United States
Environmental Protection
Agency
Office of Air Quality
Planning and Standards
Research Triangle Park, NC 27711
EPA/451-K-97-001
May 1997
EPA Regional Approaches to
Improving Air Quality
-------
AlR POLLUTION CAN
BE TRANSPORTED
HUNDREDS OF MILES
DOWNWIND FROM
ITS ORIGIN.
SINCE AIR POLLUTANTS
DO NOT RECOGNIZE
POLITICAL BOUNDARIES,
STATES AND COMMUNITIES
CANNOT INDEPENDENTLY
SOLVE ALL OF THEIR AIR
POLLUTION PROBLEMS.
20
12
This model of a July 1991 ozone episode shows how far
downwind emissions originating from industrial and mobile
sources in the boxed area can be transported.
N T R O D U C T
O N
Each indivfjual breathes nearly 13,000 liters
(approximately 3,400 gallons) of air every day.
Yet the air is being polluted by human
activities like driving cars, burning fossil fuels,
and manufacturing chemicals, and natural
events such as forest fires. These add gases and
particles to the air we breathe and, in high
enough concentrations, can have harmful
effects on people and the environment. Many
air pollutants such as those that form urban
smog, acid rain, and some toxic compounds
remain in the environment for long periods of
time and can be transported great distances
from their origin.
The struggle for clean air is almost as old as
industrialized society. In 1661, John Evelyn
and John Graunt of England each published
studies associating negative health effects
with industrial air emissions. Both researchers
described the transport of pollutants between
England and France and suggested protecting
human health by locating industrial facilities
outside of towns and using taller smokestacks
to spread "smoke" into "distant parts."
Research continues to show that air pollution
can be carried hundreds of miles from its
source and can cause health and
environmental problems on a regional or
even global scale. In people, air pollution can
cause burning eyes, irritated throats, difficulty
with breathing, long-term damage to the
respiratory and reproductive systems, cancer,
and, in extreme cases, death. Trees, lakes,
crops, buildings, and statues can be damaged
by air pollution. Air pollutants also cause
haze, impairing visibility in cities, national
parks, and other scenic areas.
Under the Clean Air Act, passed by Congress
in 1970 and recently amended in 1990, the
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
(EPA) sets and enforces air pollutant limits
on sources such as power plants and industrial
facilities to help protect against harmful
health and environmental effects. Although
the Clean Air Act is a Federal law, state
and local agencies are responsible for
implementing many of its requirements.
Specific air pollutants such as sulfur dioxide
(SO,), particulate matter, ground-level ozone,
and the emissions that form these pollutants
can travel great distances from their sources.
Since air pollutants do not recognize political
boundaries, states and communities cannot
independently solve all of their air pollution
problems. Resolving air pollution control
issues often requires state and local
governments to work together to reduce air
emissions. The Clean Air Act established
groups such as the Ozone Transport
Commission in the northeastern U.S. and
the Grand Canyon Visibility Transport
Commission in the western U.S. to develop
regional strategies to address and control air
pollution. Many other such groups have also
been formed to address the regional transport
of air pollutants.
This brochure describes selected air pollutants
of regional concern in the U.S. and
summarizes ongoing efforts to control them.
1
-------
ROUND-LEVEL OZONE
Ozone that occurs naturally in the upper
atmosphere surrounding the Earth provides a
filter for the damaging ultraviolet light emitted
by the Sun. At ground level, ozone is harmful
to living things. Ground-level ozone is an air
pollutant that damages human health,
vegetation, and many common materials. It is
a key ingredient of urban smog.
SOURCES
Ground-level ozone is not emitted directly into
the air, but rather is formed by gases called
oxides of nitrogen (NOX) and volatile organic
compounds (VOC), which in the presence of
heat and sunlight, react to form ozone. Ground-
level ozone forms readily in the atmosphere,
usually during hot weather. As a result, it is
known as a "summer-time" air pollutant.
Emissions of NOxare produced primarily when
fossil fuels are burned in motor vehicle engines,
power plants, and industrial boilers. There are
hundreds of thousands of sources of VOC
emissions including automobile emissions,
gasoline vapors, chemical solvents, and
consumer products like paints.
HEALTH &
ENVIRONMENTAL
EFFECTS
Repeated exposure to ozone pollution for
several months may cause permanent
structural damage to the lungs. Because ozone
pollution usually forms in hot weather,
anyone who spends time outdoors in the
summer is at risk, particularly children,
moderate exercisers, and outdoor workers.
Even when inhaled at very low levels,
ground-level ozone triggers a variety of health
problems including aggravated asthma,
reduced lung capacity, and increased
susceptibility to respiratory illnesses like
pneumonia and bronchitis.
Ground-level ozone is also responsible for
1 to 2 billion dollars in reduced crop
production in the U.S. each year. Because
ground-level ozone interferes with the ability
of plants to produce and store food, they are
more susceptible to disease, insects, other
pollutants, and harsh weather. Ozone also
damages the foliage of trees and other plants,
ruining the appearance of cities, national
parks, and recreation areas.
REGIONAL
TRANSPORT
Under the Clean Air Act, EPA has set
acceptable levels, called National Ambient
Air Quality Standards, for ozone in the air we
breathe. Some parts of the U.S. are currently
unable to meet these standards. These areas
are described as "nonattainment" areas. Tens
of millions of Americans live in ozone
"nonattainment" areas, primarily in parts of
the Northeast, Lake Michigan area, Atlanta,
southeastern Texas, and parts of California.
Many of these nonattainment areas have
focused a great deal of effort on reducing VOC
and, in some cases, NOX emissions from
stationary (factories) and mobile (vehicles)
sources within their jurisdictions. In several
cases, emission controls are not producing the
reductions in ground-level concentrations
of ozone needed to meet the national
health standard.
VOC + NO. + Heat + Sunlight = Ozone
According to this simplified equation, volatile organic compounds and oxides
of nitrogen react, in the presence of heat and sunlight, to form ozone.
-------
Ozone "precursors," such as NOX emissions, as
well as ozone itself, can be carried hundreds of
miles from their origins, causing air pollution
over wide regions. Although many urban areas
have made efforts to control ozone by reducing
local NOX and VOC emissions, incoming
ozone transported from upwind areas also
needs to be addressed in order to meet the
National Ambient Air Quality Standards.
High levels of ozone entering some
nonattainment areas can make achieving the
national ozone standard difficult and costly,
unless upwind sources are identified and
controlled. If these sources fall within a certain
state's boundaries, it can take measures to
control them. If, as is often the case, these
sources fall beyond the political boundaries of
that state, it must work with EPA and other
states to reduce air pollution on a regional
scale. Often, it is more cost-effective to reduce
emissions from upwind sources than to control
emissions from smaller and smaller businesses
in the nonattainment areas being affected
downwind.
Some regional strategies for reducing ground-
level ozone include:
@ reducing NOX emissions from power
plants and industrial combustion
introducing low-emission cars
and trucks
burning gasoline reformulated to
reduce VOC, NOX, and other
.J 0.15
I
« 0.10
in
r
a 0.05
a>
P n
50
100 150
Distance (miles)
200
250
Industrial/Urban Area
Rural
Urban
Downwind/Rural
Ozone, VOC, and A/0, air emissions from upwind industrial/urban areas contribute to ozone concentrations hundreds of
miles downwind in rural and other urban areas. When combined with local air emissions, regionally transported ozone
causes some areas to exceed the National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) for ozone.
GROUND-LEVEL OZONE is
ALSO RESPONSIBLE FOR
1 TO 2 BILLION DOLLARS
IN REDUCED CROP
PRODUCTION IN THE U.S.
EACH YEAR. BECAUSE
GROUND-LEVEL OZONE
INTERFERES WITH THE
ABILITY OF PLANTS TO
PRODUCE AND STORE
FOOD, THEY ARE MORE
SUSCEPTIBLE TO DISEASE,
INSECTS, OTHER
POLLUTANTS, AND
HARSH WEATHER.
-------
ARTICULATE MATTER
EVIDENCE FROM COMMUNITY
STUDIES LINKS PARTICULATE
EXPOSURE TO PREMATURE
DEATH, INCREASED
HOSPITALIZATION, SCHOOL
ABSENCE, AND LOST WORK
DAYS DUE TO RESPIRATORY
AND CARDIOVASCULAR
DISEASES LIKE ASTHMA.
Paniculate matter, which includes solid
particles as well as liquid droplets found in
the air, can be described as "haze." Breathing
paniculate matter can cause serious health
problems. Paniculates also reduce visibility
in many parts of the U.S. They can also
accelerate conosion of metals and damage
paints and building materials such as concrete
and limestone.
SOURCES
Paniculate matter comes from a variety of
sources. Some particles are emitted directly
from their sources such as smokestacks and cars.
In other cases, gases such as sulfur oxide, SO,,
NOx, and VOC interact with other
compounds in the air to form paniculate
matter. As a result, the chemical and physical
composition of particles varies widely. "Coarse"
particles are larger than 2.5 micrometers and
generally come from sources such as vehicles
traveling on unpaved roads, materials handling,
crushing and grinding operations such as
cement manufacturing, and combustion
sources. Particles less than 2.5 micrometers
(0.0004 inch) in diameter are known as "fine"
particles. Fine particles result from fuel
combustion in motor vehicles, power plants and
industrial facilities, residential fireplaces,
woodstoves, wildfires, and prescribed forest
burning. Fine particles can also be formed in
the atmosphere from gases such as SO,, NOX,
and VOC.
HEALTH &
ENVIRONMENTAL
EFFECTS
Paniculate matter less than 10 micrometers
in size, including fine particles less than 2.5
micrometers, can penetrate deep into the
lungs. On a smoggy day, one can inhale
millions of particles in a single breath. Tens
of millions of Americans live in areas that
exceed the national health standards for
particulates. In recent studies, exposure to
paniculate pollution — either alone or with
other air pollutants — has been linked with
premature death, difficult breathing,
aggravated asthma, increased hospital
admissions and emergency room visits, and
increased respiratory symptoms in children.
People most at risk from exposure to fine
paniculate matter are children, the elderly, and
people with chronic respiratory problems.
Fine particles scatter and absorb light,
creating a haze that limits our ability to see
distant objects. Some particles, such as
sulfates and nitrates, grow in size as humidity
fine particles
2.5
coarse particles
fly ash
power plant sulfates
diesel exhaust
tobacco smoke
! pollens j
cement dust
coal dust
photochemical smog
human hair
0.01
0.1
1.0
10.0
100.0
This schematic shows the general size range of selected airborne particles in micrometers.
The size range of a human hair is also indicated. (Not drawn to standard scale.)
-------
in the air increases, which increases the
amount of haze and reduces visibility. Particle
plumes of smoke, dust, and/or colored gases
that are released to the air can generally be
traced to local sources such as industrial
facilities or agricultural burning. Regional haze
is produced by many widely dispersed sources,
reducing visibility over large areas that may
include several states.
REGIONAL HAZE
Chemical reactions of air pollutants and
weather conditions can create fine particles,
which can remain in the air for several days
and be transported great distances. As a
result, fine particles transported from urban
and industrial areas may contribute
significantly to impaired visibility in places,
such as national parks, valued for their scenic
views and recreational opportunities.
Sources of regional haze vary from region to
region. In the eastern U.S., for example,
sulfates from power plants and other large
industrial sources play a major role. In the
western U.S., nitrates, sulfates, organic matter,
soot, and dust emitted by power plants, motor
vehicles, petroleum and chemical industrial
facilities, wildfires, and forest-management
burning, all contribute to reduced visibility.
Visibility conditions vary across the country.
With a few exceptions, much of the eastern
U.S. has poorer visibility than the western
U.S. because of higher levels of particles from
manmade and natural sources, as well as the
effect of higher humidity levels on those
particles. Visibility in the eastern U.S. should
naturally be about 90 miles, but air pollutants
have reduced this range from 14 to 24 miles.
In the western U.S., visual range should be
approximately 140 miles, while current
conditions limit it to 33 to 90 miles. Visibility
also varies seasonally and is generally worse
during the summer months, when humidity is
higher and the air is stagnant.
The Clean Air Act established special goals
for visibility in some national parks and
wilderness areas. In 1994, EPA began
developing a regional haze program that is
intended to ensure that continued progress is
made toward the national visibility goal of "no
manmade impairment." Such control efforts
would likely result in improved public health
protection and visibility in areas outside
national parks as well.
Examples of regional strategies for reducing
fine particulate levels include:
© reducing particulate emissions by
conserving energy and promoting
renewable energy sources like solar-
anil wind-powered energy
Q controlling SO2 emissions from power
plants and industrial sources
© reducing paniculate emissions from
diesel truck and bus exhaust
© reducing controlled burning to manage
undergrowth in forested areas.
EPA's "REGIONAL HAZE"
PROGRAM IS INTENDED
TO ENSURE CONTINUED
PROGRESS IS MADE
TOWARD THE NATIONAL
VISIBILITY GOAL OF
"NO MANMADE
IMPAIRMENT."
Visibility impairment in Acadia National Park, Maine.
-------
C I D
RAIN
Chesapeake Bay
Chesapeake Bay is the largest estuarine
system in the continental U.S. and is home
to more than 2,000 species offish, shellfish,
and wildlife. Increasing levels of nitrogen
compounds in the Bay are harming this
aquatic ecosystem. The influx of higher
than normal amounts of nutrients (e.g.,
nitrogen, phosphorous) allows excessive
growth and reproduction of algae,
eventually changing aquatic systems by
depleting dissolved oxygen and decreasing
light penetration to submerged plants.
Recent research concludes that air pollution
.from power plants is a significant source of
nitrogen in the Chesapeake Bay. Studies
show that 27 percent of the total nitrogen
deposited in the Chesapeake Bay and tidal
tributaries is from transport and deposition of
air pollutants. Similarly, hundreds of other
estuaries such as Pwget Sound, Washington
and Pamlico Sound, North Carolina, are
suffering from effects of excess nitrogen.
The Chesapeake Bay Agreement, a
cooperative action among the U.S. EPA,
Maryland, Pennsylvania, Virginia, and the
District of Columbia, was enacted to reduce
and control pollution sources affecting water
quality in the Bay. Goals of the agreement
are to achieve a 40 percent reduction in
nutrients, such as nitrogen, being input to
the Bay by the year 2000 and to cap those
inputs at 60 percent of 1985 levels. States
participating in the agreement are evaluating
how reductions in NO^ air emissions will
help achieve these goals.
Acid rain is formed when sulfur dioxide
(SO,) and oxides of nitrogen (NOJ are
released into the air. While airborne, SO,
and NO^ gases and particles contribute to
visibility impairment and impact human
health. These gaseous compounds react with
other substances in the atmosphere to form
weak acids and fall to earth as rain, fog, snow,
or dry particles. They cause lakes and streams
to become acidic and unsuitable for many
fish, damage forests, and cause deterioration
of cars, buildings, and historical monuments.
SOURCES
By far, power plants burning coal, oil, and
natural gas are the primary source of SO,
emissions. In the U.S., 70 percent of SO,
emissions come from such plants. Nitrogen
oxides are emitted into the air from cars and
trucks, coal-burning power plants, and
industrial combustion operations such as
boilers and heaters.
REGIONAL
TRANSPORT &
ENVIRONMENTAL
EFFECTS
In the past, industrial facilities and power
plants had shorter smokestacks. When air
pollution from these stacks settled in
populated areas near the plants and caused
sickness, stacks were built much higher. At
that time, many believed that if the air
pollutants were sent high into the
atmosphere, they would no longer be a
problem. We now know that emissions
released high in the atmosphere can be
transported great distances. The Ohio River
Valley, where power plants burn high-sulfur
coal, leads the U.S. in emissions of SO, and
NO^. Consequently, areas receiving the most
acid rain are downwind (generally northeast)
of the Ohio River Valley. The ecological
effects of acid rain depend on both the total
amount of acid rain deposited in an area and
its soil characteristics. Some soils, such as
those generally found in most of the Midwest,
contain acid-neutralizing compounds. These
areas can be exposed to years of acid
deposition without experiencing significant
environmental problems. But the thin soils of
the northeastern mountains have very little
acid-buffering ability, making this area, along
with eastern Canada, vulnerable to acid rain
damage. Other areas along the Appalachians,
as well as certain high elevation western
areas, are also sensitive to acid deposition.
Lower pH levels have been found in aquatic
systems of the northeastern U.S., indicating
higher acidity. These conditions can interrupt
reproductive cycles of aquatic plants and
animals. Acid deposition can also filter
through soils, pick up toxic metals as it passes
through, and carry them to lakes and streams,
where they accumulate and affect the aquatic
food chain.
Statue ruined by acid deposition. Photograph courtesy ot
the National Park Service.
-------
I
REDUCING ACID
RAIN
The Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990
require major reductions in SO2 and NOX
emissions and establish a market-based
approach to managing emissions of SOr
Coal-fired electric power plants are the
primary target for reducing these pollutants
in the U.S. Beginning in 1995 (Phase I), EPA
allocated a limited number of "allowances" to
445 electric power plants. These plants can
emit up to one ton of SO2 emissions during a
1-year period for each allowance. Allowances
can be bought, sold, or traded among utilities,
brokers, or others. Utilities must ensure that
their emissions do not exceed the allowances
they hold. Pollution control equipment, the
Vinegar
Lemon Juice
How Acid is Acid Rain?
Distilled Water
"Pure" Rain Baking Soda
| Acid Rain |
|
0 1
I I I I I I I
2345678
- pH
II I I I !
9 10 11 12 13 1'
use of low-sulfur coal, and implementation
of energy-efficient measures such as home
insulation programs and energy-efficient
lighting are ways power plants can reduce
their SO2 emissions. In the year 2000,
Phase II tightens the annual SO2 emissions
on the large high-emitting Phase I plants and
sets restrictions on smaller, cleaner plants.
By 2010, EPA's Acid Rain Program and the
utility industry expect to achieve a 10 million
ton reduction from 1980 SO, emission levels.
The Clean Air Act also calls for a 2 million
ton reduction in NOX emissions by the year
2000, a significant portion to be achieved
by installation of controls on coal-fired
utility plants.
Although not obvious to the casual observer, many lakes have been affected by acid deposition. Big Hock Lake in the southwestern
Adirondacks of New York State has been harmed by acid rain over the last several decades. Fish populations have been severely
impacted. (Source: Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation Interpretive Report, 1990. Photograph courtesy of the Adirondack Council.)
Utility SO2 Emissions
1990 2000
Year
2010
By the year 2010, EPA's Acid Rain Program
is expected to reduce SO^emissions
10 million tons from 1980 levels.
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OXIC AIR POLLUTANTS
WITHIN THE NEXT 10 YEARS,
THE NATIONAL TOXIC AIR
POLLUTANT PROGRAM IS
EXPECTED TO LOWER
EMISSIONS OF TOXIC
POLLUTANTS 75 PERCENT
AND THUS REDUCE ADVERSE
HUMAN HEALTH AND
ECOSYSTEM EFFECTS.
Human
Bald Eagle
Salmon
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Alawifs Bmett CNB Seutptn
Bacteria/Fungi Plankton Mi,
Simplified aquatic food well. Persistent pollutants do
not break down easily in the environment. They accumulate
in body tissues and concentrate at each step of the
food chain.
Toxic air pollutants are known to cause or are
suspected of causing cancer, adverse
reproductive, developmental, and central
nervous system effects, and other serious
health problems. The Clean Air Act lists 188
toxic air pollutants as hazardous. Examples of
toxic air pollutants include heavy metals like
mercury and lead, manmade chemicals like
polychlorinated biphenyls (PCB), polycyclic
organic matter (POM), dioxin and benzene,
and pesticides like dichlorodiphenyl-
trichloroethane (DDT). Some toxic air
pollutants remain in the environment for
only short periods of time. These pollutants,
including compounds such as formaldehyde,
toluene, and benzene, generally impact
human health and the environment near
emission sources. Other toxic air pollutants,
such as lead, mercury, PCB, and DDT, break
down slowly, if at all, in the environment and
can be redeposited many times. Additionally,
they build up in the body and concentrate as
they rise through the food chain. Many of
these "persistent" pollutants, emitted from
various sources including motor vehicles and
industrial facilities, are appearing in
unexpected locations far away from their
sources, including the Great Lakes, Lake
Champlain, and the Chesapeake Bay.
REDUCING Toxic
AIR POLLUTANTS
EPA has identified 174 categories of sources
that emit one or more of the 188 toxic air
pollutants. These sources will be required to
reduce emissions over the next 10 years.
Since 1990, EPA's toxic air pollutant program
has issued a number of rules to control toxic
air releases from approximately 50 categories
of sources. These include large industrial
complexes such as chemical plants, oil
refineries, and steel mills and smaller sources
such as dry cleaners and commercial
sterilizers. One of these rules applies to the
organic chemical manufacturing industry,
which produces chemicals used in many
industrial processes. This rule alone will
reduce emissions of toxic air pollutants by
over half-a-million tons annually (a 90
percent reduction) and will lower smog-
causing VOC by about 1 million tons
annually (an 80 percent reduction). Within
the next 10 years, EPA's national program is
expected to lower emissions of toxic air
pollutants 75 percent.
SOURCES
Metals and other toxic air pollutants that
persist in the environment and are
transported over broad regions come from a
variety of sources. Mercury, for example, is a
toxic metal that comes from both natural and
manmade sources. Coal-fired power plants,
municipal waste incinerators, medical waste
incinerators, and cement kilns that burn
hazardous waste or coal are among the major
manmade sources of mercury. Natural sources
of atmospheric mercury include gases released
from the Earth's crust by geysers, volcanic
eruptions, and forest fires. PCB are industrial
chemicals used widely in the U.S. from 1929
until 1978 as coolants and lubricants and in
electrical equipment. The manufacture of
PCB in the U.S. stopped in 1977, and use
was restricted in 1979. POM includes a
number of cancer-causing products of
incomplete combustion and can come from
diesel engines and other motor vehicles,
wood burning, and industrial burning of fossil
fuels. DDT is an insecticide that was widely
used in this country from 1946 until 1972.
DDT is still used in other countries and, by
special permit, in the U.S. Many VOC and
fine particulates are also toxic air pollutants.
Controlling air concentrations of ozone and
paniculate matter has the added benefit of
reducing toxic air pollutants.
-------
HEALTH &
ENVIRONMENTAL
EFFECTS
At certain levels, toxic air pollutants can
cause human health effects ranging from
nausea and difficulty in breathing to cancer.
Health effects can also include birth defects,
serious developmental delays in children, and
reduced immunity to disease in adults and
children. Toxic air pollutants can also be
deposited onto soil or into lakes and streams
where they affect ecological systems and can
eventually affect human health when
consumed in contaminated food,
particularly fish.
For example, people who regularly consume
fish from the Great Lakes have been found to
have higher concentrations of PCB, DDT,
and other toxic chemicals in their bodies
than people who do not. Fish-eating birds,
mammals, and reptiles have experienced a
variety of adverse effects associated with
chemical pollution.
LONG-RANGE
TRANSPORT
Scientific studies conducted over the past
30 years consistently indicate that toxic air
pollutants can be deposited at locations far
from their sources. For example, a number of
toxic air pollutants persist in the
environment and concentrate through the
food web, including toxaphene, a pesticide
used primarily in the cotton belt, and have
been found in fatty tissues of polar bears and
other Arctic animals thousands of miles from
any possible source. Lead and other trace
metals have been measured in the air and
rainfall at remote locations over the Atlantic
and Pacific Oceans, great distances from
likely sources. Core samples from peat bogs in
the Great Lakes region show deposition of
new releases of DDT. Since DDT is used only
under special conditions in the U.S., this
toxic compound may be originating from
sources as far away as Mexico or Central
America. Fortunately, Mexico has recently
banned the use and production of DDT.
TOXIC AIR POLLUTANTS
CAN BE DEPOSITED
ONTO SOIL OR INTO
LAKES AND STREAMS,
WHERE THEY AFFECT
ECOLOGICAL SYSTEMS
AND CAN EVENTUALLY
AFFECT HUMAN HEALTH
WHEN CONSUMED IN
CONTAMINATED FOOD,
PARTICULARLY FISH.
-------
EGIONAL EFFORTS TO
Several regional organizations have been
formed to address problems associated with
long-range transport of air pollution.
These organizations are described in the
summaries below.
OZONE TRANSPORT
COMMISSION (OTC)
The 1990 Clean Air Act Amendments
established the OTC and the Northeast
Ozone Transport Region in recognition of
long-standing regional ozone problems in
the northeastern U.S. The Commission
comprises the governors or their designees
and an air pollution control official from
each of 12 states (Connecticut,
Delaware, Maine, Maryland, Massachusetts,
New Hampshire, New Jersey, New York,
Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, Vermont,
Virginia) and the District of Columbia.
Administrators for three northeastern EPA
Regions also participate.
The OTC states have agreed on a number of
steps to reduce regional air pollution. For
example, they have agreed to introduce a
low-emission vehicle (LEV) program similar
to that in California, which includes five
categories of vehicles that meet increasingly
stringent emissions standards. The OTC,
automobile manufacturers, and EPA are also
working on an agreement for a national LEV
program, which would bring "cleaner cars" to
all states, not just those in the northeastern
U.S. The OTC has also agreed to signifi-
cantly reduce NOX emissions throughout the
Regional ozone transport
region from large stationary sources such as
power plants and other large fuel combustion
sources, using a market-based approach. By
1999, NOX emissions in the OTC states are
expected to be reduced by approximately 52
percent from the 1990 baseline.
OZONE TRANSPORT
ASSESSMENT GROUP
(OTAG)
OTAG includes 37 states east of the
Rocky Mountains. It is convened by the
Environmental Council of States (an
organization comprised of state environmental
commissioners) for analyzing long-range
transport of ozone and the compounds that
form ozone. The goal of OTAG is to identify
and recommend to EPA cost-effective control
strategies for VOC and NOK to facilitate
compliance with the National Ambient Air
Quality Standards for ozone. OTAG includes
representatives from states with and without
areas that fail to meet the national ozone
standards. EPA, industry representatives,
public health advocates, and environmental-
ists are also included in OTAG discussions.
OTAG's regional-scale ozone modeling shows
that transport plays an important role in local
levels of ozone. OTAG is expected to
complete its analyses and make its
recommendations to EPA in 1997.
GRAND CANYON
VISIBILITY TRANSPORT
COMMISSION
(GCVTC)
GCVTC was established by EPA in 1991 to
advise on strategies for protecting visual air
quality at national parks and wilderness areas
on the Colorado Plateau. The Commission
includes governors of Arizona, California,
Colorado, Nevada, New Mexico, Oregon,
Utah, and Wyoming, and representatives of
the Hopi Tribe, Navajo Nation, Acoma
Pueblo, Hualapai Tribe, and the Columbia
River Inter-Tribal Fish Commission. Federal
agencies, including the Department of
Agriculture, the Department of the Interior,
and EPA are also represented.
In 1996, the Commission released recommen-
dations for improving visibility on the
Colorado Plateau, including:
© establishing an emissions cap/target
for the region and an emissions trading
program to keep the region within
the cap
© decreasing mobile source emissions
© minimizing visibility impairment from
controlled burning
& identifying areas called "clean air
corridors" as important sources of clean
air for national parks and other scenic
vistas (sources of paniculate emissions
will be closely monitored in these areas).
EPA expects to pursue methods for imple-
menting these recommendations including
continued regional coordination and
development of regional haze rules.
SOUTHERN
APPALACHIAN
MOUNTAINS
INITIATIVE (SAMI)
SAMI is a nonprofit, voluntary organization
formed in 1992 to address regional air quality
problems in southern Appalachia, particularly in
high elevations, national parks, and recreation
areas. Groups involved in this effort include
Federal, state, and local agencies; environmental
and industrial representatives; academic
institutions; and private citizens. SAMI is
identifying options for managing air emissions in
the southern Appalachians, with special
attention focused on how these options could
affect the regional environment and economy.
SAMI is expected to complete its analysis and
make recommendations to states by 1999 on
control strategies for pollutants that cause acid
rain, visibility impairment, and ground-level
ozone in the southern Appalachians.
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ADDRESS AIR POLLUTION
LAKE MICHIGAN
OZONE STUDY
(LMOS) AND OZONE
CONTROL PROGRAM
(LMOP)
In 1989, EPA and the states of Illinois,
Indiana, Michigan, and Wisconsin signed an
agreement to study the ozone air quality
problem in the Lake Michigan region. In
1991, this group signed a second agreement
to establish control measures to improve
regional air quality. These efforts have
contributed to a regional understanding of
ozone transport, as well as determining the
steps necessary to control air pollutants that
form ground-level ozone. Recent accomplish-
ments of this group include developing and
applying a state-of-the-art model for examin-
ing the transport of ozone in the Lake
Michigan region, supporting initial state
implementation plan efforts to control
ozone-forming air pollutants for the four
Lake Michigan states, and working coopera-
tively with other states as part of the
OTAG discussions.
NORTH AMERICAN
RESEARCH STRATEGY
FOR TROPOSPHERIC
OZONE (NARSTO)
NARSTO is a 10-year research program,
chartered in 1995 as a public/private
partnership. It includes researchers and policy
makers of over 70 organizations from
government, utilities, industry, and academia
throughout Mexico, the U.S., and Canada.
The goal of NARSTO is to develop a
scientific and technological basis for managing
ground-level ozone. NARSTO plans to
publish its first Ozone State-of-Science
Assessment Document in 1998, in which it
will address assessment issues including:
© significant research developments
relating to ground-level ozone in the
last 10 years
© urban and regional sources ofVOC
and NOX emissions and transport
of ozone
© the effectiveness of existing emission
control measures.
As a science-focused research program based
on international cooperation, NARSTO will
continue to be important in the resolution of
long-range ozone transport problems across
North America.
SOUTHERN OXIDANTS
STUDY (SOS)
The SOS, established through cooperative
agreements in 1991, is long-term, academic
research designed to provide a better
understanding of how ozone forms in the
southeastern U.S. In addition to major
academic institutions like the Georgia
Institute of Technology and North Carolina
State University, the private sector and
Government have also played a significant
role in the overall partnership. The Electric
Power Research Institute, the National
Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration,
the Tennessee Valley Authority, EPA, and
many state and local Southeastern environ-
mental agencies and companies participated
in major research programs in the metropoli-
tan areas of Atlanta (1992) and Nashville
(1994-95). As part of these efforts, data
gathered at monitoring sites has provided
insight into ground-level ozone formation in
the Southeast and around the country.
INTEGRATED
ATMOSPHERIC
DEPOSITION
NETWORK (IADN)
The IADN is a U.S./Canadian cooperative
effort that involves toxic air pollutant
monitoring. This network consists of five
monitoring stations, one placed on each of
the Great Lakes, that gather data on
atmospheric concentrations of toxic air
pollutants such as the pesticides lindane and
dieldrin, heavy metals including lead and
arsenic, and chemicals such as PCB and
Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons. These
monitors help determine the atmospheric
contribution of these compounds to the
concentrations found in the Great Lakes
ecosystem. IADN helps to identify trends in
concentrations of toxic air pollutants, assists
in determining how to reduce toxic air
emissions, and supports research toward
understanding the effects of toxic air
pollutants on the Great Lakes.
INTERNATIONAL
EFFORTS
There are several other important coopera-
tive efforts underway to address air pollution
that crosses our national boundaries with
Canada and Mexico. Under the La Paz
Agreement, the U.S. and Mexico work to
analyze and reduce air pollution in commu-
nities along our common border. Similarly,
the U.S. and Canada have signed an air
quality agreement to address air pollution
issues of mutual concern, such as acid rain
and ozone transport, and they also have
embarked on a strategy to reduce and
eliminate certain persistent toxic pollutants
such as mercury and PCB. The North
American Free Trade Agreement
established the Commission for Environmen-
tal Cooperation to foster joint air pollution
control efforts among all three countries and
to ensure that pollution created in one
country does not affect the health of the
citizens and the environment in another.
These efforts to date include establishing
and upgrading monitoring networks along
the U.S./Mexico border, developing a system
for the U.S. and Canada to notify each other
of major new sources of air pollution, and
establishing an international air quality
management commission to address
pollution in the El Paso, Texas and Juarez,
Mexico area.
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N C L U S I O N
To effectively control air pollution, the U.S.
Congress, EPA, and states have recognized
the need for regional, as well as national and
local, cooperation. Since air pollution does
not respect political boundaries, regional
approaches are often among the most
effective ways to control its transport. The
overall quality of the nation's air continues
to improve, despite increases in population,
gross national product, and vehicle miles
traveled. Efforts to maintain and build on this
progress into the 21st century will require
continued cooperation among international,
national, state, tribal, and local governments,
as well as industry, environmental groups,
and private citizens.
ACRONYMS
• DDT - Dichlorodiphenyl-trichloroethane
• EPA - U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency
• GCVTC - Grand Canyon Visibility
Transport Commission
• 1ADN - Integrated Atmospheric
Deposition Network
• LEV - Low Emission Vehicle
• LMOP - Lake Michigan Ozone
Control Program
• LMOS - Lake Michigan Ozone Study
• NARSTO - North American Research
Strategy for Tropospheric Ozone
• NOx - Oxides of Nitrogen
• OTAG - Ozone Transport
Assessment Group
• OTC - Ozone Transport Commission
• PCB - Polychlorinated Biphenyls
• POM - Polycyclic Organic Matter
• ppm - parts per million
• SAMI - Southern Appalachian
Mountains Initiative
• SO, - Sulfur Dioxide
• SOS - Southern Oxidants Study
• VOC - Volatile Organic Compounds
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FOR MORE
INFORMATION ON
REGIONAL AIR
POLLUTION
TRANSPORT CONTACT:
EPA Headquarters
U.S. EPA
401 M Street, SW
Washington, DC 20460
202-260-2080
Homepage: http://www.epa.
gov/docs/oar/oarhome.html
EPA Regional Offices
U.S. EPA Region I (Connecticut,
Massachusetts, Maine, New Hampshire,
Rhode Island, Vermont)
John F. Kennedy Federal Building
Room 2203
Boston, MA 02203
617-565-3482
U.S. EPA Region II (New Jersey,
New York, Puerto Rico, Virgin Islands)
290 Broadway
New York, NY 10007-1866
212-637-4081
U.S. EPA Region III (Delaware,
Maryland, Pennsylvania, Virginia, West
Virginia, District of Columbia)
841 Chestnut Building
Philadelphia, PA 19107
215-597-2100
U.S. EPA Region IV (Alabama, Florida,
Georgia, Kentucky, Mississippi,
North Carolina, South Carolina, Tennessee)
Atlanta Federal Center
61 Forsyth Street
Atlanta, GA 30303
404-562-9077
U.S. EPA Region V (Illinois, Indiana,
Michigan, Minnesota, Ohio, Wisconsin)
77 West Jackson Boulevard
Chicago, IL 60604
312-353-2212
U.S. EPA Region VI (Arkansas, Louisiana,
New Mexico, Oklahoma, Texas)
1445 Ross Avenue, 12th Floor, Suite 1200
Dallas, TX 75202-2733
214-665-7220
U.S. EPA Region VII (Iowa, Kansas,
Missouri, Nebraska)
726 Minnesota Avenue
Kansas City, KS 66101
913-551-7020
U.S. EPA Region VIII (Colorado,
Montana, North Dakota, South Dakota,
Utah, Wyoming)
999 18th Street, Suite 500
Denver, CO 80202-2405
303-312-6312
U.S. EPA Region IX (Arizona, California,
Hawaii, Nevada, Guam, American
Samoa)
75 Hawthorne Street
San Francisco, CA 94105
415-744-1264
U.S. EPA Region X (Idaho,
Washington, Oregon, Alaska)
1200 Sixth Avenue
Seattle, WA 98101
206-553-0218
Other Organizations Discussed
Grand Canyon Visibility
Transport Commission
600 17th Street,
Suite 1705 South Tower
Denver, CO 80202-5452
303-623-9378
Integrated Atmospheric
Deposition Network
77 W. Jackson Boulevard, MC-G-9J
Chicago, IL 60604
312-353-2000
Lake Michigan Ozone Study and
Control Program
2350 East Devon Avenue, Suite 242
Des Plaines, IL 60018
847-296-2181
North American Research Strategy
for Tropospheric Ozone
4811 West 18th Avenue
Kennewick, Washington 99337
509-735-1318
Homepage: http://narsto.owt.com/Narsto
Ozone Transport Assessment Group
Environmental Council of States
444 N. Capitol Street, NW Suite 517
Washington, DC 20001
202-624-3660
Homepage: http://www.epa.
gov/oar/otag/otag.html
Ozone Transport Commission
444 N. Capitol Street, NW Suite 638
Washington, DC 20001
202-508-3840
Southern Appalachian
Mountains Initiative
59 Woodfin Place
Asheville, NC 28801
704-251-6889
Homepage: http://www.tva.gov/orgs/
sami/samihomepage.htm
Southern Oxidants Study
North Carolina State University
Box 8002
Raleigh, NC 27695-8002
919-515-4649
Homepage: http://www2.ncsu.edu/
ncsu/CIL/souther_oxidants/
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United States
Environmental Protection Agency
Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards (MD-10)
Research Triangle Park, North Carolina 27711
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