United States
Environmental Protection
Agency
Air
:
Office of Air Quality
Planning and Standards
Research Triangle Park, NC 27?il
EPA
BIBLIOGRAPHY OF LITORATIJRE ON
CURRENT TRENDS M" LAND-USE I
K!!'|lttiSla&i&^dUiijii%V^i^-jaiitv Msto iSS fsva *"|
ENACTIONS
i"SE£^^^^^^^^^
,',n :,,,,,i ,,, , , „ u /i , \ ,t ,, ,j I,/, ,L [.
riii«ii!iip^
|HSK:;S
5^^^^^iJj:t:^^:Srj-T^';iw^^f^J
•,'.::.',•,>::„.* 7-^... '-'-- - : ',; .-' .'.-. /li.':>,:
' lill B fJ'll *i 'f Hirwp 'i! »ll !*"' 'ftil iii3*r»«n'fg*i ifiWiiUJM f w itfwum H
1 ........ ifs-sa^ I
HSWia(^^/-'«rw«'«iisfr^.'!'.:;ftiwftsisa! ...
BCBSSaWMMJSmiTlM4E3S^!ffl!arjOK'»*«>
f™w ..4* *!.;.»,»»if ..w* aJVi"1'1 '4».'A'. JVil.;*.1!!..-.,.'. IL«. ^^ T.WS- '.^
.
.iaTicaiin: ;aa,l:; ; iinKft:::^;:^:^;:^^
_•.•:',•-•:..':• ilitiiilM
i f '
111 i i i M if i" i i i i
VJ ^
•- p *,
i
^
"HI
If *
1"
I
,,.- «» 4 i, t
^wlilpflPWIiHiii'v H IK i" 1 1"4 1'^Mi
iKktiilt.*!* /In "* I"1 ' *YYi'i!l"
'» t .«•. i [i i i . • * i
»
|[Jf(J
m
W((
w
n
-------
' a li iii! I I F !! i if "ft I i J1 I i I'"i 11 liiiiii' Tlil fit I r: 111
! i!!! B im5"5!!!5i"»i"!B!5:""iS""i I™ S""""™ '
; , i.. iiint i]!![ii::!!;!!!!!iE jiQiiiii:: :i . I i
-------
SUMMARY OF SELECTED LITERATURE
ON LAND-USE TRANSPORTATION INTERACTIONS
AND ALTERNATIVELY FUELED BUSES
Volume 1: Land Use and Transportation Interactions
EPA Contract Number 68-DO-0124
Work Assignment Number 1-119
SYSAPP-92/126a
I
30 September 1992 I
Prepared for
Valerie Broadwell
Policy Development Section
Ozone/Carbon Monoxide Programs Branch
Air Quality Management Division
Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards
U. S. Environmental Protection Agency
Research Triangle Park, NC 27711
Prepared by
Barbara S. Austin
Lori L. Duvall
Julie K. Morgan
Systems Applications International
101 Lucas Valley Road
San Rafael, CA 94903
(415) 507-7100
K261092117
-------
-------
Contents of Volume 1:
Land Use/Transportation Interaction!!
1
2
3
4
5
INTRODUCTION
LAND USE AND TRAVEL BEHAVIOR
RESEARCH AND PLANNING ACTIVITIES DIRECTLY ADDRESSING
LAND USE/TRANSPORTATION RELATIONSHIPS
LAND USE/TRANSPORTATION ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY . . .
GLOSSARY
REFERENCES
1
2
4
8
29
31
92117.01
-------
-------
DISCLAIMER
This report has been reviewed by the Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards U S
Environmental Protection Agency, and has been approved for publication as received
from the contractor. The contents reflect the views and policies of the Agency, but any
mention of trade names or commercial products does not constitute endorsement or
recommendation for use.
92117.01
-------
-------
INTRODUCTION
Continuing challenges in attaining National Ambient Air Quality Standards and the
passage of the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990 have inspired renewed efforts to
identify and implement innovative new control strategies. In most urban areas, motor
vehicles contribute approximately 50 percent of emissions involved in ozone and
approximately 90 percent of carbon monoxide nonattainment problems. . Increased
rdiance on alternative fuels, increased understanding and use of the interdependence of
land use and transportation, and alternative technologies such as electric vehicles are
among the many innovative strategies under discussion. This volume provides a
preliminary bibliography of literature relating to land use/transporiiation/air quality
interactions. ^Volume two of this set provides a review of literature relating to
alternativel-fuele
^
alternatively-fueled buses.
tK-Kr11016 tuat.there iS a SpeciflC focus for eaca a**** area and that the
?PP11 i108? Py, 1S n0t intended t0 COVer either the vast bodV of related research
ela'ti^ ? T T 7 Planmng ln gCneral)' °r t0 'offensively review all material
T n Z f f use/ftransP°ftlon/air quality interactions. Rather it is intended to provide
a source of information on the scope and nature of current research. Therefore for
hpSnr'^7atUre °^ ^P^^conomic effects (which have direct effects on travel
behavior and air quality), as exemplified by a 1989 Transportation Research Board
Slf H? °1 transp°rtation ** economic development, is not included in this review
State and local agencies wishing to use such strategies should also plan to draw on '
sources other than those reviewed here. .
The remainder of this report is organized as follows: - (1) a summary discussion of the
importance of land use/transportation interactions and examples of „ rSating to
strategies utilizing these interactions, (2) bibliography of land use/transportation material
mcludmg brief abstracts (one to two paragraphs) of each reference, (3) summary of '
alternatively fueled buses, and (4) bibliography of alternatively fueled bus studies
StoCtS
.,-,.. , one and two are incldued in volume one; items two and three
are included in volume two. Each volume is separately bound.
92117.02
-------
LAND USE AND TRAVEL BEHAVIOR
The interdependence of land use and travel behavior, while self-evident, is rarely
considered explicitly or interactively in land use and transportation planning activities.
For example, land use models forecasting future population and land uses are exercised
based on a given set of assumptions on the future roadway network and transportation
system. Transportation models are run to examine numerous transportation scenarios
using output from land use models (based on one transportation scenario). Such practices
are encountering increased criticism, in the form of law suits1 and new studies on how to
better integrate transportation models with air quality models2. The conformity
requirements in the Clean Air Act, particularly as amended in 1990, require more
detailed assessments of transportation/air quality relationships than have been common in
the past. Additionally, "Indirect Source Control" approaches such as those contained in
the Clean Air Act, encourage quantification of mobile source emissions associated with
"a facility, building, structure, installation, real property, road, or highway which
attracts, or may attract, mobile sources of pollution" (section HOa). Such requirements,
coupled with the need for significant reductions in mobile source emissions to comply
with air quality standards, are making control strategies that rely on land
use/transportation/ interactions more and more attractive.
In addition, continued urban "sprawl" and similar trends in land-use are having
unprecedented and unexpected impacts on travel behavior, many of which are not easily
quantified or analyzed using existing modeling tools and algorithms. Many researchers
are beginning to believe that urban sprawl and the growth of 'edge cities' constitute new
paradigms in transportation/land use interactions that are not represented in current land
use or transportation models. Presently, only one project within the U.S. is attempting to
develop a modeling tool that explicitly incorporates interactions between land-use, urban
design, and transportation behavior. Much research is focused on examining particular
aspects of the relationship, and on some of the potential implications for developing
algorithms to predict how a change in land use might affect travel behavior.
As discussed in the introduction, this review does not attempt to summarize the vast body
of literature on land use modeling, urban design and planning, growth management,
congestion management, economic effects of land use policies, site specific studies, and
1 The lawsuit by Sierra Club and Citizens for a Better Environment against the San Francisco Bay Area's
Metropolitan Transportation Commission (MTC) over the MTC's modeling of land use/transportation interactions
in a conformity assessment is a well known example.
2 For example, the National Association of Regional Councils is sponsoring a study by Grieg Harvey and
others to review transportation analysis capabilities known colloquially as the "Best Practices" study. A paper
entitled: Toward Improved Regional Transportation Modeling Practice" (Harvey and Beakin, 1991) is the first
written product resulting from that study. A study more explicitly focused on land use/transportation/air quality
interactions known most commonly as the 1000 Friends of Oregon study (1000 Friends of Oregon, 1991), is
reviewed later in this bibliography.
92117.02
-------
the like, although each of these is an important component of land-use/transportation
relationships. Here, selected recent or dated but seminal articles and activities that
directly address land-use/transportation interactions on a regional scale are summarized.
The bibliography and accompanying summary of some current activities and research
projects provides a flavor of the controversies and issues under study. As the review is
not intended to be comprehensive, a number of relevant articles aire not reviewed here.
In addition, it is very likely that within the next year and beyond, much new literature
and work will be accomplished in this subject. Areas using this review should check
with regional metropolitan planning organizations and local EPA offices to identify any
additional recent work.
Most of the literature for this review was identified through an on-line computer search
of the Institute of Transportation Studies library at the University of California at
Berkeley and reference lists from recent technical conference papers.
92117.02
-------
RESEARCH AND PLANNING ACTIVITIES DIRECTLY ADDRESSING LAND
USE/TRANSPORTATION RELATIONSHIPS
In the past several years, and in particular since the passage of the Clean Air Act
Amendments of 1990 and the Intermodal Surface Transportation Efficiency Act of 1991,
transportation, environmental and land use planning agencies at the municipal, regional,
and State level are increasingly coordinating their planning efforts. Such efforts range
from multi-agency working groups such as the Philadelphia Area Modal Integration
Committee or the San Francisco Bay Area's "Jumpstart" program to research projects
aimed at identifying the impacts of various "urban forms" on traffic and air quality, to
full-fledged long term plans integrating goals such as better air quality, lower traffic
congestion, and adequate infrastructure to meet anticipated population growth. As
discussed above, regulatory requirements pertaining to conformity planning and indirect
source review are also important motivating factors for increased consideration of land-
use and transportation relationships as they pertain to air quality. This section
summarizes a number of these efforts in order to provide a flavor of their nature and
range. The bibliography section follows this summary.
1000 Friends of Oregon: Making the Land Use, Transportation and Air Quality
Connection
A number of studies are currently being conducted for the specific purpose of developing
a better understanding of land use and transportation interactions. The most well known
of these is the 1000 Friends of Oregon Study: Making the Land Use, Transportation, Air
Quality Connection (LUTRAQ). LUTRAQ is a national demonstration project to develop
methodologies for changing local land use policies and development designs to increase
the use and economic feasibility of alternatives to automotive travel. The project purpose
is to "develop methodologies for changing local land use policies and development
designs to increase the use and economic feasibility of alternatives to automotive travel".
The project is using a proposal for a $200 million bypass freeway around the Portland,
Oregon metropolitan region as a case study and is developing methods for "using
alternative land use development patterns as a method of reducing travel demand, and
using land use as a dynamic, interactive variable in transportation modeling procedures".
The project will provide a model of how land use policy can be used to address
transportation and air quality problems in large metropolitan areas. Findings from the
project were used to educate policy-makers working on re-authorization of the Surface
Transportation Act, and are being used to guide implementation of the CAAA, to bolster
new state land use planning programs, to influence other highway proposals in the U.S.,
and the analyze alternative solutions to transportation problems in the Portland region.
The first report in the LUTRAQ project (CSI, 1991) reviews 14 interactive transportation
and land use modeling systems from around the world. The summary describes the
theoretical basis, operational characteristics, and recent applications of each model. The
second chapter of the report surveys the state of the practice in transportation and land
92117.02
-------
use forecasting at the metropolitan level in the United States, concluding that land use
forecasting has remained essentially the same for 20 years. Chapter 3 provides a
description and analysis of the transportation and land use forecasting system in use in
Portland, Oregon, concluding that while this system has some state-of-the-art
enhancements, it still has many of the shortcomings of other such systems in that (1) the
ways in which people's choices of where to work are determined by congestion and travel
costs; and (2) the ways in which designs oriented to pedestrians, bicycles and transit can
influence decisions about where and how to travel. Additional reports are expected to be
released in late October, 1992.
Sierra Club/Citizens for a Better Environment (CBE) Suit Against San Francisco
Bay Area's Metropolitan Transportation Commission (MTC)
A well known suit brought by Sierra Club against an MTC conformity analysis focused
largely on land use/transportation/air quality effects. While Sierra Club and CBE had a
number of objections to the manner in which MTC performed the: analysis a key
objection related to the fact that MTC did not model the potential growth inducing effects
of additional highway capacity. In declarations for Sierra Club, a consultant maintained
that (1) there was evidence that even in highly developed regions, capacity additions
increased accessibility and therefore increased growth, and (2) that there were newly
developed models capable of quantifying these impacts. In a March 11 1991 decision
the District Court for Northern California found that "MTC's decision not to analyze '
capacity-related growth at this juncture is reasonable under the circumstances. First
there is scant empirical evidence demonstrating an identifiable link between adding or not
adding highway capacity, in an already substantially developed region, and population
influx from outside the region that would not otherwise occur...we cannot conclude that
MTC's failure to analyze capacity-related growth will not significantly detract from its
conformity determination". The court also found that "as a practical matter, there is no
existing computer model designed to capture the dependence of regional growth upon
changes in highway capacity".
Maricopa County, Arizona: Urban Form Impacts on Mobility., Air Quality and
Other Factors *
Some regions are beginning to look explicitly at how a region's structure and form affect
transportation and air quality. For example, an ongoing study being performed by the
Maricopa Association of Governments encompassing the Phoenix metropolitan area in
Arizona is examining the impact of several specific "urban forms" on mobility, air
quality, infrastructure costs, economic development, and quality of life (MAG' 1992)
Urban forms under analysis include trend growth, corridors, major centers multiple '
centers dispersed growth, satellite cities, and balanced growth. Factors to be considered
in developing urban form options include densities, infill, nodal concentrations
job/housing balances, transportation, development continuity, and open space. Each urban
form will be described in terms of factors such as population density, percent of
92117.02
-------
employment in the central business district, degree of clustering, job/housing balance,
and the like. Transportation modeling will be conducted to examine the impact of the
various urban forms on vehicle miles travelled, vehicle hours travelled, congestion levels,
mode splits, trip lengths, travel speeds, emissions, and other issues such as public and
private costs for infrastructure and services, economic impacts, crime, access to open
space, etc. The study results will be used to better inform planning processes within the
region.
Vision 2020: Growth and Transportation Strategy for the Central Puget Sound
Region
As interdependencies between land use, transportation, and the environment become more
and more of a central concern affecting many different planning agencies, regional long
range plans mat begin to be explicitly designed to consider and meet a variety of needs.
One forward-looking area has already started this process, in a plan called Vision 2020
(PSCOG, 1990). The plan is a long-range growth and transportation strategy for the
central Puget Sound Region (encompassing the Seattle metropolitan area) that seeks to
further goals such as economic growth and environmental values. The plan addresses
how the Seattle region will cope with an extra 1.4 million people and 860,000 new jobs
that are expected in the region by 2020. This growth is compounded by continued use of
private autos as the primary means of transportation, parking subsidies, and traditional
preferences for local government control. The plan recognizes that many different levels
of government must cooperate to adequately deal with such growth and contains a six-part
strategy for managing growth within the region. Elements of the strategy include: (1)
creating a regional system of central places framed by open space, (2) strategic
investment in a variety of mobility options and demand management to support the
regional system of central places, (3) maintenance of economic opportunity, (4)
conservation of environmental resources, (5) mitigate potential, adverse effects of
concentrating development by early action, and (6) refine Vision 2020 based upon
collaboration among all agencies in the region to ensure a common vision.
Indirect Source Control: Sacramento Metropolitan Air Quality Management District
(SMAQMD)
As discussed above, the Clean Air Act encourages quantification and reduction of mobile
emissions resulting from indirect sources such as new shopping malls, residential
developments and the like. A number of States have developed more explicit guidelines,
including California, in the California Clean Air Act. Many areas are proposing various
kinds of indirect source control programs, which explicitly consider many kinds of land
use/transportation/air quality interactions. For example, Sacramento, the capital of
California, and an urban area out of attainment for ozone, carbon monoxide, and
particulate matter, developed a variety of innovative control measures to reduce emissions
from mobile sources. Volume VI of their 1991 air quality attainment plan is devoted to
indirect source control. The program utilizes the California Environmental Quality Act
(CEQA) and the National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA) to evaluate new and
92117.02
-------
modified sources for air quality impacts and possible mitigation measures. SMAOMD
proposed a set of near-, mid-, and long-term indirect source control measures such as
land use entitlement permits, provision of on-site amenities, freight consolidation
development guidance, light rail facilities support, bicycle, bus, pedestrian, and parking
facilities in the near term. In the mid- and long-term, measures include parking space
emission fees, offsite passenger, baggage, and ticket terminals, parallel arterial? at peak
hours, multi-modal centers, tax subsidies for developments near transit, performance
zoning, and taxes or fees prorated by distance of development to transit.
JUMP Start: Joint Urban Mobility Program in San Francisco Bay Area
While not a land use or growth planning process, the JUMP Start program contains many
of the elements becoming more common in successful long term land use/transportation
plans: cooperation among many levels of government. The program embodies what
some officials have termed a new paradigm for transportation: "...the old paradigm - i e
of transportation for the purpose of opening up land - is now being replaced by a new' "
paradigm: transportation investments, capital investments, made to meet social
environmental and urban mobility goals and, above all perhaps, economic objectives"
(Larson, 1992). Composed of representatives from the Federal Highway Administration
the Federal Transit Administration, the EPA, the California Department of UU!™0il'
Transportation, the California Air Resources Board, the California Highway Patrol the
SoT^ T^011 Co"imissioh' the Metropolitan Transportation Commission (the
MPO for he San Francisco Bay Area), local transit operators, congestion management
agencies, the local air district, the Association of Bay Area Governments, and the
region s rideshanng agency, JUMPS tart began from a desire for a new institutional
framework to oversee a program of multijurisdictional and/or multimodal projects to
reduce congestion and improve air quality. Such projects range from the installation of
fn^lC ? f!?U1Pment on local brid^s to *e installation of traffic operations systems
to monitor traffic flows to universal transit passes. The .program also hopes to address
such emerging technologies as intelligent vehicle/highway systems,,
Other Projects and Trends
™l t V ™MPSta* ProSram> the Baja Project, was. performed in Tucson,
The study used transportation modeling techniques to examine the potential
impacts of a variety of possible land use and growth options. The eastern US also has a
variety of similar planning programs such as the New York City "CPR" raosiam
(Congestion and Pollution Relief), and New Jersey's Project Clean Air.
Another similar study was performed as part of a comprehensive, planning effort in
northeastern Virginia's Prince William County (Dickey and Leine?, 1981). The planning
, .
u e acl^ f " SketCh /^ Pr°Cedure WV to «*»* PO^tial future
the ton^ ° Van°US dlStnCtS Wlthin *e C°Unty' ** t*n*POrtation modeling to assess
pSteT^^^^ *""** .and °thCr impaCtS °f P0tential futu"e land us
patterns. The study showed that concentrating future growth in current populated areas
92117.02
-------
can cut travel costs, although increased congestion will also result. Among the more
interesting findings was that there were a wide variety of possible land use patterns that
had similar travel and congestion implications.
Some Trends Toward Increased Density
There are also some interesting new trends in land use, with potentially wide impacts on
transportation; Many of these involve increased density of development, often with
particular emphasis by individuals choosing these options in offsetting the consequences
of urban sprawl. The rise of the heo-traditional neighborhood is a prominent example.
Neo-traditional neighborhood designs (NTDs) are generally characterized by (1) a town
center within five minutes walking distance for the majority of residents, (2) streets laid
out in regular, geometric patterns so that there are alternate routes to every destination,
(3) streets are treated as complex public spaces with many visual stimuli (close in trees,
buildings), (4) narrow streets, (5) interspersed building uses (small houses, restaurants,
corner stores, and offices, (6) civic buildings are generally placed along the squares so
that important buildings are in important locations. The designs are attractive from a
number of standpoints. For residents, the neighborhoods provide alternatives to sterile
suburbs, shopping malls, and long commutes to the grocery store. For planners, the
designs may encourage reductions in vehicle miles travelled and in regional congestion
and air pollution. The first such project to be built was Laguna West in Sacramento,
California. Since then a large number of projects to build NTDs have been started (see
Table 1).
In addition, a number of "cohousing" developments have sprung up in various parts of
the U.S. The developments are, in part, reactions to the isolation of traditional suburban
life as well as the demands of working/shopping/cooking/cleaning that a single-family
household must attend to regularly. In cohousing, a number of families or individuals
buy a set of condominiums or townhouses. Communal dining and recreation areas are
provided, as well as private areas in each individual housing unit. As commonly
structured, owners will rotate, for example, the responsibility for cooking for the
community. Each community member has the option of attending the communal dinner
or not. Possible traffic effects are obvious: in a community of 20, approximately one
shopping trip would.be made in place of 20, on an evening when all community members
attended the communal dinner.
LAND USE/TRANSPORTATION ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY
Adams, J.S., 1970. "Residential Structures of Midwestern Cities'
Association of American Geographers 60.
Annals of the
In this classic paper Adams defines four transportation-related eras in the
American metropolis: (1) walking-horsecar era (1800 - 1890), (2) electric streetcar
era (1890 - 1920), (3) recreational auto era (1920 - 1945), and (4) freeway era
(1945 - ). He diagrams a rough outline of how urban forms develop in each of
92117.02
-------
these eras. In particular, he theorizes that the streetcar era and the freeway era
each gave rise to an elongated urban sprawl type form.
Adler, T. J., C.T. Leiner. 1991. "Traffic Effects of Creating a City Center in a
Suburban Community," Compendium of Technical Papers. Institute of
Transportation Engineers Annual Meeting, September 22-25, Milwaukee,
Wisconsin. ITE Publication Number PP-023.
The city of South Burlington, Vermont has developed a plan for creating a high-
density core area in what is otherwise a suburban community. One of the key
issues in the planning of this project has been the extent to which such a project
would impact traffic flow. Earlier, sketch-level traffic studies found that
significant adverse effects on traffic flow could result from the project. This
paper describes results of a more detailed traffic impact study, conducted using a
regional highway network model (TMODEL2). The results highlight both
methodological issues in how traffic impact studies are conducted and substantive
issues regarding the impacts of centrally-located, high-density, multi-use
developments. : .
Two major conclusions presented this paper are:
i
1) Network-based regional travel demand models can produce very different
findings from those produced by manual traffic impact analyses, and
2) The traffic impacts of a central-located, high density, mixed-use development
may be overstated by conventional analyses.
Although the proposed project was shown to increase.the total number of trips in
the corridor and in the region, the model predicts a decline in VMT and in
average trip lengths.
Applied Management & Planning Group, 1990. "Traffic Congestion and Capacity
Increases". Prepared for Sierra Club Legal Defense Fund, Inc., and Citizens for
a Better Environment. August, 1990.
This document was prepared in support of the Sierra Club's suit against a
conformity assessment performed by the San .Francisco Bay Area's Metropolitan
Transportation Commission (MTC) (see summary section at the beginning of this
bibliography). The document discusses the relationship between traffic congestion
and increased transportation capacity. The paper addresses three questions: (1)
whether capacity increases in a congestion constrained system (where many
facilities are overloaded for substantial parts of the day) produce long-term relief
of congestion and reductions in emissions, (2) whether such issues are adequately
addressed in then current environmental documents, and (3) whether the Bay
Area's then current transportation forecasting procedures were capable of
providing quantitative estimates of the impacts of capacity increases. The paper
92117.02
-------
r
cites a number of studies and papers supporting the idea that increased capacity in
a congested area simply encourages more travel by individuals who were
previously travelling less than they wanted to, or using alternate but less
convenient routes. The main conclusion in the paper is that almost any project
which would add capacity to an existing congested facility will be assessed as
having no negative impacts on air quality if growth inducement is not considered.
Baerwald, TJ. 1978. "The Emergence of a New Downtown" Geographical Review 68.
p 308-318. American Geographical Society.
This paper presents a well-known time series chart of land uses along a suburban
corridor south of Minneapolis (1-494). The chart graphs density of single family
residences, apartment buildings, industrial use, retail/service use, auto dealers,
hotels, office buildings, governmental uses, and vacant land between 1953 and
1976. The series clearly shows the increase in both density and use characteristics
over time. In 1953, sparse development consisting mostly of single family
residences served by a few retail/service uses and a small industrial base. By
1976, vastly increased density and mix of all types of land uses are evident. The
pattern shown in the chart is considered a typical sequence of land use
development.
Barber, G. 1986. "Aggregate Characteristics of Urban Travel" The Geography of
Urban Transportation. Susan Hanson, Ed. Guilford Press, 1986.
This paper describes some of the overall patterns of traffic flow that can be
observed in North American cities and provides a good introduction to a number
of transportation planning concepts. The paper notes that particular city
characteristics, including city size, city functions, geographical setting, and
proportion of growth of the city that occurred in each of the principle
transportation technology eras (see Adams, 1970, reviewed above) are the
principle factors that affect travel flows. The author also notes that travel flows
can be analyzed in terms of five particular characteristics: (1) trip purpose, (2)
temporal distribution of travel, (3) travel mode (Le. auto, bus, bicycle), (4) trip
lengths, and (5) spatial patterns, using statistics such as trip lengths and travel
times by trip purpose, trip temporal distribution by vehicle type, and the like.
Such data are most reliably gathered from the large scale urban transportation
studies carried out in the 1955-1970 period such as "CATS" (Chicago Area
Transportation Study), "PATS (Pittsburgh Area Transportation Study).
Bhatt, Kiran, Thomas Higgins, 1989. "An Assessment of Travel Demand Approaches at
Suburban Activity Centers," Prepared for the U.S. Department of Transportation
(Contract No. DTRS-57-88-C-00113) by K. T. Analytics, Inc., July, 1989.
This report describes case studies of transportation system management (TSM) and
parking management (PM) strategies used to mitigate the congestion problems
created by the shift of employment centers from a central urban location to
suburban office complexes. It briefly summarizes the suburban mobility problem
92117.02
-------
and presents a synthesis of recent experience for approximately 40 different
suburban TSM programs. During the study, the authors Interviewed TSM and
PM program coordinators and managers, local agency staffs, developers and
transportation association staffs and managers. Drawing on specific examples,
determinants of effectiveness and implementation pitfalls are identified.
Conclusions include lessons for localities about effectiveness, administration, cost,
finance, and monitoring. Included in the findings is an observation that some land
uses appear to lend themselves better to TSMs than others. For example, it often
appears that TSM and PM programs have more success at larger companies rather
than multi-employer centers although there are some examples of successful
programs for smaller employers. They also find that "policy instruments in
support of TSM and PM programs, such as ordinances and developer agreements
are important for initiating programs, bringing equity to regulations, and
demonstrating public committment. However, neiher the instruments nor their
stringency are strongly correlated with effective programs'1'. Research needs,
local and federal policy lessons, and evaluation suggestions are also provided.'
Brannan, R.C., E. Seltzer, M.A. Wert. 1991. "Coordinating Portland's Urban Growth
Plan and the Western Bypass Study," Compendium of TechnicaljPapgr^ Institute
of Transportation Engineers Annual Meeting, September 2:2-25, Milwaukee,
Wisconsin. ITE Publication Number PP-023.
The Western Bypass is a proposed transportation project in southwestern Portland,
Oregon that has been identified as the solution to circumferential travel needs.
Concurrent with the Western Bypass Study, the Metropolitan Service District
(METRO) is developing regional urban goals and objectives designed to address
the broader issues of transportation and urban development associated with this
project in order to formulate a comprehensive regional planning system. This
paper provides an overview of. a number of issues related to the relationship
between transportation and land use, both in general and in the specific case of
Portland. Oregon's land use and transportation planning processes are discussed,
and key planning issues are "summarized. The paper goes on to describe the urban
growth goals and objectives of Portland and Oregon in general. The paper
concludes with a discussion of the Western Bypass Study, presenting the issues
surrounding the Bypass proposal. These issues include not only the analysis of
alternative modes, demand management strategies, environmental impacts, and
roadway improvements, but also regional issues including protection of rural
resources, access management policies, economic development, regional air
quality, and transit-oriented land-use issues, among others.
Cartier, C., 1988. "Commuting in America," ITS Review. Volume 11, Number 4
August, 1988.
This conference report summarizes the key note address delivered by Alan
Pisarski to the California Transportation and Public Works Conference of 1988.
Pisarski is well known for his commentary Commuting in America produced for
the Eno Foundation (1987). This report was undertaken to produce a factual base
92117.02
-------
r
for the assessment of commuting problems, and to uncover new trends in
American commuting. One of Pisarski's key points in both the report and address
was that perhaps the greatest myth in American commuting is that congestion is a
result of journeys to work from the suburb to the central business district of major
metropolitan areas. Pisarski asserts that the dominant commute pattern today is
the suburb-to-suburb commute, which is projected to gain an even greater share of
future commuting. Pisarski points out that while auto commuting has increase
from 70 to 85 percent, alternatives such as transit, working at home, and walking,
have declined. The growth in jobs is exceeding the growth in population, which,
Pisarski states, indicates that population alone cannot be used as a barometer for
planning. Pisarski concludes by urging a revision of the planner's view of
American commuting patterns.
Cervero, Robert, 1984. "Managing the Traffic Impacts of Suburban Office Growth,"
Transportation Quarterly, Vol. 38, No. 4, October, 1984.
This article examines the transportation implications of office growth on the urban
fringe. Noting that the "emerging settlement pattern...doesn't square well with
current transportation systems in many American cities", the author explores the
transportation impacts and possible strategies for coping with resulting congestion
• problems and promoting orderly development. The paper reviews the
geographical extent of suburban office growth in Atlanta, Dallas, San Francisco,
Denver, Los Angeles and Phoenix. The reorientation of commuter travel to
outlying subcenters places extreme pressure on the freeways and arterials serving
the central cities and ensures large growth in nonradial directions oriented towards
dispersed subcenters. Such development patterns can make transportation control
measure strategies such as ridesharing or parking management difficult to
implement successfully. The strategies addressed include: innovative land-use and
site planning; the integration of transit and ride.-sharing provisions into new
suburban office developments; and private sector management and investment
responses. Another publication by this author, "America's Suburban Centers - a
Study of the Land Use Transportation Link" was published by the University of
California at Berkeley in Januay 1988 is not reviewed in this bibliography but
provides further detail on many key concepts.
Garreau, J. 1991. "Edge City: Life on the New Frontier". Doubleday Books, 1991.
This book discusses and analyzes some significant changes in the manner in which
urban areas are growing: "Americans are creating the biggest change in a hundred
years in how we build cities. Every single American, city that is growing, is
growing in the fashion of Los Angeles, with multiple urban cores". The attitudes
and values behind the ways we use, develop and -travel across the land are at the
root of the transportation effects we see .now. Numerous issues that affect
transportation and air quality are thoroughly and thoughtfully discussed, including
themes such as "do congestion problems occur because current urban forms are
too dense or not dense enough". He examines a number of questions behind
many transportation trends. For example, observations about how far people are
92117.02
-------
willing to walk before getting into their cars have led to malls and office space
depending on parking proximity in a unique chicken and egg relationship: to make
a profit, a certain ratio of office (or mall) space to parking spaces must occur.
Such ratios have themselves led to implications that sprawling suburban centers
surrounded by asphalt parking lots are profitably optimum.
Garrison, W. L., et. al., 1975. "Transportation and Land Use - Three Papers prepared
for California State Department of Transportation," September, 1975.
This volume is a collection of three papers prepared for the California Department
of Transportation. The first of these papers identifies strategies, policies, and
actions that were potential candidates for the 1975 CALTRANS transportation
plan. These are divided into three categories: those strategies, policies, and
actions appropriate to no-growth; those appropriate to laissez-faire growth and
development; and those appropriate to situations where growth and development
goals are identified and worked toward. Paper two discusses the implications of
various strategies, policies, and actions. It contains separate discussions of land
use and transportation issues, and provides a discussion of the implications of the
strategies, policies, and actions identified for the three categories defined in Paper
1. Paper three provides a historical review of transportation/land-use relationships
during four periods in the United States: Pre-1900, 1900-1950, 1950-1970, and
1970 forward (through 1975). This paper is also supplemented by a bibliography
of research and more detailed references.
Giuliano, G., 1988. "New Directions for Understanding Transportation and Land Use,"
Institute of Transportation Studies, University of California, Irvine, California
(UCI-ITS-SP-88-4), March, 1988.
!
This paper reviews residential and employment location theories of land
use/transportation relationships and the empirical research conducted to test such
relationships. Noting that, "despite the large body of literature on the issue, the
theoretical basis of land-use/transportation relationships ha.s been subject to a
variety of criticisms, and recent empirical research seldom supports theoretical
expectations". The paper argues that these results suggest a re-evaluation of
existing theory and of the role of transport costs in location choice. Part one of
the paper presents a brief overview of existing theory and outlines its major
weaknesses. Part two reviews empirical research that illustrates these changing
conditions, and part three provides some explanations for these findings. The
paper concludes with some suggestions for rethinking the relationship between
land use and transportation. This paper also includes an extensive list of useful
references on interactions between land-use and transportation.
Giuliano, G. 1986. "The Land Use Impacts of Transportation Investments: Highway
and Transit," in The Geography of Urban Transportation. Susan Hanson, editor,
Guilfprd Press. 1986.
92117.02
-------
I
In this article the author describes factors that must be considered when examining
land use impacts of transportation investments, and the mutual dependence
between land use and transportation changes. The second section outlines the
conceptual relationship between transportation and land use. The third section
reviews the major land use/transportation theories and models that have been
developed, including examples of how each model has been used in transportation
policy analysis. Finally, the chapter concludes with a summary of the findings of
empirical studies of highway and transit impacts and draws conclusions based
upon these findings.
One of the major conclusions drawn in the final section of this chapter is that
transportation investments do not have a consistent or predictable impact on land
use. The author asserts that the evidence shows that land use change does not
necessarily follow transportation investments, but rather, availability of land for
development, favorable economic conditions, and local political support have been
shown to be key factors in the majority of studies.
Hotlzclaw, John. 1991. "Explaining Urban Density and Transit Impacts on Auto Use,"
presented by the Natural Resources Defense Council and the Sierra Club for the
State of California Energy Resources Conservation and Development Commission,
Docket No. 89-CR-90. January 15, 1992.
This study was conducted to evaluate potential savings in fuel, pollutant emissions,
ownership costs, and overall reductions in automobile use resulting from higher
residential density and neighborhood businesses, and improved transit.service in
the San Francisco Bay Area. A major finding of this effort is that doubling
residential or population density reduces the annual auto mileage per capita or per
household by 20 to 30 percent.
Using odometer readings data collected during biennial, mandatory smog
inspections, the investigators calculated the annual mileage for five communities
within the San Francisco region, as well as for large counties in .other parts of
California and for the State as a whole. A comparison of these communities
showed that the higher the population, household, or local serving job density, the
lower the auto ownership rates. For example, the Nob Hill area of San Francisco
has 31 times higher net household density, 26 times higher gross population
density and 198 time higher local serving job density than the Danville-San Ramon
area (east of San Francisco in Contra Costa County), but only about 1/3 the auto
ownership per capita and 1/4 the auto ownership per household. Several other
comparisons yielded similar results. The author states that in San Francisco, one
mile of transit replaces as much as eight miles of driving in less dense areas. The
findings from the California research are supported by studies conducted in other
cities such as Toronto, Chicago, and New York City, which were used data that is
characterized by the author as "less reliable" than that used for the California
study (no source is listed).
92117.02
-------
The study makes several recommendations:
Improve transit service in urban centers and along transit corridors
to realize a 4 - 8 mile reduction in auto travel for every mile of
transit use (when combined with residential and commercial density
increases).
Reform zoning laws to allow higher density mixed-use development
in city centers and along transit corridors. These reforms include:
- allowing a minimum of 3 to 4 story
apartment/condominium structures, with commercial
activities on the first floor, in centers and along transit
corridors
- zoning to prohibit urban housing construction outside
presently urbanized areas
- reducing or eliminating parking requirements for
residential or commercial buildings as densities exceed 5
units per net residential acre
- eliminating the inclusion of garage spaces with residential
and commercial space sales and rentals, where feasible
Utilize the findings of this, study to project auto mileage in land use,
transportation, and air quality plans, in environmental assessments,
and in Environmental Impact Reports/Studies.
Kenworthy and Newman, 1989. Cities and Automobile Dependance: A Sourcebook.
Aldeshot, Hants, England.. Gower Technical.
Several papers and books by these two Australian authors from the Institute of
Science and Technology Policy at Murdoch University were identified as
potentially important references but were not available for review in this
bibliogrpahy. The book "Cities and Automobile Dependance examines
transportation trends in 50 cities with specific attention to how different land use
patterns affect transportation patterns.. The book is available in reference sections
of a number of university libraries.
Kulash, W. 1991. "Traffic Performance in Neo-Traditional Neighborhoods" Presented
at the 61st meeting of the Institute for Transportation Engineers, Milwaukee,
September 1991.
This paper briefly compares neo-traditional neighborhood designs (NTD)
(incorporating mixed land use featuring "closely spaced commercial buildings
located directly on street right-of-way lines, narrow streets, small blocks, on-street
92117.02
-------
parking, alleys, and small residential lots in close-in areas around a 'village'
core") with conventional suburban developments. The focus of the comparison is
on differences in traffic engineering and design concepts. For example,
conventional development incorporates a strict hierarchy of roadway networks:
local streets are for immediate access to properties; collector streets gather traffic
from local streets and feeds it to arterials which give longer distance mobility and
which are not intended to provide property access. NTDs, on the other hand,
have reduced or no such hierarchy but rather focus on a network of connected
streets which result in multiple possible routes and modes for a given trip. Other
characteristics of NTDs are reduced lateral clearance, on-street parking, and short
traffic signal cycles. The paper describes a traffic comparison of two identical
700 acre mixed use development programs: one an NTD, and the other of
conventional design. The NTD reduced VMT to 57 percent of the conventional
plan. The reduction is largely attributable to reduction on arterial streets since
these are no longer needed. Further, the number of collector streets are greatly
reduced in the. NTD plan. NTDs also feature slower travel speeds than
conventional designs, although total travel times are equivalent (since NTD
distances are shorter). Finally, a key feature of NTD is the encouragement for
pedestrian travel: simply by the geometry of dense street networks, and large
activity mix, NTDs provide shorter travel distances for pedestrian trips.
Lerner-Lam, E., S.P. Celniker, G.W. Halbert, C. Chellman, S. Ryan, 1991. "Neo-
Traditional Neighborhood Design and its Implications for Traffic Engineering".
Presented at the 61st meeting of the Institute for Transportation Engineers,
Milwaukee, September 1991.
This paper summarizes a number of NTD (Neo-Traditional Neighborhood Design,
also known as NTND) projects in the U.S. The article also summarizes a number
of the key traffic engineering issues encountered in these projects. The paper
notes that NTD proponents argue that NTD designs lead to less reliance on
automobiles than the predominant land use designs over the past 50 years, and
lists some of the ways in which this may occur, as well as potential offsetting
factors. For example, VMT may be reduced due to the option of making more
shopping, work, and recreation trips via foot or bicycle. However, individuals
commuting to or from the NTD may not change their travel patterns significantly.
In contrast to the Kulash paper also reviewed in this document, the authors argue
that NTD planning cannot be accommodated within many existing regulatory
frameworks or land use regulations. Kulash cites an example in Orange County,
Florida where the Orlando area is experiencing traditional urban sprawl.
However, the land use regulations there "would permit the most important traffic
circulation features of neo-traditional neighborhood design to be accomplished".
Mierzejewski, E. A. "Recognizing the Link Between Transportation and Land Use: Let's
Get Beyond the Rhetoric". In 2nd Conference on Application of Transportation
Planning Methods sponsored by Transportation Research Board. Orlando, Florida
April, 1989. .
92117.02
-------
This paper reviews practical experience in two Florida transportation projects to
highlight the importance of integrated land use and transportation planning. The
author briefly reviews the common practice of taking a given land use forecast as
an exogenous input to transportation models while overlooking "the fundamental
impact of the transportation system on the placement of land use activity". The
author identified two key problems with such approaches: (1) self fulfilling
prophecies (the transportation system implicitly assumed in the allocation of land
use activities is generally found to be the best solution to meeting the
transportation demand of the specified land use), and (2) fixed land use inputs
often lead to underestimation of traffic volumes, on major new highway facilities.
The two examples given in the paper involve the North Suncoast corridor, a 50
mile limited access highway on the west coast of Florida. Although the highway
was to open up vast undeveloped land areas the traffic modeling was based on
land use estimates that did not reflect the proposed new facility. The author
argues that the integration of a future land use plan and the major features of the
transportation network into single scenarios would be a miore appropriate
analytical procedure. Alternate scenarios should then be framed as alternate
combinations of land use and transportation scenarios. The other example study is
of a more site specific nature but exhibited many of the same features (several
transportation scenarios, all incorporating the same land use assumptions). Key
practical problems with using a more integrated approach (cost, multiple adopted
land use forecasts), as well a brief history of past efforts (Boston Transportation
Planning Review and the UMTA Alternatives Analysis practices) are also
summarized. Finally, the paper summarizes a number of modeling methods for
considering land use and transportation interactions.
MTC, 1991. Draft Environmental Impact Report for the Regional Transportation Plan.
prepared for the Metropolitan Transportation Commission (Oakland, California)
by JHK & Associates, April, 1991. This document evaluates the Regional
Transportation Plan (RTF) of the Metropolitan Transportation Commission (MTC)
and establishes MTC's policy for the development of transportation improvements
and operations programs to meet the growing transportation needs of the next 20
years. Included in this document is an evaluation of the current and future land
use in the region which looks at the projected land use and other related impacts
of the various project elements. A "Summary of Impact Findings" provides a
summary of the more detailed impact analyses described in other sections of the
report. In the area of land use and population growth, several potentially adverse
impacts of various plan elements are discussed, including .increased pressure to
develop land and to change local land use policy, resulting in a loss of agricultural
and open space land.
Muller, P.O. "Transportation and Urban Form: Stages in the Spatial Evolution of the
American Metropolis" in The Geography of Urban Transportation, Susan Hanson
Ed. Guilford Press, 1986.
This paper "traces a persistently strong relationship between the intraurban
transportation system and the spatial form and organization of the metropolis".
92117.02
-------
Tracing historical relationships between transportation options and land use
patterns, the paper discusses how the proliferation of urban freeways (together
with economic growth, generous federal home loan policies, and more efficient
vehicles) led to increasing decentralization away from central cities: Increased
transportation facilities, in part, made it possible for growth of suburbs; growth of
suburbs led to demand and supply of various goods and services outside central
business districts, leading to "diversified, expanding, 'outer cities'". He also
notes that a central feature of urban sprawl includes circumferential freeways
designed to skirt congested urban cores from which additional freeways radially
branch out to access other areas. Much development occurs along such radii. In
addition, 'the paper notes that the time-distance radius of urban areas has remained
approximately the same over time: about 45 minutes from center to edge. He
notes that each breakthrough in higher-speed transport technology extends that
radius into a new outer zone of suburbs. The paper also contrasts U.S. with
European land use patterns, which have remained more tightly concentrated due to
factors such as land scarcity, dense population, and common government control
of land prices, planning, and zoning codes. The paper ends with a discussion of
the growth in minicities such as that which surrounds the King of Prussia
Shopping Center in Philadelphia.
Orski, C.K. "A Realistic Appraisal of Traffic Congestion", Urban Land, Volume 48,
No. 10, October, 1989.
This paper was not reviewed in its entirety in this search. A summary provided in
the paper on traffic congestion and capacity increases prepared in support of the
Sierra Club/MTC suit is relied upon here (AMPG, 1990). The paper argues that
new roads do not eliminate traffic congestion; "new roads improve accessibility,
and greater accessibility increases the value of land. Higher land values, in turn,
dictate a more intensive use of land, which generates more traffic, which fills up
the highways".
Pas, E.I. 1986. -"The Urban Transportation Planning Process" in The Geography of
Urban Transportation. Susan Hansonj Editor. Guilford Press, New York.
This paper describes the history and nature of the urban transportation planning
process in general. In a key subsection entitled "Land Use-Activity System
Models", the author explores the nature of land use/transportation relationships.
In particular, he describes the interdependence between land use and
transportation. In spite of such interdependence, land use planning and models are
typically separate from transportation models (largely due to the fact that land use
planning and transportation planning are part of different agencies), although each
uses outputs from the other's system. For example, land use forecasts are based
upon particular assumptions regarding future transportation systems, while land
use modeling outputs are used as exogenous inputs to transportation models.
Pisarski, A.E. 1987. "Commuting in America - A National Report on Commuting
Patterns and Trends," prepared under the direction of the Steering Committee for
92117.02
-------
the national Commuting Study by the Eno Foundation for Transportation, Inc.,
Westport, Connecticut. This report is a study of commuting patterns and trends in
the United States. It is intended to be an objective factual resource document
- which analyzes key trends without making policy judgments. The report includes
an extensive number of tables, figures, and other statistics regarding urban and
suburban growth patterns, and the changes in commuting behavior associated with
these development patterns.
An Executive Summary at the beginning of the document identifies three themes
that permeate the report: (1) the worker boom; (2) the suburban commuting
boom; and (3) the private vehicle boom. The worker boom describes the changes
in the characteristics of the work forces in the past 50 years, including the
increase in the number of women in the work force and the increase in the
number of workers in general. The suburban commuting boom describes the
trend towards jobs being located in the suburbs, following the shift in population
to the suburbs, making the suburb-to-suburb commute the most dominant pattern
in the country. Finally, the private vehicle boom describes the expanding use of
private vehicles as the means of travel to work.
The executive summary concludes with a synopsis of the implications for the
future that the three primary themes present, including this implications for
commuting demand and transportation facilities.
Pilgrim, R. D., W. Weber, 1991. "Land Use Enhancements to Increase Future LRT
Ridership in the San Diego South Bay Area," Compendium of Technical Papers.
1991 District 6 Annual Meeting, Institute of Transportation Engineers, Anaheim,
California, 1991. -| • '
This paper presents the analyses and results of the South Bay Rail Transit
Extension Study, conducted for the San Diego Association of Governments
(SANDAG). This study examined the feasibility of extending rail transit into this
rapidly developing area and proposes possible land use mechanisms to increase
ridership. The study developed sketch planning techniques to factor the ridership
forecasts to reflect the use of different land use strategies for the various South
Bay rail alignment and station" alternatives. The conclusions reached in this study
outlined a number of factors that will directly influence the viability of such an
extension. In the area of land use management* it was concluded that land-use
patterns must be planned to focus activity at station site planning in order to
generate increased transit ridership. In other words, active land-use planning is
necessary in order for transit services to be the most effective in serving travel
demands. ' ' . " .
Plane, David. "The Geography of Urban Commuting Fields: Some Empirical Evidence
from New England" Professional Geographer. Vol 33, pp 182 - 188. Association
of American Geographers, 1981.
92117.02
-------
It has been commonly conceived that suburbs serve as the "bedrooms" for workers
commuting to central cities. The paper provides actual statistics on the trip-
making impact of trends in decentralization in urban form. For example, Dr.
Plane demonstrates that "lateral" and "cross" commutes (suburb to suburb and
between urban fields, respectively) accounted for over 90 percent of travel in a
New England town. Dr. Plane identifies five different kinds of work trips: (1)
within central city, (2) suburb to city, (3) city to suburb, (4) suburb to suburb,
and (5) between urban fields (i.e., from one city to another). He found that
approximately 60 percent of work trips were from suburb to suburb.
Real Estate Research Corporation, 1974. The Costs of Sprawl - Literature Review and
Bibliography. April, 1974.
In the spring of 1973, the Real Estate Research Corporation was commissioned by
the Council on Environmental Quality, in conjunction with the Department of
Housing and Urban Development and EPA to undertake a study of the
environmental and economic effects of alternative development patterns. The
Literature Review and Bibliography contains the results of an extensive literature
review on the direct economic costs or adverse environmental effects associated
with development in suburban fringe areas. These include a variety of
publications regarding land-use/transportation interactions. Over 1000 sources
were reviewed; a significant number are annotated in brief. In addition, this
volume contains an essay describing the types of literature available and their
usefulness in evaluating costs of alternative development patterns. Other volumes
of the original report include an executive summary of the methodology, findings,
and conclusions from these studies and a detailed cost analysis of alternative
development patterns.
Upon completion of the initial study, the need for further research was apparent,
both to refine the previous study and to add related elements not undertaken
previous. The findings and conclusions of this additional research are the subject
of another volume, The Costs of Sprawl -Case Studies and Further Research
(October, 1975).
Scheuernstuhl, G.J., May, J.H. "Land Use, Transportation and Air Quality
Relationships". In Proceedings of the National Conference on Transportation
Planning and Air Quality sponsored by the Urban Transportation Division of the
American Society of Civil Engineers. Santa Barbara, July 1991. (Proceedings
published in 1992).
The Denver Regional Council of Governments conducted a study entitled: "Land
Use, Transportation and Air Quality Sensitivity Analysis" in 1990. This paper
summarizes the study. The study explored the differences that would occur in air
quality in the year 2010 given the 2010 Regional Transportation Plan (which
assumed trends of low density and market driven land development patterns) and a
2010 scenario which emphasized the concentration of employment growth along
the seven planned major rapid transit corridors, a minimum of new highway
92117.02
-------
capacity, and the addition of a substantial bus/HOV network. The scenarios were
analyzed with a UTPS type transportation modeling system. Population,
employment, and person trips in the modeling area increased slightly in the high
density transit scenario. VMT in the two scenarios remained approximately equal
because of increased transit use and carpooling. However, the high density
scenario resulted in increased congestion and slightly higher carbon monoxide
levels than the base scenario. PM-10 and NO2 concentrations were approximately
the same for both scenarios. The paper concludes that land use changes assumed
in the study have little or no effect on air quality, that both population and
employment need to be concentrated in high density corridors, and that land use
pattern changes should be considered for longer time periods than those under
study (20 - 25 years). l
Smith, S.A. 1989. "Travel Characteristics at Suburban Activity Centers and
Implications on Land Development". In 2nd Conference on Application of
Transportation Planning Methods sponsored by Transportation Research Board.
Orlando,.Florida, April, 1989. !
This paper reviews data collected at six major suburban activity centers under a
National Cooperative Highway Research Program project,! Data on trips, trip
purpose, and other variables were collected for Tyson's Comer in Northern
Virginia, Southdale near Minneapolis, Perimeter Center north of Atlanta, Parkway
Center north of Dallas, South Coast Metro in Orange County near Los Angeles,
and Bellevue, near Seattle. The study found that (1) density of the activity centers
did not prevent them from being very auto oriented, (2) substantial interaction
among land uses was observed among the activity centers, (S)although mixed land
uses are desirable from a transportation perspective, among the activity centers
studied, the uses were not close enough to generate a high degree of non-auto
transportation.
Urban Land Institute, 1989. "Myths and Facts About Transportation and Growth".
Washington DC, 1989. .
i
A fuller summary of this publication will be included in updates to this
bibliography. Two findings identified in a paper presented at a 1991 ITE
conference (Long, 1991) are: (1) "limiting density of development does not reduce
traffic except in the immediate area", and (2) "lower-density residential, retail, or
office projects generate more, not less, overall traffic", i
USDOT, 1973. The Interrelationships of Transportation Development and Land
Development -Volume 1 flVTain Report). DOT-FH-11-7843, June, 1973.
The purpose of the research described in this two volume report was to attempt to
better understand the phenomena which operate to produce the heavy usage and
subsequent congestion which often follows the construction of urban and suburban
transportation facilities. It was recognized that these phenomena were the same
ones which generally govern the shape and growth of the metropolis. Computer
92117.02
-------
simulation was the method selected for this analysis. Consequently, in addition to
substantive conclusions about the growth of urban areas and potential policies for
shaping and/or directing this growth, a package of computer models was prepared
for dissemination to other workers in this field. This package of models was
intended to integrate land use models with transportation network modes, and
allow analysis not only of land use patterns and transportation flows, but of the
interrelationships between them. Testing of this modeling package using real-
world data from the San Francisco metropolitan area implied that the use of
integrated transportation planning and land use control policies could mitigate
problems resulting from new capacity. This report includes descriptions of the
development and testing of these models, and substantive conclusions resulting
from this work.
USDOT, 1979. Bart Impact Program: The Impact of Bart on Land Use and Urban
Development Interpretive Summary of the Final Report, DOT-P-30-80-08,
September, 1979.
This report assesses the land use and urban development impacts of the 71-mile
Bay Area Rapid Transit (BART) system. The report discusses the extent to which
BART has influenced the spatial arrangement of people and activities in the San
Francisco Bay Area. All aspects of development that BART may have affected or
potentially could affect are examined - including households' and workers'
location decisions, development decisions of housing and commercial developers,
retail trade and shopping patterns, and property values and rents. Changes
attributable to BART are measured against pre-BART and no-BART alternatives
using a variety of analytical techniques, surveys, statistical analyses and case
studies. The report concludes with an assessment of the policy implications of the
BART experience at the time of this report.
USDOT, 1980. The Land Use and Urban Development Impacts of Beltways
Report. DOT-OS-90079, October, 1980.
Final
This document reports the results of a study jointly commissioned by the USDOT
and the U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development. It presents an
assessment of beltways' land use and urban development- impacts and describes the
urban and transportation policy implications. Prior research and findings of a
comparative statistical analysis and detailed case studies are examined to determine
(1) what effects beltways have had, (2) why beltway-induced changes have
occurred, (3) who was affected by such changes, and (4) how federal and local
government agencies can work with business and community group to capitalize
upon the potential benefits offered by beltways and to minimize or eliminate their
anticipated adverse effects. Of particular concern to the sponsoring agencies, and
to the federal government in general, is the possibility that beltways may
undermine central city revitalization efforts and attempts to achieve compact,
energy-conserving and environmentally sound .land use patterns. This report and
companion document, the Guidebook, address the relationship between new
highways and other factors influencing urban development and describe actions
92117.02
-------
which.can be taken by local governments, working federal agencies, and the
private sector to take advantage of the opportunities and avoid harmful
consequences generated by beltway construction. :
USDOT, 1981. Innovative Approaches to Understanding Transportation/Societal
Interactions. DOT-TSC-UMTA-81-61,1, October, 1981.
In June, 1979, a Request for Proposal (RFP) was issued by Urban and Regional
Research Division of the Transportation Systems Center (TSC), under sponsorship
by the UMTA. The major product called for in the RFP was a "Study Design
Report" (SDR) which was to document in detail the contractor's proposed
approach for analyzing the complex interactions between.transportation and
society. The primary intent of this report is to disseminate information on the
analytic approaches developed in the seven SDRs presented by the selected
contractors. Many of these SDRs address the issues of modeling the interaction
between transportation and land use to reflect changes in the spatial organization
of metropolitan areas as a result of transportation system changes. This is the first
of two report volumes, which describes the research program itself, and
summarizes the Study Design Reports. The second volume contains the seven
SDRs in their entirety.
USDOT, 1982a. Transportation and Urban Economic Development. DOT-I-82-
42, June, 1982.
This study attempts to synthesize available knowledge about the links between
transportation and economic development in the late 197()'s. The study began
with a major literature review, and later proceeded into a, detailed examination of
several sites and a general review of the development process itself. The report
. discusses the economic development process, including the tools, institutions, and
problems involved, and describes the role of transportation in a successful
economic development program. Five case studies offer practical examples of
how some cities have used transportation as an economic development tool. A
general bibliography on transportation and economic development issues follows
this portion of the report. Finally, the literature synthesis analyzes the literature
in each transportation mode, highlighting the relationship between transportation
and economic development and outlining local initiatives to link the two fields. It
also discusses areas that need further attention and contains a. bibliography of
works on specific modes.
USDOT, 1982b. "Growth Management and Transportation," DOT-I-82-28, June, 1982.
This report is one of ten bulletins in the fifth series of Information Bulletins
produced by the Transportation Task Force of the Urban Consortium for
Technology Initiatives. The intent of this document is to provide a nontechnical
overview, from the local government perspective, of issues and problems associate
with growth management and transportation. While not am in-depth review of the
92117.02
-------
state-of-the-art of state-of-the-practice, this document serves to identify and raise
issues and provide and information base from which the Transportation Task
Force could select topics that require more substantial research. It presents
problems, approaches, and issues related to growth management transportation,
provides information about growth management programs, tools, and techniques
and contacts for obtaining this information, and concludes with an annotated
bibliography.
USDOT, 1982c. Trends Before Metrorail - A Metrorail Before-and-After Study Report "
DOT-I-82-33, July, 1982.
This report describes the trends before the opening of the Metrorail transit system
in the Washington D.C. area. A companion report, Metrorail Area Planning.
describes some of the initial effects of the transit system on development and land
use. The purpose of the Metrorail Before-and-After Study is to measure changes
caused by the system in the Washington region. It presents the opportunity to
study the effects of a major transportation improvement on travel behavior and the
related effects of these travel changes on land use and economic activity.
Development in the Washington region, both before and after the implementation
of Metrorail, are summarized, as well as changes in regional employment,
housing, and population projections before and after the project.
USDOT, 1982d. The Portland Mall Impact Study. DOT-I-83-07, December, 1982.
This final report of the Portland Mall Impact Study is a comprehensive analysis
and evaluation for a wide range of impacts related to the Portland Transit Mall.
This report assesses the primary (i.e., transit and traffic impacts) and secondary
(i.e., noise, air, land use and development) impacts, and documents the significant
impact the Portland Mall has had on revitalizing the downtown area. The report
concludes with an economic analysis demonstrating the Portland Mall to be a good
public investment, with benefits exceeding the cost. This study provides useful
information for public and private organizations at the local and national level. At
the local level, it provides information for assessing impacts on operation,
maintenance, and possible extension of the Transit Mall. At the national level, it
provides Portland's experience with a transit mall and possible applications to
other locales by other local governmental agencies, and the transportation land use
interaction that can be achieved through investment in transit.
USDOT, 1985. Transit Linked Development - A Case Study of Atlanta's
MARTA System. DOT-I-85-24, January, 1985.
Although the linkage between transportation and land-use development has been
recognized for decades, this report asserts that there are apparently few successful
efforts to fully integrate transportation and urban development/redevelopment.
This report provides further evidence to support the hypothesis that linkages do
exist between transportation and land development. It asserts, however, that
development is not automatic, but rather is fostered through supportive zoning,
92117.02
-------
special incentives and strong markets. This report provides a review of the
literature pertaining to transportation and land-use impacts, including preliminary
results from ongoing impact studies and specific analyses of land-use and joint
development. It also includes a review of selected transit: systems, utilizing impact
studies and site visits, and a review and analysis of actual urban development
impacts of major urban and light rail systems. Various tools and methodologies
that have had some utility in guiding land-use impacts ares assessed, and a detailed
series of case studies of ten Atlanta station areas are included. The report
concludes with a summary of key findings and recommendations for use by
planners and policy officials of other transit systems.
Webber, M.M. 1985. "The Emerging Metropolis: Trends and Trepidations" from
Mobility for Major Metropolitan Growth Centers: A New Challenge for Public-
Private Cooperation. Urban Mass Transportation Administration, U.S. DOT,
November, 1985 pp9 - 18.
•&
This paper connects many traffic problems to land use and transportation practices
tied to an outmoded model of urban design "we all know that the 'correct' city
has a major business center marked by skyscraping office buildings, and that it
declines in intensity as one moves outward toward the farmlands at the edge".
The author notes that the newer cities in the West and South, which matured once
the auto age had become fully entrenched, designs are far more complex;
something like a "mountain range with numerous peaks and valleys". The author
discusses a number of trends shaping urbanization processes, including the
increased number of women in the labor force, decreases in average household
sizes, higher household incomes, the rise of the suburban service economy, and
technological improvements in communications, all of which are leading to a
marked decrease in density and growth in "exurbs". As governments still plan
based on the "proper" city model, "transportation capacity is deficient in most
new exurban regions, largely because existing high-capacity facilities were initially
designed to feed traffic into the city core".
92117.02
-------
GLOSSARY
BART
CAAA
Caltrans
CBE
CEQA
CNG
DOE
DOT
EPA
GRI
ITE
LEV
LPG
MAG
MPO
NARC
NEPA
NTD
OSHA
Bay Area Rapid Transit
Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990
California Department of Transportation
Citizens for a Better Environment
California Environmental Policy Act
Compressed Natural Gas
Department of Energy
Department of Transportation
Environmental Protection Agency
Gas Research Institute
Institute of Transportation Engineers
Low Emitting Vehicle
Liquified Petroleum Gas
Maricopa Association of Governments
Metropolitan Planning Organization
National Association of Regional Councils
National Environmental Policy Act
Neotraditional Neighborhood Design
Occupational Safety and Health Administration
92117.04
-------
RTF Regional Transportation Plan
SAE Society of Automotive Engineers
SCAQMD South Coast Air Quality Management District
TRB Transportation Research Board
TRIS Technical Retreival Information Service
TSC Transportation Systems Center
UMTA Urban Mass Transit Administration
UTPS Urban Transportation Plannng System
VMT Vehicle Miles Travelled
VOC Volatile Organic Compound
92117.04
-------
References: Land Use and Transportation Interactions
1000 Friends of Oregon, 1991. "Making the Land Use, Transportation, Air Quality
Connection: A National Growth Management Research Project". Project Description
October 25 1991.
Adler, T. J., C.T. Leiner. 1991. "Traffic Effects of Creating a City Center in a
Suburban Community," Compendium of Technical Papers, Institute of Transportation
Engineers Annual Meeting, September 22-25, Milwaukee, Wisconsin. ITE Publication
Number PP-023.
Adams, J.S., 1970. "Residential Structures of Midwestern Cities" Annals of the
Association of American Geographers 60.
Baerwald, TJ. 1978. "The Emergence of a New Downtown" Geographical Review 68.
p 308 - 318. American Geographical Society.
Barber, G. 1986. "Aggregate Characteristics of Urban Travel" The Geography of
Urban Transportation. Susan Hanson, Ed. Guilford Press, 1986.
Bhatt, Kiran, Thomas Higgins, 1989. "An Assessment of Travel Demand Approaches at
Suburban Activity Centers," Prepared for the U.S. Department of Transportation
(Contract No. DTRS-57-88-C-00113) by K. T. Analytics, Inc., July, 1989.
Brannan, R.C., E. Seltzer, M.A. Wert. 1991. "Coordinating Portland's Urban Growth
Plan and the Western Bypass Study," Compendium of Technical Papers. Institute of
Transportation Engineers Annual Meeting, September 22-25, Milwaukee, Wisconsin
ITE Publication Number PP-023.
Carrier, C., 1988. "Commuting in America," ITS Review. Volume 11, Number 4
August, 1988.
Cervero, Robert, 1984. "Managing the Traffic Impacts of Suburban Office Growth,"
Transportation Quarterly, Vol. 38, No. 4, October, 1984.
CSI, 1991. Modeling Practices. Volume T. prepared by Cambridge Systematics, Inc.
with Hague Consulting Group, October, 1991.
Dickey, J. and C. Leiner, 1981. "Use of TOPAZ for Transportation-Land Use Planning
in a Suburban County". Transportation and Land Use Planning. Transportation
Research Record 931.
Garreau, J., 1991. "Edge City: Life on the New Frontier". Doubleday Books, 1991.
•
Garrison, W. L., et. al., 1975. "Transportation and Land Use - Three Papers prepared
for California State Department of Transportation," September, 1975.
92117.05
-------
Giuliano, G., 1988. "New Directions for Understanding Transportation and Land Use,"
Institute of Transportation Studies, University of California, Irvine, California (UCI-ITS-
SP-88-4), March, 1988.
I
Hanson, S., 1986. The Geography of Urban Transportation. Susan Hanson, editor,
GuilfordPress. New York, 1986. ,
Harvey and Deakin, 1991. G. Harvey, and E. Deakin. "Toward Improved Regional
Transportation Modeling Practice". November 15, 1991, Draft paper prepared for the
National Association of Regional Councils.
Kulash, W. 1991. "Traffic Performance in Neo-Traditional Neighborhoods" Presented
at the 61st meeting of the Institute for Transportation Engineers, Milwaukee, September
1991. ^ [
Larson, 1992. Dr. Tom Larson, Federal Highway Administration, in an interview with
Transactions, a newsletter for the Metropolitan Transportation Commission. February
1992 issue.
Lerner-Lam, E., S.P. Celniker, G.W. Halbert, C. Chellman, S. Ryan, 1991. "Neo-
Traditional Neighborhood Design and its Implications for Traffic Engineering".
Presented at the 61st meeting of the Institute for Transportation Engineers, Milwaukee,
September 1991.
Long, 1991. John Long and Jody Lonergan, "Preserving a New Transportation Corridor
Within the COntext of Today's Environment". Presented at the 61st meeting of the
Institute for Transportation Engineers, Milwaukee, September 1991.
MAG, 1992. Request for Proposals: "Development of an Urban Form Study for the
Maricopa Association of Governments (MAG) Region". MAG Transportation and
Planning Office. January 22, 1992.
Maher, A. M. 1992. "Low Voltage EV Charging Issues ~ Utility Impact." EPRI EV
Charging Station Design Charette, Napa, California, April 21-23.
Mierzejewski, E.A. "Recognizing the Link Between Transportation and Land Use: Let's
Get Beyond the Rhetoric". In 2nd Conference on Application of Transportation Planning
Methods sponsored by Transportation Research Board. Orlando, Florida, April, 1989.
MTC, 1991. Draft Environmental Impact Report for the Regionial Transportation Plan.
prepared for the Metropolitan Transportation Commission (Oakland, California) by JHK
& Associates, April, 1991.
Muller, P.O. "Transportation and Urban Form: Stages in the Spatial Evolution of the
American Metropolis" in The Geography of Urban Transportation. Susan Hanson, Ed.
Guilford Press, 1986.
92117.05
-------
Pas, E.I. 1986. "The Urban Transportation Planning Process" in The Geography of
Urban Transportation. Susan Hanson, Editor. Guilford Press, New York.
Pilgrim, R. D., W. Weber, 1991. "Land Use Enhancements to Increase Future LRT
Ridership in the San Diego South Bay Area," Compendium of Technical Papers. 1991
District 6 Annual Meeting, Institute of Transportation Engineers, Anaheim, California
1991.
Pisarski, A.E. 1987. "Commuting in America - A National Report on Commuting
Patterns and Trends," prepared under the direction of the Steering Committee for the
national Commuting Study by the Eno Foundation for Transportation, Inc., Westport,
Connecticut.
Plane, David. "The Geography of Urban Commuting Fields: Some Empirical Evidence
from New England" Professional Geographer. Vol 33, pp 182 - 188. Association of
American Geographers, 1981.
PSCOG, 1990. VISION 2020. Growth and Transportation Strategy for the Central
Puget Sound Region. Puget Sound Council of Governments, October, 1990.
Scheuernstuhl, G.J., May, J.H. "Land Use, Transportation and Air Quality
Relationships". In Proceedings of the National Conference on Transportation Planning
and Air Quality sponsored by the Urban Transportation Division of the American Society
of Civil Engineers. Santa Barbara, July 1991. (Proceedings published in 1992).
Smith, S.A. 1989. "Travel Characteristics at Suburban Activity Centers and
Implications on Land Development". In 2nd Conference on Application of
Transportation Planning Methods sponsored by Transportation Research Board Orlando
Florida, April, 1989.
Real Estate Research Corporation, 1974. The Costs of Sprawl - Literature Review and
Bibliography, April, 1974.
Urban Land Institute, 1989. "Myths and Facts About Transportation and Growth"
Washington DC, 1989.
USDOT, 1973. The Interrelationships of Transportation Development and Land
Development -Volume 1 Main Report), DOT-FH- 11-7843, June, 1973.
USDOT, 1979. Bart Impact Program: The Impact of Bart on Land Use and Urban
Development Interpretive Summary of the Final Report 1 DOT-P-30-80-08, September,
USDOT, 1980. The Land Use and Urban Development Impacts of Beltway*
Report, DOT-OS-90079, October, 1980.
92117.05
-------
USDOT, 1981. Innovative Approaches to Understanding Transportation/Societal
Interactions. DOT-TSC-UMTA-81-61,1, October, 1981.
USDOT, 1982a. Transportation and Urban Economic Development. DOT-I-82-42 June
1982. i
USDOT, 1982b. "Growth Management and Transportation," DOT-I-82-28, June, 1982.
USDOT, 1982c. Trends Before Metrorail - A Metrorail Before-and-After Study Report "
DOT-I-82-33, July, 1982.
USDOT, 1982d. The Portland Mall Impact Study. DOT-I-83-07, December, 1982.
USDOT, 1985. Transit Linked Development - A Case Study of Atlanta's MARTA
System, DOT-I-85-24, January, 1985.
Webber, M.M. 1985. "The Emerging Metropolis: Trends and Trepidations" from
Mobility for Maior Metropolitan Growth Centers: A New Challenge for Public-Private
Cooperation. Urban Mass Transportation Administration, U.S. DOT, November 1985
pp9 - 18.
Zaininger, H. W. 1992. "T & D Issues Associated with the Application of EV
Charging Stations." EPRI EV Charging Station Design Charette, Napa, California,
April 21-23. '
92117.05
-------
------- |