117". SUMMARY OF VISIBLE EMISSIONS—PLANT M2
Date
Industry
Process unit
Location of discharge
Height of observation point, ft
Height of point of discharge, ft
Distance from observer to discharge point, ft
Direction of observer from discharge point
Description of background
Description of sky
Wind direction
Wind velocity, mph
Color of plume
Duration of observation, min
Period of observation
Highest single reading, percent
Highest 6-minute average, percent
2/17/81
Perli te
Rotary dryer
Baghouse outlet
55
30
75
E
Rust red
Clear
SE
0-10
White
16
1222-1228
1240-1246
1246-1250
10.
4.7C
leading represents a 4-minute average.
10
9
8
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2
1
0
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SET NUWER
C-198
-------
TABLE C-118. SUMMARY OF/VISIBLE EMISSIONS—PLANT M2
Date
Industry
Process unit
Location of discharge
Height of observation point, ft
Height of point of discharge, ft
Distance from observer to discharge point, ft
Direction of observer from discharge point
Description of background
Description of sky
Wind direction
Wind velocity, mph
Color of plume
Duration of observation, min
Period of observation
Highest single reading, percent
Highest 6-minute average, percent
2/17/81
Perlite
Rotary dryer
Baghouse outlet
Ground
30
150
SSW
Dark green
Broken
E
0-5
White
10
1618-1624
1624-1628
15
1.9
2.0
1.8
1.6
:i.o
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0
&
10
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SET NUMBER
20
25
30
C-199
-------
TABLE C-H9. SUMMARY OF VISIBLE EMISSIONS—PLANT M2
Date
Industry
Process unit
Location of discharge
Height of observation point, ft
Height of point of discharge, ft
Distance from observer to discharge point, ft
Direction of observer from discharge point
Description of background
Description of sky
Wind direction
Wind velocity, mph
Color of plume
Duration of observation, min
Period of observation
Highest single reading, percent
Highest 6-minute average, percent
2/18/81
Perlite
Rotary dryer
Baghouse outlet
55
30
75
E
Rust and tan
Clear
SE
0-10
White
20.
1129-1215°
15
4.0
Two 6-minute and two 4-minute observations were made during this period.
04
10
15 '
SET NUMBER
20
25
30
C-200
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C-208
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TABLE C-I26. SUMMARY OF VISIBLE EMISSIONS—PLANT PI
Date
Industry
Process unit
Location of discharge
Height of observation point, ft
Height of point of discharge, ft
Distance from observer to discharge point, ft
Direction of observer from discharge point
Description of background
Description of sky
Wind direction
Wind velocity, mph
Color of plume
Duration of observation, min
Period of observation
Highest single reading, percent
Highest 6-minute average, percent
2/9/84
Titanium dioxide
Spray dryers
Scrubber stack
Ground
80
200
• S.
Clear
S
0-5
White
120
0935-1135
10
7.5
10
IS
SET NUMBER
20
25
30
C-209
-------
TABLE C-127. SUMMARY OF VISIBLE EMISSIONS—PLANT PI
Date
Industry
Process unit
Location of discharge
Height of observation point, ft
Height of point of discharge, ft
Distance from observer to discharge point, ft
Direction of observer from discharge point
Description of background
Description of sky
Wind direction
Wind velocity, mph
Color of plume
Duration of observation, min
Period of observation
Highest single reading, percent
Highest 6-minute average, percent
2/11/84
Titanium dioxide
Spray dryers
Scrubber stack
Ground
80
300
SSW
Clear
W
5-10
White
120
0902-1102
25
19.4
20
18
16
14
1?
10
8
6
4
2
0
=:
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mmm
US 10 IS 20 25 3(
SET NUMBER
C-210
-------
TABLE C-128. SUMMARY OF VISIBLE EMISSIONS—PLANT PI
Date
Industry
Process unit
Location of discharge
Height of observation point, ft
Height of point of discharge, ft
Distance from observer to discharge point, ft
Direction of observer from discharge point
Description of background
Description of sky
Wind direction
Wind velocity, mph
Color of plume
Duration of observation, min
Period of observation
Highest single reading, percent
Highest 6-minute average, percent
2/16/84
Titanium dioxide
Spray dryers
Scrubber stack
Ground
80
Overcast
NW
10
120
1005-1205
15
10.0
10
9
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C-211
-------
TABLE C-129. SUMMARY OF TRACE METAL ANALYSIS—PLANT PI
Industry: Titanium dioxide
Process unit: Spray dryer Nos. 1 and 2—
Chloride process
Sample source: Method 5 particulate catch
Element
Aluminum
Beryl 1 i urn
Calcium
Chromi urn
Fluorine
Iron
Lead
Magnesium
Manganese
Mercury
Nickel
Titanium
Uranium
Vanadi urn
Zinc
Run No. 28:
No. 312
Baghouse
i nl et
136,000
(409)
BDLb
875
(1.77)
63
(0.0983)
284
(1.21)
516
(0.750)
151
(0.0591)
312
(1-04)
BDLd
0.71
(0.000287)
418
(0.578)
756
(1.28)
e
BDLd
3,179
(3.95)
Run No. 29:
No. 312
Baghouse
outlet
1,080
(0.414)
BDLb
1,261
(0.325)
58
(0.0115)
195
(0.106)
510
(0.0944)
BDLC
290
(0.123)
19
(0.00358)
0.60
(0.000031)
51
(0.00898)
1,110
(0.240)
e
BDLd
53
(0.00838)
Run No. 30:
No. 322
Baghouse
outlet
36,800
(50)
BDLb
354
(0.324)
48
(0.0338)
116
(0.224)
500
(0.328)
BDLC
283
(0.427)
BDLd
0.66
(0.000121)
60
(0.0374)
510
(0.390)
-• e "
BDLd
48
(0.0269)
Run No. 31:
Scrubber
outlet
1,330
(0.487)
BDLb
692
(0.171)
111
(0.0211)
35.5
(0.0185)
1,420
(0.251)
BDLC
255
(0.104)
35
(0.00629)
1.07
(0.000053)
190
(0.0320)
508
(0.105)
12
(0.00233)
BDLd
408
(0.0616)
.mg (ppm) of impinger solution.
°Below detection limit of 0.001 mg.
•Below detection limit of 0.005 mg.
°Below detection limit of 0.01 mg.
Not reported.
C-212
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C-214
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C-216
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C-219
-------
TABLE C-135. SUMMARY OF VISIBLE EMISSIONS—PLANT PI
Date
Industry
Process unit
Location of discharge
Height of observation point, ft
Height of point of discharge, ft
Distance from observer to discharge point, ft
Direction of observer from discharge point
Description of background
Description of sky
Wind direction
Wind velocity, mph
Color of plume
Duration of observation, min
Period of observation
Highest single reading, percent
Highest 6-minute average, percent
2/15/84
Titanium dioxide
Rotary calciner
Scrubber stack
Ground
150
600
SW, S
Clear
WNW—shifting
5-10
60
1416-1516
;
5
0.4
2.0
1.8
1.6
'-4
.1-2
l>°
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0
10
15
SET NUMBER
20
25
30
C-220
-------
TABLE C-136. SUMMARY OF TRACE METAL ANALYSIS—PLANT PI
Industry: Titanium dioxide
Process unit: Rotary calcinei—Sulfate process
Sample source: Method 5 particulate catch
Element
Aluminum
Beryllium
Calcium
Chromium
Fluorine
Iron
Lead
Magnesium
Manganese
Mercury
Nickel
Titanium
Uranium
Vanadium
Zinc
Run
No. 13:
I. D. fan
outlet,
East3
237
(0.382)
BDLb,
417
(0.453)
108
(0.0904)
462
(1.06)
937
(0.730)
BDLC
125
(0.224)
15
(0.0119)
0.47
(0.000102)
67
(0.0497)
2,330
(2.12)
e
BOLd
157
(0.105)
Run
No. 16:
I. D. fan
outlet,
Westa
1,200
(2.62)
BDLb
921
(1.35)
82
(0.0929)
209
(0.648)
937
(0.989)
BDLC
484
(1-17)
32
(0.0343)
0.49
(0.000144)
68
(0.0683)
5,900
(7.26)
e
BDLd
169
(0.152)
Run
No. 19:
ESP
outlet,
East9
1,210
(0.967)
BDLb
613
" (0.330)
588
(0.244)
275
(0.312)
1,649
(0.636)
139
(0.0145)
418
(0.371)
60
(0.0235)
1.39
(0.000149)
615
(0.226)
1,253
(0.564)
e
BDLd
27,066
(8.92)
Run
No. 22:
ESP
outlet,
West3
1,360'
(0.804)
BDLb
608
(0,242)
291
(0.0893)
1,851
(1.55)
2,043
(0.584)
279
(0.0208)
340
(0.223)
29
(0.00842)
0.87
(0.000069)
379
(0.103)
892
(0.297)
e
42
(0.0132)
25,839
(6.31)
Run
No. 25:
Calciner
stack
340
(0.151)
BDLb
746
(0.223)
25
(0.00575)
80.4
(0.0506)
182
(0.0390)
BDLC
272
(0.134)
BDLd
0.97
(0.000058)
33
(0.00672)
200
(0.0499)
e
BDLd
44
(0.00805)
bmg (ppm) of impinger solution.
Below detection limit of 0.001 mg.
.Below detection limit of 0.005 mg.
Below detection limit of 0.01 mg.
Not reported.
C-221
-------
TABLE C-137. SUMMARY OF NITROGEN OXIDE EMISSIONS DATA—PLANT PI
Industry: Titanium dioxide
Process unit: Rotary calciner—sulfate
Location of discharge: No. 2 calciner stack
Test location
Date,
1984
Concentration,
g/dsm3 (ppm)
Mass
emission rate,
kg/h (Ib/h)
Exhaust stack
Sample No.
Sample No.
Sample No.
Sample No.
Average
Sample No.
Sample No.
1 Sample No.
Sample No.
Average'
Sample No.
Sample No:
Sample No.
Sample No.
Average
25A
25B
25C
25D
26A
26B
26C
26D
27A
27B
27C
27D
2/14
2/14
2/14
2/14
—
2/15
2/15
2/15
2/15
—
2/15
2/15
2/15
2/15
— —
N/Aa
N/A
N/A
•N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
(0.7)
(0.0)
(0.0)
(7.5)
(2.1)
(7.4)
(0.0)
(0.0)
(0.0)
(1.9)
(7.5)
(3.9)
(0.0)
(0.0)
(2.9)
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A = Information not available.
C-222
-------
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-------
TABLE C-139. SUMMARY OF VISIBLE EMISSIONS—PLANT P2
Date
Industry
Process unit
Location of discharge
Height of observation point, ft
Height of point of discharge, ft
Distance from observer to discharge point, ft
Direction of observer from discharge point
Description of background
Description of sky
Wind direction
Wind velocity, mph
Color of plume
Duration of observation, min
Period of observation
Highest single reading, percent
Highest 6-minute average, percent
7/12/84
Titanium dioxide
Spray dryer
Baghouse outlet
Ground
60
300
E
Variable
NW
5-10
120
1216-1416
5
0.6
i.a
1.6
~1-4
.1.2
£1.0
o 0.8
%"-6
0.4
0.2
0.0
0
t
5 10 " IS 20 25 3
SET NUMBER
C-224
-------
TABLE C-140. SUMMARY OF VISIBLE EMISSIONS—PLANT P2
Date
Industry
Process unit
Location of discharge
Height of observation point, ft
Height of point of discharge, ft
Distance from observer to discharge point, ft
Direction of observer from discharge point
Description of background
Description of sky
Wind direction
Wind velocity, mph
Color of plume
Duration of observation, min
Period of observation
Highest single reading, percent
Highest 6-minute average, percent
7/13/84
Titanium dioxide
Spray dryer
Baghouse outlet
Ground
60
, 300
E
Variable clouds
NW
10
120
0941-1141
5
0.8
2.0
1.8
1.6
-1-4
.1-2
£1.0
0 0.8
S 0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0
„
*
0 5 10 15 , 20
SET NUMBER
• 25
3C
C-225
-------
TABLE C-141. SUMMARY OF VISIBLE EMISSIONS—PLANT P2
Date
Industry
Process unit
Location of discharge
Height of observation point, ft
Height of point of discharge, ft
Distance from observer to discharge point, ft
Direction of observer from discharge point
Description of background
Description of sky
Wind direction
Wind velocity, mph
Color of plume
Duration of observation, min
Period of observation
Highest single reading, percent
Highest 6-minute average, percent
7/13/84
Titanium dioxide
Spray dryer
Baghouse outlet
Ground
60
300-250
SE, SW
Variable clouds
NE, E
5-10, 10-15
144
1350-1614
5
0.4
2.0
1.8
1.6
X1'4
.1.2
£1.0
u 0 3
w u.a
%<>•«
0.4
0.2
0.0
0
t
•
5 10 - 15 20 25 3
SET NUMBER
C-226
-------
TABLE C-142. SUMMARY OF VISIBLE EMISSIONS—PLANT P2
Date
Industry
Process unit
Location of discharge
Height of observation point, ft
Height of point of discharge, ft
Distance from observer to discharge point, ft
Direction of observer from discharge point
Description of background
Description of sky '•
Wind direction
Wind velocity, mph
Color of plume
Duration of observation, min
Period of observation
Highest single reading, percent
Highest 6-minute average, percent
7/13/84
Titanium dioxide <
Spray dryer
Baghouse outlet
Ground
60
250
SW
Variable cloudy
NE
10
96a
1713-2013a
5
2.9
16 sets of 6-minute observations were made during this period.
9
8
.6
2
(
^_
> 5 10 15 20 25 . 30
SET NUMBER
C-227
-------
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C-232
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REFERENCES FOR APPENDIX C
1. F. L. Kadey, Jr. Diatomite. In: Industrial Minerals and Rocks,
4th Edition. American Institute of Mining, Metallurgical, and
Petroleum Engineers. New York, New York. 1975. pp. 605-635.
2. Handbook of Chemistry and Physics, 55th ed., CRC Press, p. B-192.
3. Unapproved test report for Plant E2.
4. EPA emission test report for Plant Fl.
5. Unapproved test report for Plant F2.
6. EPA emission test report for Plant F2.
7. Unapproved test data from Floridin Co.
8. EPA emission test report for Plant II.
9. EPA emission test report for Plant Jl.
10. EPA emission test report for Plant F3.
11. Emission test report for Plant K3.
12. Unapproved test data for Plant K3.
13. EPA emission test report for spray dryer at Plant PI.
14. EPA emission test report for Plant PI.
15. Unapproved test data for W. R. Grace & Co., Enoree, S.C., from trip
report, W. J. Neuffer, EPA/ISB to G. Wood, EPA/ISB, October 6, 1981.
16. Product particle size sieve analysis from Grefco, Inc., Lompoc,
California.
17. Product particle size sieve analysis provided by Plant E2.
18, Product particle size sieve analysis from Plant F2.
19. Product particle size sieve analysis from Plant G2.
20. Product particle size information provided by Plant K3.
21. Product particle size sieve analysis from Plant N2.
22. Product particle size sieve analysis from Plant Ql.
C-233
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23. Memo from Sparks, L. E., EPA/PTB, to Neuffer, B., EPA/OAQPS.
Estimated Scrubber Performance. December 4, 1984.
24. Memo from Kowalski, A. J., MRI, to Neuffer, W. J., EPA/ISB. Scrubber
Modeling. August 27, 1985. 13 pp.
25. EPA emission test report for Plant Cl.
26. EPA emission test report for Plant P2.
C-234
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APPENDIX D. EMISSION MEASUREMENT AND MONITORING
D.I EMISSION MEASUREMENT METHODS
During the standard support study for calciners and dryers in the
mineral industries, the EPA conducted particulate emission tests at nine
facilities that included the following process and control equipment
combinations:
Process
Industry
Control Equipment
Spray dryer
Spray dryer
Rotary calciner
Rotary calciner
Fluid bed dryer
Rotary dryer
Expansion furnace
Rotary calciner
Rotary dryer
Rotary dryer
Herreshoff furnace
Flash calciner
Ti02 (chloride)
Ti02 (chloride)
Ti02 (sulfate)
Fire clay
Industrial sand
Industrial sand
Perlite
Fire clay
Fire clay
Bentonite
Kaolin
Kaoli n
Baghouse
Baghouse
Conditioning tower, ESP,
scrubber
Multiclone and scrubber
Scrubber
Scrubber
Baghouse
Scrubber
Scrubber
Baghouse
Scrubber
Baghouse
In addition, tests had been previously conducted by the EPA for the
lightweight aggregate industry. Three tests from this group were
considered applicable to the calciners and dryers study. These tests
included the following process and control equipment:
Process
Control Equipment
Rotary calciner (3 plants)
Scrubber
D-l
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Another group of tests previously conducted by the EPA for the
gypsum industry were also considered to be applicable to the present
study. Four test reports were utilized; these included the following
process and control equipment:
Process
Control Equipment
Rotary dryer
Flash calciner (2 plants)
Kettle calciner (2 plants)
Baghouse
Baghouse
Baghouse
For most of these tests, three runs were conducted both before and
after the control device. Any time a run was determined to be
unacceptable, a fourth run was conducted, for a net of three good runs.
Particulate tests were run in accordance with EPA Reference Method 5
(40 CFR Part 60-Appendix A). Method 5 .provides detailed procedures and
equipment criteria, and other considerations necessary to obtain
accurate and representative particulate emission data. Particle size
distribution and the percentage of emissions less than 10 micrometers in
diameter were determined with the use of in-stack impactors in
accordance with the protocol, Procedure for Cascade Impactors
Calibration and Operation in Process Streams, as modified by the
Emissions Measurement Branch of the EPA. (These size fractions are a
representative calculation based on an aerodynamic characterization of a
unit density particle according to Mercer's definition.) Visible
emissions from the source were determined in accordance with EPA
Reference Method 9 (40 CFR Part 60-Appendix A). Fugitive emissions were
determined in accordance with EPA Reference Method 22 and/or 9
(40 CFR Part 60-Appendix A). Process raw materials were collected as
part of the testing program. Particle size distribution of these
collected samples was determined by sieving or Stokes settling
techniques. To determine the representativeness of raw materials
processed at the tested facilities, process raw materials were collected
at an additional 23 facilities. The same sieving or Stokes 'settling
techniques were conducted on these raw materials samples to determine
the particle size distribution.
D-2
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The modifications used and problems encountered during testing of
the nine facilities are discussed below. With the exception of one test
conducted in a stack with cyclonic flow, the particulate tests (Method 5)
involved only minor modifications and problems (not significant enough to
summarize or affect the test results). During the particle size
distribution testing (using the in-stack impactor) three common problems
were encountered. First, the presence of water droplets made it difficult
to obtain a representative sample and as a result, in some cases particle
size testing was not performed. Second, the very low pollutant
concentrations encountered after well-controlled sources made it difficult
to collect significant amounts of particulate matter on all stages of
the impactor. The results of these tests are acceptable; however, a
decrease in the precision of the measurements is likely. Finally, the
very high pollutant concentrations encountered prior to the control
equipment resulted in some very short sample runs. These results are
also acceptable, but are representative of a shorter averaging time. In
a few cases, the visible emissions determinations were hampered due to
inclement weather and/or a lack of sufficient light and were, therefore,
not performed. None of the problems described above would be considered
industry specific and all are routinely encountered in the course of
testing any source category that employs various combinations of process
and control equipment.
In addition to the emission testing support of the standard, a total
of 79 industry-supplied test reports were reviewed for technical
acceptability. Of these, 46 reports were found to be technically acceptable
for standards consideration and of these 46, the Industrial Studies Branch
of the EPA determined that 33 reports were acceptable for use in standards
setting.
D.2 MONITORING SYSTEMS
The opacity monitoring systems that are adequate for other stationary
sources, such as steam generators, and that are covered by performance
specifications contained in Appendix B of 40 CFR Part 60, Federal
Register, October 6, 1975, are also technically feasible for calciners
and dryers in the mineral industries, except where condensed moisture
D-3
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is present in the exhaust stream. When wet scrubbers are used for control
of emissions from process units in the mineral industries, monitoring of
opacity with continuous emissions monitors is not applicable; therefore,
another parameter, such as pressure drop, would need to be monitored as
an indicator of proper operation and maintenance of the control device.
Equipment and installation costs for opacity monitoring are estimated
to be $18,000 to $20,000 per site. The initial cost of a performance
specifications test on these monitors is estimated at $3,000 to $5,000 per
site. Annual operating costs, which include recording and reducing the
data, are estimated at $8,000 to $9,000 per site. Some savings in
operating costs may be achieved if multiple systems are used at a given
facility.
The equipment and installation costs for monitoring scrubber pressure
drop and scrubbing liquid flow rate are estimated to be $7,500 per scrubber.
Annual operating costs, including examining and filing the data, would be
approximately $3,300.
D.3 PERFORMANCE TEST METHODS
Consistent with the data base upon which the new source standards
have been established, the recommended performance test method for
particulate matter is Method 5 (40 CFR Part 60-Appendix A, Federal Register.
December 23, 1971, as amended August 18, 1977). In order to perform
Method 5, Methods 1 through 4 must be used.
Subpart A of 40 CFR Part 60 requires that affected facilities subject
to standards of performance for new stationary sources must be constructed
to provide sampling ports adequate for a performance test to be conducted.
Platforms, access, and utilities necessary to perform testing at those
ports must also be provided.
Sampling costs for performing a test consisting of three Method 5 runs
are estimated to range from $5,000 to $9,000. When plant personnel are
used to conduct the test, the cost will be less.
The recommended performance test method for visible emissions from the
source is Method 9 (40 CFR Part 60-Appendix A, or Federal Register,
November 12, 1974).
D-4
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The recommended performance test methods for process fugitive emissions
are Method 22 (40 CFR Part 60-Appendix A, or Federal Register. August 6,
1982) or Method 9 (Federal Register. November 12, 1974, as amended
February 21, 1984).
D-5
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TECHNICAL REPORT DATA
(Please read Instructions on the reverse before completing)
1. REPORT NO.
EPA 450/3-85-025a
2.
3. RECIPIENT'S ACCESSIOI
4. TITLE AND SUBTITLE
Calciners and Dryers in Mineral Industries—
Background Information for Proposed Standards
5. REPORT DATE
October 1985
6. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION CODE
7. AUTHOR(S)
8. PERFORMING ORGANIZE
9. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION NAME AND ADDRESS
Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Research Triangle Park, N.C. 27711
10. PROGRAM ELEMENT NO.
11. CONTRACT/GRANT NO.
68-02-3817
12. SPONSORING AGENCY NAME AND ADDRESS
DAA for Air Quality Planning and Standards
Office of Air and Radiation
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
••an 07711
13. TYPE OF REPORT AND PERIOD COVERED
14. SPONSORING AGENCY CODE
EPA/200/04
15. SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES
16. ABSTRACT
Standards of performance for the control of emissions from calciners
and dryers in mineral industries are being proposed under the authority
of Section 111 of the Clean Air Act. These standards would apply
to new, modified, or reconstructed calciners and dryers in 17
mineral industries. This document contains background information and
environmental and economic impact assessments of the regulatory
alternatives considered in developing the proposed standards.
17.
KEY WORDS AND DOCUMENT ANALYSIS
DESCRIPTORS
b.lDENTIFIERS/OPEN ENDED TERMS
c. COSATI Field/Group
Air Pollution
Pollution Control
Standards of Performance
Particulate Emissions
Mineral Processing Plants
Air Pollution Control
13B
18. DISTRIBUTION STATEMENT
Unlimited
19. SECURITY CLASS (This Report}
Unclassified
21. NO. OF PAGES
2O. SECURITY CLASS (This page)
22. PRICE
EPA Form 2220-1 (Rev. 4-77)
PREVIOUS EDITION IS OBSOLETE
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