oEPA
United States Office of Air Quality
Environmental Protection Planning and Standards
Agency Durham, North Carolina
27711
EPA-453/B-94/030
April 1994
The EPA Great Waters
Program:
An Introduction to the Issues and
the Ecosystems
-------
-------
ntroducti'on
w ver the past 30 years, scientists have collected a large and convinc-
ing body of evidence demonstrating that toxic pollutants released to
the air can be deposited at locations far from their original sources.
Chemicals of human origin such as polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs)
and pesticides like DDT have been found thousands of miles from
likely emission sources in the. fatty tissues of polar bears and other
Arctic animals. Fish from Siskiwit Lake, a small lake on an island in
northern Lake Superior that is isolated from most human influences,
are contaminated with PCBs and the pesticide toxaphene, which have
no known sources on the island.
On November 15, 1990, in response to mounting evidence that air
pollution contributes to water pollution, Congress amended the Clean
Air Act and included provisions that established research and report-
ing requirements related to the deposition of hazardous air pollutants
to the "Great .Waters." The waterbbdies designated by these provi-
sions are the Great Lakes, Lake Champlain, and Chesapeake Bay and
certain other coastal waters (identified by their designation as sites in
the National Estuarine Research Reserve System or the National Estu-
ary Program). • ..
This atlas is written to provide basic information about the Great
Waters, their water quality.-problems, and the issue of atmospheric dep-
osition to aquatic ecosystems in general. For more detail, the Great
Waters biennial Reports to Congress discuss current scientific under-
standing of atmospheric deposition and the health and environmental
effects of toxic pollution, as well as EPA's programs to protect human
health and the environment.
-------
I
he Great Waters Program
ITs part of the Great Waters Program, Con.
gress requires EPA, in cooperation with th«
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Admin-
istration, to
m monitor hazardous pollutants by estab-
lishing sampling networks
m investigate the deposition of these pollut-
ants
m improve monitoring methods
• monitor for these hazardous pollutants
in fish and wildlife
a determine the contribution of air 'pol-
lution to total pollution in the Great
Waters
m evaluate any adverse effects to public
health and the environment
• determine sources of pollution
• provide a report to Congress in 1993
and every 2 years thereafter.
Chesapeake Bay
Lake Superior
Lake
Lake Huron Champl
Lake
La "~ "™"
Mic
Great Waters designated by Clean
Air Act
EPA National Estuary Program Sites
NOAA NEEHS Sites'"
EPA and NOAA NERRS Sites
"NOAA - National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration'
NERHS • National Estuarine Research Reserve System
VI
-------
Pollutants are released into the air from man-made or natural
sources. Man-made sources include industrial stacks, munici-
pal incinerators, pesticide applications, and vehicle exhaust.
Natural sources can be volcanic eruptions, windblown gases
and particles from forest fires, windblown dust and soil parti-
cles, and sea spray. , . • :
Pollutants released to the air are carried by continental wind
patterns away from their areas of origin. Depending.on weathr-
er conditions and.the .chemical and physical properties of the,
pollutants, they can be carried varying distances from their
sources and can undergo physical, and chemical changes as
they travel. .. . ' • .' :. • .:
Air pollutants are deposited tb the earth or directly to water-
bodies by either wet .or "dry deposition. Wet deposition occurs;:
when pollutants are removed from the,air by falling rain orV
snow. Dry deposition occurs when particles settle out of the''
air by gravity or when gases are transferred directly from the'
air into water. Air pollutants that deposit on land can be car7
ried into a waterbody by stormwater runoff. :
S
u
1
"' Air Masses
Gases and
..- Ffatieulafe
W"-^ Matter
'--.'... Dry., .•>-,; r
'M '••' Pa^'9le A,"" Air/Water. Gas
"If DteFf^tioi] i- r. Exchange'
'! • .•:,t-i.'-f/,^~)'f..
-------
The Clean Air Act requires the estab-
lishment of monitoring networks to col-
lect data to help identify and track move-
ment of air pollutants into Great Waters
ecosystems and determine overall pollu-
tion loadings from the air.
EPA must report the findings of the
investigations in their biennial reports tc
Congress. These reports provide an infor-
mation base that can be used to
m establish whether air pollution is a sig-
nificant contributor to water quality prob-
lems of the Great Waters
B determine whether there are significanl
adverse effects to humans or the envi-
ronment
evaluate the effectiveness of existing
regulatory programs in addressing these
problems
m determine whether additional regula-
tory actions are needed to reduce atmos-
pheric deposition to the Great Waters.
4
-------
H
ihere is widespread evidence in the United States, Canada, and
Europe of high concentrations of mercury, a toxic metal, in fish
tissue that exceed local,, national, or international public health
guidelines. This contamination represents a serious human
health concern as well as a significant economic threat to both
the commercial and sportfishing industries.
Currently 27 states have consumption advisories for specific
waterbodies warning consumers about mercury-contaminated
fish and shellfish (see map). Many of these advisories, particular-
ly in Minnesota, Wisconsin, and Florida, have been issued for
relatively pristine waterbodies where atmospheric deposition is
thought to be the main source of the mercury contamination.
Mercury comes from natural and man-made sources. Natural
sources of atmospheric mercury include degassing, of the earth's
crust and forest fires. Major man-made sources of atmospheric
mercury include combustion of coal and other fossil fuels, incin-
eration of municipal refuse, and evaporation from surfaces paint-
ed with mercury-containing paints.
American Samoa
Guam
o
D1-5
H6-20
D21-50
H 50-500
O Puerto Rico
•& Virgin Islands
-------
I
he Great Lakes
The Great Lakes-
Superior, Michigan,
Huron, Erie, and
Ontario-are the largest
system of fresh surface
water on earth, by area.
They contain approxi-
mately 18 percent of the
world's fresh water
supply. Together the
lakes contain about
5,500 cubic miles of
water covering a total
area of 94,000 square
miles. These vast inland
freshwater seas (which
span more than 750
miles from east to west)
provide water for con-
sumption, transporta-
tion, power production,
recreation, and an array
of other uses. The Great
Lakes basin is currently
home to one-tenth of the
population of the United
States and one-quarter of
the population of
Canada.
1
Physical Features
Length (mi)
Width (mi)
Average depth (ft)
Maximum depth (ft)
Volume (mi3)
Surface area (mi2)
Land drainage area (mi2)
Shoreline (mi)
Retention time (yr)
Population
United States (1990)
Canada (1991)
Fish Advisories
PCBs
Dioxins
Chlordane
Mercury
Superior
350
160
483
1,330
2,900
31,700
49,300
2,726
173
425,528
181,493
@
%
•
s^p^'-v^ T. »
'gfew?^
Michigai
307
118
279
923
1,180
22,300
45,600
1,638
62
10,057,02
®
@
®
-------
'ork
Huron
Erie
"Ontario
206
183
195
750
850
23,000
51,700
3,827
21
1,502,687
191,017
241
57
62
210
116
9,910
30,140
871
2.7
10,017,530
1,857,961
193
53
283
802
393
7,340
24,720 .
712
7.5
2,704,284
5,446,611
Despite their large size, the Great Lakes
are sensitive to the effects of a broad range
of environmental pollutants from agricul-
tural and urban runoff, industrial and
municipal facilities, spills, and hazardous
waste sites. The large surface area of the
lakes also makes them vulnerable to
direct atmospheric pollutants that fall
with snow or rain (wet deposition) and as
dust particles (dry deposition) on the lake
surface or within the extensive land drain-
age system.
Although part of a single freshwater
system, each lake has different physical
characteristics that influence pollutant
impacts (see table at left). la volume, Lake
Superior is the largest and also the deepest
and coldest of the five lakes. Because most
of Lake Superior's drainage basin is forest-
ed, supports little agriculture, and is sparse-
ly populated, it is believed that relatively
few pollutants enter the lake except
through airborne transport.
Lake Michigan is the second largest of
the lakes and is the only one that lies
entirely within the borders of the United
States. The drainage area is sparsely popu-
lated in the north except for the Green
Bay area. Green Bay has one of the most
productive fisheries in the Great Lakes
region but receives wastes from a large
number of pulp and paper facilities. The
southern shoreline of Lake Michigan is
among the most heavily urbanized of all
the lakes; this region, which includes Mil-
waukee and Chicago, is home to 8 million
people.
Huron is the third largest lake by vol-
ume. The northern shore surrounding the
Georgian Bay is a recreational area for
both Canadian .and U.S. citizens. The Sag-
inaw River basin is farmed intensively and
-------
contains the metropolitan areas of Flint
and Saginaw Bay. Like Green Bay, Saginaw
Bay contains a highly productive fishery.
Lake Erie is the smallest of the lakes by
volume and yet is the most significantly
stressed from both urbanization and agri-
culture. The lake receives agricultural run-
off from southwest Ontario and portions
of Ohio, Michigan, and Indiana. Seventeen
urban areas, each with a population of
more than 50,000, are within the drainage
basin.
Although slightly smaller in area thari
Erie, Lake Ontario is much deeper. Major
Canadian urban industrial areas include
Toronto and Hamilton; however, the U.S.
shoreline is less urbanized and not inten-
sively farmed except in the area adjacent
to the lake shore.
Development in the Great Lakes region
has taken advantage of the many resources
within the watershed:
• Agriculture—Grain, dairy and meats,
and specialty crops such as fruits, vege-
tables, and tobacco are produced.
I Urbanization and industrial growth —
The major industries in the Great Lakes
basin produce steel, paper, chemicals,
automobiles, and a wide array of manu-
factured goods. Urbanization, accompa-
nied by industrial growth, brought an
increase in the number of municipal
water and sewage treatment facilities
and industrial plants that discharge their
effluents into the Lakes.
i Shipping and transportation—Commod-
ities, primarily iron ore, coal, and grain,
are shipped via an extensive navigational
system that extends through the St.
Lawrence Seaway to the Atlantic Ocean.
I Commercial fishery—Only pockets re-
main of a once large commercial fishery
for lake trout, lake whitefish, coho and
chinook salmon, and walleye. In the U.S.
waters, the commercial fishery is based
primarily on lake whitefish, smelt, and
perch and on the alewife for animal feed.
Sport fishery—Today walleye, splake,
and coho, chinook, and pink salmon pre-
dominate the sport catch; however, with
few exceptions, none of these predator
species has been able to reproduce and
the fishery has had to be restocked year
after year.
• Recreation—The econ-
omy of many areas in
the Great Lakes basin
depends heavily on
tourism and revenues
from local recreation-
al activities, including
sport outfitters, ma-
rinas, boatbuilders, re-
sorts, and restaurants.
-------
Water Quality Issues
By the late 1960s, the most obvious
problems affecting the Great Lakes were
inputs of nutrients and oxygen-demanding
materials, largely from direct piped dis-
charges from municipal wastewater treat-
ment plants and industries. In particular/
excess phosphorus led to algal blooms near
the shorelines that interfered with recre-
ational uses and caused taste and odor
problems in drinking water. As mats of
dead algae settled into bottom waters, oxy-
gen levels plummeted, causing fish kills.
Lake Erie was the most vulnerable to these
problems due to its shallow depth, warm
temperatures, and many wastewater dis-
charges. To a lesser extent, Lake Ontario
and natural embayments such as Green .
Bay and Saginaw Bay experienced similar
problems.
Impacts from conventional water pollu-
tion were added to decades of cumulative
effects from overharvesting of fisheries,,
the introduction of exotic species, -dredging
operations in harbors and shipping chan-
nels, and habitat alterations in shorelines
and wetlands due to agricultural, urban,
g
I
e
and industrial development. The harm
from conventional pollutants was also
made more severe by the widespread use of
chemicals such as DDT that accumulate in
fish tissues and magnify up the food chain.
By the late 1970s, major investments in
upgrading wastewater treatment facilities
and the promotion of improved con-
servation practices in agriculture led to sig-
nificant progress in controlling conven-
tional waterborne pollutants. However,
toxics levels in sediments and fish tissue
are still a major issue today. The amounts
of mercury and some pesticides in fish
flesh have often reached levels serious
enough for public health authorities to
issue warnings about eating certain sizes
and species of fish. In some instances, long-
term exposure raises health concerns over
cancer. Ongoing research suggests that
there are other types of risks, ranging from
birth defects to harmful physiological
impacts to children. Similar toxicity con-
cerns are also an issue for many types of
wildlife.
Concerns over these toxics have encour-
aged a comprehensive approach to man-
agement initiatives in the Great Lakes.
This approach starts with the
realization that the natural envi-
ronment cannot be viewed apart
from the institutional ecology of
human beings and their econom-
ic systems. While many manage-
ment initiatives can best be im-
plemented by focusing on sub-
systems such as particular Great
Lakes or Areas of Concern, these
geographically targeted activities
must always take into account
the fact that the entire Great
Lakes basin is interconnected.
Such a comprehensive perspec-
tive also requires an understand-
ing of the movement of pollut-
ants through air, surface water,
sediment, and ground water.
-------
Major Pollution Control
Initiatives
In recent years, several major environ-
mental laws have been amended to con-
tain features relevant to Great Waters or
specifically to the Great Lakes basin. The
1990 Clean Air Act contains provisions re-
lated to water and land ecosystem impacts
from the deposition of air pollutants, with
particular emphasis on toxics. Under the
Superfund and Resource Conservation and
Recovery Act (RCRA) programs, the Toxics
Release Inventory improves the knowl-
edge base for life-cycle tracking of wastes
from industrial processes and encourages
recycling and pollution prevention efforts.
Ecological risk assessments of the threats
posed by waste disposal facilities are be-
coming more sophisticated, and progress
under the Assessment and Remediation of
Contaminated Sediments (ARCS) program
holds promise of reducing pollution
impacts from toxic sediment. Cooperative
efforts with other federal agencies such as
the U.S. Department of Agriculture, the
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Ad-
ministration, the Pish and Wildlife Ser-
vice, and the Corps of Engineers address
issues as diverse as appropriate disposal of
dredge materials, maintaining biodiversi-
ty, and protecting habitats for threatened
or endangered wildlife species.
Perhaps the most ambitious pollution
control initiatives seek'to implement pro-
visions of the 1978 U.S.-Canada Water
Quality Agreement, Through a combi-
nation of treaty arrangements, federal and
state laws, enhancements to existing regu-
lations, and consensus-based approaches
involving stakeholders from governments,
industry groups, and environmental organi-
zations, problems are tackled at several
geographic levels. Site-specific Remedial
Action Plans (RAPs) are nearing comple-
tion for Areas of Concern, usually at river
mouths or harbors where on-
going pollutant loads, com-
bined with cumulative effects
dating to the period before
1970, have created the most
severe challenges for remedi-
ating toxic sediment prob-
lems.
The Great Lakes "Airshed7
Bands indicate the approximate
number of days required for air-
borne contaminants to be trans-
ported to the Great Lakes basin.
10
-------
ake Superior is the largest of the Great Lakes, containing
more than 50 percent of the total Great Lakes water volume. It
takes nearly 200 years to completely replace the water in Lake
Superior. Pollutants that become tied up in the bottom sedi-
ments clearly remain in the system for long periods of time
unless they are decomposed, physically buried in deeper sedi-
ments, otherwise transformed, or evaporated to the atmosphere.
Many toxics are picked up in food chains where they may accu-
mulate in body tissues and magnify up the food chain, posing a
potential health threat to humans and wildlif e that consume sig-
nificant amounts of fish.
Progress in reducing the inputs of such persistent toxics as
PCBs from direct piped discharges has rendered waterborne
inputs a relatively minor component of the mass balance picture
in Lake Superior. But PCBs in the atmosphere, released from
local sources or from sources that may be hundreds of miles
away, may also be deposited to the lake. In addition, there is an
enormous reservoir of PCBs from "old" pollution contained in
the sediments. While this in-place supply is slowly being buried
under cleaner silt layers, a large amount becomes resuspended in
the water due to the actions of bottom-feeding fish and bottom-
dwelling organisms, turbulence from large cargo vessels, dredg-
ing activities, and the effects of severe storms. Resuspended
PCBs may then evaporate and return to the atmosphere.
Atmospheric
Deposition
~167kg/yr
Volatilization
~600-4,200 kg/yr
River Inflow
20-50
Numbers presented are approximations.
11
-------
At larger regional levels, each lake is
scheduled for the development of a Lake-
wide Management Plan. Special issues
facing each lake will be stressed. For in-
stance, coordinated steps to reduce on-
going pollutant loadings will be a central
focus of the plans for Lake Michigan or
Lake Ontario. For Lake Superior, the larg-
est and most nearly pristine of the Great
Lakes, pollution prevention and the goal of
virtual elimination of persistent toxic load-
ings will be a central theme.
To ensure that appropriate criteria are
in place for planning and management
activities, proposed Great Lakes Water
Quality Guidance contains uniform water
quality criteria for toxics in the Great
Lakes basin. These criteria can then be
incorporated into state water quality stan-
dards to guide the National Pollutant Dis-
charge Elimination System permitting
process (for point source or piped water
discharges) and other programs. EPA and
. the states will seek to achieve water quali-
ty standards by the most efficient means-
by reducing releases from point sources,
from nonpoint or diffuse sources, from
atmospheric sources, and from contami-
nated sediments, spills, and waste sites, as
appropriate. An effort is currently under
way to address nonpoint sources releasing
toxics in the basin, with an emphasis on
bioaccumulative chemicals identified in
the Great Lakes Water Quality Guidance.
12
-------
Bald Eagle
Humans
I he nutrients necessary for plant growth (e.gv nitrogen.and phosphorus) are found
at very low concentrations in most surface waters. In the process of collecting these
nutrients, phytoplankton also accumulate certain synthetic chemicals, such as PCBs
and pesticides. These may be present in the water at concentrations so low they can-
not be measured even by very sensitive instruments. The chemicals, however, biologi-
cally accumulate (bioaccumulatej in the organism and become concentrated at levels
that are much higher than in the surrounding water. '
Small fish and zooplankton consume vast quantities of phytoplankton. In doing so,
any toxic chemicals accumulated by the phytoplankton are further concentrated in
their bodies. These concentrations are increased at each level in the food chain. This
process of increasing pollutant concentration through the food chain is called biomag-
nification.
The top predators in a food chain, such as lake trout, coho and chinook salmon, and
fish-eating gulls, herons, and bald eagles, may accumulate concentrations of a toxic
chemical high enough to cause serious deformities or death or to impair their ability to
reproduce. The concentration of some chemicals in the fatty tissues of top predators .
can be millions of times higher than the concentration in the surrounding water.
Eggs of fish-eating birds'
often contain some of the
highest concentrations of tox-
ic chemicals. Thus, the first
apparent effects of a 'toxic
chemical in a lake may. be
unhatched eggs or dead or
malformed chicks. Scientists
monitor colonies of gulls and
other aquatic birds because
these effects can serve as early
warning signs of a growing
toxic chemical problem.
Biomagnification of pollut-
ants in the food chain is also a
significant concern for human
health. To protect their resi-
dents from these risks, all the
Great Lakes states have issued
fish consumption advisories
or warnings about eating cer-
tain types of fish.
ankton
Dead Plants and
Animals
13
Cormorant
Lake Trout
Coho Salmon
Bacteria and Fungi
Chinook Salmon
Sculpin
Bottom-Feeders
-------
L
ake Champ ain
Lake Champlain
is the sixth largest
inland waterbody
in the United
States, surpassed
only by the Great
Lakes, hi the
Lake Champlain
Special Desig-
nation Act of
1990, Congress
recognized its
national
significance.
Fish Advisories
State jurisdiction
Pollutant
Fish species
Vermont
New York
Mercury
PCBs
Mercury
PCBs
Walleye
Lake trout >25"
Walleye >19"
Lake trout >25"
Walleye >19"
Lake trout >25"
Brown bullhead
American eel
14
-------
take Champlain covers an area of 435
square miles (excluding the areas of more
than 50 islands) within an 8,234-square-
mile drainage basin/ 56 percent of which
lies in Vermont, 37 percent in New York,
and 7 percent in Quebec. Lake Champlain's
physical characteristics vary markedly
moving from south to north; the entire
waterbody is commonly divided into five
distinct regions:
fl South Lake is shallow with riverine char-
acteristics. It shows infestations of exotic
Eurasian milfoil and water chestnuts,
creating marshlike conditions.
• Broad Lake is relatively narrow, but con-
tains deep water up to 400 feet.
m Malletts Bay lies to the southeast of
Grand Isle near Burlington, Vermont,
and displays a pattern of restricted circu-
lation.
m The Inland Sea (also called the Northeast
Arm) lies in the area around St. Albans,
Vermont, and contains numerous small
islands.
m Missisquoi Bay extends from the delta of
the Missisquoi River north into the
province of Quebec. Like the South Lake,
it is shallow with luxuriant growths of
water plants accentuating its marshlike
qualities.
Lake Champlain has an extremely
diverse sports fishery, with as wide an
assortment of freshwater fish as any lake
in the northern United States. There are
sizable populations of over 90 species of
game and nongame fishes.
Sport fishing during the warmer
months goes hand in hand with boating
and other recreational uses. During win-
ter, Lake Champlain offers a very popular
ice fishery, especially for yellow perch.
Much of the area surrounding Missis-
quoi Bay lies within the Missisquoi Wild-
life Refuge and offers habitat for many
types of waterfowl. The Lake Champlain
Valley is part of the North Atlantic Fly-
way, a migratory bird corridor. Between
20,000 and 40,000 birds have been counted
during fall migration. Hunting and other
types of recreation are a significant boon
to the regional economy.
In addition to its uses for sports fishing,
hunting, and recreation, Lake Champlain
is the major source of drinking water for
nearly 200,000 people in over 20 towns
and cities in Vermont, New York, and
Quebec. With canals offering links to both
the Saint Lawrence and the Hudson
Rivers, towns such as Burlington support
active commercial harbor facilities. The
population of the basin exceeds 600,000.
The area around Ticonderoga, New York,
has supported various types of industrial
activity and still supports a large pulp and
paper mill. Smaller areas of industrial ac-
tivity are found in Vermont. There are
seven direct industrial discharges to the
lake and 66 sewage treatment plants serv-
ing the human populations of the larger
communities. . . .
15
-------
Water Quality Issues
Prior to congressional action in 1990,
there was no coordinated management for
this impressively large natural "lake." Spe-
cial funding for Lake Champlain was pro-
vided under the 1987 Clean Water Act re-
authorization to encourage study of this
waterbody. Patterned after the main fea-
tures of a Clean Water Act National Estu-
ary Program project/ the Lake Champlain
Basin Program is moving rapidly to develop
a comprehensive conservation and man-
agement plan. This will include participa-
tion from the States of New York and Ver-
mont and involvement with the Canadian
government and the Province of Quebec.
16
-------
Toxics are of concern in the lake. Al-
though Lake Champlain has not been stud-
ied as extensively as the near-shore areas of
the Great Lakes, elevated levels of certain
toxic substances have been found near
urbanized areas such as Burlington, Ver-
mont, and Plattsburgh and Ticonderoga,
New York. There are also 34 hazardous
waste sites and 95 landfills in the basin.
The table on page 14 lists fish consump-
tion advisories issued for this lake. The
Lake Champlain Basin Program will assist
in expanding the range of toxic pollutants
analyzed in fish tissue, as well as support-
ing other studies to sample lake sediments
for heavy metals, PCBs, arsenic, and other
substances of concern. Deposition of air
pollutants will also be monitored to deter-
mine if PCBs and mercury are entering the
lake ecosystem from the air.
17
-------
c
hesapeake Bay
Chesapeake Bay, the
largest estuarme
system in the
contiguous United
States, has a water-
shed ofahnost 64,000
square miles. The
total surface area of
the Bay is 3,830
square miles. Of
these, 153 square
miles are tidal fresh
waters, 3,562 square
miles constitute the
mixing zone, and 115
square miles are salt
waters. This unique
ecosystem also con-
tarns more than 1,500
square miles of wet-
lands that provide
critical habitat for
fish, shellfish, and
wildlife; filter and
process residential,
agricultural, and
industrial wastes;
and buffer coastal
areas agonist storm
and wave damage.
West
Virginia
Patuxent Riv
x
•N
i
\
Gunpowder k
usquehanna Rive
Potomac River
Back RJve
Rappahannock River
York River
James Rive
Fish Advisories within the Shaded Area
PCBs Dioxin
West Virginia
Potomac River
Virginia
Jackson River
James River
Maryland
Back River
Baltimore Harbor
District of Columbia Anacostia River ©
Potomac River ©
18
-------
Northeast River
Sassafras River
IC^iester River
^hoptank River
ware
;oke River
yma
Chlordane Kepone
Whesapeake Bay's watershed stretches from New York
State to Virginia and encompasses one-sixth of the Eastern
Seaboard. The Bay accounts for almost half the fresh water
entering estuaries in the Middle Atlantic Region. Five
major tributary systems—the Potomac, Susquehanna,
Rappahannock, York/ and James Rivers—as well as dozens
of smaller rivers supply fresh water to Chesapeake Bay.
This freshwater inflow (85,800 cubic feet per second) signif-
icantly affects estuarine circulation and combines with
tides to create complex circulation patterns that contribute
to Chesapeake Bay's vitality.
Atlantic Coastal Plain estuaries such as the Chesapeake
Bay are characteristically shallow and are subject to strong
tidal circulation, creating ideal conditions for biological
productivity. About 25 percent of all approved shellfish
waters for oysters and clams in the United States are found
in Chesapeake Bay.
19
-------
In 1991 over 150 million pounds of fish
and shellfish were harvested from this
highly productive system.
The Chesapeake Bay estuarine system
is not only a major fishing area but also
provides essential nursery areas for a wide
variety of commercial and sport fish
species. The Bay provides year-round habi- •
tat for white perch, bay anchovy, and sev-
eral catfish species, including the channel
catfish and white catfish, and attracts
marine predators such as bluefish and
Atlantic croaker. The Bay also serves as a
nursery for early life stages of migratory
species, such as Atlantic menhaden,
American shad, American eel, weakfish,
spotted sea trout, and striped bass.
Water Quality Issues
In 1975, Chesapeake Bay became the
Nation's first estuary to be targeted for pro-
tection and restoration when Con-
gress directed EPA's Office of Research and
Development to initiate a study investi-
gating the causes of the environmental
declines observed in the Bay. The Clean
Water Act Amendments of 1987 required
the EPA Administrator to continue the
ongoing Chesapeake Bay Program and
maintain a Chesapeake Bay Program Of-
fice. This Program continues to collect and
make available information about the
Bay's environmental quality, to coordinate
federal and state efforts to improve the
Bay, and to determine the impact of natur-
al and man-made environmental changes
in the Bay, especially from sediment depo-
sition, nutrients, chlorine, acid precipita-
tion, low dissolved oxygen, and toxic
pollutants.
Studies completed in the 1970s docu-
mented that increases in agricultural
development, population growth, and sew-
age treatment plant discharges were caus-
ing the Bay to become nutrient enriched.
Nitrogen and phosphorus are the two pri-
mary nutrients required to sustain aquatic
biological productivity. Although phospho-
rus is the limiting nutrient in most fresh-
water systems, nitrogen is the limiting
nutrient in most coastal estuarine and
marine waters. As a result of elevated in-
puts, however, these nutrients are often
present at concentrations in excess of basic
nutrient requirements, causing excessive
growth of phytoplankton and algae. This
condition has two effects:
• In shallow areas, the excess algae block
the sunlight that important submerged
aquatic grasses need to grow. This de-
grades the habitat and causes the even-
tual loss of these grass beds.
20
-------
• In deeper areas, the decomposition, of
dead algae uses up available oxygen in
the water. During the warm summer
months, oxygen in the bottom waters
can only be replenished slowly because
little mixing with the high-oxygen sur-
face water occurs. Many bottom-dwel-
ling organisms such as oysters, clams,
and worms, which provide food for fish
and crabs, cannot survive this prolonged
period of low oxygen.
Nutrients in the Chesapeake Bay orig-
inate from point sources (e.g., municipal
and industrial wastewater), nonpoint
sources (e.g., cropland, ariimal wastes,
urban and suburban runoff), and airborne
contaminants, including inputs from
states within the Bay watershed that are
not signatories to the Chesapeake Bay
Agreement (New York, West Virginia, and
Delaware).
Water Quality Trends and
Characterization
Bay water quality monitoring data con-
firm the significant progress made in re-
ducing phosphorus from nonpoint sources
and municipal point sources but indicate
that further progress is needed toward
. reducing nitrogen loadings.
The Bay Program's highest priority is
to restore the Bay's living resources. One
way to do this is to improve water quality
through nutrient reductions. These reduc-
tions will increase dissolved oxygen, im-
prove water clarity, and enhance conditions
conducive to the growth of submerged
aquatic vegetation that provides critical
habitat for many of the Bay's organisms.
21
-------
Point Source Nutrient
Reduction
Municipal wastewater treatment plant
discharges contribute the majority of point
source loadings. Three elements of the
Chesapeake Bay Program's point source
control strategy are responsible for reduc-
tions in the nutrient loading:
• pollution prevention actions such as pro-
hibiting the sale of detergents contain-
ing phosphorus
• upgrading wastewater treatment plants
• improving compliance with permit re-
quirements.
Because the majority of municipal treat-
ment plants discharge into fresh wa-
ters where phosphorus is the limiting nu-
trient, nitrogen concentrations received lit-
tle attention until recent years. New tech-
nologies such as biological nutrient remov-
al are being developed to increase removal
of nitrogen from wastewaters, and these
are being added to some existing treatment
facilities. Upgrading of wastewater treat-
ment plants has strengthened controls for
nitrogen as well as for phosphorus.
Nonpoint Source Nutrient
Reduction
Nonpoint sources of nutrients contrib-
ute about 60 percent of the nitrogen that
reaches the Bay. The largest single source
is agricultural runoff. Nitrogen loading re-
sults from application of chemical fertiliz-
ers/ livestock manure/ and sewage sludge
on fields as well as from animal wastes
that run off pastures and feedlots. Other
nitrogen sources include atmospheric
deposition to tidal surface waters/ adjacent
ocean waters, and the watershed/ as well
as runoff from urban and suburban lawns,
roadways, and other developed areas to
creeks and tributary rivers. The Chesa-
peake Bay Program's nonpoint source con-
trol program emphasizes reductions of
controllable nonpoint sources including
agriculture, paved surfaces, and construc-
tion in urban areas. The most important
additional control measure is the practice
of nutrient management in which animal
wastes and fertilizers are applied to farm-
land in amounts carefully calculated to
meet the needs of -the crops. This practice
reduces the runoff and leaching of nutri-
ents that result from overuse of fertilizers.
Atmospheric Nitrogen
Reduction
In addition to point and nonpoint
sources of nitrogen loadings to Chesapeake
Bay, concern is growing over the atmos-
pheric deposition of nitrogen to the Bay.
Atmospheric nitrogen is largely produced
from the burning of fossil fuels; its two
largest sources are automobiles and fossil
fuel electric generating plants throughout
the Chesapeake Bay airshed, which ex-
tends well beyond the watershed. Com-
puter models indicate that about 10 per-
cent of the Bay's nitrogen load is the. result
of airborne nitrogen, deposited directly on
the surface of the Bay and the tidal por-
tions of its tributaries. When the amount
of atmospheric nitrogen deposited through-
out the 64,000-square-mile watershed is
considered, air pollution could account for
nearly 40 percent of the Bay's total nitro-
gen load. The exact nitrogen load added
from air pollution sources is uncertain
because of the lack of monitoring data and
questions about how and where nitrogen is
transported. The EPA is developing a mod-
el that will provide a more definitive idea
about air pollution sources that impact the
Bay.
Reductions in atmospheric deposition
are difficult to achieve because the sources
of the pollutants, stationary and mobile,
are not easily controlled and may be gener-
ated within the Chesapeake Bay region or
transported a.considerable distance to the
Bay. To obtain the greatest reductions, the
Bay states are considering enacting air pol-
lution controls more stringent than those
22
-------
specifically mandated by the Clean Air
Act Amendments, particularly for car
emissions. The Governors of Maryland,
Virginia, and Pennsylvania recently took a
first step in that direction by endorsing a
plan to require California-style emissions
standards for cars sold after 1995.
Toxics Problem
In recent years, increased attention has
been paid to the role that toxics may play
in the problems facing Chesapeake Bay.
Through a recent reevaluation of a 1989
basinwide toxic reduction strategy, the Bay
Program has determined that toxics prob-
lems exist in some locations in the Bay. A
few well-known areas have serious, local-
ized problems, and some other regions that
were previously thought to be uncontam-
inated have shown toxic effects. No evi-
dence was found of severe, system-wide
responses to toxics similar in magnitude to
the effects observed throughout the Bay
due to excessive nutrients. Widespread
areas have measurable levels of toxic sub-
stances, below thresholds associated with
adverse effects on the Bay's living re-
sources. The long-term effects from these
low levels remain unclear. Through efforts
to develop a basinwide toxics loading and
release inventory, estimates of direct
atmospheric deposition to tidal surface
waters have been made using data from a
sampling network set up in 1990. Atmos-
pheric deposition was found to be a signifi-
cant source of metals, organics, and pesti-
cides loadings to the Bay's tidal waters,
although not the major source. Recent
research and assessments of sediment con-
taminant patterns in Chesapeake Bay indi-
cate that atmospheric deposition may be
the major source of sediment contamina-
tion, particularly of polynuclear aromatic
hydrocarbons resulting from incomplete
combustion of fossil fuels.
23
-------
s
isters to the Chesapeake
Recognizing that estuaries are unique and
endangered ecosystems that are an impor-
tant natural and economic resource,
Congress established the National
Estuarme Research Reserve System
(NERRS) in 1972 under Section 315 of the
Coastal Zone Management Act and the
National Estuary Program (NEP)in 1987
under Section 320 of the Clean Water Act.
Legend
National Estuary Program sites
National Estuarine Research Res
West Coast
Padilla Bay, WA
Puget Sound, WA
Tillamook Bay, OR.
South Sloiigh; OR
San Francisco Bay, CA
Elkhorn Slough, CA
Santa Monica Bay, CA
Tijuana River, CA
Waimanu Valley, HI
Fish Advisories
Estuarine Ecosystem
PC
Chesapeake Bay
Narragansett Bay
Long Island Sound
New York/New Jersey Harbor
Delaware Bay
Albemarle Sound
Galveston Bay
San Francisco Bay
24
-------
Systems sites
Gulf Coast
Rookery Bay, FL
Sarasota Bay, FL
Tampa Bay, FL
Apalachicola Bay, FL
Weeks Bay, AL
Baratarria-Terrebonne
Estuarine Complex, LA
Galveston Bay, TX
Corpus Christ! Bay, TX
New England
Casco Bay, ME
Weils, ME
Great Bay, NH
Massachusetts Bay, MA
Buzzards Bay, MA
Waquoit Bay, MA
Narragansett Bay
(NEP and NERRS)
Middle Atlantic
Long Island Sound, NY/CT
Peconic Bay, NY
Hudson River, NY
New York/New Jersey Harbor
Old Woman Creek, OH
Delaware Estuary, DE/NJ/PA
(NEP and NERRS)
Delaware Inland Bays, DE
Chesapeake Bay, MD
(3 reserves)
Chesapeake Bay, VA
Southeastern Atlantic
Albemarle-Pamlico Sound, NC
North Carolina Coastal sites (4 reserves)
North Inlet/Winjah Bay, SC '
Ashepoo-Combahee-Edisto Basin, SC
Sapelo Island, GA
Indian River Lagoon, FL
San Juan Bay, PR
Jbbos Bay, PR
Dioxin Chlordane Kepone Mercury Cadmium
25
-------
NERRS SITES
The National Estuarine Research Re-
serve System (NERRS), administered by
the Office of Ocean and Coastal Resource
Management, National Oceanic and At-
mospheric Administration (NOAA), is a
state-federal partnership under the Coastal
Zone Management Act. The Act requires
nomination of a reserve site by the gover-
nor of a state and designation by the Secre-
tary of Commerce.
Each Reserve is a carefully selected
estuarine area of the United States that is
designated, preserved, and managed for
research and educational purposes. The Re-
serves are chosen to reflect regional differ-
ences and a wide variety of ecosystem
types. Each site is uniquely suited to sup-
porting a wide range of beneficial uses (eco-
logical, economic, recreational, and aes-
thetic) that are dependent on maintenance
of a healthy ecosystem. Each site provides
critical habitat for a wide range of ecologi-
cally and commercially important species
of fish, shellfish, birds, and other wildlife.
As part of a national system, the Reserves
collectively provide a unique opportunity
to address research questions and estuar-
ine management issues of national signif-
icance.
Reserves have been designated at the
rate of approximately one per year since
1974 and now protect more than 400,000
acres of estuarine lands, wetlands, and
waters. As of August 1993, 22 Reserves
had been designated (see map on page 24).
Some of these sites are home to a number
of endangered or threatened species
including the American alligator, Atlantic
loggerhead turtle, and bald eagle (Ashepoo-
Combahee-Edisto Basin, South Carolina);
others serve as critical stopover areas for
migratory birds (Elkhorn Slough, Califor-
nia, and Chesapeake Bay, Maryland) or
serve as important bird nesting areas
(Narragansett Bay, Rhode Island, and
Rookery Bay, Florida). While some sites
26
-------
are almost completely isolated from the
effects of human activities (Waimau
Valley, Hawaii, and Wells, Maine), others
are stressed because of their proximity to
large urban areas (Narragansett Bay, Rhode
Island, and Hudson River, New York). The
diversity of the Reserves is representative
of the heterogeneity of the U.S. coastal
zone. Over 550,000 acres are planned for
protection in the reserve system by 1995.
The primary goal of the NERRS nation-
al research program is to support high-
quality studies that significantly con-
tribute to our understanding of the func-
tional ecology of the various ecosystems
encompassed by the coastal zone of the
United States. The 10-year primary re-
search objective is to study natural and
anthropogenic changes in the ecology of
the Reserves. A major research priority is
the study of nonpoint source pollution
(such as agricultural or stormwater run-
off), and atmospheric deposition and the
resulting alterations within these eco-
systems.
As part of this national program, long-
term monitoring activities will be initiat-
ed for the systematic collection of biologi-
cal and physicochemical data from the
Reserves to form the basis of a national
network for tracking the status and trends
of our coastal ecosystems.
National Estuary Program
As in the NERRS Program, the governor
of a state must nominate an estuary within
that state for participation in the National
Estuary Program. The state must demon-
strate a likelihood of success in protecting
the candidate estuary and provide evidence
of institutional, financial, and political
commitment to solving estuarine prob-
lems.
If an estuary meets the NEP guidelines,
the EPA Administrator convenes a man-
agement conference of representatives
from interested federal, regional, state, and
local governments; affected industries; sci-
entific and academic institutions; and citi-
zen organizations. The management con-
ference defines program goals and objec-
tives, identifies problems, and designs strat-
egies to prevent and control pollution and
manage natural resources in the estuarine
basin. Each management conference devel-
ops and initiates implementation of a Com-
prehensive Conservation and Management
Plan to restore and protect its estuary.
27
-------
The purpose of the National Estuary
Program is to identify nationally signifi-
cant estuaries, protect and improve their
water quality, and enhance their living
resources. The NEP currently supports 22
estuary projects, including 4 sites add-
ed to the program in 1992. The NEP sites
represent a wide spectrum of environmen-
tal conditions in estuaries throughout the
United States and its Territories. Habitat
types include mangrove swamps and coral
reefs in tropical estuaries, eelgrass beds
and shallow mudflats of Gulf and
Southeast Atlantic Coast estuaries, and
cold water estuarine habitats of the Pacific
Coast and North Atlantic Coast estuaries.
These estuaries are significant in their eco-
nomic values as well as in their ability to
support unique living resources.
Although each of these 22 estuaries is
ecologically unique and is stressed by a
unique combination of environmental
problems, almost all of them have one
problem in common—development.
Explosive population growth has fueled a
corresponding increase in commercial, res-
idential, and industrial development,
which in turn engenders increasing dis-
charges of nutrients, toxic chemicals, and
pathogens to estuarine waters. Many of
these pollutants are generated by both
point sources and nonpoint sources of pol-
lution. Point sources of pollutants- include
industrial and municipal discharges and
combined sewer overflows. Nonpoint
sources include agriculture, atmospheric
deposition, in-place sediments, landfill
leaching, septic system leaching, and
urban and construction runoff.
Problems currently being addressed by
the NEP Management Conference include
• Eutrophication—Loading of excessive
amounts of nutrients (e.g., nitrates and
phosphates) can stimulate rapid growth
and reproduction of algae and bacteria.
• Toxic pollutants—Loading of metals,
pesticides, PCBs, polynuclear aromatic
hydrocarbons, and dioxins can pose a
risk to aquatic organisms and to con-
sumers of fish or shellfish.
• Pathogens—Disease-causing microor-
ganisms pose a health risk to swimmers
through direct body contact or to the
general population through consumption
of contaminated shellfish.
• Living resources and their habitat —
Overfishing and the loss or modification
of habitat as a result of land develop-
ment, bulkheading, and dredge and fill
operations can lead to changes in species
composition and a decrease in species
diversity and abundance of living re-
sources.
-------
-------
This report was prepared by the EPA
Office of Air Quality Planning and
Standards with technical support from
Research Triangle Institute.
Printed on Recycled Paper
------- |