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Used Dry Cell Batteries
Is a Collection Program
Right for Your Community?
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About This Handbook
This handbook is designed to help communities determine whether establishing a
program to collect used dry cell batteries is right for them. It is organized around
10 key issues related to setting up and running a collection program, from deter-
mining the types and amounts of dry cell batteries being discarded in the commu-
nity, to evaluating whether industry or legislative trends will affect die decision to
launch a program, to estimating the likely costs. Experiences of communities that
have initiated battery collection programs are included to help communities gain
an appreciation of the results that can be achieved. After thoughtfully reviewing
the 10 issues oudined in this handbook, communities will be in a better position to
determine if a program is right for them.
This handbook focuses primarily on household battery collection programs. If your
community is interested in collecting used batteries from nonhousehold generators,
see Appendix A. In addition, EPA's RCRA Hodine at (800) 424-9346 can provide
furdier information.
Acknowledgments
The following individuals shared their knowledge and experiences in the area of
used dry cell battery collections and commented on drafts of the handbook: Tim
Forker, Carl Hirth, Marie Steinwachs, Don Seeburger, Karen Arnold, David Hurd,
Randy Hukreide, Lynn Vendinelo, Terry Telzrow, Ray Balfour and other members
of the National Electrical Manufacturers' Association, and members of the Portable
Rechargeable Battery Association. Their assistance is gready appreciated.
II
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CONTENTS page
Introduction i
1. Program Objectives 5
2. Used Battery Generation Patterns 7
3. Legislative and Industry Trends 9
4. Mixed Batteries Versus Recyclable Batteries 13
5. Management Options 15
6. Collection Systems 17
7. Worker Health and Safety 21
8. Public Education 23
9. Program Costs 25
10. Program Effectiveness 29
Resources 31
APPENDICES
Appendix A RCRA Regulations Applicable to
Nonhousehold Sources of Batteries 33
Appendix B A Dry Cell Battery Collection Program in Action:
Hennepin County, Minnesota 35
Appendix C Dry Cell Battery Issues Affecting Recycling 39
Appendix D Dry Cell Battery Recyclers 41
Appendix E Sample Dry Cell Battery Collection Programs:
A Listing of Programs and Contacts 43
Appendix F Samples of State Battery Legislation 47
Appendix G Calculations of Contributions of Metals from
Waste Household Batteries in the
Solid Waste Stream 51
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TABLES AND FIGURES
Table 1 Types of Dry Cell Batteries Found in the Municipal Solid
Waste Stream 2
Table 2 Components of a Battery Collection Budget 26
Table 3 Sample Recycling/Disposal Charges and Payments 27
Table 4 Followup Questions 30
Figure 1 Cutaway View of a Carbon-zinc Dry Cell Battery 1
Figure 2 Dry Cell Battery Contribution to Mercury and
Cadmium in the Municipal Solid Waste Stream — 1989 3
Figure3 Alkaline Battery Contribution to Mercury in
the Municipal Solid Waste Stream since 1975 10
IV
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INTRODUCTION
very year, Americans pur-
chase nearly two billion
i dry cell batteries to
power such items as
radios, watches, clocks, toys, laptop com-
puters, cellular telephones, and house-
hold appliances. Dry cell batteries also
are used for a variety of medical, com-
mercial, industrial, military, and other
nonhousehold applications. (Table 1
lists the principal types of dry cell batter-
ies and their common uses.) The term
"dry cell" refers to the type of electrolyte
contained in these kinds of batteries. In
"wet cell" batteries, such as those used in
automobiles, the electrolyte is in the
form of a liquid bath. In dry cell bat-
teries, the electrolyte is absorbed or
gelled in other materials rather than
being a separate body of liquid (see
Figure 1). Unlike wet cell batteries,
the contents of a dry cell battery are
not spillable.
Some dry cell batteries contain heavy
metals (such as mercury, cadmium,
and lead) that perform critical func-
tions within the battery. Heavy met-
als are contained within the battery
casing and pose no real risks while in
use. But they can be of significant
concern when discarded with ordi-
nary municipal solid waste (as most
batteries are). Even though dry cell
batteries represent less than 1 per-
cent by weight of municipal solid
waste, they accounted for 52 percent
of all the cadmium and 88 percent of
all the mercury found in the munici-
pal solid waste stream in 1989 (see
Figure 2).
At present, most municipal solid waste
is either landfilled or combusted. Nei-
ther of these methods is ideally suited
for batteries that contain heavy metals.
In landfills, heavy metals have the po-
tential to leach slowly into soil, ground
water, and surface water. "When com-
busted, certain heavy metals, such as
mercury, may vaporize and escape into
the air. Other metals, including cad-
mium and lead, can concentrate in the
foetal CQyerji\cpntactt ]
"with carbon rqd
(positive terminal)
expansion space
for gas
electrolyte
carbon rod
(positive electrode)
jacket separator
zinc casing (negative)
metal bottom
(negative terminal)
Figure 1. Cutaway view of a carbon-zinc
dry cell battery.
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PRIMARY CELLS (NONRECHARGEABLE)
Battery Types and Sizes
Alkaline and carbon-zinc
(9-volc, D, C, AA, AAA,
alkaline button)
Common Uses
Cassette players, radios, flashlights, toys, etc.
Mercuric-oxide (button, some Household uses: hearing aids (button batteries)
cylindrical and rectangular) Nonhousehold uses: heart monitors, communication
devices, cameras
Silver-oxide and
zinc-air (button)
Hearing aids, watches, cameras, paging devices,
calculators
Lithium (9-volt, C, AA, coin, Cameras, calculators, computers, pacemakers, watches
button)
SECONDARY CELLS (RECHARGEABLE)
Battery Types and Sizes Common Uses
Nickel-cadmium (9-volt, C,
D, AA, AAA, battery packs)
Small sealed lead-acid
(flat plates (e.g., gum packs),
pack configurations)
Household uses: kitchen appliances, portable vacuum
cleaners, power tools
Nonhousehold uses: emergency lighting, portable
communication devices, medical equipment backup
Household uses: camcorders, computers, portable
radios and tape players, lawn mower starters, cellular
phones
Nonhousehold uses: emergency lighting, portable
communication devices, medical equipment backup
ash produced by combustion. When
disposed of, the metals in this ash can
leach into the environment.
In the environment, certain types of
heavy metals also can concentrate in
the tissues of organisms and make their
way up the food chain. High levels of
mercury, for example, already have
been identified in several bodies of
water in the United States, prompting
health, environmental, and other state
and federal agencies to issue advisories
against eating fish caught in those waters.
Because many communities are con-
cerned about the potential health and
environmental risks of current battery
disposal practices, they are exploring al-
ternatives for handling used dry cell
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;hting 5%
Thermometers 2%
Thermostats 2%
Pigments 2%
Others 1%
Batteries 88%
Total Discards of Mercury in MSW
708.5 short tons
Plastics 28%
Batteries 52%
f Consumer
; Electronics 9%
Appliances 5%
Pigments 4%
Glass and Ceramics 2%
Total Discards of Cadmium in MSW
1,788 short tons
Figure 2. Dry cell battery contribution to mercury and cadmium in the municipal solid waste stream—1989.
batteries. One option is to set up a col-
lection program for household sources
of batteries. Battery collection pro-
grams can reduce the amount of heavy
metals entering landfills and incinera-
tors, recover metals through recycling,
and help to expand public involvement
in and understanding of issues related
to municipal solid waste.
Communities that are thinking about
setting up a battery collection program
need to be aware, however, that most
battery programs are still relatively new
and have met with mixed success to
date. Collection programs typically cap-
ture only 10 percent of the available
batteries; the highest rate achieved in
the United States has been 18 percent
by weight after four years. In Japan,
which traditionally has exhibited much
higher recycling rates than other coun-
tries, the highest collection rate
achieved has been just 20 percent. Col-
lection programs also can be expensive
to set up and operate, and worker
safety and health concerns must be
taken into consideration during the
planning phase. Therefore, some
communities and states are exploring
other options—such as working with
the battery manufacturing industry to
develop workable systems for managing
used dry cell batteries—rather than im-
plementing collection programs.
Communities also should be aware that
if a program collects batteries from
nonhousehold sources, it will be sub-
ject to state or federal regulations gov-
erning the generation, handling, and
disposal of hazardous waste. This
might entail getting permits, complying
with paperwork requirements, and tak-
ing other measures—all of which could
increase the cost and complexity of a
program. Communities in many states
may be able to collect batteries from
smaller businesses under state solid
waste rules rather than hazardous waste
regulations. See Appendix A for an ex-
planation of when hazardous waste
regulations apply to battery collection
programs. There are steps municipal
officials can take to address nonhouse-
hold sources, such as initiating infor-
mal discussions with nonhousehold
sources to educate and encourage
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The different types of batteries found in a community's municipal solid
waste stream can come from household or nonhousehold sources, or both.
Virtually all batteries generated by households are disposed of with the rest of
their solid waste. Nonhousehold sources include commercial, industrial,
medical, and military facilities. These sources might dispose of their batteries
with the community's solid waste, use onsite landfills or combustors, or ship
batteries to offsite disposal facilities.
I I > I I " 1 I I I 1 • It' Ml
Nonhousehold sources could be a concern in your community. For example,
if a hospital is combusting dry cell batteries containing mercury on site, the
resulting emissions might be a potential health risk to the community. An in-
dustrial facility that disposes of its dry cell batteries in the municipal solid
- II, J t. n „,,,,„,/ ,, , , „ ,.
waste stream could be increasing the level of heavy metals entering landfills
or being incinerated in the community. On the other hand, if a military in-
stallation ships its batteries offsite for disposal, this facility might not be of
Significant concern to the community.
J
appropriate management of waste bat-
teries. Communities might, for in-
stance, discuss with hospitals the
feasibility of recycling rather than incin-
erating dry cell batteries.
In addition, communities can, conduct
educational campaigns directed at
potential sources of large quantities of
nonhousehold batteries to inform them
of their legal and social responsibilities
in disposing of their waste batteries.
And municipal officials can consider
alerting inspectors who audit hazardous
waste disposal activities to observe how
waste batteries are handled by non-
household sources.
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PROGRAM OBJECTIVES
i
rogram objectives are the
first issues to look at
when considering a used
dry cell battery collection
program. Is your primary concern reduc-
ing the level of heavy metals entering
the waste stream, recovering resources
by recycling waste batteries, or both?
Keeping specific objectives in mind will
help ensure the success of your battery
collection program.
Many communities that have initiated
battery collection programs focus on di-
verting heavy metals from the waste
stream. This is particularly evident in
communities whose solid waste is com-
busted, since this process can emit
heavy metals into the air and concen-
trate them in ash. In Warren County,
New Jersey, for example, concerns over
die possibility of cadmium in combus-
tor ash and mercury air emissions pro-
vided the impetus for the county to
establish a battery collection program
in June 1989. In Hennepin County,
Minnesota, concerns about heavy met-
als emissions from the county's munici-
pal waste combustpr prompted officials
in 1988 to initiate a battery collection
pilot program to divert all types of
household batteries from the facility.
Based on the results of the pilot pro-
gram, successful drop-off and curbside
collection programs were initiated.
(Hennepin County's well-established,
large-scale program is described in
more detail in Appendix B.)
Another objective of some communi-
ties is to collect dry cell batteries for re-
cycling. Through recycling, materials
can be diverted from the waste stream,
and resources can be recovered. In the
case of battery recycling, metals are re-
covered from the used batteries, and
the remainder of the product is dis-
carded. In the United States, dry cell
battery recycling efforts currently focus
on recovering mercury or silver. Some
U.S. companies also are disassembling
dry cell batteries containing cadmium
and sending them to facilities here or
abroad for reprocessing. In addition, re-
search is being conducted to explore
the economic viability of recycling
other types of batteries.
5
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At this time, it is not cost-effective to
recycle alkaline and carbon-zinc batter-
ies, the most common types, because
their heavy metal content is so low (see
Appendix C). As a result, it is very diffi-
cult to find a recycling facility willing
to accept them. The battery types that
arc recyclable, such as mercuric-oxide
button and nickel-cadmium batteries,
make up a very small percentage of
household batteries. In addition, since
only a few dry cell battery recycling fa-
cilities operate in the United States to-
day, some communities could incur
high costs to transport their batteries to
the nearest facility. (Appendix D con-
tains a listing of recycling facilities in
the United States.) Since most of these
facilities have minimum-quantity re-
quirements, each community must col-
lect enough batteries to make the
program viable or team up with other
nearby towns or counties in a regional
program.
Despite limited recycling opportunities,
however, many communities might still
find it worthwhile to pursue a dry cell
battery collection program. In the case
of "Whatcom County, Washington, a
high level of public concern about
waste in general and combustion in par-
ticular motivated the county to initiate
its battery collection efforts. Although
the lack of recycling markets has been a
problem, the program has successfully
diverted batteries from the county's
combustor, raised public awareness of
household hazardous wastes, and pro-
moted safe battery management. Other
successful programs are described in
this handbook, and contacts for these
programs are listed in Appendix E.
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CO
CO
USED BATTERY
GENERATION PATTERNS
unicipal officials
should examine
the used battery
generation pat-
terns in their communities to help deter-
mine if a collection program is
appropriate. Typically, a community
can expect to find the following types of
batteries in its waste stream:
m Alkaline.
H Carbon-zinc.
B Mercuric-oxide, zinc-air, and silver-
oxide buttons.
'^^m^^oit'^^^Mos^^ra^^'^^l-^iiil: -*K(
,. «**', ^^<; >/-*. A..-»v*V,.y.-»>*'«•,'*• «•*-';- -'•- 4-.-J Vr r-y-^-4 r 4->- ^'~
1 •'•:;>;i. ••;,! •'->••?.; &*«f?':-ffe'.:7J'-f.'r*«-f- "--;?r--'l fV'jyl''^:*1-/^-^!*:!
-"-* • 'A'rp tnprp 'st-ctff>tir vniii«tppr orgaiiizatidns ayailsu?'p- '^s' ' •
1. *, " ^ < ' f . = * \\'^
Currently, alkaline and carbon-zinc
batteries are found in the greatest
quantities. Button batteries are found
in far fewer quantities, while recharge-
able nickel-cadmium batteries and spe-
cialty batteries comprise only a small
fraction of discarded batteries. Re-
chargeable nickel-cadmium batteries are
being used increasingly as a substitute
for conventional batteries, however, so
more of these batteries will likely be
found in the waste stream in the years
to come. Newer types of batteries
(such as lithium batteries) also are be-
ing introduced. In addition to house-
hold batteries, batteries used for
specialized applications by nonhouse-
hold sources have the potential to end
up in a community's solid waste stream.
According to the battery industry, the
number of dry cell batteries generated
annually by households can be approxi-
mated by assuming that each person
discards an average of eight dry cell bat-
teries every year. Population demo-
graphics may influence battery
consumption patterns in a particular
area, however. For example, a commu-
nity with an aging population might
consume more button batteries (for use
in hearing aids) than what is consid-
ered average.
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The amounts and types of dry cell bat-
teries generated by nonhousehold
sources in the community can be esti-
mated by identifying and surveying the
largest generators and contacting their
suppliers. Public officials or volunteers
can scan business directories, telephone
books, and maps to locate likely non-
household generators. Regional battery
distributors, especially distributors of
specialized batteries, also can help iden-
tify nonhousehold battery consumers in
the area. General knowledge of the
community and word of mouth will be
useful as well. Once identified, phone
interviews or site visits can be con-
ducted to determine the types and
quantities involved. Mail-in question-
naires also can be used, although the
rate of return on such surveys typically
is low. Battery manufacturers and dis-
tributors can provide further informa-
tion on used battery generation
patterns in your community. Other
potential sources of information on the
makeup of your community's solid
waste stream include the Department
of Public "Works, local solid waste
haulers, waste transfer facility operators,
and landfill and combustor operators.
Finally, any existing waste stream assess-
ments or studies will help to provide
more detailed information on the types
and amounts of waste batteries gener-
ated in your community.
Gathering this preliminary information
helps determine whether or not a bat-
tery collection program will divert a sig-
nificant amount of heavy metals from
the local municipal solid waste stream.
If the research indicates diat a collec-
tion program might not be effective,
the community instead might elect to
encourage industry efforts to reduce
the heavy metal content of batteries.
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CO
CO
LEGISLATIVE AND
INDUSTRY TRENDS
urrently, at least 10
states have passed or
fare considering legisla-
tion for used dry cell
batteries (see Appendix F). Several states
have mandated heavy metal reductions
in alkaline, carbon-zinc, mercuric-oxide,
and zinc-air batteries. Laws passed in
Connecticut, Minnesota, New Jersey,
New York, Vermont, and Oregon re-
quire that rechargeable appliances be de-
signed so that the nickel-cadmium
•lii^sfl,Batjfe^lu|s|ijWl€4^change-ffld$pijs'ajtid\\•;\- '^:.
'" i^iia^^tsjo^ae^f>taet^seatetm§ tKec:waste:stream:|> =. '•?
batteries can be removed by the con-
sumer. The laws also require the prod-
ucts to be labeled to inform the
consumer of the types of batteries the
products contain and how to dispose of
diem.
Disposal prohibitions or restrictions
aimed at dry cell batteries with the
highest heavy metal contents also have
been established in several states. New
Jersey and Vermont have passed legisla-
tion phasing out the disposal of nickel-
cadmium and mercuric-oxide batteries
in municipal solid waste. Minnesota
prohibits households from discarding
used rechargeable batteries; state agen-
cies and other nonhousehold sources
may not discard used nickel-cadmium,
sealed lead-acid, mercuric-oxide, or
silver-oxide batteries.
New Jersey, Vermont, and Minnesota
require battery manufacturers to de-
velop a system to ensure that certain
types of batteries are recycled or dis-
posed of properly. The Portable Re-
chargeable Battery Association (PRBA)
is working with government agencies in
these states to help develop workable
systems for ensuring that rechargeable
batteries are collected and recycled once
they are no longer useful, as required
by state laws. The PRBA is an organiza-
tion of more than 105 manufacturers
of batteries and battery products.
Various industry trends are becoming
evident that might have a significant
impact on battery collection pro-
grams, both now and in the future.
One such trend concerns the reduction
of mercury in dry cell batteries.
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Between 1984 and 1989, battery manu-
facturers successfully reduced the overall
amount of mercury in dry cell batteries
by over 75 percent. Battery manufactur-
ers consumed 276 tons of mercury in
1989, compared to over 1,100 tons in
1984. In addition, battery manufactur-
ers project even further mercury reduc-
tions over the next decade.
Battery manufacturers also have re-
duced significantly the mercury content
in alkaline batteries, which will contrib-
ute to a decrease in the amount of mer-
cury entering the municipal solid waste
stream in the future (see Figure 3). As
of fall 1991, all major U.S. battery
manufacturers had reduced the amount
of mercury in their nationally marketed
low-mercury alkaline batteries to 0.025
percent mercury by weight. Battery
manufacturers predict that they will re-
duce further the amount of mercury in
new alkaline batteries, possibly even
eliminating it completely by 1993.
Eveready's "Green Power" Energizer,
Short Tons of Mercury
«swMtBWSvaM*ft*-..
which was put on the market in No-
vember 1991, was the first such zero-
added mercury alkaline battery-
available in the United States. (Several
mercury-free, heavy-duty, carbon-zinc
batteries were put on the market pre-
viously and are available in the United
States.)
Because of the decrease in the mercury
content of batteries, by the year 2000
discarded household batteries are ex-
pected to contribute only 100 tons of
mercury to the national municipal solid
waste stream annually. Because of these
reductions in mercury content, some
communities may opt to encourage fur-
ther battery manufacturer initiatives
rather than to develop a collection pro-
gram for diverting household batteries
from the waste stream.
Another trend concerns the develop-
ment of substitutes for certain types of
batteries. For example, rechargeable
nickel-cadmium batteries are being
jft,1* f >&> ~ra&^£&l&
J*"*ft.
1975 1980 1985 1995 2000
Figured. Alkaline battery contribution to mercury in the municipal solid waste stream since 1975.
10
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used in place of alkaline batteries in cer-
tain applications. While the use of
nickel-cadmium batteries can reduce sig-
nificantly the number of batteries enter-
ing the waste stream, it might actually
increase the amount of heavy metals en-
tering the waste stream (unless such in-
creased use is coupled with an effective
collection and recycling program). Be-
cause the percentage of cadmium in
nickel-cadmium batteries is much
higher than the percentage of mercury
in alkaline batteries, diis substitution
might only replace one heavy metal for
another. In fact, given the escalating
use of rechargeable appliances and bat-
teries, EPA projects that cadmium use
in rechargeable products will rise from
930 tons in 1987 to 2,035 tons by
2000.
Battery manufacturers currently are de-
veloping new rechargeable battery for-
mulations, including a nickel-hydride
battery that could substitute for nickel-
cadmium batteries in a very limited
number of applications. The nickel-
hydride battery would not contribute
any mercury or cadmium to die waste
stream, but it is not likely to be a com-
plete replacement since, among other
reasons, it does not work well with
power tools and other uses diat require
a high-energy drain rate.
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MIXED BATTERIES
VERSUS RECYCLABLE
BATTERIES
here it appears
that industry
or legislative
trends will not
have a significant impact on the pro-
gram, and your research indicates that a
household battery collection program is
feasible, municipal officials will need to
decide which types of household batter-
ies should be collected. Where the pri-
mary purpose is to divert the maximum
total quantity of heavy metals from the
waste stream, communities often con-
duct mixed battery collection programs,
collecting all types of batteries together.
A significant advantage of mixed collec-
tion programs is that they do not
require households to sort the batteries.
This can boost public participation,
since many individuals have difficulty
telling one type of battery from an-
other. For example, the battery collec-
tion program in Whatcom County,
Washington, originally planned to col-
lect only recyclable button and nickel-
cadmium batteries, but soon discovered
that the public was having difficulty dis-
tinguishing between recyclable and non-
recyclable varieties. After seven months,
the program shifted to collecting all
types of household batteries.
To date, mixed collections have met
with only limited success, however. De-
spite accepting all battery types, diese
programs rarely capture more than 10
percent of the waste batteries in a com-
munity. In addition, separating out the
recyclable batteries requires the dedica-
tion of personnel and resources. Some
recycling companies will accept mixed
batches of batteries, sort them, and dis-
pose of the nonrecyclables themselves.
Usually, however, substantial fees are
charged for this service. A community
may find that it costs less to handle
its own sorting and disposal of non-
recyclable batteries than to ship the
13
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batteries to a recycler and pay for the
company to do this work.
Because of the costs of sorting mixed
batteries and disposing of all the col-
lected nonrecyclable batteries, some
communities choose to collect only re-
cyclable household dry cell batteries.
Often, collections that target just recy-
clable batteries divert larger quantities
of these battery types from the waste
stream than mixed collections. If a com-
munity is considering collecting just re-
cyclable batteries, it needs to consider a
number of issues related to these types
of batteries, including:
• Metal content. Recycling is only cost-
effective if a high amount of metal
can be recovered. Currently, mercuric-
oxide button batteries contain the
highest concentration (percent by
weight) of mercury, but the number
of these battery types sold is declin-
ing, and they are expected to be
phased out of the market entirely by
the mid-1990s. For most common
household uses, mercuric-oxide but-
tons are being replaced gradually by
silver-oxide and zinc-air button batter-
ies, which contain significantly less
mercury. In fact, over the next few
years, some battery manufacturers
might eliminate mercury from silver-
oxide and zinc-air button batteries al-
together. For communities interested
in battery recycling, a button battery
collection may be a good option at
present, but this approach could be-
come less feasible over time if the mer-
cury concentration in the majority of
button batteries continues to decrease.
• Market share. The market share of a
battery type refers to its volume of
sales relative to other types of batteries
in a given market. The market share
of recyclable batteries in a community
will affect the number of these battery
types the community will be able to
collect and how much metal can
therefore be recovered. The market
share of mercuric-oxide button batter-
ies used in hearing aids, for example,
is declining because silver-oxide and
zinc-air button batteries increasingly
are replacing them.
• Accessibility. Some batteries are per-
manendy sealed in appliances, making
them difficult or impossible to recover
for recycling. Currendy, 80 percent of
all nickel-cadmium batteries, for exam-
ple, are permanendy sealed in appli-
ances, but some states have passed new
legislation mandating consumer-acces-
sible batteries for such appliances. This
should result in increasing numbers of
nickel-cadmium batteries available for
recycling.
• Ability to be distinguished. It may be
difficult for consumers to differentiate
one type of battery from another.
While button batteries are easy to dis-
tinguish from other battery types,
most button batteries will look alike
to consumers. Unless labeled, nickel-
cadmium batteries not encased in
an appliance look very similar to alka-
lines. Some states now require both
these appliances and the batteries they
contain to be labeled for recycling.
Appendix C provides more details on
these issues for each type of battery
likely to be found in the municipal
solid waste stream. Appendix G pro-
vides a series of calculations for deter-
mining the contribution of metals from
household waste batteries in the solid
waste stream.
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MANAGEMENT
OPTIONS
ommunities opting to
initiate a collection
[program must decide
how to manage the
collected batteries. The primary options
are to dispose of collected batteries at a
hazardous waste facility or to recycle
them. (Appendix E presents a list of vari-
ous battery collection programs along
with their chosen management strategy.)
If batteries are to be disposed of in a haz-
ardous waste landfill, a licensed facility
must be located prior to initiation of the
program. If they are to be recycled, a
reputable recycler must be identified be-
forehand. Because of the high costs of
shipping collected batteries, facilities as
close as possible to the community
should be sought.
If a community cannot locate a hazard-
ous waste disposal or recycling facility
that will accept the collected batteries
before its program starts, long-term
storage will be necessary. Some commu-
nities have launched collection pro-
grams, intending to recycle as many
types of batteries as possible, but have
ended up stockpiling batteries for ex-
tended periods of time while they
search for a recycling facility that will
accept the batteries. Communities that
anticipate storing batteries should be
aware that household dry cell batteries
are exempt from storage, transporta-
tion, and disposal requirements under
federal hazardous waste regulations but
might be subject to state and local
laws. Regardless of whether state or lo-
cal regulations exist, stockpiling batter-
ies should be avoided whenever
possible, and certain safety procedures
should be incorporated into any storage
design, as described under the "Worker
Health and Safety" section of this
handbook.
Care should be taken in selecting a recy-
cling or disposal facility that has a good
environmental record and is in compli-
ance with all applicable regulatory re-
quirements. If possible, planners should
visit all potential facility sites prior to
accepting any bids. These inspections
can help a community avoid future li-
ability problems, specifically in regard
15
-------
to the Comprehensive Environmental
Response, Compensation, and Liability
Act (CERCLA or "Superfund"). Under
this Act, if a community collects batter-
ies and sends them to a recycling or
disposal facility that is later designated
as a Superfund site, the community
could be partially or wholly liable for
the costs of cleaning up the site.
-------
COLLECTION SYSTEMS
hoosing the most ap-
propriate collection
| system is vital to de-
signing a successful,
cost-effective program. The advantages
and disadvantages of the different collec-
tion systems must be analyzed to de-
velop a program that meets the
community's specific needs. There are
three main approaches to collecting
household dry cell batteries:
B Joining existing household hazardous
waste collection programs. Your com-
munity might already have annual or
^EOIN^TOCpNSII^R?^'h ;^:jf< iJi-Jh'V* —'
J;?" 5 _^Y , ', ' J- * ' ' ^ ' ', u, ' ^ -*£• t -''•*,' ' >J^.^"° $ '.''•-' " ' . ;
;:'''' •
•• * < - f -r '• 1- - ^ - . ' ^ ' r '&
'Are therg yoluttt^elK tt.rgan;izatioris willing €o hjel|>V; \ *" ; ' ? 1 f
collect batteries? ^T-u^lV' V!*'-'*-} -ll^ ••"'"iiU|f "->'
: -'- ' •' ; "r
semiannual household hazardous
waste collection days or a permanent
household, hazardous waste drop-off
site. In either case, qualified profes-
sionals are responsible for handling
the collected household hazardous
waste and ensuring its safe disposal. If
a household hazardous waste collec-
tion day or drop-off site already has
been established, incorporating dry
cell battery collection into the existing
program might be the easiest and low-
est cost collection option for your
community.
I Establishing battery drop-off
collections. Public drop-off sites (such
as retail outlets, recycling centers, and
libraries) can be an effective, low-cost
option for some municipalities. Ap-
propriate sites include stores that sell
large volumes of batteries or products
such as hearing aids, toys, electronics,
or power tools. Drop-off collections
avoid the labor and equipment invest-
ment costs associated with curbside
collection operations. Drop-off collec-
tions have not been characterized by
high participation rates, however, pri-
marily because residents must assume
the responsibility for collection. To
encourage participation, communities
should strive to make the drop-off
points as convenient as possible.
While drop-off sites can work in both
urban and rural areas, in less densely
populated areas they tend to be more
suitable than curbside programs.
However, they require that all resi-
dents be well informed about the
17
-------
need for a collection program, die
benefits of participating, and the logis-
tics of die program.
n Curbside collections. In a curbside col-
lection program, used batteries are
collected from bins or boxes that resi-
dents place outside their homes.
While curbside collection programs
typically offer the advantage of higher
participation rates than other meth-
ods, these collections are more expen-
sive. The additional costs may be
justified, however, by the number of
batteries diverted from the solid waste
stream, especially in communities
with very high levels of heavy metals
in the waste stream. In addition, die
cost of curbside collections for batter-
ies will be reduced (and might even
be minimal) if the program can be co-
ordinated with curbside collections of
other materials.
When deciding among these options,
communities should consider the size
and distribution of the population, the
convenience to households, the quan-
tity of discarded batteries, the location
of the sources of these batteries, and
the available funding for the program.
(Appendix E lists various collection pro-
grams implemented by communities
across the nation.)
The frequency of collection will depend
on whether the program utilizes curb-
side or drop-off collections, population
size and density, the quantities of batter-
ies discarded, and the budget. Sched-
ules for curbside battery collection, for
example, can range from a weekly col-
lection in combination with other curb-
side programs to a single, annual
collection. Curbside household hazard-
ous waste collection programs should
be coordinated with ongoing garbage
collections and other curbside collec-
tion programs.
The New Hampshire/Vermont Solid
"waste Project, a household battery col-
lection program initiated in May 1987,
is an example of a successful drop-off
program. There are 74 sites that collect
used batteries in 29 towns in the two
states. Many of the sites are in retail
stores, where 5-quart silver buckets
with the projects battery collection
logo are located next to battery sales dis-
plays to encourage consumers to return
their used batteries. Additional battery
collection sites have been established at
government offices, transfer stations,
and recycling centers. As of April 1992,
over 24 tons of household batteries, or
eighty 55-gallon drums, have been
collected.
The Household Hazardous "waste Pro-
ject in Springfield, Missouri, developed
a drop-off program in 1988 to com-
bine and enhance the efforts of watch,
hearing aid, and camera retailers that
were already collecting mercuric-oxide
and silver-oxide button batteries for re-
cycling. Over 50 jewelers, pharmacies,
and camera stores in a 23-county area
agreed to participate in the program by
serving as drop-off points for used dry
cell batteries. The names of the partici-
pating stores were included in commu-
nity recycling directories, and
communities in the counties involved
in the program now update their own
lists. The unique feature of the pro-
gram is that responsibility for recycling
or disposing of the batteries rests with
individual retailers instead of with the
Household Hazardous "waste Project or
participating communities.
Some programs combine different col-
lection systems. In Warren County,
1.8
-------
New Jersey, batteries are collected at
over 70 drop-off sites, including retail
stores, post offices, public schools, li-
braries, and municipal buildings located
across the county, and through curbside
collections in nine municipalities. Bat-
teries are collected at the municipal re-
cycling center in 15-gallon containers
and then sorted by type. The sorted bat-
teries are then picked up by the pro-
gram's staff person and brought to the
main county recycling center, where
they are stored in shipping containers
to await delivery to a recycling facility.
For curbside collection, households
place their commingled batteries in a
plastic bag on top of the other items
collected for recycling. The programs
staff sorts the nonrecyclable batteries
from the recyclable button and nickel-
cadmium batteries. The batteries are
then sent to the recycling center for
storage. When a sufficient quantity is
available, the recyclable batteries are
shipped to a recycling facility. Non-
recyclable batteries are stored until the
county's semiannual hazardous waste
cleanup day, when they are disposed of
through the county's household hazard-
ous waste vendor.
-------
-------
WORKER HEALTH
AND SAFETY
nlike most other
commodities col-
lected in recycling
programs, such as
aluminum cans, newspapers, and plas-
tics, dry cell batteries pose special health
and safety risks if not properly handled.
As a result, a few simple steps should be
taken during the collecting and storage
of dry cell batteries to minimize the risk
of explosion or adverse health effects
that could result from inhalation or der-
mal contact.
^ POINTS TO CONSIDER
*^S ^ f * ** ' ., s 1= ' t «„. ^ ~ * * " i
" • Is ventilated* storage available? , < , . .
"* _ T-k *-*f* , ' . , , ' i, •* / ' '.« 1 t x<'
. JH JLtoes your community have the resources available; to
-' ensure: Corkers are properly trained and equipped?',.- ,
;* * *>*/;» *- v/1 ^ ; „ „ , "» %
" • Are additional precautions needed for volunteer
~, % groups helping with' the collection? Is ypiir < '
•JA ^community prepared to take them? >' :; ' . -/;',,
H« -4ri, '< I,. r^S- , - . *N
First of all, drums or other used battery
containers should be placed in a venti-
lated location to minimize worker expo-
sure to concentrated vapor emissions
during storage and handling. Mercury
vapors can accumulate in a sealed drum
if stored for an extended period of
time. Under Hennepin County, Minne-
sota's current permanent program, mer-
cury emissions are monitored at the site
where mixed batteries are collected,
sorted, packed for transport, and stored
to detect emissions. As a precaution,
program coordinators in Warren
County, New Jersey, have installed
building ventilation and require all
workers to wear protective gloves and
goggles at the storage site. To date, no
mercury emissions have been detected.
Explosion is another potential risk
when batteries are stored in contact
with one another. Since waste batteries
still contain a residual charge, when col-
lected together they may discharge each
other, forming hydrogen gas. If the con-
tainer is not properly ventilated, there
is a danger of explosion. Consumers
and municipalities should adopt basic
safety procedures for handling dis-
carded batteries, including using well-
ventilated containers and storage
facilities.
Another safety concern is the potential
for partially charged or corroded batter-
ies to leak caustic chemicals. If proper
precautions are not taken, workers sort-
ing a mixed batch of batteries can get
chemical burns on their skin. They can
protect themselves simply by wearing
proper protective clothing, including
rubber gloves, eye protectors, and
heavy canvas or rubberized aprons.
21
-------
Because of these health and. safety is-
sues, only properly trained and
equipped workers should handle col-
lected waste batteries. The New Hamp-
shire/Vermont Solid Waste Project
originally planned for local civic
groups, such as the Boy Scouts, to sort
its batteries. Due to concerns about the
hazards and liability of hand sorting
the collected batteries, however, this
plan was dropped. Instead, the col-
lected batteries are kept commingled
and disposed of twice each year by a
qualified contractor at a hazardous
waste landfill.
-------
PUBLIC EDUCATION
ublic education efforts
are essential to the suc-
cess of a battery collec-
tion program. A public
education program can heighten the
community's awareness of the need
to reduce heavy metals in the waste
stream, involve more residents in the
collections, and increase the number of
batteries collected. Depending on a com-
munity's publicity needs and its budget,
a range of educational materials can be
developed, including posters, brochures,
stickers, flyers, and newsletters. In addi-
tion, press releases promoting the pro-
. . ~;.i-, .. : > •-.'"'-'.v< • v \', •j'v •
:, '-""•, help-spreadiinforittatibrji regardmg the;Program? • iH:-\y
,.; :VV;'Hf V^X'-'^Fl^--. ^'.'r'M':lf':^'\f ''.<, •
gram can be sent to local newspapers,
radio, and cable television stations.
Public education programs can provide
guidance to those retailers serving as col-
lection points. Many communities work
with retailers to develop and distribute
educational materials. A variety of other
creative channels, including distributing
flyers through community schools or
utility bill inserts, can be investigated
for promoting the program.
In Whatcom County, Washington, a
corporate sponsor gave retailers buckets
for collecting used batteries, along with
a poster, flyers, stickers, and other pro-
gram information. Newspaper articles
and posters publicizing the program
were made available at the collection
points. In June 1990, when a decision
was made to collect batteries county-
wide, a publicity campaign kicked off
the expanded program. This included
sending mailers to households through
the schools, issuing press releases, pro-
viding posters to recycling coordinators
in each municipality, and sending a
newsletter to every household in the
county.
The City of Detroit publicized its pro-
gram through press releases, a direct
mail brochure to over 450,000 house-
holds, local television and radio public
service announcements, and paid radio
commercials. Working with the local
water department, the program places
inserts in water usage bills sent to prop-
erty owners, and there are plans to do
the same with the local electric and gas
companies. Attempts are also being
made to work actively with the Detroit
Public School System, since initial
-------
contacts with local schools have re-
sulted in increased participation.
In addition to promoting the program,
educational materials can inform con-
sumers of safe battery handling and
storage practices. Participants in collec-
tion programs usually accumulate used
batteries in their homes rather than
immediately disposing of them with
household refuse. Every year, health de-
partments receive some reports of small
children swallowing batteries. Although
few of these incidents result in death
or serious illness, they can cause vomit-
ing, abdominal pain, or fever. Collec-
tion programs should, therefore, warn
the public of the dangers of battery
ingestion.
Minnesota's Hennepin County devel-
oped safely precautions for retailers
serving as collection points and gave
these stores brochures describing basic
safe battery storage practices to dis-
tribute to community residents.
Hennepin County's precautions include
keeping battery collection containers in
an area inaccessible to the public (such
as behind a counter or in a back room)
and instructing employees to collect
batteries from the public and deposit
them into collection containers. Some
communities also may choose to mini-
mize such risks by providing house-
holds with "piggy bank" style
containers to hold batteries until they
can be dropped off at a recycling center.
-------
00
PROGRAM COSTS
ommunities consider-
ing a battery collec-
^ tion program should
analyze the costs asso-
ciated with each of the different pro-
gram components to determine the
overall feasibility of implementing such
a program. Meeting financial expecta-
tions will be critical to the program's
long-term success. The majority of the
costs incurred will be related to battery
collections and disposal, including pur-
• Cf k
["Will most c6llecte'"' .'<•*-': j ' :• 1,J', it '<'.' ' '••', ~f '• >•->''- I'.*;,, '•*",,.
GaiilcufbsMfe :bat>ter$;: cbllectibrl tostsi ibe Jlefiayed -J&yt 1
', -,- . *... ,„,,,«£,•> ,^~- , * - J, i - ,- '.;- - I ' f ', 4 • ( ' , " » '" ., ~, ' "J f\*.
_ .. 1 »;'V.V •. I v- ' '^ ». t> * '*:1 ' -,*. » ' '5; •-•- ^--'^t'' '.• y '-^
chasing collection boxes, operating the
collections, shipping to hazardous waste
or recycling facilities, and paying any
fees set by those facilities. Officials also
should consider other potential costs
such as battery sorting and storage,
safety equipment and training, program
staff, and promotional materials. (Table
2 lists the major program components
that communities should consider when
developing a budget.)
Some communities might receive some
money from recycling companies for
collected mercury, silver-oxide, or
nickel-cadmium batteries, which can
help offset some of the costs of the bat-
tery collection program. Public officials
should be aware, however, that the
money paid by the recycler for these
batteries will be minimal (see Table 3).
Even programs that focus exclusively
on recyclable button batteries with a
relatively high metal content cannot ex-
pect to fund their programs with pay-
ments from the recyclers. In addition,
the amount paid often will be unpre-
dictable, varying with demand and the
cost of processing. In fact, some recy-
cling facilities may charge for their serv-
ices. Most communities find that
payments received do not even cover
the cost of shipping the batteries to
the recycler.
The costs of a collection program de-
pend on its scope. In Whatcom
County, Washington, program expenses
included $3,000 to develop promo-
tional materials and purchase battery
collection buckets. In addition, funds
were required to pay the salary of one
part-time staff person. Minnesota's Hen-
nepin County spent over $5,000 on
posters, brochures, and collection boxes
for its recyclable button-battery collec-
tion program. A full-time staff person
-------
• Staff to collect and analyze information about community generation patterns and dis-
posal.
• Telephone or postage costs for any surveys conducted in the community.
• Staff to oversee and manage the program.
• Collection buckets or boxes.
• Transportation of collected batteries (including labor, gasoline, insurance, and mainte-
nance).
• Workspace and personnel to sort batteries.
• Storage (including drums, rental of storage space, and safety monitoring).
» Training, equipment, and insurance for workers.
• Management of collected batteries (including hazardous or municipal waste disposal
charges, costs of shipping recyclable batteries to a recycler, and potential recycling
charges).
• Design, production, and distribution of educational and publicity materials.
• Program followup and evaluation expenses.
was used for three months to set up the
program, at a cost of $3,500. Warren
County, New Jersey, budgeted a total of
$50,000 for the first year of a county-
wide program. This figure included the
salary of one staff person to collect and
sort batteries, and the costs of develop-
ing promotional materials, purchasing a
collection vehicle and storage barrels,
and disposing of the collected batteries.
The cost of disposing of the batteries as
hazardous waste is $160 per 55-gallon
drum. Each year, after a competitive
bid process, Warren County, New Jer-
sey, officials hire a vendor to dispose of
the batteries.
The hazardous waste disposal costs en-
countered by communities are often
the largest single expense, ranging from
$175 to $300 per 55-gallon barrel, or
approximately $600 to $1,000 per ton
(since a 55-gallon drum of batteries
generally weighs between 550 to 650
pounds). These costs are substantially
higher than the average municipal land-
fill tipping fees of $11 to $64 per ton,
where most batteries that are not segre-
gated from the municipal solid waste
stream would otherwise be disposed of.
Therefore, considering both disposal
and other program costs, dry cell bat-
tery collections might be an expensive
method of diverting heavy metals from
the municipal solid waste stream.
Some communities find other ways to
offset the costs of their battery collec-
tions. Volunteer groups or local civic or-
ganizations can be sources of both
labor and funding. Such organizations
may donate collection buckets, gather
26
-------
TYPE OF
BATTERY
Mercuric-oxide
Silver-oxide
Nickel-cadmium
Alkaline, carbon-
zinc, zinc-air
Lithium
DISPOSITION
Recycled on site
Recycled on site
PAYMENT FOR
RECOVERED
METALS
No payment
The current silver
price per pound
Recycled at another facility No payment
Sent to a secure landfill for
disposal
Deactivated then sent to a
secure landfill for disposal
No payment
No payment
CHARGE
$1.50 per
pound
No charge
$0.65 per
pound
$0.39 per
pound
$6.00 per
pound
Figures charged/paid by the Mercury Refining Company, Inc. (MERECO). All figures are current as of
February 1992.
them from collection points and trans-
port them to the storage facility, and
help support the program with promo-
tional materials, fund raisers, and pub-
lic forums. Locating corporate sponsors
can be especially rewarding. In
Whatcom County, Washington, the
bulk of the expenses, including the
costs of transporting and disposing of
the 12 drums of alkaline and carbon-
zinc batteries, were borne by a corpo-
rate sponsor in the City of Bellingham.
'I
7
-------
-------
PROGRAM
EFFECTIVENESS
rogram evaluation is criti-
cal to the long-term suc-
cess of a battery collection
project, especially since
the issues and problems associated with
dry cell batteries are not static. This is a
rapidly evolving matter, with technical
research and legislative efforts under way
that can affect the battery collection and
recycling plans developed by communi-
ties. Program staff members will need to
reassess the project periodically, reevalu-
ate their objectives, and adjust their col-
POINTS TO CONSIDER,;
• Is your collection program flexible enough to adapt
to potential legislative, industry, or other changes in
battery design arid, use? , "' u
• Should your community consider focusing on nort-
s household sources of dry cell batteries? ; ,„
lection and disposal strategies accord-
ingly.
One issue to which communities
should pay particular attention is the
battery industry's mercury reduction ef-
forts. In 1985, dry cell batteries con-
tained 55 percent of all the mercury
used in the United States. Since the ma-
jority of that mercury was found in al-
kaline batteries, communities that
collected these batteries successfully re-
duced the amount of mercury entering
the municipal solid waste stream. To-
day, the significant reductions and an-
ticipated elimination of mercury in
alkaline batteries by the end of 1993
are bringing about a shift in the focus
of battery collection programs from al-
kaline batteries to mercury and re-
chargeable nickel-cadmium batteries.
As heavy metals are increasingly phased
out of household batteries, communi-
ties might want to focus on nonhouse-
hold batteries in the future. Some
nonhousehold sources currently gener-
ate significant quantities of waste batter-
ies on a regular basis, and this trend
will most likely continue in the years to
come. These sources also tend to use
larger batteries, which generally contain
greater quantities of heavy metals than
household batteries.
Commercial users also are more likely
than household users to continue gener-
ating batteries that contain heavy met-
als such as mercury, rather than rely on
substitutes. For example, a hospital
that has life-support equipment will
probably still want to use mercury bat-
teries rather than a mercury-free alterna-
tive that might be less reliable for a
particular application. Broward County,
29
-------
Florida, however, has been successful in
working with local hospitals to reduce
the number of mercury medical batter-
ies they generate. By selectively substi-
tuting zinc-air batteries for mercury
batteries, the county diverts nearly one
ton of mercury annually. When the
avoided costs of managing used mer-
cury batteries are accounted for, this
substitution results hi savings for area
hospitals.
In designing a battery management pro-
gram, communities should keep in
mind that many of the factors affect-
ing battery management will continue
to change. Battery manufacturers'
mercury-reduction achievements, new
market trends, and state legislative ac-
tions all will have an impact on the na-
ture of communities' concerns about
heavy metals entering the municipal,
solid waste stream from dry cell batter-
ies. Thus, communities should attempt
to build a level of flexibility into their
collection programs, and plan to evalu-
ate their programs regularly to deter-
mine whether the approach they are
using is still the most effective method,
given changing conditions. Table 4 lists
the types of questions communities
might ask when evaluating program
effectiveness.
• Is the program diverting a significant proportion of heavy metals from the municipal
solid waste stream?
• Are batteries being recycled cost-effectively?
• Are most collected batteries being disposed of as hazardous waste? Are these disposal
costs provided for in the program budget?
• Has long-term storage or extended stockpiling been necessary? Will it be in the future?
• Have there been safety-related problems with battery handling or storage?
• Is the contractor/recycler operating in an environmentally sound manner?
• Are more (or fewer) drop-off points or more (or fewer) frequent pickups necessary?
• Are educational and promotional efforts working? Should other methods be considered
to promote the program, increase participation, or ensure segregation of recyclable
batteries (if necessary)?
• Are industry developments reducing the heavy metal content of batteries to the extent
that household battery diversion is no longer productive?
• Are federal or state legislative and regulatory developments making nonhousehold
collection a practical alternative?
30
-------
RESOURCES
ozens of household
battery collection
programs have
emerged around the
country. Collection program coordina-
tors may be contacted for information
and suggestions. Appendix E lists a num-
ber of collection programs and provides
the names of program contacts and their
phone numbers. The following articles
and reports also might be helpful to
communities considering setting up a
battery collection program:
Adamo, Janeen, et al. Policy Options for
Source Reduction of Toxic Metals in
Household Batteries (Draft). Boston,
Massachusetts: Tufts University for
the Northeast Waste Management
Officials Association, August 1990.
Arnold, Karen, Nancy Misra, and
Randy Hukriede. Household Batteries
in Minnesota: Final Report of the
Household Battery Recycling and Dis-
posal Study. St Paul, Minnesota: Min-
nesota Pollution Control Agency,
March 1991.
Forker, Timothy. Household Batteries: Re-
cycling and Toxicity Reduction in
Europe. New York, February 2, 1990,
and Strategic Approaches to the Used
Household Battery Problem: A Report
on European Experiences and Their
Implications for Action in the United
States. New York, New York:
Environmental Action Coalition, No-
vember 10, 1989.
Hurd, David J., David Muchnick,
Michael S. Schedler, and Tom Mele.
Feasibility Study for the Implementa-
tion of Consumer Dry Cell Battery Re-
cycling as an Alternative to Disposal:
Final Report. Brattleboro, Vermont:
Council of State Governments/
Northeast Recycling Council, April
1992. Developed under the New
York State Department of Economic
Development, Secondary Materials
Utilization Grant Program.
Minnesota Pollution Control Agency.
Household Battery Recycling and Dis-
posal Study. St. Paul, Minnesota: Min-
nesota Pollution Control Agency,
June 1991.
Montgomery County Department of
Environmental Protection. Options
for the Recovery and Handling of
Household and Automotive Batteries
in Montgomery County, Maryland.
Rockville, Maryland: Montgomery
County Department of Environ-
mental Protection, September 1990.
Reutlinger, Nancy. Batteries in the Waste
Stream: A Feasibility Study of House-
hold Battery Recycling and Collection
for the County of Santa Cruz. Santa
Cruz, California: County of Santa
Cruz, Planning Department, Re-
sources Section, July 20, 1990.
-------
Seeburger, Donald. A Study of Two Col-
lection Methods for Removing House-
hold Dry Cell Batteries from a.
Residential Waste Stream, Hennepin
County, Minnesota. Presented in Seat-
tle, Washington, September 14, 1989.
U.S. EPA. Household Hazardous Waste
Management: A Manual for 1-Day
Community Collection Programs.
Washington, DC: U.S. EPA Office
of Solid Waste and Emergency-
Response, 1993.
U.S. EPA. Characterization of Municipal
Solid Waste in the United States: 1992
Update. Washington, DC: U.S. EPA
Office of Solid Waste and Emer-
gency Response, July 1992.
U.S. EPA. The Solid Waste Dilemma:
An Agenda, for Action. Washington,
DC: U.S. EPA Office of Solid Waste
and Emergency Response, February
1989.
U.S. EPA. Characterization of Products
Containing Lead and Cadmium in
Municipal Solid Waste in the United
States, 1970 to 2000. Washington,
DC: U.S. EPA Office of Solid Waste
and Emergency Response, January
1988.
U.S. EPA. Characterization of Products
Containing Mercury in Municipal
Solid Waste in the United States, 1970
to 2000. Washington, DC: U.S. EPA
Office of Solid Waste and Emer-
gency Response, April 1992.
U.S. EPA. Preliminary Use and Substi-
tutes Analysis of Lead and Cadmium
in Products in Municipal Solid Waste.
Washington, DC: U.S. EPA Office
of Solid Waste and Emergency Re-
sponse, April 1992.
32
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APPENDIX A
RCRA REGULATIONS
APPLICABLE TO NONHOUSEHOLD
SOURCES OF BATTERIES
Management of used nonhousehold bat-
teries is complex because waste batteries
from nonhousehold sources are subject
to the federal Resource Conservation
and Recovery Act (RCRA) hazardous
waste regulations (or equivalent state
regulations) if they exhibit one or more
of the following hazardous charac-
teristics: (1) ignitability; (2) corrosivity;
(3) reactivity; or (4) toxicity (as identi-
fied through the Toxicity Characteristic
Leaching Procedure, or TCLP). In gen-
eral, some portion of batteries tested
will be identified as hazardous waste be-
cause of their corrosivity, reactivity, or
toxicity.
Waste generators are responsible for de-
termining whether their waste batteries
exhibit hazardous characteristics. EPA
has not independently verified industry
data, but according to industry sources,
nickel-cadmium batteries typically ex-
hibit hazardous waste characteristics,
whereas low-mercury alkaline and
carbon-zinc batteries do not. Alkaline
batteries with higher concentrations of
mercury and larger mercury batteries
would be likely to test as hazardous,
and some lithium batteries might ex-
hibit the reactivity characteristic.
Whether button batteries test as hazard-
ous depends on their type and size.
Highlights of the federal RCRA regula-
tions that apply to nonhousehold gener-
ators of waste batteries (such as
business, retail, service, manufacturing,
medical, and military establishments)
are presented below. These descriptions
are intended to give only a general
sense of the regulations and should not
be considered a complete review. In ad-
dition, many states have implemented
their own hazardous waste regulations.
These regulations must be at least as
stringent as the federal requirements,
and in many cases they are more strin-
gent. Communities interested in collect-
ing nonhousehold batteries should
contact their state and local environ-
mental, safety, and health agencies to
determine all applicable requirements.
Communities are encouraged to call
EPAs RCRA Hotline at (800) 424-
9346 for information on the federal
33
-------
hazardous waste requirements and for
state environmental agency contacts.
• Conditionally exempt small quantity-
generators. Nonhouseholds that gen-
erate less than 100 kilograms (220
pounds) of all types of hazardous
waste (not just batteries) per month
are known as conditionally exempt
small quantity generators (CESQGs).
Hazardous waste batteries generated
by CESQGs are "conditionally ex-
empt" from most federal hazardous
waste regulations. One of the condi-
tions for the exemption is that the haz-
ardous waste must be managed at
certain types of facilities. A facility
that is permitted, licensed, or regis-
tered by the state to manage munici-
pal or industrial solid waste is one
type of facility that is allowed under
the conditional exemption. Therefore,
if a household hazardous waste collec-
tion program is permitted or regis-
tered by the state to manage
municipal solid waste, waste batteries
from conditionally exempt small
quantity generators may be collected
in such a program.
• Regulated, generators. Nonhousehold
generators that generate more than
100 kilograms (220 pounds) of haz-
ardous waste per month are regulated
generators and must comply with the
hazardous waste regulations under
RCRA. They may send their waste
only to a permitted hazardous waste
facility (or certain recyclers) and
must ship the waste using a hazardous
waste transporter. In addition, ship-
ping papers known as manifest
tracking forms must be used. Com-
munities may not collect hazardous
waste batteries from regulated gener-
ators unless the collection program
complies with the hazardous waste
regulations under RCRA. Failure to
comply with the regulations could re-
sult in civil or criminal penalties
against the community.*
Exemption for regeneration by bat-
tery manufacturers. Used batteries
that are returned to a battery manu-
facturer for regeneration are exempt
from federal hazardous waste regula-
tions. Used battery regeneration con-
sists of replacing or repairing defective
cells, or replacing electrolytes. It is
very unlikely that dry cell batteries
would be regenerated.
*The federal regulations discussed above may be revised in the future to make combined collection of house-
hold batteries and batteries generated by regulated generators easier. EPA has proposed a program under which
regulated batteries could be collected under greatly streamlined requirements to facilitate separation of the bat-
teries from the municipal waste stream and to encourage proper treatment and/or recycling. Household and
regulated batteries could be collected together as long as the collection program complies with requirements
such as basic good management practices and a minimum of recordkeeping. This proposal, known as the
Universal Wastes Rule, was published in Februrary, 1993 and is scheduled to be finalized by September, 1993.
The rule will not become efFective in most states, however, until the state incorporates it into the state hazard-
ous waste regulations.
34
-------
APPENDIX B
A DRY CELL BATTERY
COLLECTION PROGRAM IN
ACTION^ HENNEPIN COUNTY,
MINNESOTA
The Hennepin County dry cell battery
collection program is a well-established
program that can serve as a model for
other communities interested in divert-
ing used batteries from the municipal
solid waste stream. It is the largest used
dry cell battery collection program in
the United States. The program serves
approximately one million county resi-
dents spread out over 47 municipalities,
including Minneapolis and the sur-
rounding suburbs. The county pursued
two pilot studies and then conducted a
survey of commercial battery users. As a
result, a retail collection program of but-
ton batteries was initiated countrywide.
Curbside collection is available for all
types of batteries in the City of Minnea-
polis and at numerous drop-off loca-
tions throughout the county.
Pilot Comparative Collection
Programs/All Batteries
Concerns about emissions of heavy met-
als from the county's municipal solid
waste combustor prompted a two-part
pilot program in 1988 to divert all
types of household batteries from the
combustor. Two suburbs, each with a
population of about 20,000 people,
were selected to test different collection
approaches. In one community, mixed
household batteries were collected over
a 10-month period in drop-off buckets
placed at retail stores. The program was
publicized through newspaper inserts
and other promotions. In the second
community, household batteries were
collected at the curbside on two differ-
ent dates, less than five months apart.
Households received a direct mail flyer
with instructions to place the batteries
in a washed 1/2-gallon milk carton or
one-quart sealed plastic bag that was to
be placed on top of their recycling con-
tainer on the specified battery collec-
tion dates.
The pilot program gathered comprehen-
sive data on the quantities and types of
batteries collected. Ninety-three percent
35
-------
of all collected batteries were nonrecy-
clable alkaline or carbon-zinc batteries.
The county received permission to
store collected batteries for up to one
year at a public works garage. Batteries
were separated by type, stored in differ-
ent barrels, and marked as hazardous,
corrosive materials. The seven 55-gallon
drums of batteries collected during the
pilot program were all disposed of as
hazardous waste at a cost of $700 per
drum. This was a much higher cost
than the county would have been able
to negotiate with another vendor, but
the one-year limit for storing batteries
had almost expired, and there was insuf-
ficient time for alternative arrange-
ments. The current cost to dispose of
collected batteries is about $300 per
drum.
Commercial Battery "Waste Audit
In January 1990, Hennepin County,
Minnesota, conducted a survey of 83 lo-
cal businesses thought to use significant
numbers of dry cell batteries. The sam-
ple included organizations involved in
medical care, security, communications,
building maintenance, transportation,
computer maintenance, government,
and traffic control. The survey goals
were to get an idea of the types and
quantities of batteries used by busi-
nesses in Hennepin County and to de-
termine the disposal practices used.
Organizations surveyed were asked the
following questions:
• During the past 12 months, how
many types of batteries did your com-
pany use?
• What is your company's primary use
of each type of battery (type of equip-
ment powered by batteries)?
• How long does your company keep
each type of spent battery on site be-
fore disposal?
• How does your company dispose of
each type of spent battery?
This survey identified both individual
companies that were particularly high
battery consumers and the total num-
bers of batteries entering the municipal
solid waste stream from these nonhouse-
hold sources. For example, the survey
identified one company that used
34,000 alkaline batteries in one year.
Transportation, construction, and
communication organizations surveyed
consumed a total of 17,000 nickel-
cadmium batteries. The medical care in-
dustry was die dominant user of mercu-
ric-oxide batteries, discarding over 3,500
mercury batteries in one year.
The majority of the organizations sur-
veyed discard their waste batteries into
the municipal solid waste stream. In
many cases, these batteries are the same
types and sizes of those purchased by
household users over the counter. The
county uses the survey information to
plan strategies for helping local busi-
nesses identify alternative disposal meth-
ods for problem batteries.
Retail Collection/Button
Batteries
Based on the results of the pilot pro-
gram and the commercial battery waste
audit, a countywide retail collection
program was established in January
1990. The program began with the
-------
collection of button batteries. Mercuric-
oxide and silver-oxide button cells are
easy to market for recycling because of
their high mercury content by weight
and because they pose reduced storage
risks. Button batteries were collected at
more than 150 points throughout the
county, including jewelry and photogra-
phy stores.
Newspaper advertisements, window
cards, handouts, flyers distributed at
senior citizen centers, and counter dis-
plays at participating stores publicized
the program. About $5,000 was spent
on purchasing collection boxes and de-
veloping brochures and posters. A full-
time staff person was hired for three
months to set up the program at a cost
of $3,500 per month.
In its first year, the button battery col-
lection program accumulated and
shipped 292 pounds of mixed button
batteries to Mercury Refining in Al-
bany, New York. This recycling com-
pany processed approximately 140
pounds of silver-oxide button batteries,
which provided the bulk of the dollar
value paid to the county. Another 123
pounds of mercury cells were processed
— resulting in the diversion from the
municipal solid waste stream of some
49 pounds of pure mercury during the
programs first year. In the programs sec-
ond year, approximately 800 pounds of
mixed button batteries were collected
and shipped for recycling and disposal.
Today, Hennepin County has nearly
500 drop-off sites, including retailers, li-
braries, nursing homes, and hospitals.
Collection of All Batteries
A curbside collection program was initi-
ated in October 1990 for the City of
Minneapolis, which has over 100,000
households. This collection program
was modeled after the pilot curbside
collection of all batteries. In addition to
curbside collections, 140 drop-off
points located at stores that sell all
types of dry cell batteries were estab-
lished to serve the rest of the house-
holds in Hennepin County. Batteries
and small appliances containing re-
chargeable batteries also can be
brought to Hennepin County's perma-
nent household hazardous waste
collection site.
During the first six months of the pro-
gram, Hennepin County collected be-
tween 3,500 to 4,000 pounds of mixed
household batteries in Minneapolis and
900 pounds from the suburban drop-
off locations every week. All batteries
are brought to a Vocational Service
Program, where they are sorted by
chemical composition for recycling or
hazardous waste disposal. While the
majority of batteries collected are alka-
line and carbon-zinc batteries, the col-
lection of nickel-cadmium batteries has
been as high as 20 percent of the total.
In 1991, the program collected and
shipped over 70 tons of batteries.
The programs budget for 1991 was
$263,000, which included all program
costs (start-up, sorting, shipping, and
disposal costs, as well as some modest
promotion of the program).
57
-------
-------
APPENDIX C
DRY CELL BATTERY ISSUES
AFFECTING RECYCLING
••HEiiiHiiiiiiiiiBiiB
^&^^«;fe^!SJB^S«sKi»fflK^'4^S^i£ir;!i«»Ki
BH^aSEjBHHzSS^StffHiWS^^HftSSSl
TYPICAL
HEAVY
METAL
BATTERY ACCES- WEIGHT
TYPES SIBELITY DISTINGUISHABLE MARKET SHARE PER CELL
AitemMiatMgli
CUR-
RENTLY
RECY-
CLED
Primary Cells (Nonrechargeable)
Alkaline,
carbon-zinc
Accessible
Mercuric-
oxide button
Accessible
Silver-oxide
button
Accessible
Alkaline, carbon-zinc, and
nickel-cadmium batteries
are similar in size and
shape, although nickel-
cadmium batteries are
labeled as such.
Mercuric-oxide button
batteries are easy to
distinguish from
nonbutton types of
batteries, but not from
other buttons.
Silver-oxide button
batteries are difficult to
distinguish from mercuric-
oxide buttons.
Alkalines make up 75
percent of all battery
sales and are increasingly
replacing carbon-zinc
because of their better
performance in high-
power drain appliances.
Mercuric-oxide button
batteries are expected to
be phased out by the
mid-1990s.
Market share is
projected to remain
stable. Silver-oxide
batteries, along with
zinc-air batteries, are
replacing mercuric-oxide
button batteries.
Mercury :
0.025 percent
or none in
alkaline
batteries;
0.010 percent
or none in
carbon-zinc
batteries
Mercury: 35—
50 percent
Mercury: 0.4—
1.0 percent
No
Yes
Yes
39
-------
BATTERY
TYPES
ACCES-
SIBILITY
DISTINGUISHABLE
MARKET SHARE
TYPICAL
HEAVY
METAL
WEIGHT
PER CELL
CUR-
RENTLY
RECY-
CLED
Zinc-air
button
Accessible
Lithium
Virtually all are
accessible except
those placed
within certain
products during
the assembly
process and used
for memory
back-up
applications.
Zinc-air batteries are
easily identifiable by die
holes in the bottom.
Most large lithium
batteries are labeled with
the word "lithium" or the
initials "LI." Lithium
button batteries are
smaller and lighter than
most types of button
batteries and are also
unique because they come
with only a 3-volt charge.
Secondary Cells (Rechargeable)
Nickel-
cadmium
Small sealed
lead-acid flat
plates
80 percent are
sealed in
appliances.
Virtually all are
sealed in
rj
appliances.
Alkaline, carbon-zinc, and
nickel-cadmium batteries
are similar in size and
shape, ahhough nickel-
cadmium batteries are
labeled as such.
Most are enclosed in
battery packs and are not
easily distinguishable.
Market share is growing
and projected to
continue to increase.
Zinc-air batteries, along
with silver-oxide
batteries, are replacing
mercuric-oxide button
batteries.
New, but growing
market share.
Only 15—17 percent are
purchased direcdy by
consumers through retail
oudets.
Use in consumer
appliances has been
limited, but their market
share is growing and
projected to continue to
increase, particularly in
cellular phone
applications.
Mercury:
0.4-1.01
percent
No
n/a
No
Cadmium:
10—15 percent
Yes3
Lead: 50-75
percent
Yes*
These weights reflect data available as of June 1992. Older batteries have higher contents of heavy metals.
^This will change as new legislation is adopted requiring easy accessibility and clear labeling of these batteries. All will be easily removable by
July 1,1993.
Currently being recycled by only one company in the United States (Inmetco, Elmwood City, PA), though accepted for export by others.
Currendy collected in Hennepin County, Minnesota, and sent to a local lead smelter for recycling. While these batteries can be recycled in facili-
ties that recover lead from automotive lead-acid batteries, it is not done commonly due to their inaccessibility and low volume of use.
-------
APPENDIX D
DRY CELL BATTERY RECYCLERS
TYPES OF
TYPES OF BATTERIES
COMPANY CLIENTS ACCEPTED
Bethlehem Apparatus Battery Mercury (pre-
Hellertown, PA manufacturers, sorted)
(215) 838-7034 industry
Doe Run Company Industry, Lead-acid
Boss, MO consumers
(800) 633-8566
Inmetco Industry, some Nickel-
Elmwood City, PA municipalities cadmium
(412) 758-5515 (requires that
batteries be
manifested)
Mercury Refining Industry, Mercury
Latham, NY consumers
(518) 785-1703
Silver-oxide
Nickel-cadmium
Lithium
Alkaline,
carbon-zinc
MINIMUM
QUANTITY PAYMENT/ WHERE
REQUIREMENTS CHARGE PROCESSED
5-gallon bucket Pays $770 per On site
5-gallon bucket
No minimum Price paid On site
requirements if depends on lead
batteries are content and price
delivered of lead, among
other factors
400-pound Pays $275 per net On site
minimum ton delivered
None Pays $0.10/pound On site
None Pays the current On site
silver price per
pound
None No charge/ Exported
payment
None Charges $61 Deactivated,
pound then securely
kndfilled
None Charges for Landfilled
secure land
disposal
41
-------
COMPANY
TYPES OF
CLIENTS
TYPES OF
BATTERIES
ACCEPTED
MINIMUM
QUANTITY
REQUIREMENTS
PAYMENT/
CHARGE
WHERE
PROCESSED
Saft-NIFE, Inc.
Greenville, NC
(919) 830-1600
Sanders Lead
Troy, AL
(800) 633-8744
Skuylkill Metals
Forest City, MO
(816) 446-3322
Baton Rouge, LA
(504) 775-3040
Universal Metals &c
Ore
Mt. Vernon, NY
(914) 664-0200
Industry,
consumers
Filling stations,
automobile
dealers, industry,
telephone
companies,
consumers
Manufacturers,
industry,
hospitals,
consumers
Battery
manufacturers,
appliance
manufacturers
Nickel-cadmium $100 minimum fee
Lead-acid
Lead-acid
One ton if client
delivers, one
truckload if
company picks up
None, willing to
accept all batteries
as community
service; requests
that batteries not
be mailed
Nickel-cadmium None
Pays $0-
$0.70/pound,
depending on
volume received
No charge and
will pay freight
No charge
No charge for
small quantities;
pays $0.15-
$0.20/pound for
larger quantities
Limited
processing on
site; exported
to Sweden
On site
On site
Exported to
France or Asia
'This list is current as of February 1992. Inclusion on this list does not signify EPA recommendation or approval.
-------
APPENDIX E
SAMPLE DRY CELL BATTERY
COLLECTION PROGRAMS: A LISTING
OF PROGRAMS AND CONTACTS
BATTERY
COLLECTION
PROGRAM
Huntsville, Alabama
Gainsville, Florida
CONTACT
Karen Schoening
(205) 880-6054
Norman Thomas
(904) 495-9215
TYPE OF
COLLECTION
PROGRAM
Curbside collection,
with recyclables
Collected in
conjunction with other
household hazardous
waste collection
TYPES OF
BATTERIES
COLLECTED
All types
All types
Overland Park, Kansas
Louisville, Kentucky
City of Detroit,
Michigan
Ron Tubb
(913) 382-5252
Ray Hillbrand
(501) 625-2788
Phillip Brown
(313) 876-0144
Drop-off at six retail
stores
Pilot drop-off at
recycling center
Drop-off at retail stores,
municipal offices
Button batteries
only
All types
All types
Dakota County,
Minnesota
Hennepin County,
Minnesota
Gayle Prest
(612) 891-7020
Chery Lofrano-Zaske
(612) 348-6509
Pilot curbside
collection; drop-off at
over 70 locations
Drop-off, curbside
collection, and hazardous
waste site drop-off
All types collected
at curb; drop-off
sites accept button
batteries only
All types and
rechargeable
appliances
MANAGEMENT OF
BATTERIES
Will be sent to a
hazardous waste landfill
Batteries are encased in
cement, to be sent to the
municipal solid waste
landfill after one year
Recycled
Sent to hazardous waste
incinerator
Will be sent to broker
for sorting prior to
recycling or hazardous
waste disposal
Batteries are sorted for
recycling or hazardous
waste disposal
Recycled or disposed of
as hazardous waste
45
-------
BATTERY
COLLECTION
PROGRAM
23 counties, South-
west Missouri
29 towns in New
Hampshire and
Vermont
Somerset County,
New Jersey
Warren County,
New Jersey
Little Valley,
New York
New York City,
New York
CONTACT
Marie Steinwachs
(417) 889-5777
Dodi Carr
(603) 543-1201
Mike Elka
(201) 231-7031
Mary Briggs
(908) 453-2174
Richard Preston
(716) 938-9121
Nancy Wolf
(212) 677-1601
TYPE OF
COLLECTION
PROGRAM
Drop-off at retail stores
Drop-off at retail stores,
municipal offices, and
transfer stations
Curbside collections
with recyclables, four
times per year
Curbside collection in 9
communities; drop-off
at municipal offices or
recycling centers in 14
communities
Drop-off at transfer
stations; curbside;
looking to expand to
retail stores
Drop-off at retail stores,
healthcare facilities, and
TYPES OF
BATTERIES
COLLECTED
Button batteries
only
All types
All types
All types
All types
Button and nicl
cadmium batter
Poestenkill, New York Lois Fisher
(518) 283-5100
Rochester, New York Alice Young
(716) 244-5824
Rye, New York
Frank Culross
(914) 967-7404
schools
Drop-off at landfill or
recycling center
Drop-off in municipal
buildings and retail
stores
Drop-off at recycling
center
All types
Button batteries
only
All types
Scarsdale, New York Jim Rice
(914) 723-3300
Drop-off at recycling All types
center and incinerator
MANAGEMENT OF
BATTERIES
Recycled
Sent to hazardous waste
landfills
Sent to hazardous waste
landfill
Batteries sorted for
recycling or hazardous
waste disposal
Sent to recycling
company for sorting
prior to recycling or
hazardous waste disposal
Currendy stored, plan
to recycle; used in
research
Sent to recycling
company for sorting
prior to recycling or
hazardous waste disposal
Recycled
Sent to recycling
company for sorting
prior to recycling or
hazardous waste disposal
Sent to recycling
company for sorting
prior to recycling or
hazardous waste disposal
44
-------
BATTERY
COLLECTION
PROGRAM
ElBilnifcBffiinliiiB
NT
CONTACT
Southold, New York Jim Bunchuck
(516) 734-7685
Woodstock, New York Bill Reich
(914) 679-6570
Lancaster County, Stephanie Crable
Pennsylvania (717) 397-9968
Pottstown,
Pennsylvania
York County,
Pennsylvania
Jim Crater
(215) 323-8545
Jeff Fox
(717) 845-1066
Chesapeake, Virginia Jennifer Ladd
(804) 420-4700
Town of Hartford, James Gruber
Vermont (802) 295-9353
Town of Randolph, Karen Odato
Vermont (802) 728-9262
Whatcom County, Lisa Schnebele
Washington (206) 384-1057
^^^BmS^Es^^fai^££iiSESS
TYPE OF
COLLECTION
PROGRAM
Drop-off at retail stores
and recycling center
Drop-off at retail stores
and recycling center
Curbside collection
with trash pick-up
(placed in bright orange
zip-lock bag)
Drop-off at community
recycling center
Drop-off arrangement
with one convenience
store chain, plus over
100 buckets at retail
stores, municipal offices
Curbside collection
Curbside collection
with recyclables
Drop-off at 16
locations, mainly retail
stores
Drop-off at retail stores
and recycling center
^^^g^^^^S^a^g^^^^^g^^^M^jg^HljUlllj^lgigi ®S$BBHB MS
if
TYPES OF
BATTERIES MANAGEMENT OF
COLLECTED BATTERIES
All types Sent to recycling
company for sorting
prior to recycling or
hazardous waste disposal
All types Sent to recycling
company for sorting
prior to recycling or
hazardous waste disposal
All types Will sort recyclable
batteries for recycling;
remainder will be sent
to municipal landfill
Button batteries To be determined
All types Sent to recycling
company
All types Plan to send to
recycling company for ,
sorting prior to
recycling or disposal
Button only Not yet determined
All types Not yet determined
All types Batteries sorted for
recycling or hazardous
waste disposal
Source: Adapted from Dana Duxbury & Associates, 1990.
45
-------
-------
APPENDIX F
SAMPLES OF STATE BATTERY
LEGISLATION*
TOXICS REDUCTION
Connecticut
Prohibits the sale of alkaline
batteries with more than
0.025 percent mercury by
weight. By January 1, 1993,
prohibits the sale of carbon-
zinc batteries containing more
than one part per million by
weight of mercury.
Minnesota
Prohibits the sale of alkaline
batteries with more than
0.025 percent mercury by
weight. After 1996, prohibits
the sale of alkaline batteries
with any mercury (except alka-
line button cells). Prohibits
the sale of alkaline button cell
batteries that contain more
than 25 mg mercury. Prohibits
the sale of mercury batteries.
Prohibits the sale of new bat-
tery chemistries unless ap-
proved by the Minnesota
Pollution Control Agency.
"'Current as of January, 1993.
RECHARGEABLE DISPOSAL
BATTERY RECYCLING PROHIBITIONS
By July 1, 1993,
rechargeable appliances
may be sold only if
batteries or battery packs
can be removed. The
packaging or battery casing
must indicate the presence
of a nickel-cadmium
battery that requires proper
disposal. Municipalities
must recycle nickel-
cadmium batteries in
consumer products.
By July 1, 1993,
rechargeable batteries can be
sold only if the battery is
removable by the consumer.
The product and the
rechargeable battery must be
clearly marked for recycling.
A sign must be posted at
retail oudets informing
consumers that disposal of
rechargeable batteries is
prohibited and that the
batteries should be recycled.
Battery manufacturers must
implement collection or
other management pilot
programs and report results
by November 1993.
By January 1, 1993, the
disposal of used mercury
batteries is prohibited except
by delivery to a retailer, a
wholesaler, a manufacturer
of mercury batteries, or a
recycling center.
Mercury, silver-oxide,
nickel-cadmium, and lead-
acid batteries used by a
government agency or an
industrial, communications,
or medical facility may not
be discarded in mixed
municipal solid waste.
Rechargeable nickel-
cadmium batteries and lead-
acid batteries used by
households may not be
discarded in mixed
municipal solid waste.
OTHER
By January 1, 1993, a mandatory
take-back system will be
established whereby retailers and
wholesalers are required to accept
used mercuric-oxide batteries.
Retailers must advise customers
that used mercury batteries are
hazardous waste and require
separate disposal, and that the
retailer is required to accept used
mercury batteries. Senior citizen
centers must establish programs to
collect mercuric-oxide batteries for
safe disposal or recycling.
Battery manufacturers must
ensure that a system for the
proper collection, transportation,
and processing of waste batteries
exists for purchasers in
Minnesota. They can do this by
accepting waste batteries or by
identifying or contracting with
collectors, transporters, and
processors of waste batteries.
Manufacturers must provide a
phone number for information
on returning batteries for
recycling or proper disposal.
47
-------
TOXICS REDUCTION
RECHARGEABLE
BATTERY RECYCLING
DISPOSAL
PROHIBITIONS
OTHER
New Jersey
Prohibits the sale of alkaline
batteries (except button cells)
and mercury batteries with
more than 0.025 percent
mercury by weight. Prohibits
the sale of all alkaline button
cells with more than 25 mg
mercury per cell. Prohibits the
sale of zinc-carbon batteries
with more than. 0.0001
percent mercury by weight. By
January 1, 1996, prohibits the
sale of alkaline batteries with
more than 0.0001 percent
mercury by weight.
New York
Prohibits the sale of alkaline
batteries that have more than
0.025 percent mercury by
weight. Prohibits the sale of
carbon-zinc batteries that have
more than 0.0001 percent
mercury by weight.
By July 1, 1993,
rechargeable products may
be sold only if the batteries
can be removed by the
consumer. The recharge-
able products must be
labeled, alerting consumers
that the battery is
prohibited from entering
the solid waste stream and
must be recycled. The
instruction manual for the
product must include
information on proper
disposal.
By July 1, 1993, recharge-
able appliances may only
be sold if the batteries can
be removed. The
rechargeable battery must
be clearly marked for
recycling.
By 1993, the disposal of
mercury, nickel-cadmium,
and lead-acid batteries in
the solid waste stream is
prohibited.
The combustion of dry cell
batteries is prohibited.
Combustion facilities must
provide a program to
prevent dry cell batteries
from being accepted and/or
treated at the facility.
By 1993, battery manufacturers
of mercury, nickel-cadmium, and
lead-acid batteries must design
and publicize a system for the
collection of these batteries and
design a strategy for implement-
ing an industry-wide uniform
coding system. Retailers will be
required to participate in the
collections and program
publicity. All dry cell battery
manufacturers must submit a
collection plan to increase the
collection of dry cell batteries
and to implement an industry-
wide uniform coding system.
Reports must be submitted to
the governor in 1993 reviewing
the technological feasibility of
eliminating mercury from
alkaline batteries, establishing a
schedule for collecting batteries
for recycling or disposal, and
indicating the appropriate role of
battery manufacturers, retailers,
consumers, and recyclers.
48
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TOXICS REDUCTION
RECHARGEABLE
BATTERY RECYCLING
DISPOSAL
PROHIBITIONS
OTHER
Oregon
Prohibits the sale of alkaline
batteries with more than
0.025 percent mercury by
weight (except button cells if
they contain less than 25 mg
mercury by weight).
By July 1, 1993, prohibits
the sale of products
containing nickel-
cadmium batteries in
consumer products unless
the battery is removable by
the consumer. The battery
and the package
containing the battery
must be labeled with the
recycling symbol, the
symbol "Cd" for nickel-
cadmium, and "Pb" for
lead-acid.
For nonconsumer
products, prohibits the sale
of products containing
nickel-cadmium batteries
unless the batteries can be
removed.
N/A
N/A
Vermont
Prohibits die sale of alkaline
batteries with more than
0.025 percent mercury by
weight. Prohibits die sale of
button cell alkalines with
more than 25 mg of mercury
by weight. By January 1,
1993, prohibits the sale of
button cell batteries
containing more than 25 mg
of mercury by weight. By
January 1, 1996, prohibits the
sale of batteries containing any
mercury.
By July 1, 1993,
rechargeable batteries used
in tools and appliances
must be easily removable,
and the product, battery,
and packaging must be
labeled indicating that the
battery should be recycled
or disposed of properly.
Mercury, silver-oxide, nickel-
cadmium, and lead-acid
batteries used by a
government agency or an
industrial, communications,
or medical facility may not
be discarded in landfills. By
July 1, 1992, rechargeable
batteries generated in any
municipality in which there
is an ongoing collection
program may not be
disposed of in landfills. By
January 1, 1993, mercury,
silver-oxide, nickel-
cadmium, and lead-acid
batteries may not be
disposed of in landfills.
Nonconsumer users of mercury,
silver-oxide, nickel-cadmium,
and lead-acid batteries are
required to separate and return
such batteries to a designated
facility. Battery manufacturers
must implement a collection
system, inform purchasers of the
landfill prohibition, and include
the cost of collection in the sales
transaction. All button cells must
be labeled by type of electrode.
The Vermont Agency of Natural
Resources was required to
develop a used battery
management plan; this plan was
published in January 1992.
49
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APPENDIX G
CALCULATIONS OF CONTRIBUTIONS OF
METALS FROM WASTE HOUSEHOLD
BATTERIES IN THE SOLID WASTE STREAM
The following appendix shows the types of calculations that a community might go
through to determine the contribution of metals to the MSW stream. (Excerpted
from Household Battery Recycling and Disposal Study, prepared by Minnesota Pollu-
tion Control Agency, June 1991.)
In 1985, the U.S. population was 238,741,000; 4,192,000 of those were living in
Minnesota (U.S. Department of Commerce, 1988). The population in Minnesota
was 1.75587 percent of the total U.S. population.
Mercuric-oxide battery sales for hearing aids: 43,100,000
Zinc-air battery sales for hearing aids: 45,700,000
Silver-oxide battery sales for hearing aids: 900,000
TOTAL SALES: 89,700,000
Source: Personal communication, Raymond Balfour, National Electrical Manufacturers Association (NEMA).
^
Estimated U.S. sales:
Percent for household use:
225,000,000
77.5
TOTAL SALES: 225,000,000 X 0.775 = 174,375,000
Source: Personal communication, NEMA sources.
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MULTIPLICANDS
Average Weight
Number Sold
Market Share
Mercury Percent
Conversion Factor
Total Amount Mercury
BUTTON BATTERIES
SILVER
1.57 gm
2.984979 x 106
0.05
0.01
0.0352746
82.655442 oz.
5.17 IBs.
MERCURY
3.6 gm
2.984979 x 106
0.30
0.35-0.5
0.0352746
39,801.105 - 56,858.7 oz.
2,487.57-3,553.67 Ibs.
ZINC-AIR
1.57gm
2.984979 x 106
0.65
0.02
0.0352746
2,149 oz.
134.3125 Ibs.
Total amount mercury in waste stream from waste button batteries: 2,627.05 —3,693.15 Ibs.
MULTIPLICANDS
Number Sold
Mercury Weight
Cadmium Weight
Lead Weight
Zinc Weight
Conversion Factor
CARBON-ZINC BATTERIES
10.886394 x 106
0.001 - 0.05 gm
0.001 - 0.05 gm
0.001-0.05 gm
3 - 22 gm
0.0352746
Total Amount Metals 384 - 19,200.66 oz. mercury, cadmium, lead
(24 — 1,200 Ibs. mercury, cadmium, lead)
1,152,039.6 - 8,448,290.3 oz. zinc
(72,002.475 - 528,018.14 Ibs. or 36-264 tons zinc)
NOTE: To recreate these Total Amount Metals, work the calculations through separately for each metal.
MULTIPLICANDS
Number Sold
Mercury Weight
Zinc Weight
Cadmium Weight
Lead Weight
Conversion Factor
ALKALINE BATTERIES
21.07044 x 106
1 gm
1-24 gm
0.01 gm
0.01 gm
0.0352746
Total Amount Metals 743,251.34 oz. mercury
(46,453.209 Ibs. or 23.2 tons mercury)
7,43,251.34 - 17,838.032 oz. zinc
(46,453.209 - 1,114,877 Ibs. or 23.2 - 557.4 tons zinc)
7,432.5134 oz. cadmium, lead
(464.53 Ibs. cadmium, lead)
NOTE: To recreate these Total Amount Metals, work the calculations through separately for each metal.
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MULTIPLICANDS
Average Weight
Number Sold
Cadmium Percent
Conversion Factor
Longer-Use Factor*
NICKEL-CADMIUM BATTERIES
37.2 gm
175,587
0.17
0.0352746
0.325
Total Amount Metals 11,232.39 - 18,720.64 oz. nickel
(702 - 1,170 Ibs. nickel)
12,730 oz. cadmium
(795.6 Ibs. cadmium)
NOTE: To recreate these Total Amount Metals, work the calcuktions through separately for each metal.
*Calculating the Longer-Use Factor for Nickel-Cadmium Batteries
20% of nickel-cadmium batteries are accessible:
50% of those last for up to 1 year = 0.02 •*• 0.510 = 0.10
;?0% of those last for up to 4 years =
100% of the accessible batteries
0.20 4- 0.5 •*• 4 = 0.025
80% of nickel-cadmium batteries are in appliances:
100 % of these last up to 4 years =
100% of those in appliances
0.80 -5- 4
= 0.20
100% of waste nickel-cadmium batteries annually in die waste stream
= 0.325
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MUI31PIICANDS
BUTTON BATTERIES
SILVER ZINC-AIR
Average Weight
Number Sold
Market Share
Mercury Percent
Conversion Factor
1.57 gm
1.57872 X 106
0.01-0.10
0.02
0.0352746
1.57 gm
1.57872 x 106
0.90 - 0.99
0.01
0.0352746
Total Amount Mercury 17.5 - 174.9 oz. 786.9 - 865.6 oz.
(1.09 - 10.9 Ibs.) (49.2 - 54.1 Ibs.)
Total amount mercury in waste stream from waste button batteries: 50.29 — 65 Ibs.
MUITIPLICANDS
Number Sold
Cadmium Weight
Mercury Weight
Conversion Factor
CARBON-ZINC BATTERIES
4.9 x 106
0.001 - 0.05 gm
0.001-0.05 gm
0.0352746
Total Amount Metals
172.8 — 8,642.3 oz. mercury, cadmium
(10.8 — 540.1 Ibs. mercury, cadmium)
MUITIPLICANDS
Average Weight
Number Sold
Mercury Percent
Conversion Factor
ALKALINE BATTERIES
57.7 gm
33,9856 x 106
0.00025
0.0352746
Total Amount Mercury
17,293 oz.
(1,080.8 Ibs.)
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MULTIPLICANDS
Number Sold
Cadmium Weight
Conversion Factor
ALKALINE BATTERIES
33,9856 x 106
0.01 gm.
0.0352746
Total Amount Cadmium
11,988.3 oz.
(749.3 Ibs.)
MULTIPLICANDS
Average Weight
Number Sold
Cadmium Percent
Conversion Factor
Longer-use Factor
NICKEL-CADMIUM BATTERIES
37.2 gm
3.062 X 106
0.17
0.0352745
0.325
Total Amount Cadmium
221,994 oz.
(13,875 Ibs.)
MULTIPLICANDS
Average Weight
Number Sold
Mercury Percent
Conversion Factor
ALKALINE BATTERIES
57.5 gm
33,9856 x 106
0.005
0.0352745
Total Amount Mercury
344,666.3 oz.
(21,541.6 Ibs.)
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*KEY:
Multiplicands are the numbers to be multiplied togedier to arrive at the Total Amount Metals; ex-
ceptions are noted for carbon-zinc, alkaline, and nickel-cadmium batteries.
Average Weight by battery type was calculated from weights found in Linden, 1984, except for that
of the alkaline batteries which came from personal communication with Raymond Balfoux, NEMA.
Number Sold (in 1985) was found in Dodds and Goldsberry, 1986 prorated for Minnesota.
Market Share was taken from Erico, Slater, and Dickenson, 1985.
Metal Percent per battery was taken from NEMA, 1988.
Metal Weights per battery were taken from Franklin and Associates, Ltd., 1988.
Conversion Factor converts grams to ounces.
Longer-Use Factor prorates these rechargeable batteries over four years and was based on Franklin
and Associates, Ltd., 1988.
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