United States
Environmental Protection
Agency
&EPA
Office of Air Quality
Planning and Standards
Research Triangle Park, NC 27711
EPA-452/K-00-002
August 2000
http://www.epa.gov/air
jA} Printed on paper containing at least 30 percent postconsumer recovered fiber.
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Photos (pages 10, 11, 13, 14, 15 and 18) by S.G. Delaiiey/KPA
Photos (pages 17 and 21) Copyright ۥ 199? PhotoDisc, Inc.
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Ss> ir in\lc.s ;-tr'r: those :-i\r p,;";llui;-ir:is :h;-t; are irnpacl depends on many faclors, including ihe quariti
J? II knuv n ur suspc'Jed i.o CMUM* ;:;ir;'..cr or other ty ofair pollution to which people are exposed, the
fiss^ -^'i'ir::;?; i v/ri: f h p: T: i; i >.•• ivis. bv.h V; v: i\ millions duration of the exposures, and the potency of the pol
= =oi sors.s ul :--iir iuxi^'s ;ir-v uMcascU iii;-;> the air, lutants. The effecls ofair pollulaiHs can be minor and
mostly from manmadc sources. This document reversible (such as eye irritation) or debilitating
describes what air toxics are, where they conic from, (such as aggravation of asthma) and even fatal (such
and how they can impact people and the environ as cancer),
ment. It also describes the
steps being taken by the s=^^ Since 1970, the ("lean Air
U.S. Knvironmental Act has provided the pri
Protection Agency to The and rnary framework for pro
reduce emissions of air by EPA the tecling people and the
toxics from major Indus 10 environment from the
trial sources such as harmful effects ofair
chemical manufacturing will cut of air pollution. A key compo
by 1.5 per nont of the Clean Air Act is
15 a requirement that the U.S.
than EPA was able to in 20 years Environmental Protection
prior to 199o. Agency significantly
reduce daily, so-called
_____^^ "routine" emissions of the
1 he air we breathe can be . ..
most potent air pollutants:
contaminated with pollu 11,1 i ,
, , those that arc known or suspected to cause serious
tants Irom factories, vehicles, power plants, and many ,11 , i i , . , i r -i-t
health problems such as cancer or birth delects. Ihe
other sources. These pollutants have long been a major ,.,, , . . „ , ,, „, ,
1 ° J Clean Air Act relers to these pollutants as
concern because ol the harmlul ellects they sometimes ,, „ , , , , ,
air but they are also commonly known as
have on people's health and the environment. Their . ,, , . . . ,
air or, simply, air
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Prior to 1990, the Clean Air Ac I required I1! PA lo set
standards for each toxic air pollutant individually,
based on its particular health risks. This approach
proved difficult and minimally effective at reducing
emissions. As a result, when amending the Clean Air
Act in 1990, Congress directed KPA to use a "technolo-
gy based" and. performance based approach to signifi
cantly reduce emissions of air toxics from major
sources of air pollution, followed by a risk based
approach lo address any remaining, or residual, risks.
Under the "technology based" approach, EPA develops
standards for controlling the "routine" emissions of air
toxics from each major type of facility within an indus-
try group (or "source category"). These standards
known as "maximum achievable control technology
(MACT) standards" are based on emissions levels
thai are already being achieved by the better-controlled
and lower emitting sources in an industry. This
approach assures citi/ens nationwide thai each major
source of toxic air pollution will be required to employ
effective measures to limit its emissions. Also, this
approach provides a level economic playing field by
ensuring that facilities that employ cleaner processes
and good emission controls are not disadvantaged
relative to competitors with poorer controls.
In setting MACT standards, KPA does not generally
prescribe a specific control technology. Instead, when
ever feasible, the Agency sets a performance level
based on technology or other practices already used
by the industry. Facilities are free to achieve these
performance levels in whatever way is most cost
effective for them. The MACT standards issued by
KPA over the past 10 years have proven extremely
successful. Once fully implemented, these standards
will cut emissions of toxic air pollutants by nearly
1,5 million tons per year.
Eight years after each MACT standard is issued, EPA
must assess the remaining health risks from source
categories. If necessary, EPA may implement additiona
standards that address any significant remaining risk.
Toxic (also called hazardous) air pollutants are those
pollutants that are known or suspected to cause cancer
or other serious health effects, such as reproductive
effects or birth defects, or to cause adverse environ-
mental effects. The degree lo which a toxic air pollutant
affects a person's health depends on many factors,
including the quantity of pollutant the person is
exposed to, the duration and frequency of exposures,
the toxicity of the chemical, and the person's state of
health and susceptibility.
The Clean Air Act Amendments list 188 toxic air
pollutants that KPA is required to control,1 Examples of
toxic air pollutants include benzene, which is found in
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gasoline; perchloroelhylene, which is em Hied from
some dry cleaning facilities; and rncthyleiie chloride,
which is used as a solvent and paint stripper by a nurn
her of industries. Examples of other listed air toxics
include dioxin, asbestos, toluene, and metals such as
cadmium, mercury, chromium, and lead compounds.
SrienMs-s psnrn;-tie that millions of Ions of toxic pol
luUmis an/u k ased into ihc air each year. Most air
toxics originate from manmade sources, including both
mobile sources (e.g., cars, buses, trucks) and stationary
sources (e.g., factories, refineries, power plants),
I lowcver, some are released in major amounts from
natural sources such as forest fires. This document
focuses on EEA's efforts, as of August 2000, to reduce
routine (as opposed to accidental) emissions of toxic air
pollutants from stationary sources. Routine emissions
from stationary sources constitute almost one half of
all manmade air toxics emissions.
e:/ o/> Toxics
nvsntory data, major sources
a flaunt for about 26 percent
<>? n if toxics emissions, small-
er area and other
\ sources as fires)
I fof 74 percent, and mobile
fA-ufces for 50 percent
Aiiiiiental releases, which
U/:M> contribute air to the
fsmphere, are not included in
? estimates.
major sources
of air toxics (and sonic area sources thai are of panic
ular concern) to significantly reduce iheir air loxics
emissions.
"Major" are defined as sources that emit
10 tons per year of any of the listed toxic air pollu
lanls, or 25 tons per year of a mixture of air toxics.
Examples include chemical plants, steel mills, oil
refineries, and ha/ardous waste incinerators. These
sources may release air loxics from equipment leaks,
when materials are transferred from one location
to another, or during discharge through emissions
slacks or venls. One key public heallh concern
regarding major sources is the health effects on
populations located downwind from ihern.
"Area" consist of smaller sources, each
releasing smaller amounts of toxic pollutants into
the air. Area sources are defined as sources that
emit less than 10 tons per year of a single air toxic,
or less than 25 Ions per year of a mixture of air
toxics. Examples include neighborhood dry cleaners
and gas stations. Though emissions from individual
area sources are often relatively small, collectively
their emissions can be of concern particularly
where large numbers of sources are located in
heavily populated areas.
Once released, toxic pollutants can be carried by the
wind, away from their sources, to other locations.
Factors such as weather, the terrain (i.e., mountains,
plains, valleys), and the chemical and physical proper-
ties of a pollutant determine how far it is transported,
its concentration at various distances from the source,
what kind of physical and chemical changes il under
goes, and whether it will degrade, remain airborne, or
deposit lo land or water.
Some pollutants remain airborne and contribute to
air pollution problems far from the pollution source.
Olher pollutants released into the air can be deposited
to land and water bodies through precipitation, or
by settling directly out of the air onto land or water.
Eventually, a large portion of those pollutants
deposited near water bodies or small tributaries will
reach the water bodies via storrnwater runoff or
inflow from the tributary streams.
Some loxic air pollutants are of particular concern
because they degrade very slowly or not at all, as in
the case of melals such as mercury or lead. These
persistent air toxics (as they arc called) can remain in
the environment for a long lime (or forever, in the case
of metals) and can be transported great distances.
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CsXK
Deposition
1 , /
of
Toxic air can be to or 6y directly out of the
air (dry deposition). Repeated cycles of transport, deposition, and toxic o/r pollutants distances.
Often, persistent air toxics reach ihe ground, evaporate
back into the atmosphere, and are ihen transported
further until they are deposited on the ground again.
Repeated cycles of transport, deposition, and
evaporation can move toxic air pollutants very long
distances. For example, toxic pollutants such as
loxaphene, a pesticide used primarily in the cotton bell,
have been found in the Antarctic, thousands of miles
from their likely emissions sources.
haling contaminated soil. Young children are
especially vulnerable because they may ingest
contaminated soil from their hands or from objects
they place in their mouths.
Once toxic air pollutants enter the body, some persist-
ent toxic air pollutants accumulate in body tissues.
Also, through a phenomenon called
predators typically accumulate even greater
pollutant concentrations than their contaminated
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prey. As a result, people and other animals at the
"top" of the food chain who cat contaminated fish or
meat are exposed to concentrations that are much
higher than the concentrations in the water, air, or soil.
Fish consumption advisories have been issued for
thousands of water bodies nationwide, including over
lakes and over miles of rivers. As of
December 1999, 40 stales have consumption advisories
about mercury contaminated Fish for specific water
bodies. Pleven of those states have issued state wide
advisories for freshwater lakes and rivers. Many of
these water bodies were once thought to be relatively
pristine. I lowcver, EPA is now finding thai deposition
from the air may be a major source of the pollution in
Toxic pollutants that mimic hormones also pose a
;hr<*at ;•;> UK- ••iiviruiirn-'iis. hi some w ;kU;K: (e.g.,
:";i:'t !.<",, shr ! : t Kh , T:1,:', :"-::":!! !' I,": :"l'!' I ;"i K; , ; -H pOS U :'CS tO
;;;.;;iu;;-u;f;-! :-u<:l; ;u-, 1)1)1', dioxir:;-!. :-.;r;d i;K-r<..ury have
;•;••;•• n ^.^rv.i.VoJ \viTh dooiv.ixod fV-iriiiry decreased
haidiinc .su-,-'..c-.s;:\ M:-.:;i:a L')..-:.!!.-i;,j:]iH :.:n which air
k;;<;<:;-> au ir:;Jivi;Jual is expos*, d U>. Uic.sc- iicalth effects
can include d;nii;i.m; U> !h'. iiinnurK- ::">.::'!'. rn, as well as
nfiumk;pjr;-ti, reprciduciix'e (^.s,., recl;.:re(i I'prtility),
developmental, and respiratory problems. A growing
body of evidence indicates that some air toxics (e.g.,
1)1)1', dioxins, and mercury) may disturb hormonal (or
endocrine) systems. In some cases this happens by
pollutants cither mimicking or blocking the action of
natural hormones. 1 lealth effects associated with
endocrine disruption include reduced male fertility,
birth defects, and breast cancer.
« Develop standards to reduce emissions of these
pollutants to levels that provided an "ample margin
of safely" for the public.
While attempting to control air toxics during the
1970s and 1980s, EPA became involved in many legal,
scientific, and policy debates over which pollutants to
regulate and how stringently to regulate them.
Debates focused on risk assessment methods and
assumptions, the amount of health risk data needed
to justify regulation, analyses of the costs to industry
and benefits to human health and the environment,
and decisions about "how safe is safe."
Toxic pollutants in the air, or deposited on soils or
surface waters, can have a number of environmental
impacts. Pike humans, animals can experience health
problems if I hey are exposed to sufficient concenlra
tions of air toxics over time. Numerous studies con
elude that deposited air toxics are contributing to birth
defects, reproductive failure, and disease in animals.
Persistent toxic air pollutants are of particular concern
in aquatic ecosystems because the pollutants accumu-
late in sediments and may biornagnify in tissues of
animals at the top of the food chain to concentrations
many limes higher than in the water or air.
During this time, PPA was still developing methods to
assess risk. These methods were essential loots that
would be needed to establish The scientific basis for
making risk based decisions about air toxics. While
EPA and the scientific community gained valuable
knowledge about risk assessment methods through
this work, the chcmical-by-chcmical regulatory
approach an approach based solely on risk proved
difficult. In fact, in 20 years, PPA regulated only seven
pollutants (asbestos, benzene, beryllium, inorganic
arsenic, mercury, radionuclidcs, and vinyl chloride).
Collectively, these standards cut annual air toxics
emissions by an estimated 125,000 tons.
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Air Act
A
Realizing ihe limitations of a chemical by chemical
decision framework based solely on risk, and acknowl
edging the gaps in scientific and analytical information,
Congress adopted a new strategy in 1990, when the
('lean Air Act was amended. Specifically, Congress
revised Section 112 of the Clean Air Act to mandate a
more practical approach to reducing emissions of toxic
air pollutants.
This approach two components. In the first phase,
EPA develops regulations MACT standards requir
ing sources to meet specific emissions limits that are
based on emissions levels already being achieved by
many similar sources in the country. Even in its earliest
stages, this new "technology based" approach clearly
produced real, measurable reductions. In the second
phase, EPA applies a risk based approach to assess
how these technology based emissions limits are
reducing health and environmental risks. Based on this
assessment, EPA may implement additional standards
to address any significant remaining, or residual, health
or environmental risks, EPA completed development of
its strategy for addressing residual risks from air toxics
in of
i MT; air toxics MACT
t: ('A*, an Air Act
I'-'j 82 categories of
"hp-viical plants, oil
rv. '.:.i;d sleel mills, as
• sources, such as dry
vundary lead
a;ina facilities. EPA
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has also issued two standards under Section 129 of the
Clean Air Act to control emissions, including certain
toxic pollutants, from solid waste combustion facilities
(one standard for municipal waste combustors and the
other for medical waste incinerators). Together, these
standards reduce emissions of over 100 different air
toxics. When fully implemented, all of these stan
dards will reduce air toxics emissions by about
1.5 million Ions per year almost 15 limes the reduc
lions achieved prior to 1990. Each of the final rules
developed since 1990 is summarized in an appendix to
this document (pages 9 to 31). These summaries
describe the sources for which final rules have been
issued as of August 2000, the types of pollutants the
sources emit, and how HI'As rules are reducing their
emissions.
Some of these air toxics rules have the added benefit
of reducing ground level ozone (urban smog) and
particulate matter. This occurs because some air toxics
are also smog causing volatile organic compounds
(VOCs) (e.g., toluene) or particulate mailer (e.g.,
chromium). In addition, some of the technologies and
practices designed to control air toxics also reduce
VOCs or types of particulate mailer that are no! cur
rently among the 188 listed air toxics. Reductions of
smog causing pollutants and particulate matter are
important because of the health and environmental
problems they can cause. Most notably, urban smog
can cause respiratory problems and can damage vege
tation, and particulate matter can cause many detri
menial impacts on human health, such as bronchitis,
lung damage, increased infection, aggravation of asth-
ma, and premature death. In addition many of these
pollutants can contribute significantly to impaired vis
ibility in places, such as national parks, that are valued
for their scenic views and recreational opportunities.
EPA has consistently worked to develop air toxics
standards that achieve the required reductions in air
pollution while providing regulated communities with
as much flexibility as possible in deciding how to
comply with the standards. For example, under a
flexible regulation, industries may reduce their ends
sions by redesigning their processes, capturing and
recycling emissions, changing work practices, or
installing any of a variety of control technologies.
Flexibility helps industries minirni/e the cost of
compliance and encourages pollution prevention. To
provide flexibility, EPA makes every effort to develop
To dale, EPA has primarily focused efforts to reduce
emissions of toxic air pollutants on technology based
or MACT emission standards. Over the next, few years,
EPA will continue to work with industry: cnvironnicn
tal groups; state, local, and tribal agencies; and other
interested groups to develop standards for the
remaining source categories that will reduce air toxics
emissions even further. By 2002, EPA is scheduled to
issue 82 technology based standards covering 96
remaining source categories.
EPA anticipates that its technology based approach
will continue to prove successful at reducing air toxics.
Additional air toxics reductions are also expected to
continue as a result of mobile and other stationary
source control programs (e.g., controls to reduce
particulate and volatile organic compound emissions)
thai indirectly reduce toxics. To Identify additional
measures beyond the technology standards that may
be needed to protect the public health and the environ
nient from toxic air pollutants, EPA will use a more
risk based focus. EPA's efforts underway include
national air toxics assessment activities, residual risk
standards, evaluation of the impacts of air toxics
deposition, data-gathering on mercury emissions
from coal fired electric utilities, and implementation
of an urban air toxics strategy. These efforts are
explained below
Air Toxics
The National Air Toxics Assessment is an ongoing
comprehensive evaluation by EPA of air toxics in the
United Stales. EPA, stales, and others are working to
improve the national toxics inventory of emissions and
to expand air toxics monitoring networks to obtain
more air toxics data. This work is expected to help
focus future efforts to reduce air toxics and resultant
health effects.
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their effectiveness at reducing the health arid environ
mental risks posed by air toxics. Based on this
assessment, the Agency may implement additional
standards that address any significant remaining, or
"residual," risk. After setting a MACT standard,
I1!PA has 8 years (9 years for the earliest standards)
to examine the risk posed by continued emissions
from regulated facilities and issue requirements for
additional controls if necessary to reduce unacceptable
residual risk. I1!PA has begun to assess residual risk for
several source categories, including coke ovens, dry
oxide sterili/ers, halogenaled solvent cleaning, indus-
trial cooling towers, and magnetic tape manufacturing.
The first residual risk evaluation is scheduled to be
completed by HPA in 2001 for the coke oven industry
Air to the
Since 1990, EPA has issued three reports to Congress on
the deposition of air toxics and their detrimental effects
on the Great Waters (i.e., the Great Lakes, Chesapeake
Bay, Lake Champlain, and coastal waters). In these
reports, LPA lists 15 pollutants of greatest concern,
most of which have a tendency to persist in the envi
ronment and accumulate in organisms such as fish.
The pollutants of concern are: metals (mercury, cadmi
uni, lead), dioxins, furans, polycyclic organic matter,
polychlorinatcd biphenyls (PCBs), pesticides (such as
chlordane and DDT/DDK), and nitrogen compounds.
Nitrogen compounds from the deposition of air toxics
can intensify nutrient enrichment (or eutrophication) of
coastal waterbodics. LPA's most recent report, issued in
2000, provides an update on atmospheric deposition of
pollutants to the Great Waters and identifies activi-
ties that will reduce these pollutants. Several of the
MACT standards described on pages 9 through 31 are
expected to substantially cut emissions of mercury,
dioxins, and other pollutants of concern to the Great
Waters from sources such as municipal waste com bus
tors and medical waste incinerators, which alone
account for almost 30 percent of the mercury emissions
and over 70 percent of the dioxin emissions nationwide
baselines).
which are estimated to emit approximately one third of
all rnanrnadc mercury in the United Stales. LPA is
currently gathering monitoring data on mercury emis
sions from coal-fired electric utility plants and expects
to complete its evaluation no later than December 2000
on the need to reduce mercury from electric utilities.
Air
A key component of future efforts to reduce air toxics
is the Integrated Urban Air Toxics Strategy released by
LPA in July 1999. The Strategy presents a framework to
address air toxics in urban areas and builds on the
substantial emission reductions already achieved from
cars, trucks, fuels, and industries such as chemical
plants and oil refineries. The Strategy outlines actions
to further reduce emissions of air toxics and to improve
HPA's understanding of the health risks posed by air
toxics in urban areas. The goals of the Strategy are to
reduce the risk of cancer by 75 percent and to
substantially reduce rion cancer risks associated with
air toxics from commercial and. industrial sources.
The Strategy also reflects the need to address any
disproportionate impacts on sensitive populations
including children, the elderly, and minority and
low income communities.
Mercury is one of the 188 listed toxic air pollutants. It is
of concern because it does not degrade but persists in
the environment. The largest emitter of mercury is
electric utility plants (primarily coal fired plants),
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the 10 45 o/r MACT 112 of tfie A*f /icf
ore on tte Is
5 In ffte
10 Dry Cleaners
10 Coke Oven Batteries at Stool Plants
11 Organic Chemical Production Plants (two rules)
11 Industrial Process Cooling 'lowers
12 I lalogenaled Solvent Cleaning Machines
1.2 Commercial Slerilizalion and Fumigation Operations
13 Gasoline Distribution Facilities
13 Magnetic Tape Manufacturing
14 Chromium Electroplating and Anodizing Operations
14 Basic Liquid Ppoxy Resins and Non-Nylon Polyamide Resins Manufacture
15 Secondary I,cad Smelter Industry
15 Petroleum Refining Industry
18 Aerospace Manufacturing and Rework Industry
18 Marine Tank Vessel Loading Operations
1? Wood Furniture Manufacturing
1? Shipbuilding and Ship Repair Industry
18 Printing and Publishing
18 Off Site Waste Operations
19 Elastomer Production
19 Polyethylene Terephthalate Polymer and Styrene Based Thermoplastic Polymers Production
20 Primary Aluminum Reduction Industry
21 Pulp and Paper Mills (two rules)
22 Pharmaceutical Production
22 Flexible Polyurethanc Foam Production
23 Ferroalloys Production: Fcrromanganese and Silicornangancsc
23 Polyether Polyols Production
24 Mineral Wool Production
24 Primary Lead Smellers
25 Phosphoric, Acid Manufacturing and Phosphate Fertilizer Production (two rules)
25 Wool Fiberglass Manufacturing
28 Portland Cement Manufacturing
2? Oil and Natural Gas Production and Natural Gas Transmission and Storage (two rules)
28 Steel
28 Pesticide Active Ingredient Production
29 Generic Rule (four rules: acctal resin production, acrylic and rnodacrylic fiber production,
hydrogen fluoride production, and polycarbonate production)
29 Publicly Owned Treatment Works
30 Amino Resins and Phenolic Resins Production
30 Secondary Aluminum Production
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22,
Dry cleaning facilities arc the largest source of
perchloroelhylerie (also called perc) emissions in
the United States. Because dry cleaners are located
in many communities across the country, perc
emissions from dry cleaners are often released in
close proximity to large numbers of people.
EPA's rule requires all dry cleaners that use perc
to implement pollution prevention measures. It
also contains specific control requirements that
vary depending on the type of machinery and the
amount of perc a facility uses.
27,
Coke oven batteries (a group of ovens connected
by common walls) are used to convert coal into
coke, which is then used In blast furnaces to convert
iron ore to iron.
Coke oven emissions contain benzene (a known
carcinogen) and other chemicals thai can cause
cancer of the respiratory trad, kidney, and.
prostate. Exposure to coke oven emissions can
also cause conjunctivitis, severe dermatitis, and
lesions of the respiratory and digestive systems.
EPA's rule provides guidelines for day to day
operations and sets emissions limits for existing
sources and even lighter limits for new sources,
The rule was developed through a formal regula
lory negotiation process that involved extensive
industry participation. It provides industry with ;
menu of compliance options this flexibility
should significantly reduce compliance costs.
The coke oven rule affects 29 existing facilities
and reduces air toxics by approximately
1,500 Ions per year.
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22, 12, for
EPA's April 22, 1994 rule reduces emissions of
131 organic air loxics from chemical rnanufaclur
ing processes in the Synthetic Organic Chemical
Manufacturing Industry and from several other
chemical production processes. The rule applies
to production of about 385 chemicals,
The rule requires red IK. j
lions in toxic organic air j
pollutants emitted from f - ~ f
process vents, storage j •
vessels, transfer racks, j '_-„-
equipment leaks, and \ ~~-"••'.
wastewater treatment JK" r- '.-:," -•'••.
sy si en is. ! =i ^-~~^i ' '. :Vd
Emissions averaging is ! H Ep?^". -.: .;'• -". 'Aif
allowed in the rule as j.;:::;;: ' - .:'";.:^" ^
a compliance option to j •' .••.' . ^•••'•£.*x§" .--
give industry flexibility jv A-.v^.. ""^-^Cx" ~~
in meeting the ernis ^^r--.^-':^^'^^.- -. '"-
sions reduction limits. ! '"-^^^j^^;^*-?:^.-.
The rule affects an estimated 310 facilities and
will reduce air loxics emissions by 510,000 tons
per year, a 90 percent reduction from the preregu
lated levels emitted by these facilities. The rule
will also reduce VOCs by about 1 million Ions
per year, an 80 percent reduction from the prereg
ulated levels emitted by these facilities, and
equivalent to taking approximately 38 million cars
off I he road.
The May 12, rule added tetrahydrobenzalde
hyde (TUBA) to the list of Synthetic Organic
Chemical Manufacturing Industry processes,
Tl IBA is used in the manufacture of pain!
additives.
Acrolein (a possible human carcinogen) and
1,3 butadiene (a probable human carcinogen) are
released during the TUBA production process.
Currently, only one facility in the nation manufac-
tures TUBA and would have to comply with
this rule.
8,
Industrial process cooling lowers are used to
remove heat from industrial processes. In the
past, chromium was added to cooling tower
waters to prevent equipment corrosion and
control algae growth.
Chromium (Chromium VI, the most toxic form,
is known to cause lung cancer) is ultimately
released from the cooling lowers into the air.
Most individual industrial process cooling towers
do not qualify as major sources of air loxics;
however, almost all cooling towers are part of
large production facilities (e.g., petroleum
The rule affects an estimated 800 cooling lowers
at about major sources nationwide and will
reduce chromium emissions by 25 ions per year,
a 100 percent reduction from the preregulated
levels emitted by these facilities.
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2,
I lalogcnatcd solvent cleaning machines (also
known as degreasers) are used to clean oil and
residues in the manufacturing and assembly of
metal parts. Halogenated solvent cleaning is not a
distinct industry, but it is an integral part of many
industries, such as the aerospace and motor vehicle
manufacturing industries. There are three basic,
types of solvent cleaning equipment:
Batch vapor cleaners, which heal the solvent
to create a solvent vapor zone within which
the parts are cleaned,
In-line cleaners, which are enclosed devices
distinguished by a conveyor system used to
supply a continuous stream of parts for clean
Ing. In line cleaners Include continuous web
cleaning machines, which can clean parts such
as film, coils, wire, and metal strips.
The rule applies to cleaning machines that
use rnelhylene chloride, perchloroelhylene,
trichlorocthylenc, 1,1,1 trichloroethanc, carbon
tetrachloride, chloroform, or any combination of
these solvents in a total concentration that is
greater than 5 percent by weight.
EPA's rule combines equipment and work practice
standards that emphasi/e pollution prevention.
As an alternative to complying with the equip
merit standards option, facilities using batch
vapor or in-line cleaning machines may demon-
strate that each solvent cleaning machine emits
less than an overall solvent emissions limit.
The rule affects an estimated 9,000 facilities
that use solvent cleaning machines and will
reduce air toxics emissions at these facilities by
85,300 Ions per year and VOC emissions by
81,700 tons per year.
6,
A number of industries (including medical
equipment suppliers; pharmaceutical companies;
cosmetics rnanufacturcrs; spice rnanufacturcrs;
libraries, museums, and archives; and contact
stcrili/crs) use ethylcne oxide as a sterilant for
heat or moisture sensitive materials or as a
fumigant to control microorganisms or insects.
hlhylene oxide (a probable human carcinogen
that also can cause adverse reproductive and
developmental effects) is released during these
opera lions.
KPA's rule sets ethylcne oxide emissions limits for
sterilization chamber vents, chamber exhaust
vents, and aeration rooms.
The rule affects an estimated 114 sources and
will reduce cthylenc oxide emissions by about
1,000 tons per year, a 94 percent reduction from
the preregulated levels emitted by these sources.
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14,
The gasoline distribution standard regulates bulk
terminals and pipeline breakout stations, which
transfer and store gasoline as it goes from petro
leurn refineries to service stations and gasoline
bulk plants,
Approximately 10 toxic air pollu-
tants, including benzene and
toluene, are present in gasoline
vapor. These pollutants are
released from gasoline distribu
lion facilities during lank truck
and rail car loading operations,
gasoline storage, and equipment
leaks,
EPA's rule requires the use of pol
lution prevention methods (such
as improving seals on storage
tanks and inspecting equipment
for leaks) and the use of controls
(such as vapor processors to col
The rule affects an estimated 240 gasoline bulk
terminals and 20 pipeline breakout stations. It
will reduce air toxics emissions from these facili
;K::: by 2,300 ions per year and VOC
;.'i;ii\vions by over 38,000 Ions per
\'f-.:~r. In addition, the collection
a;;.]/or prevention of gasoline evap
nr:'-:: inn under the final rule is expect
od (o result in energy savings of an
f-.Uimated 10 million gallons of gaso
hr;e r;er year.
15,
Toxic air pollutants are released when solvent
mixtures are used during coating and equipment
cleaning operations. In addition, paniculate air
toxics may be released when magnetic particles
are transferred to the coaling mixture.
EPA has developed alternative emissions slan
dards, such as one that allows facilities the flexi
bility to commit to more stringent control of their
coating operations in lieu of controlling certain
The rule affects an estimated 14 of the 25 facilities
that manufacture magnetic lape. It will reduce
emissions of air toxics, most of which are VOCs,
by 2,300 tons per year,
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25,
Chromium electroplating and anodizing operations
coal metal parts arid tools wilh a thin layer of
chromium to protect them from corrosion and wear,
Examples of electroplated parts include appliances,
automotive parts, and large cylinders used in
construction equipment and printing presses,
Ariodi/ed parts include miscellaneous aircraft
components such as wings and landing gears.
PPA's rule sets specific emissions limits for new and
existing chromium electroplating and anodizing
operations that fall into specific size categories.
The rule requires facilities to meet emissions limits
through the use of pollution prevention practices
and controls.
The rule affects an estimated 1,500 hard chromium
electroplating facilities, 2,800 decorative chromi
um electroplating facilities, and TOO chromium ano
dizing facilities. It will reduce chromium crnis
sions by 173 tons per year, a 99 percent reduction
from the preregulated levels emitted by these
facilities.
rule 3,
Basic liquid epoxy resins are used in the produc
lion of glues, adhesives, plastic parts, and surface
coatings. Non nylon polyamidc or wet strength
resins are used to improve the strength of paper.
Kpichlorohydrin (strongly suspected of causing
cancer and known to cause respiratory problems)
is released during the resin manufacturing process.
of compliance options. The rule also requires
facilities to implement leak detection and repair
programs.
The rule affects all three basic liquid epoxy resins
manufacturing facilities and all nine non nylon
polyamidc manufacturing facilities. It will reduce
epichlorohydrin emissions by 110 tons per year.
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23,
Secondary lead smellers produce lead from scrap
and provide ihe primary means for recycling lead
acid automotive batteries. The basic operations
performed at these facilities include battery
breaking, smelling, refining and alloying.
Secondary lead smeller facilities emit a number of
toxic air pollutants, including 1,3 butadiene (a
known human carcinogen) and lead compounds.
HPA's rule requires facilities to reduce emissions
from a number of sources, including smelling
furnaces, kettles, dryers, and fugitive sources
such as material handling.
a 72 percent reduction from the preregulated levels
emitted by these facilities. In addition, the rule is
expected to reduce emissions of paniculate mailer
(which can cause serious respiratory problems)
from these facilities by 150 ions per year, and
carbon monoxide (which can cause adverse health
effects, including fatigue, nausea, and respiratory
problems) by 88,000 Ions per year.
IS,
Toxic air pollutants, including benzene (a known
human carcinogen) and toluene (known to affect
the central nervous system and cause develop-
mental problems), are released from storage
tanks, equipment leaks, process vents, and wasle
water collection and treatment systems at these
facilities.
KPA's rule requires facilities to control emissions
from these sources. The rule allows emissions
averaging within the petroleum refining facility,
and provides additional flexibility by permitting
the use of emissions averaging among emission
points at petroleum refineries, marine terminal
loading operations, and gasoline distribution
facilities located at the same site.
The rule affects all petroleum refineries in the
United States and will reduce emissions of 11 air
loxics by -OI;N pi voai, H pruom i;.-d-;;.;io5
from the pre reRuialed isveis em hied b\- -hss.e
facilities. In add;-- p=g5=ss5555^^
tion, the rule is j
expected to j
reduce VOC |
emissions by o\pr !
277,000 ions per \
year, a 80 percent j Tplj
reduction from '^==£-^.r-.,-.-
preregulated level;, pl~> •>'/ .:-;;..'• '--•_ - --- •''
emitted by ihesp j. r^_ „. .,__-- - •:.-^%7=i_Tj'
facilities. I _i__-
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I,
Aerospace manufacturing and rework facilities
produce and /or repair aerospace vehicles and
vehicle parts, such as airplanes, helicopters,
space vehicles, and missiles.
Toxic air pollutants such as methylene chloride
(a probable human carcinogen) and chromium
(Chromium VI, the most toxic form, is known to
cause lung cancer) are released from these facili
lies during paint stripping, cleaning, priming,
top coat application, and chemical milling
PPA's rule requires facilities to eliminate most
emissions of toxic air pollutants (particularly
methylene chloride) from paint stripping operations
and to implement controls that will reduce ernis
sions of air toxics resulting from other operations.
In addition, many reductions will be achieved
through housekeeping actions. The final rule
provides a variety of options for meeting these
requirements.
The rule provides industry the flexibility to meet
the required reductions in the most cost effective
way, which should yield cost savings for industry
sources. For example, the rule contains a market
based emissions averaging provision, which
allows facilities to ovcrcontrol some emission
points while underconlrolling others.
The rule affects an estimated 2,800 aerospace
manufacturing facili lies and will reduce emissions
of air toxics and VOCs by 123,000 tons per year, a
60 percent reduction from the prercgulated levels
emitted by these facilities.
19,
These vessels release toxic air pollutants (including
benzene, toluene, hexane, xylene, and ethyl ben-
zene) into the air during loading and unloading
operations.
barrels per year of crude oil, or 10 million barrels
per year of gasoline) to reduce emissions of VOCs
by at least 95 percent. Il also requires all other
major sources to reduce air toxic emissions by
97 percent.
The rule affects an estimated 30 marine tank vessel
loading facilities. Il will reduce VOC emissions
from these facilities by approximately 43,000 Ions
per year, of which 4,500 ions are air toxics.
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7,
Toxic air pollutants, including lolucno, xylcno,
mothanol, and forrnaldohydo, arc released from
these facilities during finishing, gluing, and
cleaning operations. These air loxics can cause
eye, nose, throat, and skin irrilalion; damage to
the heart, liver, and kidneys; and reproductive
effects,
KPA's rule limits the amount of hazardous air
pollutants that can be contained in the coalings
used for finishing, gluing, and cleaning operations
(substitutes are available that contain lower quan
lilies of hazardous air pollutants). In addition,
the rule contains work practice standards such as
keeping containers closed, training workers, and
periodically inspecting equipment to locale and
repair leaks.
15,
KPA's rule, which is based on pollution prevention
measures, requires that containers of paint and
cleanser's be kepi closed, and that facilities use
low VOC coalings for painting and coaling opera
lions and handle solvent and paint wastes in a
manner that minimizes spills and evaporation.
The rule does not apply to major source facilities
that use less than 1,000 liters (approximately
284 gallons) of marine coalings per year, or to
boatyards that only build or repair recreational
vessels (marine or freshwater) less than 20 meters
(about. 88 feel) long.
The rule affects an estimated 35 shipbuilding and
repair facilities and will reduce emissions of air
loxics from these facilities by 350 ions per year, a
24 percent reduction from the prcregulatcd levels
emitted by these facilities.
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Publication rotogravure printers, which
produce paper products such as catalogues,
magazines, newspaper inserts, and telephone
directories.
Package product rotogravure and wide web
flexographic facilities that print on paper,
plastic film, metal foil, and vinyl for use in
products such as flexible packaging, labels,
and gift wrap.
For publication rotogravure facilities, EPA's rule
limits air toxics emissions to 8 percent of the total
amount used (for example, facilities that use only
hazardous air pollutant based solvents would be
required to recover 92 percent of the air toxics).
For package product rotogravure and wide web
flexographic facilities, the rule requires 95 percent
overall control of all organic hazardous air pollutant
emissions from their presses.
EPA's rule incorporates flexible compliance
options into its emissions control requirements.
Facilities may use pollution prevention methods
(which allow printers to eliminate the use of toxic
chemicals or to substitute nontoxic chemicals for
toxic ones), traditional emissions capture and
control equipment, or a combination of the two.
The rule affects an estimated 27 publication
rotogravure facilities and 100 package product
rotogravure and wide web flexographic facilities.
It. will reduce air toxics emissions from publication
rotogravure printers by about 5,500 tons per year,
and those from package product rotogravure and
wide web flexographic printers by about 2,1.00
tons per year.
I,
Off site waste facilities include hazardous waste
treatment., storage, and disposal facilities; industrial
wastcwater treatment facilities; solvent recycling
facilities; and used oil recovery facilities that
manage hazardous air pollutant containing male
rials generated at other facilities.
A number of toxic air pollutants (including
chloroform, toluene, formaldehyde, and xylene)
are released from tanks, process vents, equipment
leaks, containers, surface impoundments, and
transfer systems at these facilities.
KPA's rule combines equipment, operations, and
work practice standards. For example, the rule
requires that containers be covered and that
process vents meet 95 percent organic emission
controls.
The rule affects an estimated 250 off site waste
operation facilities. It will reduce air toxics
emissions by 43,000 tons per year and YOC
emissions by 52,000 tons per year.
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5,
Elastomers are used in the production of many
synthetic rubber products, including tires, hoses,
footwear, adhcsives, wire insulation, floor tiles,
and latexes.
A number of toxic air pollutants (such as styrene,
hexane, and toluene) are released during the initial
slages of the elastomer manufacturing process,
EPA's rule encourages the use of pollution pre
verition techniques to reduce the amount of air
toxics released during elastomer production. The
rule sets emissions limits for several specific
emission points storage tanks, process vents,
equipment leaks, and wastewatcr systems. It also
contains a market based emissions averaging pro
vision that allows facilities to overcontrol some
The rule affects 38 facilities nationwide and will
reduce air toxics emissions by approximately
8,400 tons annually, a 50 percent reduction from
current levels.
12,
Polyethylene lerephlhalale polymers and styrene
based thermoplastics are used in the manufacture
of such products as polyester fibers, soft drink
bottles, plastic automotive parts, packing materials,
and plastic toys.
To reduce the amount of air toxics released from
polymer production facilities, KPA's rule sets
emissions limits for several emissions points:
storage vessels, process vents, equipment leaks,
and wastewater operations. The rule also limits
releases from process contact cooling lowers at
some existing and new facilities.
EPA developed the rule in partnership with
industry representatives and other major slake
holders. The Agency estimates that new facilities
will experience annual cost savings of about
$5 million under the rule, due to pollution pre
vent ion measures.
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7,
Primary aluminum reduction plants produce
molten aluminum metal (virgin aluminum) from
alumina ore. Typically, primary aluminum plants
are components of larger facilities that prepare a
variety of finished products. These larger facilities
also typically include secondary aluminum plant
operations, which use aluminum metal to make
products such as cans, aircraft and automotive
products, and construction materials. Standards
for secondary aluminum production are covered
under a separate rule, summarized on page 30.
Air toxics released during the production of
molten aluminum metal include hydrogen fluoride
(which can cause serious respiratory damage)
and polycyclic organic, mailer (which is strongly
suspected of causing cancer and other serious
health effects).
Developed in partnership with state regulators,
industry stakeholders, and tribal governments,
EFA's final rule contains an emissions averaging
provision that allows facilities to overcontrol
some emissions points while undcrcontrolling
others, thus achieving the required reductions in
the most cost-effective manner possible. As a further
cost saving incentive, facilities that consistently
perform below the levels set in the standard will
be allowed to reduce the frequency of sampling
or emissions testing.
To achieve the required reductions, the final rule
relies on a combination of pollution prevention
measures, including work practices, equipment
modifications, operating practices, housekeeping
measures, and in process recycling.
The rule affects 24 facilities nationwide. It will
reduce fluoride emissions by about 3,700 tons per
year, polycyclic organic matter emissions by
about 2,000 tons per year, and particulate matter
emissions by 18,000 tons per year. These emission
levels represent a reduction of approximately
50 percent from preregulated levels.
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15,
Wood arid non wood fiber sources such as cotton,
linen, and straw arc lurried into pulp cither
though cooking via chemicals (known as diges
lion), mechanical grinding, or a combination of
both. Following digestion or grinding, the resulting
fibrous mass is washed, screened, and (depending
on the final product) sometimes bleached,
A number of toxic air pollutants (including
chloroform, chlorine, formaldehyde, methanol,
acctaldchydc, methyl ethyl kctonc, and metals)
are released during cooking, washing, bleaching,
and chemical recovery processes at these facilities.
KPA's air toxics rules are part of an integrated,
multimedia regulation designed to control pollutant
releases to the water and air. The integrated rules
allow the pulp and paper industry to consider all
regulatory requirements at one time in order to
select the most effective pollution prevention arid
control technologies,
EPA has issued, two final air toxics standards for
the pulp and paper industry that cover emissions
from pulping and bleaching processes at mills
that chemically pulp wood, and certain bleaching
processes at non wood, mechanical, and
secondary fiber mills. These standards do not
require controls on paper machines at any mills
and on pulping operations at non-wood,
mechanical, and secondary fiber mills.
The final rules will affect approximately 155
mills and will reduce air toxics emissions by
155,000 tons per year, a 80 percent reduction
from current levels. The rules will also reduce
VOC emissions by 450,000 tons per year and
total sulfur emissions by 88,000 tons per year.
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27,
Pharmaceutical production includes operations
such as chemical synthesis, formulation, arid
natural extraction, used to produce drugs and
medications.
The production of pharmaceuticals results in the
release of a number of air toxics, including mcth-
ylenc chloride, methanol, toluene, and hydrogen
chloride.
This rule, developed in partnership with repre
scntativcs from industry and stales, provides a
variety of compliance options. Facility operators
may choose to meet cither emission limits or con-
trol efficiency requirements for storage tanks and
process vents. Operators may elect to comply
with the pollution prevention alternative in lieu
of the standards for process vents, storage tanks,
Approximately 100 pharmaceutical production
facilities nationwide will be affected by this rule.
When fully implemented, the rule will reduce
air toxics emissions by 24,000 Ions annually,
a 85 percent reduction from current levels.
rule 7,
This rulemaking affects only flexible polyurethane
foam that is manufactured at slabslock, molded,
and rcbond polyurethane production facilities.
These segments of the industry manufacture
cushions, bedding materials, and other speciality
products.
The production of flexible polyurethane foam
results in the release of air toxics, primarily
mcthylenc chloride, which is a probable human
carcinogen that can adversely affect the central
nervous system.
This rule is based on pollution prevention tech-
niques and flexible requirements. A variety of coin
pliance options are available to facility operators. As
a result of the rule, the use of methylcne chloride at
molded foam production facilities will be
eliminated.
Approximately 78 slabslock, 98 molded, and
21 reborid foam facilities nationwide will be
affected by this rule. When fully Implemented,
the rule will reduce air toxics emissions by
11,500 Ions annually at slabslock foam facilities
(a 88 percent reduction from current levels), and
by 2,300 tons annually at molded foam facilities
(a 98 percent reduction from current levels). All
rebond foam facilities are believed to be in com
pliar;'..c with ;his ruKr. th-vr-vfoi'c, r;o Juriher
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rule 20,
A ferroalloy is a mixture of iron and one or more
olhcr elements, such as chromium, manganese,
or silicon. Ferroalloys are primarily used in the
manufacturing of steel and casl iron products
with enhanced or special properties,
The production of ferroalloys results in the
release of a number of metallic air toxics,
including manganese. The variety and quantity of
pollutants emitted are related to the amount of
metals present in the raw materials. Manganese
can adversely affect human health. For example,
chronic exposure to high levels of manganese
primarily affects the central nervous system.
This final rule sets limits for particulate emissions
from one ferromanganese and silicornanganese
production plant. Particulate mailer is used as a
surrogate for the air toxic manganese emitted
from this facility, Particulate control devices are
known to remove metallic pollutants with
essentially the same efficiency as they remove
particulates.
The facility already has control equipment in place
to comply with EPA's rule. This equipment
reduces air toxics emissions by 99 percent from
uncontrolled levels. The rule is not expected to
bring about additional reductions, but will ensure
continued use and good operation of existing
control equipment.
I,
Polycther polyols are used as an ingredient in
lubricants, adhesives, cosmetics, soaps, and
polymers for urethane production.
A number of air toxics are released during the
production of polyether polyols. These include
ethylene oxide, propylene oxide, toluene, and
hexane, all of which can cause cancer or other
adverse health effects.
EPA's rule establishes emission limits and control
efficiency requirements for storage tanks, process
vents, equipment leaks, and wastewaler
treatment systems. For several of the emission
units, industry can choose from a number of
c o m p 1 i a n c e a p p r o a c h e s.
Of the 80 facilities affected by this rule, roughly
half have already installed emission control
devices. When fully implemented, the rule will
reduce air toxic emissions by approximately
2,000 Ions annually, a reduction of 50 percent
from current levels.
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I,
Mineral wool is made by melting natural rock,
blast furnace slag, and other materials in a furnace
known as a cupola, and then forming the molten
material into a fiber. Depending on the final
product, an oil or a phenol/fornialdehyde-based
binder is applied. Fiber to which oil lias been
applied is then sized and bagged or baled. Fiber
to which a phenol/formaldehyde based binder
has been applied is thermoset in a curing oven
and cooled.
Mineral wool is used as an industrial and structural
insulator. It is also added to other products to
provide structural strength, sound absorbency, or
fire protection,
Production of mineral wool can lead to releases of a
variety of air toxics, including arsenic (a known
human carcinogen) and beryllium, cadmium, lead,
and formaldehyde (probable human carcinogens),
EPA's rule requires facilities to reduce air toxics
emissions from existing and new cupolas, using
paniculate mailer as a surrogate for the metallic
toxics (e.g., arsenic, beryllium, cadmium, lead),
Additionally, facilities must reduce emissions of
carbonyl sulfide from new cupolas, using carbon
monoxide as a surrogate for carbonyl sulfide. The
rule also requires reduction of phenol and
formaldehyde emissions from curing ovens.
The rule allows flexibility by offering a choice of
compliance options (emission limits or percent
reduction standards). The rule's use of surrogate
pollutants will also help reduce monitoring and
emission testing costs.
The rule will affect 15 mineral wool production
facilities nationwide. When fully implemented, it
will reduce air toxics and paniculate mailer emis-
sions from cupolas, and formaldehyde and phe
nol emissions from curing ovens, by 280 Ions
annually, a reduction of 78 percent.
4,
EPA's rule will control emissions by setting plant
wide lead emission limits. These limits are based
on pre-existing limits established by the stales in
which affected facilities are located. The rule gives
owners and operators the flexibility to determine
how and to what extent each source is controlled
to achieve the required emission limits. The rule
Three manufacturing facilities will be affected by
this rule. The emissions limits are based on pre
existing slate emissions limits. As such, no direct
emissions reduction can be estimated based solely
on the emissions limits. KPA expects that as a
result of following the fugitive dust work practice
and monitoring requirements, facilities will
achieve air toxics emission reductions by irnprov
ing equipment performance and reducing the
potential for fugitive dusl emissions.
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10,
Phosphoric acid is used in the production of
phosphate based fertilizers, which are used for
farming and other agricultural purposes.
A variety of air toxics can be released to the
atmosphere during the production of phosphoric
acid and phosphate fertilizers.
PPA's rules require facilities to reduce emissions
of air toxics from the following emissions points:
wet process phosphoric acid plants, superphos
phoric acid plants, purified phosphoric acid.
plants, phosphate rock dryers, phosphate rock
calclners, mono- and di-arnmoniurn phosphate
fertilizer plants, and granular triple superphosphate
fertilizer plants and storage buildings. The rules
are structured to limit emissions across process
lines that include several different emissions
points. The rules establish a single limit for each
process line, allowing facilities the flexibility to
The rules affect an estimated 21 facilities. The
rules will reduce emissions of toxic air pollutants
(primarily hydrogen fluoride) by approximately
345 tons per year, a 57 percent reduction from
current levels. They will also reduce emissions of
total fluorides by 1,035 Ions per year, and will yield
small reductions in emissions of heavy metals.
Total fluorides are known to damage vegetation
and have other adverse effects on the environment.
Wool fiberglass is a constituent of a variety of
insulation products, including building and pipe
insulation. It is produced from sand, feldspar,
sodium sulfate, anhydrous borax, boric acid, and
other materials.
A variety of air toxics are released, to the atmos
phere during the production of wool fiberglass.
These include arsenic (a known human carcino-
gen), and lead and formaldehyde (probable
human carcinogens).
EPA's rule applies to the following types of facilities:
glass manufacturing furnaces, rotary spin rnanu
facturing lines producing building insulation,
flame attenuation (FA) manufacturing lines
producing pipe products, and FA manufacturing
lines producing heavy density insulation
The rule provides owners and operators flexibility
in meeting the emission limits by encouraging
process modifications and pollution prevention
techniques, instead of more cosily add. on controls.
Of the 27 facilities currently manufacturing wool
fiberglass nationwide, 21 will be affected by this
rule. The rule will reduce emissions of formalde-
hyde by 580 tons annually, a reduction of 30 percent.
The rule will also reduce paniculate matter
emissions by 840 Ions per year and emissions
of toxic metals (including arsenic, chromium,
and lead) by 20 pounds per year a reduction of
30 percent from current levels.
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14,
Portland cement is manufactured by grinding
and healing a mixture of raw materials (e.g.,
limestone, clay, iron ore) in a rotary kiln. The kiln
is fired by a variety of fuels, including coal, oil,
gas, coke, and /or various waste materials. After
firing, the product (called clinker) is cooled and
then mixed with gypsum to produce portland
cement.
A number of harmful air pollutants, including air
toxics, particulate matter, and hydrocarbons, are
released during portland cement manufacturing.
Most of these result from fuel combustion in the
kiln and from healing and handling of raw
materials. The heal 111 impacts of these pollutants
include an increased risk of respiratory and
cardiovascular diseases and cancer.
This rule sets emission limits for kilns, clinker
coolers, and materials handling facilities, and
includes new emission measurement methods.
In complying with this rule, facility owners and
operators have the flexibility to determine how
emission limits will be met.
Approximately 110 portland cement rnanufactur
ing facilities nationwide will be regulated under
this rule. The rule will reduce air toxics emissions
by approximately 90 tons per year (a 31 percent
reduction), particulate matter emissions by
4,200 tons annually (a 17 percent reduction),
and hydrocarbons emissions by 220 tons annually
(a 38 percent reduction).
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17,
Emissions of air toxics from oil and natural gas
production and natural gas transmission and
storage occur during separation, upgrade, trans
port, and storage of crude oil, conciensate, natu
ral gas, and related products. Emissions also
occur as a result of vapor leaks from pumps, com-
pressors, valves, flanges, and other equipment,
The affected facilities can release a variety of air
toxics, including benzene (a known human car
cinogen) and oilier volatile organic compounds
(VOCs) suspected to cause cancer or other serious
health effects such as birth defects or reproduc-
tive effects, VOCs also contribute to the formation
of ground-level ozone, the primary constituent of
smog. In addition, the affected facilities can
release methane, a potent greenhouse gas.
HPA's rules require controls for the following
emission points at oil and natural gas production
facilities: process vents at some glycol
dehydration units, tanks with flashing emission
potential, and some fugitive emission sources.
Natural gas transmission and slorage facilities
will be required to control emissions from process
vents at some glycol dehydration units.
In an effort to increase flexibility, HI'A is encourag
ing facility owners and operators to use pollution
prevention techniques to reduce emissions from
process vents at glycol dehydration systems the
The oil and natural gas production rule will
affect approximately 440 facilities nationwide. It
will reduce air toxics emissions by an estimated
31,000 tons annually (a 43 percent reduction),
VOC emissions by 87,000 tons annually
(a 45 percent reduction), and methane emissions
by 7,700 tons annually (a 33 percent reduction).
The natural gas transmission and slorage rule
will affect approximately seven facilities nation
wide. It will reduce air toxics emissions by an
estimated 430 ions annually (an 18 percent.
reduction), VOC emissions by 810 tons annually
(a 19 percent reduction), and methane emissions
by 250 ions annually (a 19 percent reduction).
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22,
Hydrochloric acid and chlorine can be released to
the atmosphere during the steel pickling process,
Hydrochloric acid is emiUed from processing
tanks used in continuous and batch pickling lines,
from acid regeneration plants, and from storage
tanks containing virgin or regenerated acid,
Chlorine is endued from acid regeneration plants,
Chronic exposure lo hydrochloric acid can cause
inflammation of the stomach, respiratory system,
and skin, as well as sensitivity lo sunlight. Acute
exposure to high levels of chlorine can result in
vomiting, chest pain, lung problems, and even
death. At lower levels, chlorine is a potent Irritant
to the eyes, the upper respiratory tract, and the
luns.
limits for chlorine emissions from acid regeneration
plants. The rule offers flexibility to facility
operators by providing cost effective options for
both emissions control and monitoring.
This rule will affect approximately 82 steel
pickling plants and 8 acid regeneration plants.
When fully implemented, the rule will reduce
hydrochloric acid emissions by approximately
2,500 tons per year (a 78 percent reduction from
current levels) and chlorine emissions by 8.2 tons
per year (a 30 percent reduction from current
levels). The controls required by this rule will
also reduce particulatc matter emissions.
25,
Pesticide active ingredients (PAls) are used in the
manufacture of insecticide, herbicide, and
fungicide products. These products are typically
used in the agricultural industry for treating
insects, rodents, weeds, and other pests.
heat exchange systems, and certain types of equip
merit. The rule allows facilities the flexibility to
meet emissions limits for process vents by using
either an add on control device or a pollution
prcvcntioi i alien la tl ve.
Currently, there arc approximately 78 PAI
production facilities that will be affected by this
rule. When fully Implemented, the rule will
reduce emissions of air toxics by approximately
2,755 tons per year, a 85 percent reduction from
current levels.
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These rules set technology based emission limits
for several categories that have five or fewer facili
ties nationwide.
The facilities regulated by these rules rnanufac
lure a variety of components, including thermo-
plastics used in industrial applications and
commercial articles; synthetic libers used in the
textile, sporting goods, and aviation industries;
polycarbonates used in electrical components and
automotive parts; and fluoride compounds.
A variety of air toxics are sometimes released to
the atmosphere during the manufacture of these
products. These air toxics include formaldehyde,
methanol, and the volatile organic compounds
mcthylenc chloride, ethyl chloride, and phosgene.
EPA's rules will control emissions for all of the
categories at similar phases of the manufacturing
process. These phases include storage tanks,
process vents, equipment leaks, and wastewatcr.
26,
Publicly owned treatment works (POTW) treat
waslewaler received from residential, commercial,
and industrial sources. POTW can release air
toxics in the form of volatile organic, compounds
in wastewatcr.
The primary air toxics end I led by POTW include
xylenes, methylene chloride, toluene, ethyl ben
/ene, chloroform, tetrachloroethylene, ben/erie,
and naphthalene. Each of these air toxics can
cause adverse health effects provided sufficient
exposure. For example, exposure to methylene
chloride (a probable human carcinogen) can
adversely affect the central nervous system, while
benzene is known to cause cancer in humans.
EEA's rule will reduce air toxics emissions from
new or reconstructed POTW that are major
sources of air emissions. EPA is not requiring
additional controls on existing POTW.
Some POTW treat wastewatcr from industrial
sources whose waste streams are already regulat
eel by industrial air toxics rules. By treating their
regulated waste streams at a POTW, these Indus
trial sources are able to comply with these other
air toxics rules. Under the new POTW rule, plants
that treat regulated waste streams from industrial
sources are classified as Industrial POTW. All
other treatment plants are classified as non
POTW.
Under EPA's rule, new or reconstructed non-
industrial POTW will need to cither include air
pollution controls on certain waslewaler treat
rnent units or demonstrate through pollution
prevention techniques an equivalent reduction
in emissions. New or reconstructed industrial
POTW must comply with the non industrial
standards, or with all other air toxics regulations
applicable to the industrial sources whose waste
water they are treating, whichever is more stringent.
KPA estimates that 20 to 30 non industrial POTW
would need to control air toxics emissions if they
elected to reconstruct their existing facilities or
build a new facility. EPA estimates that fewer
than five PO'l'W currently meet the definition of
industrial PO'l'W. The rule is not expected to
require additional reductions from these sources.
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20,
Amino/phenolic resins are primarily used in ihe
manufacture of plywood, panicle board, adhe
sives, wood furniture, and plastic pans.
A number of toxic air pollutants, including
formaldehyde (a probable human carcinogen),
phenol, mcthanol, xylcne, and toluene, are
released during the resin manufacturing process.
KPA's rule establishes emission limits or control
efficiency requirements for several emission
points: reactor batch process vents, non reactor
batch process vents, continuous process vents,
storage tanks, equipment leaks, and heal exchange
systems. The rule encourages the use of pollution
prevention measures and provides flexibility by
allowing the use of a variety of control strategies
rather than specific control devices.
The rule affects new and existing amino/phenolic
resin manufacturing facilities. EPA has identified
100 existing facilities that may be affected. The
rule will reduce air toxics emissions by approxi
nialely 380 Ions per year, a 51 percent reduction
from 1992 levels.
rule 23,
Secondary aluminum plants recover aluminum
from beverage cans, foundry returns, and other
aluminum scrap. These facilities release air toxics
during both preprocessing operations (such as
aluminum scrap shredding, drying, and decoal
ing) and furnace operations (such as aluminum
melting, refining, and alloying).
Secondary aluminum plants emit a variety of
toxic air pollutants. These air toxics may include
up to 11 melals, organic compounds, and acid
gases such as hydrogen chloride and chlorine.
The health effects associated with exposure to
these air toxics can include cancer, respiratory
irritation, and damage to the nervous system.
EPA's rule establishes emission standards for
melals, dioxin/furans, organic hazardous air
pollutants, and acid gases for larger secondary
aluminum plants. The rule also establishes
standards for dioxin/furan emissions from
smaller secondary aluminum plants.
Affected sources can achieve the emission
reductions required by the rule through the use
of pollution control equipment and/or through
a variety of pollution prevention measures,
including work practices and operating practices.
The rule provides flexibility to the industry by
offering alternative compliance and monitoring
options. To reduce monitoring and emissions
testing costs, the rule uses particulate matter as
a surrogate for metals, total hydrocarbons as a
surrogate for organics, and hydrogen chloride
as a surrogate for total emissions of hydrogen
chloride, chlorine, and hydrogen fluoride.
The rule will affect 80 large secondary aluminum
plants. Hundreds of smaller plants may be sub
jcct to limitations on emissions of dioxin/furans.
The rule will reduce nationwide emissions of air
toxics by about 12,420 tons per year, a reduction
of nearly 70 percent from current levels. In panic
ular, hydrogen chloride emissions will be reduced
by about 12,370 tons per year or by 73 percent,
and emissions of metals will be reduced by about
40 tons per year, a reduction of over 60 percent
from current levels.
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19, 25,
Municipal waste combustors include incinerators
that burn wasle and wasle to energy plants thai
generate energy from garbage. EPA's final rule
applies to all municipal waste corn bus I ion units
wilh the capacity to burn more than 250 tons of
garbage per day (known as large municipal waste
combustion units; FPAhas initiated development of
rules for small municipal waste combustion units).
Municipal wasle combustors release a number of
pollutants, including cadmium, lead, mercury,
dioxin, sulfur dioxide, hydrogen chloride, nitrogen
dioxide, and particulatc matter, Dioxin and mercury
are of particular concern because they are toxic,
persist in the environment, and. bioaccumulatc.
The rule affects an estimated 164 municipal waste
combustion units and will significantly reduce air
toxics emissions (dioxins, lead, cadmium, and
mercury). The rule will reduce dioxin emissions
by 99 percent and mercury emissions by 90 percent,
compared, with 1990 emissions levels from these
sources. Overall emissions of other air pollutants
(including sulfur dioxide, particulatc matter,
nitrogen oxides, and hydrogen chloride) will be
reduced by more than 90,000 Ions per year.
15, 1997
Hospital, medical, and infectious waste is solid
waste produced in the diagnosis, treatment, or
imrnurii/ation of humans or animals; it includes
needles, gauzes, boxes, and packaging materials.
fewer than half of all hospitals and a small number
of nursing homes, pharmaceutical research labo-
ratories, and veterinary clinics use incinerators to
dispose of their wasle.
limits for nine pollutants (including dioxin, lead,
cadmium, and mercury). It requires training of
incinerator operators and establishes requirements
for appropriate siting of new incinerators.
The rule affects an estimated 2,400 existing incin
erators and will reduce air toxics emissions (dioxins,
lead, cadmium, and mercury) by more than
25 tons per year. Dioxins will be reduced by over
90 percent, from the current, levels emitted by
these incinerators. The rule will also reduce other
air pollutant emissions (paniculate mailer, carbon
monoxide, and hydrogen chloride) by over
7,000 tons per year.
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