vc/EPA
United States
Environmental Protection
Agency
Emergency and
Remedial Response
(5201G)
9378.0-02
EPA540-K-95-005
PR1026
April 1996
HAZ-ED
Classroom Activities for
Understanding Hazardous
Waste
-------
-------
II .
-------
-------
FOREWORD
HAZ-ED
Classroom Activities for Understanding
Hazardous Waste
One out of four Americans lives within four miles-of a Superfund hazardous waste site.
There are Superfund sites and many other hazardous waste sites in every state. Every
community generates hazardous waste. - -
The Federal Superfund Program, administered by the U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency (EPA), investigates and cleans up hazardous waste sites throughout the United
States. Part of this program is devoted to informing the public and involving them in the
process of cleaning up hazardous waste sites from beginning to end. Haz-Ed was
developed to assist EPA's efforts. Haz-Ed assists educators in teaching 7th through
12th grade students about hazardous waste, environmental issues surrounding site
cleanup, and the Federal government's Superfund/Program.
Haz-Ed can be used as,part of a larger curriculum, as specjal stand-alone activities, or
on an occasional basis to teach students about hazardous waste issues. v Haz-Ed is a
compilation of interdisciplinary activities that focus on the often complicated and
sometimes controversial scientific, technical, and policy issues related to hazardous
waste sites and Superfund. It is designed to help students develop skills in critical
thinking, problem solving, and decision making. It also increases environmental
awareness and encourages an environmental ethic in students. , " '
EPA hopes Haz-Ed will be beneficial to you in your efforts to educate your students
about the environment and the environmental concerns we all share. If you have any
questions concerning Haz-Ed or the Superfund Program, please contact Nancy L.
Cronin of Superfund's Community Involvement and Outreach Center, at 703-603-9097.
-------
Acknowledgements
The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency sincerely appreciates the
valuable contributions of the following education and environmental
professionals to Haz-Ed: Classroom Activities for Understanding
Hazardous Waste.
Carol Adkins
Linda Andrews
Cindy Byers
Steven Coon
Nancy L. Cronin
Katie Daly
Rodney J. Dymesich
Mark Elworthy
CeCe Forget
Scott Fredericks
Gayle Fritsch
Joanna Gibson
Robert Hubert
Alice Jasmer
Kathleen Kaye
Larry Mancl
Judith Mealing
David Miller
Douglas Reindl
Laurie Low Reser
Paul Rowland
Gretchen Schmidt
Ron Slotkin
Joseph Smogor
Valerie Stone
Helen Lynn Vella
Helen Waldorf
Debra Weitzel
Midge Yergen
IV
-------
CONTENTS
c • * '-'-•'-.' . ' ' ,
•.. •- • -''-.•' ,:•.' •', •-•" • ' • • .'. • , ''•
Introduction
•.•'"'.'• •
Instructional Goals "'-•''.
What This Package Contains
How to Use This Package
• . .'"",•'•'.'.' ' \ ', .• --• ' ~,
Warm-Up Exercises
1 Defining Hazardous Waste - 3
Students define and explore the relationship between hazardous substances and
hazardous waste.
2 EPA's Superfund Program—Overview 7
Students learn about the goals of the Federal Superfund Program and how these
goals are achieved. .
3 The Numbers <3ame 17
Students gain an appreciation for the part-per-million and part-per-billion units
used to measure contaminant concentrations in the environment.
4 Risk Concepts 27
Students explore the meaning of risk through a simple exercise in probability.
- " " . ^ ' • • ' '
5 Hazardous Waste Issues in the News • 33
, Students conduct research to collect news media reports on local and national
hazardous waste issues.
6 What Is an Aquifer? 43
Students build a simple model of an aquifer to study the relationship of
groundwater and surface water and explore the ways contaminants are spread
through water.
Activities
1 Waste: Where Does It Come From? Where Does It Go? 49
Students identify and locate on a map the potential sources of hazardous waste
in their neighborhood or community.
v
-------
2 Examining a Hazardous Waste Site 53
Students begin to understand how Superfund sites are created.
3 Companion to Superfund — the Resource Conservation
and Recovery Act (RCRA) Program 61
Students explore the nation's program for properly managing and disposing of
hazardous and nonhazardous waste in the United States.
4 Dealing with Chemical Emergencies 67
Students discover how Federal, state, and local authorities respond to chemical
emergencies under Superfund and other laws.
5 How Hazardous Substances Affect People 73
Students gain an appreciation for how scientists determine the human health
effects of hazardous substances.
6 Examining The Effects of Pollution on Ecosystems 81
Students learn that hazardous waste may have far-reaching impacts on
ecosystems that are not always easy to identify.
7 Identifying Risks at a Superfund Site 91
Students begin to understand the types of risks found at Superfund sites and
how these risks are identified and assessed. ,
8 Hazardous Waste Cleanup Methods 105
Students explore some of the reasoning involved in choosing technologies for
cleaning up hazardous waste sites.
• \
9 Making Decisions About Hazardous Waste Cleanup 109
Students assume roles and act out a situation that illustrates the process of
decision making during cleanup of a Superfund site.
10 Pollution Prevention 127
Students discover what can be done to reduce the amount of solid and
hazardous wastes that must be disposed of and managed safely.
11 What the Community Can Do 135
Students learn how the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency involves
communities near Superfund sites in the cleanup process, and the types of
activities communities can use to influence how hazardous waste sites are
cleaned up.
12 Federal and State Laws on Hazardous Waste 141
Students will become familiar with how laws affecting hazardous waste are
developed, enacted, implemented, and enforced.
13 Creating the Future 149
Students create and write scenarios for the future related to hazardous waste
pollution.
VI
-------
Fact Flashes
1 Hazardous Substances and Hazardous Waste
2 The SuperfUnd Cleanup Program
3 Flowing Railroad Hazardous Waste Site
4 Flowing Railroad Site investigation Results
5 Groundwater
6 Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA)
7 Pollution Prevention
8 Common Cleanup Methods
9 Common Contaminants
10 Superfund Community Involvement Program
11 Other Major Environmental Laws
Glossary.
Suggested Reading
Contacts and Resources
This Is Quperfuhd Brochure
Bibliography
Evaluation Form
VII
-------
VIM
-------
INTRODUCTION
Ten million children under the age of 12 live within 4 miles of a Superfund site. The
following education materials were developed to focus the attention of 7th through 12th
grade students on hazardous waste, environmental issues surrounding hazardous waste
sites, and the Federal government's Superfund Program.. The units in this package are
designed to help students think critically and creatively about hazardous waste pollution
problems and some alternatives for resolving them. The units are interdisciplinary, with a
particular focus on classroom interaction and real-world applicability. They are readily
usable in schools with a team-teaching or theme approach. The materials are designed
for use in-a range of subject areas. A table showing the related subject areas for all units
is provided at the end of this Introduction for quick reference. .
The Haz-Ed materials focus on laws passed by the United States Congress and
implemented through regulatory programs directed by Federal agencies, primarily the
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. These are Federal lawaand programs that apply
to the entire nation. Each state also has a system of environmental laws and state
agencies to implement them. Even some local governments have acted to deal with
environmental issues through legislation. Although beyond the scope of this document,
.information about state and local activities can be very useful to you.
Instructional Goals
, • '• • - - - •, . r • . " • f - -
The units are designed to fulfill four primary instructional goals. Each unit is hands-on
and interactive, giving students practice in:
• Collecting, analyzing, and interpreting data in experiments that illustrate the impact of
hazardous waste pollution .
• Clarifying value systems—their own and those of others—that impact how we
perceive and treat the environment '•' .
• Analyzing how economics, laws, politics, technology, and other factors contribute to
hazardous waste pollution and the process of dealing with it
• Assessing alternatives for resolving hazardous waste pollution problems.
Students must gain an understanding of the scientific and technical concepts related to
' the environment, and see that these concepts are useful and applicable in the world. To
show the relevance and utility of the concepts and skills underlying these activities
beyond the:classrbom, many of the units challenge students to extrapolate real world
applications from the information presented:
IX
-------
Whal This Package Contains
The package includes 6 Warm-up Exercises, 13 Activities, and 11 Fact Flashes.
These units focus on the most important hazardous waste and site cleanup issues in a
simple, straightforward style. Many of them can be completed in one class period, but
some require two class periods or portions of several classes over a specified period of
time. The number of class periods required for each lesson was determined based on
an average class period of 45 minutes. These are estimates and are provided only as a
guide. The actual time required will depend on the grade level and the skill level of the
students in the class.
Pieces can be used alone or in various combinations to accommodate the needs of
individual classes and grade levels. Some educators, for example, may choose to
conduct several Warm-ups and Activities in sequence over an entire semester.
Complementary units are referenced in each Warm-Up and Activity.
Several lessons begin with homework assignments to prepare students for the exercise.
Most units call for explanations or presentations by teachers, but several also involve
presentations from students and facilitated discussions led by teachers.
Facf Flashes
The Fact Flashes are a set of fact sheets that provide the foundation of information on
which the Warm-Ups and. Activities are built. The Fact Flashes stand alone and can be
used to supplement your lessons in a number of ways.
Warm-Up Exercises
The Warm-Ups focus on developing and understanding some basic concepts related to
, hazardous waste. These exercises are designed to be presented by classroom
educators in series or as preparation for rejated Activities.
Acfivifies
**
The Activities build on the Warm-ups, although they can stand alone. Students examine
issues related to hazardous waste and site cleanup. The Activities are designed for
presentation by classroom educators. Since some of the Activities take more than one
'class period, however, educators may wish to consider sharing the delivery with an
invited guest, such as an EPA Superfund staff member or an employee of the state
government's hazardous waste cleanup program.
-------
Duration estimates the time
needed for the lesson. The
actual time required will
depend on the grade level
arid the skill level of the
students in the class.
Grade Level indicates the
target grade levels for this
unit.
Key Terms/Cohcepts shows
terms students will encounter
in the unit (defined in the
Glossary section of the
package).
Qujsgested Subjects are the
scholastic subject areas to
which the lesson is related.
Background contains basic
facts and context information
for the educator's use.
Preparation provides a list of,
materials and steps the
educator should complete
prior to class.
Procedure sets out step-by-
step instructions for
executing the lesson.
Wherever appropriate, this
section includes questions
the educator should ask or
anticipate from the students,
student worksheets, and ;
answer keys.
Purpose explains what the
student willknow or be able
to do following this activity.
Activity 1
Waste: Where
It Come From?
Where Does 14 Go?
2daMperiod*
t 9-12
Biology
Cbtxnistjy
Purpose
In this lesson, students use a map to identify and
locate potential sources of hazardous waste in their
'neighborhood or community, fn the process.
students loam what hazardous waste is and Identity
the potential threats it poses.
Background ' ,
Our Westyfes are supported by complex industrial activities that produce vast quantities
of waste. Industries that produce our clothing, cars, paper, medicines, plastics,
electronic components, fertilizers, pesticides, and cosmetics—to name only a fewr-use
and discard thousands of hazardous chemicals and other substances every year.
Preparation .. •
1. . Place the .map on an easel or hang it on a wall where students can sea it.
Procedure
1. Summarize information found in Fact Flash 1 and your research in-preparing the
class, including how hazardous waste sites are created from a variety of sources.
Extension (Optional) . .
• Allow the dass to choose specific ideas they want to pursue and design a plan of
action. Monitorandtacirrtatetheirprogressuntilcompletkxi.
Extension (Optional) offers
ideas for carrying the lesson
further by suggesting follow-
up, extra-credit activities, or
ways to expand participattpn
beyond the classroom.
XI
-------
Appended Materials
At the end of this document you will find several resources and supplements that can
assist you in making the most of Haz-Ed or support your independent activities. The
Glossary defines many of the terms and concepts students wilKencounter in the
exercises and activities. You may consider providing your students with a copy for their
general reference.
A list of abstracted Suggested Readings provides both educators and students with
additional information. The list is keyed for grade level and provides references to the
most relevant exercises and activities.
A list of Contacts and Resources provides a variety of information, including key phone
numbers and Internet addresses.
A brochure, This Is Superfund, is a stand-alone document that describes the Superfund
Program. It can be used in the classroom and the community.
Finally, the Bibliography lists resources used in preparing the Haz-Ed materials.
How To Use This Package
These materials are intended as resources. Educators should feel free to make
adjustments in the material to fit in with topics and concepts the class may already be
studying or to address topics of particular importance to students in a given geographic
area. Also, we encourage educators to use their knowledge of the make-up of the
community to add texture to the lessons and reinforce students' in-classroom work.
Educators are reminded to consider economic and cultural sensitivities in using the
materials that involve living creatures or procuring materials.
How educators and guest presenters deliver these lessons is all-important. Helping
students think critically about the world around them and their role in preserving the
environment underlies all the materials. Many of the activities involve technical
vocabulary and concepts, and instructors may need to spend extra time defining terms
and providing background. Accelerated students may not have a problem, but others
may. Grade levels listed in the materials are only suggestions; select and adapt these
materials to your students' abilities and needs. Feel free to copy these materials and
share them with other educators.'
XII
-------
Most units provide questions to stimulate student discussion, but few have a single,
"right" answer. These questions are intended to draw on the students' abilities to identify
various options, Strategies, and reasons in arriving at their answers. Educators can ask
students to describe how they arrived at a particular answer and encourage them to
compare their answers and approaches with those used by other students to answer the
same question. Where there may be several answers to the same question, challenge
students to explore why answers are different and how to determine which, if any, are
correct. This approach helps students develop critical thinking skills in a stimulating,
noncompetitive environment.
xiii
-------
9ubject Areas for Haz-Ed Lessons
Warm-up 1
Warm-up 2
Warm-up 3
Warm-up 4
Warm-up 5
Warm-up 6
Activity 1
Activity 2
Activity 3
Activity 4
Activity 5
Activity 6
Activity 7
Activity 8
Activity 9
Activity 10
Activity 11
Activity 12
Activity 13
S
•
/
/
/
/
^
^
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
s
s
s
s
s
s
s
s
s
s
s
s
V
s
s
s
s
s
' \A-
s
s
s
s
s
s
.
s
s
s
V
s
s
s
s
s
s
s
s
s
s
s
s
/
/
s
s
s
s
s
s
J
s
s
s
s
s
s
s
s
V
s
/
J.
s
J
/
i
XIV
-------
WARM-UP9
-------
-------
•Warm-Up. 1
Defining Hazardous
Waste
Duration
Grade Level
Key Terms/
Concepts
Suggested
Subjects
1 class period
7-10
Corrosive
Hazardous Substance
Hazardous Waste
Ignitable
Reactive
Toxic
Health , "
Life Science
Physical Science
Social Studies
Purpose
In this exercise, students define and explore
the relationship between hazardous
substances and hazardous waste. The
exercise allows them to identify a number of
commonly used toxic chemicals, describe how
these materials are used and disposed of, and
sort them into the various types of hazardous
waste. Students then discuss how the
improper use and disposal of these materials
can affect people in their community and the
environment.
Background ;
Many familiar products contain hazardous substances. Hazardous substance is a broad
term that includes many chemicals and materials, including poisonous or toxic
chemicals., Improper use and disposal of these products can result in the production of
hazardous waste that can pollute our environment. Becoming more aware of the
hazardous substances we encounter every day and of the types of hazardous waste
they produce is the first step in learning how to properly handle and dispose of them,
thereby protecting ourselves and our environment.
FactFfash 1: Hazardous Substances and Hazardous Waste describes these terms and
their application. For more information on hazardous substances, see the Suggested
Reading list found at the end of the Haz-Ed materials. Other Haz-Ed materials that are
related to this topic include Fact Flash 7: Pollution Prevention and Activity 10: Pollution
Prevention. .
-------
Warm-Up 1
Preparation
1. Gather the following materials:
• Copies for each student of Fact Hash 1: Hazardous Substances and
Hazardous Waste.
2. Read Fact Flash 1 to prepare for the lesson.
3. Distribute Fact Flash 1 to the students and have them read it as homework.
Procedure
1. Ask students what a hazardous substance is. Have them write their definitions
on a sheet of paper or share them with the class. Record them on the chalkboard.
2. Define hazardous substances for the class:
*
Hazardous substances are materials that present a threat or potential risk of
injury to people or the environment when they are produced, transported,
used, or disposed of. •
3.
Discuss characteristics of hazardous substances. To be hazardous, a substance
must have one or more of the following characteristics:
• Corrosive — capable of chemically wearing substances away (corroding) or
destroying them. For example, most acids are corrosive. They can eat
through metal, burn human skin on contact, and give off vapors that burn the
eyes. Acids found in batteries are corrosive.
>
• Toxic — poisonous to people and other organisms. Toxic substances can
cause illness—ranging from severe headaches to cancer—and even death if
swallowed, and many also can be absorbed through the skin. Pesticides,
weed killers, and many household cleaners are toxics.
• Ignitable — capable of bursting into flames. Ignitable substances pose a
fire hazard and irritate the skin, eyes, and lungs. They also may give off
harmful vapors. Gasoline, paint, and furniture polish are ignitable
substances.
-------
Warm-Up I
• Reactive — capable of exploding or releasing poisonous gas when mixed
with another substance or chemical. For example, chlorine bleach and
ammonia are reactive. When they come into contact with each other they
produce a poisonous gas.
(NOTE: You may want to bring to class examples, such as those mentioned
above, of the various types of household products that can become hazardous
waste. Use caution in handling these products.)
4. Discuss with the class some types of hazardous substances that may be found in
their community.
5. Divide the class into 4 or 5 small groups. Distribute Fact Flash 1: Hazardous
Substances and Hazardous Waste and have the students read it.
6 " , • " " ~
6. Write the questions below on the board, or make copies for the students. Have
each group discuss the questions. Explain that each group should be prepared to
participate in a class-wide discussion later in the period. Allow about 20 minutes
for group discussion. > , -
• What household chemicals do people have in their homes or garages that
are hazardous and that could become hazardous waste?
• Do you think you or your family contribute to the hazardous waste problem?
If so, how?
• What problems could you, your family, and the community face as a result of
being exposed to hazardous waste?
• What businesses in your corrimunity do you think might use hazardous
materials?
'..."•''• . ; ''-•'- -.I '. ' ' ' ' • -
• What are some ways hazardous waste problems can be prevented? Which
of these things can you do? (Give 1 or 2 examples, such as using vinegar
and water to clean windows and not using pesticides on plants.)
7. After about 20 minutes, have the class reassemble. Take each question in turn
and have students share the Concerns, opinions, and questions raised in their
groups. You may want to have one or two students write unanswered questions
and suggestions for preventing hazardous waste problems on the chalkboard for
' , everyone to see?.
-------
Warm-Up 1
About 5 minutes prior to the end of the period, summarize the discussion and
identify subjects students may want to explore more fully in subsequent classes.
Introduce the concept that there are simple steps the students, their families, and
the community can take to decrease and prevent pollution. Fact Flash 7:
Pollution Prevention provides additional ^information. Activity 10: Pollution
Prevention presents some ideas for students to explore and contains a handout on
nontoxic alternatives that can be used around the house in place of cleaning fluid,
laundry detergent, pesticides, and so forth. You can copy and distribute this
handout to the class if desired.
Extensions (Optional)
• Have students list chemical products in their homes and sort them into groups
according to the types of hazardous waste they could produce (for example, lawn
and garden pesticides belong in the "toxic" category, gasoline and lighter fluid
belong in the "ignitable" category). NOTE: Caution your students not to touch any
of these substances while they are making their lists.
• Have students contact the local government environmental services office or
sanitation department and find out about recycling and other programs designed to
minimize hazardous waste. For example, have them find out how used paint
thinner and leftover paints should be disposed of in their community.
• Have students contact local gasoline service stations, oil change and auto
lubricating shops, and nursery and garden supply companies and report on how
these firms are required to dispose of hazardous substances.
• Have students contact your state environmental departments and ask if they have
any posters or materials that show how to dispose of hazardous substances and
hazardous waste, or that illustrate the use of alternatives to hazardous substances.
Get some of these materials to use in your school for a display on Earth Day, Arbor
Day, or other environmental event.
-------
Warm-Up 2
EPA's Quperfund
Program: Overview
Duration
Grade Level
Key Terms/
Concepts
Suggested
Subjects,
1 class period
7-12
Early Action
Emergency Response
Cleanup ,
Hazardous Waste
Long-term Action _
Potentially Responsible
Party
Superfund
Civics/Government
, Life Science
Physical Science
Social Studies
Purpose
Students become familiar with the goals of the
Superfund Program, and the means by which
those goals are achieved. The principal goal
of the Superfund Program is to reduce and
eliminate threats to human health and the
environment posed by closed or abandoned .
hazardous waste sites. Students become
familiar with the different ways the U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)
responds to threats posed by hazardous
waste, how hazardous waste sites are
characterized and cleaned up, and the role of
the local community in the process.
Background
Hazardous waste comes from a variety of sources, from both present and past
activities. Years ago, before we understood the dangers of hazardous waste, there were
no laws controlling its disposal. Many'businesses and industries treated their hazardous
waste the same as1 the rest of their trash—so it ended up in a landfill, dumped in a river
or lake, or buried in the ground.
Eventually, thousands of uncontrolled or abandoned hazardous waste sites were created
in abandoned warehouses, manufacturing facilities, harbors, processing plants, or
landfills. The Superfund Program was created in 1980 to investigate and clean up
hazardous waste sites nationwide.
Fact Flash 2: The Superfund Cleanup Program provides a good overview of what EPA is
trying to accomplish with the Superfund Program. Superfund is a nickname for the law
that requires EPA to take care of hazardous waste sites, and gives them legal power to
force the people who created the sites to clean them up or repay the government for its .
cleanup efforts. The nickname comes from a trust fund that provides money for
investigating and cleaning up these sites.
-------
Warm-Up 2
The Superfund Program refers to the work EPA does to clean up abandoned hazardous
waste sites. The Superfund Program also responds to emergencies.such as a fire in a
chemical plant where poisonous gas might be released, or a highway accident involving
a tractor-trailer that is carrying hazardous material. In these situations, as always, EPA's
first responsibility is to protect the health and safety of the people, plants, animals, and
waterways in the area from immediate danger.
For more information on the Superfund program, see the Suggested Reading list found
at the end of the Haz-Ed materials. Other Haz-Ed materials that are related to this topic
include Warm-Up 6: What is an Aquifer? and Activity 2: Examining a Hazardous Waste
Site.
Preparation
Option 1: Video and Discussion/Review
1. Gather the following materials:
• VCR and monitor
• EPA videotape This is Superfund (available from NTIS;
information on ordering is given at the end of this document)
• Copies for each student of the Student Worksheet, Understanding Superfund:
A Quiz To Test Your Knowledge, and the brochure, This Is Superfund (found
at the end of the Haz-Ed materials).
2. Read Fact Flash 2: The Superfund Cleanup Program to prepare for discussion.
Option 2: Lecture and Demonstration
1. Gather the following materials:
• 3 clear glass or plastic cups (9 oz. each)
• red food coloring
• vegetable oil
• maple syrup
• copies for each student of the Student Worksheet, Understanding Superfund:
A Quiz to Test Your Knowledge, and the Brochure, This is Superfund.
2. Read Fact Flash 2: The Superfund Cleanup Program to prepare your lecture.
Read Activity 2: Examining a Hazardous Waste Site for information on the way
different contaminants behave in an aquifer.
8
-------
Warm-Up 2
Procedure
Option 1: Video and Discussion/Review
1. Distribute the Student Worksheet, Understanding Superfund: A Quiz To Test Your
Knowledge, and instruct the class to read and complete the quiz. Allow 4 or 5 /
minutes for the completion of the quiz. '.
2. Outline the activities comprising this exercise:
• The quiz will be reviewed and some answers discussed.
• A videotape entitled T/7/s/s Supe/func/ will be shown (if available).
• A brief lecture on the Superfund Program will be presented.
• Correct answers to the quiz will be provided. '
• A discussion of the program and a question-and-answer session will end the
class. ; .
3. Review the quiz. Ask volunteers to provide their answers, but do not provide the ,
correct answers (which will come later). Ask the class if anyone knows of any
Superfund sites. Have they ever wondered how Superfund sites are discovered?
Do they know how the risks at the site are assessed? ,Do they know how sites are
cleaned up? Who is responsible for performing these tasks and why?
• •". ^ „ ' -•''/'
4. If students volunteer some familiarity with the program or a site, have them share
their knowledge with the class.. The site may be local, or it may be one of the
better known sites across the country. If appropriate, locate a nearby site for the
class and briefly describe the situation. (NOTE: Information on individual sites is
available from EPA's Regional Office for your state. A list of EPA's Superfund
Community Involvement Offices for each Region is found in the materials at the
,end of this document)
5. Show the videotape This is Superfund. If you are unable to show the video, use
the information in Fact Flash 2 and the brochure, This is Superfund, to explain the
program to the students. . .
6. Discuss the video, restating some of the highlights of the presentation. (NOTE: If
you are not familiar with the program, you may want to view the video or read
through the brochure This is Superfund prior to the classroom discussion of the
program.)
7. Review the answers to the quiz in light of the video. (See Instructor's Answer Key,
attached.) Distribute the brochure, This is Superfund.
-------
Warm-Up 2
Discuss the assessment process by which sites are discovered and risks are
determined. Note that sites can be discovered by anyone, and that there is a
hotline for reporting potential sites:
9. Discuss the site cleanup process and the importance of the potentially responsible
parties. The class should understand that Superfund is not a "public works"
program under which the government takes responsibility for the cleanup of sites.
Rather, the government attempts to identify PRPs and encourages them to
undertake the cleanups. If the parties are unwilling to undertake the cleanup, the
government may compel the parties to do so by court order, or may elect to
perform the cleanup and recover costs from the responsible parties.
10. The discussion session should be interactive; ask the class questions as well as
answer them. Types of questions for the class to consider include a discussion of
why there are uncontrolled hazardous waste sites, why the government looks for
PRPs rather than performing cleanups, why some cleanups take a long time, and
the consequences for the public if there were no Superfund Program.
11. Assign Fact Flash 2: The Superfund Cleanup Program for homework.
Option 2: Lecture and Demonstration
1. Distribute the Student Worksheet, Understanding Superfund: A Quiz to Test Your
Knowledge, and instruct the class to read and complete the quiz. Allow 4 or 5
minutes for the completion of the quiz. .
2. Outline the activities comprising this exercise:
• The quiz will be reviewed and some answers discussed
• A brief lecture on the Superfund Program will be presented
• Correct answers to the quiz will be provided
• A demonstration of the behavior of different contaminants in water will be
presented.
3. Review the quiz. Ask volunteers to provide their answers, but do not provide the
correct answers (which will come later). Ask the class if anyone knows of any
Superfund sites. Have they ever wondered how Superfund sites are discovered?
Do they know how the risks at the site are assessed? Do they know how sites are
cleaned up? Who is responsible for performing these tasks and why?
4. If students volunteer some familiarity with the program or a site, have them share
their knowledge with the class. The site may be local, or it may be one of the
better known sites across the country. If appropriate, locate a nearby site for the
class and briefly describe the situation. • (NOTE: Information on individual sites is
10
-------
Warm-Up 2
available from EPA's Regional Office for yourstate. A list of EPA's Superfund
Community Involvement Offices for each Region is found in the materials at the
end of this document.)
5. Perform the demonstration.
a. Fill each of the 3 cups with water.
b. Discuss how different types of wastes call for different types of action or
cleanup methods. ' ; -
c. Add a drop of red food coloring into the first cup. What happens? How would
you clean this up? The red food Coloring simulates the behavior of gasoline
or other water-soluble contaminant in water.
d. Add a drop of vegetable oil to the water in the second cup. What happens?
- How would you clean this up? The vegetable oil simulates the behavior of a
light non-aqueous phase liquid (LNAPL), such as jet fuel: LNAPLs are lighter
than water put do hot mix with water. .
e. Add a drop of maple syrup to the water in the third cup. What happens?
How would you clean this up? The maple syrup simulates the behavior of a
'dense non-aqueous phase liquid (DNAPL),.such as TCE. DNAPLsare
heavier than water but do not rnix with water.
f. These demonstrations illustrate some of the contaminants found at a -
Superfund site. Warm-Up 6: What is an Aquifer? and Activity 2: Examining a
.'•'.. Hazardous Waste Site examine the behavior of pollutants in groundwater in
greater detail.
6. Review the answers to the quiz in light of. the lecture. (See Instructor's Answer
Key, attached.) Distribute copies of the brochure, This is Superfund, to the
students. '
7. Discuss the assessment process by which sites are discovered and risks are
determined. Note that sites can be discovered by anyone, and that there is a
- hotline for reporting potential sites.
8. Discuss the site cleanup process and the importance of the pcitentially responsible
parties. The class should understand that Superfund is not a "public works"
>' . ' program under which the government takes responsibility for the cleanup of sites.
Rather,,the government attempts to identify PRPs and encourages them to
undertake the cleanups. If the parties are unwilling to undertake the cleanup, the
government may compel the parties to do so by court order, or may elect to
perform the cleanup and recover costs from the responsible parties.
•• • " • •' '• - - .,11 •. . ' •
-------
Warm-Up 2
The discussion session should be interactive; ask the class questions as well as
answer them. Types of questions for the class to consider include a discussion of
why there are uncontrolled hazardous waste sites, why the government looks for
• PRPs rather than performing cleanups, why some cleanups take a long time, and
the consequences for the public if there were no Superfund Program.
10. Assign Fact Flash 2: The Superfund Cleanup Program for homework.
Extensions (Optional)
Break the class into groups and make assignments for presentations during a follow-up
class. The number of groups may vary, but each should include about 5 or 6 students.
Give them a week or more to complete the research and prepare their reports.
Encourage group members to discuss among themselves how best to accomplish the
research required, make contact with appropriate sources of information, conduct
interviews, compile information, structure the presentation, and prepare to answer
questions posed by other students. Below are some topics and recommended
resources the students could use.
1. Local Emergency Response — This group should report on how chemical spills
and other hazardous substances emergencies are handled in this community.
While the EPA has the power and ability to respond to emergencies, typically the
first response will be from the local fire department or other emergency
management team. Students should report on the roles different local, state, and
Federal agencies play in responding to emergencies. Does one group assess the
extent of damage and another clean up hazards? How do the agencies interact
and coordinate'their efforts?
2. Local or State Superfund Site — By contacting the EPA Regional Community
Involvement Coordinator (CIC) for your state (see the This is Superfund brochure),
students can choose a nearby Superfund site or a site within the state for research.
Information can be collected from the Regional CIC or from a nearby Superfund
Information Repository. A Superfund Information Repository is a place near each
Superfund site where information about the site is kept for public review. Typically,
these repositories are at public libraries. This group should make a presentation
on the information available for that site. The report could include:
• ' The contaminants found at the site ,
• The contaminated media (soil, rivers, lakes, groundwater, or air)
• Whether any responsible parties have been identified
• Who is paying for the cleanup
• Any technologies that are being used to treat the contamination
• Any other pertinent information.
-------
Warm-Up 2
The content of the report will depend on how far along the site is in the Superfund
process. Sites where cleanup action is already underway would be the most
interesting. Note that information on mpre than one site can be presented; each
group can make a presentation on a different site. This will emphasize the different
types of hazardous waste sites cleaned up under the Superfund Program. If you
live in an area with a significant number of sites, you may consider having each
group make a presentation on a different local site.
When each group gives its presentation, allow other students to ask questions. Ask
group members what problems, if any, they encountered in preparing their
presentations. Ask if they uncovered information or met people who were particularly
surprising or interesting.
Instructor's Answer Key
Warm-Up 1: Understanding Superfund —A quiz to test your knowledge
1. What is Superfund?
a. A Federal program that cleans up the nation's worst hazardous waste sites.
d. A fund of money made up of Federal tax revenues, used to pay for hazardous
waste site cleanups.
2. What is meant by the term "hazardous waste?"
a. By-products of society that can pose a substantial or potential threat to
human health or the environment when improperly managed.
c. A waste product with one or more of the following characteristics: ignitable (it
can catch fire easily), corrosive (it can eat away material), reactive (it causes
a violent or harmful reaction), or toxic (it is poisonous).
31 Who is responsible for cleaning up hazardous waste sites?
a. The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. ' -
b. State and local environmental agencies.
c. The U.S. Coast Guard. ,
d. Organizations and people responsible for contamination at the sites.
-••• .' '"'• • :-• .'•• 13 v. ;' • - '-'•,. "• •' •.. "'. •
-------
Warm-Up 2
4. Who pays for the sites to be cleaned up?
a. Organizations and people responsible for contamination at the sites.
b. EPA through the Superfund trust fund, if responsible parties cannot be
identified or cannot perform the cleanup.
d. Federal agencies, such as the U.S. Department of Energy, that are
responsible for site contamination.
14
-------
Warm-Up 2
STUDENT WORKSHEET
Understanding Superfund:
A quiz to test your knowledge
"' - ''-.'• . •"'" \ p '
Circle every answer to a question that you think is a correct response.
1. What is Superfund? „
a. A Federal program that is in charge of all environmental laws of the United
States. . ,
b. A Federal program that cleans up the nation's worst hazardous waste sites.
c. A collection of all Federal and state laws that regulate hazardous materials.
d. , A fund made up of Federal tax revenues used to pay for hazardous waste
site cleanups.
2. What is meant by the term "hazardous waste?"
a. By-products of society that can pose a substantial or potential threat to
human health or the environment when improperly managed.
L b. Mercury in a thermometer.
c. A waste product with one or more of the following characteristics: ignitable
(it can catch fire easily), Corrosive (it can eat away material), reactive (it
reacts violently or harmfully), or toxic (it is poisonous).
d. What you had for dinner last night.
3. Who is responsible for cleaning up hazardous waste sites?
a. The U.S. EnvironmentalProtection Agency.
b. State and local environmental agencies.
c. The U.S. Coast Guard. .
d. Organizations and people responsible for contamination at the sites.
--' .-"''" . , F
4. Who pays for the sites to be cleaned up?
a. Organizations and people responsible for contamination at the sites.
b. EPA through the Superfund trust fund, if responsible parties cannot be
identified or cannot perform the cleanup. '
c. The public through a sales tax.
d. Federal agencies, such as the U.S. Department of Energy, that are
responsible for site contamination.
15
-------
16
-------
Warm-Up 3
The Numbers Game
>9
4 5
Duration 1 class period
Grade Level 10-12 '
Key Terms/ Concentration
Concepts Contaminants
Toxic
Unit o"f Measure
Suggested Mathematics
Subjects
Purpose
Students gain an appreciation for the part-per-million
and part-per-billion units used to measure
contaminant concentrations iri the environment.
Students learn to calculate these ratios and analyze a
sample chemical spill to determine if cleanup action is
necessary.
Background
Some toxic substances are dangerous ever) in very small amounts. "Part-per-million'r
(ppm) and "part-per-biilion" (ppb) are the units of measure scientists,use to describe the
concentration of a hazardous substance or contaminant found within a large volume of
another substance. For instance, your could find 500 ppm of a pesticide in a lake.
.';''-.• ' ' . . ' ' •'' • '."•-''
Expressing the amount,of contamination in ppm or ppb is measuring the concentration
of the substance. This way, a scientist can take a relatively small sample of water, from
the lake in our example, and measure the concentration of one or more contaminants in
that sample; then assume that the concentration is the same in the whole lake without
testing the entire lake. .
.For more information on the science of detecting and measuring contamination, see the
Suggested Reading list found at the end of the Haz-Ed materials. Other Haz-Ed
materials that are related to this topic include Activity 7: Identifying Risks at a
Superfund Site and Activity 9: Making'Decisions About Hazardous Waste Cleanup.
Preparation
- ' • • • f 'f
1. Gather the following materials: .
• Copies for each student of the Student Worksheet, The Numbers Game.
(An answer sheet for your.use is included at the end of this lesson.)
17
-------
Warm-Up 3
>9 m , ,
33 8 2
Procedure
1 . Hand out the Student Worksheet, 7/je Numbers Game, and have the students take
the quiz in Part A. Part A is intended to gauge the students' intuitive grasp of how
small a "part per million" and a "part per billion" are. Instruct the students to guess if
necessary to answer these three questions. They will actually calculate the correct
answers in Part B.
2. After they have completed the quiz, go on to Part B. Work) with them to calculate
each answer choice and, from that information, determine.the correct answers to
the quiz in Part A.
3. Finally, work through the Lake Jasmine spill scenario in Part C with the students.
Instructor's Answer Key
Warm-Up 3: The Numbers Game
Correct answers are boxed.
Part A
Just how small is a part per million? A part per billion? Answer the following three
questions based on your "gut reaction." Guess if you need to.
1. One part per million is equivalent to 1 minute in
a. 1 day | b. 2 years"] c. 6 weeks
2. One part per billion is equivalent to 1 second in
a. 3 weeks b. 17 months c. 32 years
PartB
Now go back and calculate each of the answers you chose in Part A. Use the
procedure below for each calculation.
To calculate the relationship between 2 quantities, first convert both quantities to the
same unit of measure. For example, to compare years to seconds, convert the years
to seconds. To do this, convert the years to days, then the days to hours, the hours to
minutes and the minutes to seconds:
18
-------
_365 days 24 hours _ 8,760 hours -
- ----- - - X
1 year
8,760 hours ,
^^™""™"""™"""^™^^^^^
1 year
1 day
60 minutes
"-"••••— ^-—^^^^^ _
1 hour
1 year <
525,600 minutes
1 year
525,600 minutes 60 seconds
1 year .1 minute
31,536;000 seconds
1 year
1 .„ Use the space below to calculate (a) 1 minute per day, (b) 1 minute per 2 years,
and (c) 1 minute per 6 weeks to find the answer to question 1 of. Part A. After you
have completed the conversion to the same units (e.g., expressing hours, days, or
weeks in minutes or seconds), you may have to round your answers to the nearest
thousand, million, or billion. .
a)
b)
c)
1 minute
1 day
1 minute „
2 years
1 minute
6 weeks
1 day ^ •
1 hour
24 hours 60 minutes
iyear •„
365 days
1 week
7 days
1
24
1
24
day y
hours 60
day x
hours 60
1 minute
1,440
1 hour
minutes
1 hour
minutes
minutes
1
1,051,
1
1
,1,500
minute
200 minutes
minute
60,480 minutes
=> 1 part per 1,500
. • .
1
1,000,000
1 '
60,000
o 1 part per million
:> 1 part per 60,000
.. .,. .. .
2. Use the space below to calculate (a) 1 second per 3 Weeks, (b) 1 second per 17
years, and (c) .1 second per 32 years.to find the answer to question 2 of Part A.
1) 1 second 1 week 1 day _ 1 hour 1 minute
1 second
3 weeks 7 days 24 hours
''.-..' 1
iff.ooo.ooo
60 minutes 60 seconds 18,144,400 seconds
=> 1 part per 18 million , .
2) 1 second 1 year 1 day _
1 hour
1 second
17 years 365 days 24 hours 3,600 seconds 536, 11 2,000 seconds
1
500,000,000
1 part per 500,000,000
3) 1 second 1 year
1 day _
1 hour
1 second
32 years 365 days 24 hours 3,600 seconds 1,009, 152,000 seconds
'
1.000.000.000
=" 1partper billion
19
-------
, Warm-Up 3
>9 1/4 I
33 s 2 g ;
4 5 io3<023:
PartC
If the conversion of units leads to a fraction with a numerator other than 1, a different
method can be used to determine parts per million or parts per billion. Be sure your
fraction has a smaller number on top and larger number on the bottom and divide.
To express the decimal answer in parts per million, move the decimal point 6 places to
the right. To express the answer in parts per billion, move'the decimal point 9 places to
the right.
Example 1: 20 ounces _ 2 ounces _ 2 ounces
100 pounds (100x16 ounces) ' 1,600 ounces
Moving the decimal place 6 places to the right gives 1,250 parts per million.
Moving the decimal place 9 places to the right gives 1,250,000 parts per billion. (You
would probably not see a number this large expressed in parts per billion. It is better
expressed as a smaller number of parts per million.).
Example 2: 11 ounces _ 11 ounces _ 11 ounces _ 11 ounces Q Oooo3437
10 tons 20,000 pounds (20,000 x 16) ounces 320,000 ounces
Moving the decimal place 6 places to the right gives 34.37, or about 34.4 parts per
million. Moving the decimal place 9 places to the right gives 34,370, or about 34,000
parts per billion.
(NOTE: Depending on the skill level of your class, you may need to let students practice
calculating and converting measures of volume. Since students may associate volume
with rectangular objects, you may want to use a swimming pool for this sample problem.
Assume that a 50-gallon container of chlorine is spilled into a swimming pool, which is
100 feet long by 50 feet wide by 10 feet deep.)
Based on the scenario described below and the table of legally allowable concentrations
of contaminants in surface water, decide whether local public health officials should take
measures to keep vacationers near Lake Jasmine out of the water.
Allowable Quantities: Fuel Oil A 2.2 ppm in recreational waters
(concentrations of contaminants Pesticide B 4.7 ppm in recreational waters
above these levels require action) Solvent C 1.3 ppm in recreational waters
Conversion Table: 1 acre = 43,560 square feet
1 gallon = 0.1337 cubic feet
t cubic foot = 7.48 gallons
20
-------
Warm-Up 3 j , *
1 ' . ' , I '4- 7 >9
33 8 2 6 !
SCENARIO
Lake Jasmine is a 20-acre lake with an average depth of 30 feet. Yesterday afternoon,
four 55-gallon drums of Fuel Oil A and six 55-gallon drums of Solvent C fell off a truck
during an accident, rolled into Lake Jasmine and burst open on the rocky shore. The
entire contents of all the drums spilled into the lake.
STEP1
Calculate the concentration of each contaminant (in ppm) in Lake Jasmine. To do this
you must compare the volume of the contaminants (gallons) to the volume of the lake
(cubic feet). ,
Start by converting both to cubic feet. To calculate the volume of the lake, multiply ,the
area (in square feet) by the depth (in feet),to get cubic feet.
Calculate volume of contaminants:
4 x 55 gallons Fuel Oil Ax 1 cubic foot/7.48 gallons = 29.42 cubic feet Fuel Oil A
and
6 x 55 gallons Solvent Cx1 cubic foot/7.48 gallons = 44.12 cubic feet of Solvent C
Calculate volume of Lake Jasmine:
20 acres x 30 feet x 43,560 square feet/acre = 26,136,000 cubic feet of water in Lake
Jasmine
Comparison:
•V ''' / " • • •>'"••.• ;
29.42 cubic feet Fuel Oil A/26,136,000 cubic feet Lake Jasmine
= 29.42/26,136,000 • " ;
'= 0.0000011 . "'...'..
Moving the decimal point 6 places to the right gives 1.1 ppm Fuel QUA
44.12 cubic feet Solvent C/26,136,000 cubic feet Lake Jasmine
= 44.12/26,136,000
= 0.0000016
Moving the decimal point 6 places to the right gives 1.6 ppm Solvent C
103.023
21
-------
_ ___—_— Warm-Up 3
3.? 3 >9 V4
33 s 2 £ :
4 5 103>023!
STEP 2
Compare these levels to the values in the chart of allowable quantities to see if they
exceed the legally allowable levels.
Allowable Quantities: (concentrations of contaminants above these levels require
action) '....'.
Fuel Oil A 2.2 ppm in recreational waters ,
Pesticide B 4.7ppm in recreational waters
Solvent C 1.3 ppm in recreational waters
1.1 ppm Fuel Oil A does not exceed the allowable concentration of 2.2 ppm. If that were
the only chemical spilled, no action would be necessary.
However, since 1.6 ppm Solvent C does exceed the limit, local health officials will have
to keep Lake Jasmine residents out of the water until the levels of contaminants are low-
ered.
22
-------
Warm-UpS
STUDENT WORKSHEET
j 17 3 >s v<
\ 33 8 _2-:g-
I 4 5 lo3%023
The Numbers Game
Part A
Just how small is a part per million? A part per billion? Answer the following three^.
questions based on your "gut reaction." Guess if you need to.
1. One part per million is equivalent to 1 minute in
a.-1 day b. 2years c. 6 weeks
2. One part per billion is equivalent to 1 second in
a. 3 weeks b. 17 months c. 32 years ^
PartB •.. ''•.'•••'•';'• " •; - - ; ''•• ' . ':' .' .
Now go back and calculate each of the answers you chose in Part A. Use the procedure
belpw for each calculation. !
to calculate the relationship between 2 quantities, first convert both quantities to the
same unit of measure. For example, to compare years to seconds, convert the years
to seconds. To do this, convert the years to days, then the days to hours, the hours to,
minutes, and the minutes to seconds:
365 days 24 hours
1 year 1 day
8,760 hours
1 year
.8,760 hours
1 year
60 minutes _ 525,600 minutes
1 hour 1 year
525,600 minutes 60 seconds
1 minute
1 year
31,536,000 seconds
1 year
After you have completed the conversion to the same units (e.g., expressing hours,
days, or weeks in minutes or seconds), you may have to round your answer to the
nearest thousand, million, or billion.
23
-------
173 >9 V4 j
33 8 2 5 !
4 5 io3%023!
Warm-Up 3
STUDENT WORKSHEET
Use the space below to calculate .(a) 1 second per 3 weeks, (b) 1 second per 17 years,
and (c) 1 second per 32 years to find the answer to question 2 of Part A.
PartC
If the conversion of units I.eads to a fraction with a numerator other than 1, a different
method can be used to determine parts per million or parts per billion. Be sure your
fraction has a smaller number on top and larger number on the bottom, and divide.
To express the decimal answer in parts per million, move the decimal point f> places to
the right. To express the answer in parts per billion, move the decimal point 9 places to
the right.
Example 1: 20 ounces
2 ounces
100 pounds (100 x 16 ounces)
2 ounces
1,600 ounces
1,600
=>
Moving the decimal place 6 places to the right gives 1,250 parts per million.
Moving the decimal place 9 places to the right gives 1,250,000 parts per billion.
(You would probably not see a number this large expressed in parts per billion. It is
better expressed as a smaller number of parts per million.)
Example 2: 11 ounces _ 11 ounces _ 11 ounces _ 11 ounces
10 tons 20,000 pounds (20,000 x 16) ounces 320,000 ounces
. 0.00003437
Moving the decimal place 6 places to the right gives 34.37, or about 34.4 parts per
million. Moving the decimal place 9 places to the right gives 34,370, or about 34,000
parts per billion.
24
-------
STUDENT WORKSHEET
1-F3: >9
'33.'8- .2
4 , 5 103
',023'
Based on the scenario described below and the table of legally allowable concentrations
of contaminants in surface water, decide whether local public health officials should take
measures to keep vacationers near Lake Jasmine out of the water. . . .
Allowable Quantities: Fuel Oil A
(concentrations of contaminants Pesticide B
above these levels require action) Solvent C
2.2 ppm in recreational waters
4.7 ppm in recreational waters
1.3 ppm in recreational waters
Conversion Table:
1 acre = 43,560 square feet
1 gallon = 0.1337 cubic feet
1 cubic foot - 7.48 gallons
SCENARIO
Lake Jasmine is a 20-acre lake with an average depth of 30 feet. Yesterday afternoon,
four 55-galldn drums of Fuel Oil A and six 55-gallon drums of Solvent C fell off a truck
during an accident, rolled into Lake Jasmine and burst open on the rocky shore. The
entire contents of all the drums spilled into the Jake.
STEP1 . , ' :, , '....,-'....' " . '. • ' ',' '• •• ''. . :'• • '
Calculate the concentration of each contaminant (in ppm) in Lake Jasmine. To do this
you must compare the volume of the contaminants (gallons) to the volume of the lake
: (cubic feet).
Start by converting both to cubic feet. To calculate the volume of the lake,,multiply the
area, (in square feet) by the depth (in feet) to get cubic feet.
STEP 2 '
Compare these levels to the values in the chart of allowable quantities to see if they
exceed the legally allowable levels.
25
-------
26
-------
Warm-Up 4
Risk Concepts
Duration
Grade Level
Key Terms/
Concepts
Suggested
Subjects
•
,
1 class period
7-10
Environmental Risk
Risk
Probability
Biology
Chemistry
Creative Writing
English
Life Science
Physical Science
Mathematics
Purpose
In this exercise, students explore the meaning
of risk in terms of a simple exercise in
probability. They explore the idea that not all
risks have the same consequences and are
not likely to occur at the same rate. The
exercise helps students to evaluate the impact
of risk on the basis of probabilities, benefits,
and their perceptions.
Background
Nothing in life is a "sure thing." While it is unlikely that it will snow in Texas in April, it is
possible. In the same way, it is unlikely that it will be 80 degrees in Massachusetts in
December, but it is possible. Saying something is "unlikely" or that it "probably will
happen" is an indication of the probability that this particular thing will occur. Every day
you weigh probabilities even without realizing it.
For example, when you take a test, you think about the chances of getting an "A." How
likely you think it is that you'll get an "A" depends on how well you studied and how hard
you think the test will be. Or, jf you want to be picked for a team, the chances that you'll
make it depends on how many other people want to play and how good you are in
comparison to everyone else. ,
When it comes to the environment, the chance of something dangerous happening is
called risk. Each type of hazardous substance, hazardous waste, or dangerous
situation involves a different amount of risk. The risk is made up of two parts: (1) the
chance that people will be exposed to the substance, and ,(2) the chance that exposure
will injure or harm them. Environmental risk measures the probability that the
environment will be damaged by a particular hazardous situation. Decisions on
cleaning up a Siiperfund site are based on the risks the site poses to people and the
environment.
There are generally many factors involved in determining the risks surrounding a
particular hazardous situation. These factors include the potential for damage each
particular substance can cause, the chances that the substance is/going to spread from
the original site through water, wind, or some other means, and the chance that people
will come in contact with the substance. .
' .. ••; '.. ' " • 27 -.'..-. • : :
-------
Warm-Up 4
In this Warm-up, students perform a simple exercise in probability to gain a beginning
understanding of how chance operates. For additional information on probability, and
risk, and environmental risk assessment, see the Suggested Reading list found at the
end of the Haz-Ed materials. Other Haz-Ed materials that" are related to this topic
include Activity 7: Identifying Risks at a Superfund Site and Activity 9: Making Decisions
about Hazardous Waste Cleanup.
Preparation
t ,
1. Gather the following materials:
• Several coins
• Several sheets of paper
• Several pencils
Copies for each student of the Student Worksheet, Risks and Benefits.
Procedure
1. Explain to students that the class is going to conduct an exercise in probability by
tossing a coin. Explain that, for one brief moment, when a coin is tossed into the
air, it assumes a state of unpredictability. We know that it will either be heads or
tails, but we cannot know which one while the coin is in the air. Even so, in
repeated trials under similar conditions, we do know that heads will come up half
the time and tails the other half. This illustrates the theory of probability—how
likely it is that a particular result will occur in a given situation.
2. Organize the class into groups of about 2 or 3 students each. Give each group a
penny, a piece of paper, and a pencil. If necessary, demonstrate how to toss a coin
to determine heads or tails.
3. Instruct each group to flip the coin 50 times,
recording the results of each toss. Have the
students record the total number of heads and
total number of tails that occurred after:
• 5 coin flips
• 10 coin flips
• 25 coin flips
* 50 coin flips.
Record each group's results on the chalkboard.
28
-------
Warm-Up 4
4. Explain that few events are as predictable as a coin toss. No matter how many
times a coin comes up heads, there is only a 50-50 chance that the next toss will
be tails. While the ratio of heads to tails may vary with only a few repetitions, the
ratio stabilizes at or near one-half after many repetitions. (For example,
theoretically it would take a million people tossing coins 10 times a minute 40 hours
a week for 9 centuries for a coin to fall on heads 50 consecutive times.) •
5. Have the class compare the results of the coin toss exercise for each group. Did
the ratio of heads to tails vary after 5 tosses? After 10 tosses?; Was the final ratio
about one-half? If not, why?
6. Explain that although-the coin toss demonstrates the fundamental principle of
probability, determining the risks of injury, disease, or death from a particular '
hazard is far more complex. This is true mainly because these risks are dependent
on the occurrence of other factors, and the interaction of multiple factors, such as
contact (or exposure) to the hazard that causes the effect.
7. Distribute a copy .of,the Student Worksheet, Risks and Benefits, to each student
and review the instructions for both parts. Give students about 10 minutes to
complete the worksheet (individually or in small groups). Have students discuss
their answers to the questions. >.''•:•
Extensions (Optional)
• Assign students to go to the library and look up details to support the .answers they
gave in Part B of the worksheet (for example, what gasoline is made of and why it
is harmful, the number of automobile or airplane accidents that occur each year, or
where PCBs come from). ' :
• Have the students write a short story about how one of the risks listed in the work
sheet was harmful to people or the environment. This may require students to
conduct some research. The resources in the Suggested Reading list are helpful.
Allow the students to base their story on a true event if they wish. Select the best
stories, and ask the students who wrote them to summarize them for the class.
Discuss the stories in terms of the students' personal willingness to accept
voluntary and involuntary risks.
29
-------
30
-------
Warm-Up 4
STUDEtTT WORKSHEET
Risks and Benefits
Part A
For each situation listed below, describe a potential danger (something that could
happen that would cause concern for public health). List at least two ways people or the
environment could be injured and, if possible, at least one benefit that people or the
environment could gain from it.
* Transportation of a hazardous substance on highways near urban areas
(see example on second page)
An old municipal and industrial dump that does not meet current design
and safety standards ''.''.
A large housing area built on an unknown hazardous waste site
contaminated with polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) ;
Storage of gasoline in underground tanks at local gas stations
Travel by automobile
Travel by airplane
Cigarette smoke
' ' . ; ,
Pesticides
A tornado
31-
-------
Warm-Up 4
STUDENT WORKSHEET
EXAMPLE: Transportation of a hazardous substance like mercury on highways in
urban areas
What Could A traffic accident causes the container to rupture and release
Happen: mercury into a lake or stream.
injury: Mercury builds up (bioaccumulates) in the fish, which people and
wildlife eat, arid threatens the public water supply serving many
people downstream. People and wildlife may become ill, some may
die, and offspring suffer severe birth defects.
Benefit: Mercury is used in manufacturing many important products, including
paint and paper and in processing leather. It is a key element in
dental fillings, thermometers, and some fungicides and insecticides.
Part B
Now, answer the following questions:
1.
2.
3.
How would you rank the situations in Part A in terms of how risky they are and how
likely injuries are to happen?
How would you rank the risks in terms of the number of people affected and the
severity of the possible harm? (That is, which situations present the deadliest and
most widespread risk?) ,
Which of the risks are you willing to accept (voluntarily), and which do you have to
accept (involuntarily)? (For example, you can choose not to smoke cigarettes but
you may not be able to prevent the transportation of hazardous substances along a
highway near where you live.)
32
-------
Warm-Up 5
Hazardous Waste
i - -
Issues in the News
Local Waste
Cleanup Process
Duration
Grade Level
Key Terms/
Concepts
Suggested
Subjects
1 1/4 class period
7-12 '.- ; ,-,.M
Contamination
Hazardous waste ~
Chemistry
Geography
History
Life Science
Physical Science
Social Studies
Journalism
Purpose
jn this exercise, students conduct research to
collect reports in newspapers or on TV or the radio
,on local and national hazardous waste issues. This
helps students appreciate the magnitude of the
hazardous waste problem. A follow-up discussion
allows students to explore how hazardous waste
issues affect their community. '
Background
The news media—newspapers, news magazines, television and radio stations—informs
people about environmental issues and prpblems. News reports cari play an, important
role in shaping the public's perceptions of the government's efforts to address the issues
and resolve the problems. For example, the media not only reports on envirdnment-
related events, such as accidents involving the release of hazardous materials,or the
discovery of hazardous waste contamination at a site; it also lets people know how
officials are responding and, if necessary, what to do to protect themselves'from the
hazards involved. The media also helps to keep people informed about the day-to-day ,
progress of hazardous waste cleanup efforts, recycling programs, and efforts to
conserve natural resources.
The way reports are written can give a good or bad impression of what is being done to
remedy hazardous situations. The media can also help cbrnmuriities fppus on potentially
dangerous situations so prevention measures can be taken before the site becomes
truly hazardous. . ,
For additional information on the role the media plays in environmental protection and
/cleanup, see the Suggested Reading list found at the end of the Haz-Ed materials. Other
Haz-Ed materials that are related to this topic include Fact Flash 10: Superfund
Community Involvement Program.
33
-------
Warm-Up 5
Preparation
1. Gather the following materials:
• Copies for each student of the following Student Handouts, which present
sample articles.
Procedure
Class #1
1. Discuss the role of the media in relationship to Superfund. The media is how most
people learn about hazardous waste issues.
2. Explain to students that a follow-up class (specify the date) will focus on the
problem of hazardous waste. To prepare for the class, they are to gather reports
from the news media (newspapers, magazines, radio, and television) about
hazardous waste sites and other environmental contamination problems.
Distribute the attached Student Handouts, which can serve as examples of the
kinds of stories to look for.
3. Divide the students into 6 teams. Assign each team one of the following:
t
a. Collect articles from local newspapers
b. Collect articles from national newspapers (New York Times, Washington
Post, Los Angeles Times) or from major daily newspapers in your state
c. Collect articles from national news magazines (Newsweek, Time, U.S. News
and World Report) or environment-related magazines (Ecology, Audubon,
Science)
d. Monitor and take notes on radio programs (all-news stations, National Public
Radio,'and local radio "public affairs" programs)
e. Monitor and take notes on television news programs—daily local news, daily
national (network) news, CNN, weekly news programs such as GO Minutes
(CBS), Dateline (NBC), Prime Time Live (ABC)
f. Gather information from the local library on hazardous waste problems and
toxic contamination of soil and water since 1980. (This information should
include, but not be limited to, reports on Love Canal near Niagara Falls, New
34
-------
Warm-Up 5
York; Times Beach, Missouri; and the 1980 explosion and fire at the
Chemical Control Company in Elizabeth, New Jersey. The problems in these
• communities are referenced in many books about hazardous waste and
pollution—see Suggested Reading list.) .
4. stress that teams with assignments a-e should focus on collecting information
about hazardous waste problems in their local area or their state; articles about
those in other parts of the country should be gathered only if no local-interest
stories are available. They should gather information on the kind of waste, type of
; incident, location of incident, and people responsible. • '_•
5. Allow each team to organize itself and make individual assignments to avoid
duplication of effort and complete the research needed. Suggest that each team
select a spokesperson to present a brief summary of the information collected by
the team at the beginning of the follow-up class.
.6. Give teams 3 weeks to conduct research.
Class #2
1. Have team members sit together for this class. Have the spokesperson for each
team summarize the information the team has collected. Following the
presentations, have the class discuss the information presented. Encourage
students to compare various hazardous waste issues and problems highlighted in
the presentations,- what caused them, how they were discovered, and how they are
being (or were) addressed. ,
2. Ask students what conclusions they can draw from this information about how
hazardous waste might affect their community. Have them suggest ways they can
prevent or minimize the potential problems related to hazardous waste.
Extensions (Optional)
• Have the students write an article or an editorial for your school or community
newspaper or a local radio or television station highlighting hazardous waste
issues in your community (or state). Have them research how to prepare the
material for submission, who to send it to, and how to follow-up to ensure the best
chance of publication or broadcast. Have students share their articles and ,
editorials with the class. Encourage one or more students to pursue publication or
broadcast of their material and to share the results with the class. .
35
-------
UaJWut.
Warm-Up 5
Have students make a collage of articles they collect and display it on a school
bulletin board or use it as the backdrop for a presentation on hazardous waste
issues to a school assembly.
Have students set up an information booth in the school on Earth Day or another
environmental event. They can collect and distribute the information they gathered
for this assignment and inform other students of hazardous waste sites in the area.
36
-------
Wafm-UpG
STUDENT WORKSHEET
Tank Farm Pollution May Originate
from Up to 7 points, Officials Say
By Mike Ward
As many as seven plumes of
contamination may be responsible
for the underground pollution around
East Austin's gasoline tank farm,
Texas Water Commission officials
said Friday. ;
At least two of the plumes, they
said, may be caused by leaking un-
derground fuel tanks not associated
with the tank farm.
•"We think we have the plumes
pretty well defined now, and we are
pressing ahead to clean up the soil
and water contamination," said Ken
Ramirez, the commission's deputy
director.
, . Agency specialists said they are
not planning to require the removal
of the contaminated soils as part of
that cleanup.
"We haven't ruled it put, but we
haven't ruled it in, either," said
-David Ruckman, who is overseeing
the cleanup for the agency. "You'd
be talking about a major project to.
remove soil, and we'd like to avoid
that if possible. Plus, what you'd be
doing is picking up the contaminated
soil one place and moving itto an-
other place."
Ruckman said a string of test.
wells around the six fuel terminals,
which are on a 52-acre site at
Springdale Road and Airport Bouter
vard, show one plume of tainted
grouridwaterbeneath the Chevron
site. ' .
That plume, likely resulting
from a 1987 spill of more than
12,500 gallons of gasoline; appar-
ently has seeped beneath the neigh-
boring Exxon terminal, he said;
A second plume apparently lies
under the adjacent Mobil and Star
Enterprise terminals, just to the
south, according to Ruckman. He
said Star may have a separate
contamination plume on another por-
tion of its property and is running
additional tests.
• , A foilrth plume, he said, ema-
nates from the Coastal States termi-
nal on Jain Lane. And a fifth plume
extends from the site of a 1988 pipe-
line break at the edge of the neigh-
boring Citgo terminal.
Ground water contamination has
also been found beneath a Kraft
Foods plant, across Airport Boule-
vard from the Star Enterprise termi-
nal, according to Water Commission
officials. That apparently resulted
from a leaking underground tank and ,
is to be cleaned up, they said/
"There may be another plume
beneath the area of Airport and Bolm
(Road), but at this point we're not
sure whether it's coming from
Citgo" or a Payless gas station-con-
venience store at that intersection, he
said.
When the controversy over un-
derground pollution at the fuel termir
nals began five months ago, officials
speculated that contamination re-
sulted from two and possibly three
plumes. Additional test wells and
monitoring work by experts led to
the additional details, Ramirez said.
Ruckman and Robin Shaver
with Water Commission's under-
ground storage tank unit said several
of the six oil companies that operate
the fuel terminals are being asked to
drill additional test wells to provide
a better definition of the plumes.
Most of that work will take place
south of the Coastal and Citgo termi-
nals, they said.
"We're at the point where we
think we've got a good handle on
where the plumes are and where we
don't need to' do a lot more tests as .
an agency," Ruckman'said. "We're
now getting the oil companies to
take the ball on this—get things
cleaned up."
As part of the cleanup, several
oil companies have.proposed pump-
ing out contaminated groundwater
and cleansing it of gasoline contami-
nants that have seeped underground.
But removal of contaminated soil,
sought by neighborhood residents to
prevent recohtamination, is not .
among those plans at present, offi-
cials said.
"We have not established any
exposure risk to humans" from leav-
ing the tainted soil in place, Shaver
said. "It's 20 feet below the surface:
There shouldn't be any danger."
Nonetheless, Ramirez and
Ruckman said soil removal—which
would make a cleanup much more
expensive and could force relocation
.'•'of some residents—has not been
ruled out as an option. Ramirez said
monitoring wells could be Used to ,
check any future pollution, once
groundwater steps are complete.
Neighborhood leaders said they
want the soil cleaned up.
"The oil companies must clean
up what they messed up," said Ron
Davis, who heads the East Austin
Strategy Team, a coalition of com-
munity groups. "They need to clean
it up at their expense. And if the Wa-
ter Commission does not want to ex-
ecute the will of the people, they
should step aside."' . .
American-Statesman, June
27,1992, Austin, Texas
37
-------
Warm-Up 5
STUDENT WORKSHEET
3 Firms Ante Up Share of the Bill To
Cleanse Toxic Site in Newark
By Bill Ganno
Three companies have agreed to
pay pan of the Federal government's
S22 million cleanup of the White
Chemical Corp. Superfund site in
Newark, the Environmental Protection
Agency (EPA) announced yesterday.
According to the terms of a Su-
perfund unilateral order issued by the
EPA late last month, Monsanto Co.,
Inc., PPG Industries, Inc. and Rhone
Poulenc AG Co. have agreed to share
in the costs of the cleanup.
But the owner of the 4.4 acre
site, the bankrupt operator of the plant
and five hazardous waste generators
have all refused to help pay for the
cleanup and may be targets for future
legal action, EPA officials noted.
The company manufactured acid
chlorides and flame retardant com-
pounds used by agricultural, pharma-
ceutical and building products
industries at its Frelinghuysen Avenue
plant.
The EPA took control of the site
in August 1990, several months after a
raid on the plant by State investigators
from the Attorney General's Office
and the Department of Environmental
Protection and Energy (DEPE).
At the time of the raid, shocked
DEPE investigators found more than
11,000 drums of hazardous materials
strewn around the property. Also
found were thousands of deteriorating
laboratory containers, gas cylinders
and improperly stored chemicals.
The conditions at the facility
were so dangerous that the Agency for
Toxic Substances and Disease Regis-
try warned that the site and the clean-
up process could create hazards such
as vapor releases, fires, or even explo-
sions.
The site, officials said at the time
of the raid, posed a serious health risk
to the neighborhood of some 12,000
residents who live within a half mile
of the plant.
Located less than a mile from
Weequahic Park, Newark International
Airport, the Anheuser-Busch brewery
as well as several manufacturing facil-
ities and hotels, office buildings and
businesses along nearby busy Routes
1 and 9, members of the Newark and
Elizabeth city council say the site has
been an environmental nightmare
waiting to happen.
DEPE inspectors found that
White's improper management of
stored toxic and hazardous material
had resulted in numerous open con-
tainers, frequent releases of hazardous
chemicals, damaged, bulging, unla-
beled containers, numerous spills and
incompatible materials being improp-
erly stored together.
The site was proposed for inclu-
sion on the Superfund national priori-
ties list in a special update in May
1990 and finalized on Sept. 25,1991.
Superfund is the Federal program to
clean up abandoned or inactive haz-
ardous waste sites.
So far, the Federal agency has
spent more than $10.5 million on the
removal of thousands of drums and
other containers of hazardous materi-
als from the White property. Before
EPA took control of the site, DEPE
spent more than $825,000 in cleanup
costs.
The EPA has inventoried and
sampled approximately 7-900 drums
and 110 tank vessels as well as cate-
gorized and separated over 12,500 lab
containers, officials said yesterday.
Of the 11,600 drums found on
site, 4,000 empty containers were
cleaned and sent away for recycling.
EPA has also recycled 48,000 pounds
of solid materials and 36,000 gallons
of liquid materials.
More than 50 gas cylinders have
been returned to the original manufac-
turers while some 60,000 gallons of
liquid wastes, including acids from
1,700 drums, have been drained and
stored in tanks on site.
'To date, as a result of regional
enforcement efforts, private parties
have contributed approximately $500
million in Superfund settlements in
New Jersey," EPA Administrator Will-
iam Reilly said in a prepared state-
ment issued by the agency. •
"The Superfund emergency re-
moval program used fast-track haz-
ardous waste cleanup methods to
stabilize the White Chemical site,"
Reilly said.
White Chemical moved to New-
ark in 1983, leaving behind another
polluted'tract in Bayonne. DEPE had
cited the company in 1979 for viola-
tions, including unlawful storage of
hazardous waste.
The Bayonne site is now also un-
der consideration for possible inclu-
sion on the Superfund list, according
to State environmental prosecutor, As-
sistant Attorney General Steven Ma-
donna. '
Madonna initiated a probe of the
plant that lead to the indictment of the
firm and its owner, James White, by a
grand jury.
In a May 7 plea bargain agree-
ment with Madonna's office, White,
68, pleaded guilty in Superior Court
in Newark to-two counts of the five
count indictment, admitting he illegal-
ly stored and disposed of more than
2,000 drums of dangerous chemicals
at his plant.
As part of the plea; the State will
recommend White serve at least 364
days in jail, serve five years probation
and be sentenced to 2,000 hours of
community service upon his release
from jail.
The conviction on the two counts
of unlawful storage and disposal are
both third-degree crimes'and carry po-
tential sentences of between three and
five years and a fine of up to $7,500.
Sentencing before Superior Court
Judge Richard Newman in Newark is
scheduled for June 22.
Star-Ledger, June 5,1992,
Newark, New Jersey
38
-------
Warm-Up 5
STUDENT WORKSHEET
"Super" News
Saegertown Superfund Site Cleanup
Gets a "Cleaner" Plan
By Judy Acker
Changes have been approved
for proposed cleanup of the Saeger-
town Superfund site, eliminating the
need for on-site incineration of toxic
soil.
. Both the Environmental Protec-
tion Agency and GATX Corp.,
former owners of the industrial area,
have OK'd a new, cheaper cleanup
plan which could save GATX as
much as $7 million and cut down on
dust and smoke generated by the in-
cineration process.
The 100-acre area, on the
southeast side of Saegertown along
Route 198, was the site of a former
GATX repair facility for railroad •
tank cars* in operation from 1951 to
1967.
EPA placed the site on the Su-
perfund cleanup list in 1990 after
finding soil and groundwater were
contaminated by toxic waste prod-
ucts.
GATX, now headquartered in
Chicago, is a management business
for acid-based transportation. The
firm leases railroad tank cars and of-
fers full service including repair and
maintenance of the cars.
Caren Arnstein of ENSR Con-
sulting and Engineering-^contracted
by GATX to design and oversee the
on-site cleanup operations-said
GATX submitted a formal request to
EPA on Jan. 9 to modify the cleanup
plans.
Originally, cleanup was to be
done by a mobile incinerator. GATX
now has asked EPA to allow for off-
site treatment.
The plan provides GATX would
excavate the contaminated soils and
materials and ship them to existing
facilities for treatment. Soil contami-
nated by heavy tars would be
shipped to Wampum, south of New
Castle, and other contaminated soils
would be sent to either Kansas or
South Carolina to be detoxified.
GATX said the alternative plan
would be faster, less expensive and
just as safe as on-site incineration. In
" addition, the plan provides a use for
the materials excavated at the site
through energy recovery and materi-
als recycling, i.
EPA will prepar? an "Explana-
tion of Significant Difference" re-
quired as part of the Superfund
process. The new proposal is ex-
pected to meet no resistance from
Superfund officials. ,
GATX has retained ENSR and
' other experienced environmental
contractors to conduct excavation
and cleanup.
"This change will benefit the
Saegertown community because it
will eliminate the need for an on-site
, incinerator, and will result in faster
completion of on-site activities,"
said Jay Grove, GATX senior envi-
' ronmental engineer.
"We share the borough's con-
cerns about remediating the site as
quickly and as safely a& possible, so
the land may be developed for pro-
ductive use," he said.
Grove said the new plan is as
safe or safer than the previous one
for the residents of Saegertown, be-
cause it complies with all State and
Federal regulations and.won't re-
quire new permits, '
Steve Donohue of EPA said the
proposal is justifiable for several rea-
sons: it's faster, the waste will be
treated as effectively with resource
conservation now possible, and cost
would be reduced to half of the esti-
mated $14 million proposed in the
original plan.
With the new plan, the esti-
mated completion date for remedia-
tion is February 1996.
Donohue will be available for a
public question and answer session
. Feb. 21, from 7 to 9 p.m. at the
Saegertown Borough Building.
Tribune, June 27,1995,
MeadviUe, Pennsylvania
39
-------
UolWuU
Wsrm-Up 5
STUDENT WORKSHEET
Cleanup Set For Toxic Site
By Arnold Abrams
It looks like another
empty lot in a scraggly indus-
trial area, unappetizing but
harmless. Lurking unseen be-
neath the ground on the half-
acre site in Garden City,
however, are chemical sol-
vents and petroleum products
that have seeped into the dirt
and threaten to contaminate
public drinking water.
That much was deter-
mined more than a decade ago
by Nassau County and
Hempstead Town authorities,
who ran a series of tests and
then filed formal complaints
against the Pasley Solvents
and Chemicals Co., which had
used the site as a chemical
distribution facility since
1969.
Pasley declared bank-
ruptcy soon after the county
and State acted, but nothing
was done to the site. By June
1986, it had been designated
as one of Long Island's worst
hazardous waste sites. It also
had been placed on the Fed-
eral Environmental Protection
. Agency's national list of Su-
perfund sites requiring reme-
dial action.
Such action now is about
to begin at the Pasley site.
News about the project
came last month, when EPA
officials announced that ap-
proximately $14 million will
be spent to remove waste and
eliminate hazards at the site.
Newsday, June 15,1992,
Garden City, New York
40
-------
Yd arm-Up 5
STUDENT WORKSHEET
EPA To Begin Glen Ridge Cleanup;
W. Orange Radium Work Continues
By Caryl R. Lucas
The U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency (EPA) this
week will make way for the
excavation of radium-con-
taminated soil from seven
homes in Glen Ridge, as a
cleanup project moves for-
ward in West Orange.
Pat Seppi, an EPA
spokeswoman, said yesterday
the federal agency was able
to move up its Superfund
cleanup project in,Glen Ridge
because excavation of ra-
dium-contaminated soil from
15 homes in West Orange is
going well.
Project coordinator
Romona Pezzelli said the
agency had been scheduled to
begin the cleanup at the seven
homes on Carteret Street in
the fall. The cleanup also will
include a contaminated seer
tion of Carteret Park, where
the EPA has set up trailers on
a portion of the playground.
"In West Orange, eight,
homes have been completed,"
said Seppi. In February,,the
agency began excavating
tainted soil from properties on
James Court and Alan and
Maple streets in West Orange
following completion of the
cleanup project at 15 '
Montclair homes.
Seppi said two of the six
West Orange families who
were relocated have moved
back. She anticipates all of the
homes there will be restored
within four months.
As part of EPA's plan to
have work going on in all
three communities concur-
rently, Seppi said the agency
began its preliminary work
and surveys in Glen Ridge
last month.
"We expect to start driv-
ing the sheet piling this week
and begin other aspects of
construction," she said.
Last week, one of the
Glen Ridge families whose
property will be remediated
; was relocated temporarily, ,
Seppi said. Two other families
" are expected to be relocated
this week, while the remain-
ing families will be moved by
the first week of July.
Saying the majority of the
Glen Ridge Properties are
among the most severely con-
taminated homes, Seppi said
the cleanup project will take
up to six months.
Under a 10-year, $250
million Superfund project, the
EPA will remove tainted soil
from 160 properties in the
three Essex County towns. In
all, the Federal government •
discovered contaminated sojl
on 747 properties designated
Superfund sites in Essex
County. *
Glen Ridge Mayor
Carolyn Bourne praised the
EPA officials for their coop-
eration on the remediation
plans. , '
"I am pleased at this
' point," she said. "Things are
going right on schedule." . - -.
At the request of borough
officials, Bourne said the EPA
reduced the amount of space it
is using for its trailers and
work compound. She also
commended the EPA for pur-
chasing new equipment for
the park's playground.
'\, . •' f
Star-Ledger, June 16,1992,
Newark, New Jersey
41
-------
42
-------
Warm-Up 6
What Is an Aquifer?
Duration
Grade Level
Key Terms
Concepts/
Suggested
Subjects
1 class period
7-9 ••.,./ '
Aquifer
Groundwater
, Porosity
Saturated zone
, Saturation
Water table
Earth Science
Physical Science
Purpose
This lesson demonstrates the meaning of the terms
groundwater, porosity, aquifer, and water table*. It
helps students better understand how and why
water is stored underground, and what can happen
if the water is drained or polluted. Students discuss
the uses of groundwater in their community. They
create an aquifer model and view the saturated and
unsaturated zones. They also create a lake in the '
aquifer model and observe the connection between
surface water and groundwater. .
Background
Many hazardous waste sites contaminate groundwater, which is a major source of
drinking water in the United States. Many hazardous waste accidents and sites involve
hazardous substances leaking into aquifers and contaminating groundwater.
Cleaning up groundwater is one of the major concerns the U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency (EPA) and state environmental programs have about hazardous
waste sites. This warm-up exercise provides some fundamental information for
understanding groundwater It also helps prepare students for >4cf/V/jy 2: Examining a
Hazardous Waste Site where a hypothetical hazardous waste site is reviewed and
students build a groundwater model.
For more information on groundwater and related topics, see the Suggested Reading list
found at the end .of the Haz-Ed materials.
Adapted from Water Resources Professional's Outreach.Notebook: Groundwater, by Stephen J. Vandas,
U.S. Geological Survey, U.S, Department of Interior. For the complete Notebook, write: U.S. Geological
Survey, Earth Science Information Center, Open-file Reports Section, Box 25286, MS-517, Denver
Federal Center, Denver, CO. 80225. " ,
43
-------
Warm-Up 6
Preparation
1. Gather the following materials:
• 9-oz. (266-mL) clear plastic cup (1 per group)
• resealable plastic sandwich bag filled with 3/4 cup of pea-size gravel (1 per
* group)
• 3.4-oz(100-mL) graduated cylinder (1 per group)
• 1 small bottle of blue food coloring
• grease pencil (1 per group)
• 1 gallon (3.8 liters) of water
• 3 large sponges for cleanup
• copies for each student of Fact Flash 5: Groundwater
2. Read Fact Flash 5: Groundwater to prepare your lecture for the class.
3. Assign students to read Fact Flash 5: Groundwater for homework.
4. Find out the source (surface, groundwater, or a combination) of the community's
drinking water supply and uses of groundwater in the community. If available, find
out the depth to groundwater, the type of aquifer, aquifer thickness, areal extent of
the aquifer, and porosity of the aquifer that makes up the groundwater system
beneath the community. For this information, contact the local office of the U.S.
Geological Survey.
<
5. Fill the resealable plastic sandwich bags (1 for each group) with enough pea-size
• gravel to fill the model cups approximately 3/4 full.
Procedure
1. Review Fact Flash 5 which students read as homework,
2. Ask the students if they know where the water in their community comes from.
Approximately 50 percent of the nation's population receives its water from
groundwater (the remainder uses surface water). Discuss uses of groundwater in
the community. Inform the students of the depth to groundwater beneath their
community and ask if they know what an aquifer is. If appropriate, ask how many
of the'students have wells at their homes. Have a student who has a well describe
it.
44
-------
Warm-Up 6
3. Break the class into small groups and explain that each group is going to build a
model of an aquifer. An aquifer is an underground rock formation composed of
sand, soil, gravel, or porous, rock that can store and supply groundwater to wells
and springs. Generally, an aquifer provides groundwater that can be used as
drinking water, ,or for irrigation or industrial purposes. Discuss the origin of their
community's water supply. Designate one person in each group as a supply
person. (NOTE: This activity has been developed for small groups of students.
Limit the number in each group to no more than 8, If this activity is to be conducted
with more than one class, replace the wet materials with dry materials for each
group.)
1 ' ' ' ' , * ' -.''"• <
4. Have the supply person from each group obtain 1 plastic cup, 1 resealable plastic
sandwich bag containing pea-size gravel, and 1 graduated cylinder from the
supplies you prepared. Have students pour the contents of the resealable plastic
sandwich bag into the cup.
5. Ask students what they think will happen if they pour 30 ml_ of water into their
group's aquifer cup model. Record responses on the chalkboard.
6. Have students pour 30 ml_ of water into their group's aquifer cup model and
observe .what happens. Compare the actual results to what the students guessed.
Were they right? What were the differences? Have students pour an additional 30
ml_ of water into their aquifer. Inform the students that they have created an
aquifer. (NOTE: This aquifer is generic and is not intended to represent the local
aquifer system.)
7. Discuss the concept of saturation. Identify the saturated zone and the
unsaturated zones in the aquifer cup model. Help students discover that the aquifer
. becomes saturated from the bottom of the aquifer cup model upwards.
8. Point out that the top of the saturated zone in an aquffer is the water table.
' i -','•• ' , .
- i - • • '. - - .
9. Instruct students to continue to add water until the water table is approximately a
1/2 inch (1.5 cm) below the top of the gravel. Mark the water table with the grease
pencil on the outside of the cup, :
10. Ask students to predict what will happen if they dig a hole in the gravel below the
water table. Record responses on the chalkboard.
11. Have students dig a hole in their aquifer cup model and observe the results. Ask
students what they have demonstrated. Were their prediction correct? (Answer: a
lake or a pond.) Have students work together to determine how to make the water
table higher or lower. (Add more water or draw water out.)
45
-------
Warm-Up 6
Discuss with the students the uses of groundwater in their area. Brainstorm ways
groundwater might be polluted in the area. Have the students add 1 drop of blue
food coloring to the lake of their model aquifer. Underscore the difficulty of cleaning
up pollution by having the students try to flush their models of pollution by adding
small amounts of water to their aquifer until the model almost overflows. Have the
students pour water from their model aquifer into another container until the water
level matches the mark they placed on the cup. Ask the students to look into their
model aquifer to see if there is any colored water left in the aquifer.
Extension (Optional)
Invite someone from your state or local department of environmental management
or your Regional EPA Superfund Office to discuss groundwater and its
contamination. (See your local telephone directory and the This Is Superfund
brochure at the back of this package for contact information.)
46
-------
ACTIVITIES
47
-------
48
-------
Acfivif y 1
Waste: Where Does
If Come From?
Where Does If Go?
Duration
Grade Level
Key Terms/
Concepts
Suggested
Qubjecte
' 2 class periods
9-12
Hazardous waste
Biology "
Chemistry
Health
Life Science
Physical Science
.Social Studies
Purpose
In this lesson, students use a map to identify and
locate potential sources of hazardous waste in
their neighborhood or community. In the process,
students learn what hazardous.waste is and
identify the potential threats it poses. Students
learn that while most hazardous waste is the result
of manufacturing processes, many common
household products also become hazardous waste
when thrown away.
Background
Our lifestyles are supported by complex industrial activities that produce vast quantities
of waste. Industries that produce our clothing, cars, paper, medicines, plastics,
electronic components, fertilizers, pesticides, and cosmetics—to name only a few—use
and discar^l thousands of hazardous chemicals and other substances every year.
Add to that the thousands of tons of medical wastes—blood, syringes, and useNd
bandages—thrown out by hospitals. Add to that millions of scrapped cars, buses and
trucks. And to that add more than 195 million tons of garbage Americans discard every
year. Household garbage contains not only eggshells and potato peelings but also
hazardous substances like those in household cleaning products, used oil, and spent
batteries. The result is a hazardous waste crisis. "And the problem continues to grow.
People can help solve the hazardous waste problem and protect their own community.
But in order to have an impact on the problem, people must first learn to identify the v
.sources of hazardous waste in the community. With this knowledge, citizens can
develop strategies to reduce the amount.of hazardous waste produced and protect their
community, their families, and themselves.
49
-------
Activity 1
To help prepare your students for this activity, use Warm-Up 1: Defining Hazardous
Waste. You can use the entire Warm-Up or simply review the main points covered. For
additional introductory information on hazardous substances and hazardous waste, see
the Suggested Reading list found at the end of the Haz-Ed materials.
Preparation
1. Assemble the following materials:
• Map of the community, as detailed as possible (call the local Chamber of
Commerce or town hall)
• Red, green, and blue markers
• Copies for each student of Fact Flash 1: Hazardous Substances and
Hazardous Waste.
2. Read Fact Flash 1 to prepare for your lecture.
3. Distribute Fact Flash 1 and have students read it for homework.
Procedure
Class #1
1. Summarize information found in Fact Flash 1 and your research in preparing the
class, including how hazardous waste sites are created from a variety of sources.
Explain that in this class, students will identify potential sources of hazardous
waste.
2. Place the map on an easel or. hang it on a wall where students can see it. (NOTE:
If you live in a large city, it may be more appropriate to use a map of the school
district or neighborhood in which the school is located rather than of the whole city.)
3. Have students point out and circle in green significant landmarks such as the
school, major factories, and shopping malls.
4. Review Fact Flash 1: Hazardous Substances and Hazardous Waste that students
read for homework. Define terms and answer questions as needed.
50
-------
Activiigl ,
5. , Ask students to name some products they or their parents use at home that could
produce hazardous'waste. Students can use information from Fact Flash 1 to
identify these products. (NOTE: You may want to have one student record
answers on the chalkboard.) How do the students and their families dispose of
these products after they are used? Do they participate in a recycling program? Is
there a hazardous household chemicals disposal program in the community? Do
their families participate? Do they know where the garbage from their house goes
when it js picked up? if so; have the students mark the landfill or other facility
on the map in blue.
''" *: - - . - • I '
6. Ask students to name other possible sources of hazardous waste in'the
.community. (NOTE: If necessary, prompt this discussion. Possible answers
include not only large factories and petroleum refineries, but also gasoline stations,
auto repair/paint and body shops, dry cleaners, hospitals, nursing homes, dental
offices, medical laboratories and testing facilities, funeral homes, nurseries, garden
supply stores, farms, poultry breeding and processing companies, major building
construction sites, fast-food restaurants, and junkyards.) Have the students mark
each of these sites on the map in red.
7. Encourage students to suggest where waste from these facilities might go when it
is picked up. (Answers could include sanitary landfills, incinerators, recycling .
centers, and, in some communities, waste-to-energy plants.) Have the students
mark these on the map in blue.
8. Divide the class into 3 teams.
• Assign one.team the responsibility of gathering information outside class to
help refine the map by identifying and marking other hazardous waste
sources.
• Assign the second team the responsibility of contacting the local health or
environmental services department to investigate how much residential
garbage is collected and disposed of each year and what the local
government is doing to deal with the potential hazardous waste problems this
creates (for example, how are paint thinners and pesticides handled?).
• Assign the third team to do similar research about the amount and the
handling of the community's industrial waste. '
9. Explain that each team is to make a short presentation (5 to 10 minutes) on the1
results of their research during a follow-up class (specify the date). Allow each
team to select a spokesperson to make the team's presentation and to organize
itself and assign specific tasks in order to complete the project.
51
-------
Activity 1
Class #2
^
1. Have each group present its research findings to the class. Encourage students to
ask questions and to discuss how they, as individuals and as a class, might
influence the local government's efforts to reduce the hazardous waste problem.
Have a student record the ideas on the chalkboard.
2. Ask for suggestions on how to take action on any of the ideas offered. Whom
would students want to approach with their ideas? What would be the best, most
effective way to present their ideas? (NOTE: The point here is to elicit some ideas
for presentation formats. The list might include writing a report on their research
and making recommendations, writing an article for the school or community
newspaper, designing a display and putting it in the school lobby or taking it to a
local shopping mall, or making a presentation at a school assembly or at a PTA
meeting.)
Extension (Optional)
Allow the class to choose specific ideas they want to pursue and design a plan of
action. Monitor and facilitate their progress until completion.
52
-------
Activity 2
Examining a
Hazardous
9ite
I;-.
Duration
Grade Level
Key Terms/
Concepts
Suggested
Subjects
' 2 class periods
9-12
Aquifer .
Contamination
Hazardous waste
Superfund
Water table
Chemistry
Earth Science
Geology
Physical Science '
Purpose
This activity helps students understand how
Superfund sites are created. They discuss what
activities produce hazardous waste, and how ,
contaminants are released and spread into the
air, water, soil, and groundwater. Students learn
what types of pollution can be cleaned up using
Superfund authority and what types are
addressed through other laws. Students
construct a model to observe how contaminants
move in groundwater.
Background
The U.S, Congress passed the Comprehensive Environmental Response,
Compensation, and Liability Act (GERCLA) in response to growing concern about health
and environmental threats from hazardous waste sites. This law is commonly called ;-
Superfund. Working with states and Indian Tribal governments, Superfund requires the
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) ,to deal with abandoned, accidentally
spilled, or illegally dumped hazardous wastes from the past, primarily from businesses
and industry. Other types of pollution are handled by other environmental laws.
• " ' • " - ''. . s " • * "
The Superfund program has a process for reporting and keeping track of potentially
contaminated sites. Since the early 1980s when the law took effect, more than 37,000
hazardous waste sites have been reported. EPA must investigate each of the sites to
determine the seriousness of the contamination. Only the most serious sites are
cleaned up using Superfund authority; approximately four percent of reported sites are
being cleaned up under Superfund. Sites not handled by the Superfund Program will be
cleaned up by state governments or under other laws, or will require no cleanup
because they pose no danger to people or the.environment.
53
-------
Activity 2
It is important to keep, in mind that the Superfund Program deals only with abandoned,
accidentally spilled, or illegally dumped hazardous substances. A number of other major
environmental laws—such as the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA), the
Clean Water Act, the Clean Air Act, the Toxic Substances Control Act, and the Safe
Drinking Water Act—were enacted to deal with other types of pollution.
To help prepare your students for this activity, use Warm-Up 6: What is an Aquifer? You
can perform the entire Warm-Up or simply review the major points covered in it.
For more information on hazardous waste sites and cleanups, see the Suggested
Reading list found at the end of the Haz-Ed materials. Other Haz-Ed materials that are
related to the topic include Warm-Up 2: EPA's Superfund Program—Overview.
Preparation
1. Gather the following materials (NOTE: You can split the class into 4 groups if
desired and have each group do the experiment.)
• bottom part of a clear, plastic two-liter soda bottle
• pump mechanism from a liquid soap dispenser
• small piece of nylon fabric to cover the end of the pump tube
• tape
• resealable plastic sandwich bag with 2 cups of small pebbles or aquarium
gravel (white or light-colored)
• resealable bag with 2 cups of clean sand (white sand is best)
• large coffee filter (round with a fiat bottom, not cone-shaped)
• clean spray bottle, the type spray window cleaner comes in
• bottle of red food coloring
• clear measuring cup (2-cup size)
• copies for each student of:
Fact Flash 1: Hazardous Substances and Hazardous Wastes
Fact Flash 2: The Superfund Cleanup Program
Fact Flash 5: Groundwater
• copies for each student of the following maps from Fact Flash 3: Flowing
Railroad Hazardous Waste Site
Map 1, Flowing Railroad Site
Map 2, Flowing Railroad Site Area
Map3, Diked Sludge Pond, Cross-Section
54
-------
Acfiviig 2
2. Read Fact Flashes .1, 2, 3 and 5 to prepare your lecture.
3. Distribute Fact Flashes 1 and 2 and assign students to read them as homework. :
Procedure
Class #1
1. Review the main ideas from Fact Flashes 1 and 2.
2. Distribute Map 1, Flbwing Railroad Site (from Fact Flash 3: Flowing Railroad
Hazardous Waste Site). This is an overhead view of a fictional 'site showing where
past industrial activities are thought to have taken place. Describe past site
activities to the students, using the information in Fact Flash 3.
3. Distribute Map 2, Flowing Railroad Site Area (from Fact Flash 3). this is an
overhead view of the towns, rivers, and some activities in the surrounding area.
Describe the,area to students using information from Fact Flash 3.
4. Ask students how they think contaminants might spread from the site. Possible
answers include:
. • The wind can blow contaminant vapors. ,
> The wind can blow small soil particles to which contaminants are attached.
• Contaminants can be washed into the Flowing River by rainfall running off the
site.
• Liquid contaminants can flow down through the soil to the groundwater due to
gravity. l :
• Gontaminants can be washed down through the soil to the groundwater by
rainfall soaking into the soil.
• Groundwater moving underground can spread contaminants in the aquifer.
• Contaminated groundwater can move that uses the Flowing River.
• , Excavation or other activities that disturb the soil on the site can move
contaminants. ,
5. Ask students how animals or plants may be exposed to contaminants from the site.
Possible answers include:
• The wind can blow contaminants to tree leaves, grasses, or crops.
• Animals can eat contaminated plants. '
55
-------
Activity 2
• Fish and aquatic plants can be exposed to contaminants washed into the
Flowing River.
• Farmland crops could be exposed to contaminants through the irrigation
system that uses water from the Flowing River.
6. Ask students how people in Ruralville and Utopia may be exposed to contaminants
from the site. Possible answers include:
• Eating contaminated crops
• Eating contaminated fish from the Flowing River
• Utopia residents drinking contaminated water f rorri their municipal wells
• Ruralville residents drinking contaminated water from the Flowing River
• Children playing on the site
• Fishermen crossing the site to get to the Flowing River
• Ruralville residents breathing air containing contaminated dust blown off the
site
• Ruralville and Utopia residents taking showers with contaminated water.
7. Ask students what factors would affect the amount of exposure from site
contamination. Possible answers include:
1 i
• Amount of contamination originally released at the site
• Amount of dispersion of the contaminants
• Amount of physical, chemical, and biological transformation of the
contaminants into harmless compounds -
• Frequency of contact with contaminated water, soil, plants, and animals.
8. Explain to students that in a follow-up class, they will look more ciosely at how
groundwater at the Flowing Railroad hazardous waste site may have been
contaminated.
9. Distribute Fact Flash 5: Groundwater and assign students to read it prior to the
next class. . .'-•••'
Class #2
1. Distribute Map 3, Diked Sludge Pond, Cross-Section (from Fact Flash 3). Briefly
review with students the main points in Fact Flash 5: Groundwater, assigned for
reading after the first class.
2. Explain that groundwater contamination is a major concern in the Superfund
Program, and it is difficult to visualize how contaminants move underground.
Therefore, the class is going to construct a small groundwater model to explore
how groundwater and contaminants move in an aquifer.
56
-------
Atfiviig 2
Dtt'PctU-g S2l
Construct a miniature modelof a groundwater environment.
Choose .2 or 3 students to build the groundwater
model at the front of the class. (If you have
enough supplies, divide the class into 4
groups and have each group construct its own
model.) Use the illustration shown on the next
page as a guide. .
• Tape the pump mechanism, with the ,
nylon fabric attached, to the inside of the
container so that the nylon-covered end
of the tube almost touches the bottom of
the container.
• Fill the container about one-third full with
the pebbles or gravel. , .
• Spread out the coffee filter and, if necessary, cut the paper to make a circle
with a diameter larger than the diameter of the inside of the container. Place
the filter paper on top of the pebbles and tape it to the sides of the container.
• Fill the rest of the container with sand. The filter paper will prevent the sand
from falling down into the gravel and filling the spaces between gravel
particles. ,
Your groundwater model is now ready for conducting experiments. Have students
perform the following steps.
Spray water on the sand with the spray bottle, until the sand is saturated. The
water will filter down through the sand and into the gravel. Keep spraying until the
water table (the top of the portion of the ground that is completely saturated with *
water) is in the sand. Keep track of the amount of water that the container can
hold at your selected water table level.
Push down on the pump mechanism and slowly draw a little water from the gravel
through the tube and out of the pump. Make sure the pump empties into the
measuring cup. Explain that the pump mechanism creates a vacuum to draw out
the water. This is essentially the same method used to pump groundwater from
aquifers (underground rock materials that are capable of storing and transmitting
water in useful amounts).'.>
Spray more water on the sand until you reach your original water level. Then add
a few drops of red food coloring on top of the sand. Place one of the drops near
the edge of the sand, near the wall of the container. Explain to the students that
the food coloring represents a hazardous Wastei such as gasoline, that dissolves in
water.
lip*
57
-------
Activity 2
7.
8.
9.
10.
Make it rain on your aquifer model by pumping the spray bottle 5 times.
Continue pumping water from the container into the measuring cup. The water in
the cup will eventually have a reddish hue. Keep track of how much water you
have to pump from your groundwater model. Discuss with the students how the
pollutant at the surface level has contaminated the groundwater. This is similar to
rainwater carrying contaminants underground and into an aquifer. Can the
students make any observations about how the pollutant moves downward through
the sand from the drop placed by the wall of the container?
Ask students to guess how much clean water will have to be sprayed onto the sand
to remove all of the food coloring. Continue adding water to the sand and
removing water with the pump until the students believe your groundwater has
been cleaned up. How much water did it take to clean the aquifer? Was this close
to what the
students
guessed?
Sprinkle water here
Paper towel saturated
with colored water
NOTE: Another
way to illustrate
this is to build
your model
using only
gravel. Attach
the pump
mechanism the
same way as for
the other model.
Roll a paper
towel into a ball •>
and saturate it with red food coloring. Bury it beneath the surface (in the gravel).
The buried paper towel represents an abandoned waste site. Add water until 1/4 of
the pump is submerged. Then spray more water on the surface until 1/2 the pump
is under water. Press the pump 20 to 30 times, catching the water in another
container. Have students discuss what they observe.
To simulate the addition and removal of other types of contaminants, you can put
other additives into the water. For example, use molasses or maple syrup to
represent a dense non-aqueous phase liquid (DNAPL)—a substance that is
heavier than water and will not mix with water. Contaminants like TCE and PCB
are DNAPLs. Use vegetable oil to represent a light non-aqueous phase liquid
58
-------
/Jctfvrty Q.
(LNAPL)—a substance that is lighter than water and will hot mix with water. Jet fuel
is an LNAPL. The amount of water that will have to be flushed through the
groundwater; model should be significantly greater to remove these contaminants
than what was needed to remove the red food coloring.
11. Ask students how your small groundwater model represents contamination at a
Superfund site. Answers could include: .
• Contaminants on the ground surface can be washed into groundwater by
rainwater.
• Contaminants in groundwater can be removed by pumping out contaminated
groundwater; however, the amount of water needed to clean contaminants
from groundwater is far greater than the amount of contamination added.
12. Ask students what is,different between your experimental groundwater model and a
real Superfund site. The following points could be made:
« A Superfund site can have thousands of.gallons of contaminants in the
groundwater as opposed to a few ounces. ,
• The subsurface at a Superfund site is far more complex than your groundwater
model.
• The water in your model is contained, but at a real Superfund site it almost
always is flowing slowly in one direction. Flowing groundwater at a Superfund
site can carry contaminants miles from where the contaminants were spilled on
the surface. This can make it very difficult to locate a contaminant source once
contaminated groundwater is detected.
13. Ask students to consider the situation at the fictional Flowing Railroad site. Would
the residents of Utopia be in greater danger from contaminated groundwaier if the
groundwater beneath the Flowing Railroad site was flowing north toward Utopia or
south away from Utopia? (The answer is thai residents would be in greater danger if
the groundwater was flowing away from Utopia. This may sound surprising, but the
reason is that,, if the groundwater is flowing away from Utopia, it is flowing towards
their drinking water wells located 3 miles south of the Flowing Railroad site.)
Extensions(Optional)
Separate the class into 3 groups. Have each group make a different model: (1) use
red food coloring to simulate a water-soluble contaminant; (2) use the buried paper
towel described in the note and illustration on previous page; and (3) use maple
syrup to simulate a DNAPL and/or vegetable oil to simulate an LNAPL. Have
students observe a demonstration of each model and discuss the differences;
59
-------
Activity 2
Consider inviting an EPA or state Superfund employee involved in overseeing
hazardous waste cleanup projects to discuss a real Superfund site in your state
and what made it a Superfund site. . •
As an extra credit project, advanced students could use a computer model to
predict the movement of contaminants in groundwater under various conditions.
Check your local telephone directory for the nearest EPA or United States
Geological Survey (USGS) office and contact them about obtaining a copy of the
groundwater models they use on a personal computer disk.
60
-------
Activity 3
Companion to Superfund
the Resource Conservation
and Recovery Act (RCRA)
Program
-Duration
Grade Level
Key terms/
Concepts
Suggested
Subjects
v . .
21/4 class periods
9-12
Hazardous Waste
Landfill ,
Municipal solid wastes
RCRA
Underground storage tank
Civics/Government
Physical Science
Social Studies
- ->•;
Purpose
This activity helps students understand
our national program for properly
disposing of the hazardous and (
nonhazardous wastes we generate.
Students will learn about the Resource
Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA)
and the regulations developed under the
law that ensure that municipal and
hazardous wastes are safely transported,
treated, and disposed of. Students also
will participate jn a class activity to
discover how their community handles the
wastes they generate.
Background
Congress'enacted the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA) in 1976, to
conserve energy and natural resources, reduce the amount of waste generated, and
ensure that all wastes are managed in an environmentally sound manner. The U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) developed regulations to create the RCRA
program. The program ensures the safe storage and, disposal of wastes in three basic
categories: (1) municipal solid waste; (2) hazardous waste and( 3) underground
storage tanks used for storing hazardous materials. Much of the program is operated
by the states at the state level.
For more information on RCRA and hazardous and nonhazardous waste management,
see the Suggested Reading list found at the end of the Haz-Ed materials. Other Haz-Ed
materials that are related to this topic include Fact Flash 7: Pollution Prevention and
Activity 10: Pollution Prevention.
61
-------
Activity 3
Preparation
1. Gather the following materials:
• Copies for each student of Fact Flash 6: Resource Conservation and
Recovery Act (RCRA)
2. Read Fact Flash 6 to prepare for your lecture
3. Distribute Fact Flash 6 and have students read it for homework.
Procedure
Class #1
1. Discuss the RCRA program in class using the contents of Fact Flash 6, which
students were assigned to read as homework.
2. Divide the class into teams and assign each team to gather facts on how your
community addresses each of the waste disposal subjects listed below. NOTE:
You may need to call your local waste management agency prior to class to
determine which of the subjects below are appropriate for your community.
Municipal Solid Waste Landfill: What does it do? Where is the landfill located?
Who owns the landfill? Who operates the landfill? How much waste does it
accept? What kind of waste does it accept? Where does the waste come from?
What is the cost of disposal in the landfill? When was it built? When (in how many
years) is the landfill expected to be full? What safeguards are in place to prevent
contamination of the surrounding area?
Wastewater Treatment Plant: What does it do? Where is it located? Who owns
the treatment plant? Who operates the treatment plant? Where does the
wastewater come from? How much water can be treated? What is the cost of
water treatment? What kind of contaminants can be removed from water? What
kind of contaminants cannot be removed? When was the treatment plant built?
How many more years will it operate? What safeguards are in place to prevent
overflows of contaminated water into the surrounding area?
Local Recycling Program: Who runs the program? Where is the recycling center?
Who pays for the program? How long has it been operating? What materials are
collected? How are they collected? How much is collected per year? Does the
62
-------
Activity 3
program pay for certain materials collected—for example, aluminum cans? What
happens to the collected materials? Who buys the recycled materials-f rom the.
program? How much money does the program get for the materials? What are
the most difficult problems the program has to deal with to continue operating?
Local Composting Program: What is it? Who runs the program? Who pays for the
program? How long has it been operating? What materials are collected for
composting? How are they collected? How much is collected per month or per
year? .Where is the composting facility? Who gets to use the resulting compost?
What are the most difficult problems the composting program has to overcome to
continue operating? .,•••''•'
Hazardous Waste Landfill: Where is it located? Who owns the landfill? Who .,
operates the landfill? How much waste does it accept? What kind of waste does it
accept? Where does the waste come from? What is the cost of disposal in the
landfill? When was it built? When is the landfill expected to be full? Is hazardous
waste treated before it is placed in the landfill? What safeguards are in place to
prevent contamination of the surrounding area? , .
-, Underground Storage Tanks: How many underground storage tanks are there in
the county or city? Where are most of them located? What kinds of materials are
stored in the tanks? Who uses most of the underground storage tanks? Are the
tanks old or new? What does it cost to buy and install an underground storage
tank? Are any of the tanks leaking? Have any been replaced? What safeguards
are in place to prevent the tanks from leaking?
incinerator: What is it? Where is it located?. Who owns the incinerator? Who
operates the incinerator? How much waste can it burn? How much waste does it
burn? What kind of waste does the incinerator facility accept? Where does the
waste come from? How much does it cost to incinerate waste? When was the
incinerator built? How many more years will it operate? What happens to the ash
from the incinerator? What safeguards are in place to prevent contamination of the
surrounding area? ,
.,.-,. . • ......
3. Explain to the students that the purpose of this homework exercise is to identify
what trie community is doing now to handle waste generated in your area. Each
team will gather information outside of class and prepare a report of their findings
(2-3 pages). - - . . : .
4. pxplain that each team is to make a short presentation on the results of their
research during a follow-up class (specify the date). Allow each team to organize
itself, assign specific tasks in order to complete the project, and select a
spokesperson to make the team's presentation.
63
-------
Activity 3
5.
As a place for students to start gathering information, suggest that they call the
RCRA/UST, Superfund, and EPCRA Hotline in Washington, D.C., which is open
Monday through Friday, 9:00 a.m. - 6:00 p.m., Eastern Standard Time. The toll-
free number is 800-424-9346; for the hearing impaired it is TDD 800-553-7672.
The Hotline will be able to send publications and give students the names and
phone numbers of EPA and state environmental department employees to call for
more information on RCRA programs in your area. Other sources of information
could include the local library and your county or local waste management agency,
usually listed in a special section of your phonebook. Also, use the Contacts and '
Resources section at the end of the Haz-Ed materials.
Class #2
2.
3.
4.
Have the spokesperson for each group present the group's findings from the
research project to the class.
Encourage students to ask questions and discuss issues as they are raised.
After the presentations, encourage discussions that compare the facts presented.
For example: Compare the amount of materials put in landfills with the amount of
materials that are recycled or composted. Compare the actions taken at various
facilities to prevent contamination?of the environment. Discuss the cost of each
type of waste management. Compare the types of wastes the various facilities
accept and where these wastes come from.
Ask students to suggest how to improve the management of wastes generated by
your community.
Extensions (Optional)
A natural follow-up to these discussions is Activity 10: Pollution Prevention. It
focuses specifically on what can be done to improve how waste is managed in
your community.
Consider inviting an EPA or a state employee involved in overseeing solid or
hazardous waste programs to the class to describe the capacity available in your
local landfill, how the location of the landfill was selected, what is being done to
extend the life of the landfill, and any other relevant topics.
64
-------
Activiiy 3
Arrange a field trip to one of the types of facilities discussed in this activity. Many
municipal landfills, incinerators, and so forth offer tours to the public.
Have students use the newspaper or television news to track real waste
disposal-related decisions made by your local government or industries. Warm-
Up 5: Hazardous Waste in the News contains sample articles that you can
distribute to the students to give them an idea of what to look for. You may want
to use part of a bulletin board in your class to display newspaper articles relating
to the subject. Set^aside time periodically to discuss these actions and their
potential impact on improving the local environment in the future.
' • ' • , , - *
Consider showing a videotape describing waste management. Check with your
school or local librarian and with localpublic television stations for educational
videotapes describing municipal, household, or hazardous waste management.
For example, the League of Women Voters of California's Education Fund
produced two award-winning videotapes in 1990. Cleaning Up Toxics at Home
and Cleaning Up Toxics in Business outline ways in which citizens and small
businesses can significantly reduce pollution. Each tape is available for $29.95
($49.95 for both) and may be ordered by calling The Video Project at
1-800-4-PLANET. Another video, called The Rotten Truth, was produced by the
Children's Television Workshop for its 3-2-1 Contact program. The video is
available for $14.98, plus shipping and handling, by calling the distributor, Sony
Wonder, at 1-800-327-3494. ,
65
-------
99
-------
Activity 4
Dealing with Chemical
Emergencies
Duration 1 class period
Grade Level 7-12
Key Terms/
Concepts
Acute
Chronic
Emergency
Exposure
Hazardous material
Release
Residual Contamination
Superfund
Chemistry
Subjects Physical Science
Purpose
This activity helps students understand '
how Federal, state, and local authorities
respond to chemical emergencies. In a
facilitated discussion, students identify
activities that can result in spills and other
emergency situations that may cause
hazardous materials to be released. The
difference between emergency situations
and other times when hazardous
substances may be released into the
environment is explained. Students also
discuss how Federal, state, and local
authorities respond to spills and other
releases of contaminants into the
environment.
Background
The Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act
(CERCLA) directs the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and other Federal
agencies to respond to emergency situations where exposure to hazardous materials
p'oses an immediate risk of harm. Emergency situations covered by Superfund include
chemical spills or fires. These situations" require immediate action to reduce or remove
toxic hazards and stabilize the contaminated area to prevent or minimize damage to
people and the environment. Usually state and local authorities are the first at the scene
of an emergency. After the immediate emergency has been addressed, the site is
evaluated to determine whether additional work is necessary. If so, EPA, the state, or
the responsible party will clean up the contamination.
For more information on emergency planning and response, see the Suggested Reading
list found at the end of the Haz-Ed materials. Other Haz-Ed materials that are related to
this topic include Warm-Up 1: Defining Hazardous Waste and.Warm-Up 2: EPA's
Superfund Program—Overview.
67
-------
Activity 4
Preparation
1. Gather the following materials:
*
• Copies for each student of:
Fact Flash 1: Hazardous Substances and Hazardous Waste
Fact Flash 2: The Superfund Cleanup Program
r
• Copies for each student of the following Student Handout, Hazardous
Materials Emergencies.
2. Read Fact Flashes 1 and 2 to prepare your lecture.
3. Distribute Fact Flashes 1 and 2 and assign students to read them for homework.
Procedure
1. Review the characteristics of hazardous substances and the strategy for
emergency responses under the Superfund Program, using the information in the
Fact Flashes students read for homework. Point out that this discussion will focus
on situations involving brief exposures to uncontrolled hazardous materials as
happens in emergencies.
2. Ask students to recall any emergencies that have occured in their community or
state involving chemical spills, explosions, fires, or other incidents involving a
release of hazardous materials . Examples include a highway accident involving
an overturned truck carrying hazardous materials, derailment of railroad tank cars
carrying hazardous materials, an explosion at an industrial plant, or an evacuation
of a neighborhood because of a hazardous materials spill or leak.
3. Have a student list the incidents mentioned on the chalkboard. Have students
discuss the circumstances surrounding these events. What happened? What
chemicals were released? Were the chemicals explosive, toxic, ignitable, or
chemically reactive? How was the emergency resolved?
4. Distribute copies of the Student Handout, Hazardous Materials Emergencies. Give
them 5 or 10 minutes to read it.
Use the incidents in the Student Handout as a basis for discussion.
68
-------
Activiiy 4
5. • Ask students what activities and situations could result in accidents involving the
acute release of hazardous materials. Make a list of these activities on the
chalkboard, noting the names of any actual occurrences the class can name. Ask
what these types of activities have in common, besides the handling of hazardous
materials. (This discussion should point out that many such incidents occur at
- industrial plants or when hazardous materials are transported and that many pose
a threat to people in the vicinity.) ,
6 Go back to the list of incidents on the chalkboard. Ask students to suggest what
kinds of things would have to be done to respond effectively in each case. (For
example, a chemical spill that contaminates drinking water could require an ;
alternative supply of drinking water, or a chemical fire could require evacuating a
. neighborhood or a whole community.)
7. Ask students who they would expect to respond to these incidents. Would the
response be handled locally or would it require outside help? Who would decide
on the "action plan" for responding? How would they know what types of
hazardous materials are involved? If you were responsible for making such
decisions, what other sorts of information would you want?
8. Ask students what makes an emergency different from any other incident. Is it the
materials involved, the threat posed to the general population, or something else?
Does an emergency require some sort of sudden event (for example, an explosion,
fire, train wreck)? What sort of "emergency" might not involve a sudden event (for
example, a slow gasoline leak into a river)?
9. Explain to students that whether an incident is considered an emergency under the
Federal Superfund Program depends on the type of threat posed. For example,
;.. • explosions or fires in a chemical plant require an immediate response which, in
turn, requires quick decisions and immediate action to reduce or eliminate hazards
and 'stabilize the environment. Other threats, such as a gasoline leak, once under
control, allow for a longer planning and decision making process related to the
cleanup.
NOTE: You may want to point out to students that the quick decisions needed to
deal with an "emergency" can sometimes result in more long-term problems. For
example, hundreds of miles of Germany's Rhine River were polluted following a
' chemical fire at Basel, Switzerland. Firefighters used water to extinguish the blaze.
The runoff from the firefighting washed tons of chemicals into the river.
10. Ask students how they would decide that the "emergency" is over? What if
there is leftover contamination? Who would they expect to deal with it?
69
-------
Activity 4
Extensions (Optional)
• Invite local firefighters or emergency medical technicians to speak to the class on
how their departments respond to chemical emergencies and how they interact
with other authorities in these situations. Encourage the speakers to bring along
any special equipment used in those situations.
• Ask for three volunteers. Assign one to visit the local police department, another
the local fire department, and the third the local emergency medical service (EMS),
which may be part of the fire department in some communities. Have the students
interview officials about their chemical emergency preparedness. Have them
explore how emergency calls are received and what plans are set into motion.
What would happen locally in the event of a hazardous material emergency? What
actual emergencies has the department handled? What is their interaction with
state and Federal authorities in these situations? Have the students prepare and
present the results of their interviews to the class.
• Invite an EPA or state On-Scene Coordinator (OSC) involved in overseeing
hazardous waste cleanup projects to discuss a real emergency cleanup in your
state or region. Use the Contacts and Resources listed at the end of the Haz-Ed
materials. . •
70
-------
ACTIVITY 4
Hazardous Materials Emergencies
Charlotte, New York, April 1995. A fire started at a tire dump in Charlotte, Chatauqua
County, New York, about 40 miles southwest of Buffalo; The dump"covers about 15
acres and holds from 2 to 3 million tires, which are stacked 12-30 feet deep throughout
the dump. The, cause of the fire was unknown. About 33 local fire companies
responded and began efforts to isolate and control the fire, which engulfed 4 to 5 acres. ,
Response personnel set up a containment area for runoff. EPA's On-Scene Coordinator
responded to the scene to provide air monitoring and technical support to local response
personnel. •
Lodi, New Jersey, April 1995. An explosion and fire at a plant that manufactures
pharmaceutical chemicals killed at least 2 people, injured 12 others, and caused the
evacuation of about 900 residents and schoolchildren in the area. EPA's On-Scene
Coordinator and the Agenc/s Environmental Response Team responded to help local
and state officials with air and water monitoring at the site. In addition, the U.S. Coast
Guard sent a team to monitor the runoff of water used for firefighting into the Saddle
River, where there were reports that, fish had died.
Jackson, Mississippi, April 1995. More than 200 vials of the chemical phosgene and
compounds used in tear gas were dug up during construction of a trench at the
Mississippi State Fairgrounds. The vials reportedly came from World War I chemical
warfare "test kits," buried in the 1930s in a pond that was later filled with dirt. EPA's On-
Scene Coordinator provided.on-site air monitoring and technical advice. U.S. Army
teams inventoried the vials and packaged them for transfer to a military base for
treatment and disposal.
Sargent Bluff, Iowa, December 1994. A rupture in a natural gas pipeline caused an
explosion at a facility, about 15 miles south of Sioux City, Jowa, that manufactures urea
and ammonium nitrate for fertilizer. The explosion reportedly killed 4 people and injured
at least 30. The incident was initially reported by.a nearby resident who said there was a
strong ammonia smell in the area. Local firefighters and hazardous materials teams
responded and evacuated the immediate area. Within an hour, the fire had been
extinguished, but the release of contaminants into the air continued. EPA and state
government officials were concerned about the additional release of materials, because
the plant has large tanks of nitric acid, anhydrous ammonia, and ammonium nitrate that
may have been impacted by the explosion, the facility is located along the banks of the
Missouri River. .
71
-------
72
-------
Activity 5
How Hazardous
Substances
Affect People
Duration
Grade Level
Key Terms/
Concepts
Suggested
Subjects
2 class periods
7-10
Adverse Health
Effects
Epidemiological
Exposure
Toxicology
Biology
Chemistry
Life Science .
Purpose
This activity helps students gain an appreciation for
how scientists determine the human health effects of
hazardous substances. Students also demonstrate
how hazardous substances can affect the health of
test animals,
Note: This activity involves theexposure of worms to
a hazardous substance. Some students may object
to this on ethical or moral grounds.
Background
Toxicology is the study of the effects of poisons on living organisms. Scientists conduct
a variety of studies to discover lexicological information about hazardous substances.
Two of the most common types of studies are (1) epidemiological studies—matching
disease arid other adverse health effects in humans with possible causes—and (2)
animal lexicological studies.
The Federal government's Superfund Program, administered by the U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency (EPA), helps protect people and the environment by cleaning up
hazardous waste sites. Well-designed, properly controlled epidemiological studies
conducted at or near hazardous waste sites can provide information important in making
cleanup decisions.
On their own, these studies are not always conclusive. This is primarily because it is
difficult to determine the exact amount of the chemical or chemicals contaminating the
site to which human populations have actually been exposed (had contact with): Many
times health histories are incomplete, and potentially exposed populations are too small
for statistical analyses. In addition, many uncontrolled variables—such as genetics,
exercise, diet, or cigarette use—may complicate detecting the effects of the hazardous
substances. ~
73
-------
Activity 5
When epidemiological studies cannot be done, well-designed animal studies can provide
a wealth of information. This information can be used to predict potential effects in
humans over a range of exposure levels—from acute, a single exposure to a
hazardous material for a brief length of time, to chronic, continuous or repeated
exposure to a hazardous substance over a long period of time.
For more information on health effects caused by hazardous substances, see the
Suggested Reading list found at the end of the Haz-Ed materials. Other Haz-Ed
materials that are related to this topic include Fact Flash 1: Hazardous Substances and
Hazardous Waste; Fact Flash 9: Common Contaminants; and Activity 6: Examining the
Effects of Pollution on Ecosystems.
Preparation
1. Assemble the following materials:
• Small plastic cups (5 per group) . ,
• Three empty one-liter plastic soft drink containers with caps
• Refrigerated tap water
• Automobile antifreeze (ethylene glycol)
• Live, fresh-water black (hair) worms, sold as fish food in pet stores
(50 or more worms per group)
• 16-ounce measuring cup ,
• 1-ounce measuring cup (used to measures doses of cough syrup)
• plastic wrap
• Tape and markers
Copies of the Student Handout, Black (Hair) Worm Experiment '
(1 per group)
Copies of the Student Worksheet, Black (Hair) Worm Experiment
(5 per group)
NOTE: Fresh-water hair worms are inexpensive, easy to see because of their dark
color, and quite active. They survive best in a small amount of refrigerated water
(they die if submerged) and should be kept in the refrigerator until class time. If
washed every day, they can live 1 to 2 weeks in the refrigerator. If worms are not
available, you may substitute some other fresh water invertebrate, which can be
obtained at tropical fish or pet stores. Brine shrimp, available at some pet stores,
also may be substituted for fresh water invertebrates, but you will need to add table
74
-------
Activity S
salt at a 5 percent solution in the water before adding the shrimp.
2. Fill each of the three 1 -liter containers (they must be clean) with 16 ounces of
water and clearly mark the 16-ounce level on the side. Pour out the water and
shake the containers dry. .
3. Label the containers either Low (6 percent), Medium (12 percent), or High (24
percent) ethylene glycol; For the low-dose solution pour 1 ounce of antifreeze in
the container marked Low (6 percent) and fill up to the 16-ounce mark with water.
For the medium-dose solution pour 2 ounces of antifreeze in the container marked
Medium (12 percent) and fill up to the 16-ounce mark with water. For the high-
dose solution pour 4 ounces of antifreeze in the container marked High (24
percent) and fill up to the 16-ounce mark with water. Shake or stir well. (NOTE:
Any substance can be toxic in a high enough concentration. Handle the antifreeze
carefully.) ,
4. Contact your local sanitation or health department to request information dn the
proper disposal methods for antifreeze in your community. Can it be poured down
the drain? Is there a recycling center for this type of substance?
Procedure
1. Using the information in the Background section, discuss how scientists conduct
studies to get'information on toxic substances.
2. .' Divide the class into teams of two to four students each. Caution students to
handle the antifreeze carefully.
3. Provide each team with five clean plastic cups, tape, marker, one copy of the
Student Handout, and five copies of the Student Worksheet. '
- - " f ' ' -• • '
4. Have the students label the first container "low dose," the second "medium dose/'
, and the third "high dose." Have them label the fourth container "control pre-test"
and the fifth "control post-test." •
5. Provide each team with some live worms. Have all groups pour just enough cold
water into the "control pre-test" container to barely coat the bottom. Too much
water will drown the worms.
6. Have the students place about 10 worms in the water and watch for any behavioral
changes, recording the results at the end of 4 minutes on the Student Worksheet.
Have them leave the worms in the container.' •
75
-------
Activity 5
7. Have teams pour just enough water-antifreeze solution ihto each container to
barely coat the bottom, using the solutions you prepared in advance. Have half of
the teams start with the "low dose" container first and proceed in order to the "high
dose." Have the other teams start with the "high dose" container first and proceed
in order to the "low dose" container.
8. Have the students conduct each test one at a time, using different worms for each
container (about 10 per container). Remind teams to record their observations for
each test on the Student Worksheet.
9. Have all groups end the experiment by pouring just enough cold water to barely
coat the bottom of the "control post-test" container. (NOTE: Control observations
at the beginning and end of the experiment are intended to help rule out effects not
related to the antifreeze, such as water temperature.)
10. After the' experiments, have each group describe the worm behavior they observed
during each test and discuss the answers to the questions on the Student
Worksheet.
11. Have students dispose of the antifreeze solutions properly, according to the
information you received from your local sanitation or health department.
Extensions (Optional)
Have the students plan and conduct an experiment to determine if there is a
concentration of antifreeze and water that does not appear to change the behavior
of the worms over a 24- or 48-hour period. The purpose is to determine if there is
a threshold for an acute (rapid) effect; in other words, a level of exposure below
which there is not likely to be an adverse health effect in the short-term." The
students' experimental plan should at the very least include an appropriate control
group, a sufficient number of worms, observation procedures, and an explanation
of the experimental conditions, including procedures for rinsing the worms once a
day, cleanliness, covering containers to prevent evaporation, and refrigerator
temperatures.
.. r .
Have the students search the library for information on worm biology. Focus their
attention on worm anatomy and physiology, function in ecosystems, and whether
the adverse effects of antifreeze on worms might be compared to the potential
effects of antifreeze on human health or ecosystem health.
76
-------
Activity S
Teacher's Answer Key— Black (Hair) Worm Experiment
(1) Were there obvious behavioral differences between the control groups and
the antifreeze-exposed groups? If yes, describe. ;
There should be differences in mobility even with only 10 animals per group. After
about 10 minutes nearly all worms exposed to the antifreeze solutions probably will
be dead. The higher the concentration of antifreeze the faster they die. Also, the
smaller the worms (young worms) the faster they die. In the unlikely event there
are no differences between treated and control groups, perhaps more worms per
group are needed, or the antifreeze concentration is too low to cause an
observable effect, or the worms are not susceptible to the adverse effects of ,
antifreeze. All of these possibilities could be tested in another experiment if
.materials allow.
(2) Did the concentration of antifreeze in the water influence the degree of
behavioral change? If yes, describe.
After an initial increase in activity, you should find that the higher the dose, the
more quickly the worms' mobility decrease. The degree and severity of toxic
effects are primarily a function of dose (the amount of contact or exposure to the
chemical). However, many other factors including differences in susceptibility
among individuals within a species also influence the outcome. Because humans
manifest an unusual degree of individual variability, large numbers of people must
be similarly exposed to clearly demonstrate that a chemical causes a specific toxic
effect. Using animal toxicity studies to determine the potential adverse effects of
specific substances has many advantages. Genetically similar individual animals
can be used in relatively large numbers and exposures can be controlled over a
range of dose levels. The results of animal lexicological studies are used to predict
potential effects in humans at dose levels relevant to possible human exposures.
(3) Was there a safe level of exposure? In other words, was there an antifreeze
solution that did not appear to cause an effect over the 4-minute observation
period? How could you tell?
Ideally, at least one dose level in an experiment should have an observable effect
different from the others during the observation period. That iC if all the doses
cause the same reaction, you have only learned that antifreeze has an effect at a
concentration equal to or greater .than the lowest .dose used. You have not
determined the minimum concentration that will cause an effect, or the maximum
concentration that has no effect.
If all three doses in your experiment caused the same reaction during the 4-minute
observation period, you may want to repeat the experiment using a lower
concentration. For example, you could prepare a 3 percent solution by pouring 1/2
oz. of antifreeze into one of the liter containers you used earlier, and filling it up to
the 16 oz. mark with water. Then repeat'the experiment using this solution and
observe the reaction. Are the results different after 4 minutes? How about after
the total time that elapsed during the other experiment?
77
-------
Activity 5
(4) Does the acute (rapid, short-term) effect of antifreeze on the worms indicate
anything about what the long-term or chronic (lifetime) effects might be?
No. Long-term or chronic exposures to hazardous substances frequently result in
different effects from those observed after only a brief exposure. This makes the
effects of long-term exposure more difficult to link to a specific cause.
Reproductive organs may be affected; mutations in cell structure, liver damage,
and so forth may not show up until the next generation.
(5) Is behavior the only possible measure of effect? Why or why not?
Although behavior is an inexpensive indicator of a potentially fatal adverse effect, it
is not the only measure of effect. It is used in this experiment because it does not
require sophisticated equipment to study.
(6) Can you determine from this experiment the cause of death of the worms?
No. Damage could have been done to vital organs such as the liver and kidney,
which would subsequently make the worms too sick to move, or the antifreeze
could have directly affected their neuromuscular system, brain, sensory systems,
and other organs, thereby slowing their mobility.
Hazardous substances adversely affect living organisms through a variety of
mechanisms, many of which are not yet known. Some chemicals alter DNA,
damage DNA repair mechanisms, or destroy cells by damaging their membranes,
interacting with cell receptors, depleting substances essential to cell survival, or
inhibiting production of vital enzymes. Some potentially hazardous substances are
not hazardous until the body breaks them down (or metabolizes them) into
substances that are toxic. For example, carbon tetrachloride is broken down in the
liver to a highly reactive chemical that initiates a chain reaction which destroys a
crucial liver cell enzyme system (cytochrome P-450).
(7) Is it possible that while antifreeze affects the health of worms, it has no effect
on humans? Is it also possible that antifreeze has no effect on worms but
adversely affects human health? If yes, describe.
The answer to both is yes. However, epidemiological studies and accidental
poisonings verify that antifreeze causes serious and often fatal effects when
ingested by humans. The liver breaks down ethylene glycol into aldehydes,
glycolate, oxalate, and lactate that may initially cause nausea, seizures, respiratory
failure, coma, and cardiovascular collapse. Survivors of the acute phase ultimately
exhibit kidney failure, severe acidosis (lowered blood pH), arid low blood calcium
levels. The fatal kidney damage results mainly from the formation of oxalate-
calcium crystals that precipitate in the kidney tubules. These changes may also
occur in the liver, heart, blood vessels, and brain. In addition, the aldehydes,
glycolate, and lactate acidify the blood to dangerous levels.
78
-------
ActivHyS
STUDENT HANDOUT
Black (Hair) Worm Experiment
The purpose of this experiment is to determine the potential effect of three
concentrations of antifreeze (ethylene glycol) on fresh-water worms. There are five
steps. ; • *
CH2 CH2 ,
" ' ",. I ; I - '••• . ' '••'•,.
OH OH . ,
. ethylene glycol . ;
Your teacher will provide you with:
• Five small, clean plastic cups
• Live, fresh-water black worms (hair worms)
• Tape and markers
• Five copies of a Student Worksheet for recording your observations
• Antifreeze (ethylene glycol) solutions of 6 percent, 12 percent, 24 percent
• Refrigerated tap water.
Step 1 Label one cup "low dose," the second cup "medium dose," the third cup "high
dose." Label the fourth cup "control pre-tesf and the fifth cup "control post-
test." ... , .••'••.• •.'.." -. • : --.'.',
Step 2 Add just enough cold tap water to barely cover the bottom of the container
marked "control pre-test," and place about 10 worms in the water. (DO NOT
SUBMERGE THE WORMS: THEY WILL DIE.) Observe the worms for 4
minutes and watch for any changes in their behavior. Record the results on
the appropriate line of the Worksheet. Set the "control pre-tesf cup aside,
but do not throw it away. ,
Step 3 After recording the behavior of the "control pre-test" group, conduct similar
observations of different worms (about 10 per cup) in order from "low dose" to
' "high dose" or from "high dose" to "low dose" depending on your instructor's
directions. Use the appropriate antifreeze mixture prepared by your instructor
for each dose level. Use the Worksheet to record the behavior of each group
: of worms at the end of 4 minutes. , .
Step 4 After you have observed the results from all 3 solutions, repeat the control
test by again adding barely enough cold water to cover the bottom of the cup
labeled "control post-test," and place about 10 worms in the water. Observe
for 4 minutes for any behavioral changes. Record the results on the
Worksheet.
Step 5 At the end of the experiment observe the total time and take one last look at
the worm behavior in all of the cups.
Step 6 Answer the questions on the Worksheet.
79'
-------
Activity 5
. STUDENT HANDOUT
Black (Hair) Worm Experiment
Test
control pre-test
low dose
medium dose
high dose
control post-test
Behavior after
4 minutes
Behavior at end
of experiment
Total time from
start of experiment
Answer the following questions
(1) Were there obvious behavioral differences between the control groups and the
antifreeze-exposed groups? If yes, describe.
(2) Did the concentration of antifreeze in the water influence the degree of behavioral
change? If yes, describe.
(3) Was there a safe level of exposure. In other words, was there an antifreeze
concentration that did not appear to cause an effect over the 4-minute observation
period? How could you tell?
(4) Does the acute (rapid, short-term) effect of antifreeze on the worms indicate
anything about what the long-term or chronic (lifetime) effects might be?
(5) Is behavior the only possible measure of effect? Why or why not?
(6) Can you determine from this experiment the cause of death of the worms?
(7) Is it possible that while antifreeze affects the health of worms, it has no effect on
humans? (Is it also possible that antifreeze has no effect on worms but adversely
affects human health?) If yes, describe.
80
-------
Activity 6
Examining t he
Effects of Pollution
on Ecosystems
Duration
Grade Level
Key Terms/
Concepts
Oufigesfed
Subjects
2 to 3 class periods
10-12
Acute
Bioaccumulation
Biomass
Community ,
Ecosystem
Environment
Population
Relative abundances
Species abundances
.Biology
Chemistry
Life Science
Physical Sience
Purpose
This activity helps students recognize that
hazardous waste may have far-reaching
impacts on ecosystems and these impacts
are not always easy to identify. Students
become familiar with several types of tests
used to measure the environmental effects
of hazardous waste pollution. In the
process, they learn that no single
assessment procedure is applicable to all
ecosystems and no single test is adequate
to .assess pollution impacts on an entire
ecosystem. They examine a case study and
discuss the limitations of current ecosystem
assessment methods for establishing cause-
and-effect relationships, especially for
mixtures of chemicals in the environment.
Background
The impact of hazardous waste on the environment is thought to be widespread and in
some areas severe. Establishing cause-and-effect relationships between exposure and
ecosystem damage is a major challenge, An ecosystem—such as a marsh—is a highly
complex structure, consisting of all living organisms in a given area and their interactions
not only among themselves but also with the environment. Even a mature
ecosystem—one that has achieved stability over time—is constantly adapting to
changes. Some of these changes are due to natural influences such as animal
migration patterns, weather, erosion, and sedimentation. Other changes, however, are
the result of habitat encroachment and human pollution. This pollution is often in the
form of complex mixtures of chemicals in widely varying concentrations.
81
-------
Activity 6
Ecosystems are complex and dynamic (ever changing). This makes linking any one
effect to a specific cause very difficult. Conditions cannot be controlled sufficiently to
allow the effects of individual pollutants to be observed. Only-recently have scientists
begun to focus attention on finding ways to determine the major effects of hazardous
waste on ecosystems. •
Researchers have built laboratory models of ecosystems to study environmental
pollution in controlled settings. But models can provide only simple representations of
real ecosystems that contain thousands of living species. They cannot provide adequate
measures of the diversity of species and the complexity of the relationships among all
the living organisms that make ecosystems unique.
There is no single best strategy or design for assessing environmental pollution that is
appropriate for every situation. The characteristics of the area and the specific
objectives and issues of concern must be considered in determining how to proceed.
Nevertheless, scientists generally use four major categories of tests to assess the
impact of hazardous waste on ecosystems:
• Chemical and physical tests to measure contaminant levels, pH, oxygen levels,
and other environmental conditions
• Toxicity tests to determine if the pollution can or is causing adverse biological
effects in ecosystem species
• Biomarkers to indicate actual exposure
• Field surveys.
These ecological assessments are important tools in Federal and state government
efforts to clean up hazardous waste contamination under the Superfund Program.
For additonal information on ecosystems and pollution, see the Suggested Reading list
found at the end of the Haz-Ed materials. Other Haz-Ed materials related to this topic
include Fact Flash 2: The Superfund Cleanup Program.
Preparation
1. Assemble the following materials:.
• Copies for each student of Student Handout 1, Major Categories of Tests for
Ecological Assessment, found at the end of this .activity
• Copies for each student of Student Handout 2, Case Study: Tidal Bay
Ecological Assessment. * .
2. Read the student handouts to prepare your lecture.
3. Distribute copies of Student Handout 2 and assign students to read the case study
for homework.
82
-------
AciivHtj 6
NOTE: In this lesson, students will encounter a large number of scientific terms and
phrases. Depending on the grade level in which you use the lesson and the skill level of
your students, you may need to spend extra time introducing unfamiliar vocabulary and
preparing your students for this lesson. Many terms'are defined in the Glossary found at
the end of the Haz-Ed materials, but a textbook may be helpful.
Procedure
Class #1
1. Ask the class to define an ecosystem. Then ask the class to distinguish between
an ecosystem and the environment. (An ecosystem is a specialized community*
including all the component organisms, that forms an interacting system, for
example, a marsh. An environment is the totality of conditions surrounding an
organism.) '
2. Organize the students in groups of 3 or 4 students each, and ask each group to
write down how hazardous waste released into the environment can affect plants
(flora) or animals (fauna) in an ecosystem. Ask them to list as many possibilities as
they can think of in 10 minutes.
3. Ask each group how many ideas they wrote down.
_v
• ' /
4. Ask the group with the fewest ideas to lead off by naming one effect of pollution.
Ask the rest of the class if they agree that the named effect can result from
pollution. Ask those who agree to explain why they agree. Ask those who do not
agree to explain their reasons. ,
Continue the discussion by asking each group in turn to add to the list. Have a
student write the ideas on the chalkboard as they are mentioned. Some possible
effects that could be listed include:
• Gaps in vital food chains or nutrient cycles
• Reproductive problems (such as eggshell thinning or loss of nesting,
materials)
• Developmental effects (such as malformed chick beaks)
• Tumors (such as fish tumors) " , •',.'.•
• Critical organ damage (such as liver, kidney, or skin lesions)
• Immune system dysfunction (leading to, for example, viral infections in .
dolphins)
• Altered individual or population growth rates
• Changes in population and community organization
• Loss of total biomass (flora and fauna)
83
-------
Activity 6
5.
6.
• Relative loss of taxa or species abundance in defined areas (such as fish
kills, amphibian mortality, macro-invertebrate depletion)
• Loss of species diversity.
Some of the students' ideas may overlap because one adverse ecosystem effect
can impact another since life in ecosystems is interdependent. For example,
reproductive and developmental problems in birds may ultimately cause a
decrease in species abundance and diversity, which in turn may alter community
organization.
Students may not come up with many ideas. In a way this reflects the current
state-of-the-science in ecological assessment. It can be difficult to determine what
is occurring or could occur in an ecosystem as a result of pollution; effects are
often very subtle unlike those of habitat loss, which usually tend to be very obvious.
Leave the list on the chalkboard.
Distribute the Student Handout, Major Categories of Tests for Ecological
Assessment. YOU may wish to have students discuss the various types of tests in
more depth before proceeding.
Ask the students which category or categories of tests could be used to study each
of the adverse effects listed on the chalkboard. Haye students explain the choices
they make. Encourage the rest of the class to comment on various answers.
Class #2
Give each student a copy of the Student Handout, Case Study: Tidal Bay
Ecological Assessment. Give them about 30 minutes to read it in class or as
homework. Questions and guidelines are in the text to assist them in their review.
Ask them to answer as many of the questions as possible.
For the remainder of the class period, discuss the case study and the students'
answers to the questions. An Instructor's Answer KeyIs included at the end of this
lesson for your use.
Extensions (Optional)
• After allowing each group to add to the list of ideas about how hazardous waste
can adversely effect ecosystems, ask students to rank the items according to their
importance. Have them discuss their choices.
84
-------
Activity 6
• Point out during the discussion that sometimes investigators limit ecological
components of concern to commercially important species (e.g., blue crabs in the
Chesapeake Bay). Have students discuss how this might influence public attitudes
with respect to proposed environmental*regulations or legislation.
Instructor's Answer Key - Handout 1
Case Qiudy: Tidal Bay Ecological Assessment
1. What are the benefits of comparing contaminant concentrations and biological
impacts in Tidal Bay sediments with those of a reference area?
By expressing all chemical and biological measures as changes (increases or
decreases) relative to a "normal" ecosystem (Shipshape), comparisons can be
made that provide a sound basis for identifying and quantifying effects. Comparing
results with a reference area allows investigators to determine not only what is not
"normal" in the study area, but also how much weight to place on the changes
2. What are some of the limitations (problems) associated with the use of a reference
area and with the choice of Shipshape Inlet as this area?
Shipshape Inlet differs in sediment type from Tidal Bay, and although it may be the
least polluted area of those studied in the basin, it is hardly a pristine environment
unaltered by urbanization and industrialization. Furthermore, comparing a complex
biological response such as benthic macroinvertebrate Community change with a
reference site requires reducing the data to a single value(s), which results in a
substantial Toss of data.
3. Can you think of another approach that Would work? .
If Tidal Bay contained only one or possibly two specific wastes, the contaminant
concentrations and biological measures of their impact on the ecosystem could be r
compared with toxicity, and risk levels published in the literature or in government
, databases. It is not known, however, how complex chemical mixtures interact to
possibly increase or decrease the effects of individual chemicals. Further, the
exact combination of chemicals in Tidal Bay may be unique. So, under these
circumstances, the use of a reference area is probably the best choice.
4. What impact do you think the presence of multiple types of hazardous waste will
have on the ability of investigators to establish a cause-and-effect relationship
between specific chemicals and adverse biological changes in tidal Bay?
Ideally, characterization of ecological impacts from hazardous waste is supported
by definitive cause-and-effect relationships between specific chemicals and
biological endpoints. Almost no information is available for establishing cause and
effect for chemical mixtures, however, so they will not be able to.determine specific
85
-------
Activity 6
cause and effect relationships. In lieu of a standardized approach for assessing
ecological impacts of complex chemical mixtures, the Tidal Bay investigators
developed relative measures of effect based on the reference area.
5. Do you feel these measurements are relevant to this aquatic ecosystem?
A number of biological measures are used to quantify the pollution impact on Tidal
Bay. These include several toxicity tests, benthic community composition, and fish
histopathology. All of these measures can be justified on ecological grounds. For
example, amphipods are crustaceans that reside in Tidal Bay and are important
prey for higher trophic-level species like fish. Also, they are relatively sensitive to
1 toxic chemicals and are highly likely to be exposed to contaminants because they
burrow in and feed on sediment material.
Oysters also are considered useful indicators of ecological effects because they
are very sensitive to toxic chemicals. The oyster test is a standardized test of
developmental effects, which provides a broader view of adverse effects than
lethality tests alone.
Benthic macroinvertebrate species also are valuable indicators of toxicity because
they live in direct contact with sediments, are relatively stationary, and are
important components of aquatic food chains. Many fish and crab that live near
the sediment feed on benthic organisms and are exposed to contaminants through
the food chain.
n, .
Note: Although the investigators avoided limiting ecological components of
concern to commercially important species or to those selected for the sake of
political expediency, the ecological significance of the effects observed in the
bioassay tests is not explained in terms of the entire ecosystem of Tidal Bay.
6. Are these measurements likely to furnish the kind of data required to fulfill the
purpose of the assessment? If not, how would you change the approach?
The use of multiple chemical and biological tests (such as sediment chemistry,
sediment toxicity, benthic macroinvertebrate assemblages, tissue residues
resulting from bioaccumulation, and fish liver histopathology) provides a powerful
weight-of-evidence approach to identify pollution problems in an ecosystem. They
also provide the kind of data needed to define the extent of hazardous waste
contamination in estuarine sediments and the magnitude of damage to benthic
organisms and fish.
86
-------
Activity 6
7. s Investigators characterized degradation of benthic macroinvertebrate communities
in terms of a decrease in the abundance of total amphipods, molluscs,
. polychaetes, or total macrofauna. Many conditions can influence the overall
abundance of benthic macroinvertebraies, including an algae bloom that depletes
oxygen in the water. Did the investigators' report consider all factors that could .
have altered macroinvertebrate numbers?
While some species may decrease in abundance due to chemical pollutants, other,
more pollution-tolerant species are likely to increase. This makes changes in
abundance at a major taxon level or at the total macrofauna level an unreliable
, indicator of ecosystem health. Generally speaking, a chemical pollution problem is
the only condition that will render a waterway totally devoid of macroinvertebrates.
However, the investigators did not study the levels of macroinvertebrate species in
detail, possibly because of the extra costs involved. Precise and careful analyses
of macroinvertebrate samples is time consuming and expensive. Also, they did not
report looking at other possible causes for macroinvertebrate depletion.
8. Could apparent effects thresholds be determined for bioaccumulation and
histopathology in fish? Why do you suppose investigators did not do this?
Apparent effects thresholds could have been established for bioaccumulation an'd
histopathology in fish, but the purpose of the apparent effects thresholds was to
rank specific problem areas within the bay. The fish indicators reflect a wide area
of conditions. Also; there is a lot of uncertainty associated with how much
hazardous waste the fish have been exposed to in the water and food chain and
for how long. Thus, 'it is difficult to link the bioaccumulation and histopathology
data directly to chemical concentrationsinspecific'sediment samples.
9. What are some major strengths of the apparent effects thresholds and what are
some limitations?
-• . • • ' i ' .
The apparent effects thresholds method is a plausible approach for dealing wittv
problems created by contamination and uncertain cause-and-eff6ct relationships.
It uses empirical relationships to get around difficulties like bioavailability and
synergistic and antagonistic relationships among chemical mixtures. The approach
is limited for several reasons: it does hot describe cause-and-effect relationships, it.
is site-specific (specific to certain areas), does not take into account data on
bioavailability of chemicals in organ tissues, and lacks independent validation.
87
-------
CO
co
-------
Activity 6
STUDENT HANDOUT 1
Major Categories of Tests
lor Ecological Assessment
There are 4 major categories of tests scientists use to study the effects of pollution on
ecosystems: •
1. Chemical and Physical Tests provide information on the total concentration of.
specific chemical compounds in the ecosystem and information on pH,
temperature, moisture, and other measures. Samples of soil, sediment, or water
are collected and usually taken to a laboratory for testing using several standard
laboratory methods.
2. Toxicity Tests measure the number and severity of biological effects of .
contamination on the survival, growth, and reproduction of plants and animals.
Most toxicity tests are conducted in the laboratory using laboratory-raised species
or organisms collected in the field (from the ecosystem). Examples include:
• Acute test (number of animal deaths) using field-collected specimens or test
species such as earthworms or fathead minnows
• Chronic growth, tumon and functional tests of selected species (usually the
most sensitive species)
• Multigenerational reproduction and developmentaUests of .specific species
• Gene and chromosome tests
• Plant mutation tests such as stamen hair
• Photosynthesis rates (usually tested in field)
• Seed germination
• Root elongation
89
-------
Activity 6
STUDENT HANDOUT 1
3. Biomarkers of Exposure are sensitive indicators of a physiological, anatomical, or
biochemical response to pollution exposure such as abnormal blood changes.
They can be used as sensitive monitoring tools for detecting exposure. Individual
organisms usually are obtained from the ecosystem and their blood and body
tissues are examined. (Biomarkers are not considered adequate measures of
biological effects at the population, community, and total ecosystem levels of
organization.) Examples include:
• Bioaccumulation tests indicate the level of chemical pollution that has
gathered in an individual animal or plant and the availability of those
pollutants to vulnerable tissues inside the body.
• Blood enzyme levels are used to assess exposure to certain pesticides.
• Histopathologic tests using light microscopy, electron microscopy, and
chemistry involve examinations of specific tissues and organs like the liver
and kidney to detect chemical damage. (Histologic exams often are used in
long-term and chronic toxicity tests to confirm findings.)
4. Field Surveys involve observations in the ecosystem and tests on field-collected
samples. Field surveys require many sampling excursions to avoid over- or
underestimating. Examples include:
• Abundances of native species and numbers of individuals within those
species '
• Relative abundances of major taxa to determine community-level effects
• Number of individuals with offspring
• Estimates of total biomass (mass of tissue present in an individual,
population, or community at a given time) or biomass of certain communities
such as phytoplankton
• Guild structure (functional feeding groups such as collector-gatherers or
predators based on how organisms obtain their food) may change as a result
of exposure to contamination. This can alter levels of competition for
common resources.
90
-------
Activity 6
STUDENT HANDOUT 1
Case Study:
Tidal Bay Ecological Assessment
N. ' I , ' ' -_ ' ' • ' ' . : '
This case study is an example of how one scientific group attempted to document the
impact of a mixture of organic compounds and metals on an estuary, fictitiously named
Tidal Bay. Although there is no single best strategy or design for ecological
assessments that is appropriate for every ecosystem, the assessment techniques and
lessons learned in this case study have implications for measuring the impact of
pollutants in other ecosystems where water—fresh, tidal, or marine—is contaminated or
threatened.
Directions:
7, Critique this case study using the questions provided. You mgy not understand all
nf the detail provided: for example, vou probably will not be familiar with all the
.animal species and chemicals. This should not limit your ability to see the logic
': underlying the investigation and the strengths and weaknesses of the approach'.
In the process, you will discover a lot about environmental science.
2. Read through the entire case study first, and then in a sentence or two answer
each question.
Approach
, • ', - < ; .'.•'-• t
Purpose
This ecological assessment was conducted for the purpose of'defining the extent of
hazardous waste contamination in the tidal sediments (soil, stones, or other materials
deposited by tidal waters) of Tidal Bay and to measure the^ magnitude of existing
biological damage to benthic (bottom-dwelling) organisms and fish. It was not intended
to be a risk assessment since it did not investigate the future of the ecosystem.
Concept
Concerns about the potential ecological and human health effects of hazardous waste
in Tidal Bay focus on exposure of aquatic organisms to contaminated marine
sediments. The sediments support a variety of benthic organisms that can be directly
influenced by sediment contamination. Benthic macroinvertebrate species, such as
91
i
-------
Activity 6
STUDENT HANDOUT 2
shrimp, are valuable indicators of toxicity because they live in direct contact with
sediments, stay close to their homes, and are important parts of aquatic food chains.
Many fish and crabs that live in or near the sediment feed on benthic organisms and are
exposed to contaminants through the food chain. Therefore, if tests on these benthic
macroinvertebrates do not reveal negative effects caused by polluted tidal; sediments, it is
unlikely that other biological groups, such as fish or plankton, are affected by these ' •
pollutants. For example, if the shrimp that live in the sediment are tested and have
nothing wrong with them, the crabs and fish will probably be fine too, since they eat the
shrimp.
Description of Area
The study area is a bay formed by a river delta made up of seven minor waterways,
associated shorelines, and water at depths less than 60 feet below low tide. Tidal Bay is
in a heavily industrialized area at the south end of a large basin. Industrial and municipal
sources, such as a pulp mill, petroleum refineries, chemical manufacturers, aluminum
processors, and a shipbuilding and repair yard are located on filled-in tideflats. A
municipal sewage treatment plant discharges into the river upstream of the bay.
Selection of Reference Area
A reference area, Shipshape Inlet, was selected to compare against the contaminated
sites in Tidal Bay. Chemical and biological measures taken in Tidal Bay are compared to
this reference site. Shipshape Inlet was chosen because it is associated with the same
large basin that includes Tidal Bay and has some of the lowest levels of the contaminants
of concern in the basin. Also, an extensive amount of chemical and biological data are
already available on Shipshape Inlet. The range of sediment types in Shipshape Inlet,
however, does not include the fine-grained sediments characteristic of the Tidal Bay
waterways.
Chemical Pollutants
Routine chemical tests for about 150 chemicals were completed on over 190 samples of
surface and subsurface sediments collected from areas of the bay. Chemicals detected in
more than two-thirds of the surface sediments include phenol, 4-methylphenol, polycyclic
aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), 1,4-dichlorobenzene, polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs),
dibenzofuran, and metals.
The chemicals present in Tidal Bay at higher concentrations than those in Shipshape Inlet
are causing the greatest concern. Twelve chemicals or chemical groups were at
concentrations greater than 100 times and less than 1,000 times those in Shipshape Inlet.
Nine chemicals or chemical groups were at concentrations greater than 1,000 times those
in Shipshape Inlet.
92
-------
Activity 6
STUDENT HANDOUT 2
1. What are the benefits of comparing contaminant concentrations and
biological impacts in Tidal.Bay sediments with those of a reference area?
2. What are some of the limitations (problems) associated with the use of a
reference area and with the choice of Shipshape Inlet as this area?.
3. Can you think of another approach that would work?
4. What impact do you think the presence of multiple types of hazardous waste
will have on the ability of investigators to establish acause-and-effect
relationship between specific chemicals and adverse (negative) biological
changes in Tidal Bay?
Measurement
To assess the health and condition of the selected animals (benthic macroinvertebrates
and fish), several measurement endpoints were evaluated. These included:
1) toxicity tests using sediment species, population abundances, and
community indicators (species richness and community similarity)
2) biomarkers for tissue residues of contaminants and fish histopathology
(microscopic examinations of specific tissues and organs to detect chemical
injury) ,
3) chemical tests of contaminants in the sediments. j
The sediment toxicity tests were conducted in the laboratory using amphipods, oysters,
or bacteria, and field-collected sediment samples with known chemical concentrations.
Bioassays were repeated using the same sediment samples that were diluted to lesser
contaminant levels.
The amphipod toxicity test measures death rates in a crustacean that resides in Tidal
Bay arid is an important prey for higher species like fish. Amphipods are relatively
sensitive to toxic chemicals and are likely to be exposed to contaminants because they
burrow in and feed on sediment material.
Although oysters do not live in TidalBay, they reside in other areas of the basin, and
oyster embryos and larvae are very sensitive to toxic chemicals. The oyster toxicity test
measures the occurrence of developmental abnormalities in larvae (and embryos)
exposed to Tidal Bay sediments for 48 hours.
93
-------
- Activity 6
STUDENT HANDOUT 2
Abundances of benthic macroinvertebrates were determined from field-collected
samples. Community indicators involved counting species richness and the amount of
major taxa such as crustaceans and molluscs. Only decreases in abundances of major
taxa in Shipshape Inlet were used to identify and rank problem areas in the bay.
Bioaccumulation (contaminant concentrations in muscle tissue) of English sole (fish) and
Dungeness crab were measured as biomarkers of exposure. Because contaminants
were detected infrequently in the crab muscle tissue, only the English sole data were
used to identify and rank exposure levels. Histopathological tests were conducted on
the livers of English sole.
The magnitude of exposure was determined by the chemical concentrations of
contaminants in sediments. Because sediments represent a sink for pollution (that is,
pollutants tend to accumulate in sediments), organisms that live in it or on it are
continuously exposed.
A number of measurements were used to quantify contaminant impact on the
ecosystem. These include several bioassay species, benthic community
composition, bioaccumulation, and fish histopathology.
5. Do you feel these measurements are relevant to this aquatic ecosystem ?
6. Are these measurements likely to give the kind of data required to fulfill the
purpose of the assessment? If not, how would you change the approach ?
7. Investigators characterized degradation of benthic macroinvertebrate
communities in terms of a decrease in the abundance of total amphipods, ,
molluscs, polychaetes, or total macrofauna. However, many conditions can
influence the overall abundance of benthic macroinvertebrates including an
algae bloom that depletes oxygen in the water. Did the investigators consider
all factors that could have altered macroinvertebrate numbers?
Analysis
The analysis of the ecological effects and exposure data involved mainly statistical
comparisons of test results from Tidal Bay and the reference area. For example, Tidal
Bay sediments from 18 of 52 tested areas induced significant, acute lethality in
amphipods as compared with the reference area sediments. Significant elevations in
oyster larvae abnormalities occurred in sediments from 15 of 52 areas tested compared
with sediments from the reference area. Significant decreases in the abundance of total
taxa and the abundance of polychaetes, molluscs, and crustaceans occurred in 18 of 50
areas tested in Tidal Bay compared to the reference area.
94
-------
Activity 6
STUDENT HANDOUT 2
Concentrationsrof most metals in the muscle tissue of English sole-were Jess than 2
times the average reference concentrations, but concentrations of copper in the Tidal
Bay fish tissue were 3 to 9 times higher than average reference concentrations.
Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) were detected in all fish and crab sampled. Lead and
mercury were elevated in Dungeness crab with maximum concentrations about 5 times
the reference concentrations.
Histopathological analyses revealed the presence of liver abnormalities that were
significant in'terms of number in Tidal Bay compared to the reference area. The
incidence of liver lesions was greatest in fish from areas _with the highest concentrations
of sediment-associated contamination.
Characterizing and Ranking Problem Areas
The original data from the toxicity tests, abundances, and biomarkers were used to
evaluate the increases in contamination or negative effects to determine if these
changes were statistically significant. They were also used to evaluate quantitative
relationships among these variables. However, because single-chemical relationships
between exposure and effects could not be established (that is, a one-to-pne
relationship could not be proved), two methods were used to characterize and express
the ecological impacts:
1. Biological Indicators., Using both exposure (chemical concentration) and effects
data (from toxicity tests, macroinvertebrate abundances, and biomarkers),
investigators developed ratios between the effects in Tidal Bay and those found at
the reference site, Shipshape Inlet. The ratios, or biological indicators, were used
in describing the overall impact of contamination on the ecosystem.
2. Apparent Effects Thresholds. Because biological effects data were not available
for all portions of the study area, a method was developed to estimate thresholds
of chemical concentrations above which biological effects would be expected.
These are called apparent effects thresholds. Threshold concentrations of
contaminants were estimated using data generated from the amphipod mortality .
toxicity test, oyster larvae abnormality toxicity test, and macroinvertebrate
abundances. These measurements Were selected because of their sensitivity to
sediment contamination, availability of standard test protocols, and ecological
relevance. The apparent effects thresholds were compared with measured
concentrations of sediment contaminants. The apparent effects thresholds indicate
the potential for adverse ecological effects in Tidal Bay.
95
-------
Activity 6
STUDENT HANDOUT 2
8. Could apparent effects thresholds be determined for bioaccumulation and
histopathology in fish? Why do you suppose investigators did not do this?
9. What are some major strengths of the apparent effects thresholds and what
are some limitations?
10. Name one point you learned that you feel is most interesting.
96
-------
Activity 7
Identifying Risks at a
Superfund Site
Duration
Grade Level
Key Terms/
Concepts
-
Suggested
Subjects
2 class periods
7-12
Exposure
Hazard Ranking System
Hazardous substance.
Hazardous waste
National Priorities List
Preliminary assessment
Risk
Site inspection
Superfund
Chemistry
Earth Science
Geology
Physical Science
Purpose
This activity helps students understand the
types of risks found at Superfund sites and
how these risks are identified and assessed.
They learn how sites are discovered and
where to report potential hazardous waste
sites. They discuss the activities undertaken
by the government or other parties at
hazardous waste sites to identify sources of
contamination, determine the type and extent
of contamination, and evaluate.the risks
posed to human health and the environment.
Background
The Superfund Program in the United States was created as a response to widely
publicized contamination problems caused by hazardous waste. The Superfund law
specifies a process for reporting potentially contaminated hazardous waste sites to the
Federal government. The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and states
investigate hazardous waste sites to determine the seriousness of the contamination.
The most serious sites are cleaned up using Superfund authority. Some will be cleaned
-up by State governments, and some will require no cleanup because they pose no
danger to people or the environment. .
The.extent of the hazards of exposure posed by each site discovered are assessed.
Tied to the concept of exposure is the concept of risk. Risk is a measure of the
probability of suffering harm or loss. For example, risk is used to measure the
probability that a person will be exposed to a hazardous substance (like mercury) and
the chances that the exposure will harm the person's health. Environmental risk is a
measure of the probability that hazardous substances will harm the environment.
There are two types of risks associated with hazardous substance contamination.- The
risk of exposure is a measurement of the probability that being near a hazardous
substance will lead to exposure of a person or the environment. The risk of injury after
97
-------
Activity 7
exposure depends on the toxic or other harmful effect associated with the particular
contaminant.
For more information on risk identification, see the Suggested Reading list found at the
end of the Haz-Ed materials. Other Haz^Ed materials that are related to this topic
include Warm-Up 4: Risk Concepts and Fact Flash 9: Common Contaminants.
"i
Preparation
1. Gather the following materials:
• Copies for each student of: ,
Fact Flash 1: Hazardous Substances and Hazardous Waste
Fact Flash 2: The Superfund Cleanup Program
Fact Flash 3: Flowing Railroad Hazardous Waste Site
• Copies for each group of:
Student Handout, The Preliminary Assessment and Site Inspection for the
Flowing Railroad Site
2. Read the Fact Flashes to prepare your lecture. Also refer to Warm-Up 4 for
information on risk and probability in relation to Superfund sites.
3. Distribute Fact Flashes 1,2, and 3, and have students read them for homework.
4. - OPTION: As extra-credit homework, give several students library assignments to
look up one of the important concepts or contaminants included in Fact Flash 3.
For example:
• Superfund
• Asbestos ,
TCE
PCB
• Point Source
• Nonpoint Source.
Some information can be found in Fact Flash 9: Common Contaminants. Instruct
each student to be prepared to make a short report on his or her research at the
beginning of the next class on identifying risks.
If you do not assign these reports as extra credit homework, you may want to
gather some information yourself to present to your students at the first class.
98
-------
Activity 7
Procedure
Class #1
1. Have each student assigned extra-credit homework make his or her report to the
class, or present information on these topics yourself.
2. Allow students to ask questions and discuss the information to help prepare them
for Glass #2.
Class #2
1. Briefly review the main points from Fact Flashes 1,2 and 3. An Instructor Fact
Sheet, Information Highlights on the Flowing Railroad Site, is included at the endof
this lesson for your use.
2. Ask students how contaminants might spread from the hypothetical site. Possible
i answers include: .! '
• The wind can blow contaminant vapors \ ,
• The wind can blow small soil particles to which contaminants are attached
• Contaminants can be washed into the Flowing River by rainfall running off the
site .......
• Liquid contaminants can flow down through the soil to the groundwater
• Contaminants can be washed down through the soil to the groundwater by
rainfall ~ .
« Groundwater moving underground can spread contaminants in the aquifer
« Contaminated groundwater can move into the Flowing River
• Surface water sediments can be washed downstream, particularly during ;
floods, = '••'.
3; Ask students how animals or plants might be expqsed to contaminants from the
site. Possible answers include:
• The wind can blow contaminants to tree leaves, grasses, or crops
• Animals can eat contaminated plants
• Fish and aquatic plants can be exposed to contaminants washed into the
Flowing River /
• Farmland crops could be exposed to contaminants through irrigation from the
Flowing River.
99
-------
Activity 7
4.
5.
7.
8.
Ask students how people in Ruralville and Utopia might be exposed to
contaminants from the site. Possible answers include:
Eating contaminated crops
Eating contaminated fish from the Flowing River
Utopia residents drinking contaminated water from their municipal wells
Ruralville residents drinking contaminated water from the Flowing River
Children playing on the site
Fishermen crossing the site to get to the Flowing River
Ruralville residents breathing contaminated air blown off the site
Ruralville and Utopia residents taking showers with contaminated water.
Ask students to name some factors that are important to consider in determining
the risk of exposure to site contamination. Possible answers include:
• Amount (volume) of contamination originally released at the site
• Concentration of the released contaminants
Degree of dispersion (dilution) of the contaminants (more dispersion equals
less risk)
• Frequency of contact with contaminated water, soil, plants, and animals
• Amount of physical, chemical, and biological transformation of the
contaminants into a harmless state (degradation, containment).
Distribute the following Student Handout, The Preliminary Assessment and Site
Inspection for the Flowing Railroad Site. Divide the class into groups of 5 or 6 and
instruct each team to choose a spokesperson.
Have each group discuss and answer the questions listed on the handout. After'
about 10 minutes, have the class reassemble and have the spokesperson for each
team present the team's responses.
Record the responses and discuss any differences between the groups. Why does
EPA focus on these questions when investigating potential hazardous waste
contamination? Does the class believe direct contact is more serious than food
chain contamination? Is human health protection more critical than protection of
sensitive environments?
Extension (Optional)
Consider inviting an EPA or State Remedial Project Manager (RPM) involved in
overseeing hazardous waste cleanup projects at a site in your state to discuss how
risks at that site were identified and assessed. Also ask the speaker to discuss the
steps taken to put the site on the NPL or other priority list.
100
-------
Activity 7
Instructor Fact Sheet — Information Highlights on the
Flowing Railroad Site
FRR Enterprises is the parent company that owns Flow Automations (currently
operating) and the Flowing Railroad (no longer operating).
The Flowing Railroad site is an inactive train yard where locomotives were repaired and
maintained.
The Flowing River borders the site to the east. It supplies fish that nearby families eat
3 to 4 times a week and feeds the aquifer that supplies drinking water and irrigation to
homes, businesses, and farms (municipal wells and the irrigation intake are 3 miles
downstream from the site).
8,000 people live within 1 mile of the site and 1,400 people live within 1/4 mile.
Contaminants identified by EPA sampling include:
• Lead, zinc, and copper wastes, which result from building locomotive cars;
• PCBs, which can be released if electric power transformers are punctured; and
• TCE, a volatile organic compound, probably used to degrease and clean
locomotive parts. .
The potential for contamination of the Flowing River and other surface water and
groundwater (e.g., the aquifer) could be increased by rain and melting snow washing
through contaminated areas. ... '.
Samples from a shallow well drilled at the site contained lead and a high concentration
of TCE, but the actual extent of the contamination is unknown. The soils in a few areas
of the site have been contaminated; full tests of the soil have not been conducted,
".'••. ?
Community concerns include:
• Potential release of asbestos, which could contaminate the air
• peculiar, noxious odor from drinking water faucets in Ruralville
'" • ' . Possible health impacts for people who regularly eat potentially contaminated fish
Potential impacts on the health of people who breathe in TCE fumes
Reported increase in the number of cancer cases in the surrounding areas
• Potential environmental and economic impacts on soil and crops contaminated by '
irrigation water
• Future use of the site property ,
• Potential economic impacts on Ruralville if FRR Enterprises had to lay off workers
or close Flow Automations if the company cannot afford the cleanup costs.
101
-------
102
-------
Activity 7
STUDENT HANDOUT,
The Preliminary Assessment and Site
Inspection for the Flowing Railroad Site
Discuss within your group the following questions about the Flowing Railroad site. The
only information you have about the site is contained in the fact sheet you just read.
Your group should answer these questions (space js provided after each question) and
select a spokesperson to present your answers.
1. What are your biggest concerns regarding the site and why?
- Health concerns (e.g., cancer, neurological disorders) from drinking polluted
water, food chain contamination, or breathing air contaminated by the site?
Environmental resource concerns, including fish in the Flowing River?
. -. i
2. What are the ways in which the contamination can spread?
(These are commonly referred to as "routes of migration.")
Melting snow?
- Rain? ,
' - Humans trespassing on the site?
Fish? '.'-.-•.•'.
Wind? .-.'••
Are there other ways?
103
-------
Activity,?
STUDENT HANDOUT
3. How would you rank the threats to human health and the environment from this
site? Choose from the list of threats below, or come up with your own. What is
the rationale for your ranking of the threats?
Groundwater, the source of drinking water for the neighboring Town of
Ruralville and the nearby City of Utopia?
Flowing River, which serves as a source for irrigation and municipal wells,
in addition to recreational and subsistence fishing?
Soil?
Air and wind?
4. What actions could be taken now?
Put up a fence?
Provide drinking water?
Are there others?
104
-------
Activity 8
Hazardous Waste
Cleanup Methods
Duration
.Grade Level
Key Terms/
Concepts
Suggested
Subjects
1 class period
9-12
Cleanup method
Treatment technologies
Biology
Chemistry
Civics/Government
Life Science
PhysicalScience
Physics
Purpose
This activity helps students understand some
of the reasoning and science involved in
choosing technologies for cleaning up
hazardous waste sites. The students analyze
the pros and cons of using various
technologies for cleaning up specific
hazardous waste problems, weighing factors
such as contaminant-specific requirements,
technological limitations, reliability, cleanup
time, and cost.
Background
The Superfund Program was established by Congress in 1980 in response to growing
public concern over the health and environmental risks posed by hazardous waste sites
and other uncontrolled toxic hazards. The law is formally called the Comprehensive
Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act (CERCLA). The U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) administers the Superfund Program in
cooperation with individual states and Trjbal governments. EPA is responsible for
responding to chemical emergencies and investigating and cleaning up uncontrolled or
abandoned hazardous waste sites throughout the United States.
In the Superfund Program, EPA uses a variety of processes and technologies, alone or
in combination with each other, to clean up hazardous waste sites. Some processes are
designed to physically remove the contaminated material from the site or confine
contaminated materials to a specific area. Other processes and technologies are
designed to treat the contaminated material—to destroy or permanently change their
chemical structure; to extract or separate them from the soil, sludge, sediments, or the
water they are contaminating; or to immobilize them and keep then) from moving or
spreading beyond the site.
105
-------
Activity 8
The responsibility for selecting the most appropriate cleanup method for a specific site
rests with the EPA Remedial Project Manager (RPM) or On-Scene Coordinator (OSC),
with input from the affected community. An important step in this selection process is
narrowing the field of alternatives and developing a list of options that make sense for
dealing with the contamination at the site.
The RPM or "OSC has to examine the range of available technologies and processes
and find the ones that offer the best potential for reaching the cleanup goals that have
been set for the site. This involves weighing several factors—whether a technology is
capable of effectively treating the contaminants present at the site, how long it will take
to clean up the contamination using the technology or process, how much it will cost,
how complicated or difficult it is to use, and if it is safe for both the workers at the site
and the surrounding community.
Many processes and treatment technologies are available for use at hazardous waste
sites, and new technologies are constantly being developed. The state-of-the-art is
changing continuously. For convenience, this activity is based on current information
about the most commonly used technologies at Superfund sites.
For additional information on the topics covered in this activity, see the Suggested
Reading list found at the end of the Haz-Ed materials.
Preparation
1. Gather the following materials:
• Copies for each student of ,
Fact Flash 3: Flowing Railroad Hazardous Waste Site
Fact Flash 4: Flowing Railroad Site Investigation Results
Fact Flash 8: Common Cleanup Methods
Fact Flash 9: Common Contaminants.
2, Read the 4 Fact Flashes to prepare your lecture.
3. Distribute Fact Flashes 3,4 and 9. Have students read Fact Flashes 3 and 4 for
homework. They can get more information about the contaminants at the site in
Fact Flash 9.
106
-------
Activity 8
Procedure
f ' .: . - • ' *. • " .' - -
1. Review the information in Fact Flashed 3 and 4 with the class.
2. Ask students to identify the contamination problems at the site. (Answers should
include TCE, metals,, PCBs, asbestos in the soil, and lead and TCE in ,' ,
groundwater.) *
" . • , ' , ' . -.•-•"'*•*.':
3. Divide the class into teams. Have each team discuss the options below and
decide how the site should be used in the future:
A. Should the site become a park, residential area, school, or playground?
. B. Should the site remain a restricted area for limited industrial use only? ;
G. Should the site be zoned for a landfill or for hazardous waste storage since it
already has been polluted?
4. Have each team record their decision on a sheet of paper.
5. Distribute copies of Fact Flash 8: Common Cleanup Methods. Have teams
choose the one or two cleanup methods (from those listed in the Fact Flash) that
would be most effective in protecting human health and the environment now and
that make sense in light of their decision about the site's future use. ;
6. Instruct teams to discuss and record on a, sheet of paper the reasons for their
selections. ; . ,
7. Reassemble the class and have students discuss and compare the various teams'
selections. - ,
107
-------
108
-------
Activity 9
S - '
Making Decisions
About Hazardous
Wasfe
Duration
Grade Level
Key Terms/
Concepts
Suggested
Subjects
.
31/4 class periods
9-12 ,
Cleanup
Hazardous waste
Potentially Responsible
Party
Superfund ,
Health
Life Science
Physical Science
Social Studies
Drama
Civics/Government
Purpose
This activity lets students assume roles and act
out a situation that illustrates the process of
decision making related to cleaning up a
Superfund site. Students identify the participants
in the Superfund decision making process, make
judgments about the potential effect of site
cleanup.on the characters they portray, and learn
that different people have different perspectives
on the same cleanup issues. In addition, they
practice writing statements, formulating
questions, and articulating their views in a public
meeting setting.
Background
Whether we are children or adults, our lives are influenced by a constant series of
choices. Some choices we make for ourselves. Some are made by parents for their
children, and many are made by people we don't even know, the combination of all
these choices determines the quality of each of our lives. Making these choices is not
easy because sometimes what one person perceives as the right choice for him or her
as an individual may be perceived as the wrong choice for the neighborhood,
community, or country. -
For example, people living near an abandoned hazardous waste site may want the site
cleaned up as fast as possible, no matter what the cost, because they fear for their own,
as wejl as their children's, safety. On the other hand, people employed by a company
that caused the contamination at the site (a Potentially Responsible Party) or the local
government may favor alternatives that, while effective, take longer and cost less. They
are concerned about the impact on jobs and the local economy if the government
requires the company to pay too much for the cleanup.
:109.
-------
Activity 9
The process of making decisions about Superfund site cleanup involves weighing and
balancing a variety of technical and nontechnical factors, including the sometimes
competing interests in the community. This activity provides a lesson about Federal
policy-making that extends well beyond the Superfund Program.
To help prepare your students for this activity, use Warm-Up 5: Hazardous Waste Issues
In the News. You may perform the entire Warm-Up or simply review the main points
covered in it. As a follow-up, have your students perform Activity 11: What the
Community Can Do. '
For additional information on these topics, see the Suggested Reading list found at the
end of the Haz-Ed materials. Other Haz-Ed materials that are related to this topic
include Fact Flash 8: Common Cleanup Methods and Fact Flash 10: Superfund
Community Involvement Program.
Preparation
1. Gather the following materials: .
• Copies for each student of Student Handout, Analysis of Alternatives for
Cleaning Up Flowing Railroad Site .
• The Character Background Sheets included at the end of this lesson
• Copies for each student of :
Fact Flash 2: The Superfund Cleanup Program
Fact Flash 4: Flowing Railroad Site Investigation Results.
Procedure
Class #1
1 . Explain to students that in two successive follow-up sessions the class will act out
a situation that illustrates the sometimes difficult process of making decisions about
Superfund site cleanup. For this role-playing exercise, students will assume they
live in the hypothetical area of the Flowing Railroad Superfund site. They will
participate in a community meeting held to discuss and air community views about
the site cleanup options under consideration.
2. Divide the class into nine teams. Explain that each team will represent one of the
"players" in this drama: the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency's (EPA)
Remedial Project Manager (RPM), EPA's Community Involvement Coordinator
(CIC), a local Health Department official, the Mayor of Ruralville, the attorney for ...
110
-------
Ac«wty 9
FRR Enterprises, a local environmental activist, a person employed at Flow
Automations, Inc., a local farmer, and a local carpenter. . '
NOTE: If you live in a community near a real Superfund site, you may choose to
prepare Student Handouts using information about that site so the role-play will be
more realistic for your students. Call the Community Involvement Coordinator in
your state. Phone numbers are provided at the end of the Haz-Ed,materials.
3,'- Assign a role to each team and explain that later each team will have to choose 1
team member to be the actor when the first part of the drama is played out at the
next class. Team members should prepare a written statement for their character
to deliver, as well as a list of questions the character may want to ask at the
meeting. ',..- .' -. •
4. Distribute the Student Handout, Analysis of Alternatives for Cleaning Up Flowing ,
River Site. Give each team the Character Background Sheet that is appropriate for
its assigned role. NOTE: If you live in a community near a Superfund site, you may
choose to adjust the roles and the background information for each to approximate
the makeup and situation in your community.
5. Distribute Fact Flashes 2 and 4. Explain to students that these Fact Flashes can
be used as background information.
6. Explain that the information on these handouts can be used to develop their
character's beliefs, attitudes, and point of view about the cleanup. Stress that this
should go beyond what the character knows or has heard and should include
identifying questions the character wants to ask about the cleanup. Encourage
students to talk to their parents, local city or town government officials, business
owners, and others to help develop their perspectives. Also remind students that
some of their characters—EPA's RPM and CIC, the Mayor, and the official from the
local Health Department, and possibly others—would probably consult with each
other in real life to prepare for the meeting. Encourage teams responsible for
these characters to do so.
7. Specify a specific date for the next class, allowing several days for preparation.
Class#2
1., For the role-play activity, have the students representing the Mayor and the CIC
arrange desks ;or a table at the front of the room with,chairs to accommodated
people, the Mayor, EPA's CIC, RPM, and the moderator/facilitator. Place a lectern,
de.sk, or small table somewhere else in the room from which the other characters
will make their statements.
111
-------
Activity 9
NOTE: You may wish to assume the role of moderator/facilitator yourself or you
can select a student to do so. The moderator/facilitator's only responsibilities are
to maintain order, see that everyone has an opportunity to speak, direct questions
to the appropriate person to answer, and see that people speak in turn rather than
all at once.
At the conclusion of the meeting, explain to the students that the teams playing
EPA's RPM and CIC will get together and consider the information presented in this
meeting, make a decision, and present a Proposed Cleanup Plan at the next class
(specify the date, allowing sufficient time for the RPM team to meet and prepare a
plan). Students from the other teams will have an opportunity to discuss the
decision among themselves and comment on it.
Have the Mayor speak first to welcome people to the meeting, then EPA's CIC.
After that, have others (the assigned characters) raise their hands to be recognized
as they would in a real meeting and call on them in turn. After all participants have
made their initial statements, the various characters may be recognized to ask
follow-up questions or make additional observations as often as time permits.
Class #3
1. Have the spokesperson for the RPM team present the team's Proposed Cleanup
Plan, including the rationale for choosing the selected remedy. Allow no more than
10 minutes for this presentation.
2. Give students about 10 minutes to discuss the decision with their team members.
Offer the teams an opportunity to comment on the decision. Is the decision clear?
Do they agree with it? Why or why not? Do they understand the RPM team's
rationale in making the decision?
3. After teams have made comments from the perspective of their characters, invite
the class as a whole to discuss the role-play and the decisionmaking process
illustrated. What were the various points of view expressed in the meeting? Which
were similar? Which were different (competing)? Which would you have expected
to carry more weight? Why? Did those points of view appear to influence the final
decision? How do you think the decision will affect the quality of life in the
community? Now that the decision has been made, do you think all the characters
in this drama will accept it? Why or why not? What options do they have if they do
not accept it? (NOTE: An Instructor Fact Sheet, Highlights about Roles, is included
in this lesson to help you ensure that the perspectives of all characters in the role-
play are covered during the discussion.)
112
-------
AciiviigQ,'..
Extension (Optional)
Have students bring in examples throughout the year, from newspaper or local
television news, of real Superfund cleanup or hazardous, waste prevention
decisions made by your local government or a major local business. Set aside
time periodically to discuss the choices involved in these decisions and their impact
on the quality of life in the community. Warm-Up 5: Hazardous Waste Issues in ,
the News contains sample articles of the type students may find.
Instructor Fact Sheet— Highlights about Roles
NOTE: You may need to begin the discussion by identifying1ot"2 of the actors'
perspectives; try to make sure that perspectives of all the characters are covered during
ttiis discussion, encouraging the participants to identify as many as possible. You may
want to write students' responses on the blackboard, or on a flip chart if you have one, to
illustrate the range of perspectives presented and reinforce the idea that the _
decisionmaking process involves weighing and balancing many different, and sometimes
competing, points of view. .. '
• The RPM wants to learn more about the citizens' concerns so s/he knows what
they are and how they can be addressed by the cleanup of the site and reflected in
various written reports and other methods (e.g., fact sheets).
' - • ' '
• The CIC also wants to learn more about the community's concerns, so s/he can
begin identifying the kinds of information the community is seeking and ways it can
be provided to them.
• The local health official wants more information about potential health hazards
the community will be exposed to; the health official also sees this as an
opportunity to increase his/her standing in the community.
• The .Mayor of Ruralville has multiple perspectives. The mayor is concerned about
the health and safety of the citizens and wants answers to questions. The mayor is
also concerned about Ruralville's economic growth; its ability to attract future
business; the danger of losing a major employer if FRR Enterprises goes bankrupt
as a result of paying for cleaning up the site; and his/ her own reelection.
• The attorney for FRR Enterprises wants to protect his/her client's interests. If FRR
Enterprises is being damaged financially due to incorrect or overly cautious
studies, or is being asked to conduct site activities that go beyond reasonable
measures for cleaning up the site, the attorney wants to know this so s/he can take
action on behalf of the company.
113
-------
Activity 9
The local environmental activist is genuinely concerned about improving the
environment and asks some very informed and appropriate questions in search for
more information.
The plant worker is worried about job security, as well as his/her family's health
and safety.
The farmer depends on the water from the Flowing River to irrigate the farm. The
publicity surrounding this situation has already caused customers to be alarmed.
The farmer wants to know exactly how serious this situation really is and how s/he
can protect his/her farmland and economic future.
The carpenter is concerned that the needs of poor people in the community won't
be considered as decisions about the site are being made.
114
-------
Analysis of Alternatives for Cleining Up Flowing River Site
i >
!.£
Alternative
Brief Description
Advantages
Disadvantages
CO
#1
Provide Security
This alternative is used as a baseline
against which to compare other
alternatives. It allows for continuous
monitoring of site conditions; action can
be taken if conditions change. It includes
fencing the contaminated area and
erecting signs to indicate potential health
hazards. ' • ,
Because no threat to drinking water
exists (the deep aquifer is not
connected to the shallow aquifer),
funds for this, site may be used for
more hazardous sites.
The fence prevents direct contact
with contamination.
It does not address the contamination.
Contaminated water may continue to
move toward the Flowing River.
Asbestos particles may be released
during windy weather.if erosion
continues to occur.
The site is not available for future use.
z
o
#2
Only
Cap
This alternative places layers of
waterproof material like clay and. plastic
over the contamination. It reduces the
amount of water reaching the
contamination, and the contamination is,
slowed from moving and reaching water
sources.
, A short period of construction is
required, so the site is addressed
quickly.
This technology is inexpensive,
reliable, and commonly used. It will
last with'proper maintenance.
The cap will reduce the rate at which
the contamination in the shallow
aquifer will move toward the Flowing
River.
The cap does not neutralize or
eliminate contamination.
The cap requires maintenance and
monitoring and is not always 100%
effective.
It limits the site's reuse; in order to
maintain the cap, nothing can be
built on top of it. '.
#3
Cap,
Air Stripping,
Chemical
Precipitation
This alternative uses a cap to address soil
contamination, as described in Alternative
#2. - ; -'.-••'
Air stripping and chemical precipitation of
contaminated water requires building a
large tower on the site and drilling wells
into the aquifer. Contaminated water is
pumped to the top of the tower where the
volatile pollutants can evaporate and form
a gas. The gas is then filtered through a
layer of carbon to remove the
contaminants.
After air stripping, the water is treated by
chemical precipitation to remove the
heavy metals. Chemicals are added to
the water to create a sludge. The.water is
.filtered from the sludge, treated, and
pumped back into the environment. The
.sludge is sent off site to a licensed
disposal facility.
The cap addresses the asbestos.
See. discussion of capping
advantages in Alternative #2.
This technology effectively removes
most of the contamination from the
shallow aquifer over 2-10 years.
Most of the contamination is
addressed through treatment,
without having to move it from the
site.
An .air stripper is relatively easy to
operate and is not technically
complex.
Metals and PCBs are captured in the
sludge, A licensed off-site facility
can contain the sludge through
extensive controls.
See the discussion of capping
disadvantages in Alternative #2.
The air stripping tower needs to be
monitored carefully to ensure that
any contamination released into the
air meets State standards.
Air stripping is 90% efficient and the
tower needs to be monitored to
prevent releases of contaminants.
Contaminated sludge needs to be
disposed of properly offsite.
-------
Alternative
Analysis of Alternatives for Cleaning Up Flowing River Site (con't.)
Disadvantages
#4
Incineration,
Air Stripping,
and Chemical
Precipitation
Brief Description
This alternative involves digging up and
burning contaminated soils at high
temperatures in an on-site incinerator.
The incinerator destroys TCE and PCB
contamination. The remaining ash
containing heavy metals is shipped off site
to a landfill.
As described in Alternative #3, air
stripping and chemical precipitation of
contaminated water require building a
large tower on the site and digging wells
into the aquifer. Contaminated water is
pumped to the top of the tower where
some of the pollutants can form a gas that
may be filtered through carbon. Heavy
metals are removed from the water by
chemical precipitation.
Advantages
^••^•••••••••^••••••i
The site is "clean" and available for
reuse.
The incinerator destroys at least
99.9999% of the organic (burnable)
contaminants in the soil.
An air stripper is relatively easy to
operate.
Stringent permits are required to
operate an incinerator. Hazardous
emissions from incinerators have
been associated with health risks, so
careful monitoring is required.
Public resistance to incineration often
occurs. Treatment residuals from the
incinerator must be managed and
disposed of.
Air stripping is 90% efficient. The air
stripping tower needs to be monitored
carefully to ensure that any
contamination released into the afr
meets State standards.
Asbestos is not addressed.
£5 This alternative requires digging up a
large volume of the contaminated soil and
Complete shipping it to an off-site hazardous waste
Excavation facililv
Groundwater contamination is treated on
site with air stripping and chemical
precipitation, as described in Alternative
#3.
This technology removes
contaminated soil completely in a
short period of time and requires no
future maintenance.
An air stripper is relatively easy to
operate and is not technically
complex.
The site is safe for future use. <.
Trucks that carry contaminated soil
(and those that deliver clean
backfill) drive through town. A risk
that something could go wrong
during the removal and export of
soil exists, which could result in
public exposure to the
contaminants through the air.
Concerns may be raised over odor
caused by excavation and
transporting contaminated soil.
Contamination is not addressed or
treated on-site, but is passed
elsewhere.
Dust from excavation activities must
be controlled.
Roads may need to be repaired.
o
m
x
-------
Activity 9
STUDENT HANDOUT 2
Character Background Qheef
EPA Remedial Project Manager (RPM) |
You are the RPM assigned to the Flowing Railroad site. Your job is to direct the
response effort and coordinate allcleanup activities at the site. You are responsible for
coordinating not only with EPA Regional and Headquarters staff^ but also with other,
Federal, state, and localagencies.
/ • • • ' -
Although you live and work in the city where the EPA Regional Office is located, many of
the sites for which you have been responsible were in small towns and rural areas like
this one, so you can empathize with the concerns of the citizens of Ruralville. Your
purpose at the community meeting is to tell people about the investigation of the
problems at the site and the sort of cleanup options you are weighing as a result. In
addition, you want to give them the opportunity to ask any questions and express any
concerns the,y have about the cleanup in general or about specific cleanup options.
When the meeting is over, you will have to make a final decision about how to
recommend that the site be cleaned up, balancing the data from your investigation and
the other information at your disposal with what you hear in the meeting about what the
community thinks. This is not an easy decision to make, because there are a lot of
needs and interests you must try to satisfy—the requirements in the law, the needs of
the people who live in the community, the wishes of those who run businesses in the
community, the interests of FRR Enterprises which is a major employer in the
community, etc. . ,
You are responsible for choosing a cleanup optjori that;
1. protects human health and the environment
2. complies with existing Federal and state laws and requirements
Your choice also must:
1. be effective in the short-term, as well as over the long-term
2. reduce the toxicity, mobility, or volume of the contaminants .
3. be realistic
4. be reasonably cost-effective
5. be acceptable to the community
You will prepare a Proposed Cleanup Plan describing your decision and discussing why
you chose to proceed in this way^ You will have to present that plan to the same group
of people from the community and hear their reactions.
117
-------
Activity 9
STUDENT HANDOUT 2
Character Background Qheet
EPA Community Involvement Coordinator (CIC) I
You are the CIC assigned to the Flowing Railroad site. Your job is to manage all EPA's
community involvement activities to provide an opportunity for public participation in the
Superfund process. •
You grew up in Ruralville but left to go to college. Now you live in the city where EPA's
Regional Office is located. You still know a lot of people in Ruraiville, and you are eager
to help them understand what's involved in cleaning up the site and how the cleanup
will—and will not—affect their lives.
Your purpose at the community meeting is to help explain the cleanup options being
considered, answer citizens' questions, and listen to community concerns. You have
already met most of the people at the meeting because your overall responsibility has
been to ensure that the community knows what to expect and how to participate in
Superfund decisionmaking. You have been sharing information about the SUperfund
pro'cess with the community and obtaining information from them since EPA's activities
at the site began. You've visited with individuals, families, and business owners in the
community, written fact sheets about various stages in the process, gathered and
distributed information about the site itself and the data EPA collected during its
investigation of the site. When the meeting is over and the RPM has made a final
decision about how to clean up the site, you will prepare a fact sheet that summarizes
the decision and help the RPM respond to comments from the community about the
selected cleanup strategy.
You lead the meeting for EPA.
118
-------
STUDENT HANDOUT 2
Character Background Qheef
Local Health Official
You are a Health Advisor for the Ruralville Health Department. Although you have more
than 10 years of experience in the health field, this is the first time you have encountered
a situation involving a hazardous waste site.
Your purpose at the community meeting is to learn as much as possible about any ,
potential health effects that could result, now or in the future, from contamination at the
site arid from efforts to clean it up. You need this information to be able to accurately
advise townspeople of any health-related dangers and how to avoid them.
119
-------
Activity 9
STUDENT HANDOUT 2
Character Background Qheef
Mayor of Ruralville I
You have been Mayor of Ruralville for six years. Your job is to protect the health and
welfare of the community and its citizens and to make sure the interests of the
community are considered as Superfund decisions are made.
You are a well-respected member of the community. Most of the townspeople believe
you have done good things for Ruralville. Your purpose at the meeting is to demonstrate
the leadership residents expect from their Mayor and to ensure the continuing economic
well-being of the community, as well as the safety of its citizens.
You support town growth and have helped several small businesses get established in
the community. Some people credit you with being instrumental in Flowing Railroad's
decision to open its Flow Automations factory in Ruralville. The factory employs many of
the people who work in Ruralville. In fact, some of them originally worked for the
Flowing Railroad and were retrained so they could work at the new factory.
Your family is very important to you. You are especially close to your oldest child who
happens to be married to the president of Flow Automations.
You lead the meeting.
120
-------
Activity 9
STUDENT'HANDOUT 2' •
Character Background Qheet
Attorney for FRR Enterprises
You are the general counsel for FRR Enterprises which owns the Flowing Railroad
Company site and Flow Automations. Your purpose at the meeting is to protect the
company's interests. You want to make sure the government and individual residents
realize how the cleanup decisions in this case will affect the company and, in turn, the
town's tax revenue and all the townspeople employed by the company. •
You are concerned because FRR Enterprises already has spent more than $1 million on
studies required to determine the extent of contamination at the site, and more bills are
on the way. FRR Enterprises also will have to bear much of the cost of any cleanup
remedy selected. You want people to understand that the contamination at the site
resulted from activities that were legal at the time. You intend to argue that to make the
company bear the financial burden for that is unfair, because the company did not do
anything wrong. Besides, the Flowing Railroad was not the only business operated on
the site, and if FRR Enterprises has to pay, even though they did nothing wrong, so
should all the other businesses who operated on the site. FRR should not be penalized
just because it is still around.
Although FRR Enterprises is financially stable now, company officials—your bosses—
are concerned about the long-term impact of the cleanup since it is hard to predict what
the total cost will be.
121
-------
Activity 9
STUDENT HANDOUT 2
Character Background Qheet
Local Environmental Activist
You are a resident of Ruralville and the founder of the local chapter of Everlasting Earth.
Everlasting Earth is a national advocacy organization dedicated to preventing pollution
and fighting threats to public health and the environment. You are passionate in your
belief that polluters should pay to clean up the problems they create.
Your purpose at the meeting is to make sure that no one lets FRR Enterprises off the
hook. You believe they have damaged the environment and, as a result, the health of
community residents could be in danger. You were one of the first people to learn (from
your friend at the bank) about the environmental audit of the Flowing Railroad site. As
soon as you heard the consulting firm's findings, you began lobbying to get the town to
demand the site be cleaned up; you want the most stringent cleanup standards applied
in this case.
You do not believe the town should be concerned with how much the cleanup might cost;
FRR Enterprises must be made to pay, no matter what the cost. You also do not believe
there is any danger that FRR Enterprises could go bankrupt or that Flow Automations
could go out of business as a result of paying for the cleanup. You think the company is
just trying to scare people.
122
-------
Activity 9
STUDENT HANDOUT 2
fcharacter Background Sheet
Worker at the Flow Automations Factory |
You are employed as an assembler at the Flow Automations factory. Prior to this job,
you worked for the Flowing Railroad.
Your purpose at the meeting is to learn as much as you can about the problems at the
site and the cleanup being proposed. You feel like you are being asked to choose a
"side" ort this issue but you are confused. You have a number of concerns about the
situation but no one answer seems to satisfy them.
You are a single parent with three young children. On the one hand, you heed your job
at Flow Automations; you have no other source of income. Besides that, Flowing
Railroad was good to you; the company got you the job at Flow Automations and paid for
the training you needed to do it. On the other hand, you and your children live near the
site and you have the children's health and well-being to consider.
123
-------
Activity 9
STUDENT HANDOUT 2
Character Background 9heef
Owner of a Farm near the Flowing River
You own 75 acres of farmland, some of which borders the Flowing River. The farm has
been in your family for generations.
Your purpose at the meeting is to get some straight answers about the contamination
from the site and how far it has spread. You want to know if it is affecting your crops and
what can be done to stop it. You grow several crops and sell them to supermarkets in
Ruralville and in several towns throughout the state. You depend on sales to stay in
business and to pay your employees.
Your farm has had a number of hardships over the years. First, you lost many of your
crops to a severe drought 2 years ago. Then, an electrical storm last June started a fire
that burned several acres before it could be stopped. These things have cost you a lot
of money. Now, some of your customers are asking you if your crops are contaminated
because of what's happened at the Flowing Railroad site.
You feel like your farm's reputation and your whole future is at stake. You intend to let
the Mayor and the people from the government know that and demand that they do
whatever is necessary to solve the problem.
124
-------
Activity9
STUDENT HANDOUT 2
Character Background Sheet
Local Carpenter
You, your spouse, and your 4 children have lived in a rented cottage on the banks of the
Flowing River for about a year. The Long Shot Cafe, where your spouse worked as a
bartender, closed several months ago. Your spouse has not been able to find another
job, so you have been the sole supporter, for the family.
You earn money by doing odd jobs around town, but there haven't been many lately.
You've had to depend on fishing in the river to feed your family; 3 of 4 main meals a
week over the last few months have come from the river.
You have become increasingly frightened and angry over the last few weeks as you
have heard more and more rumors about possible contamination of the river. You are
convinced that, because you and your family are poor, your welfare will not be
considered as the government makes decisions about how to deal with the Flowing
Railroad site.
Your purpose at the meeting is to make them listen to your concerns.
125
-------
126
-------
Activity 10
Pollution Prevention
Duration
Grade Level
Key Terms/
Concepts
Suggested
Subjects
2 class periods
7-12
Corrosive
Hazardous waste
Ignitable ,
Pollution prevention
Reactive
Solid waste
Toxic '
.Chemistry
Civics/Government
Mathematics
Physical Science
Social Studies
Purpose
This activity helps students
understand what can be done to reduce
the amount of solid and hazardous wastes that
must be disposed of. Students review the
characteristics of hazardous waste and develop an
estimate of the amount of household hazardous
waste in their community. .
Background
reducing the release of pollutants
releases of hazardous chemicals,
wastes we produce. This activity
hazardous wastes.
Pollution prevention is any effort to reduce or
eliminate pollution and wastes. Efforts can include
to the air, reducing runoff into streams, preventing
and decreasing the volume of solid and hazardous .
focuses on preventing pollution by reducing solid and
Hazardous waste is defined as any material that presents a threat or unreasonable risk of
injury to people or the environment when it is produced, transported, used, or disposed
of. Hazardous waste is categorized into four groups based on its characteristics:
By far the most hazardous waste is produced by industries and manufacturing. We also
produce some hazardous waste in pur homes when we do not properly dispose Of items
like worn-out batteries, paint products, cleaning agents, used motor oil, pesticides, and
fertilizers. •
NOTE: Even though industrial processes generate, most hazardous waste, this activity
focuses on hazardous materials found in homes because students can collect information
on these materials more readily. Ideas for'activities that focus on pollution prevention
efforts in industry are included in the Extensions listed at the end of this lesson.
127
-------
Activity 10
Warm-Up 1: Defining Hazardous Waste is good preparation for this activity. For more
information on pollution prevention, see the Suggested Reading list found at the end of the
Haz-Ed materials.
Preparation
2.
3.
Gather the following materials:
• Copies for each student of Fact Flash 7: Pollution Prevention
• Copies for each student of the Student Worksheet, Hazardous Substance Data
, Collection Form ,
Copies for each student of the Student Handout, Chemicals in the Household.
Read Fact Flashes 1 and 7 to prepare your lecture.
Distribute Fact Flash 7 and have students read it for homework.
Procedure
Class #1
1. Discuss pollution prevention in class using the contents of Fact Flash 7:'Pollution
Prevention.
2. Review with students the definition and categories of hazardous waste. Ask the
students for examples of products in their homes that fall within each of the 4
hazardous waste categories.
3. Distribute the Student Worksheet, Hazardous Substance Data Collection Form.
4. Give students a homework assignment to identify all of the hazardous materials
found in their homes and record the following information on the Student Worksheet:
• The name of the product
• The use of the product :
• Hazardous waste category of the substance (toxic, reactive, ignitable,
corrosive—read label for information)
• Estimated volume of the material remaining in the container.
Note: Have students tell their parents about the assignment before they start the
activity. Caution them not to touch any of the substances or open the containers.
128
-------
Activity 10
CIass#2 • ; . : - • . • • ' -1 ; ; • ' • ; - .'• . ; ,
1. Ask the students what kinds of hazardous substances they found in their homes.
2. '. On the chalkboard, qompile a list.of products in-each category found in the ;.
students'homes.
3. Explain to the students that their homes will be used as a sample of the homes in
the community, and that the sample will be used to estimate the total amount of
hazardous substances in all the homes of the community.
4. Have students calculate the number of gallons (or liters) of each category of
hazardous substances they have reported in their homes (1 fluid ounce equals 30 ;
milliliters, 0.26 gallons equals 1 liter).
5. Calculate a class-wide average of the amount of hazardous substances in each
category. .' >
6. Estimate the number of households in the community, using population information
and assuming an average of 3.5 persons per household.
7. Have students multiply the class-wide average of hazardous substances in their
homes by the number of homes in the community to estimate the total amount of,
hazardous substances in all of the homes of the community.
8. Discuss how much of each of these products might become hazardous waste—for
example, by being thrown away in the trash or poured down drains that empty into
the public water system. Discuss where these waste products end up.
9. Ask the students for ideas on what they personally can do to reduce the amount of
hazardous waste. Ask them to name some alternative products that do the same
jobs as products containing hazardous substances (for example, baking soda is an
alternative,to using commercial oven cleaners).
10 Distribute the Student Handout, Chemicals in the Household. Have
students discuss the feasibility of changing people's habits and'convincing
them to use the alternatives on the list.
129
-------
Activity 10
Extensions (Optional)
Assign a group of students to identify the types and amounts of hazardous waste
present in your school. Use the Student Worksheet to record the information they
collect. Have them present their findings to the class and encourage the class to
discuss ways in which the school could reduce its use of hazardous substances.
Consider presenting these ideas to the school principal and the PTA. '
• Have students contact the local health or environmental services department to
investigate how much industrial garbage is collected and disposed of each year
and what the community government is doing to deal with the potential hazardous
waste problems this creates.
• Have students contact the local chamber of commerce, the county health
department, or the local or state government environmental agency to obtain the
names of local manufacturers and other businesses that have active pollution
prevention programs. Have students interview officials at these companies about
what they are doing to reduce waste and prevent pollution. As an alternative, invite
local manufacturers and business owners to come to the class to discuss their
pollution prevention programs. Local businesses that are working to reduce their
wastes most likely would be quite happy to cooperate.
Plan a field trip to a local recycling center or hazardous waste collection center.
Check with the local chamber of commerce, or local or state government
environmental agency to see if there is a household hazardous waste collection
program in your area. More information on hazardous waste collection programs
can be obtained by calling the RCFWUST, Superfund, and EPCRA Hotline in
Washington, DC, which is open Monday through Friday, 9:00 a.m. to 6:00 p.m.
Eastern Standard Time. The national toll free number is 800-424-9346; for the
hearing impaired it is TDD 800-553-7672.
Consider showing a videotape describing pollution prevention. Check with your
school or local librarian and with local public television stations for educational
videotapes describing municipal, household, or hazardous waste management.
For example the League of Women Voters of California's Education Fund produced
two award-winning videotapes in 1990. Cleaning Up Toxics at Home and Cleaning
Up Toxics in Business outline ways in which citizens and small businesses can
significantly reduce pollution. Each tape is available for $29.95 ($49.95 for both)
and may be ordered by calling The Video Project at 1 -800-4-PLANET. Another
video, called The Rotten Truth, was produced by the Children's Television
Workshop for its 3-2-7 Contact program. The video is available for $14.98, plus
shipping and handling, by calling the distributor, Sony Wonder, at 1-800-327-3494.
130
-------
Activity JO
. . *. .
'" ^ ' - • . - - •
Hazardous 9ubsfance Data Colleefion Form
•
Product Name
,
«.'" '
.
-
Product Use
..-.-.
•.,.-:
Hazardous Waste
Category
(toxic/reactive,
ignitable, corrosive)
"• • ' ' .' F-
'• " .
••" , ft
-.'•'••.-•'',
1 ''
• •
, •' ;
Estimated Volume
Remaining ,
.-..•• •• t
• \
..... •
i .
\b
^ \i^->-'
131
-------
Activity 10
STUDENT WORKSHEET
£>
kkj^,^-*
Hazardous 9ubsfance Dafa Collecfion Form
Product Name
Product Use
Hazardous Waste
Category
(toxic, reactive,
ignitable, corrosive)
-
•„
"
Estimated Volume
Remaining
*
132
-------
Activity JO
STUDENT HANDOUT
Chemicals in the Household
-
CHEMICAL .,.,
PRODUCTS
Toilet Cleaners
Drain Cleaners
Oven Cleaners
Bleach Cleaners
Dishwashing
detergent
Ammonia-based
cleaners (all
purpose cleaners)
Glass cleaners
Fabric softener
Air fresheners
Laundry detergent
Mothballs
s. '- •
HAZARDOUS
INGREDIENTS
Muriatic (hydrochloric) acid
Oxalic acid
Paradichlorobenzene
Calcium hypochlorite
Sodium or potassium
hydroxide
Sodium hypochloride
Hydrochloric acid
Petroleum distillates
Potassium or sodiurn
hydroxide
Arrimonia
Sodium or potassium
hydroxide
Hydrogen peroxide
Sodium or calcium
hypochlorite
Chlorine
Surfactants
Ammonia
Ethanol t
Ammonia
Naphthalene
Ammonia
Cresol
Phenol
Formaldehyde
Surfactants
Naphthalene
Paradichlorobenzene
/
/
POSSIBLE ALTERNATIVES
AND HINTS
Toilet brush and baking soda; Mild
detergent; Vinegar soak for tub and
sink fixtures; Avoid.direct skin contact
and breathing of fumes.
Plunger; Flush drain with 1/4 cup
baking soda and vinegar; Avoid direct
skin contact and breathing of fumes.
Baking soda and water; Avoid direct
skin contact and breathing of fumes. "
1/2 cup white vinegar or baking soda
for laundry; Avoid direct skin contact
and breathing of fumes.
1 part borax to 1 part baking soda;
Handle aH cleaning solutions with
care.
Vinegar and salt water mix for
surfaces; Baking soda and water.
Washing windows with 1/4 to 1/2 cup
white vinegar to 1 quart warm water,
rub dry with newspaper.
1 cup white vinegar or 1/4 cup baking
soda in final rinse water.
Open box of baking soda or dish of
. vanilla; Simmer cloves; Open
windows or use exhaust fans:
Avoid breathing powder.
Cedar chips; Newspapers; Lavender,
flowers, or other aromatic herbs and
spices.
aaE
_ •
':' •
133
-------
Activity 10
STUDENT HANDOUT
Chemicals in fhe Household (continued)
• CHEMICAL
PRODUCTS
Rug and upholstery
cleaners
Floor and furniture
polish
Furniture strippers
Stains/finishes
Enamel or oil-based
paints
Latex paint
Antifreeze
Automobile batteries
Automobile lubricants
(transmission and
brake fluids, used
oils)
HAZARDOUS
INGREDIENTS
Naphthalene
Perchloroethylene
Oxalic acide
Diethylene glycol
Diethylene glycol
Petroleum distillates
Nitrobenzene
Mineral Spirits
Acetone
Methyl ethyl
Ketone
Alchohols
Xylene
Tlouene
Methylene chloride
Mineral spirits
Glycol ethers
Ketones
Halogenated hydrocarbons
Maphtha
Xylene
Toluene
Pigments
Aliphatic hydrocarbons
Mercury
Ethylene glycol
Sulfuric acid
Lead
Hydrocarbons (benzene)
Mineral Oils
Glycol ethers
Heavy metals
POSSIBLE ALTERNATIVES
AND HINTS
Baking soda or rug, then vacuum.
1 part lemon oil, 2 parts olive/
vegetable oil; Vegetable oil soap.
Equal portions of boiled linseed oil,
turpentine, and vinegar with steel wool;
sandpaper or heatgun; Use in well
ventilated areas or outdoors; Handle
aJI solvents with care.
Natural earth pigment finishes; Use in
well ventilated areas or outdoors;
Handle aJI dyes and paints with care.
Water-based paints if appropriate;
Always use in well ventilated areas.
Handle aJi paints with care.
Clean up all spills.
Bring old batteries to recycling center;
Avoid direct skin contact; Wash spills
with plenty of water.
Seal used oil in plastic container and
bring to recycling service station.
Notes ' i .
* The listed alternatives are offered as options and are not represented as recommended courses of action
* Several listed alternatives are also potentially hazardous and can cause harm if handled improperly.
* Various commercial products which fall into the product categories listed here may not contain all of the listed chemical
constituents.
134
-------
Acfivity 11 •
Whaifhe
Cornmunify
Can Do
=. Public
—Meeting
— Tonite
Duration
Grade Level
Key Terms/
Concepts
Suggested
Subjects
2 class periods
7-12
Administrative Record ,
Community Involvement
Information Repository
Superfund
Technical Assistance
Grant (TAG)
Social Studies ••' •
Civics/Government
Drama
Purpose
Background
Students become familiar with how the U.S
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) tries
to encourage communities near Superfund
sites to become involved in the Superfund
process. The types of activities communities
can undertake to influence how hazardous
waste sites are cleaned up are presented and
discussed. Students become familiar with
the different ways EPA encourages the
community to get involved and the role of the
local community in the Superfund process.
Community Involvement is an essential part of alf Superfund actions because the
Superfund Program was established to protect the public's right to a safe, healthy
environment free of dangerous hazardous waste sites.- In addition to identifying the
public's concerns and trying to address them, EPA and state and local environmental
officials encourage groups of local citizens to become actively involved in determining
the future use of contaminated sites. :
EPA has always recognized the public's interest in hazardous waste management and
its right to participate in the Superfund process. The law that created the Superfund
Program requires a community involvement program at Superfund hazardous waste
sites. This means that EPA must conduct specific activities to provide opportunities for
public participation.
For more information on community involvement, see the brochure This is Superfund
and the Suggested Reading list found at the end of the Haz-Ed materials. Other Haz-Ed
materials that are related to this topic include Fact Flash 2: The Superfund Cleanup
Program and Activity 9: Making Decisions About Hazardous Waste Cleanup.
135
-------
Activity 11
Preparation ,
1. Gather the following materials:
• Copies for each student of
Fact Flash 3: Flowing Railroad Hazardous Waste Site
Fact Flash 10: Superiund Community Involvement Program.
2. Read Fact Flash 10 and review Activity 9: Making Decisions About Hazardous
Waste Cleanup to prepare your lecture..
Procedure
Class #1
i '
1. Begin the session by asking students who consider themselves "community
activists" to raise their hands. Have a few of them explain what they mean by
"activism" and why it is important to get involved in what goes on in the community.
Also ask the students if any of them know of a Superfund site, and if so, whether
they are familiar .with EPA's public participation efforts and the community's
response. If students volunteer some familiarity with the community involvement
program or a site, have them share their knowledge with the class. The site may
be local or may be one of the better known sites across the country.
2. Distribute Fact Flash 10: Superfund Community Involvement Program. Briefly
review the opportunities for citizens to get involved in the Superfund Program and
the examples of communities that have had a significant impact on the Superfund
process.
3. Distribute Fact Flash 3: Flowing Railroad Hazardous Waste Site. Briefly review the
main issues to be considered at the site. Explain that the class will be divided into
groups for a role-playing exercise. Half of the groups will play the role of
community residents near the site, and the remaining groups will assume the role
of an EPA Community Involvement Coordinator (CIC). The Community
Involvement Coordinator is responsible for developing, implementing, and
managing EPA's community involvement and outreach activities at a site. Tell the
students that each group will need to select a spokesperson and that the
spokesperson will be expected to speak for about 5 or 10 minutes at a future class
period about what their group decided to do in their role as an EPA CIC or as
community residents.
136
-------
AotivHy 11
Divide the class into groups and assign their roles. (NOTE: The number of groups
may vary, but each should include about 5 or 6 students.) ;
/ • • . ' • .. ' ' - • . " •, • -
• The groups playing community residents are to develop an "action plan" for
influencing the cleanup decisions at the hazardous' waste site; Their plans
should identify activities they can undertake, as well as activities they would
like EPA to undertake to inform them about what is happening at the site.,
Instruct the group to explain how they would implement the activity. For
example, if they choose to form a task force to monitor EPA's activities and to
make recommendations, the students must explain how they would form a
task force, who would be a member, how often the task force would meet,
and what issues it would address,
• The groups playing an EPA CIC are to develop a community involvement
plan that identifies steps that EPA will undertake to involve the community in
site decisions and activities. Their plan should state the goals of the
community involvement activities, the specific activities, and when the
activities would be conducted. Remind this group that EPA is required to
undertake certain activities by law. As part of this process, these groups will
need to consider what information they can obtain from the community and
how they can obtain this information. For example, they can interview
residents door-tordoor or ask residents questions at public meetings.
For the last 10 to 15 minutes of the period, tell the students to meet with their
groups to discuss their assigned roles and tasks. Remind them that each group
will give a 5- to 10-minute presentation on their assigned topic for the next class.
The class period for the presentations should be scheduled 1 or 2 weeks after the
initial assignment is made.
Encourage group members to discuss among themselves how best to accomplish
the assigned task, make contact with appropriate sources of information, conduct
interviews, compile information, structure a presentation, and prepare to answer •
questions posed by other students. Below are some resources the students coujd
use: : . \' ' • .. ' •. '. v .''•"••".'
• EPA Regional Community Involvement Coordinator (CIC). By contacting
the EPA Regional CIC for your state (see This is Supeffund brochure),
students can identify a nearby Superfund site or one within the state that they
can research. Information can be collected from the Regional CIC or from a
Superfund Information Repository. Each Superfund site has a local
Superfund Information Repository nearby. Typically, these repositories are at
a public library. The Repository contains the Community Relations Plan and
.other community outreach materials.
137
-------
" Activity 11
• Local, State, or National Environmental or Citizen Groups. Groups
concerned with hazardous waste management or the cleanup of a specific
site are an excellent source of information. For example, students can •
contact a local chapter of a national group, such as the Sierra Club, or a local
activist group concerned with a specific site. Students should be able to find
out about how other communities successfully influenced EPA's efforts at a
site and get ideas for their own plans. .
Class #2
1. Have each group give its presentation and allow other students to ask questions.
Ask group members what problems, if any, they encountered in preparing their
presentations. Ask if they learned anything or met any people who were
particularly surprising or interesting.
2. The discussion session should be interactive. Facilitate the discussion by asking
both the presenter and the class questions. How do the suggestions from the
groups representing the community residents differ from those of groups
representing the CIC? Ask the class to explain the differing viewpoints and come
up with ways to reach a common understanding.
Some questions the class might consider include:
• Are residents concerned that a major employer is responsible for site cleanup
and that this liability may result in financial problems for the company or the
community? If so, residents may oppose EPA's efforts to clean up the site
and pressure EPA to permit the company to do the minimum, rather than
undertake an expensive cleanup remedy.
• Is the community concerned about the future use of the site? If so, the
community may oppose site cleanup remedies that restrict future use and
instead recommend solutions that will permit the community to either develop
the property or create recreational facilities. Something like this happened at
the Chisman Creek Superfund site in Virginia. Initially, the proposed site
cleanup plan recommended that the site be fenced and use of the property
be restricted. Local residents, however, had previously used the site for
recreational purposes, such as motorbiking, walking, and fishing.
Consequently, local residents objected to building a fence around the site.
EPA worked with local government officials and the Potentially Responsible
Party to convert the site into a county recreational facility with softball and
soccer fields after cleanup. The facility now is equipped with field lighting, a
parking lot, and restrooms.
138
-------
Activity
• Do any non-English speaking people live in the community? If so, EPA
needs to develop a community involvement strategy to reach out to this
segment of the community as well. . . '
• What else can EPA do to promote community involvement, particularly if the
". community does not seem interested? •
• What are some innovative, creative, or unusual public participation activities
EPA could do to increase community awareness and involvement? For
instance, EPA could sponsor a radio talk show or local television cable show
to. answer questions about the site.
Conclude the class by describing a nearby site and asking if the site or the
surrounding community has any unique characteristics that would require a specific
type of outreach activity. For example, if the community is predominantly Hispanic,
allot the site documents must be translated into Spanish. Or, if the site is located
in an area where there is one primary employer, citizens may oppose EPA's
presence at the site out of fear that the employer will be forced to go out of
business and they will lose their jobs. In such a case, EPA efforts need to focus on
relieving these anxieties. >
Extensions (Opfional)
• Consider inviting an EPA or State Community Involvement Coordinator who is
involved in overseeing public participation efforts at hazardous waste cleanup
projects to attend the second class period, hear the presentations, and share with
the 'class his or her own experiences (see the Contacts and Resources section at
the end of the Haz-Ed materials for EPA and state contacts).
• Consider inviting to the second class period a community activist who lives near a
hazardous waste site to describe his or her experiences related to the cleanup of
the site: , '
139
-------
140
-------
Activity 12
Federal and Qtate
Laws on Hazardous
Waste
Duration
Grade Level
Key Terms/
Concepts
Suggested
Subjects
1 class period
7-12
Hazardous waste
Liability
Potentially Responsible Parties
Risk
Superfund
Civics/Government
Social Studies
Purpose
Students become familiar with how
legislation on hazardous waste is
developed, enacted, implemented, and
enforced. Students gain an . ,..'
understanding of how hazardous waste
cleanup laws are enacted and intended to
function by creating a statute and set of
regulations that paralfei the issues
covered by Superfund.
Background
Hazardous waste comes from a variety of sources, from both present and past activities.
Years ago, before we understood the dangers of hazardous waste, there were no laws
controlling its disposal. Many businesses simply threw out their hazardous waste with
the rest of their trash—-so it ended up in a landfill, was left behind when they moved,
dumped in a river or lake, or buried in the ground.
Eventually, thousands of uncontrolled or abandoned hazardous waste sites were created
in abandoned warehouses, manufacturing facilities, harbors, processing plants, and
landfills, to name a few. Congress created the Superfund Program to investigate and
clean up hazardous waste sites nationwide.
Fact Flash 2: The Superfund Cleanup Program, provides a good overview of what the
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) is trying to accomplish with the Superfund
Program. ,
•141
-------
Activity 12
Under the law creating the Superfund Program, the people and companies responsible
for the presence of the hazardous waste at a site are liable for its cleanup. EPA can
make these responsible parties pay for or perform the study and cleanup work at the
site. EPA negotiates with the Potentially Responsible Parties (PRPs) to reach an
agreement. If the PRPs refuse to act, EPA pays for the cleanup with money from the
Superfund trust fund and seeks to recover those costs from the responsible parties. If
the PRPs cannot be identified or cannot pay for the cleanup, EPA can pay for the work
out of the fund.
The law also creates severe liability for the PRPs EPA identifies at a particular site.
This means that any individual PRP can be held responsible, or liable, for the cost or
performance of the entire cleanup job, rather than just the portion that they caused. Thjs
kind of liability is unusual and gives EPA a powerful legal tool. The reason for it is best
explained by the question "Who should pay?" The answer is that the polluter pays.
Sites are usually abandoned, making the identification of all PRPs very difficult. Past
recordkeeping at the site is frequently faulty, and often potential PRPs no longer exist or
are bankrupt. Also, many sites are waste dumps often containing wastes from many
different generators that have been mixed together; this makes equitable apportionment
of liability impossible. The law says that those who profited from the businesses that
created the harm should pay to clean it up instead of the public.
Finally, different contaminants pose different threats. Quantifying threats, as discussed
in Activity 6: Examining the Effects of Pollution on Ecosystems and Activity 7: Identifying
Risks at a Superfund Site, is complicated at best. For example, one PRP may have sent
a small amount of a highly toxic waste to a site, while another may have sent a larger
volume of a slightly toxic substance. Under Superfund, the government chooses not to
try to apportion this liability among the PRPs.
To help prepare your students for this unit, use Warm-Up Exercise 2: EPA's Superfund
Program—Overview.
As a follow-up to this unit, have your students perform Activity 6: Examining the Effects
of Pollution on Ecosystems; Activity 7: Identifying Risks at a Superfund Site; and Activity
11: What the Community Can Do.
For more in-depth information on the topics covered in this unit, see Fact Flash 10:
Superfund Community Involvement Program and Fact Flash 11: Other Major
Environmental Laws. For additional information, see the Suggested Reading list found
at the end of the Haz-Ed materials.
142
-------
Aciivify 12
Preparation
1. Gather the following materials: , - . '-.".'
» Copies for each student of the Student Handout, Federal and State Laws oh
Hazardous Waste
• Copies for each student of Fact Flash 2: The Superfund Cleanup Program.
2. Read Fact Flash 2 to prepare your Jecture. ,
3. Distribute the Student Handout and Fact Flash 2. Assign students to read Fact '
Flash 2 for homework and prepare responses to1 the questions in the Student
Handout. < .' ~ "'.••'•,
4. Explain that for the lesson on hazardous waste laws, students will be divided into
groups. Each group will discuss the questions'on the handout and devise a
program for dealing with hazardous waste sites based on group consensus,
Procedure
1. Divide the class into groups. (The number of groups may vary, but each should
include 5 or 6 students.)
2. Briefly review the concerns raised in the handout and the questions that students
must answer when they are devising their program. If they were: in charge, what
would they do? What kind of laws would they need?
3. Have members of each group discuss among themselves how best to determine
goals for dealing with hazardous waste sites and design a program to accomplish
these goals. The group should also be prepared to discuss and advocate their
program, and to answer questions posed by other students. ,
4. Remind the students that each member of the group should state his or her ^
position on the issues, and the group should adopt a response to every question
before moving on to the next one. If the group agrees on. an issue, it should move
on to the next one. If it cannot agree in a short time (e.g., 5 minutes), it should
move on, considering the next question(s) in light of the alternative positions that
were suggested for the problem question, until one response comes out as the
best. ' ,
143
-------
Activity 12
5. For the last 10 minutes of the period, tell the students to outline the program they
have decided on. They should list the features of the program that respond to
each question.
6. Collect the outlines and briefly review the features of each, noting where the
groups agree and where the programs diverge.
Extensions (Optional)
A second class period can be scheduled to compare and contrast the programs
designed by the students with the actual Superfund Program. Each group can
designate a spokesperson to respond to questions from the class and defend the
approach taken by the group.
Make copies and distribute Fact Flash 11: Other Major Environmental Laws.
Discuss how the approach to environmental protection can differ according to
program goals and the means available to achieve those goals.
144
-------
Federal and Sfafe Laws on Hazardous Waste
Until 1980, there was no comprehensive Federal law that addressed the problems and
threats posed by abandoned and inactive hazardous waste sites. Across the country
there were thousands of abandoned and Inactive hazardous waste sites that were
exposing people to various health and safety risks. There were, however, a number of
environmental laws that dealt with pollution, active hazardous waste facility management,
and other environmental contamination.
/ • ' i • . • '.-.•'' . .' ..
In this exercise, your group will devise a program to deal with the problem of abandoned
and inactive hazardous waste sites. By evaluating the following questions and developing
responses, your group should be able to outline a program to address these sites.
Remember/your program should include the underlying issues of identifying sites,
assessing and ranking~site hazards, reducing risk, identifying the people and companies
responsible for the contamination, and financing the cleanup^ While there are guidelines
under each question to help you, feel free to discuss and adopt any approach that you feel
responds to the question, these are the same basic questions addressed by
Congressional and EPA policy makers when they developed the actual Superfund
program. ,
1. Should the government respond to threats posed by abandoned and inactive
hazardous waste sites?
Consider the implications of .taking action to reduce and eliminate the threats posed
by abandoned and inactive hazardous waste sites versus doing nothing. If nothing is
done, then thousands of these sites will continue to expose public health and the
environment to possible harm. If the government decides to act, however, it will be
taking on an enormous task: hazardous waste sites are common to every area of
the country, and hazardous waste is riot easily cleaned up. The job is usually very
expensive.
2. Should the government clean up such sites by removing or treating hazardous
waste, or take other measures such as isolating or containing the waste?
Hazardous waste can be treated or disposed of in a way that reduces or eliminates
risks to health and the environment. Most treatments include a process Or
technology that may increase the costs of taking action, but will reduce the health
and safety risks to acceptable levels. Disposal in a permitted facility reduces risks by
eliminating the danger of the uncontrolled wastes spreading. If the hazards are left
untreated at the site, they could be dealt with more cheaply by somehow containing
( and isolating the site. This could be done with a fence or by posting warning signs.
Remember that contaminants in soil will usually filter down and contaminate
groundwater. ~ x
145
-------
Activity 12
STUDENT HANDOUT
3. Should the government clean up all contaminated sites or a limited number?
Tens of thousands of sites around the country contain at least 1 substance that
negatively impacts human health or the environment. These could all be defined
as hazardous waste sites. If the government attempts to identify and respond to all
of these sites, there would be no end in sight, since "new" sites are created as old
ones are being cleaned. If only a limited number are addressed, however, this.
leaves the government open to problems related to selecting some sites but not
others.
4. If only a limited number of sites are cleaned up, how should the government
select sites for cleanup? What factors will affect site selection?
Selecting sites as targets for cleanup can be based on a number of factors. Think
about the factors that could affect this decision and list them. Then select the ones
that make the most sense. For example, should site selection focus on protecting
human health, the environment, or both? Should sites be selected based on the
ease with which they can be cleaned up, allowing the program to demonstrate
success early on? Should selected sites be restricted to those close to large
populations of people, or will attention to these only cause undue alarm in the
nearby communities? Should site selection focus on scientific assessment of the
sites, selecting sites that possess the most significant concentrations of hazardous
waste? Should site cleanups be evenly distributed around the country, so that no
one region feels left out? What if a site is highly contaminated but is far away from
any populated areas?
5. If a site is selected for cleanup, how should the methods to be used to ,
perform the cleanup be selected? What factors should be considered in
selecting the cleanup methods? What degree of cleanup should be
achieved? Should it be the same for all sites?
As mentioned above, there are many ways to approach a cleanup. If waste is
simply removed, the site can be quickly cleaned, but the waste still exists: it just
becomes someone else's problem. If a treatment technology is to be used, this
could entail time delays, labor, and other costs. Selecting among alternative
treatment technologies can be difficult, and can depend on the level of cleanup to
be achieved. Should cleanup jobs remove all risks posed by a site? Could a
cleanup job leave behind a reasonable amount of controlled waste? What if a
particular contaminant is difficult or impossible to treat? Should cost be a factor in
selecting the approach? What about acceptance of the approach by the local
community?
146
-------
Activity 12
STUDENT HANDOUT
6. Who should be liable (responsible) for the cleanup of a hazardous waste
. site? > • . - ... •';'"-.'.,- . i "•. ':•.,'.'•
This is a critical issue in your statute and should be carefully considered. Who
should perform the cleanup? Who should pay? Should the Federal or state
government perform or pay for all cleanups, since the society at large benefits from
the production of goods that result in the generation of hazardous waste? Where,
would the money come from? Higher taxes? If the government performs the
cleanup, should the states have to contribute? Should it be a public works
program (performed by government employees) or should the government hire "
private companies to do cleanup work? Should individual parties responsible for
the presence of the contaminated waste at the site be liable? If you hold the
responsible parties liable, should they be allowed to assess the site and select the
methods for cleanup? If more than one person is responsible for the site
contamination, how should liability for site cleanup be allocated? What if one of
those parties is the Federal government or a state or local government? What if
some of the responsible parties no longer exist or are bankrupt?
7. How should the public be involved in your program?
Should they be informed of what is happening at the site when it happens? After
it's done? Do they have a say in the decisions? Will the public's preferences be
the most important factor?'What kinds of programs will you set up to involve the
public.
147
-------
148
-------
Activity 13
Creating the
^•^ - , !-
Future
Duration
Grade Level
\
Key Terms/
Concepts
Suggested
Subjects
2 1/4 class periods
7-12
Hazardous waste
Superfund
English
Drama
Journalism
Life Science
Social Studies
Creative Writing
Purpose
This activity lets, students create >
and write scenarios for the future
related to hazardous waste
pollution: The activity calls on
students to describe their
scenarios using one of a variety of
formats—for example, a
newspaper opinion/editorial article,
a short story, a play, a poem. ,
Background
The United States and countries throughout the world are dealing with pollution
problems from the past. Since Europeans came to this country, we have used
natural resources as if they were inexhaustible. Early settlers cleared .the forests to
make way for towns and farms as they pushed from the east to the south and
midwest and on to the west. The trees provided logs for building homes and heating
them. The forests and rivers provided food. The skins of animals who lived in the
forests provided materials for warm clothing. As more people came to North
America, the use of natural resources increased. ,
Increases in population create more demand for goods and services. To meet these
demands, industry needs more raw materials. Some of these materials, like cotton,
rubber, and wood, are renewable, if managed correctly. Once they are harvested, a
new crop can be planted. Some materials, however, like the fossil fuels used:to
produce energy, are ~not renewable. The Earth contains a fixed amount. The
technology we developed made it possible for industry to use raw materials at a
much greater rate than ever before, frequently .faster than even the renewable
resources could be replaced. .
149
-------
Activity 13
Technological progress and population growth have contributed to the production of
hazardous waste that pollutes the land, air, and water. Hazardous waste comes
from a wide variety of sources, and from both present and past activities. It most
often is a by-product of manufacturing processes. Some of it comes from our homes
as well, when we do not dispose of hazardous substances properly. The waste is
hazardous because it contains chemicals that can have harmful effects on our health
or the health of plants and animals (See Fact Flash 1: Hazardous Substances and
Hazardous Waste).
Years ago, before we understood the dangers of hazardous waste, there were no
laws controlling waste disposal. Eventually, thousands of uncontrolled or abandoned
hazardous waste sites were created at manufacturing facilities, harbors, processing
plants, landfills, and many other kinds of places. Congress created the Superfund
Program to investigate and clean up hazardous waste sites nationwide.
Fact Flash 2: The Superfund Cleanup Program, provides a good overview of what
EPA is trying to accomplish with the Superfund program.
To help prepare your students for this activity, use Warm-Up 1: Defining Hazardous
Waste and Warm-Up 5: Hazardous Waste issues in the News. You can perform the
entire Warm-Up or simply review the main points covered in it. As a follow-up, have
your students complete Activity 5: How Hazardous Substances Affect People.
Preparation
1. Gather the following materials:
• Copies for each student of:
Fact Flash 1: Hazardous Substances and Hazardous Waste
Fact Flash 2: The Superfund Cleanup Program.
• Several copies (which students can share) of the Suggested Reading list
at the end of the Haz-Ed materials.
150
-------
Procedure
Class#l
1. List the following questions on the chalkboard:
7 ' '" ( • • •
What if there were no Superfund Program?
What would you do if there was no more landfill capacity?
What if there was no control over hazardous waste?
What if there was no hazardous waste?
2. Explain to students that they are to write a response to one of the questions on
the chalkboard. Offer students the option to respond by writing a newspaper
opinion/editorial article, a short story, a play, or a poem. Each should choose
the format that best conveys his or her ideas.
3. Distribute Fact Flash 1: Hazardous Substances and Hazardous Waste, and
Fact Flash 2: The Superfund Cleanup Program* Suggest that students also
consult some of the books listed in the Suggested Reading list and other Fact'
Flashes in the Haz-Ed materials as background for this assignment.
.4. Explain that students will be asked to share what they write with the class at a
follow-up session (specify a date, but allow several days for research and
preparation).
Class #2
• .1 * = • -'
1. Ask students to share what they wrote with the class. Have students compare
and discuss the ideas presented. Are some students'ideas similar? If not,
what are the differences? Did the materials they prepared suggest things we/
should be doing now to ensure a better future? Do some suggest more long-
term things we should do—for example, 5 years or 10 years from now? Do
students see a role for the government in shaping the future environment?
Why or why not? ,
151
-------
Activity 13
Extensions (Optional)
• Invite students from a different class to prepare materials based on these
questions. Have them share their ideas in a school assembly as part of an
Earth Day (spring) or Arbor Day (fall) commemoration or as part of another
environmental observance.
• Have students send their essays, artwork, poems and so forth to a local
newspaper and explore getting them published.
152
-------
FACTFLA8HE8
-------
-------
FACTJFIASH
1: Hazardous Substances and Hazardous Waste
Chemicals affect our everyday lives.
They are used to produce almost
everything we use, from paper and
plastics to medicines and food to
gasoline, steel, and electronic
equipment. More thani 70,000 chemicals
are used regularly around the-world.
Some occur naturally in the earth or
atmosphere, others are synthetic, or
human-made. When we use and
dispose of them properly, they may
enhance our quality of life. But when we
use or dispose of them improperly, they
can have harmful effects on humans,
plants, arid animals. >
What is hazardous waste?
Even when used properly, many
chemicals can still harm human health
and the environment. When these
hazardous substances are thrown
away, they become hazardous waste.
Hazardous waste is most often a by-
product of a manufacturing process -
material left after products are made.
Some hazardous wastes come from our
homes: our garbage can include such
hazardous wastes as old batteries, bug
spray cans, and paint thinner.
Regardless of the source, unless we
dispose of hazardous waste properly, it
can create health risks for people and
damage the environment.
What kinds of hazardous waste are
there?
Most hazardous waste is identified by
one or more of its dangerous properties
or characteristics: corrosive, ignitable,
reactive, or toxic.
Corrosive—A corrosive material
can wear away (corrode) or destroy a
substance. For example, most acids
are corrosives that can eat through
metal, burn skin on contact, and give
off vapors that burn the eyes.
Ignitable — An ignitable material can
burst into flames easily. It poses a fire
hazard; can irritate the skin, eyes,
and lungs; and may give off harmful
vapors. Gasoline, paint, and furniture
polish are ignitable.
-------
Fact Flash 1: Hazardous Substances and Hazardous Waste
Reactive —A reactive material can
explode or create poisonous gas
when combined with other chemicals.
For example, chlorine bleach and
ammonia are reactive and create a
poisonous gas when they come into
contact with each other.
• Toxic — Toxic materials or
substances can poison people and
other life. Toxic substances can
cause illness and even death if
swallowed or absorbed through the
skin. Pesticides, weed killers, and
many household cleaners are toxic.
Where does hazardous waste go?
Ideally, hazardous waste is reused or
recycled. If this is not possible,
hazardous waste is safely contained
while it is stored, transported, and
properly disposed of to prevent an
accidental release into the environment.
Advances in technology have greatly
improved our ability to treat or dispose of
hazardous waste in a way that prevents
it from harming people or the
environment. -Typical methods of
hazardous waste storage and disposal
include surface impoundments (storing
it in lined ponds), high temperature
incineration (controlled burning),
municipal and hazardous waste landfills
(burying it in the ground), and deep well
injection (pumping it into underground
wells). More promising methods focus
on minimizing waste, reusing and
recycling chemicals, finding less
hazardous alternatives, and using
innovative treatment technologies.
What are the dangers of hazardous
waste management?
Proper management and control can
greatly reduce the dangers of hazardous
waste. There are many rules for
managing hazardous waste and
preventing releases into the
environment. Even so, a lot can go
wrong when we try to contain hazardous
waste. Even the most technologically
advanced landfills we build will leak
some day. Tanks used for storing
petroleum products and other chemicals
can leak and catch fire; underground
storage tanks weaken over time and leak
their hazardous contents. Transportation
accidents, such as train crashes and
overturned trucks, can occur while
transporting hazardous substances.
There are also cases of intentional and
illegal dumping of hazardous waste in
sewer systems, abandoned warehouses,
or ditches in remote areas to avoid the
costs and rules of safe disposal.
How can hazardous waste affect
us?
When hazardous wastes are released in
the air, water, or on the land they can
spread, contaminating even more of the
environment and posing greater threats
to our health. For example, when rain
falls on soil at a waste site, it can carry
hazardous waste deeper into the ground
and the underlying groundwater.
-------
Fact Flash 1: Hazardous Substances and Hazardous Waste
If a very small amount of a hazardous
substancejs released, it may become
diluted to the point where it will not cause
injury. A hazardous substance can
cause injury or death to a person, plant,
or animal if:
} ' ' • ' '" .'./ •
• A large ambuht is released at one
time
• A small amount is released many
times at the same place , -
• The substance does not become
diluted
V The substance is very toxic (for
example, arsenic).
Coming into contact with a substance is
called an exposure. The effects of
exposure depend on:
• How the substance is used and
disposed of
• Who is exposed to it
•. - The concentration, or dose, of
exposure
•„ How someone is exposed
• How long or how often someone is
exposed. : -
Humans, plants, and animals can be
exposed to hazardous substances
through inhalation, ingestion, or dermal
exposure.
• Inhalation — we can breathe vapors
from hazardous liquids or even from
contaminated water while taking a
shower.
Exposure Pathways
Inhalation
Hazardous
Substance
Ingestion
Dermal Exposure
-------
Fact Flash 1: Hazardous Substances and Hazardous Waste
Ingestton — we can eat fish, fruits
and vegetables, or meat that has
been contaminated through exposure
to hazardous substances. Also,
small children often eat soil or
household materials that may be
contaminated, such as paint chips
containing lead. Probably the most
common type of exposure is drinking
contaminated water.
*
• Dermal exposure — a substance can
come into direct contact with and be
absorbed by our skin.
Exposures can be either acute or
chronic. An acute exposure is a single
exposure to a hazardous substance for a
short time. Health symptoms may
appear immediately after exposure; for
example, the death of a fly when covered
with bug spray or a bum on your arm
when exposed to a strong acid such as
from a leaking battery.
Chronic exposure occurs over a much
longer period of time, usually with
repeated exposures in smaller amounts.
For example, people who lived near Love
Canal, a leaking hazardous waste dump,
did not notice the health effects of their
chronic exposure for several years.
Chronic health effects are typically
illnesses or injuries that take a long time
to develop, such as cancer, liver failure,
or slowed growth and development.
One reason chronic exposure to even
tiny amounts of hazardous substances
can lead to harm is bioaccumulation.
Some substances are absorbed and stay
in our bodies rather than being excreted.
They accumulate and cause harm over
time.
-------
FACT 4 FLASH
2: The Superfund Cleanup Program
Years ago, before there were laws to ,
control how hazardous chemicals were
handled, many people disposed of •
hazardous wastp by dumping it on the
ground, and in rivers or lakes, or burying
it in the ground. The result? Eventually,
thousands of hazardous waste sites
were created at warehouses, harbors,
-manufacturing facilities, landfills, and
many other kinds of places. In 1980 we.
began to get a handle on the problem,
with the creation of the U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency's (EPA)
Superfund Program.
What is Superfund?
The U.S. Congress passed the
Comprehensive Environmental
Response, Compensation, and Liability
Act (CERCLA) in response to growing
concern about health and environmental
threats from hazardous waste sites. This
law is commonly called Superfund.,
Working with states and Indian Tribal
governments, Superfund requires EPA to
dea.l with abandoned, accidentally
spilled, or illegally dumped hazardous
substances from the past, primarily from
businesses and industry. Other types of
pollution are handled by other
environmental laws.
EPA can take three types of actions
(known as response actions) to deal
with abandoned hazardous waste sites: ~
emergency responses, early actions, and
long-term actions.
• An emergency response is used at
a site that requires immediate action
to eliminate serious risks to human
health and the environment (for
.example, cleaning up chemicals
spilled from an overturned,truck on
the highway).
• An early action is used at a site
posing a threat in the near future by
preventing human contact with
contaminants such as providing clean
drinking water to a neighborhood,
removing hazardous materials from
the site, or preventing contaminants
from spreading. Early actions may
last a few days or up to five years.
-------
Fact Flash 2: The Superfund Cleanup Program
• A long-term action is used at a site
where cleanup may take many years
or decades (groundwater cleanups
are frequently in this category).
Often both early and long-term
actions are performed at the same
time. For example, leaking storage
drums may be removed in an early
action while contaminated soil is
cleaned up under a long-term action.
How does Superfund work?
EPA and state agencies find .out about
sites many ways - a phone call from a
citizen, a reported accident, or a planned
search to discover sites. EPA first
reviews a site to decide what needs to be
done. EPA collects information, inspects
the area, and talks to people in the
community to find out how the site affects
them and the environment. Some sites
don't require any action; others may be
cleaned up by state agencies or other
programs. The remaining sites - those
that meet certain requirements - call for
action by the Federal government.
At sites that require Federal action, EPA
conducts tests to find out what
hazardous substances are present and
how serious the risks may be to people
and the environment. To figure out how
dangerous a hazardous waste site is,
EPA uses a "scorecard" called the
Hazard Ranking System (HRS). EPA
uses the information it collected to score
a site according to the risk it poses to
people's health and the environment.
Risk is a way of saying how likely it is
that someone will be exposed to a
hazardous substance, and the chance he
or she will be harmed by that exposure.
Environmental risk estimates how likely it
is that a hazardous substance will harm
the environment (water, plants, animals,
air, and so forth).
To give an HRS score to a site, EPA
looks at migration pathways - how
contamination moves in the environment.
EPA examines four migration pathways:
• Groundwater that may be used for
drinking water "'
• Surface water (like rivers and lakes)
used for drinking water, as well as for
plant and animal habitats
• Soil that people may come in contact
with or that can be absorbed lower in
the food chain
• Air that carries contaminants.
Sites that get a high score on the HRS
can be put on the National Priorities
List (NPL). The NPL is a list of the
nation's worst hazardous waste sites that
qualify for extensive, long-term cleanup
action under Superfund.
Once a site is placed on the NPL, a more
detailed study further pinpoints the cause
and extent of contamination, as well as
the risks posed to people and the
environment nearby. This information
helps identify different ways to clean up
the site. EPA lists these cleanup options
in a proposed plan for long-term cleanup.
The proposed plan describes different
ways to clean up the site and the choice
EPA prefers. The public has at least 30
days to comment on the plan.
-------
Fact Flash 2: The Superfund Cleanup Program
After EPA answers the public's concerns,
it publishes a Record of Decision (ROD)
that describes how it will clean up the
site. The cleanup method is designed to
address the unique conditions at the site.
The design and .actual cleanup is
conducted either by EPA, a state, or the
people responsible for contaminating the
site.
Who pays for the cleanup?
The law says EPA can make the people
responsible for contamination pay for site
studies and cleanup work. EPA
negotiates with these Potentially
Responsible Parties (PRPs) to reach an
agreement. Sometimes EPA pays for the
cleanup out of a pool of money called the
Superfund and then trieslo make PRPs
pay back the costs. Superfund money
comes mainly from taxes on chemical
and petroleum industries.
Who's involved in the cleanup?
Like any team, EPA works with many
other groups to clean up a Superfund
site:
• Communities provide important
information about the site and
surrounding area. They ensure that
citizens', concerns are addressed
during the cleanup process. They
also help determine what cleanup
method should be used and how the
site will be used in the future.
States work with EPA on making
cleanup decisions, pay for 10 percent
of cleanup costs in their state, and ,
make sure sites are maintained after
cleanup, they may also lead the
cleanup activities. In addition, states
address other sites on their own.
PRPs are responsible for and are
encouraged to participate in all
aspects of the cleanup. If PRPs
refuse or are unable to pay for a
'cleanup, EPA may either legally
require them to perform certajn
cleanup tasks or conduct the cleanup
itself and try to make the PRPs pay
EPA back.
Federal agencies can be involved in
site cleanup either as site owners, as
PRPs, or as EPA's partners in
conducting the cleanup (the
Department of Justice, for example,
provides legal help).
Contractors can be hired by the PRP
or EPA, and usually perform much of
the actual cleanup work at a
Superfund site.
-------
-------
\ ' ' * . ' •' '
FACTJFIASH
3: Flowing Railroad Hazardous Waste Site
Site History
The 25-acre site is an inactive train yard
located in the town of Ruralville (Map i
and Map 2). The Flowing Railroad site
was used for train engine maintenance
and repair until it was abandoned in
1986. From 1976 to 1986, the yard was
owned and operated by the Flowing
Railroad Company, a division of FRR
Enterprises. Although the Flowing
Railroad Company is now bankrupt, FRR
Enterprises is still operating. FRR
Enterprises owns the site property, as
well as Flow Automations, Inc., a
research and development plant that
employs 200 Ruralville residents. _
Various fuels, cleaning agents,
detergents, and degreasers, including a
hazardous solvent containing
trichloroethylene (TCE), were used at the
site for train maintenance. Solvents
were stored outside in barrels. Some of
the barrels rusted and leaked solvents
onto the soil. Some solvents spilled onto
the soil when barrels were filled, while
more solvents were washed off the
building floor and outside onto the soil.
Flowing Railroad also had a solvent
recycling plant. Sludge leftover from the
recycling process was dumped in an
open pit near the building (Map 3).
Before 1976, other industries at the site
caused additional environmental
contamination. The Railroad Tie
Treatment Company occupied a portion
of the site until 1950. The company
treated railroad ties (the timbers laid
across a railroad bed to support the
tracks) with a liquid made from zinc
chloride, a hazardous substance, to
resist.decay. The plant was closed in
1950 and the main treatment building
was demolished. Building debris
containing asbestos was left in a shallow
ditch on the site. Jimmy's Battery
Salvage, which reclaimed lead from car
batteries, and Recycling Services, Inc.,
a recycler of metals and electrical • •
transformers, operated on the site from
1952 to 1972. Toxic chemicals
(polychlorinated biphenyls, or PCBs)
from the transformers were drained
directly onto the ground.
Surrounding. Area
Ruralville's town center, immediately
west of the site, has both residential and
business zones (Map 2). About 1,400
people live within a quarter of a mile of
the site, while 8,000 people live within 1
mile of the site.
Utopia, the state capital with a population
of 300,000, is 12 miles north of the site.
Utopia's municipal water wells, which
provide drinking water to homes and
-------
Fact Flash 3: > Flowing Railroad Hazardous Waste Site
businesses in Ruralville and Utopia, are
three miles south of the site and use
groundwater.
The Flowing River, bordering the site to
the east, flows from north to south and is
popular for recreation and fishing. Three
miles downstream of the site, an intake
pipe supplies water from the river to
irrigate 500 acres of farmland.
Site Discovery
Town officials investigated a fire on the
train yard property. They noticed a
peculiar odor from leaking, half-buried
barrels and became concerned about the
accessibility of the site to trespassers
and other safety
issues at the site. At
the request of
Ruralville's public
works director, EPA
began studying the
site.
Health Concerns
EPA collected samples of soil and other
materials at the site and tested them in a
laboratory. The contaminants identified
by EPA samples included:
• Lead, which can cause tumors and
brain damage
• PCBs and TCE, which can cause
cancer
• Zinc and copper, which can damage
fish
• Asbestos, which can cause lung
cancer if inhaled.
The risk of health problems related to
these contaminants could rise if rain and
melting snow pick up contaminants from
contaminated areas and carry them to
surface water (lakes, rivers, streams)
and groundwater (fresh water
underground). Health threats include
breathing in fumes from the TCE.
Trespassers at the site could be at
particular risk, since they would have
more contact with the chemical. Several
families depend on fish from the Flowing
River for meals three or four times a
week. If contaminated, these fish could
pose a relatively high risk to the health of
these families.
Preliminary water samples from a well
drilled at the site contained lead and high
concentrations of TCE, although the full
extent of contamination is unknown. No
contamination was found in either a deep
well or drinking water from the faucet.
Drinking water may become
contaminated in the future if the
groundwater is contaminated. Soil
contamination was found in a few areas,
although a full test has not been
conducted.
Community Concerns
The community is concerned about air
contamination, water quality, economic
impacts, and future land use.
• Two summers ago, some Ruralville
residents complained to state
authorities that strong wind gusts
blew fine, white, snow-like particles
over their homes. The state found
that some topsoil at
the site had
eroded, exposing
asbestos
contamination.
The state covered
the area with soil.
As long as the soil
remains in place, it
is unlikely that the
asbestos will cause
-------
Fact Flash 3: Flowing Railroad Hazardous Waste Site"
an airborne health problem. Still, the
community is concerned-about
potential air contamination. Other
citizens are concerned about the
health risks from TCE fumes. .
Utopia and Ruralville citizens are
concerned about the quality of the
public well water. Some citizens
blame contamination from the site for
a recent increase in the number of
cancer cases; others have reported
that their tap water has a peculiar
odor.
Environmental activists are vocal
about contamination of the Flowing
River and the health risks to those
who depend on fish from the river for
their meals.
FRR Enterprises has been a major
source of money through tax revenue
for Ruralville since 1976, as well as a
(Potential Health
I Impact from
I Eating Fish
Reported
Increase in
Cancer Cases
major employer. Even after the train
maintenance operation closed in
1986 the company continues to
operate Flow Automations, Inc. The
company is concerned about the
amount of-money it may have to pay
for cleaning up the site. Although the
company has expressed its
commitment to working with EPA, the
State, and the community, it has
announced that if it has to pay a lot of
money to clean up the site it may be
forced to lay off workers or even
close down Flow Automations.
Also, farmers who use water from the
Flowing River worry that
contamination will damage their soil
and .crops, and reduce their income
or cause them to lose their farms.
Citizens are concerned about how
the site will be used after it is
cleaned up.
Potential
Impact on Soil
and Crops
M
Odor Reported
I in Drinking-Water
I Faucets
Community
Concerns
^f Potential Loss of 1
*\ Town Employer
V J
Potential Inability^
to Redevelop or I
Sell the Property I
w^' _-_' .^r
Potential Air
Contamination
from Asbestos
-------
Fact Flash 3: Flowing Railroad Hazardous Waste Site
Map1
Flowing Railroad Site
Site of
Demolished
Building
Site of Railroad Tie
Treatment Co. Building
Jimmy's Battery
Salvage Site
Recycling Services
Inc. Site "
t
N
A
Diked
Sludge
Pond
Flowing
Railroad
Maintenance
Building
f
I
I
I
I
I
I
•'
-------
Fact Flash 3: Flowing Railroad Hazardous Waste Site
Map 2
Flowing Railroad Site Area
Population Data
• 1,400 within, .25 mile of site
• 8,000 within 1 mile of site .
• 300,000 in Utopia, 12 miles
north of site
River Facts |
Utopia municipal wells 3 miles
sbuth.pfsite '
Irrigation intake pipe within 3
miles south of site (to 500 acres
of farmland
Ruralville High School
Flowing
Railroad
Site
RURALVILLE
Wells for
Monitoring
Movement
Irrigation
Intake
Utopias
Municipal
Wells
-------
Fact Flash 3: Flowing Railroad Hazardous Waste Site
Map 3
Diked Sludge Pond, Cross-Section
Diked Sludge Pond
(TCE Entry Location)
Permeable
Sand
Aquifer
-------
FACTfFLASH
4: Flowing Railroad Site Investigation Results
EPA tested many samples taken from the
site. Here are the results.
Groundwater
Nineteen groundwater monitoring wells
were installed to analyze groundwater
quality and movement. The studies
show that:
• Two aquifers (underground rock
formations storing groundwater) are
in the immediate region, one shallow
and one deep. The aquifers aren't
connected.
The shallow aquifer contains some
hazardous substances from the site,
including lead and high levels of
TCE. Water in this aquifer is moving ,-
off-site, toward the Flowing River. No
wells currently draw Water from this
aquifer, but the Flowing River is a
major irrigation source for nearby
farms.
No contamination was found in the
deep aquifer, which supplies water to
the municipal wells.
clay layer
(impermeable)
deep aquifer
shallow aquifer
municipal wells
-------
Fact Flash 4: Flowing Railroad Site Investigation Results
Soil
Sixty soil samples taken from all around
the site and from three nearby locations
reveal:
• Only soil on the site itself is
contaminated.
• High concentrations of TCE were
found in the site's topsoil and in the
soil up to 10 feet beneath the diked
sludge pond.
• Copper, lead, and zinc were found in
the soil by Jimmy's Battery Salvage
site and the Railroad Tie Treatment
Company building.
PCBs were found in and just below
the surface soil near the old
Recycling Services, Inc., building.
• Asbestos was found in the surface
soil near the demolished building.
Surface Water and Sediment
Ten surface water samples and six
sediment samples (soil particles settled
on the river bottom) from the Flowing
River were analyzed to see if the site's
hazardous contamination was affecting
water quality or accumulating in the
sediment. None of the samples showed
any contamination.
Air
Air samples were collected from four
locations to determine whether
contamination from the site affects air
quality nearby. Although no
contaminants from the site were found in
the air, strong winds could blow the
topsoil away, releasing asbestos particles
into the air.
-------
FACTJFLASH
5: Ground water
What /s groundwater?,
Groundwater is fresh water (from rain or
melting ice and snow) that soaks into the
'soil and is stored in the tiny spaces
(pores) between rocks and particles of ,
.soil. Groundwater accounts for nearly 95
percent of the nation's fresh water
resources. It can stay underground for
hundreds of thousands of years, or it can
come to the surface and help fill rivers,
streams, lakes, ponds, and wetlands.
Groundwater can also come to the
surface as a spring or be pumped from a
well. Both of these are common ways
we get groundwater to drink. About 50
percent of our municipal, domestic, and
agricultural water supply is groundwater. ,
How does the ground store
water?
Groundwater is stored in the tiny
open spaces between rock and
sand, soil, and gravel. How well
loosely arranged rock (such as
sand and gravel) holds water
depends on the size of the rock
particles. Layers of loosely
arranged particles of uniform
size (such as sand) tend to hold
more water than layers of rock
with materials of different sizes.
This is because smaller rock ,'
materials settle in the spaces
between larger rock materials,
decreasing the amount of open
space that can hold water.
Pprosity:(how well rock material holds
water) is also affected by the shape of
rock particles. Round particles will pack
more tightly than particles with sharp
edges. Material with angular-shaped,
edges has more open space and can
hold more water.
Groundwater is found in two zones. The
unsaturated zone, immediately below
the land surface, contains, water and air
in the open spaces, or pores. The
saturated zone, a zone in which all the
pores and rock fractures are filled with
water, underlies the unsaturated zone.
The top of the saturated zone is called
the water table (Diagram 1). The water
table may be just below or hundreds of
feet below the land surface.
Diagram 1
Groundwater Zones
-------
Fact Flash 5: Groundwater
What is an aquifer?
Where groundwater can move rapidly,
such as through gravel and sandy
deposits, an aquifer can form. In an
aquifer, there is enough groundwater that
it can be pumped to the surface and
used for drinking water, irrigation,
industry, or other uses.
For water to move through underground
rock, pores or fractures in the rock must
be connected. If rocks have good
connections between pores or fractures
and water can move freely through them,
we say that the rock is permeable.
Permeability refers to how well a
material transmits water. If the pores or
fractures are not connected, the rock
material cannot produce water and is
therefore not considered an aquifer. The
amount of water an aquifer can hold
depends on the volume of the
underground rock materials and the size
and number of pores and fractures that
can fill with water.
An aquifer may be a few feet to several
thousand feet thick, and less than a
square mile or hundreds of thousands of
square miles in area. For example, the
High Plains Aquifer underlies about
280,000 square miles in 8 states—
Colorado, Kansas, Nebraska, New
Mexico, Oklahoma, South Dakota, Texas,
and Wyoming.
How does water fill an aquifer?
Aquifers get water from precipitation (rain
and snow) that filters through the
unsaturated zone. Aquifers can also
receive water from surface waters like
lakes and rivers. When the aquifer is full,
and the water table meets the surface of
the ground, water stored in the aquifer
can appear at the land surface as a
spring or seep. Recharge areas are
where aquifers take in water; discharge
areas are where groundwater flows to
the land surface. Water moves from
higher-elevation areas of recharge to
lower-elevation areas of discharge
through the saturated zone.
How does water circulate?
Surface water and groundwater are part
of the hydrologic cycle, the constant
movement of water above, on, and below
the earth's surface (Diagram 2). The
cycle has no beginning and no end, but
you can understand it best by tracing it
from precipitation.
Precipitation occurs in several forms,
including rain, snow, and hail. Rain, for
example, wets the ground surface. As
more rain falls, water begins to filter into
the ground. How fast water soaks into,
or infiltrates the soil depends on soil
type, land use, and the intensity and
length of the storm. Water infiltrates
faster into soils that are mostly sand than
into those that are mostly clay or silt.
Almost no water filters into paved areas.
Rain that cannot be absorbed into the
ground collects on the surface, forming
runoff streams.
When the soil is completely saturated,
additional water moves slowly down
through the unsaturated zone to the
saturated zone, replenishing or recharging
the groundwater. Water then moves
through the saturated zone to groundwater
discharge areas.
-------
Fact Flash 5; Groundwater
Diagram 2
Hydrologic Cycle
^j'G,'1 "I'tXiL!'•O'.-e-' -O'.;«!:Q~ »;.M.; .: ,^™
Evaporation occurs when Water from such
surfaces as oceans, rivers, and ice is
converted to vapor. Evaporation, together
with transpiration from plants, rises above
the Earth's surface, condenses, and forms
clouds. Water from both runoff and from
groundwater discharge moves toward
streams and rivers and-may eventually
reach the ocean. Oceans are the largest
surface water bodies that contribute to •"
evaporation.
How is groundwater
contaminated?
Groundwater can become contaminated
in many ways. If surface water that
recharges an aquifer is polluted, the
groundwater will also become contami-
nated. Contaminated groundwater can
then affect the quality of surface water at
discharge areas. Groundwater can also
become contaminated when liquid
hazardous substances soak down
through the soil into groundwater.
-------
Fact Flash 5: Groundwater
Contaminants that can dissolve in
groundwater will move along with the
water, potentially to wells used for
drinking water. If there is a continuous
source of contamination entering moving
groundwater, an area of contaminated
groundwater, called a plume, can form
(Diagram 3). A combination of moving
groundwater and a continuous source of
contamination can, therefore, pollute
very large volumes and areas of
groundwater. Some plumes at
Superfund sites are several miles long.
More than 88 percent of current
Superfund sites have some groundwater
contamination.
How do liquids contaminate
groundwater?
Some hazardous substances dissolve
very slowly in water. When these
substances seep into groundwater faster
than they can dissolve, some of the
contaminants will stay in liquid form. If
the liquid is less dense than water, it will
float on top of the water table, like oil on
water. Pollutants in this form are called
light non-aqueous phase liquids
(LNAPLs). If the liquid is more dense
than water, the pollutants are called
dense non-aqueous phase liquids
(DNAPLs). DNAPLs sink to form pools
at the bottom of an aquifer. These pools
continue to contaminate the aquifer as
they slowly dissolve and are carried
away by moving groundwater. As
DNAPLs flow downward through an
aquifer, tiny globs of liquid become
trapped in the spaces between soil
particles. This form of groundwater
contamination is called residual
contamination.
What affects groundwater
contamination?
Many processes can affect how
contamination spreads and what
happens to it in the groundwater,
potentially making the contaminant more
or less harmful, or toxic. Some of the
most important processes affecting
hazardous substances in groundwater
are advection, sorption, and biological
degradation.
. Diagram 3
Contaminated Groundwater
Soil
Contaminant
Plum*
Contaminant
Source
Aquifer
Bedrock
-------
Fact Flash 5: Groundwater
Advection occurs when
contaminants move with the
groundwater.. This is the main form
of contaminant migration in
groundwater. "."•''
Sorption occurs when contaminants
attach themselves to soil particles.
Sorption slows the movement of
contaminants in groundwater, but
also makes it harder to clean up
contamination. /
1 • ,
Biological degradation happens
when microorganisms, such as
bacteria and fungi, use hazardous
substances as a food and energy
source. In the process, contaminants
break down and hazardous
substances often become less
harmful. ••-•'.'
Why is cleaning up groundwater
so hard?
Cleaning up contaminated groundwater
often takes longer than expected
because groundwater systems are
complicated and the contaminants are ,
invisible to the naked eye. This makes it
more difficult to find contaminants and to
design a treatment system that either
destroys the contaminants in the ground
or takes them to the surface for cleanup.
Groundwater contamination is the reason
for most of Superfund's long-term
cleanup actions. Diagram 4 illustrates
groundwater treatment in action.
Diagram 4
Pumping and Treating Contaminated Groundwater
Aquifer
Bedrock
Soil
Contaminant
Plume
5
-------
-------
FACT 4 FLASH
6: Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA)
Liquids, solids, sludges — wastes come
in these forms and many more. Wastes
may be materials left over from
manufacturing, like bits of metal and
plastic, dirty or used chemicals, or
scraps. Waste can also be things we
. throw away in our homes, like
newspapers, food, plastic wrappers, old
cleaning fluids, and disposable razors.
Whatever form waste takes, we have to
manage and dispose of it properly to
protect our health and the environment.
What is RCRA?
In 1976 Congress passed a law that
requires careful disposal of household,
municipal, and commercial and industrial
waste: the Resource Conservation and
Recovery Act (RCRA). Its goals are to:
Conserve energy and natural
resources
• Reduce the amount of waste
generated
Ensure that wastes are managed to
protect human health and the
environment.
RCRA gives EPA the power to^make and
enforce regulations for managing many
kinds of waste. RCRA also allows states
and Indian Tribes to have their own solid
waste and hazardous waste programs in
place 6f the Federal program, as long as
their programs are at least as strong. If
people and companies don't follow the
^regulations they can be fined or jailed.
RCRA regulations apply to three basic
kinds of waste management: municipal
solid waste landfills; hazardous waste
generators and treatment, storage, and
disposal facilities; and underground
tanks storing hazardous materials.
What is municipal solid waste?
Municipal solid waste (MSW) is mostly
nonhazardous garbage from businesses
and homes. Many communities face the
probjem of more and more garbage
being thrown away, with less and less
space to dispose of it. Did you know
every year in the United States we
dispose of...
1 billion foil-lined fruit juice boxes
2 billion used batteries
25 billion styrofoam cups
700,000 old TVs
1.6 billion disposable pens
700,000 junked cars
2 billion disposable razors
15 million tons of food
16 billion disposable diapers
-------
Fact Flash 6: Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA)
Diagram 1
Example of a Properly Closed Landfill
When landfill is full,
layers of soil and clay
seal in trash.
sand
clay
garbage
Wells and probes to detect
leachate or methane leaks
outside landfill.
Pipes collect explosive
methane gas, used as fuel
to generate electricity.
*•£ Cutaway view of a
modem landfill designed
£ to prevent the two main
'•> hazards of the dump: .a.:S
explosions or fires '•""
;^; caused by methane gas,
.'«•' and leakage of rainwater
,»,::.:-.»,-.-.--r».-\?-.HS« mixed with dangerous ;^^
®w53&<3&-<3- chemicals (or leachate). '^?i
.•rv'/a.-o^/yjiT-^.-iJf' ' •^.•rv*
Leachata pumped up
to storage tank (or
?^?
-------
Fact Flash 6: Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA)
What is hazardous waste?
Hazardous waste is most often a by-
product of a manufacturing process -
material left after products are made.
Some hazardous wastes come from our
homes: our garbage can include such
hazardous wastes as old batteries, bug
spray cans, and paint thinner. About
250 million tons of hazardous waste are
generated every year in this country.
About 80 percent of this waste is :
disposed of on the land.
How does RCRA regulate
hazardous w.aste?
EPA determines which wastes are
hazardous. This is an ongoing process
involving new research, tests, and health
concerns. EPA's regulations make sure
hazardous waste is managed safely from
the moment it is generated until it is
disposed. This "cradle to grave"
approach has three key steps.
First, the person who creates the
hazardous waste must keep track of it
when it is moved from where it is
produced. The tracking system requires
the generator of the waste to package
arid label it properly for transportation. A
manifest (list of cargo) travels with any
transported hazardous waste, from the
place it is produced to the place it is
finally disposed of. This helps
transporters and health and safety
officials rapidly identify the waste and its
hazards. About 12 million tons of
hazardous waste are transported each
year for treatment, storage, or disposal.
Second, hazardous waste management
sites, such as hazardous waste landfills
or incinerators, must meet many safety
standards to get a permit to accept
hazardous waste for treatment or
disposal. For example, hazardous waste
landfills are required to have liner
systems to prevent leaks. Treatment
facilities use different processes to
recover material from the waste for
reuse, to change the waste to make it
less hazardous, or to reduce the volume
of the waste.
Third, disposal of many hazardous
wastes is not allowed unless the waste is
treated to make it less hazardous.
Who is affected by RCRA?
Anyone who is involved in making or
dealing with hazardous waste is affected
by RCRA1. The people who create, or
generate hazardous Waste, transport it,
store it, treat it, and dispose of it all must
follow many rules and requirements.
Although most of the hazardous waste
produced in the United States comes
from a relatively small number of very
large companies, companies that
produce only small quantities of
hazardous waste—such as auto repair
shops, laboratories, printers, laundries,
and drycleaners—are also regulated.
Treating and disposing of hazardous
waste is expensive and carries with it
serious legal responsibilities.
What is an underground storage
tank?
• '- v ...
An underground storage tank is a large
metal or fiberglass container .designed to
be buried in the ground and store liquid
chemicals and other materials. The
practice of burying tanks for underground
storage was adopted to reduce the
dangers of fire, explosion, weathering,
and accident (such as hitting a tank with
a car): There are about 1,5 million
underground storage tanks (USTs) in the
United States that contain hazardous J
-------
Fact Flash 6: Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA)
substances or petroleum products (not
counting farm and heating oil tanks). Of
these, nearly 25 percent are leaking now
or will leak in the future.
How does RCRA regulate USTs?
Unfortunately, there are problems with
storing hazardous substances in the
ground. Over time tanks rust, crack, and
leak, and the equipment (pipes, pumps,
and gauges) that connect tanks to the
surface of the ground can fail as well.
Groundwater can be contaminated by
both accidental releases and the slow
seepage of chemicals from buried
storage tanks. To prevent leaks from
tank corrosion, RCRA regulates how new
tanks are built, including special rust
protection. Tank owners must also show
they can pay to clean up a leak if one
occurs, and can compensate people who
are injured or whose property is
damaged because of the leak.
How does EPA enforce the RCRA
regulations?
Individuals and companies that do not
comply with RCRA regulations can face
legal penalties. These penalties can be
imposed by EPA or by a state. For minor
violations, EPA or a state may simply tell
a facility that it is not complying with the
rules and that legal action will be taken if
the owner does not comply within a
certain period. For severe violations or
in cases where the same violation has
been repeated, a facility may face fines
of up to $25,000 for every day past the
deadline that it fails to comply. The
facility's operations can also be
suspended, or the operators can face
criminal charges in court. Possible
violations include falsifying information
on a manifest, transporting waste without
a manifest, or transporting waste to a
facility that isn't operating legally.
How does RCRA encourage waste
reduction?
RCRA has source reduction and
recycling programs to reduce the
amount of wastes discarded. Larger
hazardous waste generators must certify
that they have taken steps to reduce how
much waste they produce. Often, waste
reduction can help industry by cutting the
costs of waste management. Recycling
is also important in reducing waste. EPA
has a national program to increase
recycling of paper, glass, steel, plastics,
and aluminum. At least 35 states have
adopted some form of mandatory
recycling.
»•
How does RCRA encourage public
participation?
RCRA provides on-going opportunities
for public involvement in all facets of the
program. RCRA allows citizens to take
legal action against a person or company
not complying with the regulations, or
against EPA or a state for not properly
enforcing the rules.
In addition, citizens are given the
opportunity to voice their concerns about
new rules and new facilities seeking a
permit to operate in their community.
-------
FACTiFLASH
7: Pollution Prevention
We can't make the problems caused by
the waste we produce go away just by
burying it in landfills. Reducing the
problems our waste causes involves
reducing how much waste we generate,
and recycling the wastes we produce.
Source reduction and recycling can
reduce the amount of waste filling limited
and expensive landfill space. EPA's
recycling and source reduction efforts
focus on wastes in three areas:
municipal solid wastes, industrial
hazardous wastes, and household
wastes.
Municipal Solid Wastes
Municipal solid waste is generated in
every place we live, work, or play —
hospitals, houses, schools, businesses,
football stadiums, and more. The
garbage in municipal landfills
consists of yard waste like grass
clippings and tree branches,
.paper and cardboard, plastics,
metals, glass, food, and other
wastes. In 1990 Americans
recycled or composted about 17
percent of the municipal waste
they generated, and that figure is
even higher today. But even
though we recycled more, we
also threw more away. That's
why it is important to recycle,
compost, reduce the amount of
packaging used in the products
we buy, and make products that
last longer. Waste we avoid
producing or that is reused is
waste we don't have to dispose of yet.
Important types of waste prevention
include composting, recycling, source
reduction, and waste-to-energy
incineration.
• Composting yard waste allows
materials such as grass clippings and
fallen leaves to decompose naturally
into valuable mulch (organic matter '
for gardening) instead of burying -
them in a landfill.
• Recycling collects and uses a waste
product in making a new product.
Recycled aluminum cans, for
example, can be used to make new
cans.
Municipal Waste Components
Other Wastes
12%
Yard Waste
18%
Food Wastes
7%
Metals
8%
Plastics
8%
Paper and
Cardboard
40%
-------
Fact Flash 7: Pollution Prevention
• Source reduction is cutting the
amount of waste produced in the first
place by reducing the amount of
hazardous substances in products,
eliminating wasteful packaging, and
making products last longer. Source
reduction requires manufacturers to
make less wasteful products and
consumers to actively purchase
them.
• Waste-to-energy incineration burns
municipal waste to generate steam
for electricity. Waste-to-energy plants
can decrease waste volume by 60 to
90 percent, while recovering energy
from discarded products.
Industrial Hazardous Waste
Why should industries reduce waste?
The biggest incentive for industries to
reduce the amount of waste they
produce is that disposing of hazardous
wastes is getting more and more
expensive. When companies produce
less waste, their disposal costs are
lower. Companies may also profit from
selling or saving recovered materials.
Industries can reduce the amount of
waste they produce in many ways:
manufacturing process changes, source
separation, recycling, raw material
substitution, and product substitution.
* Manufacturing process changes
involve either eliminating a process
that produces a hazardous waste or
changing the process so that it
produces little or no hazardous
waste. For example, many industrial
operations involve applying paint.
One way to reduce paint-related
hazardous waste is to use low-
toxicity paints, such as those that are
water-based. Another way is to save
excess paint and reuse it.
Source separation refers to
preventing hazardous waste from
coming into contact with
nonhazardous waste. It is the
cheapest and easiest way to reduce
hazardous waste. Source separation
reduces costs for disposal, handling,
and transportation and is widely used
by industry. A good example is
avoiding contamination of a large
amount of water by using another
method to clean hazardous materials
from machines or products instead of
washing them.
• Recycling, also referred to as
recovery and reuse, is common in
industry. Recycling removes a
substance from a waste and returns it
to productive use. Industries
commonly recycle solvents, acids,
and metals.
• Substitution of raw materials
involves replacing raw materials that
generate a large amount of
hazardous waste with those that
generate little or no waste.
Manufacturers can substantially
reduce waste volume through .
substitution. Industry often
substitutes recycled products for raw
natural resources. For example, a
manufacturer can use recycled
-------
Fact Flash 7: Pollution Prevention
aluminum cans instead of aluminum
ore in making new cans. Not,only
can recycled materials be cheaper
than raw materials,-but their use '
creates more demand for recycled
products.
• Product substitution involves
finding nonhazardous substitutes for
materials and products used routinely
in homes and businesses. For
example, by using concrete posts
instead of creosote-preserved wood
posts in construction, builders can
prevent hazardous creosote from
leaching into the surrounding soil or
groundwater.
•' ^., •>. ' ' ' ..
Household Hazardous Waste
Some work around the home may require
products that contain hazardous
components. These commonly used
products include certain paints, cleaners,
stains and varnishes, car batteries, motor
oil, and pesticides. When disposed of,
these products become household
hazardous waste.
Americans generate 1.6 million tons of
household hazardous waste a year.
Household hazardous waste is
sometimes disposed of improperly when
it is poured down the drain, onto the
ground, or into storm sewers, or by being
put in the trash. Some household
hazardous waste can injure sanitation
workers, contaminate wastewater
treatment systems, or leak out of landfills
into grpundwaten
One way to reduce problems from
household hazardous waste is to use
nonhazardous or less hazardous
compounds. People can do this by
learning about alternative products that
are available and choosing those that are
less toxic. If you must use products with
hazardous components, use only the
amount you heed. Leftover products can
be shared with neighbors; donated to a
business, charity, or government agency;
or given to a household hazardous waste
collection program.
Recycling is an economical and
environmentally sound Way to handle
'some types of household hazardous
waste, such as used car batteries and
motor oil. Auto parts stores and service
stations often accept used car batteries
and used oil for recycling.
Because household hazardous waste
can be dangerous, you should always
use, store, and dispose of materials
containing hazardous waste safely. To
prevent accidents, follow disposal
instructions on the label and dispose of
these products through a local collection
program, if possible. More than 3,000
collection programs for household
hazardous waste currently operate in the
United States.
-------
-------
FACTJFLASH
8: Common Cleanup Methods
Hazardous wastes are often treated to
reduce their volume or toxicity and to
protect human health and the
environment. Other cleanup methods
focus on safe management. This Fact
Flash presents five common ways of
treating hazardous waste: air stripping,
capping, precipitation, excavation, and
incineration.
AIR STRIPPING
What is it?
Air stripping removes volatile organic
compounds from contaminated
groundwater or surface water. Volatile
organic compounds, or VOCs, are
chemicals that quickly vaporize when
heated or disturbed. For example, the
gasoline fumes you smell at the gas
station are VOCs volatilized in the air. In
air stripping, these vapors are transferred
from the water in which they were
dissolved into a passing air stream. This
air stream can be further processed to
collect and reuse or destroy the VOCs.
How does it work?
The process starts when contaminated
surface water or groundwater is pumped
from large storage tanks into the top of a
"packed tower" attached to an air blower.
This packed tower is simply a large metal
cylinder packed with material. While the
stream of contaminated water is released
into the tower, an air stream is pumped
Y
up from the bottom. The
material in the tower
forces the water stream to
trickle down th roug h
various channels and air
spaces. As the air stream
flows upward, the contact
of the two streams, called
the "counter-current" flow,
vaporizes the VOCs out ,
of the water stream and
collects them in the air
stream, which exits the
top of the tower.
How does the tower's
packing material work?
Inside the packed tower,
the water stream forms a thin film on the
material, which allows much more of the
air stream to come into contact with the
water stream. Using smaller packing
material increases the surface area
available for air stripping and improves
the transfer process,
Why is it used?
Air stripping is useful for removing VOCs
like triohloroethylene (TCE),
dichloroethylene, chlorobenzene, and
vinyl chloride. These are all hazardous
substances. Equipment used in air
stripping is relatively simple, allowing for
quick start-up and shutdown and easy
maintenance. This makes air stripping
well-suited for hazardous waste site
operations.
-------
Fact Flash 8: Common Cleanup Methods
An important factor to consider in using
air stripping is its impact on air pollution.
Moving VOCs from water to air can
mean just transferring pollution. Gases
generated during air stripping may need
to be collected and treated before they
can be released into the air to avoid
damaging the atmosphere.
How well does it work?
Air stripping can remove up to 98 percent
of VOCs and up to 80 percent of certain
semivolatile compounds. It does not
work well for removing metals or
inorganic contaminants.
CAPPING
What Is it?
Capping, often used in combination with,
other cleanup methods, covers buried
wastes to prevent contaminants from
spreading. Spreading, or migration, can
be caused by rainwater or surface water
moving through the site or by wind
blowing dust off a site. Caps are usually
made of a combination of materials like
synthetic fibers, heavy clays, and
sometimes concrete. Caps should
minimize water movement through the
wastes using efficient drainage; resist
damage caused by settling; prevent
standing water by funneling away as
much water as the underlying filter or
soils can handle; and allow easy
maintenance.
How does it work?
The primary purpose of a cap is to
minimize contact between rain or surface
water and the buried waste. Two types
of caps, multilayered and single-layer,
serve this purpose.
Multilayered caps have three layers:
vegetation, drainage, and water-
resistant. The vegetation layer
prevents erosion of the cap's soils;'
the drainage layer channels rainwater
away from the cap and keeps water
from collecting on the water-resistant
layer, which covers the waste.
Single-layer caps are made of any
material that resists water
penetration. The most effective
single-layer caps are made of
concrete or asphalt, but single-layer
caps are usually not acceptable
unless there are valid reasons for not
using a multilayer cap.
Why is it used?
Capping is required when contaminated
materials are left in place at a site. It is
used when the underground
contamination is so extensive that
excavating and removing it isn't practical,
or when removing wastes would be more
dangerous to human health and the
environment than leaving them in place.
Wells are often used to monitor
groundwater where a cap has been
installed to detect any movement of the
wastes.
How well does it work?
Capping works well for sealing off
contamination from the above-ground
environment and reducing underground
waste migration. Caps can be put over
virtually any site, and can be completed
relatively quickly. Capping materials and
equipment are readily available. A
multilayered cap will usually last for at
least 20 years. Proper maintenance will
make it last even longer.
-------
Fact Flash 8: Common Cleanup Methods
PRECIPITATION
What is it?
Precipitation separates heavy metals
from the water they contaminate.
How does it work?
Precipitation changes dissolved heavy
metal contaminants into a solid form that
can be separated from the water. Water
contaminated with heavy metals is
treated with chemicals, which cause the
metal molecules to stick together and
separate from the water. The solids are
removed from the water. The clean
water is then pumped back into the
ground and the collected metals are
properly disposed of (Diagram 1).
Why is it used?
\r , '
Precipitation is easy to perform and can
be used in many areas. It efficiently
treats contaminated groundwater for '
reuse, and is one of the main methods of
treating industrialwastewaters. ,
How well does it work?
Precipitation can be costly and is difficult to
use if the water is contaminated with many
types of metals, since different metals may
interfere with one another and the cleanup
process. Precipitation is1 very successful in
"treating wastewaters and is becoming the
most widely selected cleanup method for
removing heavy metals from groundwater.
tJontaminatecT
clumps properly
disposed
Diagram!
Precipitation Process
Clumps settle to the
bottom
Water flows
out and is
pumped
back
Clumps of
contamination
. form
-------
Fact Flash 8: Common Cleanup Methods
EXCAVATION
What is it?
Excavation removes contaminated
material from a hazardous waste site
using heavy construction equipment,
such as backhoes, bulldozers, and front
loaders. At certain sites, specially
designed equipment may be used to
prevent the spread of contaminants.
How does it work?
The first step in excavation involves
sampling and mapping the contaminated
area to identify the contaminated area to
be excavated. Samples are taken at
several different depths in the same
location so that a vertical, as well as
horizontal, map of the contamination may
be developed. Historical records, such
as photographs or eye-witness accounts
from past employees, and the
contamination's effects on vegetation can
also be used to pinpoint the area to be
excavated.
Once the contamination is fully mapped,
it can be removed. When hazardous
waste has been buried in the ground a
layer of soil may need to be removed
before the waste is excavated. This
layer, called overburden, is set aside and
is later replaced in its original location.
Contaminated materials are then dug up
and loaded onto trucks for hauling. After
it is cleaned up, excavated soil may be
returned to its original location for use as
backfill. Soil in the walls and bottom of
the excavated area is tested to ensure
that all contamination has been removed.
Excavation proceeds until cleanup goals
are met.
Excavation of hazardous waste or
contaminated materials must be carefully
planned to make sure contamination
doesn't spread to clean areas of the site.
For example, once excavation equipment
is in a contaminated area, it must stay
there until.the work is completed, then
.thoroughly cleaned and decontaminated
prior to leaving the site. In the event that
contaminants have seeped into the
groundwater, additional treatment may
be necessary.
Why is it used?
Hazardous wastes can generally be
excavated without exposing people near
the site to contamination. Wastes can be
removed for further treatment or disposal
at an approved landfill. Excavation uses
common construction equipment and is a
widely used and accepted method of
dealing with hazardous waste.
Excavation is also relatively inexpensive
compared to other, more complicated
treatment technologies.
How well does it work?
Excavation is very effective in removing
contamination and is commonly used at
remediation sites. There are no strict
limits on the types of wastes that can be
excavated and removed. Concern for
worker health and safety, however, may
prevent excavation of explosive, reactive,
or highly toxic waste material.
-------
INCINERATION
What is it?
Incineration involves burning hazardous
wastes to destroy such organic
compounds as dioxins and RGBs.
Incinerators can handle many forms of
waste, including contaminated soils,
"sludges, solids, and liquids. Incineration
is not effective in treating inorganic
substances such as hydrochloric add,
salts, and metals.
EPA establishes and specifies the
conditions under which each incinerator
can operate by issuing permits. A permit
defines how the incinerator must
operate, such as:
• Maximum carbon monoxide level in
stack gases (gases from the
combustion process which exit the
stack after treatment by air pollution
control devices)
Fact Flash 8: Common Cleanup Methods
• Maximum feed rates (how fast
hazardous wastes are fed into the
incinerator)
• Minimum burning temperature.
The permit conditions are designed to
deliver a "complete bum" of the
hazardous waste. For example, a permit
requires the waste feed to be cut off if
burning conditions are not optimal.
How does it work?
Incineration uses high temperatures
(between 1600°F and 2500°F) to
degrade contaminants into nontoxic
substances, such as water, carbon
dioxide, and nitrogen oxides (nitrogen
and oxygen). Properly done, high-
temperature incineration can be an
effective, odorless, and smokeless
process. The process is illustrated in
Diagram 2.
Diagram 2
Incineration Process
Contaminated
Soil :
Air
Fu
Combustion
Chamber
Greater than 2000T
Gases to
_, Air Pollution
Control Devices
'rrnaty Combustion Chamber
1600T-1800T
-------
Fact Flash 8: Common Cleanup Methods
EPA incinerator regulations assume that
all leftover ash and material removed
from the incinerator are hazardous.
Accordingly, they must be disposed of at
a facility that has a permit to handle
hazardous waste. In addition, water used
in the incineration process must meet
strict standards before it can be
discharged to surface waters.
Why is it used?
Incineration can be a permanent waste
disposal solution because it destroys
wastes that would otherwise take up
space in a landfill. Incineration effectively
destroy over 99 percent of all organic
compounds.
A common misconception is that the
more toxic the chemical, the more difficult
it is to bum. EPA's research shows that
how toxic a chemical is does not relate to
how easily it breaks down under heat
during incineration.
How well does it work?
No incinerator can destroy 100 percent
of the hazardous waste fed into it. Small
amounts are released into the
atmosphere through the incinerator stack
or are mixed with the ash. EPA requires
that each incinerator destroy and remove
99.99 percent of all hazardous waste it
processes. For PCBs and dioxin wastes,
the standard is 99.999 percent. When
operated properly, incinerators can meet
or exceed these standards. Operating at
this level of efficiency, however, is a
complex, highly technical task.
-------
FACTJFIASH
'-''--'' ' I ''.'.- . . -. ."• •'
9: Common Contaminants
While each JSuperfurid site is Unique, with
different conditions, history, and
contamination, some contaminants are
commonly found at many sites. This
Fact Flash describes these common
contaminants, how people can be
exposed to them, and how they can
affect human health.
ASBESTOS
What is it?
Asbestos is the name .used for any of six
minerals (amosite, chrysotile, tremolitte,
actinolite, anthophyllite, and crocidolite)
that occur naturally in the environment.
The most common mineral type is white
(chrysotile). These minerals are made
up of long, thin fibers similar to
fiberglass. Asbestos fibers are very'
strong and heat-resistant, leading to the
use of asbestos in a wide range of
products, mostly in building materials
and heat-resistant fabrics. Asbestos
fibers do not evaporate or dissolve in
water, and are not broken down oyer
time, They usually settle out of air and
water and are deposited in soil or
sediment, but very small fragments can
remain in the air or in water.
How can exposure occur?
Inhaling tiny asbestos.fibers suspended
in air is the most likely exposure route,
or the way in which people come into
contact with a substance. Asbestos can
be detected in almost any air sample. In
rural areas there is usually an average of
0.03 to 3 fibers in a cubic meter of
outdoor air (about the amount of air you
breathe in one hour), While levels near
an asbestos mine or factory can reach
2,000 fibers per cubic meter or higher.
Levels also dould be above average near
a building that is being demolished or
renovated, or near sites where asbestos
wastes are not properly protected from .
being spread by the wind.
Inhaled asbestos fibers may be
deposited in the passages and on the
cells of the lungs. Most fibers are
removed from the lungs by being carried
away in a layer of mucus to the throat,
where they are swallowed into the
stomach. This usually takes place within
a few hours, but fibers deposited in the
deepest parts of the lung are removed
more slowly. Some can remain for many
years or may never be removed.
-------
Fact Flash 9: Common Contaminants
Asbestos exposure can also result from
drinking fibers present in water. Fibers
can enter water by being eroded from
natural deposits, or from cement pipes
used to carry drinking water. Most
drinking water supplies in the United
* States have concentrations of less than
one million fibers per liter.
Nearly all swallowed asbestos fibers
pass along the intestines within a few
days and are excreted. A small number
of fibers remain in cells that line the
stomach or intestines, and a few enter
the blood. Some of these become
trapped in other tissues, while others are
removed in the urine.
How can it affect human health?
Exposure to high levels of asbestos
increases the chances of getting two
types of cancer: lung cancer and cancer
of the thin membrane that surrounds the
lung and other internal organs, called
mesothelioma. Both types are usually
fatal, and develop over a number of
years. Breathing asbestos can also
increase the chances of getting cancer
elsewhere (for example, in the
esophagus, stomach, or intestines).
Breathing asbestos can also cause an
accumulation of scar-like tissue in the
lungs and in the membrane surrounding
the lungs. This tissue does not expand
and contract like normal lung tissue,
making breathing difficult. Blood flow to
the lungs may also decline, causing
heart enlargement. When the injury is
mostly in the lungs, the disease is called
asbestosis.
COPPER
What is it?
Copper is a reddish metal that occurs
naturally in rock, soil, water, plants,
sediment, and air. It is an essential
element for all living organisms. Copper
is most commonly found in pennies,
electrical wiring, and some water pipes.
It is also found in many alloys, such as
brass and bronze.
Copper is extensively mined and
processed and is primarily used as a
metal or alloy in making wire, sheet
metal, pipe, and other metal products.
Copper compounds are most commonly
used in agriculture to treat plant
diseases, for water treatment, and as
preservatives for wood, leather, and
fabrics.
*
How can exposure occur?
Most copper is released to land by
mining operations, agriculture, solid
waste, and sludge from sewage
treatment plants. Copper is released to
water from soil and industrial and
sewage treatment discharge. Much of
this copper is attached to dust and other
air particles.
Most copper compounds found in air,
water, sediment, soil, and rock are so
strongly attached to dust and dirt or
embedded in minerals that they don't
usually affect health; this is common of
copper found at hazardous waste sites.
Some copper in the environment,
however, is less tightly bound to particles
and may be absorbed by plants and
animals. Dissolved copper compounds
commonly used in agriculture, for
example, are more likely to threaten
human health.
-------
Fact Flash 9: Common Contaminants
Copper can enter the body by ingesting
water or food, soil, or other substances
that contain copper, or by inhaling copper
dust or fumes. Drinking water that
contains higher levels of dissolved '
copper is a common pathway. Water can
absorb copper from pipes and brass
faucets as it sits overnight. The average
concentration of copper in tap water'
ranges from 20 to 75 parts per billion
(ppb). The term "parts per billion" is a
way of expressing the concentration of a
contaminant in a liquid or air. One part
per billion is a very small amount—-equal
to 1 inch in a distance of about 16,000- ..
miles (or one penny in $10 million).
How can it affect human health ?
The body is very good at blocking high
levels of copper from entering the
bloodstream. Copper is necessary for
good health, but large daily intakes of
copper can be harmful. Long-term
exposure to copper dust can irritate the
nose, mouth, and eyes, and cause
headaches, dizziness, nausea, and
diarrhea. Vomiting, diarrhea, stomach
cramps, and nausea may occur if you
drink water that contains high levels of -
copper. Although large amounts can
cause liver and kidney damage, copper
is not known to cause cancer.
LEAD
What is it?
Lead, is a bluish-gray metal that occurs
naturally in the environment. Lead is
found in plants and animals that are used
for food, and in air, drinking water,
surface waters, and soil.
Lead is mined from ore deposits or is
salvaged from recycled scrap metal. It is
used in a wide range of products,
including batteries, paint, ammunition
and various metal products.
How can exposure occur?
Lead exposure results from inhaling air,
drinking water, or ingesting foods or soil
that contain lead. Children may be
exposed to lead by swallowing chips of
paint that contain lead - a surprisingly
common occurrence.
Until recently, the largest single source of
lead in the air was vehicle exhaust.
Currently, key sources include emissions
from iron and steel production, smelting
operations, and lead-acid battery ,.
manufacturers. Cigarette smoke is also
a source of lead. Most of the lead in
water is from lead plumbing and solder in
houses and other buildings, lead-
contaminated dust and soil carried into
water by rain and wind, and wastewater
from industries that use lead.. ,
Lead in soil often comes from lead- .
contaminated wastes in landfills and from
fertilizers. Because plants can absorb
lead from contaminated soil, food may
contain lead as a result.
Lead exposure stems primarily from
contact with contaminated dust or water.
Lead has been found at over 800
Superfund sites. Lead can enter the
body if you breathe air contaminated with
lead particles. Nearly all lead entering
the lungs moves to the blood and then to
other parts of the body. In adults, very
little of the lead they ingest enters the
blood. In children Who swallow food or
soil containing lead, however, much
more of the lead enters their blood and
moves to other parts of their bodies.
Relatively small amounts of lead enter
the body through the skin. Most lead
ingested or inhaled is stored in bone.
Since more lead is stored with each new
exposure, the level in bones and teeth
increases with age. Lead that is not
stored in the body is removed in bodily
wastes.
-------
Fact Flash 9: Common Contaminants
How can it affect human health?
Lead exposure is especially dangerous
for fetuses: a woman's exposure during
pregnancy can cause premature birth,
low birth weight, even miscarriage.
Young children are also at greater risk of
health damage because their bodies
absorb more lead and are more sensitive
' to its negative effects. Lead exposure in
Infants and young,children can lower IQ
scores, stunt physical growth, and cause
hearing problems.
Exposure to high levels of lead can
cause severe brain and kidney damage,
and affect older men's blood pressure
and reproductive systems.
POLYCHLORINATED
BIPHENYLS (PCBs)
What are they?
PCBs are human-made chemicals of
varying toxicity. Because they are good
insulators and are
nonflammable, PCBs
have been widely
used as coolants
and lubricants in
transformers and other
electrical equipment.
Evidence that PCBs
damage the environment
and may cause health hazards led to the
end of PCB manufacture in the United
States in 1977.
How can exposure occur?
Although PCBs are no longer
manufactured, human exposure still
occurs. Many older transformers, which
have a lifespan of at least 30 years, use
fluids that contain PCBs. PCBs are very
persistent and are widely distributed in
the environment. They have been found
in over 300 Superfund sites. Levels of
PCBs can be found in outdoor air, on soil
surfaces, and in water. PCBs can be
released into the environment from:
• Poorly maintained hazardous waste
sites that contain PCBs
• Illegal or improper dumping of PCB
wastes
• Leaks of gases from electrical
transformers that contain PCBs
• Disposal of PCB-containing
consumer products into municipal
rather than hazardous waste landfills.
Eating PCB-contaminated fish can be a
major source of exposure. Exposure
from drinking water or from breathing
outdoor air containing PCBs is less
common. Once in the air, PCBs can be
carried long distances — they have even
been found in snow and seawater in the
Antarctic. Contaminated indoor air may
also be a major source of human
exposure to PCBs.
How can they affect human health?
PCBs can cause such health problems
as liver damage, skin irritation, cancer,
and reproductive system damage. While
the role of PCBs in causing cancer and
other health problems in people cannot
be clearly demonstrated, research shows
there is cause for people to be
concerned about PCB exposure.
-------
Fact Flash 9: Common Contaminants
TRICHLOROETHYLENE (TCE) ZINC
What is it?
TCE is a human-made, cigar liquid used
mainly as a solvent to remove oils and-
grease from metal during manufacture or
maintenance.
How can exposure occur?
Various studies show4hat between 9 and
34 percent of the nation's water may be
contaminated with TCE. It has been
found in over 700 Superfund sites. TCE
can evaporate from disposal sites into
the air or leak into grbundwater. It can
also evaporate into the air during its
production, orfrom glues, paints,
coatings, and other chemicals.
1 • ' ' * /
TCE can enter the body by breathing
contaminated air, drinking contaminated
water, or absorption through the skin.
How can it affect human health?
Dizziness, headaches, slow reflexes,
sleepiness, and numbness have
occurred in people breathing TCE or
using TCE products in poorly ventilated
areas. Irritation of the eyes, nose, and
throat can also occur if undiluted TCE is
ingested. Unconsciousness, or even
death, can occur from drinking or
breathing higher amounts of TCE.
Generally, minor negative effects that
result from one or several exposures to
TCE disappear when exposure ends.
Some harmful health effects may persist
after long-term TCE exposure. Studies
show that repeatedly ingesting or
breathing high levels of TCE can cause
nervous system changes; liver and
kidney damage; tumors of the liver,
kidney, and lungs; and leukemia.
What is it?
Zinc is one of the most widely used
metals in the world. It is used both
alone, to coat other metals* and
combined with other metals to form
alloys such as brass and bronze. It also
combines with other chemicals such as
chlorine to form zinc compounds (zinc
chloride). Zinc compounds occur
naturally in the air, soil-, and water, and
are present in all foods. Our bodies
need small amounts of zinc, but in large
doses it can be harmful.
. * . -- . • - •- /
How can exposure occur?
Zinc mostly enters the environment from
smelting and refining operations, and is
usually found in surface water and
groundwater. Zinc may also enter the
soil in discharges from industrial
operations and in the natural .breakdown
of zinc ore deposits. Food is the main
source of ingested zinc; other exposure.
sources include drinking water,
contaminated air, and tobacco products.
Zinc is carried into the air as dust and
fumes from zinc production facilities,
automobile emissions, fuel combustion,
and soil erosion. Garbage incineration,
coal combustion, and smelters are also
major sources of airborne zinc.
Zinc is present in most rocks and in
certain minerals. As these materials
break down over time, zinc may be
released to surface water or
groundwater. This source of zinc is
diluted and widely dispersed. Rainwater
in urban areas, mine drainage, and
municipal and industrial wastes are more
concentrated sources of zinc in water.
Zinc in soil may come from particles that
5
-------
Fact Flash 9: Common Contaminants
are deposited from the atmosphere, or
from sewage treatment sludge.
Hazardous waste sites are additional
sources of zinc in soil. Zinc has been
found in over 700 Superfund sites.
Zinc enters the body through the
digestive tract when food or water
containing zinc is ingested. It also can
enter through the lungs when zinc dust
or fumes are inhaled. The most
important exposure pathway is likely to
be through drinking zinc-contaminated
water. Normally, zinc leaves the body in
wastes.
How can it affect human health?
Problems with digestion will usually
result from eating food or drinking water
that contains too much zinc. Stomach
cramps, nausea, and vomiting have
resulted from ingesting too much zinc.
Over an extended period, overexposure
to zinc may affect the body's immune
system.
-------
FACT'jFLASH
10: Superfund Community Involvement Program
Community involvement is essential in all
Superfund actions taken by the U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA),
since the Superfund program is based on
the public's rights and concerns in
maintaining a safe, healthy environment.
Community participation in the
Superfund process ensures that citizen
concerns are identified and met and that
the public is involved in the decisions
that affect their health and well-being.
Sometimes citizens help decide how
contaminated sites will be used after they
are cleaned up.
EPA's community involvement program
promotes open communication among
everyone involved in, or affected by, the
Superfund process. The goal is to build
trust, to focus on real problems, and, to
find workable solutions. When the public
is actively involved, better cleanup
decisions are made and the cleanup
process is better understood.
What is community involvement?
Formal community involvement in the
cleanup process at a site starts when,
EPA assigns a community involvement
coordinator to4he Superfund site. These
coordinators facilitate communications
and activities so that the public can
participate in Superfund decisions that
affecf their communities. Coordinators
have three goals for involving the
community:
Keep the public informed about ,••:.
everything that's going on - what the
problems are, what the health risks
are, how progress is being made, and
any other issues related to the site.
Give people the chance to provide
feedback on decisions.
Identify and resolve conflicts, keeping
the dialogue constructive.
For each Superfund site, the following
building blocks for public participation are
required;
••• Community Relations Plan (CRP)
Information repositories/
administrative record
• Explanation of planned response and
cleanup activities
• Technical Assistance Grants (TAGs)
• Public comment periods
• Response to comments
•- Remedial design fact sheet.
-------
Fact Flash 10: Superfund Community Involvement Proigram
Community Relations Plan
»
A site-specific Community Relations Plan
guides EPA's community involvement
efforts during a site cleanup. This plan
describes various ways to encourage
effective communication between the
community and EPA; identifies where the
public can attend meetings and find
information about the site; describes the
site; lists how the community has been
involved in the past; and talks about
public concerns and interests. It also
describes the community involvement
activities that will be scheduled. The
plan helps both the community and EPA
by discussing past events and current
concerns.
Technical Assistance Grants
(TAGs)
TAGs are $50,000 grants made available
to qualified groups of citizens affected by
hazardous waste. Grants are given to
community groups so they can hire
technical advisors who can help explain
technical information about a site, or
obtain training, supplies, and equipment.
Groups eligible to receive this grant
money include citizens' associations and
environmental or health advocacy
organizations.
Information Repository
For each Superfund site
EPA creates an information
center, called an
information repository, that
the public can easily use.
Typically it is located in a
library or town hall.
Documents in the 'mmmmillimmmilllimiimm
repository include site work plans, the
Community Relations Plan, investigation
studies, a health assessment, the
proposed plan for cleaning up the site,
sampling reports, fact sheets, and other
materials related to the site.
Administrative Record
The administrative record is a file that
has all of the technical documents
related to the site cleanup, as well as all
the public's comments. A copy of the
administrative record is kept in the
information repository so the public can
review it.
Proposed Plan
EPA prepares a proposed plan that
discusses what studies have been done
at the site, what cleanup options there
are, and which cleanup method EPA
prefers.
Fact Sheets
EPA distributes a fact sheet that
describes the proposed plan and
publishes a notice in the newspaper
telling people about how they can review
it and give input.
Before EPA picks a cleanup remedy,
community members can attend a
meeting to discuss the plan and give
their comments. Citizens have at least
30 days to review and comment on the >
plan. Public meetings give community
members a chance to ask questions or
express their opinions and concerns
about a proposed remedy.
Responsiveness Summary
At the end of the public comment period,
EPA summarizes all questions and
comments it received from the public and
its response to these comments. This
summary, called the responsiveness
summary, is included in EPA's Record of
Decision (ROD) for the site.
-------
Fact Flash 10: Superfund Community Involvement Program
If, as a result of public input, EPA makes
a big change in which cleanup method it
chooses,, it publishes a revised proposed
plan to explain the change and either
extends or renews the public comment
period. EPA then publishes a notice that
tells the public which remedy has been
selected in the ROD and where they can
read the ROD for more details.
Remedial Design Fact Sheet
Once it selects a remedy, EPA distributes
a remedial design fact sheet that .
explains the technology used to cleanup
the site.
What else does EPA do to involve
community?
EPA always gets community input when
it proposes to add or delete a site from
the list of the nation's worst hazardous,
waste sites, or to include a site in a
special research project. EPA also does
many other things to make sure the
community can get involved and stay
informed, including: ,
Produce fact sheets, newsletters, or
brochures to give more information
about a site or to warn residents
about potential health threats, such
as eating fish from a contaminated,
river or lake
teach children about Superfund sites
and their dangers
Operate a telephone hotline to
ansWer questions
• Inform the news media about site
activities and plans
The Daily News
Thursday Edition
Cleanup Plan Proposed for Dump
Site. Public Meeting Scheduled.
• Show videos about site activities to
community residents and groups
• Help citizens form working groups to
influence site decisions
• Conduct site tours and hold open
houses so people can learn more
about the cleanup process
Make presentations to local groups
and officials about site activities
•'•' Build observation decks so people
can watch what's happening at a site
Conduct door-to-door interviews to
collect or share information.
Community Advisory Groups (CAGs)
are another way to promote community
involvement. CAGs help people,
especially low-income and minority
groups, participate in the decision
making process at Superfund sites.
CAGs help communities get recognition,
training, guidance, and other support that
will hejp them work with EPA.
-------
Fact Flash 10: Superfund Community Involvement Program
Another program is Technical Outreach
Services for Communities (TOSC). It
offers assistance to communities affected
by hazardous waste substances but that
don't have a TAG. TOSC provides
technical information and guidance
through relationships with 23 universities
across the nation.
What are the benefits of
community involvement?
Better cleanup decisions are often made
when the public is involved, and the
community understands the cleanup
process better if they participate. At
several sites citizen involvement has
changed Superfund cleanups. For
example, at a site in New England EPA
proposed to clean up contaminated soil
by burning it in an incinerator. But the
community opposed the remedy and
rallied the support of others in the state.
Because of their efforts, EPA changed
the cleanup remedy. In Montana,
community residents wanted to turn part
of a Superfund site into a golf course.
EPA listened to what the community
wanted and worked with everyone
involved — as a result, the golf course
will be built within the next few years
when cleanup is complete.
What can you do to get involved?
To get involved in making decisions
about a Superfund site in your
community, you can:
Contact your Community
Involvement Coordinator (CIC) and
let them know you want to find out
more about the site, and ask how
you can help
Call the RCRA, Superfund, and
EPCRA Hotline for public materials
at 1-800-424-9346
Start a CAG
Visit the Site's Information
Repository
Apply for a TAG
Attend public meetings
Surf the Internet
Become involved with environmental
groups in your area
Ask your CIC to give a presentation/
workshop to,your community
Ask your CIC for the TOSC nearest
you
Let EPA know what you think
through letters
Tell others about what you are doing
and how they can help.
-------
FACTJFIASH
11: Other Major Environmental Laws
Congress thas enactejl a series of
environmental laws that work together to
protect our health, our environment, and
our future. Some laws are about
protecting natural resources, some are
about protecting people, and some affect
how businesses and governments can
act. They all work together to make a
cleaner, safer.world. Laws set out a
framewprk or a basic outline of what
needs to be done. Then a government
agency, in this case EPA, writes rules,
regulations, and policies to fulfill what the
law says should be done. The laws
described in this Fact Flash are Federal
laws. That means they apply to the
entire United States. Each state also
has its own laws and its own agencies to
implement its laws. Most of the Fact
Flashes talk about CERCLA and the
Superfund Program. Here are some
other important environmental laws.
Resource Recovery and
Conservation Act (RCRA)
RGRA controls hazardous waste
management from generation through •.
disposal, including the waste generators,
transporters, and owners and operators
of waste treatment, storage, and disposal
facilities. Requirements are enforced
through permits that specify the practices
and conditions that must be followed by'
hazardous Waste handlers. RCRA
applies mainly to tracking and ensuring
safe management of hazardous waste
from creation to disposal. RCRA works
together with Superfund, which
addresses the serious problem of
abandoned wastes and inactive
hazardous waste facilities. Superfund
handles the mistakes of the past, and
RCRA tries to prevent the creation of
new hazardous sites.
RCRA also regulates solid waste
management and the underground
storage tank (UST) program. There are
nearly two million USTs around the
country. USTs can harm the environment
through leaks or spills. UST owners and
operators must clean up any damage
their tanks may have caused. New tanks
must also meet stringent standards and
be operated to minimize the chance of
leaks or spills.
Clean Air Act (CAA) :
The Clean Air Act restricts the kinds and
amounts of pollutants that may be
released into the air by cars, industry,
and other sources. The CAA requires
states to control air pollution through the
use of permits. All air pollution sources
must meet emission limits set by state
plans. These plans describe the
-------
Fact Flash 11: Other Major Environmental Laws
pollution control and permit requirements
for new emission sources. The National
Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS)
are the basis of the CAA program and
cover air emission standards for sulfur
dioxide, nitrogen oxides, particulate
matter, carbon rnonoxide, ozone, and
lead. For each, there is a primary
standard that protects human health with
an adequate safety cushion, and a
secondary, more stringent, standard that
better promotes public welfare.
Clean Water Act (CWA)
CWA regulates the pollution that will
reach surface waters (rivers, lakes,
ponds and streams). Like the CAA,
discharge of
pollutants from
recpgnized
sources is
controlled by
issuing
permits. The
law prohibits a
point source
from
discharging pollutants into the water
unless the discharge meets certain
permit requirements. A point source is
generally the point at which a facility
discharges wastewater, such as a paper
mill emptying wastewater into a creek via
a pipe.
The centerpiece of the CWA is the
National Pollutant Discharge Elimination
System (NPDES) permit. There are
many types of NPDES permits,
depending on the type of discharge and
the water quality standards being applied
to the discharge. The NPDES permit
may allow a permittee to discharge an
authorized level of a pollutant, but
require that any failures to comply with
the permit be reported. NPDES
permitting is a complex process. The
GWA also protects wetlands and
provides grants for communities to build
sewer treatment plants.
Oil Pollution Act (OPA)
OPA, passed in 1990, establishes liability
and compensation rules related to oil
spills, and creates a $1 billion
supplemental compensation fund for oil
spills. OPA focuses on liability and
compensation after a spill has occurred,
and guides cleanup of contaminated
areas. Like Superfund, OPA's fund can
be used for cleanups if responsible
parties can't or won't do the work
themselves.
Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA)
SDWA ensures that our tap water is fit to
drink. Passed in 1974, SDWA sets
national drinking water standards for
public systems that deliver water to the
tap. SDWA also protects groundwater
through the
underground injection
control program, which
regulates the disposal
of liquid waste
in underground
wells, and the
wellhead
protection
program,
which prevents
contamination
of areas surrounding public wells.
-------
Fact Flash 11: Other Major Environmental Laws
SDWA is used with RCRA and CERCLA
to protect and clean up groundwater by
setting water quality standards.
Toxic Substances Control Act
(TSCA)
TSCA, passed in 1976, requires tests of
chemicals that may harm human health
or the environment; reviews of new
chemical substances; limits on the
availability of some existing chemicals;
and import certification standards to
ensure that imported chemicals comply
with domestic rules. TSCA bars the
introduction of chemicals that may pose
unreasonable risks to people or the
environment, when the risks outweigh
ppssible economic and social benefits.
TSCA also regulates existing chemicals,
particularly PCBs. For PCBs and a few
other chemicals, TSCA prohibits or limits
use and regulates handling, storage, and
disposal.
Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and
Rpdenticide Act (FIFRA)
Parsed in 1972, FIFRA regulates the
manufacture and use of pesticides and
allows EPA to restrict or prohibit use (if
particularly harmful pesticides.
Emergency Planning and
Community Right-to-Know Act
(EPCRA)
EPCRA makes sure people have an
opportunity to find out what chemical
hazards are in a community, and helps
communities plan for chemical accidents
or incidents. EPCRA requires states to
develop plans to prepare for possible
chemical accidents or emergencies. It
also makes businesses report annually
on the chemicals they use and store and
the amount of toxic chemicals they have
released into the environment. This
information is available to the public.
Occupational Safety and Health
Act (OSHA)
OSHA sets minimum health and safety
standards for the workplace. Private
employers must protect their employees
by following OSHA requirements.
OSHA, RCRA, TSCA, FIFRA, and
EPCRA share common reporting and
record-keeping requirements, and EPA
and OSHA cross-train their inspectors to
look for both environmental and OSHA
violations.
-------
-------
GL099ARY
-------
-------
Glossary
These words and phrases are scientific, medical, or environmental terms used in
the Haz-Ed materials. ,
Acid— a solution that has a pH value lower than 7 •
Acute — occurring only once or more than once within a short period of time
Acute Exposure — a single exposure to a hazardous material for a brief length of time
Administrative Record — a compifation of documents supporting an administrative
action; under Siiperfund, administrative actions often compel Potentially Responsible
Parties (PRPs) to undertake or pay for hazardous waste site cleanups
Advection — transportation of contaminants by the flow of a current of water or air
Adverse Health Effect — any effect resulting in anatomical, functional, or psychological
impairment that may affect the performance of the whole organism
Anatomical Response — measure of a change in or damage to the anatomy of a
species as a result of exposure to a contaminant
Aquifer —• an underground rock formation composed of sand, soil, gravel, or porous
rock that can store and supply groundwater to wells and springs
Aquitard — a barrier to the flow of groundwater in an aquifer . .
Assessment—see site assessment
.Base — a solution that has a pH value greater than 7
Benthic^^ relating to or occurring at the bottom of a body of water ,,
Bioaccumulation — the retention and buildup of chemicals or hazardous substances in
the bodies of organisrhs due to repeated exposure or consuming contaminated
organisms lower on the food chain
Biochemical Response —^ measure of a change in or damage to the blood chemistry
of a species as a result of exposure to a contaminant
Biological Degradation — as used in the Superfuhd Program/the process by which
biological agents can reduce or eliminate risks posed by a hazardous substance
through decomposition into less hazardous components
-------
Biomass — the amount of living matter in a given area, often refers to vegetation
Blood Enzyme Level — measure of a change in the enzymes normally present in the
blood of a species as a result of exposure to a contaminant
Carcinogen — a substance or agent that may produce or increase the risk of cancer
Chronic Exposure — continuous or repeated exposure to a hazardous substance over
a long period of time
Clay Soil — soil composed chiefly of fine particles
Clean Air Act — gives EPA authority to set standards for air quality and to control the
release of airborne chemicals from industries, power plants, and cars
Cleanup — the process of removing, treating, or disposing of contaminants at a site
and restoring the site to a condition that is not dangerous to people or the environment
Clean Water Act — a Federal law that controls the discharge of pollutants into surface
water in a number of ways, including discharge permits
Community — an interacting population of various types of individuals (or species) in a
common location; a neighborhood or specific area where people live
Community Involvement —a process in which the concerns of local citizens are
addressed during the Superfund process
Composting — the decomposition of yard waste and vegetable scraps into organic
material
Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act
(CERCLA) — enacted in 1980 and nicknamed Superfund, this law provides the
authority through which the Federal government can compel people or companies
responsible for creating hazardous waste sites to clean them up. It also created a
public trust fund, known as the Superfund, to assist with the cleanup of inactive and
abandoned hazardous waste sites or accidentally spilled or illegally dumped hazardous
materials.
Concentration — the amount of one material dispersed or distributed in a larger
amount of another material
Condensation — a part of the hydrologic cycle during which water vapor turns into a
liquid
Confined Aquifer — an aquifer bounded on the top by confining materials such as rock
formations
-------
Contaminant — harmful or hazardous matter introduced into the environment
• ' / • - • - • . • - -
Contaminant Level — a measure of how much of a contaminant is present
Contamination — the introduction of harmful or hazardous matter into the environment
Corrective Action — cleanup of hazardous waste contamination at non-Superfund
sites . ' " ' . '
Corrosive — capable of chemically wearing substances away (corroding) or destroying •
them
Deep-Well Injection — injection of hazardous wastes into deep wells: underground
Dense Non-Aqueous Phase Liquid (DNAPL) — liquid contaminants that are relatively
insoluble and heavier than water; also known as "sinkers" because they will sink to the
bottom of an aquifer, where they become especially difficult to detect and clean Up
Discharge Areas — locations where groundwater flows or is discharged to the surface
Discovery — the initial activity in the Superfund process where a potentially
contaminated site is reported to EPA or a similar state or localagency
Diversity — variety; differences among and within species
Early Action — a response action that addresses the release or possible release, of
hazardous substances and can be resolved within a short period of time ,
Ecology — study of the relationships of living organisms to each other and to their „
environment
Ecosystem — a specialized community, including all the component organisms, that
forms an interacting system; for example, a marsh, a shoreline, a forest
Emergency — a situation or occurrence of a serious nature that develops suddenly and
unexpectedly and demands immediate action
Emergency Response — a response action to situations that may cause immediate
and serious harm to people or the environment
"•.'"• . "" • '•""',•
Environment—totality of conditions surrounding an organism
Environmental Risk — likelihood, or probability, of injury, disease, or death resulting
from exposure to a potential environmental hazard
Epidemiology — study of causes of disease or toxic effects in human populations,
-------
Estuary — region of interaction between rivers and near-shore ocean waters, where tidal
action and river flow create a mix of fresh and salt water; may include bays, mouths of
rivers, salt marshes, and lagoons; brackish water ecosystems; may shelter and feed
marine life, birds, and wildlife
Evaporation — a part of the hydrologic cycle during which liquid water turns into water
vapor
Exposure — coming into contact with a substance through inhalation, ingestion, or direct
contact with the skin; may be acute or chronic
Fauna — animal life
Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act (FIFRA) — a Federal law that
requires labels on pesticides that provide clear directions for safe use; FIFRA also
authorizes EPA to set standards to control how pesticides are used
Fertilizers — nitrogen- and phosphate-rich chemical compounds that are used to
increase the productivity of croplands; fertilizer production usually includes the use and
disposal of petrochemicals
Flora — plant life
Fresh Water — water resources free from salt that are critical to living organisms; 3
percent of the water on Earth is fresh (the rest is salt water), and 95 percent of fresh water
resources are groundwater
Groundwater — water found beneath the Earth's surface that fills pores between
materials, such as sand, soil, or gravel
Habitat Encroachment — term used to describe the way natural habitats are destroyed
as human development of new areas continues to grow and expand, or pollution damages
the environment
Hazard Ranking System (HRS) — the method EPA uses to assess and score the
hazards posed by a site that takes into account the nature and extent of contamination
and the potential for the hazardous substances to migrate from the site through air, soil,
surface water, or groundwater; HRS scores are used to determine whether a site should
be placed on the National Priorities List (NPL)
Hazardous Chemical — see Hazardous Substance
Hazardous Material — see Hazardous Substance
Hazardous Substance — a broad term that includes all substances that can be harmful
to people or the environment; toxic substances, hazardous materials and other similar
terms are subsets of hazardous substances
-------
Hazardous Waste — by-products or waste materials of manufacturing and other-
processes that have some dangerous property; generally categorized as corrosive,
ignitable, toxic, or reactive, or in some way harmful to people or the environment
- - " ' .'-'-" * ' '
Health Risk Assessment — scientific evaluation of the probability of harm resulting
from exposure to hazardous materials
' Heavy Metals— metals such as lead, chromium, copper, and cobalt that can be toxic
'-• at relatively low concentrations
Histopathological Test — test that examines the structure of cells and tissues to
determine if any damage has been caused by exposure to a contaminant
% *
Hydrologic Cycle — the process of evaporation, transpiration, condensation,
precipitation, infiltration, runoff, and percolation in which water molecules travel above,
. below, and on the Earth's surface V
Ignitable ^—capable of bursting into flames easily ]
Infiltration — the movement of water through the ground surface into the unsaturated
' zone '...,. ; ;'' • . - : ' '', ' • •' •
Information Repository — a set of current information, technical reports, and reference
documents regarding a Superfund site; it should be located in a public building that is
convenient for local residents, such as a pubfic school, city hall, or public library
Innovative treatment Technologies — remedies that have been tested, selected, or
used for treating hazardous waste or contaminated materials but don't have much
information on cost and performance
Inorganic Compounds —• chemical compounds that do not contain carbon, usually
associated with life processes; for example, metals are inorganic
./'"'*- . • '
Landfill — a location for the disposal of wastes on land designed to protect the public
from hazards in waste streams; sanitary landfills, designed to receive municipal solid ,
waste, are distinguished from hazardous waste landfills, designed to isolate
hazardous substances
Liability — under Superfund, a party responsible for the presence of hazardous waste
at a site is also legally responsible for acting and paying to reduce or eliminate the risks
posed by the site
Light Non-Aqueous Phase Liquid (LNAPL) — liquid contaminants that are relatively
insoluble and lighter than water; also known as "floaters" because they will float on top
of an aquifer .
. .
5. \;
-------
Long-Term Action — a response action that eliminates or reduces a release or
threatened release of hazardous substances that is serious but not an immediate
danger to people or the environment and may take years to complete (also known as a
remedial action)
Migration — as used in the Superfund program, the movement of a contaminant;
actual or potential migration is one measure of the dangers created by a contaminant
Migration Pathways — the routes a contaminant may move around in the environment
(e.g., soil, groundwater, surface water, air)
Municipal Solid Waste — garbage that is disposed of in a sanitary or municipal solid
waste landfill
Mutagenic — causing alteration in the DNA (genes or chromosomes) of an organism
National Priorities List (NPL) — EPA's list of the most serious uncontrolled or
abandoned hazardous waste sites, identified as candidates for long-term action using
money from the Superfund trust fund
Organic Compounds — chemical compounds that contain carbon, an element usually
associated with life processes
Percolation — the movement of groundwater from the unsaturated zone to the
saturated zone
Permeability — the degree to which groundwater can move freely through an aquifer
measured by the interconnection of pores and fractures
Pesticides — chemical compounds used to control insects and other organisms that
may reduce agricultural productivity; most are toxic
pH — a measurement of the acidity or alkalinity level of a solution
Physiological Response — measure of physical change or damage in a species as a
result of exposure to a contaminant
Plume — an area of groundwater contamination
Pollution Prevention — a strategy that emphasizes reducing the amount of pollution or
waste created, rather than controlling waste or dealing with pollutants after they have
been created
Population — group of similar individuals living in the same general area
Pore — an open space in rocks and soils
Porosity — the ability of rock material to store water
-------
Potentially Responsible Parties (PRPs) — any individual or company potentially
.responsible for, or contributing to, contamination at a Superfund site '
Precipitation— a part of the hydrologic cycle during which condensed water vapor in
the air falls to the ground in the form of rain, snow, sleet, and so forth
Preliminary Assessment (PA) — the process of collecting and reviewing available
information about a known or suspected hazardous waste site or release that is used to
determine if the site requires further study ;
Probability — chance that a given event will occur
Proposed Plan — a plan for cleaning up a Superfund site submitted by EPA and
subject to public comments k . .
Ratio — the relationship in quantity, amount, or size between two or more things
Reactive — one of four categories of hazardous waste; substances capable of
changing into something else in the presence of other chemicals, usually violently or
producing a hazardous by-product V i
Recharge Areas—areas where infiltration to aquifers occurs
Record of Decision (ROD) — a public document that explains the cleanup method that
will be used at a Superfund site, based on EPA studies, public comments, and
community concerns '
Recycling — the reuse of products or by-products or other materials that could become ;
wastes if discarded instead of being used ;
Relative Abundances — measure of the population of one species in an ecosystem as
compared to other species within that same ecosystem; number of individuals in any
given species compared to the total number of individuals in the community ,
Release — when a hazardous substance goes from a controlled condition (for example,
inside a truck, barrel, storage tank, or landfill) to an uncontrolled condition in the air,
water, orland ; >
Residual Contamination'— contaminants left at a site after the risks posed by the site
have been reduced and the site no longer threatens people or the environment, or that
currently is not possible to remove
Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA) — a Federal law that authorizes
EPAto set standards for companies producing, handling, transporting, storing, arid
disposing of hazardous waste < - ' . - K«
7
-------
Response Action — an action taken by EPA or another Federal, state, or local agency
to address the risks posed by the release or threatened release of hazardous
substances — generally categorized as Emergency Responses, Early Actions, and
Long-Term Actions
Responsible Party — a person or business that is responsible for a hazardous site;
whenever possible, EPA requires Responsible Parties, through administrative and legal
actions, to clean up the sites they have contaminated
Risk — likelihood or probability of injury, disease, or death
Runoff — the amount of precipitation that runs over the ground surface and returns to
streams, rivers, or other surface water bodies. It can collect pollutants from air or land
and carry them to receiving waters
Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA) —, a Federal law that authorizes EPA to set national
standards for drinking water and gives EPA authority to control the disposal of
hazardous waste into groundwater
Sampling — the collection of representative specimens analyzed to characterize site
conditions •
Saturated Zone — an underground geologic layer in which all pores and fractures are
filled with water
Saturation — the degree to which a geologic formation is filled with water
Site Assessment — the process by which EPA determines whether a potential
Superfund site should be placed on the National Priorities List (NPL); it can consist of a
Preliminary Assessment (PA) or a combination of a PA and a Site Inspection (SI)
Site Cleanup—see Cleanup
Site Discovery — see Discovery
Site Inspection (SI) — a technical phase of the Superfund process, following the
Preliminary Assessment (PA), during which EPA gathers information (including sampling
data) from a site needed to score the site using the Hazard Ranking System (MRS) to
determine whether the site should be placed on the National Priorities List (NPL)
Solvents — chemical products that are used to dissolve other compounds; typically
found in cleaners and used in petrochemical processes
Sorption — a process in which something is taken up and held; as used in the
Superfund Program, sorption refers to technologies that use a sorption agent .that
attracts, takes up, and holds hazardous waste for removal
8
-------
Source Reduction — the design, manufacture, or use of products that in some way
reduces the amount of waste that must be disposed of; examples include reuse of by-
products, reducing consumption, extending the usefullife of a product, and minimizing
materials going into production v .;
Source Separation — the segregation of hazardous materials from nonhazardous
, materials.to reduce the volume of hazardous waste that must meet special removal
and disposal requirements; it is a method used by industry to control costs
Species Richness — number of species in a community
Superfund — see CERCLA
Superfund Trust Fund — a public trust fund created with passage of the
Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act (CERCLA)
in 1980 to be used to help pay for the cleanup of abandoned hazardous waste sites
Surface Impoundments — lined ponds storing hazardous waste
Surface Water — bodies of water that form and remain above ground, such as lakes,
ponds, rivers, streams, bays, and oceans ' •
Technical Assistance Grant (TAG) — funds given to communities for the purpose of
hiring advisors to interpret technical information related to the cleanup of Superfund
sites .' •,'•'•. ".' •••.-• . •' - -'••-,
Toxic—poisonous , >
Toxic Substances Control Act (TSCA) — a Federal law that empowers EPA to
require the chemical industry to test chemicals and provide safety information before
they are sold
Toxicology—study of the effects Of poisons in living organisms
Transpiration.— a part of the hydrologic cycle in which water vapor passes put of
living organisms through a membrane or pores
Treatment Technologies — processes applied to hazardous waste or contaminated
materials, to permanently alter their condition through chemical, .biological, or physical
means, and reduce or eliminate their danger to people and the environment
Unconfined Aquifer—an aquifer not bound by confining material
Underground Storage Tank — an underground tank storing hazardous substances
or petroleum products . ,
-------
Unit of Measure — a predetermined quantity (as of length, time, or heat) adopted as
a standard of measurement
Unsaturated Zone — an underground geologic layer in which pores and fractures are
filled with a combination of air and water
Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs) — organic (carbon-based) compounds that
evaporate at room temperature
Waste-to-Energy Incinerator — a process unit designed to burn solid, liquid, or
gaseous materials under controlled conditions to reduce waste volume and produce
energy
Water Tabte — the upper limit of a geologic layer wholly saturated with water
Water Table Aquifer — an unconfined aquifer in which the water table can rise and
fall .
Well — a hole sunk into the ground to reach a supply of water
10
-------
SUGGESTED READING
-------
-------
Suggested Reading
These suggested readings—books, periodicals, and other materials—provide further
information on the topics discussed in the Haz-Ed materials. Each reading is cross-
referenced to the most appropriate Haz-Ed warm-ups, activities, and grade levels. The
abstract prbvides a thumbnail sketch of the resource. A limited number of Spanish-
language documents are included. '
The documents listed are available from local public, school', or university libraries or,
where noted, available free of charge from the referenced sources. EPA also offers
other documents on selected Superfund and RCRA topics for purchase. For more
information on available documents, please call the RCRA/UST, Superfund, and EPCRA
Hotline at (800) 424-9346, between 9:00 AM and 6:00 PM (EST). Free documents
available through the Hotline will take three to five weeks to arrive.
Each entry in this list is presented in the followinglormat.
Reference,
Abstract
Suggested Grade Level
Related Warm-Dps
Related Activities
Hazardous Substances: A Reference: Berger, Melvin; Hillside, NJ: Enslow
Publishers (1986); 128 pgs. " .,
A plain-language dictionary providing a general understanding of
hazardous substances, with entries on field terms, federal laws and
/ agencies, hazardous substances, and selected chemical accidents. The
- entry for each chemical describes its composition and nature, how it is ^
used and produced, where it is found, and health effects information!
Covers specific chemicals and elements (e.g., toluene, mercury) as well
as broader categories (e.g., heavy metals). •
"Superfund Reauthorization Opens Door to Change;" Clay, Don: Nation's
Cities Weekly: 15: February 24.1992; p. 5.
This article from Don Clay, the former U.S. EPA Assistant Administrator
-for the Office of Solid Waste and Emergency Response, summarizes the
accomplishments, successes, and shortcomings of the Superfund
program in light of pending program reauthorization.
Reciclemos en Casa: Gufa Practica para Reciclar en el Hooar (Recycling
at Home: A Practical Guide): Clean Pearland.
Provides information on recycling household wastes in Spanish. ;
Available from Clean Pearland, (214) 485-2411, extension 227.
2,3
1-3
5-7
1,3,11,
13
-------
L
Suggested Reading
Reference,
Abstract
Suggested Grade Level
Related Warm-Ups
Related Activities I (A
Fighting Toxics: A Manual for Protecting Your Family. Community, and
Workplace: Cohen, Gary and John O'Connor, ed.; Washington,
D.C.: Island-Press (1990); 346 pgs.
Although activist in tone, this book contains two chapters providing useful
general information. Chapter four describes how to obtain information on
hazardous chemicals used and hazardous wastes generated in a
community, highlighting EPA's Toxics Release Inventory (TRI) and the
Freedom of Information Act (FOIA) process. Chapter seven addresses
federal laws designed to prevent or limit pollution of the environment:
EPCRA, Superfund, and RCRA. .
"Is Your School a Dumping Ground? Hidden Hazards You Can Identify
and Eliminate;" Cronin-Jones, Linda; The Science Teacher: 59:
October 1992; p. 26-31.
This article describes an experiment science teachers can use to
illustrate how common hazardous wastes are. Student teams discover
and identify where hazardous substances (e.g., cleaners and solvents)
are stored and discuss safe disposal options and less hazardous product
alternatives. Available from the National Science Teachers Association,
(703)243-7100.
Garbage and Reoycling: Gay, Kathlyn; Hillside, NJ: Enslow Publishers
(1991); 128 pgs.
Provides information on garbage generation, highlighting the problems
created by the waste and promoting recycling as a partial solution to the
problem. Extensive discussion of recycling paper, scrap metal, plastics,
tires, and other materials. Chapter seven examines the management of
hazardous waste, discussing RCRA, TRI, and Superfund. Pages 75-77
concentrate on how household hazardous wastes contribute to the
problem and discuss solutions.
Water Pollution: Gay, Kathlyn; New York: Franklin Watts (1990); 144 pgs.
Discusses threats to water resources from several pollution sources.
Chapter two discusses in detail threats to groundwater from industrial,
municipal, urban, and agricultural sources as well as leaking landfills and
hazardous waste dump sites. Pages 20-21 discuss how pollutants from
various sources get into the groundwater and what happens to them,
when they get there. Students with a basic understanding of
groundwater will find this discussion useful.
1,5,7
10,11
2,5
1,10,
11,13
©1,2,3
5,6,9
-------
Suggested Reading
Reference,
Abstract
Suggested Grade Level
Related Warm-Ups
, Related Activities
"Neighborhood Prepares to Move for Cleanup of Toxic Black Goo;"
Haldane. David: Los Angeles Times: June 28.1994: p. A3.
Provides a good case study of how a Superfund site is created,
demonstrating how contaminated sites can develop over many years. ,
"Hazardous Wastes at Home: Handle With Care;" Consumer Reports: 59:
February 1994; p. 101. •. ~
Useful article detailing the types of hazardous wastes commonly found in
the home, how they should be managed, and less tpxic alternatives to ,
commqri household products (e.g., cleaners, solvents, polishes). Part of
a larger section on recycling.
Our Endangered PJahet: Groundwater: Hoff, Mary; Minneapolis, MM:
terrier Publications (1991); 64 pgs. ~
Discusses in simple terms the basics of groundwater: where it is found,
how it fits into the water cycle, how it is used, and how it is polluted. A
glossary provides basic groundwater terms. Includes examples of young
people involved in groundwater protection.
"Using the Allium Test to Detect Environmental Pollutants;" Kendler, Barry
and Helen Koritz; The American Biology Teacher: 52: September
-•'.'" 1990; p. 372. '.'' -:-''•"'
Describes a science experiment students can conduct to learn about the
• - •" detection of pollutants in organisms. Available from the National,
- Association of Biology Teachers, (703) 471-1134.
Managing Toxic Wastes: Kronenwetter, Michael; Englewood Cliffs, NJ:
Julian Messner (1989); 118 pgs.
An excellent, broad-based introduction to the management of hazardous
wastes, including chemical and elemental hazards, horror stories of
hazardous waste disasters, causes of the problem, and what steps are
being taken to solve the problem and prevent future disasters. Chapter
two covers the story of the Love Canal, NY, hazardous waste dump,
including the origins of the problem, how the community was affected,
and what the government did to correct the problem. Chapter five ,
examines the parties - publics private, and individual:-who contribute to
the creation of hazardous waste sites. Chapter seven explains
regulatory efforts undertaken by the federal government to deal with the,
management of hazardous wastes, including RCRA and EPCRA.,
Chapter eight is devoted entirely to the Superfund program; its genesis,
development, and progress.
1,2,5
1-6,
9-12
3
-------
L
Suggested Reading
Reference,
Abstract
Suggested Grade Level
Related Warm-Ups
Related Activities
The Future for the Environment: Lambert, Mark; New York: Bookwright
Press (1986); 48 pgs.
Provides a basic perspective on how pollution issues may be dealt with
in the students' future, presenting a forward-looking discussion of
environmental problems, causes, and possible solutions. Does not
directly deal with hazardous waste disposal or chemical accidents.
Technological Risk: Lewis, H.W.; New York: W.W. Norton & Co (1990);
353 pgs.
Discusses the nature of risk and risk assessment, examples of risk, and,
briefly, general rules of statistics and probability. Provides information to
allow students to distinguish between perceived and actual risks posed
by different activities, substances, and occurrences. Includes clear,
basic technical discussion of the science of risk.assessment and how
governments use the information to protect public health and welfare.
Includes two chapters on the risks posed by hazardous chemicals.
Design For a Livable Planet: How You Can Clean Up the Environment:
Naar, Jon; New York: Harper & Row (1990); 338 pgs.
A guide to citizen action to help prevent environmental pollution.
Chapter two addresses hazards posed by mismanagement of hazardous
waste, including chemical accidents, and a description and critical
assessment of the Superfund program. Examines U.S. environmental
laws, including RCRA, Superfund, and EPCRA. Chapters include a list
of actions citizens can take.
5,6,13
4
7
1
1,3,5,
11,12
"A Superfund Success: Toxic Texas Lagoon 'Bio'-Cleaned;" Pendelton,
Scott; The Christian Science Monitor: November 4,1994; p. 7.
Provides good contrast to more critical articles on Superfund. It
discusses a Superfund site cleaned up by a cooperative venture of
responsible parties, and includes discussion of innovative technologies.
Living in a Risky World: Pringle, Laurence; New York: Morrow Junior
Books (1989); 105 pgs. ' .
Discusses the concept of risk in very basic terms, such as the risks
entailed in living daily life, with only limited discussion of the science of
risk assessment. Chapter three deals with identifying hazards and
measuring risks (largely through examples), how scientists assess the
nature and probability of a risk, and how that probability is
communicated. Includes a potentially disturbing picture of a scientist
injecting a rat. Chapter four looks at how the government uses risk
assessment to create laws and regulations to protect the public.
-------
Suggested Reading
Reference,
Abstract
Suggested Grade Level
Related Warm-Ups
Related Activities
Environmental Politics and Policy; Second Edition: Rosenbaum, Walter
A.; Washington, D.G.iCQ Press (1991); 336 pgs. •
This book examines the formulation of environmental policy. Chapter
seven and pages 44-52 discuss the management and regulation of
hazardous wastes, including the structure, successes, and failures of
.Superfund and RCRA. Chapter five critically examines risk assessment,
; from the scientific^bases to regulatory applications. There is brief
discussion of groundwater (pp. 41-43, 202-206) which provides useful
information on specific sources of groundwater contamination and the
various agencies involved in protecting groundwater. Pages 97-108 list
,the various Federal agencies responsible for environmental protection
and discuss how they work. ','.'•••
Boletin Ambiental: Las Alternatives Menos Toxicas (Environmental
Bulletin: Less Toxic Alternatives to Household Cleaning Products^:
Texas Natural Resource Conservation Commission:
Describes less hazardous alternatives to standard commercial
household cleaning products in Spanish. Available from the Clean Texas
. 2000 Information Center, (800)648-3927. ,
1993 Toxics Release Inventory Public Data Release. Executive Summary:
1995; U.S. EPA; 745-S-95-001.
Summarizes national and state data for 1993. Includes an overview of
the TRI program, the quantity and type of chemicals released into the
- environment, and an assessment, by environmental medium, of which
states had the largest releases. Available free from the RCRA/UST,
Superfund, and EPCRA Hotline, (800) 424-9346.
1993 Toxics Release Inventory Public Data Release. State Fact Sheets:
U.Si EPA; 1995; 745-F-95-002.
Provides 1993 toxic/elease data by state, including the top five • -.
chemicals released into the environment and the top ten releasing
facilities for each state. Available free from the RCRA/UST, Superfund,
and EPCRA Hotline, (800) 424-9346. ,
Characterization of Municipal Solid Waste in the United States: 1994
Update: Executive Summary: U.S. EPA: 1994: 530^5-94-042.
Summarizes a study of municipal solid waste (MSW) that includes data
from 1960 to 1993. Summary characterizes MSW generation and
management to the year 2000. Available free from the RCRA/UST, .
Superfund, and EPCRA Hotline, (800) 424-9346.
W 1,4,6
© 1,3,7,
12
2
1,3,11
1,4
1,5-7
11
1,5-7
11
2
1,3
-------
J
M
mss
a
a
L '
Reference, Suggested Grade Level E£9
Abstract Related Warm-Ups ©
Related Activities | @\
Chemical Releases and Chemical Risks: U.S. EPA; 1989; 560-2-89-003.
Explains how the Toxics Release Inventory (TRI) can be used to
understand chemical risks faced by a community. Available free from the
RCRA/UST, Superfund, and EPCRA Hotline, (800) 424-9346.
Chemicals In Your Community: A Guide to EPGRA: U.S. EPA; 1988;
550-K-93-003.
An introductory guide to the EPCRA program. Available free from trie
RCRA/UST, Superfund, and EPCRA Hotline, (800) 424-9346.
Consumer's Handbook for Reducing Solid Waste: U.S. EPA; 1992;
530-K-92-003.
Discusses amount and types of wastes generated by the average
household, both municipal solid waste (garbage) and household
hazardous waste. Tips on recycling and safe handling of hazardous
wastes are included. Available free from the RCRA/UST, Superfund, and
EPCRA Hotline, (800) 424-9346. Also available in Spanish.
Does Your Business Produce Hazardous Wastes? Many Small
Businesses Do: U.S. EPA; 1990; 530-SW-90-027.
For 18 common small businesses, delineates the types of hazardous
substances commonly used in that industry. A useful tool for determining
the types of hazardous wastes generated by the businesses in the
students' community: Available free from the RCRA/UST, Superfund,
and EPCRA Hotline, (800) 424-9346.
Facility Pollution Prevention Guide: U.S. EPA; 1992; EPA/600/R-92/088.
Explains in detail how manufacturing and other facilities can reduce the
amount and toxicity of wastes they produce. Designed for facility
managers and pollution prevention officers, this document provides
additional insight into steps that facilities can take to reduce pollution.
Available free from EPA's Office of Research and Development (ORD),
(513)569-7562.
1,3,10
11
Hazardous Substances In Our Environment: A Citizen's Guide to
Understanding Health Risks and Reducing Exposure: U.S. EPA;
1990;230-9-90-081.
Discusses development and application of risk and exposure
assessments and how the government and community organizations can
reduce that risk. Available free from the RCRA/UST, Superfund, and
EPCRA Hotline, (800) 424-9346.
-------
Suggested Reading
Reference,
Abstract
Suggested Grade Level
. Related Warm-Dps
Related Activities
i
Household Hazardous Waste Management: A Manual for One-Day .
Community Collection Programs: U.S. EPA: 1993: 530-R-92-:026.
Helps communities plan for one-day, drop-off household hazardous
waste (HHW) collection programs. Provides community leaders with
guidance on all aspects of planning, organizing, and publicizing an HHW
collection program.. Available free from the RCRA/USt, Superfund, and
EPCRA Hotline, (800)424-9346. ,.
Household Hazardous Waste: Steps to Safe Management: U.S. EPA;
1993;530-F-92-031. '
Describes household hazardous waste and the dangers of improper
. disposal. Urges homeowners to reuse, recycle, and properly manage
, household hazard wastes. Available free from the RCRA/UST,
Superfund, and EPCRA Hotline, (800) 424-9346.
1993 Biennial RCRA Hazardous Waste Report: Executive Summary: U.S.
EPA; 1995; 530-S-95-039.
• ' ' > /
Summarizes EPA's report based on 1993 data collected from hazardous
waste large quantity generators and treatment, storage, and disposal
facilities. Includes information about generation, management, and final
- disposition of hazardous waste regulated by RCRA. Available free from
the RCRA/UST, Superfund, and EPCRA Hotline, (800) 424-9346.
. SARA Title III Fact Sheet: U.S. EPA; 1993; 550-F-93-002.
This fact sheet summarizes the Emergency Planning and Community,
' Right-to-Know Act (EPCRA) program. Available free from the RCRA/
UST, Superfund, and EPCRA Hotline, (800) 424-9346.
El Programa de Superfund: Guia Ciudadana de Programa de Superfund
delaEPA: U.S. EPA; 1994; EPA 540-K-94-002; PB 95-963205.
A.Spanish-language version of the pamphlet summarizing the Superfund
, program and process that is included in the Haz-Ed materials package.
The document is available free of charge from NTIS, (703) 487-4650.
Environmental Policy in the 1990s, second edition: Vig. Norman and .
Michael E. Kraft, ed,; Washington, D.C.: CQ Press (1994); 422 pgs,
. Discusses how public environmental policy has changed since the
1970s, and where it is headed. Examines the relationship between
federal and state environmental attitudes, policies, and regulations.
Discusses the development of the current Federal/state power
relationship, and predicts the likely consequences of transferring ;
1,11
13
1,11
13
-------
Suggested Reading
Reference,
Abstract
Suggested Grade Level
Related Warm-Ups
Related Activities
regulatory authority to states. Examines different methods of evaluating
the successes and failures of major environmental policy initiatives,
including a critical assessment of the Superfund program. Provides an
excellent and sophisticated discussion of risk-based decisionmaking,
including a good explanation of the elements of a risk assessment and
how regulators act on those assessments in making laws, policies, and
site-specific determinations.
Water: No Longer Taken For Granted: VonBrook, Patricia, et al, ed.;
Wylie, TX: Information Press (1989); 92 pgs.
Provides a broad assessment of water and water pollution, including the
nature of water, where it is found, how it is used, and how different types
of water pollution affect the environment and humans. Explains the
nature and uses of groundwater in an easy-to-understand fashion,
discussing groundwater flow, aquifers, and characterization and common
sources of groundwater contamination, using tables and maps to
illustrate and develop main ideas. Pages 44-47 address groundwater
pollution from hazardous waste sources, including Superfund sites.
In Our Backyard: A Guide to Understanding Pollution and its Effects:
Wagner, Travis; New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold (1994); 320 pgs.
This exceptional book examines different types, sources, and effects of
pollution, using a simple, accessible question and answer format to
explain the many aspects of environmental pollution and what activities
can be and are undertaken to remedy the problem. Chapter 3 provides
an excellent discussion of the nature and activity of groundwater,
examining the diverse sources of contamination and explains how
contaminated groundwater is cleaned up and the impediments to such
remediation, providing many clear and helpful graphics to illustrate key
points. Chapter 5 gives extensive treatment to the facets of waste
management: identification, storage, treatment, and disposal. The
Superfund process is clearly explained on pages 139-142. Chapters
lists the sources of household pollution affecting human health both
within and outside the home. Appendix I lists health effects for almost
100 different substances, from asbestos to gasoline to toluene.
"Going Around in CERCLA;" Waite, David; American City & County: 108:
August 1993; p. 58.
A case study of Superfund liability and cost recovery, controversial
issues in the Superfund program. Includes discussion of how househbld
hazardous wastes contribute to potential Superfund sites.
6
1.2,5,6
W 1.2,6
© 1,5,6
8,9,12
1
1,12
8
-------
CONTACTS AND RESOURCES
-------
-------
Contacts & Resources
While many topics related to hazardous waste and the Superfund Program are
discussed and explained in the Haz-Ed materials and in the suggestions for further
reading, you may have questions that are not addressed, or need additional resources
to support classroom activities. The following list of contacts and resources may help
you answer these questions and locate supplemental resources.
EPA Regional Superfund Community Involvement Coordinators
• • ' -''--.,.- c .'-./• • '
EPA's Community Involvement Coordinators can provide you with information on local '<
Superfund sites, the location of the administrative records for local Superfund sites, date
and location of local public meetings, and ways in which a citizen can file a petition to
have a potentially contaminated site investigated. Each EPA Region has a coordinator:
Region 1 (617)565-3425
Region 2 (212) 637-3675
Regions (215) 597-9905
S"
Region 4 (404) 347-3555 x6264
Region 5 (312) 886-6685
Region 6 (214)665-6617
Region 7 (913)551-7003
Region 8 (303) 312-6600
Region 9 (415) 744-2175
Region 10 (206) 553-1272
EPA Regional Offices
San
Francisco
Boston
? ';
r New York
'Philadelphia
-------
State Hazardous Waste Offices
Your state's hazardous waste office can give you information about hazardous waste
management programs in your community.
AL (334) 271-7737
AK (907)465-5168
AZ (602)207-4105
AR (501)682-0831
CA (800) 618-6942
CO (303) 692-5575
CT (203) 424-3023
DE (302) 739-3689
DC (202) 645-6080 X3011
FL (904) 488-0300
GA (404) 656-7802
HI (808)586-4235
ID (208) 334-5898
IL (217) 785-8604
IN (317)232-4417
IA (913) 551-7058
KS (913)296-1608
KY (502) 564-6716
LA (5Q4) 765-0272
ME (207)287-2651
MD (410) 361-3345
MA (617) 292-5574
MI (517) 373-8410
MN (612) 297-8512
MO (314)751-3176 ,
MS (601) ,961-5052
MT (406) 444-1430
NE (402)471-4217
NV (800) 882-3233
NH (603)271-2942
NJ (609)633-1418
NM (505)827-4308
NY (518)485-8988
NC (919) 733-2178
ND (701)328-5166
OH (614)644-2944
OK (405)271-5338
OR '(503). 229-5913"
PA (717)787-6239
Rl (401)277-2797
SC (803) 896-4171
SD (605)773-3153
TN (615)532-0780
TX (512)239-6592
UT (801)538-6170
VT (802)241-3868
VA (804)698-4199
WA (360) 407-6758
WV (304) 558-5929
Wl (608)266-2111
WY (303)293-1790
-------
RCRA/UST, Superfund, and EPCRAHotline
This free hotline can provide both teachers and students with information about EPA's
programs under RCRA, EPCRA, and Superfund. Hotline staff can answer specific
questions about Superfund sites and EPA's cleanup requirements; order documents
related to RCRA, UST, EPCRA, and Superfund; and refer callers to appropriate numbers
for questions related to other program areas. Call (800) 424-9346 between 9:00 am and
6:00 pm.
National Technical Information Service (NTIS)
NTIS provides many of the documents published by EPA for public purchase. To receive
a free catalog of available documents, call and request the Compendium of Superfund
Program Publications (PR-980). Call (703) 487-4650 , fax (703) 321 -8547, or write
National Technical Information Service, Springfield, VA 22161.
EnviroScape Educational Table Model
This model of different types of geological systems offers children of all ages an
interactive educational experience as they learn about water pollution's effects on. the
environment. Models cost between $199 and $829 and take 4 to 6 weeks for delivery.
To receive a brochure or order a model, call EnviroScape at (703) 519-2180.
Educational Videos
The Environmental Response Center offers numerous free educational videos that cover
a wide variety of topics related to hazardous waste management and the Superfund
Program. For more information about the videos or to place an order, call
(800)999-6990.
-------
Internet Sites
The Internet is a good source of easy-to-access information concerning the Superfund
Program and issues related to hazardous waste sites. The following Internet sites relate
to topics discussed in Haz-Ed, and can be accessed using their World Wide Web,
addresses.
Consumer Recycling Guide
http://www.best.comrdillon/recycle/
Provides extensive information on recycling-related topics and lists local recycling sites
in the United States.
EPA Homepage
http://www.epa.gov
Presents EPA information available through the Internet. Documents available for
downloading include press releases, speeches, fact sheets, new regulations, and other
materials.
EcoNet's Environmental Education Directory
http://www.igc.apc.org/igc/www.enved.html
Contains links to dozens of environmental education sites, covering a wide variety of
topics.
Grand Challenges in Groundwater Remediation
http://www.isc.tamu.edu/PICS/PICS.html
Features dramatic graphic display of groundwater contamination.
Links to State Homepages
http://www.globalcomputing.com/states.html
Contains links to each state homepage which provides access to state government
departments or agencies that run environmental programs.
-------
9UPERFUND BROCHURE
-------
-------
A Citizen's Guide to
EPA's Superfund Program
I
United States,Envirdnmental Protection Agency
Office of Emergency & Remedial Response
' .' ; Washington; DC 20460
-------
Int roducf ion
If there is a Superfund site in your neighborhood, you are probably wondering, "What will
happen?" and "What can I do?" Hazardous waste sites pose threats to human health
and natural resources. The Superfund Program cleans up these sites to protect people
and the environment, and to return the land to productive use. This brochure will give
you a better understanding of the Superfund process and how you can become
involved.
What Is Superfund?
Years ago, people did not understand how certain wastes might affect our health and the
environment. Many wastes were dumped on the ground, in rivers, or left out in the
open. As a result, thousands of uncontrolled or abandoned hazardous waste sites were
created. Some common hazardous waste sites include abandoned warehouses,
manufacturing facilities, processing plants and landfills.
In response to growing concern over the health and environmental risks posed by
hazardous waste sites, Congress established the Superfund Program in 1980 to clean
up these sites. The Superfund Program is administered by the U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency (EPA) in cooperation with individual state and tribal governments.
Superfund locates, investigates and cleans up certain hazardous waste sites throughout
the United States. The Superfund trust fund was set up to help pay for the cleanup of
these sites. The money comes mainly from taxes on the chemical and petroleum
industries. The trust fund is used primarily when the companies or people responsible
for contamination at Superfund sites cannot be found, or cannot perform or pay for the
cleanup work.
How Are Superfund Sites Discovered?
Hazardous waste sites are discovered by local and state government
agencies, businesses, the U.S. EPA, the U.S. Coast Guard, and by
people like you. You can report emergencies resulting from a release
of a hazardous substance to the National Response Center Hotline.
To report an emergency, you should call the hotline at
1-800-424-8802. This hotline is operated 24 hours a day, 7 days a
week. You can report potential hazardous waste sites or problems to
your state and local authorities. They are listed separately in your
phone book.
-------
What Happens When There Is
A Chemical
Emergency?
A number of the sites reported
to the National Response
Center are emergencies and
require immediate action.
Emergency actions are taken to
eliminate immediate risks and
ensure public safety,
Superfund's first priority is to
protect the people and the
environment near these sites.
EPA's Superfund personnel are
on call to respond at a
moment's notice to chemical
emergencies, accidents, or •
releases. Typical chemical emergencies may include train derailments, truck accidents,
and incidents at chemical plants where there Is a chemical release or threat of a release
to the environment. EPA may respond or may help state and local authorities deal with
these emergencies quickly. The hazardous materials are hauled away from the site for
treatment or proper disposal, or they are treated at the site to make them safe. The risk
to the community is removed.
In.an emergency situation, you and your community will be^kept informed of the situation
and what steps are being taken to ensure your safety. EPA then evaluates the site and
determines whether additional cleanup is necessary.
What Happens To 8Hes Thai Are Not
Emergencies?
When a potential hazardous waste site is reported, EPA reviews
the site to determine what type of action is necessary. EPA look
at existing information, inspects the site, and may interview
nearby residents to find out .the history of the site and its effects
on the population and the environment.
Many of the sites that are reviewed do not meet the criteria for Federal Superfund
cleanup action. Some sites do hot require any action, while others are referred to
states, other programs, other agencies, or individuals for cleanup or other action.
the
-------
For the sites that do meet the criteria, EPA tests the soil, water, and air to determine
what hazardous substances were left at the site and how serious the risks may be to
human health and the environment.
Early Actions are taken when EPA determines that a site may become a threat to you or
your environment in the near future. For example, there may be a site where leaking
drums of hazardous substances could ignite or cause harm to you if touched or inhaled.
In this kind of situation, EPA acts to make sure the problem is quickly addressed and the
site is safe. Typically, Early Actions are taken to:
• Prevent direct human contact with the contaminants at the site
• Remove hazardous materials from the site
* Prevent contaminants from spreading off the site
• Provide water to residents whose drinking water has been contaminated by the site
• Temporarily or permanently evacuate/relocate nearby residents.
Early Actions may take anywhere from a few days to five years to complete, depending
on the type and extent of contamination. During this time, EPA also determines if Long-
Term Action will be necessary.
Parties responsible for the contamination at the site may conduct these assessments
under close EPA supervision. Their involvement in the study and cleanup process is
critical in order to make best use of Superfund resources. EPA uses the information
collected to decide what type of action, if any, is required.
At this point, EPA prepares a Community Relations Plan (CRP) to ensure community
involvement. This plan is based on discussions with local leaders and private citizens in
the community. In addition, EPA sets up a local information file in the community so that
people living near the site can get information about the site. The information file or
"repository" is usually located at a library or public school and contains the official record
of the site, reports, and activities (called the Administrative Record), as well as additional
site-related information.
Who Is Involved In Quperfund Cleanups?
Superfund cleanups are very complex and require the efforts of many experts in science,
engineering, public health, management, law, community involvement, and numerous
other fields. The goal of the process is to protect you and the environment you live in
from the effects of hazardous substances.
Your involvement is very important. You have the opportunity and the right to be
involved in and to comment on the work being done.
-------
Technical Assistance Grant (TAG)
Program
EPA values your input and wants to help you understand
the technical information relating to the cleanup of
Superfund sites in your community so that you can make
informed decisions.
Under the Superfund law, EPA can award Technical
Assistance Grants (TAGs) of up to $50,000 per site.
TAGs al)ow communities to hire an independent expert
to help them interpret technical data, understand site
hazards, and become more knowledgeable about the,
different technologies that are being used to clean up
sites. ,
Your community group may be eligible for a TAG if you are affected by a Superfund site
that is on or proposed to be added to the National Priorities List. .
More information about TAGs is available from your Regional EPA Community
Involvement Coordinator. The telephone number for your coordinator is listed at the end
of this brochure.
What Is The National Priorities List?
The National Priorities List (NPL) is a published list of hazardous waste sites in the
country that are eligible for Federal funding to pay for extensive, long-term cleanup
actions under the Superfund program.
How Do The Sites Get On The National Priorities List?
To evaluate the dangers posed by hazardous waste sites, EPA
developed a scoring system called the Hazard Ranking System
(MRS). EPA uses the information collected during the assessment •"
phase of the process to score sites according to the danger
they may pose to public health and the environment. Sites that
score high enough on the HRS are eligible for the NPL, Once
a site is scored and meets the criteria, EPA proposes that it be
put on the NPL. The proposal is published in the Federal
Register and the public has an opportunity to comment in
writing on whether the site should be included on the NPL. To
obtain more information on a proposed site, contact your Community
Involvement Coordinator.
-------
The Superfund Process
The Superfund process begins when a site is discovered.
After EPA screens and assesses the site, the Regional
Decision Team determines if the site requires Early Action,
Long-Term Action, or both. Early Actions are taken at sites
that may pose immediate threats to people or the
environment. Long-Term Actions are taken at sites that
require extensive cleanup. EPA encourages community
involvement throughout the process.
Whaf Happens During A Long-Term
Cleanup?
Early Actions can correct many hazardous waste problems and eliminate most threats to
human health and the environment. Some sites, however, require Long-Term Action.
Long-Term Actions include cleaning up contaminated groundwater and taking measures
to protect wetlands, animals, estuaries, and other ecological resources. Long-term
cleanups are complex and can take many years to complete. This process is conducted
in several phases that lead to the ultimate goal of cleaning up the site and providing a
safe environment for the people living near the site. Throughout the process, there is
opportunity for community involvement.
First, a detailed study of the site is done to identify the cause and extent of
contamination at the site, the possible threats to the environment and the people nearby,
and options for cleaning up the site.
EPA uses this information to develop and present a Proposed Plan for Long-Term
Cleanup to citizens and to local and state officials for comment. The Proposed Plan
describes the various cleanup options under consideration and identifies the option EPA
prefers. The community has at least 30 days to comment on the Proposed Plan. EPA
invites community members to a public meeting to express their views and discuss the
Plan with EPA (and sometimes state) officials.
Once the public's concerns are addressed, EPA
publishes a Record of Decision, which describes
how it plans to clean up the site. A notice is also
placed in the local newspaper to inform the
community of the cleanup decision.
Next, the cleanup method is designed to address
the unique conditions at the site where it will be
used. This is called the Remedial Design. The
design and actual cleanup is conducted by EPA,
-------
the state, or by the parties responsible for the contamination at the site. If EPA does not
perform the design, it closely oversees this design phase and the development of the
cleanup at the site. When the design is completed, EPA prepares and distributes a fact
sheet to the community describing the design and the action that will take place at the
site. •-; • '', '..,'. ...'•'.-.'-.,'• •'.. •- ..". ,- ". ,/'-.-•'•
EPA can supply the equipment and manpower necessary to clean up a site, but it may
take a long time to return a site to the way it was before it was contaminated. Some .
sites, due to the extent of contamination, will never return to the way they were prior to
the pollution; however, EPA will make sure .that the site will be safe for the,people living
around the site how and in the future. EPA regularly monitors every NPL site to make
sure it remains safe. If there is any indication that there is a problem, action will be
taken to make the site safe again.
Who Pays For Superfund
Cleanup?
Super!und cleanup is either paid for by the people
and businesses responsible for contamination or by
the Superfund trust fund. Under the Superfund law,
EPA is able to make those companies arid individuals
responsible for contamination at a Superfund site
perform, and pay for, the cleanup work at the site. EPA
negotiates with the responsible parties to get them to
pay for the plans and the work that has to be done to :
clean up the site. If an agreement cannot.be reached, EPA issues orders to responsible
parties to make them clean up the site under EPA supervision. Superfund ensures that
the parties responsible for the pollution pay to fix the problems they created. EPA may
also use Superfund trust fund money to pay for cleanup costs, then attempt to get the
money back through legal action. , .
Conclusion
EP#s Superfund Program is the most aggressive
hazardous waste cleanup program in the world.
Every day Superfund managers are involved in
critical decisions that affect public health and the
environment. They use the best available science
to determine risks at sites. New and innovative
technologies are being developed to help find faster
and less expensive ways to cleanup sites. ,
Wherever possible, old hazardous waste sites are
being restored to productive use. Millions of people, have been protected by Superfund's
cleanup activities.
The Superfund Program has one ultimate goal: to protect YOUR health and YOUR
environment. Protecting communities and the environment is what Superfund is all
about. . .
-------
EPA Superfund Community Involvement Offices
EPA wants to remain accessible and responsive to your concerns. Our community
involvement staff is available to answer any questions you may have regarding a
Superfund site or an area you think may be a site. Here is a list of the Community
Involvement Offices at EPA's Regional Offices.
EPA Regional Offices
San
Francisco
Boston
Region 1 (617) 565-3425
Region 2 (212) 637-3675
Regions (215)597-9905
Region 4 (404) 347-3555 X6264
Region 5 (312) 886-6685
Region 6 (214)665-6617
Region 7 (913)551-7003
Region 8 (303) 312-6600
Region 9 (415) 744-2175
Region 10 (206) 553-1272
8
-------
BIBLIOGRAPHY
-------
-------
Bibliography
The following sources, were helpful in preparing the Haz-Ed materials. In addition
to the suggested readings, these sources maybe helpful to you.
Ashford, Nicholas A., and Claudia S. Miller; Chemical Exposures: Low Levels and High Stakes:
New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold (1991).
Bags. Beakers, and Barrels: An Action Curriculum Toward Resolving Hazardous Materials Issues:
Cleveland, OH: Industrial States Policy Center and University of Michigan, School of Natural
Resources (1987).
CERCLA/Superfund Orientation Manual: Washington. DC: U.S. EPA, Office of Solid Waste and
Emergency Response (October 1992); NTIS Order Number PB93-193852.
Commoner, Barry; The Closing Circle: New York: Alfred A. Knopf:(1971).
Community Relations in Superfund: A Handbook: Washington, DC: U.S. EPA, Office of Solid
Waste and Emergency Response (January 1992); NTIS Order Number PB92-963341.
Ecological Risk Management in the Superfund and RGB A (Resource Conservation and Recovery
Act) Programs: Washington, DC: U.S. EPA, Office of Policy, Planning and Evaluation (June
1989); NTIS Order Number PB90-137332.
- ' -• "• . *. • •. •
Fact Sheet: Ground Water Protection: A Citizen's Action Checklist: Washington, DC: U.S. EPA,
Off ice of Water (1992); EPA/810/F-92/002. -
1 - - - "*• • • •"
Federal Remediation Technologies Roundtable. Remediation Technologies Screening Matrix and
'- Reference Guide: Second Edition: Washington, DC: U.S,. EPA (October 1994); EPA/542/B-94/
013, NTIS Order Number PB95-104782. > - :
< • •. ' • '
Gibbons, Gail; Recycle: A Handbook for Kids: Boston: Little, Brown (1992).
Guide to Environmental Issues: Washington, DC: U.S. EPA, Office of Solid Waste and
Emergency Response (August 1994); ERA/520/B-94-001.
Hare. Tony: Domestic Waste: New York: Gloucester Press (1992).
Health and Safety Roles and Responsibilities at Remedial Sites: Washington,, DC: U.S. EPA,
Office of Emergency and Remedial Response (April 1991); NTIS Order Number PB91 -921362.
Household Hazardous Waste: Steps to Safe Management: Washington, DC: U.S. EPA, Office of
Solid Waste and Emergency Response (April 1993); EPA/530-F-92-031.
Innovative Methods to Increase Public Involvement in Suoerfund Community Relations:
Washington, DC: U.S. EPA (November 1990).
Innovative Treatment Technologies: Annual Status Report:. Washington, DC: U.S. EPA, Office of
Solid Waste and Emergency Response, Technology Innovation Office (September 1994); EPA
542-R-94-005.- " ".
Introduction to Superfund: A Public Awareness Workshop: Washington. DC: U.S. EPA, Office of
Emergency and Remedial Response (1995). '
-------
League of Women Voters Education Fund; The Garbage Primer: A Handbook for Citizens: Lyons
and Burford (1993).
Let's Clean Up Our Act: National Wildliife Week Educator's Guide: Washington, DC: National
Wildlife Federation (April 1994).
Let's Reduce and Recycle: Curriculum for Solid Waste Awareness: Washington, DC: U.S. EPA,
Office of Solid Waste and Emergency Response (August 1990); EPA/530-SW 90-005.
Moyers, Bill; Global Dumping Ground: Washington. DC:'Seven Locks Press (1990).
No Waste Antholoov: A Teacher's Guide to Environmental Activities K-12: Sacramento, CA:
California Environmental Protection Agency, Department of Toxic Substances Control
(undated).
* '.•','
Probst, Katherine N., Don Fullerton, Robert E. Litan, and Pauj R. Portney; Footing the Bill for
Superfund Cleanups: Who Pavs and How?: Washington, DC: Resources for the Future and
The Brookings Institution (January 1995).
Project A.I.R.E.: Air Information Resources for Education (K-12): Washington, DC: U.S. EPA,
Office of Science, Planning, and Regulatory Evaluation (April 1994).
Safer Disppsal for Solid Waste: The Federal Regulations for Landfills: Washington, DC: U.S. EPA,
Office of Solid Waste and Emergency Response (March 1993); EPA/530 SW-91-092.
Stenstrup, Allen; Hazardous Wastes: Chicago: Children's Press (1991).
1 ' '
Tesar, Jenny E.; The Waste Crisis: New York: Facts on File (1991).
The Nation's Hazardous Waste Management Program at a Crossroads: The RCRA
Implementation Studv: Washington, DC: U.S. EPA, Office of Solid Waste and Emergency
Response (July 1990); EPA/530-SW-90-069.
Think Globally Act Locally Beginning in Your Home (poster): Washington, DC: U.S. EPA
(undated).
This Is Superfund: A Citizen's Guide to EPA's Superfund Program: Washington, DC: U.S. EPA,
Office of Emergency and Remedial Response (March 1994); EPA 540-K-93-008, PB94-
963218.
Understanding Environmental Health Risks and Reducing Exposure: Highlights of a Citizen's
Guide: Washington, DC: U.S. EPA, Office of Policy, Planning, and Evaluation (September
1990); EPA 230-09-90-082.
Waste Minimization: Environmental Quality with Economic Benefits: Washington, DC: U.S. EPA,
Office of Solid Waste and Emergency Response (April 1990); EPA/530-SW 90-044.
Zipco, Stephen J.; Toxic Threat: How Hazardous Substances Poison Our Lives: Englewood Cliffs,
NJ: Julian Messner (1990). .
NOTE: For copies of EPA documents, contact the National Technical Information Service (NTIS)
at 1-800-553-6847. Give them the title and publication number of the documents you wish to or-
der. There may be a charge for some documents.
ft U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE:1996-514-003/50528
-------
Attention: Nancy L. Cronin
HAZ-ED EVALUATION FORM T
Your comments and suggestions are sincerely appreciated. Help us to improve this valuable .educational resource by
returning this form by. fax or mail. Thank you. ..-•••: .
TELL US ABOUT YOURSELF... i ,
Name '' ."''.'.'• ' '• ' • : -.'.•••'• • • • ••'"."• • - •'••.. "• . . . . •.'•''•
School or Organization.
Address
Phone: '• • - Fax:
What grade and subject do you teach?
How did you hear about Haz-Ed?: •'•.' ' • -••
Was the ordering process satisfactory?.
TELL US ABOUT HAZ- ED...
How did you use Haz-Ed?__i
Which elements did you use?.
Were the materials appropriate for the age group and subject you teach?.
What response did Haz-Ed receive from students?.
Any recommendations to improve Haz-Ed?_
Have you shared Haz-Ed with other educators?,.
• HELP 'US DO''' '
What other environmental education materials on hazardous waste and Superfund would you find valuable?.
Other suggestions or comments?.
j~] Please check here if you would you like to participate in evaluating other EPA
education materials and activities.
Fax evaluation to Attention: Nancy L, Croriin, (703) 603-9100, or fold and mail evaluation to pre-
printed addressonthe,back. -..Y-!-,.,••.:V / '/.•.,•_'.',,,,• '•:,','.: ' ••'.•..'.'••...•'.',' ...':'••.. ' -:'•'•
-------
(fold)
Place First
Class Postage
Here
Nancy L. Cronin
Attn: HAZ-ED
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
OERR/CIOC
401 M Street, SW (5204G)
Washington, DC 20460
(fold)
-------
-------
------- |