EPA-450/5-79-007
Assessment of Human Exposures
to Atmospheric Cadmium
by
Robert Coleman, James Leaf,
Elizabeth Coffey, and Paul Siebert
Energy and Environmental Analysis
1111 North 19th Street
Arlington, VA 22209
Contract No. 68-02-2836
EPA Project Monitor: Richard Johnson
Prepared for
U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
Office of Air, Noise, and Radiation
Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards
Research Triangle Park, North Carolina 27711
June 1979
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This report was furnished to the Environmental Protection Agency by
Energy and Environmental Analysis, 1111 North 19th Street, Arlington, VA
22209, in partial fulfillment of Contract No. 68-02-2836. The contents
of this report are reproduced herein as received from Energy and
Environmental Analysis. The opinions, findings, and conclusions expressed
are those of the authors and not necessarily those of the Environmental
Protection Agency. Mention of company or product names is not to be
considered as an endorsement fay the Environmental Protection Agency.
Publication No. EPA-450/5-79-007
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ii
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 1
1. INTRODUCTION 8
2. CADMIUM IN THE ENVIRONMENT 10
2.1 Introduction w ... 10
2.2 Physical and Chemical Characteristics
of Cadmium 10
2.3 Multi-Media Nature of Cadmium Exposures 12
3. METHODOLOGY , . . . 16
3.1 Introduction , 16
3.2 Source Selection and Location 16
3.3 Determination of Annual Concentrations 17
3.4 Population Data 18
3.5 Population Exposed . 21
3.5.1 Total Exposure 21
3.5.2 Population Exposed 22
4. IRON AND STEEL MILLS 23
4.1 Introduction 23
4.2 Geographic Distribution of Sources. 25
4.3 Estimated Ambient Levels 25
4.4 Population Exposed 28
5. MUNICIPAL INCINERATORS 33
5.1 Introduction 33
iii
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TABLE OF CONTENTS (Continued)
Page
"5.2 Geographic Distribution of Sources 34
5.3 Estimated Ambient Levels 34
5.4 Population Exposed , 37
6. PRIMARY NON-FERROUS SMELTERS ..... 40
6.1 Introduction 40
6.2 Geographic Distribution of Sources 41
6.3 Estimated Ambient Levels 41
6.4 Population Exposed 45
7. SECONDARY SMELTERS ! 48
7.1 Introduction 48
7.2 Geographic Distribution of Sources 48
7.3 Estimated Ambient Levels. . . . 48
7.4 Population Exposed 51
APPENDICES:
APPENDIX A: POPULATION EXPOSURE METHODOLOGY A-l
APPENDIX B: B-l: IRON AND STEEL MILLS B-l
B-2: POPULATION EXPOSED TO ATMOSPHERIC
CADMIUM FROM IRON AND STEEL MILLS. . . . B-7
APPENDIX C: C-l: MUNICIPAL INCINERATORS C-l
C-2: POPULATION EXPOSED TO ATMOSPHERIC
CADMIUM FROM MUNICIPAL INCINERATORS. . . C-6
IV
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TABLE OF CONTENTS (Continued)
Page
APPENDIX D: PRIMARY SMELTERS. . D-l
D-1: POPULATION EXPOSED TO ATMOSPHERIC
CADMIUM FROM COPPER SMELTERS . . . .. . . D-2
APPENDIX E: SECONDARY SMELTERS. ........ E-l
APPENDIX F: CADMIUM AIR QUALITY LEVELS AROUND ASARCO
SMELTERS . .
F-l
APPENDIX G: POPULATION EXPOSED TO SPECIFIED LEVELS
OF CADMIUM IN PRIMARY SMELTERS
G-l
REFERENCES 53
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LIST OF TABLES
Table Number
E-l
E-2
E-3
2-1
2-2
2-3
4-1
4-2
4-3
4-4
4-5
5-1
5-2
5-3
5-4
Title
Study Results
Population Exposed to Greater Than 0.1 ng/m
of Cadmium
Comparison of Cadmium Exposures Among Sources
Physical Properties of Cadmium
Cadmium Content of Selected Adult Foods
Media Contributions to Normal Retention of
Cadmium
Cadmium Emission Factors for Iron and Steel
Manufacturing
Assumed Stack Characteristics for Iron and
Steel Mills
Measured Cadmium Levels in Cities Containing
Iron and Steel Mills
Estimate of Population Exposed to Measurable
Concentrations of Cadmium from Iron and
Steel Mills
Estimate of Cumulative Population Exposed to
Specified Cadmium Concentrations from Iron and
Steel Mills
Cadmium Emissions Factors
Assumed Stack Parameters for Municipal
Incinerators
Estimate of Population Exposed to Cadmium
Concentrations >_0.1 ng/m^ from Municipal
Incinerators
Estimate of Cumulative Population Exposed to
Specified Cadmium Concentrations from Municipal
Incinerators
Page
3
6
7
11
14
15
24
27
29
30
32
33
35
38
39
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LIST OF TABLES (Continued)
Table Number
6-1
6-2
6-3
6-4
7-1
7-2
7-3
Title Page
Emission Factors for Primary Smelters 42
Measured Cadmium Levels Near Primary Smelters 44
Estimate of Population Exposed to Cadmium
Concentration >^0.1 ng/m^ from Primary Smelters 46
Estimated Population Exposed to Specified
Levels from Primary Smelters (10^ people) 47
Emission Factors for Secondary Smelters 49
Assumed Stack Conditions for Secondary
Smelters 50
Estimate of Population Exposed to Specified
Levels from Secondary Smelters 52
vii
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Figure Number
E-l
3-1
3-2
LIST OF FIGURES
Title
Regional Breakdown
Population of Charlottesville, Virginia
Population of Washington, D.C.
Page
3
19
20
vin
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Preparation of this report by Energy and Environmental Analysis,
Inc. , was carried out under the overall direction of Mr. Robert Coleman.
Special assistance was received from Messrs. James Lent, Paul Siebert,
Craig Miller, and Ms. Elizabeth Coffey of EEA.
EEA gratefully acknowledges the assistance, helpful suggestions and
review of the EPA Task Officer, Mr. Richard Johnson.
The conclusions presented in the study are, of course, solely the
responsibility of Energy and Environmental Analysis, Inc.
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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
This report is one of a series of reports which will be used by EPA in
responding to the Congressional mandate tinder the Clean Air Act Amend-
ments of 1977 to determine whether atmospheric emissions of cadmium pose
a threat to public health. The report identifies the population exposed
to specified cadmium levels from selected point sources. A companion
report identified the specific sources of interest.
Although cadmium is a true multi-media pollutant, this report focuses
only on ambient air concentrations of cadmium. Even though significant
exposures of cadmium are caused by all media and atmospheric emissions
may contribute to other media through various deposition mechanisms,
these are not considered here. This report focuses on the exposure
caused by specific stationary sources. The sources considered are iron
and steel mills, municipal incinerators, primary smelters (zinc, copper,
lead, and cadmium}, and secondary smelters (copper and zinc).
Methodology , .
The basic methodology used in this report involved the following procedures:
Determination of size and location of each source within
each source category. In this regard, size data were ob-
tained from trade directories, etc., and locations from
United States Geologic Survey (USGS) maps.
Determination of annual concentrations caused by each
source within each source category. For this purpose,
annual concentrations of cadmium caused by each source
were determined using general diffusion models and
model plants.
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Determination of population exposed by each source. Es-
timates of annual concentrations due to each source and
1970 Census data were combined to give an estimate of
the population exposed to each source.
As would be expected in any analysis of this type, many assumptions were
made based on limited data. Errors are possible stemming from: esti-
mating source size and location, determining the actual emissions of
cadmium from each source, and the type and efficiency of control tech-
nologies employed at each source, and inherent biases in the dispersion
modelling. In all cases, the best data available were used. The esti-
mates of population exposure should be considered as providing a reasonably
accurate estimate of the number of individuals exposed.
I
Results
Table E-l is a summary of the results of this analysis. This table
<7 ^-
shows the population exposed to concentrations greater than 0.1 ng/m ,
the average level to which this population is exposed and the maximum
exposed population, caused by each source type. As shown in Table E-l,
municipal incinerators are the chief contributors to the total population
exposed. The chief source of cadmium in incinerators is the combustion
of plastics containing cadmium stabilizers and the combustion of materials
with cadmium-containing paint. Primary zinc and primary copper smelters
are estimated to cause the highest concentrations.
L
Iron and steel production is the second most significant source in each
category. Cadmium emissions from this source result from the processing
of steels coated with zinc or cadmium, these emissions vary from mill to
mill and the estimates here may be high.
This is approximately the current level of detectability for cadmium.
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Primary smelters, while not affecting large numbers of people, do appear
to cause the highest annual average concentrations and exposures. Dif-
ficulties encountered both in emission estimation as well as modelling,
require that these estimates be interpreted very carefully.
i
Table E-2 shows the population exposed to cadmium levels greater than
0.1 ng/m3 by region. The regional breakdown shown on Table E-2 is based
on EPA Regions shown in Figure E-l.
It is evident from the data in Table E-2 that municipal incinerators in
the northeast and midwest expose the largest number of people. Iron and
steel mills rank second in exposure. None of the other sources appear
to expose a large number of people, although the concentrations caused
by primary smelters may be very high.
Table E-3 shows an estimate of the exposure (expressed in nanograms-
person-year) due to each source type. Again, municipal incinerators
dominate the list, with iron and steel mills ranking second.
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TABLE E-3
COMPARISON OF CADMIUM EXPOSURES AMONG SOURCES
(10 Nanograms-Person-Year)
Source Type
Secondary Copper
Secondary Zinc
Municipal Incinerators
2/
Primary Zinc
Primary Lead
2/
Primary Copper
2/
Primary Cadmium
Iron and Steel
2/
, Exposure
(10 Nanograms-Person-Year)
15.1
0
404.4
32-42
.9-1.1
1.1-2.8
0.5-2.4
36.2
I/
2/
Computed by multiplying the population exposed to each source by
the concentrations resulting from that source.
Range is due to varying assumptions on fugitive emissions; see
text, Section 6.
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1. INTRODUCTION
This report is one in a series of reports
responding to the Congressional mandate in. Section 122 of the Clean Air
Act Amendments of 1977. Under this Section of the Act, EPA is required
to review the current data on the health a.nd welfare effects of cadmium
(as well as other substances} and determine "whether or not emissions
of...cadmium...into the ambient air will cause, or contribute to, air
pollution which may reasonably be anticipated to endanger public health."
which will assist EPA in
The purpose of the report is to provide a relative ranking of sources by
magnitude of population exposed and to present this information in such
a way that EPA can make estimates of the health implications of the
reported exposures. This report estimates the population exposed to
atmospheric levels of cadmium from "significant cadmium sources" (those
source categories for which individual facilities may produce ambient
3
concentrations of at least 0.1 ng/m on an annual basis). This report
draws no conclusions as to the health consequences of atmospheric
cadmium levels, nor does it provide a total estimate of the population
exposed to specified cadmium levels. l
I
The report is organized into several sections summarized below:
Section 2 provides an overview of the physical and
chemical properties of cadmium as well as the routes
through which human exposures to cadmium occurs.
Section 3 provides an overview of the methodology
used in the report.
- 8 -
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-9 -
Sections 4 through 7 provide estimates of the popula-
tion exposed to cadmium emissions from selected sources.
The sources considered are:
Section 4 Iron and Steel Mills
Section 5 -- Municipal Incinerators
Section 6 -- Primary Smelters (copper, lead, zinc, and
cadmium)
Section 7 -- Secondary Smelters (copper and zinc)
The background data for this report are based primarily on information
presented in a companion report which focused on:
the development of cadmium emissions factors;
the estimation of total atmospheric emissions of
cadmium from all sources; and
the screening of sources to determine if individual
sources within a source category can cause measurable
ambient levels of cadmium (based on the annual average).
Many of the assumptions and information used in this report are documented
in the companion report.
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2. CADMIUM IN THE ENVIRONMENT
2.1 INTRODUCTION :
This section discusses the physical and chemical properties of cadmium
and the multi-media nature of cadmium exposures. Although this report
focuses only on atmospheric exposures to cadmium, it is important to
keep in mind that there are many other types of human exposures to
cadmium including food, water, and tobacco smoke.
2.2 PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF CADMIUM
Cadmium is a relatively rare element in the earth's crust. It occurs at
a concentration of 0.1 to 0.5 ppm. It is of low abundance, ranking
between mercury and silver, and thus, not in sufficient quantities to be
2/
mined as an ore. Cadmium is always associated with zinc and is usually
3/
present as a sulfide. Table 2-1 shows the physical properties of
cadmium. ;
The most important characteristic of cadmium, from an air pollution
viewpoint, is its high volatility. This is evidenced by its low melting
(321 C) and boiling (767 C) points. Thus, any high temperature process,
such as metallurgical processes (e.g., steel-making, sintering) or
incineration, is likely to release whatever cadmium is present in the
feed.
Vaporized cadmium metal is quite reactive and should very quickly form
an oxide, sulfate, or other compound of relatively high stability.
Cadmium metal is very ductile, easily soldered, can be readily electro-
plated, and maintains a lustrous finish in air. ' These properties lead
to the use of cadmium as a protective coating on iron and steel products.
- 10 -
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TABLE 2-1
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF CADMIUM
Atomic Number
Atomic Weight
Color
Crystal Structure
Hardness
Ductility
Density
20°C (68°F) (solid)
330° (626°F) (liquid)
Melting point
Boiling point
Specific heat
25°C (77°F) (solid)
Electrochemical equivalent
Cd+2 ion
Electrode potential
Cd+2 ion
48
112.41
silver-white
hexagonal pyramids
2.0 Mohs
considerable
8.65 g/cc
8.01 g/cc
321°C (609.8°F)
767°C (1412.6°F)
0.055 g-cal/g
0.582 mg/coulomb
-0.40 volt
a/
a/
From Reference 4
b/
National Bureau of Standards nomenclature, H,.
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2.3 MULTI-MEDIA NATURE OF CADMIUM EXPOSURES :
While this report focuses on atmospheric exposures to cadmium, it is
important to recognize the overall cycle of cadmium in the environment.
Measurable levels of cadmium occur in all phases of environmental concern
(air, water, food, solid waste), and in almost all geographic areas.
One author refers to cadmium as the "dissipated element." EPA in
1975 estimated that about 1,800 Mg/year of cadmium were lost to the
environment. Of this, about 18 percent was in atmospheric emissions,
75 percent in solid waste, and the remainder in water-borne emissions.
I
Measurable cadmium levels have been found in air, water, soil, and food.
Atmospheric concentrations generally have been measured in the center of
urban areas and usually range from 100 ng/m down to below the detectable
3
limit of 0.1 ng/m . Typical urban concentrations are in the range of
3
3 ng/m . Main sources of cadmium are discharges from mining operations,
leaching from soil disposal of wastes, and fall-out from atmospheric
emissions.
Cadmium in food results from a wide variety of sources. Listed in order
: II
of importance from a recent Battelle Report, they are:
Direct contact by plants or uptake from soils by plant roots,
- Naturally as a normal constituent of all soils but
particularly of marine origin
- As an impurity (cadmium oxide) in phosphate-
treated soils, especially in those treated
with "superphosphate"
- By fertilization with sludge containing
cadmium
- By deposition of cadmium-containing pesticides
or as a contaminant of zinc-containing pesti-
cides
- From run-off of mine tailings or from electro-
plating washing process
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Accumulation in animal tissues due to:
- Feeding on crops which have absorbed cadmium
(the organs of such animals may have very high
cadmium concentrations)
- Treatment with cadmium-containing helminth
killers used especially in swine
Concentrations of cadmium by mollusks, crustaceans
and most other aquatic organisms from ambient
waters
Use of zinc-galvanized containers, cans, cooking imple-
ments or vessels, or utensils used in food preparation,
particularly grinders, pressing machines, or galvanized
netting used to dry fish and gelatin
0 Absorption of cadmium contained in wrapping and
packaging materials such as paper, plastic bags,
and tin cans. (Cadmium is now prohibited in food
containers of this kind.)
Use of cadmium-contaminated water in cooking or
processing operations
Table 2-2 lists the average cadmium concentrations of selected adult
foods.
Cigarette smoking also provides a large contribution to total cadmium
exposure. The estimated intake from two packs per day ranges from four
to six micrograms. This can amount to about 20 times the exposure due
to atmospheric levels in large urban areas.
Even for smokers, food provides the greatest overall exposure to cadmium,
and based on a 6.4 percent retention rate, is the greatest daily input
(except for three packs-per-day-smokers). Table 2-3 summarizes the
sources of cadmium exposure.
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TABLE 2-2
CADMIUM CONTENT OF SELECTED ADULT FOODSa//
Commodity
Carrots, roots fresh
Lettuce, raw crisp head
Potatoes, raw white
Butter
Margarine
Eggs, whole fresh
Chicken fryer, raw whole or whole
cut up
Bacon, cured raw, sliced
Frankfurters
Liver, raw beef
Hamburger, raw ground beef
Roast, chuck beef
Wheat flour, white
Sugar refined, beet or cane
Bread, white
Orange juice, canned frozen concentrate
Green beans, canned
Beans, canned with pork and tomato sauce
Peas, canned
Tomatoes, canned
Diluted fruit drinks, canned
Peaches, canned
Pineapple, canned
Applesauce, canned
No. of
Simples
69
69
71
71
I
71
71
71
1
71
j 69
I
71
71
71
! 71
[ 71
70
71
i 71
71
71
71
71
71
: 71
1"
71
Average
ppm
0.051
O.Q62
0.057
0.032
0.027
0.067
0.039
0.040
0.042
0.183
0.075
0 . 035
0.064
0.100
0.036
0.029
0.018
0.009
0.042
0.042
0.017
0.036
0.059
0.020
Standard
Deviation,
ppm
0.077
0.124
0.139
0.071
0.048
0.072
0.088
0.160
0.111
0.228
0.122
0.034
0.150
0.709
0.063
0.095
0.072
0.000
0.113
0.113
0.052
0.061
0.153
0.027
a/
Source: Reference
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TABLE 2-3
MEDIA CONTRIBUTIONS TO NORMAL RETENTION
OF CADMIUMa/
Medium
Ambient air
Water
Cigarettes:
Packs/Day
1/2*
1
2
3
Food
Exposure Level
0.03 pg/m3
1 ppb
yg/day
1.1
2.2
4.4
6.6
50
b/
Daily Retention
Og)
0.15
0.09
0.70
1.41
2.82
4.22
3.0
c/
c/
c/
c/
a/
b/
c/
Source: Reference 7.
Based on 0.11 yg per cigarette.
Assumes a 6.4 percent retention rate.
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3. METHODOLOGY
3.1 INTRODUCTION
i
This section describes the general methodology used in,determining the
population exposed to specified levels of cadmium; In simplest terms,
the methodology can be viewed as having four components:
Selection and location of significant sources of cadmium
and estimation of emissions from those sources;
Determination of ambient concentrations of cadmium
caused by these sources;
Development of population data base; and
Integration of estimated cadmium concentrations with
the estimates of population residing in that area.
3.2 SOURCE SELECTION AND LOCATION
Based on the results of the companion study, noted previously, which
screened all potential cadmium sources on the basis of measurable contri-
bution to annual average ambient levels of cadmium,* four sources
categories were selected for exposure analysis:
(1) Iron and Steel Mills !
(2) Municipal Incinerators
(3) Primary Smelters (copper, lead, zinc, and cadmium)
(4) Secondary Smelters (copper and zinc}
Information on the precise nature and capacity of each source in the
above categories was obtained from various trade directories and other
z
* Cadmium annual averages as low as 0.1 ng/m are assumed measurable.
- 16 -
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data sources which are of recent vintage (generally 1976 or 1977). The
sections of this report which deal with individual emissions sources
list the specific references used.
Most of these references also provide street addresses and zip codes for
individual plants. From USGS maps, streets, and, in most cases, individual
facilities were identified within the zip code and in this way, relatively
precise locations for the sources were obtained.
This method of locating sources is relatively accurate, generally within
one to two km. This is a satisfactory level of accuracy given-the
accuracy of other data items. (The sections dealing with the individual
source types include the location and size of each source.)
In estimating emissions from each source, "best judgement" emission
factors, developed in the companion report to this study, were used.
Variability of emission factors for individual sources and among source
types can be quite large. Emissions were computed assuming that facilities
are operated at their nominal capacity.
3.3 DETERMINATION OF ANNUAL CONCENTRATIONS
Annual concentrations for each type of plant were computed by using an
9/
EPA diffusion model, CRSTER., '. The annual concentrations due to model
plant types were then determined. These model plants were designed in
such a way as to represent the probable ranges of typical industrial
facilities. The factors which were varied to define the model plants
were: stack height, flow rate and temperature. Surface meteorological
data from Dallas/Fort Worth and upper air data from Oklahoma City were
used in the analysis. These sets of data were used because the meteoro-
logy is understood to be fairly typical of many areas in the country in
terms of wind speed and stability classes. If a detailed analysis of
any of the sources identified here was to be conducted in the future,
more site-specific meteorological data would be desirable.
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Detailed descriptions of the particular assumptions used in the analysis
of each source type are discussed in the following sections.
3.4 POPULATION DATA
The population data were obtained from the 1970 Master Enumeration
District List (MED List)10' obtained from the Bureau of the Census.
This list provides the population and geographic location of each enum-
eration district in rural areas and of each block group within urban
areas. An enumeration district contains approximately 800 people and is
no larger than the area one enumerator could reasonably be expected to
cover. A block group consists of contiguous city blocks with a total
population of about 1,000. In a central business district, the block
groups are further subdivided into individual blocks. The geographic
locator for each of these three census divisions is the latitude and
longitude coordinate of the centroid of the division.
The population data associated with these centroids were transferred to
a grid which spans the contiguous United States. Each grid cell was
1/30 of a degree longitude by 1/30 of a degree latitude. Thus, this
resulted in the average grid cell being approximately ten square kilome-
ters. With this grid cell size, reasonably adequate definition was
developed. Figure 3-1 illustrates an example of a medium size town and
its environments. For this example, the population of the city itself
shows up in six different grid cells. The city's suburbs show up in
several additional cells. In the rural areas of the map, the population
of individual enumeration districts appear as a single grid cell entry.
In rural areas the grids which show zero population do not necessarily
have no population. Rather, these areas are part of an enumeration
district and all population in each enumeration is shown at the centroid
of each district. Figure 3-2 illustrates an example of a large metro- ;
politan area. As one moves from the central city area westward towards
the suburbs, a very definite population gradient can be observed. Grid
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cells within the city which contain large areas of public land appear as
lower density grid cells. , . ,
The actual transfer to the grid ;was,made as follows: the population of
every enumeration district and of every block group whose centroid was
located in a given two-minute-by-two-minute grid cell was summed to give
the population of the grid cell. The information, for each of.26 areas
or maps which described the county was stored in a matrix. After all 26
maps were constructed, a count was made of the number of people located
by this method. The total of 201,744,383 accounts for 99.5 percent of
the 1970 population of the contiguous United States.
3.5 POPULATION EXPOSED
The purpose of the model developed in this chapter is to integrate, the
data on source location, and resulting ambient concentrations caused by
the source, with the population data described above, -thus determining., .
the number of people exposed to specified levels of cadmium.. The method-
ology described in detail in Appendix A, used two independent procedures
to estimate population exposed. In brief terms, the two procedures are:
3.5.1 Total Exposure
This procedure involves locating a source by latitude and longitude and,
through diffusion modelling, determining the radius at which specified
concentrations occur. Once the radius is determined, the population in
those grids completely contained in the radius were determined. Then,
the population in each partially covered grid is determined based on the
percent of the grid circumscribed by the radius.
This procedure is carried out on a source-by-source basis. If people
are exposed to more than one source, they would be counted twice.
However, in this method of population estimation the estimated exposure
levels are not additive across source types. The primary use for this
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- 22 -
result is in determining the total exposure (nanograms-person-year)
caused by specific source types. This type of estimate is suitable for
use in a linear health risk model (i.e., such models which treat two
people exppsed to 1 ng/m as equivalent to the health effects of one
person exposed to 2 ng/m ).
3.5.2 Population Exposed
In addition to estimating total exposure, the model was applied to
estimate the population exposed to specified levels of atmospheric
cadmium. As in the case of the exposure modelling, the population
estimates were developed on a source-by-source analysis; however, this
form of the model provides an estimate of the population exposed to at
least the specified concentrations. The estimates do not take into
account that a person can be exposed to more than one source and that
the actual level of exposure is the sum of the concentrations produced
by the sources. As such, the estimates of population, to some degree,
may underestimate the level of exposure. ;
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4. IRON AND STEEL MILLS
4.1 INTRODUCTION
The estimation of population exposure to atmospheric cadmium, emitted
from the production of iron and steel is discussed in this section.
The primary source of cadmium emissions from iron and steel manufacturing
is the melting of scrap containing cadmium in steel-making furnaces and,
to a much lesser degree, the cadmium in the coal used to make coke.
Table 4-1 lists the emission factors used in this analysis.
One of the source types listed in Table 4-1 (sinter plants) does not
involve the use of cadmium scrap directly. Sinter plants agglomerate
fine iron- containing material (iron ore, flue dust, etc.) into a material
suitable for use in the blast furnace. This feed to sinter plants could
contain relatively large amounts of cadmium. Therefore, even with
relatively high levels of air pollution control (90 percent) , signifi-
cant amounts of cadmium may be released. The companion volume of this
report discusses the emissions of cadmium from iron and steel production
i ii/
in considerable detail. More recent data from AISI has indicated
that the relatively low control efficiency shown here (50 percent) may
be considerably too low for some sinter plants. Efficiencies as high as
85 percent have been reported. The efficiency of collection and amounts
of cadmium emitted from sinter plants is a function of the type of feed
used in the sinter plant and varies from day to day. The low efficiency
estimates are used here as a conservative assumption but further work is
needed to better verify the emission estimates .
- 23 -
-------
- 24 -
rt
CO
DJ
1
(D
,-P S
I/I 0>
to
to
X
oo
LO
in «
..as
O
cS
.
ctf X 3
pa o a.
o
fl> O
a>
X
tu
-------
- 25 -
4.2 GEOGRAPHIC DISTRIBUTION OF SOURCES
The location of iron and steel-producing facilities in the United States
is shown in Appendix B. Estimated capacity data in this table come from
the American Iron and Steel Institute's Iron and Steel Works Direc-
13/
tory of the United States and Canada.
were determined from the Dun and Bradstreet Metal-Working Directory
and USGS maps.
Locations of these facilities
14/
Appendix B also shows the estimated cadmium emissions from each facility.
These estimates were derived by multiplying the emission factors in
Table 4-1 by the production for each facility type, assuming that all
plants operate at the hours of operation defined by the Department of
Commerce as full operation. ' It must be emphasized that these emission
factors are average emissions based on national average uses of cadmium
scrap or on a limited number of stack tests. The estimation of an
accurate emission estimate for iron and steel mills is extremely diffi-
cult. First, the industry is upgrading existing inadequate control
technology and even replacing existing types of technology with new
types. Secondly, the amount of cadmium released is not only a function
of the type of control, but a function of the amount and type of scrap
used at each mill. However, it is felt that the estimates here are
adequate for making a rough estimate of the relative importance of iron
and steel mills and the need for further data refinements.
4.3 ESTIMATED AMBIENT LEVELS
Estimates of annual cadmium concentrations in the vicinity of iron and
steel manufacturing facilities are complicated by variation in production
and physical layout. Large integrated mills can cover hundreds of acres
and may have many stacks. Mini-mills, or scrap reprocessing facilities
with a low number of small electric arc furnaces, may cover only a few
acres and have few stacks. Due to a lack of information on the physical
-------
- 26 -
size of all the facilities, it was assumed that all stacks were located
together. This means that a single stack was assumed and all effluents
were vented through that stack. This does not give the steel mill
credit for dispersion which can occur before the plume reaches the plant
property line and consequently overestimates the concentrations attributed
to these plants. In addition, conservative (i.e., conditions not condu-
cive to good dispersion) assumptions were made concerning stack char-
acteristics. All stacks were assumed to have the characteristics as
shown on Table 4-2. The flow rate assumed for the iron and steel stack
is an average figure for all types of units. The net effect of these
assumptions is to overestimate the air quality impact of the facilities:
to some unknown degree.
Based on the stack conditions shown in Table 4-2 as input to the CRSTER
dispersion model (using Dallas/Fort Worth meteorology), concentrations
were estimated for a few selected distances. A regression equation was
then developed which estimates concentrations resulting from a 1.0 g/sec
emission rate. The equation developed was::
LnY = 1.71 (InX) - 2.35 (1/X) + 3.19
(4-1)
where: Y = the concentration (ng/m ) resulting from an emission
rate of 1.0 g/sec of cadmium
X = the distance from the source to the receptor point (km).
This equation has a coefficient of determination of greater than 0.99 as
a predictor of ambient concentrations estimates computed from CRSTER
output.
The emission rate for each plant was multiplied by the concentration
estimated from the 1 g/sec emission rate to provide an estimate of
concentrations at any distance. Modelling results were not carried out
beyond 20 km due to the questionable validity of this type of dispersion
modelling beyond these distances.
-------
- 27 -
TABLE 4-2
ASSUMED STACK CHARACTERISTICS
FOR IRON AND STEEL MILLS
Stack Height
Temperature
Diameter
Flow
100 feet
250°F
8 feet
125,000 cfm
-------
- 28 -
Current monitoring programs are not designed to measure maximum impacts
of point sources such as iron and steel mills. However, some indication
of the plausibility of both the modelling techniques and the emission
estimates can be made by comparing measured levels in areas with major
iron and steel facilities with the concentrations predicted by the
modelling technique.
I
Ambient cadmium levels can vary greatly from year to year;, the little
data available shows (Table 4-3) that annual average levels in cities
having iron and steel facilities are roughly 5 to 10 ng/m3. Of course,
in these cities, the observed levels cannot be attributable solely to
iron and steel mills since other sources are quite likely present.
Estimated annual cadmium levels from iron and steel mills developed in
this study using the technique described above are also 5 to 10 ng/m3.
This suggests that, although very conservative assumptions were used,
the estimated concentrations from iron and steel mills are reasonable.
However, the actual degree of precision of these predicted levels cannot
be determined reasonably. j
4.4 POPULATION EXPOSED
Table 4-4 shows an estimate of the population exposed to cadmium concen-
3
trations greater than 0.1 ng/m and the estimated annual average con-
centrations to which each of the exposed populations is subjected. The
regional breakdown shown on Table 4-5 is based on EPA Regions as shown
in Figure 1. As discussed in Section 3, these estimates were obtained
by superimposing the modelled ambient concentrations caused by emissions
from iron and steel mills on the distribution of population.
As would be expected, both the largest number of people exposed and the
highest average exposures are EPA Regions III, IV, and V. This is due
to the large concentration of integrated steel mills in heavily industrialized
urban areas.
-------
- 29 -
TABLE 4-3
MEASURED CADMIUM LEVELS IN CITIES
a/
CONTAINING IRON AND STEEL MILLS '
City
East Chicago, IL
Ashland, KY
Youngstown, OH
Cleveland, OH
Allentown, PA
Bethlehem, PA
Annual _
Average (ng/m )
4.6
6
5.6
8.8
13.4
6.8
Year
1974
1974
1970
1970
1974
1973
a/
' Source: Reference 16.
' Data reported for the latest year measurements are available.
-------
- 30 -
. .
TABLE 4-4 i
ESTIMATE OF POPULATION EXPOSED TO MEASURABLE CONCENTRATIONS
OF CADMIUM FROM IRON AND STEEL MILLS
Region
Annual Average
3
Exposure (ng/m )
Population
3
(10 people)
Exposure
(10 ng-person-year)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
TOTAL
0.4
1.4
2.7
2.8
1.5
1.5
1.2
-
1.2
0.7
1.8
93
1,649
4,543
1,611
8,710
1,575
108
-
778
833
19,900
0
2.3
11,3
4.5
13.1
2.3
0.1
0.3
0.9
0.6'
36.2
-------
- 31 -
Table 4-5 shows a breakdown of population by exposure level. As described
in the section on methodology, care must be used in interpreting these
results. As explained in the methodology section and Appendix A, the
results on Table 4-5 should be interpreted as the population exposed to
a concentrations greater than or equal to that specified, and from at
least one facility. As such, the total population estimated is accurate,
but, because the estimated concentration is computed as though a person
is exposed to only cadmium from the modelled facility, the results may
be an underestimate of the actual concentrations exposed to.
Appendix B shows the population exposed to individual sources.
-------
- 32 -
I
,i
TABLE 4-5
ESTIMATE OF CUMULATIVE POPULATION EXPOSED TO SPECIFIED
CADMIUM CONCENTRATIONS FROM IRON AND STEEL MILLS
Region
(10 people)
Annual Concentration (ng/m )
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
>10*
0
0
52
177
143
0
0
0
0
0
>5
0
49
137
341
339
29
0
24
15
0
>!
0
470
1,965
578
1,852
521
\ 23
176
161
33
i
>CK1
93
1,649
4,543
1,610
8,710
1,575
108
224
774
833
* Maximum concentrations predicted around individual iron and
steel mills may be as high as 30-40 ng/mr*.
-------
5. MUNICIPAL INCINERATORS
5.1 INTRODUCTION
This section estimates the population and exposure levels to cadmium
emitted from municipal incinerators.
Cadmium emissions from incinerators originate from the combustion of
cadmium-containing waste materials. These waste materials include
plastics which contain cadmium as a stablizer, cadmium-plated materials,
nickel cadmium batteries, and materials painted with cadmium-based
pigments.
Cadmium is released from incinerators due to its low boiling point
(767°C) and the considerably higher (>1,400°C) temperatures character-
istic of incinerator combustion. The estimated cadmium emission factors
for incinerators are shown in Table 5-1.
! '- , . -
TABLE 5-1
177
CADMIUM EMISSION FACTORS '
Emission Factors (Ibs/ton of refuse)
Controlled
' ' ' . . . _2
Best Judgement . 1.3x10
_^
Maximum 1.0x10
-4
Minimum 6.0x10
A large amount of variability among incinerators in emissions can be ex-
pected because of variations in input feed rate, feed composition,
combustion temperature (and other operating conditions), and control
equipment efficiency. This variability cannot be taken into account in
this type of analysis.
- 33 -
-------
- 3.4 -
5.2 GEOGRAPHIC DISTRIBUTION OF SOURCES
Appendix C lists the locations and capacities of municipal incinerators
analyzed in this study. The primary source of this capacity data is
18 /
Incinerator and Solid Waste Technology. ' The facilities were located
by street address through a telephone survey of each town and city.
Street addresses were translated into latitude and longitude coordinates
from detailed USGS maps (seven and one-half minute quadrangles for inte-
gration with the population data. ;
Appendix C also shows the estimated cadmium emissions from each incinera-
tor. The emissions shown are simply the product of the "best judgement"
emission factors and daily capacity figures. As previously mentioned,
wide variation in these estimates can be expected due to variation in
cadmium feed and control efficiency.
5.3. ESTIMATED AMBIENT LEVELS
Estimates of ambient levels due to incinerators were based on the results
r
of CRSTER analyses using the same meteorology assumptions and in a
fashion somewhat similar to the procedure used for iron and steel mills.
However, due to the very large populations exposed, a somewhat more
refined methodology was used. Data on incinerators capacity, location,
and stack characteristics were obtained from EPA's National Emissions
Data (NEDS) System. However, this data base apparently was not complete.
When this data base was compared to the information on incinerator
location and capacity obtained during this study only about one-third of
the plants matched.
A sensitivity analysis, based on CRSTER runs of the model plants shown
on Table 5-2 were conducted to determine which of the parameters shown
in this table caused the greatest change in concentration when changed.
It was determined that the concentrations were most sensitive to changes
in flow rate. As a result, the flow and size data from the 30 plants in
-------
- 35 -
TABLE 5-2 i
. ASSUMED STACK PARAMETERS
FOR MUNICIPAL INCINERATORS
Incinerator .
Size
(tons/day)
>1,000
300-1,000
150-300
<150
Stack
Height
(ft)
175
125
50
50
Temperature
C°FD
250-500
250-500
250-500
250-500
Diameter
(ft)
12
5
3
2
Flow
(acfm)
210,000
50,000
25,000
5,000
-------
- 36 -
the NEDS list which matched the overall list were put into the size
categories shown in Table 5-2. These data were used to further sub-
divide the plant sizes and, in effect, to develop 30 model plants. ;
Existing plants were matched to model plants which most closely matched;
their size and the appropriate equation of the four listed below was
used:
For capacities of greater than 1000 tons/day
LnY = -1.58 (InX) - BI (1/X) + 2,,78
For capacities between 300 and 1000 tons/day
LnY = -1.75 (InX) - B2 (1/X) + 3.26
For capacities between 150 and 300 tons/day
LnY = -1.60 (InX) - BS (1/X) + 3.16
For capacities less than 150 tons/day
LnY = -1.53 (InX) - B (1/X) + 3.04
(5-1)
(5-2)
(5-3)
(5-4)
where:
Y = the annual average concentration (ng/m ) estimated for an
emission of 1 g/second of cadmium; B - B are groups of
constants which were functions of plant size and flow rate
X = the distance to the receptor point (km) .
Concentrations caused by each plant were computed by multiplying the
plant emission rate in grams/seconds by the concentration resulting from
a 1 g/second emission rate. As with other sources, modelling results
were not carried out beyond 20 km.
Most incinerators are located in urban areas where there are multiple
smaller sources of cadmium probably distributed in a non uniform spatial
pattern. Existing monitoring programs, therefore, do not provide an
adequate basis to judge the precision of these modelling results, even ;
qualitatively.
-------
- 37 -
5-4 POPULATION EXPOSED
Table 5-3 shows the estimate of the population exposed to cadmium con-
3 '
centrations greater than 0.1 ng/m originating from incinerators and the
average concentration to which each person is exposed (weighted by
population and distance). The regional breakdown shown on Table 5-3 is
based on EPA Regions.
The greatest number of people exposed and the highest average concentra-
tion are in EPA Region II, which includes New York. This state has a
large number of incinerators located in the high density urban area of
New York City. Region V has the second highest number of people exposed.
In this region, the average concentration is much lower than in
Region II. This is due primarily to the more dispersed nature of a
smaller number of incinerators located in high density areas (Chicago).
The opposite situation occurs in Region VI where a relatively small
number of people (one million) are exposed, but the average concentration
is high.
Table 5-4 shows a breakdown of population exposure by level. As shown,
a relatively small number of people are exposed to high concentrations
3
(>100 ng/m ), but that the number of people increases very rapidly as
the concentration decreases. At these greater distances, the areas of
influence of many incinerators will overlap due to their proximity to
each other in urban locations, and thus, include large proportions of
densely populated urban areas.
Appendix C lists the estimated population exposed to each municipal
incinerator.
-------
- 38 -
TABLE 5-3
ESTIMATE OF POPULATION EXPOSED TO CADMIUM CONCENTRATIONS
>0.1 ng/m3.FROM MUNICIPAL INCINERATORS
Region
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Average Exposure
(ng/m )
8.55
. 9.65
5.44
5.66
6.33
12.2
58.9
7.10
Population
(10 people)
:6,470
16,731)
8,567
2,935
12,144
1,098
157
169
Exposure
(10 ng-person-year)
55.3 :
1S4.7 ;
; 46,6 ' 1
16.6
77,5
13.4 [
9.4
1.2
TOTAL
8.4
413,270
404.4
-------
- 39 -
TABLE 5-4 '
ESTIMATE OF CUMULATIVE POPULATION EXPOSED TO SPECIFIED
CADMIUM CONCENTRATIONS FROM MUNICIPAL INCINERATORS
(10 people)
Region
Annual Concentration (ng/m )
1
2 ...
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
>200
1.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0.
0.0
-
_
>100
3
0.5
0.1
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
-
-
>50
14
1016
53
22
250
7.7
38
4.6
-
-
>10
612
1655
679
40
650
7.7
81
4.6
-
-
>0.1
6,470
16,930
8,567
2,935
12,251
1,098
157
169
-
-
-------
6. PRIMARY NON-FERROUS SMELTERS
6.1 INTRODUCTION
Cadmium is found in nature combined with z;inc and to a much lesser
degree, with lead and copper. The refining of this one in primary i
copper, lead, zinc, and cadmium smelters leads to significant atmos-
pheric emissions of cadmium. The source of cadmium emissions from all
smelters is basically the same. During high temperature pyrometallurgical
processing, cadmium,, which.has a lower boiling point than other metalsj
is vaporized and released. The differences in cadmium emissions among
the primary smelters are briefly discussed below.
There are two major processes used in the production of zinc which have
very different cadmium emission characteristics. These are the pyrometal-
lurgical and electrolytic processes. The pyrometallurgical process used
at older plants (of which only three are sitill in existence) first
roasts the ore at temperatures between 900 and 1,000°C to drive off S00
&*
and produce a concentrate. Following this; operation, the concentrate is
sintered to provide a product which is easier to handle and to retort. ',
The final step is the reduction df zinc oxide to zinc in a retort.
Both the roasting and sintering steps appear to have the highest potential
19 /
for cadmium emissions. One recent report, ' however, indicates that
due to an excess of oxygen, close temperature control (900-1,000°C),
and the high efficency of existing air pollution control, little cadmium
is emitted from the roaster. This hypothesis is supportable.
a/
In all existing zinc smelters, the SO -rich offgas from the roaster
goes to sulfuric acid plant. Since ca:dmium oxide is soluble in
sulfuric acid, the recovered acid should show high cadmium levels if
large amounts of cadmium are leaving the roaster. Cadmium levels
reported in the recovered acid are quite low.
- 40 -
-------
=*- 41 -
Sintering operations appear, therefore, to be the chief cadmium emission
sources in primary smelting of zinc.
Since electrolytic 'operations use concentrate directly from the roasting
operation and do not subject the concentrate to elevated temperatures,
there appears little potential for cadmium emissions. Thus, cadmium
emissions from this process are assumed to be ze'ro for this analysis!
Cadmium emissions from lead and copper smelting also result from high
temperature processes such,as sintering operations. Cadmium is present
in most lead ores and some copper ores, and is released during high
temperature processing. . <
Table 6-1 shows the estimated emission factors for primary smelters
which are considered to be upper bound estimates. This is especially
true for primary zinc smelting where the data are based only on one
plant which was operating relatively inefficiently (i.e., with high zinc
losses).
6.2 GEOGRAPHIC DISTRIBUTION OP SOURCES
Appendix D shows the location of the primary smelters reviewed in this
analysis. General location and capacity data were obtained from various
20 21/
EPA and industry reports; ' and specific locations were determined
from USGS maps.
6.3 ESTIMATED AMBIENT LEVELS '
The annual average estimates of cadmium concentrations caused by smelters
247
were estimated based on procedures developed by SRI in a study of
human exposure to arsenic. Like arsenic, cadmium emissions from smelters
result from both stack and fugitive sources. The cadmium emission
factors used in this report are only mass balance estimates, their
accuracy is not clearly defined, and there is no indication as to what
-------
- 42 -
TABLE 6-1
EMISSION FACTORS FOR PRIMARY SMELTERS
(Pounds of Cadmium/Ton of Product)
II
Smelter Type
Minimum
Maximum
Best Judgement
Zinc
Lead
Copper
Cadmium
1,43
5. 20x10 ~2
7. 00x10 ^
25.00
2.96
2.60X10"1
2.90X10"1
30.50
2,50
l.lOxlO"1
l.SOxlO"1
28.00
a/ 3
Controlled level may be as low as 5.20x10" Ibs/ton of product.
Controlled level may be as low as 7.00x10 Ibs/ton of product.
-------
- 43 -
percent of emissions are fugitive versus stack. For this study three
potential estimates of fugitive emissions were selected for a range of
estimates. Exposures were made assuming that one, two, and five percent
of total emissions were fugitive.
As with other sources a regression equation was fitted to the modelling
results reported by SRI.
24/
The equations developed were:
For stack emissions: .
,-0.449 h-2.27
(6-1)
(6-2)
where:
C = 1000 Q D
For fugitive emissions:
C = 0.052 Q D"1'316
3
C = , concentration (ug/m ) annual average
Q = emission rate of cadmium (Ibs/hr)
D = distance (km)
h = stack height (ft) based on stack heights reported for
each smelter in reference 25.
As with all other sources, no modelling was carried out beyond 20 km.
The concentrations computed by this method must be used with great care.
These are at best very rough estimates because the emission estimates
are crude, the actual split between stack and fugitive is not known, and
the actual terrain around many smelters is quite rough and the normal
modelling assumptions of flat terrain would not apply.
Monitoring data can be used to give a rough idea of concentrations of
cadmium around smelters. Table 6-2 lists concentrations of cadmium
observed in areas near smelters. From this table it is obvious that
very high cadmium levels are not uncommon around smelters.
-------
City
- 44 -
TABLE 6-2
MEASURED CADMIUM LEVELS NEAR PRIMARY SMELTERS
State Type Concentration
a/
Year
b/
Helena
El Paso
KellQgg
Jefferson Count
Montana
Texas
Idaho
y Missouri
Lead
Copper
Zinc , Lead
Cadmiuitt
Lead
(ng/m )
15
24
247
111
1971
1974
1975
1975
' Source: Reference 22.
' Last ye,ar for which data is available.
-------
- 45 -
Cadmium data submitted by ASARCO from stations around their smelters,
indicated that quarterly average cadmium levels can be as high as
3 3
1000 ng/m and that annual averages greater than 100 ng/m have been
reported at several sites. Unfortunately, the site locations and dis-
tances from the plants were not given so that quantitative comparisons
are not possible. The data received from ASARCO is shown in Appendix F.
As with all sources, it is impossible to attribute all of the measured
cadmium to the smelters. However, due to the lack of other major cadmium
emitting industry around these sources, it is very likely that most of
the measured concentrations are due to smelter emissions.
6.4 POPULATION EXPOSED
Table 6-3 shows the estimated population exposed to cadmium emissions
from primary smelters and the average concentration in each region.
These exposure estimates are developed for the three assumed levels of
fugitive emissions. It is obvious that in comparison to the preceding
sources, fewer people are exposed to emissions from primary smelters
although the exposure estimates can be much higher. As is apparent in
Table 6-4, exposed distribution of population is very biased. Two
Regions, Regions VII and IX, account for the majority of the population
exposed.
Table 6-4 shows the population exposed to cadmium levels assumed for the
2 percent fugitive emission rate. The effect of changing the assumption
on fugitive emissions is shown in Appendix G.
The number of people exposed to cadmium at smelters is low due to the,
very low population density around the smelters. It appears, therefore,
that while primary smelters are a large source of cadmium emissions to
the atmosphere, they do not (with the exception of two plants) expose
large numbers of people to these emissions. However, the exposure
levels can be quite high as is evident from Table 6-3.
-------
- 46 -
TABLE 6-3
ESTIMATE OF POPULATION EXPOSED TO CADMIUM CONCENTRATION
>0.1 ng/m3 l-'ROM PRIMARY SMELTERS
Source
Annual Average
3
Exposure (ng/m )
Population
3
(10 people)
Zinc
Lead
Copper
Cadmium
. l%*
86
9
5
5
2%*
91
9
5
6
5%*
110
I
11
8
15 .
n*
376
106
218
150
2%*
37(.i
106
261
150
5%*
376
106
374
150
* Refers to percent of total emissions assumed to be fugitive,
-------
- 47 -
01 O O «0
OO«OOOGOOO
O O f-.
O O O
1
ol 000*
000000*
o r- o
O O O
«« O O O
-4 O*
T *a
S 2
o ~« o
O O O O
ao
UJ
"> "o
O * -
of o o o o
ooutf-oco
o o o
o o ir »
oooooooo
o o o o
O O O O O*
<-^ l/l *O
« o o
o o o
o o o o o o
-------
7. SECONDARY SMELTERS
7.1 INTRODUCTION
The recycling of zinc and copper scrap can potentially lead to emissions
of cadmium due to the cadmium contained in these recycling materials. ;
The high temperatures needed to melt scrap will release most of the
cadmium. Most of the cadmium associated with the metal will be vaporized
and is generally released into the atmosphere. ,
Table 7-1 shows estimated emission factors for secondary smelting. The
high degree of control shown is based on the assumption that fabric
filters are used for control.
7.2 GEOGRAPHIC DISTRIBUTION OF SOURCES !
Appendix E shows the geographic distribution of secondary copper and
zinc smelters in the United States. Location data were determined from
various trade directories. ' ' Latitude and longitude coordinates
were obtained from detailed USGS maps.
Information on the size of each smelter was not available. Accordingly,
the assumption was made that all smelters were of "average" size. One
23/
reference does indicate a relatively small size range for these types
of smelters. Therefore, the assumption may be reasonable.
7.3 ESTIMATED AMBIENT LEVELS
Estimates of ambient cadmium levels resulting from emissions of secondary
smelters were based on CRSTER analyses using Dallas/Fort Worth meteorology.
Different stack conditions were assumed for copper and zinc smelters and
are shown in Table 7-2.
- 48 -
-------
- 49 -
TABLE: 7-1
EMISSION FACTORS FOR. -SECONDARY SMELTERS
(Pounds of Cadmium/Ton of Product)
CONTROLLED
a/
Best Judgement
S.OxlO"4
S.OxlO"1
a/
Uncontrolled emission rates are much higher but this study assumes
that all secondary smelters employ fabric filter control for both
emission reduction as well as product recovery.
-------
Diameter (ft)
- 50 -
TABLE 7-2
ASSUMED STACK CONDITIONS FOR
SECONDARY SMELTERS
STACK PARAMETER
SMELTER TYPE
Zinc
Copper
Height (ft)
120
50
Temperature ( F)
250
250
Flow (ACFM)
40,000
10,000
-------
- 51 -
As in the case of other industries, a regression equation was developed
based on the CRSTER output. The equations developed are shown below:
For secondary copper smelters
LnY = -1.57 (InX) - 0.35 (1/X) +3.12
For secondary zinc smelters
LnY = -1.75 (InX) - 2.07 (1/X) + 3.26
(7-1)
(7-2)
where: Y = the concentration (ng/m ) caused by an emission
rate of 1 g/sec of cadmium,
X = the distance to the receptor point (km).
Concentrations caused by each plant were computed by multiplying the
plant emission rate in grams/second, and by the concentration resulting
from 1 g/sec emission rate. As with other industries, no modelling was
carried out beyond 20 km.
7.4 POPULATION EXPOSED
Table 7-3 shows the estimated cumulative population exposed to estimated
cadmium concentrations and the average concentration to which each
person is exposed. Though there are very few secondary copper smelters,
the population exposed is high. This is due to the urban location of
these smelters and the high emission factor even when controlled.
Secondary zinc smelting appears to be an insignificant source of atmos-
pheric cadmium with few people exposed and very low estimated concen-
tration. However, because it was not possible to take into account the
difference in plant sizes, these exposure estimates must be viewed with
some uncerainty. It is not clear how this would affect the results.
Appendix E shows the estimated population exposed to each secondary
smelter.
-------
- 52 -
TABLE 7-3
ESTIMATE OF POPULATION EXPOSED TO SPECIFIED
LEVELS FROM SECONDAR" SMELTERS (103 People]
Smelter
Secondary Copper
Secondary Zinc
Concentration (ng/m )
>10* >5 >1 >
296 798
0 0
5710 9891
Oi 37
Average Exposure
1.5 . !
0.47
* Maximum concentrations around existing plants are estimated to bo
about 50 ng/m3.
-------
REFERENCES
I/
2/
3/
4/
5/
6/
7/
8/
9/
10/
ll/
12/
Energy and Environmental Analysis, Inc., "Sources of Atmospheric
Cadmium," Draft Report to EPA under Contract No. 68-02-2836,
February 1978.
Fulkerson, William, et al., Cadmium, The Dissipated Element,
BRNL-NSF-EP-21, January 1973, p. 63.
Ibid.
Fulkerson, op. cit., p. 174.
Fulkerson, op. cit., p. 6.
Sargent, Donald, et al., Technical and Microeconomic Analysis
of Cadmium and Its Compounds, EPA Contract No. 560/3-75-005, June
1975.
Battelle Columbus Laboratories, Determination and Evaluation
Environmental Levels of Cadmium, EPA Contract No. 69-01-1983,
July 13, 1977.
Deane, Gordon L., Lynn, David A., and Suprenant, Norman F.,
Cadmium: Control Strategy Analysis, EPA Contract No. 68-02-1337,
GCA, Bedford, Massachusetts, p. 150.
Lee, Russell, et al., Single Source (CRSTER) Model, EPA Contract
No. 450/2-77-013, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina, July
1977.
U.S. Department of Commerce, Master Enumeration District List,
Bureau of Census, Technical Documentation, October 1970.
Energy and Environmental Analysis, Inc., "Economic Impact of New
Source Performance Standards on Sinter Plants," Draft Report to EPA
submitted April 29, 1977.
Energy and Environmental Analysis, Inc., op. cit., Reference #1.
- 53 -
-------
- 54 -
13/
14/
15/
16/
17/
18/
19/
20/
211
221
23/
24/
25/
American Iron and Steel Institute, Directory of Iron and Steel ;
Works of the United States and Canada, Washington, D.C., July 1977. i
Dun and Bradstreet, Metalworking Directory, 1976, New York. :
U.S. Bureau of Census, "Survey of Plant Capacity, 1975," unpublished
data, Washington, D.C., April 1977. '
Battelle Columbus Laboratories, op. cit., Reference #7. ;
EEA, op. cit., Reference #1-.
i
Fenton, R., "Present Status of Municipal Incinerators," Incinerators
and Solid Waste Technology, J.W. Stephenson, et al., Ed., ASME,~
New York, New York, 1975.
Sargent, Donald, et al., op. cit., Reference #6.
International Directory of Mining and Mineral Journal, McGraw-Hill,
New York, New York, 1976.
I ' r
Marketing Economics Key Plants, 1975-76, New York. '
Battelle Columbus Laboratories, op. cit., Reference #7.
Deane, Gordon L., op. cit., Reference #8. >
SRI International "Human Exposures to Atmospheric Arsenic," EPA
Contract No. 88-01-4314, September 1978.
Lee, Russell, et al., op. cit., Reference #8.
26/
Letter from M.O. Varner, ASARCO to J. Padgett, EPA, January 1978.
-------
APPENDIX A
POPULATION EXPOSURE METHODOLOGY
The population exposure model is used to calculate the number of people
within a fixed distance of a specific set of latitude and longitude.
The inputs to the model are the location of the center point and the
radius under consideration. The data base for the model is the set of
population maps that were constructed from the Medalist data. The
center point corresponds to the smoke stack of a point source polluter.
The radius corresponds to the maximum distance from the stack that a
specific concentration of a pollutant could be found. The estimate of
the radius is determined by the predominant methodology (in the Dallas/Fort
Worth data set). The circle drawn around the point is therefore an
overestimate since this, in effect, assumes every direction from the
source is downwind.
Given the inputs, the first step is to identify the map on which the
source is located. This is accomplished by comparing the latitude and
longitude of the source to the set of map boundaries. Next, the latitude
and longitude of the source are converted to the appropriate map grid
point using the same method that was used to locate the population data
on the maps. This, however, may not fully access the data on the popula-
tion affected by the source. If the source is located near a map boundary,
the affected population can span three additional maps. If a source
is located within 20 kilometers of another map, that map may also be
accessed.
After loading the appropriate map file from computer tape into core and
reading the necessary information onto the map grid, the next step is to
construct a coordinate system centered at the same location since all
grids are not the same size. The grid points at which the source has
A-l
-------
A-2
been located determine the origin. The value which is calculated is ;
based on the latitude of the source. The distance between any point arid
the origin or source is therefore easily calculated by triangulation
from the coordinates of that point with the origin. !
i
Each grid cell within 20 kilometers of the source is systematically
examined. First, the corners of the cell are located on the coordinate:
system. With this information, the total amount of area inside the cell
and included within the selected radius from the source is calculated. :
The symmetry of the analysis allows the computer program to actually
look only at the grid blocks that lie in or border the first quadrant.
The values for each of the blocks outside the first quadrant can be j
inferred from the results of the first quadrant.
There are five distinct cases encountered when one attempts to calculate
the area of a grid block which is included within a circle of given
radius (see Figure A-l): '
The first case encountered is the area of the grid cell that has
the source located at its center and is larger than the circle
enclosed by the selected radius. Here, a simple approximation is
made. The area included is taken to be the areas of the circle of
the given radius divided by the area of the grid cell to obtain the
fraction of the cell included in the circle. Once the area of the
circle exceeds the area of the grid block, it is assumed that the
entire area of the grid cell is included within the radius. ]
The second case involves grid cells located along either the x-axijs
or the y-axis. Here, the area included is taken to be the arc of '
the rectangle defined by the intersection of the radius and the
block boundaries included, plus the area of the remaining arc
defined by the radius. Special cases occur when the radius inter-
sects the edges of the grid cells which are perpendicular to the
axis. The general form of the solution remains the same.
Case three occurs where only one of the vertices of the cell is |
included; the area included is the stun of the area of the enclosed
triangle and the area of the enclosed arc. j
-------
A-3
FIGURE A-l
CASEffl
CASE #2
CASE #3
CASE #4
CASE #5
-------
A-4
Case four occurs when two vertices are included or all are included.
In this case, the area covered equals the sum of the area of the
trapezoid and the area of the enclosed arc.
Case five occurs when three vertices are included. The area of the
cell included equals the area of the cell minus the area of the
excluded triangle plus the area of the included arc.
Once the area of the grid cell which is included in the exposed area has
been calculated, it is divided by the area of the grid cell, yielding '
the percentage of the area included. In order to calculate the number
of people who live within the included area, it is assumed that the :
population is uniformly distributed throughout the grid cell. Therefore,
the population affected is the product of the percentage of the area
included times the population of the grid cell. By summing up the
population included in all the cells, the total number of people within
a given radius of a source can be estimated.
By choosing several radii for each source, the number of people between
a given pair of radii can be calculated by a simple subtraction. Since
each radius corresponds to a specific pollution level, this type of '.
calculation yields an estimate of the number of people exposed to various
concentration levels for a single source. !
[
By summing up the effects of several sources, either by source type or
location, one can gain insight into which type of source appears to
affect the largest number of people. However, the total number of
people exposed may be misleading. In areas where there are many point '
sources located close together, much multiple-counting will occur. (For
example, a person exposed to a given ambient concentration produced :
separately by three sources will be counted three times.) Therefore,
this approach does not give an accurate estimate of population exposed
to specific levels from sources. However, the model does give an accurate
representation of total exposure (expressed as concentration per
person-year) for use in linear health models (i.e., those in which the
-------
A-5
case of one person exposed to 2 ng/m is treated the same as that of two
3
people each exposed to 1 ng/m ).
To obtain an estimate of the population exposed to various concentrations,
a slightly different approach is used. The major difference is that
once a number of persons is determined to be within any radius of any
plant, that number is subtracted from the map. In other words, no
single person is ever counted by more than one source. In addition, the
model is not run source-by-source as before, but pollution level-by-
pollution level. By choosing several pollution levels, starting with
that which yields the smallest radius, and determining the actual number
of people exposed to at least one source at each level a pollution level
can be estimated.
This model also has its limitations. Individual source totals are
meaningless since the sources which are run first will tend to count
more people simply because there are.more people initially on the map.
There is also no way to arrive at the total pollutant concentration
times person estimate because no account is made of cumulative effects.
-------
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TECHNICAL REPORT DATA
(Please read Instructions on the reverse before completing)
i. REPORT NO.
EPA-450/5-79-Q07
3. RECIPIENT'S ACCESSION-NO.
4. TITLE AND SUBTITLE
Assessment of Human Exposures
to Atmospheric Cadmium
5. REPORT DATE
June 1979
6. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION CODE
7. AUTHOR(S)
Robert Coleman, et al.
8. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION REPORT NO
9. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION NAME AND ADDRESS
Energy and Environmental Analysis
1111 North 19th Street
Arlington, VA 22209
10. PROGRAM ELEMENT NO.
11. CONTRACT/GRANT NO.
68-02-2836
12. SPONSORING AGENCY NAME AND ADDRESS
EPA, Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards
Pollutant Strategies Branch
Research Triangle Park, N.C. 27711
13. TYPE OF REPORT AND PERIOD COVERED
Final
14. SPONSORING AGENCY CODE
EPA
15. SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES
Task Officer was Richard Johnson, OAQPS/SASD, MD-12
This report is one of a series of reports which will be used by EPA in
responding to the Congressional mandate under the Clean Air Act Amendments of
1977 to determine whether atmospheric emissions of cadmium pose a threat to
public health. The report identifies the population exposed to specified
cadmium levels from selected point sources. The sources considered are iron
and steel mills, municipal incinerators, primary smelters (zinc, copper, lead,
and cadmium), and secondary smelters (copper and zinc). Municipal incinerators
are the chief contributors to the total population exposed. Primary zinc and
primary copper smelters are estimated to cause the highest concentrations.
7.
KEY WORDS AND DOCUMENT ANALYSIS
DESCRIPTORS
Cadmium
Air Pollution
Populations
Exposures
Atmospheric Concentrations
Sources
b.IDENTIFIERS/OPEN ENDED TERMS
c. COSATI Field/Group
Unlimited
19. SECURITY CLASS (This Report)
Unclassified
21. NO. OF PAGES
134
2O. SECURITY CLASS (This page)
Unclassified
22. PRICE
EPA Form 2220-1 (9-73)
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