vvEPA
            United States
            Environmental Protection
            Agency
              Solid Waste and
              Emergency Response
              (5305W)
EPA530-S-97-015
May 1997
Characterization of
Municipal Solid Waste in
The United States:
1996 Update
Executive Summary

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            CHARACTERIZATION OF
           MUNICIPAL SOLlb WASTE
             IN THE UNITED STATES
                    1996 UPDATE

             EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
                      Prepared for

           U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
       Municipal and Industrial Solid Waste Division
                   Office of Solid Waste
                Report No. EPA530-S-97-015
                           by

                 Franklin Associates, Ltd.
                    Prairie Village, KS

                       June 1997
              Internet Address (URL) • http://www.epa.gov

Recycled/Recyclable • Printed with Vegetable Based Inks on Recycled Paper (20% Postconsumer)

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           CHARACTERIZATION OF MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE
                  IN THE UNITED STATES: 1996 UPDATE

                            Executive Summary
FEATURES OF THIS REPORT

      This report is the latest in a series of reports published by the U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) describing the national municipal solid
waste (MSW) stream. The report characterizes the national solid waste stream for
the previous calendar year based on data collected from 1960 through 1995. It also
discusses trends and highlights changes that have occurred over the years, both
in the types of wastes generated and in the ways they are managed. Although the
report does not specifically address local and regional variations in the waste
stream, the data in the report can be used to develop approximate estimates of
MSW generation and composition in defined areas.

      This report includes information on:

      •  Total MSW generation,  recovery, and discards from 1960 to
         1995.

      •  Per capita generation and discard rates.

      •  Materials  (e.g., paper, glass,  metals, plastic)  that comprise
         MSW, as well as products (e.g., durable and nondurable goods,
         containers, packaging) found in the waste stream.

      •  Aggregate data on the infrastructure for MSW management,
         including  estimates of the  number of curbside recycling
         programs,  drop-off centers, and materials recovery facilities in
         the United States.

      •  Trends in  MSW management from 1960 to 1995, including
         examples of source reduction of specific products, selected
         materials reuse programs, recovery for recycling (including
         composting), and disposal via combustion and landfilling.

      •   Projections for MSW generation and management through
         2010, including three scenarios of conditions that could achieve
         targeted recovery rates.

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REPORT HIGHLIGHTS


1995 MSW Generation and Management:

      •  A total of 208 million tons of MSW was generated in 1995.
         This reflects a decrease of more than 1 million tons from
         1994, when MSW generation was over 209 million tons.

      •  The per capita generation rate in 1995 was 4.3 pounds per
         person per day, compared to 4.4 pounds per person per day
         in 1994.

      •  The  per  capita discard rate  (after recovery for recycling,
         including composting) was 3.2 pounds per person per day in
         1995, down from 3.3 pounds per person per day in 1994.

      •  Recycling (including composting) recovered 27 percent (56
         million tons)  of MSW in  1995, up from 25 percent (52
         million tons) in 1994.

      *  There were over 7,000 curbside recycling programs in the
         United States in 1995, as well as nearly 9,000 drop-off centers
         for recyclables. More than 300 materials recovery facilities
         helped process the recyclables collected.

      •  Recovery of paper and paperboard reached 40  percent (33
         million tons) in 1995, accounting for more than half of the
         total MSW recovered. In  addition, more than  9 million
         tons of yard trimmings were recovered for composting in
         1995, accounting  for the second  largest fraction of total
         recovery. The percentage of yard trimmings composted (30
         percent)  has doubled since 1992.

       •  Landfills managed 57 percent of  MSW generated  (118
         million tons), down from 60 percent in 1994. Combustion
         facilities managed 16 percent (33.5 million tons) of the total
         MSW generated, slightly more than the 15 percent managed
         in 1994.

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Trends in MSW Generation and Management:

      •  Per capita MSW generation is expected to remain relatively
         stable through the year 2000.  This rate will remain steady
         because even though the per capita  generation of certain
         MSW components will continue to rise, source reduction
         efforts are beginning to have an effect.

      •  Generation of yard trimmings is projected to decline from
         29.8 million tons in  1995 to 27.1  million tons  in 2000.  This
         decline is due to the effect of source reduction efforts, such
         as grasscycling and backyard composting, spurred, in part, by
         legislation passed by many states banning yard trimmings
         from landfills or charging residents separately for pickup.

      •  Generation rates for paper and  paperboard,  plastics, and
         wood are all projected to increase faster than population
         until 2010, while generation rates  for glass, metals, and food
         wastes are projected to increase  at about the same rate as
         population growth.

      •  Annual generation of MSW is projected to increase to 222
         million tons by the year 2000  and 253 million tons in 2010.
         Containers and packaging are expected to remain the largest
         category  of  products  in MSW, at  36  percent  of total
         generation by 2000 and 38 percent by 2010. Nondurables will
         remain the second largest category at  28 percent  of total
         MSW generation by 2000 and 29 percent by 2010.

      •  For the year 2000, possible recovery scenarios are presented
         for 30 and 35 percent recovery  levels.  Possible recovery
         scenarios between 30 and 40 percent are made for the  year
         2010.

       • Combustion  is expected  to remain relatively unchanged,
         managing about 16 percent of the total MSW  generated by
         the year 2000 (36 million tons) and 15 percent by 2010 (39
         million tons).

      •  While the percentage of  total MSW  being disposed of in
         landfills is decreasing, the actual tonnage is expected to
         increase to 119 million tons by 2000, and 125 million tons by
         2010. Landfilling is  expected to  continue to be the single
         most predominant MSW  management  method  in future
         years.

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                          DEFINITIONS AND METHODOLOGY

Municipal solid waste ( MSW) includes wastes such as durable goods, nondurable goods,
containers and packaging, food scraps, yard trimmings, and miscellaneous inorganic wastes from
residential, commercial, institutional, and industrial sources. Examples of waste from these
categories include appliances, automobile tires, newspapers, clothing, boxes, disposable
tableware, office and classroom paper, wood pallets, and cafeteria wastes. MSW does not include
wastes from other sources, such as construction and demolition debris, automobile bodies,
municipal sludges, combustion ash, and industrial process wastes that might also be disposed in
municipal waste landfills or incinerators.

Source reduction activities reduce the amount or toxicity of wastes before they enter the
municipal solid waste management system (see Generation). Reuse is a source reduction activity
involving the recovery or reapplication of a package, used product, or material in a manner that
retains its original form or identity. Reuse of products such as refillable glass bottles, reusable
plastic food storage containers, or refurbished wood pallets are examples of source reduction.

Generation refers to the amount (weight or volume) of materials and products that enter the
waste stream before recycling (including composting), landfilling, or combustion takes place.

Recovery of materials means removing MSW from the waste stream for the purpose of recycling
(including composting). Recovery for recycling as defined for this report includes purchases of
postconsumer recovered materials plus net exports of the materials. Recovery of yard trimmings
includes diverting yard trimmings from disposal to a composting facility. For some materials,
recovery for uses such as highway construction or insulation is considered recovery along with
materials used in remanufacturing processes.

Combustion includes combustion of mixed MSW, fuel prepared from MSW, or a separated
component of MSW (such as rubber tires), with or without energy recovery.

Discards include the municipal solid waste remaining after recycling (including composting).
These discards are usually combusted or disposed of in landfills, although some MSW is littered,
stored, or disposed on site, particularly in rural areas.
Methodology. There are two primary methods for conducting a waste characterization study. The
first is a source-specific approach in which the individual components of the waste stream are
sampled, sorted, and weighed. Although this method is useful for defining a local waste stream,
extrapolating from a limited number of studies can produce a skewed or misleading picture if used
for a nationwide characterization of waste. Atypical circumstances encountered during sampling
or errors in the sample would be greatly magnified when expanded to represent the nation's entire
waste stream. The second method, which is used in this report, is called the "material flows
methodology." EPA's Office  of Solid Waste and its predecessors in the Public Health Service
sponsored work in the 1960s  and early 1970s to develop the material flows methodology. This
methodology is based on production data (by weight) for the materials and products in the waste
stream, with adjustments for imports, exports, and product lifetimes.

Note that when the report is updated, there are numerical discrepancies in waste generation,
recovery, and discards from previous editions. These differences are due to revised estimates from
source data (e.g., industry associations and federal agencies) made to the MSW characterization
database.

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MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE IN 1995

      MSW consists of both materials and products. Materials in MSW include
paper and paperboard, yard trimmings, glass, metal, plastic, wood, and food
wastes. Each material category (except for food wastes and yard trimmings) is
made up of many different products. Products in MSW are grouped into three
main categories: (1) durable goods (e.g., appliances), (2) nondurable goods (e.g.,
newspapers), and (3) containers and packaging. These product categories
generally contain each type of MSW material, with some exceptions. The durable
goods category contains no paper and paperboard. The nondurable goods category
includes only small amounts of metals and essentially no glass or wood. The
containers and packaging category includes only very small amounts of rubber,
leather, and textiles.

Materials in MSW

      In 1995, MSW generation totaled 208 million tons.  Figure ES-1 provides a
breakdown, by weight, of the MSW materials generated in 1995. Paper and
paperboard products made up the largest component of MSW generated (39
percent), and yard trimmings comprised the second largest material component
(14 percent). Glass, metals, plastics, wood, and food wastes each constituted
                 Figure ES-1. Materials generated in MSW by weight, 1995
                          (Total weight = 208.0 million tons)
                                           Glass 6.2%
                                          12.8 million tons
                                                   Metals 7.6%
                                                  15.8 million tons
           Paper & paperboard 39.2%
              81.5 million tons
                       Yard trimmings 14.3%
                        29.8 million tons
       Plastics 9.1%
      19.0 million tons

        Wood 7.1%
       14.9 million tons

       Food 6.7%
     14.0 million tons
 Other 9.8%
20.2 million tons

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between 6 and 10 percent of the total MSW generated. Other materials in MSW,
such as rubber, leather, textiles, and miscellaneous wastes, made up
approximately 10 percent of the MSW generated in 1995.

      A portion of each material category in MSW was recycled (including being
composted) in 1995, as illustrated in Table ES-1. It should be noted, however, that
recovery rates for some products within a material category are higher than the
overall recovery rate for the material category, because some products are not
                                   Table ES-1
              GENERATION AND RECOVERY OF MATERIALS IN MSW, 1995
               (In millions of tons and percent of generation of each material)

Paper and paperboard
Glass
Metals
Ferrous metals
Aluminum
Other nonferrous metals
Total metals
Plastics
Rubber and Leather
Textiles
Wood
Other materials
Total Materials in Products
Other Wastes
Food Wastes
Yard Trimmings
Miscellaneous Inorganic Wastes
Total Other Wastes
TOTAL MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE
Weight
Generated
81.5
12.8

11.6
3.0
1.3
15.8
19.0
6.0
7.4
14.9
3.6
161.1

14.0
29.8
3.2
46.9
208.0
Weight
Recovered
32.6
3.1

4.2
1.0
0.9
6.2
1.0
0.5
0.9
1.4
0.8
46.6

0.6
9.0
Neg. •
9.6
56.2
Recovery
as a Percent
of Generation
40.0%
24.5%

36.5%
34.5%
69.4%
38.9%
5.2%
8.9%
. 12.2%
9.6%
23.1%
28.9%

4.1%
30.3%
Neg.
20.4%
27.0%
        Includes wastes from residential, commercial, and institutional sources.
        Neg. = Less than 50,000 tons or 0.05 percent.

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recovered at all. For example, aluminum cans are recovered at rates above 60
percent, but the overall recovery rate for aluminum is only 35 percent. Likewise,
even though corrugated containers are recovered at rates above 64 percent, the
overall recovery rate for paper and paperboard is 40 percent.

Products in MSW

      Figure ES-2 shows the breakdown, by weight> of MSW products generated
in 1995. Containers and packaging comprised the largest portion of products
generated, at 35 percent (73 million tons) of total MSW generation. Nondurable
goods were the second largest fraction, comprising about 27 percent (57 million
tons). The third main category of products is durable goods, which comprised 15
percent (31 million tons) of total MSW generation.
                 Figure  ES-2. Products generated in MSW by weight, 1995
                          (Total weight = 208.0 million tons)
            Nondurable goods 27.4%
               57.0 million tons
             Durable goods 15.0%
               31.2* million tons
                                                     Containers & packaging 35.0%
                                                          72.9 million tons
                        Food, other 8.3%^
                         17.1 million tons
Yard trimmings 14.3%
  29.8 million tons
       Table ES-2 shows the generation and recovery of the product categories in
MSW. Recovery of containers and packaging was the highest of the three
product categories—38 percent of containers and packaging generated in 1995
were recovered for recycling. About 52 percent of aluminum packaging was
recovered (mostly aluminum beverage cans), while more than 54 percent of steel

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                               Table ES-2
          GENERATION AND RECOVERY OF PRODUCTS IN MSW
                           BY MATERIAL, 1995
          (In millions of tons and percent of generation of each product)

Durable goods
Ferrous metals
Aluminum
Other non-ferrous metals
Total metals
Glass
Plastics
Rubber and leather
Wood
Textiles
Other materials
Total durable goods
Nondurable goods
Paper and paperboard
Plastics
Rubber and leather
Textiles
Other materials
Total nondurable goods
Containers and packaging
Steel
Aluminum
Total metals
Glass
Paper and paperboard
Plastics
Wood
Other materials
Total containers and packaging
Other wastes
Food wastes
Yard trimmings
Miscellaneous inorganic wastes
Total other wastes
TOTAL MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE
Weight
Generated
Weight
Recovered
Recovery
as a Percent
of Generation

8.7
0.8
1.3
10.8
1.3
6.2
5.2
4.2
2.3
1.1
31.2
2.7
Neg.
0.9
3.6
Neg.
0.2
0.5
Neg.
0.1
0.8
5.3
30.7%
Neg.
69.4%
33.1%
Neg.
3.8%
10.3%
Neg.
5.0%
77.8%
17.0%

43.5
5.1
0.8
5.0
2.7
57.0
12.7
Neg.
Neg.
0.8
Neg.
13.5
29.3%
<1%
Neg.
15.8%
Neg.
23.7%

2.8
2.0
4.8
11.5
38.1
7.7
10.6
0.1
72.9
1.6
1.0
2.6
3.1
19.9
0.7
1.4
Neg.
27.8
54.6%
51.6%
53.4%
27.3%
52.3%
9.7%
13.5%
Neg.
38.1%

14.0
29.8
3.2
46.9
208.0
0.6
9.0
Neg.
9.6
56.2
4.1%
30.3%
Neg.
20.4%
27.0%
Includes wastes from residential, commercial, and institutional sources.
Neg. = less than 50,000 tons or 0.05 percent.

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packaging (mostly cans) was recovered. Paper and paperboard packaging recovery
was estimated at 52 percent; corrugated containers accounted for most of that
figure. Approximately 27 percent of glass containers were recovered overall,
while about 14 percent of wood packaging (mostly pallets) was recovered. About
10 percent of plastic containers and packaging was recovered in 1995, most of
which was made up of soft drink, milk, and water bottles.

      Overall recovery of nondurable goods was almost 24 percent in 1995.
Newspapers constituted the largest portion of this recovery, with 53 percent of
newspapers generated being recovered for recycling. Office papers and magazines
were also recovered in significant quantities in 1995, at 44 percent and 28 percent,
respectively. Over 16 percent of clothing and  other textile nondurable products
also were recovered for recycling.

      Overall, durable goods were recovered at a rate of 17 percent in 1995, up
from 15 percent in 1994.  Nonferrous metals had one of the highest recovery
rates, at 70 percent, due to the high rate of lead recovery from lead-acid batteries.
Nearly 31 percent of ferrous metals were recovered from appliances and
miscellaneous durable goods. Excluding retreads and tire derived fuel use, over
17 percent of tires also were recovered for recycling.  '

Residential  and Commercial Sources of MSW

      Sources of MSW, as characterized in this report,  include both residential
and commercial locations. Residential waste  (including waste from multi-family
dwellings) is estimated to be 55 to 65 percent  of total MSW generation.
Commercial waste (including waste from schools, some industrial sites where
packaging, is generated, and businesses) constitutes between 35 and 45 percent.
Local and regional factors, such as climate and level of  commercial activity,
contribute to these variations.

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MANAGEMENT OF MSW

      EPA's integrated waste management hierarchy includes the following
components:

      •  Source reduction (including reuse of products and backyard
         composting of yard trimmings).

      •  Recycling (including composting).

      •  Waste combustion (preferably with energy recovery) and
         landfilling.

      Figure ES-3 shows how much MSW was recovered for recycling
(including composting) and how much was disposed of by combustion and
landnHing in 1995. Approximately 27 percent (56 million tons) of MSW was
recycled and composted; an estimated 16 percent (33 million tons) was combusted
(nearly all with energy recovery); and the remainder, 57 percent (118 million
tons), was landfilled (small amounts may have been littered or self-disposed).
                   Figure ES-3. Management of MSW in  U.S., 1995
                         (Total weight = 208.0 million tons)
           Landfill, other, 56.9%
            118.3 million tons
                                                       Recovery for recycling
                                                    (including composting), 27.0%
                                                         56.2 million tons
                                                     Combustion, 16.1%
                                                       33.5 million tons
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Source Reduction

      Source reduction includes the design, manufacture, purchase, or use of
materials, such as products and packaging, to reduce their amount or toxicity
before they enter the MSW management system. Some examples  of source
reduction activities are:

      •  Designing products or packaging to reduce the quantity or the
         toxicity of the materials used, or to make them easy to reuse.

      •  Reusing existing products or packaging.

      •  Lengthening the lives of products to postpone disposal.

      •  Using packaging that reduces the amount of damage or spoilage to
         the product.

      •  Managing nonproduct organic wastes (e.g., food scraps and yard
         trimmings) through  onsite composting or other alternatives  to
         disposal  (e.g., leaving grass clippings on the lawn).

      Although product source reduction activities are not quantified  at the
national level in this report, the report includes several case studies that
illustrate the impact of source  reduction on different product categories. For
example, newspaper publishers have reduced the weight of their newsprint from
93 pages per pound in 1985 to 118 pages per pound in 1995. Efforts to reuse
electronics, durable goods, textiles, and pallets have also been successful.
Numerous businesses exist nationwide, for example, that upgrade and repair
computers, and use their valuable components to rebuild other electronic items.

Recovery

      Recovery for recycling (including composting) continues to be one of the
most effective waste management techniques. In 1995, approximately 46 percent
of the U.S. population (121 million people) had access to the nation's 7,000
curbside recycling programs. Most of these programs (40 percent) were in the
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Midwest, although the Northeast had the largest population served. In addition,
nearly 9,000 drop-off centers for recyclables were reported in 35 states in 1995.

      More than 300 materials recovery facilities helped process the recyclables
collected in 1995. An estimated 3,300 yard trimmings composting programs (not
backyard composting) existed in 1995, the majority of which were in the
Northeast and Midwest.

Combustion

      Most MSW combustion in the United States involves the recovery of an
energy product (generally steam or electricity). Total MSW combustion with
energy recovery, referred to as waste-to-energy combustion, currently has a
design capacity of 99,000 tons per day. There were 112 waste-to-energy
combustion facilities in the United States in 1995: One-third of these were located
in the Northeast, accounting for 60 percent of the total design capacity.

Landfilling

      Although the number of landfills in the United States is decreasing,
landfill capacity has remained relatively constant. In 1995, more than 2,500
landfills  existed in the United States, with the Southeast and West having the
greatest number of landfills. Excluding Alaska and Hawaii, thirty-seven states
have landfills reporting more than 10 years of capacity remaining. Only two
states report having less than 5 years of capacity left.

Trends in MSW Management

      MSW generation has grown steadily from 88  million tons in 1960 to 208
million tons in 1995 (Figure ES-4). In the 1960s and early 1970s, a large percentage
of MSW was burned. Through the mid-1980s, incineration declined considerably
and landfills became more difficult to site. MSW generation continued to rise,
however, while materials recovery rates increased slowly. As a result, the burden
on the nation's landfills grew dramatically. As recovery rates increased in the late
1980s and early 1990s—and combustion stayed constant—discards to landfills
have steadily decreased.
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    <0
    o
    o
                  Figure ES-4. Municipal Solid Waste Management, 1960 to 1995
           0
           1960
                                                 Recovery for the Composting •
                                                 Component of Recycling
1965
1970
1975
                                             1980
1985
1990
1995
      The report presents projections for MSW generation and management
through 2010, including possible scenarios for recovery. The MSW generation
projections are based on historical trends in combination with expected
population and subsequent economic growth. For the year 2000, possible
recovery scenarios are presented for 30 and 35 percent recovery levels.  Possible
recovery scenarios between 30 and 40 percent are made for the year 2010.

      To achieve these increased levels of recovery, EPA assumed that local,
state, and federal agencies would continue to emphasize recycling (including
composting) as a priority; that industries would continue to make the necessary
investments in recovery and utilization of materials; that sufficient end-user
capacity would be available for most recovered materials; that state and local
governments would continue to expand programs designed to keep yard
trimmings out of landfills; and that most U.S. citizens would continue to have
access to some sort of recovery program and that they would be willing to
participate.
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