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TABLE 17. ESTIMATED PCS LEAKAGE/SPILLAGE FROM ALL CLOSED SYSTEMS
EQUIPMENT (UTILITY AND NONUTILITY) ?0
PCB transformers
(Aafcarel)
Large FCB capacitors
Mineral oil
transformers
Percentage
of equipment
owned by
utility industry
30*
85b
80"
Percentage
of equipment
owned by non-
utility Industry
70
15
20
Estimated
total number
of units
132,133
3, 294 „ 846
25,284,285
Upper bound
estimate of annual
pounds of PCBs
leaked/spilled
based on total
equipment
population
68,160
434,413
1,033
Large FCB capacitors
Mineral oil
transformers
Mineral voltage
regulators
Mineral oil
circuit breakers
Mineral oil reclosers
Mineral oil cable
' FCB electromagnets
Mineral oil
electromagnets
Small FCB capacitors
85b
80"
85°
85C
85«
85C
1
1-
e
15
20
15
15
15
15
99
99d
e
3, 294 „ 846
25,284,285
170,775
212,869
200,186
7,700 miles
200
7,600
500,000,000£
434,413
1,033
6
60
8
—
—
--
~
•Sourcet Microeconomic Impacts of the Proposed "FOB B«n Regulations",
Versar, Inc., 1978.
bA» reported by the National Electrical Manufacturers Association and referenced
in the EEI/USHAG study.
cAs*umes * distribution equal to that for large PCB capacitors.
^Assumes that electric utility industry rarely use* electromagnets.
"Small capacitors are used by industry and by consumern. EPA has no information
indicating that distribution.
*
^Assumes 870 million existed in 1977 and 10 percent ar<» removed from service
annually, due to equipment or appliance obsolescence und capacitor failure.
Hotei Dashes indicate no data available.
57
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currently contained in electrical equipment are found in PCB transformers
(those containing > 500 ppm of PCBs) and large PCB capacitors (those
containing > 3 Ibs of PCBs). The following discussion wills therefore,
concentrate on these items,.although it is applicable to all PCB equipment.
PCB transformers have an estimated operating life of 40 years,19 while the
life span of PCB capacitors is estimated at 20 years.22 Until this equipment
lives out its useful operating life and is eventually retired and replaced
with a non-PCB substitute, it will pose a potential threat of PCB emissions
from leaks and/or spills. Leaks/spills typically occur in transformers when
the gasket joining the top to the body corrodes, tears, or physically fails.
PCBs can then leak past this failed section and potentially spill onto the
surrounding ground. PCB capacitors typically fail by rupturing, exposing the
contained PCBs to the environment. This is due to environmental and
weathering effects (e.g., lightning) or material failures (e.g.., metal
fatigue).
One additional intermittent source of PCBs that was investigated concerned
fires involving PCB equipment. Transformer and capacitor fires are
infrequent, but when they occur, they can release PCBs as well as toxic
incomplete combustion byproducts such as dioxins and dibenzofurans.71,72
Transformer fires have especially gained widespread attention recently due to
the elevated PCB contamination levels that resulted from fires in the interior
of buildings in Binghampton, New York and San Francisco, California.
Emissions--
The EE1/DSWAG report estimated that the average quantity of PCBs spilled
when a PCB transformer leaks or spills varies from 0.56 to 64.5 pounds per
incident, while the spill/leak rate for capacitors is 2.0 to 17.1 pounds per
incident.73 These data translate into the annual leak/spill quantities cited
in Table 17. When these data are proportioned'to account for non-utility
(industrial) equipment as well, the total amount of PCBs spilled/leaked is
estimated at 503,680 pounds, as indicated in Table 17. This is an upper-bound
58
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estimate of the potential PCBs released and, as such, does not take into
account spill cleanup procedures which are designed to remove, contain, and
dispose of fluid that has leaked or spilled.
The proportion of spilled PCB that enters the atmosphere will depend on
the surface onto which the PCBs are spilled (concrete, soil), the PCB isoiaers
that are spilled, the ambient temperature and windspeed, and the cleanup
schedule. As discussed for landfills, PCBs will evaporate and volatilize more
rapidly from a nonporous surface such as cement or sandy soil, than they will
from an organic rich topsoil. Also, in dry conditions or high winds, PCBs may
become entrained either as an aerosol or by being adsorbed on fine soil
particles that are subject to entrainment.
Due to their nonflammability characteristics, PCB transformers are
typically installed as safety precaution in urban settings where the
consequences of a transformer fire would be most severe. These installations
include schoolss hospitals and office buildings. Consequently, it can be
assumed that the average PCB unit is mounted on a solid base. This would
enhance vaporization potential in the event of a leak or spill. In addition,
PCB transformers and capacitors have historically used Aroclors 1242, 1254,
and 1016.8 -j^g 1242 and 1016 mixtures contain up to 90 percent by weight of
the lower isomer PCBs (less than four chlorine atoms), while Aroclor 1254
contains only 20 percent by weight of the lower isomer PCBs.74 These lower
isomers are more likely to be evaporated from an impervious surface. This is
shown graphically in Figures 5 and 6. For both wet and dry sand, up to 80
percent of the PCBs are lost to the atmosphere within 4 weeks of the spill.
These results indicate that for Aroclors 1016 and 1242, a majority of the
spilled PCBs may be volatilized if the contaminated surface beneath the
transformer or capacitor is sand or concrete and cleanup is not prompt.
However, volatilization in actual field conditions may be less because of
removal by other mechanisms such as run-off, percolation, and so on.
Temperature also plays an important role in the amount of PCB evaporated
from a spill because of the increase in vapor pressure that occurs with
increasing temperature.^5 Figure 7 shows the variation in volatilization
rates for temperatures of 26°C (79°F) and 60°C (140°F).
59
-------
Z LOST
20
40
60
80
PCS 1254 Vapor Loss <§ 26*C from Dry Sand
7C1
2 3
TIME (weeks)
Z LOST
20
[
40
60
80
_ PCS 1254 Vapor Loss @ 26*C from Wetted Sand
7C1
2 3
TIME (weeks)
Figures 5 and 6. Volatilization of PCB isomers from Ottawa Sand
contaminated with Aroclor 1254.
60
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61
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Finally, the rapidity with which spills are cleaned up will affect the
amount discharged to the atmosphere. Final EPA regulations affecting PCB
electrical equipment require quarterly inspections of PCB transformers, but no
mandatory inspections for PCB capacitors.?^ The purpose of the inspections is
to minimize environmental releases that result from spills and leaks.
However, the utility industry has stated?? that a large failure of a PCB
transformer or capacitor would cause a service interruption and this would be
addressed immediately, so the quarterly inspection is not necessarily an
accurate indicator of the response time required for cleanup of a spill or
leak. No estimate of the average response time for a PCB leak was found in
the literature.
The number and diversity of factors affecting PCB emissions from spills
and leaks makes estimation of an emission factor difficult. Immediate cleanup
of a transformer spill that occurs in New England in mid-winter may result ir,
a negligible release of PCBs, while a continuous leak that occurs in the
middle of the summer in the southwest may lead to a substantial PCB release.
Each case should be treated individually. Emissions from spilled PCBs are
somewhat analagous to those from uncovered dredge spoils. Although the
emission factor for dredge spoils is only a very rough approximation, it can
be applied to PCB spills in lieu of additional data. An estimated PCB
emission rate of 4.286 g/1 of landfilled PCBs was reported for the dredge
spoils cleanup project in New York (see Emissions from Annex II Landfills).
For fires involving PCB transformers or capacitors, the amount of PCBs
released is dependent upon the extensiveness of the fire and the speed at
which it is extinguished. A number of these fires have been documented. A
New York fire involving 200 gallons of transformer fluid containing some 65
percent by weight PCEs resulted in a release of up to 1,300 pounds of PCBs.78
A capacitor fire which burned uncontrolled for two hours in Sweden resulted in
the destruction of 12 large utility capacitors containing an estimated 25
pounds of PCBs each, for a total potential release of 300 pounds. However,
data are incomplete on the exact amount of PCBs released as a result of these
two fires.
62
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An ongoing EPA investigation into the annual number of FOB transformer
fires sets this figure at approximately 20 per year.75 The number of PCB
capacitor fires is unknown. As these PCB items reach the ends of their
economic lives or are retired due to premature failure, their susceptibility
to fires will be eliminated and the overall number of FOB transformer and
capacitor fires will be reduced.
63
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SECTION 5
SOURCE TEST PROCEDURES
PCS emissions from industrial, sewage sludge, and municipal refuse
incinerators can be measured using a modification of EPA Reference
Method 5.80 This method begins with a sample of gaseous and particulste PCBs
being withdrawn ispkinetically from the source through a series of four
impingers with a Florisil absorbent tube between the third and fourth
impinger, as shown in Figure 8.
The first and second impingers are of the Greenburg-Smith design. The
final two impingers are of the Greenburg-Smith design modified by replacing
the tip with a 1.3 cm (1/2 inch) ID glass tube extending to 1.3 cm from the
bottom of the flask. The absorbent tube has a 2.2 cm inner diameter, is at
least 10 cm long, and has four deep indentions on the inlet end to aid in
retaining the absorbent. Ground glass caps are used to seal the
absorbent-filled tube prior to and following sampling. The Flcrisil is
activated by heating to 650°C for 2 hours in a muffle furnace. After allowing
to cool to near 110°C, the clean, active Florisil should be transferred to a
clean, hexane-washed glass jar, sealed with a TFE®-lined lid, and stored at
110°C, until taken to the field for use. If the Florisil is stored more than
1 month it must be reactivated before use.80
In assembling the sampling train, sealant greases should not be used.
Place 200 ml of water in each of the first two impingers and leave the third
empty.. If the preliminary moisture determination shows that the stack gases
are saturated or supersaturated, one or two additional empty impingers should
be added to the train between the third impinger and the Florisil tube. Place
200 to 300 grams or more of silica gel in the last impinger. Weigh each
impinger and record the weights. Crushed ice is placed around the impingers
after the sample train is assembled.80
The sample is collected by pumping air through the sampling train. At the
end of the sampling run, the probe is removed from the stack and proper
cleanup procedures are followed. The first three impingers are removed, the
outsides are wiped off, and the weights are recorded.80
64
-------
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65
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The sample is extracted from the impingers and absorbent tube. The
extract is dried and cleaned and is then perchlorinated with antimony
pentachloride. Hexane is added to the reaction mixture to remove the residual
antimony pentachloride. The solution is allowed to separate into layers and
the upper layer is filtered through a column of anhydrous sodium sulfate.^O
The filtered sample is then assayed for decachlorobiphenyl (DCB) by gas
chromatography (GC). The recommended GC column is 2 mm ID by 1.8 m glass
packed with 3 percent OV-210 on 100/120 mesh inert support such as
supercoportf The GC should be fitted with an electron capture detector
capable of operation at 300°G. Column temperature and carrier gas flow
parameters of 240°C and 30 ml/minute are typically appropriate.80
The peak area corresponding to the retention time of DCS is measured and
compared to peak areas for a set of standard DCB solutions to determine the
DCB concentration. The concentrations of the standard solutions should allow
fairly close comparison with DCB in the sample extracts. Standard
concentrations of 25 to 50 piccgrams/microliter may be appropriate.^^
66
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REFERENCES
1. Polychlorinated Biphenyls. National Research Council, National Academy of
Sciences, Washington, B.C., 1979. pp. 1-2.
2. Durfee, R.L., et al. PCBs in the United States - Industrial Use and
Environmental Distributions. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency,
Washington, B.C. Publication No. EPA 560/6-76-005, February 1976.
pp. 35-36.
3. Reference 1, pp. 144-145.
4. Reference 1, p. 153.
5. Reference 2, p. 47.
6. Reference 2, p. 1.
7. Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology, 3rd Edition, Volume 5. Wiley
Interscience Publication, New York, NY, 1979. pp. 844-846.
8. Hutzinger, 0., Safe, S., and V. Zitko. The Chemistry of PCBs. CRC Press,
Cleveland, Ohio, 1974. pp. 7-12.
9. Letter from Alice Mayer, Chemical Manufacturers Association to
David Misenheimer, GCA/Technology Division providing data on physical
properties of Aroclors. January 23, 1986.
10. Reference 1, pp. 150-151.
11. Reference 1, p. 154.
12. Reference 1, pp. 159-160.
13. NRECA PCB Equipment Operations and Management Manual. National Rural
Electric Cooperative Association, Washington, D.C., March 1983. p. 6.
14. EPA's Final PCB Ban Rule: Over 100 Questions and Answers to Help You Meet
These Requirements. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Toxic
Substances, Washington, D.C., June 1979. pp. 2-8.
15. Reference 1, p. 147.
16. Reference 1, p. 14.
17. PCBs and the Environment, COM-72-10419, Interdepartmental Task Force on
PCBs, Department of Agriculture, March 1972, p. 52.
67
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18. Fullers B., Gordon, J., and M. Kornreich. Environmental Assessment of
PCBs in the Atmosphere. EPA 450/3-77-045, U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency, Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards, Research Triangle
Park, North Carolina, November 1977, p. 4-20,.
19. Disposal of Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCBs) and PCB Contaminated
Materials, Volume 1. EPK.I FP-1207, Electric Power Research Institute,
Palo Alto, California, October 1979, p. 3-3.
20. Reference 18, p. 4-21.
21. Cantos, G., Durfee, R.L., Hackman III, E.E., and K. Price. Assessment of
Wastewater Management, Treatment Technology and Associated Costs for
Abatement of PCBs Concentrations in Industrial Effluents.
EPA 560/6-76-006, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Toxic
Substances, Washington, D.C., January 30, 1976, pp. 32-34.
22. Reference 19, p. 3-6.
23. Reference 8, p. 9.
24. Reference 18, pp. 4-12 to 4-13.
25. Reference 17, p. 54.
26. Reference 17, p. 59.
27. Reference 17, p. 58.
28. Reference 18, pp. 4-9, 4-18.
29. Reference 17, p. 62.
30. Reference 17, p. 64.
31. Reference 17, p. 65.
32. Reference 18, p. 4-34.
33. TSCA Chemical-In-Progress Bulletin, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency,
Office of Pesticide and Toxic Substances, Washington, B.C. Vol. 5, No. 4,
September 1984.
34. Reference 18, p. 1-8.
35. Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCBs), Manufacturing, Processing, Distribution
in Commerce and Use Prohibitions, 40 CFR Part 761, Federal Register,
Volume 44, No. 106, May 31, 1979, pp. 31514-31568.
68
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36. Ackerman, D.G., et al. Guidelines for the Disposal of PCBs and PGB Items
by Thermal Destruction. EPA 600/2-81-022, U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency, Industrial Environmental Research Laboratory, Research Triangle
Park, North Carolina, February 1981, p. 7.
37. Letter from Ed Cohen, EPA Region III Hazardous Waste Management Division
to Tom Lahre, Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards, U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency. February 7, 1985
38. Mclnnes, R.G., and R.C. Adams. Provision of Technical Assistance to
Support Implementation of the PCS Regulations (January - December 1983),
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Research and Development,
Washington, D.C., May 1984.
39. Telephone conversation between Joan Juzitis, EPA Region I Air and
Hazardous Materials Division and David Misenheimer, GCA/Technology
Division, February 4, 1986.
40. Information on PCS disposal companies sent by John Smith, Office of Toxic
Substances, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency to David Misenheimer,
GCA/Technology Division, January 31, 1986.
41. Reference 38, Appendices C and D,
42. Reference 36, p. 55.
43. Piispanen, W., Cass, R.W., Bradway, R.M., and A.S. Werner. PCB Compounds
Emanating from the New Bedford Municipal Sewage Sludge Incinerator, Final
Report Prepared by GCA/Technology Division, Bedford, Massachusetts. EPA
Contract No. 68-01-3154, Task Order No. 24, September 1977.
44. Whitmore, F.C. Destruction of Polychlorinated Biphenyls in Sewage Sludge
During Incineration, Final Report Prepared by Versar, Inc., Springfield,
Virginia for U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, D.C. EPA
Contract No. 68-01-1587.
45. Murphy, T.J., et al. PCB Emissions to the Atmosphere from Municipal
Landfills and Incinerators, Paper presented before The American Chemical
Society, Division of Environmental Chemistry,- Kansas City, Missouri,
September 1980.
46. Petkus, E.J., G.S. Kimura, and W.T. Throp. Polychlorinated Biphenyl
Emissions from a Municipal Incinerator. Paper presented at 70th Meeting
of the Air Pollution Control Association, Toronto, Canada, June 1977.
47. Richard, J.J., and G.A. Junk. Polychlorinated Biphenyls in Effluents from
Combustion of Coal/Refuse, Environmental Science and Technology, Vol. 15,
No. 9, September 1981. pp. 1095-1100.
69
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48. Hunt, G.T., Wolf, P., and P.F. Fennelly. Incineration of Polychlorinated
Biphenyls in High Efficiency Boilers: A Viable Disposal Option,
Environmental Science and Technology, Vol. 18, No. 3, 1984. pp. 171-179.
49. Reference 19, p. 7-6.
50. MacLeod, K.E. Sources of Emissions of Polchlorinated Biphenyls into the
Ambient Atmosphere and Indoor Air. EPA 600/4-79-022, U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency, Health Effects Research Laboratory, Research Triangle
Park, North Carolina, March 1979. p. 38.
51. Shen, Dr. T.T. Estimating Hazardous Air Emissions from Disposal Sites,
Pollution Engineering, Vol. 13, No. 8, August 1981. pp. 31-34.
52. Reference 18, pp. 4-35.
53. Tofflemire, T.J., Eng, D.,'and T.S. Shen. Volatilization of PCB from
Sediment and Water: Experimental and Field Data Proceedings of the
Mid-Atlantic Industrial-Waste Conference, Pennsylvania State University,
July 15-17, 1979. pp. 100-109.
54. Nisbet, I.C., and A.F. Sarofim. Rates and Routes of Transport of PCBs in
the Environment, Environmental Health Perspectives, Volume 1, April 1972,
pp. 25-27.
55. Reference 8, pp. 10-17.
56. Reference 53, p. 9.
57. Reference 53, p. 27.
58. Reference 53, p. 30.
59. Destruction Technologies for Polychlorinated Biphenyls, Environment
Canada, Waste Management Branch, Toronto, Canada, 1982. p. 76.
60. Reference 54, p. 29.
61. Reference 18, pp. 1-16.
62. McClure, V.E. Transport of Heavy Chlorinated Hydrocarbons in the
Atmosphere, Environmental Science and Technology, Vol. 10, No. 13,
December 1976. pp. 1223-1229.
63. Follow-up Study of the Distribution and Fate of Polychlorinated Biphenyls
and Benzenes in Soil and Ground Water Samples After an Accidental Spill of
Transformer Fluid. EPA 904/9-76-014, U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency, Atlanta, Georgia, January 1976. p. 1.
64. Reference 19, p. 7-1.
70
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65. Reference 45, p. 208.
66. Reference 56, p. 48.
67. Mclnnes, R.G., and R.J. Johnson. Provision of Technical Assistance to
Support Implementation off the PCB Regulations (January - December 1982),
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Research and Development,
Washington, B.C., May 1983, Appendix G.
68. Letter from Judy Gordon, Office of Solid Waste, U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency to Tom Lahre, Office of Air Quality Planning and
Standards, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. February 4, 1985.
69. Comments.and Studies on the Use of Polychlorinated Biphenyls in Response
to an Order of the U.S. Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia
Circuit, Submitted by the Utility Solids Waste Activities Group, the
Edison Electric Institute, and the National Rural Electric Cooperative
Association, February 12, 1982.
70. Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCBs); Use in Electrical Equipment: Proposed
Rules, 40 CFR Part 761, Federal Register, Vol. 47, No. 78,
April 22, 1982. pp. 17426-17446.
71. Jansson, B., and G. Sundstrom. Formation of Polychlorinated Dibenzofurans
(PCDF) During a Fire Accident in Capacitors Containing Polychlorinated
Biphenyls (PCBs).
72. Rappe, C., et al. Polychlorinated Dioxins (PCDDs), Dibenzofurans (PCDFs),
and other Polynuclear Aromatics (PCPNAs) Formed During Fires, Chemical
Scripta, Vol. 20, 1982. pp. 56-61.
73. Reference 69, p. 13.
74. Reference 8, p. 23.
75. Haque, R., Schmedding, D.W., and V.H. Freid. Aqueous Solubility,
Adsorption and Vapor Behavior of Polychlorinated Biphenyl Aloclor 1254,
Environmental Science and Technology, Vol. 8, No. 2, February 1974.
pp. 139-142.
76. Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCBs) Used in Electrical Equipment, Final Rule,
40 CFR Part 761, Federal Register, Vol. 47, No. 165, August 25, 1982.
pp. 37342-37360.
77. Bosy, B., et al. Analysis of Public Comments on a Proposed PCB Rule,
Prepared by GCA/Technology Division for U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency, Office of Pesticides and Toxic Substances. Contract 68-01-5960,
Technical Directive No. 16, Washington, D.C., August 1982. pp. 68-73.
71
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78. Schecterj A. Contamination of an Office Building in Binghampton, New York
by PCBs, Dixons, Furans, and Biphenylenes After an Electrical Panel and
Electrical Transformer Incident, Chemosphere,, Vol. 12, No. 415, 1983.
pp. 669-680.
79. Telephone conversation between Suzanne Ruzinski, EPA Office of Toxic
Substances and Robert McTnnes, GCA/Technology Division, June 26, 1984.
80. Haile, C.L., and E. Baladi. Methods for Determining the Polychlorinated
Biphenyl Emissions from Incineration and Transformer Filling Plants.
EPA-600/4-77-078, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle
Park, NC. November 1977. pp. 52-73.
81. Reference 80, p. 54.
82. Telephone conversation between Jane Kim, EPA Office of Toxic Substances
and David Misenheimer, Alliance Technologies Corporation (formerly GCA
Technology Division), November 18, 1986.
72
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TECHNICAL REPORT DATA
(Please read Instructions on tin; reverse before c
1. REPORT NO.
EPA-450/4-84-007n
3. RECIPIENT'S ACCESSION NO.
AIR EMISSIONS FROM
SOURCES OF POLYCHLORINATED BIPHENYLS (PCB)
5. REPORT DATE
May 1987
6. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION CODE
'. AUTHORlS)
Alliance Technologies
Chapel Hill, NC 27514
8. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION REPORT -,C
9. PERFORM
•IG ORGANIZATION NAME AND ADDRESS
10. PROGRAM ELEMENT NO.
11. CONTRACT.GRANT NO.
12. SPONSORING AGENCY NAME AND ADDRESS
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Office Of Air Quality Planning And Standards
Air Management Technology Branch (MD-14)
Research'Triangle Park, NC 27711
13. TYPE OF REPORT AND PERIOD COVERED
14. SPONSORING AGENCY CODE
15. SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES
EPA Project Officer: David C. Misenheimer
To assist groups interested in inventorying air emissions of various potentially
toxic substances, EPA is preparing a series of documents such as this to compile
available information on sources and emissions of these substances. This document
deals specifically with Polychlorin-ated Biphenyls. Its intended audience includes
Federal, State and local air pollution personnel and others interested in locating
potential emitters of Polychlorinated Biphenyls and in making gross estimates of
air emissions therefrom.
This document presents information on 1) the types of sources that may emit
Polychlorinated Biphenyls, 2) process variations and release points that may be
expected within these sources, and 3) available emissions information indicating
the potential for Polychlorinated Biphenyls release into the air from each
ooeration.
KEY WORDS AND DOCUMENT ANALYSIS
DESCRIPTORS
b.IDENTIFIERS/OPEN ENDED TERMS
COSAT1 I-'ield/Crc
Polychlorinated Biphenyls
Sources
Locating Emissions Sources
Toxic Substances
19. SECURITY CLASS (This Report 1
20. SfcCURITY CLASS (This page)
21. NO. OF PAGES
80
22. PRICE
EPA Form 2220-1 (Rev. 4-77) PREVIOUS EDITION is OBSOLETE
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