United States Solid Waste and EPA530-R-95-042 Environmental Protection Emergency Response September 1995 Agency (5306W) &EPA Report to Congress: Recovery and Recycling Of Plastics from Durable Goods ------- ------- CONTENTS Page EXECUTIVE SUMMARY ES_! SECTION 1 INTRODUCTION j 1.1 Scope and Purpose of Report 1 1.2 Background 2 SECTION 2 STATUS OF POSTCONSUMER DURABLE PLASTICS RECYCLING IN THE U.S 4 2.1 Recycling of Postconsumer Durable Plastics Found InMSW 4 2.2 Recycling of Other Postconsumer Durable Plastics 4 2.3 Overview of the Durables Recycling Process 6 SECTION 3 BARRIERS TO RECYCLING POSTCONSUMER DURABLE PLASTICS « 3.1 Lack of Well-Developed Infrastructure for Collecting Durables for Plastics Recovery 3.2 Lack of Economical Dismantling Methods ...................................... 8 3.3 Difficulties in Identifying Plastic Resins in Durables .............................. 8 3.4 Lack of Economical Sorting Technologies ...................................... 9 3.5 Conflicts Between Product Design Objectives and Recyclability ..................... 9 3.6 Competition with Virgin Resins ........................................ 9 SECTION 4 CURRENT INITIATIVES IN RECYCLING OF POSTCONSUMER DURABLE PLASTICS 4.1 Developing a Collection Infrastructure ........................................ 1 1 4.1.1 Transportation Equipment and Major Appliances ......................... 11 4.1.2 Computers and Electronic Equipment ..... .............................. 12 4. 1 .3 Other Activities ............................................ 12 ------- 4.2 Enhancing Dismantling Operations 12 4.3 Enhancing Resin Identification 13 4.3.1 Transportation Equipment 13 4.3.2 Computer and Business Equipment 13 4.3.3 Other Activities 14 4.4 Enhancing Design for Recycling 14 4.4.1 Transportation Equipment 14 4.4.2 Computer and Business Equipment 15 4.4.3 Other Activities 15 4.5 Advancements in Sorting Technologies 15 4.6 Enhancing Markets for Recovered Plastics 16 SECTION 5 EPA ACTIVITIES TO ACCELERATE PLASTICS RECYCLING 17 5.1 1990 Report to Congress 17 5.2 Recycling Means Business 17 5.3 City/Industry Redesign Project 18 5.4 Comprehensive Procurement Guidelines 18 5.4 Guidance on Environmentally Preferable Products 19 5.5 Chicago Board of Trade Partnership 19 5.6 WasteWi$e 19 APPENDIX A Resin Characteristics, Markets, and Products A-l References A-3 Non-Federal Contacts A-9 ------- Executive Summary In September 1994, Congress directed the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) to report on activities to accelerate the recovery of plastics in postconsumer durable goods (such as cars, appliances, and electronics). This report summarizes progress in the recovery of plastics from postconsumer durable goods. Postconsumer durable goods are items used by consumers for three years or more prior to discard. Plastics are an important, though generally not a major, component of durable goods. Major categories of durable goods include transportation equipment, major appliances, computers and business equipment, building and construction materials, and furniture and furnishings. Current Generation and Recycling Rates: • Of the 207 million tons of municipal solid waste (MSW) generated in 1993, only 6.3 million tons were plastics from postconsumer durables. An additional 1.7 million tons of postconsumer durable plastics are managed outside the MSW stream. Total estimated generation of all postconsumer plastics from durables is 8 million tons annually. Available data shows less than three percent (0.21 million tons) of this material was recycled in 1993. • The collection and recycling of plastics from durables is still in its infancy and has not accelerated as quickly as recovery of other commodities due to the barriers outlined below. Barriers to Expanded Recycling: • In the recycling of postconsumer plastics, costs are incurred in collecting, dismantling, separating, cleaning, and processing the material. These costs make plastics recycling expensive relative to the value of the material recovered, limiting the amount of activity currently underway. While plastics recycling hi general has many of the same barriers that limit recycling of plastic durables, these barriers are more complex for postconsumer plastic durables. Specific barriers that limit plastics recovery from durables include: Lack of a mature infrastructure for collecting durable goods. Except for cars, automobile batteries and major appliances which generally are collected for their metals, no well-established systems exist to collect or take back durables for recovery after they have been used by consumers. The systems that are in place focus on the recovery of metals and refrigerants, not plastics. Lack of economical methods for dismantling durable goods. To recover plastic parts from durables, the goods must be taken apart. Currently, dismantling is a manual operation that is only economical for a small number of high-value parts that are removed easily. Difficulties in identifying plastics within durables. Durable goods frequently contain many different plastic parts. These parts can be manufactured from one or more plastic resins (e.g., PET, PVC). Plastics are most valuable when they are sorted and processed by resin type. To facilitate sorting, plastics can be marked to identify specific resin type; however, until recently few durables manufacturers marked plastics in their ES-1 ------- goods. Also, several different marking systems exist, which can lead to confusion among manufacturers who are considering marking parts. Use of multiple resins in a single application can make sorting even more complex. Lack of economical technologies for sorting plastics. Like dismantling, sorting resins is currently a manual operation. Automated processes exist and are technically feasible but, generally, they have not proven to be economical for durables applications. Conflicts between product design objectives and recyclability. Design objectives for durables, such as durability, longevity and lightweighting, can be inconsistent with recycling objectives, like ease of disassembly or ease of resin separation. An example common in the auto industry occurs in "engineered" plastics that are developed to replace metal parts and reduce weight. These "engineered" plastic parts are designed with unique characteristics for specific applications using multiple resins or additives. This leads to an increase in the number of different types of plastic being used which makes it more difficult to collect, identify, sort and reuse these plastics. Competition with virgin resins. Although demand for recycled plastics is increasing, it is currently difficult to supply high-quality, recycled plastic resins at prices that are competitive with virgin plastics. At present, many recovered plastic resins from durables are more expensive than virgin resins, primarily due to the costs associated with separating, cleaning, and processing recovered resins. As more cost-effective techniques are developed and as more design-for-recycling initiatives are implemented, prices should become more competitive. Industry Activities: EPA Activities: A number of private sector activities are underway to facilitate plastics recovery from postconsumer durables. The automotive, appliance, computer, furniture, and building products industries all have initiated pilot programs to further the feasibility of recycling plastics from postconsumer goods. Durables manufacturers are increasingly realizing the importance of marking plastic parts to identify the types of resins used. Additionally, more advanced resin identification systems are being investigated and tested. Research also is under way to develop more automated methods for sorting plastic resins, and manufacturers are looking closely at product design changes that will enhance the recyclability of durables. In its 1989 strategy document, The Solid Waste Dilemma: An Agenda for Action, the Agency has established a national goal of recycling 25% of all municipal solid waste. EPA's role in helping to achieve this goal focuses on the development of markets and on providing recycling information to businesses, industry, and government (federal, state, tribal, and local). EPA is concentrating most of its plastics recycling efforts on developing markets for recycled resins and in supporting plastics recycling through voluntary programs and information sharing. ES-2 ------- Specifically, EPA is implementing "Recycling Means Business," a strategy designed to encourage development of environmentally sound and economically sustainable markets for recycled materials. Following are brief descriptions of illustrative projects under the Recycling Means Business strategy: EPA's Jobs Through Recycling Program fosters the development of recycling markets by partnering with states and tribes to provide assistance in the following areas: research; technology development and transfer; financing/investment; and business development. Some activities under this program are targeted at expanding plastics recycling. EPA established WasteWi$e, a voluntary waste reduction and recycling program in partnership with the nation's leading businesses. Over 400 companies participate in WasteWi$e, and more than 70 are working specifically to reduce, reuse or recycle plastics, or to manufacture products from recovered postconsumer plastics. EPA is working with the Chicago Board of Trade and its partner organizations to develop a system to link buyers and sellers of recyclables on an electronic cash exchange. Plastics are among the first commodities scheduled to be included in the exchange. A national computerized trading system will increase efficiency in the recycling market. Combined with trade dispute arbitration and standard testing protocols, this effort should lead to increased recycling throughout the country. EPA has issued procurement guidelines that are designed to stimulate markets for recycled materials, including postconsumer plastics. Examples of items listed in the procurement guidelines that use postconsumer plastics are carpet, office supplies and playground surfaces. Conclusion: EPA is encouraged by the nation's advancements in recycling in recent years and is committed to continuing to facilitate progress in the recycling of plastics as well as other commodities. The Agency believes industry is in the best position to lead efforts to increase durables recycling because of the unique problems and the diverse nature of the products manufactured. In its continuing efforts the Agency remains receptive to working cooperatively with industry and academia to facilitate recycling of postconsumer plastic durables. ES-3 ------- ------- SECTION 1 INTRODUCTION This section outlines the scope of this report and provides a brief background of EPA's past activities. Plastic durables are defined for the purposes of the report, and major sources of durables are listed with an explanation of the two major categories of plastic resins. 1.1 SCOPE AND PURPOSE OF REPORT In September 1994, Congress directed the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) to report on activities to accelerate plastics recycling in the United States, particularly the recovery of plastics in postconsumer durable goods (such as cars, appliances, and electronics). This report provides a snapshot of current plastics recycling initiatives and an update on progress to recover plastics from postconsumer durable goods. Information contained in this report is based upon a review of relevant studies, reports, and articles from the plastics, solid waste, and durables industries literature, and from discussions with representatives from industry and academic organizations involved hi recycling activities or research. Appendix A lists references used to prepare this report, as well as individuals contacted for information on current activities. EPA has been working to facilitate and support plastics recycling for several years. In 1988, EPA formed a task force to examine the municipal solid waste1 (MSW) management issues challenging the nation. The task force published the results of its findings in 1989 in its report entitled The Solid Waste Dilemma: An Agenda for Action. The report outlined six goals for improving MSW management in the United States and emphasized significant roles for industry and academia in helping to address the goals outlined in the report. One of these goals was to increase recycling efforts by government, corporations, and individuals. The Agenda for Action identified plastics as a promising material for increased recovery and recycling. In 1990, EPA submitted a Report to Congress that examined the production and use of plastics in the United States, the impacts of plastic waste on MSW management, and the methods for reducing these impacts, including recycling. Since then, EPA has engaged in a variety of activities to accelerate the recycling of all recyclable commodities, with many projects targeting plastics hi particular. While the majority of postconsumer durable plastic recycling activities are being conducted in the private sector, EPA continues to form partnerships with industry, universities, and research institutions to further plastics recycling. The Agency, through its Recycling Means Business Strategy and its Jobs Through Recycling Initiative, also is supporting the efforts of states, tribes, and local municipalities to increase recycling. (EPA activities are described in greater detail in Section 5 of this report.) In the 1994 update of EPA's waste characterization report, EPA defines municipal solid waste to include wastes such as durable goods, nondurable goods, containers and packaging, food scraps, yard trimmings, and miscellaneous inorganic wastes from residential, commercial, institutional, and industrial sources. It does not include wastes from other sources such as construction and demolition wastes, automobile bodies and other types of transportation equipment which are considered as durables for purposes of this report. -1- ------- 1.2 BACKGROUND The U.S. Department of Commerce defines durable goods as items that consumers use for 3 or more years before discarding.2 Figure 1 lists major categories of durables used for purposes of this report. MAJOR SOURCES OF POSTCONSUMER DURABLE PLASTICS Major categories of postconsumer durables covered in this report include: • Transportation equipment—Cars, trucks, buses, motorcycles, railroad locomotives and rolling stock, and aircraft • Major appliances—Stoves, refrigerators, dishwashers, washers, dryers, and room air conditioners • Computers and business equipment—Personal computers, fax machines, printers, copiers, telephones, calculators, adding machines, and miscellaneous other business equipment and supplies • Building and construction materials—Carpeting; tile; sheet vinyl and other floor coverings; wallpaper and other wall coverings; window and door frames; sinks, lavatories, bathtubs, and other plumbing fixtures; wire and cable; pipes; insulation; and siding • Furniture and furnishings—Upholstered furniture; bedding (mattresses); rigid plastic chairs, tables, and other items; garden and patio furniture; and table tops • Other—Small appliances such as toasters and hah* dryers; housewares such as cooking utensils, tableware, cookware, and kitchen gadgets; televisions, stereo components, and other electronic products; lawn and garden equipment; small boats and other water craft; sporting goods and equipment; power tools and hand tools; and telephones Figure 1. Categories of durable goods. 2 Many durables discussed in this report have much longer service lives. Automobiles typically average 10 years of service, while major appliances, such as refrigerators, average up to 17 years of service. -2- ------- Plastics are valued in durable goods. Because they are lightweight, inexpensive, and can be engineered with specifically tailored performance characteristics, many durable goods incorporate plastics as a significant material component. However, in many cases plastics are not the major component of the durable product (e.g., new cars contain approximately 8 percent plastics by weight). There are two primary classes of resins used to formulate the plastics contained in durable goods, thermoplastics and thermosets: • Thermoplastics—Thermoplastics are malleable resins. Once these resins have been recovered from products, they can be melted and reprocessed into resin feedstocks. These feedstocks are then used to manufacture new products. Examples of thermoplastic resins include poly vinyl chloride (PVC) and polyethylene terephthalate (PET). • Thermosets—Thermosets tend to be rigid and insoluble. As such, they cannot be melted and reformed. Since thermosets cannot be converted back to resin feedstock, recycling opportunities are more limited. Thermosets can be shredded and compressed into other products such as carpet underlay. Examples of thermoset include polyesters and polyurethanes. Table A-1 in the Appendix specifies the characteristics of the most common thermoplastic and thermoset resins, and provides examples of products that use each type. A durable good might contain many different types of plastic resins, including both thermoplastics and thermosets. Some durables, such as automobiles, can contain dozens of different types of plastic resins. Automobile instrument panels, for example, can contain up to 30 different plastic resins (APC, no date (b)). Durable goods that have been used by consumers and discarded are referred to as postconsumer waste. Recycling of postconsumer durables occurs when this material is diverted from the MSW stream to MSW recycling facilities or is sent to special durables recycling centers (such as automobile or appliance dismantling facilities). Materials that are not recycled are disposed of in MSW landfills or construction and demolition landfills, or are burned in waste-to-energy facilities. While exact statistics on the amount of plastics in postconsumer durable waste are not available, an estimated 6.3 million tons are generated annually in MSW (EPA, 1994). A further 0.9 million tons of plastics waste are generated as automotive waste (APC, 1994a), and another 0.9 million tons are generated as renovation and demolition wastes (APC, 1993). The total estimated generation of postconsumer durable plastics waste is more than 8 million tons annually. -3- ------- SECTION 2 STATUS OF POSTCONSUMER DURABLE PLASTICS RECYCLING IN THE UNITED STATES The majority of plastics recycling statistics used in this report are generated from data collected while studying municipal solid waste. This section supplies information on those categories of durables for which information is readily available in public literature and provides a general overview of the typical durables recycling process. 2.1 RECYCLING OF POSTCONSUMER DURABLE PLASTICS FOUND IN MSW EPA estimates that of the 6.3 million tons of plastics in postconsumer durables generated as part of the MSW stream in 1993, approximately 150,000 tons or 2.4 percent was recovered and recycled (Table 1). Recovery rates for plastics in durables vary by resin, with the highest recovery seen for PET at 37.5 percent and polypropylene (PP) at 18.0 percent. Recovery rates for all other resins were well below 2 percent. As noted earlier, EPA's statistics for MSW do not include many components of the durable universe. The recycling statistics listed above are just for those durables that are included within EPA's definition of MSW and do not include automobile and transportation equipment and most building and construction materials. Manufacturer take-backs are another group of postconsumer durables that are not captured in the above statistics. Manufacturers and retailers sometimes take back end-of-life durables when replacements are purchased. The manufacturer or retailer may then recover, recycle, or dispose of the durables outside of the MSW system. National statistics or estimates of the amount of material recovered or disposed of in this fashion, and the amount of plastics contained therein, are not available. However, these practices are still relatively limited. The 2.4 percent recycling rate for durable plastics wastes was below the average of 3.5 percent for all plastics in MSW (Table 1). The recycling rates for other major plastics categories ranged from 0.4 percent for nondurables to 6.1 percent for plastic containers and packaging. The recycling rates of soft drink bottles (41.1 percent) and milk and water bottles (23.6 percent) are currently two of the highest rates of all plastics (EPA, 1994). 2.2 RECYCLING OF OTHER POSTCONSUMER DURABLE PLASTICS Some durables are recycled separately from MSW in special facilities dedicated to processing these durables. The best example, and the only durables category for which reliable data is available, is automobiles. In 1992, scrapped automobiles contained an estimated 0.92 million tons of plastics.3 Dismantlers removed 0.06 million tons (6.7 percent) of plastics for recycling (APC, 1994a). The remaining 0.86 million tons of plastics (93.3 percent) was either landfilled or disposed of in energy recovery facilities. Equivalent to 4.3 percent of MSW. -4- ------- Table 1 Generation, Recovery, and Discard of Plastics in MSW (1993) Durables3 PET HOPE PVC LDPE PP PS Other resins Nondurable goods Plastic containers and packaging Soft drink bottles Milk and water bottles TOTAL PLASTICS Generation {'000 tons) 6,310 80 800 700 1,250 500 1,040 1,940 4,630 8,360 560 550 19,300 Recovery ('000 tons) 150 30 10 nes. 10 90 neg. 10 20 510 230 130 680 Rate" 2.4% 37.5% 1.3% neg. 0.8% 18.0% neg. 0.5% 0.4% 6.1% 41.1% 23.6% 3.5% Discard ('000 tons) 6,160 50 790 700 1,240 410 1,040 1,930 4,610 7,850 330 420 18,620 a Does not include transportation equipment. b Recovery as a percent of generation. Source: U.S. EPA, 1994. Characterization of Municipal Solid Waste in the United States: 1994 Update. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. EPA530-R-94-042. (November). -5- ------- 2.3 OVERVIEW OF THE DURABLES RECYCLING PROCESS Figure 2 provides a general overview of the major steps involved in the recovery and recycling of plastics from durables. The steps include: • Collection—Durables can be collected for recycling through several avenues: 1) municipalities can collect durables along with (or separated from) household waste; 2) independent haulers, manufacturers, or retailers can collect or arrange to take back these items; or 3) consumers can drop off used durables at recycling centers or other locations (e.g., automotive scrap yards). • Dismantling—Dismantling involves removing parts that are valuable, can be readily recycled, or must be removed for safe disposal or recycling (e.g., fluids, refrigerants and other gases, hazardous materials). Major plastic components are separated from other durable components in this stage and those that are considered for recycling continue to a sorting stage. • Refurbishing—Some durables and some dismantled parts from durables are recycled intact and sold back to parts dealers as used or replacement parts, or to consumers as used durables. • Sorting and Shredding—Plastics are most valuable when they can be sorted by resin type and processed separately. Manual identification systems (i.e., hand sorting) are used to separate and sort plastics into compatible types. Sorted plastics are almost always then shredded to facilitate handling and further processing. • Contaminant Removal—Sorted plastics may be washed to remove contaminants, such as fasteners, or processed to remove coatings, such as paint. Some contaminant removal also may occur prior to shredding (for example, removal of metal trim or fasteners from plastic parts). This is not shown in the schematic. • Reformulation—For thermoplastics, the shredded plastic, known as flake, is reformulated into resin pellets. Thermosets, which cannot be melted, are not reformulated into resins. • Products/Applications—The recycled thermoplastic resins are either used as 100 percent recycled resins or blended with virgin plastics. These 100 percent recycled or blended resins are then incorporated into new products. Some technologies also convert recycled thermoplastic resins back to monomers (plastics precursors) or basic chemicals, which may be used to produce new plastics or for other purposes (including use as fuel). The recycled thermosets are generally compression molded into new products or material. • Durables shredding—Following dismantling, the durable "hulks" are normally shredded. Automobile hulks, for example, are shredded into fist-sized chunks by automotive shredders. • Separation for metals recovery—The shredded hulks may contain ferrous and nonferrous metals, plastics, rubber, textiles, and other materials. Metals are separated and sold for scrap, and the remaining shredder residue is typically landfilled. • Resin separation and reformulation (theoretical)—Research is ongoing to find ways to separate plastics from shredder residue, isolate individual resin types, and reformulate into new plastics. -6- ------- Durables Collected for Recycling & Refurbishing Dismantling Major Plastic Components Sorting Durables Shredding Separation from Metals Non-Metal Shredder Residue 1 Resin Separation i & Reformulation Contaminant Removal and Shredding Thermosets \ Products/Applications Current recycling process Theoretical/experimental recycling process Figure 2. General overview of durables recycling process. -7- ------- SECTION 3 BARRIERS TO RECYCLING OF POSTCONSUMER DURABLE PLASTICS Recycling of plastics from postconsumer durables is not as widespread as recycling of other types of wastes, including other plastics. This section describes the factors that currently limit the recycling of plastics from durables. 3.1 LACK OF WELL-DEVELOPED INFRASTRUCTURE FOR COLLECTING DURABLES FOR PLASTICS RECOVERY The sophistication and maturity of the collection infrastructure for postconsumer durables varies among the various durable categories. For example, the collection infrastructure is well developed for recycling metals in motor vehicles and appliances, while collection systems for computers and other business equipment are in the early stages of development. The vast majority of durables are collected primarily to recover metals, remove hazardous materials, or refurbish or reuse parts. Plastics in durables are significantly less valuable than the metal components and are costly to recover. As a result, plastics are treated as a by-product of the recycling process and are not recovered in most cases. 3.2 LACK OF ECONOMICAL DISMANTLING METHODS Dismantling durable goods is an important step in the recycling process, because it enables the processor to recover intact plastic parts or assemblies, minimizes contamination of the plastics, and produces a relatively homogenous stream of material for further processing. So far, however, dismantling by hand is the only demonstrated technology for recovery of plastic parts or assemblies and has proven economical for only a small number of high-value parts or assemblies (e.g., car bumpers) that are easily removed. 3.3 DIFFICULTIES IN IDENTIFYING PLASTIC RESINS IN DURABLES Most postconsumer durable products contain many different plastic parts, each of which might be manufactured from different plastic resins. Proper identification of the resins in durable products would facilitate sorting and processing. Current marking systems are based on letter and number codes that represent specific resins. Identifying plastic resins in durables is complicated for several reasons. First, few durables manufacturers were marking resins until recently. For example, industry sources estimate that only 10 percent of parts are marked on cars being scrapped today (Fosnaugh, 1995). Second, some durables manufacturers still do not mark parts with resin identification codes. Among the reasons for failing to mark parts are the costs of modifying molds, and the use of several different marking systems. Although all resin marking systems are similar, the existence of multiple systems might lead to some confusion and hinder more complete adoption of parts marking. ------- 3.4 LACK OF ECONOMICAL SORTING TECHNOLOGIES Currently, sorting of plastics from postconsumer durables is largely a manual operation. A number of automated technologies exist for sorting mixed plastics following dismantling or shredding. These technologies are based on differences in density, wetting characteristics, electrostatic charge, softening point, and optical characteristics of different resins. While technically feasible, these processes have not proven to be economical for durable applications. 3.5 CONFLICTS BETWEEN PRODUCT DESIGN OBJECTIVES AND RECYCLABILITY The economical recycling of plastics from durables is highly dependent on the ease with which parts can be identified, removed, and separated to produce clean resin streams. Design criteria that facilitate recycling include: • Use of fewer resins—Parts made from fewer resins are most economical to remove during dismantling. Fewer resins reduce the complexity of sorting and separation. • Improvements in fastener technologies and design—Fasteners include screws, rivets, bolts, nails, snaps, and other items that hold plastic parts together. Changes that enhance recyclability include use of molded-in fasteners, reductions in the number of fastener types, and improved fastener locations. These improvements will reduce the amount of contaminant material that must be removed from the plastics and facilitate manual disassembly of durables to recover plastics. • Reduced use ofadhesives, additives, reinforcements, and coatings—These materials can make disassembly harder and/or contaminate the recycled resin stream. Design objectives for durables often conflict with recyclability. In some cases, design modifications that would improve the recyclability of durables are inconsistent with the general objectives of sturdiness, wearability, longevity, and reduced maintenance. For example, fiber-reinforced plastics are widely used in structural parts' of automobiles because of their durability, yet these fibers break down when ground for recycling, rendering the resins unsuitable for reuse in structural applications (Environment Today, 1993), though they could be used for low value applications such as fillers or plastic lumber. Another design objective that can conflict with recyclability is weight reduction. In automobiles, efforts to design lighter cars (to improve fuel efficiency) have resulted in greater use of plastics. As designers seek to replace more parts with plastics, the need arises for plastics with specialized properties. To meet these needs manufacturers have created numerous "engineered" plastics with unique characteristics designed for specific applications. This trend leads to an increase in the number of different types of plastics used, a result that is generally inconsistent with increased recyclability due to the difficulty of collecting, identifying, sorting and reusing these "engineered" plastics. 3.6 COMPETITION WITH VIRGIN RESINS Although the demand for recovered plastic resins is growing, it is difficult to supply this material at prices that are competitive with virgin resins. At present, many recovered plastic resins from durables are more expensive than virgin resins, primarily due to the high costs associated with separating, cleaning, and processing recovered resins. Further, some manufacturers remain concerned about the performance characteristics and -9- ------- consistency of supply of reformulated plastics compared to virgin materials. Initially, recycled plastic resins varied in quality causing some manufacturing defects and excessive levels of scrap. However, today many companies supplying recycled resins claim they can meet virgin resin specifications and it appears that misgivings about the quality and supply of recycled resins are being overcome as the market matures. The price that recyclers can command for their recovered product is based on the price of virgin resins. The price of virgin resins can fluctuate considerably, which in turn leads to fluctuations in the price of recycled resins. Given the economics of recycling, price fluctuations may discourage market entrants. -10- ------- SECTION 4 CURRENT INITIATIVES IN RECYCLING OF POSTCONSUMER DURABLE PLASTICS This section describes several ongoing initiatives to recycle postconsumer durable plastics and addresses both current recycling efforts and activities that could facilitate future recycling. 4.1 DEVELOPING A COLLECTION INFRASTRUCTURE Although, for the most part, the current collection infrastructure for durables is not oriented toward plastics recovery, its existence could help pave the way for more plastics recovery in the future. Several efforts in this area are already underway, as described below. 4.1.1 Transportation Equipment and Maj or Appliances Transportation equipment and major appliances contain large amounts of metals and are, therefore, commonly collected for recycling. The infrastructure for collecting, dismantling and recycling automobiles is the most developed of all durables in this category. Approximately 90 percent of all cars scrapped in the United States are processed first by dismantlers and then by shredders.4 The dismantlers strip the vehicles for useable parts and fluids. The remaining "hulks" are sold to shredders who recover the ferrous and nonferrous metals and landfill the remaining automotive shredder residue (ASR), which contains plastic and other materials. Roughly 12,000 independent dismantlers and 200 shredders operate in the United States (AAMA, 1993). Many shredders are capable of processing up to 1,500 vehicles a day (Ryan, 1995). Although recycling of plastics from cars currently is limited, there is a growing incentive to recover plastics. In recent years, manufacturers have been making lighter cars by replacing metal parts with plastic parts. As a result, shredders' revenues (from metals sales) are declining at the same time that they are paying more to dispose of the growing amount of ASR (Fosnaugh, 1995). This trend could provide an economic incentive for more plastics recovery in the future. There is relatively little information available describing the collection and recycling of materials from other types of transportation equipment (e.g., trucks, buses, trains, airplanes). Some trucks and buses may be collected and processed hi the same fashion as automobiles (i.e., dismantled and then shredded for metals recovery). Other end-of-life vehicles, as well as scrapped railroad equipment and airplanes, may be stripped by their owners for replacement parts and/or sold for scrap. Statistics on the fate of such equipment and the amount of plastics recycling that occurs are not available. The majority of major appliances also are collected for metal recovery. The Steel Recycling Institute reports a recovery rate of 62 percent in 1993 for steel from refrigerators, water heaters, washers, and dryers (Wilt, 1994). Appliances also are collected to remove hazardous materials such as PCBs, mercury, chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), and hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs) from refrigerators, freezers, furnace blowers, and air conditioner 4 The remaining 10 percent of scrapped cars are processed directly by shredders with no intermediate dismantling (APC, 1994a). -11- ------- units, as mandated by environmental regulations. The infrastructure for appliance recycling is growing and, like automobiles, could eventually provide the opportunity for further recycling of plastics. Examples of activities currently underway to collect appliances and automobiles for plastics recovery include: • One plastics manufacturer has entered into a partnership with a private company to collect polycarbonate scrap from appliances and automotive parts such as bumpers. The scrap will be sent to a processing center where it will be cleaned, granulated, and reformulated into a new line of recycled-content resins (Ford, 1995). • One automaker is collecting bumpers from a number of vehicle models and shipping them to a resin supplier. The resin supplier blends the bumper plastic with virgin resins to make taillight housings for new vehicles (Gabriele and Monks, 1993). A number of dismantlers also are stockpiling other types of bumpers in anticipation of future markets. 4.1.2 Computers and Electronic Equipment Some plastics are now being recovered from scrapped computers and electronic products. A number of original equipment manufacturers (OEMs) have set up take-back centers for their products in the United States based on their experience in Europe (where take-back legislation has mandated such centers). One U.S. OEM operates a recovery center in New Hampshire that recycles identifiable plastics (i.e., parts of known resin content). Efforts in the United States are limited, and statistics on the amount of recycling being performed are unavailable. 4.1.3 Other Activities A few demonstration projects are under way to determine the feasibility of collecting plastics for recycling from other types of durables : • The American Plastics Council (APC), the Vinyl Siding Institute, and a private firm are conducting a demonstration project to collect vinyl siding scrap for remanufacturing into PVC pipe (Ford, 1994). Although the vinyl being used for the demonstration is not postconsumer, the concept, if feasible, would be applicable to demolition and renovation projects. • APC also has sponsored a demonstration project to explore the potential for collecting polyurethane foam from mattresses, which would be recycled into carpet underlay (Miller, 1995a). 4.2 ENHANCING DISMANTLING OPERATIONS Several automotive dismantlers have begun to refine the dismantling process to recover plastics. These dismantlers currently remove large plastic pieces such as fasciae, instrument panels, and bumpers when there is an established resale opportunity. Additionally, several demonstration projects are underway to test other dismantling opportunities for automobiles: -12- ------- • Some companies have set up test programs to buy parts back from dismantles. One plastics manufacturer is contracting with a third party recycler to buy bumpers at a set price and transport them to a processing plant. Over 3 million pounds of bumpers were recovered in 1992 (APC, 1994a). • The three major car manufacturers in America have jointly established the Vehicle Recycling Partnership (VRP), a demonstration project to dismantle and recycle automobiles. The VRP is studying which automotive parts can be recycled cost effectively. It will propose design-for- disassembly guidelines based on its findings. Among the plastic parts which show promise for more widespread recycling are bumpers, bumper fasciae, gas tanks, radiator end caps, instrument panels, seat cushions, and interior trim (VRP, 1993). • Another company is conducting dismantling trials on automobiles. In 1993-94, the company processed 100,000 pounds of automobile plastics in order to identify the unit processes necessary to develop a recycling line capable of handling a variety of plastic automotive parts (Ryan, 1995). 4.3 ENHANCING RESIN IDENTIFICATION Currently, most dismantling targets parts or assemblies of known resin composition Improved technologies for identifying resins would enable more widespread dismantling of durables, because dismantlers would not need prior information regarding the type of plastic being removed. Such a breakthrough could facilitate the establishment of large-scale dismantling and recycling operations. The most commonly used marking systems are those that imprint resin identification codes on plastic parts. The Society of Plastics Industries (SPI), the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) and the Society of Automotive Engineers (S AE) all have developed similar marking systems. Dismantlers and r'ecyclers are familiar with the three systems. Parts marked with resin identification codes facilitate sorting by manual methods, but manual sorting processes are slow and susceptible to human error (i.e., they may lead to commingling of incompatible plastic types). Researchers are working on bar coding and chemical marking systems that could facilitate more automated sorting (U.S. DOE, 1994). These systems are being targeted first at plastic containers and the technology is largely still under development or in the early stages of commercialization. Because many durables have useful lives of 10 to 15 years or more, it will be some time before identification systems adopted today can have any impact on the recyclability of plastic parts. Other systems also continue to be investigated such as systems that identify plastics based on differences in the densities of various resins. For separation of durables, these systems have yet to move beyond the research and prototype stage, as they have been hindered by the presence of many different resin types and large amounts of contaminants, coatings, and adhesives in the waste stream common in most durables. 4 J.I Transportation Equipment Automobile manufacturers have been gradually adopting various resin marking systems for plastic car parts over the last 10 years. Approximately 10 percent of the plastic parts in 10-year-old cars are marked while 40 percent of plastic parts are marked on cars averaging 4 to 5 years old, and 80 percent of the plastic parts are marked on newer cars (Fosnaugh, 1995). The adoption of marking systems by the automakers will facilitate identification and sorting in the future. -13- ------- 4.3.2 Computer and Business Equipment Manufacturers of computers and other business equipment recently have begun marking resins in their products' parts. No consensus has been reached, however, concerning a universal marking system. One personal computer manufacturer is marking all parts heavier than 1-3/4 oz. with a code similar to the ISO and SAE standard (Gardner, 1992). This manufacturer also is identifying the resin manufacturer for more complete material identification (Kirby and Wadehra, 1992). Another computer manufacturer uses a combination of the SPI codes and other information on its equipment, and one printer manufacturer labels the resins used in its toner cartridges (Gardner, 1992). 4.33 Other Activities Some manufacturers of building and construction materials mark their products to convey information about the products' composition, capacities, and other specifications. Although not specifically done to facilitate recycling, this marking can be useful to recyclers. 4.4 ENHANCING DESIGN FOR RECYCLING Efforts are underway to incorporate ease of disassembly and recycling as design objectives for a number of durables. These efforts are often referred to as design for recycling (DFR) or, alternatively, design for disassembly (DFD) or design for the environment (DFE). Tools to help designers evaluate design alternatives and their impact on environmental objectives are just starting to become available. The status of several DFR initiatives for various durables is described below. 4.4.1 Transportation Equipment Each of the three major automakers in the United States has developed DFR guidelines (Fosnaugh, 1995). In addition, the Vehicle Recycling Partnership has produced and circulated DFR guidelines. Many automakers have specific design projects under way that will facilitate recycling: • One company is looking at designing plastic instrument panel (IP) components for easy separation. Another company is redesigning IPs to allow the whole assembly to be recycled together (Gabriele and Monks, 1993). • A single-resin IP and a bumper/fascia assembly will be used by another automaker on at least one 1996 model. Since the assembly does not contain many different resin types, the assembly would not require dismantling prior to processing (Gabriele and Monks, 1993). • Another company is reclaiming reinforced and painted nylon (plastic) parts, which can be reprocessed into reusable nylon (Gabriele and Marks, 1993). -14- ------- 4.4.2 Computer and Business Equipment Many major electronics manufacturers recently have begun emphasizing DFR, including recyclability of plastics parts: • In addition to labeling parts, one major computer manufacturer is designing computers with molded-in color (to avoid coatings that can contaminate recycled resins), reducing the use of adhesives, moving toward molded-in snap-on fasteners, and reducing the number of resins used (Gardner, 1992). • The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) and the Microelectronics and Computer Technology Corp., an industry consortium, are coordinating DFD/DFR efforts in the electronics industry (McAdams, 1995). 4.4.3 Other Activities • Take-back programs appear to be stimulating DFR programs among appliance manufacturers and at least one major appliance manufacturer has a DFR program underway (Nussbaum and Templeman, 1990). What is not known, however, is the extent to which such programs emphasize recyclability of plastics. Design for recovery of hazardous materials may be a more immediate concern of these programs. • DFR issues have not been the subject of wide discussion in either the building/construction or the furnishing/furniture industries. APC is, however, planning focus groups to identify DFR issues among designers, architects, OEMs, furnishing designers and manufacturers and others (Miller, 1995a). 4.5 ADVANCEMENTS IN SORTING TECHNOLOGIES Work is being done to develop more automated methods for sorting plastic resins. These systems may be capable of sorting either intact plastics parts or shredded plastics. Systems that sort intact plastic parts are referred to as macro-sorting while systems used for shredded plastics are termed micro-sorting. • Macro-sorting—Wash-float sorting separates the "light" resins (e.g., polyethylene and polypropylene) from the "heavy" ones (e.g., polystyrene and PVC) (Mustafa, 1993) This processing technology was developed for single-resin waste streams such as bottles and packaging materials in which surface contamination can be removed by detergent washing. The technology is not suited for reclaiming polymer wastes made of commingled resins, highly contaminated resins, and/or resins containing coatings, paints, adhesives, or additives Because these resin characteristics are typical of durable goods, wash-float technologies are not likely to apply to most durables recycling applications (U.S. DOE, 1994). • Micro-sorting—Micro-sorting involves separating different resin types following shredding according to differences in density, wetting characteristics, electrostatic charge, softening point or optical characteristics. These technologies are under development and have the potential to eliminate "presorting" at the part level if they are technically and economically feasible Micro- sorting is required if resin identification and sorting is not practical at the part level prior to shredding. -15- ------- A further method for processing mixed or unmixed plastics is chemical conversion. Conversion processes degrade plastics by reacting them with water, alcohol, ammonia, biological agents, or light (U.S. DOE, 1994). The conversion products can be further separated, purified, repolymerized, or reused (usually as a fuel). When chemical conversion produces either new polymers or chemicals that are directly used to produce polymers, it is considered a recycling process. Conversion that yields materials which are burned as fuel, is not considered recycling. 4.6 ENHANCING MARKETS FOR RECOVERED PLASTICS As consumers demand more products with recycled content, resin manufacturers and suppliers must locate reliable sources of quality recycled plastics. Postconsumer durables represent an important potential source for large amounts of such resins, including some resins not widely available from nondurables (e.g., polycarbonate). Increased demand for recycled resins should thus provide additional incentives to recycling of postconsumer durable plastics. In recent years, several resin manufacturers and suppliers have begun to market lines of resins with recycled content to manufacturers. One major plastics manufacturer began marketing a line of recovered resins to durables manufacturers in 1992 (Reisch, 1992). Another plastics manufacturer recently introduced a line of recovered engineered thermoplastics. Plastic companies also are setting up partnerships under which they acquire recycled plastics and provide technical support to OEMs on the use of recycled resins. For example, several plastics companies have agreements under which they secure a source of recycled plastic, process the plastic, and blend it with virgin resins for use by an OEM in automotive applications. One automaker, in partnership with a plastics company, is recycling plastic bumpers into tail lamp housings that include at least 50 percent postconsumer plastic. This automaker also is transforming plastic battery housings into new splash shields (APC, 1995; Lang, 1995). With a different plastics manufacturer, this same automaker is recycling postconsumer acrylonitrile/butadiene/styrene (ABS) from car parts to produce interior car components (Chemical Marketing Reporter, 1994). Public announcements of these partnerships have not been made in many cases, however, because companies consider this to be a proprietary business strategy. The practice is probably more widespread than otherwise reported. Plastics recovered from durables also may be used in lower end applications, most notably in building and construction products. Recovered mixed plastics (i.e., plastic wastes containing many different resins) are widely used to manufacture plastic lumber and can be incorporated into asphalt and concrete formulations. In conjunction with APC, Michigan State University is evaluating the use of ASR in concrete through a field demonstration project. Preliminary findings indicate that concrete composed of 2 to 3 percent ASR increases the concrete's strength as well as its crack and impact resistance. -16- ------- SECTION 5 EPA ACTIVITIES TO ACCELERATE PLASTICS RECYCLING State, Tribal and local governments along with private industry have taken significant steps to collect and sort plastics for recycling. Attention is now turning towards the need for steady markets for this collected matenal-to use what currently is being collected and to encourage greater efforts in collecting new types of resins and products EPA is supporting plastics recycling through the Agency's participation in numerous projects to build markets and facilitate information sharing, however EPA recognizes that industry is in the best position to lead efforts to increase plastic durables recycling. Brief descriptions of a few of EPA's projects are provided below. F J 5.1 1990 REPORT TO CONGRESS In 1990, EPA prepared a Report to Congress entitled Methods to Manage and Control Plastic Wastes The report primarily focused on issues of degradability and the threat to marine life posed by discarded plastics' It also addressed the environmental impacts of postconsumer plastic wastes and methods to improve their management through source reduction and recycling. This report identified recycling as a key issue in reducing the environmental impact of plastic wastes. 5.2 RECYCLING MEANS BUSINESS To help foster environmentally sound and economically sustainable markets for recycled materials EPA launched Recycling Means Business. The three main goals of this market development strategy are to: ' (1) Support the link between increased market capacity and sustainable economic growth. (2) Leverage federal resources and build federal partnerships for market development. (3) Develop infrastructures that support markets for recyclables and recycled products. Jobs Through Recycling (JTR) is one EPA initiative under Recycling Means Business The JTR initiative is supporting state, tribal and national efforts to provide technical, financial and other assistance to businesses that process and use recovered materials. In 1994 and 1995, EPA awarded cooperative agreements to selected states and tribes to establish Recycling and Reuse Business Assistance Centers (RBACs) and Recycling Economic Development Advocate (REDA) positions. The RBACS typically are located within a state environmental or economic development agency or are part of a waste management board. They provide technical, business, financing, and marketing assistance to recycling and reuse businesses. The REDAs are business development professionals who have a recycling background. They work out of state or tribal economic development offices. rm Some examples of activities focusing on plastics recycling that have been initiated or expanded through JTR are described below: fe • Rhode Island is establishing a disassembly and processing center to handle various materials including plastics recovered from electronic equipment. The Rhode Island Departments of -17- ------- Environmental Management and Economic Development, in partnership with local universities, APC, and other organizations, will assist companies in financing recycling operations, conducting employee training, disseminating public information and conducting public education programs, and marketing recycled plastic products and plastic materials recovered from discarded consumer electronics and appliances. • Vermont, through its Agency of Natural Resources and its Agency for Development and Community Affairs, is working to create a viable infrastructure for recycling plastics wastes. Vermont will improve the collection of plastics wastes and encourage the purchase of recycled plastics by state government and Vermont-based companies. • New York will initiate a partnership with plastic resin manufacturers and OEMs of computers, furniture, automobiles, construction materials, and toys. The state will implement a variety of research and development activities to develop processor and manufacturer specifications for plastics recovered from durables, recommend efficient material handling methods and quality control systems, and conduct pilot tests of recovered postconsumer plastics. JTR also is supporting the development of a national network to share, among businesses and manufacturers, information on recycled materials handling practices, innovative recycling technologies, and new applications for recovered materials, including plastics. EPA is working with Washington State's Clean Washington Center, the National Recycling Coalition and the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) within the Department of Commerce, to establish and operate this network as part of NIST's Recycling Technology Assistance Partnership (ReTAP). 5.3 CITY/INDUSTRY REDESIGN PROJECT The City/Industry Redesign Project was formed to improve the economics of plastic recycling. Towards this end, the project has developed recommendations to prevent contamination of recovered plastic and to reduce the number of steps needed before processing, thereby making recycling more cost-effective for manufacturers, businesses, and local governments. EPA, the Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources, and the New York Department of Economic Development are project sponsors. While focusing on containers, many of the product redesign recommendations emerging from this project also could be relevant for recycling of postconsumer plastics recovered from durables. 5.4 COMPREHENSIVE PROCUREMENT GUIDELINES EPA has a number of responsibilities under section 6002 of the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act and under the 1993 Executive Order 12873, "Federal Acquisition, Recycling, and Waste Prevention." On May 1,1995, EPA issued a Comprehensive Procurement Guideline (CPG) designating items that are, or can be, made with recovered materials. EPA also developed a draft Recovered Materials Advisory Notice (RMAN) recommending recycled content levels for the products listed in the CPG. Government agencies must purchase the items designated by EPA containing recovered material. In developing procurement specifications, agencies can use the ranges recommended in EPA's RMAN. EPA listed in the CPG several products which can be made from recycled plastic, including floor tiles, patio blocks, playground surfaces, traffic cones and barricades, carpet, and office supplies. By harnessing the government's significant purchasing power through the CPG—federal procurement alone represents almost 10 percent of the nation's gross domestic product—critical additional demand for recycled plastic products can be generated. -18- ------- 5.4 GUIDANCE ON ENVIRONMENTALLY PREFERABLE PRODUCTS Another EPA activity implementing Executive Order 12873 is the development of proposed guidance on federal acquisition of environmentally preferable products and services, as mandated under Section 503 EPA has drafted seven principles to help federal purchasers in addressing environmental preferability in purchase of products and services. As part of implementing the environmental preferability provisions of the Executive Order, EPA established a number of pilot projects. One of the pilots will focus on identifying attributes for environmentally preferable computers. Among other things, EPA may consider attributes such as recycled content and the recyclability of plastic casings. This could lead to increased Federal purchases of products manufactured with recovered postconsumer plastic and could encourage manufacturers to design computers for easy disassembly and recycling. F 5.5 EPA teamed with the Chicago Board of Trade (CBOT), the National Recycling Coalition's Recycling Advisory Council, Washington State's Clean Washington Center, and the New York State Office of Recycling Market Development to develop a system that will link buyers and sellers of recyclables on an electronic cash exchange. CBOT will install, manage, and monitor a computer bulletin board that will serve as a clearinghouse for end-users and suppliers. The bulletin board will provide reliable information on contacts, access to markets and the quality and commercial value of recycled materials. Standardized inspection procedures to test product quality and a neutral forum to mediate disputes between buyers and sellers also will be provided Plastics particularly PET and HOPE, are among the first commodities to be included in this recycled materials exchange.' 5.6 WASTEWI$E WasteWi$e is a voluntary partnership which EPA established with America's leading businesses to prevent waste, recycle, and purchase and/or manufacture recycled-content products. Program partners set their own goals, design programs to best implement these goals, and report their progress to EPA. Over 70 WasteWi$e partners are working specifically to reduce, reuse or recycle plastics or to use or manufacture products made from recovered postconsumer plastics. For example, a division of a major appliance manufacturer plans to use a plastic base for assembling and transporting its appliances. Once an appliance has been delivered to a consumer and installed, the manufacturer will take back and reuse the base The company also is exploring the recovery of plastic scrap from its electrical wire coating process. (Currently this scrap is disposed of.) The company will use the recovered plastic to manufacture new plastic-coated electrical wire. Another WasteWi$e partner, a national soft-drink company, is now using 100 percent postconsumer plastic crates for transporting 2-liter bottles to retail stores instead of single-use shippers. The company also is making durable crates with an expected lifespan of seven years out of older 100-percent postconsumer HOPE crates that are no longer usable because of a bottle redesign. -19- ------- ------- APPENDIX A RESIN CHARACTERISTICS, MARKETS, AND PRODUCTS REFERENCES NON-FEDERAL CONTACTS ------- ------- Table A-l Resin Characteristics, Markets, and Products Low-density polyethylene (LDPE) Largest volume resin used for packaging; moisrure- proof; inert Packaging High-clarity extruded film, wire and cable coatings, refuse bags, coated papers Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) Strength and clarity; brittle unless modified with plasticizers Building and construction, packaging High-density polyethylene (HOPE) Construction pipe, meat wrap, blister packs, cooking oil bottles, phono records, wall covering, flooring Tough, flexible, translucent Packaging Milk and detergent bottles, heavy-duty films (e.g., boil bag pouches), liners, wire and cable insulation Polypropylene (PP) Stiff, heat and chemical resistant Furniture and furnishings, packaging, other Syrup bottles, yogurt and margarine tubs, fish nets, drinking straws, auto battery cases, carpet backing, office machines and furniture, auto fenders Polystyrene (PS) Brittle, clear, rigid, good thermal properties; easy to process Packaging, consumer products Disposable foam dishes and cups, egg cartons, take-out containers, foam insulation, >sette tape cases Other Styrenics Strong, stretchable Adhesives, coatings and inks Assembly and construction adhesives, pressure sensitive labels and tapes, footwear oles, roof coatings Polyethylene terephthalate (PET) Tough, shatter resistant Packaging, consumer products Soft drink bottles and other beverage containers, food and medicine containers, synthetic textiles, x-ray and photographic film, magnetic tape Acrylonitrile/ butadiene/styrene (ABS) Tough, abrasion-resistant Transportation, electrical and electronic products Pipe, refrigerator door linings, telephones, porting goods, automotive brake parts 1 Phenolic Polyurethane Urea and melamine Polyester, unsaturated ======== Heat resistant, strength, shatter resistant Malleable for rigid or flexible foams Rigid, chemically resistant Malleable for fabrication of large parts Building and construction Furniture and furnishings, building and construction, transportation Building and construction, consumer products Building and construction, transportation Handles, knobs, electrical connectors, appliances, automotive Darts Cushioning, auto bumpers and door panels, varnishes Plywood binding, knobs, handles, I dinnerware, toilet seats Electrical components, automobile parts, 1 coatings, cast shower/bath units 1 Source: U.S. EPA, 1990. Report to Congress: Methods to Manage and Control Plastic Wastes U S Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. EPA/530-SW-89-051a. February. A-l ------- ------- REFERENCES AAMA, 1993. Backgrounder: Automobile Recycler. American Automobile Manufacturers Association Washington, DC. (December). Aftermarket Business. 1992. Vehicle recycling consortium announced by Big 3 automakers. (May 1) p. 11. American Metal Market. 1994. Junked appliances avoided recyclers: Mississippi's CFC law altering flows (September 14) p. 7. & • Andrews Gerald D., and Pallatheri M. Subramanian, eds. 1991. Emerging technologies in plastics recycling American Chemical Society, Division of Polymer Chemistry (June). APC. No date (f). Paint and coatings removal. APC Project Description. APC. 1994b. Repair and reuse of automotive plastic parts. APC Automotive Report Series (October). APC. 1994c. Economics of recovery and recycling. APC Automotive Report Series (December). APC. 1993. Opportunities for Recycle/Recovery of Plastics in the Furniture and Furnishings Market Prepared by Strategic Analysis, Inc., for the American Plastics Council. (June 23) APC. No date (e). Plastics identification and sorting technology. APC Project Description. APC. 1994a. Disposal practices for post-use automotive plastics. APC Automotive Report Series (October). APC. No date (b). Applied multimaterial separation technology. APC Project Description. APC. No date (d). Coverings separation. APC Project Description. APC. No date (a). Advanced mechanical recycling technologies for plastics. APC Project Description. APC. No date (c). Compounding studies. APC Project Description. APC. No date (g). Size reduction and materials liberation technologies. APC Project Description. Azar, Jack. 1993. Asset recycling at Xerox. EPA Journal (July-September), p. 14. Baumann, Gert F. 1992. Automotive polyurethane parts can be recycled. RecyclingPlas. May 21. p. 128. Bell, Terry. 1995a. Telephone interview with Terry Bell, Chair, APC Appliance Subcommittee. March 6,1995. Bell, Terry. 1995b. Follow-up telephone interview with Terry Bell, Chair, APC Appliance Subcommittee March 17, 1995. Beverage Industry. 1994. Industry issues: Recycled PET prices increase due to packaging advances. (May) A-3 ------- Biddle and Assoc. 1995. Program idea: Advanced separation operations for the recovery of plastics from durable goods. MBA Polymers (Michael Biddle) (January 31). p. 58. Biddle, Mike. 1995. Telephone interview with Mike Biddle, MBA Polymers. March 3,1995. Bonsignore, Patrick V., BJ. Jody, and E. Daniels. 1991. Separation techniques for auto shredder residue. (Argonne National Laboratory). In Designing for recyclability and reuse of automotive plastics. Society of Automotive Engineers: Warrendale, PA. (February), p. 59. Brooke, Lindsay. 1993. Recycling—What's next? A recent "summit meeting" at MIT looked at strategies to increase the recycling of durable goods. Automotive Industries (May), p. 43. Brown, Howard. 1994. A carpeted path to plastics recycling. NREL In Review (Summer), p. 10. Chemical Marketing Reporter. 1994a. APC launches R&D on large-scale recycling.. (March 7). Chemical Marketing Reporter. 1994b. Plastic recycling woes. (March 7) p. 5. Chemical Engineering Progress. No date. Plastics, rubber recycling advance. (February) p. 18. Clean Washington Center. No date (a). Evaluation of small-scale PCR reprocessing equipment (technology brief). Washington Department of Trade and Economic Development. Clean Washington Center. No date (b). Plastic manufacturers process assessments (technology brief). Washington Department of Trade and Economic Development. Clegg, A.J., and D.J. Williams. No date. The strategic and competitive implications of recycling and design for disassembly in the electronics industry. Department of Manufacturing Engineering, Loughborough University. Daniels, Larry. 1992. The vehicle recycling partnership. RecyclingPlas. May 21. p. 116. Daniels, Ed. 1995. Telephone interview with Ed Daniels, Argonne National Laboratory. March 3, 1995. Dillon, Patricia. 1994a. Mandated electronic equipment recycling in Europe: Implications for companies and • U.S. public policy. Proceedings 1994 IEEE International Symposium on Electronics and the Environment. (May), p. 15. Dillon, Patricia. 1994b. Salvageability by design: Legislative efforts to mandate electronics recycling have begun and companies are already designing their products to comply. IEEE Spectrum. (August), p. 18. Environment Today. 1993a. Mazda builds towards recyclable cars with plastic innovations. (February) p. 14. EPA, Inc. 1994. The electronics recycling handbook. Electronics Processing Associates, Inc. Evans, R.J., Tatsumoto, K., Czernik, S., and Chum, H.L. 1992. Innovative pyrolytic approaches to the recycling of plastics to monomers. Chemical Technologies Research Branch. National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL). (May). A-4 ------- Field, Frank. 1995. Telephone interview with Frank Field, Director, Materials System Laboratory Massachusetts Institute of Technology. March 6, 1995. Forcucc, Francesco, and David Tompkins. 1991. Automotive interiors: Design for recyclabilitv Designing for Recyclability and Reuse (February), p. 41. Ford, Tom. 1994. Polymer Reclaim will recover vinyl siding. Plastics News (February 21). p. 16. Fosnaugh, Jerry. 1995. Telephone interview with Jerry Fosnaugh, Chair, APC Automotive Subcommittee March 3,1995. Fosnough, Jerry. 1993. Plastics applications face new challenges to sustained growth. American Metal Market (November 4). p. 14. Gabriele, Michael C, and Richard Monks. 1993. SAE highlights new automotive plastics materials and technology. Plastics Technology (April), p. 67. Gardner, Jonathan. 1992. IBM labeling computer parts for disassembly. Plastics News (June 1). p. 4. Goodwin, Morgan. 1994. Carnegie studies product design for recycling. American Metal Market. (March), p. Gunderson, Gary W. 1992. Plastics recycling through pyrolysis: A project report. RecyclingPlas. May 21. p. Hagan, Ralph S. 1994. Plastics: Key materials for innovation and productivity in major appliances APC Project Description (February). Hanson, David. 1991. Plastics industry maps major recycling plan. Chemical and Engineering News (April 8) p. 13. High Performance Plastics. 1994. Automated plastics recycling for car parts (August) p. 8. Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers. 1994. Management of Plastics Wastes in the ECE Region San Francisco, CA. (May 2-4). Kirby, J. Ray, and Inder L. Wadehra. 1992. Recycling thermoplastic parts in business machine applications May 21. RecyclingPlas. p. 152. Krause, F.E. 1994. Vinyl durables recycling. Journal of Vinyl Technology (September), p. 177. Lang, Nancy. 1995. Auto industry targets fluff for recycling. Waste Age (January) p. 77. Leaversuch, Robert. 1993. Vacuum-cleaner upgrades: a fertile polymer market. Modern Plastics. (May), p. 56. Maher, Jim. 1995. Telephone interview with Jim Maher, President, EPAinc. March 6,1995. A-5 ------- Mapleston, Peter. 1993. Chemical recycling may be an option to meet mandated reclaim levels. Modern Plastics. (November), p. 58. Massachusetts Institute of Technology. 1993. Design and disposal of durable products: What's the best route? Report from the Conference on Technology, Business and the Environment Program. Royal Sonesta Hotel, Cambridge, MA. (March 24-25). Maten, Al. 1995. Telephone interview with Al Maten, Chair, APC Durables Committee. March 6,1995. Materials Edge. 1992. PPI plucks novel plastics from waste stream. Materials Edge. (February). McAdams, Cheryl L. 1995. Resurrecting the computer graveyard. Waste Age (February), p. 65. Mechanical Engineering—CIME. 1994f. New ways to recycle plastics. (June) p. 30. Miller, Craig. 1995a. Telephone interview with Craig Miller, Chair, APC Construction and Building Materials Subcommittee. March 6,1995. Miller, Craig. 1995b. Follow-up telephone interview with Craig Miller, Chair, APC Construction and Building Materials Subcommittee. March 17,1995. Miltz, J., and A. Ram. 1993. Update on plastics and the environment: Progress and trends. Plastics Engineering (March), p. 75. MIT. 1994. The greening of durable products: Improving coordination in the world of recycling. Report from the Conference on Technology, Business and the Environment Program. Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Royal Sonesta Hotel, Cambridge, MA (October 3-4). Modern Plastics International. 1990a. Designing for disassembly: Durable goods makers build in recyclability. (December) p. 14. Modern Plastics International. 1990b. Advanced composites suppliers react to environmental issues. (December) p. 15. Mustafa, Nabil. 1993. Plastic waste management: Disposal, recycling, and reuse. New York, NY: Marcel Dekker, Inc. Nash, Jennifer. 1994. The greening of durable products: Improving coordination in the world of recycling. Charge to participants at the Conference on Technology, Business and the Environment Program. Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Royal Sonesta Hotel, Cambridge, MA (October 3-4). National Recycling Coalition, Inc. No date. Plastics recycling (fact sheet). New Scientist. 1992. New sets for old in TV heaven. (October) p. 9. Nir, Moira Marx. 1994a. Implications of post-consumer plastic waste (Part I). Plastics Engineering (September), p. 29. Nir, Moira Marx. 1994b. Implications of post-consumer plastic waste (Part II). Plastics Engineering (October) p. 21. A-6 ------- Norwalk, Stan. 1992. Recycled poluethylene file: The opportunity, the challenges, and the entry barriers May 21. RecyclingPlas. p. 43. Nussbaum, Bruce, and Templeman, John. 1990. Built to last—until it's time to take it apart Business Week (September 17). p. 102. Nutter, Doug. 1995. Telephone interview with Doug Nutter, Chair, APC Business and Computer Equipment Subcommittee. March 3,1995. Oregon Department of Environmental Quality. No date. Decisionmaker's guide to recycling plastics Solid Waste Reduction and Recycling Section/EPA Region X Solid Waste Program. Resource Integration Systems, Ltd./Waste Matters Consulting. Plastics News. 1994a. Auto scrap project under way. (February 21) p. 16. Plastics News. 1994b. Keeping costs low is vital to making computers "green " (February 21) p. 16. Plastics News. 1993c. GHA resins target computer industry. (December 13) p. 10. Plastics Week. 1992b. SPI project shows auto recycling has a long way to go in the U.S. (February 24) p. 5. Porada, Thomas. 1994. Materials recovery: Asset alchemy. (Digital Equipment Corporation). Proceedings 1994 IEEE International Symposium on Electronics and the Environment. (May), p. 171. Reisch, Marc. 1992. Dow offers recycled resins for packaging. Chemical and Engineering News (June 1). p. Ryan, Chris. 1995. Telephone interview with Chris Ryan, wTe, Inc. March 6,1995. Sample, Paul. 1995. Telephone interview with Paul Sample, ASTM. March 6, 1995. Shearer, Brent. 1995. Automakers try resin recycling. Chemical Marketing Reporter (January 2). p. 7. Singh, Sachchida R, Elvio Piccolino, Johan B. Bergenholz, and Richard C. Smith. 1991. Recycling of RIM polyurea elastomers by thermal processing. SAE Conference on Designing for Recyclability and Reuse of Automobile Plastics (February). p. 23. Society of Plastics Engineers. 1994. Proceedings of the ANTEC '94 conference. Plastics Engineering (May SPI Composites Institute. 1992. Recycling of SMC: The energy/environment picture. SMC Automotive Alliance. Super, M.S., Enick, R.M., and Beckman, E.J. 1991. Separation of thermoplastics by density using near- and supercritical fluids as a precursor to recycling (Report to the Polymer Technology Conference) American Chemical Society: Philadelphia, PA. (June). U.S. Congress. 1992a. Plastics recycling: Problems and possibilities. February. A-7 ------- U.S. Congress. 1992b. Green products by design: Choices for a cleaner environment. Office of Technology Assessment. (September). U.S. DOE. No date. Environmental consciousness: A strategic competitiveness issue for the electronics and computer industry. U.S. DOE/ Microelectronics and Computer Technology Corp. U.S. DOE. 1994. A research needs assessment for waste plastics recycling: Volume 1-Executive Summary and Volume II-Project Report. U.S. Department of Energy, Office of Energy Research, Office of Program Analysis. (December). DOE/ER-30168. U.S. EPA, 1990. Report to Congress: Methods to Manage and Control Plastic Wastes. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. EPA/530-SW-89-05la. February. U.S. EPA, 1994. Characterization of Municipal Solid Waste in the United States: 1994 Update. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. EPA530-R-94-042. (November). Vernyi, Bruce. 1994. Profit is hard to find in auto scrap. Plastics News (March 14). p. 11. Walter, Gunter. 1991. Activities for recycling and disposal of used vehicles. Plastics in Automotive Engineering (April). Wigotsky, Victor. 1994. Recycling: Making headway (plastics recycling). Plastics Engineering (December). p. 20. Wilt, Catherine A. 1994. State laws, private efforts promote white goods recycling. 37(3):44-46 (March). Wolf, Horst-Henning, and R. Hoock. 1992. Used car recycling with consideration to the recycling of plastics. May 21. RecyclingPlas. p. 99. Worden, Edward. 1994a. Auto plastic durables pace research project. American Metal Market (March 8). p. 17. Worden, Edward. 1994b. Talking van sells recycling. American Metal Market (April 14). p. 7. Worden, Edward. 1993. Plastics can go on, on, on; material integrity holds during recycling, Forman says. American Metal Market (November 22). p. 11. Zolotor, Aaron M. 1994. Composition, properties, and economic study of recycled refrigerators. APC Project Description (April). A-8 ------- LIST OF NON-FEDERAL CONTACTS The following associations and individuals were interviewed by telephone and provided input into this report: 1. American Plastics Council. Interviewed March 3 and March 6,1995. 2. Biddle, Mike. MBA Polymers. Interviewed March 3,1995. 3. Daniels, Ed. Argonne National Labs. Interviewed March 3,1995. 4. Field, Frank. Director of the Materials System Laboratory, Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Interviewed March 6,1995. 5. Maher, Jim. President, Electronics Processing Associates Inc. (EPAinc). Interviewed March 6, 1995. 6. Ryan, Chris. wTe Corp. Interviewed March 6, 1995. 7. Sample, Paul. ASTM. Interviewed March 6, 1995. A-9 ------- ------- |