United States
Environmental Protection
Agency
Emergency
Response
Division
Publication 9200.5-105
EPA 540-K-93-003
PB93-963409
October 1993
Office of Emergency and Remedial Response
EPA Understanding Oil Spills and
Oil Spill Response
Di
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INTRODUCTION
In an era, we
to us our of as
oil and fuel for our for our and for the
in our
us to our
be and in As a of
or or oil are
or into this
be at risk, be to oil and to up
occur.
The of this is to oil This
that oil are, on the
are up, and for one
oil spill -- that of the spill of 1989 - is to an of
the can be in oil
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THE AND OF OIL
IN THE
INTRODUCTION
oil can to
the The of
of an oil on a of
of the oil
of
as
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of
as
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of oil in the
OF OIL
The oil a
of
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are of
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oil
fuel oil, jet
of oil has
the oil will
the it to
life, the
it will a to and
resources.
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oils to into a
a sllcJf, on
top of the the
of an oil to
gravity,
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of a The the
oil's tension, the more a
will in If the
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to the of
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if the
the oil
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to flow. The the
of the oil, the the
for it to in
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liquid.)
THE OF OIL
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form a
or thin film on the of the
water.
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Evaporation occurs when the lighter
substances within the oil mixture
become vapors and leave the surface
of the water. This process leaves
behind the heavier components of the
oil, which may undergo further
weathering or may sink to the bottom
of the ocean floor. Spills of lighter
refined products such as kerosene and
gasoline contain a high proportion of
flammable components known as light
ends. These may evaporate
completely within a few hours, causing
minimal harm to the environment.
Heavier oils leave a thicker, more
viscous residue. Wave action from
rough seas increases both evaporation
and natural dispersion.
Oxidation occurs when oil contacts the
water, and oxygen combines with the
oil hydrocarbons to produce water-
soluble compounds. This process
affects oil slicks mostly around their
edges. Thick slicks may only partially
oxidize, forming far balls. These
dense, sticky black spheres may linger
in the environment, washing up on
shorelines long after a spill.
Biodegradation occurs when micro-
organisms such as bacteria feed on oil
hydrocarbons. A wide range of micro-
organisms is required for a significant
reduction of the oil. To sustain
biodegradation, nutrients such as
nitrogen and phosphorus are
sometimes added to the water to
encourage the micro-organisms to
grow and reproduce. Biodegradation
tends to work best in warm water
environments.
Emulsification is the process that forms
emulsions, which are mixtures of small
droplets of oil and water. Emulsions
are formed by wave action, and they
greatly hamper weathering and
cleanup processes. Two types of
emulsions exist: water-in-oil and oil-in-
water. Water-in-oil emulsions are
frequently called "chocolate mousse,"
and they are formed when strong wave
action causes water to become
trapped inside viscous oil. Chocolate
mousse emulsions may linger in the
environment for months or even years.
Oil and water emulsions cause oil to
sink and disappear from the surface,
giving the visual illusion that it is gone
and the threat to the environment has
ended.
An oil slick surrounding a small island
EFFECTS OF OIL ON PLANTS AND
ANIMALS
After oil is spilled, the most toxic
substances in it evaporate quickly. Therefore,
plant, animal, and human exposure to the most
toxic substances are reduced rapidly with time,
and are usually limited to the initial spill area.
Although some organisms may be seriously
injured or killed very soon after contact with
the oil in a spill (lethal effects), non-lethal toxic
effects are more subtle and often longer
lasting. For example, marine life on reefs and
shorelines is at risk of being smothered by oil
that washes ashore or of being slowly
poisoned by long-term exposure to oil trapped
in shallow water or on beaches.
Sensitivity of marine habitats
The marine environment is made up of
complex interrelations between plant and
animal species and their physical environment.
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Harm to the physical environment will often
lead to harm for one or more species in a food
chain, which may lead to damage for other
species further up the chain. Where an
organism spends most of its time - in open
water, near coastal areas, or on the shoreline --
will determine the effects an oil spill is likely to
have on that organism.
In open water, marine organisms such
as fish and whales have the ability to swim
away from a spill by going deeper in the water
or further out to sea, reducing the likelihood
that they will be harmed by even a major spill.
Marine animals that generally live closer to
shore, such as turtles, seals, and dolphins, risk
contamination by oil that washes onto beaches
or by consuming oil-contaminated prey. In
shallow waters, oil may harm sea grasses and
kelp beds, which are used for food, shelter,
and nesting sites by many different species.
Spilled oil and cleanup operations can
threaten different types of marine habitats, with
different results.
Coral reefs are important nurseries for
shrimp, fish, and other animals as well
as recreational attractions for divers.
Coral reefs and the marine organisms
that live within and around them are at
risk from exposure to the toxic
substances within oil as well as
smothering.
Exposed sandy, gravel, or cobble
beaches are usually cleaned by
manual techniques. Although oil can
soak into sand and gravel, few
organisms live full-time in this habitat,
so the risk to animal life or the food
chain is less than in other habitats,
such as tidal flats.
Sheltered beaches have very little wave
action to encourage natural dispersion.
If timely cleanup efforts are not begun,
oil may remain stranded on these
beaches for years.
Tidal flats are broad, low-tide zones,
usually containing rich plant, animal,
and bird communities. Deposited oil
may seep into the muddy bottoms of
these flats, creating potentially harmful
effects on the ecology of the area.
Salt marshes are found in sheltered
waters in cold and temperate areas.
They host a variety of plant, bird, and
mammal life. Marsh vegetation,
especially root systems, is easily
damaged by fresh light oils.
Mangrove forests are located in tropical
regions and are home to a diversity of
plant and animal life. Mangrove trees
have long roots, called prop roots, that
stick out well above the water level and
help to hold the mangrove tree in
place. A coating of oil on these prop
roots can be fatal to the mangrove
tree, and because they grow so slowly,
replacing a mangrove tree can take
decades.
Crews work to keep oil from entering a
marsh
Sensitivity of marine birds and mammals
An oil spill can harm birds in several
ways, by direct physical contact, toxic
contamination, and destruction of food
sources.
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Physical contact - When fur or
feathers come into contact with oil,
they get matted down. This matting
causes fur and feathers to lose their
insulating properties, placing animals
at risk of freezing to death. For birds,
the risk of drowning increases, as the
complex structure of their feathers that
allows birds to float becomes
damaged.
Toxic contamination - Some species
are susceptible to the toxic effects of
inhaled oil. Oil vapors can cause
damage to the animal's central nervous
system, liver, and lungs. Animals are
also at risk from ingesting oil, which
can reduce the animal's ability to eat
or digest its food by damaging cells in
the intestinal tract. Some studies show
that there can be long-term
reproductive problems in animals that
have been exposed to oil.
Destruction of food resources - Even
species that are not directly in contact
with oil can be harmed by a spill.
Predators that consume contaminated
prey can be exposed to oil through
ingestion. Because oil contamination
gives fish and other animals
unpleasant tastes and smells,
predators will sometimes refuse to eat
their prey and will begin to starve.
Sometimes, a local population of prey
organisms is destroyed, leaving no
food resources for predators.
In some areas, habitats and populations can
recover quickly. In other environments,
however, recovery from persistent or stranded
oil may take years.
Sea otters covered with oil
SUMMARY
Oil spilled at sea immediately begins to
move and weather, breaking down and
changing its physical and chemical properties.
As these processes occur, the oil threatens
surface resources and a wide range of
subsurface marine organisms linked in a
complex food chain. Many different types of
marine habitats exist, with varied sensitivities to
the harmful effects of oil contamination and
different abilities to recuperate from oil spills.
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Page Intentionally Blank
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MECHANICAL CONTAINMENT AND RECOVERY OF OIL
FOLLOWING A SPILL
INTRODUCTION
Two major steps involved in controlling
oil spills are containment and recovery. This
document outlines some of the techniques and
equipment that are used to conduct oil-spill
control efforts.
CONTAINMENT
When an oil spill occurs on water, it is
critical to contain the spill as quickly as
possible in order to minimize danger and
potential damage to persons, property, and
natural resources. Containment equipment is
used to restrict the spread of oil and to allow
for its recovery, removal, or dispersal. The
most common equipment used to control the
spread of oil are floating barriers, or booms.
Containment boom
BOOMS
Containment booms are used to
control the spread of oil to reduce the
possibility of polluting shorelines and other
resources, as well as to concentrate oil in
thicker surface layers, making recovery easier.
In addition, booms may be used to divert and
channel oil slicks along desired paths, making
them easier to remove from the surface of the
water.
Although there is a great deal of
variation in the design and construction of
booms, all generally share the following four
basic elements:
An above-water "freeboard* to contain
the oil and to help prevent waves from
splashing oil over the top of the boom
A flotation device
A below-water "skirt" to contain the oil
and help reduce the amount of oil lost
under the boom
A "longitudinal support", usually a chain
or cable running along the bottom of
the skirt, that strengthens the boom
against wind and wave action; may
also serve as a weight or ballast to add
stability and help keep the boom
upright
Booms can be divided into several
basic types, fence booms have a high
freeboard and a flat flotation device, making
them least effective in rough water, where
wave and wind action can cause the boom to
twist. Round or curtain booms have a more
circular flotation device and a continuous skirt.
They perform well in rough water, but are more
difficult to clean and store than fence booms.
Non-rigid or inflatable booms come in many
shapes. They are easy to clean and store, and
they perform well in rough seas. However,
they tend to be expensive, more complicated
to use, and puncture and deflate easily. All
boom types are greatly affected by the
conditions at sea; the higher the waves swell,
the less effective booms become.
Booms can be fixed to a structure,
such as a pier or a buoy, or towed behind or
alongside one or more vessels. When
stationary or moored, the boom is anchored
below the water surface.
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be or to
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or
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to the
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OF OIL
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through a pipe or hose to a storage tank for
recycling or disposal. These skimmers are
prone to becoming jammed and clogged by
floating debris.
Oleophilic ("oil-attracting") skimmers
use belts, disks, or continuous mop chains of
oleophilic materials to blot the oil from the
water surface. The oil is then squeezed out or
scraped off into a recovery tank. Oleophilic
skimmers have the advantage of flexibility,
allowing them to be used effectively on spills of
any thickness. Some types, such as the chain
or "rope-mop" skimmer, work well on water that
is choked with debris or rough ice.
Response crew using a suction skimmer
(Sourct: U.S. COM* Guard)
Suction skimmers operate similarly to a
household vacuum cleaner. Oil is sucked up
through wide floating heads and pumped into
storage tanks. Although suction skimmers are
generally very efficient, they are vulnerable to
becoming clogged by debris and require
constant skilled observation. Suction skimmers
operate best on smooth water, where oil has
collected against a boom or barrier.
SORBENTS
Sorbents are materials that soak up
liquids. They can be used to recover oil
Boom held between two ships as tt Is
moved across oiled water fsourc*.- u.s.
CoMf Guard)
through the mechanisms of absorption,
adsorption, or both. Absorbents allow oil to
penetrate into pore spaces in the material they
are made of, while adsorbents attract oil to
their surfaces but do not allow it to penetrate
into the material. To be useful in combatting
oil spills, sorbents need to be both oleophilic
and hydrophobic ("water-repellant"). Although
they may be used as the sole cleanup method
in small spills, sorbents are most often used to
remove final traces of oil, or in areas that
cannot be reached by skimmers. Once
sorbents have been used to recover oil, they
must be removed from the water and properly
disposed of on land or cleaned for re-use. Any
oil that is removed from sorbent materials must
also be properly disposed of or recycled.
Sorbents can be divided into three
basic categories: natural organic, natural
inorganic, and synthetic. Natural organic
sorbents include peat moss, straw, hay,
sawdust, ground corncobs, feathers, and other
readily available carbon-based products. They
are relatively inexpensive and usually readily
available. Organic sorbents can soak up
between 3 and 15 times their weight in oil, but
they do present some disadvantages. Some
organic sorbents tend to soak up water as well
as oil, causing them to sink. Many organic
sorbents are loose particles such as sawdust,
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and are difficult to collect after they are spread
on the water. Adding flotation devices, such
as empty drums attached to sorbent bales of
hay, can help to overcome the sinking
problem, and wrapping loose particles in mesh
will aid in collection.
Natural inorganic sorbents include clay,
perlite, vermiculite, glass wool, sand, or
volcanic ash. They can absorb from 4 to 20
times their weight in oil. Inorganic substances,
like organic substances, are inexpensive and
readily available in large quantities.
Synthetic sorbents include man-made
materials that are similar to plastics, such as
polyurethane, polyethylene, and nylon fibers.
Most synthetic sorbents can absorb as much
as 70 times their weight in oil, and some types
can be cleaned and re-used several times.
Synthetic sorbents that cannot be cleaned
after they are used can present difficulties
because arrangements must be made for their
temporary storage before they are disposed of.
The following characteristics must be
considered when choosing sorbents for
cleaning up spills:
Rate of absorption ~ The rate of
absorption varies with the thickness of
the oil. Light oils are soaked up more
quickly than heavy ones.
Oil retention - The weight of recovered
oil can cause a sorbent structure to
sag and deform, and when it is lifted
out of the water, it can release oil that
is trapped in its pores. Lighter, less
viscous oil is lost through the pores
more easily than are heavier, more
viscous oils during recovery of
absorbent materials.
Sorbent squares being used to remove oil
from a beach (Source: U.S. COM( Guard)
SUMMARY
The primary line of defense against oil
spills is the use of mechanical containment,
recovery, and cleanup equipment. Such
equipment includes a variety of booms,
barriers, and skimmers, as well as natural and
synthetic sorbent materials. A key to
effectively combatting spilled oil is careful
selection and proper use of the equipment and
materials most suited to the type of oil and the
conditions at the spill site. Most spill response
equipment and materials are greatly affected
by such factors as conditions at sea, water
currents, and wind. Damage to spill-
contaminated shorelines and dangers to other
threatened areas can be reduced by timely
and proper use of containment and recovery
equipment.
Ease of application - Sorbents may be
applied to spills manually or
mechanically, using blowers or fans.
Many natural organic sorbents that
exist as loose materials, such as clay
and vermiculite, are dusty, difficult to
apply in windy conditions, and
potentially hazardous if inhaled.
10
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CLEANING UP AN OIL SPILL: AN EXPERIMENT YOU CAN DO AT HOME
This experiment is designed to help you to understand the difficulties with oil spill cleanups1.
You will need the following equipment:
* two aluminum pie pans, each half-filled with water
a medicine dropper full of used motor oil
cotton balls (use real cotton)
nylon
string
* paper towels
liquid detergent
feathers
Before you begin, make a list of predictions about the action of oil and water. You might want to
answer the following questions in your list:
What will happen to the oil when you drop it on the water? Will it sink, float, or mix in?
* Which material will clean up the oil in the least amount of time? Cotton, nylon, paper
towel, or string?
How might wind and waves affect the combination of oil and water?
Complete each of the following steps, and observe what happens.
1. Put five drops of motor oil into one of the "oceans" (your aluminum pie pans). Observe the
action of the oil and record what happens. Was your prediction correct?
2. One at a time, use the different materials (nylon, cotton, string, and paper towels) to try to
clean up the oil from the water, keeping track of the amount of oil each material was able to
clean up and how fast it worked. (These materials are what booms and skimmers are made
of.) Which cleaned up the oil the fastest? The best?
3. Add five drops of oil to the second pan. Add five drops of liquid detergent. (This represents
the chemical dispersants.) Observe what happens. Where do you think the oil would go in
the "real" oceans?
4. Dip a feather directly into some oil. What happens to it? How do you think this might affect a
bird's behaviors, such as flying, preening, and feeding?
'Used with permission from Jane O. Howard, "Slick Science," Science and Children, vol. 27, no. 2
(October 1989).
11
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12
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CHEMICAL AND BIOLOGICAL TREATMENT OF SPILLED OIL
INTRODUCTION
Several methods exist for containing
and cleaning up oil spills in the aquatic
environment. Mechanical equipment, such as
booms and skimmers, is often used to block
the spread of oil, concentrate it into one area,
and remove it from the water. Chemical and
biological treatment of oil can be used in place
of, or in addition to, mechanical methods,
especially in areas where untreated oil may
reach shorelines and sensitive habitats in
which cleanup becomes difficult and
expensive. This document describes some of
the chemical and biological methods that are
used by response personnel to contain and
clean up oil spills in the aquatic environment.
TYPES OF SUBSTANCES USED
Three types of substances commonly
used to contain or clean up an oil spill are
(1) dispersing agents, (2) biological agents,
and (3) gelling agents.
Dispersing agents
Dispersing agents, also called
dispersants, are chemicals that contain
surfactants, or compounds that act to break
liquid substances such as oil into small
droplets. In an oil spill, these droplets disperse
into the water column where they are
subjected to natural processes - such as
wind, waves, and currents -- that help to break
them down further. This helps to clear oil from
the water surface, making it less likely that the
oil slick will reach the shoreline.
The effectiveness of a dispersant is
determined by the composition of the oil it is
being used to treat, and the method and rate
at which the dispersant is applied. Heavy
crude oils do not disperse as well as light- to
medium-weight oils. Dispersants are most
effective when applied immediately following a
spill, before the lightest materials in the oil
have evaporated.
Environmental factors, including water
salinity and temperature and conditions at sea,
also influence the effectiveness of dispersants.
Studies have shown that many dispersants
work best at salinities close to that of normal
seawater. The effectiveness of dispersants
also depends on water temperature. While
dispersants can work in cold water, they work
best in warm water.
Some countries rely almost exclusively
on dispersants to combat oil spills, because
frequently rough or choppy conditions at sea
make mechanical containment and cleanup
difficult. However, dispersants have not been
used extensively in the United States because
of difficulties with application, disagreement
among scientists about their effectiveness, and
concerns that dispersants are toxic.
Helicopters are often used to apply
dispersants to large areas of open water
These problems are being overcome,
however. New technologies that improve the
application of dispersants are being designed.
The effectiveness of dispersants is being
tested in laboratories and in actual spill
situations, and the information collected is
being used to help design more effective
dispersants. Dispersants used today are much
less toxic than those used in the past.
13
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Response person manually applying
fertilizer to a test square" as part of a
bloremediation experiment
contaminated environment to stimulate the
growth of the microorganisms capable of
biodegradation. Limited supplies of these
necessary nutrients usually control the growth
of native microorganism populations. When
nutrients are added, the native microorganism
population can grow rapidly, potentially
increasing the rate of biodegradation.
Seeding is the addition of
microorganisms to the existing native oil-
degrading population. Sometimes species of
bacteria that do not naturally exist in an area
will be added to the native population. As with
fertilization, the purpose of seeding is to
increase the population of microorganisms that
can biodegrade the spilled oil.
Biological agents
Biological agents are chemicals or
organisms that increase the rate at which
natural biodegradation occurs. Biodegradation
is a process by which microorganisms such as
bacteria, fungi, and yeasts break down
complex compounds into simpler products to
obtain energy and nutrients. Biodegradation of
oil is a natural process that slowly -- sometimes
over the course of several years - removes oil
from the aquatic environment. However, rapid
removal of spilled oil from shorelines and
wetlands is necessary in order to minimize
potential environmental damage to these
sensitive habitats.
Bioremediation technologies can help
biodegradation processes work faster.
Bioremediation refers to the act of adding
materials to the environment, such as fertilizers
or microorganisms, that will increase the rate at
which natural biodegradation occurs. Two
bioremediation technologies that are currently
being used in the United States for oil spill
cleanups are fertilization and seeding.
Fertilization, also known as nutrient
enrichment, is the method of adding nutrients
such as phosphorus and nitrogen to a
Gelling agents
Gelling agents, also known as
solidifiers, are chemicals that react with oil to
form rubber-like solids. With small spills, these
chemicals can be applied by hand and left to
mix on their own. For treating larger spills, the
chemicals are applied to the oil, then mixed in
by the force of high-pressure water streams.
The gelled oil is removed from the water by
nets, suction equipment, or skimmers, and is
sometimes recovered and reused after being
mixed with fuel oil.
Gelling agents can be used in calm to
moderately rough seas, since the mixing
energy provided by waves increases the
contact between the chemicals and the oil,
resulting in greater solidification.
There is one drawback to the use of
gelling agents. Large quantities of the material
must often be applied, as much as three times
the volume of the spill. For oil spills of millions
of gallons it is impractical to store, move, and
apply such large quantities of material.
14
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15
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Page Intentionally Blank
16
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OIL
INTRODUCTION
are
the
of the can
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oil
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Fish as
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DECISIONS
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17
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of or still
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Oil to to to the
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18
-------
In nature, biodegradation is a relatively
slow process. It can take years for a
population of microorganisms to degrade most
of the oil spilled onto a shoreline. However,
the rate at which biodegradation occurs can
be accelerated by the addition of nutrients
such as phosphorus and nitrogen that
encourage growth of oil-degrading bacteria.
Biodegradation rates can also be increased by
adding more microorganisms to the
environment, especially the species that are
already used to consuming the type of oil
spilled. The use of nutrients or the addition of
microorganisms to encourage biodegradation
is called bioremediation.
Bioremediation has been used with
some success in recent oil spill events.
Experiments conducted by the U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency, Exxon
Corporation, and the State of Alaska on cobble
beaches contaminated with oil from the 1989
Exxon Valdez spill showed that the addition of
nutrients more than doubled the natural rate of
biodegradation, and produced no long-term
injury to the shoreline or sensitive habitats.
Physical methods
Physical removal of oil from shorelines,
and especially beaches, is time-consuming
and requires much equipment and many
personnel. Methods used to physically clean
oil from shorelines include
wiping with absorbent materials
pressure washing
raking or bulldozing
Before physical cleaning methods are
used, booms made of absorbent material are
often set up in the water along the edge of the
beach. Booms prevent oil released during
beach cleanup activities from returning to the
ocean, and contain the oil so that it can be
skimmed from the water for proper disposal.
Wiping with absorbent materials
Materials that are capable of absorbing
many times their weight in oil can be used to
wipe up oil from contaminated beaches.
These materials are often designed as large
squares, much like paper towels, or shaped
into "mops'. The squares or mops are used to
wipe the sandy beach or oily rocks during
which time the absorbents are filled with as
much oil as they can hold.
There are advantages to the use of
absorbents. They can be used to clean up
any kind of oil on any shoreline that can be
reached by response personnel. The use of
absorbents is generally not harmful to the
beach itself or to the organisms that live on it,
and no material is left behind following the
cleanup effort. Some sorbents are reusable,
reducing the need for disposal after a spill.
However, this method requires the use
of a large quantity of material and several
personnel. Personnel must wear proper
protective clothing to minimize direct contact
with the oil as they are removing it. Oil-filled
absorbents and protective clothing that are
used by response personnel must be properly
disposed of following cleanup, which can be
costly. In addition, the intrusion of many
people onto an isolated beach may disrupt
animal behaviors such as breeding or nesting.
Sorbents being used to clean an oiled
beach
Pressure washing
Pressure washing involves rinsing oiled
beach sands and rocks using hoses that
supply low- or high-pressure water streams.
Hot or cold water can be used to create these
19
-------
streams. The oil is flushed from the beach into
plastic-lined trenches or down to the shoreline,
then collected with sorbent materials and
disposed of properly.
This method has the advantage of
being relatively inexpensive and simple to
apply. It requires many personnel and is slow,
however. Additionally, high-pressure water
streams can dislodge organisms such as algae
and mussels from rocks and sediments on
which they live, or can force oil deeper into
sediments, making cleanup more difficult.
Response crews using high pressure
hoses to wash an oil-covered beach
(Source: U.S. COM( Guard)
Raking or bulldozing
When oil moves downward into the
sands or between pebbles and cobbles on a
shoreline, it becomes more difficult to remove.
If the oil has moved downward only a short
distance, tilling or raking the sand can increase
evaporation of the oil by increasing its
exposure to air and sunlight. If the oil has
penetrated several inches into the sand,
bulldozers may be brought in to remove the
upper layers of sand and pebbles. This allows
the oil to be exposed so it can be collected
and removed from the site, washed with
pressure hoses, or left to degrade naturally.
Raking and bulldozing are simple
methods for helping to remove oil that might
otherwise escape into sediments. However,
these methods can disturb both the natural
shape of the shoreline and the plant and
animal species that live on and in the beach
sediments. In addition, the use of bulldozers
requires specially trained operators who can
maneuver them without damaging the beach
unnecessarily; raking and tilling are time-
consuming and require many personnel.
DISPOSAL OF OIL AND DEBRIS
Cleanup from an oil spill is not
considered complete until all waste materials
are disposed of properly. The cleanup of an
oiled shoreline can create different types of
waste materials, including liquid oil, oil mixed
with sand, and tar balls. Oil can sometimes be
recovered and reused, disposed of by
incineration, or placed in a landfill. States and
the Federal government strictly regulate the
disposal of oil.
Reuse or recovery of oil requires that
the oil be processed and separated from the
other materials such as water that are mixed in
with it. The recovered oil can then be blended
with other fuels for use in power plants or
boilers.
Incineration uses extremely high
temperatures to convert compounds such as
oil into carbon dioxide and water. When a
mobile incinerator is used at a remote spill site,
the need for transporting large volumes of
oiled wastes to distant disposal sites is
eliminated. This can be a practical and
efficient method to manage large volumes of
waste generated during a cleanup. Because
incineration can potentially produce air
pollution, it is important that it be used in strict
compliance with air pollution laws.
Landfilling is another method of
disposing of oiled debris. The oil is mixed with
chemicals such as calcium oxide ('quicklime")
that stabilizes the oil and makes it less able to
leak into groundwater or soils. Mixtures of
quicklime and oil must sometimes be taken to
specially designed landfills for disposal.
20
-------
SUMMARY
an oil is
a that the
of the of oil
the of the the
of
in the as
to the
as
and and
can be to
Oi! be
or of
as or
the yet
to
the of
and the will be
for
21
-------
Page Intentionally Blank
22
-------
RESCUING BIRDS AND MAMMALS FROM OIL SPILLS
INTRODUCTION
When an oil spill occurs, birds and
marine mammals are often injured or killed by
oil that pollutes their habitat. Without human
intervention, many distressed birds and
animals have no chance of survival.
Unfortunately, rescuing wildlife is a
difficult, time-consuming task. Following the
Exxon Valdez oil spill in March, 1989, the
bodies of over 36,000 birds and 1,000 sea
otters were recovered in Prince William Sound,
Alaska. Scientists suspect that many more
actually perished as a result of the spill.
HUMAN INTERVENTION
Many government agencies and private
organizations help to rescue marine animals
and birds that have been exposed to oil
pollution. When an oil spill occurs, there is
often a plan to help these groups cooperate to
save as many animals as possible. While the
government is responsible for animal rescue
efforts, many private organizations assist in
rescuing injured wildlife. Before any person or
organization can handle or confine birds or
mammals for rescue, however, they must get
special permits that are issued by State and
Federal officials.
If oil is spilled into a marine
environment, the first step to stop the crisis is
to control the release and spread of oil at its
source. This prevents any additional oil
exposure to wildlife and coastal areas. At the
same time, efforts are made to keep animals
away from possible contamination. Devices
such as propane scare cans, floating dummies
and helium-filled balloons are often used to
scare animals away from oily areas, particularly
birds.
RESCUING BIRDS
For areas that have been polluted by
oil, rescuers must capture birds that have been
affected as quickly as possible in order to save
them. Two-way radio communications are
often used to help rescuers locate oily birds.
Once birds have been captured, they are taken
immediately to treatment centers where they
are given medical treatment and cleaned.
If treatment centers are not available
nearby, temporary facilities must be built in
local warehouses or other large buildings that
offer electricity, hot water, and ventilation. The
International Bird Rescue Research Center of
Berkeley, California has designed a bird
cleaning facility that can be operated from a
trailer, so that a truck can bring the facility to
the scene of an accident immediately.
Human handling injured
Wildlife (Source: U.S. COM* Guard)
Minimizing stress is critical for ensuring
that captured birds survive. Rescue parties
usually will contact rehabilitation workers even
before they arrive, to make sure that they are
23
-------
prepared to care for the captured birds
immediately. This ensures that the birds are
treated as quickly as possible.
Once a bird has been brought to a
rehabilitation center, certain basic procedures
are followed. First, oil is flushed from its eyes
and intestines. Heavily oiled birds are wiped
with absorbent cloths to remove patches of oil.
Rehabilitation workers also conduct an initial
examination to detect broken bones, cuts, or
other injuries. Stomach-coating medicines
(such as Pepto Bismol) may be administered
orally to prevent additional absorption of oil
inside the bird's stomach. The bird is then
warmed and placed in a quiet area. Curtains
are often hung to limit its contact with people.
Birds in recovery pens after oii has been
removed from their feathers
Nutrition is essential for the recovery of
oiled birds. Wild birds will generally learn to
feed themselves from pans or other containers
as soon as they begin to feel healthy. In many
cases, however, the birds must be force-fed
until they are able to feed on their own.
After a bird is alert, responsive, stable
and its body's fluid balance restored to normal,
detergent is gently stroked into its feathers to
remove the oil. An oiled bird may require three
or more washings to remove the oil entirely.
After its feathers are completely rinsed,
the bird is placed in a clean holding pen lined
with sheets or towels. The pen is warmed with
How OII Affects Birds
Birds that are exposed to oil are
affected both internally and
externally. The most serious threat
birds face is the destruction of their
feathers, or plumage. Birds rely on
their plumage to protect them in cold
environments. Strong, outer
feathers, known as contour feathers,
help birds to fly, float, and keep
warm in the water. Soft, inner
feathers, known as down, also
provide insulation that is necessary
for survival. When a bird's feathers
are covered by oil, the bird loses its
ability to fly, float, and maintain a
normal body temperature. This
means the bird cannot get food or
escape from its predators.
Birds are also at risk from swallowing
oil, inhaling oil fumes, or absorbing it
through their skin. Oil can cause
kidney or liver damage, digestive
problems, eye damage, and other
disorders that can cause pneumonia.
Birds also surfer from stress caused
by the destruction to their habitat. In
fact, stress is a leading cause of
death in birds exposed to oil. As a
bird becomes cold and loses its
ability to float, it may go into a panic,
causing the bird to exhaust itself.
heat lamps, and hung with curtains to minimize
human contact. If behavior appears normal
and a bird's condition remains stable, it is
allowed to swim. The bird then begins to
preen and realign its feathers to restore them
to their original structure, helping the bird to
become waterproof again.
Before a bird can be considered for
release, it must "pass" the waterproofing test.
That is, it must demonstrate buoyancy (the
ability to float) and water-repellency (the ability
-------
to keep water away from its body). Once a
bird passes this test, it is slowly exposed to
temperatures comparable to outside weather.
Its weight and muscle structure should be
average for its species, and it should show no
signs of disease. Rehabilitated birds are
banded by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service,
and are released early in the day to an
appropriate habitat.
MARINE MAMMAL RESCUE AND CLEANING
Two primary groups of marine animals
may be affected during an oil spill. The first
group, pinnipeds, includes animals such as
walruses, harbor seals, and sea lions. These
animals are quite large, and rely on blubber
under their skin to stay warm. Harbor seal
mothers give birth on isolated beaches and
small rocky islands. Newborn pups are not yet
protected by a layer of blubber, and do not
enter the water until a few days after birth.
Some scientists are concerned that when a
seal pup's protective fur coat becomes oiled,
its warming qualities are reduced, increasing
the likelihood of death from exposure. When
these animals are seriously distressed, they
are handled by marine mammal stranding
networks, such as the Marine Mammal Center
in San Francisco, California.
The second group of fur-bearing
marine mammals includes sea otters and fur
seals. These animals do not have a layer of
blubber, but instead rely on their thick fur
coats to maintain warmth. If the coat becomes
dirty through contact with oil or other polluting
substances, its protection may be lost, and the
animal will become chilled in icy waters. Sea
otters, in particular, groom themselves
extensively and are at risk from swallowing
toxins.
The Hubbs Research Center, in San
Diego, California, specializes in mammal
rescue efforts. The Center employs
experienced animal handlers to ensure the
best treatment of stricken animals. Other
animal welfare organizations, such as Friends
of the Sea Otter and local Societies for the
Prevention of Cruelty to Animals, provide
marine mammal rehabilitation sites.
Specific techniques are employed by
the Hubbs Center and other organizations to
help oiled marine mammals to recover. After
an animal is captured and transported to a
marine rehabilitation facility, it is checked for
hypothermia and dehydration, then prepared
for cleaning. The otter is lightly sedated during
the washing process, which is usually done by
a team of two. One restrains the animal and
the other washes it with a mild detergent.
Once rinsed, the oner is hand-rubbed with
towels and dried with hand dryers. Through its
natural grooming process, the otter preens
itself, distributing an oil-like fluid produced by
glands in its skin. In about seven days, the
otter's fur will regain its water-repellency.
Otter being towel-dried following removal
of oil from Its fur
During the recuperation process, an
otter's body temperature and eating habits are
monitored. It is fed a variety of its favorite
foods, including fish, squid, shrimp, and
scallops. As its hearth improves, the animal is
moved to a holding tank. Slowly, it is
introduced to its natural habitat. Often, an
otter will try to return to a habitat that is still
contaminated. For this reason, released otters
are tagged with tracking devices. Some are
held for longer periods of time in order to give
cleanup crews additional time to remove more
oil from the area.
25
-------
the oil
in
in
1 The a
of 357 197 into
the
of for
an 24
to In 13
of which born in captivity,
to
too to be
to the of
oil
Inc., of Wilmington, is
to On
the the
in
is for its
in
is to the of
to
are
to with sufficient
Finally,
is for any to be
successful.
SUMMARY
the
of
oil
the for
is for
is The
of is a
be Training
200
of work, are the
Third, a
be to
proven,
26
-------
FOR
699
Dr. Frink
Inc.
110
DE
FOR
Box 2639
San CA
Center for Conservation
312 316
San CA
of
NW
DC
of the
P.O.
CA
Bay
886
CA
NW
DC
AND
FOR
U.S.
SW
DC
1
of the
U.S. Fish and
NW
DC
NOAA/HMRAD
NE
Bind 5700
of
Conservation
410
AK
27
-------
Page Intentionally Blank
28
-------
FOR OIL
INTRODUCTION
Oil are,
in of the
of are so no can
or will occur.
can on or in at any
of day or in any
oil is the
for to
the
to oil. a
the for
it is to quickly in a
THE OF
In to
to an oil
for up the
the to be
the
are
information for
up an oil
in a A
can be as a
of has oil on
it, or it can be the
A is like a
or a set of the
that be and
an by
a
can as
oil to
smoothly minimizing to
cleanup personnel, reducing of
by
are
OF A
At first a
it ail the
in for,
to, an oil a
be to
though, all
elements:
»
»
«
of is
below.
It is to an oil
is to oil is
to be oil
in are for
to get to, at in
that are to
into. are
are
and to
of the
that can the of
to up an oil
as
and spill are
and and
to
In to
the
be
29
-------
of oils in or
in oil is in
or of oil
is
« of and
in the
of the
are to
to be for
the of is for a
On a
in or is
or to get to,
are To for
but
A for
that a of
oil has a
night, to
the
By for the
will be
for
This of a
to in
up a to
to up a it
of
or
are for
oil
of
can be
to or up an oil
of in
the
of
be
of the
will be to
the
in the
effort
A
will to be
a
a spill
so as to to
the to be
a be in the
« all or
are
for the
« to the site
quickly
the
of the its of
and is of
the of all
personnel
the of oil the
or If
the to a
« the oil
of the oil ft has
the or
30
-------
OF
of
for oil
are to
an oil at a
as an oil or
are to to
a In the
has a
the for
any in the
in the
or oil
by a or by a
is to a
for with an of
oil on its
as
« the or for
« job for
the or
for a
spill
» for
personnel
to be to
up
for the
for
of the
as
the the
or
They the
of
a will
if are in an
two or as
a in a
to a is
yp in a
manner.
are into
are to
on In
- or
RRTs -- be to
as as
RRTs
to the of
to to
to up
the
to oil
so the can be
if
The
U.S.
(EPA) has a the
or NCP, to
of the
be for
but oil
a This
to
the are
for oil
emergencies.
The is
of the
(NRT), is
of 14
the U.S.
the
the NRT
not to t
to
31
-------
if an
It
to
in the of
to
an oil has
up, the as as the
in the the
of
the
as had not
in the the
or of
will be in a
This will be
so too
oil to
plans.
SUMMARY
for an oil
to to
the by a
in to
up oil by information the
will during,
occur. the
for to oil are
oil
an to to
for future contingency are
--
to the
environment from
32
-------
TO OIL THE
INTRODUCTION
a oil in any
in the (U.S.),
of and
are to the
it up, to
the is
to with oil
be
to the
environment.
The has
in the U.S. for to
oil is the
This the
of the
the of the
for to oil in
THE
On 18, 1 a oil
the Torrey ran 15
off the of
117,000 of oil that
up the of
the U.S.
not yet a of in its
the
to is to to
if As a in 1968
a
the Oil
Plan, or
(NCP) for
bring with
of to to oil
The NCP, was
into law in 1973, the
a of
and to
that oil spill and are
to the
The of the
are the (1) On-
(2)
(3) The
is
the
of an oil
The
in D.C., is of the first
to be an oil
It is by
the U.S.
as the
for
the (OSC)
job ft is to at
the spill site.
The (OSC) is a
is for all
to
of oil in a
is for
to,
The OSC is a of of
two the U.S.
or the U.S.
(EPA). The has 48
EPA has 145
a in the OSC is the
Port a spill
a is
as the OSC.
33
-------
The Is for lour
an oil (1)
(2) monitoring, (3)
(4) reporting,
Assessment
involves the
of a spill, its
the to ft
yp, the of the or
to the
at the
of a The of the
are to the
for resources
to promptly the
to the to
up a are All
of a minimum
be by an OSC, even
are are up by the
party or local fire or
can be
trie site necessary, or from an
1 the situation to be
Once a the
will be necessary to control
the if the that
is the will
as
If are not
at or the spill site, the can
a -- the Oil
(see box)-- has
for this purpose. This
is to ensure that oil
will not be by a lack of
or
The OH Spill Uablltty
The company or
for an oil spill as
a party, or RP) has
to a
for to
of the
the RP is to
pay for the Oil
can be
to for
of oil into U.S. Trust
Fund, by in 1
is by the U.S.
and is on a
per fee on
oil. It
tor into
of oil spill cleanup
In 1990, $25
per authorized to the USCG
for its for oil spill
Another $30
per the end of 1 was
to the
and $28
per is tor
programs.
on oil
is for
or
The that the all
that and a
For a the OSC is
to file a that outlines
the to the spill and the
of by local, and
can be
to can be
make
for
34
-------
(NRT) is
an of
of has in
in
of to
the NRT not
to it is for
to oil
(1)
(2) for (3)
for
The NRT is for
oil --
-- is to all
of the This is
by NRT
is to on
information on to
of the
for
The NRT the of
on the for oil
are in the
Plan. a
the of the is
by the NRT. NRT
use the
to for the
the
The NRT be to
The
NRT to
on
for
of any
is is
by training. Although
is by
the NRT
to
The NRT
(RRTs) by
are
on oil
The NRT RRTS by
RRT
an oil The NRT
ask an RRT to on
a to
of the
In this the
RRTs can
to
be
the
are
(RRTs} in the U.S., a
the
the are
of
of the up the NRT
as well as The four
of are (1)
(2) (3) (4)
R»»p0n»e
RRTs a forum for
to
to
to OSCs' for As
the NRT, RRT do not
to but be to
or
to a
Planning
RRT a
to an
35
-------
oil the of
are an oil the
RRT the lo
the to the
the as
Training
are of
the RRTs of
to test the of
to
to oil
as a of be
in the
so the do
not an
Coordination
The RRTs are for
the
in
for
oil are too few
in a the RRT can
from or to
will be
a This by
the RRTs are as
as no is
it to
the the of an oil
spill.
SUMMARY
The is the
by the
to to of oil
into of the
This a
of
The of the is to
to
The of the
are the
the Team,
the
to
to
to oil
to or in
for
oil to
all as and
are
are
It is this
the
the
oil
in
AND
of the
sits on the NRT.
of
the sit on the RRTs.
of
of
of
of
of and
of the
of
of
of
of
36
-------
TO OIL THE
INTRODUCTION
On 24, 1
the oil
in
11 of
oil. 1.) The the in
U.S. and the of
to
for, to, as
the
this The size of the spil!
its by
or 2),
and and
for with an
event.
The to the
in
ten
of sea
of as
sea of
THE
The oil
with a of 1.46
(62 of oil, the
of 1 On the
of 23, 1.26
(54 the
in The left the at 9:10
p.m., for Long
of ice the
low in the
so the to into an
to
them. The at
12 per it struck the of
in The
in of
the
a of oil into the 11
of oil five of
the the
the oil 1,000
In to the oil,
80 of
the oil on the
in an in
of the
oil the the oil
top
THE
the in
the U.S. On-
had for all
to the he
of the he
the Port of to all A
a
the of
the of the
to the by the By
on the
by the
The is in
D.C. is of
the or the
U.S.
for
the
oil in
first
for the
the and at
is for out for oil-
an
in
the spill was and set up a
in
Alaska.
37
-------
The in
the
for the
The to
of oil. the
in of
the 43 million of oil still
the the
The first
to four fish
by the In
the of
the to the had
such as booms, which are floating
are to the
of oil, but not of to
an 11 of
the of the had
to be to the
The by
had for
not for
It ten to the
two to the
In the of the
the site two
by the of
The had to be
and
to be air-dropped or by
as
the to to
the Only lodging
in a of
The at not
the
These to
in a nine-hour
The the
for all air traffic control,
to set up a temporary tower to
to the
At the of the
in The On-Scene
the a
line out of the The
of phone from
to the
it for the
to the of
The of
the in
the
The
a
in
On the day of the
for the is
its in
to
the The
the to
the oil the
In for the
set out to the
The
a
the the
to be
who
in the the
The in the U.S.
four
Prince to the
to
A for
set up in Seward,
than 274 of
at the site by the
of to
the to the
two of the 1,000
38
-------
Alaska and Prince William Sound
Figure 1. Maps showing site of Exxon Valdez accident, March 24,1989.
QJfofAlMkl
Oil Spill
Rgure 2. Location of oil (dark areas) spilled from Exxon Valdez as of April 20,1989.
39
-------
Page Intentionally Blank
40
-------
of the
the
the
the
and
to the the
of
set up a to oil the
Bird of
a to
THE
in the
to up the
»
A trial was the
of the A
on tow
the two of the
to a The two the
the
of the the full of
oil. The the
the the oil fire did
not the or the
of the
of
no
in this
the
The use of to be
had less
of at its in
no or
A
on 24 a
not
to mix the
the oil in the the
at the site that the
not
oil
the not
the first 24 the
Thick oil to the
to
oil
oil into
of the
bad the
to
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to of
for for
fish
for
the of
the of
for this did not the
with oil or of a loss of
the
THE
the the
oil
of the
The of the has
to of the of
has in
On 12, the U.S.
the
the
are still of oil left in
it is the
to the by the oil is not
the to be
41
-------
The and the
by the
the of
and the U.S.
thai got in
to use as
to up the The
and
was in
for Prince
the to
of be
the
in trie A
Is a
oil to
on the
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up of
The also
the U.S. to the
U.S. to
on oil and oil
an
law as the Oil Acf of As
of July 17, all tank of tons
or are to
that will the
the center In to
for
to
of the are just
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was
the of and the
As a of this
to pay
for
The
the in
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in the of
to for
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of is the first line of
the oil industry has
to the of oil a
A to
of is
are
that
are are
of the
of oil and
on in the and on
are of
and
of oil are so that the
Is to to
42
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RESPONSE ACTIVITIES: THE EXXON VALDEZO\L SPILL
a. Containment boom surrounds the Exxon Valdez on Bligh
Reef
b. An oil slick surrounds a small island in Prince William
Sound
c. Response crews remove oil from a beach with the use of
high-pressure hoses...
d. sorbent squares.,
e. and sorbent mops.
f. U.S. Coast Guard response person
resues an oil-covered bird
43
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Page Intentionally Blank
44
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A to of a
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column.
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mixing with by the of
Oil: As a of
as or for in a of products.
a for
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or of the
The of to the in
to oil the
A thin film of oil on the
up or oil.
can be to oil to the oil "harden" into
can be up the or left to to the
45
-------
The of the of a to the of
The the of a by the
the oil is on this the oil as a
thin is to or up.
A oil into This to the of
the oil the at the oil can be or into
Tar of hydrocarbons; from oil,
to are do not
of the on a as oil, to or
deterioration of the
46
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FOB
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Ducks,* 24, 70.
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47
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