25 Years of RCRA:
Building on Our Past
To Protect Our Future
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The artwork displayed on the cover was submitted to the Earth Day 2000 Contest sponsored by EPA's Office
of Solid Waste. More than 10,000 entries were received from students in the United States and its territories.
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25 Years of RCRA: Building on Our Past to Protect Our Future
The year 2001 was an important milestone in environmental protection: the
25th anniversary of the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA).
The RCRA statute, regulations, and programs were created at a time when we did
not know how much waste was produced or what happened to it. What we knew
for certain was that waste needed to be safely managed.
Since that time, we have witnessed a sea of change in pollution prevention,
waste minimization, and cleanup. As a society, we have changed over time,
and so have the types of wastes we produce and how we manage them.
Businesses, individuals, and organizations have made a conscious effort to
prevent or reduce the amount of waste they generate. As technology has
advanced, we have also updated and improved our methods of safe waste
management and cleanup. These sound waste practices and controls allow us
to continue to protect human health and the environment from the risks of
waste well into the future.
From the beginning, many dedicated people made—and continue to make-
invaluable contributions to the RCRA program. Many have spent their lives
working to safeguard our natural environment from waste pollution. I tip my
hat to each and every one of these individuals for jobs well done. I especially
want to single out Nicholas Humber, who served as Director of EPA's
Resource Conservation and Recovery Division from 1973-1978. Humber
died September 11, 2001 at the World Trade Center.
The events of September 11, 2001 showed us that our roles in environmental
protection are ever-changing. We must anticipate potential harm and adapt to
new ways of doing business. And, we must continue to work side-by-side with
other federal agencies, states, tribes, industry, and the public to improve waste
minimization, recycling, and waste management. In this endeavor, we must
remember the importance of the message on this publication's cover, "Don't
Waste Another Day." It is our responsibility to make environmentally sound
decisions every day. It really does affect our children's future.
Marianne Lament Horinko
Assistant Administrator
Office of Solid Waste and Emergency Response
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25 Years of RCRA: Building on Our Past to Protect Our Future
[Hazardous waste disposal is] one of the
highest priority environmental problems
confronting the Nation.
—President Gerald Ford
when signing RCRA into law
The Need for RCRA
Waste. In 1969, the New York Times called waste "the third pol-
lution." It's a bit more fitting to call it the first pollution. It's
the first pollution because left unchecked, waste pollutes the air,
the water, and the land, and it changes the Earth's climate. Look at
1960s America.
So widespread was pollution from waste that favorite "swimming
holes" were no longer safe for swimming and town well water was
no longer safe for drinking. Unsightly dumps marred the country-
side and waterways. Dumps not only spoiled the land and the
water, but they also were vectors for disease, providing safe habi-
tats for rats, flies, mosquitoes, and other vermin. They frequently
burned or caused extensive damage to surrounding areas.
Taking stock of all this environmental damage, Congress passed
the Solid Waste Disposal Act (SWDA) in 1965. It formed the frame-
work for states to better control the disposal of trash from all sources.
SWDA set minimum safety requirements for local landfills. Even
with SWDA in place, trash still overflowed from landfills and dumps.
In the decade between 1950 and 1960, the amount of trash indi-
viduals created increased 60 percent. In 1969, the New York Times
declared: 'An avalanche of waste and waste disposal problems is
building up around the nation's major cities in an impending emer-
gency that may parallel the existing crises in air and water."
In the 1960s, America also discovered another dimension to waste-
hazardous waste. In 1965, more than four million chemicals were
being produced in the U.S., and synthetic chemical manufacturing
was on the rise. Manufacturing these chemicals often created toxic
by-products that needed to be disposed of, and that disposal went
largely unregulated.
The formation of EPA in 1970 expanded the federal role in waste
management. The Agency worked with the states and industry to
collect and analyze information on resource recovery, and on waste
types and volumes. It looked at the risks posed by waste and at the
likelihood of harm to human health and the environment. By 1974,
it was apparent that the Solid Waste Disposal Act was not strong
enough to address the dangers posed by the increasing volume of
solid and hazardous waste.
Waste management in the United States was fundamentally changed
on October 21, 1976 when Congress passed the Resource Con-
servation and Recovery Act (RCRA). Although it actually amends
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25 Years of RCRA: Building on Our Past to Protect Our Future
the Solid Waste Disposal Act, the legislation is so
comprehensive, it is generally referred to simply as
"RCRA," without reference to the original Act.
Congress established RCRA's goals, which are to:
• Ensure that wastes are managed in a manner
that protects human health and the environ-
ment;
• Reduce or eliminate, as expeditiously as pos-
sible, the amount of waste generated, includ-
ing hazardous waste; and
• Conserve energy and natural resources
through waste recycling and recovery.
/n 1976, the House Committee on Interstate and
Foreign Commerce summarized: Current
estimates indicate that approximately 30-35
million tons of hazardous waste are literally
dumped on the ground each year. Many of these
substances can blind, cripple, or kill. They can
defoliate the environment, contaminate drinking
water supplies, and enter the food chain under
present, largely unregulated disposal practices.
RCRA is a significant departure from the end-of-the-pipe pollution
control statutes Congress previously passed. It is intended to be
a pollution prevention measure. It also is intended to be a joint
federal and state enterprise. The federal program provides basic
requirements that give consistency to systems that states imple-
ment. States implement their own waste management programs,
so that they can design programs that fit their needs, resources,
and economies.
RCRA banned open dumping. It provided a comprehensive na-
tional program to encourage source reduction, recycling, and safe
disposal of municipal wastes. What's more, RCRA mandated strict
requirements for treatment, storage, and disposal of hazardous
waste to minimize present and future risks. This booklet looks at
25 years of RCRA.
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25 Years of RCRA: Building on Our Past to Protect Our Future
The new expansion of the hazardous waste
management program which the President has
signed presents a major challenge for EPA and
the nation, but it is one which we cannot fail to
meet if we are to protect our citizens'health and
our country's environment from the dangers of
uncontrolled hazardous waste disposal.
—Former EPA Administrator
William D. Ruckelshaus
25 Years of
Protection
The Early Years
Tackling waste management on a national scale proved to be a
formidable task. First, in 1979, the Agency laid out design
and operating conditions for sanitary landfills receiving municipal
waste and garbage. These conditions were the first step toward
closing all open garbage dumps, and to ensure that disposal facili-
ties posed no threats to human health and the environment. States
had to incorporate these provisions into their solid waste manage-
ment programs.
At the same time, EPA began the challenging task of creating
hazardous waste regulations to achieve RCRA's goals. EPA had
to overcome the fact that it had little or no data on or experience
in such waste management. In 1980, EPA achieved a significant
milestone in hazardous waste program development by publish-
ing the "Hazardous Waste and Consolidated Permit Regulations,"
in the Federal Register.
The RCRA regulations are a cradle-to-grave management system
that uses tracking and permitting to monitor and control hazard-
ous waste. They define solid and hazardous waste, but also impose
strict standards on anyone who generates, recycles, transports,
treats, stores, or disposes of hazardous waste.
The universe of hazardous waste is large and diverse, as is the RCRA
regulated community. Not only does it include typical "heavy" in-
dustry that we think of as hazardous waste producers, but also gov-
ernment facilities, local small businesses, hospitals, universities, and
many other entities. Some common examples of hazardous waste
are used solvents, battery acid, chemical wastes, and various phar-
maceutical wastes.
After creating the basic regulations, EPA focused its energy on au-
thorizing states to implement the RCRA hazardous waste program.
EPA authorizes states to operate their own hazardous waste pro-
grams when those programs are at least equal to and consistent with
federal standards. By March 1981, EPA had authorized the first 16
states to manage their own RCRA programs. Now, 48 states, one
territory, and the District of Columbia are authorized to operate
their own hazardous waste management programs covering gen-
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25 Years of RCRA: Building on Our Past to Protect Our Future
The Formative
Years
• Established
protective "cradle-
to-grave" hazardous
waste structure
|r Implemented
permitting and
tracking system
I/ Developed TSDFs
design and perfor-
mance standards
I/ Initiated state
authorization
program
erators, transporters, and
treatment, storage, and dis-
posal facilities (TSDFs).
After 1980, the Agency contin-
ued to refine and develop the
"base" hazardous waste regu-
lations. On October 1, 1981,
EPA issued the first RCRA haz-
ardous waste permit—ensuring
that the facility managed
wastes according to RCRA
technical standards and oper-
ating procedures. The Agency
enhanced the design and per-
formance requirements for
hazardous waste TSDFs in
1982.
Hazardous and Solid Waste Amendments (HSWA)
In November 1984, Congress significantly expanded and rein-
forced RCRA's protective framework. The Amendments estab-
lished over 70 statutory provisions requiring EPA action. Among
other things, HSWA:
• Created RCRA's Land Disposal Restrictions (LDR) program.
• Established the RCRA Corrective Action requirements.
• Specified permitting deadlines for hazardous waste facilities.
• Regulated businesses that generated even small amounts of
hazardous waste.
• Required a nationwide look at the conditions of solid waste
landfills.
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25 Years of RCRA: Building on Our Past to Protect Our Future
Cleanups Resurrect Communities
RCRA Works for Bethlehem Works
In 1998, Bethlehem Steel Company (BCS) closed a steel-making plant
that had been operating for more than 100 years. The former plant
borders the Lehigh River and contained a coke production facility; a
steel and iron-making, finishing, and forging operation; and a chemi-
cal plant. To revitalize the area in South Bethlehem, Pennsylvania,
BCS designed an ambitious project called Bethlehem Works.
Because the soil and ground water on the 2000-acre
site were contaminated by hazardous waste, the site is
subject to RCRA corrective action. BCS, the Pennsylva-
nia Department of Environmental Protection, and EPA
formed a team to facilitate cleanups and remediation
liability Working together, the team devised and ap-
proved ways to clean up contaminants, address poten-
tial liabilities, and eliminate avenues of exposure. BCS
also is working closely with the community to complete
this $400 million redevelopment project. Bethlehem
Works will include the National Museum of Industrial
History (in association with the Smithsonian Institution);
an iron and steel showcase; a 250-room hotel and con-
ference center; multiplex cinema; family fun center;
swimming pool; ice skating center; and retail stores.
RCRA Helps Restore
Waterfront Property
Under the direction of EPA and state
RCRA programs, a former waste facility
cleaned up a 22-acre peninsula contami-
nated with chrome ore tailings and
wastes from 140 years of chemical manu-
facturing. The site discharged 62 pounds
a day of hexavalent chromium, a carcino-
gen, into nearby ground water.
The facility paid for the entire cleanup, estimated to be $70 million, as
part of one RCRA consent decree involving corrective action. The
waterfront property is now being redeveloped.
Promoting Revitalization
EPA uses various tools in its continuous ef-
fort to promote and streamline cleanups
of contaminated sites. A prospective pur-
chaser agreement (PPA) is an agreement
where EPA conditionally releases a buyer
from liability for contamination that existed
before the buyer began work on the site.
In return, the buyer agrees to help EPA with
its mission of protecting human health and
the environment.
Such a PPA was used with a company in
Virginia. This one centered around the ex-
change of land in Virginia, that had been
marred by pollution left behind from 43
years of manufacturing. EPA determined
the company's intended uses of the facility
would not aggravate existing contamina-
tion or interfere with on-going cleanups.
A PPA allowed the Virginia community to
reap the benefits-which included new em-
ployment opportunities- of keeping the
commercial property in productive use.
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25 Years of RCRA: Building on Our Past to Protect Our Future
No More Land Disposal
In 1984, about 25 million tons of hazardous waste were land-dis-
posed annually. To protect the nation's ground water and soil from
hazardous waste contamination, HSWA established treatment re-
quirements that must be met before waste can be disposed of in
land units. All hazardous waste must be chemically or physically
treated so that the toxicity or mobility of the waste is reduced. Be-
tween 1986 amd 1998, the LDR program issued treatment standards
specifying the method or level of treatment for all hazardous waste.
As technology and industry advance, and as new hazardous wastes
are identified, treatment standards continue to be developed.
The LDR program serves as an incentive for businesses to imple-
ment waste minimization plans. Some ways that hazardous waste
generators minimize their waste is by reusing and recycling it—or by
not creating it in the first place. RCRA's tough LDR requirements,
coupled with its emphasis on sound waste minimization practices,
have dramatically reduced both the number of hazardous waste
generators and the amount of waste they generate.
In 1980, nearly 50,000 businesses generated hazardous waste, and
about 30,000 businesses ran waste treatment, storage, or disposal
facilities (TSDFs). In 1999, only 20,000 businesses produced haz-
ardous waste, with about 2,000 TSDFs managing that waste. What's
more, the amount of hazardous waste disposed of in landfills has
gone from 3 million tons to less than half that amount—nearly a 60
percent reduction.
the start of the LDR
] program, a significant volume
of hazardous waste has been
directed away from land-based
management. Landfilling de-
creased about 94 percent, and
underground injection decreased
about 70 percent.
More Cleanups
In 1980, nearly 60,000 businesses notified EPA that they treated,
stored, or disposed of hazardous waste. Many of these facilities fol-
lowed outdated practices, which caused contamination to areas
within and around these businesses that needed to be cleaned up.
The number of such sites needing cleanup was estimated to be more
than three times the number of sites on the national Superfund list.
HSWA greatly expanded EPA's authority to require cleanups at
TSDFs. It created EPA's Corrective Action Program. Under Cor-
rective Action, cleanups are required for all waste leaking into the
environment from any source at a hazardous waste facility.
Stronger Permitting for Hazardous Waste Facilities
HSWA restablished permitting deadlines for hazardous waste land-
fills, incinerators, and storage facilities. On November 8, 1985,
hazardous waste landfills and surface impoundments that failed to
comply with financial assurance and ground-water monitoring re-
quirements were forced to close.
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25 Years of RCRA: Building on Our Past to Protect Our Future
Corrective Action Provides Solutions
Housatonic River
Regains New Life
The Housatonic River in Massachusetts
was once known primarily by local
sportsmen. It was also a disposal sys-
tem for a local transformer manufac-
turer. Over the years, the River became
contaminated with polychlorinated bi-
phenyls (PCBs) and other hazardous
waste, creating a major risk to the
health of local residents, and to the en-
vironment.
Thanks to a RCRA Corrective Action
permit issued in 1991, over 10,000 cu-
bic yards of contaminated sediments
have been removed from the
Housatonic River; more than 50 million
gallons of ground water have been re-
moved and treated; and another 1 mil-
lion gallons of PCB-contaminated oil
have been recovered. In addition,
more than 100,000 cubic yards of con-
taminated sediment and
bank soil will be removed
over the next few years.
This river and floodplain
remediation, and $50 million
allocated toward redevelop-
ment work, will not only pro-
tect commercial, industrial,
undeveloped, recreational,
and residential properties,
but also allow the old trans-
former manufacturing plant
to open for reuse.
Major Tire Pile Cleaned Up
When a 1998 fire ignited a mountain of abandoned tires on
the Gila River Indian Community Reservation in southern
Arizona, the fire wasn't the only hot topic to resolve.
The abandoned tire pile that caught on fire and forced the
evacuation of more than 300 residents contained waste tires
from 13 Arizona counties. The counties had arranged for
disposal with a private company that collected and tempo-
rarily stockpiled the tires on the Gila River Reservation
before going to a disposal facility When the company
responsible for disposing of the tires breached its con-
tract with the counties, the tires were left abandoned on
the reservation.
EPA used a combination of RCRA enforcement procedures
to get the site cleaned up. In September 2001, the counties
completed the cleanup of both burned and unburned tires.
RCRA Works with Community
When a community of Denver residents became aware of
the indoor air risks associated with releases from a plume of
contaminated ground water that migrated from a facility in
their area, they took action.
As a result of RCRA Corrective Action, the community par-
ticipated in a series of "Open Houses," and worked closely
with EPA and the facility to get over 100 homes tested for
possible contamination. Over 50 homes now have new ven-
tilation systems. In addition, indoor air risks are within ac-
ceptable levels. The community is still working with EPA to
test the remaining homes in the area.
The affected community is made up of more than 30 percent
lower-to-middle income minority residents, which include
Hispanic and East Asian Americans.
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25 Years of RCRA: Building on Our Past to Protect Our Future
As a result of these requirements, virtually all operating hazard-
ous waste landfills and incinerators came under state and EPA
permits within a few years, and many were closed down. For ex-
ample, industrial facilites managing waste in ponds, lagoons, and
impoundments have gone from 1,000 to fewer than 50 over the
last 25 years.
In all, RCRA's tough requirments for safe design and operating
standards for hazardous waste facilities led industry to better man-
agement practices.
A Closer Look at Solid Waste Landfills Leads to
Better Municipal Solid Waste Management
HSWA required EPA to research and report on the environmental
soundness of muncipal solid waste landfills, and on amounts of waste
being processed by them. In October 1988, the Agency reported
that Americans generated 160 million tons of municipal solid waste
(MSW) each year. Of that, 131 million tons were sent to 6,500 mu-
nicipal solid waste landfills (MSWLFs). The Agency also found that
these landfills inconsistently used environmental controls, and that
they posed significant threats to ground and surface water resources.
Just a few months later, in February 1989, EPA published its Agenda
for Action, which outlined goals and recommendations for municipal
solid waste management. To make solid waste management more
effective, federal, state, tribal, and local governments adopted an
integrated approach to waste management. This approach com-
bines complementary waste management techniques that include
source reduction and recycling.
EPA established a na-
tional goal for source re-
duction and recycling.
The goal was to achieve
25 percent recycling and
source reduction rates by
1992. Most states met or
exceeded that rate by
then. Today, nearly all
states and many Native
American communities
practice integrated waste
management, and aver-
age a 28 percent recycling
rate nationally.
Integrated Waste
Management
|r Source reduction, which
prevents waste genera-
tion in the first place,
and encourages reuse
\r Recycling and
composting, which
promotes recovery over
disposal
|r Landfilling and combus-
tion, which provides
safer disposal capacity
and waste-to- energy
HSWA
|r Established treatment
standards to prevent the
disposal of untreated
wastes into and onto the
land
|r Led to permitting of
more than 900 hazard-
ous waste management
facilities
|r Established an enforce-
ment presence in the
field, including a strong
criminal enforcement
program
|r Closed substandard
landfills and incinerators
/n 1988, 131 million tons of
municipal solid waste went to
6,500 landfills. Today, fewer than
2,500 landfills remain open.
The Agency documented
and measured the benefits
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25 Years of RCRA: Building on Our Past to Protect Our Future
from source reduction and recycling. For example, EPA has found
that increasing the national recycling rate to 35 percent would re-
duce greenhouse gas emissions by an estimated 17 million metric
tons. Such reduction roughly equals the carbon dioxide emissions
from 12 million cars.
1990s
RCRA
Implementation
Study Sets Focus for
the 1990s
|r Establish and communi-
cate clear priorities
|r Balance prevention and
cleanup efforts
|r Develop clear and concise
regulations
|r Emphasize waste minimi-
zation
\r Support compliance and
enforcement activities
|r Develop better environ-
mental management data
|r Accelerate scientific and
technological development
The Agency spent the final decade of the 20th century following
up HSWA mandates, and looking at more and better ways to pre-
vent risks from waste. Bringing more than half of all hazardous
waste under regulatory controls, EPA added a another dimension
to the definition of hazardous waste, and devised a new and im-
proved procedure to evaluate wastes that are likely to leach toxic
constituents into ground water.
By refining and streamling regulations, loopholes were closed while
economic burdens were eased. Industry and waste management
data continued to be collected and analyzed, and regulatory barri-
ers to recycling were eliminated. A number of additional waste
streams were identified for specific listing as hazardous waste. Spe-
cific wastes from petroleum refining, coke products, and some
organic chemicals also were added to the hazardous waste list,
marking more than 500 known hazardous wastes on this list.
Safer Municipal Solid Waste Landfills
New federal standards were
established for municipal
solid waste landfills
(MSWLFs) in October
1991. These regulations
establish a protective,
practical system for dispos-
ing of the nation's trash.
They specify design, oper-
ating, and closure stan-
dards; restrict landfill loca-
tions; and require liners and
ground-water monitoring.
State and tribal regulatory
agencies provide the pri-
mary oversight and issue
permits, according to the
federal criteria. Today, 40
states and one territory have
approved MSWLF permit
programs.
1991 MSWLF
Criteria
|r Maximize landfill life
by encouraging
source reduction and
recycling
|r Protect ground water
from contamination
\r Specify design and
operating practices
that protect human
health
|r Protect future gen-
erations with strict
conditions for landfill
closure
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25 Years of RCRA: Building on Our Past to Protect Our Future
Recycling is Working
Alternate Disposal Program
Increases Recycling
EPA's Pay-As-You-Throw program (also known as unit pricing or
variable-rate pricing) is a household trash disposal system that
charges residents based on the amount of solid waste that they throw
away Residents in communities with Pay-As-You-
Throw programs have direct economic incentives
to produce less waste and recycle more.
Traditionally residents pay for waste collection through
property taxes or a fixed fee, regardless of how much
(or how little) trash they generate. Pay-As-You-Throw
breaks with tradition by treating trash services just
like utilities. Households pay a variable rate depend-
ing on the amount of service they use.
Fort Collins, Colorado found that its Pay-As-You-Throw
system significantly boosted household recycling ef-
forts and helped the city reach its recycling goals.
By July 1996, recycling had increased to 79 percent
participation in single-family and duplex house-
holds, up from 53.5 percent the previous year. The
program has been so successful that the residents
of Fort Collins looked for opportunities to increase
their recycling, by adding new materials to their
recyclables.
Recycling Is Working
Across America
Recycling offers widespread benefits to the
U.S. economy In 2001, the U.S. recycling and
reuse industry supported more than 56,000
recycling and reuse establishments that
grossed over $236 billion in annual revenue.
The industry employed over 1.1 million
people with payrolls of nearly $37 billion.
Besides being good for the economy recycling obviously is good for the
environment. When a recycled product is manufactured, less energy is used
than when virgin or raw materials are used to make the same product. For
example, annual energy savings from recycling aluminum cans are nearly
186 million BTUs per ton; plastics saves about 22 million BTUs per ton a year;
and recycling steel cans, paper, and glass saves around 52 million BTUs per
ton annually
Partnerships Lead to
Newspaper Reuse, New Jobs
In 1989, EPA joined the Northeast Recycling Council
(NERC) in an effort to get the newsprint industry and
newspaper publishers to recycle old newspapers.
NERC worked with 10 northeastern states, newspa-
per publishers, and newsprint paper mills, and came
up with an agreement to increase the production of
recycled-content newsprint. Shortly after, the demand
for old newspapers and magazines in the Northeast
and throughout the United States increased. In fact, the
average recycled content in newsprint more than
doubled in the United States. Between 1990 and 1997,
it jumped from 20 to 45 percent. Today 27 states have
agreements with newspaper publishers to invest in
newsprint with recycled content.
Besides helping to preserve our natural resources,
EPA's partnership with NERC is also an example of
the Jobs Through Recycling (JTR) program, which
benefits both the environment and the economy.
Through JTR, EPA enhances business development,
technical assistance, and financing efforts for recy-
cling-related business in local communities. Since its
inception, JTR has helped create more than 8,500
jobs, generated $640.5 million in capital investment,
created 15.3 millions tons of capacity and used 13.9
million tons of recovered materials.
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25 Years of RCRA: Building on Our Past to Protect Our Future
Creating More Partnerships
Federal Procurement
Guidelines
g Reinforcing the federal role
M. ^Lin resource recovery, EPA
designated products containing
recovered materials and made
recommendations for buying
these products. On October 20,
1993, a Presidential Executive
Order called for an expedited
process to increase the federal
government's use of recycled-
content products. Consequently,
the Guidelines currently desig-
nate 54 products containing
recycled content.
1994 Waste Mini-
mization National
Plan
|r Aims to reduce by half,
the most problematic
chemicals in hazardous
wastes by 2005
|r Emphasizes source
reduction and environ-
mentally sound recy-
cling over treatment
and disposal
|r Prevents transfers of
chemical releases from
one medium to another,
such as air to water or
land to water
A shift to fewer regulatory and more voluntary actions occurred
in the 1990s. An outgrowth of this philosophy was EPA's
Waste Wise program, which was launched in 1994. WasteWise
recruits and cultivates partners to reduce waste. Partners range
from small businesses, tribes, governments, and universities, to
Fortune 500 corporations. WasteWise now has nearly 1,200 part-
ners who are committed to
cutting costs and conserving
resources by reducing waste.
w:
Taste Wise partners
eliminated 35 million
tons of municipal solid waste
Throughout the decade, part-
nerships with Native American
tribes were expanded, and other partnerships have enhanced tribes'
capabilities to develop and implement their own hazardous and solid
waste management programs. The Agency also is working closely
with tribes to close open dumps in Indian country. EPA is providing
technical and financial assistance not only to close those dumps, but
also to establish and manage sustainable alternatives to them.
Industrial Waste Management
The Agency increasingly turned its attention to the largest compo-
nent of the U.S. waste stream—industrial waste. Industrial waste is
mainly nonhazardous waste that comes from 12,000 manufacturing
facilities that generate 7.6 billion tons of this waste a year.
EPA is collaborating with key stakeholders to design a safe and
practical waste management system for industrial waste. The cul-
mination of this effort is voluntary guidance designed to assist
facility managers, state and tribal environmental managers, and the
public to evaluate and choose protective practices for managing in-
dustrial waste. Currently, 30 states run industrial waste management
programs.
Tight Hazardous Waste Combustion Standards
Throughout the decade, EPA reinforced hazardous waste combus-
tion standards and reinforced waste minimization objectives.
• Strict emission standards were imposed on boilers and indus-
trial furnaces (BIFs) burning hazardous waste.
• In 1993, EPA released the Hazardous Waste Minimization and
Combustion Strategy. The Strategy aimed to achieve greater
reductions in hazardous waste generation and, to improve the
safety and reliability of incinerators and BIFs.
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25 Years of RCRA: Building on Our Past to Protect Our Future
Environmental Commitments
Make a Difference
New Partnerships Encourage Faster
Brownfields Cleanup
"Brownfields" are abandoned, idle, or underused industrial and
commercial properties where expansion or redevelopment is
complicated by real or perceived environmental contamina-
tion. About 600,000 brownfield sites are estimated to be around
the country
EPA launched several efforts to encourage and expedite the
cleanup of brownfield sites and move these lands into produc-
tive use. Since March 2000, EPA has selected nine RCRA
brownfield prevention pilot projects. The selected pilots pro-
posed a variety of innovative solutions, ranging from increasing
community involvement in future land-use decision-making to
using legal authorities to deal with bankrupt sites.
Doing It Right the First
Time
In 1991, workers at the Ford Motor
Company's plant inYpsilanti, Michi-
gan decided they wanted to help rid
the environment of hazardous waste.
Plant engineers accomplished this mis-
sion by replacing toxic cleaning and
drawing chemicals with a water-based
compound. The change eliminated
30,000 pounds of trichloroethylene
(TCE) and 5,000 pounds of methylene
chloride releases annually The plant
also stopped disposing of liquid haz-
ardous wastes from the plant's dip tank.
When commenting on their success,
Ford officials stressed the importance
of implementing waste prevention early
in the process.
The nine RCRA brownfield prevention pilot
projects are: CBS/Viacom (Bridegeport,
CT); Bethlehem Steel Corporation
(Lackawanna, NY); PECO (Chester, PA);
Blue Valley Redevelopment (Kansas City
MO); Pharmacia & Upjohn Company (North
Haven, CT); Union Carbide Caribe
(Guayanilla, Puerto Rico); Safety-Kleen
(MuskegonHeights, MI); BPRefinery (Wood
River, IL); and Milt Adams penver, CO).
Partnering to Reduce Waste
Seattle University was named EPA's WasteWise
Partner of the Year 2001. In the university/col-
lege category, the award recognizes the efforts
of the University's Environmental Services Of-
fice and the campus community to minimize
waste (including recycling paper and plastic
products and reusing products, such as furni-
ture and office equipment) that may otherwise
go into a landfill. The University recycled more
than 500 tons of material, saving nearly $25,000
in disposal costs.
12
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25 Years of RCRA: Building on Our Past to Protect Our Future
RCRA Reinvention
Efforts
|r Risk-based regulations
that match the levels of
risk posed by specific
hazardous wastes
|r Regulations that are
easily understood to
facilitate compliance
and foster community
relations
|r identify and reduce
record-keeping burdens
Reinventing the RCRA Program
EPA continually looks for ways to improve RCRA regulations.
RCRA's regulatory process evolved and changed with the acquisi-
tion of new information and technological advances. The current
RCRA philosophy is to provide flexibility in achieving desired regu-
latory results; to make sure information and decision-making are
shared with everyone involved; to create environmentally sound in-
centives for achieving regulatory compliance; and to strive for a bet-
ter interface with other environmental laws and regulations. Some
examples of RCRA's reinvention efforts:
• encourage safe management and recycling of common prod-
ucts, such as batteries and pesticides, that are hazardous when
they're discarded;
• make cleanups faster by tailoring regulations to site-specific
situations;
• eliminate duplicate regulatory controls on radioactive haz-
ardous waste; and
• change paperwork requirements from multiple notifications
to a single notification.
Public Involvement
The public plays a prominent and important role in the RCRA
program. Few environmental issues are of more concern to the
public than waste management in their communities. Therefore,
EPA requires waste management facilities to involve the public and
the local community throughout the RCRA permitting process.
Any time during the process, the public can submit comments and
request public hearings to clarify information or voice objections.
•r :
13
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25 Years of RCRA: Building on Our Past to Protect Our Future
RCRA guarantees that the public has a role in facility clean-up
processes. Under corrective action, for example, the local commu-
nity can access a facility's inspection information, and participate
in remedial decisions and processes.
Environmental justice is a priority in RCRA waste management.
EPA's goal is to ensure that all Americans are protected from envi-
ronmental pollution, and that minorities do not bear disproportion-
ate effects of that pollution. RCRA requires full public participation
in hazardous waste permits. EPA works cooperatively with tribes to
control open dumps in Indian Country, and it works closely with
minority communities to develop guidance in areas of special inter-
est. EPA has issued guidance for the management of municipal waste
transfer stations and for siting new hazardous waste facilities.
EPA's commitment to providing public access under RCRA is fur-
ther evidenced through it's outreach initiatives to tribal, Hispanic,
and other minority communities, and through widespread distri-
bution of products in print and on the Internet.
Creating Clean-up Goals and Corrective Action
Reforms
Facilities managing hazardous waste must clean up contamination
resulting from past mismanagement. Cleanup requirements under
RCRA are managed through the Corrective Action Program.
Throughout the 1990s and today, EPA has focused on establishing
priorities to accelerate cleanups. EPA is focusing corrective action
resources on preventing human exposure to, and migration of, con-
taminated ground water at more than 1,700 facilities where early
cleanup progress is appropriate. EPA also has launched corrective
action reform efforts aimed at accelerating cleanups by promoting
greater flexibility; making regulatory changes to remove disincen-
tives to cleanups; focusing on near-term goals for cleanups; and
stressing results-based approaches, instead of process-based systems.
As a result of these reforms, EPA and the states now have brought
hundreds of RCRA facilities under control. Nearly 40 percent of
the RCRA corrective action facilities have either completed or made
significant progress in their cleanups.
RCRA Cleanup
Reforms Focus
on Results
\r Conduct faster,
more focused,
flexible cleanups
|r Pilot innovative
approaches to
cleanups
|r Connect communi-
ties and capitalize
on redevelopment
potentials
14
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25 Years of RCRA: Building on Our Past to Protect Our Future
At 25...
Since RCRA was enacted in 1976, great strides have been made
in keeping our environment safe from the waste we produce. A
broad range of hazardous waste streams have been identified;
treatment standards have been developed and refined as new tech-
nology is developed. Systems and processes have been polished
and streamlined to keep requirements flexible, but safe. Hazard-
ous waste generation has been reduced from nearly 300 million
tons to around 40 million tons. All but two states are authorized
to operate their own hazardous waste programs, and more than
1,000 facilities are in the RCRA operating permit baseline. Na-
tionwide recycling and solid waste reduction efforts have kept
about 62 million tons of trash a year from being disposed of—
keeping that material in use and out of landfills. These waste re-
duction efforts resulted in a national recycling rate of 28 percent.
RCRA works—and it has worked for 25 years—to protect human
health and the environment by reducing risk from waste. It remains
effective because it is intricately connected to our American way of
life, with our heavy reliance on industry and technology. Hazardous
and solid waste management standards are continually being refined
and updated in response to local needs, new research, and new tech-
nologies. For 25 years, RCRA has responded to environmental chal-
lenges on all fronts—air, water, and land—by pursuing and promoting
partnerships with states, tribes, industry, and the public.
15
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25 Years of RCRA: Building on Our Past to Protect Our Future
The Challenge
Ahead
I;
±n these relatively short
25 years, EPA has
ahead of us. Each provides an opportunity to made significant pro-
, gress in safe waste man-
renew our commitment to increased coopera- & „, ,
agement. ihe result: a
tion, and the chance to provide our children and cleaner environment.
grandchildren with a cleaner and safer place to Looking ahead to the
next decade and beyond.
raise a family. Lam confident that together . . .,, .,, ,,
' y Amenca will still need to
we can raise the bar of environmental manage wastes, but
achievement- and clear it by a wide margin. probably differently
—EPA Administrator ChristineTodd Whitman EPA's role in imple-
menting the RCRA
program is expected to change. While strong oversight of regulatory
provisions will continue, EPA wants to champion voluntary pollu-
tion prevention activities that go beyond compliance. The Agency
will continue to explore more proactive tools, including partner-
ships with industry and government, to set goals for pollution pre-
vention, as well as to help the nation to move toward these goals.
The next decade will require much-needed cooperation between
EPA and its partners. The Agency must continue to work side-by-
side with other federal agencies, states, tribes, industry, and the
public in achieving safe waste management. The challenges facing
the RCRA program in the new millennium are great. Technologi-
cal changes, population growth, economic expansion, and national
security concerns are just a few.
At the same time, there is plenty of room to refine, improve, and
build on the success already achieved. Better protection of hu-
man health and the environment is guaranteed by partnering with
states, tribes, industry, and the public in waste prevention, safe
waste management, and cleanups.
16
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25 Years: Preserving, Preventing, Protecting
Legislation
and Strategic
Direction
RC
Ha
RA
RCRA
Implementation
Study
HSWA Agenda
zardous
Waste
Sol
\id
Waste
Design and
Operating Standards
for Treatment,
First Storage, and Disposal
Hazardous Waste Facilities
Regulations
Design and
Operating Standards for
Sanitary Landfills
First State
Hazardous Waste
Program
First
RCRA Permit
Open Dump
Inventory
First
Procur
Guide
ement
'lines
for A
Loss of Interim Status
for Landfills and
Surface Impoundments
Revised Definition of
Solid Waste Land Disposal
Regulations f>ermit
Deadline
First Land Disposal
Restrictions
Hazardous Waste
Tank
Rules
ction
Toxicity
Characteristic
Rule
Regulations for
Hazardous
Waste Boilers
and Industrial
Furn^rp*;
Waste Minimization
and Combustion
Strategy for Hazardous
Waste
Used Oil
Management
Standards
Federal Criteria
for Municipal
Solid Waste
Landfill
Land Disposal
Flexibi
Universal Treatment
Standards
Public Participation
Rule
WasteWise
Established
lityAct
RCRA Cleanup
Reforms 1
RCRA Cleanup
Refo
Final Rule for
Hazardous Air
Pollutants from
Combustors
(MACT)
Last Land
Disposal
Restrictions
First Tribal Grants to
Clean Up Open Dumps
Financial Assurance
for Municipal Solid
Waste L
andfills
rmsll
Inorganic
Chemicals Listing
Determination
Proposal
1976 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000
2001
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Solid Waste and Emergency Response
(5305W)
EPA-K-02-027
April 2002
www.epa.gov/osw
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