-------
Chapter Four
types of wastes collected, and union contracts
also come into play. Decision makers should
carefully analyze the existing collection system
in an effort to optimize collection crew size.
This may involve examining the feasibility of
instituting mechanized collection vehicles, which
are more cost-efficient.
Personnel Management
Because of the repetitive nature and perceived
lack of opportunities for advancement, job
satisfaction is often low among municipal waste
collection crews. Crew productivity, therefore,
depends directly on management effort. This
may involve creative worker incentive systems or
innovative approaches to routing, collection
frequency, etc. Municipal managers can help
facilitate change by working cooperatively with
employees and any unions, through such
policies as advanced notice of^proposed changes,
meaningful consultation and joint planning, and
trial periods followed by mutual consideration
of initial results and new implementation
proposals.
Training is also an important aspect of any
personnel management program. It will help
collectors, drivers, equipment operators,
mechanics, and other employees to understand
both their jobs and the system better. Training
in basic public relations, work rules, unit
operations, safety, and equipment use and care
should be scheduled at regular intervals.
Safety is another important consideration. Solid
waste collection workers have an extremely high
injury rate and injury severity rate. This injury
problem results in both direct and indirect
human and financial costs. Dramatic cost
savings can be realized by implementing safety
training programs and providing safety
equipment such as gloves, safety glasses,
respirators, and special footwear. In addition,
personnel managers may find it beneficial to
provide vaccinations to workers, especially for
exposure to hepatitis and other transmittable
diseases.
Collection Routes
Proper routing can have major impacts on
collection system efficiency. Not only can
person-hours and vehicle mileage be minimized,
energy can be conserved and collection crew
safety can be maximized. As new programs
such as recycling and composting are
implemented, the waste stream may decrease.
The collection program must take this into
consideration to make collection for disposal
more efficient (Schuster and Schur, 1974).
Residential Collection Vehicles
Vehicle selection is critical to the productivity
and cost-effectiveness of waste management.
Collection vehicles come in a variety of sizes
and shapes, and are selected based on specific
local needs. A trend that has emerged in
recent years is the move towards automated
collection vehicles. Mechanized tipping
equipment is rapidly gaining popularity. Instead
of hand-loading the refuse, workers use
mechanized "arms" to lift and tilt the containers.
Mechanized collection increases worker safety
and productivity.
A number of truck types are currently used:
Rear loaders;
Side loaders;
Front loaders;
Roll-off and tilt-frames;
Transfer trailers; and
Vehicles designed for recyclables.
Collection vehicle bodies are usually sold as
units that are mounted on a chassis (the frame
and working parts of the vehicle, as opposed to
the body). Vendors will quote prices of the
vehicles either as "mounted" (including the
chassis) or "unmounted." In many cases, the
municipality or private collector will purchase
the chassis separately. Figure 4.3 outlines some
of the trends, options, and prices associated
with collection vehicles.
42
-------
Collection and Transfer
FIGURE 4.3
Collection Vehicles:
Trends, Options, and Prices
Collection Vehicle Trends
Trends in solid waste management affect all aspects of
future systems, including collection. Some of the trends in
truck design and performance are outlined here.
• Recycling could extend the capacity of regular refuse
collection, but will demand additional or modified
vehicles.
• Federal air pollution regulations (expected hi 1991 and
1994) could affect the entire trucking industry, as
increased pollution control will increase vehicle costs.
Noncompliance fines associated with older vehicles
could also affect overall collection costs.
• Industry indicators (including the Federal Highway
Administration) suggest that a shortage of skilled truck
drivers has begun in the United States. Labor
forecasters are anticipating up to a 25 percent shortage
in qualified operators of large (greater than 26,000 Ib)
trucks, hi addition, national driver's licensing and
testing standards are being considered. The driver
shortfall could impact collection system personnel
across the country. Not only may salaries rise
(increasing collection costs), filling positions could also
become difficult, as in some cases, drivers also serve as
part of the collection crew.
• A national plan to overhaul truck weight laws and
enforcement is under consideration. Because of the
high weights and short wheel base associated with
collection vehicles, these laws could have a major
impact on collection, as many existing trucks may not
meet future requirements.
• Another trend in truck design coincides with
anticipated standards from the National Highway
Traffic Safety Administration. Safety equipment could
add over $29,000 to the cost of a state-of-the-art truck.
(Source: Waste Age. August 1988)
Options and Prices (1989)
When purchasing refuse collection vehicles, buyers look at
body, hydraulic, and chassis specifications. In particular,
bodies should meet all American National Standards
Institute (ANSI) safely standards with standard equipment.
• Chassis. Chassis prices vary greatly, depending on the
body design desired. The ballpark for chassis prices is
in the range of $74,000 to $82,000. Mounting charges
are in the range of $3,000 to $5,000.
• Rear Loaders. These units can be loaded by hand or
automatically. The trucks are usually grouped into
categories based on the rated compaction pressure of
the truck. The different categories are heavy-duty,
medium-duty, and light-duty. Unmounted heavy-duty
(20-31 yd.) rear loaders range from $45,000 to
$48,000. Medium-duty (16-25 yd.) prices are $35,000
to $40,000.
• Side Loaders. These units also come in hand loading
and automatic loading versions (some of the automatic
loading vehicles can be operated from inside the cab).
Unmounted, hand loading units (10-32 yd.) range from
$40,000 to $45,000. Mounted, the hand-loading units
are $70,000 to $90,000, and the mechanized systems
are $110,000 to $120,000.
• Front Loaders. Front loaders are used to pick up
dumpster-type containers. One person usually both
drives and operates the collection device. Front
loading vehicle prices range from $50,000 to $55,000.
• Roll-Off Containers. The price of cable systems range
from $15,000 to $20,000, while hydraulic systems are
in the $24,000 to $56,000 range.
• Transfer Trailer. Transfer trailers come in two basic
varieties: open-top and enclosed. Standard open-top
trailers (45 ft, 115 cu. yd.) cost from $45,000 to
$50,000. 6 axle trailer: $50,000 to $70,000. 8 axle
trailer: $60,000 to $80,000. Enclosed: $40,000 to
$50,000. Multi-axle units: $25,000 to $75,000.
• Vehicles for the Collection of Recyclables. These
vehicles are discussed in Chapter Six of this Guide.
(Prices based on contacts with vendors and industry
representatives)
43
-------
Chapter Four
Evaluating Collection Vehicle Alternatives
Decision makers will want to consider several
factors when selecting collection vehicles. In
terms of personnel, the ease of entry and exit
and the materials loading efficiency should be
considered. In terms of the vehicle, storage
capacity and fuel efficiency are important
considerations. Capital, operating, and
maintenance costs should also be part of the
evaluation.
Factors related to the local system will also play
a role in vehicle selection. Housing density and
the number and configuration of one-way and
dead end streets place constraints of vehicle
maneuverability, as do traffic conditions and
topography. Road and bridge conditions and
vehicle weight limits are also important factors.
The distance from the route to the unloading
point is also important.
One additional consideration is the flexibility of
equipment to adapt to changing collection
demands. Long-term goals, plans, and
anticipated changes should be part of the
evaluation process.
Planned Preventive Maintenance
A standardized, planned preventative
maintenance program can provide long-term
benefits to the collection system. Fewer
emergency failures and road calls will occur
when vehicles are well maintained. Also,
maintenance costs can be reduced, as problems
are detected early in a system that regularly
checks equipment. In addition, when deciding
on new vehicles and equipment, decision makers
and local collection staff can rely on the
increased experience and knowledge when
making decisions (Hickman, 1986).
Rural Collection
Although many of the collection factors that
apply to municipal collection also apply to rural
collection, sparse population creates some
unique planning considerations. For example,
in large areas with low population density, the
benefits of cooperative, regional approaches can
be substantial. This is true for financing the
system, purchasing equipment, and hiring
personnel. Also, when planning a rural
collection system, decision makers should allow
the flexibility to accommodate growth and
expansion. Another planning consideration is
the ability to integrate the town's system with
collection systems currently existing throughout
the region;
Rural Collection Alternatives
A traditional method of rural waste
management has been disposal on one's own
property. Although this method can be
convenient for homeowners, local officials may
find the need to exercise more control over
waste disposal in order to avoid adverse
environmental impacts.
Aside from disposal on one's own property, four
basic rural collection alternatives are used:
• Direct haul by residents to disposal site;
• Centrally located bulk containers ("Green
Box" containers);
• Roll-off containers; and
• "Mail Box" collection of solid waste.
The options are outlined in more detail In
Figure 4.4.
-------
Collection and Transfer
4,4
Rural Collection Options
Direct haul by residents ia a disposal fatality is
generally used in sparsely populated, areas where
a collection system Is impractical. This method
does involve Inconvenience to the resident, and
may ajso be difficult to «osttoL
box peters to the use of 8 to l£ 6 made to
powjde for eustoajer s«fe(35 for example, the
cottfaMer should Tx? ^s% loaded by .re$&te»t$,
]p»s0e
-------
Chapter Four
Transfer Station Planning
As with other municipal waste management
facilities and programs, there exists a need for
public responsibility at transfer stations, whether
they are municipally or privately operated. The
primary reason for this is to ensure that the
waste is managed according to local goals and
objectives. This may involve keeping waste
streams segregated in conjunction with disposal
or recovery programs. For example:
" In-state and out-of-state waste may be
accepted at the facility. Accounting for the
flows of these waste streams requires
monitoring to ensure that all waste received
is identified.
• Hazardous and non-hazardous waste must
be segregated. Most municipal waste
transfer stations will not accept hazardous
waste unless designated handling areas
exist.
• Commercial and residential waste may T)e
kept separate for the purpose of recovering
material. Many commercial waste loads
contain large amounts of recyclable
materials, such as office paper.
Transfer Station Design
Transfer station categories are briefly outlined
in Figure 4.5 and some of the associated
advantages and disadvantages are included.
Transfer Vehicles
Transfer vehicles come in two basic varieties:
• Open-top trailers, and
" Enclosed trailers.
Open-top, noncompaction trailers are lighter
than their compactor counterparts and,
consequently, a larger payload can usually be
loaded in these vehicles before weight limits are
reached, unless the waste has been previously '; ;.
compacted. There are difficulties, however,
associated with covering the trailer (usually
requires more than one person to pull the
canvas tarp over).
Compaction trailers are enclosed vehicles that
are loaded by some type of stationary
compactor. This type of trailer is easy to
unload (they are usually equipped with some
type of hydraulic blade) and problems associated
with canvas tops are avoided. The compaction
or ejection equipment, however, constitutes
"dead-weight" in the vehicle so waste payloads
are smaller due to legal weight limitations.
Transfer trailer options and prices were
presented in Figure 4.4.
Factors Affecting Transfer Vehicle Selection
Decision makers should consider:
Capital costs;
Capacity of the trailers;
Type of station;
Length of haul to disposal site;
Hours of haul/day;
.., Quantity of waste; and
Weight limits.
Transfer Station Costs and Benefits
Developing and operating transfer stations
involves significant capital costs, including land
acquisition, buildings, equipment, and haul
vehicles. Costs of design, site preparation, and
construction are also significant,
Substantial benefits, however, can also be
realized. Cost savings resulting from transfer
station implementation may include:
• Reduced nonproductive time of collection
crews;
• Reduced truck mileage;
• Reduced maintenance costs (smaller
. collection vehicles stay on paved roads,
Limiting the suspension and drivetrain
problems associated with driving at
landfills); and
• Increased use of lighter duty collection
vehicles. '"""
46
-------
Collection and Transfer
FIGURE 4.5
Transfer Station Design Alternatives
Design Option
Advantages
Disadvantages
Tipping floor, open-top trailer
• Large tipping floor where
collection vehicles unload
• Dozers organize and push waste
into openrtop trailers
Pit. Open-Top Trailer
• Collection vehicles unload directly
into a large pit
• Tractor with dozer or landfill-type
blade organizes the waste and
pushes loads into open-top
transfer trailers
Direct dump, open-top trailer
• Collection vehicles dump loads
directly into open-top trailers via
large hoppers
• Stationary or mobile clamshell
equipment can be used to
distribute the waste in trailer
Hopper-type compaction
• Waste is gravity-fed via hopper
into a stationary compactor that
compacts the waste before or
while entering the trailer.
Push-pit compaction
• Collection vehicles dump their
loads into large steel or concrete
pits '
• Large hydraulic blade moves the
waste to compactor charging box
• Compactor packs the waste into
the trailer
Stationary compactor, roll-off container
• Low-volume operations such as
rural drop-off centers
• Refuse unloaded directly into
container
Track and top-load
• Tracked compactor followed by
loading in open-top trailers
• Requires little site work
• Involves relatively low building
costs
• Can separate recyclables
Collection vehicles unload while
loading and transfer operations are
still going on, reducing transfer.
time.
Pit serves as storage area
Efficient system for high volumes
, of waste
Can separate recyclables
No intermediate handling of the
waste involved, increasing
efficiency
Facility shutdown rare because no
complicated equipment involved
• Not as efficient as other systems
for large volumes of waste
• Requires three-level facility
(considerable amount of site work
and capital investment)
• Efficient for small capacity
demands
Large compactor can usually
handle all types of wastes,
including large and bulky wastes
Pit acts as storage area during
peak arrival
• Container may be equipped with
compactor to handle lighter
materials.
• Efficient for larger facilities
(over 300 tons per day)
If large amounts of uncompacted
wastes received, difficult to attain
maximum payloads (operation may
require separate trailer-packing
machines)
Collection vehicle unloading not
independent of transfer vehicle
loading (additional tipping
floor/storage space may be
required)
If compactor fails, no alternative
method of loading
Trucks may line up waiting to
unload because of limited hopper
size.
Large capital investment
Facility operation depends on
operation of the compactor
Bulky and large materials may
create problems with small
compactor
Operation depends on functioning
compactor
47
-------
Chapter Four
Evaluating Transfer Station Options
In addition to costs, decision makers should
also address these important questions when
investigating the feasibility or appropriateness of
transfer stations:
" Will a short haul to the existing landfill
remain so in the future (i.e., is a new, more
remote landfill expected to open)?
» Is the current collection system large
enough to make a transfer station
economically feasible?
• Is less traffic to the landfill desired?
• How strong is public opposition to siting a
new facility?
" Can an existing landfill site be used as the
transfer station site?
Another factor to consider in transfer station
planning is the demands of the local disposal
facility. For example, waste-to-energy facilities
will not usually accept baled wastes. Prior to
designing the transfer station, it is necessary to
identify all specification demands that are in
place at these facilities.
Smng Transfer Stations
A fundamental transfer station design
factor is tttfe community's vraste
volume estimate. History shows that
estimates are ofte» l«tacc«itate>
resulting in oversized or undersized
facilities faced witb operating losses
and high tipping fees, Acciwate waste
stream assessment data and
estimating the changes iit fiie waste
Stream due to recycling or other
programs (discussed $» Copter
Three) ai;e the'Only ,way to-avoid this
problem. ^," -- -"- s-
Of her Transfer Station
Design Elements
Modem transfer stations are usually
equipped with the following:
Office space;
Employee facilities;
¥ael depot;
Fences?
Landscaping and berms;
Maintenance shop.
Siting Issues
Several criteria determine where a transfer
station should be located. Some of these are
more obvious than others. First of all, the
transfer station should be near the collection
area, since minimization of travel distances is
the whole purpose of the transfer station. In
addition to proximity to the collection routes,
access to major haul routes is also important in
optimizing transfer vehicle productivity. Access
roads must be able to handle heavy truck traffic,
and truck routes should be designed to
minimize the impact of the vehicles on
neighborhoods. Aside from the routing issues,
the land on which the facility is built needs to
be zoned for industrial purposes, and the area
used should provide adequate isolation. Siting
the facility will also involve garnering
neighborhood and community acceptance, which
in many cases is the most difficult task. Some
communities have had success using closed
landfill sites as sites for new transfer stations.
Integration With Other Waste
Management Options
Operating a transfer station can have significant
impacts on other elements of an integrated
solid waste management system and, if properly
planned, these impacts can be extremely
positive.
48
-------
Collection and Transfer
Recycling
Recovering materials for recycling at transfer
stations is not a new activity. Private facilities
receiving loads with large quantities of
recyclables (i.e., corrugated cardboard) have
taken advantage of selling these easily separated
materials for years. This practice of recovering
recyclables at transfer stations is becoming more
widespread. Corrugated cardboard, paper,
wood, metals, plastics, waste oil, glass, and
household hazardous wastes are all currently
collected. Not only are portions of the
incoming waste stream marketable, recycling
removes materials that would otherwise be
disposed of. This creates transport and disposal
cost savings.
Developing a more comprehensive recycling
program at a transfer station may involve
significant planning on the part of the decision
maker. For example, equipment and employees
to separate the materials are likely to be
required, as may be processing equipment.
Incoming vehicles will have to be monitored, as
some contain large amounts of recyclables which
may become useless if mixed with other refuse.
The benefits of recycling programs often
outweigh these planning, monitoring, and cost
concerns.
«ajft fcffily serre as
drop-off centers for recyelables, as long
a£ *»jtotte«s «r specific areas aa*
designaieil for this purpose. Aluminum,
are often delivered
by residents to specific areas at transfer
stations" _ , ,
Landfill Operations
Transfer stations will also have a positive
impact on landfill operation, as less traffic in
and out of the facility and less on-site
congestion can be expected to result.
49
-------
Chapter Four
Chapter Four Bibliography
American Federation of State, County, and Municipal Employees, Health and Safety in the Workplace,
AFSCME, 1625 L St., N.W., Washington, D.C. 20036. Tel: (202) 429-1000.
Commonwealth of Pennsylvania, Estimating Transportation Costs: Guide #2 in a Series of Municipal Solid
Waste Management Guides, Department of Environmental Resources, Bureau of Solid Waste
Management. .
Davis, Ed, Is Resource Recovery for You?, Arkansas Energy Office, Arkansas Industrial Development
Commission, June, 1986.
"Designing the Truck of the Nineties," Waste Age, August 1988, p. 57.
Hickman, H.L., "Collection of Residential Solid Waste," in The Solid Waste Handbook: A Practical
Guide, ed., William D. Robinson, New York: John Wiley and Sons, 1986, p. 191.
Legler, John A., "Regulations May Dictate Smaller Route Trucks," Waste Age, August 1988, p. 68.
Moeger, Cathy Berg, Solid Waste Management Planning Guidebook, Minnesota Pollution Control
Agency, Division of Solid and Hazardous Waste, June 1986.
OSCAR, City ofPawtucket Planning Study, State of Rhode Island Department of Environmental
Management, Providence, RI, March 1989.
Peluso, Richard A and Ernest H. Ruckert III, "Waste Transfer: The Basics," Waste Age, December
1988, p. 88.
Resource Integration Systems Ltd., Collection Cost Savings Study, Phase III, State of Rhode Island
Department of Environmental Management, Providence, RI, May 1988.
Schuster, Kenneth A, A Five-Stage Improvement Process for Solid Waste Collection Systems, EPA,
Office of Solid Waste, Washington, D.C., 1974. Document No. SW-131.
Schuster, Kenneth A, and Dennis A Schur, Heuristic Routing for Solid Waste Collection Vehicles,
EPA, Office of Solid Waste, Washington, D.C, 1974. Document No. SW-113.
United States Department of Health and Human Services, Residential Waste Collection: Hazard
Recognition and Prevention, Public Health Service, National Institute for Occupational Safely and
Health, Washington, D.C., 1982.
Wingerter, EJ., "The Role of Privatization," Waste Age, September 1988, p. 210. -
50
-------
Source Reduction
Chapter Five
Source Reduction
.... «v Source reduction is aa approach that
addresses $t0w products art?
mamaffacturedj purchased, and used*
vf' Source redaction technical options
material volume, reduced toxicity,
increased product lifetime^ «r
, decreased consumption.
,/« Source redHCtion prograii
', approaches can be implemented
financial incentives and disincentives-,
developments^
"• f v" "•" f •,ns*\^ -. ".
f ' * •* '
WHAT IS SOURCE REDUCTION?
EP A's Solid Waste Dilemma: An Agenda for
Action, defines source reduction as "the design,
manufacture, and use of products so as to ,
reduce the quantity and toxicity of waste
produced when the products reach the end of
their useful lives." Source reduction is not a
waste management tool, although it can have a
positive impact on waste management systems.
It involves considering the ultimate destiny of
products when making decisions on how the
products are made and which products or
materials are used.
Source reduction may occur through the design,
manufacture, and packaging of products with
minimum toxic content, minimum volume of
material, and/or a longer useful life. Source
reduction may also be practiced at the
corporate or household level through selective
buying patterns and reuse of products and
materials.
Implementing a source reduction program
involves changes in the way products are made
and used. It is an ethic that is applied
throughout a product's life cycle (design,
manufacture, sale, purchase, and use). It is a
non-traditional approach to the municipal solid
waste management dilemma in that it addresses
the waste problem prior to generation.
Historically, waste management has been an
"end-of-pipe" (after the product becomes waste)
activity.
Source reduction as waste reduction is not
currently a widely applied concept, so it is
difficult to estimate the actual impact that
source reduction programs have had (or will
have) on the waste stream. Although the exact
benefits of source reduction are difficult to
quantify, the benefits are conceptually clear.
For example, through the implementation of
source reduction activities, landfill capacity and
51
-------
Chapter Five
natural resources are conserved, less energy is
used during product manufacture, and air,
water, and land pollution are reduced.
SOURCE REDUCTION
PROGRAMS
Source reduction activities fall into some basic
categories. Examples are provided here to
clarify the categories.
Product reuse
An example of product reuse is the reusable
shopping bag. Rather than taking a bag from
the store after each trip, a reusable bag could
be used several times. Using reusable products
instead of their disposable equivalents reduces
the amount of materials that must be managed
as waste.
Seduced material volume
Larger food containers can reduce the amount
of packaging used (provided the larger size does
not lead to food spoilage). For example, a
single 16-ounce can uses 68 grams of metal, or
40 percent less than the 95.4 grams used in two
8-ounce cans (Keep America Beautiful, Inc.
1989). Lighter aluminum cans and glass, buying
in bulk, and using concentrates are other
examples.
Reduced tcadcity
In an effort to reduce adverse environmental
impacts from recycling and other waste
management alternatives, source reduction
programs encourage reducing the amount of
toxic constituents in products entering the waste
stream. Less problematic substitutes for the
toxic constituents need to be developed and
used. For example, substitution for lead and
cadmium in inks and paints is a source
reduction activity.
Increased product lifetime
Products with longer lifetimes can be used over
short-lived alternatives that are designed to be
discarded at the end of their useful lives.
Technical gains, as hi the manufacture of longer
lasting tires, is a good example of where this
has been successfully applied. Source reduction
policies also encourage a design that allows for
repairs and continued use rather than disposal.
Decreased consumption
Consumers can be educated on what materials
are difficult to dispose of or are harmful to the
environment. Buying practices can be altered
(e.g., buying in bulk) to reflect this
environmental consciousness. Retail purchasers
should also be given the opportunity to alter
buying practices with respect to source
reduction.
-^VOLj/VV :^j'^'&y-
OH
' "V^ * 1;, J; " % » ,, ^^ t'^'-
Source re
-------
Source Reduction
Citizen-Based Activities
to Encourage Source Reduction
Everyday activities <5an encourage source
reductipn and citizens can Ije taught to become
"environmental poppers/ Consumer activities
that encourage 'source reduction can include:
» Buying in bulk;
» Avowing disposable items such as razors
and batteries when reusable alternatives are
,
Jtewslsg eoattnoa products, such, as jjfestte
,
88 fctads
-------
Chapter Five
Examples of financial incentives and
disincentives include:
Tax Credits/Exemptions. These may be given to
companies and institutions that follow specific
source reduction procedures for manufacturing
or consuming.
Variable Waste Disposal Charges for Garbage
Collection. A number of localities have
instituted variable waste disposal charges (also
known as per-container rates, local user fees,
and volume-based pricing). These charges are
variable fees, rather than a flat fee, for
collection or disposal of post-consumer solid
wastes. The fee can be based on the number of
garbage cans used, the number of bags
collected, or the frequency of collection. This is
the same type of charge system that is used for
other utilities, such as water and electricity.
With this system, disposers are directly affected
by disposal costs and have the opportunity to
do something about reducing costs.
Product Disposal Charges. These charges are
either assessed on product or packaging
producers at the time of manufacture, or on the
consumer at the time of purchase. These
charges differ from deposits, because they are
non-refundable; instead the cost of the product's
eventual disposal is incorporated into the
charge. Although these charges can encourage
source reduction on economic grounds and the
funds generated from the charges can be used
to correct and reduce impacts of product
disposal, it is difficult to assess such charges
effectively and efficiently. Different product
disposal charges include:
• Per-Unit Taxes establish different rates
according to category, material composition,
or product size. Taxes on products that use
excessive packaging are an example. These
taxes affect manufacturer and consumer
behavior by influencing choices of packaging
materials produced, utilized, and purchased.
• A Product Value Tax, based on the cost of
the product, encourages both reduction in
materials used to manufacture products and
their substitution by less expensive
materials. It can also discourage expensive,
excessive packaging used solely for
marketing (e.g., packaging for cosmetics and
toiletries).
Regulation
Although most regulation occurs at the state
and federal level, local authorities can
participate in legislative activities, including:
• Declaring source reduction to be a top
priority in solid waste management.
• Establishing a program to inform consumers
about a product's environmental impacts,
durability, reusability, and recyclability.
• Participating in the development of
regulations that affect municipal solid waste
management.
Regulatory options for source control include:
Quantify Control Regulations. These include
restrictions and bans to encourage substitution
of products that have the same function, but
that pose less threat to human health and the
environment. This is an area that must be
considered cautiously; bans can unintentionally
shift production to even less desirable
substitutes; they might also require
manufacturers and regulators to commit
extensive resources to changing a product or to
administration and enforcement, with limited
effect on source reduction. The idea is for
environmental results, not just transferring a
problem between environmental media or taking
action to satisfy a perception rather than a fact.
Product Design Regulations. Products that do
not meet certain design criteria (some examples
of which are outlined in Figure 5.1) could be
subject to quality control by sales taxes or
restrictions.
Evaluating Source Reduction Options
Before source reduction policies can be
adopted, decision makers must first develop a
framework for evaluating policy options, using
criteria such as:
• Social and economic equity;
• Economic and administrative feasibility,
efficiency, and cost;
54
-------
Source Reduction
, „
Designing Products for
Source Reduction
aa4 y*ans«me$ to tomase the life
fesauet Ttestepi caangmg design to limit
hazardous constittteats and products in
c o£ Environmental Impact:
Requiting industry to provide consumers with
information on the environinental impact Of
products; and
.. Pnrchasing Requirements for Government
Agencies: Mandating source reduction
I>r0ettrea»en|; poeeduses to setvfc ss a good
• Volume requirement and scarcity of ,
materials and natural resources used in a
product's manufacture;
• Volume of a product and its manufacturing
by-products that eventually must be
disposed;
• Useful life, reusability, or readability, of .
the product; and
• Priority of source reduction of products,
from products more hazardous to those less
hazardous to human health and the
environment.
Economic and Environmental Effects
of Source Reduction
Source reduction activities vary widely, and thus
create many factors to consider when evaluating
economic and environmental effects. .Some
factors require careful analysis, while others may
only need a good dose of common sense. ,
Source reduction practices can save disposal
costs, as a smaller waste stream means there is
less waste to transport and manage. Reduction
of the waste stream may reduce the less
quantifiable costs of pollution (e.g., less landfill
Procurement Procedures to
Encourage Source Red uction
,-• ••
Local governments and businesses can have a
positive impact on the local waste stream, by
adopting procurement procedures that
encourage source reduction. Some examples
'include:
•*' ' ,' " ,
« Using: two-sided copiers;.
» Using toager-life tires on vehicles;
s
Buying
leachate, less ash to dispose of, fewer ecological
impacts, fewer aesthetic problems, etc.).
Before source reduction programs are ;
implemented, the decision maker should
research the potential environmental impacts of
the program to ensure that source reduction
measures address, the environmental problem at
hand and do not have side effects more harmful
than the current practice. The program,should ,
not simply transfer an environmental problem
from one medium to another. The decision
maker will also want to evaluate how a source
reduction program will affect the economics of ,
the local waste management system, mainly
because some programs may involve new costs
to local industry, businesses, and residents.
OVERCOMING OBSTACLES TO
SOURCE REDUCTION
Source reduction programs have been difficult
to establish for a variety of reasons, some of
which are listed here. Decision makers should
not be intimidated by this list. Creativity and
commitment at local, state, and national levels
will produce positive results. ,
» Current social and cultural values seem to
favor convenience, time savings, and newness
in consumer products. However, the
'development of a new environmental ethic,
which is already taking place, can displace
these old values.
55
-------
Chapter Five
A change in attitude and behavior is
required to reduce waste before it is
produced. Many source reduction activities,
such as buying reusable goods or goods in
bulk, require both a conscious decision to
reduce waste and a pre-purchase
comparison of the waste implications of
each product considered. An
environmentally conscious public will
assume these tasks if offered opportunities
to do so.
Measuring source reduction effects is
extremely difficult; without short-term
evidence of the benefits of source reduction,
gaining government and public support and
funding is often difficult. As the costs of
municipal solid waste management continue
to rise, however, local governments will be
forced into investigating alternative
approaches to waste management.
• For industry, there may be high initial costs
for planning and capital investments to
minimize raw material and energy use in
order to achieve source reduction goals. The
implementation of a national source
reduction program, however, will require the
commitment of industry, which will involve
considering disposal costs.
» For a number of reasons (e.g., less
disruptive of manufacturing process),
industries tend to concentrate on treatment
technologies in response to pollution
abatement regulations rather than to work
on source reduction. As the environmental
and economic benefits of source reduction
become more quantifiable, however, this
trend may be changed.
The United States will witness more source
reduction activity in the next few years and into
the future. Local decision makers can
participate in these activities while developing
positive impacts on the local waste management
system.
-------
Source Reduction
Chapter Five Bibliography
CONEG, Interim Report of the Source Reduction Task Force, Council of Northeastern Governors, 400
North Capitol NW, Suite 382, Washington, D.C. 20001, Tel: (202) 783-6674, April 1989.
CONEG, Final Report of the Source Reduction Task Force, Council of Northeastern Governors, 400
North Capitol NW, Suite 382, Washington, D.C. 20001, Tel: (202) 783-6674, 1989.
EPA, The Solid Waste Dilemma: An Agenda For Action, Final Report of the Municipal Solid Waste
Task Force, Office of Solid Waste, U.S. EPA, Washington, D.C, February 1989. Available through
the RCRA Hotline: 1-800-424-9346.
EPA, First Report to Congress: Resource Recovery and Source Reduction, Office of Solid Waste
Management Programs, Washington, D.C., 1974.
Hurst, Karen, Paul Relis, and Joan Melcher, The Next Frontier: Solid Waste Source Reduction,
Community Environmental Council, 930 Miramonte Drive, Santa Barbara, CA 93109, Tel: (805)
963-0583, October 1988.
Keep America Beautiful, Inc., Overview: Solid Waste Disposal Alternatives, KAB, Inc., Mill River Plaza,
9 West Broad Street, Stamford, CT 06902. Tel: (203) 323-8987, April 1989.
Lauer, Pam Winthrop, State Solid.Waste Policy Report, A Focus on Greater Minnesota - Background
Paper X: Waste Reduction (Draft), Minnesota Pollution Control Agency, Office of Waste
Management Grants and Assistance, 1350 Energy Lane, Suite 201, St. Paul, MN 55108. Tel: (612)
649-57437(800) 652-9747, December 1988.
OSCAR, Source Reduction Task Force Report, Ocean State Cleanup and Recycling, Rhode Island
Department of Environmental Management, 9 Hayes St., Providence, RI 02908. Tel: (401) 277-3434,
November 1987.
Zimmerman, Elliot, Solid Waste Management Alternatives: Review of Policy Options to Encourage Waste
Reduction, Illinois Department of Energy and Natural Resources, Available at Illinois Depository
Libraries or through the National Technical Information Service, Springfield, VA 22161, Tel: (703)
487-4650, February 1988.
57
-------
Chapter Five
58
-------
Recycling
Chapter Six
Recycling
MAJOR MESSAGES
''-' ••• understanding materials markets,,
"\ |»ulldllag local expertise, setting
rustic goals, and fostering public
0 '2 participation,
'/,<-' L, \£,, ' -'-' ""-
» Elements of ^ recycling program
£^«o»Id iiflode scpep sepratioa>
V^C&riteMti collection, materials
facilities, awd Sail
'
,„ .. .,,, v ^,
Reeling >vllt have a positive ioipad
oil other municipal waste
"
Although it is not a new technique, recycling is
becoming increasingly important in municipal
solid waste management, as communities,
businesses, and industry battle the rising costs
and environmental impacts of waste disposal.
Recycling is more than the separation and
collection of post-consumer materials. These
are only the first steps; post-consumer materials
must also be reprocessed or remanufactured,
and only when the materials are reused is the
recycling loop complete.
Recycling will be a fundamental part of any
integrated waste management plan. Recycling
alone cannot solve a community's municipal
solid waste management problem, but it can
divert a significant portion of the waste stream
from disposal in landfills or combustion
facilities. EPA has set a national goal of 25
percent reduction of the waste stream through
source reduction and recycling by 1992 (EPA,
Agenda for Action). Currently, only 10 percent
of products discarded are recycled, so significant
progress needs to be made. Some existing
programs, however, have already achieved or, in
fact, exceeded this 25 percent goal. As new
post-consumer materials markets, programs, and
processing equipment develop, the nation will
move towards this and higher goals.
PLANNING FOR RECYCLING
Dozens of different recycling options are
available, and recycling program development
will require strategic planning. When properly
implemented, a recycling program can become a
popular municipal waste management activity
among citizens.
Start Small and Build Local
Expertise
For many decision makers, recycling is a new
waste management option and, as with any new
59
-------
Giapter Six
program, mistakes are bound to be made. An
important factor to understand during the
planning process is that many of the most
successful recycling programs across the country
began as small or even pilot-scale programs in
neighborhoods or specific areas of the ,
community. By starting small, decision makers
can build local expertise in recycling while
minimizing the problems caused by planning
mistakes. With small-scale programs, decision
makers are able to compare and evaluate which
programs and techniques are most successful
within the community. When the time comes
to develop large-scale programs, decision makers ,
will have practical experience and an established
decision-making framework which will enhance
the likelihood of program success.
Understand and Develop Recycling
Markets
One of the most difficult yet fundamentally
important tasks decision makers must deal with
is finding an outlet for the recyclable materials
collected. Identifying markets, securing
agreements with materials brokers and end-
users, and meeting buyer specifications are all
part of this task. Recycling programs must be
designed with the flexibility to handle
fluctuating markets and uncertain outlets for
materials. Consequently, market analysis will be
both a planning and ongoing activity, as even
the most successful recycling programs can be
severely affected by market oscillations.
Decision makers can also play an important
role in recycling by working to build local
markets for recyclables in the community. This
can be done by encouraging businesses and
industries that use recycled materials to come to
your community or by expanding the local use
of recyclables that is already taking place.
These businesses will provide a reliable market
for recyclables and increase jobs.
Foster Public Education and
Involvement
Public participation in recycling programs is one
of the most important factors deciding a
program's success. A well-planned public
education and involvement program will foster
participation in recycling. See Chapter Eleven
for more information.
Assess the Local Waste Stream
Planning any waste management program
requires a knowledge of the local waste stream.
This is true of recycling. Choosing which
materials to recycle and designing the logistics
of the program are important parts of the
planning process that require local waste stream
information. Waste stream assessments in
support of recycling programs can be targeted
by analyzing post-consumer materials markets to
determine which materials have potential
outlets.
Augment Existing Programs
Many recycling programs have been operated
for years by private entities such as
manufacturing facilities, waste haulers, scrap
dealers, transfer station operators, and landfill
operators. In most cases, these groups
recognized the revenues that could be generated
by selling secondary materials. Other programs
are run by local volunteer organizations as a
community service and to raise funds. These
programs are important planning considerations;
the community's recycling program should
augment the success that has been attained by
these other groups.
Local Government as an Advocate
Decision makers must play an advocacy role in
promoting recycling. In many communities,
recycling represents a new waste management
option that is unfamiliar to many people.
Recycling, however, can be a popular activity.
Decision makers should tap into the desire
among citizens and businesses to "do the right
thing," should design programs that make it
easy to recycle, and then should aggressively
promote plans and programs to all members of
the community.
Set Realistic Goals and Objectives
Part of the planning process involves setting
goals and objectives. For example, after
evaluating remaining landfill capacity and
performing a preliminary assessment of the local
waste stream, decision makers may find it
helpful to set long-term goals for the
community. For example, a community may set
a goal of recycling 30 percent of the residential
60
-------
Recycling
waste stream within the next five years.
Specific planning objectives in support of this
goal will also be helpful. Planning objectives
may include determining which waste stream
components should be part of the program
(based on market analysis and the make up of
the local waste stream), investigating the
feasibility of a comprehensive curbside
collection program, developing a pilot-scale
curbside program, investigating public outreach
avenues, etc. When a plan is decided and a
program is being implemented, new, more
specific objectives should be set. An example
could be working towards 90 percent
participation.
Decision makers should be as realistic as
possible when setting goals and objectives.
Recycling is not a "miracle solution" any more
than waste-to-energy or landfilling. The
community will benefit from carefully developed,
achievable goals and objectives and an
integrated approach to waste management.
Program Evaluation
Planning for recycling is never actually
completed; it is an ongoing process. Because
new programs and technologies are developing
continuously, decision makers should experiment
with and evaluate new options. Even the best
recycling programs experiment with new
techniques to improve on their current efforts.
RECYCLING PROGRAM
MANAGEMENT
Several aspects of recycling program
management should be rally understood during
the planning process.
Municipal Coordination
As discussed in Chapter One, it is important
that decision makers assume the responsibility
for managing the local waste stream. Again,
this is not to say that the local government
must provide all services; its role is to assure
that all services are provided properly.
Many communities choose to operate recycling
systems as another public service. For example,
programs are operated in conjunction with the
regular refuse collection system, including
financing programs
and raising revenues.
An advantage of
municipally-operated
systems is that the
benefits of recycling
(e.g., revenues from
the sale of materials)
are internalized
within the waste
management system.
Municipal
Corporations or
Utilities
„ Fablie Service
<• fir '"
" "*#• * ., r
A recycling program
should be seen as a
jniblic service, and
customer service should
be a normal evaluation
*
* ,
*
'•'••• ,
Efficient*
aad
An alternative to
direct local government operation is the
creation of a municipal corporation to operate
the recycling center or program. This allows
financing from the tax base while separating
recycling from normal municipal functions. In
such a system, the recycling program has
independent budgeting and money-raising
powers.
Regional Approaches
Regional approaches to recycling program
development are particularly important in areas
with sparse populations. Regional systems
allow collected materials to be pooled, creating
a larger, more marketable supply for buyers. In
addition, large scale options such as materials
recovery facilities (MRFs, explained later in this
chapter) may be more economical at the
regional level, where economies of scale can be
significant. Economies of scale may also be
realized when purchasing collection vehicles and
equipment and financing programs.
Private Recycling Programs
Until recently, the majority of recycling was
done through private entities such as industry,
waste management firms, and non-profit
organizations. For example, the aluminum
industry recognized the benefit of recovering
post-consumer aluminum, and set up a network
of aluminum collection and processing centers.
Similarly, many transfer station operators
recognized that particular waste loads contain
large amounts of recyclable materials. By
-------
Chapter Six
separating and selling these materials, transfer
station operators generate income from the sale
of goods while also creating an avoided disposal
cost savings.
In addition to these larger-scale operations,
most communities are familiar with the
recycling drives of volunteer organizations,
which are often run as fundraising or public
service activities. Newspaper collection and
aluminum can programs associated with
elementary schools or scouting groups are
examples. These programs are often operated
in conjunction with the local government, which
may supply buildings, equipment, and staff.
In many cases, private recycling programs are
well-organized and have a history of successful
operation. A municipally-run recycling program
should augment the success of existing private
programs. Decision makers may find it
beneficial to tap into this experienced recycling
network.
When planning a municipal recycling program
in conjunction with existing private operations,
decision makers should be aware that most
private programs tend to focus on the high-
revenue, steady market materials such as
aluminum and glass. Because recycling is
essentially a money-making operation in many
of these cases, low-value materials (such as
mixed paper and mixed plastics) are usually
avoided. This is an important consideration
when determining the economic feasibility of
the local program.
COMMONLY RECYCLED
MATERIALS
This section briefly addresses some commonly
recycled materials and their markets.
Paper
Waste paper recycling has several advantages: it
provides mills with a valuable fiber source, it
provides income to recyclers, and it reduces
municipal disposal costs. According to the
American Paper Institute, in 1986, 200 of the
nation's 600 pulp, paper, paperboard, and
building products mills relied almost exclusively
on waste paper for raw material, and another
300 used at least some waste paper in their
operations (API, 1986; note: a large amount of
this waste paper used was industrial scrap rather
than post-consumer paper). As more recycling
programs come on line and the supply of scrap
paper increases, the paper industry is expected
to respond by developing more facilities that
handle secondary fiber. The following
discussion looks more specifically at the issues
associated with recycling paper, including
market status and program considerations.
Old Newspaper (ONP). Most recycling programs
have provisions for the collection of old
newspaper, which is not only one of the most
prevalent materials in the municipal solid waste
stream, it has historically been one of the most
commonly recycled materials. Many volunteer
and private programs started as single material
programs, collecting only newspapers for resale.
It should be noted that old newspaper and
mixed paper markets can fluctuate greatly, and
that the market is currently down in parts of
the country (summer 1989). One of the main
reasons for this down market is that waste
paper recovery has exceeded domestic mill
capacity. This is especially true as more states
pass mandatory recycling laws. With the
domestic oversupply, many ONP brokers have
turned to foreign markets, especially in Pacific
Rim countries such as Korea. Although the
demand is currently stronger in these countries,
many foreign brokers are also holding out
because of oversupply. Foreign markets can .
also present significant transport costs.
Corrugated Cardboard. According to the
American Paper Institute, corrugated cardboard
is the largest single source of waste paper for
recycling (API, 1985). Many commercial
generators, such as supermarkets and retail
stores, have in-house balers for preparing
corrugated for mills. Markets for good quality,
baled cardboard have historically been steady.
High-Grade Paper. High-grade papers include
computer paper, white ledger paper, key punch
cards, and trim cuttings from industrial paper
manufacturers. The market for this material
has historically remained steady, as good quality
product (e.g., few colored paper mixtures,
binders, plastics, etc.) can be used as a direct
substitute for wood pulp.
62
-------
Recycling
Mixed Paper. Mixed paper is usually collected
from office buildings and industrial plants, but
can also be collected in municipal programs.
Segregation is a key to successful paper
recycling programs. Mixed paper often contains
significant quantities of high quality paper,
which can be valuable if separated. Also,
"contaminant" materials, such as rubber bands,
inks, and coatings decrease mixed paper value,
as they must be removed during intermediate
processing.
Like the newspaper market, the mixed paper
market is currently soft, and the revenues may
not outweigh the cost to collect, process, and
transport mixed paper. However, this does not
consider the benefit of avoided disposal costs.
Baled Corrugated Cardboard, Portland, Oregon
Aluminum
42.5 billion of the 77.9 billion aluminum cans
produced in 1988 were recycled (Salimando,
1989). The demand for recycled aluminum is
high, as it is estimated that it takes 95 percent
less energy to produce an aluminum can from
an existing can than from ore (Keep American
Beautiful, Inc., 1989). Consequently, aluminum
is a high-value product that is the greatest
revenue generator of many recycling programs.
In addition to aluminum cans, window frames,
storm doors, siding, and gutters are all sources
of jrecyclable aluminum. Because these material
are of different grades, recycling programs
should check with the buyer to determine
specific separation requirements.
Glass
Glass is also one of the most commonly
recycled materials and the market for post-
consumer glass has historically been steady.
Glass if often separated by color to be
reprocessed, and three categories are used:
clear, green, and brown. Separation can take
place in the household, at the drop-off center,
or by hand-pickers or optical separators at
materials recovery facilities. After collection (or
drop-off) and separation, glass recycling involves
crushing used bottles and jars into small pieces,
forming a material called cullet that is sold to
end-users who mix the cullet with sand, soda
ash, and limestone to form new glass containers.
Glass crushing can take place at recycling
centers, intermediate processing centers, or
material recovery facilities. Most glass brokers
require that the glass be clean and free of
contaminants such as metal caps, ceramics,
rocks, and dirt.
Ferrous Metals (Iron and Steel)
According to the Steel Can Recycling Institute,
steel is the number-one recycled material in the
world, as over 55 million tons of iron and steel
were recycled hi the U.S. and Canada alone in
1987 (Steel Can Recycling Institute). The
largest amount of recycled steel has traditionally
come from large items such as cars and
appliances. Many communities have large scrap
metal piles at the local landfill or transfer
station. In many cases, the piles are
unorganized and different metals are mixed
together, making them unattractive to scrap
metal buyers. Recycling programs will benefit
from procedures keeping scrap metal piles
orderly and free of contaminants.
Steel can recycling is also becoming more
popular. Steel cans are used as juice and food
containers, and are easily separated from mixed
recyclables or municipal solid waste using large
magnets (which also separate other ferrous
metals).
63
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Chapter Six
The overall market for ferrous metals is well
established, and the demand for scrap metal is
expected to remain steady or increase as
processing technologies develop.
Plastics
Plastics recycling is a relatively young industry,
and only one percent of plastics are currently
recycled. But as processing technologies are
developed, plastics recycling is expected to
expand. The availability of materials has
spawned the search for new processing
techniques and product uses, and new markets
are expected to develop in the near future.
Although plastics recycling is not an established
money-maker in many areas, the plastics
recycling industry is in a stage of rapid growth.
materials, .Because^ t&e 4sag£ ^%
tend e as ",-•-•' ., f •• _. r
Because piastres recycling is Such, 4
field,, tfee recycling loop is not yet
coaiplete itt many parts of the country
-- Significant progress must Stjli
in the €DflecJc% separate,
'ttocessing'of piasitesL ,,'
-*"*-"' »* *. .-'.-
Batteries
Battery recycling is not only a response to
market conditions (i.e., the price of lead), it is
also attractive due to concern over the toxic
components found in many batteries, including
lead, cadmium, and mercury. These metals are
contaminants in incinerator air emissions and
ash, and can cause ground water contamination
through leaching at landfills and composting
facilities. Pressure to remove them from the
waste stream is becoming more intense.
Collection of batteries, however, does not
constitute recycling ~ it is only the first step.
Like other materials, battery recycling depends
largely on market conditions, and requires
consistent collection and processing. It can be
argued, however, that even when markets are
down, batteries should be separated and
collected, because disposal as hazardous waste is
more environmentally sound than landfilling as
municipal solid waste.
Lead-Acid, Batteries. Automobiles use lead-acid
batteries, each of which contain approximately
18 pounds of lead and a gallon of sulfuric acid,
both hazardous materials. Automotive batteries
-------
Recycling
are the largest source of lead in the municipal
solid waste stream. Battery reprocessing
involves breaking open the batteries,
neutralizing the acid, chipping the
polypropylene containers for recycling, and
smelting the lead and lead oxides, to produce
reusable lead. Recycled lead must compete
with virgin lead suppliers and markets, which
can fluctuate greatly. When virgin lead prices
are low, less recycling takes place. Another
consideration in lead-acid battery recycling is
potential liability associated with the storage
and processing of hazardous materials.
Household batteries. Household batteries come
in a variety of types, including: alkaline, carbon
zinc, mercury, silver, zinc, and nickel cadmium.
Not all household batteries are recyclable and,.
in fact, only those containing mercury and silver
are usually marketed to end users who extract
the metals. Most batteries are handled as
hazardous wastes once they are segregated from
the waste stream. The metals found in
household batteries can contaminate incinerator
air emissions and ash and cause ground water
contamination through leachate, so removal
from the waste stream is environmentally sound,
regardless of the market value.
Used oil and tires are also recyclable
materials. These are discussed in more
detail in the Special Wastes chapter of
this Guide (Chapter Ten).
RECYCLING PROGRAM
ELEMENTS
Recycling programs are designed according to
the needs and priorities of communities. They
may include a mix of strategies, ranging from
simple, single material drop-off centers to large-
scale, centralized processing facilities.
Source Separation
Source separation refers to the segregation of
recyclable materials at the point of generation
(e.g., the household, business, or apartment
building). Some source separation programs
require that several designated materials (e.g.,
Recycling Program Options
that Increase Participation
The following program, options .have been shown
to increase participation In recycling:
» Jdandatory participation
* CurbsMe collection (rather than.
» Provision of special containers
comprenfcfls&fe aa
-------
Chapter Six
collection centers, which can be moved to new
locations periodically, also increase convenience.
Other incentives, such as donating portions of
proceeds to a local charity, can also foster
greater participation.
Buy-back refers to a drop-off program that
provides a monetary incentive to participate. In
this type of program, the residents are paid for
their recyclables either directly (e.g., price per
pound) or indirectly through a reduction in
monthly collection and disposal fees. Other
incentive systems include contests or lotteries.
"Igloo" Drop-Off Containers, San Jose, California
Cnrbside Programs
In a curbside system, source separated
recyclables are collected separately from regular
refuse at the curbside, alley, or commercial
facility. Because residents and businesses do
not have to transport the recyclables any further
than the curb, participation in curbside
programs is typically much higher than for
drop-off programs.
Curbside programs vary greatly from community
to community. Some programs require
residents to separate several different materials
(e.g., glass, plastic, metals, and newspaper) that
are stored in their own containers and collected
separately. Other programs use only one
container to store commingled recyclables or
two containers, one for paper and the other for
"heavy" recyclables, such as glass, aluminum, etc.
Commingled recyclables are separated by the
collection crew or at some type of processing
center. Collection and processing of recyclables
are discussed later in this chapter.
Bay vs. Different Day
Collection of BecyelaWes
Stadia* have shown that when the '
icdftection of recyclables is on. the
same «lav «s" sepia* garbage
sotlectlcai, particijs&iDtt rates ate
laghfiif, fceca:«$e residents da not have
to leans new
Commercial Recycling
Many communities and businesses are just
beginning to realize the benefits of commercial
recycling, while others have been enjoying the
benefits of recycling such items as corrugated
cardboard and office paper for years.
Commercial recycling is responsible waste
management, not necessarily a profit-making
venture. Businesses do, however, realize
avoided disposal costs, a benefit that is
becoming more significant as the costs of waste
management rise.
Materials recovered in commercial recycling
programs include office paper, corrugated
cardboard, sorted ledger paper, newspaper,
aluminum cans, glass, steel containers, and
plastic. Commercial recycling programs can
target office buildings, restaurants, schools,
supermarkets, and hospitals.
Community decision makers should encourage
commercial recycling aggressively, especially if
commercial sources contribute significantly to
the local waste stream. Figure 6.1 outlines the
basic elements of a commercial recycling
program.
Multi-Family Dwellings
Apartment buildings and condominium
complexes generate large amounts of recyclable
materials. Because of the large quantity of
66
-------
Recycling
Recycling at
Commercial Facilities
Qbtak approval aotf support for tie
reeycttog program feota tie «hk£
, owner, or business j
' select A
•. '
<3}
Deteewiae the pes aad
-------
Chapter Six
possible. Also, collection crews should be
trained in proper handling.
Storage in the Household
How residents store recyclables in the
household and at the curb has a direct impact
on the success of a recycling program. In the
past, storage was primarily the responsibility of
each residence. But in an effort to increase
convenience (and encourage participation), most
successful recycling programs have turned to
providing households with special, standardized
containers for storing materials. This has
directly increased participation .rates.
Providing containers allows residents to feel
that they are "getting something back" from the
municipal government (or private recycling
firm), which can foster positive attitudes toward
program organizers. In addition, the containers
serve as a constant reminder to recycle.
Some dedicated recycling vehicles have
automatic container-tipping devices. With such
systems, compatible containers are usually
required. In this case, providing residents with
the appropriate containers standardizes the
collection system.
Household Storage Containers
containers and special
recycling markets' serve" several
importantfiirtctions: ""' --'>
f • '«' ..« if •••.
Providing a handy my' f
als until collected; '
' " -
, .ff
„ - s , • "•* >.V""'< >£&*M
Serving as a constant reminde* ia
r0le$ jjom garbage.
-. ^ •. % ssf lV
\- * - ^ &<*9\f -,.,?/""
A wide variety of special recycling containers
are available. Some common options include:
• Baskets,
• Sacks,
• Buckets or boxes, and
• Stacking pan carts.
Studies show that the use of a single (i.e.,
commingled recyclables) special container
significantly increases participation.
Recycling Collection Vehicles
The dramatic increase in the number of
comprehensive curbside recycling programs that
has been witnessed in the last few years has
brought with it a new generation of collection
Vehicles designed specifically for collecting
recyclables. These vehicles have several storage
bins, are easily loaded, and are often equipped
with automatic container-tipping devices.
Before this line of vehicles became available,
recycling programs usually relied on modified or
additional collection vehicles. These included
racks attached to compactor trucks, trailers, and
perhaps the use of pick up trucks or dump
trucks.
Although these modified vehicles may still be
considered options, a dedicated, closed-body
recycling collection vehicle with sufficient
capacity offers significant advantages that can
warrant the initial investment:
• Easy loading and unloading;
• Flexible compartments; and
• Protection from weather.
Vehicles designed specifically for the collection
of recyclables come in a variety of shapes and
sizes. Both side-loading and rear-loading closed
body trucks are used, as are compartmentalized
trailers and flat-bed trucks.
Decision makers are encouraged to refer to
current trade journals (e.g., Waste Age, Resource
Recycling, Recycling Today), which publish
equipment guides regularly. Volume II of this
Decision Maker's Guide addresses collection
vehicles and equipment in more detail.
-------
Recycling
Processing Equipment
'
a vafietp&f processing
, some of tsMcb. te^uiie spedal
'•• Balers. Newspapers, cardboard, ami plastics
are often baled to achieve larger transport
payktads, reducing transportation costs.
. + Camfensifiers. Can crushers are used to
density aluminum and: steel cans prior to
transport.
feactfott separated ty cofor* wishes tweak
glass JMto small pieces- Tbe materM is then
called wdtefcawl wa te HJjprocess^ tato aew
Maifttetic SetMrators. TSese die used to
'KdddON* fisBKnw metals ftsoat a awttume o£
materials.
'/''
Wood grinders. Wood grinders am chippers
used to shred large pieces of wood (e.g.,
pallets^ branches) into chips that can be used
as mulch or as fuel (see "Wood Wastes* in
Chapter 1% ', '
sold.
Most B»4e joaonato publfetx eq«J|roeat go}
-------
Chapter Six
transportation costs. Again, the avoided cost of
landfilling must be taken into account when
evaluating the integrated waste management
system.
Capital Costs
Existing MRFs have had total capital costs of
$10,000 to $22,000 per daily ton of input
(Chertow, 1989). A 100 tpd facility, therefore,
would have capital costs ranging from $1 to
$2.2 million. Capital costs for equipment alone
can range from $4,000 to $8,000 per design ton.
Operating Costs
Primary operating costs include labor,
equipment operation and maintenance, and the
cost of disposing residuals (approximately 25
percent of the incoming material at a MRF will
eventually be disposed of as residual).
Operating costs will vary from facility to facility,
but have been estimated to range from $20 to
$60 per incoming ton, prior to the sale of
materials and capital cost considerations
(Chertow, 1989).
Transfer Station
Recycling Programs
Owe oJ the simplest ty$m of recycling
programs involves designating areas
w «0)dtai»,ers at transfer stations "",
where recyclable materials can be
dropped off. Methods range from
using several dedicated bins to
constructing simple concrete slabs
where material)* a«* piled, These
separated materials are taken directly
to prwessiag tociltttes,
.• -• ^ "" •" "*
At ttttstajHted faculties, product qwafify
jnay be difficuSlt to control. Materials
specifications must be made dear to
the participants,
Drop-Off Containers at Wellesley, Massachusetts Transfer Station ,
70
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Recycling
FULL STREAM PROCESSING
Pull stream processing technologies have
developed largely in Europe and are just
beginning to be used more frequently in the
United States. Initially developed to prepare
refuse-derived fuel, these technologies are now
also considered materials recovery operations.
Unlike MRFs, which accept mixed recyclables,
full stream processing units accept mixed
municipal solid waste (i.e., the full waste
stream).
These systems produce a combustible fraction, a
compostable fraction, recovered materials, and
residuals. In general, the materials recovered
from this process are of lower quality than the
materials that are source separated or separated
at MRFs, mainly because they have been mixed
with other types of refuse. To achieve higher
quality, materials must be cleaned, which can be
costly. As full steam processing technologies
develop, however, product quality of recovered
materials is expected to increase.
Wi Stream Processing
' '/• 4- - '
Fvtt stream prvcessifig is a high?
technology j^pat atio» teetasifu* that
processes all components of municipal
stream processing 'dpenrttons are
in several applications:
*&DF preparation^ fall stream
jtfofiessiag is used to extract the
combustible portion of municipal
^ waste Itx the p*#a«Mla» of refuse-
derived fuels.
^ <
- •• ' f ''
•Municipal waste composting, used to
eoi»ce»trate the «ojjijpostaJjle jwwrtl&tt
of municipal solid wastej sometimes
performed as part of RDF ..
preparation.
•Materials nxov&y, certain materials
can be recovered tod resold, making
(his a ri^cifoig technology as
Full stream processing is attractive because no
source separation of materials is required.
Participation could effectively be 100 percent.
Materials are separated at full stream processing
facilities both mechanically and by hand.
Depending on the facility design, different
amounts of hand and mechanical technologies
would be used.
Size and weight are the main characteristics
used to separate materials:
• When the material is first dumped, oversized
materials such as white goods and furniture
are removed;
• Rotating screens called trommels are used to
create two waste fractions: a large-sized
materials fraction that includes combustibles
and metals, and a small-sized materials (e.g.,
pass through three inch screen) fraction,
which is comprised largely of compostable
materials;
• Ferrous metals are extracted from the large
materials fraction using magnet systems;
• Air classification can be used to separate the
lighter materials in the large materials
fraction from the heavies:
• Light materials include plastic and paper,
and can be further processed into RDF;
• The heavy fraction can be mechanically or
hand sorted further to recover salable
materials such as corrugated cardboard; and
• Disposal of residuals is required.
DEVELOPING A RECYCLING
PROGRAM
There is no "boiler plate" methodology for
developing recycling programs. A variety of
different approaches have been used
successfully. Local recycling programs must be
crafted to the needs of the community. The
following discussion highlights some of the
program development issues decision makers
should consider when developing a local
recycling program.
71
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Chapter Six
Materials Markets
Understanding post-consumer materials markets
is one of the most important responsibilities
municipal solid waste decision makers have.
Assess Materials Markets and
Select Materials to be Recycled
A preliminary market analysis will show
decision makers what markets are currently
available or may be available in the future.
National and some regional market information
is available in the trade publications (e.g.,
Recycling Times includes a markets page with
current prices for post-consumer materials).
Decision makers should also directly identify
local, national, and international buyers with
which the community will actually deal. With
this information, materials to be recycled can be
targeted within the local waste stream.
Locating and Choosing a Buyer
Three general "outlets" for secondary materials
exist: brokers (or dealers), end-users, and
internal markets.
Brokers purchase particular materials and sell
them to end-users. Brokers accumulate an
amount of material, guarantee that it meets
certain specifications, and then, provide it to
end-users as a "raw" material feedstock Most
end-users prefer secondary materials obtained
through brokers because a large quantity of
uniform quality product can be guaranteed.
Brokers are reliable buyers, as they often
purchase materials even when the market is
down, stockpiling in anticipation of higher
prices. Many transport materials and also
require little processing (usually, a clean
product is all that is demanded).
End-users are the facilities that actually
reprocess or remanufacture the post-consumer
materials. For example, a paper mill accepting
post-consumer scrap paper is an end-user.
Selling directly to the end-user may result in a
better price, but could also include meeting
more stringent product specifications (e.g., the
waste may have to be baled). Many end-users
also require the supplier (i.e., the recycling
program) to deliver the materials, which adds
transportation costs.
Internal markets such as municipal government
agencies not only provide an outlet for some
materials, they promote a recycling "awareness"
within the government. Examples might include
using tires to build playground equipment or
using newspapers for animal bedding.
Contract vs. Open Market
Secondary materials are usually sold either on
the open or "spot" market or through some type
of contract arrangement. On the open market,
decision makers must locate a buyer each time
enough material has been accumulated to be
sold. By selling materials in this manner, the
community can get the best price for the
materials at the time. When the markets are
down, however, the community may be faced
with low prices or no buyers at all. With a
contract, a deal is made between the community
and a broker or end-user involving the delivery
of a certain amount of material at a certain
price for a specified amount of time. A
contract helps protect the community from
market fluctuations and ensures an outlet for
materials. The agreed price, however, may end
up below the actual market price for the
material.
When possible, many decision makers choose to
develop contracts with buyers, mainly because it
reduces the risk of having no outlet for
materials. Post-consumer materials markets
fluctuate greatly, and many programs are not
equipped to handle flat markets (for example,
material may have to be stored sent to a landfill
if no buyers are available). A contract will
guarantee a buyer for a specific amount of time.
Stockpiling
Because post-consumer materials markets
fluctuate so greatly, recycling programs may be
ti no *wrttet for a»atetfei&
-------
Recycling
Cooperative Marketing: An Option for Small
Communities and Generators
Cooperative marketing involves combining
materials and resources from different groups
into a larger pool that may be more marketable.
Small communities and businesses have
traditionally had little success in establishing
lasting relationships with secondary materials
brokers and end-users, mainly because smaller
communities neither have the resources to
perform market research nor a significant
enough amount of materials to garner the
attention of brokers. Combining materials and
using a cooperative marketing strategy can bring
materials from these communities into the
marketplace.
Cooperative marketing can be developed within
existing management structures. For example, a
county or state government or regional council
of governments may do market research and
make arrangements for the collection and
delivery of recyclables to a broker. Another
option would be for an independent
organization to serve as the link between small
towns and brokers or end-users. An excellent
example of such a group is the New Hampshire
Resource Recovery Association, a non-profit
organization that serves as a link to secondary
materials markets for many of New Hampshire
municipalities.
Aside from regional arrangements, cooperative
marketing can take several other forms,
including:
• Drop-off centers using a centralized
recycling center for marketing;
• Different recycling centers combining
materials; and
• Recycling centers or communities
exchanging marketing ideas and
information.
Local Recycling Legislation and
Guidelines
Several types of legislation and guidelines to
support recycling programs have been enacted
in different locations across the country.
State Incentives
States may provide financial or
technical assisfoaee to local programs
M need of resources Attd stable
markets,'laclyd|rig grant fnoaey for
equipment aM publicity, Stales may
even undertake construction of
*eevclng and/&£ processing facilities,
Technical assistance and support ats "
the State level may include identifying
joeal jtaatiets,. attracting ^end-asea*,
jadastfleslcs the $tat«jTfcr developing'
a statewide marketing cooperative.
The. State may also be a gao$ S&MX& •.
of iitfoiitnation on recycling methods
and.
Mandatory Source Separation
Legally requiring residents and businesses to
separate recyclable materials from their waste
has proven to be an effective way of increasing
public participation in recycling programs.
Mandatory source separation can be enforced in
several ways, including the use of citations,
fines, or refusal to collect unseparated garbage.
Disposal Bans
Disposal bans are applied to certain recyclable
materials. Yard wastes, newspapers, glass
bottles, lead-acid batteries, used oil, and
household hazardous wastes are examples of
materials that are sometimes banned from
landfills or incinerators.
Variable Disposal Rates
Adjusting disposal fees at landfills, composting
facilities, or combustion facilities provides an
economic incentive to recycle. For example,
landfills may charge higher tipping fees for
loads containing large amounts of recyclables.
This would encourage the generator or the
collection firm to keep these materials separate.
Pay-Per-Container Charges
In order to encourage recycling at the
residential level, communities may charge for
73
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Chapter Six
services on a pay-per-container basis. For
example, a flat rate could be charged for the
first two containers, with an extra charge for
each additional container.
Flow Control Ordinances
Flow control ordinances can be designed to
encourage recycling and to ensure a steady flow
of materials to municipal solid waste
combustion facilities. Municipalities can direct
certain materials to recycling or energy recovery
facilities to ensure proper operation.
Anti-Scavenging Ordinances
These ordinances deter individuals from
removing recyclable materials before they are
picked up by the selected hauler, which is
important when haulers, recycling facilities, or
residents depend on recycling revenues to
operate programs.
Public Education and Involvement
The entire recycling program must be designed
to maximize participation. This involves making
participation as convenient as possible for
residents and businesses. An integrated,
comprehensive public outreach program will be
one of the keys to a recycling program's success.
The public must know the importance of
recycling, the nature of the local waste problem,
and how they can get involved.
Procedures for curbside and drop-off programs
will have to be publicized, and participation and
materials recovery rates will have to be
monitored. Chapter Eleven of this Guide
covers public education and involvement in
more detail.
COSTS AND BENEFITS OF
RECYCLING
Costs
The costs of recycling programs vary greatly
because the economics are specific for each «
local area and a wide variety of program
structures are used.
Start up costs are one-time costs to initiate the
program. These include:
• Planning costs for activities such as market
assessments, waste stream assessments, re-
routing collection vehicles, planning any new
facilities, and negotiating contracts;
• Publicity costs to develop, print, and
distribute information (this will also be an
ongoing cost); and
» Capital costs if additional collection and/or
processing equipment is needed.
Operating costs are usually addressed in normal
accounting procedures. These include:
Annual costs for labor;
Equipment operation and maintenance;
Fuel;
Supplies;
Debt service;
Administrative and overhead costs; and
Marketing costs.
Benefits
Economic analysis should also include potential
revenues and benefits of recycling. The most
obvious source of revenues is from the sale of
recovered materials. These revenues are often
less than the costs of operating the program.
Disposal cost savings, which are increasingly
important, are equivalent to how much it would
have cost to dispose of the recyclables at the
local disposal facility. Disposal cost savings may
be calculated by estimating the total tipping fee
avoided through diverting waste from disposal.
In some communities, the funds saved through
avoided costs are returned to the specific
recycling programs. These "refunds" are called
cost-avoidance credits or diversion credits.
Recycling programs can also be a source of
local economic stimulus, especially if there is
growth in local business handling or processing
collected materials.
ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS OF
RECYCLING
Recycling is not a "risk free" option in terms of
environmental impacts. Recycling involves
reprocessing or remanufacturing materials,
which may have environmental impacts.
74
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Recycling
Processing and Remanufacturing Recyclables
Many people do not realize that recycling is not
necessarily environmentally benign. From an
environmental standpoint, the recycling loop is
complete only when proper pollution control
and waste management practices are employed
at remanufacturing facilities. In addition to
proper facility operation, Federal and State
regulations are designed to protect the
environment and public health from potentially
adverse impacts. When these standards of
operation are followed, public health and the
environment are protected.
An example of how recycling carries potential
environmental impacts is the de-inking of waste
paper. Colored inks used in magazines and
color inserts in newspapers may contain
hazardous heavy metals such as lead and
cadmium. After the de-inking process, these
constituents may be found in high
concentrations in de-inking wastewater
treatment sludge. If improperly disposed of,
these metals could eventually leach from the
sludge into ground water. De-inking facilities
must follow all mandated management
procedures to ensure protection of the
environment.
In addition, municipal and commercial
employees engaged in collecting and sorting
recyclables may be subject to repetitive motion
injuries, a phenomenon of growing concern in
the workplace.
Increased Traffic
Collection of recyclables usually involves
additional collection vehicles that could
potentially affect air quality, especially in urban
areas. The proposed Los Angeles recycling
system had to take into consideration the
addition of two collection vehicles to each
route. Since, in Los Angeles, air quality is a
significant consideration, the environmental
impact was assessed during the planning
process. Because the new vehicles would be
automated (requiring less time per stop) and
because not every residence would require pick-
up by all three collection trucks each collection
day, the city concluded that truck congestion
and air pollution would not be significantly
different from the previous system. State-of-
the-art collection vehicles are also more fuel
efficient and may use alternative fuels or have
more elaborate pollution control systems.
Storing and Cleaning Recyclables
Since some recycling centers may handle
hazardous materials (e.g., household hazardous
wastes, batteries, waste oil), there is the
potential for harmful water runoff from
stockpiles. Procedures and facilities should be
designed to minimize this risk. For example,
storing materials in closed containers (or inside)
and moving materials quickly to final processing
centers quickly can minimize this risk. Also,
water used during materials processing must be
disposed of properly.
INTEGRATION WITH OTHER
WASTE MANAGEMENT OPTIONS
Recycling programs vary greatly, as can the
amount of materials removed from the waste
stream. In the more comprehensive recycling
programs, significant quantities of waste can be
diverted from ultimate disposal. Recycling is,
therefore, one of the first options selected by
communities faced with an impending landfill
capacity shortfall.
Recycling impacts on waste-to-energy facilities
can be equally beneficial, despite the historical
tension that exists between the supporters of
the two options. Decision makers should
recognize the benefits associated with combining
recycling with energy recovery. The two
alternatives can, in fact, complement each other:
• Recycling programs can reduce the overall
waste stream, which means a smaller
capacity municipal waste combustion facility.
Capital and operating costs are directly
linked to the capacity of the facility.
• Recycling can have a direct effect on the
environmental impact of municipal waste
combustion (MWC). Air emissions and
MWC ash are the main environmental
concerns at these facilities. Many of these
possible problems can be removed from the
MWC feed stream by recycling programs.
For example, lead is of major concern in air
emissions and ash. Lead in the waste
stream can be found in automotive batteries
75
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Chapter Six
and steel cans and electronics equipment
that use lead solder. By recycling these
non-combustible materials, lead problems
can be reduced.
A more positive public reaction can result
from combining an extensive recycling
program with a municipal waste combustion
facility. New MWC facilities have met
public opposition; decision makers may find
that a facility that is developed after a
recycling plan has been implemented may
be more acceptable to the public.
• Recycling diverts non-combustibles (e.g.,
glass, aluminum, and ferrous metals),
reducing wear and tear on MWC facilities.
Recycling can also have a positive impact on
composting operations. Like combustion
facilities, recycling can remove harmful
constituents (e.g., metals) from the material to
be composted. In fact, many commonly recycled
materials are non-compostable (e.g., glass,
aluminum, ferrous metals), and are actually
contaminants in the compost product.
Chapter Six Bibliography
Recycling (general)
Carlson, R., The Impact of Source Separation Plans on Resource Recovery Facilities Economics, Center
for the Biology of Natural Systems, Queens College of the State University of New York, Flushing,
NY 11367. Tel: (718) 670-4180, October 1985.
Chertow, Marian, Garbage Solutions: A Public Officials Guide to Recycling and Alternative Solid Waste
Management Technologies, National Resource Recovery Association, United States Conference of
Mayors, 1620 Eye Street, N.W., Washington, D.C. 20006. Tel: (202) 293-7330, 1989.
Cointreau, Gunnerson, Huls, and Seldman, Recycling From Municipal Refuse: A State-of-the-Art Review
and Annotated Bibliography, World Bank Publications, P.O. Box 37525, Washington, D.C. 20013,
1985.
Commoner, Barry, et al., Development and Pilot Test of an Intensive Municipal Solid Waste Recycling
System for the Town of East Hampton, Center for the Biology of Natural Systems, Queens College of
the State University of New York, Flushing, NY 11367-0904. Tel: (718) 670-4180, December 1988.
Commoner, Barry, et al., Intensive Recycling Feasibility Study for the City of Buffalo, Center for the
Biology of Natural Systems, Queens College of the University of New York, Flushing, NY
11367-0904, Tel: (718) 670-4180, April 1988.
Engelhardt, Anna L., How to Run a Community Recycling Center: A Resource Guide to
Low-Technology Recycling in Illinois, Illinois Department of Energy and Natural Resources, 325 West
Adams St., Room 300, Springfield, IL 62704-1892. Tel: (217) 785-2800. Doc. # 82/17, August
1982.
Environmental Defense Fund; Nevin Cohen, Michael Herz, John Rustun, Coming Full Circle, Successful
Recycling Today, Environmental Information Exchange, Environmental Defense Fund, Inc., 1616 P
SL NW, Washington D.C, Tel: (202) 387-3500, 1988.
EPA, Recycling Works! State and Local Solutions to Solid Waste Management Problems, Office of Solid
Waste, Washington, D.C, January 1989. Available through RCRA Hotline: 1-800-424-9346.
-
76
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Recycling
EPA, The Solid Waste Dilemma: An Agenda for Action, Office of Solid Waste, Washington, D.C.,
February 1989. Available through RCRA Hotline: 1-800-424-9346.
Glass Packaging Institute, The Complete Guide to Planning, Building and Operating a Multi-Material
Theme Center, Glass Packaging Institute, 1801 K St., N.W., Suite 1105-L, Washington, D.C. 20006.
Tel: (202) 887-4850, 1984.
Hickman, Doug, Designing for Profit in Recycling, RowanTree Enterprises, Box 1613, StoufMlle,
Ontario, Canada L4A 8A4, 1985.
Illinois Department of Energy and Natural Resources, Feasibility of Tax Incentives for Purchases of
Recycling Equipment or Recycled Products, Illinois Department of Energy and Natural Resources,
Energy and Environmental Affairs Division, 325 West Adams, Room 300, Springfield, IL
62704-1892. Tel: (217) 785-2800, May 1987.
Keep America Beautiful, Inc., Multi-Material Recycling Manual, Keep America Beautiful, Inc., 9 West
Broad St., Stamford, CT 06902. Tel: (203) 323-8987, 1987, update expected mid-1989.
Keep America Beautiful, Inc., Overview: Solid Waste Disposal Alternatives, Keep America Beautiful, Inc.,
9 West Broad St., Stamford, CT 06902. Tel: (203) 323-8987. 1989.
Knaus, Lois, Waste: Choices for Communities, Concern, Inc., 1794 Columbia Rd., NW, Washington,
D.C. 20009, Tel: (202) 328-8160, September 1988. ' -
Michigan Department of Natural Resources, Options to Overcome Barriers to Recycling, Michigan
Department of Natural Resources, Resource Recovery Section, P.O. Box 30028, Lansing, MI 48909.
Tel: (517) 373-0540, February 1987. 6
Mielke, Gary and David Walters, A Planning Guide for Residential Recycling Programs in Illinois:
Drop-Off, Curbside, and Yard Waste Composting, Office of Solid Waste and Renewable Resources,
Illinois Department of Natural Resources, 325 West Adams St., Room 300, Springfield, Illinois
62704-1892. Tel: (217) 785-2800. Doc: ILNER/RR-87/02, May 1988.
New Jersey Department of Environmental Protection, Steps in Organizing a Municipal Recycling
Program, Division of Solid Waste Management, Office of Recycling, 401 East State Street, CN 414,
Trenton, NJ 08625. Tel: (609) 292-0331, 1988.
State of New York, Incentives for Recycling, New York State Legislative Commission on Solid Waste
Management, 150 State Street, 5th Floor, Albany NY 12207. Tel: (518) 455-4436; New York State,
Department of Environmental Conservation, Division of Solid Waste, Room 208, 50 Wolf Rd.,
Albany, NY 12233-4010, January 1988.
OSCAR, Phase I and II Master Recycling Planning Study: State of Rhode Island and Providence
Plantations, Ocean State Cleanup and Recycling, Rhode Island Department of Environmental
Management, 9 Hayes St., Providence, RI 02908, Tel: (401) 277-6012, February 1988.
OSCAR, Recycling in Rhode Island: A Blueprint for Success, Rhode Island Department of
Environmental Management, Ocean State Cleanup and Recycling (OSCAR) Program, 83 Park St.,
Providence, RI 02903-1037. Tel: (401) 277-6012, January 1989.
Pollock, Cynthia, Mining Urban Wastes: The Potential for Recycling; WorldWatch Paper 76, WorldWatch
Institute, 1776 Massachusetts Ave., N.W., Washington, D.C. 20036. Tel: (202) 452-1999, April 1987.
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Chapter Six
Virginia Department of Conservation and Economic Development, Virginia Recycling Guide:
Establishing a Recycling Collection Center, Division of Litter Control, 1215 Washington Building,
Richmond, VA 23219. Tel: (804) 786-8679, 1982 (update expected 1989).
Commercial Recycling
New Jersey Department of Environmental Protection, A Guide to Recycling Commercial Waste, Office
of Recycling, 401 East State Street, CN 414, Trenton, NJ 08625. Tel: (609) 292-0331.
OSCAR, Guide for Preparing Commercial Solid Waste Reduction and Recycling Plans, Rhode Island
Department of Environmental Management, 83 Park St., Providence, RI 02903-1037, Tel: (401)
277-6012, 1988.
OSCAR, Handbook for the Reduction and Recycling of Commercial Solid Waste, Rhode Island
Department of Environmental Management, 83 Park St., Providence, RI 02903-1037. Tel: (401)
277-6012, 1988.
Multi-Family Residences
Batty, Sandy, Strength in Numbers: A Manual for Recycling in Multifamify Housing, Association of New
Jersey Environmental Commissions (ANJEC), 300 Mendham Road, P.O. Box 157, Mendham, NJ
07945, 1988.
OSCAR, Guide for Preparing Solid Waste Recycling Plans for Multi-Family Residence Units, Rhode
Island Dept. of Environmental Management, 83 Park Street, Providence, RI 02903-1037, May 1989.
Rural and Small Town Recycling
Brown, Hamilton, et. al., Why Waste a Second Chance? A Small Town Guide to Recycling, National
Center for Small Communities, National Association of Towns and Townships, 1522 K Street, N.W.,
Suite 730, Washington, D.C. 20005. Tel: (202) 737-5200, 1989.
The Minnesota Project, Case Studies in Rural Solid Waste Recycling, The Minnesota Project, 2222 Elm
St., SE, Minneapolis, MN 55414. Tel: (612) 378-2142, November 1987.
New Hampshire Resource Recovery Association, Recycling in New Hampshire: An Implementation
Guide, NHRRA, 105 Loudon Rd., Building #3, Concord, NH 03302-0721.
Markets and Market Development
American Recycling Market Annual Directory/Reference Manual, Recoup Publishing Limited, P.O. Box
577, Ogdensburg, NY 13669. Tel: 1-800-267-0707, 1989 (published yearly).
Michigan Department of Natural Resources, Michigan Secondary Market Development Strategy, MDNR,
Resource Recovery Section, P.O. Box 30028, Lansing, MI 48909. Tel: (517) 373-0540, February
1987.
Michigan Department of Natural Resources, Statewide Materials Market Studies (Michigan series),
MDNR, Resource Recovery Section, P.O. Box 30028, Lansing, MI 48909. Tel: (517) 373-0540,
February 1987.
The Official Recycled Products Guide, Recoup Publishing Limited, P.O. Box 577, Ogdensburg, NY
13669. Tel: 1-800-267-0707, published quarterly.
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Recycling
Recycling Specific Materials
American Paper Institute, Paper Recycling and Its Role in Solid Waste Management, Paper Recycling,
API, 260 Madison Avenue, New York, NY 10016,1987.
Brewer, Gretchen, Plastics Recycling: Action Plan for Massachusetts, Massachusetts Department of
Environmental Quality Engineering, Division of Solid Waste Management, available through the
State Bookstore, Room 116, State House, Boston, MA 02133, July 1988.
Brewer, Gretchen, State Planning for Post-Consumer Plastics Recycling, Massachusetts Department of
Environmental Quality Engineering, 1 Winter Street, 9th Floor, Boston, MA 02108. Tel: (617)
292-5856, May 1987.
Burgess & Niple, Limited and Waste Recovery, Incorporated, Used Tire Recovery and Disposal in Ohio
Final Report, Ohio Environmental Protection Agency, Division of Solid and Hazardous Waste
Management, Columbus, OH. Tel: (614) 644-3020, March 1987.
Curlee, Randall T., The Economic Feasibility of Recycling: A Case Study of Plastic Wastes, Praeger
Publishers/Greenwood Press, 88 Post Road West, Box 5007, Westport, CT 06881. Tel: (203)
226-3571, November 1986.
EPA, The Impacts of Lead Industry Economics and Hazardous Waste Regulations on Lead-Acid Battery
Recycling: Revision and Update, EPA, Office of Policy Analysis, Washington, D.C., September 1987.
McManus, Frank (ed.), Tire Recovery and Disposal: A National Problem With New Solutions, available
through: Resource Recovery Report, 5313 38th St., N.W., Washington, D.C., 20015. Tel: (202).
362-6034, 1988.
NH/VT Solid Waste Project, Household Battery Collection Program, NH/VT Solid Waste Project, Room
336 Moody Bunding, Claremont, New Hampshire 03743. Tel: (603) 543-1201, September 1988.
Nolan, Harris, and Cavanaugh, Used Oil: Disposal Options, Management Practices, and Potential
Liability, Second Edition, Government Institutes, Inc., 966 Hungerford Dr. #24, Rockville, MD
20805. Tel: (301) 251-9250, March 1989.
Plastic Bottle Institute, Plastic Bottle Recycling Directory and Reference Guide 1989, Plastic Bottle
Institute, Division of the Society of the Plastics Industry, Inc., 1275 K St., N.W. -Suite 400,
Washington, D.C. 20005. Tel: (202) 371-5200, 1989.
Plastic Bottle Institute, Plastic Bottle Recycling Today, Plastic Bottle Institute, The Society of the
Plastics Industry, Inc., 1275 K Street, NW, Suite 400, Washington, DC 20005. Tel: (202) 371-5200,
August 1988.
Public Technology, Inc., Asphalt Pavement .Recycling Alternatives, PTI, 1301 Pennsylvania Ave., NW,
Washington D.C. 20004. Tel: (202) 626-2400; Public Technology, Inc., Center for Public Policy,
California State University, 1250 Bellflower Blvd., Long Beach, CA 90840. Tel: (213) 498-6541,
1981. ,
Salimando, Joe, "Major Increase in Aluminum Cans Recycled," Recycling Times, April 11, 1989.
Steel Can Recycling Institute, Steel: The Better Deal, brochure published by the American Iron and
Steel Institute, Pittsburgh, PA Tel: 1-800-876-7274.
79
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Chapter Six
80
-------
Composting
Chapter Seven
Composting
MAJOR MESSAGES
" ' ""
fe becoming am ; '
/ :: ,", increasingly popular municipal waste
•• management alternative,, as
communities fooic for ways to divert
significant amounts of organic wastes
from rapidly Ming landfills,
, '.. , , ', •_' ,':'" "• " •
Tpste^owpostitag is a law»
;' -technology., low cost operation that
{can jtandle large portions of the
municipal solid waste stream
•> -, v f. "J i-sv, f s _. — f f, s s s* "f f
MQitidpal solid waste
composting is a developing
technology that fe «xpe<*ed to see
increased use in fhe future, MSW
with rec^cMng and
•• refuse-derived fuel operations.
f>*ff-trff '* ** **
Composting programs can
^^0cam^ be»elit other wa$te
'" management operations, both
Composting is becoming an increasingly popular
waste management option, as communities look
for ways to divert portions of the local waste
stream away from rapidly filling landfills.
Composting is an aerobic (oxygen-dependent)
degradation process by which plant and other
organic wastes decompose under controlled
conditions. As a result of the composting
process, the compostable waste volume can be
reduced 50 to 85 percent (Taylor and
Kashmanian, 1988). The finished product is a
dark-brown substance referred to as humus or
compost.
Composting programs can be designed to
handle yard wastes (e.g., leaves and grass
clippings) or the compostable portion of a
municipal solid waste stream (e.g., yard wastes,
food wastes, or other degradable organics).
Composting programs have also been designed
for agricultural wastes, wastewater treatment
sludge, or mixtures of all of the above.
The Composting Process
T3»0 composting pwwss jlsvolve$ $Jte action o
Oipnio materials are placed fat a pUs
or TvJwJiw (etoagsted pite), wte»
4ecoffl.positjoa lakes £&<»,
-------
Chapter Seven
Factors Affecting the
Compost Process
Moisture, Improper raofetiwe content {too
much or too little) slows down flie composting
process, especially in. the early stages of
Operation. Propel aiioistnre: levels, optimize
decomposition. Most yard -wastes contain
sufficient amounts of moisture, but moisture
addition, Way be foeneEc]aI vejth certain
composing approaches/'
Oxygen. Composting'^ an Qjtygen-dependent
process, Turning or fbxeed ae*stio» aid the
composting process,
.,* •, v ••••. .. ••
Nutrients. Nutrient Jewels cab be deBned in
terms o£ the nitrogen; ito- eae&sn tario. The
higher the tatio, the fester the, decomposition. "
<3ras$ dippings coataiBf higher amounts of
aftrogen than, leaves* so grass clipping tend to
decompose more rapkHg. Nitrogen is
sometimes added to.compost piles to foster
decomposition. In general, nitrogen occurs in
Sufficient quantities within the material to be
Other naturally occurring nutrients, such 35
potassium and phosphorus, wilt also encourage
"
pUes natwalfy rise due to the metaboJfc acMtf
of the fflietooigafljfem IwfeJjas' the positive
impact: o£ Jilllin^: a Jatge amOtUli Of haraaful
pthogens that taay be present to the material
to be somposted, but too much heat can be
detrimental to the tOmposting pipcessj A&^ilh
moiiture, proper pile temperatures will optimize
the decomposition process, and temperature
Control ZS a part of high-lechnolt^r composting
approaches, <. ,
BACKYARD COMPOSTING
Backyard composting involves individual
homeowners installing the "traditional" compost
pile on their own property, where yard wastes
and degradable household wastes (especially
food wastes) are composted.
Backyard composting is a source reduction
activity in that materials composted in backyard
operations do not have to be managed as
municipal waste. Collection costs and the cost
of disposal are therefore eliminated for all
materials that are composted in a backyard.
Consequently, decision makers should encourage
backyard composting as a source reduction
activity and may choose to provide residents
with guidance and technical assistance on
proper backyard composting methods.
The number of backyard systems available is
limited only by the imagination of individual
homeowners. Some commonly used methods
include:
• Windrows. Windrows are elongated piles 2
to 5 feet high constructed by layering the
raw materials. Windrows are turned
periodically to expose more of the material
to the air. To protect the material from
excessive moisture during rainy seasons,
piles are sometimes covered with a tarp.
• Cylindrical pen. The cylindrical pen method
of composting involves building a compost
pile within a disconnectable cylindrical pen
of woven wire (e.g., chicken wire). This
type of system is easily moved and the wire
allows for increased air circulation.
• Perforated steel drum. The perforated steel
drum is a large, 55-gallon drum punctured
with holes and partially filled with
compostable material. To turn the
material for aeration, the drum is simply
rolled (METRO).
MnleMng Grass
Leavtog grass, clippings en a ftesluy mown lawn
(instead of tagging;) is » scarce reduction
activity. If grass clippings are short enough^
they will EaB through the grass to the ground
'where they will be assimilated into the soil,
Decision makers should encourage grass
•mutching as. a source reduction, activity^
CENTRAIJZED YARD WASTE
COMPOSTING
Over 650 yard waste composting facilities are
currently in operation in the United States
(Glenn and Riggle, 1989). Composting is likely
to become a more widely used waste
-------
Composting
management alternative, as yard waste
comprised approximately 20 percent of the total
discards into the municipal waste stream
(national average) in 1986 (EPA, 1988). During
peak seasons, this percentage can rise up to 35
percent and higher in differing climates.
Commonly Composted Yard Wastes
Leaves, collected in the fall and spring, are the
easiest material to compost and are the most
common materials handled at yard waste
facilities.
Grass clippings are also compostable, but require
more attention than leaves alone. Grass
clippings are higher in nitrogen and moisture
than leaves and, when left in bags or large piles,
they can become odorous. Daily (or even more
frequent) and thorough mixing of incoming
grass with existing leaf piles can limit these
problems.
Brush, stumps and wood are compostable only if
they are chipped, but the costs of chipping for
compost are usually high, and the time needed
to decompose is longer than for other yard
wastes. These materials are often chipped and
sold as bark mulch, or may even be used as
firewood without chipping.
YARD WASTE COMPOSTING
TECHNOLOGIES
Centralized yard waste composting faculties
operated by municipalities or private companies
are becoming a more common response to local
municipal waste management problems. Strom
and Finstein (1986) have developed categories
of yard waste composting that decision makers
may find useful. Figure 7.1 outlines several
compost facility site factors that apply to the
various approaches discussed here.
Minimal Technology
The minimal technology approach involves
forming large windrows (12 feet high by 24 feet
wide) that are turned only once a year with a
front-end loader. Because of infrequent turning,
decomposition will take longer in the minimal
technology approach than in the other, more
advanced approaches. The material is usually
Composting Site factors
Several site-specific factors must be
considered when looking at the
various centralized yatd waste
composting approaches*
Suffer zone, A buffet zone refers to
the area between the composting
facility am4 neighboring residences
and badnesses which -serves to
minimise the impacts of composting
operations OB neighbors {odor, aoise,
dust, and visual impacts}. Buffer zone
requirements vary for the different
composting technology apptoacB.es>
* Stream. encioaoJimeBt - composting
facilities Should not be Sited in a
flood plain?
* Slope and grading -- steep slopes
are 4if$cu& to access and drainage
has ,to be carefully designed;
* Percolation. ** high soil percolation.
tates are desirable far limiting T&ater
and leachate run-off;
« Water table -- a high water table is
generally wadesfrabte at a
composting sitej
* Water supply «* operation, of the
pile may require occasional wetting
of the leaves, so some supply of
water (ie.* fire hydrant, pumping
station) is desirable*
and safety. Security
safely are also important factors ai
lacility 4esiga> Measures should be
taken at the site So prohibit illegal "
Dumping and vandalism. In general,
fuWe access should' be restricted.
Fencing, gates, berms and existing
natwtat barriers can help secure the
83
-------
Chapter Seven
suitable for use as compost after one to three
years, depending on the region of the country.
The obvious advantage of this approach is that
it is relatively inexpensive and requires little
attention. The space required to actually
compost the material is also relatively small,
because the windrows are so large (a single
windrow 60 yards long would contain 3000 cubic
yards of leaves.
The compost facility, however, will have to be
relatively large, because a large buffer zone
between the facility and neighboring residences
is needed. This is due to the considerable odor
problems that result from infrequent turning.
In areas where a facility can easily be sited away
from residences, this is an attractive option.
Low-Level Technology
To limit odor problems, smaller windrows and
more frequent turning are required. Piles 6 feet
high and 12 to 14 feet wide are a moderate
enough size to allow sufficient composting while
limiting overheating and odors. In addition,,
two piles can be combined after the first "burst"
of microbial activity (approximately one month).
After 10 to 11 months and additional windrow
turning, the piles can be formed into "curing"
piles around the perimeter of the site, where
the final stage of the composting process
(stabilization) takes place. This frees area for
the formation of new piles. The composting
process with the low-level technology approach
is approximately 16 to 18 months.
The low-level technology approach is still
relatively inexpensive, because only a few
operations are involved: forming the piles,
combining the piles, turning, and curing pile
formation. Although more actual composting
space is required (smaller windrows), the facility
itself is smaller because of reduced buffer zone
requirements.
Intermediate-Level Technology
The intermediate-level technology approach is
similar to the low-level technology approach
except that windrow turning machines are used
weekly. With this approach, the compost
product is ready in 4 to 6 months. ,
Windrows at a Composting Facility in Sumter County, Florida
84
-------
Composting
Capital and operating costs for the
intermediate-level approach are higher because
of the more frequent operations and the higher
capital costs associated with the windrow
turning machines, which are more expensive
than front-end loaders. Windrow turning
machines also limit the size of the piles, which
may increase composting area requirements
(more, smaller piles may be required).
The advantage of this approach is that greater
volume reductions are achieved and the
composting process takes place more rapidly.
This may be more attractive for large facilities.
High-Level Technology
The high-technology approach involves using
forced aeration to optimize composting
conditions with the piles. This is done using a
blower controlled by a temperature feedback
system. When the temperature within the pile
reaches some pre-determined value, the blower
turns on, cooling the pile and removing water
vapor. This method aerates the pile while
optimizing temperatures.
Forced aeration usually takes place for 2 to 10
weeks, at which time the blowers are removed
and the piles are turned periodically. The
composting process can be completed within
one year using the high-level technology
approach.
Area Requirements
A generally accepted tnle of thumb is tfcat one
acts of Jaad & jisjufred for evay 3,ow to
'
-------
Chapter Seven
IfaeMfy
.' . , and Finaneing
*
any waste
agemettt fetifijy. ,-Coapier Foxa: of Ibis
Guide
-------
Composting
Composting Equipment
and Approximate 1988 Prices
Vacuum leaf collectors
Trailer mounted: $14,00$ - $21,500
Front end loaders:
Lease*
mtlng
$30,000 -
Separating and .• % /•* '
shredding equipments $17,66<5 - $15ft,«»
Tub
(Soujccer "University of Connecticut Cooperative
Extension Seivjce, 198^'aimois DEMR, 1989)
MARKETING THE YARD WASTE
COMPOST PRODUCT
Decision makers must investigate end-uses for
the compost product as part of the program
planning process.
Unlike recyclable
items such as
aluminum and glass,
no national markets
for compost product
are available.
Compost product
Marketing
'" ' -- Costs
/ *
,, Mat&eting the compost
product may involve
additional costs:
outlets, however, do
exist in many
locations throughout
the country.
Laboratory
analysis;
Packaging
equipment;
Although the , „
compost product can »
generate revenues, *
these revenues may , *
not outweigh the
cost of collecting, ;
processing, and
distributing compost. Decision makers,
however, must also account for avoided disposal
costs and the environmental benefits of the
composting program when evaluating feasibility.
Obstacles to Compost Marketing
The Illinois Department of Energy and Natural
Resources (1989) has outlined some of the
obstacles decision makers must consider when
evaluating markets for yard waste compost.
Costs
Costs of composting operations will vary
depending on the approach selected.
Regardless of the technology, the compost ,
product must have the proper purity,
appearance, porosity, texture, consistency, and
chemical balance. Consequently, maintaining a
quality product will include certain monitoring
and control costs.
Supply of Materials
9
The composting facility must provide potential
buyers with a consistent supply of product.
Assurance of a consistent supply of materials is
one of the key elements of developing new
markets.
Soil Quality
Because one of the main uses for the compost
product is as a soil amendment, decision makers
should assess the-need for quality soil
amendment within the local region.
Contamination
Perhaps the most important factor in marketing
the compost product is assurance of a
contaminant-free product Various lawn and
tree chemicals and auto exhaust could
potentially contaminate incoming yard wastes.
Decision makers should monitor incoming yard
wastes as well as product quality to assure a
high-value product. (Note: the composting
process will degrade many commonly used
pesticides that may be present in the material
being composted, limiting their impact on the
final product).
87
-------
Chapter Seven
Consumer Reluctance to Change
In developing compost product markets,
decision makers will have to develop strategies
to overcome a natural reluctance to change
among potential end-users. Assuring a quality
product is the first step in this process, which
can be supplemented by public education
programs outlining the value of the compost
product as well as the role composting plays in
addressing local municipal waste management
problems.
Marketing Strategies
t
Figure 7.2 outlines some of the typical compost
markets used in regions across the country. A
general approach for marketing the yard waste
composting product may involve:
• Requiring compost use by government
entities and specifying its use by private
contractors performing land maintenance
activities for those entities.
• Direct-retail sale or free distribution of
bulk compost by truck-load or in small
quantities on-site.
• Direct sale or free distribution of bagged
compost on site or at special distribution
centers.
• Direct sale or free distribution to
wholesalers for processing in bulk or bags
to retailers (Illinois DENR, 1989).
These are general marketing procedures that
can be adapted to local markets and conditions.
?2&
Typical Compost Markets
» Food! Garden Application
* JUasti and Howcr Garcfen AgpKcatioa
• Greenhouses
« Nurseries
« <3all Courses
• Landscape Contractors
• 'Turtgrass Farmers
« Industrial Park Grounds
- Cemeteries
Public Parks
* Roads ide and Median Strips
* Military Installations
l_and Reclamation
- Tandfifl Cqwpr
» Strip Mined: Lands
m Sand and Gravel J*itS(
» Derelict Urban. Land
JfflaoJs
Kettral Resource^ f^)
f$f fff. ••
MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE
COMPOSTING
Municipal solid waste (MSW) composting is a
developing waste management technology in the
United States. Unlike yard waste composting, a
large amount of pre-processing of incoming
materials is required prior to composting. Pre-
processing is performed to isolate the
compostable portion of the municipal solid
waste stream (yard wastes, food wastes, and
organic fractions such as paper). These
materials can constitute anywhere from 30 to 60
percent of the municipal waste stream
(Chertow, 1989).
Compost Product
88
-------
Composting
Processing MSW for Composting
Pre-processing municipal solid waste prior to
composting is largely a separation task. Both
manual and mechanical separation techniques
are available to remove bulky items (e.g., white
goods, furniture), metals, glass, plastic, and
other non-compostables. These technologies are
addressed in Chapter Six (Recycling) of this
Guide where they are referred to as "Full
Stream Processing." As discussed in that
section, full stream processing can take place as
part of composting operations, recycling
programs, and the preparation of refuse-derived
fuel. In fact, all of these operations can take
place simultaneously, as each demands a
different portion of the waste stream: the
smaller-sized fraction (yard waste, food waste,
some paper) are generally sent to the
composting facility, materials such as ferrous
metals and aluminum can be recovered for
recycling, and the remainder can be processed
into RDF.
Separation of the compostable portion of MSW
is usually performed using a rotating screen
called a trommel. Once separated, these
materials are usually shredded to reduce the
particle size and moisture may be added to aid
the composting process. ,
Composting MSW
The compostable fraction of MSW is usually
composted in a manner similar to the high-level
technology approach for yard wastes. Forced
aeration and frequent turning are used to foster
optimum composting conditions.
Li-Vessel Systems - _
Sometimes called "digesters," in-vessel systems
use forced aeration and turning in large,
enclosed chambers to produce the compost
product. These systems .claim to provide a
more consistent product and have fewer odor
problems than the windrow or static pile
variety. In-vessel composting is sometimes
followed by a windrow step to further compost
the materials. In-vessel systems are more
expensive than windrow operations, due to the
facility and technology requirements. Operating
costs for these facilities range from $100 to
$380 per dry ton in 1988 (Johnston, 1989).
Preparation of the MSW Compost
Product
After the initial composting process is complete,
the materials are stored in piles for stabilization
(curing). In windrow MSW composting
operations, initial composting takes
approximately six weeks, and curing takes an
additional two weeks. In vessel systems digest
material for two days to four weeks, and curing
usually takes another four weeks (Chertow,
1989).
Marketing the MSW Compost
Product
The major obstacle to marketing the MSW'
"compost product is that of product quality.
Because of the processing technologies used and
the variety of materials composted, MSW
compost is likely to contain larger amounts of
contaminants (e.g., glass, plastic, metals) than
the yard waste compost product. For this
reason, MSW composting 'operations must have
well-established procedures for removing
contaminants from the incoming waste stream,
as well as for assuring product quality. Post-
processing may be required to remove
contaminants after the composting operation is
complete. .'- ,.'. ' -,,'
One advantage of MSW compost is that it is
expected to be produced in large quantities at
MSW composting facilities. The large
quantities available may make the product more
attractive to potential buyers.
OTHER TYPES OF COMPOSTING
Sludge Composting
Sludge composting is also becoming an
increasingly popular waste management practice.
The process involves mixing sludge with some
bulking agent (e.g., sawdust, wood chips, leaves
or recycled compost) to increase airflow and,
absorb moisture. Sludge composting facilities
miay be static piles, windrows, or in-vessel. In
the static piles, the material is aerated using
perforated pipes and blowers. For
environmental and public health'reasons, sludge
piles are often built on some type of pad (e.g.,
89
-------
Chapter Seven
concrete) and, ideally, should be enclosed.
In-vessel operations are similar to those
described in the MSW composting section
above. These facilities are usually easier to site
because of reduced area requirements and odor
problems.
The sludge compost product is high in nutrients
(especially nitrogen) and is a valuable product
•when sufficient quality is assured.
Co-Composting
Co-composting refers to the simultaneous
composting of two or more diverse waste
streams with sludge or some other nitrogen-rich
material. Sludge provides moisture and
nutrients to the compost, while municipal solid
waste acts as a bulking agent, adding porosity
and absorbing water. Combining sludge
composting with municipal solid waste
composting is planned at some facilities in an
effort to generate a more valuable product and
to combine operations. Again, the success of
these operations will depend on the quality of
the final product. Because several waste
streams are involved in co-composting, testing
the compost product for contaminants will be
necessary.
AgricidturaVAnimal Waste
Composting
This process involves mixing animal manures
with bulking agents (i.e., hay, bedding, leaves,
brush, food waste, or shredded paper) and then
composting it in windrows or static piles. This '
is usually undertaken by small, private entities
such as farms or nurseries. In some cases, the
composting product is sold as a high quality soil
amendment Some large zoos collect and
compost animal wastes and market the product
as "zoo doo."
ENVmONMENTAL EFFECTS OF
COMPOSTING
Because the compost product is often used as a
soil amendment in a variety of applications, the
quality of the product must be monitored
before being used. In particular, MSW
composting facilities and facilities co-composting
municipal solid waste with manure, septage,
sewage sludge, fish wastes, or residuals from
RDF processing create some significant
environmental considerations.
Odors are one of the most frequent problems at
composting facilities. Frequent turning of
compost piles has proven to be effective in
limiting odor problems. When in-vessel systems
are used, odor control devices (e.g., air
scrubbers) can minimize these problems.
Pathogens (found in manure, sewage sludge, or
municipal waste).; are usually destroyed by the
high temperatures achieved during normal
composting operations. Nevertheless, the
compost product should be tested for the
presence of pathogens.
„' V Monitoring the
**."^ •' **->A£:'"J*',
.:» A Compost Process
-M0.njtpj.ltg both, the material to be
vfcbajgpsted and the compost product ace
' important aspects of the overall
ling process, Because t&e end
is used for a variety "of
»/ cpnidmination could have
en^ojmenta! effects. This
i% Is especially true when one considers
"-'•' ' ' '-" '- -- easally
" (waste segregation, proper turning, and
sufficient compostmg time).'
Water Impacts
Water runoff from yard waste composting
facilities could contain large concentrations of
nutrients (i.e., nitrates and phosphorus) that
could cause algal blooms in nearby surface
waters. Retention basins or berms may be used
at faculties to limit water runoff. Facilities
constructed on highly permeable soils may
require liners or pads. Water impacts are not
generally expected to be serious at yard waste
composting facilities.
Because municipal waste composting, sludge
composting, and co-composting involve a large
amount of potential contaminants, water
90
-------
Composting
, impacts could be greater at these facilities.
Leachate from MSW compost facilities can
contain high concentrations of nutrients (such
as nitrates and phosphorus) and perhaps volatile
organics and metals. Leachate could affect both
surface and ground water. Retention basins to
capture storm water runoff are good practice, as
are liners or pads. Enclosing the composting
operation will also minimize leachate formation.
Land Impacts
At yard waste composting facilities, soil may
become more acidic because of the presence of
certain leaves and pine needles in the compost
pile. Nitrogen depletion may also occur. Proper
turning of compost piles can limit these effects.
MSW and co-composting facilities carry the
potentially harmful impacts of acid, organic, and
metal contamination. Again, careful pre-
processing to divert as much of the potentially
hazardous materials from the compost facility is
an important quality control procedure.
Health Impacts
The primary public health concerns associated
with composting operations result from:
• Drinking water contamination;
• Toxics in the finished product (applied on
land); and
• Pathogens.
Nitrate contamination of drinking water can
affect the oxygen-carrying capacity of blood in
infants and in the elderly, but again, under
proper composting conditions, this risk is
minimal. Pathogens can be spread by insects
and vermin. Worker risks include respiratory
problem aggravation. Worker training and
health monitoring can minimize these risks, as
can proper apparel and equipment.
INTEGRATING COMPOSTING
WITH OTHER WASTE
MANAGEMENT OPTIONS
Composting programs can be designed to
complement or augment most other waste
management activities. Preserving landfill space
is the most obvious example, and this factor is
often the driving force behind a composting
operation.
Composting can also complement the operation
of a municipal waste combustion facility.
Because yard wastes have high moisture content,
they do not burn as well as some of the other
waste stream components. Also, yard wastes
have high seasonal fluctuations which could lead
to an oversized combustion facility. Diverting
yard wastes to a composting'facility can increase
the heating value of the waste entering the
combustion facility and reduce extreme volume
fluctuations (improving combustion).
In addition, nitrogen oxides (NOx) are air
pollutants at municipal waste combustion
facilities. NOx result primarily from the
combustion of nitrogen-rich grass clippings.
removing grass clippings from the stream
entering the combustion facility, overall
environmental benefits can be realized.
By
As discussed earlier, municipal solid waste
composting operations can effectively be
combined with recycling programs and/or the
preparation of refuse-derived fuels. The
processing technologies used separate a
compostable fraction, a fraction of materials
suitable for •recycling,- and a stream that can be
processed further into RDF. As these
technologies develop, the benefit of combining
all three operations is expected to become even
more attractive.
91
-------
Chapter Seven
Chapter Seven Bibliography
Appelhof, Maiy and Jim McNelly, Yard Waste Composting: Guidebook for Michigan Communities,
Michigan Department of Natural Resources, Waste Management Division, Resource Recovery
Section, P.O. Box 30028, Lansing, Michigan 48909. Tel: (517) 373-0540.
The BioCyde Guide to Composting Municipal Wastes, BioCycle, Box 351, Emmaus, PA 18041. Tel:
(215) 967-4135, January 1989.
Chertow, Marian, Garbage Solutions: A Public Official's Guide to Recycling and Alternative Solid
Waste Management Technologies, National Resource Recovery Association, U.S. Conference of
Mayors, Washington, D.C., 1989. . , ,
Gommunily Compost Education Program, Master Composter Training Manual, Community Compost
Education Program, 4649 Sunnyside Avenue North, Seattle, Washington 89103. Tel: (206)
633-0224, updated yearly.
Connecticut Department of Environmental Protection, Leaf Composting - A Guide for Municipalities,
DEP, Local Assistance and Program Coordination Unit, Recycling Program, 165 Capitol Avenue,
Hartford, CT 06106. Tel: (203) 566-5599, January 1989.
Derr, Donn A. and Pritam A Dhillon, "Minimizing the Cost of Leaf Composting," BioCycle, April, .
1989, p. 45.
EPA, Characterization of Municipal Solid Waste in the United States, 1960-2000 (Update 1988),
Franklin Associates, Ltd., EPA, Office of Solid Waste, Washington, D.C., 1988. Available through
National Technical Information Service, Springfield, VA 22161. Tel: (703) 487-4650.
Fliesler, Nancy, Agricultural, Sludge, and Solid Waste Composting: Introductory Profiles, Massachusetts,
Department of Environmental Quality Engineering, 1 Winter Street, 9th Floor, Boston, MA 02108.
Tel: (617) 292-5856, June 1987.
Glenn, Jim and David Riggle, "Where Does the Waste Go?" BioCycle, April, 1989, p. 38.
Illinois Department of Energy and Natural Resources, Economics and Feasibility of Co-Composting
Solid Wastes in McHenry County (Illinois), Illinois Department of Energy and Natural Resources
Clearinghouse, 325 West Adams St., Room 300, Springfield, IL 62704-1892. Tel: (217) 785-2800.
Doc: ILENR/RE-EA-78-12, July 1987.
Illinois Department of Energy and Natural Resources, Landscape Waste Compost: Distribution and
Marketing Strategies for Centralized Municipal Composting Operations,, ffiNR, Springfield, IL 62704-
1892. Tel: (217) 785-2800, March 1989. . . •
Johnston, John, John F. Donovan, and Albert B. Pincince, "Operating and Cost Data for In-VeSb.l
Composting," BioCycle, April 1989, p. 40.
Massachusetts Department of Environmental Quality Engineering, Leaf Composting Guidance
Document, DEQE, 1 Winter Street, 9th Floor, Boston, MA 02108. Tel: (617) 292-5856, June 1988.
92
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Composting
METRO, The Art of Composting, Solid Waste Department, Metropolitan Service District and the Bureau
of Environmental Services, 2000 S.W. First Ave., Portland, OR 97201-5398. Tel: (503)221-1646.
Middlesex County (Minnesota) Department of Solid Waste Management, A Guide for Municipal Leaf
Composting Operations, Minnesota Pollution Control Agency, Resource Information Center, 520
Lafeyette Rd., St. Paul, MN 55155. Tel: (612) 296-8439, 1983.
Strom, Peter and Melvin Finstein, Leaf Composting Manual for New Jersey Municipalities, New Jersey
Department of Environmental Protection, Division of Solid Waste Management, Office of Recycling,
401 East State St., CN 414, Trenton, NJ 08625. Tel: (609) 292-0331, 1986. .
Taylor, Alison, and Richard Kashmanian, Study and Assessment of Eight Yard Waste Composting Programs
Across the United States, EPA, Office of Policy, Planning, and Evaluation, Washington, D.C. 20460,
December 1988. Available through RCRA Hotline: 1-800-424-9346.
93
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Chapter Seven
94
-------
Municipal Waste Combustion
Chapter Eight
Municipal Waste Combustion
«<•
'",
<, -''' ^- 0, IT- -r ^-
MAJOR 'MESSAGES
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municipal waste $0ittbuMt»i&*$%
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emissions and ash manageinent ar e
''; x important iE»spect$ ofleoiabBSJioft v - •
facility pJanning and operation.
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State-of-the-art municipal waste combustion
(MWC) has two functions: reduction in the
quantity of waste subject to final: disposal and
recovery of energy. Modern combustion ;
facilities are no longer simple "garbage burners."
Instead, waste-to-energy units -are designed to
produce steam and electricity, and can be used
in conjunction with (or as a complement to)
source reduction, recycling, and composting
programs.
Combustion of solid waste is becoming an
increasingly important aspect of integrated solid
waste management, as communities look for
alternatives to rapidly filling landfills.
It is estimated that nearly 75 percent (by
weight) of the municipal solid waste stream is
combustible, and that combustion of solid waste
can reduce its volume by 70 to 90 percent
(Hershkowitz, 1986).
PIANNING A COMBUSTION
Strategic, long-term planning is essential for
developing a successful municipal waste
combustion facility. Decision makers must
develop an understanding of a variety of issues
in the planning process:
• Facility ownership and risk;
• Engineering and legal decisions;
• Contractor selection and coordination;
• Marketing a product (steam or electricity);
• Generation of capital.
Long-term planning within local government is
the key to successful facility design and
operation. By understanding all issues and
developing a dedicated staff, municipal waste
95
-------
Chapter Eight
combustion can become a positive component
of the local waste management system.
Facility Ownership and Operation
One of the first planning decisions faced by
local officials is what entity will actually own
the facility and who will oversee its operation.
This decision will be based largely on the
amount of financial risk the community is
willing to assume and the time and resources
available. Several procurement options are
available:
Full Service Approach
This is the most common approach. In this
system, the community hires a single firm to
design, construct, and operate the plant. The
community specifies only the process type and
performance requirements. In this case, the
facility may be owned by the vendor, owned by
the community, or a shared equity.
Merchant Plants
With these facilities, all implementation
decisions are left to the private sector.
A private firm designs, construct, owns, and
operates the facility. Waste is accepted on a
dollars per ton basis, and agreements may be
made to give tipping fee discounts to the "host"
community or the communities that commit to
long-term contracts.
Besides Full Service and Merchant Plants Other
procurement approaches are available, but are
less widely used. These include:
Architectural and Engineering (A/E) Approach.
In this system the community first contracts an
A/E firm to design the facility and then enlists
a construction firm (usually through a bidding
process) to build the facility. The community
owns and operates the plant or contracts its
operation.
Turnkey Approach. With turnkey, a single
company designs and builds the plant according
to the community's specifications. More of the
development authority is delegated to the
contractor than in the A/E approach. The
community or a different contractor owns and
operates the plant.
i
Waste-to-Energy Facility, Baltimore, Maryland
96
-------
Municipal Waste Combustion
Energy Markets
Municipal waste combustion facilities differ
from most government services in that they •
generate a product, energy, that is sold for
revenue. Decision makers must, therefore, be
prepared to market the product and secure
buyers.
Steam or electricity are the energy products at
combustion facilities, depending on the
particular design.
Marketing Steam
The primary end uses for steam from municipal
waste combustion facilities are industrial and
institutional heating and cooling systems, many
of which use forced steam in their process.
Marketing the steam product will involve
identifying these industries and institutions
within the region. Once identified, agreements
on prices, steam delivery, and product
specifications will have to be made.
Industrial steam users that should be explored
include: textile, lumber, paper and pulp, food
processing, rubber, leather, and chemical
producers. Institutional heating and cooling
systems using steam are located at: hospitals,
colleges, arid public buildings and services.
Many cities also have commercial steam
distribution utilities.
Marketing steam as a product involves some
important considerations:
• Consistent supply. Energy users do not
usually accept disruptions in service. For
this reason, municipal waste combustion
facilities may have to be equipped with a
back-up boiler to guarantee a ^consistent
supply.
• Consistent demand. Municipal waste
combustion facility operators must be
prepared for steam demand variations (often
caused by changing seasons). Under these
conditions, the combustion facility may have
to be equipped with a boiler by-pass flue
that allows the steam generating process to
be halted temporarily.
STEAM'
GENERATOR
ELECTRICITY
COMBUSTION
AIR SYSTEM
STACK-
BOTTOM ASH
COLLECTION
Typical Mass Bum Municipal Waste Combustion Facility Schematic
97
-------
Chapter Eight
Marketing Electricity
Municipal waste combustion facilities generating
electricity are referred to as "cogenerators," as
they provide electricity in addition to that
generated by the local electric utility.' In
addition to possibly using electricity generated
by combustion internally to operate the plant,
customers for electricity from municipal waste
combustion facilities include nearby industries
and public and private utilities.
When marketing electricity, some important
factors must be considered:
• Consistent supply. As with steam users,
electricity users do not accept disruptions in
service. Again, municipal waste combustion
facilities may have to be equipped with a
back-up boiler to guarantee a consistent
supply.
• Competitive price. The municipal waste
combustion facility will be competing with
other cogenerators in selling energy.
PURPA. The Public Utilities Regulatory and
Policy Act was developed as a way of
encouraging regeneration to supplement existing
electrical utility capacity. The Act basically
requires investor-owned utilities to purchase
electricity from cogenerators at "avoided cost".
rates (interpreted as the cost of building
another power plant or the cost of operating at
a higher capacity). Rates are developed under
state boards or commissions of public utilities,
and overseen by the Federal Energy Regulatory
Commission.
Avoided cost rates and the utility's willingness
to purchase electricity vary from state to state.
Some states set attractive rates for waste-to-
energy facilities as part of a policy to encourage
municipal solid waste combustion. Decision
makers must review Federal and State
legislation governing regeneration when
determining whether municipal waste
combustion will be economically viable.
Sizing the Facility
Proper plant sizing results from carefully
evaluating a wide variety of criteria:
Waste Supply
Waste supply is the most fundamental sizing
factor. Not only will the facility's capacity
reflect the expected amount and heat-value of
the waste, a steady stream of waste close to the
design capacity is the only assurance of proper
facility operation.
Measures are usually taken to guarantee a waste
supply for the facility. Waste flow control
ordinances are often used to ensure a certain
quantity of waste. In some cases creditors may
require such ordinances before a facility can be
financed. Waste flow control ordinances usually
require that all or a defined portion of the local
waste stream be delivered to the combustion
facility. One type of waste supply agreement is
known as "put-or-pay," which guarantees the
facility operator a certain amount of waste. If
the community does not supply this amount, it
is responsible for reimbursing the facility.
Waste flow control will have to be carefully
planned within the community. Many recycling
program coordinators see waste flow control as
a hindrance to their operations because it
reduces their supply of materials. Any current
or future source reduction, recycling, or
composting programs, therefore will have to be
accounted for in the waste flow agreement.
When properly planned, waste flow control can
benefit both the combustion facility and the .
alternative waste ^management programs by
diverting the relevant portions of the waste
stream to each (e.g., recyclables to the recycling
program and combustibles to the MWC facility).
Alternative Waste Management Programs
In addition to waste flow control agreements,
future source reduction, recycling, and
composting programs are directly related to
facility design. When sizing the combustion
facility, decision makers will have to account for
the types and amounts of materials that will be
diverted from the facility, as these programs will
affect the quantity and heating value of the
combustor feed stream.
98
-------
Municipal Waste Combustion
Many decision makers feel that source
reduction, recycling, and composting programs
should be developed before or while a
combustion facility is planned. They generally
take less time and resources to implement.
They also will give decision makers a better
idea of the future waste stream and the
resulting waste stream reduction will allow for a
smaller capacity and, therefore, less expensive
facility.
Waste Stream Characteristics
Good combustion depends on the accuracy of
waste stream data. Most communities planning
a combustion facility, therefore, perform their
own waste stream assessment to develop an
accurate picture of the quantity and
composition of the local waste stream.
Resources committed at this stage can prevent
costly mistakes later in the project.
From a technical standpoint, the waste stream
data will be used to ascertain the heating value
of the waste (technical details regarding the
heat-value of specific components will be
discussed in Volume II of this Guide').
Information on amounts of materials to be
recycled will also assist in planning for heating
values. Waste stream heating values may»
actually be higher or lower than anticipated,
both of which could be detrimental to plant
operation. '
Planning for Facility Disruptions
Accounting for down-time is also an important
facility planning criterion. Most combustion
facilities are designed to operate continuously
(i.e., 24 hours a day), but both scheduled (e.g.,
maintenance) and unscheduled (e.g., equipment
failure) down-time are likely to occur. Storage
space must be available for the waste that
continues to arrive during down-time, and the
unit must have the capacity to "catch-up" to
normal levels. If these capabilities are not built
into the system, provisions must be made to
send waste to a landfill or alternative facility.
Facility Financing
Depending on the procurement approach
selected, municipal waste combustion facilities
will require extensive financing agreements.
Chapter Twelve of this Guide discusses
financing waste management alternatives in
detail.
Time Frame
The time required to plan, develop, and
construct a facility will vary, but at least 5 to 8
years are required to bring a new facility from
the earliest planning stages to in-service.
Facility Siting
- owe *>f toe awst
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<*a«*tt<5
-------
Chapter Eight
TYPES OF MUNICIPAL WASTE
COMBUSTION FACILITIES
Municipal waste combustion facilities are
designed to meet specific local needs, so there
are variations in actual designs. There are,
however, some basic categories.
Mass Burn Facilities
Mass burn systems combust municipal waste
without any preprocessing other than removal
of items too large to be fed into the unit.
Mass burn facilities usually have two or three
combustor units, which can range in capacity
from 50 to 1,000 tons per day (tpd). Plant
capacities, therefore, range from 100 to 3,000
tpd. These facilities are erected at the site, and
all new systems have waterwall combustion
chambers designed for energy recovery. Older
facilities may have refractory-lined combustion
chambers with no energy recovery.
MWC Facility Tipping Floor
Modular Combustors
Modular combustors are small mass burn units
(i.e., no preprocessing of the waste) with
capacities of 5 to 120 tpd. Modular combustion
plants usually have one to four combustor units,
so plant capacity is 15 to 400 tpd. These units
are usually fabricated at a plant and transported
to the facility site.
Wateirwiall Boilers
Host new municipal waste
coinbus!tton facilities are designed
with VaterwalT combustion
furnaces^ waterwall unite are lined .,
vrtth steel tabes MteA wMfe circulating
water. Heat from the combustion
gases Is transferred to the water.
TJie resultant steam is either sold or
used to drive turbines for the ,,
generation ot? electricity,
Most modular units operate with a two stage
process:
(1) Partial combustion. Waste is initially
combusted under starved-air conditions; the
lack of sufficient air leads to the formation
of combustible gases and ash.
(2) Secondary combustion. The partially
combusted gases produced in the first
chamber are fired with an auxiliary fuel and
excess air in what is called the thermal
reactor (or afterburner). The auxiliary fuel
is often used only during start-up to insure
proper combustion temperatures. The hot
gases are first directed to a heat recovery
boiler, then cleaned and discharged.
All new modular combustion facilities for
municipal waste combustion are expected to
have energy recovery.
Refuse-Derived Fuel-Fired Facilities
Refuse-derived fuel (RDF) refers to a wide
range of pre-processed municipal solid waste.
A variety of RDF-fired combustors are used,
depending on the degree of pre-processing:
• Dedicated RDF boilers: burn RDF only;
• Co-fired boilers: highly processed RDF co-
fired with coal in coal burners; and
• Mixed waste firing: RDF fired with other
wastes such as wood or coal.
100
-------
Municipal Waste Combustion
Individual RDF combustors range from 300 to
1,000 tpd capacity. Plants typically have two to
four combustion units, so plant capacities range
from 600 to 4,000 tpd.
Types of RDF
Several different types of RDF exist.
Definitions of the types vary, but can generally
be classified as:
Coarse;
Prepared;
Recovery Prepared;
Fluff; and
Densified;
RDF also comes in powdered, liquified, gaseous,
and wet-dry forms, but few municipal solid
waste boilers use these technologies and they
are generally considered unavailable.
Coarse RDF. Coarse RDF results from minimal
processing (i.e., shredding); materials that pass
through a six-inch screen are considered coarse
RDF. No materials separation by type occurs.
Coarse RDF is used in dedicated. RDF boilers.
Prepared RDF. This type of RDF refers to
coarse RDF that has been processed further by
removing ferrous metals, fine materials, glass,
ceramics, sand, and grit. This reduces wear and
clogging of the moving equipment in the unit
and increase heating values of the RDF.
Prepared RDF is used in dedicated RDF
boilers.
Recovery Prepared RDF. This material is similar
to the prepared RDF except that a larger
portion of the metallic constituents are removed
(i.e.j aluminum, zinc, copper, brass, and ferrous
metals) as are greater glass fractions. Recovery
prepared RDF has less ash per pound and more
Btu's per pound. Recovery prepared RDF is
used in a dedicated RDF boiler.
Fluff RDF. Fluff RDF is a shredded material,
, 95 percent by weight of which passes through a
2-inch square mesh screen. Several processing
units are used to produce fluff. Primary
shredding is used for homogenization and size
reduction of the waste; air classification is used
to separate light from heavy materials (most
combustibles are light, most non-combustibles
are heavy); magnetic separation is used to
remove the ferrous metal (which can be resold);
a screening process is performed on the light
(combustible) fraction of the stream to remove
dirt, glass, grit; and finally, secondary shredding
is used to further reduce the combustion ,
fraction. Ruff can be co-fired with coal in
suspension-fired or fluidized bed boilers, as well
as dedicated boilers.
Densified (Pellet) RDF (d-RDF). Densified RDF
is produced through the compaction of fluff
material into cubes, pellets, briquettes, buttons,
or similar forms. Densified RDF is less costly
t6 transport over long distances, and can be
fired in stoker-fired industrial boilers designed
for coal (Blue).
Each of the RDF categories have different
amounts of residuals, with d-RDF producing the
most. Full stream processing technologies that
may be used at RDF plants were described in
Chapter Six of this Guide.
Fluidized-Bed Combustion Facilities
This is largely a developing technology that
burns processed, municipal solid waste in a ,
heated bed of non-combustible material (such as
sand). Existing and planned fluidized bed
combustors have capacities ranging from 200 to
-500 tpd. Plant capacity is estimated to be 300
to 1,000 tpd.
Densified RDF Pellets
101
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Chapter Eight
AIR EMISSIONS:
REGULATION AND CONTROL
Emissions from municipal waste combustion,
facilities are a mixture of pollutants with health-
related risks. Of particular concern are:
• Participates;
• Acid gases (sulfur oxides, hydrogen chloride,
hydrogen fluoride); ,
• Nitrogen oxides;
• Trace metals (lead, cadmium, mercury, etc.);
• Dioxins and furans.
Most siting difficulties for municipal waste
combustion result from concerns over the
environmental impact of air emissions.
Regulations will soon be in place to address
these concerns. Decision makers must fully
understand these regulations and plan pollution
control accordingly.
Regulation of Air Emissions
In 1986, EPA issued operational guidance on
control technology for new and modified
municipal waste combustors (MWC). This
guidance was issued to make best available
control technology (BACT) determinations
consistent and to reduce delay and confusion in
the permitting process. EPA also issued an
advanced notice of proposed rulemaking in 1986
which explains EPA's intent to regulate MWC
emissions for new or modified MWC under
lll(b) of the Clean Air Act (CAA) and EPA's
intent to regulate existing facilities under lll(d)
of the CAA. New and modified MWC are built
•with the prescribed pollution control devices
and existing facilities are being retrofitted to
also meet the guidance for BACT.
The regulations under lll(b) for new and
modified MWC will set limits for MWC
emissions and NOx. These emissions are
composed of:
• Particulate matter containing various metals;
• Acid gases; and
• Organic emissions.
In addition, these regulations will contain
requirements for some form of source
separation of recyclables before the waste is
burned.
The proposed regulations are expected in
November of 1989 and the final regulations are
expected to be issued in December of 1990.
These regulations will contain guidelines for
new, modified, and existing sources.
Air Pollution Control
State-of-the-art combustion facilities are
equipped with pollution control equipment that
greatly reduce air emissions and any adverse
environmental and public health impacts.
Emission controls can take several forms:
Combustion Control
The proper design, construction, operation, and
maintenance ("good combustion practices") are a
fundamental aspect of controlling air emissions.
In particular, proper combustion conditions can
limit the formation of dioxins and fijrans.
Continuous monitoring and control, both
computerized and manual, are key "good
combustion practices." Operator training can
thus be considered basic to preventing
pollution.
Dioxins and furans also form after discharge
from the combustion chamber. Exhaust gas
cooling is the control method which successfully
limits this secondary formation.
Particulate Matter Control
Fabric filters (referred to as the "baghouse" in
the facility) and electrostatic precipitators
(ESPs) control particulate emissions.
Bughouses are designed with long, heat resistant
fabric bags that capture fine particles (referred
to as "flyash"). The dust and particles are
collected and disposed.
Electrostatic precipitators (ESPs) treat emissions
by applying a voltage to incoming particles to
give them a negative charge. The particles are
then removed on positively charged plates.
ESPs use multiple electrostatic fields to achieve
maximum particulate collection.
, Acid Gas Control
Acid gas control units are sometimes referred to
as scrubbers. Lime spray scrubbers followed by
102
-------
Municipal Waste Combustion
" , ; , Monitoring and
Automatic Control
Twt> recent developments that have had a great
impact on combustion facility operation are
monitoring technologies: arid automatic control.
Nearly ail aspects of; the combustion! process
can now be monitored; continuously, from
combustion chamber temperature to stack gas.
composition. Expanding on ihis^ computer-
llwse
-------
Chapter Eight
Bottom ash is comprised ojf the
noncombusfible material that passes
through the combustion chamber*
The bottom ash is usually tooled 6y
some <^e of water quench'and
collected by cowveyo^ \
- - c- ' ', ,< ,„"'""
Ffy ash is a lighter materM that i$
suspended in the floe gas amd ,
collected in, theTair goJtotioin cotttrof^
eepipnteat* The <:ort<^»» associated "
with fly ash comes from the metal
and organic compound components
that are sometimes attached to the
particles. It Is important: to atrte that
as pollution control devices'become
mows efficient, larger amcttwts of
flyashj including its harmful
constituents, will he removed*,
Of particular concern in MWC ash is the '
presence of heavy metals, especially lead and
cadmium, which are present in such materials as
lead-acid batteries, electronic equipment, and
some plastics. Because of the potentially
harmful effects of ash disposal, decision makers
must address ash disposal early in the decision-
making process. Leaching at landfills is the
main concern, as soluble metals may
contaminate ground water. Dioxins associated
with the flyash can largely be controlled through
good combustion practices. If present, however,
they are not mobile in a land disposal unit.
Fugitive dust emissions should also be
controlled through proper handling. In addition
to proper handling and disposal, decision
makers will also have liability concerns
associated with potential contamination.
There has been considerable controversy over
whether MWC ash is subject to RCRA Subtitle
C regulations, which govern the management of
hazardous waste. The EPA stated, in the July
15, 1985 Federal Register (50 FR 28725-26),
that ash generated from the combustion of non-
hazardous waste that exhibits a characteristic of
a hazardous waste needs to be managed
accordingly. The U.S. Congress, however, is
considering legislation that would create a
special waste category for ash and require EPA
to develop special management standards for
ash as a non-hazardous waste.
Proper Ash Management
Proper ash management involves properly
handling the ash from its generation in the
combustion process to its ultimate disposal.
Because of the potential harmful effects of
contacting of breathing MWC ash or ash dust,
worker safety must be ensured when loading
vehicles or transporting the ash within the
facility. If the MWC ash is to be transported
to an off-site disposal facility, closed body
vehicles should be used and unloading
procedures should be established to minimize
fugitive dust and protect workers.
Appropriate MWC ash testing should take place
to determine its regulatory status. Disposal of
non-hazardous MWC ash may take place at a
municipal solid waste landfill, ash monofill
(facility that accepts only ash; may be located at
the combustion facility), or co-fill (facility that
accepts several diverse waste streams). Because
of the potentially hazardous nature of the ash,
the landfill used should be equipped with a
liner/leachate collection system, and ground
water monitoring should take place. Not only
is this type of landfill more protective of the
environment, it will also reduce the liability
risks associated with Superfund.
Leachate Collection at an MWC Ash Monofill
104
-------
Municipal Waste Combustion
Liquid Wastes
quantities of industrial liquid wastes aiay
De geaetated at maiud]pal waste comeustiott
* Bofler blow-down;
* floor cleaning;
« Equipment cleaning; dud
*
at incinerator facilities during tbe flue gas
cleaning and ash quenching processes. State-ofr
isjigteeas antf water
gteatty
t&eamosnt of water discharged, Medera
&cJ&ty defers «*« cwffotfly strfvtog far "SKR*,;
the RDF processing facility. These figures are
based on national averages. Actual costs will
vary considerably depending on site specific
conditions.
Operating Costs
Operation and maintenance (O&M) costs will
• also vary considerably, based on the size,
location, and technologies used. Labor costs
are among the largest operating costs, and
depend on the local economy. Total operating
and maintenance costs for a 2,000 tpd facility
have been estimated at $20 per ton on an
annual basis (National League of Cities, 1988).
O&M costs increase slowly as the size of the
facility decreases.
Revenues
COMBUSTION FACILITY COSTS
AND REVENUES
Cost factors vary considerably from facility to
facility, so specific cost estimates are difficult to
determine; Variable factors include:
Size (tons per day);
Technology;
Location (labor and construction costs can
vary significantly);
Type of financing;
Ownership;
Pollution control technology; and
Cost of ash disposal.
Capital Costs
Some ballpark figures have been developed
(National League of Cities, 1988) to assist in
making preliminary estimates of facility costs.
Modular incinerators (less than 400 tons per
day) have capital costs in the range of $80,000
to $90,000 per ton of rated capacity (economies
of scale are reflected in the smaller figure).
Larger, field erected facilities will cost in the
ballpark of $90,000 to $100,000 per ton of
capacity. Capital costs for RDF-burning
facilities will generally be lower than for mass
burn facilities because of the more
homogeneous fuel source. These costs,
however, may be offset by the capital costs of
Combustion facility revenues result from:
• Sale of energy;
» Interest from reserve funds required with
revenue bonds; and
• Tipping fees at the facility.
• Sales of ferrous metals recovered from the
ash and other materials recovered at the
RDF preparation facility.
According to a sample facility survey performed
by the National Solid Wastes Management
Association, the average municipal waste
combustion facility tip fee in 1988 was $39.86
(Pettit, 1989). In some areas of the country,
the MWC facility tip fee was as high as $65.
105
-------
Chapter Eight
Chapter Eight Bibliography
1988-89 Resource Recovery Yearbook. Directory and Guide, Governmental Advisory Associates, 177
East 87th Street, New York, NY 10128, 1988.
Blue, J.D., et. al., Babcock and Wilcox, Waste Fuels: Their Preparation, Handling, and'Firing,
Babcock and Wilcox, Barberton, Ohio.
Boley, G.L. and M.L. Smith, Start-up and Operations of the Mid-Connecticut Resource Recovery
Project, presented at International Conference on Municipal Waste Combustion, Hollywood, Florida,
April 1989. - .
Brna, T.G., State-of-the Art Flue Gas Cleaning Technologies for Municipal Solid Waste Combustion,
EPA, Air and Energy Engineering Research Lab, Research Triangle Park, NC, available through:
National Technical Information Service, Springfield, VA 22161. Tel: (703) 487-4650. Doc:
PB88-184601/XAB, March 1988.
Denison, 'Richard A and Ellen K. Silbergeld, Comprehensive Management of Municipal Solid Waste
Incineration: Understanding the Risks, Toxic Chemicals Program, Environmental Defense Fund,
Washington, D.C., 1989.
EPA, Background Paper: Municipal Waste Combustors Air Emission Standards, Office of Air
Quality Planning and Standards, Washington, D.C., April ,1989.
EPA, Characterization of Municipal Waste Combustor Ashes and Leachates form Municipal Solid Waste
Landfills, Monofills, and Co-disposal Sites, Office of Solid Waste, October 1987. Available through:
National Technical Information Service, Springfield, VA 22161. Tel: (703) 487-4650. Doc: PB88-
127980/XAB.
t
EPA, Sites for Our Solid Waste: A Guidebook for Effective Public Involvement, Office of Solid Waste,
Preliminary Draft, July, 1989. Final scheduled for November, 1989.
Hershkowitz, Allen, Garbage Burning - Lessons from Europe, Inform, Inc., 381 Park Avenue S., Suite
1201, New York, NY 10016. Tel: (212) 689-4040, 1986.
'National League of Cities, Municipal Incinerators: 50 Questions Every Local Government Should Ask,
Publications Department, National League of Cities, 1301 Pennsylvania Ave., N.W., Washington,
D.C. 20004. Tel: (202) 626-3000, December 1988.
National League of Cities, Waste-to-Energy Facilities: A Decision Maker's Guide, National League of
Cities, 1301 Pennsylvania Ave, N.W., Washington, D.C. 20004. (202) 626-3030, 1986.
Pennsylvania Department of Environmental Resources, Determining the Economic Feasibility of a Solid
Waste Boiler, Guide #4 of Municipal Solid Waste Planning Guides, PADER, Bureau of Solid Waste
Management, Division of Municipal Services, P. O. Box 2063, Harrisburg, PA 17120. Tel: (717)
787-7382, January 1987.
Pettit, C.L., "Tip Fees Up More than 30% in Annual NSWMA Survey," Waste Age, March 1989, p. 101.
Robinson, William D., ed., The Solid Waste Handbook: A Practical Guide, John Wiley and Sons,
New York, 1986.
106
-------
Land Disposal
Chapter Nine
Land Disposal
• Landfills a*e a necessary component
<• of any muiilcipal solid waste "„"
* A -twrjjte^ of Stafcs jptf f «
-------
Chapter Nine
variety of specific technologies are associated
with a state-of-the-art landfill:
Liner systems (clay and/or synthetic);
Leachate collection systems;
Leachate "treatment;
Landfill gas control and recovery;
Improved closure techniques;
Provisions for post closure care and
maintenance;
Monitoring systems; and
Control of materials entering the site.
The
defineS insanitary landfill as *a method
sfeig of refuse o» lajta
nwlsances- y tttitizfng the
cfj»g|ttefetia& to conRne the
se to!th^$ma:Hest jiractfcid area, to
ft to flie smallest pacUcal
^ftnfi. to cdvtr Jt^afli a layer *f
at flw «onclttsi<«t^ eaeBt day»$
^ 6p£r&tiGn Or attach more fifequeni
i*"?LJ> F v^-^iX .-
be
LandGll Design
J. v •* *
Cdfe ii* thd^bagip bUBding btafe
laadHllS,* During daily operafioiK, stiBA waste is
ttftfitebd: jb deEJned areas wh.eite.il is spread iSnd
tompacted flu»Ushcfllt|he ^day. jAtthe'endof "
Jjy « thw layer of gqij, wp* js, also compacted,
"Has unft af-oompacltfd and «preH3$3 •waste is. " "
cajjed fte odL "Sewe^al adjacent cells j|alL ibe
REGULATORY APPROVAL AND
COMPLIANCE
State Regulations
State or, other local or regional regulatory
agencies will have specific requirements for the
design, operation, and closure of municipal solid
waste landfills. These requirements vary from
state to state, so decision makers should consult
with the appropriate regulatory agency to
determine relevant standards. State
requirements are likely to cover:
Siting;
Design;
Operation;
Monitoring;
Closure and post-closure care; and
Financial assurance.
Federal Regulations
In September 1979, EPA issued criteria
providing general environmental performance
standards that apply to all solid waste disposal
facilities with certain limited exceptions. In the
1984 Hazardous and Solid Waste Amendments
(HSWA), Congress mandated revisions to these
criteria.
In August 1988, EPA proposed revised criteria
for new and existing municipal solid waste
landfills (including those that receive sewage
sludge and combustion ash). The following is a
brief summary of the proposal. EPA is
currently evaluating extensive public comments
and developing the final rule, which is expected
to be issued in early 1990.
Location Restrictions
The proposed regulations contained specific
restrictions on locating landfills at, on, or near:
Airports,
Floodplains,
Wetlands,
Fault areas,
Seismic impact zones, and
Unstable areas.
108
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Land Disposal
Operating Criteria
Landfill operating requirements were proposed
in each of the following areas:
Procedures for excluding hazardous waste,
Daily cover,
Disease vector control,
Explosive gases,
Air criteria,
Access control,
Run-on and run-off control,
Surface water requirements,
Liquids management, and
Recordkeeping.
Design Criteria
The proposed criteria established a risk-based
performance standard based on lifetime cancer
risks. New units would be required to be
designed with liners, leachate collection systems,
and final cover systems as necessary to meet
this standard, while existing units would be
required to use final covers. Retrofitting of
existing units with, liners and leachate, collection
systems would not be required. The proposed
point of compliance would be at the waste
management unit boundary or a State-
established alternative boundary.
Ground Water Monitoring
The proposed municipal solid waste landfill
regulations specified ground-water monitoring to
detect releases at landfills and determine, if
corrective action is needed. New landfills would
be required to comply with the ground-water
monitoring regulations prior to accepting
wastes. Existing landfill units would need to
comply with a State established schedule or a
Federal fall-back schedule.
The proposed rule specified that the ground-
water monitoring system must:
• Be approved by the State;
• Be installed at unit boundary or alternative
boundary;
• Yield representative samples of the
uppermost aquifer;
• Have well casings; and
• Perform throughout the life of the
monitoring program.
The ground water monitoring program is
performed in two phases under the proposed
rule:
• Phase I: detect changes in ground water
chemistry (performed semiannually on a
limited number of parameters); and
• Phase II: identify hazardous constituents
released and to monitor hazardous
constituents detected (State establishes
monitoring frequency).
Corrective Action Program
The proposed rule establishes specific corrective
action plans, including assessment of corrective
measures, remedy selection, and corrective
action program implementation.
Closure and Post-Closure Care
The proposed rule required that closure must
occur in a manner that:
• Minimizes post-closure release of leachate
and explosive gases;
• Minimizes the need for further maintenance;
and
• Ensures protection of human health and the
environment.
The proposed requirements include post-closure
care:
• Maintenance of the final cover and
containment system;
• Leachate collection (when a leachate system
exists);
• Ground water monitoring; and
• Gas monitoring.
Post-closure care must continue for a minimum
of 30 years. Additional time periods may be
added by the State as necessary to protect
human health and the environment.
Financial Assurance
Financial assurance was proposed for closure,
post-closure care, and corrective action for
known releases.
109
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Chapter Nine
LEACHATE FORMATION AND
CONTROL
The term "leachate" refers to liquids that
migrate from the waste carrying dissolved or
suspended contaminants. Leachate results from
precipitation entering the landfill and from
moisture that exists in the waste when it is
disposed. Contaminants in the buried refuse
may result from the disposal of industrial
wastes, ash, waste treatment sludge, household
hazardous wastes, or from normal waste
decomposition. If uncontrolled, landfill leachate
can be responsible for contaminating ground
water and surface water.
The composition of leachate varies greatly from
site to site, and can vary within a particular site.
Some of the factors affecting composition
include:
• Age of landfill;
• Types of waste;
• Degree of decomposition that has taken
place; and
• Physical modification of the waste (e.g.,
shredding).
Once ground water is contaminated, it is very
costly to clean up. Today's landfills, therefore,
undergo rigorous siting, design, and construction
procedures that provide many safeguards for the
control of leachate migration.
Liners
Liners are low-permeability membranes designed
to limit leachate movement into ground water.
Liners are made of low-permeability soils
(typically clays) or synthetic materials (e.g.,
plastic). Landfills can be designed with more
than one liner, and a mix of liner types may be
used.
Leachate collection systems are installed above
the liner and usually consist of a piping system
sloped to drain to a central collection point
where a pump is-located.
Leachate Treatment or Disposal
Once the leachate has been collected and
removed from the landfill, it "must undergo
some type of treatment and disposal. The most
common methods of management are:
Installation of Synthetic Liner
110
-------
Land Disposal
• Discharge to publicly-owned treatment works
(POTWs);
• On-site treatment followed by discharge; and
• Recirculation back into the landfill.
Treatment in a POTW. In some cases, landfill
leachate can be added into incoming wastewater
stream at a POTW, where it is biologically,
physically, and/or chemically treated. Discharge
to a POTW, however, is not an option in all
cases. Care must be taken not to interfere with
operations at the POTW. The contaminants in
leachate can sometimes upset POTW
operations.
On-Site Treatment. When discharge to a POTW
is not feasible, constructing wastewater
treatment facilities on-site with the sole purpose
of treating leachate may be necessary. These
facilities will add to the cost of a new facility,
but may be required to meet environmental
regulations. '
Recirculation. Recirculation is another
management technique for leachate. When
leachate is recirculated through the waste pile,
the decomposition process in the landfill speeds
up, resulting in a shorter time for the landfill to
stabilize. The technique, however, does not
eliminate the leachate. Ultimately, the leachate
will have to be treated by one of the above
methods. Certain restrictions on recirculation,
however, will probably be imposed by the new
landfill rules.
Other leachate management options have been
used in the past, but are not very common,
primarily due to economic factors. These
include deep well injection, natural evaporation,
and mechanical evaporation.
Ground Water Monitoring
To ensure that all of these technologies are
performing their designed function, and that
compliance with all applicable regulations and
permits is being maintained, surface water and
ground water monitoring should be included at
all new landfills. By sampling from ground
water wells located near the solid waste disposal
facility, the presence, degree, and migration of
any leachate can be detected.
Proposed ground water monitoring requirements
were discussed under the "Federal Regulations"
section of this Chapter.
Surface Water Pollution and Control
Surface water can also become contaminated at
or near a landfill, especially if ground water
contamination is present (ground water often
migrates towards, and may be the source of,
surface water). Runoff from the landfill can
contaminate surface waters at or near the "site.
Berms and grading both are used to control
runoff and surface water contamination. .
Surface water monitoring should also take place
to detect any contamination as quickly as
possible.
METHANE FORMATION AND
CONTROL
Methane gas is a product of the anaerobic
(absence of air) decomposition of organic
refuse. At and around municipal solid waste
landfills, methane can migrate through soil and
accumulate in closed areas (e.g., building
basements) where it can present significant '
explosion dangers if not properly controlled.
(methane is explosive in confined spaces when
found in concentrations between 5 and 15
percent).
Clay Liner Installation and Compaction
111
-------
Chapter Nine
Pipes for Leachate Collection
Landfill gas emissions are comprised of a
mixture of carbon dioxide and methane, of
which methane comprises 50 to 60 percent. A
normal landfill will generate methane at these
concentrations for 10 to 20 years as waste
decomposition takes place, although methane
generation can continue for over 100 years.
Methane Control
Due to the inherent danger, methods of
controlling landfill gas have been developed.
Once methane is collected, it is usually vented
into the atmosphere, flared (burned), or
recovered as an energy source.
Both passive and active methane control systems
can be used at landfill sites. In passive systems,
trenches are dug around the perimeter of the
landfill and are filled with gravel and perforated
piping. As methane is formed in the landfill, it
migrates to the perimeter trenches where it •
travels up the piping system and is eventually
vented or flared. In some instances, a
membrane liner is added to the outside walls of
the trenches to further inhibit gas migration
beyond the site.
Active systems use blowers to extract landfill gas
from the landfill.
Methane Recover?
In addition to controlling methane to reduce
explosion risks, recovering methane for fuel may
also be a viable option at landfills generating
sufficient quantities of gas. Methane can be
cleaned (remove impurities) and sold as a low-
grade fuel or it can be purified and upgraded to
pipeline-quality methane. The economics of
these options depend largely on current natural
gas prices.
The gas-to-energy industry is growing, as 155
landfills in the United States recover or plan to
recover methane gas (Berenyi, 1989).
Approximately 50 percent of these are currently
operational. Methane recovery is expected to
become an important aspect of municipal solid
waste landfill operation in the future.
: Volatile Organic
Compound (VOX?) Emissions
In addition ID methane and carbon dioxide,
landfill gas usually contains small; quantifies o£
volatile organic compounds. VOCs are often.
toxic and sometimes carcinogenic, sad may
•present an environmental risk at landfills.
YOCs Steve also been, flfltea to tow-level ossoae
BPA's Office.
-------
Land Disposal
environmental impacts. Post-closure costs are
also discussed in the next section.
Potential new Federal requirements for closure
and post-closure care were discussed earlier in
this chapter.
SITING A NEW LANDFILL
Siting a new landfill involves analyzing the
scientific, logistical, and societal factors
associated with location alternatives.
Design Factors
Because of strict legal and environmental
regulations, careful scientific and engineering
analysis must take place during potential site
evaluation. Surface and subsurface geology,
hydrogeology, and the environmental nature of
surrounding areas must be evaluated for
potential impacts. Ground-water resources and
flow must be protected, and the integrity of
soils must be preserved. A substantial
hydrogeological investigation and the prediction
of leachate quantities are usually performed
early in the planning stages.
Logistical Factors
Because of siting difficulties, new landfills are
being built further and further from waste
generation points. This has a significant impact
on collection and transport operations. When
siting a new facility, decision makers will have
to consider logistical factors such as access
roads, travel distance, and travel time.
Community Factors
Community residents have very real concerns
regarding potential health and environmental
impacts, decreased property values, and
increased traffic. Decision makers will benefit
from addressing these concerns as early in the
planning stages as possible. EPA is currently
preparing a facility siting guide entitled Sites for
Our Solid Waste: A Guidebook for Effective
Public Involvement.
tear
1982
s 1983
1984
1985
,198$
Tip Fee
$10.80
LANDFILL COSTS
Diminished capacities and increased
environmental
concerns have
directly led to ,f ftp feeS
increased landfill
costs and tipping
fees. According to a
survey by the
National Solid
Wastes Management
Association, average
landfill tipping fees
(for a national
sample) increased ,198$ ' $13.43'
over 30 percent 'l987,v $20,36
between 1987 and
1988 (Pettit, 1989).
Tipping fees vary (Source; fettit,
significantly from ' I9g9)
region to region. - '" '
Factors contributing
to the rising landfill costs include:
• Stricter, more comprehensive environmental
regulations;
• Increased public awareness and demand for
environmental protection;
• Time delays in obtaining permits;
• Compensation to local parties (those who
are affected by a new site); and
• State fee assessments for recycling, refuse-to-
energy, environmental restoration, ground
water protection, etc. (Glebs, 1988).
Pre-Development Costs
Pre-development costs are usually associated
with site selection, investigation, and permitting
costs. Land prices are" directly linked to local
economics, and can vary greatly from place to
place. Landfills located in remote areas
generally have lower land costs but higher
transportation costs. As environmental and/- '
legal requirements become more stringent,
permitting and licensing also become more
complex. The cost of obtaining a permit or
license (and the cost of the engineering or legal
113
-------
Chapter Nine
support associated with permitting) depend on
the requirements of the particular state.
Construction Costs
These factors vary from location to location, so
operating costs are site-specific. Some example
operating costs are outlined in Figure 9.4. Note
that these are in 1986 dollars.
Several factors contribute to the overall cost of
landfill construction:
General excavation;
Liner construction;
Leachate collection/extraction system design;
Leachate treatment system;
Ground water monitoring system;
Surface water drainage controls; and
Other facilities and equipment (scales,
maintenance building, access roads, fencing).
The impact of these factors can vary
considerably from site to site. The liner and
leachate collection/treatment system is generally
the most expensive component of the landfill.
Figure 9.3 provides some general construction
cost information. These costs are only
examples, actual costs could be very different.
Construction Cpsts
Construction oasis fora stat«H)£-the-att toaasa<
Total;
$4.00
Peitientof Totfcl "„
Lwffijl Costs -, 355%
Typical Operating Costs *
$986 Dollars)
'
Operation Costs
{For a 606-756 -1PD site, ineiudin|: personnel/
'
^
Leacfcat«: collecticm, treatmeiit
fay tpfdfc JO -mile tffxi?>' '
a» etttatent
liner and coliectiou system vvitfi
4rainsge, a typical tatft of generatiott
10,000 gs
about io>flOO gallott* $&;
-------
Land Disposal
9,5
Typical Closure Costs
098* Dollars)
Item Range of pnit Prices
$2,20" to $2-50 per ou y4,
$2,00 to $2.50 per cnt y4<
£850 per acre
to $s,
115
-------
Chapter Nine
Chapter Nine Bibliography
Berenyi, Eileen, and Robert Gould, 1988-89 Methane Recovery From Landfill Yearbook: Directory and
Guide, Governmental Advisory Associates, Inc., 177 East 87th St., New York, NY 10128. Tel: (212)
410-4165, 1989.
Dwyer, J.R. et al., Evaluation of Municipal Solid Waste Landfill Cover Designs, EPA, Hazardous Waste
Engineering Lab., Cincinnati, OH ,December 1986. Available through: National Technical
Information Service, Springfield, VA 22161. Tel: (703) 487-4650. Doc: PB88-171327,
EPA, Criteria for Municipal Solid Waste Landfills (40 CFR Part 258). Updated Provisions of State
Solid Waste Regulations, Office of Solid Waste, July 1988. Available through: National Technical
Information Service, Springfield, VA 22161 Tel: (703) 487-4650 Doc: PB88-242458/XAB.
EPA, Critical Review and Summary ofLeachate and Gas Production from Landfills, August 1986.
Available through: National Technical Information Service, Springfield, VA 22161. Tel: (703)
487-4650. Doc: PB86-240181/XAB.
EPA, Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA) Ground-Water Monitoring Technical
Enforcement Guidance Document, Office of Waste Programs Enforcement, September 1986. Available
through National Technical Information Service, Springfield, VA 22161. Tel: (703) 487-4650. Doc:
PB87-107751/XAB.
EPA, Sites for Our Solid Waste: A Guidebook for Effective Public Involvement (Preliminary Draft), Office
of Solid Waste, Washington, D.C., 1989.
EPA, The Solid Waste Dilemma: An Agenda for Action, Office of Solid Waste, Washington, D.C.,
January 1989.
EPA, 40 CFR Parts 257 and 258 Solid Waste Disposal Facility Criteria; Proposed Rule, Federal Register,
Tuesday, August 30, 1988, p. 33314.
Glebs, R.T., "Landfill Costs Continue to Rise," Waste Age, March 1988, p. 84.
Glebs, R.T., "Estimating Landfill Costs: Environmental Control, Planning to Post-Closure Care,"
proceedings, GRCDA Conference, August 1987. Cited in GRCDA, May 1989.
GRCDA, GRCDA Training Course Manual: Managing Sanitary Landfill Operations, Government Refuse
Collection and Disposal Association, P.O. Box 7219, Silver Spring, Maryland 20910. Tel: (301) 585-
2898, May 1989.
Merry, William, A Comprehensive Hazardous Waste Exclusion Program at a Municipal Solid Waste
Landfill, Government Refuse Collection and Disposal Association, P.O. Box 7219, Silver Spring, MD
20910. Tel: (301) 585-2898, August 1987.
O'Leary, Philip, Larry Canter, William D. Robinson, "Land Disposal," in The Solid Waste Handbook: A
Practical Guide, William D. Robinson, ed., New York: John Wiley and Sons, 1986.
Pettit, C.L., "Tip Fees Up More Than 30% in Annual NSWMA Survey," Waste Age, March 1989, p.
101.
116
-------
Special Wastes
Chapter Ten
Special Wastes
, • .. , , ,
* Proper management ol foo
hazardous wastes will have positive
f • T • „ •" •• •"*•
,: environmental effects and
operation*
- ',"''- '/? ",' js- -y "" , ^ _ ,„ s s
.. * . :;Used oil should be seen as a valuable
-
Jett residing 'can have significant
''•• senvironjnental ^4 ecottowle benefits,
- '; ¥' Tires cause problems in landfills and
s» HevFoSes for used, tires
* \ Construction and demolition debris,
d KWtft goods all
elements,
Special wastes, such as household hazardous
wastes, used oil, and tires are not normally
collected with other municipal solid waste and
require special handling practices. These wastes
present unique problems and opportunities for
decision makers.
HOUSEHOLD HAZARDOUS
WASTE (HHW)
Many products used for everyday household
cleaning and upkeep contain substances that can
threaten human health and the environment if
they are disposed of improperly. Common
detergents, cleaners, and furniture polishes, as
well as pesticides, paints, thinners, solvents, and
do-it-yourself automotive materials are just a
few examples of these "household hazardous
wastes."
The disposal of household hazardous waste is
unregulated in most states. Therefore, people
typically dispose of it by pouring it down drains
or storm sewers, burning or burying it in the ,
backyard, or mixing it in with non-hazardous
household waste that is .collected by the city or
a waste management company. Unfortunately,
many people either do not realize that
household hazardous waste should be disposed
of in a special manner, or they find it too
inconvenient or costly to do so. Decision
makers must be aware of this problem and seek
to educate citizens about household hazardous
waste as well as provide them with
opportunities to dispose of it properly.
Improper Disposal of HHW
Although improperly disposed of household
hazardous waste makes up only a very small
percentage (less than one percent) of the
municipal solid waste stream, it can pose
serious problems for any type of waste
management effort. Even small amounts of
some substances can cause fires and explosions,
117
-------
Chapter Ten
release toxic fumes, contaminate soil and
ground water, and harm those who handle them
unknowingly.
Quantifying the precise risks and effects of
improper household hazardous waste disposal is
difficult for several reasons. First, it is almost
impossible to determine how much of the waste
stream household hazardous wastes make up.
The composition of this fraction is also very
difficult to determine. In addition, many
common methods of household hazardous waste
disposal (pouring down the drain, backyard
burning, etc.) are very difficult to track.
Researchers have also had difficulty
distinguishing the damage resulting from
household hazardous waste from the damage
attributable to illegally deposited hazardous
waste from other sources.
Improper Disposal of
Household Hazardous Wastes
Improper disposal of household hazardous
^wastes can .lead to a variety of problems;
materials,
systems and at wstewater treatment plants,
ground and stttfeee water pollution, tceac
accumulation in food chains, :
•• st
» jfedncratlom Sites and fcaglostott*, tesfe
emissions, concentrated toxic ash. "
• Burial: Soil and ground water contamination,
fires and explosions, toxic fumes.
" Miring with non-hazardous wastes ijann to
workers during handling.
Special HHW Collection Programs
In the past, efforts to rninimize improper
household hazardous waste disposal have
included public education programs, toll-free
information "hot-lines", special collection days,
recycling of certain wastes, and permanent waste
collection sites.
Collection Days
One of the most common approaches to
household hazardous waste management is to
hold a community waste collection day. On
collection days, community members are invited
to bring their household hazardous wastes, at
little or no charge, to a specified location for
recycling, treatment, or disposal by professional
waste handlers. Promotion and education for
these events are very important.
A great deal of advanced planning and
coordination is required to make these events
successful and cost-effective. Persons familiar
with HHW must be on hand to direct people to
the proper storage area or container. Chemists
may also be required, especially if any mixing
("bulking") of materials will take place.
Participation in collection days is usually less
than one percent, which makes the cost per
person quite high. The cost of collection day
programs can range from $30 to $300 per
participant (Conn, 1989). It is important to
remember, however, that even if households do
not participate directly in a collection day, the
publicity surrounding the event will raise
awareness about the household hazardous waste
problems. This will encourage people to use
proper disposal methods in the future and
participate in the next collection day.
Permanent Collection Sites
To increase the convenience of the program
and, therefore, increase participation, more and
more communities are establishing permanent
collection sites (e.g. fire stations, landfill, county
property) to collect HHW. Programs involving
permanent collection facilities allow citizens to
drop off wastes at their own convenience.
Thus, permanent collection sites can be more
effective for collecting HHW than one day
collections.
HHW Exchanges
Waste exchanges are programs that allow
community members to "recycle" household
products, such as cleaners, paints, batteries, and
some kinds of pesticides, that have been
brought to a waste collection site by others.
Household hazardous waste exchanges are not
common activities, however, mainly due to the
_
-------
Special Wastes
risk of distributing incorrectly labeled or
contaminated products. Sponsors could be held
liable for injury or damage resulting from the
use of the "recycled" HHW.
HHW Management and Disposal
EPA suggests that program sponsors follow the
waste management hierarchy for managing
collected HHW. This means reusing and
recycling as much as possible, then treating
waste in a hazardous waste treatment facility
and finally, disposing of the remaining waste in
a hazardous waste landfill.
Household hazardous waste is exempt by
definition from the Federal hazardous waste
regulations of RCRA All household wastes are
exempt, including HHW that has been
accumulated in HHW collection programs.
State and local requirements may differ, so
decision makers should review both.
Although HHW is exempt from RCRA Subtitle
C hazardous waste regulations, EPA
recommends that sponsors of HHW collection
programs manage the collected HHW as a
hazardous waste. When a community has
already gone to the effort and expense of
collecting these materials, Subtitle C controls
provide a greater level of human health and
environmental protection and reduce potential
CERCLA liability (CERCLA does not exempt
household hazardous waste from liability).
Benefits of Removing HHW From
the Municipal Waste Stream
It is important to keep in mind that the chief
goal of any program that addresses household
hazardous waste is to reduce the amount of this
waste that is being added to the everyday
municipal solid waste stream. The benefits
from diverting HHW from the waste stream are
immediate. In addition to potential damage to
drainpipes and water supplies, HHW can lead
to ground water contamination at landfills and
composting facilities, and hazardous air
emissions and contaminated ash at municipal
waste combustion facilities. Decision makers
should carefully balance the costs and benefits
of any special household hazardous waste
program. A well planned HHW program can
create significant environmental benefits.
USED OIL
Used oil is a valuable resource that should be
recycled for several reasons. One of the main
concerns associated with used oil is that it can
contain a number of materials that can cause
harm to human health and the environment if
disposed of improperly. For instance, pouring
oil down storm drains, onto the ground, or into
the trash, can contaminate ground water, surface
water, and soils. It only takes one gallon of oil
to ruin one million gallons of water.
Recycling used oil saves energy and natural
resources. Used oil can be rerefined into
lubricating oil and used again as motor oil or
reprocessed and used as fuel in industrial
burners and boilers.
EPA estimates that do-it-yourselfers.(DIY),
those who change their own oil, generate 200
million gallons of used oil per year. Of this, it
is estimated that only 10 percent Js recycled.
That means 180 million gallons per year are
poured onto the ground, down sewers,- or into
the trash, contaminating surface and ground
water as well as soil. Clearly, greater efforts
should be made by decision makers to increase
the level of used oil recycling in communities
throughout the country.
Used oil is not currently a federally listed
hazardous waste. As with household hazardous
waste, DIY used oil collected in local recycling
programs is not exempt from CERCLA liability.
For this reason, it is important that the
program sponsor be sure the DIY used oil is
Benefits of Used Oil Recycling
« It tsflcea onfy one gaJhm of usefl *sl t# wafce
the Z5 quarts of lubricating Oil that it takes
42 gallons Of crude oil to maka
• Re-refining oil takes Only about one-third tbe
energy required to refine crude 08. to
lubricant quality.
• If aU of the used oil m the 0^. were
recycled^ it would save the XL&. 1.3 miffloa
barrels oE oil per day.
»- One gallon of used oil used as fuel contains
alxn* 140,000 Sttt of ensuf.
119
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Chapter Ten
being recycled by a reputable company. It is
also important that individuals who contribute
oil for recycling, do not mix the used oil with
any other substances, (e.g., gasoline, paint
thinner). Mixing can contaminate the oil and
make it unfit for recycling.
Decision makers should also investigate State
and local regulations for used oil, since these
are often more stringent than the Federal
regulations.
Used Oil Collection Programs
In the past few years, efforts to initiate used oil
recycling programs have been successful. As of
1988, over half of the States either had or were
planning to start used oil recycling programs.
Many of these programs are joint efforts
between local governments and private or semi-
private sponsors. Local sponsors often design,
organize, and promote the program, while local
governments collect the used oil at central
collection centers or by means of curbside
pickups. As with any type of recycling program,
it is important to provide convenient collection
service and maintain high levels of education
and promotion of the program.
Curbside Collection Prog/rams
In a curbside collection program, used oil is
picked up at a designated time along with
regular trash or other recyclables. Normally,
the used oil is then transferred to a holding
tank where it is picked up by a used oil hauler. '
If this kind of collection program is
implemented, it is very important to coordinate
closely with the local waste haulers and
recycling collection crews so that collection
trucks are equipped with temporary holding
tanks or storage space for the used oil.
A variation on this type of program is periodic
curbside collection. Ideally, periodic collections
occur during peak oil-changing seasons, in the
late spring and early fall. Continual public
promotion is crucial to the success of both
regular and periodic curbside collection
programs.
Designated Collection Sites
Designated collection sites are drums or tanks
set up in established private or public locations
for the collection of used oil. It is very
important that the location of such a site be
both convenient and accessible. Locations that
are frequently chosen include stores selling
discount oil, fire stations, service stations, and
landfills. These sites must be well marked and
frequently maintained in order to minimize the
risk of contamination. In addition, they should
be serviced regularly to make sure that there is
always sufficient room in the collection
containers for more oil.
Businesses With Established Oil Collection Tanks
Many businesses that regularly use oil
themselves, such as service stations, car
dealerships, and taxi or rental car garages,
already have tanks installed for used oil
collection. When the price of virgin oil was
high, many of these groups accepted used oil
from DIYers. Today, fewer will take the oil
because of increased costs and confusion over
the regulatory status of used oil. Decision
makers should encourage these businesses to
accept used oil and should make their services
known to the community.
Special Drop-off Days
Used oil can also be collected on special drop-
off days such as community household
hazardous waste collection days. It is important
to publicize these special collection days
throughout the community in order to ensure
high rates of participation. (These programs
are similar to the HHW collection days
described above.)
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Special Wastes
TIKES
Over 200 million tires are disposed of annually,
primarily in landfills or tire piles. Landfilling
or stockpiling tires, however, are not the "best"
management options. Tires are large volume
wastes that take up a significant amount of
space at landfills. As landfill space becomes
more scarce, this becomes an increasingly
expensive option.
Besides the valuable space they use, tires placed
in landfills pose other "burial" problems. Not
only do they cause uneven settling, they tend to
rise in landfills and can break landfill covers.
Stockpiling of tires also presents problems.
Large tire piles are a potential source of large,
difficult-to-extinguish fires which emit noxious
fumes. The stockpiles also provide an ideal
habitat for breeding mosquitos and vermin that
can spread disease.
Tire manufacturers have worked hard to make
their products more durable. Today's passenger
car tire has an average life of 40,000 miles,
while tires during the World War II era lasted
only 10,000 miles. Unfortunately, the
availability of inexpensive natural and synthetic
rubber has decreased the number .of tires which
are retreaded. In addition, the durability and
.the complex mixture of ingredients in radial
tires make them a challenge to recycle.
Tire Recycling
Despite the disposal problems associated with
tires, they are only beginning to be recognized
as a valuable resource. For several reasons,
used tires are well-suited to recycling or reuse.
Because used tires are often stored in
stockpiles, or are disposed of in large quantities
by retailers who haul them by the truckload,
used tires are a particularly accessible material
for recycling or reuse. Also, tire components are
fairly standard making them particularly suitable
for recycling. Tire recycling options include:
• Retreading or recapping decent-quality used
tires for reuse;
• Using whole tires for playground equipment
or in reef construction;
• Chopping, shredding, or grinding used tires
and reusing the rubber in smaller rubber
parts such as rubber mats and molded
rubber objects; and
• Mixing ground rubber from tires with
asphalt to produce rubberized paving
materials.
Tire-Derived Fuel
The energy .value of tires is high (comparable to
high grade coal) so reuse as fuel may be an
option. Tire-derived fuel (TDF) refers to tires
that have been shredded into small rubber chips
that are burned in dedicated TDF boilers or
used as a replacement for high grade
bituminous coal. Facilities that may use TDF
as a fuel include cement kilns, pulp and paper
facilities, and electric power plants.
CONSTRUCTION / DEMOLITION
WASTE
Construction and demolition (C&D) debris is
made up of a variety of waste materials from
building and demolition sites. These materials
include: steel, asphalt, concrete, brick, plaster,
wallboard, and piping.
Most construction/demolition debris is currently
disposed of in landfills. It is usually separated
from other solid waste since its contents are
relatively inert and the requirements for the
disposal of such wastes are not as stringent as
the requirements for the disposal of standard
municipal solid waste.
However, some construction/demolition debris
contains toxic substances such as asbestos, an
insulating material that has been determined to
be a carcinogen associated with lung cancer.
Other hazardous materials that may be found in
this waste include lead pipes, PCBs in
transformers and capacitors, and toxics in paints
and treated lumber. If hazardous materials are
found in construction/demolition debris, they
must be removed and handled separately.
Recyclable Materials in C&D waste
Much construction/demolition debris contains
recyclable materials. For instance, asphalt can
be reused in road repair, and bricks and
121
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Chapter Ten
cinderblocks make good fill material.
Unfortunately, these materials are often difficult
to recycle because they are combined in the
construction process and are not easy to
separate. Economical ways to separate these
materials must be found before their full
recycling potential will be realized.
WOOD WASTES
About four percent of what EPA defines as the
solid waste stream (excluding construction/
demolition wastes) consists of wood (EPA,
1988). Nearly half of this wood is wood
packaging such as shipping pallets and boxes.
Processing Wood Wastes
Ideally, wood wastes are processed at materials
recovery facilities (MRFs) or transfer stations
rather than being sent to landfills. Wood waste
can then be separated for recycling. Removing
wood from the waste stream conserves landfill
space and saves energy and natural resources.
When wood is sent to a MRF or a transfer
station, it is hand inspected and processed until
an acceptable level of purity is reached. It is
then sent through large chippers, magnetic
separators to remove metal debris such as nails
and staples, and screens to remove undersize
chips and residue. The final product consists of
wood chips 1/2 to 3 inches in size.
Uses of Processed Wood
Where markets are available, use as an
industrial fuel constitutes the best outlet for
processed wood, mainly because it can currently
be sold at higher prices. Processed wood is also
sold as mulch or used for landfill cover.
Waste wood is turning into a business, as
recycling facilities that accept only wood are
generating fair amounts of revenue. Tipping
fees at these facilities are lower than those at
general waste disposal sites when the wood has
already been separated from the waste stream.
Both the recycling facility, which gets its raw
material, and the generator, who saves money
through lower disposal costs, benefit from this
arrangement. Like all recycling operations,
however, waste wood recycling will be
economically feasible only if a steady supply and
a steady market are available.
WHITE GOODS
White goods are large, worn-out or broken
household and industrial appliances such as
stoves, refrigerators, and clothes dryers. These
wastes are usually handled by scrap processors
who use shredders to recover the metal
components of the appliances for reuse in mills
and foundries to produce new steel. There is
some concern over the presence of
polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) in the
electrical components used in, some white goods.
Many scrap metal dealers and brokers require
that PCB-containing components be removed
before the appliances are processed. Most
municipalities currently pay to have their white
goods disposed.
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Special Wastes
Chapter Ten Bibliography
Chertow, Marian, Garbage Solutions: A Public Official's Guide to Recycling and Alternative Solid Waste "
Management Technologies, National Resource Recovery Association, United States Conference of
Mayors, 1620 Eye Street, N.W., Washington, B.C. 20006. Tel: (202) 293-7330, 1989.
Conn, David W., "Managing Household Hazardous Waste," Journal of the American Planning
Association, Volume 55, No. 2, Spring 1989, p. 192.
Illinois Environmental Protection Agency, Household Hazardous Wastes: Feasibility of Operating a
Collection Disposal Assistance Program, IEPA, Springfield, Illinois, February 1989.
EPA, The Solid Waste Dilemma: An Agenda for Action, Office of Solid Waste, Washington, D.C.,
January 1989.
EPA, How to Set Up a Local Used Oil Recycling Program, Office of Solid Waste, Washington, D.C.,
EPA/530-SW-89-039A, 1989. Available through RCRA Hotline: 1-800-424-9346.
EPA, Survey of Household Hazardous Wastes and Related Collection Programs, Office of Solid Waste
and Emergency Response, Washington, D.C., October 1986. Available through the National
Technical Information Service, Springfield, VA 22161. Tel: (703) 487-4650. Doc: PB87-
108072/XAB.
EPA, Used Oil Recycling: 10 Steps to Change Your Oil, Office of Solid Waste, Washington, D.C., 1989.
Available through RCRA Hotline: 1-800-424-9346.
EPA, Used Oil Recycling: What Can You Do?, Office of Solid Waste, Washington, D.C., 1989.
Available through RCRA Hotline: 1-800-424-9346.
EPA, Used Oil Recycling: For Service Stations and Other Vehicle Service Facilities, Office of Solid Waste,
Washington, D.C., 1989. Available through RCRA Hotline: 1-800-424-9346.
United States Department of Energy, Waste Tire Utilization, U.S. DOE, Washington, D.C., March 1987.
123
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Chapter Ten
124
-------
Public Education and Involvement
Chapter Eleven
Public Education and Involvement
MAJOR MESSAGES
; "'-: >"-- '^>~ -, /
y Dwisioa wafcgp s&wld S&voh?e the „,
public early in ffre waste '
? management planning
"
^ f
« Promotibn and educsitloQ programs
/ $li^1dWtt^«4^^aeee(sr<>f
" eadi community and maintained
- ' ""
for
' ! involvement requires tihat decision
;' makers understand their andienee,
Vy^eiau^a fonttal j^3laji, aaift establish
1 a method for evaluating programs.
.' 8tio»v
, and funding activities are challenges
implement education and involvement
programs. "*','_, ' \ '..',
e puTblie b«s a rght and a
w "costs and liabilities of managing the
' , they produce, ' ^
Whether decision makers are considering
mandatory recycling, organizing a household
hazardous waste collection program, or
developing a source reduction campaign for
industries, public education and involvement
will play a significant role before a program is
chosen as well as after. Public recognition and
concern regarding solid waste management
issues has increased tremendously in the last
several years and will continue to increase into
the 1990s. Public education efforts result in a
more informed citizenry that can actively
participate in solving its community's solid
waste problems.
The terms public education and public
involvement encompass a broad scope of
activities and techniques designed to help
citizens participate in decisions, convey
information, solicit citizen concerns, heighten
public awareness, and motivate participation in
programs. A comprehensive solid waste
management education and involvement
program makes use of civic groups, businesses,
schools, churches, and the media to participate
in decision making and to promote a positive
solid waste ethic through meetings, special
events, lectures, promotional materials,
newsletters, displays, contests, and collection
activities.
Public Involvement in Decision
Making
Decision makers should strive to involve the
public in decision making throughout the solid
waste management planning process. It is
particularly important for decision makers to
work with the community in the initial planning
process. An advisory council or task force can
be established to provide an organizational
framework for citizen participation. This group
could include citizens, business people, members
of local environmental groups, community
neighborhood groups, and church organizations.
125
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Chapter Eleven
The advisory group can be educated about the
local waste management situation, the full costs
and liabilities associated with managing the
waste, and the management and disposal
options which are available. The community
group can identify concerns and assist the
decision makers in integrating solutions into the
plan for the management of waste. This type of
input can build community support for the
chosen management scenario and can increase
its success.
Management of municipal waste requires
flexibility in program design; for this reason, it
is helpful to maintain the citizen advisory group
even after initial planning. The advisory group
can provide feedback on chosen options and
make recommendations about changes and
additions to the program.
Key to Effective Public Education
and Participation
Implementing new waste management programs
requires education of the public, especially for
programs where citizen participation is needed.
Education information for the public should
answer the questions of "where?, when?, why?,
and how?". The education program should be
positive, and provide simple instructions on how
to participate. Opportunities for
communicating with and involving the public
should be established early in the planning
process. For example, if a neighborhood drop-
off site for recyclables is going to be
established, the decision maker should promote
it to build citizen interest and support, even
before it is in place. Communication with the
public and promotion of the program should be
ongoing. Media events, posters, newsletters, are
all good tools to use in a continuing education
program.
An effective education and promotion program
should be planned with the community's needs
in mind. But it is not necessary to "reinvent
the wheel." A significant amount of time and
energy can be saved by examining the public
education activities that other communities have
initiated — borrowing from their successes and
learning from their failures. Decision makers
can review activities and educational materials
used in other public awareness programs, such
as seat belt safety campaigns. Techniques used
in these campaigns to promote an idea or
suggest a new behavior can be modified to
express a municipal solid waste management
theme.
Building a successful public participation
program will be assisted by explaining to the
public how the parts of the integrated plan were
decided upon, who participated in the decision
making and what was taken into consideration.
Also, the public has a right and responsibility to
understand the full costs and liabilities
associated with management of the waste they
generate. This information will help the public
understand the importance of the municipal
waste management issues, assist in gaining
community support and help individuals take
responsibility for the waste they generate.
PLANNING A PUBLIC
EDUCATION PROGRAM
Successful public education programs are the
result of careful planning. By developing a
realistic education and involvement plan,
decision makers can assess the situation and
know where best to direct their efforts and
resources.
Decision makers will benefit from taking
advantage of all opportunities to work with the
community. The process of developing an
education and involvement plan provides an
opportunity to involve the community in the
planning process at an early point. The
previously described citizens advisory council or
other groups like environmental education
subcommittees of local organizations can
provide valuable input and assistance in
developing the plan.
Understanding Your Audiences
The first step in public education planning is to
understand the different audiences that exist
within the community and determine how these
diverse groups receive information. What are
some of the sub-groups within the community?
Should public awareness materials be bilingual?
What are citizens concerned about? What local
radio news programs and talk shows do
residents listen to? Do citizens respond well to
public notices included in their county or city
126
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Public Education and Involvement
bills? Are posters at local stores an effective
method of getting across a message? Are civic
groups already conducting recycling or litter
education campaigns? Answering these kinds of
questions will ensure that the appropriate
messages, activities, and media are used in the
plan. Decision makers can conduct interviews
with community leaders, administer public
opinion surveys, and work with existing citizen
advisory groups to gather this information.
Preparing A Plan
The second step in public education planning is
to prepare a formal plan. The program should
be broken down into one-year increments so
that its goals are manageable. Decision makers
should include the following in their plans:
• Main issues or challenges to be
addressed;
• Goals to be reached;
• Activities and events to accomplish each
goal;
• Resources (funding, volunteers, and
community support) available for each
activity and event; and
• Timeline that coordinates'public
education efforts with program
implementation and takes into account
« seasonal activities and events.
There is a broad range of possible activities or
events that can be included in a public
education plan. The activities chosen should
promote and complement the specific waste
management options being considered or
implemented as part of the community's solid
waste management program. For example, if a
community's first priority is to reduce wastes
from businesses and industries, then education
programs targeted toward business associations
need to be emphasized.
Proposed activities should also satisfy the
information needs of the community and be
within a community's budget and resource
limits. In some instances, decision makers
should consider conducting smaller-scale pilot
public education projects. Such efforts can
/ — -FaeiHtF Siting
, , / , , v , i ' ' '
As a tesalt of developing: a new waste
management plaut decision, makers may
find: themselves ia the position of
having to site aew'%aste management
facilities (e\g, landfills, incinerators,
, recycling, and compost facilities), an
%aetivity that is often met with great
community opposition. Without a
comprehensive process 'for Identifying.
coflt^urMty concern! ari<3 integrating
t&ern.' into toe 'deeiislo^maklBf process,
dedsio» makers caa 6e &ce$ with costly
project delays and even eaneellatioris.
has fur epared a
guide for decision makers to assist them
ia. CQmmuHicattog ^titi and itiwlviag
" the public &ir mg the siting #f waste
management facilities, This document
is entitled Sites for Our Solid Waste: A
la addMOtt to discussing
'risk communication, "mitigating impacts,
aad bi*ip&g crMblity for technical '
infoanation, ihe guidebook describes, a
variety of pijbHe involvemenj a'ctivities
that can be^sect Co Improve eoaunonity
'relations at a new waste management,
site, Decision, rflaken ^1 t?e»eflt Srom
reading this guide tegasflless
ax not taey are involved to. a siting
effort TM fablic"particij}afion
tecttalques described can be used
all phases of solid waste management
provide a perfect testing ground for new ideas.
Lessons learned from these projects can be
incorporated into larger, more visible projects
as the program gains public support.
Evaluating Activities
The final step in public education planning is to
establish a method for evaluating each of the
program activities. Evaluating each activity will
provide decision makers with the information
needed to refine and modify the plan over time.
For example, if a community has a goal of
127
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Chapter Eleven
reducing the amount of household hazardous
waste going to its landfill, its public education
plan could include periodic household
hazardous waste collection events. Decision
makers could set participation and collection
goals for each event. Tallies of the number of
actual participants and the amount and types of
household hazardous wastes collected could be
kept to determine if goals were achieved. In
addition, a simple survey form could be passed
out to participants to solicit comments on the
event's logistics, advertising, and overall
effectiveness.
The data gathered to evaluate an activity, such
as the number of participants, should be
communicated to the community. Feedback on
the accomplishments of the program will serve
as positive reinforcement for the community.
MEETING PUBLIC EDUCATION
AND PUBLIC INVOLVEMENT
CHALLENGES
Many public education and involvement efforts
that address waste management issues face
similar challenges. Three of the more common
challenges include successfully delivering
educational messages, maintaining program
participation, and funding activities or a
program.
Successfully Delivering Educational
Messages
Budget constraints all too often restrain
decision makers from hiring solid waste public
education specialists. Some states, such as Ohio
and Virginia, have established county grants for
litter control and recycling programs that have
enabled local communities to hire education
personnel. However, one or two people cannot
effectively visit every classroom, or talk at every
civic organization meeting. As a result, decision
makers need to be resourceful when deciding
upon the best approach for delivering their
education programs.
Educating Young People
Teaching young people about solid waste
management — about the value of recycling and
reducing litter and household hazardous wastes
and the need for properly operated waste
management facilities ~ is essential for
developing a responsible solid waste ethic
among a community's future residents. In
addition to future benefits, youth-oriented
programs can have an immediate pay-off by
bringing recycling and other waste management
messages home to parents. It is important to
remember that schools and educators are
already overwhelmed by "Fire Prevention Week,"
"Dental Care Week," and a variety of other .
important issues such as drug abuse that take
time away from required studies. Therefore,
when developing in-school education programs,
decision makers should use interdisciplinary
activities that can be integrated into teacher's
lesson plans throughout the year. For example,
math problems that use recycling statistics, short
stories or plays about conservation issues,
science experiments that deal with waste
disposal, or word puzzles that use solid waste
management terms, can be part of a waste
awareness curriculum.
Many states, communities, and non-profit
organizations have already developed effective
curricula covering recycling, litter control, and
waste management. (EPA has a national solid
waste curriculum entitled Let's Recycle:
Curriculum for Solid Waste Awareness). IJy
using these materials, decision makers can
minimize high development costs.
Interdisciplinary curricula, complemented by
special events, such as recycling drives or waste
management science fair projects, allow for
maximum teacher and student participation,
flexibility, and creativity.
In-school education programs are not the only
avenue through which children can be reached.
Decision makers should consider developing
programs that can be integrated with activities
that are already organized at the local level
such as reading programs at libraries and after-
school programs at boys and girls clubs. Other
youth-oriented organizations, such as church
youth groups, 4-H clubs, and Junior
Achievement clubs, should also be explored.
For example, Girl Scouts and Boy Scouts have
merit badges that focus on ecology, recycling,
128
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Public Education and Involvement
litter clean-up, and civic pride. One way to
educate Scouts about solid waste management is
to conduct workshops for their Troop Leaders.
At a workshop, Troop Leaders can learn about
local solid waste management operations,
potential field trip opportunities, and specific
projects that their Scouts can undertake to earn
related badges. This type of "targeted"
approach to public education is cost-effective
since the Troop Leaders will end up sharing
their new knowledge with hundreds of
youngsters year after year.
i
Encouraging Program Participation
Establishing and maintaining participation in a
solid waste program can be a perpetual
challenge for any decision maker. This
challenge is complicated by the addition of new
program elements, such as source reduction and
recycling, which require a change in citizen
attitude and action. For example, attention to
the separation and non-contamination of certain
wastes may be required. One key to this
challenge is to implement activities that
promote a sense of community pride and
ownership. Neighborhood recycling drop-off
centers are an excellent example of an activity
that can foster a sense of community pride.
People develop a sense of pride by playing an
active role in the development of a recycling
drop-off center and in participating in
collection. Decision makers can solicit youth
groups or civic organizations to paint the
center's collection bins or landscape the
surrounding grounds. A contest to name the
local drop-off center will enable neighbors to
develop a sense of ownership for the facility.
Neighborhood drop-off centers can also become
social places where people see their neighbors
and can enjoy participation together. If several
drop-off centers exist in a community, contests
measuring the amount of recyclables collected
during a certain period of tune can be held
between neighboring centers. This type of
activity builds a sense of friendly rivalry and a
spirit of competition that attracts new
participants and increases existing involvement.
The citizen advisory group and community in
general need to be encouraged, reinforced, and
recognized for their efforts. For example,
newspaper articles about members or activities
of the citizen advisory group can be featured.
Articles about recyclers in the community and
awards for residents or groups that regularly
volunteer for household hazardous waste
collections can also encourage active citizens to
continue their efforts as well as motivate other
members of the community to take part in
waste management activities. A personalized
thank you note or a letter to the editor goes a
long way toward building positive community
spirit and encouraging continued participation.
Funding Activities or a Program
Public education and public involvement
programs for municipal solid waste management
do not have to be extremely costly. They do,
however, require a definite commitment from
decision makers for the funds as well as staff
time necessary to plan and coordinate a
successful program. This cost is small when
one considers the benefits that a community
will receive from public input on decisions and
public education programs that promote
integrated solid waste management - averted
disposal costs, a cleaner environment, and
longer landfill life, as well as the prospect of
better community relations.
While the .competition for cash contributions is
steep, whenever possible, decision makers
should look to the community for assistance.
With innovative ideas and strategic planning, a
little money and a lot of in-kind services can go
a long way. For example, printing grocery bags
with a civic message such as an announcement
for a household hazardous waste collection day
is a community service frequently provided by
local grocery stores. A high school or local
college class can take on the challenge of
producing a video that shows residents how to
source separate their household waste. This
same video could be shown to civic groups by
members of a volunteer speakers bureau. Many
clubs and organizations have newsletters and
welcome noteworthy information on community
events such as source reduction or recycling
programs in schools. Businesses with marquees
and reader boards are often willing to announce
special events and display promotional messages.
Media coverage, such as newspaper articles,
radio interviews, and public service
announcements, are low-cost ways to
communicate with hundreds to thousands of
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Chapter Eleven
community members about planning special
collection events and project milestones.
Advertising space can also be purchased.
Although this is a more expensive route,
carefully designed and well-placed
advertisements can be well worth the cost. In
some cases, local businesses will underwrite
advertising costs, if appropriate credit is given.
SUCCESSFUL PUBLIC
EDUCATION AND INVOLVEMENT
PROGRAMS
Decision makers should keep in mind that each
community's municipal solid waste plan is
different, and what constitutes a successful
public education and involvement program in
one case may not be what is needed in another.
It is critical that decision makers involve
citizens in the waste management planning
process and that they educate the citizenry of
the full costs and liabilities of managing the
waste they produce. This, combined with broad
and ongoing education on how to participate,
will lead to public support of and participation
in waste management programs.
Chapter Eleven Bibliography
Brown, Hamilton, et. al., Why Waste a Second Chance? A Small Town Guide to Recycling, National
Center for Small Communities, National Association of Towns and Townships, 1522 K Street,
N.W., Suite 730, Washington, D.C. 20005. Tel: (202) 737-5200, 1989.
EPA, Bibliography of Municipal Solid Waste Management Alternatives, Office of Solid Waste,
Washington, D.C., August 1989. Available through the RCRA Hotline: 1-800-424-9346.
EPA, Environmental Education Materials For Teachers and Young People (Grades K-12), Office of Solid
Waste, Washington, D.C., August 1988.
EPA, Recycling Works! State and Local Solutions to Solid Waste Management Problems, Office of Solid
Waste, Washington, D.C., January 1988.
EPA, Sites for Our Solid Waste: A Guidebook for Effective Public Involvement (Preliminary Draft), Office
of Solid Waste, 1989.
Massachusetts Recycling Program, Public Education, Bureau of Solid Waste Disposal, Department of
Environmental Quality Engineering, Commonwealth of Massachusetts, Boston.
Rickmers-Skislak, Tanis, Publicity and Education For Recycling: An Informative Guide, 3319 Willow
Crescent Dr. #32, Fairfax, Virginia, Second Edition 1987.
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Financing and Revenues
Chapter Twelve
Financing and Revenues
MAJOR MESSAGES
* Sound financial management of the
proposed waste jwaaagement systext*
will require decision malcers to toaow
the operating and capital costs and
projected revenues Bleach waste
•• management alternative,
-,-.„ m_,',
« .Waste generators, tioth corporate and
individual, xte&Tfo- iwideristand the
full costs and liabilities associated
with the management of their wastes,
/f so that they ««n understand the
current waste management system
, and, how waste reduction and
recycling can he beneficial to them.
• Operating revenues may be generated
by a tttoaber of options, including
taxes, user fees, and revenues from
recovered materials.
« Capital financing may be
' accomplished using a number of
"alternatives, including borrowing,
current revetfttg^ aftd private
financing.
Once a number of alternatives for managing the
community's solid waste have been identified,
the financial impact of each of these
alternatives must be carefully considered. The
costs of collecting and disposing of solid waste
have Increased substantially for most
communities over the past ten years. In many
cases the operating cost of solid waste
collection and disposal has been the fastest
growing budget item. This trend can be
attributed to a number of factors, including
rising wages, equipment costs, waste volume,
and increasingly stringent environmental
standards. Similarly, the capital cost of
financing solid waste programs and systems also
has become a problem for many communities
due to the need to construct new faculties or
maintain and upgrade existing ones at a time
when other community programs are competing
for scarce resources.
Partly responsible for this trend is the need to
conform to new federal and state regulations,
the development of highly capital-intensive
waste management systems, and the need to
respond to public demands for safe and clean
waste management. Additionally, many
communities are finding their financing
decisions constrained by the need to pay for
past disposal practices, including corrective
action costs at older landfills.
UNDERSTANDING THE FULL
COSTS OF WASTE MANAGEMENT
It is very important for decision makers and
waste generators to understand the full cost of
municipal solid waste management. Commonly,
waste generators, both individual and corporate,
aren't aware of the full costs and liabilities
associated with the management of their wastes
because the fees they pay are subsidized by
general revenue or other funds. Individuals,
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Chapter Twelve
businesses, etc. never, receive a bill reflecting the
full costs of their waste production practices
including closure, any cleanup, or replacement
of waste management facilities. This makes it
impossible for them to understand the
operation of the current waste management
system and how waste reduction and recycling
can be financially beneficial to them on an
individual or corporate basis. Waste
management accounting and billing systems
need to be revised to provide this information
on the full cost of management.
OPERATING REVENUE
Constraints on the budgets of many local
governments have increased dramatically in
recent years. This trend has been compounded
by the rising cost of solid waste collection and
disposal, including the costs of current systems
and the added costs of closure, post-closure, and
remediation. Many communities, therefore, are
looking for new sources of funding through a
variety of taxes and revenues.
Tax Financing
Traditionally, funding for community solid waste
systems comes from a general fund, whose
primary source of revenue is the property tax.
A growing trend toward tax reform in recent
years, however, often coupled with falling
revenues due to regional economic problems,
has led many communities to seek alternative
taxes to fund solid waste programs.
Property Tax.
Many communities have successfully used a
portion of the property tax to support the solid
waste management system. This tax is easy to
administer since no separate billing or
collection system is needed and payment is
virtually guaranteed (many citizens prefer this
method of financing since the tax is deductible
on federal and state income tax returns). The
primary disadvantage is that solid waste is often
considered a low-priority item and must
compete with other municipal budget items.
Second, since solid waste operating costs often
are not broken out from other costs, there is
less incentive for efficient operation of the
system. K cost savings are instituted, the
savings usually accrue to the general fund rather
than the solid waste system.
Sales Tax
The sales tax appears particularly attractive in
regions with high recreational and tourist trade.
The revenue stream is usually seasonal and
often inadequate, however, and voter approval
may need to be obtained before
implementation. Sales taxes are often
considered regressive in their relatively larger
impact on low-income people.
Municipal Utmty Tax
This tax may be levied on some or all of the
utilities in a community, whether municipally or
privately owned. Utilities commonly subject to
a municipal tax are the telephone, electricity,
gas, water, and cable television franchises. This
tax eliminates individual billing problems, and
usually can be set by ordinance without
referendum. The revenue stream may be too
limited and variable, however, and commercial
establishments who must contract with private
haulers still may pay the tax, although they do
not receive the service.
Special Tax Levies
Some state statutes give communities or
counties authority to levy special taxes other
than those already mentioned. Usually, the
amount is limited by statute and is based on the
assessed valuation of property. A referendum
of the citizens is usually not required. It is
often the case, however, that many special tax
levy statutes already have been instituted to
cover non-budgeted items such as hospitals,
parks, playgrounds, and museums, and the solid
waste system has to compete with these projects
for funds.
User Fees
User fees can be an equitable means of funding
solid waste management services if properly
administered. The community can establish fees
on the basis of actual costs of collection and
disposal. The user fee can be assessed at a
uniform or variable rate, depending on the
amount and kind of services provided.
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Financing and Revenues
Uniform Fees
A straight user charge allocates an equal share
of the costs to all users within a service-level
group. A user receiving backyard collection
may pay more than a user receiving curbside
service, but all backyard users are charged the
same fee, regardless of the amount of waste
they generate. This type of user charge can be
collected by adding a separate solid waste
charge to a periodic utility bill or the yearly
property tax bill, or through a separate billing
system. To avoid added overhead costs and to
facilitate collection of bills, it is usually
preferable to attach the charge to an already
existing billing system. This type of user charge
is efficient and the least costly to administer.
Variable Fees
A progressive user charge represents an attempt
to correlate costs and service by charging the
resident according to the amount of waste
generated. The assessment can be calculated in
two ways: 1) a charge for each container
collected, or 2) a minimum charge that would
cover collection of a certain number of
containers plus an extra charge for each
additional container.
Controlling variable user fees so that customers
are billed only for the containers they are using
and collectors know how many containers are
supposed to be collected from each customer
can be difficult. An increasing number of
communities are turning to this kind of system,
however, and a variety of methods for
identifying, collecting, and charging for waste
container pickup are being used throughout the
country. These include using specially marked
containers or providing, for a fee, either special
bags or special container stickers and tags.
Some communities are combining user fee
systems, which provide an incentive to reduce
waste, with free pickup of recyclables, which
encourages recycling because it saves households
waste removal charges. The City of Seattle has
successfully incorporated both variable user fees
and free collection of recyclables into its waste
collection and disposal system. The City offers
both backyard and curb/alley collection, with a
40% rate incentive for customers choosing the
curb/alley system. Seattle also uses a variable
rate structure for collecting containers ranging
from a 1/2 can to 3 cans. Since 1981, the
average waste services subscription for
residential ratepayers has dropped from 3.5 cans
to 1.4 cans per household.
One problem that is often raised concerning
user fees is that residents charged on a volume
or container basis might have a tendency to
overfill their containers or engage in illegal
dumping when they have more trash than will
fit in the can. This could result in loose litter,
higher street cleaning costs, and public
dissatisfaction. Seattle has approached this
problem by providing standardized containers to
households and selling pre-paid trash tags
(available from local grocery and convenience
stores) for bulky waste items. Waste that is
either not in a container or not tagged for
pickup is clearly identifiable as being in
violation.
Traditionally, user charges have seldom covered
the total cost of operating a municipal solid
waste system. Solid waste services usually are
paid for partially out of funds raised from
property taxes. As a result, the public often
becomes accustomed to a nominal service
charge and some city officials feel the public
would raise strong objections to a service charge
that actually reflects total operating costs.
Decision makers can take advantage of the
planning process in this instance by using public
education and involvement programs to discuss
increased waste generation, shrinking disposal
capacity, and rising system costs. The public's
increased awareness of solid waste issues
coupled with a sense of their own role in the
decision making process, may provide the
opportunity to adjust user fees to reflect the
real cost of providing solid waste services.
User fees foster citizen awareness of waste
collection, processing, and disposal costs and
provide an impetus for more efficient consumer
behavior. User fees are an excellent means of
placing explicit costs on each household's
contribution to the waste stream and are an
incentive to reduce waste generation and
encourage recycling. Primary problems with
user charges are billing, difficulties in
administration, and the fact that if they truly
reflect costs, they may be too high for low-
income or fixed-income persons.
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Chapter Twelve
Disposal Site Fees
Disposal costs historically have not been the
most expensive component of solid waste
systems. Although disposal costs are rising
rapidly in some communities, collection is
generally the most costly component of the
waste management system. This is the case
because often tipping fees at MWC or landfills
do not accurately reflect true operating costs,
especially the costs of environmental controls,
closure, post-closure maintenance, and liability.
All haulers, large trucks, and industrial users
should be charged a tipping fee that takes into
consideration total system costs, scaled
according to the amount of waste dumped.
Fees can also depend on the type of refuse
received. For example, fees may be charged for
stumps, tires, and building and demolition
refuse, because these materials are more
difficult to compact and cover.
Decision makers must consider three factors
when determining tipping fees at facilities: 1)
total disposal costs, including ash disposal for
combustion facilities and closure and post-
closure costs for landfills, 2) the need for
resources to plan, site, and operate replacement
facilities in the future, and 3) using part of the
tipping fee as a source of funds for other
components of the solid waste program such as
recycling, composting, and source reduction
programs.
Tipping fees should reflect the full cost of
facilities, including compliance with more
stringent environmental controls than in the
past. Also, some jurisdictions (such as New
Jersey) have added surcharge to landfills, as a
way of discouraging disposal and thus
encouraging waste management alternatives and
preserving landfill capacity.
Decision makers should note that because of
the many factors affecting solid waste
management costs, none of the methods
described above can be precisely equitable nor
would some communities desire them to be. In
many cases, one sector of the population
subsidizes service to another sector by paying a
price higher than the actual cost of the service.
Revenues From Recovery Programs
Financial planning for a waste management
system should account for the operating
revenues that may be generated by recycling,
composting, waste-to-energy, and methane gas
recovery programs. Decision makers should
carefully consider the impact of all of these
program revenues and expenses on the balance
sheet of the overall solid waste system. These
programs can provide tangible financial benefits
associated with recovered materials and
conserved energy. While markets for recovered
materials can be volatile and regionally
underdeveloped, revenues can be gained
nonetheless from the sale of recycled materials.
The long-term presence of a concerted local
and/or regional recycling program, combined
with the efforts of community groups and public
officials, can serve to stabilize and broaden the
Ideal market for these recycled materials. The
provision of a constant supply of quality
materials to the market is important in
establishing revenues for the community's
recovery programs.
Additionally, the cost savings realized by not
landfilling wastes that are reduced at the source,
recycled, or composted also can be partially
captured by the community solid waste system.
These savings, either as direct pay-backs or as
avoided costs, can be realized through
contractual arrangements with private waste
haulers, processors, and recyclers or with the
disposal facilities themselves. For example,
incentives for recycling can be provided to these
parties by apportioning the cost-savings through
avoided tipping fees between the community
solid waste system and the private waste
management firms. Many communities use such
a system both to increase the capture rate for
recycled materials and to provide additional
revenues to the community recycling program.
Finally, cost savings also may be realized from
the decreased volume of waste by the redesign
of waste collection systems, with the savings
captured through new rate structures and
modified collection contracts.
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Financing and Revenues
CAPITAL FINANCING
There are three basic sources of capital:
borrowed funds, current revenues, and private
financing.
Borrowing
General Obligation Bonds
Among all public borrowing mechanisms
available, general obligation (GO) bonds are
usually the most flexible and least costly
alternative. The issuing municipality guarantees
a (GO) bond with its full faith and credit based
on its ability to levy on all taxable real property
such ad valorem taxes as may be necessary to
pay the principal and interest on the bonds.
Because general obligation bonds are considered
to be the safest of all municipal securities, they
tend to carry lower interest rates than other
forms of municipal debt having similar maturity.
Most states require voter approval before state
or local general obligation bonds can be issued.
A GO bond issuance may not require direct
technical or economic analysis of particular
projects to be funded. Small projects may be
grouped to obtain capital, making GO bonds an
ideal funding mechanism for solid waste
facilities in small and medium-sized
communities. The transaction costs for issuing
GO bonds impose a benchmark minimum on
debt issuance below which the "effective interest
rate" increases prohibitively. The, minimum
issuance will probably fall within the range of
$500,000 to $1 million.
If total capital requirements of a small or
medium-sized community are less than $500,000,
the community might adopt an alternative
financing mechanism, such as borrowing from a
bank, leasing equipment and facilities, or
contracting for the service from the private
sector.
Municipal Revenue Bonds
One mechanism that is often used to
circumvent the constraints associated with GO
bond issuance is the municipal revenue bond.
Revenue bonds do not require voter approval
and do not affect a city's legal debt limits. A
revenue bond is issued to finance a single
project with revenue-producing services.
Revenue bonds do not have the full faith and
credit of the community; rather, they pledge the
net revenue generated by the project to
guarantee payment. The increased risk
associated with revenue bonds yields a
correspondingly higher interest rate. The
coupon rates on revenue bonds depend strictly
on the revenue-generating capacity of the
project being financed.
Revenue bonds require extensive bond circulars
describing the economics of the project, and
there may be limitations on the volume of the
bonds which can be sold or outstanding at any
one time.
Bank Loans
A municipal bank loan is not a viable
alternative to long-term bond financing.
Relatively small-scale capital requirements j
however, may be met in the short run (five
years or less) at a low cost by securing a bank
loan. Typical use of bank loans in the solid
waste field has been to supply short-term
funding for rolling stock (vehicles, trailers, etc.).
Since interest on a loan to a municipality is tax
free to the bank, the corresponding interest will
compare favorably with the coupon on a GO
bond.
Municipalities often use bank loans to stabilize
cash flow, and occasionally large cities use bank
notes in anticipation of a bond issue. The
notes, often substantial if arranged with a large
bank, are refinanced as they expire. A medium-
term loan source of funding is thus provided.
Leasing
In lease agreements, the leasing company (the
lessor) usually purchases and holds title to the
asset and the municipality (the lessee) pays rent
for using it during the lease term, generally not
more than five years for equipment. Longer
leases are often executed for land. Occasionally
the municipality will hold title from the outset
to avoid sales taxes incurred during the eventual
title transfer. Lease agreements in the solid
waste area are usually arranged by local
equipment representatives, who place the
financing with either a bank or leasing
company. Often, stipulations are included in
the contract agreement which allow the
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Chapter Twelve
community to purchase the equipment at "fair
market value" at the end of the lease.
The use of leasing by private solid waste
companies is quite prevalent Small private
collection companies that are trying to expand
their business often encounter cash flow
limitations and turn to this type of financing.
Leasing is often worthwhile because the cost of
leasing can be deducted as a business expense
for tax purposes.
Other Debt Instruments
Within the broad categories of general
obligation and revenue bonds, there are a wide
variety of individual debt instruments.
• Tax Increment and Tax Allocation Bonds.
These bonds are secured by the "additional"
or "incremental" tax revenues which new
capital projects financed by the bonds
generate. They are often issued by local
governments to finance redevelopment
projects.
• Lease-Purchase Bonds. These bonds, which
are also referred to as lease-revenue or
lease-rental bonds, usually are issued by
public, private, or nonprofit leaseback
corporations which use the bond proceeds
to construct facilities that are then leased to
governmental entities. The lessee makes
payments to the lessor sufficient to pay for
debt servicing and corporate operating
expenses. At the end of the lease period,
the title covering the facility is transferred
to the lessee government.
State and local governments also issue a variety
of short-term tax-exempt financial instruments
which, although not technically bonds, are a
form of municipal debt (State of California,
1982).
• Tax Anticipation Notes (TANs) and
Revenue Anticipation Notes (RANsV these
notes are issued in anticipation of receiving
tax revenues or other income in the future.
• Bond Anticipation Notes (BANsX These
notes are issued with the expectation that
financial market conditions will permit the
issuance of long-term debt at lower interest
costs in the future. Thus, BANs provide
temporary financing for capital projects until
long-term bonds are marketed.
• Tax-Exempt Commercial Paper. Municipal
commercial paper is an extremely short-term,
unsecured debt obligation issued by a state
or local government, similar in principle to
the short-term, unsecured taxable
commercial paper issued by corporations.
Municipal commercial paper is a far more
flexible financial instrument than
conventional municipal notes or bonds,
partly because issues can be easily structured
to mature on the exact day that an investor
requests. Most tax-exempt municipal paper
is purchased by tax-exempt money market
funds, and municipalities frequently must
show evidence of some sort of bank
agreement in order to ensure that their
unsecured issues will be liquid in the
financial marketplace.
Current Revenue Capital Financing
The most common method for obtaining capital
equipment for a municipal solid waste program
has been to buy it as needed. The principal
advantage is simplicity: no institutional,
informational, analytical, or legal arrangements
are required. This method, however, depends
on the ability of the community to generate
surplus capital.
In the solid waste area, current revenue
financing has been used mainly for collection
vehicles and selected landfill disposal systems.
Municipalities that dispose of solid waste using
landfills are usually able to maintain the system
with current revenue. Equipment replacement
is not likely to be a major expense and can be
addressed periodically through reserve funds
dedicated for that purpose. Land can be leased
or purchased as an investment. On the other
hand, municipalities requiring either extensive
upgrading of their systems in the short run or a
capital-intensive solution to their solid waste
problem will have to raise capital by borrowing
or contracting with a private firm.
Private Financing
A third alternative is to contract with a private
firm for waste management services and thereby
transfer to it the process of raising capital.
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Financing and Revenues
Generally, the private firm will then raise the
capital, purchase the equipment, and operate
the system. There are a range of options for
implementing private financing alternatives.
The differences between these options concern
the procurement, management, and degree of
ownership and control of the facilities and
systems, as well as alternatives in the design,
construction, and performance of the facilities.
These options are "packaged" using a variety of
terms including full service, merchant plant,
architectural engineering, and turnkey
approaches, and are discussed in more detail in
Chapter 8 under the section on Combustion,
although they apply to all facilities. These
approaches relieve the municipality from having
to devote capital funds to solid waste
management and presumably provide the most
long-term flexibility, although the effective
financing rate will be higher.
Industrial Revenue Bonds and Pollution Control
Revenue Bonds
Industrial revenue bonds (IRBs) and pollution
control revenue bonds (PCRBs) are issued by a
municipality for, or on behalf of, a private
enterprise. The municipality technically owns
the facility and equipment, which it leases to
the private firm. The lease payments are
specified to meet the scheduled payments of
debt and interest on the bond. The
municipality thus acts as a vehicle through
which a corporation may obtain low-cost
financing. If payment arrangements between
the corporation and the municipality are
structured as an installment sale, the
corporation may claim ownership for tax
purposes. This gives the corporation a tax
benefit in the form of depreciation, which
should be reflected in lower service fees charged
to the municipality.
There are two major distinctions between the
IRBs and PCRBs. First, IRBs are limited to $5
million in the amount of capital that they can
raise, while PCRBs have no such limit
(although volume limits on debt per capita
and/or on the total tax-exempt allowable debt in
a state were included in the 1986 Tax Reform
Act). Second, capital raised through IRBs must
be for industrial development while PCRBs
must finance pollution control equipment.
In the solid waste field, PCRBs have seldom
been used. In addition to the administrative
complexities, broadly defined tax guidelines
frequently require IRS rulings which can delay
financing by up to six months. Solid waste
disposal and resource recovery facilities
generally qualify as pollution control projects
under section 103c of the IRS regulations, but
at this time it is not clear whether entire
systems of certain types will qualify. This
'ambiguity may discourage the broadest
application of PCRBs to finance resource
recovery systems.
Another major stumbling block for PCRBs
concerns a community's ability to sign long-term
contracts with corporations, guaranteeing a
minimum supply of solid waste. Additionally,
while the security of these issues requires long-
term agreements, many states prohibit
communities from entering into long-term
service contracts.
Leveraged Leasing
Leveraged leasing is technically not a financial
instrument. Rather it is a financial package
that combines several financial options. The
concept is based upon the benefits (lower long-
term capital and interest costs) that accrue to a
city if a financial intermediary, a corporation or
individual, is interposed between a long-term
source of capital and the municipality.
Leveraged leasing is a complex mechanism' to
initiate. It involves two major participants, a
financial intermediary (lessor) and a city
(lessee). It differs from traditional leasing in
that both the lessor and the city provide capital
funds to purchase the asset. Usually, the lessor
puts up 20 to 30 percent of the cost of the
asset, and the city finances the remaining
portion through a typical borrowing method.
The financial intermediary acquires the tax
advantages of ownership, and therefore can pass
on to the city a very low interest rate because it
is the owner of the entire facility from a tax
standpoint and can therefore depreciate the
investment. Essentially, the depreciation and
tax credit act to shelter the financial
intermediary's other income, allowing the
intermediary to receive an adequate after-tax
return on its initial investment in the asset.
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Chapter Twelve
Private financing can be an attractive alternative
for a community because a private firm
essentially conducts the entire operation, saving
the community both staff time and direct
outlays of resources. Obviously, the community
will be charged for all services rendered and
these charges may be higher than if the
community had undertaken the task in-house.
Nonetheless, private financing may be an option
if the firm can provide services at a lower cost
than the community could provide on its own
and/or if the administrative savings in staff time
and resources are important to the community.
Regardless of the choice of financing options,
technologies, and management and service
delivery systems chosen for the community,
decision makers must constantly remain aware
of their role in the solid waste management
process. Decision makers and other public
leaders are always ultimately responsible for the
choices they make in selecting waste
management alternatives and for the
performance of the system once it is in place.
Decision makers always must remain ultimately
in control of the waste management system
serving the community.
Issuing And Marketing A Bond
This section briefly outlines the major issues
associated with "floating" a bond. The
information provided here applies to both the
general obligation bonds and the municipal
revenue bonds discussed in the previous
sections.
Bond ratings
To provide reliable information on the quality
of different investments, a municipal bond
rating system has been developed. Since 1950,
two private rating agencies -- Moody's Investors
Services, Inc. and Standard and Poor's
Corporation — have issued municipal bond
ratings on a nationwide scale.
There are four general categories of variables
used in determining a community's bond rating:
1) economic base; 2) financial factors; 3) debt
factors; and 4) administrative factors.
Measures of economic base reflect the
community's ability to pay. Important factors
are the size of the population, income levels
and income growth, the employment mix and
the number of leading employers, and measures
of the age and composition of the community's
housing stock. Financial factors are the
revenue structure, the balance among different
types of taxes, and the relationship between
expenditures and revenues. Debt factors include
the nature of the debt issue and measures of
total debt burden relative to budgetary
resources and the community's tax base. Both
the community's debt history and the plans for
the retirement of the current debt are examined.
Variables in the administrative category relate
to the form of government and the degree 'of
professionalism shown in carrying out ordinary
governmental functions (obtained to a large
extent subjectively through meetings between
rating agency analysts and local officials). With
respect to bond ratings, many communities will
find themselves falling into the pattern shown
for a survey of cities in Minnesota (see Figure
12.1). While not all communities will qualify
for a rating by either agency, the majority of
smaller communities will find themselves with
bond ratings on the lower end of the spectrum
while the medium to large communities will
achieve the higher ratings.
Rating Fees
Standard and Poor's generally bases its rating
fee on the time and expense involved in
determining and monitoring the rating. The
fees for domestic long-term bond issues occupy
a fairly wide range from $2,500 to $50,000 (S&P
Credit Week, July 17, 1989). For
municipalities, Moody's fees for rating general
obligation bonds generally are based on the
latest officially recorded population of the issuer
under consideration. The fees of the two
agencies are, however, generally comparable in
dollar terms (State of California, 1982).
Decision makers should note that it is not
always necessary to obtain a rating prior to
raising capital through a debt issue. Hence, the
community should weigh the reduced interest
costs derived from obtaining a rating against the
rating fee. ;
Municipal Bond Insurance
Government officials increasingly are taking
advantage of credit enhancement provided by
services such as letters of credit and municipal
138
-------
Financing and Revenues
bond insurance to lower borrowing costs and
increase the marketability of their bond issues.
Insured bonds carry a Triple-A rating from
Moody's and Standard & Poor's. This generally
results in a lower interest cost over the life of
the bonds and can reduce an issuer's borrowing
costs by as much as 50 basis points or more.
Investors who buy insured bonds benefit from
knowing that interest and principal will be paid
on time until the bonds mature.
Significant cost savings can be realized from
insuring a bond issue, although the savings will
depend on many factors, including the size of
GENERAL QJSJGATtQN BQ&BS
$20*000,000 {3,8 pmr Issoe)
Rating
A/A
Set Bit, Cost
O>s! of Ins. ' -
Aaa/AAA
7.14
10,524,750
131,000
Net Savings
the issue, geographic location, and the issuer's
underlying credit worthiness. While market
conditions and interest rates can and will
change, normally there will be a spread, between
insured and uninsured interest rates that will
determine the net savings if insurance is used.
• Qualifying for Insurance. Eligibility for
insurance depends on the issuer's financial
history, legal status, economic condition,
demographics, debt load, and ability to pay.
The information needed to review a
potential issuer's eligibility varies according
to the type of issue, but is generally similar
to that required by the credit rating
agencies, including basic financial, economic,
and demographic information.
• Paying the Premium. Premiums for bond
insurance generally range from
approximately four-tenths of one percent to
nine-tenths of one percent of the total debt
service due over the life of the bonds.
Generally the best course for an issuer of bonds
is to secure a commitment from an insurer in
advance in order to advertise the bond sale as
Triple-A insured. This requires the issuing
community to pay the premium directly and
allows it to sele'ct the insurer. Normally this
step produces the greatest interest cost savings,
because all parties know in advance that the
bonds will be insured.
When the community cannot pay the premium
directly, other alternatives are available which
can shift both the cost and the selection of the
insurer to the underwriter of the bonds.
• Selling Insured Bonds. The market for
insured issues is currently very strong for
several reasons. First, after the Tax Reform
Act of 1986, municipal bonds have become
one of the few investments left for investors
offering tax-free income. Second, because of
the fiscal difficulties experienced by many
municipal issuers in the mid-1970's, the
combination of Federal cutbacks in revenue
sharing and economic recession in the early
1980's, and the number of recent defaults,
investor demand for municipal bond
insurance has grown dramatically over the
past few years. Third, the volatility of the
stock market has made many investors much
more concerned about the safely of their
investments. This makes insured bonds
particularly attractive because of the safety
of principal and interest payments.
Issuing, Marketing, and Trading Municipal Bonds
The primary marketing advantage to issuers of
municipal bonds is that the interest earned on
the bonds is exempt from federal income
taxation. For this reason, municipal bonds are
commonly referred to as tax-exempt bonds. The
interest on municipal bonds is also exempt from
income taxation in most states, at least in the
state where the bond was issued. The
immediate practical effect of the tax exemption
is that state and local governments can sell
139
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Chapter Twelve
bonds that provide a lower interest yield when
borrowing to finance capital outlays (State of
California, 1982).
State and local governments must follow
numerous steps when issuing and marketing
municipal bonds:
• Securing specialized bond-related services,
such as fiscal advisors, bond counsel,
auditors, and paying agents;
• Obtaining public approval if the bonds are
to be sold as a, general obligation issue;
• Designing the bond issue's features, such as
its maturity schedule, the denominations of
individual bonds, the coupon interest rates
for bonds of differing maturities, and call
privileges or options and the premiums
which must be paid to exercise them;
• Drafting a bond security agreement if the
bond issue is a revenue or limited liability
(as opposed to general obligation) bond
issue;
A COMPARISON OF MUNICIPAL BOND RATINGS AND CITY SIZE IN MINNESOTA
Bond Rating vs. Population
Population <2,soo 2,500 - 10,000 - 20,000 >ioo.,ooo Total
10,000 20,000 100,000 '# of Cities
Bond Rating
Aaa
Aa1
Aa
A1
Baa-l
Baa
Ba
NR
Total
# of Cities
1
891
065
FIGURE 12.1
(Source: State of California, 1982)
140
-------
Financing and Revenues
• Marketing the bonds, either by public or
private sale. In the case of public
marketing, this includes preparing certain
documents necessary to sell the bonds,
obtaining a bond rating, selecting a sales
date, advertising the bonds and accepting
bids, awarding winning bids, printing and
delivering bonds, and closing the bond sale,
including issuance of debt records; and
• Administering outstanding debt, including
maintaining debt-related accounting records.
Financial Issues Concerning
Expected Landfill Requirements
EPA's proposed rules for landfill closure
include specific requirements for financial
assurance for the maximum cost of closing a
. landfill based on site-specific factors. The
purpose of financial assurance is to ensure that
the owner or operator adequately plans for the
future costs of closure, post-closure care, and
corrective action for known releases, and to
ensure that adequate funds will be available
when needed to cover these costs if the owner
or operator is unable or unwilling to do so.
One of the benefits of the proposed financial
assurance requirements is that local
governments may use it as a tool to induce
advanced planning for future environmental
costs. Moreover, demonstrating financial
assurance may help the community to raise
funds for costs that will ultimately have to be
covered. To demonstrate that it has planned
for future costs, the owner or 'operator must
prepare written cost estimates according to
specific guidelines.
The proposed rule parallels the closure and
financial assurance requirements for hazardous
waste/Subtitle C facilities, which allows the use
of a trust fund, letter of credit, surety bond,
insurance, financial test, corporate guarantee,
state-required mechanism, state assumption of
responsibility, or a combination or certain
mechanisms to demonstrate financial assurance
for closure and post-closure. Additionally, the
Agency will be exploring a financial test that
can be used by municipal governments to
demonstrate adequate financial assurance. EPA
is not proposing the types of mechanisms that
may be used to demonstrate financial assurance.
Rather, EPA proposes to establish performance
standards that specifies a set of criteria that
must be satisfied by any mechanism that is used.
Regardless of the mechanism chosen, it must
ensure that adequate funds are available in a
timely manner whenever they are needed.
Chapter Twelve Bibliography
Ciuff, George S., and Paul G. Farnham, "Standard and Poor's vs. Moody's: Which City Characteristics
Influence Municipal Bond Ratings?" Quarterly Review of Economics and Business, Vol. 24, No. 3
(Autumn 1984), Board of Trustees of the University of Illinois.
EPA, Decision Maker's Guide in Solid Waste Management, Office of Solid Waste Management, 1976.
Municipal Bond Investors Assurance Corporation, "Investor Facts," White Plains, New York.
Municipal Bond Investors Assurance Corporation, "Issuer Facts," White Plains, New York.
Office of the Legislative Analyst, State of California, 'The Use of Tax-Exempt Bonds in California:
Policy Issues and Recommendations, 1982.
Peterson, John E., The Rating Game, 1974.
141
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Conclusions on Integrated Waste Management
Chapter Thirteen
Conclusions on
Integrated Waste Management
MAJOR MESSAGES
•* t "*
• Integrated jmtaicipal waste t
management programs use a mix of
alternatives to manage specific
components Of the waste ^stream.
These alternatives can be combined
and designed to complement each'
other. |
-.1 \
• Integrated waste management
systems must be designed with the
flexibility to handle future changes in
the local waste management system,
« Program monitoring and
are important, ongoing activities,
As discussed throughout the Guide, integrated
solid waste management is the use of specific
management and disposal programs and
techniques to handle distinct components of the
waste stream. Programs are designed to
complement each other, both environmentally
and economically.
PLANNING AN INTEGRATED
SYSTEM
Selecting waste management alternatives is
essentially a local activity performed in response
to local waste management needs. No "boiler
plate" exists for indicating which alternatives
should be used when and where — it varies
from community to community.
In the past, many local officials have looked for
easy answers, only to find themselves locked
into an expensive and perhaps unpopular
program.
Modern landfills and combustion facilities are
high-technology, and consequently high capital
investment waste management options. Because
of the time frame and technical demands
involved, these options are the most difficult to
implement. Further complications arise when
considering siting and public opposition.
This is not to say that these so called "large"
facilities are not necessary. Every waste
management system must have access to a
landfill, and a properly operated energy recovery
facility can be extremely beneficial to handle
large amounts of waste and produce steam or
electricity. Many decision makers, however, are
only beginning to comprehend the benefits that
can be realized when other waste management
techniques (e.g. source reduction, recycling,
cbmpdsting) are integrated into the local waste
142
-------
Chapter Thirteen
management system. Not only are these
options beneficial from an environmental and a
public perception standpoint, when implemented
properly they can improve overall system
economics.
Decision makers must be realistic in.
planning their ivaste, nmnagemenj
system, Jost as waste-to-energy is not a
"'miracle solution," neither is recycling.
There will % Acuities, trade-offs, and
hard decisions associated with alt waste
, management" options. By recognizing
"this uacettaitxties and limitations
inherent in solid waste .management, the
- decision jna&er wfll"% better prepared
to develop a sound integrated waste
management plan.
INTERACTION OF WASTE
MANAGEMENT ALTERNATIVES
Reducing the quantities of materials in the
waste stream can result in a reduced number of
waste handling vehicles and equipment and
smaller management and disposal facilities.
Collection costs, for example, can be reduced if
there is less waste to be collected. Also, the
costs of constructing and operating facilities
, such as transfer stations, material recovery
facilities, and waste-to-energy plants will be
lower with a smaller waste stream. In addition,
landfill capacity is preserved through effective
quantity reduction programs.
The removal or reduction of products with toxic
components will also improve the operation and
environmental impacts of waste management
facilities. For example, heavy metals such as
lead and cadmium can be found in printing inks
and household batteries. When these materials
are buried at a landfill or burned at a
combustion facility, these constituents require
control of leachate at the landfill and air
emissions at the combustion facility. A source
reduction program that minimizes the use of
these materials can reduce environmental risks.
If designed properly, waste management
alternatives can be designed to complement
each other environmentally and economically.
Source Reduction
Source reduction programs are designed to
reduce the quantity and toxicity of materials
entering the municipal waste stream. Both
goals, if reached, could have significant impacts
on the operation of other waste management
alternatives.
Recycling
Recycling programs vary in degrees of
aggressiveness; some may be simple, low-
technology drop-off centers, while others may
involve comprehensive source separation and
curbside collection or complex separation
technologies at material recovery facilities.
Because recycling can divert significant
quantities of materials from ultimate disposal, it
is usually one of the first options selected by
communities faced with an impending landfill
capacity shortfall.
143
-------
Conclusions on Integrated Waste Management
The impact of recycling on combustion facility
operation can also be beneficial:
• Recycling programs divert materials from
combustion facilities. As a result, smaller
facilities can be designed.
• Recycling can remove materials that may be.
noncombustible, like glass or metal, or
sources of contamination in the ash (e.g.,
lead and cadmium in inks and batteries).
• More positive public attitudes can result
from combining a recycling program with
an energy recovery facility. Although
energy recovery facilities are generally met
with public opposition, one that is
developed along with or after a recycling
plan has been implemented may be more
acceptable.
Despite the obvious benefits that can be
realized through the combination of recycling
and combustion programs, a historical tension
exists between the supporters of each. Much of
the tension results from flow control ordinances
that are designed to guarantee that a certain
quantity of waste is sent to the energy recovery
facility (these facilities are designed to a specific
capacity that is sensitive to the amount of waste
that enters). Flow control, however, can be
designed to provide materials both for recycling
programs and energy recovery facilities.
Planning and evaluation during program design
can simplify the task of deciding where wastes
should go.
In addition to landfills and combustion facilities,
recycling programs can also have a positive
impact on composting operations. Many
commonly recycled materials (e.g., glass,
aluminum, plastic) are not easily composted,
and are generally considered contaminants in
the compost product. Similarly, the removal of
toxic constituents (e.g., lead and cadmium from
inks and batteries) in the waste stream will also
result in a higher quality product.
Composting
A variety of composting programs exist, ranging
from simple backyard systems to in-vessel
digesters handling municipal solid waste.
Composting can divert significant quantities of
materials from disposal. Composting programs,
therefore, can play a fundamental role in the
conservation of landfill space.
Backyard composting is often considered a
source reduction activity, as materials handled
in this manner never actually appear in the
municipal waste stream. The benefits of waste
stream reduction have been discussed
throughout this section.
Centralized yard waste composting facilities are
becoming more popular as a waste management
tool, and their operation can directly benefit
other alternatives. First, composting can divert
a significant amount of material from the
stream entering combustion facilities or landfills.
A smaller waste stream means a smaller facility
(which is less expensive to build and operate).
Second, because yard wastes do not burn as well
as some of the other waste stream components,
diversion of yard wastes from a combustion
facility to a composting facility can increase the
heating value of the remaining waste stream
entering the combustion facility. A higher
heating value means that more steam or
electricity can be produced per pound of waste
burned.
Municipal waste composting is a developing
technology. Composting possesses great
potential for reducing the amount of material
that must be otherwise managed or landfilled.
144
-------
Chapter Thirteen
Combustion of Solid Waste
The impacts of alternative management options
on combustion facility design and operation
have been described above. To summarize, the
reduction in the size, non-combustibility, and
toxicity of the waste stream that results from
source reduction, recycling, and composting
programs can significantly lower costs and
improve the operation of future combustion
facilities. Combustion plays an important role
in waste management because it not only
reduces the volume of material requiring
disposal, it also produces a revenue-generating
product.
Land Disposal
Landfills are necessary components of waste
management systems, and complement the other
waste management alternatives by providing
disposal capacity for the various residuals. For
example, processing recyclajbles generates
residuals that cannot be sold, reprocessed or
reused. Similarly, non-compostable and non-
combustible (i.e., ash) materials require disposal.
In addition, disposal capacity is often needed
during planned or unanticipated facility shut-
downs.
liming Issues
A good integrated solid waste
management plan should focus not"
Only on what specific programs will
be undertaken, but also on when, and
how they will be implemented
This Guide has toed to show the
advantages of implementing low-
fechnology, perhaps' pilot-scale
programs, Among the advantages
associated with these programs is the
fact that most take relatively little
time to implement For example, a
waste-to-£nergy facility will take
literally years to 'design, site, w& -
construe^ while a pilot-scale,
neighborhood drop-off recycling
program wjjl tale much less, time,
The point made in comparing these
time frames is that decision makers
should realize thai all planning and
management does not have to be put
on hold while a certain program or.
facility is being developed. Integrated
^ waste management is an ongoing
process,
FLEXIBILITY OF WASTE
MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS
The flexibility of the set of options is also an
important consideration that must be built into
the local waste management system. The ability
to adapt waste management practices to
changing conditions is important for a variety of
reasons:
• Projections of waste quantities and
characteristics are not always exact, and
decision makers may be faced with a future
waste stream that is different from what
was predicted;
• Markets for recycled materials can rise and
fall for reasons beyond the control of the
locality (some recycling programs have been
forced to store or landfill recyclables, or
145
-------
Conclusions on Integrated Waste Management
even terminate operations because of
unexpected declines in materials markets;
others have quickly added new materials as
the local market expanded); and
» Opportunities and problems cannot always
be anticipated; the field is simply changing
too quickly.
Because of potential changes, it is best to
examine the economics of investments under a
number of possible outcomes and conditions.
For example, mechanical separation facilities
may be economically justified investments under
one set of prices for separated secondary
materials, but may not be under alternative
scenarios. Waste management components that
are more flexible serve to insulate the locality
from unexpected changes in local and larger-
scale conditions.
Flexibility to expand is also beneficial. Many
large-scale capital projects (such as energy
recovery facilities) have inherent maximum
capacities. Should the community reach these
limits earlier than anticipated, the solutions may
be very expensive. Thus, ease of expansion of
waste management components, individually and
in concert, is a significant consideration in the
planning and implementation process.
MONITORING AND EVALUATING
PROGRAMS
Integrated solid waste decision making is an
ongoing process. Monitoring and evaluating
program performance allows decision makers to
determine whether objectives are being met and
whether goals will be reached. Areas that may
not have been considered potential trouble
spots during the planning process may be
identified, and monitoring and evaluation can
also provide insight into possible ways of
improving the system.
CONCLUSION
There is no universal, step-by-step method for
selecting and developing integrated waste
management components and systems. The
success of integrated solid waste management
depends largely on the expertise and dedication
of local decision makers. As the Foreword of
the Guide indicated, the purpose of Volume I
was not to provide a blueprint of what to do.
Instead, the Guide's purpose is to provide a
discussion of factors that should be considered
in framing local decisions. The Guide also
presents information and data helpful in making
the decisions.
It is hoped that the information presented in
this Guide will be helpful to solid waste
decision makers at the local level. To that end,
feedback from reviewers and users of this
document will be useful in the continuing
process of updating this material. Users are
encouraged to send comments and suggestions
to Decision Maker's Guide, Municipal Solid
Waste Program, OS-301, United States
Environmental Protection Agency, 401 M St.,
S.W., Washington, D.C. 20460.
146
-------
Glossary
Glossary
[Several of the definitions included here are
drawn from Garbage Solutions: A Public
Official's Guide to Recycling and Alternative Solid
Waste Management Technologies, by Marian
Chertow (1989)]
Aeration - The process of exposing bulk
material, such as compost, to air. Forced
aeration refers to the use of blowers in compost
piles.
Aerobic - A biochemical process or condition
occurring in the presence of oxygen.
Air Classification - A process in which a stream
of air is used to separate mixed material
according to the size, density, and aerodynamic
drag of the pieces.
Algal Bloom - Population explosion of algae
(simple one-celled or many-celled, usually
aquatic, plants) in surface waters. Algal blooms
are associated with nutrient-rich run-off from
composting facilities or landfills.
Anaerobic - A biochemical process or condition
occurring in the absence of oxygen.
Baghouse - An municipal waste combustion
facility air emission control device consisting of
a series of fabric filters through which MWC
flue gases are passed to remove particulates
prior to atmospheric dispersion.
Baler - A machine used to compress recyclables
into bundles to reduce volume. Balers are
often used on newspaper, plastics, and
corrugated cardboard.
Biodegradable Material - Waste material which is
capable of being broken down by
microorganisms into simple, stable compounds
such as carbon dioxide and water. Most organic
wastes, such as food wastes and paper, are
biodegradable.
Bottle Bill - A law requiring deposits on
beverage containers (see Container Deposit
Legislation).
Broker - An individual or group of individuals
that act as an agent or intermediary between
the sellers and buyers of recyclable materials.
Btu (British Thermal Unit) - Used as a unit of
measure for the amount of energy a given
material contains (e.g., energy released as heat
during combustion is measured in Btu's.
Technically, one Btu is the quantity of heat
required to raise the temperature of one pound
of water one degree Fahrenheit.
Buffer Tone - Neutral area which acts as a
protective barrier separating two conflicting
forces. An area which acts to minimize the
impact of pollutants on the environment or
public welfare. For example, a buffer zone is
established between a composting facility and
neighboring residents to minimize odor
problems.
Bulking Agent - A material used to add volume
to another material to make it more porous to
air flow. For example, municipal solid waste
may act as a bulking agent when mixed with
water treatment sludge.
Bulky Waste - Large items of refuse including,
but not limited to, appliances, furniture, large
auto parts, non-hazardous construction and
demolition materials, trees, branches and stumps
which cannot be handled by normal solid waste
processing, collection and disposal methods.
Buy-Back Center - A facility where individuals
bring recyclables in exchange for payment.
Centralized Yard Waste Composting - System
utilizing a central facility within a politically
defined area with the purpose of composting
yard wastes.
147
-------
Glossary
Clean Air Act - Act passed by Congress to have
the air "safe enough to protect the public's
health" by May 31, 1975. Required the setting
of National Ambient Air Quality Standards
(NAAQS) for major primary air pollutants.
Clean Water Act - Act passed by congress to
protect the nation's water resources. Requires
EPA to establish a system of national effluent
standards for major water pollutants, requires
all municipalities to use secondary sewage
treatment by 1988, sets interim goals of making
all U.S. waters safe for fishing and swimming,
allows point source discharges of pollutants into
waterways only with a permit from EPA,
requires all industries to use the best
practicable technology (BPT) for control of
conventional and non-conventional pollutants
and to use the best available technology (BAT)
that is reasonable or affordable.
Co-composting - Simultaneous composting of
two or more diverse waste streams.
Commercial Waste - Waste materials originating
in wholesale, retail, institutional, or service
establishments such as office buildings, stores,
markets, theaters, hotels and warehouses.
Commingled Recyclables - A mixture of several
recyclable materials into one containers.
Compactor - Power-driven device used to
compress materials to a smaller volume.
Compost - The relatively stable decomposed
organic material resulting from the composting
process. Also referred to as humus. ,
Composting - The controlled biological
decomposition of organic solid waste under
aerobic conditions.
Construction and Demolition Waste - Materials
resulting from the construction, remodeling,
repair or demolition of buildings, bridges,
pavements and other structures.
Container Deposit Legislation - Laws that require
monetary deposits to be levied on beverage
containers. The money is returned to the
consumer when the containers are returned to
the retailer. Also called "Bottle Bills."
Corrugated Paper - Paper or cardboard
manufactured in a series of wrinkles or folds, or
into alternating ridges and grooves.
Gullet - Clean, generally color-sorted, crushed
glass used to make new glass products.
Curbside Collection - Programs where recyclable
materials are collected at the curb, often from
special containers, to be brought to various
processing facilities.
Decomposition - Breaking down into component
parts or basic elements.
Densiped Refuse-Derived Fuel (d-RDF) - A
refuse-derived fuel that has been processed to
produce briquettes, pellets, or cubes.
Detaining - Recovering tin from "tin" cans by a
chemical process which makes the remaining
steel more easily recycled.
Diaans - Heterocyclic hydrocarbons that occur
as toxic impurities, especially in herbicides.
Diversion Rate - A measure of the amount of
waste material being diverted for recycling
compared with the total amount that was
previously thrown away.
Drop-off Center - A method of collecting
recyclable or compostible materials in which the
materials are taken by individuals to collection
sites and deposited into designated containers.
Electrostatic Precipitator - Device for removing
particulate matter from MWC facility air
emissions. It works by causing the particles to
become electrostatically charged and then
attracting them to an oppositely charged plate,
where they are precipitated out of the air.
Emission - Discharge of a gas into atmospheric
circulation.
Energy Recovery - Conversion of waste energy,
generally through the combustion of processed
or raw refuse to produce steam. See also
"Municipal Waste Combustion," and
Incineration.
148
-------
Glossary
Enterprise Fund - A fund for a specific purpose
that is seltsupporting from the revenue it
generates.
Ferrous Metals - Metals that are derived from
iron. They can be removed using large magnets
at separation facilities.
FfyAsh (flyash) - Small, solid particles of ash
and soot generated when coal, oil, or waste
materials are burned. Fly ash is suspended in
the flue gas after combustion and is removed by
the pollution control equipment.
Flaw Control - A legal or economic means by
which waste is directed to particular
destinations. For example, an ordinance
requiring that certain wastes be sent to a
combustion facility is waste flow control.
Garbage - Spoiled or waste food that is thrown
away, generally defined as wet food waste. It is
used as a general term for all products
discarded.
Ground water - Water beneath the earth's
surface that fills underground pockets (known
as aquifers) and moves between soil particles
and rock, supplying wells and springs.
HammermUl - A type of crusher or shredder
used to break up waste materials into smaller
pieces.
Hazardous Waste - Waste material that may
pose a threat to human health or the
environment, the disposal and handling of which
is regulated by federal law.
Heavy Metals - Hazardous elements including
cadmium, mercury, and lead which may be
found in the waste stream as part of discarded
items such as batteries, lighting fixtures,
colorants and inks.
High Grade Paper - Relatively valuable types of
paper such as computer printout, white ledger,
and tab cards. Also used to refer to industrial
trimmings at paper mills that are recycled.
Humus - Organic materials resulting from decay
of plant or animal matter. Also referred to as
compost.
Hydrogeology - The study of surface and
subsurface water.
Incinerator - Facility in which the combustion of
solid waste takes place.
Incinerator Ash - The remnants of solid waste
after combustion, including non-combustibles
(e.g., metals) and soot.
Industrial Waste - Materials discarded from
industrial operations or derived from
manufacturing processes.
Inorganic waste - Waste composed of matter
other than plant or animal (i.e., contains no
carbon).
Institutional Waste - Waste materials originating
in schools, hospitals, prisons, research
institutions and other public buildings.
Integrated Solid Waste Management - A practice
of using several alternative waste management
techniques to manage and dispose of specific
components of the municipal solid waste
stream. Waste management alternatives include
source reduction, recycling, composting, energy
recovery and landfilling.
In-Vessel Composting - A composting method in
which the compost is continuously and
mechanically mixed and aerated in a large,
contained area.
IPC - Intermediate Processing Center - usually
refers to the type of materials recovery facility
(MRF) that processes residentially collected
mixed recyclables into new products available
for market; often used interchangeably with
MRF.
Leachate - Liquid that has percolated through
solid waste or another medium and has
extracted, dissolved, or suspended materials
from it, which may include potentially harmful
materials. Leachate collection and treatment is
of primary concern at municipal waste landfills.
Magnetic Separation - A system to remove
ferrous metals from other materials in a mixed
municipal waste stream. Magnets are used to
attract the ferrous metals.
149
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Glossary
Mandatory Recycling - Programs which by law
require consumers to separate trash so that
some or all recyclable materials are not burned
or dumped in landfills.
Manual Separation - The separation of
recyclable or compostible materials from waste
by hand sorting.
Mass Sum - A municipal waste combustion
technology in which solid waste is burned in a
controlled system without prior sorting or
processing.
Mechanical Separatum - The separation of waste
into various components using mechanical
means, such as cyclones, trommels, and screens.
Methane - An odorless, colorless, flammable,
and explosive gas produced by municipal solid
waste undergoing anaerobic decomposition.
Methane is emitted from municipal solid waste
landfills. .
Microorganisms - Microscopically small living
organisms that digest decomposable materials
through metabolic activity. Microorganisms are
active in the composting process.
Modular Incinerator - Smaller-scale waste
combustion units prefabricated at a
manufacturing facility and transported to the
MWC facility site.
MSW Composting - Municipal Solid Waste
Composting - The controlled degradation of
municipal solid waste including after some form
of preprocessing to remove non-compostible
inorganic materials.
Mulch - Ground or mixed yard wastes placed
around plants to prevent evaporation of
moisture and freezing of roots and to nourish
the soil.
Municipal Solid Waste (MSW) - Includes non-
hazardous waste generated in households,
commercial and business establishments,
Institutions, and light industrial process wastes,
agricultural wastes, mining waste and sewage
sludge. In practice, specific definitions vary
across jurisdictions.
NIMBY- Acronym for "Not In My Back Yard" -
expression of resident opposition to the siting
of a solid waste facility based on the particular
location proposed.
Organic Waste - Waste material containing
carbon. The organic fraction of municipal solid
waste includes paper, wood, food wastes,
plastics, and yard wastes.
Paniculate Matter (PM) - Tiny pieces of matter
resulting from the combustion process that can
have harmful health effects on those who breath
them. Pollution control at MWC facilities is
designed to limit particulate emissions.
Participation Rate - A measure of the number of
people participating in a recycling program
compared to the total number that could be
participating.
Pathogen - An organism capable of causing
disease.
Percolate - To ooze or trickle through a
permeable substance. Ground water may
percolate into the bottom of an unlined landfill.
Permeable - Having pores or openings that
permit liquids or gasses to pass through.
Post-Consumer Recycling - The reuse of
materials generated from residential and
commercial waste, excluding recycling of
material from industrial processes that has not
reached the consumer, such as glass broken in
the manufacturing process.
Recyclables - Materials that still have useful
physical or chemical properties after serving
their original purpose and that can, therefore,
be reused or remanufactured into additional
products.
Recycling - The process by which materials
otherwise destined for disposal are collected,
reprocessed or remanufactured, and reused.
Refractory - A material that can withstand
dramatic heat variations. Used to construct
conventional combustion chambers in
incinerators. Currently, waterwall systems are
becoming more common.
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Glossary
Refuse-Derived Fuel (RDF) - Product of a mixed
waste processing system in which certain
recyclable and non-combustible materials are
removed, and the remaining combustible
material is converted for use as a fuel to create
energy.
Residential Waste - Waste materials generated in
single and multiple-family homes.
Residue - Materials remaining after processing,
incineration, composting, or recycling have been
completed. Residues are usually disposed of in
landfills..
Resource Recovery - A term describing the
extraction and utilization of materials and
energy from the waste stream. The term is
sometimes used synonymously with energy
recovery.
Retention Basin - An area designed to retain
runoff and prevent erosion and pollution.
Reuse - The use of a product more than once in
its same form for the same purpose; e.g., a soft-
drink bottle is reused when it is refined to the
bottling company for refilling.
Roll-off Container - A large waste container that
fits onto a tractor trailer that can be dropped
off and picked up hydraulically.
Sanitary Landfill - Land waste disposal site that
is located to minimize water pollution from
runoff and leaching. Waste is spread in thin
layers, compacted, and covered with a fresh
layer of soil each day to minimize pest,
aesthetic, disease, air pollution, and water
pollution problems.
Scavenger - One who illegally removes materials
at any point in the solid waste management
system.
Scrap - Discarded or rejected industrial waste
material often suitable for recycling.
Scrubber - Common anti-pollution device that
uses a liquid or slurry spray to remove acid
gases and particulates from municipal waste
combustion facility flue gases.
Secondary Material - A material that is used in
place of a primary or raw material in
manufacturing a product.
Sludge - A semi-liquid residue remaining from
the treatment of municipal and industrial water
and wastewater.
Soil Liner - Landfill liner composed of
compacted soil used for the containment of
leachate.
Source Reduction - The design, manufacture,
acquisition, and reuse of materials so as to
minimize the quantity and/or toxicity of waste
produced. Source reduction prevents waste
either by redesigning products or by otherwise
changing societal patterns of consumption, use,
and waste generation.
Source Separation - The segregation of specific
materials at the point of generation for separate
collection. Residences source separate
recyclables as part of a curbside recycling
program.
Special Waste - Refers to items that require
special or separate handling, such as household
hazardous wastes, bulky wastes, tires, and used
oil.
Stack Emissions - Air emissions from a
combustion facility stacks.
Subtitle C - The hazardous waste section of the
Resource Conservation and Recovery Act
(RCRA).
Subtitle D - The solid, non-hazardous waste
section of the Resource Conservation and
Recovery Act (RCRA).
Subtitle F - Section of the Resource
Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA)
requiring the federal government to actively
participate in procurement programs fostering
the recovery and use of recycled materials and
energy.
Superfund - Common name for the
Comprehensive Environmental Response,
Compensation and Liability Act (CERCLA) to
clean up abandoned or inactive hazardous waste
dump sites.
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Glossary
Tipping Fee - A fee, usually dollars per ton, for
the unloading or dumping of waste at a landfill,
transfer station, recycling center, or waste-to-
energy facility, usually stated in dollars per ton;
also called a disposal or service fee.
Tipping Floor - Unloading area for vehicles that
are delivering municipal solid waste to a
transfer station or municipal waste combustion
facility.
Transfer Station - A permanent where waste
materials are taken from smaller collection
vehicles and placed in larger vehicles for
transport, including truck trailers, railroad cars,
or barges. Recycling and some processing may
also take place at transfer stations.
Trash - Material considered worthless,
unnecessary or offensive that is usually thrown
away. Generally defined as dry waste material,
but in common usage it is a synonym for
garbage, rubbish, or refuse.
Tub Grinder - Machine to grind or chip wood
wastes for mulching, composting or size
reduction.
Variable Container Bate - A charge for solid
waste services based on the volume of waste
generated measured by the number of
containers set out for collection.
Volume Reduction - The processing of waste
materials so as to decrease the amount of space
the materials occupy, usually by compacting or
shredding (mechanical), incineration (thermal),
or composting (biological).
Waste Exchange - A computer and catalog
network that redirects waste materials back into
the manufacturing or reuse process by matching
companies generating specific wastes with
companies that use those wastes as
manufacturing inputs.
Waste Reduction - Reducing the amount or type
of waste generated. Sometimes used
synonymously with Source Reduction.
Waste Stream - A term describing the total flow
of solid waste from homes, businesses,
institutions and manufacturing plants that must
be recycled, burned, or disposed of in landfills;
or any segment thereof, such as the "residential
waste stream" or the "recyclable waste stream."
Water Table - Level below the earth's surface at
which the ground becomes saturated with water.
Landfills and composting facilities are designed
with respect to the water table in order to
minimize potential contamination.
WaterwaU Incinerator - Waste combustion facility
utilizing lined steel tubes filled with circulating
water to cool the combustion chamber. Heat
from the combustion gases is transferred to the
water. The resultant steam is sold or used to
generate electricity.
Wetland - Area that is regularly wet or flooded
and has a water table that stands at or above
the land surface for at least part of the year.
Coastal wetlands extend back from estuaries and
include salt marshes, tidal basins, marshes, and
mangrove swamps. Inland freshwater wetlands
consist of swamps, marshes, and bogs. Federal
regulations apply to landfills sited at or near
wetlands.
Wet Scrubber - Anti-pollution device in which a
lime slurry (dry lime mixed with water) is
injected into the flue gas stream to remove acid
gases and particulates.
White Goods - Large household appliances such
as refrigerators, stoves, air conditioners, and
washing machines.
Windrow - A large, elongated pile of composting
material.
Yard Waste - Leaves, grass clippings, prunings,
and other natural organic matter discarded from
yards and gardens. Yard wastes may also
include stumps and brush, but these materials
are not normally handled at composting
facilities.
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Acronyms
Acronyms
ANSI American National Standards Institute
BAN Bond Anticipation Note
CERCLA Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act
CSWMP County Solid Waste Management Plan
EIS Environmental Impact Statement
EPA (United States) Environmental Protection Agency
ESP Electrostatic Precipitator
GO bond General Obligation Bond
HDPE High Density Polyethylene
HHW Household Hazardous Waste
HSWA Hazardous and Solid Waste Amendments
IRB Industrial Revenue Bond
IPC Intermediate Processing Center
LDPE Low-Density Polyethylene
MRF Materials Recovery Facility
MSW Municipal Solid Waste
MWC Municipal Waste Combustor
NAAQS National Ambient Air Quality Standards
NESHAP National Emission Standards for Hazardous Air Pollutants
NIMBY Not In My Back Yard
NSPS New Source Performance Standards
NSWMA National Solid Wastes Management Association
ONP Old Newspaper
PCB Polychlorinated Biphenyl
PCRB Pollution Control Revenue Bond
PET Polyethylene Terephthalate
PP Polypropylene
PSD Prevention of Significant Deterioration
PVC Polyvinyl Chloride
RAN Revenue Anticipation Note
RCRA Resource Conservation and Recovery Act
RDF Refused-Derived Fuels
SQG Small Quantity Generator
SWDA Solid Waste Disposal Act
TAN Tax Anticipation Note
VOC Volatile Organic Compound
* U.S. G.P.O.:1991-524-858:40575
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