Agency'
Printed on Recycled Paper
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Portraits of Our Coastal Waters
Table of Contents
Introduction
Pathogen Contamination in Great Bay, New Hampshire 5
Water Quality Problems in the Middle Atlantic Bight 8
Red Tide in the Eastern Gulf of Mexico 11
Oxygen Depleted Coastal and Estuarine Waters
in Louisiana and Texas
14
Sediment Deficit and Saltwater Intrusion in Barataria Basin, Louisiana 18
Toxic Contamination in San Diego Bay, California 22
Salmon Mortality Problems in
Port Townsend Bay, Washington
.26
Multimedia Pollutants Effect
Green Bay/Fox River, Wisconsin
.29
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Portraits of Our Coastal Waters
Portraits of Our Coastal Waters —
Supplement to the National Water
Quality Inventory
Introduction
This report contains eight
descriptive narratives
highlighting coastal and
estuarine environmental
problems for unique geo-
graphic areas. These locali-
ties have been selected to
show a sampling from
diverse ecosystems and
regions across the country.
The locations described in
the eight narratives are:
• Great Bay,
New Hampshire
• Mid-Atlantic Bight
• Eastern Gulf of Mexico
• Texas and Louisiana
Near Coastal Waters
• Barataria Basin,
Louisiana
• Port Townsend Bay,
Washington
• San Diego Bay,
California
• Green Bay/Fox River,
Wisconsin
The water quality problems
described are diverse and
have significant impacts on
the coastal natural resources
and human populations.
Coastal economies and
human health are adversely
affected by coastal and
marine environmental
pollution. The problems
being addressed at these
localities include pathogen
and toxics contamination,
red tide blooms, floatable
marine debris, and signifi-
cant wetlands loss, among
others; all are harmful to the
marine and estuarine
ecosystems in which they
occur.
Over the past several years,
while implementing the Near
Coastal Waters Strategy, staff
in the U.S. EPA regions and
the states began to recognize
the need for more informa-
tion and better understand-
ing of coastal environmental
problems. This document is a
1
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Portraits of Our Coastal Waters
result of the commitment by
the states and U.S. EPA
regions to share some of their
"stories." They share recent
water quality monitoring and
research activities undertaken
to mitigate water quality
problems and protect coastal
resources. The narratives also
describe planned manage-
ment and research activities
to solve coastal water quality
problems well into the future.
Background —
the Inventory
This report was written as a
supplement to the National
Water Quality Inventory,
1988 Report to Congress. As
required by Section 305(b) of
the Clean Water Act, states
collect water quality monitor-
ing data and compile that
data for U.S. EPA, reporting
the extent to which goals in
the Clean Water Act have
been met. After receiving the
state reports, U.S. EPA
analyzed and compiled the
data in the final National
Water Quality Inventory.
The National Water Quality
Inventory includes an
assessment of the condition
of the nation's coastal waters.
The states reported whether
the waters were acceptable
for designated uses including
drinking water supply,
contact recreation, and warm
and cold water fisheries. For
the 1988 Inventory, nearly
3,800 coastal shoreline miles
were assessed by 12 states
and Territories. Unfortu-
nately, this represents only 20
percent of the total coastal
shoreline. Insufficient data
are available to assess and
document the causes of
impairment and sources of
pollution. The states and U.S.
EPA recognize the need for
increased monitoring and
research efforts to more
accurately evaluate the
quality of the nation's coastal
waters.
This report was initiated in
response to the need for
improved coastal water
quality information. Al-
though this report does not
provide a quantitative or
comprehensive assessment of
coastal waiters it does provide
an assessment of the diverse
and complex environmental
problems encountered in
these areas. The Office of
Wetlands, Oceans, and
Watersheds hopes that this
report will contribute to a
broader understanding of the
current status and future for
our nation's coastal waters.
Sharing Coastal
Information
This report targets specific
geographic areas consistent
with the geographic ap-
proach to environmental
management established by
US. EPA's Office of Water.
This approach establishes
that environmental problems
should be addressed on a
local or regional basis,
recognizing that the prob-
lems and best solutions may
be unique. For example, the
salmon mortalities in Port
Townsend Bay, Washington
are not an issue in Green Bay,
Wisconsin. However, the
Port Townsend Bay research
studies may result in findings
and management approaches
which can be more broadly
applied to address fish
mortalities at other locations.
Sharing research information
and management strategies,
as presented in this report,
will improve our ability to
address environmental
problems today and in the
future.
Communication and coordi-
nation between federal, state,
and local governments is
critical if we are to minimize
duplication of efforts to
manage near coastal waters
and prevent their degrada-
tion. Significant contributions
are being made by the U.S.
EPA regions and states to
research and monitor coastal
waters, and to develop
management strategies that
incorporate other groups
involved in protecting and
restoring coastal waters. For
example, the state of New
Hampshire has established
an interagency Shellfish
Committee to address
environmental problems in
Great Bay, Similar efforts
have been initiated in other
coastal areas; some of these
are shared in this report.
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Portraits of Our Coastal Waters
Summary of Report
Findings
Resources at Risk
The estuaries, embayments,
wetlands and coastal shore-
line identified in this report
provide habitat for an
abundance of wildlife
species. They provide critical
spawning grounds for
diverse species of fish and
shellfish and nesting habitat
for seabirds and other
waterfowl. In some cases, the
wildlife is threatened or
endangered. For example,
San Diego Bay is home for at
least seven endangered
species including the Califor-
nia brown pelican, the
peregrine falcon, and the
green sea turtle.
The coastal areas support a
variety of human activities,
including both recreational
and commercial fishing,
shellfish harvesting, hunting,
and boating. Commercial
fishing and tourism are
essential to the health of
many local and regional
economies. Barataria Basin
provides a significant share
of Louisiana's multi-million
dollar commercial fishery
harvest. Toxic contamination
or floatable debris may
devastate local economies
when beaches close and
tourism declines. La addition,
human health problems may
result when individuals are
exposed to the toxicants or
ingest contaminated seafood.
Water Quality Problems
The water quality problems
encountered in the coastal
areas include floatable debris,
nonpoint source pollution,
saltwater intrusion into
freshwater marshes, hypoxic
or oxygen-depleted condi-
tions, and toxic and pathogen
contamination.
Red tide, a pathogen con-
taminant, has impacted the
eastern coastal zones. Red
tide is caused by periodic
blooms of a single-cell algae
that produces potent toxins
harmful to marine organisms
and humans. Blooms of the
species, Gonyaulax spp. have
led to the closure of shellfish
beds in Great Bay, New
Hampshire. Other species
affect the Gulf Coast areas of
Florida, Texas, and Mexico.
Blooms may be transported
great distances by winds and
tides impacting nearshore
and estuarine areas. In
documented cases, blooms in
southwest Florida have been
transported by currents to
Florida's east coast and to
North Carolina. The narra-
tive. Red Tide in the Eastern
Gulf of Mexico, describes the
effects and implications of
the red tide phenomenon.
The narratives on Great Bay,
New Hampshire and the
Middle Atlantic Bight also
discuss the problems associ-
ated with another species of
red tide.
Monitoring, Management, and
Research Activities
Significant activities are
underway to research and
monitor pollutant impacts on
marine organisms, coastal
ecosystems, and human
populations. Region HI has
initiated baseline monitoring
activities conducting water
and sediment sampling,
public health surveys, and
undertaking marine mammal
watches. The Florida Depart-
ment of Natural Resources
monitors red tide concentra-
tions and oversees shellfish
bed closures. Other coastal
states actively monitor
coastal water quality. U.S.
EPA's Great Lakes National
Program Office is a key
participant in the compre-
hensive research study of
toxic contaminants in the
Green Bay ecosystem.
Monitoring and research
efforts, such as those de-
scribed in the narratives,
provide the critical data
necessary to make informed
management decisions and
direct future program efforts.
The states, U.S. EPA, and
other agencies, such as the
National Oceanic and
Atmospheric Administration,
play a vital role, directing
and participating in manage-
ment efforts to better define
coastal problems and update
state and Federal programs
and policies. The National
Estuary Program (NEP) and
the Near Coastal Waters
(NCW) Strategies are
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Portraits of Our Coastal Waters
mechanisms for directing
and improving the manage-
ment of coastal and estuarine
waters. Within the NEP,
Comprehensive Conserva-
tion and Management Plans
(CCMP) are developed for
the targeted estuaries. The
regional Near Coastal Water
strategies enhance and
improve existing water
quality-based programs.
Many additional manage-
ment actions have taken
place and are planned for the
future. For additional
information, contact the
Office of Wetlands, Oceans
and Watersheds, U. S.
Environmental Protection
Agency, Washington, DC
20460, FTS/202-475-7102.
This report provides a
descriptive portrait of the
many programs and initia-
tives designed to improve
and protect our nation's
coastal waters.
The Office of Wetlands,
Oceans and Watersheds
would like to recognize
contributors from the regions
and states who have played a
vital role in developing this
report. Some have written a
significant portion of these
narratives and others have
provided valuable comments
and sources of information.
The contributors to the
Report include:
Conine Kupstas
Nancy Sullivan
Region 1
BillMuir
Brigitte Farren
Region 3
Drew Kendall
Earl Bozeman
Region 4
Barbara Keeler
Russell Putt
Region 6
Jon Van Rhyn
Suzanne Marr
Region 9
John Gabrielson
Region 10
Dave Devault
Susan Boldt
Great Lakes National Program
Office
All photos are credited to
S.C. Ddaney, U.S. EPA.
Basin,
Louisiana
Texas and Louisiana
Near Coastal Waters Eastern
Gulf of
Mexico
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Portraits of Our,Coastal Waters
Pathogen Contamination in
Great Bay, New Hampshire
Description of
Geographic Area
Great Bay is located in the
southeastern corner of the
state of New Hampshire.
Compared to many other
estuaries throughout the
country, Great Bay is in a
relatively undeveloped,
pristine area. It is part of the
Piscataqua River Basin and
has a drainage area of 930
square miles, of which two-
thirds is in New Hampshire
and one-third is in Maine.
Great Bay is described as
containing 4,471 acres of tidal
water, 800 acres of ecologi-
cally important upland areas,
502 acres of tidal wetlands,
and 456 acres of freshwater
wetlands.
The Piscataqua River is
formed by the confluence of
two rivers after which it
flows thirteen miles to its
mouth at the Atlantic Ocean.
Nine miles upstream from
the mouth, the Piscataqua
receives flow from the tidal
areas of Little and Great
Bays. The principal tributar-
ies to Great Bay are the
Lamprey, Oyster, and Exeter
(Squamscott) rivers. While
the riverine flow entering the
Bay varies seasonally, the
ratio of fresh to salt water in
the estuary is less than one
percent for most of the year.
Water flows from Great Bay
into Little Bay and subse-
quently the Piscataqua River.
Tidal flow is the dominant
hydrologic influence in Great
Bay.
Resources at Risk
The Great Bay system
provides habitat for an
abundance of species of
vegetation, .fish, and wildlife.
Lobsters and rock crab are
harvested commercially.
There are periodic restric-
tions on the harvesting of soft
shell clams, mussels, oysters,
and sea scallops in this area
due to bacteriologic
exceedances. These restric-
tions may be removed upon
review by regulatory agen-
cies (NH Fish and Game, NH
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Portraits of Our Coastal Waters
Department of Public Health,
and NH Department of
Environmental Services).
Over 71 species of sea birds,
waterfowl, wading, terres-
trial, and shore birds are
found at Great Bay as well as
numerous mammalian
species. More than 50 species
of fish make Great Bay their
habitat. The Bay is an
important breeding ground
for many finfish, as well. This
abundance of wildlife in turn
attracts the human activities
of fishing, shellfish harvest-
ing, hunting, boating, and
bird watching.
Water Quality
Problems
Great Bay is threatened by
water quality problems that
occur upstream where there
has been significant patho-
gen contamination. To date,
4,120 acres of the Great Bay/
Little Bay system have been
documented as severely
impacted by pathogen
contamination and another
3,741 are threatened. There
have been many instances
where pathogen contamina-
tion and oxygen levels in
various segments of the
tributaries and Great Bay do
not meet water quality
standards set as part of their
designated use classification.
These problems have been
primarily caused by com-
bined sewer overflows
(CSOs) and publicly owned
treatment works (POTWs)
and secondarily by on-site
septic systems. Upgrades at
the Exeter, Durham, Dover,
and Portsmouth wastewater
treatment facilities have been
undertaken to alleviate the
problem.
In addition to pathogen
contamination, blooms of red
tide (Alexandrium spp.) have
been occurring on a regular
basis and are responsible for
annual closures of the Great
Bay and Little Bay shellfish
beds for the past seven years.
Red tides are a natural
phenomenon caused by
periodic blooms of single-
celled algae. Shellfish draw
the red tide organism from
overlying water and accumu-
late it in their gut. Eating as
little as 100 grams of shellfish
infected with Alexandrium
spp. may result in paralytic
shellfish poisoning (PSP).
Nonpoint runoff from
urbanized areas has been
postulated as causing or
exacerbating these blooms.
Red tide occurs periodically
along the eastern coast of the
U.S. and in the Gulf of
Mexico. The effects of red
tide are described in the
section, Red Tide in the Eastern
Gulf of Mexico.
The state of New Hampshire
has identified atid evaluated
the significance of 22
nonpoint sources of pollut-
ants that may have a poten-
tial impact on the Great Bay
system. Pollutants from these
sources may cause the
destruction of ecologically
important eel grass beds by
erosion, sedimentation, and
nutrient enrichment. Pollut-
ant loading of metal and
organic contaminants in
urban stormwater runoff
negatively impact the
ecosystem of the Bay and are
related to land use patterns
in the drainage basin.
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Portraits of Our Coastal Waters
Land Use
Management
The shoreline of Great Bay is
primarily a mixture of large-
lot residential properties,
agricultural land and wood-
lands, with seasonal homes
in some areas. Eighty-five
percent of the drainage basin
is open space composed of
forests, fields, farms,
marshes, and bogs. While
relatively undeveloped
compared to other East Coast
estuaries, the population of
the Great Bay area is growing
rapidly and projected to
increase 22 percent in the
next 30 years. Urban centers
are located in the southeast-
ern portion of the basin and
urbanization is increasing
along the tributaries to the
Bay. Water quality problems
have been linked to the
presence of the higher
population densities along
these tributaries.
Increasing development
along the shoreline has
brought new awareness of
the need for resource protec-
tion. In addition to the point
sources of pollution from
POTWs, industrial facilities,
and CSOs, many nonpoint
sources are presently being
studied and may be the focus
of future control efforts. The
most significant nonpoint
source problem in the Basin
is on-site septic systems
(OSSS). Urban runoff,
erosion and sedimentation
from construction and
agricultural activities,
boating wastes, and road
salting are other types of
nonpoint sources under
study in the basin. Future
management actions should
include development of
regulations on septage
management and septic
system maintenance, and
enforcement of Water
Quality Standards for
combined sewer overflows
(CSOs).
Management
Actions
The U.S. EPA approved
Nonpoint Source Manage-
ment Plan for New Hamp-
shire proposed technical
guidelines for stormwater
runoff, fertilizer/pesticide
use, erosion/sedimentation
control, and dredging and
filling of wetlands. These
proposals could be imple-
mented upon availability of
funds from federal, state and
other independent sources.
The state of New Hampshire
has established an
interagency Shellfish Com-
mittee to address restoration
of contaminated portions of
the Bay and protection of
presently threatened areas.
The goals of the Committee
include determining sources
and impacts of water quality
problems, and responding to
issues raised by the public.
The Committee consists of
representatives from the
New Hampshire Department
of Health, the New Hamp-
shire Fish and Game Com-
mission, and the Division of
Water Supply and Pollution
Control of the Department of
Environmental Services.
Recently, the Committee has
been involved in the comple-
tion of the shellfish study
report for the state of New
Hampshire.
In order to help protect Great
Bay from the expected
increases in development
pressure, Great Bay has been
designated as a National
Estuarine Research Reserve
by the National Oceanic and
Atmospheric Administration.
To better quantify the extent
to which existing pollutant
sources may impact the
Great Bay system, the state
has identified goals and
research priorities as part of
the Research Reserve charter.
One of the major goals of this
project is to protect existing
resources within Great Bay
and maintain a balance
between existing uses and
increasing urbanization.
Research on the red tide
problem and how human
activity may contribute to it
is also proposed as part of
the Reserve charter. In
addition, programs and
activities are planned to
focus public attention on the
estuarine reserve as a
valuable estuarine resource
and ecosystem worth
protecting.
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Portraits of Our Coastal Waters
Water Quality Problems in the
Middle Atlantic Bight
Description of
Geographic Area
The Mid-Atlantic Bight
includes the coastal and
continental shelf areas from
Nantucket Shoals off the
southern Massachusetts
coast, to Cape Hatteras,
North Carolina. The coastal
zone varies from a glaciated
and rugged coastline in the
north to low relief further
south to the New York Bight.
South of New York, the coast
is bordered by a 100-mile
wide coastal plain. The
Continental Shelf ranges in
width from 70 to more than
100 miles.
The beaches of the Northern
area of the Bight are narrow,
and inshore waters drop
steeply. Along the coastal
plain to the south, the
beaches of the outer banks
and barrier islands are wide,
gently sloped, and sandy.
Estuarine features include
Narragansett Bay, Long
Island Sound, Hudson River
Estuary, Delaware and
Chesapeake Bays, and the
nearly continuous band of
estuaries behind the outer
banks and barrier islands
along southern Long Island,
New Jersey, Delaware,
Maryland, and Virginia. Also
8
included are the estuaries of
Currituck, Albemarle, and
Pamlico Sounds located
behind the Outer Banks of
Cape Hatteras.
Water Quality
Problems
In the summer of 1988,
unprecedented public
attention focused on ocean
pollution problems plaguing
the mid-Atlantic coastline as
noxious debris, including
potentially hazardous
hospital wastes, washed
ashore. Beach closures and
the death of over 700 dol-
phins along the coastline
from Maine to Florida
received widespread atten-
tion. Each year fish diseases
and mortality along the Mid-
Atlantic Bight cost the
commercial fishing industry
millions of dollars in loss of
potential catch. Thousands of
acres of shellfish beds are
dosed because of pathogen
contamination or contamina-
tion by toxin-producing algal
blooms such as red tides.
Beach closures due to
pathogen contamination or
floatable debris affect the
economic and recreational
value of coastal areas and
have become a common
occurrence.
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Portraits of Our Coastal Waters
Historical
Background
During the 1960's and the
1970's, a variety of industrial
and municipal wastes were
dumped in the ocean on the
mid-continental shelf
bordering Maryland and
Delaware. U.S. EPA Region
IE (which includes the mid-
Atiaritic states from Pennsyl-
vania to Virginia) managed
four disposal sites in this area
between 1972 and 1980.
With the passage of the
Marine Protection, Research,
and Sanctuaries Act of 1972
and subsequent regulations,
U.S. EPA began a systematic
review of the need for ocean
dumping, the feasible
alternatives to ocean dis-
posal, and the impacts of
dumping on the marine
environment. As a result, all
four disposal sites were
successfully phased out and
replaced by environmentally
acceptable land-based
alternatives.
U.S. EPA Region m con-
ducted baseline surveys in
and around the dumpsite
used for disposal of sewage
sludge from Philadelphia
and Camden. A variety of
impacts on the marine
environment were found.
These impacts included
accumulations of heavy
metals in organisms and
sediments, the appearance of
sludge deposits on the ocean
bottom, the presence of
sewage bacteria, changes in
the benthic community with
the loss of sensitive species,
and the occurrence of
necrotic lesions and mela-
nization of gills in rock crab.
After closure of the disposal
sites, follow up monitoring
revealed systematic recovery
of the benthic and fish
species and improvements in
water and sediment quality.
Monitoring
Program
There are no active ocean
dumpsites for industrial or
sludge wastes in U.S. EPA
Region ffl. As a result,
monitoring programs have
been modified over the years
to reflect changing utilization
and stresses on the living
resources in the area. In 1987,
U.S. EPA's regional monitor-
ing activities were again
expanded in response to new
concerns: dolphin mortality,
atypical algal blooms, fish
diseases, and floatable debris.
U.S. EPA Region HI is
pursuing additional strate-
gies to better understand
coastal pollution problems
and take a more proactive
approach to coastal protec-
tion. Baseline monitoring and
surveillance work has been
expanding. This includes
coastal eutrophication and
public health surveys at
locations along the Delmarva
Peninsula to the Virginia
coast south of the Chesa-
peake Bay. In addition to
water and sediment sam-
pling, a marine mammal
watch and floatable or plastic
pollution watch are included
as part of routine surveil-
lance activities.
Environmental
Rapid Deployment
Team
In 1991, U.S. EPA Region HI
is continuing efforts to
respond quickly to coastal
environmental crises and
public health problems. The
Environmental Rapid
Deployment Team plays a
critical role in these efforts
and is effective, in part, due
to active participation by
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Portraits of Our Coastal Waters
State and Federal agencies
such as the U.S. Coast Guard,
U.S. Fish and Wildlife
Service, National Marine
Fisheries Service, National
Park Service, and the States
of Maryland, Virginia, and
Delaware. Local govern-
ments and citizens who have
timely information on
current or abnormal environ-
mental conditions in their
coastal communities are
encouraged to take part in
these activities.
Mid-Atlantic Initiative
Recognizing that ocean
pollution problems are
seldom localized, U.S. EPA
Region m initiated an effort
to develop a broad-based
Mid-Atlantic Initiative that
would address coastal
problems as a whole rather
than from a regional or state-
level perspective.
The Mid-Atlantic Initiative is
a first step toward address-
ing common concerns in the
Mid-Atlantic Bight and near
coastal waters. The purpose
of the initiative is to better
define coastal problems,
reorient existing U.S. EPA
and state programs to more
effectively address common
high priority problems,
provide suggestions for
solving these problems, and
implement consistent ocean
and estuarine policies where
they are lacking in major
regulatory areas.
As part of this initiative,
Region in sponsored a one-
day workshop on monitoring
in the Middle Atlantic Bight.
Representatives from U.S.
EPA, NOAA, state and local
governments, and research
and academic organizations
described their monitoring
programs in the middle
Atlantic coastal waters and
participated in discussions
on toxics, public health, and
eutrophication issues as they
relate to monitoring in the
Middle Atlantic Bight. In
1990, the region also con-
ducted several coastal state
workshops, to bring state
and local interests into the
initiative. During 1991, the
region intends to establish a
coastal forum of all the mid-
Atlantic states.
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Portraits of Our Coastal Waters
Red Tide in the Eastern Gulf of Mexico
y***' _»*^^**
Description of
Geographic Area
The west coast of Florida
from the Florida Keys to
Cedar Key, is characterized
by mangrove and barrier
islands to the south and
extensive mangrove swamps
and spartLna marshes to the
north. The nearshore area is
characterized by extensive
shallows with seagrass beds
and hard bottom communi-
ties. In addition to numerous
smaller embayments and
estuaries, the west coast
includes Tampa Bay and
Charlotte Harbor, the two
largest open water estuaries
in the state.
The southwest coast of
Florida is not as developed
as the east coast. Population
centers include Fort Myers/
Cape Coral, Sarasota/
Bradenton, and Tampa/St.
Petersburg. The barrier
islands and coastal areas,
from Naples to Clearwater,
have undergone extensive
residential and commercial
development in the past 30
years, but inland areas have,
to a large extent, remained in
pastureland, citrus produc-
tion, and pine/palmetto
cover. Industrial develop-
ment has been confined
mostly to Tampa Bay and
Charlotte Harbor.
Water Quality
Problems
Red tides are a natural
phenomenon in the eastern
Gulf of Mexico caused by
periodic blooms of single-
celled algae, such as the
species Gymnodinium breve.
Red tide derives its name
from the red-brown water
color that occurs during an
intensive bloom of these
dinoflagellates. Between 1975
and 1990, red tides in the
eastern Gulf of Mexico
generally occurred in the fall
and winter and were most
prevalent in the area between
Tampa Bay and Charlotte
Harbor. Red tide also occurs
in northern coastal areas, as
described in the section on
Great Bay, New Hampshire.
These outbreaks and subse-
quent closure of shellfish
beds, were caused by blooms
of the species Alexandrium
spp.
The red tide algae G. breve
produces potent toxins that
are released to the water
11
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Portraits of Our Coastal Waters
when the cell membrane is
ruptured. Release of toxins in
high concentrations causes
fish kills, contaminates
shellfishing areas, and can
cause respiratory irritation in
humans when aerosols are
blown ashore. Red tides can
result in severe economic and
public health problems for
coastal communities and
significantly affect the marine
and estuarine ecosystems in
which they occur.
Public Health
Impact
The G. breve algae produces
several neurotoxins that
accumulate in filter feeding
shellfish, causing neurotoxic
shellfish poisoning (NSP)
when consumed. Symptoms
of NSP include central
nervous system effects such
as tingling of the face, throat,
and extremities (with
temporary paralysis in
extreme cases), burning
mucous membranes, and
reversal of hot-cold tempera-
ture sensations as well as
somatic motor nervous
system effects including loss
of coordination, dizziness,
headaches, and convulsions.
Human intoxication has
resulted after ingestion of
both raw and cooked
contaminated shellfish,
indicating that the toxins are ^
not destroyed by heat.
Unlike most toxic dinoflagel-
lates, which are armored
with a hard cell wall, G. breve
cells are unarmored and thus
easily ruptured, releasing
their toxins into the sur-
rounding water. When
incorporated into the surf,
the toxins become associated
with salt spray and aerosols,
causing severe respiratory
irritation, burning of the nose
and throat, coughing, and
choking. Although respira-
tory irritations usually
subside when the victim is
removed from the affected
environment, the long-term
effects of exposure are not
known.
Ecological Impact
Red tides have been associ-
ated with mortalities of
marine fish and invertebrates
in the eastern Gulf of Mexico.
Most of these events are
caused by neurotoxins that
kill the animal directly or
indirectly via ingestion of
toxin contaminated organ-
isms. In other cases, oxygen
depletion caused by commu-
nity respiration may cause
mortalities. Ducks and
shorebirds feeding on
contaminated mollusks or
fish are also at risk. In
addition, it has been reported
that manatees feeding on
seagrasses during red tide
events inadvertently con-
sume contaminated tunicates
and benthic invertebrates
and are affected by disorien-
tatipn and other symptoms of
NSP.
Economic Impact
Fish kills and NSP in Florida
have caused economic stress
to local communities and a
number of industries. The
1971 red tide caused an
estimated economic loss of
$20 million dollars to the
tourist industry alone, and a
1973-1974 red tide caused an
estimated $15 million dollar
loss to that industry.
Sportfishing, wholesale, and
retail seafood sales, and real
estate sales were also af-
fected. An "economic halo"
effect [Occurs because public
concern can lead to buyer
resistance to all seafood
products, even if they are
safe to eat. For example,
during outbreaks of G. breve,
only bivalves such as oysters
and clams should not be
consumed. The halo effect
can extend far beyond the
county or state involved, so
that total economic impact is
very difficult to measure.
Dynamics and
Extent of the Red
Tide
Although early investigators
thought that blooms origi-
nated near shore and were
linked to nutrient enrich-
ment, further investigation
found that G. breve blooms
begin in an "initiation zone"
28 to 74 kilometers offshore.
Within this zone, it is specu-
lated that benthic cysts for G.
breve exist in seed beds. This
dormant resting stage can
12
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Portraits of Our Coastal Waters
accumulate in localized areas
and reinoculate the overlying
water column. When the
Gulf Loop current meanders
and eddies through these
seed beds, cysts can be
carried up to areas with more
favorable growth conditions
of more light; warmth, and
nutrient supply. As the algal
population increases under
these favorable conditions,
the organisms can be concen-
trated into blooms by
currents and winds.
Winds, currents, and tides
move G. breve blooms to
coastal areas, hi the eastern
Gulf of Mexico, red tides
usually move southward
after reaching nearshore
waters, and in some cases are
transported around the
Florida peninsula and then
northward by Gulf Stream
currents. The first docu-
mented occurrence of G.
breve red tide on the east
coast of Florida was in 1972,
although it is likely that there
were occasional events
before that time.
In the fall of 1987, an exten-
sive red tide (identified as G.
breve) occurred in coastal and
inshore waters of North
Carolina. This bloom had a
serious impact on shellfish-
eries in the area resulting in
scallop mortalities and closed
oyster harvesting areas. This
was the first time a red tide
had been documented in
North Carolina waters. It was
presumed that the Gulf
Stream had transported the
red tide north from south
Florida. Satellite imagery
from the NOAA weather
service supported this
hypothesis with evidence of
a warm mass of Gulf Stream
water moving into the North
Carolina coastal area at the
same time the red tide
occurred.
Monitoring and
Research Activities
The Florida Department of
Natural Resources (DNR) is
responsible for monitoring G.
breve concentrations in near
shore waters to determine
locale and duration of
shellfish bed closures.
Shellfish beds are closed to ,
commercial harvesting when
G. breve concentrations in the
water column exceed 5,000
cells per liter. At this concen-
tration the bloom is not
detectable to the naked eye
and would be unlikely to
cause mass fish mortality.
However, shellfish can
concentrate the toxins in a
low magnitude bloom and
present a risk of NSP to
consumers.
Research is being conducted
on the life history of G. breve
and environmental factors
that lead to bloom formation.
The goals are to establish the
basic biology of the organism
and provide better manage-
ment of red tide events.
Control is not generally
considered feasible. How-
ever, if benthic cyst accumu-
lations indeed are precursors
of red tides and can be
located in well-defined and
limited areas, control meth-
ods might be developed and
evaluated. Also under study
is the question of whether or
not human activity, which
has increased the load of
nutrients in coastal waters,
contributes to the intensity of
red tides.
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Portraits of Our Coastal Waters
Oxygen Depleted Coastal and
Estuarine Waters in Louisiana and Texas
Description of
Geographic Area
The northern Gulf of Mexico,
off the Louisiana and Texas
coast, is a shallow subtropical
sea rich with marine life.
Many of those species
migrate between estuarine
embayments and the inner
continental shelf. The
Mississippi River outflow
has a dominant influence on
biological productivity on the
inner shelf off Louisiana's
coastal marshes. The fresh-
ened Gulf waters ride over
the denser, saline waters of
the Gulf. Depending on
various physical conditions,
this phenomenon can extend
along the coast from the
Mississippi River delta as far
west as Texas. This area is
also one of the most well-
documented locations of
oxygen-depleted (hypoxic)
bottom waters. The hypoxic
zone has been recorded as
covering an area as large as
1200 square kilometers. It can
occur in waters from five to
fifty meters deep, from two
to twenty-five kilometers
offshore, and up to twenty
meters above the bottom.
The hypoxic conditions that
occur above the inner
continental shelf of the Gulf
of Mexico have also been
documented in Lake
Pontchartrain and Lake
Calcasieu, Louisiana and
Galveston Bay, Texas. In
these estuaries, the extent of
the hypoxic zone is more
limited than the area above
the shelf, and is generally
confined to dredged naviga-
tion channels, where reduced
tidal flushing causes poor
water quality, and to sites
adjacent to industrialized
urban areas.
Water Quality
Problems
Hypoxic, or oxygen-de-
pleted, bottom waters
contain levels of dissolved
oxygen so low (less than 2.0
mg/1) that biological produc-
tivity is impeded. Although
limited historic data are
14
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Portraits of Our Coastal Waters
available regarding the
occurrence of waters with
extremely low-levels of
oxygen, some general trends
have been observed. The
phenomenon occurs at
varying intensities, mainly -
during the months of June,
July, and August, and is
associated with strong
thermohaline stratification
and a significant source of
oxidizable organic material.
Hypoxic conditions can affect
both the mortality and
redistribution of fish and
shellfish populations.
Commercial fisheries of
national significance have
been affected by oxygen
deficient waters. Virtually no
shrimp or bottom-dwelling
fish are caught in hypoxic
areas. Reduced catches by
commercial fish and shellfish
industries are difficult to
estimate since mobile species
can move out of hypoxic
areas and be caught else-
where and the overall impact
of hypoxia on productivity is
not well understood.
Hypoxic zones can act as a
barrier to the migration of
adult organisms to coastal
estuaries that serve as
nurseries or transitory
feeding grounds. Addition-
ally, the phenomenon may
act as a herding force, which
results in mass movements of
fish and shellfish, known as
jubilees, away from hypoxic
zones toward oxygen-rich
waters.
Originally estimated at
approximately 1,200 square
kilometers, recent research
has documented the area
affected by hypoxia in recent
years to be much greater.
From 1985 to 1987, over 8,000
square kilometers of bottom
waters off the Louisiana
inner continental shelf was
found to be hypoxic. In 1988,
based on limited data, this
area was estimated to be
much reduced (2,000 square
kilometers). The drought of
1988 caused a 52 year record
low flow of the Mississippi
River Delta. With such a low
input of fresh water into the
system, salinity increased
and stratification did not
remain stable, a necessary
condition under which
hypoxia occurs.
Causes of Hypoxia
Severe oxygen depletion of
bottom waters occurs when
the re-aeration rate is low in
comparison to the oxygen
consumption rate. Re-
aeration rates can be low
because of the strong thermo-
haline stratification that
occurs in the warm summer
months when winds are
lightest and frontal passages
are less frequent. This
stratification occurs above
the Louisiana shelf and in
areas that are affected by the
massive freshwater contribu-
tions from the Mississippi
and Atchafalaya Rivers. High
oxygen consumption rates in
bottom waters are generated
by the decomposition of
settled organic material. The
source of this organic
material appears to be the
highly productive phyto-
plankton population in
surface waters.
Despite a lack of comprehen-
sive historical data, research-
ers have expressed concern
that the occurrence of the
hypoxic zone along the
Louisiana inner continental
shelf may be increasing in
frequency, intensity, and
area. It is proposed that
human activities have
contributed to the occurrence
15
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Portraits of Our Coastal Waters
of the hypoxic zone. A
definite cause-effect relation-
ship, however, is difficult to
establish.
The nutrients carried into the
Gulf by the Mississippi River
have contributed to the
enormous productivity of
these waters which, in turn,
has directly benefited the
commercial fish and shellfish
industries by providing a
rich harvest. And yet, an
increase in the level of
inorganic nutrients (espe-
cially nitrates) from runoff
carried by the river has been
cited as one of the major
causes of hypoxia. Other
human activities, such as
altering freshwater dispersal
patterns by confining lie
Mississippi River flows, are
also thought to have contrib-
uted to the hypoxic condi-
tions.
Current Monitoring
and Research
Studies of the occurrence of
hypoxic bottom waters in the
northern Gulf of Mexico have
only been conducted re-
cently. One of the first
studies was a dissolved
oxygen sampling program
conducted from 1975 to 1980.
During that period, samples
were collected from Mobile
Bay in Alabama to the
Atchafalaya River in Louisi-
ana. The Coastal Zone Color
Scanner was used in 1982
and 1983 to examine the
relationship between hypoxic
bottom waters and high
surface temperatures and
chlorophyll levels in waters
off the Louisiana coast. In
1985, the Neitional Oceanic
and Atmospheric Adminis-
tration, the Louisiana
Universities Marine Consor-
tium, and Louisiana State
University conducted a data
collection and analysis
program specifically de-
signed to assess the extent,
duration, and intensity of
oxygen depletion in the
northern Gulf of Mexico.
In Lake Pontchartrain, the
Louisiana Department of
Environmental Quality
monitors for dissolved
oxygen as part of its fixed
benchmark monitoring
network in operation for 21
years. The network consists
of twenty stations in the Lake
Pontchartrain Basin and nine
stations in the Calcasieu
River Basin. In recent years
wastewater treatment plant
and stormwater discharges
have been reduced by
relocating the greater New
Orleans treatment plant
outfall to the Mississippi
River. The lake still receives
significant nonpoint source
loading from the north shore
area as a result of runoff and
forced drainage.
Similarly, the Texas Water
Commission conducts
ambient water quality
monitoring which includes
dissolved oxygen. Stations
are located in the Galveston
Bay system and in the Gulf of
Mexico off the Texas coast.
The Texas Water
Commission's predecessor
agency, the Texas Depart-
ment of Water Resources,
initiated several comprehen-
sive studies of the Houston
Ship Channel, its tributaries
and side bays, and the upper
Galveston Bay in 1982. As a
result of these studies more
16
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Portraits of Our Coastaf Waters
stringent wastewater permit
requirements were imple-
mented, self-reporting
requirements were ex-
panded, and additional
routine stream monitoring
stations were established.
While both states conduct,
routine water quality
monitoring which includes
dissolved oxygen analysis,
most of the specific studies
focused on hypoxic condi-
tions in coastal waters are
conducted by the Louisiana
Universities Marine Consor-
tium and Texas A&M
University. In addition,
dissolved oxygen measure-
ments have been collected by
the cooperative Southeast
Area Monitoring and
Assessment Program
(SEAMAP) which is a federal
and state biological resource
sampling effort. Information
gained from these research
efforts and monitoring
programs are important for
improving and managing a
coastal area that is consid-
ered one of the nation's most
valuable fisheries.
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Portraits of Our Coastal Waters
Sediment Deficit and Saltwater Intrusion
in Barataria Basin, Louisiana
Description of
Geographic Area
The Barataria Basin and Bay
estuarine S3^stem in Louisi-
ana is one of the most
productive estuaries in the
nation. Its cypress swamps,
grassy marshes, and shallow
lakes and bays are the basis
for significant ecological,
recreational, and economic
resources of national scope.
The 2350 square mile
ecosystem is predominantly
characterized by water,
which covers approximately
400,000 acres. About 80
percent of the total basin is
comprised of periodically
flooded marsh and swamp.
The wetlands of the upper
basin are predominantly
composed of bald cypress/
water tupelo stands and
flotant marsh. Twenty-two
percent of the central basin is
characterized by brackish
and intermediate marshes.
As the salinity of the water
increases, the dominant plant
in this area changes from
saltmeadow cordgrass to
oyster grass, which character-
izes the salt marsh area
surrounding the bay system.
Protected areas represent a
small but significant type of
land use. Approximately
8,600 acres of swamp, marsh,
and bottomland hardwood
forest lands are protected
from development and are
open for public recreation in
the Jean Lafitte National
Historical Park. In addition,
approximately 3,000 acres of
adjacent Bayou aux Carpes
wetlands have been afforded
federal protection from
dredge and fill activities.
Two State Wildlife Manage-
ment Areas encompass
52,757 acres of coastal marsh
and swamp forest.
Biologic Resources
The Barataria wetlands and
bays together provide vital
nursery grounds for many
estuarine dependent species
of recreational and commer-
cial value. The Barataria
Basin is responsible for a
large share of Louisiana's
$200 million commercial
fishery harvest, which is the
largest in the U.S. The basin
also provides valuable
habitat for a diversity of
wildlife species including
commercially important
furbearers, eight threatened
or endangered wildlife
species, and an abundance of
18
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Portraits of Our Coastal Waters
waterfowl that utilize the
Mississippi Eh/way migra-
tory route.
Water Quality
Problems and
Wetland Loss
The estuarine habitat sup-
porting this productivity is
degrading at a very rapid
rate. Coastal Louisiana
wetlands were vanishing at a
rate of 60 square miles per
year by the mid-1980's,
although the rate of loss may
have slowed to approxi-
mately 32 square miles
toward the end of that
decade. The losses arise from
a combination of natural
processes such as
channelization, subsidence,
erosion, sea level rise, and
human activities which
include flood control prac-
tices, impoundment, and
dredging.
The result of these com-
pounding influences has
been a great reduction of
sediment and freshwater
allocations to Barataria Basin.
The freshwater is largely
being channeled through the
Mississippi River passes,
which carry the river's heavy
load of sediments into deep
waters of the Gulf of Mexico.
As a result, the swamps and
marshes in the delta plain are
experiencing a sediment
deficit and pathways are
opened for the inland
advance of saline waters. As
the substrate subsides and
the vegetation is stressed,
wetlands are converted to
open water.
The overbank flooding that
typically feeds the delta
marshes has been eliminated
by construction of the
Mississippi River levees
below New Orleans. The
levees eliminated both the
seasonal overbank flows and
the long term delta shifts.
The only place along the
Louisiana coast where major
delta building is occurring
today is at the Atchafalaya
Delta, west of Barataria Bay.
The projected emergence of
120,000 acres of Atchafalaya
Delta marsh in the next 30 to
50 years will not, however,
offset the geometrically
increasing rate of land loss
that is occurring along the
entire Louisiana coast.
19
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Portraits of Our Coastal Waters
Activities within the
Barataria Basin itself are also
contributing to the sediment
deficit. The major influence
in this category is canal
dredging and leveeing,
which is generally done for
navigation and mineral
extraction. Because the canals
are deeper than the natural
watercourses, they cut off the
sediment supply to the
marshes by channeling the
water flow through the
system at a much faster rate.
Also, because the canals are
lined by levees or spoil
banks, the overbank sheet
flow of water through the
marshes is reduced or
eliminated. This effect is
often magnified when the
spoil banks of canals, which
are dredged at different
times for various purposes,
end up interconnecting to
form impoundments.
In addition to effects on
sediment supplies, leveeing
and canal dredging of the
Mississippi River have had
profound effects on freshwa-
ter inflow and saltwater
intrusion. Control of the
Mississippi River has
minimized the introduction
of freshwater into the upper
basin, while canals have
lessened freshwater retention
time and allowed greater
inland intrusion of saltwater.
Scientists have proposed
several mechanisms by
which saltwater intrusion
and reduced sedimentation
may contribute to the loss of
wetlands. The first mecha-
nism points to increased
salinity, or saltwater intru-
sion, as the primary cause.
When water of greater
salinity penetrates the
intermediate and freshwater
marshes of the central and
of marsh plants and accumu-
lation of hydrogen sulfide in
the soil is the mortality agent.
As hydrogen sulfide accu-
mulates in the soils of
submerged wetlands, it
prevents the plants from
taking up nitrogen and
upper basin, the vegetation is
stressed. This may result in
the die-off of marsh plants,
which are not replaced. Such
a situation may occur when
the rate of salinity change
exceeds the rate of succession
toward a more salt-tolerant
species, causing the underly-
ing peat to erode. In this way,
large, shallow ponds and
lakes may be created where
the vegetation once occurred.
The problem of vegetation
loss can be compounded by
the formation of larger areas
of open water, since the
increase in the interface
between water and marsh, in
turn, leads to a greater rate of
erosion.
More recently, a number of
scientists have proposed that
increases in salinity alone do
not cause the loss of wetland
vegetation. Instead, it is
suggested that submergence
growth is thereby retarded.
The issue of whether marsh
loss in this area is more a
function of reduced sedimen-
tation or increased salinity
has become an important
management issue.
Future Directions
and Strategies
/
As discussed, two of the
predominant causes of
habitat degradation in the
Barataria estuary are saltwa-
ter intrusion and reduced
sediment input and reten-
tion. A new plan for future
management of the Missis-
sippi River would affect both
of those factors. The plan is to
divert a portion of the
Mississippi River flow into
Barataria Basin in an attempt
to re-establish a more
balanced overbank flow
regime.
20
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Portraits of Our Coastal Waters
The traditional goals of
managing the flow of the
Mississippi River have been
maintaining navigation,
providing flood control, and
developing fossil fuels. In
response to a better under-
standing of the role and
value of wetlands and the
impact of man's activities on
them, a new goal has
emerged for managing the
water flow in this area: to
revitalize one of the nation's
most unique natural re-
sources. As the new manage-
ment strategy develops, the
focus will be on reversing the
pattern of wetland loss and
maintaining the ecological
diversity which defines a
healthy and productive
estuary. Two of the key
tactics for implementing the
'strategy will revolve around
the goals of restoring a more
supportive hydrologic
system and sedimentation
process. Management
alternatives being considered
range from restoration
planning for individual
access canals to developing a
comprehensive master plan
for the entire Louisiana coast.
Also, a comprehensive
interagency planning effort .
has begun for the Barataria-
Terrebonne estuarine
complex as part of the
National Estuary Program
administered by the U.S.
Environmental Protection
Agency.
21
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Portraits of Our Coastal Waters
Toxic Contamination in
San Diego Bay, California
Description of
Geographic Area
Approximately 10 miles from
the US.-Mexican border, San
Diego Bay is the southern-
most embayment on the
United Slates' western coast.
Fifteen miles in length, the
arc-shaped bay varies in
width from 1/3 mile to 21/4
miles, and in depth from
over 40 feet in the channel to
only a few feet in many areas
of the South Bay. Fresh water
input to the bay is predomi-
nantly from periodic surface
runoff via storm drains, and
from four small rivers during
periods of rainfall. Two of
these, the Otay and
Sweetwater Rivers, flow
through an. ecologically
important marsh prior to
entering the bay.
San Diego Bay is one of the
nation's finest natural
harbors, and maintains a
variety of beneficial uses,
including shipping, fishing,
industry, contact and non-
contact recreation, military
use, and habitat for marine
life. However, like many
other industrialized bays,
San Diego bay has had its
share of problems. For
example, the bay's wetlands,
floodplains, and marsh
habitats have been reduced
by over 90 percent in the last
100 years. Similarly, the Bay
has faced a number of water
and sediment quality
problems.
Water and
Sediment Quality
Problems
Pollution problems in San
Diego Bay have changed
considerably over the past
fifty years. In die 1940s and
1950s, biological contamina-
tion from the input of sewage
\vas the major problem
facing the bay. Untreated
wastewaters from several
industrial facilities, a Naval
facility, and private vessels
also contributed to eutropM-
cation of the bay's waters.
The initiation of sewage
treatment in 1963, along with
the removal of most munici-
pal waste dischargers and
other point sources of
pollution, resulted in a
dramatic improvement in the
quality of the bay's waters by
the early 1970s. During the
22
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Portraits of Our Coastal Waters
1970s, San Diego Bay was
considered by many to be
significantly cleaner than
most other industrialized
harbors.
However, the 1980s saw a
dramatic shift in the nature
of San Diego Bay's pollution
problems. While problems
associated with eutrophica-
tion diminished, other
contamination problems in
the bay became more visible.
As sampling and detection
technology improved,
previously unseen problems
from toxic chemicals began
to emerge. The discharge and
accumulation of toxic
chemical pollutants is now
the key issue concerning the
health of the bay. Of particu-
lar concern are toxic hot
spots from chemical contami-
nants such as polychlori-
nated biphenyls (PCBs),
organotins, and copper.
Resources at Risk
Habitat reduction and
chemical and biological
pollution present a potential
risk to many of San Diego
Bay's beneficial uses. These
include commercial and
recreational fishing, wildlife
habitat, and activities such as
swimming, water skiing,
rowing, and sailing.
Commercial and Recreational
Fishing
The San Diego area sport
fishery is claimed by the
Chamber of Commerce to be
the largest in the United
States. Dozens of fish species
are caught and consumed
from the ocean and San
Diego Bay each year. The
public health significance of
water and sediment quality
problems in the bay has
remained unclear. Because of
this, many people have
questioned whether it is safe
to eat fish from the bay. To
address these concerns, the
San Diego County Depart-
ment of Health Services
conducted the San Diego Bay
Health Risk Study, released in
April 1990.
Of the chemicals evaluated
in the study, only mercury
and PCBs were present in
high enough concentrations
to be considered a threat to
human health. Based on the
results of the study, some
areas were also identified as
possibly requiring the
collection of additional data.
These include an. assessment
of shellfish consumption
patterns in the Bay, and
further evaluation of dioxins
and furans, specific radioiso-
topes, and levels of organic
vs. inorganic arsenic and
mercury in fish from the bay.
Wildlife Habitat
San Diego Bay provides
habitat for a wide variety of
fish, wildlife, and plant
species. Many miles of its
shoreline contain shallow
water eel grass (Zostera)
habitat for fish, invertebrates,
and birds. Commercial salt
water evaporation ponds,
and associated marshes in
the South Bay, attract many
species of waterfowl. The bay
is also home to at least seven
endangered species. These
include the Calif ornia brown
pelican, the California least
tern, the peregrine falcon, the
light-footed clapper rail, the
23
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Portraits of Our Coastal Waters
green sea turtle, the belding
savannah sparrow, and the
salt marsh bird's-beak. The
risk to these species from
pollution to the Bay is
currently poorly understood.
Preservation of these species
and the sensitive habitat
areas necessary to sustain
them is paramount, and will
need to be more completely
addressed in future research
and monitoring efforts.
Recreational Activities
Both contact and non-contact
recreational activities are
pursued in San Diego Bay by
residents and visitors to the
area. These include swim-
ming at numerous beaches,
water skiing, board sailing,
rowing, sailing, and fishing.
A great deal of economic
investment has also been
attracted to the area. Shore-
line hotels, restaurants,
commercial theme malls, and
public parks and trails can be
found at many locations
around the bay. Most of the
concern about human health
risks in San Diego Bay has
centered on the consumption
of seafood. However, while it
is generally thought that the
risks from other recreational
activities are minimal, little
work has been done to
quantify them.
Sources of
Toxic Pollutants
Many chemical and biologi-
cal contaminants are capable
of affecting the beneficial
uses of San Diego Bay. Some
of the more significant
sources of these contami-
nants are thought to include
industries around the Bay,
marinas and anchorages, U.S.
Naval installations, under-
water hull cleaning and
vessel antifouling paints,
urban runoff, and under-
ground dewatering.
Industries in the Bay Area
In general, industries around
San Diego Bay have made
significant progress in
abating the effect of pollut-
ants on the bay. Most
industries handling hazard-
ous materials or wastes are
required to obtain a permit.
Also, the City of San Diego
issues permits for industries
discharging wastes to
sanitary sewers. In spite of
these restraints, contamina-
tion from industries on the
bay does occur. Investiga-
tions have shown a source of
PCB contamination in the
North Bay to be three storm
drains that flow from an
industrial facility. Addition-
ally, seven boat yards in the
North Bay are responsible for
high sediment levels of
copper, mercury, and
tributylin. Cleanup and
abatement is currently being
negotiated for these sites by
the California Regional
Water Quality Control Board.
Marinas and Anchorages
Oil changing, bilge pumping,
and sewage released from
vessels are all potential
sources of contamination to
the Bay. Marinas are not
currently required to provide
facilities for oil and paint
storage, recycling, or dis-
posal. Additionally, few
sewage holding tank pump
out stations are installed or
operable, and existing
facilities are infrequently
used by boaters. It is not
known whether illegal
releases of sewage from
vessels are producing unsafe
swimming conditions.
U.S. Naval Installations
The U.S. Navy controls much
of San Diego Bay's shoreline.
Because of security require-
ments, most available
information on water quality
near these military areas has
been provided by the Navy.
Little is known about urban
runoff components and the
makeup of surface films near
Navy fueling facilities.
However, sampling pro-
grams currently being
conducted may provide
more information.
Underwater Hull Cleaning and
Vessel Antifouling Paints
San Diego is home port for
up to 8,000 boats and ships,
including 100 Navy ships
and submarines. The bay is
24
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Portraits of Our Coastal Waters
the site of much vessel
maintenance, including hull
cleaning and coating with
antifouling paints. Studies
have found that by-products
of vessel maintenance
activities have been accumu-
lating in the bay. These by-
products include copper,
mercury, and tributylin
(TBT).
Of major concern in the late
1980s was the accumulation
of organotins, especially TBT,
in shellfish and sediments.
TBT has been shown to be
highly toxic to many marine
organisms. Recent state
legislation has limited the use
of TBT in marine applica-
tions. New paint formula-
tions are also being devel-
oped which may prove to be
less toxic than current
antifouling paints. In addi-
tion, some underwater hull
cleaning companies have
proposed best management
practices to reduce the
environmental effects of
antif outing paint removal.
Urban Runoff
Storm water conveys many
materials into the bay from
upland areas. These materi-
als can be toxic or contribute
to nuisance problems. The
potential effects of industrial
and household hazardous
waste discharges have not
been quantified. Under the
Clean Water Act, urban
runoff was originally consid-
ered a non-point source.
However, the courts have
now required that NPDES
permits be issued for urban
drains. The permits contain
monitoring and reporting
requirements that will
provide valuable information
for understanding the
complexity of urban runoff.
Underground Dewatering
Activities such as construc-
tion dewatering and mainte-
nance dewatering of under-
ground structures can
provide pathways for the
movement of subsurface
contamination into the bay.
In particular, several under-
ground sites containing
petroleum products have
leaked their contents into the
bay. Because of regulatory
efforts currently underway,
this problem should lessen
over time.
Current and
Planned Activities
The San Diego Regional
Board is continuing its
studies of the Bay which
include the five-year San
Diego Bay Cleanup Project,
initiated in July 1987. Other
agencies, including the
California Department of
Fish and Game and the U.S.
Geological Survey, are
working with the San Diego
Regional Board on this
project The Project's current
focus includes petroleum
occurrence, toxics in sedi-
ment, tidal circulation, and "
underwater hull cleaning
activities.
Many other agencies and
organizations share responsi-
bility for maintaining the
health of San Diego Bay. To
improve communication
between these groups, the
San Diego Interagency Water
Quality Panel was created in
1987 by the State Legislature.
The Panel consists of repre-
sentatives from 25 organiza-
tions including the Regional
Water Quality Control Board,
San Diego County Depart-
ment of Health Services, Port •
of San Diego, California
Departments of Health
Services, Food and Agricul-
ture, and Fish and Game, and
the U.S. Fjavironmental
Protection Agency.
25
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Portraits of Our Coastal Waters
Salmon Mortality Problems
in Port Townsend Bay, Washington
28
Description of
Geographic Area
Port Townsend Bay is an
embayment in the northeast
corner of the Olympic
Peninsula in Washington
State. Its large northern outlet
opens to Admiralty Inlet,
which connects the Strait of
Juan de Fuca (and the Pacific
Ocean) to Puget Sound. At
the southern end, a narrow
connection to Puget Sound
restricts exchange of water.
Between the bay's two
islands, Indian and
Marrowstone, lies Kilisut
Harbor. The bay (excluding
Kilisut Harbor) has a surface
area of 30 square kilometers
and a mean depth of 17.4
meters. Its shoreline is 20
percent urban (Port
Townsend), 20 percent
county urban/suburban, 30
percent conservancy/natural
uses, and 30 percent U.S.
Naval Reserve (Indian
Island).
A variety of biological
resources can be found in
and around Port Townsend
Bay. The glacous-winged
gull, pelagic cormorant,
pigeon guillemot, and black
oystercatcher use the area for
nesting. Commercial fisher-
men operate just north of the
bay in Admiralty Inlet. The
bay itself supports sport
salmon fishing as well as
spawning grounds and
holding areas for the Pacific
herring and shellfish beds of
geoduck, clam, and oyster. '
Dungeness crab can also be
found.
Water Quality
Problems
At two locations in Port
Townsend Bay in 1986 and at
one location in 1987, com-
mercial attempts to raise
Atlantic salmon in pens
failed because of a greater
than 90 percent mortality. A
pathology study concluded
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Portraits of Our Coastal Waters
that the salmon mortality
was caused by severe liver
disease associated with
waterborne toxicants.
The Bay is generally consid-
ered a nonurban area with
little or no previous record of
toxic contamination. A
preliminary investigation at a
proposed peri site in Glen
Cove (on the western shore
of the bay) found further
evidence of an environmen-
tal problem: the diversity and
numbers of bottom-dwelling
and benthic organisms were
severely limited.
Pollutant Sources
The major point source
discharger to Port Townsend
Bay is an unbleached kraft
pulp mill that discharges 12
to 16 million gallons per day
into Glen Cove through an
outfall 1,800 feet offshore. In
addition, the Naval Undersea
Warfare Engineering Station
(NUWES), Indian Island
Annex, is permitted to
discharge up to 36,000
gallons per day of treated
domestic wastewater to
waters off Crane Point on the
eastern shore of the Bay.
Other possible pollutant
sources include the Navy
Munition Steam-out Facility
on Indian Island. Conven-
tional explosives have been
handled at this site since the
mid-1970's. Although a
permit exists to allow the
discharge of treated "red
water" from this facility,
these wastes are not dis-
charged at this site. A former
ocean disposal area is located
just outside the bay and two
anchorages for ships carrying
explosives are within the bay,
one atthe mouth and one off
Indian Island. It is not known
what materials may have
been disposed of in the bay,
either intentionally or
accidentally. Additional
problems are caused by
rionpoint sources including
surface runoff, septic leakage,
and boat traffic.
Continuing
Investigation
In October 1987, the Wash-
ington Department of
Ecology (WDOE) began to
investigate the Port
Townsend salmon mortality
problem. Samples of salmon
27
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Portraits of Our Coastal Waters
tissues both within and
outside the Bay, samples of
seawater at the salmon net
pens, and bottom sediments
of the bay were collected and
analyzed for priority pollut-
ants, chlorinated dioxin/
furans, selected trace metals,
resin acids, and munitions
chemicals. A biomonitoring
inspection of the Port
Townsend Paper Company
pulp mill and an inspection
of the Navy Indian Island
facility were also conducted
in late 1987. None of these
investigations revealed the
source of the waterborne
toxicant.
In 1988, further studies were
conducted. Long-term
bioassay testing of the pulp
mill effluent, using Atlantic
salmon, resulted in no liver
lesions or significant mortal-
ity. Atlantic salmon, Chinook
salmon, Donaldson trout,
and shiner perch were also
raised in pens off the Port
Townsend marina and at
Crane Point. Atlantic salmon
suffered high mortality at
both sites; young Chinook
salmon suffered a significant,
but lower, mortality rate at
the marina site while no
significant mortality was
observed among larger
Chinook salmon. Donaldson
trout displayed liver lesions,
but did not suffer mortality.
The liver lesions appeared to
be similar to those observed
in previous years' testing.
Additional water sampling
conducted in 1988 by WDOE
at the pen site off the marina
revealed no problems.
at the pen site off the marina
revealed no problems.
The liver disease, first
observed in Atlantic salmon,
has now been observed in
other salmonid species in
Port Townsend Bay and does
not appear to be caused by
the pulp mill effluent. Other
water and sediment sam-
pling near the fish pens has
not revealed any likely
sources of the problem. Since
Atlantic salmon with similar
liver disease have been found
in four unpolluted sites in
British Columbia, U.S. EPA
Region X is now encouraging
further research to confirm
the hypothesis that a natural
algae-produced toxin may be
the cause of the problem.
28
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Portraits of Our Coastal Waters
Multimedia Pollutants Effect
Green Bay/Fox River, Wisconsin
Description of
Geographic Area
Green Bay can be character-
ized as a long, relatively
shallow extension, of north-
western Lake Michigan. The
Green Bay watershed drains
land surfaces in both Wis-
consin and Michigan, and
contains about one-third of
the total Lake Michigan
drainage basin. The Fox
River Valley is heavily
industrialized and contains
the largest concentration of
pulp and paper industries in
the world.
Water Quality
Problems
At present, conditions in
Green Bay range from
hypereutrophic in the
southern portion to mesotro-
phic-oligotrophic near the
Lake Michigan interface. The
extreme productivity in the
southern portion results in
deposition of organic
material which, in turn,
causes hypolimnetic oxygen
depletion in the central bay.
The presence of toxic organic
materials in the water,
sediment, and biota has
adversely affected both the
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Portraits of Our Coastal Waters
30
utilization and management
of the Bay's fisheries. The
commercial fisheries in the
Bay, with the exception of
yellow perch, are closed due
to PCB contamination.
Consumption advisories
have been issued to sport
fishermen. Reproductive
failure and increased defor-
mities have been observed in
some fish-eating birds and is
apparently related to toxic
contamination.
The problems with toxic
contamination observed in
Green Bay are similar to
those in other polluted areas
of the Great Lakes, and are
representative of the problem
of bioaccumulation of toxic
contaminants in the fish and
in the Lakes at large The
lower bay and Fox River
have been recognized as a
polluted water system, and
have been designated by the
International Joint Commis-
sion as one of the 42 Great
Lakes Areas of Concern.
Green Bay/Fox
River Mass
Balance Study
EPA's Great Lakes National
Program Office (GLNPO) is
coordinating and providing
major funding for a mass
balance study of the toxic
contaminants in the Green
Bay ecosystem.
The concept of total load
management in the Great
Lakes Basin is a fundamental
element of the Water Quality
Agreement between Canada
and the United States, of
GLNPCKs Five-Year Strategy
and of the Lake Michigan
Toxicant Control Strategy.
Great Lakes managers have
recognized that addressing
toxic contaminants in the
Great Lakes system requires
a comprehensive multi-
media evaluation of the point
and nonpoint source load-
ings to the lakes, including
less easily measured sources
such as air, precipitation, soil,
sediments, and ground
water. The mass balance
approach, based on the law
of conservation of mass,
assumes that inputs of toxic
contaminants (less quantities
stored, transformed, or
degraded within the system)
must equal outputs. This
concept serves as the frame-
work around which data are
being gathered to provide a
comprehensive picture, an
ecosystem model, of con-
taminant dynamics in Green
Bay.
The overall goal of the Green
Bay/Fox River Study is to
develqp a modeling frame-
work to improve our under-
standing of the sources,
transport, and fate of toxic
compounds, to evaluate the
technological capability to
measure multi-media
loadings to the system, and
ultimately to guide and
support regulatory activity.
Study Scope and Activities
For the Green Bay/Fox River
Mass Balance Study, models
will be applied to toxicants of
interest. These include PCEIs,
the pesticide dieldrin,
cadmium and lead. Each of
these toxicants had been
selected as a model for larger
groups of chemicals. Physi-
cal/chemical models will be
coupled with a food chain
model to allow estimation of
the body burdens in the
target species of carp, brown
trout, and walleye. The
integrated model will then be
used to predict concentra-
tions in the water, sediment,
and biota in response to
differing regulatory and
remedial action scenarios.
The predictions will include
long-term extrapolation from
the short-term calibration.
The study is concentrating
the research efforts of
numerous investigators on
Green Bay, in order to gather
the data needed to construct
and drive the mass balance
model. Research vessels will
travel the bay to measure
contaminant levels in water,
sediments, and biota. Projects
to quantify sources of toxic
contaminants include:
• A first-of-its-kind
network of air monitors
to measure the introduc-
tion of airborne toxicants
to Green Bay;
• Sampling programs to
measure toxic input from
major rivers that enter
Green Bay, including the
mouth of the Fox River;
and
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Portraits of Our Coastal Waters
• An in-depth study of the
distribution and move-
ment of contaminants
from polluted sediments.
These activities will tap the
expertise of a number of state
and federal agencies. Aside
from EPA's GLNPO, partici-
pants include the Wisconsin
Department of Natural
Resources, Wisconsin Sea
Grant, the National Oceanic
and Atmospheric Adminis-
tration (NOAA), the US. Fish
and Wildlife Service, the US.
Geological Survey, the
Michigan Department of
Natural Resources, the Green
Bay Remedial Action Plan
Implementation Committee,
EPA labs at Duluth, MN and
Grosse Isle, and EPA Region
5 Divisions of Water and
Waste Management.
Study Schedule and 1990 Status
The study activities were
conducted during a four-year
period from 1986 to 1990.
During 1986-87, a monitoring
plan was developed, along
with a quality assurance
program to be used in
evaluating analytical and
field methods for the project.
Also during this time,
modeling tasks were scoped
out and assigned to appro-
priate investigators, and
some field reconnaissance
was accomplished. Results of
the study are expected in
1991.
During 1988, three atmo-
spheric deposition monitor-
ing stations were operating.
EPA's research vessel, the
R/V Roger Simons, was
outfitted with the necessary
sampling and laboratory
equipment. The field season
saw the first shakedown
surveys in the bay to test the
research equipment while at
sea. During the August,
October, and November
surveys, methods for sam-
pling toxics in bay and
tributary waters were tested
in preparation for the main
field work year of 1989.
NOAA deployed wave rider
buoys and current meters at
strategic locations in the bay.
Field work was completed
during the 1989-90 field
season. Sample analysis and
data evaluation was con-
cluded during 1990. Model-
ing work is underway with
results and a final report
expected in 1991.
Significance of the Study to
Great Lakes Water Quality
Management
As recommended by the
International Joint Commis-
sion for all Great Lakes Areas
of Concern, Wisconsin's
Department of Natural
Resources has prepared a
Remedial Action Plan for
Green Bay and Lower Fox
River. This plan outlines
actions the state intends to
carry out to restore beneficial
uses, such as swimming and
fishing, of the bay. The plan,
however, does point out that
the relative importance of
some sources of toxic
contaminants, such as acid
deposition, are not well
understood. The results of
the Mass Balance Study will
aid the state in refinement of
their plans to enhance water
quality in the bay.
The methods and findings of
the study could also have a
much wider application.
Mass balance modeling has
successfully been applied to
the regulation of nutrient
loads in the Great Lakes
during the decade. However,
the sources, pathways, and
sinks for toxics are less well
understood. Under the Water
Quality Agreement between
the US. and Canada, the US.
EPA and the Great Lakes
states have a mandate to
manage toxic contamination
in the Great Lakes on a lake-
wide basis by taking all
inputs into account, that is,
total load management.
The Green Bay/Fox River
Mass Balance Study will test
the use of a modeling
framework to improve our
understanding of the sources,
transport and fate of toxic
compounds. It will ulti-
mately guide and support
regulatory activity. The study
is also designed to develop
and test methods, such as
sampling for airborne toxics,
that can later be used for
lake-wide investigations of
toxic contaminants. In this
way, it serves as a pilot for
future modeling studies of
Great Lakes ecosystems.
31
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