€tiMATS CHANGE AND MUNICIPAL SOUP
WASTE—TWO ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES
WITH AN IMPORTANT UNDERLYING LINK.
Rising levels of gases in the Earths atmosphere are
causing changes in our climate, and some of these
changes can be traced to solid waste. The manufac-
ture, distribution, and use of products—as well as manage-
ment of the resulting waste—all result in emissions of
atmospheric gases that affect the Earth's climate. Waste pre-
vention and recycling are real ways to help control climate
change.
WHAT Is THE GREENHOUSE EFFECT?
The atmosphere that surrounds the Earth contains
many types of gases, including those known as
"greenhouse gases." Greenhouse gases (GHG)
absorb and retain heat from the sun. They regulate the
Earths climate by holding warmth in an atmospheric blan-
ket around the planet's surface. Scientists call this phenom-
enon the "greenhouse effect."
"Without greenhouse gases, the average temperature on Earth
would be 5 degrees Fahrenheit instead of the current 60
degrees Fahrenheit. Excess greenhouse gases in the atmos-
phere, however, can raise global temperatures.
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1. The Earths atmosphere con-
taim greenhouse gases that hold
the sun's warmth. In this way,
greenhouse-gases help control
global temperatures.
•
2. Certain human activities
release additional greenhouse
gases, upsetting the natural
atmospheric balance. Increasing
the concentration of greenhouse
gases raises global temperatures.
WHAT ARE THE CONSEQUENCES OF
CLIMATE CHANGE?
What's so bad about warm days and balmy nights?
Why try to reduce greenhouse gas emissions?
Unfortunately, increased concentrations of
greenhouse gases in the atmosphere will not create a world-
wide tropical paradise. Even if it did, the Earths diverse
ecosystems depend on a variety of climates. Human activi-
ties that thicken the gaseous "greenhouse" around the plan-
et threaten to disrupt the diversity of habitats and the life
dependent on them.
In the past 100 years, scientists have detected an increase of
1 degree Fahrenheit in the Earth's average surface tempera-
ture. The international scientific community is increasingly
agreed that human activity is responsible for some of this
increase. A rise of only a few degrees in the Earth's average
temperature could result in:
• More frequent and intense storms
• Flooding of beaches, bay marshes, and other low-lying
coastal areas
• More precipitation in some areas and not enough in
others
• "Wider distribution of certain infectious diseases
Such significant changes could damage communities and
national economies as well as alter die natural world. Of
What Are Greenhouse Gases?
course, many uncertainties remain. No one can predict the
precise timing, magnitude, and regional patterns of climate
change. Nor can anyone foretell the ability of mankind and
nature to adapt to such changes.
It is clear, however, diat
climate change will not be
easily reversed. Because 4'
greenhouse gases remain
in die atmosphere a long
time, turning back cli-
mate change may take j
decades
or even cen-
turies.
WHAT Is THE LINK BETWEEN SOLID
WASTE AND CLIMATE CHANGE?
Waste prevention and recycling—joindy referred
to as waste reduction—help us better manage
die solid waste we generate. But preventing
waste and recycling also are potent strategies for reducing
greenhouse gases. Together, waste prevention and recycling:
• Reduce emissions from energy consumption. Recycling
saves energy. Manufacturing goods from recycled materi-
als typically requires less energy than producing goods
from virgin materials. Waste prevention is even more
effective. When people reuse things or when products are
made with less material, less energy is needed to extract,
transport, and process raw materials, and to manufacture
products. The payoff? When energy demand decreases,
fewer fossil fuels are burned and less carbon dioxide is
emitted to the atmosphere.
• Reduce emissions from incinerators. Recycling and
waste prevention allow some materials to be diverted
from incinerators and thus reduce greenhouse gas emis-
sions from die combustion of waste.
• Reduce methane emissions from landfills. "Waste pre-
vention and recycling -(including composting) divert
organic wastes from landfills, reducing die mediane
released when these materials decompose.
• Increase storage of carbon in trees. Trees absorb carbon
dioxide from the atmosphere and store it in wood, in a
process called "carbon sequestration." Waste prevention
and recycling of paper products allow more trees to
remain standing in the forest, where they can continue to
remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.
Some greenhouse gases occur
naturally in the atmosphere, while
others result from human activities.
Naturally occurring greenhouse
gases include water vapor, carbon
dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide0, and
ozone. Certain human activities, how-
of
ever, add to .the levels of most
these naturally occurring gases.
Carbon dioxide is released to the
atmosphere when solid waste, fossil
fuels (oil, natural gas, and coal), and
wood and. wood products are burned.
Methane is emitted during the
production and transport of coal, nat-
ural gas, and oil; the decomposition
of organic wastes in municipal solid
waste landfills; and the raising of live-
stock.
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United States
Environmental Protection
Agency
Solid Waste and
Emergency Response
(&306W)
EPA530-E-99-002a
October 1999
http://www.epa.gov/mswc/;mafe
Pay-As-You-Throw
A Cooling Effect on
Climate Change
Pay-As-You-Throw (PAYT) is a program that encourages residents to reduce the amount
of waste they generate and to recycle more. The benefits of this program go beyond the
obvious advantages of generating less waste. The manufacture and distribution of prod-
ucts and the subsequent management of municipal solid ivaste (MSW) contribute to the
formation of greenhouse gases. To lower greerihouse gas emissions from these actions, as
well as for other environmental benefits, EPA is encouraging waste prevention and recy-
cling (jointly referred to as waste reduction) through the PAYT Outreach Initiative.
WHAT Is PAYT?
i AYT programs break with tradition
by ensuring that households see and
feel the cost of waste disposal ser-
vices. Under a traditional system, residents
pay indirectly for these services through
their property taxes or through a flat fee.
With PAYT, residents pay directly for trash
services based on the amount of waste they
throw away—similar to the way they pay
for electricity, gas, and other utilities.
•"When consumers pay for every bag or can of
waste they generate, they are motivated
to recycle more and look for creative ways
to prevent waste in the first place. In
communities that implement PAYT,
overall waste disposal can decline
by 14 to 27 percent on average.
In addition, recycling rates often
increase dramatically in these communities,
sometimes reaching double or even triple
what they had been before the program was
implemented.
Some residents in PAYT communities
change their behavior in other significant
iways. While shopping, they are more likely to
purchase items in bulk and to select products
with the least amount of unnecessary packag-
ing. Rather than throw items away, a PAYT
household .is likely to look first for ways to
reuse these goods or to give them away, as
charitable donations, for example. Rather
than bag yard trimmings and leaves, house-
holds might choose instead to compost these
materials in their backyards.
How DOES PAYT
HELP REDUCE
GREENHOUSE 6AS
EMISSIONS?
PAYT programs are based on a simple
premise: trash services are not free. One
important cost of solid waste, in addi-
tion to its other environmental effects,
is climate change. Whenever products
are made, distributed, and disposed of,
greenhouse gases are released and con-
tribute to climate change. Community
PAYT programs—which spur residents to
prevent and recycle more waste—can reduce
greenhouse gas emissions significantly.
When we reduce, reuse, and recycle products,
we decrease the greenhouse gas emissions
associated with making, distributing, and dis-
posing of these products. For example, when
we buy in bulk, we purchase less packaging.
That means lower energy requirements for
manufacturing. It means less waste that
Printed on paper that contains at least 30 percent postconsumer fiber.
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might create methane emissions in landfills, and, if paper
products are at issue, it means more trees standing in the for-
est to absorb greenhouse gases from the atmosphere.
Is it possible to measure the climate change benefits of
PAYT? Yes! To help quantify the climate change benefits of
waste reduction programs such as PAYT, EPA conducted a
comprehensive study of the relationship between solid waste
management and climate change. The study estimated the
greenhouse gas emissions associated with managing major
commodity types in die MSW stream. The
study resulted in the development of green-
house gas emission factors that can be used
to calculate the climate change benefits of
various waste management practices.
To analyze the specific climate change benefits of PAYT pro-
grams, EPA used diese greenhouse gas emission factors in
combination with the results of a PAYT study conducted by
researchers at Duke University. The Duke study analyzed
program statistics from 212 PAYT communities across the
country and calculated the average amount of per capita
waste reduction experienced by these communities. EPA
then calculated the per capita climate change impact of
PAYT using this average PAYT waste reduction percentage
and the greenhouse gas emission factors.
EPA estimates that for each person participating in a PAYT
program, greenhouse gas emissions are reduced by an aver-
age of 0.088 metric tons of carbon equivalent (MTCE, the
basic unit of measure for greenhouse gases). This means that
a community of 100,000 people could potentially reduce
greenhouse gas emissions by 8,800 MTCE by implementing
a PAYT program. This calculation is based on the assump-
tion that residents in PAYT communities recycle a mix of the
most common recyclable materials (e.g., plastic bottles,
newspapers, steel and aluminum, cans).
How CAN I MEASURE
GREENHOUSE OAS EMISSION
REDUCTIONS?
Along with the more obvious recycling and waste prevention
impacts of PAYT, measuring its climate change benefits can
help describe a program's full environmental advantages to
elected officials, residents, and other stakeholders. Also,
waste reduction programs such as PAYT can play an integral
part in a community's climate change action plan. Here's
how you can calculate the potential climate change benefits
of your PAYT program:
^se ^ National Average. If you wish to
use the national average for greenhouse
gas reductions, you can multiply the
number of program participants by 0.088 MTCE as illus-
trated in the example above. The resulting number is the
estimated average annual reduction in greenhouse gases for
your program.
Use Local Data. If you wish to obtain an
estimate tailored to your community's
specific PAYT program, you can apply
your own data by using EPA's WAste Reduction Model
(WARM). This easy-to-use spreadsheet applies the same
greenhouse gas emission factors mentioned above to your
community's specific waste management situation. Please
note that in order to use "WARM, you will need to have data
on the amount of waste your community generated and
reduced both before and after PAYT was implemented.
WARM is available on EPA's Climate Change and Waste
Web site at .
Should your community consider PAYT? If your communi-
ty's planners are looking for ways to get residents to put
more recyclables out at the curb and generate less trash, then
the answer is probably yes. The additional climate change
benefits enjoyed by PAYT communities show that it can be
an environmentally sustainable way to manage our nation's
solid waste.
Pay-as-you-throw gives individuals an incentive to generate
less trash and recycle more.
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United States
Environmental Protection
Agency
Solid Waste and
Emergency Response
(5306W)
EPA 530-E-99-002b
October 1999
www.epa.gov/mswcd'mate
WasteWise: Climate Benefits
From Reducing Waste
WasteWise, a program that promotes waste prevention and recycling practices—-joint-
ly referred to as ivaste reduction—in offices and industry, diverts materials from the
municipal solid waste stream. In addition to cost savings and efficiencies, waste reduc-
tion has positive effects on climate change. The manufacture and distribution of products
and the subsequent management of solid waste can contribute to the formation ofgreen-
hoiise gases. To lower greenhouse gas emissions from these actions, as well as for other envi-
ronmental benefits, EPA is encouraging waste reduction efforts through its WasteWise
program.
WHAT Is. WASTE WISE?
ince January 1994, EPA has been
working in partnership with
^American businesses; federal, state,
local, and tribal governments; and
institutions to reduce municipal solid
waste. Presently, more than 950 orga-
nizations are WasteWise partners.
Partners are located all across.
the country and represent a
variety of business, civic, and
industrial sectors, ranging from
small local governments to Fortune
1000 corporations. Through the
WasteWise program, partners make a vol-
untary commitment to implement or
expand a solid waste reduction program
with three complementary components:
• Preventing waste. The cornerstone of
WasteWise is waste prevention, which
means using less material to do the same
job or produce the same product.
WasteWise partners commit to implement-
ing three significant waste prevention activ-
ities of their choice.
H Recycling collection. By collecting
recyclables, WasteWise partners divert
.materials from disposal. They commit to
initiate, expand, or improve internal pro-
grams to collect recyclables. For example,
offices may add new materials to an existing
program or boost recycling rates by educat-
. ing employees or the community.
B Buying or manufacturing recycled-
content products. WasteWise partners can
play a key role in integrating recycled-
content materials into consumer mar-
kets. They commit to purchasing
products with recycled content.
Manufacturers may also raise the
percentage of postconsumer materi-
als in the products they make.
WasteWise partners design their own solid
waste reduction programs, tailored to meet
their needs and operations. Partners moni-
tor their progress during a 3-year period
and report annually to EPA on their
accomplishments. The WasteWise program
helps participating organizations discover
waste reduction opportunities and set waste
reduction goals. Partners have access
(through a toll-free helpline) to WasteWise
representatives, who provide personalized
assistance, and to a wide range of waste
reduction publications and electronic
support services. EPA also publicly
recognizes individual organizations and
program successes.
' Printed on paper that contains at least 30 percent postconsumer fiber.
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T
How DOES WASTEWISE HELP
REDUCE GREENHOUSE GAS
EMISSIONS?
he three cornerstones of WasteWise—
waste prevention, recycling collection, and
buying/manufacturing products with
recycled content—are among the most
effective ways to slash the greenhouse gases
traceable to municipal solid waste.
WasteWise partners divert millions
of tons of material from disposal
each year.
They also
* attain higher
levels of efficiency
.by using only the
materials they really
need. And
as these orga-
nizations prevent
more waste and
recycle more materials,
fewer greenhouse gases
are emitted into the
atmosphere.
Waste prevention, in
particular, can gready
reduce the emission of
greenhouse gases by
conserving raw materi-
als and the energy
expended to retrieve,
process, and manufacture diem into products. In addi-
tion, waste prevention keeps materials out of landfills and
incinerators. Certain materials generate greenhouse gases
as they-degrade in landfills or burn in incinerators.
Overall, waste prevention provides more climate change
benefits than any other waste management option.
By boosting their recycling collection efforts, WasteWise
partners keep valuable materials out of landfills and incin-
erators. In particular, many organizations have increased
their recycling of office paper and corrugated containers.
Keeping paper products out of landfills cuts methane emis-
sions. Recycling used paper saves energy and can leave
more trees standing in the forest. Trees take large amounts .
of carbon dioxide out of the atmosphere and store it in
wood.
WasteWise partners are also encouraged to manufacture or
buy products made from recyclable materials. This
helps ensure that recyclables, rather than raw materials, are
used in manufacturing processes. Typically, manufacturing
products from recycled rather than virgin materials con-
sumes less energy.
How much of an impact is WasteWise having on climate
change? In 1998, WasteWise partners documented some
611,000 tons of waste material reduced, including corru-
gated cardboard, wood, metal, and paper. They also recy-
cled over 7.2 million tons of waste, including steel, wood,
paper, cardboard,. and other items. In climate change
terms, this is havirig'a. tremendous impact. The combined
recycling and waste'prevention efforts of the WasteWise
partners in 1998 alone prevented 7 million metric tons of
carbon equivalent (MTCE3 the basic unit of measure for
greenhouse gases) that-would otherwise have been released
into the atmosphere,."':That's like preventing the average
annual emissions from electric power consumption of
roughly 4.2 million households.
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The Link Between Waste Management and Greenhouse Gases
Increased GHG
Emissions
Decreased GHG
Emissions
..• ¥/aste prevention
and recycling delay
' the'heed'to extract
"some raw materials,
lowering greenhouse
during extraction.
Decreased GHG
Emissions
Waste prevention
means fewer prod-
ucts are made, and
from recycled materl-
ensrgy. Both lower
greenhouse gases
emitted during manu-
facturing.
Decreased GHG
Emissions
Waste prevention
' and recycling
reduce the amount of
waste sent to Inciner-
ators, lowering the
emitted during
combustion.
Decreased GHG
Emissions
Waste prevention
antf recycling
reduce the amount
of waste sent to
landfills, lowering
the greenhouse
gases emitted during
decomposition.
THE BALANCE SHEET: MEASURING THE
CLIMATE CHANGE BENEFITS OF WASTE
REDUCTION
To help measure die climate change benefits of
waste reduction, EPA conducted a comprehensive
study of greenhouse gas emissions and waste man-
agement. The study estimated the greenhouse gas emis-
sions associated with managing 10 types of waste materi-
als: office paper, newspaper, corrugated cardboard, alu-
minum, steel, plastic (HDPE, LDPE, and PET), food
scraps, and yard trimmings. Management options ana-
lyzed in the study included waste prevention, recycling,
composting, incineration, and landfilling.
The research indicates that, in terms of climate benefits,
waste prevention is generally the best management option.
Recycling is the next best approach. The research enables
waste managers to analyze their potential to reduce GHG
emissions based on the characteristics of their communi-
ty's waste stream and the management options available to
them.
Waste prevention can make an important difference in
reducing emissions. By cutting the amount of waste we
generate back to 1990 levels, we could reduce greenhouse
gas emissions by 11.6 million metric tons of carbon equiv-
alent (MTCE), the basic unit of measure for greenhouse
gases. EPA estimates that increasing our national recycling
rate from its current level of 28 percent to 35 percent
would reduce greenhouse gas emissions by another 9.8
million, compared to landfilling the same material.
Together, these levels of waste prevention and recycling
would slash emissions by more than 21.4 million
MTCE—an amount equal to the average annual emis-
sions from the electricity consumption of roughly 11 mil-
lion households.
Every little bit helps! For example, by recycling all of its
paper, plastic, and corrugated waste generated in one year,
an office building of 7,000 workers could reduce green-
house gas emissions by 1200 MTCE. This is equivalent to
taking about 900 cars off the road that year. If just one
household generated 5 percent less waste including news-
papers, aluminum and steel cans, and plastic containers
and then recycled what remained, 309 pounds of carbon
equivalent could be reduced.
How ARE EPA's WASTE REDUCTION
PROGRAMS HELPING REDUCE"THE
EFFECTS OF CLIMATE CHANGE?
" |'""he United States is committed to reducing green-
I house gas emissions. In 1992, the United States
I joined 160 other countries as a signatory to the
United Nations (UN) Framework Convention on Climate
Change, which calls on countries to reduce their green-
house gas emissions. Since 1994, the United States has
been implementing the Climate Change Action Plan
(CCAP), a blueprint for achieving voluntary reductions in
greenhouse gas emissions from all sectors of our economy.
The CCAP contains some 50 separate initiatives, includ-
ing one that aims to reduce greenhouse gas emissions
through waste reduction and recycling.
Nitrous oxide is emitted during
agricultural and industrial activities, as
well as during the combustion of solid
waste and fossil fuels.
Greenhouse gases that are not nat-
urally occurring include byproducts of
foam production, refrigeration, and air-
conditioning that are called chloroflu-
orocarbons (CFCs), as well as
hydro!luorocarbons (MFCs) and per-'
fluorocarbons (PFCs) generated by
industrial processes.
Each greenhouse gas differs in its
ability to trap heat in the atmosphere.
3
HFCs and PFCs are the most heat
absorbent. Methane traps over 21
times more heat than carbon dioxide,
and nitrous oxide absorbs 310 times
more than carbon dioxide.
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In 1997 in Kyoto, Japan, the Parties to the UN
Framework Convention on Climate Change agreed to a
historic protocol on climate change. The "Kyoto
Protocol" sets binding targets and timetables for emissions
reductions and encourages the use of market-based mea-
sures to meet those targets. The specific limits vary from
country to country but are similar for Europe, Japan, and
the United States. The U.S. target is 7 percent below 1990
emissions over a 5-year period spanning 2008 to 2012. A
follow-up meeting of the Parties in Buenos Aires in 1998
focused on setting deadlines and developing a workplan
for meeting the targets. On November 12, 1998, the
United States signed the protocol, but ratification will
require the advice and consent of the Senate. In addition,
Congress has mandated that the U.S. Global Change
Research Program assess the potential consequences of cli-
mate change on the nation. The national assessment
began in 1997, and the initial Synthesis Report of the
findings is expected to be published in 2000.
Waste prevention and recycling can make a significant
contribution to reducing our nation's greenhouse gas
emissions. At least 5 percent of the total reductions called
for in the CCAP are expected from waste reduction and
recycling. To help achieve these reductions, EPA supports
a number of programs, including:
• WasteWise. WasteWise is a voluntary partnership
between EPA and U.S. businesses, state and local gov-
ernments, and institutions to prevent waste, recycle,
and buy and manufacture products made with recycled
materials. Presently, more than 900 organizations are
participating in the WasteWise program.
i Pay-As-You-Throw Programs. EPA provides technical
and outreach assistance to encourage communities Co
implement pay-as-you-throw systems for managing
solid waste. Under pay-as-you-throw, residents are
charged based on the amount of trash they discard. This
creates an incentive for diem to generate less trash and
recycle more. Currendy, there are over 4,000 pay-as-
you-throw communities in die U.S. On average, com-
munities with pay-as-you-throw see waste reductions of
14 to 27 percent.
Waste Reduction Demonstrations. EPA has funded
more than 30 projects that demonstrate innovative
waste reduction approaches with the potential to
achieve significant reductions of greenhouse gas
emissions.
You Can P/iake a Difference!
By choosing to prevent waste and recycle, you can help curb climate change. Assume your office, for example, throws away 100
tons of white office paper each year. If you recycle just half that amount of paper, look what happens:
Throwing
away 100 tons
of paper
Result:
53 MICE
Recycling
50 tons of
that paper
Result:
-14 MICE
Trees are harvested. Logs are transported to
a paper manufacturer.
Paper Is
manufactured.
Workers use
and dispose
of paper.
Trash is collected
and transported
to a landfill.
Paper is buried
In the landfill.
Fewer trees are
harvested.
Fewer logs are
transported to the
paper manufacturer.
Less paper is ~ " Workers!
manufactured from and recycle [
virgin material.
in
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