EPA/540/2-87/001
                                                                September 1987
                                 HANDBOOK:  RESPONDING TO

                       DISCHARGES OF SINKING HAZARDOUS SUBSTANCES
                                          By:
                                     Kevin R. Boyer
                                   Virginia E. Hodge
                                    Roger S. Wetzel
                     Science Applications International Corporation
                                  8400 Westpark Drive
                                McLean, Virginia  22102
                                Contract  No.  68-03-3113
                                   Project Officers
         Anthony N. Tafuri
      Releases Control Branch
   Hazardous Waste Engineering
       Research Laboratory
    Edison, New Jersey  08837
          John R. Sinclair
  Environmental Technology Branch
Office of Research and Development
       Washington, DC  20593
   HAZARDOUS WASTE ENGINEERING
       RESEARCH LABORATORY
 OFFICE OF RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT
U.S ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
      CINCINNATI, OHIO  45268
   ENVIRONMENTAL TECHNOLOGY BRANCH
 OFFICE OF RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT
           U.S.  COAST GUARD
        WASHINGTON,  DC  20593

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                             NOTICE


The information in this document has been funded wholly or in
part by the United States Environmental Protection Agency and
the United States Coast Guard under Contract No. 68-03-3113 to
Science Applications International Corporation.  It has been
subject to the USEPA's peer and administrative review and has
been approved for publication as a USEPA document.  Mention of
tradenamel or commercial products does not constitute endorse-
raent or recommendation for use.
                                 ii

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                                  FOREWARD
      Today's  rapidly developing  and  changing  technologies  and  industrial
 products  and  practices  frequently  carry  with  them  the  increased  generation
 of  solid  and  hazardous  wastes.   These materials, if  improperly dealt with,
 can threaten  both  public health  and  the  environment.   Abandoned  waste
 sites and accidental releases of toxic and hazardous substances  to  the
 environment also have important  environmental and  public health  implica-
 tions.  The Hazardous Waste  Engineering  Research Laboratory of the  U.S.
 Environmental Protection Agency  (USEPA)  and the Environmental  Technology
 Branch of the U.S.  Coast Guard (USCG) assist in providing  an authoritative
 and defensible engineering basis for assessing and solving these problems.
 Products  support the respective  policies, programs, and regulations of the
 Environmental Protection Agency  and the  Coast Guard, the permitting and
 other responsibilities  of state  and local governments  and  the  needs of
 both large and small businesses  in handling their wastes responsibly and
 economically.

     This document provides guidance on  the response to spills of chemicals
 that sink in  water bodies and contaminate bottom materials.  It describes
 the  decisionmaking process associated with defining spill  parameters and
 impacts and selecting appropriate response measures.   It also describes
 the  cleanup and mitigative technologies  that may be used,  including
 containment,  removal, treatment,  disposal, and in situ techniques.  This
 document  provides governmental and industrial technical personnel with the
means to  respond to bottom material contamination situations, whether for
 quick response or for long-term  remediation.  For further information,
please contact the Land Pollution Control Division of the Hazardous Waste
Engineering Research Laboratory,  USEPA,  or the Environmental Technology
Branch of the Office of Research and Development, USCG.
                                            Thomas R. Hauser, Director
                                            Hazardous Waste Engineering
                                              Research Laboratory, USEPA
                                            Capt.  John R.  Wallace,  Chief
                                            Marine Technology Division
                                            Office of Research and
                                              Development, USCG
                                   iii

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                                  ABSTRACT


     This handbook provides guidance for making decisions in response to
discharges of hazardous substances that sink in water bodies.  It is
intended to be used by personnel that direct spill response actions and
emphasizes spilled contaminants that deposit on the bottom of water bodies.
The majority of the information provided also applies to long-term, chronic
contamination of bottom materials.

     This handbook provides a framework for gathering information and for
evaluating the spilled material, the environmental setting of the spill,
and the potential impacts of interaction between the material and the
environment.  Considerations pertaining to the spilled material include its
composition, chemical and physical characteristics, quantity, location, and
distribution within the water column and along the bottom of the water
body.  The setting includes the depth, flow velocity, currents, tidal
action, and uses of the water body; the aquatic environment; and the path-
ways to potentially affected humans.   Impacts of the interaction between
the spilled material and the environment include contamination  of  sediment
and water  (affecting water supplies, fisheries, and recreation), bioaccum-
ulation and biomagnification of contaminants in organisms,  and  transport  of
contaminants  to previously unaffected  areas.

     The handbook  also  focuses  on techniques for minimizing the impacts of
the spill  on  the environment.   Responses  are categorized into containment,
removal,  treatment,  and disposal  of  contaminants  and  contaminated  materials
 (generally water and  sediments),  as well  as  in situ response techniques.
 Information  and criteria are  provided  for selecting  among the  techniques
 and  combining various techniques  into  complete response alternatives.
 Additional information and criteria are provided  for  selecting the most
 appropriate  response alternative  for implementation  and for assessing the
 adequacy and effectiveness of the completed response.

      This document was submitted in partial fulfillment of EPA Contract No.
 68-03-3113,  Task 14-1, by Science Applications International Corporation.
 The work was sponsored by the United States Coast Guard (USCG)  and the
 United States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) and was conducted
 during the period of October 1, 1984 through September 30, 1985.
                                       iv

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                                    CONTENTS
                                                                        Page
  FORWARD  	
  ABSTRACT ..,....*!!**. 	 .... 	    iii
  ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS . .   	    lv
                           ••••'••	• *	    xiii

  1.   INTRODUCTION ....
                           	    l-l
      1.1   PURPOSE ....
                             *  *  '  *	    1-1
      1.2   SCOPE  	
                             	    1-2

      1.3   SUMMARY OF  RESPONSE  DECISIONMAKING PROCESS                    ,  o
           1.3.1   Spill  Characterization ........*  	    ,  f
           1.3.2   Response Needs  .......    *  * 	
           1.3.3   Response Alternative Selection  !  ' *  *  *	    }~s
           1.3.4   Assessment of Response Effectiveness  	
                  and Need for Further Response	    1-6


 2.  CHARACTERIZATION OF THE/DISCHARGE SITUATION AND IMPACTS  ...     2-l

     2.1  CHARACTERIZATION OF THE DISCHARGE .
          2.1.1  Characterization of Discharge circumstances' .' .' '     2-4
          2.1.2  Characterization of Discharged Material  .....     2-6

     2.2  CHARACTERIZATION OF THE WATER BODY AND THE
          ENVIRONMENTAL  SETTING 	
          2.2.1  Characterization of'the* Water* Body .'* * ' ' *  " "    Tf?
          2.2.2  Characterization of  the Environmental Setting*  .' .'    2-21

     2.3  DETERMINATION  OF THE  EXTENT OF CONTAMINATION  .               o „
          t.3.1  Information Requirements  ....            •  •  •  •     ^-^
          2.3.2  Methods for Obtaining Information   .'  *  .*  *  ."  .'  .'  .'     2-30

     2.4   DETERMINATION  OF EXPOSURE AND  IMPACTS .
          2.4.1   Information Requirements and Analysis*  .'.'.'**"     ill
          2.4,2   Information Sources  ....                  ...     ^ si
                                             •••».......     2—36

     2.5  LEVEL OF APPLICATION OF CHARACTERIZATION PROCESS  ....     2-36


3.  DETERMINATION OF RESPONSE NEEDS

    3.1  ASSESSMENT OF NEED FOR RESPONSE	        3_,

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                            CONTENTS  (continued)
                                                                     . Page

    3.2  ESTABLISHMENT OF RESPONSE OBJECTIVES  	   3-3
         3.2.1  Priorities	^
         3.2.2  Response Criteria  	  •  	

    3.3  ESTABLISHMENT OF OBJECTIVES FOR IMMEDIATE RESPONSE  ....   3-5
         3.3.1  Priorities	    ~
         3.3.2  Response Criteria  	


4.  SELECTION OF RESPONSE MEASURES 	   4~1

    4.1  SCREENING OF RESPONSE CATEGORIES  	 •   4~3
         4.1.1  Screening Process  	    ~
         4.1.2  Alternatives to the Removal Response Category  ...   4-u
         4.1.3  Process Summary	•	

    4.2  SCREENING OF RESPONSE TECHNIQUES  	  4~14

    4.3  DEVELOPMENT OF RESPONSE  ALTERNATIVES   	  **-22
         4.3.1  Combination of Response Categories 	  ....  4-22
         4.3.2  Combination of Techniques  to Form Alternatives .  . .  4-2J

    4.4  ALTERNATIVES EVALUATION  AND  SELECTION OF PREFERRED
         ALTERNATIVE	4~2g
         4.4.1  Performance   	
         4.4.2  Reliability	7~^
         4.4.3  Implementability	*~L'
         4.4.4  Environmental and Public  Health Impacts  	  4-z/
         4.4.5  Safety	    ~ 7
         4.4.6  Cost  .  .	?";'
         4.4.7  Ranking of Alternatives	*~-4°

     4.5  LEVEL  OF APPLICATION OF RESPONSE SELECTION PROCESS  ....  4-28


 5.  DETERMINATION OF RESPONSE COMPLETION 	  5~[

     5.1   ASSESSMENT OF RESPONSE EFFECTIVENESS  	  5-1
          5.1.1   Data Collection	5-3
          5.1.2  Assessment of Meeting Response Objectives  	  3-4

     5.2  DETERMINATION OF NEED FOR FURTHER RESPONSE	  5-4
                                      vi

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 APPENDICES




 A.  CONTAINMENT TECHNIQUES ....
                                      ***	    A-l

     A.I  CONTAINMENT CURTAINS  . .
                                        	    A-l

     A.2  TRENCHES  .....
                        	.•	    A-4

     A.3  DIKES 	
                            	    A-7

     A. 4  COFFERDAMS  ....
                            	    A-9

     A.5  PNEUMATIC  BARRIERS   .  .  .
                                  	*	    A-13

     A.6  FLOATING BREAKWATERS   ...
                                        	•	    A-15

     A.7   TEMPORARY  COVERING AND CAPPING
                                              ***••••••••    A"~lo

     A.8   SUMMARY .....
                           "••••••••••»  	    A-18



B.   CONTAMINATED MATERIAL REMOVAL TECHNIQUES  	         B_,


    B.I   MECHANICAL DREDGES  	

         B.I.I   Clamshell Dredges ...'****  	     B~2
         B.I.2   Draglines	!  ! * *	

         B.I.3   Conventional  Earth Excavation Equipment .' .' .' ." .'     Sis
         B.I.4   Dipper Dredges	 T ...             B fi
         B.I.5   Bucket Ladder Dredges ...!!!!!)]]***     wl?


    B.2   HYDRAULIC DREDGES 	

         B.2.1   Portable Hydraulic Dredges'  .' .'.*.'.*.*	    R~Q
         B.2.2   Hand-Held Hydraulic Dredges  ....!!!*""*    Bin
         B.2.3   Plain Suction  Dredges	      	    f ,,
         B.2.4   Cutterhead Dredges	      *	    „ ,*

         B.2.5   Dustpan Dredges  	.!!****	    R ,f
         B.2.6   Hopper  Dredges   .....'	     „}*
                                                   •••••••«     o—13

   B.3   PNEUMATIC DREDGES 	

         B.3.1   Airlift Dredges ..*!!.*.*.*!.*	     ^~?7
         B.3.2   Pneuma Dredges  ....     	
         B.3.3   Oozer Dredges ......  	      18
                                        ••••••«......     B—20

   B.4   SUMMARY 	
                              	 ...     B-21
                                   vii

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                            CONTENTS (continued)
C.  TREATMENT TECHNIQUES FOR REMOVED CONTAMINATED
      MATERIALS  	

    C.I  SEDIMENT/WATER SEPARATION 	    Jf^
         C. 1.1  Impoundment Settling Basins	    *£-•*
         C.I.2  Conventional Clarifiers	    £-:>
         C.I.3  High Rate Clarifiers	    Jf°
         C.I.4  Hydraulic Classifiers	•    ^~'
         C.I.5  Granular Media Filters	    £-y
         C.I.6  Hydrocyclones  	     ~
         C.I.7  Summary  	

    C.2  SEDIMENTS DEWATERING  	    JfJ*
         C.2.1  Dewatering Lagoons  	    X~|7
         C.2.2  Centrifugation	    J™
         C.2.3  Filtration	    Jf"
         C.2.4  Gravity Thickening	    £_~"
         C.2.5  Summary   	

    C.3  WATER  TREATMENT	    ^"^
         C.3.1  Activated Carbon	    Jf £
         C.3.2  Biological  Treatment	    Jf *°
         C.3.3  Ion Exchange	     ~,  '
         C.3.4  Neutralization	t	     }™
         C.3.5  Precipitation	     Jf;>*
         C.3.6  Flocculation 	 	
         C.3.7  Ultrafiltration	     ~ JJ
         C.3.8  Ozonation and Ultraviolet Radiation  	     J.-J3
         C.3.9  Discharge to Publicly Owned Treatment Works  ...     C-J/
          C.3.10 Summary  	

     C.4  TREATMENT OF SOLIDS	.• •     £""*}
          C.4.1  Solidification/Stabilization	     ^-£i
          C.4.2  Chemical and Biological Treatment	«     £J->
          C.4.3  Summary	


 D.  CONTAMINATED MATERIAL DISPOSAL TECHNIQUES   	    D'1

                                                                       n-2
     D.I  SEDIMENTS	   "
          D.I.I   Landfilling	   "~*
          D.I.2   Open Water Disposal	    ~
          D.I.3   Land Treatment/Disposal   	

     D.2  LIQUIDS	•	
          D.2.1   Direct Discharge	   "  o
          D.2.2   Deep Well  Injection	*  •
                                      viii

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                             CONTENTS (continued)
     D.3  SLUDGE AND SOLID TREATMENT RESIDUALS .	   D-10
          D.3.1   Landfilling	]   D_10
          D.3.2   Incineration 	 ...........   D-ll
          D.3.3   Land Treatment/Disposal	   D-12

     D.4  SUMMARY	   D_13


 E.   IN SITU CONTAMINANT TREATMENT AND ISOLATION TECHNIQUES  ....   E-l

     E.I  TREATMENT	   E-1
          E. 1.1   Sorption	]]   E-l
          E.I.2   Chemical and Biological Treatment  	 .   E-4

     E.2  ISOLATION	   E_7
          E.2.1   Covering and Capping	]   g-7
          E.2.2   Fixation .	   E-ll

     E.3  SUMMARY	    E_12


 F.   DATA ON  CHEMICALS  THAT SINK	    F_!

     F.I   BACKGROUND  OF THE SINKERS  LIST	  F_2

     F.2   CONTENT OF  THE SINKERS  LIST	    F-3
          F.2.1    Chemical  Name and  CHRIS  Code	    F_3
          F.2.2    Physical  State	\  \    F_6
          F.2.3    Specific  Gravity	*  *  *    F_6
          F.2.4    Water Solubility	    *      F-6
          F.2.5    Toxicity  	  !!!!!!    F-6
          F.2.6    Ignitability and Reactivity	!  !  !  !    F-7
          F.2.7    Bioaccumulation and Aquatic Persistence   	    F-7
          F.2.8    Recovery  and Handling Hazards  	    F-7
          F.2.9    Recommended Response ..... 	    F-8

G.  GLOSSARY	


H.  REFERENCES   . . .	                                     u ,
                           •••••«««««»»«.«•••«..   ti—j.


I.  BLANK WORKSHEETS FOR DOCUMENTATION AND DECISIONMAKING 	   1-1
                                     ix

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FIGURES
Number
1-1
2-1
2-2
2-3
2-4
2-5
2-6

2-7
2-8

2-9

2-10

2-11
3-1
4-1
4-2


4-3
4-4

4-5
4-6





Example Spilled Substance Data Worksheet 	

Example Site Map for Recording Data and


Example Site Map for Recording Data and

Example Site Map for Recording Data and Observations -

Example Site Map for Recording Data and Observations -




Alternative Response Categories and Response
Train Used in Overall Sinker Spill Response

Example Worksheet for Screening Response Categories . . .
Decision Process to Determine Applicability of

Example Worksheet for Screening Response Techniques . . .
Example Worksheet for Development of Response
Page
. 1-4
, 2-2
, 2-3
. 2-5
, 2-11
, 2-17

—21
, 2-22






, 2-35
. 3-2
. 4-2



. 4-8


. 4-19
. 4-25

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                            FIGURES (continued)
Number

 4-7

 5-1

 A-l


 A-2


 A-3


 A-4


 A-5


 A-6

 A-7

 C-l
 Example Alternatives Evaluation Worksheet  .........   4-29

 Sequence of Response Events  .....  ..  .........   5-2

 Applications of Containment  Curtains to
  Control Resuspended Material ............. .    A- 2

 Application of a Spill Containment Trench
  to Control Sinking Substances  . ............    A-5
Application of a Spill Containment Dike
  to Control Sinking Substances  ...... .......   A-8

Streamflow Diversion for Sediment Excavation
  Using Two Cofferdams and Diversion Channel .......   A-ll

Streamflow Diversion for Sediment Excavation
  Using Single Cofferdam . . .......... .....   A-12

Cro.ss-Section of a Pneumatic Barrier Application .....   A- 14

Tethered Float Breakwater  ... .............   A-16

Typical Sequence of Steps for Treatment of Removed
  Contaminated Bottom Materials  ....  ...... ...   C-2
                                    xi

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                                   TABLES
Number
2-1

2-2

2-3

2-4
4-1
4-2

A-l
B-l

C-l
C-2
C-3
C-4
C-5
D-l

E-l

F-l
F-2
F-3
F-4
Discharged Material Information Requirements

Water Body Information Requirements and

Additional Information Sources for Water

Environmental Setting Information Sources 	
Decision Matrix for Screening Response Categories . . .
Technology Screening Criteria For Action


Summary of Contaminated Material Removal

Summary of Sediment/Water Separation Techniques ....
Summary of Solids Dewatering Techniques ....,..•
Summary of Biological Treatment Processes 	
Summary of Wastewater Treatment Techniques . . . . .
Summary of Solids Treatment Techniques 	
Summary of Contaminated Material Disposal

Summary of In Situ Contaminant Treatment and




Summary of Data on Chemicals that Sink 	
2-7

2-14

2-20

2-27
4-6
A— 1 ft

A-19
B-22

C-12
C-2 2
C-28
C-38
C-51
D-l 4

E— 1 "^

F-4
F-4
F-5
F-9
                                      xii

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                               ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
     This document was prepared by Science Applications International
Corporation (SAIC), for USEPA's and the USCG's Offices of Research and
Development in partial fulfillment of Contract No. 68-03-3113, Task 14-1.
Anthony Tafuri of the Hazardous Waste Engineering Research Laboratory,
Releases Control Branch, was the USEPA Project Officer, and John Sinclair
of the Office of Research and Development, Environmental Technology Branch,
was the USCG Project Officer.  Kevin Boyer and Virginia Hodge were the Task
Managers for SAIC.  Major contributors of SAIC include Roger Wetzel, Claudia
Furraan, Douglas Sarno, Ellen Scopino, Kathleen Wagner, and Fredrick Zafran.
The preparation of this document was greatly aided by the constructive
review of LCDR D. D. Rome of the USCG Gulf Strike Team and LT J. C. Milbury
of the USCG Office of Research and Development.  Appreciation is also
extended to numerous other individuals from Federal, state, and industry
organizations who were contacted on matters related to this document.
                                    xiii

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                                  SECTION 1

                                 INTRODUCTION
 1.1  PURPOSE
     Materials that are spilled into a water environment can either float,
 dissolve or becorce suspended in the water column, or sink to the bottom
 (where dissolution can later occur), depending on the material's chemical
 and physical properties.  Materials that sink to the bottom have the poten-
 tial to contaminate bottom sediments and be carried downstream .by currents,
 further spreading the contaalnation.  Such spills can pose a serious threat
 to public health and welfare and to the environment, and significant economic
 consequences can result from the destruction of food resources,  contamination
 of water supplies,  and reduction in recreational resources.

     Contamination of bottom, materials (i.e., sediments, organic  matter,  and
 interstitial water) by substances that sink (sinkers) can pose long-term
 threats.   Once  contaminated, bottom materials can be an ongoing  source  of
 contaminant release to the environment.   Contaminants can be transported
 long distances  over time and often bioaccumulate and biomagnify  in benthic
 and aquatic organisms.   Rapid and effective response techniques  can be
 applied to mitigate actual and potential damages from spilled sinkers.   The
 implementation  of  such techniques should protect resources and minimize
 additional damage  to public health,  the  environment, and property from  anv
 response measures  taken.

    This handbook provides  information and  guidance  on the process and
 techniques  for  responding to spills  of sinkers  to inland and coastal waters.
 It  is intended for  use  by the United  States  Environmental  Protection Agency
 (USEPA) and  Coast Guard (USCG) on-scene  coordinators (OSCs)  and  state,
 local, and private  spill  control  cleanup personnel.   The handbook outlines
 the sequence of response  events;  the  decisionmaking  criteria for identifying
 appropriate  responses;  and  the techniques that  are currently available to
 contain, remove, treat, and dispose of contaminants and contaminated
materials.  The procedures described are specific to the cleanup  of bottom
materials that have been contaminated by spills of sinkers.
                                    1-1

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     Because it is usually not practical to call on a wide range of technical
disciplines in response to a spill or other discharge, this handbook does
not discuss complex scientific and engineering principles.  The terminology
used is intended to be familiar to persons with a basic understanding, of
the physical and environmental sciences, spill response, hazardous materials,
navigation, construction, and regulations and their interrelationships.  In
addition, a glossary of frequently used terms is provided in Appendix G.
However, because environmental contamination and cleanup can be technically
complex, users of this handbook should consult technical specialists whenever
possible.


1.2  SCOPE


      This handbook addresses contamination of bottom materials of water
bodies through spills and other discharges of substances that sink in the
water environment and response techniques for contaminant cleanup.  As
such, the handbook does not include  response measures that may be taken to
prevent  sinkers from reaching bottom materials or to protect receptors from
exposure, nor does it provide guidance  for responding to discharges of sub-
stances  that are not sinkers or are  entrained in the water column.  It also
does not address the implementation  of  response measures.

      The guidance provided in this  document  is designed  to protect public
health,  the environment,  and property.   Furthermore,  the  procedures presented
are intended to  supplement the knowledge of  experienced response  personnel
to quickly  formulate appropriate  mitigative  measures.   The approach  focuses
on what  decisions need  to be made,  the  framework  for  the  decisionmaking,  and
the information needed;  it does not address  the "how to"  aspects  of  decision-
making,  data collection and analysis, and response implementation.   Because
of the complexity of  environmental contamination and cleanup,  users  of this
manual should consult  referenced  sources of  information and  technical special-
ists for further information on techniques that are evaluated and/or selected
 through the decisionmaking process.
 1.3  SUMMARY OF RESPONSE DECISIONMAKING PROCESS


      In responding to spills of substances that sink, the following general
 types of activities must be conducted:

      •  Obtaining data relevant to the decisionmaking process

      •  Analyzing these data with regard to the spill situation to address
         specific decision parameters
                                      1-2

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      •  Developing decisions on response needs and capabilities

      •  Applying techniques to mitigate and/or clean up contaminated
         materials.

      A process for conducting these activities is provided in this handbook.
 The process is designed to aid the user in identifying and documenting data
 needs, analysis requirements, and mitigating factors to consider in com-
 pleting the selection.  The process formalizes a decisionmaking process
 that is often performed mentally rather than on paper.  The amount of time
 and the depth of analysis conducted at each step must be considered with
 regard to the spill situation encountered.   For example, a rapidly spreading
.or moving spill of highly toxic chemicals would require a quick analysis to
 identify immediate response measures,  while an area of stable,  contaminated
 sediments would permit more time to consider and select an appropriate
 response.  Where possible,  guidance on critical factors and decision
 criteria, as well as  relatively "rough" analysis methods,  are identified.

      The response decision  process has been designed to meet response needs
 from quick-response spill situations to long-term cleanup  efforts.   This
 process sets forth decision steps  to facilitate the systematic  selection of
 techniques  that are appropriate to the specific discharge  situation being
 addressed.   To  assist the user  of  the  handbook in evaluating and selecting
 between the available techniques,  technical information on containment,
 removal,  treatment, disposal, and  in-place  (or in situ)  treatment/isolation
 techniques  is provided in Appendices A through E.

      Figure 1-1  shows the response activities  identified as  a generalized
 sequence  of response  steps  from the discovery  of  a spill to  the  completion
 of  the  response.   The response  sequence  begins  with the discovery of  con-
 tamination  or the  potential  for contamination  of  bottom materials.  Such
 contamination could result  from a  spill  or  from long-term  discharges
 attributable to  a  variety of sources.  The  causative discharge may  be
 ongoing or  may have ceased some time past.  Further, the affected area may
 be  confined  to the area of the  original  discharge,  or contamination may
 have  spread  over a much larger  area.

     Response steps that  follow discovery are:  spill characterization,
determination of response needs, selection  of a response alternative, and
assessment  of the effectiveness of  the response.  Each step is briefly
described below and is described in detail in Sections 2 through 5.  Work-
sheets are also provided to assist  the user in tracking and documenting the
flow of information and bases for decisionmaking throughout the response
process.  Supporting information for completing the worksheets and examples
of completed worksheets are provided in Sections 2 through 5.  Blank work-
sheets are compiled from all of the sections in Appendix I.  It is suggested
that users of this handbook make detached copies of the blank worksheets
for use in field response situations.
                                    1-3

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FIGURE 1-1. SEQUENCE OF RESPONSE EVENTS
                                               Define Immediate
                                              Response Objectives
                  Define Response
                    Objectives
                Develop and Evaluate
                Response Alternatives
                  Select Preferred
                 Response Alternative
                	i	,
               I  Implement Response [•«-
 Identify and Select
Immediate Response
   Alternatives
                              1-4

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      1.3.1  Spill Characterization
      The initial response effort following discovery is to characterize the
 spill situation and to obtain information pertinent to making decisions on
 the need for and type of response; this effort is described in Section 2.
 This effort involves identifying and characterizing the spilled substance,
 the affected water body, and potential receptor/resources exposed.  These*
 data are used to determine the area of contamination,  predict the future
 movement of contaminants, quantify the contamination,  identify receptors and
 levels of exposure to contaminants, and determine impacts of the exposure.


      1.3.2  Response Needs


      Following spill characterization, the need  for response action is
 assessed based on the data obtained in the spill characterization; this
 assessment is described in Section 3.   The assessment  focuses on determin-
 ing whether existing present or future impacts or damages,  which may occur
 through contaminant  movement and exposure, are significant  and warrant a
 response.   The result of this assessment may  be  the decision that no
 response is warranted.   However, if response  actions are  warranted,  the
 need for immediate response measures to control  contaminant movement or to
 minimize exposure prior to full-scale  response must be addressed along with
 long-term response measures.   Response objectives,  priorities, and criteria
 are then established to set the framework for selecting appropriate  response
 techniques.
      1.3.3  Response Alternative Selection
     Given the need for a response to a spill, response alternatives are
developed and evaluated and the preferred alternative is selected and
implemented.  This process begins with selecting applicable categories of
response actions based on response objectives and site data.  Techniques
within each identified category are screened to eliminate those techniques
that are not applicable or are not practical to the situation.  Individual
techniques are then combined into response alternatives, which are evaluated
against response objectives and technical, environmental, and other relevant
criteria, to select an alternative that will most effectively resolve the
identified problems.  Throughout this process, the objectives may be revised
to reflect the limitations of available techniques.  Further, situations
may arise where no response is possible or where no response is the preferred
alternative.

     Section 4 presents this evaluation and selection process.  Appendices
A through E provide detailed information on temporary containment, removal,
treatment, disposal, and in-place (or in situ) remediation techniques and are
reference tools for this analysis.
                                    1-5

-------
     Upon selection, the preferred alternative is implemented to resolve
the site problems.  It should be noted that this document does not address
response action implementation and operation.


     1.3.4  Assessment of Response Effectiveness and Need for Further
            Response


     After the response action has been implemented and completed, the
site should be monitored and evaluated to assess the effectiveness of the
response actions, whether the response objectives were met, and whether the
implemented response sufficiently minimizes future risk to public health
and the environment.  These assessments are described in Section 5.  The
extent of cleanup,  presence of residual contamination, and present and
future damages that may be incurred from remaining contamination are spe-
cifically addressed.  As a result of this assessment, a decision is made
that either further response action is necessary or that the response is
complete.  Where  further response action is  indicated, the decisionmaking
process would recommence with establishing new response objectives.
                                      1-6

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                                  SECTION 2

           CHARACTERIZATION OF THE DISCHARGE SITUATION AND IMPACTS


      The first activity that is conducted following the discovery of a
 discharge of a sinking substance is to collect and analyze data that define
 the physical situation of the spill and the impacts that have resulted.
 This characterization process defines the important factors that form the
 foundation for subsequent decisionmaking.  Figure 2-1 identifies the overall
 sequence of response events and the relationship of the spill and impacts
 characterization to the overall process.

      The ultimate goal of the characterization process is to define known
 or anticipated spill impacts in order to assess the need for, and the urgency
 of  spill response.  To achieve this goal,  data need to.be collected in the
 following areas:

     • •  Spill circumstances

      •  Chemical  characteristics

      •  Receptor  identification and  locations

      »  Environmental  monitoring  (chemical movement)

      •  Water body  characteristics

      •  Regulatory  standards  and  other criteria for assessing  exposure
         and contamination.

These  data feed into analyses of  the present and future extent of contami-
nation,  exposure, and  impacts.  Figure 2-2 illustrates the analytical
process  leading to  the identification of spill impacts.

      Subsequent sections describe each step of the characterization process.
Section  2.1 addresses  the characterization of the discharge, both the spill
circumstances and the discharged materials.  Section 2.2 provides guidance
on characterizing the water body involved and its environmental setting
(i.e., receptors).  Section 2.3 focuses on determining the extent of pre-
sent and future contamination.  Section 2.4 describes the exposure and
impacts analysis process.  Section 2.5 addresses the application of the
overall process at different levels of detail.
                                    2-1

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FIGURE 2-1. SEQUENCE OF  RESPONSE EVENTS
                                               Define Immediate
                                              Response Objectives
                 Define Response
                 • Objectives
                Develop and Evaluate
                Response Alternatives
                  Select Preferred
                 Response Alternative
               r	•*-	,
               I  Implement Response
 Identify a.nd Select
Immediate Response
   Alternatives
                               2-2

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                               FIGURE 2-2. PROCESS FOR DETERMINING SPILL IMPACTS
ro
I
          Receptor Data
Spill Circumstances
     Data
                                                  Monitoring Data
                                                                      Water Body Data
                                       Present Extent of
                                        Contamination
                                                       Future Extent
                                                           of
                                                       Contamination
                                               Exposure
                                                             Impacts
Chemical Data
Standards and
  Criteria

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2.1  CHARACTERIZATION OF THE DISCHARGE


     The two major components in characterizing a spill of sinking
substances are the spill circumstances and the nature of the spilled sub-
stances.  Collection of information defining these components establishes
the framework .for analyzing the spill situation and selecting an appropriate
and timely response.  The factors relevant to characterizing the spill
circumstances and the discharged material, as well as sources of this
information, are described in the following sections.


     2.1.1  Characterization of Discharge Circumstances


     Information on the circumstances surrounding the discharge or spill of
substances into a water body is useful for the response decisionmaking pro-
cess.   The information collected through observation when  the situation is
first encountered can be used to identify the specific substances involved
and the extent of resulting contamination.   Specific spill information that
is needed and sources of this information are identified below.


          2.1.1.1   Information  Requirements


     Figure  2-3 is  an example completed worksheet used to  record  and
summarize pertinent information regarding  the circumstances,  status, and
characteristics of  a discharge.  A blank worksheet  is provided  in Appendix
I.  This information provides background and time-related  data  that  can  be
used to determine the nature  of the problem and  the need for immediate
action (such as  stopping ongoing or intermittent contaminant sources or
shutting off affected water intakes).   This information may  also  be  used in
subsequent  analyses to  estimate the current extent  of  contamination or  the
future extent of  contamination based on the rates of spill spread.   All  of
 these  analyses contribute to  the spill response  decision  process.

     The worksheet shown in Figure 2-3 also provides space for recording
 additional pertinent information based on observation of  the discharge
 situation.   An example is an observation of a fish kill,  apparently related
 to the discharge situation, which may indicate  that the materials involved
 in the discharge are highly toxic to aquatic species.  Human uses of the
 area could also be noted based on litter or other evidence near the site.


           2.1.1.2  Information Sources


      The information to be recorded on the Figure 2-3 worksheet is generally
 derived through observation of the spill circumstances and the surrounding
                                     2-4

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              FIGURE 2-3.  EXAMPLE DISCHARGE  SUMMARY WORKSHEET
 Site
 Time of Observation   ///S2> A«m*
 Tirrna r\f TJa^o•l• T3^J,T    rf-y_ . . /*»   _•
 Type of Water Body   &,*>
                                            ,
                                       *,,,.*
 CIRCUMSTANCES OF DISCHARGE

 Location //•/'M  J^Jk  ffst
 oource

 Cause
Status (Circle One):C^ Discrete


Time Elapsed Since Discharge  Began
                >

Quantity of Material Released


Duration of Release (if intermittent)


      Substances Released
                                                                 Continuous
                                                      Quantit
                                                   ft gag
Form of Release  (Circle  One):
Powder    Crystal/Pellets     Chunks
                                       Semi-Solid
EXTENT OF CONTAMINATION
          Sediments
                                                     Water Body
OBSERVATIONS
            l.

                                      *m
            n
                                   2-5

-------
area  as well as through interviews with witnesses or other knowledgeable
parties.  Additional information (such as discharge rates or contamination
spread rates) may be estimated from measured observations.

     Information on the chemicals spilled and the quantity spilled must
be obtained from specific sources, which include:

     •  Captain or crew of vessel

     •  Shipping papers, transport or waste manifests, cargo labels, or
        other identifying papers/markings

     •  Shipping agent

     •  Company discharge records or environmental permits

     •  USEPA Regional Office  or state permit data.

Sampling may be necessary to identify or confirm the  chemicals  involved
in the  absence of any identifying data or where  available data  provide
conflicting answers.
      2.1.2  Characterization of Discharged Material
      Sinking materials are chemical substances that are denser than water
 and are relatively insoluble in water.  When a sinking material is spilled
 and enters a surface water body, it tends to fall or flow to the bottom
 and, when the material is a liquid, it will permeate or move along the top
 of the sediments.  Once the material has reached the bottom, its properties
 determine its fate in the environment and potential hazards posed to the
 population, the environment, and property.  Appendix F provides and explains
 a list of 468 chemicals that have been identified as sinking chemicals.


           2.1.2.1  Information Needs


      Table 2-1 lists important physical, chemical, and biological properties
 that should be determined for each sinking substance involved in a spill to
 a water body.  Such data should also be collected for any breakdown products
 of  the spilled substance that may result from hydrolysis or other chemical
 reactions in the environment or from biological  transformation  (e.g.,
 microbial metabolism).  These data will be used  in subsequent analyses to
 assess the spread of contamination and the likely impacts.  These data may
 also be used in  the technology  selection and evaluation process  (described
 in  Section 4) to identify containment, removal,  treatment, or disposal
 methods applicable  to  the chemicals of interest  or  to  identify  adverse
                                      2-6

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                  TABLE 2-1.  DISCHARGED MATERIAL INFORMATION REQUIREMENTS AND SOURCES
 Information Factor   Use of Information
                                                                  Information Source
 Specific Gravity
 Physical  State
Particle Size
Water Solubility
 Ability to settle to bottoms and
   prediction of movement along bottom.
 Once settled, to estimate future
   extent of contamination and impacts.

 Prediction of potential  to remain sus-
   pended in water column.
 Ability to solubilize.,
 Prediction of movement along bottom or
   into  water column,  once  settled.
 Selection of containment,  removal,
   treatment,  and  disposal  technique.

 Ability to  remain in  water  column rather
   than  settle.
 Selection of  containment, removal,  or
   treatment  technique.
Prediction of dissolution from sediments
  into water column.
Prediction of solubilization rather than
  settling to the bottom.
Selection of containment or treatment
  technique.
                                                                  Appendix F.
                                                                  References in Note 1.
 Appendix F.
 Observation  of spill.
 Transport manifest or container
   label.
 Discussion with notifier of spill
   company agent or other
   knowledgeable person.

 Observation  of spill.
 Transport manifest or container
   label.
 Discussion with notifier of spill
 company  agent  or  other
 knowledgeable  person.

Appendix F.
References in Note  1.


-------
                                          TABLE 2-1. (continued)
     Information Factor
     Water Reactivity
     Chemical Reactivity
      Ignitability
to
oo
                    Use of Information
      Surface Tension
      Octanol-Water Partition
        Coefficient
                    Potential for rapid dispersement through-
                      out water body.

                    Potential for transformation into another
                      substance of greater or lesser concern.
                    Selection of chemical management measures
                      during and upon removal.
                    Selection of treatment and disposal
                      techniques.

                    Selection of treatment techniques for
                      removed materials.
                    Selection of special handling  and manage-
                      ment  techniques during and upon removal.
                    Selection of treatment and disposal
                      techniques.

                    Prediction  of  compound-water  interaction
                      and compound settlement and  dispersal.
                                                                            Information Source
Appendix F.
References in Note 1.

References in Note 1,
Appendix F.
References in Note
 Observation of  spill.
 References  in Note 1.
                     Prediction of compound-water interaction.     References in Note 1.
                                                                                   (continued)
      1 -
See Reference Nos. 8. 9, 35. 38, 41, 42. 51, 53, 56, 64. 72, /3. 74, 75, 8U, and 8Z in
Appendix H.  Also consult USEPA, Duluth, MN, "AQUIRE" database on aquatic toxicology,
Occupational Health Services, Inc., New York, NY, "HAZARDLINE" database on physical/
chemLal properties, toxicology, spill response, and waste disposal; and NationalOceanic
and Atmospheric Administration's Hazardous Materials Response Project, Seattle, WA, for
information on degree of hazard.

-------
                                          TABLE 2-1.  (continued)
Ni
      Information Factor
                        Use of Information
      Sediment-Water
        Partition Coefficient
      Bioaccumulation^
      Aquatic  Persistence
Transformation Rate
  Constants or Half-Lives
   o  Hydrolysis
   o  Oxidation
   o  Biotrans formation

Toxicity
   o  Aquatic Species
   o  Mammals
   o  Human (ingestion)
   o  Food Chain
                        Assessment of future extent of con-
                          tamination based on compound
                          distribution between sediments
                          and water.               •

                        Estimation of future contamination,
                          exposure, and impacts.

                        Prediction of future extent of contami-
                          nation and estimation of .future
                          exposure and impacts

                        Prediction of chemical  transformation into
                          substances of greater or lesser concern.
                        Prediction of future extent of contami-
                          nation and estimation of future
                          exposure and  impacts.
                                Evaluation of health impacts of expected
                                  exposure levels on receptors of concern.
                                Selection of special handling or management
                                  procedures during and following removal.
                                                                               Information Source
                                                                          References  in Note 1.
                                                                         Appendix F.
                                                                         References in Note  1.

                                                                         Appendix F.
                                                                         References in Note  1.
                                                                              References in Note  1.
                                                                     Appendix  F.
                                                                     References in  Note  1.
          nn                          '    '    '    '    »  56»  64>  72>  73>  74> 75, 80, and 82 in
         Appendix H   Also consult USEPA,  Duluth,  MN,  "AQUIRE" database on aquatic toxicology;
         Occupational Health Services,  Inc., New York,  NY,  "HAZARDLINE" database on physical/
                                          sPm  response,  and  waste disposal; and National Oceanic
                                          Hazardous Materlals  Response project»  Seattle>  WA«
     2  "
      n/  ii
sediment/soil
                                  octanol-water partition  coefficient,  bioconcentration factor,  and
                              on  (sediment-water partition coefficient).

-------
environmental or human health effects from contaminated sediment disturbance
and recension during their removal.  Specific  data usage is summarized
in the second column  of Table 2-1.

     Figure 2-4 is an example completed worksheet for use in collecting the
chemical data needed  for  further analysis.  A blank worksheet is provided
in Spendix I For a given spill situation, each chemical involved would
be listed and the  necessary data would be obtained.


          2.1.2.2   Information  Sources


     Table 2-1 identifies information sources for each information factor
listed.  Numerous texts and  documents presently avf ^^J^^f
physical, chemical, and biological  information needs identified  in Table
2-1.  Most of this information  has  been compiled and analyzed, and is pre
sented  in Appendix F as part of the chemical sinkers list.

     The amount of available data varies  for each chemical.   Some  chemicals
h*v* been studied to a greater  extent than others and therefore  have more
data avXlaDle.  Thus, data for each factor identified in Table  2-1 may not
be available.  In such situations,  best judgment based on knowledge of
 comical behavior or observations of the  spill situation will be necessary
 ss
 ^d^^^^^^^
 £?er cSumn through chemical solubility, chemical  ^^"^ifl^dissolu-
 that of water, low surface  tension of the chemical, or  significant dissolu
 tion to the water from contaminated sediments.
      The source of each piece of information that is noted on the worksheet
 in Figure 2-4 should be specifically identified.

 2.2  CHARACTERIZATION OF THE WATER BODY AND THE ENVIRONMENTAL SETTING

      Once the spill circumstances are identified, information should be
 collected concerning the characteristics  of the water body into which
 sinking substances were spilled and  the  surrounding environmental setting
 that may be affected.
        The following sections identify important  information needs and
  potential sources  of this information.
                                    2-10

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             FIGURE 2-4.  EXAMPLE  SPILLED  SUBSTANCE DATA WORKSHEET
       Information
          Factor
                         Substance A  Information   Substance B  Information
                                        Source                     Source
 1.   Specific Gravity
 2.   Physical  State
 3.   Particle Size
                          *«
                                                  A>f **/,'
 4.  Water  Solubility  800 fj>m
5.  Water Reactivity A/*
6.  Chemical Reactivity
7.  Ignitability
8.  Surface Tension
                                          cJie*»ieA/
                                                                (continued)
                                    2-11

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                         FIGURE 2-4.  (continued)
     Information
        Factor
Substance A  Information
              Source
                                                Substance B  Information
                                                              Source
 9.  Octanol-water
    partition coeffi
    cient
10.   Sediment-water      £ 3 /
     partition coeffi-
     cient
11.   Bioaccumulation
12.  Aquatic persistence //i«A
13.   Transformation
     rate  constants
     •  Hydrolysis
     •  Oxidation
     •  Biotrans-
        formation
14.  Toxicity
                                    <•.»«.£  e,r-
                                 na,*aot>OK
                                          j
     rifuaL: species-.*,-**. ™^faiyri^c*i**-i*rr«*
     .  Mammals - 0^1 r^-W^^Wo-S/icT  V/                        ^
     •  Human - Or+l LO^xCo ~*/l£f} O.+S^/I ML*. •£•' I*   c«»'*r nfk*
     •  Food chain             $ptJft W»A/-W»  AAwte>t"i££:
                               I tlf-y — 0.9.****
     ^	/gAy — ^o^/y^                    	.
                 T*itc.
                                   2-12

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      2.2.1  Characterization of  the Water Body
     Spills of sinking chemicals may occur in any type of surface watpr

 Each water body has certain physical and chemical characteristics Sat affect

 nolo^rr* °VP1illed -^stances and the application of particular
 nologies to control or remove the contaminants.
          2.2.1.1  Information Requirements










steps.  Specific data usage is summarized in the second column of Table  2-2
                                s sna   an-s
                                                     ;:
        2.2.1.2  Information Sources

                                2-13

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                 TABLE 2-2.  WATER BODY INFOMATION REQUIREMENTS AND SOURCES
Information Factor
                            Use  of  Information
                                                               Information Sources
Depth to Contaminated
  Bottom Materials
Depth of Water Body
  or Water Channel
  (minimum, maximum,
   mean)
                             Ability of  dredges  to  reach and
                               remove contaminated  materials.
                             Ability to operate/maneuver dredging
                               equipment.
                             Accessibility of dredging equipment
                               to site.
                             Prediction of discharged substances
                               or sediments movement.
     Width of Water Body or  Ability to operate/maneuver dredging
       Water Channel
,L      (minimum, maximum,
•**•       mean)
 Configuration of
   Channel  or Water
   Body
  equipment.
Accessibility of dredging euqipment
  to site.
Prediction; of discharged substances
  or sediments movement.

Ability to operate/maneuver dredging
  equipment.
Accessibility of dredging equipment
  to site.
Prediction of discharged substances
  or sediments movement.
                                       Navigation chart.
                                       Direct measurement.
                                       Remote sensing (sonar).

                                       Navigation chart.
                                       Table 2-3.
                                       Remote sensing (sonar).
                                                              Navigation chart.
                                                              USGS  topographic map.
                                                              Table 2-3.
                                                                   Table 2-3.
                                                                   Remote sensing (sonar, video
                                                                   sounders).
                                                                                (continued)

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                                           TABLE 2-2. (continued)
    Information Factor
 Use of Information
    Water Current Direction   Prediction of discharged substances
      ^surface, subsurface)     or sediments movement.
    Water Current Velocity
      (surface, subsurface)
    Tidal Cycle (time of
      high and low tides,
      velocity of  tide,
      amplitude of tide)

,L   Wave  Height
Ui


    Suspended  Particulate
      Concentration
   Water Temperature
     Profile
 Prediction of discharged substances
   or sediments movement.
 Ability of dredging equipment to
   operate.
 Prediction of discharged substances
   or sediments movement.

 Ability to operate/maneuver dredging
   equipment.

 Potential  for contaminants  to adhere
   to  particulates rather  than
   settling to sediments.
 Impact on  need for containment.
 Impact on  containment method  selection.

Ability of  discharged material to
  solubilize while settling to
  sediments.
Ability of discharged material to
  settle out.
                                                                       Information  Sources
 Navigation chart.
 Table 2-3.
 Direct measurement/observation.

 Navigation chart.
 Table 2-3.
 Direct measurement.

 Table 2-3.
 Direct measurement/observation.
Table  2-3.


Table  2-3
Observation  (general estimate),
Table 2-3.
                                                                                     (continued)

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                                   TABLE 2-2.  (continued)
Information Factor
Salinity Profile
Seasonal Considerations
  (drought, snow melt,
  storm flood)
Sediment Type  and  Grain
   Size
 Sediment Organic Carbon
   Content
Use of Information
Ability of discharged material to
  solubilize while settling to
  sediments.
Impact on sediment treatment option.

Affect on physical characteristics
  of the water body, thereby
  affecting ability to operate/
  maneuver dredging equipment and
  prediction of contaminant.
  movement*

 Impact on  type of dredging equipment
  may be used.
 Impact on  sediment treatment  and
  disposal method selection.
 Impact on  containment method
  selection.

 Impact on  adhesion of contaminants
   to sediments.
 Impact on  treatment  method selection.
                                                                   Information Sources
                                                                   Table 2-3.
Table 2-3.
Direct measurement observation.
Table 2-3.
Sampling and analysis
Remote sensing  (in-situ
  nuclear density  probe),
 Table  2-3.
 Sampling and  analysis.

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          FIGURE 2-5.   EXAMPLE WATER BODY DATA COLLECTION WORKSHEET
 Information.
 Requirements
     Site-Specific
         Data
Information
   Source
WATER BODY;

Depth of Water  Body
  Minimum
  Maximum
  Average

Width of Water  Body
  Minimum
  Maximum
  Average

Water Current Direction
  Surface
  Subsurface

Water Current Velocity
  Surface
  Subsurface

Tidal Cycle
  Time of high tide
  Time of low tide
  Velocity of tide
  Amplitude of tide

Wave Height
                               ,f>
A/sf
                                 m*.  *T
                                                             (continued)
                                    2-17

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                         FIGURE 2-5. (continued)
Information
Requirements
                               Site-Specific
                                  Data
                                          Information
                                             Source
SEDIMENTS;

Depth to  Contaminated
  Sediments

Sediment  Type

Sediment  Grain Size  i
Sediment Organic
  Carbon Content

WATER:
                    I?r
Suspended Particulate
  Concentration

Water Temperature
  Profile

Salinity Profile
                                             SI
 SEASONAL CONSIDERATIONS;
 Seasonal Conditions
 and Impacts
   Drought
   Snow melt
   Storm flood
 SKETCH
      A///f - A/e-/-
      i WATER BODY
BODY/CHANNEL CONFIGURATION (CROSS-SECTION)
               •F+.
                         fjso-Pf.              /p
                         1 *K5*             jf^
                      spfej^as^g^^
                       - --  ------      -..- ___.  *.••
                                   2-18

-------
to

I—"
V0
                    FIGURE 2-6. EXAMPLE SITE MAP FOR RECORDING DATA AND
                                 OBSERVATIONS - WATER BODY
i
                 5,000 Gallons
                  Chemical X
                                                                            Not to Scale

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        TABLE 2-3.  ADDITIONAL INFORMATION SOURCES FOR WATER BODY DATA
 Source
 Information Available
 U.S. Coast Guard District
   Offices
 U.S.  Geologic Survey




 U.S.  National Weather Service

 U.S.  Army Corps of Engineers
 U.S.  National Oceanic and
   Atmospheric Administration
U.S. Department  of  Interior
  and  State  Departments  of
  Natural  Resources

Scripps  Institute of  Oceanography
  and  Woods  Hole Oceanographic
  Institute

State  Water  Departments
State Coastal Department

Local Municipalities and
  Universities
 Historical  spill  data,  local
 meteorological  data,  oceano-
 graphic  data.

 Topographic maps,  data  on  the
 geologic and hydrologic features
 of  a  spill  area,  topographic
 data.

 Meteorological  and nautical data.

 Historical  water  data for  spill
 site, predicted flow  patterns  of
 an  area.

 Nautical and meteorological data,
 visual reconaissance  capabilities,
 modeling of contaminant trajectory.

 Identification  and location of
 endangered  species and  habitats.
Data on currents, waves, and tides.
Data concerning all water systems
within a state.

Data on currents, waves, and tides.

Historical knowledge of area;
environmental and geologic
knowledge of area.
Adapted from Byroade, Twedell, and LeBoff, 1981.
                                    2-20

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      In the absence of any specific data or estimates based on general
 information, sampling or direct measurements may need to be conducted to
 define the necessary data.  These activities may range from taking soundings
 or measuring currents to sampling sediments for analysis.   Where such
 activities are indicated, they should be planned and conducted in conjunc-
 tion with other sampling or monitoring activities in the data collection
 and analysis effort to ensure efficient use of  time  and resources.


      2.2.2  Characterization of Environmental Setting


      The biological environment surrounding the spill of a  sinking  chemical
 consists of species,  populations,  and communities (i.e., receptors) at risk
 of exposure to the  spilled substances.   The receptors may be at risk through
 exposure to toxic substances or the destruction of their living environment
 (habitat).   Economically important receptors, such as fish  and shellfish,
 may also be affected  by a spill of sinking  chemicals.   The  economic and
 public welfare value  of the water  body for  drinking  water,  industrial use,
 or recreational use may also be reduced as  a result  of the  spilli   Thus,
 the identification  of  receptors surrounding the spill area  (flora,  fauna,
 and human)  and the  uses of the water body information to assess exposure
 and impacts of the  spill,  as well  as the need for immediate protective
 measures,  need to be  applied.


           2.2.2.1   Information Requirements


      For the purposes  of  spill response decisionmaking,  the environmental
 setting  of  the area surrounding the  spill of  sinking  substances includes
 the following:

      •   Distinctive, sensitive,  or protected habitats

      •   Endangered  species

      •   Sensitive or indicator species

      •   Sensitive water body use

      •   Potential receptors.

All of these components represent environmental areas  or species subject to
 exposure  that  may require  protection during cleanup or may  be  considered in
 evaluating  the need for immediate response.

      Figure 2-7 is  an example  completed worksheet for  compiling environ-
mental setting data.  A blank worksheet is provided in Appendix I.  This
 worksheet provides  a detailed  breakdown of  information under each of  the
 five  components identified above.
                                     2-21

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            FIGURE 2-7.  EXAMPLE ENVIRONMENTAL SETTING WORKSHEET
Site Information
                                                           Information
                                                             Sources
DISTINCTIVE HABITATS (Check and list if near spill area)

      L.  Breeding Grounds, Nesting, or Roosting Sites
     2.  Wildlife/Refuges
     3.  Endangered Species Habitats
     4.  Marshes or Swamps (e.g., mangrove)
     5.  Subtidal Seagrass Systems
     6.  Harvesting Beds
     7.  Coral Reefs
     8.  Soft Bottom Benthos
      9.   Unused Natural Ecosystem (ecologically or
          aesthetically important)
     10.   Other
                                                             (continued)
                                     2-22

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                          FIGURE 2-7.  (continued)
Site Information
                                                            Information
                                                              Sources
ENDANGERED SPECIES (List)
SENSITIVE SPECIES (Check if applicable and list)

 V   1.  Aquatic (Fish/Shellfish)
         "That
     2.  Birds
     3.   Reptiles/Amphibians

     4.   Mammals'

     5.   Plants
SENSITIVE WATER BODY USAGE  (Check  if  applicable)

Type of Use                        Distance Downstream  From  Spill

CONSUMPTIVE WATER USE

  y  1.  Drinking Water Supply
	 2.  Industrial Water Supply
	 3.  Irrigation
	 4.  Fire Water Supply

RECREATIONAL USE

     1.  State/National Park
     2.  Swimming
     3.  Boating
     4.  Fishing
     5.  Other
                                                           —  ltnil
                                                            (continued)
                                   2-23

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                          FIGURE 2-7. (continued)
Site Information
                                                           Information
                                                             Sources
COMMERCIAL USE  (Check if applicable and list)

_ 1.  Shellfish


_ 2.  Finfish


 i/  3.  Resort area or other waterfront  property
          KefiJc*ce4  **A

 i/  4.  Marinas
                         C
  y*_5.  Harbor/Docks
      6.   Transportation (shipping lanes)
 POTENTIAL RECEPTORS (Check if applicable and identify)
      2.   Shellfish
      3.   Aquatic Plants
      4.  Reptiles/Amphibians
      5.  Other aquatic or benthic receptors
      6.  Birds
      7•  Mammals

      8.  Humans
                                                      Vol. ftr* Pef+*
 Adapted from Byroad, Twedell, and LeBoff, 1981.
                                      2-24

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      This  information should also  be recorded on a site map,  as described
 in Section 2.2.1.   Figure 2-8 provides  an example map;  note that the en-
 vironmental setting information has  been recorded onto  the same map as the
 water body characteristics (Figure 2-6).   This data-overlaying process
 helps to build  an  overview of the  spill,  its  movement,  and crucial  areas
 the spill  may impact;  thus, the data presented on the map reflect distance
 and time components of the spill.
           2.2.2.2   Information  Sources
     Table 2-4 identifies Federal and  state  agencies  and  organizations  that
may be able  to provide environmental setting information.   For  each agency
or organization identified, the  type of  information or  the  services avail-
able are described.

     Topographic maps from the USGS are  useful information  tools.   These
maps show state parks, marshes,  wildlife refuges, and other distinctive
habitat areas.  They also identify nearby dwellings,  towns, and cities.  As
described in Section 2.2.2.1, these maps may be used  as a base  map  to
record collected site data.
2.3  DETERMINATION OF THE EXTENT'OF CONTAMINATION
     An essential component in evaluating the impact of discharged sinking
material is to assess the spread of contaminants from the sediments along
the bottom and into the water column.  The objective of this assessment is
to determine the environmental concentrations of these substances or their
transformation products and to plot migration pathways and concentration
gradients over time.  From this information, it is possible to determine
levels of exposure to species, populations, and environmental systems
identified earlier to evaluate risk of adverse effects.
     2.3.1  Information Requirements
     Determining the extent of contamination for a spill of sinking sub-
stances involves two components:  (1) the current extent of contamination,
and (2) the future extent of contamination.  The first component provides a
picture of the contamination situation as it exists at a certain time
(generally, when the OSC^first arrives on site).  The second component
considers the dynamic aspects of contamination to characterize the contami-
nation situation as it changes over time, i.e., to build a series of
pictures of the contamination situation at specific intervals within a
defined period of time.  Both components address (for sediments and water
column) the dimensions of the contaminated areas and the concentration
gradient within the contamination zone.
                                    2-25

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                   FIGURE 2-8. EXAMPLE SITE MAP FOR RECORDING DATA AND
                          OBSERVATIONS - ENVIRONMENTAL SETTING
10
to
cr>
                      5,000 Gallons
                      Substance X
                                                                                               Wildlife
                                                                                               Refuge
 Legend

 i    Recreational Boating

\™"j Commercial Shipping

 og  Commercial Fishing

  A  Recreational Fishing
                                                                                Drinking
                                                                                 Water
                                                                                 Intake

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            TABLE 2-4.   ENVIRONMENTAL SETTING INFORMATION SOURCES
 Source
 Information Available
 U.S.  Pish and  Wildlife
   Service
National  Oceanic  and
  Atmospheric  Administration

State Water Departments
State Fish and Game
Departments
State Coastal Department
State and Local Parks and
  Recreation Departments
State and Local Universities
  and Colleges

State and Local Historical
  and Conservation Groups

National Conservation and
  Wildlife Organizations

State and Local
  Government Officials
 Data  pertaining  to possible  sensitive  and
 unique  areas,  data concerning  threatened
 species in  a spill area, directions  to take
 concerning  the protection or cleanup of
 important ecological systems (rookeries,
 hatcheries, etc.).

 Data  pertaining  to wildlife  species, in
 general, and sensitive species in particular.

 Data  concerning  all water systems within a
 state,  data concerning water uses in an
 area.                         .

 Data  detailing locations of  major aquatic
 breeding and habitat areas within a  state,
 data  concerning  wildlife water uses.

 Data  on coastal  shoreline development  areas,
 data  on where  the recreational, commercial,
 and wilderness shorelines are located.

 Data  on the recreational use of certain
 areas, data on the habitats  of recreational
wildlife (game fishes, birds, etc.).

Data  pertaining  to wildlife  species, in
general, and sensitive species in particular.

 Input as to the  aesthetic and historical
values of an area.

Input concerning the existence of threatened
or endangered species in a spill area.

Information concerning water uses,  outside
considerations, spill area uniqueness.
Adapted from Byroade, Twedell, and LeBoff, 1981.
                                    2-27

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     The following sections address the information requirements to deter-
mine the current and future extent of contamination for a spill of sinking
chemicals.
          2.3.1.1  Current Extent of Contamination
     The fundamental process for determining the current extent of contami-
nation is to define the boundaries of the contaminated bottom materials and
the area of the water column that is contaminated.  Where pools of liquid
contaminants exist on top of bottom materials, the areal extent of the
liquid should be defined and the surrounding areas of contaminated sedi-
ments should be identified.

     Defining the extent of contamination of bottom materials includes the
number of contaminated areas, the length and the width (distance dimensions)
of contamination associated with each area, and the depth of contamination
(from top of sediments) for each area.  For the water column, the extent of
contamination includes the length and the width (distance dimensions) along
the water body that contamination from  the sediments exists and the depths
within the water column that are contaminated  (e.g., is the entire water
column from the bottom to water surface contaminated, or is only a portion
of the water column contaminated).  The areal  extent of water contamination
should also be defined.  All of this information may be obtained through
monitoring studies (observations, remote sensing, or sampling) and spill
circumstances data (Section 2.1.1).

     This information should be mapped  to provide a visual summary of the
contaminated area  (sediments and water  column).  The number of contaminated
areas and zones of contamination can be recorded directly onto the data
overlay maps described in previous sections.

     Subsurface cross-sections of the sediments and the water column should
also be drawn to further describe the vertical and areal extent of contami-
nation.  Figure 2-9 provides an example map that illustrates the current
areas of contamination.

     The concentration gradient for the contaminants should be defined
within each contamination area for both water  and sediments.  This informa-
tion may also be recorded on a map, as  shown in Figure 2-9.  Concentration
data can only be obtained through sampling and analysis and through direct
measurement (e.g., conductivity).
                                     2-28

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                   FIGURE 2-9. EXAMPLE SITE MAP FOR RECORDING DATA AND
                     OBSERVATIONS - CURRENT EXTENT OF CONTAMINATION
NS

NJ
VO
                       5,000 Gallons
                       Substance X
                                                                                                   Wildlife
                                                                                                   Refuge
                                   20 Ft. Deep .* c*
                                    Recreational Boating
                               • ""• Commercial Shipping
                                >	1
                                 ~  Commercial Fishing
                                                                                   Drinking
                                                                                   Water
                                                                                   Intake
    Recreational Fishing

	•  Extent of Bottom Contamination

	  Extent of Water Contamination

    Present Time

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                      2.3.1.2  Future Extent of Contamination
                 The information used to assess the current extent of contamination is
            also used to assess the future extent of contamination:

                 •  Sediments

                    - Number of contamination areas
                    - Length and width  of each area
                    - Depth of contamination in sediments
                    - Contaminant  concentration gradient

                 •  Water  Body

                    - Areal extent of contamination zone
                    - Vertical depth of contamination  across  the  contamination zone
                    - Contaminant  concentration gradient.

                 For future contamination,  this information must  be  predicted  or  esti-
            mated  for specific future time  periods  to  build a picture as  to  how far  the
            contamination  area is  spreading,  at what  rate  it  is spreading, and how the
            contaminant concentrations  are  changing over time.  These changes are  esti-
            mated  or predicted based on the current situation,  the  chemical  data
             (Section 2.1.2),'and  the water  body data  (Section 2.2.1), and may  require
            monitoring  studies as  well.

                 This information can be mapped along with other  information to provide
            a visual summary  of  how the contamination zone may change over specific
             time periods.   Figure 2-10  provides an example map that illustrates this
            process.


                  2.3.2   Methods  for Obtaining Information


                  The information required to determine the extent of contamination may
             be obtained through monitoring studies, prediction methods, or a combination
             of the two.  Application of these methods often requires a well-considered
             plan that must be specific to the water body characteristics, spill condi-
             tions, spill volume, and overall immediacy of resolution.   The following
             sections briefly describe  these information collection methods.


                        2.3.2.1  Monitoring Methods


                  Monitoring methods that may be used  to collect  information include:

                  •  Direct (visual) observation and measurement
                                                 2-30
.

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                      FIGURE 2-10. EXAMPLE SITE MAP FOR RECORDING DATA AND
                         OBSERVATIONS - FUTURE EXTENT OF CONTAMINATION
ho
u>
                          5,000 Gallons
                          Substance X
                                                                                                       Wildlife
                                                                                                       Refuge
                                                                                                        20 Ft. Deep-.

                                                                                                  1 Foot/Sec.
      Recfeatioral Boating
      Comrnercisl Shipping
      Commerciil fishing
      Recreational Fishing
 	Extent of Bottom Comarniostion
 "    Extant of Water Conttnwiition
«6     Present Time
  tj. t3 Future Times
                                                                                      Drinking
                                                                                       Water
                                                                                       Intake

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     •  Remote sensing

     •  Sampling and analysis.

These methods are generally used to define current contamination.

     Direct observation is limited by spill and by environmental conditions.
In shallow or clear water, direct observation may be used to identify the
area of contamination of bottom materials if the contaminant is a distinc-
tive color; otherwise, divers may be needed to establish the extent of the
area.  When distinctively colored contaminants have entered the water column,
discoloration of the water may be used as a guide to the extent of contami-
nation.  The Discharge Summary Worksheet, presented earlier as Figure 2-3,
provides space to note observations of contamination dimensions.

     Remote sensing techniques and equipment can provide information about
subsurface conditions more quickly than sampling.  Remote sensing may be
used to monitor contaminants  in bottom materials both to detect the presence
of contaminants and to quantify their concentrations.  These methods may be
conducted on a one-time basis to define the current situation or on a con-
tinuing basis to quantify movement and concentration changes over time.

     Techniques currently in  use include electrical conductivity, x-ray
fluorescence, and photography (underwater and aerial).  These methods may
be used to determine  the areal extent of contamination on top of sediments,
to monitor the movement of chemicals along the bottom, and  to detect the
contaminants in sediments or  the water column.

     Sampling is the  fundamental tool for determining the extent of contami-
nation.  Sampling may be applied to bottom materials or  to  the water column
on a one-time basis to determine current contamination dimensions or on a
continuous basis to define changes in location and  concentration over  time,
enabling prediction of these  variables.

     A variety of grab samplers, corers, and  sample bottles are  available.
These  may  be used to  obtain samples  of  sediments,  contaminants  pooled  on
top  of sediments, and the water  column  at various  depths.   The  samples may
be analyzed  for  contaminant  concentrations  and  for sediment characteristics
using  either portable/transportable  on-site facilities  or off-site
laboratories.


           2.3.2.2   Predictive Methods


      Predictive methods  that may be used in determining future contaminant
 location and concentration include general estimates  or the application of
 models.

      General estimates provide a quick means of determining the rate of
 contaminant movement and thereby estimating the spread of contamination in
                                     2-32

-------
 bottom materials or through the water column in an "order-of-magnitude"
 level of analysis.   These estimates can be made based on observations or
 sampling results within a certain time period and extrapolated for longer
 intervals.   Such a method provides a "rough" estimate, which may be suf-
 ficient where immediate response action is indicated to control the spill
 or to protect human health or the environment.   However, these estimates
 are limited in their application because they do not take into account
 the dynamic nature of the water body, the sediments, and the contaminant
 concentration and transformation.

      Modeling studies are useful predictive tools to indicate the possible
 areal extent of contaminated sediments,  contaminant movement, and water
 column contamination over time.   Such studies may also indicate locations
 where contaminants  or contaminated bottom materials tend to  accumulate.

      Mathematical models  are available for predicting sediment transport,
 erosion,  and deposition,  as  well as contaminant  transport in rivers,
 estuaries,  lakes, and oceans.   Numerous  methods  are available, and some
 involve the use of  numerical computer models.  Vyas and Herblch (1977) and
 Neely and Blau (1976) are information sources on the use of  models in
 analyzing sediment  transport and deposition.  Methods for analyzing trans-
 port  in water bodies  are  further described in Fischer et al.  (1979).
 Physical  models can also  be  used to predict the  behavior of  water bodies
 under varying conditions.  For  example,  existing scale models of  the
 Chesapeake  Bay, the San Francisco Bay, and the Mississippi River  are  used
 by  the U.S.  Army Corps  of  Engineers  for  hydraulic modeling.

      The  application  of models  to obtain information to define the extent
 of  contamination requires  a  substantial  amount of  information on  the  water
 body,  the status  of the situation,  and properties  of  the substances.
 Monitoring  studies may  be  necessary  to obtain appropriate  data.   Further,
 the user must  be  trained and a substantial  amount  of  time  must  be  spent
 collecting  and  analyzing the data.  Therefore, predictive  studies  are  most
 applicable  to  complex environmental situations or  where  sufficient  evaluation
 time  is available.
2.4  DETERMINATION OF EXPOSURE AND IMPACTS
     The final data collection and analysis step involves determining the
exposure and the impacts associated with the spill situation.  In analyzing
exposure, identified receptors are evaluated with respect to the extent of
present and future contamination.  In analyzing impacts, exposure is evalu-
ated with respect to regulatory standards and criteria (for environmental
concentrations of the chemicals involved), as well as chemical data that
define the potential for harm (e.g., carcinogenicity, toxicity, etc.).
                                    2-33

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     Together, these analyses address the following questions, for both the
present and the future:

     •  Who or what are the affected receptors?

     •  What are the substances to which the receptors are (will be)
        exposed?

     •  To what extent are the receptors being (going to be) exposed to the
        substances?

The answers to these questions form the basis for deciding the significance
of the spill situation, the immediacy of the need for response, and the
most appropriate response methods.


     2.4.1  Information Requirements and Analysis


     Figure 2-11 is an example completed worksheet  for  collecting and
organizing  exposure and impact data.  A blank worksheet is  provided in
Appendix I.   For each  chemical involved in a spill  of sinking substances  or
a situation of contamination, the exposure and  impacts  analysisjequires
identification of  each potential resource  or receptor that  may be affected
as determined in- Sections  2.2.2  and 2.3.   For  each receptor or resource,
the following data are .needed:   (1) type of exposure (ingestion,  direct
contact, etc?),  and (2)  the exposure level for  the media Involved <^iment,
water, contaminated fish,  etc.)  at the  present  and over time.  This informa
tion can be extrapolated from the data  collected,  as identified in Sections
 2.1 through 2.4.

      Finally, for each situation identified,  the relevant regulatory expo-
 sure level should be identified; in the absence of regulatory standards,
 other exposure indices,  such as carcinogenic levels or lethal Jose/LD50)
 levels, should be used.   These standards and criteria establish a level that,
 when compared to the contamination problem (present or future), may be used
 to assess the potential damage or harm to public health and to the environ-
 ment that may result.  These standards can only be applied to situations
 relevant to the standard.

      This analysis must also consider acute exposure and chronic  exposure
 because  the potential for harm  or damage will be different for these  situa-
 tions (e.g.,  the acute exposure may result in some damage, but the chronic
 exposure may  result in severe damage to public health  or to  the  environ-
 ment).   Bioaccumulation and  biomagnificatlon should also be  considered.

       Because  chemicals transform in the environment over time, this analysis
 process  should be repeated  for  each transformation product,  as identified in
  earlier steps.
                                      2-34

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                          FIGURE 2-11.  EXAMPLE EXPOSURE AND IMPACT DATA WORKSHEET
RESOURCE/    TYPE.OF            EXPOSURE LEVEL
RECEPTOR    EXPOSURE    CURRENT  TIME 1  TIME 2  TIME 3
                        (12.00 ) - (/Vtfo ). (/£00)
                         0*yl    ?*yl    p*yl
i
OJ
  TW-
                     a
                    J
                                                                REGULATORY
                                                                STANDARD OR
                                                              OTHER EXPOSURE
                                                                 CRITERIA
COMMENT ON POTENTIAL
       FOR HARM
                                                                              *$/c tf
                                                               {o 00*

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     2.4.2  Information Sources
     The information used as input to the analysis of exposure and impacts
will have been collected or generated during earlier analyses, as outlined
In Sections 2.1 through 2.3.  New data requirements are those regulatory
standards and criteria that are relevant to the situation under analysis.
Particular standards and criteria of interest include:

     «  State water quality criteria

     •  Clean Water Act water quality criteria

     •  Safe Drinking Water Act maximum  concentration limits  and health
        advisories

     •  Sediment  contamination criteria

     •  Aquatic toxicology data

     •  National  Institute for Occupational  Safety and  Health (NIOSH)  and
         Occupational Safety and  Health Administration (OSHA)  exposure  levels

     •   Human toxicology:

         - International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC)
         - Food and Drug Administration (FDA)
         - NIOSH.

 These  data are available through local offices of relevanJ.Fe^"^ "fL
 agencies; computer information data bases; and numerous EPA, NIOSH, and
 OSHA publications.
 2.5  LEVEL OF APPLICATION OF CHARACTERIZATION PROCESS


      The data collection and analysis process described throughout this
 section focuses on the important information and analytical considerations
 that form  the basis  of the  decisionmaking  process described in  subsequent
 sections.  To this end, the process  and  information parameters  have been
 described  in detail.

      This  data  collection and  analysis process  can be  conducted at any level
 of detail  depending on  the amount of  time considered  feasible  given  the
 existing spilf situation.   The process described previously can be conducted
 on a relatively cursory  level, so  long as  these important questions are
 considered in  the analysis:

      •  What is the present spill  situation?
                                      2-36

-------
•  What chemicals are involved?

•  How harmful are the chemicals and what will happen  to these
   chemicals in the environment?

•  Where are the chemicals and their transformation products going?

•  What/who will be affected by the spread of the chemicals?

•  What levels of exposure will occur?  What impacts will result?
                              2-37

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                                  SECTION 3

                       DETERMINATION OF RESPONSE NEEDS


      Once the spill characterization data have been collected and analyzed
 and exposure and impacts have been evaluated, the response decision process
 begins.   The first step in the decision process is to assess the need for
 response.  If a response is necessary, then the objectives of the response
 can be established.  These objectives set the framework for identifying
 response options and for selecting an appropriate remedy.

      Figure 3-1 .illustrates the overall decision process and identifies
 those areas addressed in this section.  Section 3.1 focuses on the general
 assessment of response needs.  Section 3.2 addresses the establishment of
 response objectives.   Section 3.3 addresses the establishment of immediate
 response objectives.
 3.1  ASSESSMENT  OF  NEED FOR RESPONSE
     The major question  examined  in  assessing  response needs  is whether  the
 identified  impacts  of  the  spill are  significant and,  if  so, whether  they
 warrant a response.  In  some situations, particularly small volume spills
 of relatively low-toxicity materials, no response may be needed as long  as
 short-term  and long-term impacts  on  public health and the environment are
 minimal.  In other  situations, an immediate response  may be necessary to •
 stabilize or to rapidly  clean up  (partially or fully) a  worsening or highly
 toxic spill.

     The need for response is assessed by judging the significance of the
 impacts identified in  Section 2.  This assessment should incorporate an
 evaluation  of what damages may occur (short- or long-term) and their poten-
 tial for harm.  In general, the assessment should consider the stability of
 the situation, volume  and toxicity of the substances involved, and potential
 for transformation and long-term  effects.  With the exception of stability,
 these factors were addressed in analyzing impacts in Section 2.4.

     In evaluating the need for immediate action, the following questions
regarding the situation stability and magnitude and immediacy of the harm
need to be assessed:

     •  Are spilled sinking substances moving either along the water column
        to bottom materials or along the bottom of the water body?
                                    3-1

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FIGURE 3-1. SEQUENCE OF RESPONSE EVENTS
             Characterize Spill and
                 Impacts
                                         Identify and Select
                                         Immediate Response
                                           Alternatives
             Develop and Evaluate
             Response Alternatives
               Select Preferred
              Response Alternative
             —i___,
            I  Implement Response L*-
                          3-2

-------
         If yes, should the movement be controlled or halted to prevent
         downstream contamination or to facilitate cleanup?

      •  Is one area of contaminated bottom materials more harmful than
         other areas:

          - As an area of high chemical concentration?
          - As an area of more highly toxic substances?
          - As an existing source of environmental or human health impacts?

 Together, these questions consider the "seriousness" of the situation
 relative to human health (a judgment of magnitude of harm) and the stability
 (rate of worsening of conditions) of the situation,  both or either of which
 can indicate the need for immediate protective measures.

      From these analyses, it can be determined whether a cleanup response
 to the spill is needed or whether no response is necessary (no action).
 If a need for response is indicated, the analysis can determine whether an
 immediate response is necessary in conjunction with  or in place of a clean-
 up response.
 3.2   ESTABLISHMENT OF RESPONSE OBJECTIVES
      Response  objectives  should  be  formulated to  establish a framework for
evaluating,  selecting,  and  implementing  a  response.   The  response  objectives
are  the guidelines  for  the  level of cleanup  and the  phasing of  components
of the action.  As  such,  response objectives involve identifying priorities
for  cleanup  and the criteria  governing the response.
     3.2.1  Priorities
     Once the spill situation is characterized, the impacts are identified
and the need for response is established, cleanup priorities can be identi-
fied.  These priorities establish what must be protected in the response
in order to prevent adverse impacts to public health or the environment,
property as a result of the spill or in order to minimize adverse impacts
that may result from a response action.  This involves consideration of
shortterm and long-term contaminant movement, transformation, and concentra-
tion; anticipation of decisionmaking time frame and the timeframe of response
(i.e., urgency of response); and location of nearby receptors and sensitive
environmental or commercial areas.  All of these factors are identified in
the data collection and evaluation activities and are summarized in the
impacts evaluation step in Section 2.

     Cleanup priorities are established by ranking the identified impacts.
This ranking is based on a judgment of the magnitude of the impacts relative
to one another.  For example,  at a given site, the protection of a drinking
                                    3-3

-------
water Intake may have to be evaluated against the protection of a drinking
water source, a recreational area, or a sensitive waterfowl breeding ground.
Decisions on the relative importance of these areas and on priorities for
protecting the areas will depend upon the likelihood of damage, the pro-
gression of the zone of contamination, and the magnitude of the impact
(population affected, recreational value, etc.).  Short-term impacts must
be balanced against long-term impacts.  However, the protection of human
health will generally warrant the highest priority.


     3.2.2  Response Criteria


     Once priorities have been  established,  projected  levels of cleanup
must be considered; that is, the  extent to which contaminants  are  to^be
removed, contained, and/or  treated.  This decision  involves establishing
acceptable levels  of residual contamination  remaining  in  the environment.

     Ideally,  all  contaminants  should  be separated  from the environment
either by removal, chemical transformation,  or  isolation,  thereby  leaving
no  contaminants  in the environment.   In practice, this may not be  feasible
or  cost-effective  because  of the  volumes of  sediment and  water involved.

     Cleanup criteria  should focus on reducing  contaminant levels  in the
environment  to protect human health and  aquatic and terrestrial life,   The
criteria should be consistent with the designated uses of the  water body
under  consideration.   For example, cleanup levels  for  an  isolated  water
body with little environmental, human, or  commercial value may allow tor
higher levels of residual contamination  than a water body used for drinking
water or for commercial fisheries.

      Regulatory standards for sediment contamination levels  are the most
 appropriate cleanup criteria.   However,  few standards  have been developed.
 In general,  water quality standards will provide a guide  for establishing
 appropriate cleanup levels.  These standards establish water concentration
 limits for numerous chemicals based on human ingestion of drinking water
 and fish.  These  standards provide an acceptable guide in situations of
 spills of substances that sink because the initial effects of a spill and a
 major long-term effect of contaminated sediments are contamination of the
 water column.

      Water quality standards, established by the states, consist of water
 quality criteria  and designated uses of the water body.  Under the Clean
 Water Act, states are required to adopt water quality  criteria sufficient
 to protect the designated use.  The Federal government offers guidance to
 the states in developing water quality criteria through the publication
 of National ambient water quality criteria  for 65  classes of  priority pol-
 lutants (45 CFR 79318, November  28,  1980; 48 CFR 51400, November 8, 1983;
 49 CFR 4551,  February  7,  1974).   A compilation of  State water quality
 standards (October 1984)  is available from  the Criteria and Standards
 Division of  the Office of Water  Regulations, and Standards of  USEPA.
                                      3-4

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      Water quality standards do not exist for all substances.   In  such
 circumstances, other criteria, advisories, and guidance  (as described in
 Section 2.4) should be considered.  Maximum Contaminant  Levels  (MCLs)
 promulgated under the Safe Drinking Water Act, may serve as guidelines in
 establishing cleanup objectives (48 CFR 45502; October 5, 1983; 49 CFR 24330
 June 12, 1984).  MCLs are enforceable standards promulgated by  the EPA      '
 Office of Drinking Water (ODW).  ODW makes additional nonenforceable guide-
 lines for other contaminants in drinking water available.  These suggested-
 no-adverse-response-levels (SNARLs) are health advisories that  incorporate
 a safety margin to protect the most sensitive members of the general human
 population from adverse toxicological effects.

      Other relevant Federal programs/requirements for setting cleanup
 criteria include:  (1) Clean Water Act Section 301 and 403(c) criteria for
 ocean discharge  and Section 404 criteria for the disposal of dredged or
 fill material;  (2) Marine Protection Research and Sanctuaries Act criteria
 for ocean dumping of waste;  (3) Toxic Substances Control Act,  Section 6   PGB
 requirements  for disposal;  and (4) Department of Transportation hazardous
 materials  transport rules.


 3.3  ESTABLISHMENT'OF  OBJECTIVES  FOR IMMEDIATE RESPONSE


      An immediate response may be  necessary  to stabilize a rapidly changing
 contamination situation or to  protect  resources  that  are immediately  threat-
 ened.   As shown in Figure 3-1,  a separate decisionmaking process is needed
 for immediate responses.  An immediate response may involve limited or
 temporary measures, such as shutting off a drinking water intake or setting
 up  a containment  barrier to provide initial protection prior to  a  full
 response to be  identified later; alternatively, it may involve a full
 response that is  implemented in a  compressed timeframe.   In either  case
 once the need for  an immediate  response is established, priorities  of
 response and cleanup or control criteria should be established.


     3.3.1  Priorities


     Priorities for an immediate response are established in a manner
similar to that for a less urgent response, as described in Section 3.2.1
However, development of priorities focuses on the question of what aspects
of the situation most immediately needs attention and what, if anything
can wait for a later response.   This involves an assessment of what is '
immediately impacted or what will shortly become severely impacted by the
spilled substances and a judgment regarding the relative magnitudes of
these impacts.

     Immediate response priorities are then established"by ranking these
impacts, as described in Section 3.2.1.
                                    3-5

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     3.3.2  Response Criteria


     In an immediate response action, response criteria that set the frame-
work for the response should be established.  This process draws on the
priorities established for the response to provide the focus.  Further,
this analysis must consider the rate of contaminant movement, technological
limitations or capabilities in controlling the movement, and priority of
receptor protection.

     An example of this analysis is as follows.  A given site situation
involves the rapid movement of highly toxic spilled sinking substances
along a river bottom; a recreational area (including fishing) is already
affected and a drinking water intake is located a short distance downstream.
If the water body and the spill conditions are such that the prevention of
further contaminant movement is not feasible, then response criteria may
include:   (1) Prevent contamination of drinking water, and (2) Limit further
human exposure at the recreational area.  Response measures may include,
but are not limited to, shutting off the drinking water intake and tempo-
rarily closing the recreational area.

     Where appropriate, specific cleanup levels may be established.  This
would be  appropriate where  an immediate removal of contaminated sediments
or pooled contaminants  is conducted.  The cleanup levels can be final
levels, or interim  levels if subsequent response actions are to be con-
ducted.   Cleanup  criteria and their  specification are described in Section
3.2.2.
                                      3-6

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                                   SECTION  4


                        SELECTION  OF RESPONSE MEASURES



      The selection of response measures for a sinkers spill incident
 involves the detailed evaluation  and screening of available response
 ^^r6?^ The faluation and screening process is conducted using site-
 specific information gathered during the earlier site characterization

 If «vi*'l M   characterization data are used to determine the applicability
 ™^r   I « resP°nse techniques and their relative potential performance
 and VIM    Jf Conditions.  Figure 4-1 presents the selection process
 and its relationship to the overall response process.
 rfl.M     technl2ue* Bailable for response at sinker spill sites fall
 within one of the following six response categories:

      •    Containment

      *    Removal


      •    Treatment of removed materials


      •    Disposal (treated and untreated removed materials)


     •    In-place (in situ)  treatment  and isolation

     «    No  action.


The overall selection  process  involves  four  steps  that  entail various
types  of analyses  and  evaluations of  these response  categories and their
respective response  techniques.

     The four steps  are:


     •    Screening  response categories


     •    Screening  response techniques


     *    Developing response alternatives


     •    Evaluating alternatives and selecting the preferred alternative.
rpcmnn         *?* ^ the selection Process is to identify one or more
response categories that are applicable at the spill site.   This is
                                    4-1

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FIGURE 4-1. SEQUENCE OF RESPONSE EVENTS
                                  Define Immediate
                                 Response Objectives
                     4-2

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  accomplished through a cursory screening process using information on site
  characteristics and on limitations  of response techniques.  Figure 4-2
  to" fnrraf8 ?°W "Sp°nse cat*g°ries can be (and sometimes must be) combined
  to form treatment or response  "trains" to meet response objectives.   For
  example, if site conditions permit  the use of removal techniques? ibis
  category must either be  followed directly by the disposal category or  if
  the excavated material requires treatment, it must be followed by the'

     -
                                                      =?=?
                                                       of  the  first step is
      The second step is to screen techniques  within  each applicable
 response category identified in Step 1,  with  the  purpose or eliminating
 those techniques that are not applicable under existing site condition!







                           =35,^



4.1  SCREENING OF RESPONSE CATEGORIES
     The selection of a response  for a particular sinker spill site beeins

                           ^
category consists  of  various types ofVedging and^xSvatio^equipment
                                   4-3

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       FIGURE 4-2. ALTERNATIVE RESPONSE CATEGORIES AND RESPONSE
         TRAIN USED IN OVERALL SINKER SPILL RESPONSE SELECTION
                                    PROCESS
                                         Treatment
Established
 Need for  •
 Response
                       Removal*
              -^ Disposal
Containment*
                         In Situ
                        Treatment
                          and
                        Isolation*
                                          .Response objectives
                                               are met
                                          Response is complete
                •Where no response category is applicable at the
                 site of interest, then not responding ("No Action")
                 is the sole option.
                                       4-4

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  that are suitable for different material and water conditions.  The treatment
  category consists of a variety of treatment techniques that are used f^r
  different types of contaminated materials (liquid and solid).

       The screening of these categories requires site-specific data gathered
  during the spill characterization effort and knowledge of what site char-
  acteristics limit the applicability of each category?  Using site-specific
  data and information on the limitations of  each Response category,  those
  categories that are not applicable under existing site conditions  are
  screened out or eliminated  from further consideration.   There may  be situa-
  tions where all five "action"  response categories (removal,  containment!
 ^gg«  treat ment'  and disposal)  are  not applicable  under existing site
  conditions;  i.e.,  no action is possible.  In such cases,  the only Ltion is
  to not  respond  at  all,  and  the "no action"  response category is  selected.

       A  distinction should be recognized  between  a "no  action possible"
               I  °T Wl)ere  "n° aCti°n  is best'"   A d^ision  that "no action
 fn         ! n°^  r^f  t0  the ±SSUe °f  cateS°ry applicability and,  there-
 fore, would not  be made  during Step 1.  A decision involving  "no action  is
 durin/T     6Valuatlon of "no acti°*" al°ng with "action"  alternatives
 mi^?\    ?Ue£   S»epS-  ^ example °f a situ*tion where  the  decision
 might be made that  no action  is best" would be where the  only applicable
 Ic^-TT I A&gl7^S removal»  but a11 re*°val techniques would resuspend
 the h±rd1h bighJVriC "ferial, thus creating a greater hazard  ?han
 ™!n  A  t  ??  fxisted Previously.  In such a case, a decision to not
 respond at all,  i.e., "no action is best," may be appropriate.
             Screening Process
                       response Categories proceeds in a series of substeps.
 i    nr         ,        n matrlX that ±S  st™ctured to facilitate this screen-
 ing  process  and  is  referenced  in the following discussion.   This response
 category  screening  process  applies  to all types of surface  water bodies
 except  open  waters  (an ocean or sea setting);  i.e.,  it applies to coastal
 waters  bays,  rivers,  streams,  and  tidal-influenced  waters.   In the case  of
 ?J£;  ^ KP!n  Waters»  dispersion  and  dilution would probably minimize
 impacts to bottom materials or  the  response would focus  on  material suspended
 ip,«  /* " C01T'   Th±S handbook does  not address  techniques used tQPended
 respond to contaminants  within  the  water  column.
              3 1S a" examPle completed worksheet to be used as an aid for
is orovd   ,d°rmen^ngTdeCiSl0nS made during Step l'  A blank worksheet
i«r£ J   ? in Appendix I.  By completing this form as each substep is
carried out  clear documentation is made for later reference regarding
decisions and conclusions drawn during Step 1.

hofh TJe/irS,t subsfceP requires that the spill site be classified as one or
site ?n SuLt   ,Srnt^°8' Jhe information requlwd to characterize a
site in Substep 1 includes whether the spilled material is mobile or
                                    4-5

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        TABLE  4-1.    DECISION  MATRIX FOR SCREENING  RESPONSE CATEGORIES
Sice Scenario
Preferred
Response
                                          Site Conditions Limiting Applicability
                                           of Removal and Ancillary Categories
1. Contaaininco  are
   relatively
   stationary
Removal      (a) Highly toxic if sediments distrubed and dispersion
                occurs, even on small scale (hazardous to either water
                body and/or water safety)                           ^
             (b) Treatment required but means of  treatment unavailable
             (c) Means of disposing removed material unavailable
             (d) Means of disposing treatment residuals unavailable
             (e) Volume of,sediments and/or water too large for
                treatment
                                    (f)  Volune  of  sediments and/or water too  large for
                                        disposal
                                    (g)  Wave height >7 ft and depth >65 ft

                                    (h)  Site inaccessible to all removal equipment
2, Contaainanti         Containment  (a)  High water velocity or low water volume  limits use
   are oobile          and Removal      of temporary containment techniques
                                    (b)  Site inaccessible to temporary containment equipment .
                                    (c)  Treatment required but means of treatment unavailable
                                    Cd)  Means of disposing removed material  unavailable
                                    (e)  Means of disposing treatment residuals unavailable
                                    (f)  Volime of,sediments and/or water too large for
                                        treatment
                                    (g)  Volume of sediments and/or water too large for
                                        disposal
                                    (h)  Wave height >7 ft and depth >65 ft
                                    (i)  Site inaccessible to all removal equipment



FOOTHOTES;

 Chemical characteristics of spilled material will affect feasibility of treatment techniques.

 Rewsval equipment  is  available that is applicable at depths greater than 65  ft,  therefore, removal
 tnplcnentation  delay  is applicable in situations where it is anticipated that wave height will subside
 Co lesi than 7  ft.

 Tccmtacnt and/or disposal of excessively large quantities of material may incur  infeasible costs.
                                                       4-6

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    Other Response
      Categories
    Site Conditions Limiting Applicabiity
           of Other Categories
                                                                                         Comments
 (a) Delay Removal
 (b) In Situ
 (c) In Situ
 (d) In Situ
 (e) In Situ
 (f)  Partial  Removal4
     and/or In Situ ,
 (g)  Partial  Removal
     and/or In Situ
 (h)  In Situ
 (a)  Removal

 (b)  Removal
 (c)  In Situ
 (d) jn Situ
 (e)  In Situ
,(£) Partial Removal
     and/or In Situ .
 (g) Partial Removal
    and/or In Situ
 (h) Delay Removal
 (i) In Situ
 i.  (a)  Limiting conditions  may persist
 ii.  (b,c,d,e,g,i)  Many  techniques  uproven;
        applicability of techniques  depends
        on  chemical nature of  contaminants,
        and sediment characteistics; use
        of  covers and caps limited by high
        water  velocities or  low water
        volume; site inaccessible to In-Situ
        equipment

 iii. (f,h)  Inability to mitigate hazard with
        only partial removal of contaminated
       material; (see ii, above, for
       conditions  limiting In Situ)
 i.  (a)  When wave height  subsides
        removal  can be implemented

 ii.  (b,c,d,e,g,i) In Situ  techniques
        other than covers and caps  are
        still developmental; mostly
        untested and unproven
 iii. (f,h) Partial removal must be
        followed by Disposal or
        Treatment and Disposal and
        limiting conditions on
        these categories must also
        be considered (see ii, above,
        for comments on In Situ)
(a,b) [see row 1, column C, a through h]


(c,d,e,i) [see ii, above]


(f,g) [see iii, above]



(h) [see iii, above]
(c,d,e,i) [see ii, above]


(f,g)°[see iii, above]



(h) [see iii, above]
 Partial removal of contaminant "hot spots" may be applicable if its implementation meets response objectives.

 pitsrdikes,rafdrberms^mP°rary COntainmenF techniques including covers, caps,  ditches, trenches, dikes,  curtains


6?srrelat"veirslo;?" rem°Val "^ '"^^ COnCainraent.  ™? be -PPlicable if rate at which material is moving
                                                       4-7

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      FIGURE 4-3.   EXAMPLE WORKSHEET FOR SCREENING RESPONSE CATEGORIES
  I.  Select the site scenario that characterizes the existing site
     conditions (check one or both):

     	 Contaminants are relatively stationary.

      y  Contaminants are mobile.


 II.  As identified in Table 4-1, Column B, the preferred response category,
     or "train" of categories, is as follows:
(1)

(2)
C--GffTi
                   ilf>t Mce/t
                       1
(3)

(4)
III. Applicability of the preferred response category:

     Ilia.  Is containment necessary for implementation  of  removal
            (circle one)?

                 /Yes)(go to IHb)            No  (go  to IIIc)

     Illb.  Is containment applicable  (circle  one)?

                  (Yes\go to IIIc)            No  (go  to IVa &  d)

     IIIc.  Is immediate and total removal physically  applicable
            (circle one)?                      ^_^

                   Yes (go to Hid)           f No  $gO  to IVa, b &  c)

     Hid.  Does  removed material require  treatment? (circle one)?.

                   Yes (go to Hie)            No  (go  to Hlf)


     Hie.  Is treatment applicable  (circle one)?

                   Yes (go to Illf)             No  (go  to IVd)
                                                    (continued)
                                     4-8

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                         FIGURE  4-3.   (continued)
    Illf.  Is disposal of removed material  or  treatment  residuals
           necessary  (circle one)?

                  Yes (go to IHg)             No  (go  to  Illh)

    Illg.  Is disposal applicable (circle one)?

                  Yes (go to Illh)             No  (go  to  IVa & d)

    Illh.  The preferred response category  is  applicable at the site.  The
           reasons for its applicability are as follows:
IV. Other Response Categories:

    IVa.   Summarize the reasons why the preferred response category is
           not applicable at the site.
    IVb.
Is immediate partial removal applicable  (circle  one)?

     ^YesJ(go to IVbl)            No  (go  t  IVc)

IVbl.  Does partially removed material require treatment?
       (circle one)?


            /Yes/go to IVb2)             No (go to IVb3)

IVb2.  Is treatment applicable (circle one)?

             Aes^(go to IVb3)             No (go to IVd)

IVb3.  Is disposal necessary (circle one)?

            ^Yes)(go to IVb4)             No (go to V)

IVb4.  Is disposal applicable (circle one)?
             ^-\
              Yes ygo to V)                No (go to IVd)



                                          (continued)
                                  4-9

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                         FIGURE 4-3.  (continued)
    IVc.    Can removal be temporarily delayed (circle one)?

                  Yes (go to Hid)          ^No}go to Ivd>

    IVd.    Is in situ response applicable (circle one)?

                  Yes (go to V)             /No^(go to IVe)

    IVe.    "No action" should be considered.

          ' (go to V)
 V. Based on existing site conditions, the following other response catego-
    ries are applicable at the site:

    o  Partial removal (accompanied by treatment and/or disposal)
    o  Removal implementation delay
    o  In situ, treatment/isolation
    o  No action possible
       (go to VI)
VI. Summary:

    Via.   The following response categories are applicable at the site:

           o  Containment «r
           o  Removal
           o  Treatment
           o  Disposal
           o  In situ treatment/isolation
           o  No action
    Vlb.   Comments:
i£L
'M
              on
                         e. Of
                        are*
                                                                **'(
                                                          e.4#
                                                                     f>m
                                   4-10

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 stationary.   The second substep refers to Table 4-1, Column B, and identifies
 the preferred response category that corresponds to the appropriate site
 scenario.   As indicated in Column B, the preferred response category for
 any site scenario involves removal of all contaminated material.  In any
 situation,  when removal of contaminated materials is applicable under the
 existing conditions and the established objectives can be met, the removal
 of  the contaminants and the contaminated material is the preferred response.

      With the removal category being the preferred response, the third sub-
 step determines the applicability of the removal category.   This determina-
 tion is based on both physical and chemical site conditions that limit
 removal,  and  conditions affecting the applicability of the  removal cate-
 gory's ancillary response  categories, namely containment, treatment,  and
 disposal.   In any situation where removal is considered,  one or more  of
 these three ancillary categories  will also be necessary to  complete the
 site response.   For this reason,  the applicability of these categories will
 affect the  applicability of removal.

      Substep  3  involves two phases of analysis.   In the first phase,  the
 user refers to  Table 4-1,  Column  C,  for information regarding limiting site
 conditions with respect to the preferred removal category.   When the  removal
 category  is still applicable in light of the limiting conditions identified
 in  Column C,  then the user must move  to the second phase  of the decision
 process, which  involves reviewing the applicability of the  ancillary  response
 categories that may be necessary.  Where ancillary responses are necessary,
 and  none are  applicable, then removal will also  not be possible and must be
 eliminated from further consideration.   The limiting conditions for applica-
 tion of these ancillary categories are given in  Table 4-1,  Column C.

      As an example  of  this  two-phased substep, removal is identified  as
 being applicable  at a given site.  However,  no treatment  or disposal  facili-
 ty exists that  will accept  the removed material,  nor can  any be constructed
 on site.  In such a situation,  the removal category is determined to  be
 inapplicable.   Another example is  a case where site conditions  are conducive
 to removal and  there is  one disposal  facility that  will accept  the material
 if it  is first  treated  to attain a specific  contaminant level;  if there is
 no treatment technique  available that will meet  the specified contaminant
 levels, then the  removal category must  again be  identified  as inapplicable.
 A final example involves a  situation  where bottom materials  are highly
 mobile.  In such  a  case, containment  would be necessary to  control  contami-
 nant movement and to remove  contaminants.  If conditions  are such that  con-
 tainment cannot be  accomplished, then removal also  cannot be accomplished.

     The overall  decision process  to  determine the  applicability of the
removal response  category is illustrated in Figure  4-4.   If  removal is
 applicable at a site,  then  the  user moves  directly  on  to  Step 2  (described
 in Section 4.2).  Where removal is not applicable,  the user continues to
Substep 4 of Step 1.   In Substep 4, the user refers  to Table 4-1, Columns D
and E, which identify other potential response categories and corresponding
 limiting site conditions for each site scenario.  Comments regarding the
other response categories are given in Table 4-1, Column F.  In  cases where
                                    4-11

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FIGURE 4-4. DECISION PROCESS TO DETERMINE APPLICABILITY OF
              REMOVAL RESPONSE CATEGORY

No
1
N3
Yes ' Yes
in IA r.uhiT ... — ^> Is Containment Necessary and 	 ^ |- Containmari
Is Hemoval Applicable? *> Required Prior to Removal? ^ is uomamnw.
iN° XT
/v"
s
Is Treatment Required? ^^
y \°
XSStt .s Disposal Applicable?
/
Yes / No
/
Preferred Response
V
No V*
\
Preferred Response
\


Jr Yes No ^
Preferred No Action Possible
•Response
t Applicable?

No


-------
 one or more of the other response categories are applicable at the site,
 the user moves to Step 2 (Section 4.2).  As stated earlier, in a situation
 where no action-oriented category is applicable, implying that no response
 is possible under the existing site conditions, then the "no action" cate-
 gory is the sole option and the response selection process is complete
 without undertaking Steps 2, 3, and 4.


      4.1.2  Alternatives to the Removal Response Category


      The response categories consist of a variety of techniques that are
 applicable in different situations;  however,  certain site characteristics
 may limit their applicability.   The site-related limiting conditions that
 affect  applicability fall within these  factor groups:

      •     Water conditions

           -    Wave  height
           -    Depth to bottom
                Water velocity
           -    Volume of water

      *     Site  accessibility

      •     Volume  of  material

      •     Availability  of  treatment  and/or disposal  facility

      •     Chemical characteristics of material

                Compatibility with sealant, grout, etc.
                Treatability

      •     Physical nature  of  bottom materials

      •     State of development  (proven  applicability).

     Table 4-1, presented previously, describes  these factors in more detail
in terms of the site-specific limiting  conditions for each of the four site
scenarios.  In cases where limiting site conditions for the removal category
and its ancillary categories are identified, other response categories are
then considered.  Table 4-1 identifies  other response categories that may
apply for  each site condition that limits the use of the removal response.
These other responses include in situ treatment and isolation techniques,
partial removal, and implementation delay.

     The most important factor to consider in determining the applicability
of in situ treatment and isolation techniques is whether previous applica-
tions have been successful.  Most of the available in situ techniques
described in this handbook are currently being developed and have not
                                    4-13

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been implemented at sinker spill sites.  Their effectiveness is not proven
and they are infrequently selected for such sites.  The techniques that
fall within this category include many of the sealants, grouts, sorbents,
gels, and chemical and biological treatment techniques.  Appendix E provides
further detail on the in situ category.

     Partial removal is considered to be an alternative to total removal in
cases where all site conditions are conducive for removal, but where the
volume of material to be removed, treated, and disposed, or removed and
disposed is so large that costs would prohibit implementation of total
removal.  In cases such as these, it may be possible to remove only those
areas with high contaminant concentrations ("hot spots") and still meet
established response objectives; additional measures, such as in situ tech-
niques, may be necessary to treat or to control remaining contaminants.
The issue of whether partial removal will meet previously established
response objectives enters into the decision process at this point.  The
modification of response objectives may be considered at this step in the
response selection process; however, it is recommended that the decision to
modify not be made until specific response alternatives have been developed
(Step 3) and evaluated (Step 4), at which time the specific limitations of
the alternatives have been thoroughly investigated.

     Implementation delay is an alternative to the removal response when
site conditions that preclude implementation of removal are only temporary,
such as the case' where a severe storm is disturbing the site area or
receding of tides may improve access.  Once adverse conditions have passed,
the response can be undertaken.
     4.1.3  Process Summary
     In summary, results of Step  1 in  the  response selection process will
be the identification of one or more of  the six  response  categories that
are applicable under existing site conditions.   By closely examining the
site conditions and by using Table 4-1,  certain  response  categories can be
screened out and eliminated from  further consideration.   The response
categories  that are identified as applicable under all existing  site-
specific conditions are those that will  be developed  and  evaluated further
in the steps that  follow.
 4.2   SCREENING  OF  RESPONSE  TECHNIQUES
      In  Step  2,  the  applicable response categories  identified  from the
 screening  conducted  in Step 1  are examined in further  detail.   Step 2
 involves the  screening of  the  response techniques  that constitute  each
 applicable response  category.   Response techniques  include equipment,
 materials, and methods that are available for either removing  or for
                                     4-14

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 containing hazardous materials in the surface water body.  The purpose of
 Step 2 is to identify those techniques within each applicable category that
 are applicable under the existing site conditions and to eliminate those
 techniques that are not applicable.

      The screening process in Step 2 uses a much larger spectrum of site-
 and technique-specific data than Step 1.   Table 4-2 lists the site-related
 and technological factors that affect the applicability of each category of
 response techniques.  Some of the factors are the same as those used in
 Step 1;  however, the Step 2 screening process involves a much more detailed
 examination of technological limitations  and analysis of the limiting site
 conditions.

      For example, the transportability of a piece of removal equipment could
 potentially be an important factor in deciding the equipment's applicability
 at a particular site.  If the site is not directly accessible, a piece of
 equipment that cannot be easily transported would not be considered to be
 applicable.

      Table 4-2 lists the critical factors that affect the application of  the
 response techniques  and  is  included here  as a tool to be used in conjunction
 with the more  detailed information included in the appendices.   Figure 4-5
 is  an example  completed  worksheet that is designed to facilitate documenta-
 tion and accurate record keeping  of  the applicability of the various  response
 techniques.  A blank worksheet  is provided in Appendix I.   Space is provided
 on  the worksheet for comments regarding reasons  for the  applicability or
 inapplicability of each  technique.

      The techniques  in each  applicable response  category are  evaluated
 separately.  No  consideration is  given at this point  as  to  how techniques  in
 different  categories  might work together.   The evaluation process  involves
 the  comparison  of techniques within a  given category  in  terms  of  the
 criteria listed  in Table  4-2.  Detailed descriptions of  individual  tech-
 niques,  with respect  to  these criteria, are given  in Appendices A  through
 E.   The  relative  importance of the individual criteria in Step 2 analysis
will  depend on site-specific characteristics.

      In  addition  to  the  techniques within  the categories listed in  Table
 4-2,  the  "no action"  response still exists  as an option.  It may not have
been possible during  Step 1 to determine whether an applicable response for
a site existed.  During Step 2, when detailed technical  information regard-
ing each technique is examined, the question of whether  a response can be
made at a site can be better answered.

     The result of Step 2 is the identification of one or more groups of
techniques that are applicable under existing site conditions.  These
techniques are then combined into comprehensive alternatives during Step 3.
                                    4-15

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                 TABLE 4-2.  TECHNOLOGY SCREENING CRITERIA
                       FOR ACTION RESPONSE CATEGORIES
Response Category
Site-Related and Technological Factors Affecting
Technology Application
 I,  Containment
     Techniques
II,  Removal
     Techniques
  Depth of water
  Water velocity
  Water volume
  Bottom currents
  Availability of equipment
  Performance
  - effectiveness
  - useful life
  Reliability
  - operation and maintenance
  - demonstrated performance
  Waste compatibility
  Time availability
  Space (area) availability
  Safety

  Volume of material
  Depth of water
  Width of channel
  Precision obtainable
  Rate of production
  Turbidity/Resuspension
  Availability
  Transportability
  Slurry  solids  content
  Auxiliary facilities required
  Performance
  - effectiveness
  - useful life
  Reliability
  — operation  and maintenance
  - demonstrated performance
  Safety
  Urgency with which response must be made
  Vessel  draft
  Hindrance  to traffic
  Method  of  discharge
  Maximum wave height tolerance
                                                           (continued)
                                      4-16

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                          TABLE 4-2.  (continued)
Response Category
Site-Related and Technological Factors Affecting
Technology Application
III. Treatment
     Techniques
     for Removed
     Materials
IV.  Disposal
     Techniques
V.  In Situ
    Treatment
    and Isolation
    Techniques
  Ability to operate near structures
  Ability to operate in open water
  Ability to dredge consolidated sediments
  Susceptibility to debris damage
  •Suitability for liquid or solid removal

  Treatment system mobility
  Land area to construct facility
  Groundwater protection requirements
  Pretesting requirements for system optimization
  Suitability for chemical constituents
  (e.g., treatability)
  Solids concentration
  •Treatment component availability
  •Operation and maintenance requirements
  Availability of appropriate treatment facilities
  'Availability of nearby treatment facilities
  Safety

  Land area to construct facility
  Regulatory restrictions (storage, transport,
  disposal) for on-site and off-site facilities
  Regulatory design restrictions
  Volume of materials
  •Suitability for chemical constituents
  Availability of nearby disposal facilities
  Availability of appropriate disposal facilities
  Safety

  Sediment type
  Waste compatability
  Durability/strength
  Permeability
  Benthos sensitivity
  Reactivity with water
  Performance
  - effectiveness
  - useful life
  Reliability
  - operation and maintenance
  - demonstrated performance

                                     (continued)
                                    4-17

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 Sediments
   - Land disposal
   - Open water disposal
 Water
   - Discharge to surface water
   - Land application
   - Deep well injection
 Treatment residuals
   - Land disposal
   - Incineration
   - Land application
   - Deep well injection
                   FIGURE 4-5.   (continued)
Treatment Techniques for Removed Material

Sediment/water separation
  - Settling basins
  - Hydraulic classifiers
  - Spiral classifiers
  - Cyclones
  - Filters
Sediment dewatering
  - High-rate gravity settlers
  - Centrifuges
  - Belt press filters
  - Vacuum filters
  - Pressure filters
Water  treatment
  - Adsorption
  - Ultrafiltration
  — Reverse osmosis
  - Ion exchange
  - Biological  treatment
  - Precipitation
  - Wet air oxidation
  - Ozonation
   - Ultraviolet radiation
   - Discharge to publicly owned
       treatment works
 Sediment treatment
   - Contaminant immobilization
   - Contaminant treatment

 Disposal Techniques
                                                    (continued)
                               4-20

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                   Figure 4-5.  (continued)
In Situ Treatment and Isolation Techniques
Treatment
  - Sorption
  - Chemical treatment
  - Biological treatment
Isolation
  - Capping
  - Covering
  - Fixation
                             4-21

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4.3  DEVELOPMENT OF RESPONSE ALTERNATIVES


     In Steps 1 and 2, a determination is made as to which response cate-
gories are applicable and which techniques within those categories are
applicable under existing site conditions.  The result of Steps 1 and 2
consists of one or more groups of techniques, depending on the number of
applicable categories, which can potentially be used at the site.  In
Step 3, these applicable techniques are used to develop response alterna-
tives.

     Alternatives development is the formation of compatible and applicable
combinations of response techniques, each of which contributes to meeting
established response objectives.  An alternative consists of one or more
techniques from one or more response categories.  The purpose of Step 3
is to develop several alternatives, all of which substantially meet the
established response objectives.  The development of each alternative
involves combining applicable categories and techniques; however, the
objective of this effort is to derive only those combinations that will
meet site response objectives.  In other words, the objective of Step 3
is not to develop as many alternatives as are possible, but rather to
develop only those alternatives that can potentially achieve the objectives
established earlier in the spill response process (see Section 3).


     4.3.1  Combination of Response Categories


     There are seven possible approaches, or combinations of response
categories, that define the general alternatives that can be derived.  These
are:

     •    Removal - Disposal

     •    Removal - Treatment - Disposal

     •    In Situ Treatment/Isolation

     •    Containment - In  Situ Treatment/Isolation

     •    Containment - Removal -  Disposal

     •    Containment - Removal -  Treatment  - Disposal

     •    No Action.

     For a  particular  site  situation,  the applicability  of  one or more  of
 these  approaches will  depend on  the determination made  in Step 1 regarding
 the applicability  of  the  available categories.   For  example,  if removal,
 treatment,  and disposal were identified in Step 1 as the only applicable
                                     4-22

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  categories,  then at  this  point  in  Step  3, only  the  following  three  approaches
  would  be  identified  for use  in  alternatives  development:

      e    Removal -  Disposal

      •    Removal -  Treatment - Disposal

      •    No Action.

      The  "no action" approach will remain an alternative throughout the
 selection process for any site situation because the possibility that "no
 action  may be the best response will remain until the detailed evaluation
 is conducted in Step 4.


      4*3.2  Combination of Techniques to Form Alternatives


      Following the identification of potential approaches for the site  the
 next part of Step 3 involves the examination of applicable techniques with-
 in the  categories that constitute the identified approaches.  The purpose
 of this examination is to  identify and combine those techniques that
 together as  one alternative,  will substantially meet response objectives
 It should be noted  that the user is not  obligated to use all of the
 applicable techniques identified in Step 2.   There may be applicable tech-
 niques  that,  when combined with.techniques from other categories,  are
 either  unnecessary  or do not  aid in achieving response objectives.   In
 these types  of  situations, such  techniques should not be included  in the
 alternatives.

      Every alternative  developed will consist of one or more techniques
 depending  on  the  general approach and response category involved.  For '
 example, if  the removal-treatment-disposal approach  were applicable  at the
 site, the  alternatives  representative of this approach would consist of  at
 least three  techniques, i.e., one technique from each category.  However
 often more than one technique from  one response  category may be  used in  a
 single  alternative.   This  is  frequently  the case when treatment  and  disposal
 are necessary as part of a response.  For example, a  hydraulic dredge  might
 be applicable at a site to remove contaminated sediments.  Treatment tech-
 niques would, in all  likelihood, have to address  both contaminated water
 and contaminated sediments.  In  this  situation,  a response alternative
 might involve a settling basin for  the purpose of separating the water and
 the sediments that are removed by the dredge, followed by filtration to
 ensure solid/liquid separation.  Water treatment might consist of carbon
 adsorption.  Sediment treatment would involve a  different technique, such  as
 centrifugation of sediment removed from the settling  basin.  Disposal tech-
niques would also differ for the water and the sediments.  Treated water
might be discharged to a nearby surface water body whereas the used carbon
would be disposed of at an appropriate off-site  landfill.  The treated
sediments, on the other hand, might be disposed of in an on-site landfill
As an alternative example,  in a situation where removal is not applicable
                                    4-23

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but in situ response applies, there might be a. single, applicable in situ
technTquTTisolation or treatment) that would meet .all established response
objectives.

     The decisionmaking in Step 3 involves examining techniques in terms of
how they complement one another, their compatibility, and, most importantly,
whether the techniques, together as alternatives, will meet the previously
established response objectives.  The result of Step 3 is one or more
alternatives that can meet response objectives.  Figure 4-6 is an example
completed worksheet to be used as a tool during Step 3 to clearly present
the potential alternatives.  A blank worksheet is provided in Appendix I.
The specific techniques proposed for each alternative should be listed under
the appropriate  category heading.  As explained earlier in this section,
there  may be more than one technique required for any one alternative within
a single category.  Therefore, in completing the worksheet shown in  Figure
4-6, there may be several techniques listed under "Treatment" for Alternative
A or  there may  be more than one disposal technique necessary and so listed
in the "Disposal" column.  The worksheet provides a clear and consistent
way of presenting the potential alternatives for a particular site.

     The number  of  potential alternatives that  result  from Step  3 depends
on the site  conditions and  the  established  response objectives.   In  some
 cases, it  may not be possible to  develop  an alternative  in  Step  3 that  will
meet response objectives.   The  "-no  action"  approach is  still a viable
alternative  at  this point in any  site  situation.  However, modification of
 existing  objectives should be considered  prior to making  a decision  to  take
no action.   In  situations where all combinations  of  techniques have  been
 explored  and developed and the  decision is  made that  "no action  is  possible
 given  the existing  response objectives,"  then modification of the objectives
 should be considered.   Re-establishing objectives  requires  an in-depth
 re-evaluation of response needs and the potential effects on human health^
 and  the environment of such a modification as compared to the effects of  no
 action."  Only after this re-evaluation is  conducted, and it is  found that
 some type of action is better than no action, should objectives  be modified
 and less effective response alternatives be evaluated.  This will require
 repeating Steps 2 and ,3 based on the new objectives.

      The issue of "no action is best" may also arise at this point  in the
 selection process.  If there are no alternatives that will meet the response
 oblectives and modification of the objectives will make no significant
 difference (e.g., implementation of all existing and applicable alternatives
 will  create a greater hazard than the hazard that existed prior to  a
 response), then the "no action" alternative should be selected.  In such a
 situation, the selection process would be complete at the end of Step J,
 without having carried out  Step 4.

       Step 3 is complete when either all applicable alternatives that meet
  the final response objectives have been developed or the decision is made
  to take no action  at all.   In cases where alternatives that meet response
  objectives are  developed,  these alternatives  then undergo the detailed
  evaluation described in  Section 4.4.
                                      4-24

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                                  SECTION 5

                     DETERMINATION OF RESPONSE COMPLETION


      The selected response to a spill of sinking hazardous substances is
 implemented with the intention of accomplishing the response objectives.
 However, the extent to which the objectives have been met can be difficult
 to judge because of a lack of information on the status of the situation.
 Although the response implementation may superficially appear to be complete
 additional response effort may be warranted.   A  final response-related
 activity is needed to make a determination of the "completeness" of the
 implemented response.   This activity, as indicated in Figure 5-1, is intended
 to determine:  (1)  whether the response effectively mitigated the problems,
 and (2)  whether  further response actions are  needed.

      The effectiveness of the response is generally determined through the
 monitoring of  site conditions following the response  and  comparing these
 conditions with  pre-response conditions.   This comparison provides the
 basis for determining the extent to  which response objectives  have been
 met.  This process is  discussed  in Section 5.1.

      The judgment  of  the  need for further response action is based on the
 determination  of response effectiveness.   When response objectives have
 clearly  been met,  the  response can be considered  complete, as  indicated  in
 Figure 5-1.  However,  if  the  objectives  have  not  been met  and  further
 response action  is  needed,  the response  selection and implementation process
 must be  repeated until  objectives  have been substantially  met  and  no further
 response  action  is  needed.  Only then is  the  response considered  complete.
 This process is discussed  in  Section  5.2.


 5.1  ASSESSMENT OF  RESPONSE EFFECTIVENESS


     The assessment of the effectiveness of response measures that have
been implemented at a site requires the following:

     •  Pre-response site background data (collected earlier in the
        response process, see Section 2)

     •  Response objectives (developed earlier in the response process
        see Section 3)

     •  Post-response site data.
                                    5-1

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FIGURE 5-1. SEQUENCE OF RESPONSE  EVENTS
                Characterize Spill and
                     Impacts
                      Need
                      Any
                    Response
                                 No Response
                                   Indicated
                      Need
                    Immediate
                    Response
                        1
                                Define Immediate
                               Response Objectives
                                                 Identify and Select
                                                Immediate Response
                                                    Alternatives
Define Response
  Objectives
                Develop and Evaluate
                Response Alternatives
                   Select Preferred
                 Response Alternative
                 Implement Response  1^

                              5-2

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      Post-response site data remain to be collected at this point in the
 process and are discussed in Section 5.1.1.  These data are then compared
 with pre-response (i.e., before cleanup) site data to determine what
 improvements the response has accomplished.  These post-response conditions
 are then compared with the response objectives, which were essentially the
 "desired effects" to be accomplished.   These comparisons are discussed in
 Section 5.1.2. .
      5.1.1   Data Collection
      The collection of  post-response site data is  accomplished using many
 of  the  same  data-collection techniques  that  are used to characterize a
 spill and to determine  response needs (see Sections  2 and  3).   Monitoring
 will  generally be  necessary in order to measure the  effects  of the  response.
 Monitoring techniques are  discussed  in  detail  in Section 2.3.2.1.   Sampling
 and analysis,  direct instrument measurement, and remote sensing may all  be
 applicable to  this purpose.

      The technique used to initially characterize  the contamination will
 often be the most  appropriate  for monitoring the cleanup.  However,  the
 sensitivity  of  the technique to relatively low concentrations  that  are
 likely  to  remain following a response must be  considered.  For example,
 visual  observation of the  presence :of elemental mercury or polychlorinated
 biphenyl (PCS)  oils may be used .for  pre-response analysis in defining  zones
 of contamination,  and sampling  and analysis may be needed to monitor post-
 response residual  concentrations.  After  response measures have been applied
 and time has passed at  a spill  site,  any  remaining problem most likely will
 not be  easily observed  by  sight.  Therefore, the focus  of post-response
 data  collection will be  on sampling  and remote  sensing  as the  primary  data
 collection methods.  These methods are designed to detect low  concentrations
 and trace movement  of contaminants and are therefore more suitable for
 effectiveness monitoring.

     The selection  of the  appropriate monitoring techniques  for a particular
 site depends on the initial extent of contamination and  the  exposure and
 impacts identified for the site area and its inhabitants.  The more extensive
and complex the contamination problem was initially, the greater the variety
of monitoring data will be required to determine the response effectiveness.

     A variety of parameters may need to be monitored for post-response
site data, including:

     «  Contaminant levels in the water body (near the original spill site
        and downstream)

     •  Contaminant levels remaining in the bottom materials

     •  Contaminant concentrations remaining (for exposure of humans,
        plants, animals)
                                    5-3

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     •  Integrity of any containment measures applied

     •  Effectiveness of treatment processes in removing or destroying
        chemicals of concern.

The specific parameter measurements required for evaluating response
effectiveness depends on the initial contamination problem and the selected
response measures.

     In cases where both bottom materials and surface water were initially
contaminated, data collection for an effectiveness assessment would involve
both sediment sampling and surface water.  Similarly, both sediments and
water should be sampled in cases where there was initially only sediment
contamination, but where removal, caused resuspension and subsequent surface
water contamination or where partial removal of contaminants was conducted.
     5.1.2  Assessment of Meeting Response Objectives
     The post—response site data, when compared with the pre-response data,
allow an assessment of the extent to which response objectives have been
met.  Post-response data can be compared to:  (1) the pre-contamination
situation to assess to what extent the site has been "restored"; (2) the
post-contamination, but pre-response -situation, to assess the extent of
contaminant removal; (3) regulatory or subjectively selected numerical
cleanup criteria; or (4) some combination of the three.  The situation and
criteria used for the comparison is entirely dependent on what was used as
the basis for developing the original response objectives.

     In some cases, particularly where numerical criteria are applied, the
assessment of meeting response objectives is relatively straightforward.
For example, for the response objective of "Remove contaminated bottom
materials to the deeper of:  (1) a two-foot cut, or (2) contaminant concen-
trations not exceeding 50 ppm," monitoring can be conducted to determine
whether the criteria have absolutely been met.  However, if zones remain
where the criteria have not been met, a judgment must be made as to whether
the criteria have substantially been met.  Similarly, non-numerical objec-
tives and numerical objectives for which data are not available require
a further degree of judgment in deciding whether response objectives have
been met.  These comparisons and judgments are integral to determining
whether further actions are needed.
5.2  .DETERMINATION OF NEED FOR FURTHER RESPONSE
     If the post-response assessment reveals that the response objectives
have not been satisfactorily met and residual contamination continues to
pose a hazard, there is cause  to consider the need for further response
action.  This situation is similar to the recognition of the need for "any
                                    5-4

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response", as occurred earlier  in  the response decisionmaking process  (see
Figure  3-1 and Section 3).   Should further response be necessary,  the
response selection process should  be repeated, as indicated in Figure  5-1.

     This repeated process begins  with redefining the response objectives,
which is conducted as described in Sections 3.2 and 3.3.  The objectives
may remain identical to those objectives established for the already-
implemented responses, or the objectives may be modified because of changed
circumstances or because the original objectives have been found to be
overly  stringent, unachievable, or impractical.

     Based on available site data  and redefined objectives, response
techniques and alternatives (including "no action") are screened, developed,
and selected, as described in Section 4.  The selected alternative is
implemented and its effectiveness is monitored for meeting the redefined
objectives, as described in Section 5.1.

     If the redefined response objectives have been met,  the response may be
considered to be complete.   If the redefined objectives have not been met,
the process described in Section 5.2 is repeated until the response is
judged to be complete (i.e.,  the objectives have been met).
                                   5-5

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                                  APPENDIX A

                            CONTAINMENT TECHNIQUES


      In responding to a spill or discharge of sinking substances, prompt
 containment of the material is often of primary concern.  Containment
 measures can be implemented to minimize damage to the environment until a
 permanent response is determined and implemented.  In some cases, permanent
 containment of contaminants is appropriate;  this method is discussed in
 Appendix E, .In jtitu Treatment and Isolation Techniques.

      There are two reasons for applying containment techniques at a spill
 site.  The first reason is to protect adjacent areas that have not been
 contaminated by the discharge.  The second reason is to minimize the amount
 of contaminated material and the corresponding response effort.

      A number of containment techniques are  suitable for temporary or short-
 term use.   These techniques (discussed in this appendix) include containment
 curtains,  trenches and pits,  dikes  and berms,  temporary covers, pneumatic
 barriers,  floating breakwaters,  and cofferdams.


 A.I   CONTAINMENT CURTAINS
     A. 1.1  Description
     In general, a containment curtain consists of a flexible  skirt  supported
by foam jacket floats.  Ballast is provided using weights,  chains, or a  tube
filled with water.  By reducing the flotation and increasing the weight  of
the ballast, the curtain will sink.  The curtain is then anchored to the
bottom of the water body to contain the spill.  This type of containment
curtain has been custom-made by various manufacturers to contain spills  of
sinking substances.

     There are several ways of configuring containment curtains, depending
on the size and location of the spill.  Figure A-l illustrates the most
common configurations.  One configuration is a closed system, which may  be
a full circle, an ellipse, or open-ended and attached to shore, as shown.
Another configuration is an open system, which is often used in situations
where the curtain must be moved frequently, such as in rivers with heavy
boat traffic (JBF Scientific 1978).
                                    A-l

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   FIGURE A-1. APPLICATIONS OF CONTAINMENT CURTAINS TO
                CONTROL RESUSPENDED MATERIAL
                          Containment
                         Curtain (Open-
                         Configuration)
Contaminated
                        Contaminant
                   Contaminant '-.'(
                      Plume
Containment
   Curtain
   (Closed
Configuration)
Stream Flow
                                                           Non-Contaminated
                                                           Area to be Protected
                              Top View
        Top of Stream Bank
                      Contaminant
                        Plume
                                           Buoyant
                                            Float
    Stream
      Bed
                              Section View
                                  A-2

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       Several variations of containment curtain systems are commercially
  available.   These include the use of different grades of permeable mesh
  curtain that allow water to flow fully through the curtain while retaining
  the spilled substance,  preventing the curtain from flailing or liftinc
  around  the  edges.                                                     s

       Containment  curtains are deployed directly into  the water from shipping
  containers  by pulling one end away  from the  container using a  small boa?
  Once in the water,  the  curtain is moved to the deployment position by towing
  ^J f ,3      ^°at*  Curtains tow  easllv at 2 to  3 knots and  track well
  behind  the  tow boat through normal  maneuvering.  Curtains over 2000 feet
  long have been towed in  this  manner (Hand et al. 1978).
      A. 1.2  Applications
      Containment curtains are used to contain and control spills or dis-
 charges of materials into a water body and to control resuspension of
 sediments during dredging operations.  They are best suited to application
 in quiescent waters, such as low-current, near-shore areas of rivers and
 harbors.  However, containment curtain systems have been applied effectively

 S f^l^l4       WindS' 6-f°0t ^ ^ in — depths up to
      Containment curtains (as well as other containment techniques) are
 also best applied to spills that are relatively confined.  If the spill has
 already dispersed greatly to surrounding areas, the usefulness of the
 containment curtain for protecting non-contaminated areas and for minimizing
 tne amount of contaminated material is limited.


      A. 1 . 3  Limitations^


      Containment  curtains  cannot be effectively used in swift currents  and
 high wave  action.   The  effectiveness of  a containment curtain decreases as
 the current velocity  in the area increases, due to  curtain flare  that
 causes resuspension of  sediments.   A practical  upper limit for current
 velocity is approximately  1.5  feet  per second (Hand  et  al.  1978).   In
 waters with significant wave action,  there is a tendency  for  near-surface
 spilled  materials  to  overtop the barrier.


     A. 1.4  japecial Requirements /Considerations


     Containment curtains must be deployed from a support vessel, which
can also be used for periodically repositioning the curtain.  Costs associ-
ated with containment curtains are medium relative to other containment
techniques.
                                    A-3

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A.2  TRENCHES
     A.2.1  Description
     Trenches are areas of sediment excavation in the bottom of a water
body.  The configuration of a trench can vary from long and narrow (such
as a utility trench), as shown in Figure A-2, to short and wide (such as a
pit).  Trenches can be excavated with conventional digging and dredging
equipment (described in Appendix B, Removal Techniques).

     Trenches contain sinking contaminants and sediments by:  (1) increasing
the local cross-section of flow, thereby decreasing flow velocity and
encouraging settling, (2) providing a low-lying area that allows settling
to a level below the normal level of bed transport, and (3) providing a
storage volume for trapped substances.  In effect, a containment trench is
a temporary in-stream settling basin.

     Trenches are generally excavated downstream of a spill and perpendicular
to the direction of flow.  However, some trenches are dug both upstream and
downstream of a spill, such as in areas of reversing tidal flow.  In some
cases, such as harbors or shallow open waters, trenches are dug completely
around a spill (Hand et al. 1978).  Trenches may be used to arrest movement
of a spill or a discharge in order to protect adjacent areas from becoming
contaminated; they may also be used to facilitate subsequent cleanup of the
site by minimizing the amount of contaminated material.  Containment of
spills with trenches can also be used as a remedial action technique in
conjunction with treatment techniques, such as neutralization, precipitation,
or the application of cover materials (see Appendix E).


     A.2.2  Applications


     Trenches are best suited to use in rivers or other water bodies with
predictable currents.  This is necessary in order to achieve proper placement
of the trenches to interrupt the transport of contaminated sediments.
Trenching is most readily accomplished in water bodies with relatively calm
currents, although some special equipment can operate in extreme sea
conditions  (Banzoli et al. 1976).  Generally, trenches can be excavated in
any  type of sediment, although clays and silts provide better stability
than coarser sediments.

     Two physical characteristics  of the spilled substance or the  contami-
nated sediments are  important in evaluating  the applicability of trenching:
specific gravity  (substance must be a sinker) and particle size  (which is
related to  settling velocity).  Relatively wide trenches are needed  to
contain spilled substances and sediments with relatively low specific
gravity and/or small particle size.  Conversely, narrow trenches may be
used for "heavy"  substances and/or those with large  particle size.
                                     A-4

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     FIGURE A-2. APPLICATION OF A SPILL CONTAINMENT TRENCH
                   TO CONTROL SINKING SUBSTANCES
                                                               Trench Across
                                                                Stream Bed
                     Contaminant
                      •; Plume   \ .  .•.••;...'. .-.'•

                      ' .'•;•/.'. :. '•' T Contaminant/.' :
                       '. •  • '-.'••'*'• Sediment  -^
                      ' •'. •'.'.•' •• •'.' • Deposition.
Non-Contaminated
   Area to be
    Protected
                    Stream Flow
                                  Top View
         • Top of Stream Bank
Contaminated
   Area
                                                          Contaminant/
                                                            Sediment
                                                           Deposition
                               Section View

                                  A-5

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     Conventional dredging and its associated equipment can be used for
trench excavation (discussed in Appendix B).  More specialized excavating
equipment may also be used, although its availability is limited.  This
equipment includes underwater ploughs and submersible trenchers.

     A number of underwater ploughs can be used for trenching and are
effective'for excavating trenches up to 10 feet deep.  Generally, they are
suitable for use only in silty clays.  .Underwater ploughs can also be used
to cover over trenches after a spill has been contained (Reynolds, Seamans,
and Van der Steen 1977).

     Various types of submersible trenchers may also be used for excavating
operations.  They include both manned and unmanned models.  Submersible
trenchers offer a high degree of operational control and can be used in
very deep waters (up to 650 feet).  Thus, they are able to operate in
extreme sea conditions.  More sophisticated submersible trenchers employ a
mechanical/hydraulic dredging system, combining the action of cutterheads
and suction pumps to enable trencher operation in sediments of varying
characteristics.  Some submersible trenchers can dig trenches up to 13 feet
deep with a trench width of 25 feet at the mud line and 13 feet at the
bottom (Banzoli et al. 1976).


     A.2.3  Limitations


     Trenching may be impractical in spill  situations where one or more of
the following conditions exist:

     •  Hard bed materials  (e.g., rock, hardpan, etc.).

     »  Soft or granular bed materials that tend to  flow  and  collapse
        when excavated.

     •  High water body velocity or  currents where positioning  and
        maneuvering  of  equipment would be  difficult  or  where  little
        settling would  occur.

     •  High natural rates of  sediment  transport that may rapidly exhaust
         the trench capacity with non-contaminated materials.

     *  Extensive area  of  contamination,  requiring large  lengths  and
        volumes  of trench excavation.


     A.2.4  Special  Requirements/Considerations


      Resuspension of bottom materials  can result  from in-stream trenching,
 and secondary  containment methods may  be warranted.   Support equipment,
 such as trucks  and  barges, may be needed for hauling excavated trench
                                     A-6

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 materials from the stream.  Costs associated with  containment  trenches are
 low relative to other containment techniques.


 A. 3  DIKES


      A.3.1  Description


      Dikes, as applied to containment of spilled substances that sink, are
 underwater embankments of materials placed on the bed of a water body
 Dikes are generally constructed of earthen material, sand bags, or some
 other material that can be mounded and that can maintain structural
 integrity.  Dikes can be installed using conventional excavation and earth-
 moving equipment.   Manual placement is possible in small-scale, shallow
 applications.   Specialized underwater ploughs or bulldozers can also be
 used for trenching.

      Dikes contain sinking contaminants and sediments in a manner similar
 to that of containment trenches, i.e., effectively creating a temporary
 in-stream settling basin.  The effects of dikes on the water body and
 sediment transport are:   (1)  raising the local  water level upstream of the
 dike,  thereby  increasing the  cross-section of flow, decreasing flow velocitv
 and  encouraging settling; (2)  providing a trapping, low-lying area (relative
 to the top of  the  dike)  upstream of  the dike that allows settling of sinking
 materials;  and (3) providing  a storage volume for trapped substances.

     As a temporary control measure,  dikes  create the effect  of a holding
 pond or reservoir, which prevents  flow downstream and also promotes  the
 settling  of  fine particles.   Contaminated sediments can later be removed
 from the  restricted area or can be treated  in place.

     Dikes generally extend across a  stream channel,  perpendicular to  the
 direction of flow.  Figure A-3 illustrates  such  a configuration.   In some
 cases,  dikes are built parallel to a  river  or a  stream bank to  prevent
 contaminated deposits along a  river bank  from entering the  deeper  river
 channel and traveling downstream.
     A.3.2  Applications
     As a temporary containment measure, dikes are best suited for use in
drainage ditches or small streams with low flow and low volume.  However
shallow, submerged dikes may also be used to temporarily prevent bottom '
spreading of a spill or to minimize erosional losses of cap material after a
capping operation.  Dikes are also used to minimize erosion of contaminated
deposits along the banks of streams and rivers in order to minimize the
amount of contaminated material entering the river and spreading further.
                                    A-7

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FIGURE A-3. APPLICATION OF A SPILL CONTAINMENT DIKE TO
               CONTROL SINKING SUBSTANCES
                            Top View
    Top of Stream Bank
Contaminated
   Area
       Contaminant
         Plume
                                                      Dike Across
                                                      Stream Bed
                                                        Non-Contaminated
                                                           Area to be
                                                            Protected
                 L-*. Contaminant/
                  '. '.''Sediment.
                    • -Deposition
                                                      //////////
                .ii.-v .-.•:-. -•- •-"-•• j!'-.'^': i*: V
                  Contaminant/
                    Sediment
                   Deposition
Dike
                           Section View
                               A-8

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.nlll
spill
                 Well/Uited to situations in which prompt containment of a
           discharge is necessary because they can be constructed quickly
                    '  ^ t0°1S' fr°nt-end 10a                  or dredging
       As  a permanent containment measure,  dikes can be combined with
                            °ther methods  for stabilizing contaminated
      A. 3.3  Limitations
 continuous dike of adequate structural integrity has been constructed.
                           e
      A'3*4  Special Requirements/Considerations
                                               dltes
A. 4  COFFERDAMS
     A.4.1  Description
«u>,.nnn  ? ^ arS barrlers that ar^ Placed in a stream to cut off a
section of the stream and to divert partial or full water flow t
pipe or an excavated channel to re-enter the stream channel at a
m^re of t^ollTi  ^^ Stream di—ion can be u"J ?or o   or
more 01 tne rollowing purposes:

     *  thrstreamSbed?m rel°Cation to allow extensive rehabilitation of
                                    A-9

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     •  Hydraulic isolation of contaminants or sediments in order to:

        -  Facilitate treatment or removal of contaminants or sediments
        -  Eliminate exposure of the downstream water column to the
           contaminants.

     Cofferdams may be constructed of a variety of materials, including
soil, sheet piling, earth-filled sheet pile cells, and sand bags.  Sheet-
pile cofferdams are generally constructed of black steel sheeting from
5 to 12 gauge in thickness and from 4 to 40 feet in length.  They may be
single walled or cellular and earth-filled in sections.  Single-wall,
sheet-pile cofferdams are most applicable for shallow water flows.  For
depths greater than 5 feet, cellular cofferdams are recommended.

     There are various configurations of stream diversion schemes using
cofferdam construction, depending on the desired effect.  For example,
Figure A-4 illustrates full-stream flow diversion using two cofferdams and
a diversion channel in order to allow sediment dewatering and excavation
with conventional earth-moving equipment.
                                                 *
     Another arrangement is shown in Figure A-5, which illustrates stream-
flow diversion for sediment excavation using a single cofferdam  and taking
advantage of the proximity of the stream bank to the contaminated sediments.


     A.4.2  Applications


     Cofferdams are most easily constructed for flow containment or diver-
sion in shallow ports,  streams, and rivers, or in water bodies with low-flow
velocities (less  than  2 feet  per  second).  Cofferdam construction may  be
feasible for relatively wide  and  deep rivers  (up  to about  10 feet deep),
providing that the velocity of  flow is not excessive (JRB  1982).


     A.4.3  Limitations


      Cofferdam construction  is  limited  to water bodies  with relatively low
volume and flow velocity,  such as shallow ports,  streams,  and small rivers.
Where flow velocity  exceeds  2 feet per  second,  cofferdam  construction is
not recommended  because of the difficulties  in driving sheet piling and
placing and  compacting soil  embankments  (JRB 1982).


      A.4.4   Special  Requirements/Considerations


      Cofferdams  are most frequently used in stream diversion and in
dewatering of  the working area.  Some form of lining material (such  as
 pavement,  rip  rap, or piping) may be needed to protect diversion channels
                                     A-10

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FIGURE A-4. STREAMFLOW DIVERSION FOR SEDIMENT EXCAVATION
       USING TWO COFFERDAMS AND DIVERSION CHANNEL
                    Temporary Sheet Pile;
                 Remove After Construction of
                      Diversion Channel
        Diversion
        Channel
            Temporary
            Sheet-Pile
              Riprap for
           Outlet Protection
                                •^-^-^-^-^ - -    	 ^fc^^UJSaP^tf^tfaifaS^^,^

                                ESSi JkUpstream Cofferdam'^
                                V*^^>
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FIGURE A-5. STREAMFLOW DIVERSION FOR SEDIMENT EXCAVATION
                    USING SINGLE COFFERDAM
                  Stream
                   Bank
                 Area of
                Sediment
               Dewatering
                  and
               Excavation
                                Adapted from: JRB Associates, 1982
                                 A-12

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 from scour.  Dewatering of the working area is generally accomplished by
 continuous or periodic pumping.  Pumping is also sometimes used to divert
 flow around the working area.

      The Environmental Emergency Response Unit of the EPA at Edison,
 New Jersey, has available a mobile stream diversion unit for such operations,
 which consists of submersible pumps, booster pumps, generators, a crane, and'
 aluminum irrigation pipe with ancillary fittings.  The system is capable
 of pumping 5,600 gallons per minute for a distance of 1,000 feet over level
 terrain.  Additional capacity can be provided with supplemental pipine and
 pumps (USEPA 1980).
 A.5  PNEUMATIC BARRIERS
      A.5.1   Description
      A pneumatic barrier,  or air barrier,  is created by a curtain of rising
 air bubbles  that spread laterally in the water body.  Artificially induced
 water currents  are generated by the air curtain that counter the normal
 currents,  thus  confining suspended sediments or spilled substances within a
 desired boundary.   An illustration of  a pneumatic  barrier is shown in
 Figure A-6. •

      The barrier is deployed by laying a weighted  perforated header pipe  on
 a river or harbor  bottom in  a configuration  similar  to  that  employed for
 containment  curtains  (see  Section A.I  and  Figure A-l).   Compressed air is
 transmitted  from blowers or  air compressors  through  a  flexible  feed line  to
 the header pipe.   The air  is forced  through  the header  pipe  and is released
 to  the water column through  the perforations.
     A.5.2  Applications
     The conventional application of pneumatic barriers is control of
turbidity generated during dredging operations.  Pneumatic barriers are
similarly applied in the removal of spilled substances and contaminated
sediments in order to contain suspended contaminants within a confined
area.  Pneumatic barriers are also used at a spill site to prevent suspended
particles from moving downstream until another response can be implemented.
Because pneumatic barriers can be deployed quickly, they are particularly
suited to situations demanding immediate action.

     Pneumatic barriers can be applied in water bodies that are fairly
quiescent.  They are most efficient when used in deep waters because
shallow water demands a greater volume of air for effective operation.
                                    A-l 3

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   FIGURE A-6. CROSS-SECTION OF A PNEUMATIC BARRIER
                           APPLICATION
 Water
Surface
[^-Turbulent Zone-*>|
                             ^Blower or Air Compressor
                               Aboard Support Vessel
                                    Air Bubbles
                                      Area to
                                  /""~  Protected
                                Rising Water Column
        / Suspended 't
      /    Material
                                    Compressed
                                     Air Feed
                                       Line
Perforated
 Header
  Pipe
                                             Stream Bed

                                                   Adapted from: Seymour, 1976
                                  A-14

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      Pneumatic barriers are also well suited for use in waters with boat
 traffic because their presence does not impede navigation.


      A. 5.3  Limitations


      Pneumatic barriers are not effective in water bodies with substantial
 turbulence or  current.   The barrier is effective only if the current of the
 water body and the wind do not overcome the forces created by the barrier.
 Natural currents  will affect the rising air plume by causing it to "lean,"
 creating a flow pattern that will allow some of the suspended material  to
 escape the barrier.   This  problem can be overcome to some extent by in-
 creasing the velocity of the rising air bubbles.   However, for a given
 nozzle, there  is  a critical velocity above which additional increases in air
 volume have little effect  on the artificially generated current.  Pneumatic
 barriers are not  as  efficient in shallow water because greater volumes  of
 air are necessary to maintain an effective curtain.


      A.5.4  Special  Requirements/Considerations


      Pneumatic barriers utilize air compressors or blowers,  which require  a
 nominal supply of energy (electricity,  fuel oil,  gasoline, etc.) for
 operation.   In larger,  open water bodies,  the compressor or blower can  be
 operated from  a support vessel.   Costs  associated with pneumatic barriers
 are medium relative  to  other containment techniques.


 A.6   FLOATING  BREAKWATERS
     A.6.1  Description
     Floating breakwaters consists of flotation devices, obstacles for
reducing wave energy, and a ballast structure for stability.  Floating
breakwaters are used to reduce wave height and energy to facilitate spill
response and reduce dispersion of spilled substances.

     One such device is a tethered float breakwater, as illustrated in
Figure A-7.  In this breakwater system, individual buoyant floats are
tethered to a submerged, off-the-bottom ballast (a heavier-than-water slab
structure).  The ballast section provides the mass to submerge the floats
to the desired freeboard and also maintains float spacing.  Wave energy is
attenuated through the drag produced during the rapid and vigorous oscilla-
tions of the buoyant floats.  The tether length is selected to provide a
natural frequency of oscillation that is of the same order as the frequency
of the wave action.  Mooring lines are used to maintain the breakwater
within the desired location limits (Seymour 1976; Essoglou et al. 1975).
                                    A-15

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FIGURE A-7. TETHERED FLOAT BREAKWATER
r
1B^^^ ^- Mooring Lines -s. i^L



x Floats V
o o •-
0 0 V
0 O O
o o o
o o o
o o o
^>_ Floats
Area to be
Protected
— — Ballast
^^^ .Ancnor
Plan View
Water Surface
v
TTTT1"IT-
/ \Ballast\
/ — — Mooring Lines 	 ^ \
to Anchors
Section View
                             Adapted from: Seymour, 1976
                    A-16

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      Some  of  the  major features  of  the tethered float breakwater are:

      •   The level of  protection  can be selected to  meet  specific site
         requirements.   Modular construction allows  tailoring to  meet
         the specified transmitted wave height  limit.

      •   Performance is predictable  if  the wave characteristics are  known.

      ®   Performance is independent  of  the mooring system and therefore  is
         independent of depth.  The  breakwater  will  give  full protection
         while  floating free.

      •   The small total mass and volume of  the breakwater and its modular
         construction  make it easily transportable (Seymour 1976).

      Another type of  floating  breakwater is  the sloping  float breakwater.
This  is  also a transportable breakwater.  It consists  of  a row of moored
flat  slabs or  panels whose mass  distribution is such  that,  in still water,
each  panel rests  with  one end  on the bottom of the  water  body and with  the
seaward  end protruding above the surface.  The device  is  ballasted  by
flooding one end.  For a transportable breakwater,  the advantage of a
water-ballasted module is that much of the required mass  is  water.  Install-
ation involves assembling the  floating unballasted  modules (nominally 90
feet  by  28 feet),  then admitting water to the  shoreward  end.of each float
by venting.  Flooding  continues  until  the lower end rests  on the bottom and
the upper end  settles  to the level  that  produces the desired freeboard.
The controlling factor in reducing  wave  transmission is  the  inclination of
the breakwater in its  at-rest  position (Jones  et al.  1979).

      Floating  breakwaters can  be fabricated using readily available marine
and construction  materials, such as buoys, anchors, cables,  concrete slabs,
and steel plates.
     A.6.2  Applications
     Floating breakwaters are used to decrease erosion, control scour, and
reduce dispersion of spilled material caused by wave-induced bottom surge.
Floating breakwaters are used in open waters, such as oceans, bays, or lakes
where locally generated wind waves and ship waves occur.  The tethered
breakwater system can be used in shallow or deep water since it is free-
floating and independent of depth; however, it is more economically used in
deep water.

     Sloping float breakwaters are best applied to near-shore uses for
water depths on the order of 20 to 30 feet (Jones et al. 1979).
                                    A-17

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     A. 6.3  Limitations


     Floating breakwaters are large in size and weight and are not readily
transported on land, although the use of modular arrangement can improve
the transportability of breakwaters.  There are no depth limitations
associated with breakwaters, provided that the proper scale of depth-related
components (tethers, mooring lines, etc.) are provided.


     A.6.4  Special Requirements/Considerations


     Support vessels must be used to tow the breakwater to the point of
use.  Cranes and divers may be needed to properly position the breakwater.
Costs associated with floating breakwaters are high relative to other
containment techniques.


A.7  TEMPORARY COVERING AND CAPPING


     Covering and capping involves the placement of protective materials
over contaminated materials to:- (1) reduce erosion and transport of contam-
inants, (2) reduce dissolution and migration of contaminants into the water
column, (3) alter the contaminants chemically or physically, or (4) provide
some combination of these effects.  Covering and capping is normally used
as a permanent response, as described in Appendix E,  In Situ Treatment and
Isolation Techniques.  The methods described in Appendix E .can also be used
for temporary containment; the primary difference is  that the covering and
capping materials are removed when they are used temporarily and are contam-
inated by contact with the contaminated bottom materials.
A. 8  SUMMARY
     Temporary  or  short-term containment  of  contaminated  sediments  include
containment  curtains,  trenches,  dikes,  temporary covers,  pneumatic  barriers,
cofferdams,  and floating  breakwaters.   A  summary of  the characteristics  and
applications of these  techniques is given in Table A-l.
                                     A-18

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                                     TABLE A-l.   SUMMARY  OF  CONTAMINANT CONTAINMENT TECHNIQUES
VO
Technique
Containment
Curtains





Trenches







Applications
Control resuspension of
sediments during
dredging operations;
temporary containment
of spills or dis-
charges; use in
quiescent waters and
low-current, near-shore
areas of rivers and
harbors; use for rela-
tively confined spills
Temporary containment
of spills or dis-
charges; use in
conjunction with other
treatment techniques,
such as neutralization;
use primarily in calm
waters depending on
type of equipment used
for excavation
Limitations
Not effective in
swift currents
(greater than 1.5
feet/ second);
overtopping may
occur by wave
action



Not effective in
swift currents;
may not be
practical in
excessively hard
or soft bottom
materials



Secondary Impacts Ease of Implementation Relative Cost
Bone Storage and transport requires Medina
special attention; deployment
can be accomplished with
relative ease; varies from
relative ease with
conventional excavating
equipment to more difficult
with special submersible
trenchers and underwater
ploughs

Resuspension of Construction is accomplished Low
bottom materials with relative ease where depth
may result and current velocity are not
excessive






     Dikes
                             Control resuspension of
                             sediments during
                             dredging operations;
                             temporary containment
                             of spills or discharges
                             use in conjunction with
                             other stabilization
                             techniques;  use  in
                             waters with low-flow
                             velocity and low
                             volume, such as  small
                             streams and  drainage
                             ditches
Impractical to
construct in swift
currents
Suspension of dike
materials may
result
Construction is accomplished
with relative ease, especially
through use of hand tools  in
small water bodies
Low to
nediuB
                                                                                                                               (continued)

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                                                        TABLE A-l.    (continued)
Cofferdams






Pneunatic Barriers












Floating Breakwaters



Used in conjunction
with stream diversion
to isolate contaminated
sediments from stream
flow; use in shallow
waters with low-flow
velocity
Control resuspension of
sediments during
dredging operations;
temporary containment
of suspended particles
from spills or dis-
charges; use in rela-
tively deep waters for
efficient operation;
use .in quiescent waters
such that current does
not overcome forces set
up by compressed air
Reduce erosion of
bottom sediment caused
by surface waves; use
in oceans, bays, and
lakes
Difficult or Resuspension of
impractical to bottom materials
construct in swift may result
currents
•


Hot effective in None
swift currents;
less effective in
shallow water
bodies








Cannot be used None
during severe
weather storms


More difficult than other
temporary containment
measure*




Construction is more difficult
than other temporary contain-
ment measures










Transport and deployment can
be accomplished with relative
ease


Medium






Medium












High



Temporary Covering
and Capping
Control  transport or
dissolution  pending
other response
Covering and
capping materials
may become contam-
inated by contact
with contaminants,
increasing the
ultimate cleanup
effort
Suspension of
covering and
capping materials
and resuspension
of bottom
materials may
result
Readily implemented with
granular material applied by
dumping; special materials
(membrane,  cement, etc.)
require special techniques and
equipment
Low to
high

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                                  APPENDIX B

                   CONTAMINATED MATERIAL REMOVAL TECHNIQUES
      The process by which bottom sediments are removed from bodies of water
. is commonly known as dredging.  This process has been used for many years
 to widen or deepen harbors and navigable rivers.  In recent years, dredging
 has also been employed in the removal of sediments that have been contami-
 nated through discharges of hazardous and harmful substances.  Other
 techniques have been developed for removal of contaminated sediments.

      This appendix discusses the equipment and techniques that may be used
 in the removal of contaminated sediments.  Three types of dredging equipment
 are discussed:  mechanical, hydraulic, and pneumatic.

      All of the equipment that is placed on site in order to accomplish the
 removal of sediments make up what is referred to as the dredge plant.  In
 addition to the equipment and the technologies related to the dredge plant,
 there are also many predredging operations that must be performed before
 successful dredging can begin.  These operations consist of a variety of
 tasks that are conducted prior to, and in preparation for, the actual
 dredging of sediments.   Predredging operations can include equipment mobili-
 zation and demobilization, stream diversion, cofferdam construction, and
 removal of weeds and bottom debris.  Cofferdam construction and stream
 diversion are discussed in Section B.4.

      Divers frequently can be used in predredging operations for monitoring
 removal of bottom materials and for operation of hand-held dredges.   The
 use of divers in contaminated waters may pose hazards for that necessitate
 special precautions.  Most divers are hesitant to enter water bodies that
 have been contaminated  with hazardous substances.  Experiences in these
 environments have often resulted in injuries, primarily chemical burns, to
 divers and/or surface support personnel.  Little information is available
 on low-level exposure to chemicals that  divers or surface support personnel
 may receive in these environments.   Only acute or immediate effects  have
 been reported.  Chronic, long-term toxicity has not been investigated.
 This is potentially a serious problem that is now being addressed by several
 government agencies (McLellan 1982).

      Diving equipment problems also occur in chemically contaminated water
 environments, primarily due to petroleum products.   Divers frequently enter
 these environments,  resulting in deterioration and failure of equipment.
 Equipment deterioration has been responsible for fatalities and for  incidents
                                     B-l

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of diver exposure to contaminants (McLellan 1982).  Special equipment and
procedures all under development for protecting response team divers.
B.I  MECHANICAL DREDGES
     Mechanical dredges are equipment used to remove bottom sediment through
the direct application of mechanical force to dislodge the material.  This
physical removal of bottom sediment is usually performed by a bucket that
scoops up the material and carries it to the surface.  The material is then
usually placed in a barge, scow, truck, or impoundment for treatment or
disposal.

     Mechanical dredges include clamshell, dragline, dipper, and bucket
ladder dredges, as well as conventional excavation equipment, such as back-
hoes and loaders.  The mechanical dredges can either be vessel-mounted for
offshore use or track-mounted and land-based.  The main advantage to mechan-
ical dredges is that they can remove sediments at nearly in situ densities,
i.e., the water content of sediments is not increased through the dredging
process.  Removing sediment at the maximum possible solids content thus
reduces the scale of facilities necessary for dredged material transport,
treatment, and disposal.

     Compared to other types of dredges, mechanical dredges generate higher
resuspension of bottom materials, particularly in fine-grained sediments,
and also exhibit lower production rates, especially in consolidated material,
     B.I.I  Clamshell Dredges
          B.I.1.1  Description
     Clamshell  (or grab) dredges  are  crane-operated  dredges  that  are  usually
 mounted  on  flat-bottomed barges or  pontoons.   They may  also  be mounted on
 other  sea-going vessels or  track-mounted  and  land-based.  Most are  equipped
 with a single crane,  but multiple crane configurations  are not uncommon.
 Removal  is  performed  with large,  hinged buckets  ranging in capacity from
 1  to 13  cubic yards.   Buckets  are lowered in  an  open position on  a  control
 cable  to the bottom surface and sediment  is scooped  up  as the bucket  closes
 and  its  two halves come together.   Clamshell  dredges operate at 20  to 30
 cycles per  hour, depending  on  working depth and  sediment characteristics
 (Hand  et al. 1978).

     Standard clamshell buckets are open  at the  top  and allow considerable
 loss of  sediment by spillage and  leakage  once the bucket breaks the water
 surface. The Port and Harbor  Institute of Japan and the Corps of Engineers
 Waterways Experiment  Station have each developed watertight  buckets in which
                                     B-2

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 the top is enclosed so that the dredged material is contained within the
 bucket (Hand et al. 1978).

      There are approximately 200 clamshell dredges in use nationwide, making
 them one of the most commonly used dredges in the United States (Hand et al.
 1978).  In addition, clamshell excavators are common in conventional excava-
 tion work.
           B.I.1.2  Applications
      Clamshell dredges  can be used to excavate at i.n situ densities in all
 types of material with  the exception of highly consolidated sediments and
 solid rock and can excavate to depths of 100 feet or more.   These dredges
 afford close  control of position and depth and are therefore well suited to
 work in confined  areas  and surrounding vulnerable structures.

      As with  other types of mechanical dredges,  clamshells  are generally
 used for relatively small-scale operations (up to a few hundred thousand
 cubic yards).

      Clamshell dredges  are also used in predredging operations for removal
 of  potentially destructive bottom debris,  such as stumps,  logs, rubbish, and
 rocks.
          B.I.1.3  Limitations
     The major disadvantages of using clamshell and other mechanical dredges
are the relatively low rate of production and the relatively high degree  of
sediment resuspension these dredges produce compared to other dredges.
Sediment resuspension occurs as the bucket impacts and pulls free from the
bottom and also as hoisting drag forces act to wash away part of the load.
Clamshells generally excavate a heaped load of material, and as the bucket
clears the water surface, additional losses may occur through rapid drainage
of entrapped water and slumping of the material above the rim of the bucket.
Concentrations of suspended solids in the vicinity of clamshell dredging
may be as great as 500 milligrams per liter, compared with background levels,
which do not generally exceed 50 milligrams per liter (Barnard 1978).

     Watertight buckets have been shown to reduce resuspension of sediments
by as much as 50 percent (Barnard 1978).  Disadvantages of watertight
buckets are that the rubber gaskets used to create the watertight seal may
not stand up to continuous use in a full-scale dredging operation and may
present compatibility problems with spilled chemicals in certain spill
situations.
                                    B-3

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          B.I.1.4  Special Requirements/Considerations


     Clamshell dredges can be land-based or mounted on a support vessel, in
which case the vessel must be dedicated to the dredging operation.  Support
vessels or vehicles (barge or truck) must also be available to accept the
sediment as it is being dredged and later transport it to the disposal or
treatment area.  The resuspension of bottom materials may also warrant the
use of containment measures, such as curtains or pneumatic barriers, described
in Appendix A.  Costs associated with clamshell dredging are low relative to
other removal techniques.
     B.I.2  Draglines
          B.I.2.1  Description


     Draglines  employ  the  same  basic  equipment  as  clamshell  dredges  and have
many of  the  same applications and  limitations.   Dragline  buckets  excavate
material as  the buckets  are  pulled by a  drag  cable toward the  crane.   Drag-
lines are operated by  the  same  type of crane  as clamshell dredges and  can
be  similarly mounted on  sea-going  vessels  or  can be operated from land.  A
2.5-cubic-yard  bucket  will excavate approximately  300 cubic  yards of loosely
compacted material per hour  (Church 1981).

     Draglines  are commonly used in general earthwork applications and are
widely available in  the  United  States.


          B.I.2.2  Applications


     Draglines  can be  used in the same instances as clamshell  dredges (see
Section  B.I.1.2) with  slightly less control of depth and position.  However,
dragline dredges generally offer a longer reach than clamshell dredges
operated by the same crane (Merritt 1976).  They are generally used for
operations  of  up  to  several hundred thousand cubic yards of  sediments.
           B.I.2.3  Limitations
      Draglines generate resuspension of sediment similar to that of clam-
 shell dredges (see Section B.I.1.3).  It is not possible to develop a
 watertight bucket because of the dragline operating characteristics.
 Draglines also provide relatively low rates of sediment removal.
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            B.I.2.4   Special  Requirements/Considerations


       The special requirements and considerations of draglines are the same
  as those described  for  clamshell dredges (see Section B.I.1.4).   Costs
  associated with dragline dredging are low relative to other removal
  techniques.
      B.I.3  Conventional Earth Excavation Equipment
           B.I.3.1  Description
      Backhoes, power shovels, and front-end loaders  are  sometimes used to
 remove bottom sediments in certain restricted situations?  Ml threenieces
 mft;rfrrvperate in roughiy the same manner;a ^^ ^OPS UP
 trans oita^ion eXCaVated and transfers  the  material  to a vehicle for

      Such excavation equipment is widely available and usually mounted
                                               shovels
           B.I.3.2   Applications
      Conventional  earth excavation equipment can be used on a limited scale
 to remove  sediments in shallow waterways.  Backhoes are normally used for
 trench  and other subsurface excavation and are capable of ^aching^ feet
 or more below the  level of the machine (Merritt 1976;  Church 1981).   Power

 as°I± SYSS17 T^0 10ad r°Ck lnt° haUllng UnltS and do ~t  ha"
 as xong or  a reach as backhoes.

      Loaders are normally used to excavate loose or soft materials in a
            "i ^^ °f °Peration a few ft above and below grade.
           in shallow water may be practical if sediments are sufficiently
 loose or soft.  Loaders are useful in removing sediments from dewatering
        materilir bodies/^r%^a^-mounting of equipment  allows mobility
        materials.   Specially fabricated wide tracks (called "low-earth-
 pressure  tracks) provide added support and traction under  such  conditions.
          B.I. 3. 3  Limitations
conr              eartVxcavati°* equipment is greatly limited in removing
contaminated sediments  from water  bodies.  Their reach in both the lateral
and vertical directions  is  restricted by the length of the boom to which
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the excavation bucket is attached.  Therefore, the equipment must be in
close proximity to the material being dredged and, in most cases, this is
not a practical restriction.  Also, because the load bearing capacity of
submerged sediments and soils surrounding water bodies is frequently low,
it is often difficult or impossible for conventional equipment to maneuver
under such conditions.  Conventional equipment also provides relatively low
rates of sediment removal.


          B.I.3.4  Special Requirements/Considerations


     Stream diversion and dewatering of the work  area are generally needed
for conventional earth  excavation equipment to reach and maneuver in bottom
materials.  Stream diversion  is  discussed under Section B.4, Cofferdams.
Other requirements and  considerations  of conventional earth excavation
equipment are the same  as those  described for clamshell dredges  (see  Section
B  1 1.4).  Costs associated with removal of bottom materials by  conventional
earth excavation equipment are low relative to other removal techniques.
      B.I.4  Dipper Dredges
           B.I.4.1  Description


      Dipper dredges are capable of exerting great mechanical effort and are
 used in subaqueous excavation of soft rock and dense sedimentary deposits,
 such as clay and glacial till.  Excavation is accomplished by the use of a
 bucket attached to a long boom, which is forcibly thrust into the "Jterial
 to be removed.  Dipper dredges are commonly mounted on flat-bottomed barges
 or other vessels.  Vertical columns called spuds are anchored into the
 bottom sediments to hold the dredge in position.  The swing of the boom-
 limits the lateral range of motion from this fixed position.  The dredge
 vessel is repositioned when dredging within this range is completed.
 Vertical control is restricted to the depth of the "bite" of the excavating
 bucket (Hand et al. 1978).

      Dipper Bucket capacity is 8 to 12 cubic yards and a production rate
 of between 30 to 60 cycles per hour is usually achieved.  There are about
 20 dipper dredges being used nationwide (Hand et al. 1978).


           B.I.4.2  Applications


      Dipper dredges are  capable  of  exerting  great  force  and  are well-suited
 to excavation of  soft  rock and highly consolidated sediments.  They can
 achieve  good  lateral and vertical  control  and are  often  used in  confined
 areas  where control of position  and depth  is required  to avoid damaging or
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 undermining marine structures.  Dipper dredges are inherently better adapted
 for working in horizontal rather than vertical planes.  They have a working
 depth of up to 50 feet and are applicable to volumes of up to several
 hundred thousand cubic yards (Hand et al. 1978).
           B.I.4.3  Limitations
      The violent mechanical dredging action of the dipper dredge causes
 considerable turbidity through sediment disturbance during digging and a
 significant loss of the material from the bucket during the hoisting process,
 This  results in even greater resuspension of sediment than with clamshell
 dredges  and, therefore, dipper dredges are expected to be of limited use in
 the removal of  spilled hazardous materials sinking to the bottom of water
 courses  (Hand et al.  1978).   Dipper dredges also provide relatively low
 rates  of sediment removal.
          B.I.4.4   Special  Requirements/Considerations
      Special  requirements and  considerations  of  dipper dredges  are the same
as  those described for  clamshell  dredges  (see Section  B.I.1.4).   Costs
associated with  dipper  dredging are  low relatively  to  other  removal
techniques.
     B.I.5  Bucket Ladder Dredges
          B.I.5.1  Description
     The dredging action of bucket ladder dredges is provided by an inclined
submersible ladder that supports a continuous chain of buckets that rotate
around pivots at each end of the ladder.  As the buckets rotate around the
bottom of the ladder, they scoop up sediment, which is then transported up
the ladder and dumped into a storage area as the buckets round the top
pivot.  Most bucket dredges are mounted on pontoons and are not self-
propelled.  Bucket ladder dredges can store dredged material on board and
can also load barges for transport.  Only four of these dredges, all for
mining operations, are known to be operating in the United States (Hand
et al. 1978).

     Production rates are generally higher for bucket ladder dredges than
for other mechanical dredges.  Bucket volumes range between 0.1 and 1.3
cubic yards and several hundred cubic yards per hour can be excavated under
good conditions (calm water, loose sediment, etc.) (Hand et al. 1978).
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          B.I.5.2  Applications
     Bucket ladder dredges are most commonly used aboard in mining opera-
tions, such as sand and gravel production.  They are capable of handling
many different kinds of material, including highly consolidated sediments.

     Bucket ladder dredges can handle larger operations than other types
of mechanical dredges.  Their normal operating depth is approximately 60
feet and some dredges are capable of reaching depths of up to 100 feet
(Hand et al. 1978).
          B.I.5.3  Limitations
     Bucket ladder dredges generate a high degree of resuspension by the
continuous mechanical agitation of sediments and bucket leakage.  Bucket
dredges depend on a great deal of support equipment (tow boats and barges)
and are held in place by a complicated configuration of mooring lines,
potentially causing obstruction to navigation routes.  However, the most
limiting factor in using bucket ladder dredges for the removal of contami-
nated sediments is that they are relatively unavailable in the United States
at the present time (Hand et al. 1978).
          B.I.5.4  Special Requirements/Considerations
     Bucket ladder dredges require a great deal of support equipment for
proper operation.  They are not self-propelled and must be towed into
position.  These dredges also require a complicated system of mooring  lines
to hold them in place and barges are needed to hold and remove the dredged
material.  Resuspension of bottom materials may also warrant the use of
containment measures, such as curtains or pneumatic barriers, described in
Appendix B.  Costs associated with bucket ladder dredging are medium
relative to other removal techniques.
B.2  HYDRAULIC  DREDGES
     Hydraulic  dredges  are usually  barge-mounted  systems  that use  centri-
fugal pumps  to  remove and to  transport  sediment in  liquid slurry form.
Pumps may be either  barge-mounted or  submersible.   The  suction  end of  the
dredge is mounted  on a  moveable  ladder  that may be  lowered or raised to a
specific dredging  depth.  Often  a cutterhead  is fitted  to the suction  end
of the dredge to assist in dislodging bottom  materials.   Slurries  of 10 to
20 percent solids  by weight are  common  in standard  hydraulic dredge plants.
These slurries  may be pumped  many thousands of feet through floating or
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 pontoon-supported pipeline to a dredged material treatment/storage area.
 The major disadvantage of hydraulic dredges has been the relatively large
 flow rates associated with pumping at low solids concentrations and the
 resulting need for large areas of land to serve as settling/dewatering
 areas for dredged material (see Appendix C).  Recent development of hydrau-
 lic dredges has emphasized the capability of removing sediments at near
 in situ solids concentrations, minimizing the water content of the pumped
 slurry.  Lowering the water content for a given volume of sediment reduces
 the land requirement for sediment dewatering (Hand et al. 1978).

      Hydraulic dredges generally exhibit higher production rates and lower
 resuspension than mechanical dredges.   They are also capable of removing
 liquid contaminants.  However, they are susceptible to damage by debris and
 clogging with weeds; thus, they require more extensive pre-dredging work
 than mechanical dredges.

      This section describes the following hydraulic dredging systems;
 portable dredges, hand-held dredges, plain suction dredges, cutterhead
 dredges, dustpan dredges,  and hopper dredges.
      B.2.1   Portable  Hydraulic Dredges
          B.2.1.1   Description
     Portable hydraulic dredges are defined herein as dredge vessels  that
 can be moved easily over existing  roadways without major  dismantling.   The
 U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Waterways Experiment Station has prepared  a
 "Survey of Portable Hydraulic Dredges" (Clark  1983), which is a compilation
 of models of portable dredges that are available in the United States and
 their characteristics, including ratings of "portability."  Conventional
 cutterheads, horizontal cutters, bucket wheels, chain cutters, vertical
 cutters, and dustpans are available on portable dredges,  and dredging
 capabilities range from 10 to 50 feet.  Vessel draft is generally less  than
 5 feet (many less than 2 feet).  Production rates average between 50 to 500
 cubic yards per hour depending on  model, size, and site conditions (Clark
 19,83).

     Portable hydraulic dredges come in a wide range of sizes.  The average
 dredge is approximately 10 feet wide and from 25 to 50 feet long and can
weigh from 6 to 25 tons (Clark 1983).  One very small unit designed to pump
industrial, ponds is 7 1/2 feet wide, 18 to 24 feet long, and weighs only
 4,500 pounds.

     Methods of launching portable dredges vary and include amphibious/self-
launching, launching by crane, launching from transport trailers, and
launching at boat ramps from transport trailers.   Most portable dredges are
positioned and tracked using cable-and-winch arrangement anchored on land.
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weight is drawn in through the dredge head and is transported up the suction
line to be discharged into a scow or through a pipeline for treatment.  The
production rate is dependent upon the pump size, pump horsepower, and type
of material being dredged.  During normal working conditions, dredging is
performed at 1,000 to 10,000 cubic yards per hour, depending on discharge
velocity and pipe diameter (Hand et al. 1978).

     Plain suction dredges are normally pulled along a straight line fixed
by a cable-and-winch arrangement anchored on land or on the bottom of the
water body.  The dredge vessel moves along the line of the cable and the
cable is repositioned to  establish a new line as dredging progresses.
There is no capability of lateral manipulation beyond the positioning and
movement of the dredge vessel.  Vertical control of sediment removal is
maintained by raising and lowering the suction pipe and dredge head
supporting ladder using a cable-and-winch arrangement.  Vessel draft is
on the order of 5 to 6 feet  (Hand et al. 1978).

     There are approximately 20 plain suction dredges in operation nation-
wide, all located on interior waterways (Hand et al.  1978).


          B.2.3.2  Applications


     Plain  suction  dredges  are most  effective in the  removal  of  relatively
free-flowing  sediments, -such as  sands,  gravels, and unconsolidated material.
They are commonly used  for  sand  mining, beach restoration, general river
channel  maintenance, and  scow unloading.   They  can be used in relatively
shallow waters  and  are  best suited  to  relatively calm inland  waterways
 (Hand  et al.  1978).


           B.2.3.3  Limitations


      Hard and cohesive materials, such as clays or firm native bottom soils,
 are not readily removed by plain suction, as no mechanical dislodging de-
 vices are employed.  These dredges cannot generally be employed in rough
 waters (i.e., .waves greater than 3 feet).  The anchoring cables and pipe-
 lines can cause obstructions to river traffic.   The suction line is also
 subject to blockage or damage by underwater debris.
                 t  •       • f

           B.2.3.4   Special Requirements/Considerations


      As with all hydraulic  dredging methods, the dredged slurry must be
 pumped through a pipeline to a dewatering or other treatment facility (see
 Appendix C).  Resuspension  of bottom materials may also warrant the use of
 containment measures, such  as curtains or pneumatic barriers, described in
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 Appendix A.  Costs associated with plain suction dredging are medium
 relative to other removal techniques.
      B.2.4  Cutterhead Dredges
           B.2.4.1  Description
      The configuration and principle of operation of the cutterhead dredge
 are similar to those of the plain suction dredge; however, a mechanical
 device is added to dislodge material.  The device, called the cutterhead,
 is located at the intake of the suction pipe and rotates to dislodge sedi-
 ment, allowing sediment to be removed by suction through the suction pipe.
 Slurries of 10 to 20 percent solids by weight are typically achieved
 depending upon the material being dredged.  Production rates vary according
 to pump size and can be as large as 2,500 cubic yards per hours.  Cutter-
 head dredges range from 50 to 225 feet in length and can weigh up to 350
 tons.  Vessel draft is between 3 and 5 feet (Hand et al. 1978).

      Cutterhead dredges move in a pattern different from other hydraulic
 dredges by alternately anchoring on one of two spuds.  The anchored spud is
 used as a pivot and the vessel is drawn along an anchored cable, swinging
 the cutterhead in a short  horizontal arc about the spud.  Repeatedly swing-
 ing the cutterhead in arcs while alternating anchored spuds results in
 partially overlapping cuts,  which form a wide effective cut through the
 area being dredged.

      Cutterhead dredges are  among the most popular in the world  for mainten-
 ance dredging because of their versatility and ability to make uniform cuts.
 They are  also the  most commonly used maintenance dredge in the United
 States  and approximately 300 are in use nationwide (Hand et al.  1978).


           B.2.4.2 ' Applications


      Cutterhead dredges  are  highly  efficient  in  removing  all types  of
materials,  including  very  hard  and  cohesive  sediments.   They are  capable of
reaching materials up  to 50  feet  below the water  surface.   Cutterhead
dredges are best used  in calmer waters,  but  because of  their large  size and
self-propulsion, they are  better  able  to operate  in rough waters  than the
smaller portable dredges or  plain suction dredges  (Hand et  al. 1978).


          B.2.4.3  Limitations


     Cutterhead dredges are not capable of removing bottom sediments at
depths greater than 50 feet below the water surface because of the length
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of the dredge ladder that supports the cutterhead.  The dredge vessel cannot
operate in water depths of less than 5 feet (Hand et al. 1978).

     The cutterhead and suction line are susceptible to debris damage,
which can hinder the removal of bottom materials.  In addition, infestations
of aquatic weeds may obstruct dredging and cause further delays due to both
reduced cutterhead mobility and dredge pump clogging.

     The cutting and grinding action of the cutterhead presents a potential
problem with resuspension of sediment.  A properly designed cutterhead will
efficiently cut and guide the bottom material toward the suction, although
the cutting action and the turbulence associated with the rotation of the
cutterhead can resuspend a portion of the bottom material (Raymond 1983).


          B.2.4.4  Special Requirements/Considerations


     The dredging site must be cleared of debris and weeds prior to com-
mencement of dredging in order to prevent malfunction of the cutterhead.
This may require the use of cranes, clamshells, or divers.

     As with all hydraulic dredging methods, the dredged slurry must be
pumped through a pipeline to a dewatering or other treatment facility (see
Appendix C).  Resuspension of bottom materials may also warrant the use of
containment measures, such as curtains or pneumatic  barriers,  described in
Appendix A.  Costs associated with cutterhead dredging are medium relative
to other removal techniques.
     B.2.5  Dustpan Dredges
           B.2.5.1   Description
     Dustpan dredges  are  similar  in configuration  and  operation  to plain
suction dredges.   The sediment collection head,  called a "dustpan",  is a
widely  flared head containing high-pressure water  jets that  loosen and
agitate sediments; the sediments  are then captured in  the dustpan as the
dredge  is  winched forward into the bottom materials.   This high-pressure
jetting slightly  improves efficiency (in terms  of  slurry density) and allows
cohesive sediments to be  dredged  (Hand et al.  1978).

     The collected sediments are  conveyed by  suction into the suction pipe.
Slurries of 10 to 20  percent solids by weight are  typically  achieved.
Production rates  range between 500 to 15,000  cubic yards per hour, depend-
ing on  the discharge  pipe diameter and the discharge velocity.   Vessel
draft varies between  5 to 14 feet (Hand et al.  1978).
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      There are about 10 dustpan dredges in the United States, all owned by
 the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers.  They are used primarily for channel
 maintenance in interior waterways (Hand et al. 1978).


           B.2.5.2  Applications


      Dustpan dredges are best suited for dredging free-flowing granular
 bottom material, but will also dredge cohesive sediments.  They are used
 primarily in calmer interior waterways with depths up to 50 feet.  The
 vessels can operate in waters deeper than 14 feet, and some can be operated
 in shallow waters (Hand et al. 1978).


           B.2.5.3  Limitations


      Dustpan dredges are not capable of removing  sediment at  depths  greater
 than 50 feet below the  water surface because  of  the length of the dredge
 ladder that supports the dustpan.  The dredge vessel cannot operate  in
 water depths of  less than 5  feet  (Hand et  al.  1978).

      The jetting action of the dustpan dredge will cause resuspension of
 bottom materials-comparable  to the cutterhead dredge (Raymond 1983).   The
 dustpan head is  also susceptible  to  clogging  and  damage  by bottom debris.


           B.2.5.4  Special Requirements/Considerations


      The  dredging site  should  be cleared of underwater debris  to  prevent
 blockages within the dredge  head, pump, and pipeline.  As  with all hydraulic
 dredging  methods,  the dredged  slurry  must be pumped  through a  pipeline to a
 dewatering  or other  treatment  facility  (see Appendix C).   Resuspension of
 bottom materials  may also  warrant the use of containment measures, such as
 curtains  or  pneumatic barriers, described in Appendix A.   Costs associated
 with removal of bottom materials by dustpan dredges are medium relative  to
 other removal techniques.


     B.2.6  Hopper Dredges


          B.2.6.1  Description


     Hopper dredges differ from other hydraulic dredges primarily in the
 type of vessel used and the methods of attachment and operation of the
dredge head.  Hopper dredge vessels are normally large, self-propelled, sea-
going vessels, rather than barges.  Vessel drafts range from 12 to 31 feet.


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The vessels can operate in waves up to 7 feet.  Hopper dredges are posi-
tioned and moved by the propeller/rudder navigating equipment of the host
vessel and can travel at speeds up to 8 miles per hour while dredging.
Production rates normally range between 500 to 2,000 cubic yards per hour
(Hand et al. 1978).

     Suction pipes are hinged on either side of the vessel and extend
downward toward the stern of the vessel.  Dredge heads, attached at the
ends of the suction pipes, drag along the bed of the area being dredged as
the vessel moves forward; the head is sometimes called a "trailing" head
for this reason.  Dredging is accomplished by the vessel making progressive
passes over the project area.

     Dredged material is transported up the suction pipe and is discharged
for storage into a hopper portion of the vessel.  Coarse-grained material
settles to the bottom of the hopper.  Water and fine-grained sediment is
normally allowed to overflow the hopper into the water body; overflow
would usually not be acceptable in the removal of contaminated sediments.
Once fully loaded, the vessel moves to an unloading area where the hopper
is emptied by opening bottom doors or by pumping the contents to a treatment
or disposal area.  There are 15 oceangoing, trailing, suction hopper dredges
operated by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, and there are several privately
owned hopper dredges in the United States.  These dredges are located
primarily on coastal waters and in the Great Lakes region (Hand et al.. 1978).
          B.2.6.2  Applications
     Hopper dredges are intended for large-scale maintenance dredging of
deep, rough-water shipping channels, and are normally most efficient in
excavating loose, non-cohesive materials.  Bottom materials can be dredged
to depths of 62 feet.  Hopper dredges are capable of operating in rough,
open waters, in relatively high, currents, in and ar.ound marine shipping
traffic, and in adverse weather conditions (Hand et al. 1978).
          B.2.6.3  Limitations
     Hopper dredges cause resuspension of bottom materials into  the water
column; this is primarily caused by hopper overflow in  the near-surface
water and by draghead agitation in near-bottom water.   Hopper dredges cannot
be used in inland shallow waters because of  the large vessel size and draft.
Because conventional hopper dredge operating methods (hopper overflow and
open-water disposal of dredged material) are not normally acceptable for
hazardous materials, continuous or periodic  removal of  dredged material
must be accomplished by  frequent trips to an unloading  area, pumping to a
treatment facility, or pumping to transport  vessels.
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           B.2.6.4  Special Requirements/Considerations
      Hopper dredges are self-contained vessels and, under normal operating
 conditions, require no support equipment.  However, support equipment, such
 as hauling vessels, transport pipelines, and pump-out dredges, may be need-
 ed for containing and transporting contaminated materials to a dewatering
 or other treatment facility (see Appendix C).  The resuspension of bottom
 materials may also warrant the use of containment measures, such as curtains
 or pneumatic barriers, described in Appendix A.  Costs associated with
 removal of bottom materials by hopper dredges are high relative to other
 removal techniques.
 B.3  PNEUMATIC DREDGES
      Pneumatic dredges are a special category of hydraulic dredge that use
 compressed  air and/or hydrostatic pressure instead of centrifugal force to
 draw sediments to the collection head and through the transport piping.
 Pneumatic dredges are commonly barge-mounted.   Dredged material is normally
 discharged  to  hopper barges or scows.

      Pneumatic dredges generally-produce slurries of  higher solids concen-
 tration  than -hydraulic dredges and cause less  resuspension of bottom
 materials.  They  are capable of dredging both solids  and  liquids.
     B.3.1  Airlift Dredges
          B.3.1.1  Description
     Airlift dredges use compressed air to dislodge and transport sediments.
Compressed air is introduced into the bottom of an open vertical pipe that
is usually supported and controlled by a barge-mounted crane.  As the air
is released, it expands and rises, creating upward currents that carry both
water and sediment up the pipe.  The applied air pressure must be sufficient
to overcome water pressure at operating depths.  Higher air pressures and
flow rates result in higher transport capacity.  Air can also be introduced
through a special transport head that can be vibrated or rotated to dislodge
more cohesive sediments.  Lateral control of the dredge is achieved by
swinging the boom of the crane in a manner similar to mechanical dredging.
Vertical control is achieved by raising and lowering the open end of the
vertical transport pipe and by varying the pressure of the air released at
the end of the pipe (Hand et al. 1978).

     Dredged material is usually discharged from the airlift pipe (which
includes elbows or flexible pipe for changes in direction) into a hopper
barge or scow.  The material is then transported in the barge or by
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pumping through a pipeline to a treatment or disposal area.  Slurries of 25
percent solids can typically be achieved with airlift dredges (d'Angremond
et al. 1978).

     Airlift dredges are usually operated from barges with drafts between
3 and 6 feet, although other vessels can be used.  Barges are normally not
well suited for rough, open waters.  Airlift dredges are not widely used in
the United States.


          B.3.1.2  Applications


     Airlift dredges are used primarily in underwater mining of sand and
gravel and are well-suited to deep dredging applications for excavating
loose granular materials, primarily sand.  Any depth for which sufficient
pipe and air pressure can be provided can be dredged by this method.


          B.3.1.3  Limitations


     Airlift dredges cannot dredge cohesive bottom materials because the
agitation of the released air is the primary means of dislodging  the
material.


          B.3.1.4  Special Requirements/Considerations


     Airlift dredges require barges, pipelines,  and/or pump-out capabilities
for  containing and transporting contaminated materials to  a dewatering  or
other  treatment  facility  (see Appendix  C).  The  resuspension of bottom
materials may also warrant  the  use of containment measures such as curtains
or pneumatic barriers,  described in Appendix A.   Costs associated with
airlift  dredging are medium relative  to other  removal  techniques.


      B.3.2   Pneuma Dredges


          B.3.2.1  Description


      The "Pneuma"  (trade  name)  dredging system consists  of a pneumatic  pump
 that is  lowered  by a  barge-mounted crane to contact  the  sediments being
 dredged.  The pump is  driven by an air  compressor and  operates by positive
 displacement.  The body of  the  pump contains  three cylindrical vessels,
 each with an intake  opening on the bottom and  an air port  and  discharge
 outlet on top.   The  air ports can be opened to the atmosphere  through air
 hoses and valves.   The cylinders are filled with sediment  and  water when
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 the intake opening is open and water pressure causes bottom materials to
 flow into the vessels.  The ;opening is closed when the vessel is filled.
 The vessel is emptied by the application of compressed air to force the
 contents into a discharge line.  Using this process, the Pneuma system can
 dredge bottom materials at near in situ densities with a minimum intake of
 water (Richardson et al. 1982; Toa Harbor Works undated).  Pneuma dredges
 are capable of discharging directly to disposal or treatment areas through
 a discharge pipeline.

      Pneuma dredges are normally suspended from a crane cable and pulled
 into the sediments being dredged by a second cable.  The dredging head is
 scoop-shaped and produces relatively little sediment resuspension (i.e.,
 only slightly greater than normal operating background levels).   The dredge
 head is fixed relative to the vessel so that lateral manipulation is limited
 to the positioning and movement of the vessel.   The dredge head  can weigh
 from 3 to 15 tons and the dredges may be as large as 12 feet by  12 feet,
 but are readily dismantled and transported by truck or air (Richardson
 et al.  1982).

      Pneuma dredges have limited availability in the United States and are
 available only through distributors authorized  by the Japanese manufacturer.


           B.3.2.2  Applications


      Pneuma dredges do not  contain devices  for  breaking up consolidated
 material  and are most applicable to loosely packed sediment.   Shovel attach-
 ments  are available to aid  in the  penetration of sediments.   Extremely deep
 applications  are possible,  provided that  sufficient  discharge line,  air
 line, air pressure,  and  dredging control  can be  provided.
          B.3.2.3  Limitations
     Pneuma dredges cannot be effectively used in shallow water because of
their dependence on water depth for the differential pressure  that induces
flow.  Pipelines and cables may present temporary obstructions in navigable
water channels.
          B.3.2.4  Special Requirements/Considerations
     Pneuma dredges require a great deal of support equipment, such as air
distributors and compressors, to control the cycling of the three pump
chambers and to provide pressure for emptying the chambers.  Booster pumps
may be required for pipeline transport of dredged material to treatment and
disposal facilities.  Costs associated with removal of bottom materials by
Pneuma dredges are high relative to other removal techniques.
                                    B-19

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     B.3.3  Oozer Dredges
          B.3.3.1  Description
     "Oozer" (trade name) dredges, developed in Japan, are pumps similar in
concept to the Pneuma.  Ooozer dredges use negative (vacuum) pressure in
filling the chambers in addition to the pressure difference between water
pressure at the depth of operation and atmospheric pressure, which drives
the Pneuma dredge.  This allows dredging in more shallow waterways (Barnard
1978).

     The pump is usually mounted at the end of a ladder.  The pump body
consists of two cylinders to which a vacuum is applied to increase the
differential pressure and induce the flow between the sediment and cylinders.
Discharge is accomplished by positive air pressure, similar to the Pneuma
dredge (see Section B.3.2).  Sediment thickness detectors, underwater
television cameras, and a turbidimeter are attached near the suction mouth
for monitoring turbidity.  Suspended oil can be collected by an attached
hood and cutters can be attached for dislodging hard soils (Barnard 1978;
Toyo Construction Co. undated).

     Oozer dredges are capable of pumping slurries of 30 to 70 percent
solids (near in situ densities) at rates of 500 to 800 cubic yards per
hour, while keeping resuspension of sediments low (Barnard 1978).  Dredged
material is normally discharged to a hopper barge or a scow.

     Oozer dredges have no capability of lateral manipulation beyond the
positioning and movement of the dredge vessel.  Vertical control  of sediment
removal is maintained by raising and lowering the suction pipe and the
dredge head supporting the ladder using a cable-and-winch arrangement.

     Oozer dredges are manufactured in Japan and have limited availability
in the United States through authorized distributors.


          B.3.3.2  Applications


     Oozer dredges are designed for effective suction of soft sediments
from riverbeds  or harbor bottoms.  The use  of vacuum pressure allows Oozer
dredges to dredge in  shallower waters  than  the  Pneuma system.


          B.3.3.3  Limitations


     Oozer  dredges  are  capable of only modest production rates  compared to
hydraulic dredges.   They also require cables  for movement  and anchoring,
which can obstruct  navigation traffic.   Availability of  the Oozer dredge is
                                     B-20

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extremely limited and  its use  in  rapid  response  situations  may  not  be
practical because of the logistics  of mobilization.
          B.3.3.4  Special Requirements/Considerations
     Oozer dredges generally require the support of hopper barges for
discharge of dredged material and transport to a treatment or disposal
facility.  Costs associated with removal of bottom materials by Oozer
dredges are high relative to other removal techniques.


B.4  SUMMARY


     Table B-l provides a summary of information presented" in this appendix
for each of the dredges.  This summary can be used to compare and screen
dredges for specific applications.
                                   B-21

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I
                                                   TABLE B-l.   SUMMARY  OF  CONTAMINATED MATERIAL REMOVAL  TECHNIQUES
                   w
                   to
Technique
MECHANICAL
DREDGES
Clamshell







Dragline






Conven-
tional
Excavation
Equipment
Dipper.


Application*


Snail voluaea of
sediments; confined
areas and near
structures; removal
of hot ton debris;
nonconsol idated
sediments; interior
waterways, harbors
Snail volumes of
sediments; confined
areas; non-
consolidated
sediments, harbors,
and interior
waterways
Snail volumes of
sediments in shallow
or dewatered areas

Small volumes of
sediments; up to
highly consolidated
Limitations


Low production rates;
cannot excavate highly
conaolidated sediments
or solid rock




Low production rates;
cannot excavate highly
consolidated sediments
or solid rock



Restricted capacities
and reach; 1 united to
very shallow water
depths
Low production rates


Secondary
lap acts


Considerable
resuspension
of sediments





Considerable
resuspension
of sediments




Considerable
resuspension
of sediments

Considerable
resuspension
of sediments
Availability/
Transportability


Dredge head can be
moved over existing
roads as-is and
mounted on
conventional crane;
widely available


Dredge head can be
moved over existing
roads as-is and
mounted on
conventional crane;
widely available

Can be moved over
existing roads;
widely available

Hot easily trans-
ported over roads;
limited availability
Vesiel
Length/Draft
(Feet)


Depends on
support
vessel





Depends on
support
vessel




Highly
variable


Depends on
support
vessel
HaxiuB
Depth of
Production Use Relative
(ydVhr) (Feet) Cost


30-600
100 Low






60-700 100 Low






Up to 600 30 Low



30-600 SO Low


                                     sediments, confined
                                     areas; harbors and
                                     interior waterways

                        Bucket        Small volumes of
                        Ladder        sediments; up to
                                     highly consolidated
                                     sediments; interior
                                     waterways
Low production rates
Considerable  Not easily trans-
resuspension  ported over roads;
of sediments  very limited
             availability
                                                           100/5
                                                300
                                                               60     Medium
                                                                                                                                                 (continued)

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                                                                 TABLE B-l.   (continued)
NJ
Co
Technique
HYDRAULIC
DREDGES
Portable
Hydraulic

Hand-held
Hydraulic
Plain
Suction
Applications


Moderate volumes of
sediments; lakes and
inland rivers; very
shallow depths

Small volumes of
solids or liquids in
calm waters; for
precision dredging
Large volumes of
free- flowing
sediments and
Limitations


Limited to waves of
less than one foot;
depending on model,
have low production
rates and limited
depth
Operated from above
water units only in
shallow waters; under-
water units require
diver operation
Dredged material is
80-901 water; cannot
operate in rough, open
Secondary
Impacts


Moderate
resuspension
of sediments

Moderate
resuspension
of sediments
Moderate
resuspension
of sediments
Availability/
Transportability


Readily moved over
existing roads, may
require some
disassembling; widely
available

Easily moved over
existing roads; can
be assembled using
commonly available
equipment
Transport in
navigable waters
only; only 20 in use
Maximum
Vessel Depth of
Length/Draft Production Use Relative
(Feet) (ydj/hr) (Feet) Cost


25-50/2-5 50-1850 50 Low

N/A 10-250 1000 Low
100/5-6 25-10,000 60 Medium
       Cutterhead
       Dustpan
liquids; shallow
waters and interior
waterways


Large volumes of
solids and liquids;
up to very hard and
cohesive sediments;
calm waters
Large volumes of
free-flowing
sediments and
liquids; calm,
interior waterways
waters; susceptible to
debris damage; can
cause traffic
disruption

Dredged material is
80-90* water; cannot
operate in rough, open
waters; susceptible to
debris damage and weed
clogging

Dredged material is
80-90* water; cannot
operate in rough,'open
waters; susceptible to
debris damage
                                                                                   in the United States
                                                                    Moderate       Transport in
                                                                    resuspension   navigable waters
                                                                   "of sediments   only; wide
                                                                                   availability
                         50-250/3-14    25-10,000
                                50
                                        Medium
                                                                   Moderate
                                                                   resuspension
                                                                   of sediments
Transport in
navigable waters
only; only about 10
in use in the United
States
100/5-14
               25-10,000
60
                                      Medium
                                                                                                                                          (continued)
    N/A - Not Applicable

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                                                         TABLE  B-l.   (continued)
to
Technique
Hopper







PNEUMATIC
DREDGES
Airlift



Pneuma




Oozer .


Applications
Solids and liquids
in deep harbors;
rough, open water;
high currents;
adverse weather; in
and around shipping
traffic




Deep dredging of
loose sediment and
liquids; for use in
interior waters

Nonconsolidated
solids and liquids in
interior waterways


Soft sediments and
liquids from river
beds or harbor
Limitations
Hot for highly
consolidated sediments









Not for consolidated
sediments; dredged
material is 75Z water


Not for consolidated
sediments; not for
shallow waters; may
cause obstruction to
water traffic
Modest production
rates; may cause
obstruction to traffic
Secondary
Impacts
Moderate
resuspension
of sediments;
normal oper-
ation in-
volves large
overflow of
dredged
material


Reauspension
of sediment
is low


Resuspension
of sediment
is low


Resuspension
of sediment
is low
Vessel
Availability/ tength/Draft Production
Transportability (Feet) (yd /hr)
Can be moved only in 200+/12-31 500-2,000
deep waters; only
about 20 in use in
the United States







Dfedge head can be 100/3-6 60-390
moved over existing
roads; not widely
available in the
United States
Dredge head can be 100/5-6 60-390
moved over existing
roads; not widely
available in the
United States
Dredge head can be 120/7 500-800
moved over existing
roads; not widely
Haxinu*
Depth of
Use Relative
(Feet) Coat
65 High









Hone Medium



150 High




None High


                   bottoms; relatively
                   shallow depths
available in the
United States

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                                  APPENDIX C

          TREATMENT TECHNIQUES FOR REMOVED CONTAMINATED MATERIALS
     This appendix addresses methods and equipment used for treatment of
contaminated bottom materials that have been removed from water bodies.
Figure C-l shows the major activities that are typically undertaken in
treating contaminated bottom materials and indicates the subsections under
which each of these activities is addressed.  The major steps in sediment
treatment include:

     e  Sediment/water separation - separates the solids from the dredged
        material slurry and results in a contaminated water stream and a
        concentrated slurry, either of which may require further treatment
        (Section C.I).

     •  Sediment dewatering - further concentrates solids by removing, water
        in order to facilitate subsequent treatment, handling, and disposal
        (Section C.2).

     e  Solids treatment - degrades, immobilizes, extracts, or encapsulates
        contaminated solids in order to make them acceptable for final
        disposal (Section C.3).

     «  Water treatment - degrades or removes dissolved or suspended con-
        taminants to produce an effluent suitable for disposal (Section C.4),

     The methods used to treat contaminated bottom materials have been
adapted from methods used in a variety of industries.  However, experience
in treating contaminated sediments with these methods has been limited and
performance must be evalauated on a case-by-case basis.  This appendix pre-
sents an overview of potentially applicable treatment techniques.  It is
intended to assist in the selection of treatment techniques and is not
intended for use as a source of design information.  Also, when combining
treatment techniques in series to accomplish desired treatment, care should
be exercised to assure hydraulic (pressure and flow) compatability of the
techniques.
C.I  SEDIMENT/WATER SEPARATION
     This section describes equipment and methods used to separate solids
from dredge slurries.  The objective of sediment/water separation is to
                                    C-l

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FIGURE C-1. TYPICAL SEQUENCE OF STEPS FOR TREATMENT
     OF REMOVED CONTAMINATED BOTTOM MATERIALS
                          Slurry of Removed
                        Contaminated Bottom
                             Materials
                            (Appendix B)
   Concentrated
    Sediments'
      Slurry
Sediment/Water
  Separation
 (Section C.1)
           Sediments
          Dewatering
         (Section C.2)
 Contaminated
    Water
                          Contaminated
                             Water
   Water
 Treatment
(Section C.3)
                 Contaminated
                  Sediments
           Sediments
           Treatment
          (Section C.4)
                   Treated Water
                    to Disposal
                   (Appendix D)
       Treated Sediments
          to Disposal
         (Appendix D)
                                 C-2

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attain two distinct waste streams:  a liquid waste stream that can be sub-
sequently treated for removal of dissolved and fine suspended contaminants
and a concentrated slurry of solids and minimal liquid that can be dewatered
and treated.

     Sediment/water separation techniques can also be used to selectively
remove a relatively narrow range of grain sizes from a slurry, effectively
separating one sediment grain size from another.  Classification of sediments
according to grain size may be undertaken for one of two reasons:  1) economy
of space and equipment use, and 2) concentration of contaminants into a
relatively small mass of sediments.  More efficient use can be made of
equipment and land area by taking advantage of the differences in settling
velocity of different sized particles.  For example, where limited land
space is available, sand and gravel may be removed in settling basins, and
high-rate gravity settlers could be used to remove fine-grained particles.

     There is also evidence to suggest that classification by grain size
can be useful in managing contaminated sediments because of the apparent
tendency of contaminants to adsorb preferentially onto fine-grained sediments
such as clay and organic matter.  The separation of sediments by grain size
and level of contamination could prove to be extremely beneficial to the
overall management (treatment, transport, and disposal) of contaminated
dredged material.  Sediments exhibiting low-level contamination may be
disposed of in sanitary landfills or returned to the water body, whereas
highly contaminated sediments must be disposed of in hazardous waste
landfills, incinerated, or treated to render them non-hazardous.

     Sediment/water separation techniques consist of settling basins,
conventional clarifiers, high-rate clarifiers, hydraulic classifiers,
granular media filters, and hydrocyclones.  An overview of each is presented
in the following sections.
     C.I.I   Impoundment Settling Basins
          C.I.1.1   Description
     A settling basin is an impoundment, basin, or other container that
provides conditions to allow suspended particles to settle by gravity, or
sedimentation.  A slurry of dredged material is introduced at one end of
the basin and settling of solids occurs as the slurry slowly flows across the
length of the basin.  The flow resulting at the opposite end of the basin
has a greatly reduced solids content.  Particles settle according to their
settling velocity, which varies according to a particle's diameter and
specific gravity.

     In practice, settling basins are designed to retain particles of a
selected diameter and larger in order to limit settling basins to practical
sizes.  The basin surface area, detention time, and rate at which the
                                    C-3

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dredged material is delivered to the basin are factors that determine the
degree of solids removal that can be achieved.

     Settled solids accumulate on the bottom of settling basins where they
are temporarily stored.  As the volume of accumulated solids increases, the
effective size of the basin decreases, reducing the basin's effectiveness or
efficiency.  Accumulated solids must be periodically or continuously removed
by scrapers or dredges in order for the basin to perform as intended.

     Impoundment basins are most commonly used in dredging applications.
An impoundment basin is an earthen impoundment or diked area that is lined
in a manner that is appropriate for protecting underlying groundwater.  The
overflow rate in the basin is controlled by an adjustable weir.  Bulkheads
that separate a single basin into compartments or smaller individual basins,
can be used to allow continuous sediment/water separation while accumulated
solids are being removed from the individual basins.
          C.I.1.2  Applications
     Impoundment basins are used to remove particles in the size range of
gravel down to fine silt (10 to 29 microns) (Mallory and Nawrocki 1974).
They are also used to provide temporary storage of material and to classify
sediment particles according to gtain size.  This can be accomplished by
providing multiple separation basins connected in series, each of which is
designed to retain sediments of .successively smaller grain sizes in the
downstream direction of flow.

     Impoundment basins are particularly well suited for large-scale dredging
operations, provided there is adequate land space available for their
cons truction.
          C.I.1.3  Limitations
     Flocculants must be used to achieve removal of particles less than 30
microns in size and no removal can be achieved for particles less than 10
microns.  Impoundment basins are not suitable at locations where insufficient
land space is available for their construction or where adequate measures
cannot be taken to protect groundwater (e.g., high water table).
          C.I.1.4  Special Requirements/Consideration
     Influent to an impoundment basin is introduced to the system through a
"scalping" box, with widely spaced inclined screen bars to remove large
debris.  The slurry can also be fed through a rock box, which can be designed
with a submerged outlet to permit skimming and removal of floating materials
                                    C-4

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 and to decrease the velocity of the slurry before it enters the basin
 (Mallory and Nawrocki 1974).

      Flocculants are required to remove particles less than 30 microns in
 diameter.   Chemical feed pumps, mixing equipment, and storage tanks are
 required to support flocculation.

      Accumulated solids  are usually removed using secondary dredges or
 mechanical  scrapers.   Small hydraulic dredges,  clamshell  dredges,  and
 dragline dredges are commonly used  for this purpose (see  Appendix  B).

      Adequate land  space must be available for  construction of impoundment
 basins and  appropriate permits must be obtained for their construction.
 Measures must also  be taken to protect underlying groundwater.   The extent
 of  these measures is  determined on  a site-specific basis  and should comply
 with the intent  of  RCRA  regulations governing the design  and operation of
 impoundments  (40 CFR Part 264.221-222).   This requires  that the impoundment
 be  lined in such a  way that contaminants  will not leach into the underlying
 soils  or groundwater.  Compliance with the intent of  RCRA may require  use
 of  a double liner system and a leak detection system to detect  migration  of
 contaminants  to  the space between the liners.
     C.I.2  Conventional Clarifiers
          C.I.2.1  Description
     Conventional clarifiers are settling basins that are commonly used in
the treatment of domestic sewage and industrial wastewater.  Pre-fabricated
clarifiers can be made of steel or fiberglass, and large concrete clarifiers
are normally cast in place.  Typically, a flow with relatively high suspended
solids is introduced at one end of the clarifier, solids settle along the
length of flow, and a flow with relatively low suspended solids leaves the
clarifier through trough-type overflow weirs*  Some clarifiers introduce
inflow at the center of a cylindrical basin, and flow occurs radically
outward to overflow weirs around the perimeter of the basin.  Clarifiers
are typically equipped with built-in solids collection and removal mechanisms
that continuously remove accumulated solids, allowing continuous operation
of the clarifier.  Many clarifiers are equipped with separate zones for
chemical mixing and precipitation, flocculation, and settling (DeRenzo 1978).

     Clarifiers are able to remove particles down to 10 to 20 microns
(Mallory and Nawrocki 1974) in diameter with the use of flocculants.   They
are also able to produce a thickened sludge with a solids concentration of
about 4 to 12 percent (Metcalf and Eddy 1979).
                                    C-5

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          C.I.2.2  Applications
     Conventional clarifiers are best suited to small- to moderate-scale
cleanup operations, but can be applied to large-scale operations where
construction of earthen impoundment basins will not adequately protect
groundwater.
          C.I.2.3  Limitations
     Clarifiers are not capable of removing solids with a diameter of less
than about 10 to 20 microns.  They are not suitable for locations with severe
space limitations.
          C.I.2.4  Special Requirements/Considerations
     Chemical conditioning, including chemical feed pumps, mixing equipment
and storage tanks, are required to remove particles smaller than 10 microns.
Clarifiers with capacities greater than 0.1 mgd must be disassembled for
transport to a cleanup site.
     C.I.3  High-Rate Clarifiers
          C.I.3.1  Description
     High-rate clarifiers use multiple "stacked" plates, tubes, or trays to
increase the effective settling surface area of the clarifier and decrease
the actual surface area needed to effect settling.  High-rate clarifiers
allow a higher flow rate per unit of actual surface area (loading rate)
than do conventional clarifiers, thus the name "high-rate" clarifiers.  The
trays, plates, or tubes also induce optimum hydraulic characteristics for
sedimentation by guiding the flow, reducing short circuiting, and promoting
better velocity distribution.

     High-rate clarifiers are able to handle between 2 and 10 times the
loading rate of conventional clarifiers and therefore require limited land
use (Jones, Williams, and Moore 1978).  Package units capable of handling
1,000 to 2,000 gpm are available and are easily transported by truck or
barge*
                                    C-6

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           C.I.3.2   Applications
      High-rate  clarifiers  are best suited to small- to moderate-scale cleanup
 operations  and  to  large-scale operations  where  construction of  earthen
 impoundments will  not  adequately protect  groundwater.  High-rate  clarifiers
 are  particularly applicable  to cleanup operations where  land use  is  limited.
          C.I.3.4  Limitations
     High-rate  clarifiers are not  suitable  for  removal of particles  larger
than 0.1 inch or less  than  10 microns.  Use of  high-rate clarifiers  has not
been demonstrated for  applications in sediment/water separation;  they are
generally used  in applications with lower solids  concentrations  (Mallory and
Nawrocki 1974).  There is also the possibility  that cohesive sediments may
clog the channels,  tubes, or plates (Jones, Williams and Moore  1978).


          C.I.3.4   Special  Requirements/Considerations


     High-rate  clarifiers require  prescreening  to remove debris.   Chemical
conditioning is required to remove particles of 30 microns or smaller and,
for these applications, chemical feed pumps, mixing equipment, and storage
tanks are required.


     C.I.4   Hydraulic Classifiers


          C.I.2.1  Description


     Hydraulic classifiers  are commonly used to separate sand and  gravel
from slurries and classify  them according to grain size.  These units
consist of elevated rectangular tanks with  V-shaped bottom hoppers that
collect various particle sizes along the length of the tank.  Slurry is
introduced into the feed end of the tank.   As the slurry flows to  the
opposite end, solids settle to the bottom.  Because of differences in
settling rates of different grain sizes, each hopper collects a progressively
smaller range of grain size along the tank  length.  Motor-driven vanes are
used to sense the level of solids and activate discharge valves as the
solids accumulate in each hopper.  Manually adjusted splitter gates below
the discharge valves can be used to selectively direct each range of grain
size to subsequent handling and treatment (Eagle  1981; Mallory and Nawrocki
1974).

     Classifying tanks normally have widths of 8 to 12 feet and lengths of
20 to 48 feet.   The solids-handling capabilities are generally limited to
                                    C-7

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250 to 300 tons per hour.  The heaviest loading generally occurs at the
inflow end of the tank where the larger particles drop out (Mallory and
Nawrocki 1974).

     For conditions of high flow or high solids concentration, several
classifiers may be required.  A single classifier with dimensions of 48 feet
by 12 feet can typically handle the following flow rates depending upon
material grain size:  8000 gpm for 100 mesh material (149 microns); 4200 gpm
for 150 mesh (105 microns), and 2150 gpm for 200 mesh (74 microns).


          C.1.4.2  Applications


     Hydraulic classifiers are used to remove sand and gravel size particles
(approximately 74 to  149 microns) from slurries and for classifying the re-
moved materials according to particle size.  They are well suited to appli-
cations where separation of sand and gravel is desired to allow  different
handling, treatment,  and disposal methods  for the separated fractions.


          C.I.4.3  Limitations


     Hydraulic classifiers  are not suitable for removing particles larger
than about  0.1 inch  (fine gravel) or smaller than 74 microns  (fine sand)
(Mallory  and Nawrocki 1974).  They have  a  low solids handling capacity and
are not well suited  for handling large volume of high  solids  concentrations.
They are  not capable of producing sharp  size classification.   Screens  also
tend  to dissipate  the energy  and reduce  the velocity  of  the  inflowing  slurry
(Mallory  and Nawrocki 1974).


           C.I.4.4   Special  Requirements/Considerations


      Before hydraulic scalping and classifying can be used,  it is necessary
 to remove particles greater than about 0.1 inch in diameter.   Bar screens  and
vibrating screens  are generally used for this  purpose.

      Spiral classifiers are frequently used together  with hydraulic classi-
 fiers.  The spiral classifier consists of one or two  long rotating screws
 mounted on an incline within a rectangularly shaped tube and is used pri-
 marily to wash any adhering clay or silt from sand and gravel fractions
 (Mallory and Nawrocki 1974).   Portable systems that incorporate hydraulic
 and spiral classifiers are available.

      Where multiple hydraulic classifiers are needed, splitter  tanks can be
 used to distribute the flow to the units and cross flumes to collect the
 solids from the regular flumes.  This permits use of a smaller  number of
 large capacity spiral classifiers.
                                     C-8

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      C.I.5  Granular Media Filters
           C.I.5.1  Description
      Filtration is a physical process whereby suspended solids are removed
 from suspension by forcing the fluid through a permeable medium.   Granular
 media filtration is typically used for treating liquid waste streams.   The
 filter media consist of a bed of one or more sizes  of granular particles
 (typically sand or sand with anthracite coal).   The bed is contained within
 a basin and is  supported by an underdrain system that allows the  filtered
 liquid to  be drawn off  while the filter media remains in place.   As water
 laden with suspended solids passes through the bed  of filter media, the
 particles  become trapped on top of and within the bed.   This reduces the
 filtration rate and, in order to prevent plugging,  the filter is  back-
 flushed at high velocity to dislodge the particles.   The backwash water
 contains high concentrations of solids and requires  further treatment
 (DeRenzo 1978).

      Granular media filters are usually operated at  a throughput  rate  of 2
 to 6  gpm per square foot of filter media.

      Filtration equipment is relatively simple,  readily available in a wide
 range of sizes,  and easy to operate and control.
          C.I.5.2  Applications
     Granular media filters are most applicable to liquid streams containing
less than 100 to 200 mg/1 suspended solids.  They are normally used after
the use of other techniques that remove settleable solids and for treatment
of drinking water.  The suspended solids concentration of the filtered
effluent depends a great deal on particle size distribution, but typically,
granular media filters are capable of producing a filtered liquid with
suspended solids concentrations as low as 1 to 10 mg/1.

     Because of its small space requirements and relatively simple operation,
filtration is well suited to mobile treatment systems as well as on-site
construction.  There is extensive experience with the operation of granular
media filters at hazardous waste sites.
          C.I.5.3  Limitations
     Granular media filtration is not well suited for treating liquid waste
streams with suspended solids levels in excess of about 200 mg/1.  It is also
not suitable for treating colloidal size particles unless they can first be
                                    C-9

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flocculated.  Because granular media filters must be backwashed to remove
accumulated solids, they cannot be used continuously.  Treatment either
must be interrupted or multiple filters must be used to maintain continuous
treatment.
          C.1.5.4  Special Requirements/Considerations
     Settling, or sedimentation, is commonly used to reduce suspended solids
levels prior to filtration.  Suspended solids concentrations greater than
about 200 mg/1 may result in excessively frequent backwashing of the
filter media.  Backwash water is generally 1 to 4 percent of the original
volume of contaminated water filtered (DeRenzo 1978).  The backwash may
contain high concentrations of contaminants and require subsequent treatment.
In some cases, flocculants can be used to increase the effective particle
size of colloids and to improve the effectiveness of filtration.
     C.I.6   Hydrocyclones
          C.I.4.1  Description


     The hydrocyclone, or simply cyclone, consists of a cylindrical/conical
shell with a  tangential inlet for  feed and  outlets for the separated streams.
Cyclones contain no moving parts.  The process stream is fed to  the unit
with sufficient velocity to  create a  "vortex" action that forces  the slurry
into a  spiral and, as the rapidly  rotating  liquid spins about  the axis of
the cone, it  is forced to spiral inward  and then out through a centrally
located overflow outlet.  Larger and  heavier particles of solids  are forced
outward against the wall of  the cone  by  centrifugal force within the vortex.
The solids spiral around the wall  of  the cyclone and exit through the apex
at the  bottom of the cone.   Smaller particles remain suspended in the
liquid  as it  spirals inward  and is discharged (Dorr-Oliver undated).

     .Cyclones are available  in a wide range of sizes.  Units are available
that can handle flows of only a few gallons per minute and large cyclones
can handle flows of 2000 to  7000 gpm  depending upon slurry composition
(Dorr-Oliver  undated; Krebs  Engineers undated).  However* cyclones do not
"scale  up" as many other equipment items do. Smaller, lower-capacity
cyclones are  capable of removing smaller solids from slurries.  In order to
remove  small  particles from  slurries  with high flow rates, multiple cyclones
can be  used in parallel.  Banks of multiple cyclones, manufactured as a
single  unit with a single feed pipe,  are commercially available.  A high
degree  of particle size separation can also be achieved by employing a bank
of cyclones in series, with  decreasing cyclone size and particle size
removal in the direction of  flow.
                                     C-10

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          C.I.6.2  Applications
     Cyclones are designed to separate and classify solids in the size
range of 2,000 microns to 10 microns (Dorr-Oliver undated; Krebs Engineers
undated).  Cyclones are most applicable to situations where space is limited.
They are most appropriately used to remove smaller size particles from
slurries and where a sharp separation by particle size is needed.
          C.I.6.3  Limitations
     Cyclones are generally not effective for slurries with a solids concen-
tration of greater then 30 percent or for handling particle sizes larger
than about 0.1 inch.  They are not suitable for separating solids from
viscous slurries (Krebs Engineers undated).  Cyclones are highly vulnerable
to clogging by oversize particles, and a high degree of prescreening (or
the use of progressively smaller cyclones in series) may be needed to avert
clogging.  The performance of cyclones is highly dependent on flow rate and
is sensitive to variations in flow rate.
          C.I.6.4  Special Requirements/Considerations
     Feed to cyclones must be regulated and prescreened to remove particles
that are larger than those that the cyclone is designed to handle (based on
the diameter of the cyclone).  Although a bank of cyclones can separate and
classify solids over a broad range of grain sizes and flow rates, each
individual cyclone is capable of handling only limited variability in flow
rate and grain size.  Therefore, the system must be carefully designed for
a particular application.  However, many cyclones are able to handle changes
in flow rate, solids concentration, and grain size through adjustment and
changes of parts.  Cyclone liners, which are prone to wear as a result of
abrasion by the materials being separated, require periodic replacement.
     C.I.7  Summary
     Sediment/water separation techniques and information pertinent to
their evaluation and selection are summarized in Table C-l.
                                    C-ll

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                                TABLE  C-l.   SUMMARY OF SEDIMENT/WATER SEPARATION TECHNIQUES
          Technique
                       Applications
   Limitations
    Secondary Impacts
Relative Cost
o
 I
to
Impoundment     Used to remove particles down
Basin           to a grain size of 20 to 30
                microns without flocculants,
                and down to 10 microns with
                flocculants.

                Provide temporary storage of
                dredged material.

                Allow classification of  •
                sediments by grain size.

Conventional    Used to remove particles down
Clarifier and  • to a grain size of 20 to 30
Sedimentation   microns without flocculants,
                and down to 10 microns with
                flocculants.

                Provide temporary storage of
                dredged material.

                Able to be barge mounted or
                installed on land where
                groundwater cannot be ade-
                quately protected by an
                impoundment basin.

High-Rate       Used to remove particles down
Clarifier       to a grain size of 20 to 30
                microns without flocculants
                and down to 10 microns with
                flocculants.
                                                        Requires large land
                                                        areas.

                                                        Requires long set-up
                                                        time.

                                                        Removal of settled
                                                        solids by secondary
                                                        dredging is labor
                                                        intensive.
Requires large land
areas unless barge
mounted.
                          Potential for groundwater
                          contamination.

                          Potential for localized  odor
                          and air emissions.
                                   High
Potential for localized odor
and air emissions.
    Low to
    Medium
                                                        Not demonstrated  for
                                                        sediment/water  separ-
                                                        ation,  but  this appli-
                                                        cation  is similar  to
                                                        conventional  applications.
                          Potential  for  localize odor and
                          air pollution  problems.
                                  Low to
                                  Medium
                                                            (continued)

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                                                       TABLE  C-l.   (continued)
       Technique
        Applications
    Limitations
                                                                                    Secondary  Impacts
                                                                                         Relative Cost
      High-Rate  .
      Clarifier
      (continued)
      Hydraulic
      Classifier
n
i
UJ
     Cyclones
     Filtration
 Able  to be barge-mounted,
 installed in  areas where
 groundwater cannot be
 adequately protected by
 impoundment basins.

 Used  to remove particles from
 slurries in size range of 74
 to 149 microns (fine sand to
 coarse sand).             '

 Classify particle according
 to grain size.
Used to separate and classify
solids in size range of 2,000
microns or more down to 10
microns or less.

Used to remove suspended
solids down to low levels
(1 to 10 mg/1) required for
effluent discharge.
 Hydraulic.throughput  is
 limited  to about 250  to
 300  tph  regardless of
 size.

 Not  capable of producing
 a  sharp  size distinction.

 Requires use of large
 land area  for large scale
 dredging or where solids
 concentrations are high.

 Not suitable for dredged
 slurries with solids
 concentrations greater
 than 10 to 20 percent.

Not cost-effective for
 treating waste streams
with suspended solids
concentrations 200 mg/1.

Not effective for
colloidal sized
particles.
No significant impacts.
Medium
                                                                               No significant impacts,
                                                                               No significant impacts
                                                                               provided backwash is properly
                                                                               treated.
                                   Medium
                                  High

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G.2  SEDIMENTS DEWATERING


     Dewatering is used to reduce the moisture content of sediments for one
of the following reasons:

     o  Dewatered sediments are more easily handled

     o  Dewatering is normally required prior to incineration to reduce fuel
        requirements

     o  Dewatering is required prior to land disposal

     o  The  cost of transporting sediments to ultimate disposal is markedly
        reduced by reducing the volume and weight of material.

     Commonly used methods for dewatering sludges, which may also be used
for  sediments, include:  dewatering lagoons, filtration, centrifugation,
and  gravity  thickening.

     The  selection of the most appropriate dewatering method depends on the
volume  of sediments, land space  available, grain-size distribution of  the
sediments, and the degree of  dewatering required.
      C.2.1   Dewatering Lagoons
           C.2.1.1  Description


      Dewatering lagoons use a gravity or vacuum-assisted underdrainage
 system to remove water from sediments.  The lagoons are lined with clay or
 other appropriate liner material to prevent migration of contaminants into
 the underlying soils and groundwater.  The underdrainage system can be
 designed and operated using one of the following approaches:

      o  Gravity:  Water infiltrates by gravity through a permeable under-
         drainage layer to a perforated collector pipe network (Haliburton
         1978).  The underdrainage layer consists of a well-graded sand,
         fine uniform sand, or fabric filter placed over a permeable and
         free-draining gravel layer (Haliburton 1978; Mallory and Nawrocki
         1974).

      o  Vacuum Pumping:  Wells or well points are sunk into the sediments
         and water is pumped from the wells under a vacuum head (Mallory and
         Nawrocki 1974).

      o  Vacuum-Assisted:  A permeable media filter plate set above an
         aggregate filled support plenum drains to a sump.   A relatively small
         vacuum pump is connected to  draw a vacuum from the  sump (USEPA 1982).
                                      C-14

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         Electro-osmosis:  A direct current electrical potential is applied
         in the soil by means of electrodes.  This electrical potential
         induces the flow of water in the pores of the fine-grained sediment
         toward the negative pole, or cathode.  A line of wells or wellpoints
         can be installed to intercept and remove the water (Mallory and
         Nawrocki 1974).
           C.2.1.2  Applications
      Dewatering lagoons are capable of dewatering sediments of any grain-
 size.  They also provide temporary storage for dredged materials.

      Dewatering lagoons employing a gravity underdrainage system are capable
 of  achieving a solids  content  of  up to 40 percent after 10 to 15 days (based
 on  municipal sludge, under favorable conditions).  These systems have the
 advantage  of very low  operating costs.   Vacuum-assisted and vacuum pumping
 dewatering systems can dewater sediments at a much more rapid rate and are
 capable of dewatering  finer grained sediments than gravity dewatering.
 Vacuum-assisted systems increase  the dewatering rate  by about 50 percent
 (with a vacuum of 8 psi or less)  (Haliburton 1978).

      Electro-osmosis is applicable primarily to dewatering very fine-grained
 sediments  (2 to 10 microns).   The process is theoretically independent  of
 the cross-sectional area of the pore structure of the filter media and
 therefore  can dewater  very fine grained  sediments without clogging (Mallorv
 and Nawrocki  1974).
          C.2.1.3  Limitations
     Requirements for large land areas and long periods of time for con-
struction or mobilization may preclude the use of dewatering lagoons under
situations where space and/or time are limiting factors.

     Gravity drainage systems are the most prone to clogging, particularly
if the underdrainage system is not properly designed.  Vacuum pumping
systems require a higher degree of maintenance and are considerably more
costly to operate than gravity systems.  Electro-osmosis is very costly and
requires continuous monitoring and therefore has limited application.
          C.2.1.4  Special Requirements/Considerations
     Provisions must be taken to protect underlying groundwater supplies
through installation of a liner system.  The design of this system will need
to be determined on a case-by-case basis depending upon such factors as how
                                    C-15

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long the lagoon will be in use and the mobility of the contaminants.  In
some cases lagoons may need to be constructed above ground to avoid contact
with a high groundwater table.  Decay of organic matter in dewatering lagoons
can result in localized odor and air pollution problems.
     C.2.2   Centrifugation
          C.2.2.1  Description
     Centrifugal dewatering uses the force developed by fast rotation of a
cylindrical drum or bowl to separate solids and liquids by density differ-
ences under the influence of centrifugal force.  Dewatering is usually
accomplished using a solid bowl or basket centrifuge.

     The solid-bowl centrifuge consists of a long rotating horizontal
cylindrical bowl that is tapered at one end.  The bowl contains a screw-type
conveyor or scroll that also rotates, but at a slower speed.  The material
to be dewatered is fed continuously to the bowl through a feed pipe and the
solids settle on the bowl wall.  The rotating conveyor moves the material
toward the tapered end where additional solids concentration occurs.  The
dewatered material is then discharged (USEPA 1982; Metcalf and Eddy 1979).

     In an imperforate basket centrifuge, the feed material is introduced
into a vertically mounted spinning bowl and forms a cake on the bowl wall
as the unit rotates.  The liquid is displaced over a baffle or weir at the
top of the unit.  When the solids holding capacity of the machine has been
reached, the bowl decelerates and a scraper is positioned in the bowl to
help remove the accumulated solids (USEPA 1982; Metcalf and Eddy 1979).
          C.2.2.2  Applications
     Centrifugation  can be used  to  dewater  sediments ranging in size from
fine gravel  to  silt.  Effectiveness of  Centrifugation depends upon the
particle  sizes  and shapes and  the solids  concentration.  For dewatering of
municipal wastewater sludges (for which extensive  information is  available),
dewatered sludges with  a solids  content of  about 15 to 35  percent are
achievable with the  solid bowl centrifuge (USEPA 1979).  Using the basket
centrifuge,  solids concentrations of 10 to  25  percent are  generally
achievable.

     The  basket centrifuge is  not affected  by  grit to the  extent  that
filtration methods or the basket centrifuge are.   Also the basket centrifuge
is  excellent for hard-to-dewater sludges.  The solid bowl  centrifuge is
easier to install, requires  a  smaller land area and has  a  higher  hydraulic
throughput  (USEPA  1982).
                                     C-16

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      Centrifuges are relatively compact and are well suited to areas with
 space limitations.
           C.2.2.3  Limitations
      Centrifuges are not as effective as filtration or dewatering beds and
 high energy costs associated with their operation at least partially offset
 their low capital cost.  The major limitations of the basket centrifuge
 include a lower dewatering efficiency and its batch (i.e., discontinuous)
 operation.  It also has a high ratio of capital cost to capacity.  The
 major limitation of the solid bowl centrifuge is that the scroll is highly
 subject to abrasion.  This results in the need for degritting the effluent
 and may result in high maintenance costs associated with maintaining the
 scroll (USEPA 1982).  Since centrifugation relies on settling of particles
 according to density, the process tends to classify the solids, settling
 the heavier particles first.  Dewatering processes that rely on filtration,
 on the other hand, achieve a more even distribution of solid capture.   It
 is possible for a buildup of fines to occur in the effluent from centri-
 fugation,  particularly if the centrifuge is operating improperly due to
 inadequate conditioning or due to a malfunction (USEPA 1982).
           C.2.2.4   Special  Requirements/Considerations
      The  operation  of  centrifuges  is  simple,  clean,  and  relatively inexpen-
sive.  Chemical  conditioning  is  required  for  effective dewatering  and
therefore chemical  storage, mixing, and feeding  equipment  is  needed.
Centrifuges, particularly  the basket  centrifuge,  require special structural
support.   Provisions may also be needed for noise control,  particularly
with  the  solid bowl centrifuge.  Solid bowl centrifuges  generally  require
use of a  prescreening  step to avoid excess wear on .the scroll.
     C.2.3   Filtration
          C.2.3.1  Description
     Filtration is a physical process whereby fluid is forced through a
permeable medium and dewatered solids are retained.  Three types of filters
are commonly used for dewatering:  belt press filtration, vacuum filtration,
and pressure filtration.

     Belt filter presses employ single or double moving belts to continuously
dewater sludges.  The belt press filtration process includes three stages:
chemical conditioning of the feed; gravity drainage to a nonfluid consis-
tency, and dewatering.  A flocculant is added prior to feeding the slurry
                                    C-17

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to the belt press.  Free water drains from the conditioned sludge and the
sludge enters a two-belt contact zone where an upper belt is gently set on
the forming sludge cake.  The belts, with the captured cake between them,
pass over rollers of decreasing diameter.  This subjects the material .to
continuously increasing pressures and shear forces.  Progressively, more
water is expelled throughout the roller section to the end where the de-
watered material is discharged.  A scraper blade is often employed for each
belt at the discharge point to remove the caked material from the belts
(USEPA 1982).

     A vacuum filter consists basically of a horizontal cylindrical drum
that rotates partially submerged in  a vat of material to be dewatered.  The
drum is covered with a continuous belt of fabric or wire mesh.  A vacuum is
applied to the inside of the drum.   The vacuum causes liquid in the vat to
be forced through the filter medium  leaving wet solids adhering to the outer
surface.  As the drum continues to rotate, it passes from the cake-forming
zone to a drying zone and finally to a cake discharge zone, where the sludge
cake is removed from the media  (USEPA  1982; Metcalf and Eddy  1979).

     Pressure  filtration is used to  describe a category of filters in which
rigid individual filtration  chambers are  operated  in parallel under rela-
tively high  pressure.  The filter press,  the most  commonly used pressure
filtration device,  consists  of  a series  of plates  recessed on both sides,
'that are  supported  face-to-face in  a vertical position  on a  frame with  a
fixed and movable head.  A filter cloth  is hung  or fitted over  each plate.
Material  to  be dewatered is  pumped  into  the  space  between the plates  and
sufficient  pressure is  applied  and  sustained to  force  the liquid  through
the filter  cloth and  plate outlet parts.   The plates are  then separated and
the dewatered  material  is  removed.

     Diaphragm filters  are specially designed filter presses.   Instead  of
the  conventional plate-and-frame  unit  in which  constant pumping pressure  is
used  to  force the filtrate through  the cloth, diaphragm filters  combine an
initial  pumping followed by a squeezing cycle  that can reduce the cost  and
process  time.


           C.2.3.2  Applications


      Filtration can be used to dewater fine-grained sediments over a wide
 range of solids concentrations.  Effectiveness depends on the type of
 filter,  the grain sizes, and the solids concentration in the influent.
 Information on the use of filtration methods for dewatering sediments is
 limited and it is difficult to predict their effectiveness for these
 applications.  For dewatering of municipal wastewater treatment sludges,
 where considerable performance information is available, typical ranges of
 solids concentrations in the dewatered material are as follow (USEPA 1979;
 USEPA 1982; Metcalf and Eddy 1979):

      •  Belt press filtration - 15  to 45 percent
                                      C-18

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      •  Vacuum rotary filtration - 12 to 40 percent
      •  Pressure filtration - 30 to 50 percent.

      Data are also available on the performance  of filtration methods in
 dewatering coal slurries.   Manufacturers data indicate that the belt press
 and filter press are able  to produce a filter cake of  up to 70 to 80 per-
 cent solids (Green 1981).   Tests conducted by Rexnord, Inc. demonstrated
 that high-density dredged  materials can also be  dewatered to a high solids
 concentration of 70 percent using belt press filtration (Erickson and Hurst
 1983).   Research has shown that the most important factor in determining
 the effectiveness of vacuum filtration dewatering  of sediments is the
 specific resistance of  the dredged material.   The  lowest specific resistance
 occurs  at a silt/clay content ranging between 60 and 70 percent and increases
 as  the  silt/clay content increases or decreases  (Long  and Arana 1978).

      Although pressure  filtration has traditionally been considered the  most
 effective of the filtration methods for dewatering, recent improvements  in
 belt press filtration has  also made this method  highly effective.   Belt
 filtration is less  costly  and energy-intensive than pressure filtration  and
 operating and maintenance  requirements  are typically simpler and less labor-
 intensive (USEPA 1982).  Vacuum filtration has the advantage of a higher
 hydraulic throughput  than  the other two methods.   Performance is also less
 dependent on optimal  chemical conditioning (USEPA  1982).
          C.2.3.3  Limitations
     Use of filtration methods requires a considerably higher degree of
maintenance and operator supervision than other methods described in this
section.

     The major limitation of the use of belt filtration is that the process
performance is very sensitive to incoming feed characteristics and chemical
conditioning.  Slurries must be prescreened more carefully than with other
filtration methods to remove large objects and fibrous material that can
quickly deteriorate the belt.  Also, a large amount of wash water can be
generated in cleaning the belts (USEPA 1982).

     Vacuum filtration is more energy-intensive and less effective in
dewatering than is the belt press filter.  Another limitation on the use of
vacuum filtration is that the incoming feed must have a solids content of
at least 3 percent in order to achieve adequate cake formation (USEPA
1982).

     The major limitations on the use of filter presses are that they are
costly to operate and require more space than the other filtration methods.
Filter presses also require high dosages of conditioning chemicals.
Replacement of the filter media on a filter press is both costly and time
consuming (USEPA 1982).
                                    C-19

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          C.2.3.4  Special Requirements/Considerations


     Effective use of filtration methods for dewatering invariably requires
chemical conditioning; therefore, feed pumps, mixing equipment and chemical
storage tanks are required.  Waste streams must be prescreened and degritted
to remove abrasive particles that can tear the filter media.  Maintenance
requirements associated with filters are significant.  The filter cloth or
belts must be periodically replaced and it is necessary to periodically wash
the filter media to remove accumulated solids and prevent filter blinding.
Although filtration methods are capable of producing a filter cake with a
high solids content, the dewatered material may require further treatment
before being acceptable for off-site disposal.
     C.2.4  Gravity Thickening
          C.2.4.1  Description
     Gravity thickening is accomplished in a tank similar in design to a
conventional sedimentation tank or clarifier.  The material to be thickened
is fed to a center well and the solids settle on the bottom of the tank.
Water overflows the tank and solids are raked to the center of the tank and
withdrawn by gravity discharge or pumping.

     Gravity thickeners can be used to concentrate dredge material slurries
of any grain size and at nearly any flow rate.  They can generally produce
a solids concentration ranging from about 2 to 15 percent (USEPA 1982;
Metcalf and Eddy 1979).  The thickened material is then dewatered using
other methods described in this section; use of the gravity thickener
reduces the hydraulic load to other dewatering processes.
          C.2.4.2  Applications
     Gravity  thickeners are best used in situations where the hydraulic
load to a primary dewatering process needs  to be reduced because of availa-
bility of equipment and/or costs.  The operation of gravity thickeners is
simple and maintenance requirements are minimal making them well suited to
locations where operator  supervision cannot be provided continuously.
          C.2.4.3  Limitations
     The major  limitation to  the use  of gravity  thickeners  is  that  they do
not  produce  fully dewatered material.  Slurries  with  a  solids  concentration
in excess  of 6  percent  are usually not cost-effectively treated using
                                     C-20

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 gravity thickening methods.  Gravity thickeners require use of a substantial
 amount of land.. The requirement for large land areas may preclude use of
 conventional gravity thickeners in some locations.


           C.2.4.4  Special Requirements/Considerations


      Effective thickening of dredge slurries frequently requires the use of
 flocculants and chemical storage tanks, feed pumps, and mixing equipment.

      Gravity thickeners generally require large land areas.   However, high-
 rate gravity thickeners designed to provide up to 15 times the throughput
 of a conventional thickener are available and can reduce land requirements
 considerably (Dorr-Oliver undated).


      C.2.5  Summary


           Sediments dewatering  techniques and information pertinent to their
 evaluation and selection are summarized in Table  C-2.


•C.3   WASTE WATER TREATMENT


      Waste water and other liquids  generated  from  the  cleanup  of contaminated
 sediments  or spills may require  treatment  to  remove  dissolved  or colloidal
 contaminants prior  to disposal.  These  streams vary  widely with respect to
 volume and level  and type  contaminants.  The  types of  liquid streams  that
 are  typically encountered  include the following:

      •  Overflow  from dredged material  settling basins

      •  Highly concentrated liquids from the  recovery of spilled materials

      ®  Effluent  from solids dewatering (filtrate, centrate, etc.)

      •  Leachate  from dewatering lagoons and  impoundment basins

     «  Contaminated water from cleaning of equipment.

     Because the streams are so diverse in volume and in type and concen-
tration of contaminants, a wide variety of treatment processes and systems
need to be considered.   This section concentrates on techniques that have
the broadest applicability for on-site treatment; these techniques include
activated carbon adsorption, biological treatment, ion exchange, neutraliza-
tion, precipitation, flocculation,  ultrafiltration, and ozonation/ultraviolet
                                    C-21

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                                    TABLE C-2.  SUMMARY OF  SOLIDS DEWATERING TECHNIQUES
         Technique
       Applications
                                                          Limitations
                                                             Secondary Impacts
                                                                                                                Relative  Cost
        Dewatering
        Lagoons
10
        Solid Bowl
        Centrifuge
Dewatering sediment of any
grain size to a solids
content of up to 40 percent
and up to 99 percent solids  .
removal.

Generally used for large scale
dredging operations where
land space is available;
Thickening or dewatering
sediments; able to obtain
a dewatered sludge with 15
to 35 percent solid; solid
capture typically ranges from
from 90 to 98 percent.
Requires large land
areas.

Requires long set-up
time.

Labor coats associated
with removal of
dewatering sediments
are high.

Systems using gravity
drainage are prone to
clogging.

Systems using vacuums
require considerable
maintenance and super-
vision.

Systems based on electro-
osmosis are costly.'

Not  as effective in
dewatering as filtra-
tion or lagoons.

Process may result in a
build up of fines in
effluent from centrifuge.
Potential for groundvater
contamination.

Potential for localized odor
and air pollution problems.
Low to
High
No significant secondary
impacts.
Medium
to High
                                                                                                                    (continued)

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                                                       TABLE C-2.   (continued)
       Technique
      Solid Bowl
      Centrifuge
      (continued)

      Basket
      Centrifuge
         Applications
                                                        Limitations
o
N>
W
     Belt Press
     Filtration
    Vacuum Rotary
    Filtration
  Suitable  for areas with space
  limitations.


 Thickening or dewatering
 sediments; able to obtain a
 dewatered sludge with 10 to
 25% solids.  Solids capture
 ranges from 80 to 98%.

 Suitable for areas with
 space limitations.

 Good for hard-to-dewater
 sludges.
 Used  to dewater  fine  grained
 sediments.   Capable of
 obtaining relatively  dry
 filter  cake  containing up to
 45  to 70 percent solids, able
 to  achieve solids capture of
 85  to 95%.

 Generally best suited of
 filtration methods for mobile
 treatment systems.

Used  to dewater fine grained
sediments capable of obtaining
a filter cake of up to 35 or
40% solids and a solids
capture rate  of 88 to  95%.
                                                                                   Secondary  Impacts
                                                                                          Relative Cost
  Scroll  is  subject  to
  abrasion.
 Not as effective in
 dewatering as solid bowl
 centrifuge, filtration
 or dewatering lagoons.

 Process may result in a
 build-up of fines in
 effluent from centrifuge.

 Units cannot be operated
 continuously without
 complex controls.

 Performance is  very
 sensitive  to incoming
 feed characteristics and
 chemical conditions.

 Belts  can deteriorate
 quickly in  presence of
 abrasive material.
 No significant secondary
 impacts.
 Medium
 to High
 Generates a substantial  amount
 of wash water that must
 be treated.
 Medium
Least effective of the
filtration methods for
dewatering.

Energy intensive.
Generates a wash water that
must be treated.
High



(continued)

-------
                                                     TABLE C-2.   (continued)
        Technique
       Applications
                                                         Limitations
                              Secondary Impacts
                                                                                                               Relative Coat
o
i
to
       Vacuum Rotary
       Filtration
       (continued)

       Pressure
       Filtration
       Gravity
       Thickener
Able to operate at high
hydraulic throughput.


Used to dewater fine grained
sediments.

Capable of obtaining a
relatively dry filter cake
with a solids content up to
50 to 80Z.  Also able to
achieve a high solids capture
rate of up to 98Z.

Thickening of sediment
slurries to produce a con-
centrate that can then be
dewatered using filtration
or dewatering lagoons.  Able
to produce a thickened sludge
with a solids concentration
of 2 to 15Z.
Requires a relatively
large amount of space.

Costly and energy
intensive.

Replacement of filter
media is time consulting.
Least effective method
for dewatering sediment
slurries.

Requires use of a sub-
stantial amount of land.
Generates a wash water that
must subsequently be treated.
High
Potential for localized odor
and air pollution problems.
Low to
Medium

-------
 radiation.  This  section  also  addresses  discharge  of  contaminated  water to
 public sewerage systems for  treatment  by publicly  owned  treatment  works
 (POTWs).
      C.3.1   Activated Carbon
           C.3.1.1  Description
      Treatment of liquids with activated carbon involves contacting a waste
 stream with specially prepared carbon, usually by flow through a series of
 packed bed reactors.  The activated carbon adsorbs contaminants by a surface
 attraction phenomenon in which organic and some inorganic molecules are
 attracted to the internal pores of the carbon granules.  Once the surfaces
 are saturated with contaminants, the carbon is "spent" and must be either
 replaced with virgin carbon or removed, thermally regenerated, and replaced.
 ine time required to reach carbon exhaustion, or "breakthrough" of
 contaminants, is a critical operating parameter.


           C.3.1. 2  Applications


      Activated carbon is  suitable for treating a wide  range of soluble
 organics over a broad range of concentrations.  As  carbon adsorption is
 essentially  an electrical interaction phenomenon, the  polarity of  the waste
 compounds largely determines the effectiveness of the  adsorption process?
 The  solubility of the waste constituents  are  important in determining

 rS^v  ?? ?°tef ±ai*, J5* 16SS  P°lar and S0luble a c°*P°™d is, the more
 readily  it is  adsorbed (Conway and  Ross 1980).   A total organic carbon
 concentration  of  one  percent,  or 10,000 ppm,  is  generally considered to be
 the  upper practical limit for  treatment by activated carbon (DeRenzo
 iy/
     Although activated carbon adsorption is used primarily for treatment
of organics, some metals and inorganic species have shown excellent to good

sUve~r  Mercurvntiai'^TheKie ^-T1^''  anti^^' ar^ic, <^nide, chromium,
silver, mercury, cobalt, chlorine, bromine, and iodine (DeRenzo 1978).

ac m Actlva
-------
          C.3.1.3  Limitations
     Activated carbon is generally not suitable for treating liquid streams
with contaminant concentrations in excess of one percent or suspended solids
concentrations of greater than 50 ppm; backwash requirements are excessive
at higher suspended solids concentrations.  Treatment is also limited to
liquid streams with oil and grease concentrations of less than 10 rag/1.
The process is not effective for low molecular weight compounds.
          C.3.1.4  Special Requirements/Considerations
     Cost-effective use of activated carbon requires pretreatment to remove
suspended solids and oil and grease.  Filtration and gravity separation are
generally used for these purposes.  Adjustment of pH may also be required in
order to reduce the level of dissolved inorganics, which can cause scaling
and loss of activity during thermal regeneration (DeRenzo 1978).  In many
instances it is cost-effective to precede carbon adsorption with biological
treatment in order to reduce the organic load on the carbon, thereby reducing
carbon regeneration costs.

     The most obvious maintenance consideration associated with activated
carbon treatment'is the regeneration of spent carbon'for reuse.  Regeneration
must be performed for each column at the conclusion of its bed life so the
spent carbon may be restored as nearly as possible to its original condition
for reuse.  The services of a commercial regeneration facility are practical
for small operations.  Carbon columns must also periodically be backwashed
to remove accumulated suspended solids.  Other operation and maintenance
requirements of activated carbon technology are minimal if appropriate
automatic controls have been installed.
     C.3.2   Biological Treatment
          C.3.2.1  Description
     Treatment  of wastewater  by biological  methods  removes  organic  matter
 through microbial oxidation.   In the most conventional  process,  activated
 sludge,  wastewater  flows  into an aeration basin where it  is mixed with
 active acclimated microorganisms and is  aerated for several hours.  A
 portion of  the  mass of microorganisms is recycled to the  basin to maintain
 an  acceptable organic substrate-to-microorganism ratio; the remaining
 biomass produced during aeration forms a sludge that is settled  out in a
 clarifier.

     There  are  a number of  variations of the activated  sludge  process.
 These  are summarized in Table C-3 (DeRenzo  1978; Metcalf  and Eddy  1979).
                                     C-26

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           C.3.2.2  Applications
      Many organic compounds are considered to be amenable to biological
 treatment, although the relative ease of biodegradation varies widely.   In
 addition, recent advances in developing specialized microorganisms for
 facilitating biodegradation of complex organics has broadened the applica-
 tions for biological treatment.  Specific applications of the activated
 sludge process are summarized in Table C-3.

           C.3.2.3  Limitations


      Biological treatment is not suitable for treatment of high-strength
 organic waste, aqueous  waste streams  with a  suspended solids concentrations
 in excess of one percent, and high oil and grease concentrations.   It is
 also  not suitable for treatment of waste streams with high concentrations
 of chlorinated compounds, inhibitory  concentrations of other organics and
 inorganics,  or pH extremes (less than 6 or greater than 9).   Biological
 processes are also subject to failure from "shock loads" and initial
 degradation  may be inhibited or delayed if the microorganisms need to be
 acclimated to the wastes.
          C.3.2.4   Special Requirements/Considerations
     Influents to biological treatment  processes must  be  pretreated  to
remove constituents that are potentially  toxic to microorganisms.  Suspended
solids should generally not exceed 50 to  125 mg/1 and  can be  removed using
sedimentation.  Toxic concentrations of metals must be removed by precipita-
tion and sedimentation.  Skimming tanks or gravity separators are required
to reduce oil and grease levels to less than about 35  to  50 mg/1.  Neutrali-
zation is required to maintain a pH of greater than 6  and less than  9
(Conway and Ross 1980).
     C.3.3   Ion Exchange
          C.3.3.1  Description
     Ion exchange is a process that removes unwanted ions from wastewater
by transferring them to a solid resin material "in exchange" for an equiva-
lent number of innocuous ions stored in the ion exchanger material.  The
ion exchanger has a limited capacity for storage of ions and eventually
becomes saturated.  It is then washed with a strong regenerating solution
containing the innocuous ions, and these then replace the accumulated
undesirable ions, returning the exchange material to a usable condition
(Nalco Chemical Company 1979).
                                    C-27

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                           TABLE C-3.  SUMMARY OF BIOLOGICAL TREATMENT PROCESSES
       Process
                 Description
        Application,
     Conventional
       (plug flow)
     Completely
       mixed
00
     Step aeration
     Extended
       aeration
Wastewater and return sludge are mixed at the head
of the aeration tank; the so-called mixed liquor
flows through the tank in a plug-flow fashion
with some longitudinal mixing.

Used to equalize load variations and improve
distribution of dissolved oxygen; involves oper-
ating mechanical aerators in the aeration tank
to achieve almost instantaneous distribution of
untreated wastes throughout the tank.

Used to equalize influent organic loading along
the course of flow of the mixed liquor; involves
admitting influent wastewater at multiple
points along the aeration tank.

Used where there are low organic loadings and it
is desireable to minimize sludge residue; involves
longer aeration retention periods so that endo-
genous respiration of biomass is achieved.
Applicable to low-strength
wastes; subject to shock
loads.
More resistant to shock
loads than conventional
activated sludge.
Good applicability for a
wider range of waste-
types.
Requires low organic load
and long detention times;
low volume of sludge;
available as package plant.
                                                                                  (continued)

-------
                                         TABLE C-3.   (continued)
      Process
                                      Description
                                                              Application
    Pure
      oxygen
    Rotating
      biological
      disc
n
to
10
Used where there are high organic and metal
concentrations to maintain a high dissolved
oxygen level and a high biomass concentration;
involves a closed staged aeration tank with
mechanical mixers receiving concurrent flow of
wastewater and oxygen gas.

Biological growth becomes attached to the surfaces
of disks and eventually forms a slime ;layer over
entire wetted surface;  rotation of the disk al-
ternatively contacts the biomass with the organic
material in the wastewater and then with the
atmosphere for adsorption of oxygen.
Suitable for high-strength
wastes; low sludge volume;
reduced aeration tank
volume.
Can handle large flow
variations and high organic
shock loads; modular
construction provides
flexibility to meet in-
creases or decreased
treatment needs.
   Sources:  Conway and Ross 1980; Metcalf and Eddy 1979; DeRenzo 1978.

-------
          C.3.3.2  Applications
     Ion exchange can be used to remove or concentrate the following groups
of contaminants that may be found in s^ill situations (DeRenzo 1978):

     •  Inorganics:
        - All metallic elements when present as soluble species, either
          cationic or anionic
        - Anions such as halides, sulfate, nitrate, cyanides, etc.

     •  Organics (water soluble and ionic):
        - Acids, such as carboxylics, sulfonics, and some phenols, at a pH
          sufficiently alkaline
        - Amines when the solution acidity is sufficient to form the
          corresponding acid salt.

     The upper practical limit of exchangeable ions is about 2500 to 4000
mg/1 (DeRenzo 1978).  Ion exchange units are relatively compact and are
not energy intensive.  The units can be put into and removed from operation
in little time and with little effort (Ghassemi, Yu, and Quinlivan 1981).
These features allow for convenient use of ion exchange systems in mobile
treatment systems.
          C.3.3.3  Limitations
     Ion exchange is not suitable for treatment of non-ionic compounds or
for the treatment of highly concentrated waste streams (>4000 mg/1) or
streams high in suspended solids or oxidants (DeRenzo 1978).

     Certain organics, particularly aromatics that may be present in a
waste stream, can be irreversibly sorbed by resins, thereby decreasing
their capacity.
          C.3.3.4  Special Requirements/Considerations
     Influent to ion exchange columns must be pretreated using filtration in
order to reduce suspended solids concentrations to less than 50 mg/1.
Oxidants must also be removed prior to ion exchange.

     Although ion exchange columns can be operated either manually or auto-
matically, manual operation is better suited for hazardous waste site
applications because of the diversity of wastes encountered.  In manual
operation, the operator can decide when to stop the service cycle and begin
the backwash cycle.  However, this requires use of a skilled operator
familiar with the process (Ghassemi, Yu, and Quinlivan 1981).
                                    C-30

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      C.3.4   Neutralization
           C.3.4.1   Description


      Neutralization consists  of  adding  acid or base to a liquid in order to
 adjust  its pH.   The most  common  system  for neutralizing acidic or basic
 waste streams utilizes  a  multiple-compartment  basin usually constructed of
 concrete.   This  basin is  lined with acid  brick or is coated with a material
 resistant  to the expected environment.  In order to reduce the required
 volume  of  the neutralization  basin,  mixers are installed in each compartment
 to provide more  intimate  contact between  the waste and neutralizing reagents,
 thus  speeding up reaction time.

      The choice  of  an acidic  reagent for  neutralization of an  alkaline
 wastewater is generally between  sulfuric  acid  and hydrochloric acid.
 Sulfuric acid is usually  used due to its  lower cost,  although  hydrochloric
 acid  produces soluble reaction end products (Conway and Ross 1980).

      The selection  of a caustic  reagent is usually between sodium hydroxide
 and various limes although ammonium hydroxide  is  also occasionally used
 (Conway and Ross 1980).
          C.3.4.2  Applications
     Neutralization can be applied to any waste acid or alkaline liquid
stream that requires pH adjustment.

          C.3.4.3  Limitations

     There are no limitations on the use of neutralization when the process
is properly applied.
          C.3.4.4  Special Requirements/Considerations
     Neutralization is a relatively simple treatment process that can be
accomplished using readily available equipment.  Only storage and reaction
tanks with accessory agitators and delivery systems are required.  Because
of the corrosivity of the wastes and treatment reagents, appropriate materi-
als of construction are needed to provide a reasonable service life for
equipment.

     Neutralization of liquids has the potential of producing air emissions.
Acidification of streams containing certain salts, such as sulfide for
example, will produce toxic gases.  Feed tanks should be totally enclosed
to prevent escape of acid fumes.  Adequate mixing should be provided to
                                    C-31

-------
disperse the heat of reaction if wastes being treated are concentrated.
The process should be controlled from a remote location if possible.
     C.3.5   Precipitation
          C.3.5.1  Description
     Precipitation is a physiochemical process whereby some or all of a
substance in solution is transformed into a solid phase.  It is based on
alteration of the chemical equilibrium relationships that affect the solu-
bility of inorganic compounds.  Removal of metals as hydroxides or sulfides
is the most common precipitation application in wastewater treatment.
Generally, lime or sodium sulfide is added to the wastewater in a rapid
mixing tank along with flocculating agents (chemicals that aid in the
settling of precipitates).  The wastewater flows to a flocculation chamber
in which adequate mixing and retention time are provided for agglomeration
of precipitate particles.  Agglomerated particles are separated from the
liquid phase by settling in a sedimentation chamber and/or by other physical
processes such as filtration.

     Precipitation is a well established technique and the operating para-
meters are well defined.  The-process requires only chemical pumps, metering
devices, and mixing and settling tanks.  The equipment is readily available
and easy to operate.
          C.3.5.2  Applications
     Precipitation is applicable to the removal of most metals from waste-
water including zinc, cadmium, chromium, copper, fluoride, lead, manganese,
and mercury.  Also, certain anionic species, such as phosphate, sulfate,
and fluoride, can be removed by precipitation.
          C.3.5.3  Limitations
     Precipitation cannot reduce the concentration of a particular metal
below the solubility product.  In some cases, organic compounds may form
organometallic complexes with metals, which could inhibit precipitation.
Cyanide and other ions in wastewater may also combine with metals, making
treatment by precipitation less efficient.  Metals that are precipitated
as metal hydroxides and carbonates are stable only over a narrow pH range;
a metal reaches a minimum solubility at a specific pH, but further addition
of the precipitant causes the metal to become soluble again.  The pH at
which minimum solubility occurs is different for each metal.
                                    C-32

-------
          C.3.5.4  Special Requirements/Considerations
     The performance and reliability of precipitation depends greatly on
the variability of the composition of the liquid being treated.  The amount
of chemicals added is a function of the species of metals in solution and
their concentrations.

     Precipitation is nonselective in that compounds other than those tar-
geted may also be removed.  The process also generates a large volume of
sludge that must be disposed.

     Precipitation poses minimal safety and health hazards to workers.  The
entire system is operated at near ambient conditions, eliminating the danger
of high pressure/high temperature operation with other systems.  While the
chemicals employed in precipitation are skin irritants, they can easily be
handled in a safe manner.
     C.3.6   Flocculation
          C.3.6.1  Description
     Flocculation is a process in which small, unsettleable particles
suspended in a liquid are made to agglomerate into larger, more settleable
particles.  The flocculation process entails the following steps (DeRenzo
1978):

     o  Mixing of a flocculating agent with water (often outside of the
        wastewater system)

     »  Rapid mixing of the above mixture with the wastewater stream to
        disperse the flocculating agent throughout the wastewater

     •  Slow and gentle mixing to allow for contact between small particles
        and agglomeration into larger particles.

     Once suspended particles have flocculated into larger particles, they
can usually be removed by sedimentation, provided that a sufficient density
difference exists between the suspended matter and the liquid.

     Chemicals that are typically used in flocculation include alum, lime,
iron salts, and polyelectrolytes.
                                    C-33

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          C.3.6.2  Applications
     Flocculation is applicable to any liquid where it is necessary to
agglomerate particles to form larger more settleable particles.
          C.3.6.3  Limitations
     There are no major limitations to the use of flocculants when they are
properly applied.
          C.3.6.4  Special Requirements/Considerations
     Selection of the optimum flocculant and flocculant dosage must be made
on a case-by-case basis.  A small number of flocculants that may be effective
is selected based on manufacturers' suggestions and jar tests are conducted
to determine suitability for treating a specific liquid.  Test procedures
along with recommendations for potentially effective flocculants can be
obtained from manufacturers.

     Operation and maintenance of flocculation equipment is relatively
simple, since only feed pumps, storage tanks, and feed lines are required.
     C.3.7   Ultrafiltration
          C.3.7.1  Description
     Ultrafiltration is a membrane filtration process that separates high
molecular weight compounds and colloids from a liquid solution or suspension.
The process operates by applying a hydrostatic pressure, typically between
10 and 100 psig, to the upstream side of a supported membrane allowing the
large molecules and colloid particles to be retained by the membrane
(DeRenzo 1978).  With advances in membrane technology, the membrane porosity
can be custom made for filtering specific molecular sizes.  For example,
"tight" membranes can retain organic solutes of 500 to 1000 molecular weight
and allow passage of most inorganic salts.  Conversely, "loose" membranes
can discriminate between molecules of 1,000,000 to 250,000 molecular weight
(DeRenzo 1978).

     Mobile units can typically handle flows of 5,000 to 10,000 gpd.  Up to
nine pressure vessels can be mounted on a trailer flatbed allowing treatment
of flows up to 60,000 gpd (Ghassemi 1981).
                                    C-34

-------
          C.3.7.2  Applications
     Ultrafiltration is capable of segregating high molecular weight dis-
solved and colloidal species from a solution or suspension.  The lower and
upper molecular weight cutoff limits are around 500 to 500,000, respectively
(Ghassemi, Yu and Quinlivan 1981).  In terms of particle separation capa-
bility, ultrafiltration falls between reverse osmosis, which retains smaller
molecules, and conventional filtration.  It is considered to be most appli-
cable for treating emulsified oils.
          C.3.7.3  Limitations
     The primary limitation of ultrafiltration is that it is not applicable
to wastes that contain suspended solids or low molecular weight dissolved
substances.  As with all membrane processes, ultrafiltration units are
susceptible to fouling.  When the ultrafiltration membrane fouls it is
simply taken out of service and cleaned by flushing with detergents or
water.
          C.3.7.4  Special Requirements/Considerations -
     Influent to ultrafiltration must be pretreated by granular media
filtration to remove suspended solids that can tear the membrane.

     The concentrated residue contains high concentrations of toxic substances
and must be further treated and disposed.
     C.3.8   Ozonation and Ultraviolet Radiation
          C.3.8.1  Description
     Ozonation in combination with ultraviolet (UV) radiation is a chemical
oxidation process in which UV light is used to enhance the oxidation
efficiency of ozone.  Ozone (03) is a very strong oxidizing agent.  However,
ozone is only slightly soluble in water and, because of its low solubility,
supplying ozone at a sufficiently fast rate to the reactor becomes a major
mass transfer problem in the treatment of high concentrations of contaminants,
especially those containing substances that are rapidly oxidizable with
ozone (for example, sulfides, nitrites, bacteria, phenols, and unsaturated
organics) (Ghassemi, Yu, and Quinlivan 1981).
                                    C-35

-------
     While the specific role of ultraviolet radiation in enhancing the
efficiency of ozonation is still under investigation, it is currently
hypothesized that the major effect of radiation is to bring about a photo-
decomposition of the substances undergoing oxidation (Ghassemi, Yu, and
Quinlivan 1981).

     Since the optimization of the C>3/UV contact with the liquid and the
03 mass transfer are important parameters, the reactor is divided into
compartments (created by use of baffles) with cylindrical UV lights (similar
to commercial fluorescent lights) placed vertically at equal distances
along the flow path in each compartment.  Ozone, which is generated on
site, is introduced as a gas into the reactor through diffusers that are
located at the bottom of each compartment.  The excess ozone in the reactor
offgas is discharged to the atmosphere (Ghassemi, Yu, and Quinlivan 1981).
          C.3.8.2  Applications
     03/UV is applicable to the treatment of a broad range of difficult to
oxidize organics, organometallic complexes, and reduced inorganic substances,
The process is most cost-effectively used to oxidize non-biodegradable
compounds such as FCBs, kepone and other pesticides, and metal complexes of
cyanide.
          C.3.8.3  Limitations
     Although 03/UV can be used to oxidize a wide range of contaminants,
the process is cost-effective only for dilute solutions of difficult to
oxidize contaminants.  The 03/UV process utilizes large amounts of ozone (8
parts of ozone is required to remove one part of TOC in wastewater).  The
amount of ozone that can be generated on site in a mobile unit may be less
than that required for a specific application (Ghassemi, Yu, and Quinlivan
1981).

     Given the state of the art of this process, pilot plant studies would
need to be conducted to determine optimum reactor design and operating
conditions for each application (Ghassemi, Yu, and Quinlivan 1981).  This
would limit the usefulness of this process in situations where emergency
cleanup is needed.
          C.3.8.4  Special Requirements/Considerations
     Liquids that are to be treated with 03/UV must be pretreated by granu-
lar media filtration to remove suspended solids.  Also, in certain applica-
tions such as treatment of cyanides, pH adjustment is required to prevent
generation of toxic gases.
                                    C-36

-------
     About  five  percent of  the ozone used in the process is released to the
 atmosphere  (Ghassemi  1981).  This requires that the area be well ventilated.
 A special permit may  be required for release of ozone.


     C.3.9   Discharge to Publicly Owned Treatment Works (POTW)


          C.3.9.1  Description


     Contaminated liquids can be discharged to local sewerage systems (or
 publicly owned treatment works, POTW) in which considerable dilution occurs
 and treatment is accomplished at a central facility.  The owner/operator of
 the treatment works may require pretreatment of liquids prior to discharge,
 and a special discharge permit may be required.


          C.3.9.2  Applications


     Discharge to a POTW is applicable to treatment of low-level contaminated
 liquids that can be treated at a facility without the facility violating
 its operating permit  conditions.  Other factors that the POTW may consider
 in determining whether to accept a specific discharge are whether the POTW
 has sufficient hydraulic capacity and what additonal costs the POTW may
 incur by accepting the discharge (e.g., increased monitoring costs or
 process changes).


          C.3.9.3  Limitations


     Discharge to a POTW is not acceptable where it will result in violation
of operating permit conditions.


          C.3.9.4  Special Requirements/Considerations


     In general, treatability studies may be required to determine the
capability of the POTW for handling a particular wastestream and necessary
pretreatment requirements.  Extensive pretreatment may be required prior to
discharge to the POTW.
      C.3.10  Summary
      Wastewater treatment techniques and information pertinent to their
 evaluation and selection are summarized in Table C-4.

                                    C-37

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                                   TABLE C-4.   SUMMARY OF WASTEWATER TREATMENT TECHNIQUES
       Technique
Applications
                                                       Limitations
 Secondary Impacts
                                                                                 Relative Cost
n
w
oo
     Activated       Removal of a broad range of
     Carbon         dissolved organics from
                    aqueous streams with TOC
                    concentrations of 10,000 ppm
                    or  less, best suited for
                    compounds with low solubility
                    and polarity.

                    Also used to remove some
                    inorganic solutes.
     Biological      Degradation of oxidizable
     Treatment       organics present at non-
     (aerobic)       inhibitory levels.
                         Not cost-effective  for
                         waste streams with  TOCs
                         in excess of 1%.

                         Not suitable for  treating
                         waste streams high  in
                         suspended solids
                         (>50 ppm) or oil  and
                         grease (>10 ppra).

                         Not" effective for low
                         molecular weight  com-
                         pounds or highly
                         soluble compounds.

                         Not suitable for  highly
                         concentrated waste
                         streams or streams
                         containing inhibitory
                         concentration of metals.

                         Not suitable for  treat-
                         ment of aliphatics;
                         chlorinated polyaroinatics
                        • are degraded slowly.

                         Process is subject  to
                         failure from shockloads.

                         Process initiation  time
                         can be slow.
Process generates an "exhausted"
carbon that must regenerated.
Regeneration will usually be
be conducted off site where
adequate controls are taken to
avoid secondary impacts.

Backwash streams must be treated
to remove high concentration of
solids.
Medium
to High
Limited localized air emissions
may result.

Process generates a biomass
sludge which contains high con-
centrations of toxic compounds,
sludge must be dewatered and
treated.
Low to
Medium
                                                                                                                 (continued)

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                                                     TABLE  C-4i   (continued)
           Technique
       Applications
                                                           Limitations
                                                           Secondary  Impacts
                                                                                                                 Relative Cost
         Ion Exchange
         Neutralization
         Precipitation
O
GJ
lO
         Flocculation
         Ultra-
         filtration
Removal of ions, both organic
and inorganic, at concentra-
tions up to 2500 to 5000 mg/1.
Adjustment of pH for acid
or alkaline waste streams.
Removal of dissolved metals
from waste streams; no
concentration limit.
Agglomeration of particles
into  larger, more setteable
particles that are sub-
sequently settled by sedimen-
tation.

Separation of high molecular
weight dissolved or colloidal
species.
Not suitable for highly
concentrated waste
streams, or streams high
in suspended solids or
oxidants.

No significant limita-
tions when properly
applied.

Difficult to obtain
minimum solubility
of a metal due to such
factors as formation
of organometallic
complexes and the
tendency of each metal
to have its minimum
solubility at a different
pH.

No significant limita-
tions when properly
applied.
Membranes  are  prone  to
 fouling.

 Process  is not suitable
 for  suspended  solids.
                                                                                  No significant impacts.
                                                                                            High
Potential for air pollution
problems.
Low to
High
Process generates a large volume   Low to
of sludge that must be treated     High
prior to disposal.
Process generates a large volume
of sludge that must be treated
prior to disposal.
Process generates a highly
concentrated wastestream that
requires subsequent treatment
or  incineration.
                                                                                                                      Low
                                                                                                                      High
                                                                                                                      (continued)

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          C.4.1.1  Cement-Based Solidification


               Description—

     This method involves mixing the material directly with Portland cement,
a common construction material.  The material is incorporated into a rigid
matrix of hardened concrete.  This method physically and che**cf *? ?J™*
contaminants (USEPA 1982b).  The end product may be a monolithic solid or a
crumbly, soil-like consistency, depending upon the amount of cement added.
Mixing is accomplished using readily available equipment.

               Applications—•

     Most slurries and sludges can be mixed directly with cement so that
solids will be physically  incorporated  into the rigid matrix.  Cement
solidification is most suitable for immobilizing metals  because most multi-
valent cations are converted  into insoluble hydroxides or carbonates at  the
pH of the cement mixture.  For this reason, Portland  cemen^is often used
as a setting agent in other solidification processes  described in  this
section.

               Limitations—

     Although  cement  can physically incorporate a  broad  range of  materials,
most materials are not  chemically bound and  are subject  to  leaching.
Metals,  which  can be  immobilized  by cement solidification by precipitation
as metal hydroxides  or  carbonates,  are insoluble only over a narrow PH
ranee  and are  subject to solubilization and  leaching in the presence of
 even mildly acidic leaching solutions (e.g.,  rain).  Portland cement alone
 is also not effective in immobilizing organics.

      Because of the tendency of waste constituents to leach, solidification
 is not acceptable for disposal,without secondary containment, regardless of
 whether the wastes are organic or inorganic.  Certain wastes can cause
 problems with the set,  cure,  and permanence of the cement waste solid
 unless the wastes are pretreated.  Some of these incompatible wastes are
 (USEPA 1982b):

      •  Sodium  salts of arsenate, borate, phosphate, iodate, and sulfide

      •  Salts of magnesium,  tin, zinc, copper, and lead

      •  Organic matter

      •  Some  silts and  clays    ,

      •  Coal  or lignite.
                                      C-42

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                Special Requirements/Considerations—

      Cement-based solidification processes use equipment and skills that
 are commonplace and readily available.  Most cement-solidified materials
 are subject to leaching and, therefore, secondary containment is required.
 Cement solidification increases the weight and volume of the original
 material and therefore transportation costs can be expected to increase
 accordingly.

           C.4.1.2  Silicate-Based Processes


                Description—

      Silicate-based processes are a broad range of solidification/stabiliza-
 tion methods that use a silicateous material together with lime,  cement,
 gypsum,  and other setting agents.   The basic reaction is between the soluble
 silicates,  such as fly ash or cement kiln dust, and water.   The polyvalent
 metal ions  that act as initiators  of silicate precipitation and/or gelation
 come either from the waste solution, an added setting agent, or both.   The
 setting  agent  should have low solubility,  and a large reserve capacity of
 metallic ions  so that it  controls  the reaction rate.   Portland cement  and
 lime are most  commonly used because of their good  availability.   However,
 gypsum,  calcium carbonate,  and  other compounds containing aluminum,  iron!
 magnesium,  etc.  are also  suitable  setting  agents.   The solid that is formed
 in  these processes varies from  a moist,  clay-like  material  to a hard,  dry
 solid similar  in appearance to  concrete  (Granlund  and Hayes undated).

                Applications—

     There  are  a  number of  commercially  available  processes that  use sili-
 cates, and  each claims  to be able  to solidify different  waste  types.   The
 process  is  best known  for stabilizing sludges  containing heavy metal.
 However,  other manufacturers use proprietary  processes and  additives
 that permit  stabilization of wastes  containing  oils and  solvents.  The fea-
 sibility  of  silicate-based  stabilization for  these waste types needs to be
 determined on a case-by-case basis.

     Silicate-based stabilization processes are suitable for stabilizing
 large waste  volumes because the materials used  are inexpensive and are
 readily available  (with the exception of some additives)  and the  increase
 in volume of the solidified materials is considerably less  than when cement
 is used alone.

               Limitations—

     The limitations of silicate-based processes in stabilizing materials
are not well known.  One known limitation is that large amounts of water,
not chemically bound, remain in the matrix after solidification.  In open
air, this liquid leaches until it comes to some equilibrium moisture content
                                    C-43

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with the surrounding soil.  Because of this water loss, the solidified
product is likely to require secondary containment.
               Special Requirements/Considerations—
     Most silicate-based processes use readily available equipment that is
easy to operate.  The feasibility and effectiveness of using silicates for
stabilizing wastes other than inorganic sludges must be determined on a
case-by-ease basis.  Generally, the services of a firm specializing in the
use of silicates is required since many companies claim to use proprietary
additives.  The stabilized product is likely to require secondary containment
to prevent leaching of contaminants.
           C.4.1.3   Surface Encapsulation
                Description—

      Surface encapsulation physically microencapsulates materials  by sealing
 them in an organic binder or resin.   At least  three  surface  encapsulation
 methods are available.   These methods are  described  below.

      One process,  developed by Environmental Protection Polymers,  involves
 the use of 1,2-polybutadiene and polyethylene  (PE)  to produce a microencap-
 sulated waste block onto which a high density  polyethylene  (HDPE)  jacket is
 fused.   The 1,2-polybutadiene is mixed with waste particulates which yields,
 after solvent evaporation, free-flowing dry resin-coated  particulates.   The
 resulting polymers are resistant to  oxidative  and hydrolytic degradation
 and to permeation by water.  The next step involves  formation of a block of
 the polybutadiene/waste mixture.  Powdered, high-density  PE is grafted
 chemically onto the polymer backbone to provide a final matrix with ductile
 qualities.  Various combinations of  the two resins (polybutadiene and PE)
 permit tailoring of the matrix's mechanical properties without reduction of
 system stability when exposed to severe chemical stress.   In the final
 step, a 1/4-inch thick HDPE jacket is mechanically and chemically locked to
 the surface of the microencapsulated waste (Lubowitz and  Wiles 1981).

      Another encapsulation method developed by Environmental Protection
 Polymers involves a much simpler approach.  Contaminated soils or sludges
 are loaded into a high-density polyuethylene overpack.  A portable welding
 apparatus is then used to spin-weld a lid onto the container thereby forming
 a seam free encapsulate.

      A third surface encapsulation method involves use of an organic binder
 to seal a cement-solidified mass.  United States Gypsum Company manufactures
 a product called Envirostone Cement which is a special blend of high-grade
 polymer-modified gypsum cement.  Emulsifiers and ion exchange resins may be
 added along with the gypsum cement which hydrates to form a freestanding
 mass.  A proprietary organic binder is used to seal the solidifed mass
 (United States Gypsum Co.  1982).  The process can be used to stabilize both
                                     C-44

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 organic and inorganic wastes.  It has been shown to effectively immobilize
 waste oil present at concentrations as high as 36 percent volume (Clark
 Colombo, and Neilson 1982).  The volume of waste is smaller than that
 produced with cement solidification alone.

                Applications—

      Surface encapsulation is used to completely isolate waste constituents
 from leaching solutions.   Processes are available that can be used for most
 waste types.  Use of surface encapsulation is generally limited to highly
 hazardous materials or to situations where the waste is to be disposed
 without secondary containment.

                Limitations—

      Limitations  of surface encapsulation processes for various waste types
 and  concentrations must be determined on a case-by-case basis.
                Special  Requirements/Considerations—
      As  compared  to  cement  and silicate-based processes,  surface encapsulation
 is  costly, energy intensive,  and  requires  the use  of  skilled  labor  and
 sophisticated  equipment.
     C.4.2  Chemical and Biological Treatment
     Contaminants  in  solids  can be  treated  by a variety of  chemical and
biological methods.   The most applicable methods, chemical  oxidation/
reduction, solvent extraction, neutralization, dechlorination, and micro-
biological oxidation, are described in the  following sections.
          C.4.2.1  Chemical Oxidation/Reduction
               Description—•.-

     Chemical oxidation/reduction processes are based on a chemical reaction
in which electrons are transferred from one reactant to the other.  Such
reactions can detoxify, precipitate, or solubilize metals, and decompose,
detoxify, or solubilize organics.

     Chemical oxidation/reduction systems can be constructed using simple
equipment such as tanks or gas cylinders for storing the reagents, a reac-
tion tank which might include mixers to provide contact between the oxidiz-
ing agent and waste stream, and metering and monitoring instruments to
control the chemical reaction.  Alternatively, it may be possible to carry
out the reaction within a structure similar to a dewatering lagoon (see
Section C.2).  This would involve installation of a wellpoint or gravity
                                    C-45

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drainage system to inject the chemicals into the site, force reaction of
the reagents with waste constituents, and pump the treated material to the
surface.

     Oxidization is widely practiced in the wastewater treatment industry
using such oxidizing agents as ozone, sodium or calcium hypochlorite, and
hydrogen peroxide.  Chemical reduction is not widely practiced, but it is
known that ferrous sulfate and certain catalyzed metal powders are effective
reducing agents (Sims et al. 1984; Repa et al. 1985).

               Applications—

     Both organic and inorganic wastes can be treated by chemical oxidation.
Examples of compounds that can be  treated include cyanides, sulfur compounds,
lead, pesticides, phenolics, aldehydes, and aromatic hydrocarbons (Stoddard
et al.  1981).  Compounds that may  be chemically reduced include hexavalent
chromium and some chlorinated compounds.

     Chemical  oxidation and reduction have not been used in the treatment of
contaminated sediments.  However,  considerable research is being conducted
on the  use of  these methods to treat contaminated soils.

     For treatment of contaminated sediments, the process would be most
applicable for treatment of dilute waste  streams that have a  sufficiently
high water content to provide good contact between the waste  constituents
and  the treatment reagents upon mixing.   For  sediments that have been
substantially  dewatered, oxidation and  reduction could be employed,  provided
the  sediments  are sufficiently permeable  to ensure contact between the
treatment reagents and  the wastes.

               Limitations—

     The effectiveness  of chemical oxidation  and  reduction is highly depend-
ent  on the waste constituents and the  nature  of  the  waste being treated.
These  processes  are  not effective for  highly  concentrated wastes  or  for
fine-grained sediments  that have  been  substantially  dewatered because it
would  be difficult  to ensure mixing  of waste  constituents with the  treatment
 reagents under these conditions.   It is not known to what  extent  the proces-
 ses  can treat compounds that  are  strongly sorbed to  the  soil.

                Special Requirements/Considerations—

      The environmental concerns associated with chemical oxidation and
 reduction reactions can be significant.  There is the potential that the
 products of oxidation/reduction reactions may be more toxic or more mobile
 in the environment than the original contaminants.   Many of  the reagents
 are toxic or hazardous and pose a risk to worker safety if not properly
 handled.  If the wastes are treated in an impoundment basin there is the
 risk that treatment chemicals or  any more soluble or toxic reaction products
 may be released to the groundwater.   However, this risk should be minimal
 provided a liner system is properly installed and operated.
                                     C-46

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      Another possible problem with these treatment methods is that certain
 reactions can result in the release of toxic gases.  For example, there is
 the possibility of emission of hydrogen cyandide gas during oxidation of
 cyanide, if the reaction is allowed to become too acidic.  Release of ozone
 or chlorine gas can also result.  Wastes treated by oxidation/reduction
 processes are likely to require further treatment to immobilize or more
 fully degrade -the contaminants.
           C.4.2.2  Solvent Extraction
               .Description—

      Solvent extraction involves injecting or adding acids,  bases,  surfac-
 tants,  or other reagents that mobilize contaminants into solution by reason
 of  the  contaminant's  solubility in the reagent.   The reaction can be carried
 out in  a  tank or a dewatering lagoon.   The waste stream is mixed with the
 solvent,  decontaminated materials are  separated  from the contaminated
 solvent,  and the contaminated solvent  is  treated to render it innocuous.

                Applications—

      Dilute  solutions  of acids  and bases  can be  used to remove a wide
 range of  metal ions.   Complexing and chelating agents can be used to form
 stable  metal-chelate complexes.   A wide range of hydrophobic,  nonsoluble
 organics  can be  extracted using surfactants.   Organics  that  can be  treated
 using surfactants include PCBs,  pesticides,  and  aromatic and polynuclear
 aromatic  compounds.

      Since effective extraction of contaminants  requires that  there be com-
 plete mixing of  reagents with the waste constituents, extraction methods
 are best  suited  to slurries  that can be easily mixed and to  dewatered
 sediments that are sufficiently permeable  to  ensure contact  of reagents
 with contaminants.  Application of solvent  extraction methods  for sediments
 has  not been demonstrated but there exists  considerable research data that
 indicate  that solvent  extraction methods can  be  used for contaminated
 soils.

               Limitations—

      Solvent  extraction  methods  are not suitable for treating  fine-grained
 sediments that have been dewatered since it is difficult  to  ensure  complete
mixing of treatment reagents with waste constituents.   Acids and  chelating
 agents may not be  effective in removing some metal  complexes or metals that
are  strongly  sorbed to the soil.   Other limitations  on  the use of solvent
 extraction methods for treating  sediments are not well  known since  these
methods have  not been applied to  sediments.
                                    C-47

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               Special Requirements/Considerations—
     Carrying out solvent extraction in a dewatering lagoon poses the risk
of contaminating groundwater supplies if a liner system is not properly
installed and maintained.  Use of acids or bases in extraction may result
in the release of toxic gases.  For example, acidification of certain wastes
that contain sulfide could result in release of gases.  Although weak acids
such as acetic acid would generally be used for extracting metals, these
reagents are corrosive and pose some risk to worker safety if not properly
handled.


          C.4.2.3  Neutralization


               Description—

     The neutralization process is described in Section C.3.4.

               Applications—

     Neutralization methods can be applied to any acidic or alkaline waste
stream requiring a pH adjustment.  In order to ensure complete mixing of
neutralizing reagents with waste components, neutralization is best suited
to slurries that-can be easily mixed or to dewatered sediments that are
sufficiently permeable to ensure complete contact of contaminants with neu-
tralizing reagents.

               Limitations—

     Neutralization is not effective for fine-grained sediments  that have
been substantially dewatered  since it would be difficult  to ensure complete
mixing of wastes with treatment reagents.

               Special Requirements/Considerations—

     Carrying  out neutralization reactions  in an  earthen  impoundment poses
the risk of contaminating groundwater if a  liner  system is not properly
installed and  maintained.  Reagents used in neutralization are corrosive
and must be handled with appropriate precautions.

     Neutralization of some wastes has  the  potential  of producing air
emissions.  Acidification of  streams containing certain salts, such as
sulfides, will produce toxic  gases.  Adequate mixing  should be provided  to
disperse the heat of  reaction if wastes being treated are concentrated.
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          C.4.2.4  Chemical Dechlorination
               Description—

     Chemical dechlorination  refers  to a group of emerging  technologies
that can be used to strip chlorine atoms from highly  chlorinated  toxic
compounds such as PCBs.  One  such process, developed  by Acurex Corporation,
uses a sodium reagent in a nitrogen  atmosphere to decompose PCB.  PCB- or
pesticide-contaminated sediments must first be solvent washed to  extract
the PCBs before entering the  reactor.  The solvent is later reclaimed for
reuse.  This process has been tested on a laboratory  scale  for PCB-contami-
nated sediments.  Portable units are available.

     Several other companies, including Sunohio, Inc. and Goodyear Tire and
Rubber Company, have developed similar processes.

               Applications—
                 i.\
     Chemical declorination processes are suitable for treating PCBs,
dioxins, and chlorinated pesticides.  Information on  the process  developed
by Sunohio indicates that it  can economically treat wastes  containing up to
6,000 ppm PCBs.  This process has been shown to reduce PCB  concentration
(in transformer oil) from 225 ppm to 1 ppm.  (Stoddard et al. 1981).

               Limitations—

     The Sunohio and Acurex processes are not able to treat PCBs  or other
chlorinated compounds directly.  The waste constituents must first be
extracted using a solvent.  These processes have not  been demonstrated for
treatment of sediments.

               Special Requirements/Considerations—

     The solvents used to reclaim PCBs or other chlorinated compounds prior
to feeding them to the reactor can be reclaimed for reuse (NUS 1983).
The process itself poses some risks  since it involves reactions with
metallic sodium reagents.  Sodium can react violently with  water, air, and
other substances.  However, these reactions can be prevented by proper
process controls.  Skilled operators are required to  carry  out chemical
dechlorination-*
          C.4.2.5  Biological Treatment
               Description—

     The mechanism of biological treatment is described in Section C.3.2.
However, in instances where contaminated sediments, rather than aqueous
waste streams, are being treated, biodegradation would take place in an
                                    C-49

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impoundment basin or reaction tank.  Oxygen would be supplied by aeration
wells, diffusors, or in-line injection of oxygen or hydrogen peroxides.
Nutrients would be added to promote biological growth.

               Applications—

     The applicability of biological treatment for various waste types is
described in Section C.3.2.  Because of the need to promote complete mixing
of nutrients and aeration of soils, biological treatment would be best
suited to slurries that can easily be mixed or to dewatered sediments that
are sufficiently permeable to ensure contact of nutrients and oxygen with
ndcroorganisims.

               Limitations—

     Biological treatment is not suitable for waste streams containing high
concentrations of metals and many chlorinated compounds.

     It is also not suitable for treating fine-grained sediments that have
been substantially dewatered, since it would be difficult to ensure complete
oxygenation and mixing of nutrients.

               Special Requirements/Considerations—

     Carrying out biological treatment in an impoundment basin poses the
risk of contaminating groundwater if a liner system is not properly installed
and maintained.  Biological treatment processes can be slow to initially
effect treatment unless the microorganisms are adapted to the specific
wastes.  Neutralization may be required to adjust the pH to the range of 6
to 9 prior to biological treatment.
     C.4.3  Summary
     Techniques for treatment of solids and information pertinent to their
evaluation and selection are summarized in Table C-5.
                                    C-50

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                                      TABLE C-5.   SUMMARY OF  SOLIDS TREATMENT TECHNIQUES
        Technique
        Applications
      Cement-based
      Solidification
n
Ui
     Silicate-Based
     Solidification
     Surface
     Encapsulation
 Physical incorporation of
 waste into the  cement  matrix
 in order to facilitate
 handling and/or minimize
 leaching.
Chemical binding of heavy
metals and physical incor-
poration of various other
waste types (feasibility for
other waste types must be
determined on a case-by-case
basis).  Facilitates handling
and/or minimizes leaching.

Highly contaminated
sediments.
                                                        Limitations
                                                                                Secondary Impacts
                                                                                         Relative Cost
 Waste constituents,  both
 organic and  inorganic,
 are subject  to  leaching.

 A number of  salts., and
 some clays and  silt, will
 cause problems  with  the
 set, cure, and  permanence
 of cement.

 Cause large  increases in
 volume and weight.

 Applications for wastes
 other  than heavy metals
 are  not well demon-
 strated.

 Tendency for some
 leaching of waste
 constituents.

Requires specialized
equipment and specially
trained equipment
operations.
 Waste constituents will leach
 into soils and groundwater if
 there is no secondary
 contaminent.
Waste constituents will leach
into soils & groundwater
if there is no secondary con-
tainment, although leaching is
not as significant as with
cement-based processes.
No significant impacts.
•Low to
 Medium
Low to
Medium
High
                                                    Relatively costly.
                                                                                                                 (continued)

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                                                TABLE  C-5.   (continued)
  Technique
       Applications
                                                   Limitations
                                                           Secondary  Impacts
                                                                                                        Relative Cost
Chemical
Oxidation/
Reduction
to    Solvent
     Extraction
Oxidation of cyanides,
phenols, polynuclear aromatic
hydrocarbons, various pesti-
cides.
                Reduction of chromium.
Neutralization
                Flushing of heavy metals using
                acids, bases or chelates.

                Flushing of hydrophobic
                organics using surfactants.
 Adjusting  pH of acid  or  alka-
 line waste streams.
May result in more
toxic or mobile degrada-
tion products.

Not suitable for fine
grained sediments that
have been dewatere'd.

Effectiveness is. very
waste- and site-specific.

Not demonstrated for
contaminated sediments.

Not suitable for fine-
grained sediments which
have been dewatered.

Effectiveness is very
waste- and site-specific.

Not demonstrated for
contaminated sediments.

Not  suitable  for fine
grained  sediments  that
have been dewatered.'

Not  demonstrated  for
contaminated  sediments.
Potential for groundwater
contamination if reactions are
carried out in an impoundment.
                                                                                                                Medium
                                                                                                                to High
                                                          Potential for groundwater
                                                          contamination if reactions
                                                          are carried out in an
                                                          impoundment.
                                   Medium
                                   to High
 Potential  for  groundwater
 contamination  if  reactions
 are carried out in an
 impoundment.
                                                                                                                 Low to
                                                                                                                 to Medium
                                                                                                             (continued)

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                                                     TABLE  C-5.   (continued)
           Technique
       Applications
   Limitations
                                                                                   Secondary Impacts
                                                                                        Relative Cost
n
Ui
OJ
         Chemicals '
         Dechlorination
         Biological
         Treatment
Degradation of difficult to
degrade chlorinated con-
taminants such as PCBs.

Degradation of a wide range of
organics present at non-
inhibitory levels.
Not fully demonstrated
for contaminated
sediment.

Not suitable for fine-
grained sediments that
have been dewatered.

Start-up time may be slow.

Not demonstrated for
contaminated sediments.
No significant impacts.
Potential for groundwater
contamination if reactions are
carried out in an impoundment.
Low to
High

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                                  APPENDIX  D

                   CONTAMINATED MATERIAL  DISPOSAL  TECHNIQUES


      Removal and  treatment of contaminated bottom materials from lakes,
 streams, rivers,  coastal waters, and estuaries can generate the following
 wastes that require ultimate disposal:

      •    Contaminated or treated sediments (Appendices B and C)

      •    Effluents from liquid waste treatment  (Appendix C)

      •    Residues (solids and sludges) from aqueous waste treatment and
           incineration (Appendix C).

      These wastes may be disposed of by various methods, but the selection
 of a disposal method must consider whether the waste is a hazardous waste
 under the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA) or a regulated
 PCB-containing material under the Toxic Substances Control Act (TSCA).
 In general,  the above three waste streams must be disposed of  by strict
 standards if:                                                    y  °*-*• *•*-*-

      1.   They are ignitable,  corrosive,  reactive, and/or are toxic
          according to a prescribed  leaching test (see EP Toxicity  in
          Appendix G,  Glossary)  under RCRA (40  CFR,  Parts 261-20 to
          261.24),  and/or

      2.   They  contain any concentration  of  a RCRA-listed substance, and/or

      3.   They  contain PCBs  in excess of  50  ppm.

      Of the  criteria  in Item  1, only EP  toxicity  is likely to  apply to
 contaminated sediments  or  to  the  effluents  and  residues  generated  by their
 treatment or incineration.  Environmental physical and chemical
 conditions at the  bottoms of water bodies would generally preclude  sediments
 from exhibiting any ignitable, corrosive, or reactive properties that  con-
 taminants may have exhibited prior to entering  the water body.  The contam-
 inants most likely to cause EP toxicity  in contaminated sediments are  the
heavy metals: cadimum, chromium, lead, and mercury.

     As suggested by Item 2 above, contaminated bottom materials or the ef-
fluents and residuals generated by their treatment could also fall  under
the definition of a RCRA hazardous waste if they are known to result from a
cleanup of a spill of one or more of the materials listed under 40  CFR
                                    D-l

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Part 261.30 to 261.33.  It is important to note that any concentrations of
"listed" substances in the cleanup materials results in their classification
as RCRA hazardous wastes.

     PCS concentrations in sediments, treatment effluents, or residuals
are regulated under TSCA.  TSCA regulations require that substances
containing PCBs in concentrations exceeding 50 ppm be disposed at special
PCB disposal facilities approved by EPA.  Under TSCA, intentional dilution
cannot be used to reduce to PCB concentrations below the threshold concen-
tration of 50 ppm.

    This appendix describes disposal options in separate sections for
sediments, liquids, and residuals.  Options are discussed primarily in
terms of an overview of regulatory requirements and standards stipulated
under the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA), the Clean Water
Act (CWA), the Marine Protection, Research, and Sanctuaries Act (MPRSA),
and other Federal regulations.  These regulations affect and, in most
cases,' dictate the available methods of disposal for such materials.


D.I  SEDIMENTS


     Sediments that are removed in the course of a cleanup project can vary
'in composition and level of contamination.  There are basically three
methods of disposal: landfilling, land treatment, and open water disposal.
However, open water disposal is not a legal option for hazardous or PCB-
contaminated sediments.  Moreover, PCB-contaminated sediments may not be
placed in land treatment facilities; they can be placed only in EPA-approved
landfills.  Landfilling may be used for any type of non-PCB containing
sediment disposal, but sediments  containing hazardous wastes must be disposed
of in specially permitted landfills or land treatment facilities, which are
constructed and operated according to more rigid permit conditions than
those facilities  limited to acceptance of only nonhazardous sediments.
Landfilling and land  treatment of hazardous and nonhazardous sediments and
open water disposal of nonhazardous sediments are discussed in the following
sections.
     D.I.I   Landfilling
           D.1.1.1   Description


      A landfill is a waste disposal facility where waste materials  are
 placed in or  on a  controlled land area and are covered in the manner that
 isolates them from the environment.  A RCRA hazardous  waste landfill must
 be designed and operated according to the RCRA Landfill Facility Standards
 under 40 CFR Parts 264 and 265 or according to the state hazardous  waste
 regulations in those states with authority to administer this part  of the
                                     D-2

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  RCRA regulations.   Nonhazardous waste landfills must be designed and
  operated according to  the  regulations in the relevant state and/or local
  government.   These state and local regulations are generally based on
               nn/riHiaAf0r S0l±d WaSte manag***nt, *••«* under sections
          and  4004 of RCRA and under 40 CFR, Parts 241 and 257.  Disposal
              (partlc"larly  in California) for both unhazardous and hazardous
               6  Strinfent  ±n °ertain States than Federal disposal regulations.
                                        considered carefully when
      The RCRA Hazardous and Solid Waste Amendments (HSWA)  of  1984 require new
 hazardous waste landfills to have a double liner system, a l^ctatHSScSS
 oftSo'8±haMea^ate reTal SySteDU  The Double line; system may consist
 of two synthetic liners and at least 5 feet of clay,  or one synthetic liner
 3^vL   y   yef,that Wil1 n0t bC Penetrated by waste leachate for "t le"ast
 30 years, even if the synthetic liner fails (USEPA 1984).   Requirements

         s^tlr SS^J^S18 are ^ Stri<*ent>  ^t vary'considerably
          I  I *   G!nerally»  these requirements allow  for consideration of
          f*atures 
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liquids allowed in bulk wastes.  The most severe limitation to the disposal
of nonhazardous sediments in existing landfills is the transportation
distances involved.  Long transport distances may result in extremely high
ultimate disposal costs.

     Limitations concerning hazardous waste landfills include those
listed above for nonhazardous waste landfills and several additional
limitations.  Since mid-1986, hazardous waste landfills have not been allowed to
receive materials containing free liquid (liquid that can separate by
gravity or compression from the bulk of the material).  Individual landfills
may have more stringent waste-acceptance restrictions.  PCB-contaminated
materials exceeding 50 ppm cannot be accepted at hazardous waste landfills
that do not have EPA approval for PCBs.

     It should also be noted that the option of constructing a dedicated
landfill for disposal of contaminated sediments should be considered only
under the most extreme circumstances, such as when hundreds of thousands of
tons of wastes are involved.  For example, the construction of one four-acre
hazardous waste landfill would cost a minimum of $10 million, not including
post-closure maintenance and permitting costs.  The minimum time  to obtain
a. permit for a hazardous waste landfill is about 21/2 years.


          D.I.1.4  Special Requirements/Considerations


     Special requirements and  considerations differ  significantly between
different states and depend on whether wastes are being  landfilled  at  a new
landfill or at an  existing landfill.  For  a new hazardous  waste  landfill,  a
RCRA permit is required and the  facility must also be designed to meet
requirements which are  stricter  than those applied to existing landfills
(see previous section).

     RCRA requires all  owners  and  operators  of  hazardous waste land disposal
facilities  to establish a groundwater monitoring  program.   The groundwater
monitoring  program must be capable of determining the facility's impact on
the quality of groundwater in  the  uppermost  aquifer  underlying  the facility.
Many states now  require similar  monitoring at  nonhazardous waste disposal
sites.

       Since 1985,  sludges  and  slurries meeting  the definition of a  hazardous
waste  have been required  to  be treated (see  Section  C.2) to remove  any free
 liquid before landfilling.   Other pretreatment  requirements,  such as neutrali-
 zation and precipitation of  metals, depend on specific landfill  permit
 requirements and state regulations.
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      All hazardous wastes that are being transported for off-site disposal
 must be properly manifested in accordance with 40 CFR Parts 262 and 263.
 These same regulations also describe the requirements for labelling,
 placarding, and packaging wastes according to Department of Transportation
 (DOT) regulations.
      D.1.2  Open Water Disposal
           D, 1.2.1  Description
      Open water disposal involves placement of materials into ocean,
 estuary, river, or lake waters or wetlands, where the materials settle to
 the bottom of the water body.   Materials are normally dumped or pumped from
 barges,  scows,  or hoppers into the water column.   This type of disposal is
 regulated under the Marine Protection Research and Sanctuaries Act and the
 Clean Water Act.
           D.I.2.2  Applications
     The  applicability of  open water disposal  for a particular dredged
material  must  be  determined on a case-by-case  basis.   In general,  ocean
disposal  and disposal  in inland waters  is  suitable only for noncontaminated
sediments, and for  sediments with only  trace levels of contaminants  that
can be demonstrated to cause no harm to the receiving  water body.


          D.I.2.3  Limitations


     Open water disposal of  dredged  materials  is  not applicable to contami-
nated sediments that will  adversely  impact the chemical,  physical, or
biological integrity of  the  receiving water body.   Because  of  the  stringency
of testing requirements, the permitting process is  costly and  time-consuming,
particularly for  a  permit  for ocean  disposal or disposal  in a wetland  area.
Further,  the presence  of hazardous contaminants in  dredged  sediments could
cause regulatory  authorities to deny an openwater disposal  permit.


          D.I.2.4   Special Requirements/Considerations


     Ocean disposal of dredged material  is regulated by the Marine
Protection, Research, and Sanctuaries Act of 1972.  This act requires
that a permit can be issued  only after  consideration of the environmental
effects of the proposed operation, the need for ocean dumping, alternatives
to ocean dumping, and the effect of  the  proposed action on aesthetic,
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recreational, and economic values.  Furthermore, bioassays and bioaccumula-
tion studies must be conducted to determine whether contaminants will
adversly affect biota.  A detailed environmental assessment is also required
(Peddicord 1980).

      Disposal of dredged material in estuaries and inland waterways is
regulated mainly by the Clean Water Act.  The criteria are similar to those
for ocean dumping in that issuance of a permit requires prior demonstration
that dumping will not adversely impact water quality and biota.  Testing
requirements may typically include chemical comparison of the dredged
material with the disposal site sediments and possibly benthic bioassay and
bioaccuraulation studies (Peddicord 1980).
     D.1.3  Land Treatment/Disposal
          D.1.3.1  Description
     Land treatment of wastes and solids is generally a biological treatment
technique used on both RCRA hazardous and nonhazardous organic wastes.
Land treatment reduces the waste volume through evaporation and transforms
contaminants into a less complex .organic and inorganic mixture suitable for
soil cultivation.

     Land treatment may be used to dispose of dredged sediments or effluent
from treatment facilities.  The wastes are spread or sprayed over land in a
controlled manner such that no runoff occurs, and all of the free liquids
in the wastes either infiltrate the ground surface or evaporate.  Land
treatment is facilitated by microorganisms that are naturally occurring in
the soil and degrade wastes.  The land application area is diked to prevent
erosion and runoff and to help keep the soil moist.  Liquid or sludge is
applied by spraying or spreading on the land surface or injection below the
surface.  Under proper conditions of aeration, moisture, and nutrient concen-
trations, and with correct application rates, bacteria degrade the wastes
to carbon dioxide and water.  The soil also has a limited capacity to
immobilize organics by various chemical means (Morrison 1983).  When only
nonhazardous liquids are involved, this technique is sometimes called
"spray irrigation".

     Land treatment of hazardous wastes is stringently controlled by Federal
requirements and by equally (or more) stringent state regulations in those
states authorized to administer RCRA land disposal regulations.  Land
treatment of nonhazardous wastes is regulated by the individual states;
Federal laws do not apply.
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          D.I.3.2  Applications


     Land treatment of relatively contaminant-free waste  is best used in
arid climates to afford maximum evaporation.  Biodegradable contaminants
can be present in the waste since treatment is accomplished by bacteria
within the soil.

     Land treatment is best suited for wastes types that  are amenable to
biodegradation.  Waste oil and grease and certain pesticides and solvents
can be treated by land application.  RCRA regulations  (40 CFR Part 264)
allow application of any hazardous wastes that can effectively be degraded,
transformed, or immobilized.  However, there are stringent requirements to
assure complete degradation of specific constituents and  protection of the
underlying groundwater.  There is no list of acceptable or unacceptable
wastes and suitability must be evaluated on a case-by-case basis (Morrison
1983).
          D.I.3.3  Limitations
     Land treatment of hazardous wastes will probably not be permitted in
areas with a high water table since the regulations require a.minimum,
separation of three feet between the bottom of the treatment zone and the
seasonal high water table.  Land treatment is also not well suited to
soils with high moisture content since this may impede oxygen transfer to
soil microorganisms (Morrison 1983).  Land treatment cannot be accomplished
on frozen or snow-covered land and is, therefore, seasonally not appropriate
in some climates.  In addition to the above limitations, land treatment of
hazardous and nonhazardous waste is subject to most of the same limitations
discussed for landfills under Section D.1.1.  However, it is generally more
difficult to obtain a RCRA permit for a hazardous waste land treatment
facility than for a landfill.


          D.I.3.4  Special Requirements/Considerations


     Land treatment of wastes from a hazardous waste spill cleanup must
comply with the intent of RCRA regulations (40 CFR Part 264).  The regula-
tions require that the wastes be degraded, immobilized, or transformed in
the "treatment zone."  Groundwater in the unsaturated zone beneath the
treatment zone must be monitored to ensure effectiveness of the method.
The regulations also require a "treatment demonstration" prior to operation
of a facility.  The treatment demonstration will determine what wastes are
allowable and under what conditions.  These conditions are specified in a
facility permit required prior to implementation.
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 D.2  LIQUIDS
      Wastewater that is removed in the course of a cleanup project can vary
 in the presence and concentration of contaminants.   Further,  contaminated
 wastewater may or may not have been treated prior to disposal (see Section
 C.3).  Three methods of wastewater disposal (direct discharge,  land treat-
 ment, and deep well injection) are described in the following sections.


      D.2.1  Direct Discharge
           D.2.1.1   Description
     Direct  discharge  is  the  discharge  of  any material  into  "waters  of  the
United  States,"  defined in 40 CFR,  122.3 as navigable waters,  tributaries
to  navigable waters, lakes, rivers,  and streams  that are  used  for  recreation,
commercial fishing, and other interstate commerce.

     The EPA regulates direct discharges through the National  Pollutant
Discharge Elimination  System  (NPDES).   Some states have been given the
authority to administer the NPDES program  and may have  more  stringent
requirements than  the  Federal program.  In general, any party  responsible
for discharging  from a point  source  must obtain  a permit  that  specifies
discharge limitations  in  terms of quantity of flow, concentrations of
contaminants, and  mass of  contaminants.  The contaminants chosen for each
applicant vary according  to general  industry and site-specific criteria.
          D.2.1.2  Applications
     Direct discharge of liquid is generally applicable to effluents from
treatment facilities and other waste streams that contain relatively low
concentrations of contaminants.  Larger, high-flow water bodies generally
are able to receive higher discharge flows and contaminant concentrations
because of dilution.
          D.2.1.3  Limitations
     NPDES permit requirements may necessitate wastewater treatment to lower
contaminant concentrations prior to discharge.  The NPDES permitting process
is generally lengthy and may be extended by the uncertainty of the discharge
compositions from hazardous materials cleanup projects.
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           D.2.1.4  Special Requirements/Considerations
      A request  for a permit must generally be  submitted  a minimum of  180
 days  prior  to the  anticipated  date  of  discharge.  The permit regulations
 require that extensive  data be submitted  as part  of  the  application including
 information on  flow rates,  quantitative waste  characterization, location of
 discharge,  etc.
     Furthermore, the applicant should expect monitoring to be a requirement
under the permit, regardless of the concentrations of contaminants in the
proposed discharge.  The permit will also specify monitoring methods and
frequencies and procedures for installing and maintaining monitoring equip-
ment.
     D.2.2  Deep Well Injection
          D.2.2.1  Description
     Deep well injection involves the subsurface placement of fluid through
a well that has been permitted by a state or EPA permit-issuing authority.
The well must be cased and cemented to prevent the movement of fluids into
or between underground sources of drinking water.  Furthermore, the well
must be located so that the point of injection is at least one quarter of a
mile above or beneath the lower-most formation containing groundwater.
Other design criteria and standards that apply to deep well injection are
described in 40 CFR Parts 144 through 146.
          D.2.2.2  Applications
     The permit conditions for each deep well injection facility specify
the types of wastes that may be injected.  Wastes accepted for deep well
injection are usually inorganic with low organic content.  The wastes must
meet a relatively stringent suspended and settleable solids specification
to prevent clogging of the injection zone (Wuslich 1982).
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          D.2.2.3  Limitations
     The off-site disposal of hazardous liquid wastes at an existing deep
well site would not present major limitations other than the need to manifest
each shipment.  Disposal of nonhazardous liquids by off-site deep well
injection would probably not be cost-effective.  On-site disposal of wastes
by deep well injection will almost invariably be cost-prohibitive because
of the extensive testing required to design and locate a well that can be
demonstrated to have no adverse impact on drinking water and public health.
          D.2.2.4  Special Requirements/Considerations
     Monitoring programs are required with deep injection wells in order to
detect migration of contaminants into drinking water aquifers.  Injection
wells must be equipped with continuous recording devices for monitoring
injection pressure, flow rate, and volume.  Waste streams to be injected
must be pretreated using granular media filtration and possibly ultrafiltration
to remove suspended solids greater than 1 micron in size.  Persons intending
to dispose of wastes by deep well injection must apply for and obtain a
permit that complies with all applicable standards and criteria specified
in 40 CFR Parts 144-146.
D.3  SLUDGE AND SOLID TREATMENT RESIDUALS
     Treatment residuals, as defined in this appendix, are sludges and solid
byproducts of treatment processes.  Treatment residuals include but are
not limited to spent sorbents, precipitation/coagulation sludges, filter
media, scrubber sludges, and oil and grease.  Three disposal methods (land-
filling, incineration, and land treatment) are described in the following
sections.
     D.3.1  Landfilling
          D.3.1.1  Description
     The description of landfilling of sediments under Section D.1.1.1 also
applies to treatment residuals.
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          .D.3.1.2  Applications
      The applications of landfilling for sediment disposal under Section
 D.1.1.2 also apply to treatment residuals.  Treatment residuals that are
 most appropriate for landfilling are spent sorbents, filter media, "fixed1
 and solidified sludges, and other solid materials.
           D.3.1.3  Limitations
      The limitations of landfilling for sediment disposal under Section
 D.I.1.3 also apply to treatment residuals.
           D.3.1.4  Special Requirements/Considerations
      The special  requirements  and considerations  of landfilling for sediment
 disposal under Section D.I.1.4 also  apply to  treatment  residuals.
      0,3.2   Incineration
          D.3.2.1   Description
     Incineration is  the process of reducing  the volume and/or  toxicity of
organic wastes by exposing  them to high  temperatures under  controlled
conditions.  The main products of incineration include carbon dioxide,
water, ash, and certain acids and oxides.  The most commonly used inciner-
ators for solid and liquid  wastes are rotary  kiln, multiple-hearth, fluidized
bed, and high temperature fluid wall.  Some incinerators are commercially
available in mobile systems that can be  transported to a cleanup project
for on-site incineration of waste materials.  Otherwise, off-site facilities
must be used.
          D.3.2.2  Applications
     The BTU content of the waste is an important factor in determining
suitability of a waste stream for incineration, and treatment residuals are
likely to have low BTU contents.  In the hazardous waste incineration
industry, it is common to blend wastes with fuels to achieve an overall
heating value of 8,000 BTU/lb or more (Oppelt 1981).  A commercial hazardous
waste facility may not accept a waste that has a BTU value unsuitable for
blending or direct use.
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 Depending upon the type of incinerator,  state and Federal regulations  for
 incinerator facilities, and the facility's permit conditions,  different
 maximum air emissions concentrations may be set for chlorine,  sulfur,  metals,
 and ash content.   In addition,  the facility must be able to achieve 99.99
 percent destruction and removal efficiency for each principal  organic
 hazardous constituent (POHC) in the permit.  Each facility permit will
 specify POHCs to  be used in monitoring the emission levels. More stringent
 destruction efficiencies are required to burn PCBs.  In general,  rotary
.kiln and high-temperature fluid wall incinerators are able to  accept
 compounds with a  higher heat of combustion than multiple hearth and fluidized
 bed incinerators  (Stoddard 1981).
           D.3.2.3  Limitations
      Incineration is not applicable for destruction of inorganic wastes.
 Highly chlorinated waste, such as PCBs and dioxins, are not permitted at most
 facilities.  Incineration is also not applicable for any waste type that
 will cause an existing facility to violate permit conditions.


           D.3.2.4  Special Requirements/Considerations


      Air pollution control equipment is generally required to remove
 particulates and certain gases from the exhaust gas stream.  Wet scrubbers
 are generally used for this purpose, although electrostatic precipitators
 may be used for removal of particulates, and afterburners may be used for
 combustion of certain gases.

      Incinerators generally require use of water to cool certain portions
 of the system.  Auxiliary fuel may also be required particularly for low-BTU
 wastes.

      Federal regulations require that an operator obtain a permit to
 incinerate hazardous wastes.  The Federal regulations specify incinerator
 requirements, including test burns for new facilities, under 40 CFR Part 264.

      State regulations may be more stringent than the Federal regulations.
      D.3.3  Land Treatment/Disposal
           D.3.3.1  Description


      The description of land  treatment and disposal of wastewater and other
  liquid  effluents under Section  D.I.1.1 also  applies to treatment residuals.
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          D.3.3.2  Applications
     The applications of land treatment and disposal of liquid and  solid
wastes under Section D.I.1.2 also applies  to treatment residuals.
          D.3.3.3  Limitations
     The limitations of land treatment and disposal of liquid and solid
wastes under Section D.I.1.3 also apply to treatment residuals.
          D.3.3.4  Special Requirements/Considerations
     The special requirements and considerations of land treatment and dis-
posal of liquid and solid wastes under Section D.I.1.4 also apply to treatment
residuals.
D.4  SUMMARY
     Disposal methods and information pertinent to their evaluation and
selection are summarized in Table D-l.
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                      TABLE D-l.   SUMMARY OF  CONTAMINATED MATERIAL DISPOSAL TECHNIQUES
  Technique
       Applications
                                                  Limitations
                           Secondary  Impacts
                                                                                                       Relative Coat
Landfilling
Can receive hazardous  and
nonhazardous solids  and  some
sludges.
Open Water
Disposal
Sediments with low contaminant
concentrations.

Large volumes of sediments.
Transportation costs nay
be extreme for hazardous
materials.

Free liquid cannot be
accepted.

PCB-contaninated
materials are accepted
at only a small number
of approved landfills.
Construction of a
dedicated landfill is
costly and time-consuming.

Permitting approval
process is tine con-
suming.

Various studies may be
needed to predict
impacts.
Potential for causing/contri-      Low to
buting to leachate generation      High
and groundwater contamination.
Potential for causing a second     Low to
environmental problem or spreading Medium
the initial problem.

Potential water contamination via
resuspension of contaminants.
                                               Not  applicable to highly  Potential contamination of
                                               contaminated sediments.   fisheries.

Land Treatment/ Sediments, liquids, and sludges Not  permitted in high     Potential for causing leachate     Low to
Disposal        with low and/or biodegradable-  water-table areas, high   generation and groundwater and     High
                contaminant concentrations.     rainfall  areas, arid cold  surface water contamination.
                                               climates.                                                    (continued)

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                                                       TABLE D-l.   (continued)
        Technique
       Applications
   Limitations
 Secondary Impacts
Relative Cost
      Land Treatment/
      Disposal
      (continued)

      Direct
      Discharge
      Deep Well
      Injection
t)
>—
Ol
      Incineration
Treated effluents with low
flow rates relative to the
receiving water body.
Highly contaminated liquids
with low concentrations of
suspended solids.
Organic liquid, solid,  and
sludge wastes and contaminated
sediments.
                                Can be land  intensive  for
                                long periods of time.
Liquid must meet strict
permit requirements for
concentrations of con-
taminants.

Permitting process can
be time-consuming.

Transportation costs may
be extreme for hazardous
materials.

Pretreatment may be
required for suspended
solids.

Construction of on-site
well is not practical.

Does not apply to
inorganic wastes.

Facility must be per-
mitted to accept
contaminants of concern.

Permitting for on-site
incineration may be time-
consuming and costly.

Residuals must be treated
or disposed.
Potential for causing contamina-
tion of surface water and sedi-
ments.

Potential contamination of
fisheries.
    Low
Potential for causing ground-
water contamination.
    High
Potential for causing air
pollution.
    Medium
    to High

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                                  APPENDIX E

            IN  SITU  CONTAMINANT  TREATMENT AND  ISOLATION TECHNIQUES


      In  responding  to a  spill or  a discharge  of a sinking hazardous sub-
stance,  it  is  sometimes  physically or economically impractical  to  consider
removing all of  the contaminated  material from its location in  the water-
course.  Response techniques that allow the spilled substance or the con-
taminated sediments to remain in  place (or "in situ") may be applicable in
such  situations.


E.1   TREATMENT
     In situ treatment methods involve the addition and mixing of chemical
or biological reagents with contaminated bottom materials in place.  The
treatment promotes a physical, chemical, or biological reaction with the
contaminants to form products that pose a reduced hazard.  Treatment methods
include sorption and chemical and biological processes.  Each of these
treatment methods is discussed in the following sections.
     E.I.I  Sorption
          E.I.1.1  Description
     Sorption is the general term that refers to two processes:  adsorption
and absorption.  In both processes, a sorbant material removes contaminants
from a substance of concern (such as sediments) and incorporates the contam-
inants into its own structure.  In adsorption, contaminants are drawn into
small pore openings on the surface of the adsorbant material by physical
and chemical attractive forces.  In absorption, contaminants are "soaked
up" by the absorbant, sometimes causing the absorbant to swell as the
process takes place.

     There are various types of sorbents and gels that can be added to
contaminated sediments to induce the sorption process:  activated carbon,
polymer foams and fibers, resins, and gelling agents.
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               Activated Carbon—

     Activated carbon is a highly porous carbon.  It is so porous that a
large percentage of the carbon atoms are surface atoms and are capable of
adsorbing other materials.  Activated carbon is made by controlled heating
of a variety of materials, including wood, coal, and coconut shells.  Three
methods of applying activated carbon to contaminated bottom materials are
carbon "pillows", direct carbon application, and permeable treatment barri-
ers.

     Carbon pillows are permeable filter bags filled with granules of
activated carbon.  Liquids can flow through the bag material, contact the
carbon, and flow back through the bag material into the water column.
Flotation units can be attached to the bags such that the bags are in a
vertical position on the bottom of the water body and the contaminants are
removed over an interval of depth (Pilie et al. 1975).

     Granules of activated carbon can also be applied directly to contami-
nated bottom materials.  Activated carbon is more capable than sediments of
"holding" contaminants over time and, to the extent that contaminants are
transferred from sediments to activated carbon, the contaminants are made
less available to leaching into the water column or otherwise re-entering
the environment.  A three-phased equilibrium is established with the higher
contaminant concentrations adsorbed to carbon, a lower concentration on the
sediment, and the lowest concentration in water (Mackenthur et al.  1979).
Laboratory studies have demonstrated the use of activated carbon in reducing
levels of organics in the water column, but the feasibility of this has not
been demonstrated on a large-scale application.

     Permeable treatment barriers consist of two parallel wire mesh fences
that are firmly anchored to the bottom.  The spacing between the fences is
filled with activated carbon in the form of carbon fibers, which resemble
loosely packed steel wool.  The fibers are weighted to sorb sinking spills.
Carbon fibers developed for testing purposes have shown  excellent adsorption
potential in laboratory experiments (Pilie et al. 1975), but full-scale
applications have not been demonstrated.

               Polymer Foams and Fibers—

     A wide range  of polymeric foams and  fibers has been developed  in
conjunction with hazardous oil spill recovery work.  These products have
been manufactured  in a number of forms, including pillows, sheets,  strips,
booms, and pads.   They are manufactured using various materials, including
polyethylene,  polypropylene, and polyurethane.  Polymer  foams and fibers
can be used in the treatment or sinking spills  by weighting  the  sorbents  so
that they sink to  the bottom and contact  the spill.

                Resins—

     Resins are synthetic sorbents  with a porous  structure  that  is  similar
to the molecular porosity of activated carbon  (Bauer  et  al.  1976) and  can
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 be applied to in situ treatment of bottom materials in the manner described
 for activated carbon, above.

                Gelling—

      Gelling agents may be used for in situ coagulation of contaminated
 sediments.  One commercially available product is imbiber beads, which are
 made of polybutyl styrene.  These beads have the capacity to absorb organic
 substances up to 27 times their volume.  Water can initially pass through
 pads or pillows of the beads, which provide approximately 30 percent void
 space.  Upon contact with an organic fluid, the beads expand and fill the
 void space, preventing further flow.  Water is not absorbed and organic
 contaminants are permanently locked into the imbiber bead matrix.  Gelling
 agents are available in blankets or packets, which are weighted so they can
 be deployed to the desired depth (EMCO undated).
           E.1.1.2  Applications
      Sorbents can be used only in relatively quiescent waters because of
 the  logistics of placement and the risk of resuspending contaminants.

      Activated carbon can effectively adsorb a broad  range of organic and
 inorganic  constituents.   The  adsorption efficiency depends on the type of
 carbon,  the  properties of the constituents (i.e.,  molecular size, polarity,
 solubility,  and solution  pH),  and the contact time with the carbon.

      Resins  are less versatile than activated carbon.   However,  if sulfo-
 nated, resins sorb  dissolved  ionic contaminants more  readily and are,
 therefore, better suited  to sorption of metals and ionic organics than
 activated  carbon.   Resins also tend to sorb soluble species,  whereas  acti-
 vated carbon favors  sorption  of nonsoluble compounds.


           E.I.1.3  Limitations


      In  situ treatment techniques  are  generally not widely  proven and
 accepted for treatment of contaminated bottom materials.  Consultation with
 researchers  and  technical representatives  may be needed  to  successfully
 implement  the  techniques.

      The primary  limitation of any  sorption  technique is that sorptive
 materials do not  destroy  or remove  the  contaminants and  desorption (release
 of contaminants)  over  the  long-term may occur.  In addition, there are some
 limitations  to the location in which some  of  the sorption methods  can  be
 applied.   For example, carbon  pillows  are  not  effective  in  calm waters, as
 some nominal flow is needed to continuously bring contaminants into contact
with  the carbon.  Permeable treatment barriers  cannot be used in deep and
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fast-flowing waters.  High flow rates tend to wash away the wire mesh
fence, whereas low flow rates limit the contact between the carbon and the
contaminants.
          E.I.1.4  Special Requirements/Considerations
     Deployment and placement of sorbents can require support vessels with
booms or cranes.  Diver assistance may be necessary in deep-water applications,
Manual labor and light equipment will be needed in shallow-water applications.

     Costs of in situ sorption treatment can vary widely, ranging from low
to high relative to other in situ techniques, depending on the contaminants,
the setting, and the sorbent used.
     E.1.2  Chemical and Biological Treatment
          E.I.2.1  Description
     Various chemical and biological treatment techniques can be used to
treat in situ contaminated sediments and sinking spills or discharges.
These Techniques include precipitation, neutralization, oxidation, chemical
dechlorination, and biological  treatment.  These techniques are most common-
ly used to reduce the concentrations of hazardous substances in industrial
sludges and liquids.  Chemical  and  biological treatment techniques involve
mixing a treatment reagent with the contaminated sediments, allowing a re-
action to take place that will  modify  the waste and render it less hazardous.
Most chemical and biological  treatment methods require other stream diver-
sion or containment of  the contaminated sediments in order to allow for
proper mixing of the treatment  reagent with  the sediments and to ensure
adequate time for the treatment reagent to be in contact with the sediments.

               Precipitation—

     Precipitation controls contaminants by  converting high-solubility
substances into low-solubility  substances, thereby limiting their ability
to contaminate the water column.  The  process involves stream diversion or
containment of a spill, followed by spreading and mixing precipitating
agents with the sediments.  The result is a  low-solubility solid substance
(a "precipitate") that  is a less hazardous substances.  This process is
amenable to inorganic contaminants. Sulfide precipitation reagents are the
most promising because  metal  sulfide precipitates are the least soluble
metal compounds that are likely to  form over a broad pH range.  Calcium
sulfate, iron sulfate,  or gypsum may also be used as precipitation agents.
Solutions and slurries  of precipitation agents can also be applied directly
to sediments in calm waters using pumps and  hoses.
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                Neutralization—

      Neutralization involves stream diversion or containment of a spill,
 followed by spreading and mixing neutralizing agents with the sediments.
 This process is amenable to treating highly acidic and basic contaminants.
 The treatment reagents are weak acids and bases that react to form water
 and, in general, less hazardous substances.  For example, calcium carbonate
 or sodium bicarbonate (bases) are used to neutralize acidic substances.
 Neutralizing agents can be applied to in situ sediments as slurries by
 using sand spreaders or a diffuser head, or by open pipe discharge.  They
 can be applied as solids either by broadcast spreading or by use of hand
 shovels within the contained area.

                Oxidation—

      Oxidation involves the application of treatment reagents to oxidize
 spilled substances, thereby converting them to less hazardous substances.
 Containment of spills or contaminated sediments may be necessary prior to
 oxidation in order to prevent loss of oxidant and oxidation of non-target
 compounds outside the contaminated area.   Contaminants amenable to  oxidation
 include a wide range of organics.   Highly chlorinated compounds and nitro-
 aromatics are not well suited to  oxidation.   Treatment reagents used for
 oxidation are oxygen and/or ozone, and hydrogen peroxide.

                Chemical Dechlorination'—

      Chemical dechlorination entails  the  mixing of  chemicals  that react
 with  chlorinated compounds,  converting the chlorine component to chlorine
 salts  and other nonhazardous compounds.   The  process  requires stream
 diversion and sediment dewatering  prior  to mixing dechlorination agents
 with  the  sediments.   Treatment agents  used in this  process  are polythylene
 glycol  or potassium hydroxide.  Dechlorination is amenable  to highly chlor-
 inated  organic  contaminants,  such  as PCBs  and  dioxin.

                Biological Treatment—

     Biological  treatment involves containment  of contaminated materials
 followed  by  the  addition of  microorganisms to  the materials.   These  micro-
 organisms metabolize  the contaminants, rendering  them  less hazardous.   An
oxygen source (for aerobic degradation) and nutrients must also  be added to
 support the microorganisms.  Biological treatment is used to  degrade  organic
cont aminant s.
          E.I.2.2  Applications
     In general, in situ chemical and biological treatment methods may be
most applicable to water bodies with low-velocity flows and currents.
                                    E-5

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     Precipitation is applicable to inorganic contaminants that are in the
ionic (dissolved) form, particularly metals.

     Neutralization is applicable to highly acidic and basic contaminants.
However, unless the spilled substance is otherwise hazardous or if the
volume of the spill is large in relation to the size of the water body,
natural dispersion and dilution can often rapidly return the pH of the
water body to background.

     Oxidation is applicable to most organic compounds, except highly
chlorinated organics and nitro-aromatic compounds.

     Chemical dechlorination is applicable to highly chlorinated organic
compounds, such as PCBs and dioxin.

     Biological treatment is applicable to organic contaminants, provided
that, for aerobic treatment, sufficiently high concentrations of oxygen are
naturally or artificially available to the active bacteria.
          E.1.2.3 Limitations
     jCn situ treatment techniques are generally.not widely proven and
accepted for treatment of contaminated bottom materials.  Consultation with
researchers and technical representatives may be needed to successfully
implement the techniques.

     Sulfide precipitation of  inorganic contaminants  (such as metals) is
effective only under  reducing  conditions.   In addition, sulfide precipitation
has the potential  to  release toxic hydrogen sulfide gas.

     The use of ferric sulfate as a neutralization agent under aerobic
conditions may result in the formation of hydrous iron oxides.  These oxides
can scavange heavy metals from the water column and may coat  the gills of
bottom-feeding organisms.

     Oxidation may be difficult to induce in compounds that are sorbed to
sediments.  Further,  when oxidation does occur, it can result in degration
products that are  more mobile  than the original contaminants.

     Chemical dechlorination treatment systems have a limited tolerance  to
water.  Therefore, this  method cannot be used where in situ dewatering
cannot be accomplished prior to treatment.

     Partial degradation products of biological treatment processes may  be
more soluble or more  toxic  than the original contaminants.  In  addition,
some microorganisms used for treatment may  be pathogenic.  Degradation by
biological  treatment  may also  proceed so  slowly,  especially at  low tempera-
tures, that its use alone may  not be practical  as a rapid spill response.
                                     E-6

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           E.I.2.4  Special Requirements/Considerations
      A11 12. situ chemical and biological methods have the potential for
 secondary environmental impacts either as a result of the use of toxic
 treatment reagents or as a result of toxic products from reaction or degrada-
 tion.  Consequently, in situ treatment is generally limited to situations
 where the contaminated area can be contained during treatment or where
 stream flow can be diverted for the duration of treatment (see Appendix B).

      For all in situ treatment methods, the treatment reagents should be
 well mixed with the contaminated material. " Mixing can be accomplished in
 shallow waters with low-flow velocity by diverting the stream flow, spread-
 ing the reagents,  and mixing the reagents using rubber-tired or crawler
 type rotor or trenching mixing equipment.

      When stream diversion is not possible, in situ chemical injection and
 mixing methods may be used in cases of sinking liquids or slurries, and
 covering/capping methods may be used in cases of solids or sediments.   The
 application methods must be conducted under carefully controlled conditions
 to minimize contamination of the water column.   Because of the potential
 for secondary contamination and the difficulty of ensuring complete mixing
 of the reagent with the spill-or contaminated sediments,  chemical and
 biological treatment without stream diversion has limited application.

      Costs of  in situ chemical  and biological treatment  can vary widely
 ranging from low to high relative to other in situ techniques,  depending on
 the contaminants,  the setting,  and the  chemical agent  or  biological organism
 used.
E.2   ISOLATION
     Contaminated bottom materials can be physically isolated from  the water
column by a variety of methods that essentially confine the contaminants in
place.  The confinement can be short-term or long-term, depending on the
needs of the situation.  Available isolation methods include covering and
capping and chemical fixation methods.  These methods are discussed in the
following sections.
     E.2.1  Covering and Capping
          E.2.1.1  Description
     Covering is the application of a noncontaminated material over the
surface, of deposited contaminated materials.  Covering is intended to
                                    E-7

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physically protect the contaminated material from erosion and transport and
to limit interaction of the materials with the water column.

     Capping is a special case of covering in which low-permeability materi-
als are placed over contaminated materials so that the materials are essenti-
ally "sealed", preventing physical transport and contaminant migration by
dissolution into the water column.

     There are three basic types of cover and capping materials:  inert
materials, such as sand, silt, and clay; active materials, such as greensand,
gypsum, and limestone; and synthetic liner materials.

     Inert materials are placed over contaminated materials in granular
form and are not intended to chemically alter the contaminants.  Inert
capping materials can be further divided into three classes:  coarse-grained
materials, fine-grained materials, and noncontaminated dredge spoils.

     Active cover materials can be applied alone or with an inert material.
The purpose of an active cover is to react with the contaminated materials
to neutralize or otherwise detoxify the material, as well  as  to function  as
a cover.  Potentially applicable active cover materials include:

     •  Limestone - neutralize acids

     •  Greensand - neutralize acids

     •  Oyster shells - neutralize acids

     •  Gypsum - precipitate metals

     •  Ferric sulfate  - precipitate  metals,  neutralize  bases

     •  Alum - neutralize  bases

     •   Alumina  - remove fluoride.

     Activated  carbon and  ion exchange resins are also active cover materials
 In the  sense that they adsorb contaminants.   The use of  these materials is
 discussed in Section E.1.1,  Sorption.

     The correct  emplacement of  active cover materials is critical.  If
 placed outside the spill or contaminated area,  active cover materials can
 be harmful to benthic organisms.   Because of the potential hazard of these
 materials, they should be employed using a diffuser head or other system
 that generates  little suspension.

      Synthetic liners are low-permeability,  flexible sheets that are custom-
 arily used to seal lagoons for seepage control or to cap waste disposal
 sites  for infiltration control.   Liners are made from a variety of materials,
 including polyethylene, polyvinyl-chloride,  and hypalon.   In applications
 involving contaminated bottom materials, a continuous liner can be placed
                                     E-8

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 over the entire area of contamination.  Large applications require splicing
 and sealing of sections, which cannot be accomplished under water.

      There are basically three methods for placing granular (inert or
 active) cover materials:

      •  Point dumping

      •  Pump-down methods

      •  Submerged diffuser systems.

      The amount of suspension and dispersion generated during capping and
 covering is largely a function of the method and equipment used for emplac-
 ing the material.   Levels of suspension and dispersion are greatest with
 point dump methods and lowest with diffuser head applications.   In point
 dump applications, cover material is dumped from the water surface, so the
 initial impact is  largely determined by the range of particle sizes and the
 coheslveness of the material (Hand et al.  1978).

      In comparison with point dumping methods,  pump-down methods are advan-
 tageous because they create substantially  less  suspension and resuspension
 of  contaminated sediments.   Pump-down is accomplished by means  of pumping
 the cover material through a discharge pipe with an outlet located close to
 the desired area on the bottom of the water body.

      The submerged diffuser system is one  of the most effective methods for
 controlling the placement of cover material.  The primary purpose of  the
 diffuser head  is to reduce the velocity and the turbulence associated with
 the discharged cover material.  This  is accomplished by routing the flow
 through a vertically oriented axial  diffuser.   The submerged  diffuser
 provides  increased control  over the  location of cover,  decreased scouring
 of  the  bottom  area,  and  less turbidity in  the area of operation.

     A  variation on the  diffuser  system is  the  application of shotcrete
 (pneumatically applied  concrete sprayed by  hoses  and  nozzles).   Close
 control  of  the  nozzle can be maintained to  place  an  effective cap or  cover
 over submerged  or  exposed sediments.

     The  ability of  bottom  organisms  to colonize  a capped  area without
 significant  bioaccumulation of  contaminants depends on  the  type  of  cover
 material,  the  similarity to  natural surrounding sediments,  the  thickness
 of  the  cover, and  the potential for leaching.  The cap must be sufficiently
 thick to  prevent burrowing.   The majority of  organisms will be found  in the
upper 0.3  to 0.5 feet of the  strata with certain  species expected  to  burrow
 to depths of one to  two feet.  Therefore, a cap thickness of two feet is
considered adequate  (Bokuniewicz  1981).  Clay or silt caps are more sus-
 ceptible  to burrowing than sand caps, and this also should be considered
when determining the thickness of the cap.
                                    E-9

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          E.2.1.2  Applications


     Covering and capping methods are best suited for use in waters where
bottom currents and flow velocity are relatively low.  Coarse-grained cover
materials are best suited for applications where fine-grained materials
would Be transported or eroded by currents.

     Covering and capping methods may be applied as a temporary remedial
response or as a primary and long-term response action.  They can also be
used as a final step in the remedial process to isolate any residual con-
taminated material following the recovery and removal of contaminated
material.  Covering and capping methods can also be used in conjunction
with other methods, such as containment dikes or trenches, to isolate and
treat contaminated materials.


          E.2.1.3  Limitations


     Placement and long-term effectiveness of caps and covers may not be
achievable in water bodies with high velocities or currents.  Placement of
covering and capping materials may cause suspension of the materials in the
water column and .resuspension of bottom materials by the. turbulence of cap
or cover placement.

     Synthetic liner materials have been.considered at a number of sites
for containing contaminated sediments.  Splicing of sections  of conventional
synthetic liners cannot be achieved under water, generally limiting the use
of synthetic caps  to relatively small surface areas.  Also, many problems
with the placement of  the membrane on top of the sediment, the durability
of the  liner, and  the  compatability of the liner with  the contaminated
sediments prohibit this method from being of value as a  long-term  isolation
technique.


          E.2.1.4  Special Requirements/Considerations


     Placement of  cover and  cap materials  requires special equipment,
including some combination of  barges, scows, pumps,  piping, and diffusers.
Synthetic liners require  specially fabricated  equipment  that  is not readily
available.   In all but shallow water applications, diver assistance or
closed-circuit television observation of  the covering  and capping  progress
may be  needed  to ensure that  proper depth  and  continuity are  achieved.

     Costs  of  covering and capping  techniques  can  vary widely, ranging  from
low to  high relative  to other in  situ techniques,  depending on the
contaminants,  the  setting, and the  cover  or  capping  materials used.
                                     E-10

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      E.2.2  Fixation
            5.2*2.1  Description
      Fixation involves the mixing of a substance (fixation agent) with
• contaminated material in order to embed the contaminated material in a
 stable, solid form.  The process is most commonly used in solidifying
 industrial sludges in order to make contaminants less mobile in the
 environment.  A number of materials are used as fixation agents, including
 cement, fly ash, quicklime, silicates, and bentonite.

      There are basically two methods for applying fixation agents to
 contaminated bottom materialsi in situ chemical injection and stream diver-
 sion followed by mixing.

      In situ chemical injection methods involve the stabilization of con-
 taminated sediments through the injection of grouting materials into the
 sediments.  A method for grouting with clay-cement is the Deep Cement
 Mixing Method, which was developed in Japan.  The system consists of a
 number of injection pipes mounted on a barge.  The injection pipes are
 connected to mixing pipes that enter the sediments.  Similar equipment is
 available for deep mixing with .quicklime.   The process is completed by
 lowering the operating mixing apparatus (mixing blades are located within
 the individual shafts) to the required depth and injecting a cement- or
 lime-based slurry into the sediments.   The mixing blades are then reversed
 and the shafts are removed and relocated (Takenaka Doboku, Co., Inc. un-
 dated).  Another barge-mounted injection and mixing apparatus continuously
 mixes the slurry with bottom materials and eliminates the need to continu-
 ously raise,  relocate, and lower the mixing apparatus (Natori 1984).

      Dewatered,  exposed sediments can  also be "fixed" by mixing cement,
 quicklime, or a grout with the contaminated sediments in order to promote
 stabilization.   The stabilizing agent  is applied to the surface and mixed
 with the contaminated sediments using  rotor or trencher mixing equipment.
 Following completion of the sealing  or stabilizing  operation, the sediment
 bottom is restored to its natural grade and sediment composition in an
 effort to restore the habitat for bottom organisms.
           E.2.2.2  Applications
      Fixation can be  applied  in water bodies  with relatively low-flow
 velocity and currents.   Fixation may be applied in high-velocity streams  by
 diverting stream flow around  the area of concern.   The  applicability of
 fixation to  the  contaminant of  concern is a matter of selecting the  appro-
 priate  fixation  agent.
                                    E-ll

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          E.2.2.3  Limitations


     Permeability and chemical compatibility restrict the potential
applications of many types of grouts.  For example, clay-cement grout may
not achieve a sufficiently low permeability to be acceptable in all cases.
Quicklime is suitable only for the containment of inorganics.  Neither clay
nor cement are compatible with acids and bases.  Compatibility and durability
of bentonite must be determined on a case-by-case basis.  The long-term
permeability and durability of silica gel grouts is not well known.


          E.2.2.4  Special Requirements/Considerations


     Fixation of contaminated bottom materials can require the use of
specialized equipment, such as mixing and injection equipment and support
vessels.  Diver support or closed-circuit television cameras may be needed
to monitor the progress and continuity of the  process.

     Where stream diversion is used  to expose  bottom materials, cofferdams,
diversion channels, and pumps may be needed  to maintain stream flow.
Tillers and bulldozers may also be needed for  spreading and  mixing fixation
agents with the bottom materials.

     Costs of  in situ fixation can vary  widely,  ranging from low  to high
relative  to other~in~situ techniques, depending  on the contaminants,  the
setting,  the accessibility of  the bottom materials  (e.g.,  shallow depth or
stream diversion),  and  the fixation  agent used.


E. 3   SUMMARY


      The in situ treatment  and isolation techniques that are described in
 this appe"n7ix~in"clude sorption,  chemical and biological treatment, cover
 and  capping methods,  and fixation.   A summary of the characteristics and
 applications  of each of these techniques is provided in Table E-l.
                                     E-l 2

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                         TABLE E-l.   SUMMARY OF IN SITU TREATMENT AND ISOLATION TECHNIQUES
    Technique
Applications
Limitations
                    Secondary Impacts
Type of Substance Treatable
                                                                                                                    Relative
                                                                                                                      Cost
I—•
OJ
Sorption     In situ purification
             by adsorption of  toxic
             substances  in contam-
             inated sediments.

             Long-term treatment of
             contaminated sediments.

             Adsorption  of a broad
             range  of  organic  and
             inorganic waste con-
             stituents.

             Carbon pillows used in
             waters with high  flow
             rates  in  order to
             achieve needed adsorp-
             tion kinetics.

             Permeable treatment
             barriers  used in
             shallow water.

             Permeable treatment
             barriers  used in narrow
             range  of  flow rates.

             Various waste compati-
             bility  limitations.
                                          Technique not
                                          widely proven
                                          and accepted for
                                          treatment of
                                          contaminated
                                          bottom materials.

                                          Carbon pillows not
                                          effective in calm
                                          waters.
                                            Desorption can occur
                                            over time because the
                                            contaminants are
                                            neither destroyed nor
                                            removed.
                                            Resins  best  for  sorption
                                            of metals  and  ionic
                                            organics.
                                                                     Activated carbon best
                                                                     for sorption of non-
                                                                     soluble compounds.
                               Low to
                               High.
                                                                                                        (continued)

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                                         TABLE  E-l»   (continued)
Technique
Chemical
and
Biological
Treatment







Applications
Long-ten treatment
of contaminated
sediments.

In situ treatment of
contaminated sed-
iments or sinking
spills.

Chemical and biolog-
ical treatment of a
KrnnH rancrt* nf or—
Limitations
Technique not
widely proven
and accepted for
treatment of
contaminated
bottom materials.

Various waste
compatability
limitations.
Degradation
Secondary Inpacts
All chemical and
biological treat-
ment methods can
contaminate the
water column.






Type of Substance Treatable
Precipitation of inor-
ganic cationic and
anionic wastes.

Neutralization of
acids and bases.

Oxidation of a wide
range of organics,
except for highly
chlorinated compounds
and nitro-aromatics.
Relative
Cost
Low to
High.









             ganic and inorganic
             wastes.

             Use in waters with low
             flow velocity and low
             volume for applica-
             tions involving
             stream diversion.

Cover and    Temporary or long-term
Capping      isolation of contami-
Methods      nated sediments from
             streamflow.

             Final step in removal
             of contaminated sed-
             iments to isolate
             residual contaminants.

             Used in conjunction
             with containment
             methods to provide
             long-term isolation of
             contaminants.
products may be
more toxic than
original
contaminants.
Technique not
widely proven
and accepted
for treatment
of contaminated
sediments.

Active cover
materials must
remain in place
long enough to
react with and
treat the contam-
inants.
Active cover      - -•
materials can
contaminate the
water column.

Natural grade and
sediment composition
are altered.

Habitat for benthic
organisms is destroyed.
Must be restored for
their survival.
Chemically compatible
solids and semi-solids.
Low to
High.
                                                                                                            (continued)

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                                             TABLE E-l.   (continued)
Technique
Cover and
Capping
Methods
Applications
Used in waters where
bottom currents and
flow velocity are
relatively low so as
not to erode the cover.
Limitations
Synthetic
membranes may be
difficult or
impossible to
place.
Secondary Impacts Type of Substance Treatable Relative
Cost

w
t—'
Ul
Fixation     Long-term treatment of
             contaminated sediments.

             In situ treatment
             used to immobilize
             contaminated sed-
             iments and prevent
             their interaction
             with the water
             column.

             Clay-cement grout
             used with low-per-
             meability sediments.

             Chemical injection
             methods used in
             calm waters.

             Stream diversion
             methods used  in shallow
             waters  with low flow
             velocity.
Technique not
widely proven and
accepted for
treatment of
contaminated
sediments.

Type of sediment
applicable can be
limited by viscos-
ity and particle
size of fixation
agent.

Various waste
compatability
limitations.
Natural grade and
sediment' composition
are altered by
fixation.

Habitat for benthic
organisms is destroyed.
It must be restored for
their survival.

Toxicity of some organic
grouts is uncertain.
                                                                                        Waste compatibility factors   Low to
                                                                                        must be evaluated on a        High.
                                                                                        site-specific basis.

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                                 APPENDIX F

                        DATA ON CHEMICALS THAT SINK
     Most commercial and waste substances are a mixture of a variety of
chemical compounds.  A variety of physical, chemical, and toxilogical data
are available for the individual chemicals, but not for the composite
substances.  Therefore, the properties of the individual chemicals are
generally used to predict the behavior of a spilled substance.

     The tendency of a substance to sink in water can be predicted from the
substance's specific gravity, a measure of density relative to the density
of water, and from its water solubility.  The water solubility of a substance
is the maximum mass of the substance that dissolves per unit mass of water,
which can be expressed as parts per million (ppm).  The solubility thus
represents the concentration of the substance at saturation in water.

     In addition to the specific gravity and the water solubility of a
spilled substance, other physical, chemical, and toxicologic properties
determine how it spreads in the environment, its ultimate fate, and the
threat to.humans and to the environment.  The most important properties for
predicting environmental transport, fate, and impact include the following:

     •  Specific gravity

     e  Water solubility

     •  Physical state

     0  Reactivity

     «  Toxicity

     •  Bioaccumulation

     •  Aquatic persistence.

     The physical state of a chemical and its reactivity with water help to
determine its potential threat to the sediments.   Liquids tend to flow more
readily and to dissolve more rapidly than solids.   Chemicals that react
exothermically will dissolve and disperse rapidly,  creating a water body
contamination problem,  while averting contamination of sediments.
                                    F-l

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      If  the spilled  chemical  remains at  the bottom of a water body, it can
permeate  the sediments and enter  the food  chain  through ingestion by benthic
organisms, decompose slowly to form water  soluble products, or slowly
dissolve  or become suspended  in the water  body,  producing  toxic effects in
aquatic and terrestrial flora and fauna.   More seriously,  the chemicals may
produce toxic effects in humans who drink  the water, eat the plants or
animals,  or come in  contact with  the water.  Whether these events occur at
all,  and  the extent  to which  they occur, is determined by  the toxicity,
bioaccuraulation, and aquatic  persistence of the  spilled chemical.  Therefore,
the urgency of remediation in the event  of a chemical spill to surface
water is  determined  by the properties of the spilled chemical.  Knowledge
of these  properties  will also help in deciding what remedial actions are
necessary and most likely to  be effective.

      To assist the on-scene coordinator  in responding to spills of sinker
chemicals, a database was developed using  chemicals from the Chemical Hazard
Response  Information System (CHRIS) and  chemicals regulated under the
Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act
(CERCLA), or'"Superfund".  The chemical data are presented in Table F-4.
The following sections describe the development  of the database, including
how the sinkers were identified and characterized.
F.I  BACKGROUND OF THE SINKERS LIST
     The current list of 1,117 CHRIS chemicals and 90 additional chemicals
denser than water not on the CHRIS List, but on the list of chemicals
regulated under CERCLA, were combined to form an initial file'of chemicals.
A new file of 697 chemicals was drawn from the initial file that contained
only those CHRIS and CERCLA chemicals with specific gravity greater than
one ("Heavies").  The water solubilities of the chemicals in the Heavies
file were then entered into the file,'supplementing the CHRIS data from
standard reference texts.  Quantitative solubility data were entered whenever
possible; otherwise, relative terms, such as slightly soluble, very soluble,
etc., were used.  Another new file, "Sinkers," was then extracted from the
Heavies file, based on water solubility.  Only Heavies with water solubility
less than 100,000 parts per million in water (10 percent), or less than
"very soluble" if the solubility information was qualitative, were entered
into the Sinkers data file.

     The Sinkers file was purged of nonhazardous chemicals (such as corn
syrup); chemicals that can be transporter! under pressure as dense liquids,
but are gases at ambient temperatures above 32°F (such as dichlorodifluoro-
methane); and chemicals that react exothermically with water to yield
nonsinking chemicals, since they would dissipate before cleanup could take
place.  The resulting list of Sinkers, which includes 468 chemicals, is
presented in Table F-4.
                                    F-2

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F.2  CONTENT OF THE SINKERS LIST


     The following information was gathered on each of  468  sinking  chemicals,
within the limitation of the availability of data, and  is presented on  the
Sinkers List.in Table F-4:

     •  Chemical name

     •  CHRIS code

     •  Physical state

     •  Specific gravity

     •  Water solubility

     •  Toxicity

     •  Ignitability

     •  Reactivity

     •  Bioaccumulation

     •  Aquatic persistence

     •  Recovery and handling hazards

     •  Recommended response.

     A significant number of data gaps exist in the information presented
in the list because quantitative data are not readily available.
Explanations of the abbreviations and symbols used on the list are  provided
in Table F-l.  Criteria used for the ratings are provided in Tables F-2 and
F-3.  The information categories are explained in the following sections.


     F.2.1  Chemical Name and CHRIS Code
     The chemical names used on the Sinkers List are those used in the CHRIS
or CERCLA Lists, except that Roman numerals are used to distinguish between
oxidation states of transition metal compounds, such as cobalt acetate, as
in current chemical nomenclature:  cobalt (II) acetate, or cobalt (III)
acetate.  The CHRIS Code is provided for.sinkers that were on the CHRIS
List.  It is a unique three-letter code for a particular compound.
                                    F-3

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                TABLE F-l.  KEY TO ABBREVIATIONS AND SYMBOLS
     Physical State
                Water Solubility
     L - Liquid
    -S - Solid
             S  - Soluble
             M  - Moderately soluble
             SS - Slightly soluble
             I  - Insoluble
             R  - Reactive
             D  - Decomposes
             Numerical values are in parts
               per million (ppm)
                     TABLE F-2.  HAZARD RATING CRITERIA
Rating
N
L
Toxicity (LD5Q*)
>15 g/kg
5 to 15 g/kg
Ignitability '
Not ignitable
Flash point >
Reactivity
with Water
No reaction
Mild reaction; unlikely
  M      0.5 to 5 g/kg



  H      50 to 500 mg/kg
   140PF (60°C)

Flash point -
   100 to 140°F
   (38 to 60°C)

Flash point <
  100°F (38°C) and
  boiling point
                                                       to be hazardous
Moderate reaction
More vigorous reaction;
 . may be hazardous
* Lethal dose; see Glossary, Appendix G.
                                  F-4

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                TABLE F-3.  BIOACCUMULATION RATING CRITERIA
Rating
. L
(Low)
M
(Moderate)
H
(High)
E
(Extreme)
Qctanol/Water
Partition
Coefficient*
(Kow)
< 3
>_ 3, < 5
_> 5
^
Bioconcen-
tration
Factor*
(BCF)
< 100
,> 100
^ 1000
*™
Tendency to
Adsorb to
Sediment
and Soil
Adsorbs
weakly
Adsorbs
moderately
Adsorbs
strongly
*"
Aquatic
Persistence*
95% degradation in
6 months or less
95% degradation in
2 years or less
95% degradation in
; 10 years or less
< 95% degradation
in 10 years or more
* See Glossary, Appendix G.
Source:  Information adapted from Hand et al. 1978.
                                F-5

-------
      F.2.2  Physical State
      The physical state is indicated as "S" for solids and "L" liquids.
 However, some sinkers can exist as either liquids or solids, depending on
 their temperature and purity.  Phenol is such a material; its physical
 state is indicated as "S/L."  Liquids flow more readily than solids and
 tend to pool in low points on the bottom of a water body.  The rate at
 which a chemical will dissolve in water is affected by its physical state,
 but additional information about the chemical should be gathered at the
 spill site.   For chemicals of similar solubility, one that is a liquid or a
 fine powder will dissolve more rapidly than one that has the form of large
 crystals,  pellets,  or chunks.  Physical state must be considered together
 with the water solubility to predict whether a sinker can be removed  before
 it dissolves.
      F.2.3   Specific Gravity
      The  specific  gravity  of  a sinker is  greater than the  specific  gravity
of water,  causing  it  to  sink  in water.  However, not  all sinkers  will  sink
in every  situation.   Sinkers  with specific  gravities  only  slightly  greater
than  one  will  tend to disperse more  readily than sinkers that  are more
dense.  Of course,  factors not related  to the  chemical, but  to the  environ-
mental conditions,  have  a  substantial effect.   For  instance, a rapidly
moving river will-suspend  and disperse  liquids  or finely divided  solids,
even  if they are denser  than  water.


      F.2.4 Water  Solubility


      The solubility of a chemical  is  one  of  the  most  critical  parameters
predicting its behavior in the  environment.  As  with  the specific gravity,
but to an  even greater degree,  the solubility of a  sinker  is dependent upon
environmental factors.  Warm  bodies of water will dissolve much more of a
chemical than cold ones.  Salt water will not dissolve organic chemicals
as completely as fresh water.  Turbulent water bodies will cause a  sinker
to realize its solubility faster than quiescent  water bodies.  If the
turbulence is caused  by a river, then even slightly soluble sinkers can
become completely dissolved and dissipated in a  short time.  If the
turbulence is tidal,  then the sinker will tend to reach saturation  rapidly,
but not be dissipated unless  the spill size is small.
     F.2.5  Tpxicity
     The threat posed by a spilled chemical to the nearby population and
to the environment is critically dependent on its toxicity.  The factors
                                    F-6

-------
already discussed earlier, physical state and solubility, affect the
chemical's environmental transport to potential receptors, and its bio-
accumulation and aquatic persistence, discussed below, also determine if
and how the chemical will exert its toxicity on human and environmental
receptors.  However, a spilled chemical's toxicity can also be realized
through absorption by workers attempting to remove the chemical.
     F.2.6  Ignitability and Reactivity
     The ignitability and reactivity of a sinker are mainly a threat to the
workers performing removal operations.  If the substance can ignite and
burn once removed from the water, or if it reacts with water or equipment
to generate pressure or toxic products, it must be handled more carefully.
     F.2.7  Bioaccumulation and Aquatic Persistence
     The characteristics of bioaccumulation and aquatic persistence govern
the environmental transport and toxic effects of spilled chemicals.  If a
chemical bioaccumulates, that is, tends to remain in organisms rather than
being excreted, it is more likely to cause a toxic effect in the organism.
Even if a bioaccumulative chemical does not reach toxic levels in a lower
organism that absorbs it, it may accumulate to higher concentrations in
animals higher in -the food chain, such as people.  Then it can produce
adverse health effects.  The aquatic persistence is a measure of the chemi-
cal stability of a chemical in a wet environment.  Aquatic persistence
indicates whether the chemical will last long enough to be transported" in
the surface water to reach an environmental receptor, bi'oaccumulate, and/or
produce toxic effects.  Since the toxicity of a chemical is concentration-
dependent, low aquatic persistence has the same effect on toxicity as does
dilution or dispersion—it reduces the probability of a toxic effect.
Bioaccumulation has the opposite effect of dilution—it increases the
probability of a toxic effect on some environmental receptor.
     F.2.8  Recovery and Handling Hazards
     Personal protective equipment, appropriate to the hazard and necessary
for safe handling of sinkers during removal, is recommended in this column.
This column also contains additional toxicity information and warnings of
any other handling hazards.  The absence of an entry in this column does
not mean that the chemical poses no hazards; all chemicals on the list are
hazardous and appropriate protective clothing should be worn by response
personnel handling these chemicals.
                                    F-7

-------
Table F-4.   (continued)
Cheaical Wtu
Allyl Trichloto.il.ae
AluainuB Fluoride




ABinoethyl Etbinolraine
Aaitrole
AiBUmiiui Lactet*
AiBOaiuB Uuryl Sulfate
_. AmoniuB Oxalate
•T]
1
!-•
O
AuoniuK Peataborate






AaMniuB Fereulfate

Jamoaium Ficrate
Imnnim Stearate
*«Mnniu» Vaaadat*
Aayltricbtoroailan*, n-
Aailine








CHIIS fhyi. tp.clfic
Cod* Et*te Gravity
ATC L 1.21J
ALF S 2.550




AEA L 1 .028
8 1.157
ALT 8 1 .200
ALS L 1 .030
OAX 8 1 .500



AFB 8 1.580






APE 8 1 .980

8 1.719
AMR 3 1 .010
B 2.326
ATS L 1 .137
ANL L 1.022








tfiter Toiicity Ignite- Itictivity lio*ccu«- Aquatic Ricovtry & Handling IieoBHnded Iciponic
Solubility bility ulatioo Feraia- Uiiarda
tcnce
K
5590 H M H E Gogglea and matk to gecauae of toxicity,
! protact againat rewval preferred.
particulate Baterial. lurial aecond-beat
Aquaoua solution ia alternative.
toxic.
M H L N
48
8 L N
H L N
25, WO K L M Highly toxic via oral i
inhalation routea.
Fomrful irritaot
corroaiva to tiaaua.
70.300 H H Highly toxic
affecta CHS. Foiaoning
cauaaa dapreaaioa of
circulation, vomiting.
ahock and COM. Abaorbad
by akin only through
wouoda, opan akin.
58,200 ML H Moderately toxic via oral
rout*.
1100
H L H
6,060
g
37,000 H L N L M Wear organic vapor ' Toxic, ahould b*
respirator, gogglea, reaoved.
rubber glovea end
boota. Contact »/
atrong acida Hill cauaa
violent aplattaring. Hill
attack aoae form of
plaatica, rubber and
CMtiD«*- (continued)

-------
                                                    Table  F-4,    (continued)
Choice 1 Dane
Aniaoyl Chloride
Antbraceae
Ant i*ony
Antuony Fentacbloride
Antiaony Fentafluoride
CUKIS Phya.
Code State
ASC L
ATH S
8
AFC L
APF L
1 	 	 	
Specific Hater Toxicity Ignita- Reactivity Bioaccua- Aquatic
Gravity Solubility bility ulation Persis-
tence
f
1.260 8
1.240 I L M . ML
6.684
2.354 D
2.340 a '« H E
Recovery * Handling Gecoanended Response
Baaarda

Mildly irritating. A
recognized carcinogen of
akin.


Moderately toxic via
                                                                                                       oral  route.
                                                                                                       Hben  awiature it praaent
                                                                                                       cauaea  aever* corroaion
                                                                                                       of aatala (except ateal).
                                                                                                       Hay caua* fire in contact
                                                                                                       with  coabuatible uterial.
Antiaony Potaaaiua Tartrate    APT   8
                                        2.600
83.000
Highly toxic via oral
route. Can cauae
aalivatioo, nauaea,
diarrhea, akin raan.
Large doae cauaea aevere
liver daatage.
Antiaony Tribroside ATB S 4.148 D
Antimony Trioxide ATX S S.200 I H «
Arocblor 1254 L 1.50
Araenic S 5.727
Araenlc Diaulfide ABO 8 3.500 I MM





Araenic Trichloride ASI 8 2.156 DUN H











Hear cbeaical protective
auit u/ aelf contained
breathing unit, goggUa,
rubber glovea. Inhalation
irritatea or ulceratea
reapiratory paaaagea.
Hear gogglea.
aelf-contained breathing
unit, rubber glovea.
Inhalation cauaea
irritation to noae,
throat. Severe irritant to
eyea i akin.





Should be reauved and
treated cbeaically and
phyaically.



laolate and reaove or
diaperae and fluab.





(continued)

-------
                                                      Table F-4.   (continued)
          Chemical N.M         CUIIS »hy».  Specific   Water    Toxicity Igiita- Reactivity lioaccum- Aquatic
                               Code  State  Gravity  Solubility         bility             ulation   reraia-
                                                                                                   trace
    lecovery i Hapdliu
          Hatarde
Keccwoteiuled leaponae
At.eDIc Trioxid.
Areenic Tri.ulfid.
                              ATO   8     3.700      37,000      E     H
                              A«T   8     3.430          0.5
Avoid contact v/  .olid 4
duet. Irritant to eyea,
Doae t tbroat. Wear
reapirator, flovti,
gogglea, full protective
auit.

Avoid contact v/  duat or
eolid. Irrtant to akin
•ay ciuae ulceratioa.
Hear chemical protective
auit w/ aelf contained
braatbinf unit, (ogglea,
glovea.
                                                                                                                                   laolate and remove.
                                                                                                                                   laolate and remove.
                                                                                                          Protectiv. clothing «d
                                                                                                          goggl.a abould  be uorn
                                                                                                          vben handling hot
                                                                                                          material.  Hay  foul
                                                                                                          dredging equipment..
                         Should be buried or
                         removed .
Atraxine
Azinphoemethyl

Barium
Barium C.rbon.te





Barium Nitrate
larium Peroxide



Beax (a) anthracene


ATZ S 1.200 I H N N L L
• AZM 8 » -*00 30 E N N Highly toxic via dermal
and oral route..
S 3.51
•«C 8 4.300 20 U N N H Solution i. toxic. Hill react „/ aulf.t. to
form inert inaoluble
barium aulfate. If not
reacted */ aulfate.
material abould be
removed.
INT s 3.240 87,000 N N
"0 S 4.960 I H L To,ic if inge.ted.
Avoid breathing duat
to handling.
Corrodea metal alowly.
If mixed with
S 1.274 .011 combuetible material, era
ignite apontaneoualy.
(continued)

-------
Table F-4.  (pontinued)
Chemical Name
Benzal Chloride
Benzaldehyde
Benzene Uexacbloride
Benzene Phosphorous
Thiodichloride
Benzene Phosphorus Dicbloride
Benzenesulfonyl Chloride
Benzeoethiol
Benzideue •
Benzo (a) Pyrene
Ben zoic Acid
Benzonitrile
Benzophenone
Benzoquinone
Benzotrichloride
Benzoyl Chloride
CHRIS Phys.
Code Stste
L
BZD L
1HC 8
BPT L
BPD L


S
S
BZA S
BZN L
BZP 8
S
L
BZC L
Specific Hater Toxicity Ignita- Reactivity Bioaccum- Aquatic
Gravity Solubility bility ulation Persis-
tence
1 .295
1 .046 3,000 M L ' N L L
1.891 10 H M H H
1 .378 R
1 .140 R
1.384 I M
1 .077
1 .250 400
1 .351 .012
1.316 3,400 ML H L L
1.010 I L N L
1.085 1 KM
1.318 15.000
1.3723 5.9 ,
1.211 3,300 L L L
Recovery • Handling
Hazards

Local contact may cause
contact dermatitia.
Goggle* and protective
clothing abould be worn.
Hear gogglea t self
contained breathing
apparatus .
Poisonous if Inhaled.
Poisonous If Inhaled.




Eye protection and
protective clothing
should be voro.
When heated salts highly
toxic cysnide fumes. Hill
attack SOB* plastic*.
Hill attack aoM
plastic*.


Recommended Response

Toxic, should be removed.
Due to high degrsdstion
rate, material may not
remain aufficiently long
to dredge.
Diaperaion may be only
recourae.
Toxic, abould be
removed .






Moderately toxic, should
be removed, if possible.
Dispersal may be
acceptable.



Reacta v/ water to Toxic, abould be removed,
produce hydrochloric if poasible. Otherwise
acid. Protective clothing, neutralize w/ lime and
gogglea. glovea, t full diaperse.
face respirstor required.
Will corrode dredge
equipment. (continued)

-------
Table F-4.  (continued)
Chemical Name
leniyl Alcohol

lensyl Bromide


Benzyl Chloride



Benzyl Chloroformate





Benzyl n-Butyl Phthalata
Benzyl trimethylammonium
Chloride
Beryllium Oxide


Beryllium, Metallic




Bia (2-Chloroethoxy) Methane
Biamuth Oxychloride
Biaphenol A

Biaphenol A Diglycidyl Ether
Boiler Compound - Liquid
1 Boron Tribromide

CHIIS Fhy*. Specific
Code State Gravity
BAL L i.QSO

BBR L I .4*1


BCL L 1 .100



BCF L i .220





BBP I 1.120
BMA L i .070

BBO 8 3 .000


BEH 8 1 .850




1.2339
BOC S 7 .700
BPA S 1.195

BDE L 1.160
BCP L 1 .480
BU L 2.645

Water Toxleity Ignite- Inactivity lioaceum- A,u.tic I.eovery 4 H.«dli«g Iecom«*«d.a leapon..
Solubility bility ulatioa reriia- Riurd*
tence
30,000 H L H 1 Hill attack aorna
pliatica.
1 L ' L L Intanaaly irritating to
•kin, eye* end mucoua
membrane* .
33 H L L L Highly irritating to
reapiretory tract.
Hoderately irritating vie
oral route.
8 L L Irritating to (kin, Should be removed.
eye*, and mucoui
membrane*. Hear
protective auit w/ *elf
contained breathing unit
l> glove*.
I H L N
M L L

°-2 * 1 L Duat meek, protective Toxic, ahould be removed.
clothing and goggle*
required.
1 E . N N Avoid contact H/ aolid • laolata and remove.
duat. Hear goggle* 4 **lf
contained breathing unit.
Duat extremely toxic if
inhaled.
81,000
I "M N
600 H L N H Protective clothing and Toxic, abould be removed.
respirator required.
I E L M
M H H
D
(continued)

-------
Table F-4.  (continued)
CheBical Haae CHRIS Phya. Specific Hater Toxicity Ignita- Reactivity Bioaccua- Aquatic Recovery & Handling
Code State Gravity Solubility bility ulation Persia- Haxarda
tence
Boron Trichloride BRT G 1.350 D H H


.
1





BroBine RRX 1 3.120 35,800 H



"1 .
1
Ui


BroBine Pentaf luoride BPX L 2.480 D
BroBine Trifluoride BIF L 2.610 D
BroBoacetone L 1 .634 .01
Broaobenxena BBZ L 1.490 41,000 M H

Brucine BRU B >1 I E L H-
Butanediol. 1.4- BOO L 1.017 M M 1 H
Butenediol, 1,4- BUD L 1.070 H L M
Butylphenol, p-tert- BTE S 1.037 I H 1 H
Butyltrichloroailane BCS L 1.160 R
CadaiuB S 6.642 20
C.d.iim Fluoborate CFB S 1 .600 H H H
CadBtuB Oxide COP S 6.950 I
CalciuB Araenate CCA 8 3.620 130 E H H
Irritant to eyea, noaa,
throat. Inhalation cauaea
edeaa I severs irritation
to raepiratory tract.
Hear gogglea.
arlf-coBtainad breathing
unit. Attacks elastomers
synthetic rubbers.
In presence of moisture,
highly corrosive to most
metals. '
E Highly corroaive
cauaea fire in contact
«/ coBbuatiblea. React!
violently vl elueinua.
Pull protective clothing
required. Epoxy or
Teflon-lined equipment
should be used to avoid
corrosion daaage.



An irritant to eyea and
Bucoua aeBbranea .
A deadly poison.







Highly irritating via
oral and inhalation
routea.
Recoanended Response
Disperse and flush or
iaolate 4 reaove.




&




Toxic, Bay be flushed
atray becauae of high
solubility or Bay be
removed .


















(continued

-------
                                            Table  F-4.    (cpntinued)
Chtmieal  Name
                     °
                                        fcs.Hu, ™lelty .si.;-
                                                                                                                 8eco:^.tr UBI
                                                                                       tence
      Calcium Carbide





      Calcium Cyanide






      Calcium Fluoride






 I

CT>   Calcium Hydroxide




     Calcium Hypochlorite

     Calcium Oxide
                    CCI  8     2.220
                    CCN   »     1.853
                   CAF   S     3-18°
                                             100     E      H
                                                            "
                                              16
                   CAH   8    2.240        1,850      L     H




                   CUV   8    2.350           D

                   CAO   S    3.300        1,310            H
 laacta with water to form Should be  revived aa aooo
 acetylene gaa, which it   aa poaeible.
 flauable.  ly-product ia
 calcium hydroxide, which
 ie alkaline.

 Keleaaea very poiaoooua
 hydrogen cyanide gea
 alowly on contact with
 water or rapidly w/
 acida.

 Protection agaioat        Kemove or  bury.
 inhaling particuletea
 required.  ' Presence is
 dangerous  to  aquatic organ-
 isins & local water sup-
 plies.


Goggle, and duet-proof   lemove, bury or
meak  required.  Solution  diaperae.
ia corroaive  (etrongly
alkaline).
                                                                                             Generatea  heat when on
                                                                                             contact  H/ water.
                                                                                             Gogglea. glovea, and
                                                                                             reapirator ahould be
                                                                                             worn.  Solution ia
                                                                                             corroeive  (atrongly
                                                                                             alkaline).
                                                                                                                                     Hill react completely do
                                                                                                                                     form calcium hydroxide
                                                                                                                                     which ebould be removed,
                                                                                                                                     buried or diaperaed.
Calcium Peroxide
Calcium Phoaphate
Calcium Phosphide
Calcium Reaioate
Calcium, Metallic
Captan
•j

CCP
CAL
cpp
CR£
CAM
CPT


S
S
S
a
s
a


2.920
2.500
2.510
1.130
1.550
1.740


ILL
3.000 •« H
D
I L H
D
D

	 	 	 	 	 	 	 (continued)

-------
                                                  Table  F-4.    (cqntinued)
Chemical Name


Carbaryl




Carbolic Oil



Carbon Diaullide

Carbon Tetrachloride
CHRIS Phya. Specific Hater Toricity Ignita- Reactivity Bioaccim- Aquatic Recovery i Handling Recoraended Reaponae
Code State Gravity Solubility bility ulation Peraia- Haxarda
tence
CBY 8 1.230 IBM N L M Avoid contact «/ solid or Toaic, ahould be
solutions Abaorbed via removed.
all toutea,
| cauaea blurred viaioa.
headache, atoBacbachc,
voBiting.
8 1 040 84 160 L N L M Hay explode if aixed •/ Toaic, ebould be
' air. Air >aak, rubber removed.
glovee, protective
clothing, and full face
shield required.
CUB L 1.260 2,200 H N Toxic by oral intake.
inhalation or prolonged
akin contact .
CBT L 1.590 800 M H H L H Pace »aak, protective Toxic, ahould be
clothing abould be worn, removed.
Cauatic  Soda Solution
                            CSS   L
                                       1.500
42,000
Expoaure to high
concentrationa can cauae
unconaciouaneaa & can be
fatal.

A aevere hazard. Solid or
concentra'ted aolution
deatroya tiaaue on
contact.
Cerroaive to alumimm.
Chloral
Chlordane

Chlorine Trifluoride
Chloro-o-toluidine, 4-
Chlotoacetophenone


Chloroacetyl Chloride
Chlorocniline, n-

L
i
CDN L

CTF C
CTD S
CRA S


CAC I
8

1.5121
1.600

1.850
1.101
1.320


1.420
1.430

14,740
.009 H L H

D
I H L . N
I H L M


R
17,000

ii«c, and tin.
H I Readily abaorbed through
the akin aad highly
toxic .
Poisonous if inhaled.

L A powerful irritant via
oral and inhalation
routea.
React* aloHly with MCtala
cauaing mild corroaion.

(continued)

-------
                                                    Table  F-4.    (continued)
Chc.ic.1 HIM CUtIS rhya. (pacific Uater Toxicity Igaita- Reactivity Moaccum- Aquatic Recovery t landling
Code State Gravity Solubility bility ulation Faraia- Haxarda
tence
Chlorobenxene CRI L 1.110 490 H M H L H Heavy vapor can travel
coaaidareble diateace to
1 . flame. Protective
clothing, full face
reapirator, gogglaa
required.
Chlorobutyronitrile, 4- CBN L 1.220 I N May attack tome forava of
plaatic.
CblorodibroBOmethane L 2.4SI
Chloroform CBF L 1.490 8.000 H N N L U Cogg lea. full face Meek
or aelf-contained
breathing unit required
depending on
concentrationa
M encountered. 'Moderately
1 toxic via oral »•
>— inhalation routea.
CO
Recommended Reaponae
Toxic, abould be
removed.





Toxic, abould be
removed .



 Chlorohydrin (crude)


 ChloroMthyl Methyl Ether
CUD   L    1.180       60.000      g      U


CM£   L    1.070           D      M
Chloronitrobencene, o-

Chloropbenol,  p-

Chloropicrin
CPN  S     1.368

CPL  g     1.310

     L     1.640
     I

21,100

 1,800
Chloropropionic Acid, 2-


Chloroaulfonic Acid
                               CSA  L
                                          1.259
                                          1.350
                                                     High toxicity via oral
                                                     and inhalation routea.

                                                     High toxicity via inhal-
                                                     ation routea,  moderately
                                                     toxic via oral route .
                                                     teacta with aurface
                                                     •oiature to evolve MCI
                                                     which ia corroaiva to
                                                     •etal.
Pronounced irritant to
all body aurfacea.
Cauaea akin irritation.,
             bronchitis,
pulaonry edeaw.  Short
expoeucauy cauae .fatal
lung daaage.

Moderately toxic via oral
route.
                                                                                                                (continued)

-------
Table F-4.  (pontinued)
Cheaical Naae CHRIS Fhya.
Code State
Chlorotoluene, m-
Chlorotoluene, o-
Cblorotoluene. p-
CbroBic Sulfate
CbroaiuB
Chroaoua Chloride
ChrOByl Chloride
Chryaene
Cobalt (II) Acetate
Cobalt (II) Flouride
Cobalt (II) Fonate
Copper (I) Broaide
Copper (I) Cyanide
Copper (I) Iodide
Copper (II) Acetate
Copper (II) Acetoaraenite
Copper (II) Araenite
Copper (II) Iluoborate
Copper (II) laphthenate
Copper (II) Oxalate
CouBapboa



CHS

CRC
t
CMC

CBA
COF
CFH
CUD
CCY
CID
COF
CAA
CPA
CPF
CNN
COL
COU
Specific Hater Toxicity Ignite- Reactivity BioaccuB- Aquatic
Gravity Solubility bility . ulation Fereia-
tence
L
L
L
8
8
8
L
S
8
• a
s
s
s
s
8
S
8
L
8
8
8
1.072
1.082
1.070
3.012
7.20
2.878
1.960
1.274
1.710
4.46
2.129
4.98
2.920
$.620
1.900
1.101
1.101
1.540
1.980
1.001
1.474
I H . H H
I L I M
I L H
I
20
8 '"
D
.002
8 R H M
15.000
SO, 300
I H H
I N N
8 • H
72.000 H H H
30.000 EM N
I H M
M UN
I H M M
2S.3 H M
I E L M
Recovery » Handling RecoBBended Response
Uazarda





Moderately toxic vie oral
route. Can have
corroaive action on akin
and Bucoua BCBbranea.








Moderately toxic via oral
end inhalation routea.
Highly toxic via oral and
inbalation routea.

May corrode aoae aetala.
Highly toxic via oral and
inbalation routea.

Moderately toxic via
derail routea. (continued)

-------
                                                          Table F-4.    (continued)
Chemical HIBC        CHRIS Pbya. Specific   Utter    Toxicity Ignita- Reactivity lioaccin- Aquatic
                     Code  State Gravity  Solubility          bility            illation   Peraia-
                                                                                          tence
                                                                                                           Recovery t Hind ling
                                                                                                                Haxarda
                                                                                                     Recowuiided Reeponae











Tl
1
1^3
0
Creoaota, Coal Tar




Creaol, •-
Creaol, o-
Creaol, p-
Creaola
Creayl Glycidyl Ether

Cunene Uydroperoxide


CCT L




L
L
L
CRS L
CGE L

CMH L


1.070




1.034
1.027
1.018
1.050
1 .090

1.030


I H L




5.000 U L
25,000 U L
18.000 U L
22.000 L
1 L

I H L


N




N
M
N.
M
H

E


Kodarataly toxic via oral
and inhalation routei. A
recogniaad carciaogaa of
tkin, foreara, acratua,
fac«, neck aid *»ie.
L . M
L M
L H

Hay attack ao«e lotm* of
plaatic.
Known akin aanaitiaar.
Toxic by inhalation, akin
abaorption and ingaation.
CupriethylenediaBine Solution  CES   L     1.101
                                                                            Am irritant and
                                                                            corroaiva aubatanc*.
                                                                            Oiaaolvaa cattai^uood, and
                                                                            other calluloaa
                                                                            •atariala.  Corroaiva  to
                                                                            copper, aluminim.. tin  and
                                                                            xinc .
Cyanoacetic Acid
CYA  L     1.101
Cyclohexaaonc Peroxide
                               CUP   L     1.050
Cyclohexeayltricbloroailane    CHT   L     1.230

ODD                           ODD   8     1.476
                                                                            Skin irritant.  Vapor can
                                                                            be abaorbed via akin and
                                                                            reapiratory tract.
                                                                            Upon heating.
                                                                            acetonitrile foraui, of
                                                                            which high concentrationa
                                                                            are rapidly fatal.

                                                                            Irritant to akin, eyea
                                                                            and aucoua •ubranea .
                                                                                                           Highfytoxic via oral
                                                                                                           route. Hoderately toxic
                                                                                                           via derul routea.
                                                                                                                                                  (continued)

-------
                                                        Table F-4.   (cQntinued)
         Cheaiical Maae         CIUIS Fhya. Specific   Utter    Toxicity Ignite- Reactivity Iio»ccu»- Aquatic
                              Code  State Gravity Solubility         bility             ulation   Peraia-
   Kecovery a Handling
         Haxards
lecoeMcnded leaponae
DDT
                              DDT   a
                                         1.560
Protective clothing
required.
Abaorbed readily through
akin if in aolution.
High toxicity via oral
end deraal routes.
                                                                                                                                  Toxic, ahould be moved.
Dalapon
                              DLP  L
Deaeton
                              DTN   L
                                         1.390
                                         1.100
Moderately irritant to
akin, eyea and nwcaua
•eebraaae and via oral
and inhalation routea.
lary corroaive to
aluaiiaum and  copper
alloyt.

Highly toxic inaacticide.
via oral and denul
routea.
Hay attack eoM fora* of
pleatice.
Di-(o-Chlorobenxoyl)reroxidc * \.\0\
Di.llate • »•»" '*
Diaxinon OZN 1 i.»» «> ".' " "
Dibenso la. hi anthracene 8 1.069$
Dibeaxyl Ether I « •«*" I M L H
Dibutyl Phthalat* DPA L 1.049 1 M L H

Dichlorobenxene. »- I 1.282 *
Dichlorobeaxeoe, o- DUO L 1-360 25 in



L L High toxicity via oral
and dermal routee.

Moderate irritant.
Moderately toxic via oral
route, fepora narcotic
in high concentrations.
M High toxicity via oral
routea. Protect eyaa.


M H






EoMubat toxic, ahould
probably be reauved, but
ia a poaaible candidate
for containBeat and
burial .


(continued)

-------
                                                     Table F-4.    (continued)




?
M
Ni



Ctteaical X«M
Oicblorobaaxaaa, p-
DichlorobroBOutbsaa
Oicblorobutaaa
Oichloroetbana. 1,1-
Dicbloroathyl Itbar. 2,2-
Dichloroatbylana, 1,2-
Dichloroiaopropyl Ethar
DichloroMthane
CMIS Ikya. litcific Uittr Toxicity Ignita- laactivity lio*ceu«- Afaatic
Coda Itata Gravity Solubility bUity ulation feraia-
tanca
DBF I 1.451 BO M L H H H
• 1 .»SO
L 1.112 2,000 B L
L 1.270 500 M H M L L
L 1.220 10,700 H H H
DEL L 1.282 6.300 H H H
1.103
DCH L 1.322 13,800 H N L L H
lacovary i Hwdlins lacoueBdad leiponie
•axarda


•igb toxicity via oral
aad iabalatioo rout at.
Corrodaa matal vka* vat.
Hodarataly toxic via oral
routa.
Toxic by inhalation or
oral intake: at long
eye, akin I raapiratory
irritant. Absorbed by
akia. Decomposes vben
heated to toxic,
irritating producta.


Organic vapor 'nask, cya Toxic, should be reaovedj
Dicbloropbenol,  2,4-
Dichlorophenoxyacetic Acid,
    2.4-
Dichloropbeaylaraine
DCP  8
DCA
                                         1.400
                                         1.563
                                         1.8358
                       4,600
                                                       700
             clotbing raquirad.  Vapor bility, diaperaal Bay ba
             in high concentrations    only racourae.
             •ay cauaa narcoaia and
             daatb.

H      M     Uaa of raapirator, rubber Toxic, ahould be
             glovaa and goggUa        reaoved.
             raquirad.   Modarataly
             toxic via oral routa.

L      L     An herbicide.  High
             toxicity via oral routa.
             Hoder'ataly tosic via
             deroal routea. Can cauac
             nauaaa, vomiting and CK8
             dapraaaion.
                                                                                                                                             (continued)

-------
                                                       Table F-4. .  (continued)
          Chemical Utmt
                               CHRIS Phy*.  Specific   Hater    Toxicity Ignita- Reactivity Bioaccun- Aquatic
                               Code  State  Gravity  Solubility          bility             ulation   Persia-
                                                                               ery » Hand ling
                                                                                Haxarda
                                                                                                                                        Recoawended Reaponae
Dichloropropane, 1,1-
Dichloropropane, 1,2-
Oichloropropane, 1,3-
Dichloropropene, 1,3-
L     1.1)2        2,700      L
                               Off   L     1.158        2,700      H      U         N
                                    L     1.188
                               DPR   L     1.200
Dicbloropropene,  2,3-
Dichloropropene,               DHX   L
    Dichloropropane Mixture
                                          1.217
                                                                        H         N
                                                          I      U      H         N
                                                          I      H
                                                         SS
                                                         L      H      Flaahback along vapor     Toxic', abould be
                                                                       trail Bay occur. Rubber   removed.
                                                                       glovea  i boota, goggles *
                                                                       protective clothing
                                                                       required.

                                                         L      U      Flaahback along vapor     Toxic, ahould be
                                                                       trail >ay occur. Rubber   removed.
                                                                       glovea  t boota, goggles »
                                                                       protective clothing
                                                                       required.

                                                         L      H      riaahback along vapor     Toxic, ahould be
                                                                       trail May occur. Rubber   rraoved.
                                                                       glovea  • boot*, gogglei i
                                                                       protective clothing
                                                                       required.

                                                         L      U      Toxic by iakalation or
                                                                       oral iataka. ttroag eye.  Toxic, should be removed.
                                                                       •kin t  reapiratory
                                                                       irritant. Dacoapoaea olian
                                                                       heated  to fora tosic and
                                                                       irritating product*.
                                                                       Full (ace organic vapor
                                                                       •aak required.

                                                         L      H      Toxic by inhalation or    Toxic, ahould be removed.
                                                                       oral intake. Strong eye,
                                                                       •kin t  reapiratory
                                                                       irritant. Daconpoaea
                                                                       when heated to for* toxic
                                                                       »  irritating product*.
                                                                       Toxic gaaea produced in
                                                                       {ire. Full face organic
                                                                       vapor aaak required.
Dichlorotetraf luoroethane C 1.455
Dieldrin D£D S 1.750 .25 E N N L
OiethanoUuine DEA L 1 .09$ H M H N L




An insecticide. Readily
abaorbed through akin and
other portala. Acta aa
CHS atisulant.
Hoderately toxic
route .

via oral


(continued)

-------
Table F-4.  (continued)
Chimical Hi«c
Diethyl Fbtbalate
Diethyl SuUata
Diethylaraine
IT) Dielhylene Glycol
£J Diethyleneglycol Hommethyl
Ether
DiethyUinc
Dif luorophoaphoric Acid,
Anhydroua
Dihydroeafrolc
Diiaobutyl Fbthalate
Diiaopropyl Fluorophoaphate
Di*ethoate
Dinethyl Fhthalate
Diaethyl Sulfate
Dimethyl Sulfoxide
Dimethyl Terephtbalate
Dimethylcarbanoyl Chloride
CI4JUS Fhya. Specific Uater Toxicity Ignita- leactivity lioaccu*- Aquatic
Cod* State Gravity Solubility bllity ulation Peraia-
tcnce
Dpll L 1.120 ILL H
L 1.177 I M L L
1.1338
DEC L 1.118 H L H
L 1.025 H L H
UEZ L 1.207 t
DFA L 1.583 H
1 .0695
L 1 .049
L 1 .055
S 1 .277
L 1.19 I M L N
DSF L 1.330 2,800 H L L H
QMS L 1.101 S
DMT S 1.200 I L H
L 1.168
Itcovery 1 Kindling lecmawnded leaponae
Uatarda
Aa irritant to Bucoua
•evbranta and • narcotic
in high concentrations.
Hay attack aoaie foma of
plaatica.
Toxic by inhalation, akin
contact or oral in tike.
Mien heated to
decOBpoaition, aaiita
highly toxic fu«*a of
aulfur oxidea.








Moderately toxic via oral
routea.
Extreaely irritating.
cauaea aevere burna.
Hazard, to eyea. Toxic by
inhalation, akin contct
or oral intake. Cogglea.
rubber clothing required.
Corrodea netal when wet.

(continued)

-------
                                                          Table  F-4.    (continued)
 I
NJ
Ui
Chemical Mine

Dioethyldichloroeilane
DiBethylxinc
Oinitroaniline, 2,4-










Dinitrobenxene

Dinitrobenxene, •-
Dinitrobenxene, o-
Dinitrocreaola
CHRIS Phya. Specific Hater Toxicity Ignita- Reactivity BioaccuB- Aquatic Recovery * Handling Reconmended Response
Code State Gravity Solubility bility ulation Persia- Haxarda
tence
DMD L 1 .070 R
DM2 L 1.390 R
ONT S 1.615 I H L ' M H Toxic if inhaled. Toxic, should be removed,
ingested or in contact
v/akin. Self-contained
breathing apparatus.
goggles, rubber gloves.
impermeable clothing
required.
May require special
handling. Consult
American Aailiue Products
or Martin Marietta Corp.
S , 1.600 1,800 L High toxicity via oral
route.
DNB S 1.580 5.000 L H L
L 1.600 I LI
DNC S 1.101 I E L ,H Highly irritant to akin,
       Dinitrophenol, 2,4-
                                    DHP   S
1.680
eyea t iiucoua BeBbranea.
Can cauae brain damage i
injury to liver t kidoeya
when absorbed via
inhalation,  ingeation, or
ikin.

High toxicity orally,
araderately toxic
dermally. Phytotoxic.
Hay explode  if heated
uben confined.  Hear
breathing apparatua,
iaperMable  clothing.
Hay require  apecial
handling. Conault
Anerican Aniline Producta
or Martin Marietta Corp.
                                                                                         Toxic,  abould be removed.

-------
Table F-4.  (continued)
* Chemical Na«
Dinitrotolucne, 2,4-
Dinitrotoluene, 2,5-
Dinltrotoluene, 3,4-
1 Dinoaeb
to
Dioctyl Sodium SuUoauccinate
(aolid or liquid)
Dipbenyl Rtfcer
Diphenylamine
Dipheny Idichloroai lane
Dipbenylmethane Diiaocyanate
CHtIS thjf. Specific Uater Toxicity- Ignita- Reactivity Ueaccum- Aquatic Recovery 4 l>«dliai
Code State Gravity Solubility bility ulation Peraia- Baiarda
tence
DTT 8 1 .379 24.500 H L H L Can cauae anrnla,
, •athemoglobinemic i
cyaaoaia. Uglily toxic by
akin abaorption,
ingeation or inhalation.
Can cauae liver injury.
1.202
1,259 I H • L Can cauae anemia,
•ethemoglobinemia 4
cyanoaia. Bighly toxic by
akin abaorption,
ingeation or inhalation.
Can cauae liver injury.
1 .2647 52
8/L 1.100 1.500 M M N Moderately toxic via oral
route .
DPE S/L 1 .010 I H L M H Moderately toxic via Orel
and inhalation route*,
•ild irritant. Prolonged
expoaure damage* liver,
•pleen, kidney* »
thyroid* , and upaeta GI
tract .
8/L 1.068 I It L • H Moderately toxic via oral
rout*. Can cauae
anoxemia and depreaaion
of the central nervoua
•yitem.
L 1.220 R
UPM 8 1.200 I L L ' II S lev reaction «/ Hater,
forma carbon dioxide.
•Mpirator, glove*.
••Ml**, and protective
cUtking recommended.
Recommended Reaponae
Toxic material and
reaction producte, ahould
be removed .
(continued)

-------
                                                          Table  F-4.    (continued)
Cheaical Naae        CHRIS Phya. Specific   Hater    Toxicity Igoita- Reactivity Bioaccuat- Aquatic
                     Code  State Gravity   Solubility          bility             ulation   Feraia-
                                                                                          tence
                                                                                                                   Recovery t Handling
                                                                                                                         Hazarda
                                                                                                                                        Recomended Reaponae
ro
      Dipropylene Clycol
                                   DPG
Dodecyl Sulfate,
    Diethanolaaine Salt

Dudecyl Sulfate, Hagneaiua
    Salt

Dodecyl Sulfate.
    Triethanolanine Salt

Dodecylbencene Sulfonic Acid

Dodecylbenxeneaulfonic  Acid,
    Triethanolaaine Salt

Dodecyltricbloriailane

Uowthera
     Endrin
                                   EDK
     Epichlorobydrin
                                   EPC
                                                1.023
DSD
USM
DST

DBS
DTC
DTK
8
S
a

L
L
L
1.010
1.040
1.101
1.081
1.200
1.030
1 .060
                                               1.650
                                          1.180
                                                                M     H      L
                                                            13.8
                                                            0.16      E      L
                                                           60,000      H
                                                                                                                Low toxicity via oral
                                                                                                                route.  Moderately
                                                                                                                irritant to akin, eyea,
                                                                                                                •ucoua Benbranea.  Can
                                                                                                                cauae CHS atieuilatiou
                                                                                                                followed by depreaaion if
                                                                                                                ingeated.
                                                                                                                Wear eye protection.
                                                                                                                                                  toxic and
                                                                                                                                         aesthetically
                                                                                                                                         objectionable, abould be
                                                                                                                                         renoved.
                                                                                                 Toxic by (kin contact,
                                                                                                 inhalation,  ingeation
                                                                                                 cauaea diszineaa,
                                                                                                 ueaknaaa of  lego,  nauaea,
                                                                                                 abdoaiinal peina.
                                                                                                 Abaorbed by  akin  (tea
                                                                                                 aolutionc >  2.51.
                                                                                                 Eatreaely toxic via oral
                                                                                                 & dermal routea.

                                                                                                 Higb toxicity orally,
                                                                                                 •oderately toxic
                                                                                                 deretally. Producea
                                                                                                 aterilty, respiratory
                                                                                                 paralyaia, kidney davage.
                                                                                                 irritation to
                                                                                                 eyea,lunga,akin.
                                                                                                                                         Toxic, ahould be reaoved.
                                                                                                                                         However due to reactivity
                                                                                                                                         i aolubility, diaperaal
                                                                                                                                         aay be aoat practical
                                                                                                                                         reaponae to a water
                                                                                                                                         apill.
     Enters. 2,4,5-T
                                          1.200

-------
Table F-4.  (continued)
Cbomlcal Ka*e
Eatera, 2.4-B
Elbiou
Ethoxy Triglycol
Ethoxylated Moaylphenol
Etbyl Chloroacetate
•jtf Ethyl Chloroformate
CD Ethyl Cuthion
Etbyl Uctate
Ethyl Fboapboaothioic
Dichloride, Anhydroua
Ethyl Phoaphorodicbloridate
EtliylaluaiuuB Dichloride
EthylaluaiinuB Beaquichloride
Ethyldichloroailane
Ethylene Cblorobydrin

CHRIS fhy*. faccific Uater Toxicity I|«ita- Reactivity lioiecuar
Code State Gravity Solubility bility illation
1.163 I
1.22 2 E ;
ETC L 1.020 H L L H
ENP 8/L 1.010 H
EGA L 1.150 I L H
EOF L l.HS »
1 .284 I
ELT L 1.010 M H M N
EPD L 1.350 t
EPP L 1 .ISO *
BAD S 1.227 I
EAS L 1.0S9 t
ECS L 1.092 D
ECU L 1.197 M H H H L

• Aquatic Iccovery 4 Maodliat tecoweaded leapopae
reraia- Hazard*
tence

An inaecticide. Very
high toxicity orally.
High toxicity via dermal
routea.
Low toxicity via oral and
dermal routea.

Moderately irritating via
oral and inhalation
route*.


Moderately toxic via
oral route.





High toxicity via dermal,
oral and inhalation
routea. Vapor irritatea
•ucoua aeabranea, cauaea
drowaineaa, vomiting
later dyapnea, headache,
cyanoaia, heart pain.
Fatal amounta can be
abaorbed through akin.
(continued)

-------
Table  F-4.   (continued)
Chemical Name

Ethylene Cyanohydrin





Ethylene Dibroaiide




-

Ethylene Dichloride

CHRIS Phya. Specific Water Toxicity Ignita- Reactivity lioaccua- Aquatic Recovery 4 Handling
Code State Gravity Solubility bility ulation Peraia- Haiarda
tence
L 1 .047 H L L When heated or on contact
with acid, emit* highly
toxic cyanide product*.
' Can react vigoroualy M/
oxidizing Material.
Moderately toxic via oral
4 deraal route*.
EDB L 2.180 2.700 H H M H Wear canniater-type naak.
neoprene glovea/gogglea.
Vapor toxic by
inhalation, akin contact,
inge*tion. Irritating to
eyea, *kin 4 reapiratory
tract.
EDC L 1.253 8,000 M H L L H Flaahea back along vapor
trail. Protective
Reconnended Reaponae







Toxic, ahould be
[moved.





Toxic, ahould be
reavoved.
                                                clothing, gogglea t gaa
                                                •aak or aeIf-contained
                                                breathing unit required.
                                                Toxic by inhalation,
                                                akin, orally.
Ethylpbenyl Dichloroailane EPS L 1.159 R
Ethyltrichloroailane El'S L 1.240 I
Ferric Fluoride FFX 3 4.09 910 H
Ferric Sulfate FSF 8 3.100 SS j, N N
Ferroua Fluoborate < FFB L 1.101 M H N
Ferroua Oxalate FOX s 2.300 0.022 H H H



Highly toxi'c 4
irritating. If ingeated
can cauae voaicing,
aathm, aevere bone
change*. Highly
irritating to eyea, akin
i aMCOua aieaibranea .
A aiild irritant, tow
toxic ity via oral route.

Highly toxic via oral 4
inhalation routea. A
powerful irritant.
Corroaive to tiaaue.
(continued)

-------
                                                     Table F-4.    (continued)
Cheaiical Uaave CE1IS Phya. Specific Uater Toxicity Igoita- Reactivity iioacciw- Aquatic
- Code Stale Gravity Solubility bility ulattom Peraii-
> tence
Ferroua Sulfat* FRS S 1.900 15.65 H H H

Fluoranthene . 8 1.252 .265 •
Fluorene S 1.203 1 .98
Fluoailicic Acid FSL L 1.300 SH H H
Fluoaulfonic Acid FSA L 1.730 SR H H H
Foraic Acid FHA L 1.220 H H H H L




**!
LO
0
Recovery 1 Handling RecnuMnded Reaponae
Uarardi

Hoderately toxic via oral
route.


Highly irritant to akin.
eyea, aucoua nembrinea
and via inhalation rout*.
Acutely irritating^
highly toxic if inhaled
for brief perioda. Very
cauatic to akin.
producing auperficial
bliatera, burn* on
contact.

Fuoaric Acid
Furfural
Furfuryl Alcohol

 •




Gallic Acid


Glycerine
                               FFA  L
                                          1.635
                                          1.159
                      7.000      U


                     90.000
FAL L     1.130           H      H      L





CLA S     1.700       11.500      M      L


UCR L     1.261           H      U      L
Probably Ion toxic icy via
oral route.

Hoderately irrtating to
akin, eyea * auicoua
•eabraaea. Liquid ia
dangeroua to eyea. Vapor
ia abaorbed  by  akin,
•ucoua oeabranea, and ia
CHS poiaoo.  frotect
expoaed akin t  eyea.

Highly toxic via oral,
inhalation & denal
routea. Moderately
irritating to akin,  eyea
t aucoua »embr«Qe».

Moderately toxic via oral
route. Mildly irritating.

Hoderately toxic via oral
route. In torn of mitt  ia
a reapiratory tract
irritant.
                                                                                                                                   Toxic, should  be  removed,
                                                                                                                                   however high solubility
                                                                                                                                   may result in dispersion.

-------
Table F-4.   (continued)
Cheuical Name
Glycidyl Hethacrylate
Gutliiou
Heptachlor
Hexacli lorobenzene
llexach lorobu tad iene
t-tj Hexachlorocyclopentadiene
1
U)
t—
llexach loroethane
Hexaethyl Tetraphoaphate
Itexylene Glycol
llydroquiiione

Hydroxyetbyl Acrylate, 2-
Hydroxypropyl Acrylate
Hydroxypropyl Methacrylate
Isophthalic Acid
CHRIS Fhya. Specific
Code State Gravity
CCM L 1 .073
S 1.44
HTC S 1.660
8 1 .5691
1 1 .662
HCC L 1 .710
S 2.091
L 1.4273
HXG L 1 .008
UOQ S 1.330

11AI L 1 .100
III' A
L 1 .060
II PH L 1.060
IPL S 1.540
Hater Toxic ity Igofta- Reactivity lioaccu.- Aquatic Becov.ry 4 Band ling R.coMended Reaponae
Solubility biltty ulation feraia- Hsiarda
tence
1 " !• H H Polyethylene coatad Toxic, ahould be
apron, glovca 4 gogglet removed.
ahould be worn. Beat,
peroxidea, and cauatica
' cauae polyaerUation. Hay
clog equipment, Bay
float.
33
°-02 EH M H Highly toxic via oral 4
dermal routea. Prolonged
expoaure cauaea liver
.005 ' danage.
0.0805 UN L M Highly toxic via oral 4
deroal routea.
Reacta a lowly with water
to loin UC1.
In preaence of Boiature,
50 fill corrode iron,
releaaing f laomble 4
exploaive hydrogen gaa.
M H L H Moderately toxic via oral
route. Irritating to
akin, eyea, and mcoua
•enbranea .
'0,000 H L H L Highly toxic orally.
Active allergen 4 atrong
irritant. Vapora
suit be avoided. Cauaea
deraatitia.
M M L H
M L H
H L H
SS M L H L A Bild irritant.
                                            Moderately toxic via oral
                                            route.
                                                                           (contir

-------
                                                 Table F-4.   (continued)
N)
Ctumical H«me
Iiopropyl Percarbonat*




laoaaf role
Latex. Liquid Synthetic
Lead
Lead Acetate


9
Lead Araenate





Lead Fluoborate

Lead Fluoride

Lead Iodide
Lead Phoaphate
Lead Subacetate
Lead Tetraacetate
Lead Thiocyanate
CE»IS rhya. Specific Hater Toxicity Ignita- teictivity lioiccua- Aquatic
Code Slat. Gravity Solubility fcility ulation Ter.i.-
tence
IPC S 1.080 I H L ,H




8 1.1224
1X8 L 1.057 H L H
S 11.344 .001
LAC S 2.550 100 B H H



LAR S 5.790 I II H N E



"

L 1.750 H H

LFIt S a. 240 64,000 H N H

LID S 6.160 64,000 M M
S 7.15 .014
S 3.25 44,300
LTT S 2.200 I-D
LTC S 3.820 5,000 H M
Recovery 4 Hindlinj
Hazard!
Should not be allowed to
ruaia in contact w/
•kin.
Inhalation of vapor or
ingeation ihould be
avoided.



Toxic by inhalation,
ingeation and akin
contact. Do not handle
with bare handa.

Poiaonoua if awal lowed.
leapirator to prevent
inhalation of
particulatea ia required,
protective clothing
neceaiary.

Highly toxic via oral
route.
Moderately toxic via oral
route.




Product* of decomposition
lecouendod Kciponic












Soluble under acid
condition!. Removal ia
belt courae followed by
burial with a baiic
•aterial to prevent
diaiolution and to
iaolate.









                                                                                                air include highly toxic
                                                                                                carbon diaulfide and
                                                                                                aulfuc dioxide.
                                                                                                                                 (continued)

-------
                                                          Table  F-4.    (continued)
U)
=•
       Lindane

       Hagneniua


       Halatbioa
      Maleic Hydrazide
      Malononitrite
          1.87

          1.740


          1.234
                                   MLU   S    1.600
                                         8     1.191
      Mercuric Aumoniu» Chloride     HCC   S     5.
      Mercuric Chloride
     Hercuric Iodide
     Mercuric  Sulfide
     Hercuroua Chloride
                                                700
                                   MRC   8     5.400
                                  HID   S    6.300
                                  MRS   S    8.000
                                       S     7.150
.—• « ass- •— •
     10

     1            L        N


   »«     «      L   ,     H






 6.000     ML        H


   100

 1.400     a      H         H





54,000      EH         H





 7.000      EH        H
                                                          0.01
                                                                          L        N
                                                             2      H     H         H
                                                                                                     s::s:!
                                                                                                      tence
                                                       Recovery i Head Iing
                                                             Hazard*
                                                                                                    Recotwended Reaponae
                                           Duat  ia a alight
                                           irritant.

                                           E.tre.ely to.ic to       To.ic.  ahouid be
                                           aquatic fauna. Moderately removed.
                                           toxic via oral t derul
                                           routea. Affect* CHS
                                           cauaea allergic
                                           aenaitization.

                                           Moderately toxic via oral
                                           route.
                                          Highly
                                          cauaea akin  burna and
                                          other forna  of
                                          irritation.  Abaorbed
                                          through the  akin.

                                          A deadly poiaon. Highly
                                          toxic via all routea.
                                          Cauaea akin  burna i other
                                          forna of irritation.
                                          Abaorbed by  akin.

                                          Highly toxic via oral
                                          route.  Cauaea akin  burna
                                          i  other forna of
                                          irritation. Abaorbed by
                                          •kin.

                                          Highly  toxic via all
                                          routea. Cauaea akin  burna
                                          and other foraa  of
                                          irritation. Abaorbed by
                                          akin.

                                          Highly toxic  via oral
                                          route. Cauaea akin burna
                                          i other forna of
                                          irritation. Abaorbed by
                                          akin.
                                                                                                                                               (continued)

-------
Table F-4.  (continued)
Chemical Mime CHRIS
Code
Hercuroua Nitrate H»H
t
Mercury Fulminate
Helhacrylic Acid
* Helhanearaonic Acid, Sodium
Salta (liquid)
Met homy 1
Hethoxychlor HOC
Methyl Chlorocarbonate
Methyl Chlorofornate
Methyl Ethyl Ketone Peroxide
Methyl Iodide
Methyl Naphthalene
Methyl Parathion HPT
Hethylcholanthrene
Methylcyclopentadienylmanganea MCT
e Tricarboayl
Hethyldichloroailane MCS
Pltya. Specific Uater , Toxicity Igaita- Reactivity lioaccum-
State Gravity Solubility bility ulation
S 4.780 I-D U L L
S 4.42
L LOIS S
S 1 .500
1 .2946 10,000
S 1.410 I M L . M H
L 1 .223
L 1.220 R
L 1.170
L 2.279 20,000
S 1 .020 I
L/S 1.360 SO
S 1.28
L 1.390 70 E L N
L 1.110
- Aquatic lecovery t Handling Recommended Retponic
Per •!•- Hazarda
tence
Highly toxic via oral
route. Cauaea akin burni
t other forma of
irritation. Abaorbed by
akin.
Solution may corroda moat
metala. Solid in contact
with wood or paper may
cauae fire.
Highly exploaive.



An inaecticide. An
irritant and allergen.
Moderately toxic via oral
i dermal routea.
Prolonged expoaure may
cauae kidney injury.







. Highly toxic via oral 4
^ inhalation routea.
Moderately toxic via
dermal routea. Expoaur*
to dual or fumea can
CM** raafiralory
imfectioma.
(continued)

-------
                                                        Table  F-4.    (continued)
           Chenical H«.
                                CUB IS Fhys. Specific
                                Code  State Gravity
  Hethylene Bronide

  Hethylphoaphonothioic
     Dichloride, Anhydroua

  Methylpyrrolidone,  1-
 Hetbyltricbloroiilane

 Hevinpboa

 Holybdic  Trioxide
 Monochloro.cetic Acid
Honoethanolanine
       I-     2.4970      11,930

MPU    L     1.420           R
                               MPY   L
                                           1 .030
      L     1.270

            1.25

HTO   S     4.690
                               MCA
                                          1 .580
                               MEA   L     1.016
Motor Fuel Antiknock Conpoundt  MFA  L     1.600      0.1-100
    (Lead Alkyl*)
N-AninoethanolaBLne

N-Nitroao-N-Methylurethane

N-Nitroaodinethylanine




H-Nitroaodiphenylanine

N-Nitioaopiperidine
           1.028

           1.133

           1.0048




           1.23

           1.0631
     I

77.000
                                                        •00°      H      H
                                                           M     H      L
                                                                                                    tence
                                                                                                            Cont«ct of  liquid or
                                                                                                            vapor* vith akin, cyei or
                                                                                                            BUCOUI membf»aet thould
                                                                                                            be (voided.
                                                                             Highly  toxic via oral i
                                                                             inhalation routea. Alao
                                                                             an  irritant. Suitable
                                                                             precaution* ahould be
                                                                             taken againat inhaling
                                                                             the aubatance.

                                                                             High irritant to akin,
                                                                             eyea and micoua
                                                                             •e>branea. Highly toxic
                                                                             via oral route.

                                                                             Moderately toxic via oral
                                                                             and derul route*.

                                                                             Air lupplied reapirator,   Toxic,  should be
                                                                             glove*, goggle* required, moved.
                                                                                       V*por* very
                                                                             toxic,  fatal lead
                                                                             poiaoning nay occur follow-
                                                                             ing ingeation,  inhalation,
                                                                             akin absorption.
                                                     Carcinogen,
                                                     no  expoaure or bodily
                                                     contact ahould be
                                                     permitted.
                                                                                                                                                 (con', inued)

-------
                                                       Table F-4.    (cpntlnued)
         Che.ic.l N..e         CMI1S  Fhya. Specific   Water    ToxlcHy Ignila- Reactivity iloiccuw Aquatic
                               Code  State Gravity  Solubility         bility             illation   Fereia-
                                                                                                   tence
                                                                                lecovery t Hand lint
                                                                                     Haiarda
                                                                                                                                       lecouunded Reaponie
Naphthalene,  Holten
Naphthylaaine. 1-
Naran

Nickel
 Nickel
                Sulfate
 Nickel Carbouyl
                              NTH   8     I.145
                                                      3.000
                               NAO  s     1.120        1.700      H
      S     1.140           H

      S     B.90

MAS   S     1.920      85.000
                              MKC    L     1.322
                                                         180     £
Nickel Cyanide
Nickel riuoborete
Nickel Fornate
Nitralin
Nilroaniline, 2-
HCH
NFB
HFH
NTL
NTA
S
L
S
S
S
2.400
1 .500
2. ISO
1.001
1.440
60
H
31,500
I
500 a
H
N
N
L
L
N
N

H
H
                                                                            Organic vapor rcapirator,
                                                                            gogglei, and protective
                                                                            clothing abould be voim.
                                                                            May foul dredging
                                                                            equipatat.  Irritatca
                                                                            eyaa. *kin, reapiratory
                                                                            tract. Holtea Daphtbalene
                                                                            apattera * totmt in
                                                                            contact n/ water.

                                                                            Toxic when abaorbed by
                                                                            lunga, gaatro-inteatinal
                                                                            tract t akin. May produce
                                                                            tuBora or bladder cancer
                                                                            if  long expoaure occura.
Airborne nickel duat  ia
carcinogenic if inhaled.
Can cauae derma t it U.

Extreaely toxic by
inhalation and ingeation.
A fev breatha could be
fatal.

Highly toxic.

Highly toxic vie oral and
inhalation routea.

Can cauae deraatitia.
Should not be inhaled if
in duat  forei.
                                                                                                            Highly  toxic by akin
                                                                                                            contact or  inhalation of
                                                                                                            vatora.
                           Toxic,  eapecielly  to
                          aquatic life,  ahould be
                          reaoved.
 Nitroaniline, 4-
                               NAL   S     1.440
                                                                                                                                                  (continued)

-------
Table F-4.   (.continued)
Chemical Nsme
Nitrobenzene
Nitroethane
Nitroglycerine
1 Hitrophenol, 2-
Nitrophenol, 3-
Nitrophenol, 4-
Nit rotoluene, »-
Nitrotoluene, o-
Hitrotoluene, p-
Octauetliyl Pyrophosphoranide
Octyl Epoxytallate
Oil, Hiac: Road
Para formaldehyde
CHRIS Phys. Specific Uster Toxicity Ignita- Reactivity Bioaccum- Aquatic Recovery t Handling Recommended Reaponse
Code State Gravity Solubility bility ulation Peraia- Uaxarda
tence
NTB L 1.204 1,900 H L N L Rspidly sbsorbed through Toxic, should be
skin. Organic vapor removed.
reapirator, protective
clothing necessary.
Moderately toxic via oral
I dermal route*. Cauae*
x cyanosia.
NTE L 1.050 45,000 HUN L Somewhat toxic by
inhslation and ingeation.
Decomposition products
are highly toxic.
May attack some forms of
plaatic.
L 1.5931 1,800 Highly exploaive.
NIPS 1.490 1,500 H L N L Highly toxic upon
ingest ion, inhalation, or
, • abaorption through akin.
Emits highly toxic oxides
of nitrogen upon thermal
decomposition.
S 1.263 20,000 H L Highly toxic via oral
route.
NPH S 1.480 16,000 H L N L Highly toxic via oral
route.
L 1.153 498 M L L Moderately toxic via oral
and dermal routes.
L 1.153 650 M L L Moderately toxic via oral
* dermal routes.
8 1.113 40 H L L Moderately toxic via
ingeation, inhalation, or
! absorption through skin.
Yields toxic oxides of
nitrogen when burned.
L 1.09 100
GET L 1.002 1 L N
ORD L 1 .100 I L M
PFA S 1 .460
(continued)

-------
                                                          Table F-4.    (qontinued)
00
Che«ical Mine
Farathion
Pentaboran«
Fentaclilorobenxene
Fentachloroethane
Pentachloronitrobenxene
Feutachlorophenol
CHRIS Fhya,
Code State
PTO L
PTB L
S
L
S
PCP 8
Specific Water Toxicity Ignita- Reactivity lioiccim- Aquatic
Gravity Solubility bility uUtion Feraia-
tence
1.269 20 E H L H
1 .6796
1.8342 .135
1.6796 I H L
i
1.718 .02
1.980 1,000 UN H H U
Recovery 1 Handling Recowunded Reaponae
Hixarda
Very toxic.
Can be fatal by akin
contact, inhalation, or
ingeation. When handled,
a aupply of atropine
ahould be available.


Hoderately toxic via oral
route .
Highly toxic via
inhalation route.

Reapirator i protective Toxic, ahould be
     Pentaerythritol


     Pemcetic Acid
     Perchloroethylene
PET  S     1.390      62.000     t      L


PAA  L     1.153           M      H      M
                                               1.6227
                                                           2,000
clothing ahould be worn,  removed.
Highly toxic. Irritant to
eyea, akin. Derutitia
occura.

Low toxicity. A nuiaance
duit.

Will produce aevere acid
buma to ikin » eyca.
Prolonged inhalation of
vapor may be hanful.
Corroaive to «o«t Betala
including »lu»iaum.
nay cauae fire  in
contact with organic
•ateriala (i.e. wood,
alraw).

Incoordination  occura at
vapor expoaurea of
300-1000 ppat. Dixxineaa,
drowaineaa,  loaa of
conaciouaneaa I death can
occur at higher
expoaufea.
                                                                                                                                                   (continued)

-------
Table F-4.    (continued)
ChcBical Haae
PercblorOBCthyl Mercaptan
Fbanol :





PheuyldicbloroaraUe, Liquid


Phorate *
Phoedrin





Pboaphorua Penteaulfide

Phoapborua, Black
Pboapborua, Bed
CURIS Phya. Specific Hater Toxicity Ignite- Inactivity Bioaccua- Aquatic Becovery i Handling BecoBBended Reaponae
Code State Gravity Solubility bility ulation Peraia- Uaxarda
tence
PCM 1 1.706
PHN S/L 1.0Si M..OOO H L H L Highly toxic via oral,
deraal routee. Death haa
reaulted froa abaorption
through a akin area of 44
aq ia. Caaaea aevere
tieaue burne.
L l.*57 I ft L Highly toxic via
inhalation, deraal, and
oral routea.
POL i.,» 50 Corrode. ..t.1.
PHD 78.03 H E L L An eye i akin irritant.
Hear protective clothing.
Highly toxic via oral,
1 inhalation 4 dernal
rw> routea. Hill attack aoau
plaatica.
PPP * 2.030 B
i
PPB 8 2.70 Iv
PPB S 2.200 I L H H Heat Bay cauae revereion Toxic, reauve.
                                                  to highly toxic a
                                                  apontaaaoualy
                                                  yellow Bhoaphorua. Duet
                                                  Beak, rubber glovee
                                                  required.
                                                  •eacta violently vith
                                                  oxidixing egest in the
                                                  preaence of air 4 water
                                                  releeaing pboapboroua
                                                  acida, pboaphine gaa
                                                  (flaBnable).
                                                                                     (continued)

-------
                                                            Table F-4.   .(continued)
             Choice 1 NMC         CUIIS fhye. Specific  Hater    Toiicity Ifaita- iaactlvity Iloiccun- Aquatic
                                   Cod.  State Gravity  Solubility          blllty            uUtion   Feraie-
                                                                                                       ttnc«
                                                                               Recovery 4
                                                                                     Uauret
                                        Reepooae
    Fboapborue, Vbitc
PPU   I     1.820
                                                           .0003
Highly toxic via mil,
derul k inbalaciom
routaa. I(*itaa
apootueoualy la air.
Haavy ntkbar (lovaa t
face abiald abouU ba
worn.
lequirca apacialiied
biDdliKg by uauiacturara
(FHC Corp 4 Honaanto).
                                                                                                     Toxic, abould be moved.
    Pbthalic Anhydride
                                              1.530
                        6,200
ff
    Palychlorincted lipbenyl*
          tbyluie Polyphenyl
        liacyaoitc

    folypropylwu Glycol


    Put«»iu> Chlorate
    Potaaaiuai Penuogaaatc
    PutaaaiuB Peroxide
                                   PCB  L     1.550
                                   PPl   L     1.200
 PCC   L     1.012
                                   PGR   8     2.340      75,000
                                   FTP   8     2.700
                                   POP  8     1.001
                            I      U     L


                                   H
                       60.000
Hodarataly toxic          Hoderately toxic,  abould
protective clothinf,      ba removed, il poaaibU.
org«»ic vapor raapirator  Diaparaal auy be
racoaacaded. Duat  4 vapor acceptable.
irritate eyea, upper
rzipiratory tract, I
•oiat akiau
                                                                            Glovea 4 protective
                                                                            clotbiag reco>B*aa«d.
                                                                           . Moderately toxic via
                                                                            deraal 4 oral routaa. A
                                                                            atroni irritut
                                                                            toxic te liver.
                                                                            Toxic, Boaecfr*«>ble 4
                                                                            highly •ioMcueulatioc.
Highly toxic via oral
route.

Hoderately toxic via oral
route. Coatact with
coa&uatiblee Bay cauae
fire.

Skin 4 eye irritant.
tio4er«tely toxic via oral
route. A atrang irritant
becauae of oxidiiiot
propertiea.  Attack*
rubber aai anat fibera.
                         Abaolutely ahouU be
                         removed.
                                                                                                                                                    vconcinueo;

-------
                                                 Table  F-4.   (continued)
CheBical Mane

Propionic Anhydride


Propylene Glycol

Pyreoe
Quinoliae




Safrole
^ Sttlicylaldehyde
h— '
Salicylic Acid

SeleniuB
SeleniuB Dioxide
SeleniuB Trioxide
Silver Acetate



Silver Carbonate


Silver Cyanide
Silver fluoride
Silver lodate
cms
Code

PAH


PPG


QNL






SLA


SLO
8TO
SVA



SVC



SVF
SVI
Pbya.
State

L


L

8
L




L

S

8
8
S
S



8


8
8
8
Specific Hater Toxicity Ignita- Beactivity Bioaccua- Aquatic
Gravity Solubility bility ulation Feraia-
tence
1.010 1 H L L L


1.040 8 L ' M
1
1.271
1.095 6,000 U L M L




1.100 .0001
1.167 88 L
1.440 SS M L N L

4.01
3.950
3 .600
3.260 10,200 H N



6.100 N H


3.95 0.23
5.820
5.330 H N
Becovery 6 Handling Sccowsoded Baeponie
Ha»rda

lye, akin 4 reepiratory
irritant. Moderately
toxic via oral rout*.
Mo toxicity via oral
route.

Highly toxic via oral t
derail routea. May
produce retinitia. May
attack aoBe foraa of
plaatica.


Moderately toxic via oral
rout*.



Abaorption by cuta in
akin can produce
perBanent pignentation of
the akin.
Abaorption by akin can
cauae perunent
pigaentation of the akin.


Abaorption by akin can
Silver Oxide
                           SVD   8
                                     7.UO
cause permanent
diccoloration of akin.

Moderately toxic via oral
route.

-------
                                                             Table F-4.    (continued)
•c-
Chemical U*M
Silver Sulfate
Silvex
Sodium lorate
Sodium Oxalete
Sodium Pboaphat*
Sodium Silicate
Sodium Silicof luoride
Strontium Sulfide
Sulfolane
CUUI rfayi.
Code State
8VS 1
SD1 *
SOX *
Sft *
L
SFI 1
t
SFL S
Specific Water Toxicity Ignita- Inactivity lioaccum- Aquatic
Gravity Solubitity billty Blation Itttlt-
ttnce
5.450
1 .20I» UO
2.367 MM »
2.270 B H M
2.150 18.000
1.400 8 H .M V
2.660 UN M
3.70
1.260 H M L H
Itcovecy 6 Ktndliaj IcciMMuaded Ictpoaia
U a sard a
Abaorptioa by akin can
cauie peraunent
dlacoloratioa of akin.
Kodtrattly toxic via oral
rout*.
Highly toxic via oral
route .
Hoderately toxic via oral
route. Very cauatic,
irritant to akiai 6 aucoua
•eabranea.
Highly toxic via oral
route.
Hoderately toxic via oral
     Sulfur
     Tet rachloroetbane
                                              1.800
                                   TEC  L     1 -602
     Tecrachloroethane, 1.1,2,2-         L     1.595

     Tetrachloroetbyleoe           TTK   L     1.630
2,820
  165
                                                                            Should be removed or
                                                                            buried due to potential
                                                                            production of toxic gaaea
                                                                            or acid.
Lou toxicity
inhalation can cauae
irritation of aucoua
•embranaa. Safety
fOftlea, rcapirator
ahould be uaed.

Highly toxic to  liver via
oral t inhalation  routea
moderately toxic via
dermal rout*. Strong
irritant of eyea i upper
reapiratory tract.
May attack aoae  form* of
plaatica.
Hoderately toxic  via      Toxic, should be
inhalation, oral  4 dermal removed.
routea. Injurea eyea. Can
cauae derauititi*. Hear
gogglea, protective
clothing, 4 reapirator.
                                      (continued)

-------
                                                           Table F-4.    (continued)
-P-
U)
              Cbeaical HI
CHMS Phya.  Specific   Hater    Toxicity Ignita- Reactivity  gioaccun- Aquatic
Code  State  Gravity  Solubility         bility             ulation   Peni-
                                                                    tence
                                                                                                                 Recovery 6 Handling
                                                                                                                       Hazard*
                                                                                                        lecoeweuded Bcapona*
     Tetraetbyl Dithiopyropboaphate TED   L     1.190
     Tetraetbyl Le»d
    Tetraetbyl ryrophoaphate
                                              1.180
                                                             25
                                                              1      B      L
                                                              H      E     M
    Tetrafluoroethylene


    Tetranethyl Lead
TFE   C     1.519


TML   L     1.919
                           I


                         soo
»     L


H      M
TetraaitroBethana
Thallic Oxide
Thallium
ThalliuB (I) Carbonate
Thalliua (I) Chloride
TballiuB (I) Nitrate (v>
ThalliuB (I) Selenide
Tbiopfaenol
.Tbiophoagene
L 1 .6380
8 9.65
S 11.85
S 7.11 4,030
> 7.004 2,900
8 S.S56 3.910
S.05
1.0766
TPG 1.511 I H „
 Corroaive to noat aetala
 in  the preaence of
 •oiature.

 Highly toxic via oral.    toxic, abould be
 inbelation I denat       moved.
 routea. Diaaolvea rubber.
 Cauaea intoxication by
 inhalation t absorption
 by  akin.

 Very high toxicity  by
 all routea.  Action
 aimilar to parathioa.
 •eacta •lowly vitb water
 to  fora pboapboric acid,
 corroaive to aluminum,
 •lowly corroaive to
 copper, breaa, sine, tin.

 Moderately toxic
 can act aa an aapbyxiant.

 High toxicity by          Joxic, abouid b*
 inhalation and akin       removed.
abaorption. Hear air line
•aak.  gogglaa, rubber
boota. neoprcnc glovea.
                                                                                                             Highly irritant to akin.
                                                                                                             eyea, nucma ewabranca.
                                                                                                             Corrodea awtnla in
                                                                                                             preaence of noiatura.
                                                                                                                                                    (continued)

-------
                                                        Table F-4.,   (continued)
Cbraical N**e
Thiourea
Tbirao

Toluene-2,4-diiaocyanata

Toxapheue
Trichloro-a-triaxinetrioae
Tricblorobeoxene, 1,2,4-
CHIIS »byi. iMclUc Uater Toxlcity Ignite- Reactivity lleaccuar Aquatic
Code itate Cravlty tolukiHty HUty ulatie. Feraia-
g 1.40S M,W»
TriR 1 1.430 I H L M

TDI 1 1.220 I u L L

TJCP 8 1.600 3 M » »
g 1.001 12,000 H '
L 1.454 I M L
Bacevery 4 lasdlimg lecoaiMBded leape»«*

Hoderately toxic by
deraal route. Mild
allergen and irritant.
Strong irritant and
aenaitixer. Vapora came
aerioua lung injury if
inhaled.
Absorbed by tkia Toxic, abould be
highly toxic orally. raawved.
leapirator, rubber
glovea, and gogglea or
face ibield required.

Hoderately toxic via oral
Trichloroetban*,  1,1,1-
                              TCE   L
                                         1.310
Trichloroethane, 1,1,2-
Tcicbloroetbyleaa
                                    L     1.441        4.400     M
                              TCL   L     1.460
                                                      1,100
rout*.

Incoordimatiou » iapairad Toxic,  abould b«
judfamant at vapor        ra«>ved.
aipoaucaa of 500-1000
tfm. Disaiaaaa,
drovaiuaaa,  loaa of
coBaciouanaaa 4 daatb at
incraaainc aipoaurea.

laacta alouly •/ watar    Toxic,  ahould ba rcmovW.
foraiini hydrochloric
acid, laapirator and
protective clotting
required. Corrodea dredge
equipment.

IncoordiBBtiou  •  iapairad Toxic,  abould be
judgement occur at vapor  removed.'
expoaurea of 500-1000
tfm. Diisioeae,
drovaineaa,  loaa  of
conaciouBDaaa ( death at
higher expoaurea.
                                                                                                                                               (continued)

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Table F-4.   ((Continued)
Chenical Htme
Tricblorof luoroaethan*




TrichloroMthaneeulfonyl
Chloride
Tricbloropbenol




Trichloropbenoxyacetic Acid,
hrl z.*.5-
1
<•" Tricbloroailane
Tricreayl Phoapbate (< U
Ortho-I*OBer )
Triethenolaaine

Trietbylene Clycol
Tr if luorocbloroethylene

Triflurelin

Tripropylene Glycol





Uranyl Acetate
Uranyl Nitrate
Uranyl Sulfate
Vanadiua Oxytricbloride
CHRIS Pfaya. Specific Water Toxicity Ignite- Keactivity Bioaccuer Aquatic
Code State Gravity Solubility bility ulation Feraia-
tence
TCF L 1.490 1,100 'I. H » LI




8 1 .700

TPH 8 1.700 <1,000 H N N H H




TCA 8 1.803 240 H L M


TCS L 1.344 B
TCP L 1 .160

TEA L 1.130 M L L N

TEG L 1.125 H H L •
TFC G 1 .307 I n ' N H

TFR 8 1.294 
-------
Table F-4. * (continued)
Chtnicat B««

Vanadira Featoxid*
Vanadyl Eulfata
Vinylldene chloride
Vinyl trichtoroailane
Warfarin
Xylenol
Zinc Araenate
hrj Zinc lorate
1
•P- Zinc 'IroBlde
O\
Zinc Chromate
Zinc Dialkyldithlophoaphate
Zinc Dialkylldithiophoephate
(liquid)
Zinc Flaroborate
Zinc rhoaphide
Zinc Potaeelra Chronate
Zirconiua Acetate
Zirconluai Sulfate
CRItS rhya. liecUlc V*ter Toxicity Ignlta- Reactivity lla«cc»«- Afuatic Recovery t la*dll«( Recovaeadtd Reifoaie
Code Itate Gravity SoIuVlllty blllty •tatlon r«rai»- Ratarda

VOX
vir
VCI
VTS
m
ZM
ZU
ZtR
ZCR
ZDP


ZFB
zrc
7.CA
zsr

s
«
L
L
L
t
I
1
•
S
L
L
S
1
1
1
tence
3-360 * M . Buet ia hifhly toxic via
,' - oral t iakalaticx rantaa.
2.500 E M ' H
1.210 I
1 .260 t
Moderately to highly
1.010 2,000 • toxic via oral rout*.
3.310 M •
Moderately toxic orally.
2.700 •)••
«.220
3.430 II •
1.600 1 L •
r.i» i t •
•ifjblf irate via aval
4.5SO E R M •*»*•.
2.100
1.370 M * II
3.000

-------
                                 APPENDIX G

                                  GLOSSARY
Absorption:  The soaking up of one substance by another, particularly a
     liquid by a solid.

Adsorbate:  A solid, liquid, or gas that is adsorbed as molecules, atoms,
     or ions to the surface of a solid.

Adsorption:  The attraction of molecules, atoms, or ions or compounds to
     the surface of a solid.

Aerobic:  Having molecular oxygen as part of the environment or growing
     in the presence of molecular oxygen.

Alternative:  A collection of techniques that are used to accomplish all
     objectives of a response.

Anion:  A negatively charged atom or group of atoms.

Aquatic persistance:  Chemical stability of a substance over time in a
     water body.

Aromatics:  A class of organic compounds characterized by one or more cyclic
     rings that contain double bonds.  Benzene is a prominent compound of
     this class.

Backwash:  An upward flow of water through a filter bed that cleans the
     filter after it is exhausted.

Benthic organisms:  Plant and animal life whose habitat is the bottom of
     a sea, lake, or river.

Bentonite:  A highly plastic clay, consisting of the minerals montmorillonite
     and beidellite, that swells extensively when wetted.

Berm:  A narrow shelf or flat area that breaks the continuity of a slope.

Bioaccumulation:  The result of chemical intake by an organism when the rate
     of intake is greater than the rate of excretion, resulting in and
     increase in tissue concentration relative to the exposure concentration.
                                    G-l

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Bioaccumulation factor:  The ratio of the concentration of a substance
     in the tissue of an organism to the concentration of the substance
     in the environment surrounding the organism.

Biomagnif ication:  The increase in chemical concentration in tissues of
     organisms through the food chain; a progressive increase in bioaccumu-
     lation through the food chain.

Biota:  Animal and plant life, especially of a particular region.

BOD (Biochemical oxygen demand):  A measure of the amount of oxygen required
     by bacteria while stabilizing decomposable organic matter under aerobic
     conditions.

Bottom materials:  Any materials that are on the bottom of a water body,
     including sediments, vegetation, and contaminating substances.
Carbonate:  A compound that contains the carbonate

Cation:  A positively charged atom or group of atoms.
                                                           ) ion.
CERCLA:  Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability
     Act (Superfund), Federal law under which uncontrolled hazardous waste
     sites and spills of hazardous materials are remediated.

CFR:  Code of Federal Regulations; publication of regulations promulgated
     under Federal laws.

Chemical equilibrium:  A condition in which a chemical reaction is occuring
     at equal rates in its forward and reverse directions, so that
     concentrations of the reacting substances do not change with time.

CHRIS:  Chemical Hazards Response Information System; a U.S. Coast Guard
     information system pertaining to water transport of hazardous chemicals
     that consists of the following components:  the Condensed Guide to
     Chemical Hazards (handbook), the Hazardous Chemical Data Manual, the
     Hazard-Assessment Handbook, the Response Methods Handbook, Data Bases
     for Regional Contingency Plans, and the Hazard-Assessment Computer
     System (HAGS).

Coarse-grained material:  Granular material (such as soil or sediments) in
     which sands and gravels predominate; in general, material larger than
     74 microns (200 mesh).

COD (Chemical oxygen demand):  A measure of the amount of oxygen required
     to convert organic compounds to carbon dioxide and water by a strong
     oxidizing agent.

Cohesive soil:  A soil that has considerable compressive strength when it
     is unconfined and air-dried and exhibits significant cohesion (clumping)
     when it is wetted; opposite of free-flowing material.
                                    G-2

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  Colloidal particles:  Particles that are so small (1 to 100 millimicrons)


                            Pr°dUCe an aPPreciable influence on the behavior
                                                   Md

                                                                   the quality
 Dewatering:   Removal  of water from a  substance or an area by means of

      gravity, pumps,  drains, or filters.




 DOT:  U.S. Department of ' Transportation.
                              hydrauuc or
 Endangered species:  Biota that are in danger of extinction, especially


      of Inte?io1e! H/   ^e °fflctall>' s° "eolared by the uls. LparSnt
      or interior and/or state agencies.




 Environmental setting:   The total natural background of a location,

      including hydrology,  geology,  climatology,  and biology.
                                                          - .
        measured  under conditions  that simulate  a waste landfill.
Exothermic:  Releasing heat as a by-product of a chemical reaction.




Exposure:  The subjecting of a receptor to a contaminating substance.



Fauna:  Animal life, especially of a particular region.
Slices?
                    Administration of U'S- Department of Health and Human
Filter cake:  A concentrated solid or semisolid material that is

     separated from a liquid by filtration.
                                    G-3

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Fine-grained material:  Granular material (such as soil or sediments) in
     which silts and clays predominate; in general, material smaller than
     74 microns (200 mesh).

Flocculant:  A reagent added to a dispersion of solids in a liquid to
     bring together fine particles to form aggregates, or floes.

Flocculate:  To aggregate or clump small particles into larger masses.

Flora:  Plant life, especially of a particular region.

Free-flowing material:  Generally granular material (such as soil or
     sediments) that can be poured or dumped with minimal clumping;
     opposite of cohesive material.
Grain size:  The effective diameter of  a particle measured by sedimentation,
     sieving, micrometry, or a combination of these methods.

HAGS:  Hazard Assessment Computer System; a system for obtaining rapid
     hazard evaluations from U.S. Coast Guard headquarters; part of  CHRIS.

Habitat:  The area in which a biological population normally lives or
     occurs.

Halogen:  Any element of the halogen  family of chemical elements
     (e.g. chlorine, bromine,' fluorine).

HSWA:  Hazardous and  Solid Waste Amendments to RCRA.

Hydrostatic pressure:   The pressure at  a  point in  a  fluid  at rest  caused by
     the  weight of the  fluid  above  the  point.

Hydroxide:  Compound  containing  the OH~ group;  the hydroxides  of metals are
     bases and  those  of non-metals  are usually  acids.

IARC:   International  Agency  for  Research  on Cancer of the  World Health
     Organization.

Immediate response:   An action or multiple  actions that  are implemented
     with minimal planning and consideration  of  alternatives  to control a
     rapidly  worsening situation or to minimize  the  impacts of a  severe
     situation.

 Impact:   The effect or result of a receptor being exposed  to  a contaminating
     substance.

 In situ;   In its original place, as opposed to being moved or relocated.

 Ions:   Atoms, groups of atoms, or compounds,  that are electrically charged
      as a result of an imbalance between protons and electrons.
                                     G-4

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  Leach:   The  transfer of  liquid,  solid,  or dissolved compounds from a solid
       matrix  to  a liquid  as  a result  of  passing of the liquid through the
       interconnected  pores of a pile  or  cell  of the solid  matrix.

  Leachate:  The  liquid that  is produced  as a  result of leaching: generally
       considered to be contaminated.

  LD50  (or lethal dose):   The  concentration of substance  that  is fatal  to
       50 percent of the population that  is  exposed.

  Micron:  One-millionth of a  meter; 25,400  microns  equal one  inch.

 Mesh:  A size of screen  or particles passed through a screen in terms of
       the number  of openings  occuring per  linear inch; 200 mesh is equivalent
       to 200 microns.


 MPRSA:  Marine Protection, Research,  and Sanctuaries Act;  Federal law under
      which dumping of materials into ocean waters is regulated.

 NAS:  National Academy of Sciences.

 NCP:  National Contingency Plan;  Federal plan for implementing CERCLA.

 NIOSH:  National Institute for Occupational Health and Safety of the U.S
      Department  of Health and Human  Services.

 NOAA:   National  Oceanic and  Atmospheric  Administration of  the U.S.  Department
      of Commerce.                       .


 NPDES:  National Pollutant Discharge  Elimination System; a program  for
      controlling point discharges to  surface  waters;  administered by USEPA
      under  the Clean  Water Act.

 Objectives  (or response objectives):  Goals that  are established for
     minimizing, eliminating, or  reversing the  impacts of  a release  of a
     contaminating substance.

 Octanol-water  partition coefficient:  A  measure of  the affinity of a
     substance for octanol (a liquid  that  behaves  chemically  similar to
     animal fat  tissue) relative  to water.

 On-site:  On the same  or  contiguous geographical area.

 Organic matter:   Substances comprised mainly of carbon and originating
     in animal or plant life  or in laboratory synthesis.

OSC (On-scene  coordinator):  Person that is responsible for responses to
     spills of hazardous substances.

OSHA:  Occupational Safety and Health Administration of the U.S. Department
     of Labor.
                                    G-5

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Oxidation:  A chemical reaction in which a compound or radical loses
     electrons.

Packed bed:  A fixed layer of granular material arranged in a vessel to
     promote intimate contact between gases, vapors, liquids, solids,
     or various combinations.

Partition:  The tendency of a substance to exhibit an affinity for one
     material over another (such as sediments over water).

PCBs (Polychlorinated biphenyls):  A toxic and highly persistent class of
     compounds that were originally used as  insulating fluids in electrical
     equipment.

Persistence:   Chemical  stability of a substance over time.

pH'  A measure of  the hydrogen  ion concentration  of a substance, which
     controls  the  direction,  speed, and extent of chemical  and  biochemical
     reactions.

Publicly owned treatment works  (or POTW):   In general, a central system for
     collecting  and treating municipal wastewater.

Quiescent waters:   Areas  of  a water .body  that have relatively little wave
     action,  current,  and flow velocity.

RCRA:   Resource  Conservation and Recovery Act;  Federal  law under which
      solid and hazardous  wastes are regulated.

 Receptors:  Persons, plants, animals,  or objects that are subjected to a
      contaminating substance.

 Release:  A substance that has entered the environment through a leak,
      discharge,  or other failure of a containment or confinement system.

 Remote sensing:   A class of techniques for monitoring a situation that
      does not involve physically entering the substances being monitored;
      examples are sonar and x-ray fluorescence.

 Residual  (or byproduct):  A material that is produced without intent
      during the processing or  treatment of  other materials.

 Response  (or response  action):  An action or multiple actions that  are
       taken to minimize the impacts of a release  of contaminating materials
       to the environment.

 Resuspension:  The  causing of  bottom materials to become suspended  in the
      water column,  usually by  agititation.
                                      G-6

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  Scour:   The clearing and digging action of flowing water, especially the
       downward erosion caused by stream water in sweeping away mud and silt
       from the outside bank of a channel.

  Scrubber:   A device for removal of entrained liquid droplets, dust,  or an
       undesired gas component from a gas stream.

  SDWA:   Safe Drinking Water Act;  Federal law under which standards and
       criteria are  established to protect  drinking water.

  Sediments:   Material that  has settled  to  the bottom of  a water body,  consist-
       ing primarily of eroded and transported soil and organic matter.

  Sediment-water partition coefficient:   A  measure  of  the affinity  of a
       substance for sediments  relative  to  water.

  Sensitive species  (or indicator  species):   Biota  that exhibit an  usually
      rapid or  extreme  reaction to a changed  environmental condition; such
      reactions can  provide a  qualitative  measure  of  contamination patterns.

 Sinker:   A chemical substance that is heavier than water and  has  low
      solubility in water.

 Slurry:   A mixture of solids and liquid, generally of a consistency that
      can be pumped.

 Soil permeability:   The quality of a soil horizon that enables water or
      air to move through it.  The permeability of a soil may be limited
      by  the presence of one low-permeability horizon, even though others
      are highly permeable.

 Solute:   The substance dissolved in a solvent.

 Sorbent:  A substance that  can take up  and hold  a contaminating substance;
      includes absorbents and adsorbents.                            «-«""-e,

 Specific  gravity:   The ratio of the density of a  material to the density
      of water at a  specific temperature.

 Spill:  Release of  a substance from a container,  generally of short duration.

 Standards and  criteria:  Regulatory  or  advisory numerical  limits for
      concentrations  of contaminating substances; generally apply  to drinking
     water and  discharges of waste streams  to  surface water.

 Suspended solids:  A mixture of fine, nonsettling  particles  in a liquid.

Technique:  A process, method, or technology that  is used to accomplish
     a response.
                                    G-7

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Toxicity:  The characteristic of being poisonous or harmful to plant or
     animal life; the relative degree of severity of this characteristic.

Transformation rate:  The rate at which the properties of a chemical change
     to pose a lesser or greater hazard.

TSCA:  Toxic Substances Control Act; Federal law under which selected
     chemicals are  regulated , (including PCBs).

Turbidity:  Cloudiness of a liquid  caused  by suspension  of solid particles;
     a measure of the suspended solids in  a liquid.
Underlain!  A subsurface'drain pipe or gravel  drainage  layer  into which
     water  flows.

USCG:  United States Coast  Guard  of the U.S. Department  of Transportation

USEPA:  United  States Environmental Protection Agency.

USGS:   United  States Geologic Survey of  the U.S.  Department  of Interior.

Water column:   That part of a water body that  is water,  as opposed to the
      bottom,  banks, vegetation,  etc.
                                      G-8

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                                 APPENDIX H

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 2.   Barnard,  W.   1978.   Prediction and Control of Dredged Material
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                                   H-l

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10.  Church, H.  1981.  Excavation Handbook.  McGraw-Hill Book Co.,
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23.  Erickson,  P.R.  and  J. Hurst.   1983.   Mechanical Dewatering of Dredge
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                                     H-2

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24.  Essoglou, M. et al.  A Transportable Open Ocean Breakwater.  In:
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25.  Ghassemi, M.K. Yu, and S. Quinlivan.  1981.  Feasibility of
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28.  Haliburton, T.A.  1978.  Guidelines for Dewatering/Densifying
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29.  Hand, T.D. , A.W. Ford, P.G. Malone, D.W. Thompson, and R.B. Mercer.
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     Office of Research and Development, Washington, DC.

30.  IARC, International Agency for Research on Cancer, part of the
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31.  JBF Scientific Corporation 1978.  An Analysis of the Functional
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33.  Jones, R.H., R.R. Williams, and T.K. Moore.  1978.  Development and
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     Office, Chief of Engineers, U.S. Army, Washington, D.C.  95 pp.

34.  JRB Associates.  1982.  Handbook:  Remedial Action at Waste Disposal
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35.  Kaing, Y. and A.R. Metry.  1982.  Hazardous Waste Processing Technology.
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                                    H-3

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36.  Kent, J.A. (ed).  1974.  Riegels Handbook of Industrial Chemistry,
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37.  Kirk-Othmer.  1982.  Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology.  Third
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38.  Krizek, R.J., J.A. Fitzpatrick and D.K. Atmatzidis.  1976.
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42.  Lyman, J.L., W.F. Reehl, and D.H. Rosenblatt.  1982.  Handbook of
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43.  Mabey et al.  1981.  Aquatic Fate Process Data for Organic Priority
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44.  Mackenthur, K.M., M.W. Brossman, J.A.  Kohler, and C.R. Terrell.
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     Vicksburg, MI.  236 pp.

46.  Malone, P.G., N.R. Francinques,  and J.A. Boa,   1982.  Use of Grout
     Chemistry and Technology in  the  Containment of Hazardous Wastes.
     In:  Proceedings of Management of Uncontrolled Hazardous Waste  Sites,
     Washington, D.C., Hazardous Materials  Control Research Institute,
     Silver  Spring, MD.
                                     H-4

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 47.



 48.


 49.


 50.


 51.


 52.


 53.



 54.


 55.


 56.


 57.



58.




59.




60.
. McLellan, S.   1982.  Evaluation  of  the Use of  Divers  and/or Remotely
 Operated Vehicles  in Chemically  Contaminated Waters.   JRB Associates,
 prepared for:  EPA, Edison,  NJ.   80 pp.

 Meritt, F.   1976.   Standard  Handbook for  Civil Engineers.   McGraw-Hill
 Book Co., New  York, NY.   1,305 pp.

 Metcalf and  Eddy,  Inc.  1979.  Wastewater  Engineering:   Treatment,
 Disposal, Reuse.   McGraw-Hill Book  Co., New York, NY.   920 pp.

 Morrison, A.   1983.  Land Treatment of Hazardous Waste.   Civil
 Engineering.   Vol  53, No. 5.  pp  33-38.

 Nalco Chemical Co.  1979.  Nalco  Water Handbook, McGraw-Hill Co.
 New York, NY.  p.  12-1.

 National Academy of Sciences.  1977.  Drinking  Water and  Health.
 National Academy of Sciences, Washington,  D.C.  939 pp.

 Natori, M.   Undated.  Japan Bottom  Sediments Management Association,
 Tokyo, Japan.  Written communication  to Kathleen Wagner,  JRB Associates.
 14 pp.

 NIOSH.  Criteria Documents.  U.S. Department of Health, Education, and
 Welfare.  Numerous Documents.

 NUS Corporation.    1983.  Feasibility  Study - Hudson River  PCBs Site.
 USEPA Contract No. 68-01-6699.

 Oppelt, E.  T.  1981.  Thermal Destruction Options for Controlling
 Hazardous Wastes.  Civil Engineering.  Vol 51, No. 9.  pp  72-75.

 Patty, F.A.  et al.  1963.  Industrial Hygiene and Toxicology, 2nd
 Edition Revised.   Interscience (A division of John Wiley & Sons),
 New York.   Three  volumes.

 Peddicord,  R. K.   1980.   Technical Aspects of the US Regulations
 Governing Disposal of  Dredged Material.  In:  Proceedings of Ninth
 World Dredging Conference - Dredging Progress in Equipment and Methods,
 Vancouver,  British Columbia,  Canada.  Oct 29-31.  1980.  pp 447-456.

 Pilie,  R.J.,  R.E.  Baier, R.C. Zieglar, R.P. Leonard, J.G.  Michalovic,
 S.L.  Peck,  and D.H. Boch.  1975.   Methods to Treat,  Control, and
 Monitor Spilled Hazardous Materials.  EPA-670/2-75-042, United States
 Environmental Protection Agency.

 Pradt,  L.A. Developments in wet air  oxidation.   Reprinted  from
 Chemical Engineering Progress.  Volume 68, No.  12,  1972.  Updated
 1976.   pp.  72-77.
                                H-5

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61.  Raymond, G.  1983.  Techniques to Reduce the Sediment Resuspension
     Caused by Dredging.  In:  Proceedings of the 16th Texas A&M Dredging
     Seminar (In Preparation), College Station, TX.  1983.

62.  Repa, E. et al.  1985 (In Press).  Leachate Plume Management.  EPA
     Office of Research and Development, Cincinnati, Ohio.

63.  Reynolds, J., J. Seamans, and A. Van der Steen 1977.  Trenching in
     Granular Soils.  In:  Second International Symposium on Dredging
     Technology, BHRA Fluid Engineering and Texas A&M University,
     November 2-4, 1977.  pp. E2-13, E2-20.

64.  Richardson, T. et al.  1982.  Pumping Performance and Turbidity
     Generation of Model 600/100 Pneuma Pump.  T.R. HL-82-8, U.S. Army
     Engineer Waterways Experiment Station, Vicksburg, MS.  660 pp.

65.  Sax, N.I., et al.  1979.  Dangerous Properties of Industrial Materials
     5th Edition.  Von Nostrand Reinhold Co., New York.  1118 pp.

66.  Seymour, R. 1977.  Tethered Float Breakwater:  A Temporary Wave
     Protection System for Open Ocean Construction.  In:  Eighth Annual
     Offshore Technology Conference, Houston, Texas,  p. 253.

67.  Sims, R. et al.  1984 (In Press).  Review of In-Place Treatment
     Techniques for Contaminated Surface Soils.  EPA'540/2-84-003a, Office
     of Solid Waste and Emergency Response, and Office of Research and
     Development, United States Environmental Protection Agency.

68.  Skinner, J.H.  1984.  Memorandum.  Draft Technical Guidance for
     Implementation of the Double Liner System Requirements of the RCRA
     Amendments.  USEPA, Office of Solid Waste, Washington, DC.
     December 20, 1984.

69.  Stoddard, S.K., G.A. Davis, H.M. Freeman, and P.M. Deibler.  1981.
     Alternatives to Land Disposal of Hazardous Wastes:  An Assessment
     for California.  Toxic Waste Assessment Group, Governor's Office of
     Appropriate Technology, State of California.  288 pp.

70.  Takenaka Doboku Co. Ltd., Takenaka Komuten Co., Ltd., and Toyo
     Construction Co., Ltd.  Undated.  Deep Chemical Mixing Method -
     product literature.  Japan.

71.  Tao Harbor Works.  Undated.  Tao Leaflet 78N-610.

72.  Toyo Construction Co., Ltd.  Undated.  Technical bulletin.  Tokyo,
     Japan.

73.  U.S. Coast Guard.  1978.  CHRIS A Condensed Guide to Chemical Hazards.
     Commandant Instruction M16465.11.  U.S. Department of Transportation.
                                    H-6

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 74.   U.S.  Coast  Guard.   1978.   CHRIS Hazardous Chemicals Data Manual.
      Commandant  Instruction M16465.12.   U.S.  Department of Transportation.

 75.   U.S.  Coast  Guard.   1973.   CHRIS Hazard Assessment  Handbook.   Commandant
      Instruction M16465.13.   U.S.  Department  of Transportation.

 76.   U.S.  Coast  Guard.   1978.   CHRIS Response Methods Handbook.   Commandant
      Instruction M16465.14.   U.S.  Department  of Transportation.

 77.   U.S.  Environmental Protection Agency.  1979.   Process Design Manual:
      Sludge Treatment and Disposal.   EPA 625/1-79-011,  Municipal
      Environmental Research  Lab, Cincinnati,  Ohio.

 78.   U.S.  Environmental Protection Agency.  1980.   Environmental  Emergency
      Response Unit Capability.  U.S.  Environmental  Protection Agency,
      Edison, New Jersey.  26 pp.

 79.   U.S.  Environmental Protection Agency.  1982.   Process Design Manual
      for Dewatering Municipal Wastewater Sludges.   EPA-625/1-82-014
      Municipal Environmental Research Laboratory, Cincinnati, Ohio.

 80.   U.S.  Environmental Protection.   1982.  Guide to the Disposal of
      Chemically  Stabilized and  Solidified Waste SW-872.   Office of Solid
      Waste and Emergency Response, Washington,  D.C.  114 pp.

 81.   U.S.  Environmental Protection Agency.  1984.  Minimum Technology
      Guidance on Double Liner Systems for Landfills and  Surface
      Impoundments—Design, Construction  and Operation.   Draft.  Office
      of Solid Waste, Land Disposal Division, Washington,  D.C.

 82.   Verschueren, K.  1983.  Handbook of Environmental Data on Organic
      Chemicals,  Second Edition.  Van Nostrand Reinhold Company, New York.
      1310  pp.

 83.   Wetzel, R., K. Boyer, W. Ellis, A. Wickline, P. Spooner,  K.  Wagner,
      C. Furman,  J. Meade, and A. Lapins.  1985.  Removal  and  Mitigation
      of Contaminated Sediments.  Science Applications International
      Corporation.  Prepared  for:   USEPA, Hazardous Waste  Engineering
      Research Laboratory, Edison, NJ, and U.S.  Coast Guard, Office of
      Research and Development, Washington, DC.

 84.  Windholz, M. et al. (ed.).  1976.  Merck Index.  Merck and Co.,
      Rahway, New Jersey.  1313 pp.

85.  Wuslich, M.G.  1982.  Criteria for Commercial Disposal of Hazardous
     Waste.  In:   Proceedings of National Conference on Management of
     Uncontrolled Hazardous Wastes.  Hazardous Materials Control Research
      Institute, Silver Spring, MD.   pp. 224-227.
                                    H-7

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                                 APPENDIX I

                     BLANK WORKSHEETS FOR DOCUMENTATION
                             AND DECISIONMAKING
     Blank copies of the following worksheets that are presented in the
body of this handbook are provided in .this appendix:

        Discharge Summary Worksheet
        Spilled Substance Data Worksheet
        Water Body Data Collection Worksheet
        Environmental Setting Worksheet
        Exposure and Impact Data Worksheet
        Worksheet and Screening Response Categories
        Worksheet and Screening Response Techniques
        Worksheet and Development of Response Alternatives
        Alternatives Evaluation Worksheet.
It is recommended that additional, separate copies be made for use in field
response situations.
                                    1-1

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                       DISCHARGE SUMMARY WORKSHEET
Site
Time of Observation_
Type of Water Body	
          Date
CIRCUMSTANCES OF DISCHARGE

Location
Source
Cause.
Status (Circle One):    Discrete

Time Elapsed Since Discharge Began_

Quantity of Material Released	
   Intermittent
Continuous
            Rate of Release
Duration of Release (if intermittent)_

      Substances Released
              Quantity
Form of Release (Circle One):
Powder    Crystal/Pellets    Chunks
Semi-Solid    Liquid
EXTENT OF CONTAMINATION
          Sediments
             Water Body
OBSERVATIONS
                                  1 of 1

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                       SPILLED SUBSTANCE DATA WORKSHEET
      Information
         Factor
Substance A  Information   Substance B  Information
	    Source                     Source
1.  Specific Gravity
2.  Physical State
3.  Particle Size
4.  Water Solubility
5.  Water Reactivity
6.  Chemical Reactivity
7.  Ignitability
8.  Surface Tension
                                                               (continued)
                                    1 of 2

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                 SPILLED SUBSTANCE DATA WORKSHEET (continued)
      Information
         Factor
Substance A  Information
               Source
Substance B  Information
               Source
 9.  Octanol-water
     partition coeffi-
     cient
10.  Sediment-water
     partition coeffi-
     cient
11.  Bioaccumulation
12.  Aquatic persistence
13.  Transformation
     rate constants
     o  Hydrolysis
     o  Oxidation
     o  Biotrans-
        formation
14.  Toxicity
     o  Aquatic species
     o  Mammals
     o  Human
     o  Food chain
                                    2 of 2

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                    WATER BODY DATA COLLECTION WORKSHEET
Information
Requirements
Site-Specific
    Data
Information
   Source
WATER BODY;

Depth of Water Body
  Minimum
  Maximum
  Average

Width of Water Body
  Minimum
  Maximum
  Average

Water Current Direction
  Surface
  Subsurface

.Water Current Velocity
  Surface
  Subsurface

Tidal Cycle
  Time  of high tide
  Time  of low tide
  Velocity of tide
  Amplitude of tide

Wave Height
                                                              (continued)
                                    1 of 2

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              WATER BODY DATA COLLECTION WORKSHEET (continued)
Information
Requirements
Site-Specific
    Data
Information
   Source
SEDIMENTS;

Depth to Contaminated
  Sediments

Sediment Type

Sediment Grain Size

Sediment Organic
  Carbon Content

WATER;

Suspended Particulate
  Concentration

Water Temperature
  Profile

Salinity Profile
SEASONAL CONSIDERATIONS!

Seasonal Conditions
and Impacts
  Drought
  Snow melt
  Storm flood
SKETCH WATER BODY/CHANNEL CONFIGURATION (CROSS-SECTION)
                                   2 of  2

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                      ENVIRONMENTAL  SETTING WORKSHEET
Site Information
Information
  Sources
DISTINCTIVE HABITATS  (Check and  list  if near  spill area)

	 1.  Breeding Grounds, Nesting, or Roosting  Sites
     2.  Wildlife/Refuges
     3.  Endangered Species Habitats
     4.  Marshes or Swamps  (e.g., mangrove)
     5.  Subtidal Seagrass Systems
     6.  Harvesting Beds
     7.  Coral Reefs
     8.  Soft Bottom Benthos
     9.  Unused Natural Ecosystem  (ecologically or
         aesthetically important)
    10.  Other
                                                             (continued)
                                    1 of  3

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                 ENVIRONMENTAL SETTING WORKSHEET (continued)
 Site Information
                        Information
                          Sources
 ENDANGERED SPECIES (List)
 SENSITIVE SPECIES (Check if applicable and list)

 	 1.   Aquatic (Fish/Shellfish)


 	 2.   Birds	

 	 3.   Reptiles/Amphibians	

  ;    4.   Mammals

      5.   Plants
 SENSITIVE WATER BODY USAGE  (Check if applicable)
 Type of  Use

 CONSUMPTIVE WATER USE

 _____ 1.  Drinking Water  Supply
 	 2.  Industrial Water  Supply
  ••    3.  Irrigation
 	 4.  Fire Water Supply

 RECREATIONAL USE

	 1.  State/National  Park
 	 2.  Swimming
	 3.  Boating
	 4.  Fishing
      5.  Other
Distance Downstream From Spill
                                                             (continued)
                                    2 of  3

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                 ENVIRONMENTAL SETTING WORKSHEET (continued)
 Site Information
Information
  Sources
 COMMERCIAL USE (Check if applicable and list)

	 1.   Shellfish


	 2.   Finfish


	 3.   Resort area  or  other waterfront property


      4.   Marinas
     5.  Harbor/Docks
     6.  Transportation  (shipping lanes)
POTENTIAL RECEPTORS (Check if applicable and identify)

     1.  Fish
     2.  Shellfish
     3.  Aquatic Plants
     4.  Reptiles/Amphibians
     5.  Other aquatic or benthic receptors
     6.  Birds
     7.  Mammals

     8.  Humans
Adapted from Byroad, Twedell, and LeBoff, 1981.
                                   3 of 3

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                                     EXPOSURE AND IMPACT DATA WORKSHEET
   RESOURCE/
   RECEPTOR
 TYPE OF
EXPOSURE
        EXPOSURE LEVEL
CURRENT  TIME 1  TIME 2  TIME 3
  REGULATORY
  STANDARD OR
OTHER EXPOSURE
   CRITERIA
COMMENT ON POTENTIAL
       FOR HARM
I-1
o

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                WORKSHEET  FOR SCREENING RESPONSE CATEGORIES
   I. Select  the  site  scenario  that  characterizes  the existing site
     conditions  (check  one or  both):


     	 Contaminants  are relatively  stationary.

     	 Contaminants  are mobile.



 II. As identified in Table 4-1, Column B, the preferred response  category
     or "train"  of categories, is as follows:
     (1)

     (2)
(3)

(4)
III. Applicability of the preferred response category:

     Ilia.   Is containment necessary for implementation of removal
            (circle one)?


                   Yes (go to Illb)            NO (go to IIIc)

     Illb.   Is containment applicable (circle one)?

                   Yes (go to IIIc)            No (go to IVa & d)

     IIIc.   Is immediate and total removal physically applicable
            (circle one)?

                   Yes (go to Hid)            No (go to IVa,  b & c)

     Hid.   Does  removed material  require treatment?  (circle one)?

                   Yes (go to Hie)            No (go to lilt)


     Hie.   Is  treatment applicable (circle one)?

                   Yes (go to IHf)            No (go to IVd)
                                                   (continued)
                                  1 of 3

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         WORKSHEET FOR SCREENING RESPONSE CATEGORIES (continued)
    Illf.   Is disposal of removed material or treatment residuals
           necessary (circle one)?

                  Yes (go to Illg)            No (go to Illh)

    Illg.   Is disposal applicable (circle one)?

                  Yes (go to Illh)            No (go to IVa & d)

    Illh.   The preferred response category is applicable at the site.  The
           reasons for its applicability are as follows:
IV. Other Response Categories:

    IVa.   Summarize the reasons why the preferred response category is
           not applicable at the site.
    IVb.   Is immediate partial removal applicable  (circle one)?

                  Yes (go to IVbl)            No  (go t IVc)

           IVbl.  Does partially removed material require treatment?
                  (circle one)?

                         Yes (go to  IVb2)             No (go  to  IVb3)

           IVb2.  Is treatment applicable  (circle one)?

                         Yes (go to  IVb3)             No (go  to  IVd)

           IVb3.  Is disposal necessary  (circle one)?

                         Yes (go to  IVb4)             No (go  to  V)

           IVb4.  Is disposal applicable  (circle  one)?

                         Yes (go to  V)                No (go  to  IVd)


                                                      (continued)
                                   2 of 3

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         WORKSHEET FOR SCREENING RESPONSE CATEGORIES (continued)



     IVc.    Can  removal be  temporarily delayed  (circle one)?

                   Yes  (go  to  Hid)             No  (go to  IVd)

     IVd.    Is in situ  response  applicable (circle  one)?

                   Yes  (go  to  V)                No  (go to  IVe)

     IVe.    "No  action"  should be  considered.

            (go  to  V)


 V. Based on existing site conditions, the following other response catego-
    ries are applicable at the site:

    o  Partial removal  (accompanied by treatment and/or disposal)
    o  Removal implementation delay
    o  In situ treatment/isolation
    o  No action possible
       (go to VI)


VI. Summary:

    Via.   The following response categories are applicable at the site:

           o  Containment
           o  Removal
           o  Treatment
           o  Disposal
           o  In situ treatment/isolation
           o  No action

    VIb.   Comments:
                                  3  of  3

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                WORKSHEET FOR SCREENING RESPONSE TECHNIQUES
Identify those categories and Response Techniques that are applicable
under existing site conditions.
       Containment Techniques

       Containment curtains
       Trenches and pits
       Dikes and berms
       Cofferdams
       Temporary cover material
       Pneumatic barriers
       Floating breakwater

       Removal Techniques

       Mechanical dredges
         - Dipper dredges
         - Bucket ladder dredges
         - Clamshell dredges
         - Draglines
         - Conventional earth
             excavation equipment
       Hydraulic dredges
         - Plain suction dredge
         — Cutterhead dredge
         - Dustpan dredge
         - Hopper dredge
         - Portable hydraulic dredge
         - Hand-held hydraulic dredge
       Pneumatic dredges
         - Airlift dredge
         - Pneuma dredge
         - Oozer dredge
Comments Regarding
Applicability/Inapplicability
                                                       (continued)
                                    1 of  3

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   WORKSHEET FOR SCREENING RESPONSE TECHNIQUES (continued)
Treatment Techniques for Removed Material
Sediment/water separation
  - Settling basins
  - Hydraulic classifiers
  - Spiral classifiers
  - Cyclones
  - Filters
Sediment dewatering
  - High-rate gravity settlers
  - Centrifuges
  - Belt press filters
  - Vacuum filters
  - Pressure filters
Water treatment
  - Adsorption
  - Ultrafiltration
  - Reverse osmosis
  - Ion exchange
  - Biological treatment
  - Precipitation .
  - Wet air oxidation
  - Ozonation
  - Ultraviolet radiation
  - Discharge to publicly owned
      treatment works
Sediment treatment
  - Contaminant immobilization
  - Contaminant treatment
Disposal Techniques

Sediments
  - Land disposal
  - Open water disposal
Water
  - Discharge to surface water
  - Land application
  - Deep well injection
Treatment residuals
  - Land disposal
  - Incineration
  — Land application
  - Deep well injection
                                                 (continued)
                            2 of 3

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   WORKSHEET FOR SCREENING RESPONSE TECHNIQUES (continued)
In Situ Treatment and Isolation Techniques
Treatment
  - Sorption
  - Chemical treatment
  - Biological treatment
Isolation
  - Capping
  - Covering
  - Fixation
                             3 of  3

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                                    WORKSHEET FOR DEVELOPMENT OF RESPONSE ALTERNATIVES
            Alternative   Containment      Removal
Treatment
Disposal      In Situ
o
Ml
                B
              etc.

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                                              ALTERNATIVES EVALUATION WORKSHEET
o
HI
      §
              Alternative
                (See
              Alternatives
              Development
               Worksheet)
Performance    Reliability   Implement-
                              ability
 Environ-
  mental
and Public
  Health
  Impacts
Safety
Cost
  Other
Concerns/
Comments

-------