f	*
Understanding
taFreshwater Environments
United States
Environmental Protection
Agency
Office of Emergency
And Remedial
Response
EPA 540-K-99-007
OSWER 9200.5-104A
PB2000-963401
December 1999
Oil Program Center
&EPA	Understanding
And Oil S
¦4"
	i_

-------
Introduction J)
OIL SPILLS endanger public health, imperil drinking water, devastate natural resources, and
disrupt the economy. In an increasingly technological era, the United States has become more
dependent upon oil-based products to help us maintain our high standard of living. Products
derived from petroleum, such as heating oil and gasoline, provide fuel for our automobiles, heat
for our homes, and energy for the machinery used in our industries. Other products derived
from petroleum, including plastics and pharmaceuticals, provide us with convenience and help
to make our lives more comfortable.
Additionally, non-petroleum oils, such as vegetable oils and animal fats, are increasingly being
consumed in the United States. These oils can contain toxic components and can produce
physical effects that are similar to petroleum oils. Because they have toxic properties and
produce harmful physical effects, spills of non-petroleum oils also pose threats to public health
and the environment.
Because we use vast quantities of oils, they are usually stored and transported in large volumes.
During storage or transport, and occasionally as the result of exploration activities, oils and other
oil-based products are sometimes spilled onto land or into waterways. When this occurs, human
health and environmental quality are put at risk. Every effort must be made to prevent oil spills
and to clean them up promptly once they occur.
The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency's Oil Spill Program plays an important role in
protecting the environment through prevention of, preparation for, and response to oil spills.
Several U.S. EPA offices and other organizations deserve special recognition for their
contributions to the revision of this booklet. They are EPA Regions III and V, the EPA
Environmental Response Team, the EPA Office of Research and Development, the U.S. Fish and
Wildlife Service, the State of Alaska Department of Environmental Conservation, the State of
Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources, the University of California Wildlife Health Center,
and BP Amoco Corporation.
The purpose of this booklet is to provide information about oil spills. It contains chapters that
outline and explain oil spills, their potential effects on the environment, how they are cleaned
up, and how various agencies prepare for spills before they happen. Details about five oil spills
are provided to show different types of spills and the complexities and issues involved in
responding to them. This oil spill discussion includes the Exxon Valdez spill of March 1989; the
Ashland oil spill of January 1988; the Wisconsin fire and butter spill in May 1991; the Colonial
Pipeline spill of March 1993; and the Lake Lanier soybean oil spill in Atlanta in 1994.
EPA Office of Emergency and Remedial Response •

-------
Understanding Oil Spills and Oil Spill Response

-------
Table Of Contents J]
Title	Page
1.	The Behavior and Effects of Oil Spills in Aquatic Environments	5
2.	Mechanical Containment and Recovery of Oil Following a Spill	9
3.	Alternative Countermeasures for Oil Spills	13
4.	Shoreline Cleanup of Oil Spills	17
5.	Wildlife and Oil Spills	21
6.	Preparing for Oil Spills: Contingency Planning	27
7.	Responding to Oil Spills: The National Response System	31
8.	Response to Oil Spills	37
Glossary	45
For Further Information	47
EPA Office of Emergency and Remedial Response •	3

-------
Understanding Oil Spills and Oil Spill Response

-------
The Behavior and Effects J)
Of Oil Spills In
Aquatic Environments
INTRODUCTION
WHEN WE THINK of oil spills, we usually think of oil
tankers spilling their cargo in oceans or seas. However, oil
spilled on land often reaches lakes, rivers, and wetlands,
where it can also cause damage. Oceans and other
saltwater bodies are referred to as marine environments.
Lakes, rivers, and other inland bodies of water are called
freshwater environments. The term aquatic refers to both
marine and freshwater environments.
When oil is spilled into an aquatic environment, it can
harm organisms that live on or around the water surface
and those that live under water. Spilled oil can also
damage parts of the food chain, including human food
resources.
The severity of the impact of an oil spill depends on a
variety of factors, including characteristics of the oil itself.
Natural conditions, such as water temperature and
weather, also influence the behavior of oil in aquatic
environments. Various types of habitats have differing
sensitivities to oil spills as well.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF OIL
THE TERM OIL describes a broad range of hydrocarbon-
based substances. Hydrocarbons are chemical compounds
composed of the elements hydrogen and carbon. This
includes substances that are commonly thought of as oils,
such as crude oil and refined petroleum products, but it
also includes animal fats, vegetable oils, and other non-
petroleum oils. Each type of oil has distinct physical and
chemical properties. These properties affect the way oil
will spread and break down, the hazard it may pose to
aquatic and human life, and the likelihood that it will pose
a threat to natural and man-made resources.
The rate at which an oil spill spreads will determine its
effect on the environment. Most oils tend to spread
horizontally into a smooth and slippery surface, called a
slick, on top of the water. Factors which affect the ability of
an oil spill to spread include surface tension, specific gravity,
and viscosity.
•	Surface tension is the measure of attraction between the
surface molecules of a liquid. The higher the oil's
surface tension, the more likely a spill will remain in
place. If the surface tension of the oil is low, the oil will
spread even without help from wind and water
currents. Because increased temperatures can reduce a
liquid's surface tension, oil is more likely to spread in
warmer waters than in very cold waters.
•	Specific gravity is the density of a substance compared to
the density of water. Since most oils are lighter than
water, they float on top of it. However, the specific
gravity of an oil spill can increase if the lighter
substances within the oil evaporate. Heavier oils,
vegetable oils, and animal fats may sink and form tar
balls or may interact with rocks or sediments on the
bottom of the water body.
•	Viscosity is the measure of a liquid's resistance to flow.
The higher the viscosity of the oil, the greater the
tendency for it to stay in one place. (Honey is an
example of a highly viscous liquid.)
THE FATE OF SPILLED OIL
NATURAL ACTIONS are always at work in aquatic
environments. These can reduce the severity of an oil spill
and accelerate the recovery of an affected area. Some
natural actions include weathering, evaporation, oxidation,
biodegradation, and emulsification.
•	Weathering is a series of chemical and physical changes
that cause spilled oil to break down and become heavier
than water. Wave action may result in natural dispersion,
EPA Office of Emergency and Remedial Response •

-------
breaking a slick into droplets which are then distributed
vertically throughout the water column. These droplets
can also form a secondary slick or thin film on the
surface of the water.
•	Evaporation occurs when the lighter or more volatile
substances within the oil mixture become vapors and
leave the surface of the water. This process leaves
behind the heavier components of the oil, which may
undergo further weathering or may sink to the bottom
of the ocean floor. Spills of lighter refined products, such
as kerosene and gasoline, contain a high proportion of
flammable components known as light ends. These may
evaporate within a few hours, causing minimal harm to
the aquatic environment. Heavier oils, vegetable oils,
and animal fats leave a thicker, more viscous residue.
These types of oils are less likely to evaporate.
•	Oxidation occurs when oil contacts the water and
oxygen combines with the oil hydrocarbons to produce
water-soluble compounds. This process affects oil slicks
mostly around their edges. Thick slicks may only
partially oxidize, forming tar balls. These dense, sticky
black spheres may linger in the environment, washing
up on shorelines long after a spill.
•	Biodegradation occurs when microorganisms, such as
bacteria, feed on oil hydrocarbons. A wide range of
microorganisms is required for a significant reduction of
the oil. To sustain biodegradation, nutrients such as
nitrogen and phosphorus are sometimes added to the
water to encourage the microorganisms to grow and
reproduce. Biodegradation tends to work best in warm-
water environments.
• Emulsification is the process that forms emulsions, which
are mixtures of small droplets of oil and water.
Emulsions are formed by wave action, and they greatly
hamper weathering and cleanup processes. Two types of
emulsions exist: water-in-oil and oil-in-water. Water-in-
oil emulsions are frequently called "chocolate mousse,"
and they are formed when strong wave action causes
water to become trapped inside viscous oil. Chocolate
mousse emulsions may linger in the environment for
months or even years. Oil and water emulsions cause oil
to sink and disappear from the surface, giving the visual
illusion that it is gone and the threat to the environment
has ended.
These natural actions occur differently in freshwater
versus marine environments. Freshwater environmental
impacts can be more severe because water movement is
minimized in these habitats. In standing water bodies, oil
tends to pool and can remain in the environment for long
periods of time. In flowing streams and rivers, oil tends to
collect on plants and grasses growing on the banks. Oil can
also interact with the sediment at the bottom of the
freshwater bodies, affecting organisms that live in or feed
off of sediments.
Evaps'srcnn
Su-VU'Hd PiifWitl

Fuh PHMH,i.ili:ri
jp'P-Sjrij
r«.ilHIHII-II I iMTlll K 1.11



aim-tf-Kcr c rr>_l 5>:r
Par>do ocpcsnnn
Understanding Oil Spills and Oil Spill Response
Fate of
spilled
oil.

-------
EFFECTS OF OIL ON PLANTS
AND ANIMALS
SOME TOXIC SUBSTANCES in an oil spill may
evaporate quickly. Therefore, plant, animal, and human
exposure to the most toxic substances are reduced with
time, and are usually limited to the initial spill area.
Although some organisms may be seriously injured or
killed very soon after contact with the oil in a spill, non-
lethal toxic effects can be more subtle and often longer
lasting. For example, aquatic life on reefs and shorelines is
at risk of being smothered by oil that washes ashore. It can
also be poisoned slowly by long-term exposure to oil
trapped in shallow water or on beaches.
Both petroleum and non-petroleum oil can affect the
environment surrounding an oil spill. All types of oil share
chemical and physical properties that produce similar
effects on the environment. In some cases, non-petroleum
oil spills can produce more harmful effects than petroleum
oil spills.
Chapter five discusses in greater detail how oil spills
impact wildlife .
Sensitivity of Aquatic Habitats
Aquatic environments are made up of complex
interrelations between plant and animal species
and their physical environment. Harm to the
physical environment will often lead to harm for
one or more species in a food chain, which may
lead to damage for other species further up the
chain. Where an organism spends most of its
time—in open water, near coastal areas, or on the
shoreline—will determine the effects an oil spill is
likely to have on that organism.
In open water, fish and whales have the ability to swim
away from a spill by going deeper in the water or further
out to sea, reducing the likelihood that they will be harmed
by even a major spill. Aquatic animals that generally live
closer to shore, such as turtles, seals, and dolphins, risk
contamination by oil that washes onto beaches or by
consuming oil-contaminated prey. In shallow waters, oil
may harm sea grasses and kelp beds, which are used for
food, shelter, and nesting sites by many different species.
Spilled oil and cleanup operations can threaten different
types of aquatic habitats, with different results.
•	Coral reefs are important nurseries for shrimp, fish, and
other animals as well as recreational attractions for
divers. Coral reefs and the aquatic organisms that live
within and around them are at risk from exposure to the
toxic substances within oil as well as smothering.
•	Exposed sandy, gravel, or cobble beaches are usually
cleaned by manual techniques. Although oil can soak
into sand and gravel, few organisms live full-time in
this habitat, so the risk to animal life or the food chain is
less than in other habitats, such as tidal flats.
Crews work to keep oil from entering a marsh.
•	Sheltered beaches have very little wave action to
encourage natural dispersion. If timely cleanup efforts
are not begun, oil may remain stranded on these
beaches for years.
•	Tidal flats are broad, low-tide zones, usually containing
rich plant, animal, and bird communities. Deposited oil
may seep into the muddy bottoms of these flats, creating
potentially harmful effects on the ecology of the area.
•	Salt marshes are found in sheltered waters in cold and
temperate areas. They host a variety of plant, bird, and
mammal life. Marsh vegetation, especially root systems,
is easily damaged by fresh light oils.
•	Mangrove forests are located in tropical regions and are
home to a diversity of plant and animal life. Mangrove
trees have long roots, called prop roots, that stick out well
above the water level and help to hold the mangrove
tree in place. A coating of oil on these prop roots can be
fatal to the mangrove tree, and because they grow so
slowly, replacing a mangrove tree can take decades.
•	Marshes and swamps with little water movement are
likely to incur more severe impacts than flowing water.
In calm water conditions, the affected habitat may take
years to restore.
•	Other standing water bodies, such as inland lakes and
ponds, are home to a variety of birds, mammals, and
fish. The human food chain can be affected by spills in
these environments.
•	River habitats may be less severely affected by spills than
standing water bodies because of water movement.
However, spills in these water bodies can affect plants,
grasses, and mosses that grow in the environment.
When rivers are used as drinking water sources, oil
spills on rivers can pose direct threats to human health.
EPA Office of Emergency and Remedial Response •

-------
Sensitivity of Birds and Mammals
An oil spill can harm birds and mammals in several ways:
direct physical contact, toxic contamination, destruction of food
sources and habitats, and reproductive problems.
•	Physical contact - When fur or feathers come into contact
with oil, they get matted down. This matting causes fur
and feathers to lose their insulating properties, placing
animals at risk of freezing to death. For birds, the risk of
drowning increases, as the complex structure of their
feathers that allows them to float or to fly becomes
damaged.
•	Toxic contamination - Some species are susceptible to the
toxic effects of inhaled oil vapors. Oil vapors can cause
damage to the animal's central nervous system, liver,
and lungs. Animals are also at risk from ingesting oil,
which can reduce the animal's ability to eat or digest its
food by damaging cells in the intestinal tract.
•	Destruction of food resources and habitats - Even species
which are not directly in contact with oil can be harmed
by a spill. Predators that consume contaminated prey
can be exposed to oil through ingestion. Because oil
contamination gives fish and other animals unpleasant
tastes and smells, predators will sometimes refuse to eat
their prey and will begin to starve. Sometimes a local
population of prey organisms is destroyed, leaving no
food resources for predators. Depending on the
environmental conditions, the spilled oil may linger in
the environment for long periods of time, adding to the
detrimental effects. In calm water conditions, oil that
interacts with rocks or sediments can remain in the
environment indefinitely.
•	Reproductive problems - Oil can be transferred from birds'
plumage to the eggs they are hatching. Oil can smother
eggs by sealing pores in the eggs and preventing gas
exchange. Scientists have also observed developmental
effects in bird embryos that were exposed to oil. Also,
the number of breeding animals and the of nesting
habitats can be reduced by the spill. Long-term
reproductive problems have also been shown in some
studies in animals that have been exposed to oil.
SUMMARY
SPILLED OIL immediately begins to move and weather,
breaking down and changing its physical and chemical
properties. As these processes occur, the oil threatens
surface resources and a wide range of subsurface aquatic
organisms linked in a complex food chain. Many different
types of aquatic habitats exist, with varied sensitivities to
the harmful effects of oil contamination and different
abilities to recuperate from oil spills. In some areas,
habitats and populations can recover quickly. In other
environments, however, recovery from persistent or
stranded oil may take years. These detrimental effects are
caused by both petroleum and non-petroleum oil.
Understanding Oil Spills and Oil Spill Response

-------
Mechanical Containment J)
And
F
INTRODUCTION
TWO MAJOR STEPS involved in controlling oil spills are
containment and recovery. This chapter outlines some of
the techniques and equipment that are used to conduct oil
spill control efforts.
CONTAINMENT
WHEN AN OIL SPILL occurs on water, it is critical to
contain the spill as quickly as possible in order to minimize
danger and potential damage to persons, property, and
natural resources. Containment equipment is used to
restrict the spread of oil and to allow for its recovery,
removal, or dispersal. The most common type of
equipment used to control the spread of oil is floating
barriers, called booms.
Booms
Containment booms are used to control the spread of oil to
reduce the possibility of polluting shorelines and other
resources, as well as to concentrate oil in thicker surface
layers, making recovery easier. In addition, booms may be
used to divert and channel oil slicks along desired paths,
making them easier to remove from the surface of the
water.
Although there is a great deal of variation in the design
and construction of booms, all generally share four basic
characteristics:
• An above-water "freeboard" to contain the oil and to
help prevent waves from splashing oil over the top of
the boom
• A "longitudinal support," usually a chain or cable
running along the bottom of the skirt, that strengthens
the boom against wind and wave action; may also serve
as a weight or ballast to add stability and help keep the
boom upright
Booms can be divided into several basic types. Fence
booms have a high freeboard and a flat flotation device,
making them least effective in rough water, where wave
and wind action can cause the boom to twist. Round or
"curtain" booms have a more circular flotation device and
a continuous skirt. They perform well in rough water, but
are more difficult to clean and store than fence booms.
Non-rigid inflatable booms come in many shapes. They are
easy to clean and store, and they perform well in rough
seas. However, they tend to be expensive, more
complicated to use, and puncture and deflate easily. All
boom types are greatly affected by the conditions at sea;
the higher the waves swell, the less effective booms
become.
Booms can be used to control the spread of oil.
•	A flotation device
•	A below-water skirt to contain the oil and help reduce
the amount of oil lost under the boom
EPA Office of Emergency and Remedial Response •	9

-------
Booms can be fixed to a structure, such as a pier or a buoy,
or towed behind or alongside one or more vessels. When
stationary or moored, the boom is anchored below the
water surface.
It is necessary for stationary booms to be monitored or
tended due to changes produced by shifting tides, tidal
currents, winds , or other factors that influence water depth
and direction and force of motion. People must tend
booms around the clock to monitor and adjust the
equipment.
The forces exerted by currents, waves, and wind may
impair the ability of a boom to hold oil. LoSs of oil
occurring when friction between the water and oil causes
droplets of oil to separate from the slick and be pulled
under the boom is called entrainment. Currents or tow
speeds greater than three-quarters of a knot may cause
entrainment. Wind and waves can force oil over the top of
the boom's freeboard or even flatten the boom into the
water, causing it to release the contained oil. Mechanical
problems and improper mooring can also cause a boom to
fail.
While most booms perform well in gentle seas with
smooth, long waves, rough and choppy water is likely to
contribute to boom failure. In some circumstances,
lengthening a boom's skirt or freeboard can help to contain
the oil. Because they have more resistance to natural forces
such as wind, waves, and currents, oversized booms are
more prone to failure or leakage than smaller ones.
Generally, booms will not operate properly when waves
are higher than one meter or currents are moving faster
than one knot per hour. However, new technologies, such
as submergence plane booms and entrainment inhibitors,
are being developed that will allow booms to operate at
higher speeds while retaining more oil.
Other Barriers: Improvised Booms
When a spill occurs and no containment equipment is
available, barriers can be improvised from whatever
materials are at hand. Although they are most often used
as temporary measures to hold or divert oil until more
sophisticated equipment arrives, improvised booms can be
an effective way to deal with oil spills, particularly in calm
water such as streams, slow-moving rivers, or sheltered
bays and inlets.
Improvised booms are made from such common materials
as wood, plastic pipe, inflated fire hoses, automobile tires,
and empty oil drums. They can be as simple as a board
placed across the surface of a slow-moving stream, or a
berm built by bulldozers pushing a wall of sand out from
the beach to divert oil from a sensitive section of shoreline.
RECOVERY OF OIL
ONCE AN OIL SPILL has been contained, efforts to
remove the oil from the water can begin. Three different
types of equipment—booms, skimmers, and sorbents—are
commonly used to recover oil from the surface.
Booms
When used in recovering oil, booms are often supported
by a horizontal arm extending directly off one or both
sides of a vessel. Sailing through the heaviest sections of
the spill at low speeds, a vessel scoops the oil and traps it
between the angle of the boom and the vessel's hull. In
another variation, a boom is; moored at the end points of a
rigid arm extended from the vessel, forming a "U"- or "J"-
shaped pocket in which oil can collect. In either case, the
trapped oil can then be pumped out to holding tanks and
returned to shore for proper disposal or recycling.
Skimmers
A skimmer is a device for recovery of spilled oil from the
water's surface. Skimmers maybe self-propelled and may
be used from shore or operated from vessels. The efficiency
of skimmers depends on weather conditions. In
moderately rough or choppy water, skimmers tend to
*
Oleophilic skimmer.
O
O
10	• Understanding Oil Spills and Oil Spill Response
Suction skimmer.

-------
recover more water than oil. Three types of skimmers—
weir, oleophilic, and suction—are described below. Each type
offers advantages and drawbacks, depending on the type
of oil being cleaned up, the conditions of the sea during
cleanup efforts, and the presence of ice or debris in the
water.
Weir skimmers use a dam or enclosure positioned at the
oil/water interface. Oil floating on top of the water will
spill over the dam and be trapped in a well inside,
bringing with it as little water as possible, The trapped oil
and water mixture can then be pumped out through a pipe
or hose to a storage tank for recycling or disposal. These
skimmers are prone to becoming jammed and clogged by
floating debris.
Oleophilic (oil-attracting) skimmers use belts, disks, or
continuous mop chains of oleophilic materials to blot the
oil from the water surface. The oil is then squeezed out or
scraped off into a recovery tank. Oleophilic skimmers have
the advantage of flexibility, allowing them to be used
effectively on spills of any thickness. Some types, such as
chain or "rope-mop" skimmers, work well on water that is
choked with debris or rough ice.
A suction skimmer operates like a household vacuum
cleaner. Oil is sucked up through wide floating heads and
pumped into storage tanks. Although suction skimmers
are generally very efficient, they are vulnerable to
becoming clogged by debris and require constant skilled
observation. Suction skimmers operate best on smooth
water where oil has collected against a boom or barrier.
Sorbents
Sorbents are materials that soak up liquids. They can be
used to recover oil through the mechanisms of absorption,
adsorption, or both. Absorbents allow oil to penetrate into
pore spaces in the material they are made of, while
adsorbents attract oil to their surfaces but do not allow it to
penetrate into the material. To be useful in combating oil
spills, sorbents need to be both oleophilic and hydrophobic
(water-repellant). Although they may be used as the sole
cleanup method in small spills, sorbents are most often
used to remove final traces of oil, or in areas that cannot be
reached by skimmers. Once sorbents have been used to
recover oil, they must be removed from the water and
properly disposed of on land or cleaned for re-use. Any oil
that is removed from sorbent materials must also be
properly disposed of or recycled.
Sorbents can be divided into three basic categories: natural
organic, natural inorganic, and synthetic. Natural organic
sorbents include peat moss, straw, hay, sawdust, ground
corncobs, feathers, and other carbon-based products. They
are relatively inexpensive and usually readily available.
Organic sorbents can soak up from 3 to 15 times their
weight in oil, but they do present some disadvantages.
Some organic sorbents tend to soak up water as well as oil,
causing them to sink. Many organic sorbents are loose
Application of sorbents.
particles, such as sawdust, and are difficult to collect after
they are spread on the water. Adding flotation devices,
such as empty drums attached to sorbent bales of hay, can
help to overcome the sinking problem, and wrapping loose
particles in mesh will aid in collection.
Natural inorganic sorbents include clay, perlite,
vermiculite, glass, wool, sand, and volcanic ash. They can
absorb from 4 to 20 times their weight in oil. Inorganic
substances, like organic substances, are inexpensive and
readily available in large quantities.
Synthetic sorbents include man-made materials that are
similar to plastics, such as polyurethane, polyethylene, and
nylon fibers. Most synthetic sorbents can absorb as much
as 70 times their weight in oil, and some types can be
cleaned and reused several times. Synthetic sorbents that
cannot be cleaned after they are used can present
difficulties because they must be stored temporarily until
they can be disposed of properly.
The following characteristics must be considered when
choosing sorbents for cleaning up spills:
•	Rate of absorption—The rate of absorption varies with
the thickness of the oil. Light oils are soaked up more
quickly than heavy ones.
•	Oil retention—The weight of recovered oil can cause a
sorbent structure to sag and deform. When it is lifted
out of the water, it can release oil that is trapped in its
pores. During recovery of absorbent materials, lighter,
less viscous oil is lost through the pores more easily
than heavier, more viscous oil.
•	Ease of application—Sorbents may be applied to spills
manually or mechanically, using blowers or fans. Many
natural organic sorbents that exist as loose materials,
such as clay and vermiculite, are dusty, difficult to apply
in windy conditions, and potentially hazardous if
inhaled.
EPA Office of Emergency and Remedial Response •	11

-------
SUMMARY
THE PRIMARY tools used to respond to oil spills are
mechanical containment, recovery, and cleanup
equipment. Such equipment includes a variety of booms,
barriers, and skimmers, as well as natural and synthetic
sorbent materials. A key to effectively combating spilled oil
is careful selection and proper use of the equipment and
materials most suited to the type of oil and the conditions
at the spill site. Most spill response equipment and
materials are greatly affected by such factors as conditions
at sea, water currents, and wind. Damage to spill-
contaminated shorelines and dangers to other threatened
areas can be reduced by timely and proper use of
containment and recovery equipment.
CLEANING UP AN OIL SPILL:
AN EXPERIMENT YOU CAN DO AT HOME
THIS EXPERIMENT is designed lo help you lo
understand the difficulties w ith oil spill cleanups. You
will need tlie; following equipment:
•	two aluminum pic pans, each half filled with water
•	a medicine dropper full of used motor oil
•	cotton balls (use real cotton)
•	nylon siring
•	paper lowels
•	liquid detergent
•	feathers
Before you begin, make a list of predictions about the
action ofoil and water. You might want lo answer the
follow ing questions in your list:
•	What will happen to the oil when you drop it on the
water?
•	Will it sink, float, or mix in?
•	Which material will clean up the oil in the least
amount of lime? Cotton, nylon, paper lowel, or
siring?
•	I low mighl wind and waves affect ihe combination
of oil and w ater?
Complete each oflhe following steps, and observe
whal happens.
1. Put five1 drops of motor oil into one of the "oceans"
(your aluminum pic; pans). Observe ihe action of
ihe oil, and record whal happens. Was your
prediction correct?
Z. One al a lime, use I In? different materials (nylon,
collon, siring, and paper towels) lo try lo clean up
I he; oil from ihe water, keeping track of ihe amount
ofoil each material was able1 to clean up and how
fast it worked. (These materials arc whal booms and
skimmers arc made; of.) Which cleaned up ihe oil
till1 fastest? Tlu- best?
3. Add five; drops ofoil lo the second pan. Add five1
drops of liquid detergent. (This represents ihe
chemical dispersanls.) Observe whal happens.
Where do you think the oil would go in the "real"
oceans?
'1. Dip a leal her directly into some oil. Whal happens
lo it? I low do you think this mighl affect a bird's
behaviors, such as fly ing, preening, and feeding?
Used vvilh permission hum June (). I lowmxl. "Slick Science-,"
Science and Children, Mil. 27, no. 2 (October 1989).
12	• Understanding Oil Spills and Oil Spill Response

-------
(f Alternative Countermeasures
For Oil Spills
INTRODUCTION
SEVERAL METHODS exist for containing and cleaning
up oil spills in aquatic environments. Chapter two
describes how mechanical equipment, such as booms and
skimmers, is used to block the spread of oil, concentrate it
into one area, and remove it from the water. Chemical and
biological treatment of oil can be used in place of
mechanical methods, especially in areas where untreated
oil may reach shorelines and sensitive habitats where a
cleanup becomes difficult and environmentally damaging.
This chapter describes some of the chemical and biological
methods that are used by response personnel to contain
and clean up oil spills in aquatic environments. Alternative
treatment typically involves adding chemical or biological
agents to spilled oil and also includes in-situ burning.
Helicopters are often used to apply dispersants to large areas.
TYPES OF SUBSTANCES USED
TWO TYPES of substances commonly used in responding
to an oil spill are (1) dispersing agents and (2) biological agents.
Dispersing Agents
Dispersing agents, also called dispersants, are chemicals that
contain surfactants, or compounds that act to break liquid
substances such as oil into small droplets. In an oil spill,
these droplets disperse into the water column, where they are
subjected to natural processes—such as wind, waves, and
currents—that help to break them down further. This helps
to clear oil from the water surface, making it less likely that
the oil slick will reach the shoreline.
The effectiveness of a dispersant is determined by the
composition of the oil it is being used to treat and the
method and rate at which the dispersant is applied. Heavy
crude oils do not disperse as well as light- to medium-
weight oils. Dispersants are most effective when applied
immediately following a spill, before the lightest
components in the oil have evaporated.
Environmental factors, including water salinity and
temperature, and conditions at sea influence the
effectiveness of dispersants. Studies have shown that many
dispersants work best at salinity levels close to that of
normal seawater. While dispersants can work in cold
water, they work best in warm water.
Some countries rely almost exclusively on dispersants to
combat oil spills because frequently rough or choppy
conditions at sea make mechanical containment and
cleanup difficult. However, dispersants have not been used
extensively in the United States because of difficulties with
application, disagreement among scientists about their
effectiveness, and concerns about the toxicity of the
dispersed mixtures. Dispersants used today are much less
toxic than those used in the past, but few long-term
environmental effects tests have been conducted after a
dispersant application. The EPA encourages the
monitoring of areas that may see increased dispersant use.
EPA Office of Emergency and Remedial Response •	13

-------
These problems are being overcome, however. New
technologies that improve the application of dispersants
are being designed. The effectiveness of dispersants is
being tested in laboratories and in actual spill situations,
and the information collected is being used to help design
more effective dispersants. In addition, the EPA maintains
an authorized list of chemical and biological agents for use
on oil spills.
Biological Agents
Biological agents are nutrients, enzymes, or microorganisms
that increase the rate at which natural biodegradation
occurs. Biodegradation is a process by which
microorganisms such as bacteria, fungi, and yeasts break
down complex compounds into simpler products to obtain
energy and nutrients.
Biodegradation of oil is a natural process that slowly—
over the course of weeks, months, or years—removes oil
from the environment. However, rapid removal of spilled
oil from shorelines and wetlands may be necessary in
order to minimize potential environmental damage to
these sensitive habitats.
Bioremediation technologies can help biodegradation
processes work faster. Bioremediation refers to the act of
adding materials to the environment, such as fertilizers or
microorganisms, that will increase the rate at which
natural biodegradation occurs. Furthermore,
bioremediation is often used after all mechanical oil
recovery methods have been used. Two bioremediation
approaches have been used in the United States for oil spill
cleanups—biostimulation and bioaugmentation.
Biostimulation is the method of adding nutrients such as
phosphorus and nitrogen to a contaminated environment
to stimulate the growth of the microorganisms that break
down oil. Limited supplies of these necessary nutrients
usually control the growth of native microorganism
populations. When nutrients are added, the native
microorganism population can grow rapidly, potentially
increasing the rate of biodegradation.
Bioaugmentation is the addition of microorganisms to the
existing native oil-degrading population. Sometimes
species of bacteria that do not naturally exist in an area
will be added to the native population. As with nutrient
addition, the purpose of seeding is to increase the
population of microorganisms that can biodegrade the
spilled oil. This process is seldom needed, however,
because hydrocarbon-degrading bacterial exist almost
everywhere and non-indigenous species are often unable
to compete successfully with native microorganisms.
During the Exxon Valdez oil spill cleanup and restoration
activities, the Alaska Regional Response Team authorized
the use of bioremediation products, including
biostimulation and bioaugmentation. Nutrient addition
use was approved for approximately 100 miles of the
Prince William Sound shoreline. Data collected through a
monitoring protocol required by the State of Alaska
indicated that nutrient addition accelerated the natural
degradation of oil with no observed eutrophication or
toxicity.
Proof of the effectiveness of bioremediation as an oil spill
cleanup technology was developed on the shoreline of
Delaware Bay in 1994. This EPA-funded study, which
involved an intentional release of light crude oil onto small
plots, demonstrated a several-fold increase in
biodegradation rate due to the addition of fertilizer
compared to the unfertilized control plots.
Bioaugmentation or seeding with native microorganisms
did not result in faster biodegradation.
IN-SITU BURNING
IN-SITU BURNING of oil involves the ignition and
controlled combustion of oil. It can be used when oil is
spilled on a water body or on land. The National Oil and
Hazardous Substances Contingency Plan authorizes in-situ
burning as a cleanup method but requires approval from
the regional response team (RRT) before it can be used.
RRT can provide approval through pre-authorization plans
and agreements among the federal and state agencies. In-
situ burning is typically used in conjunction with
mechanical recovery on open water. Fire resistant booms
are often used to collect and concentrate the oil into a slick
that is thick enough to burn.
Many factors influence the decision to use in-situ burning
on inland or coastal waters. Elements affecting the use of
burning include water temperature, wind direction and
speed, wave amplitude, slick thickness, oil type, and the
amount of oil weathering and emulsification that have
occurred. Weathering is a measure of the amount of oil
already having escaped to the atmosphere through
evaporation. Emulsification is the process of oil mixing with
water. Oil layer thickness, weathering, and emulsification
are usually dependent upon the time period between the
actual spill and the start of burn operations. For many
spills, there is only a short "window of opportunity"
during which in-situ burning is a viable option.
General guidelines for the use of in-situ burning on a
water body are as follows:
•	Wind speeds of less than 23 mph,
•	Waves less than 3 feet in height,
•	Minimum slick thickness of 2-3 mm, depending upon
oil type,
•	Less than 30 percent evaporative loss, and
•	Emulsification of less than 25 percent water content.
The major issues for in-situ burning of inland spills are
proximity to human populations (burning must take place
at least three miles away from population at risk), soil
14	• Understanding Oil Spills and Oil Spill Response

-------
type, water level, erosion potential, vegetation species and
condition, and wildlife species presence. Burning may
actually allow oil to penetrate further into some soils and
shoreline sediments.
Because it releases pollutants into the air, in-situ burning
requires careful air quality monitoring. Devices are pre-
deployed near populations to measure particulate levels. If
air quality standards are exceeded, the burn will be
terminated.
Because in-situ burning uses intense heat sources, it poses
additional danger to response personnel. Igniting an oil
slick requires a device that can deliver an intense heat
source to the oil.
Vessel-deployed ignition devices are soaked with a volatile
compound, lit, and allowed to drift into an oil slick. During
the Exxon Valdez cleanup effort, plastic bags filled with
gelled gasoline were ignited and placed in the path of oil
being towed in a containment fire-boom. Hand-held
ignition systems can be thrown into oil slicks but require
personnel to be in close proximity to the burning oil. A
recently developed ignition device called the "Helitorch,"
delivers a falling stream of burning fuel from a helicopter,
allowing personnel to maintain a safer distance from the
burning slick and distribute ignition sources over a wider
area.
Although it can be effective in some situations, in-situ
burning is rarely used on marine spills because of
widespread concern over atmospheric emissions and
uncertainty about its impacts on human and environmental
health. However, burning of inland spills is frequently used
in a number of states. All burns produce significant amounts
of particulate matter, dependent on the type of oil being
burned. Burning oil delivers polycyclic aromatic
hydrocarbons, volatile organic compounds, carbon dioxide,
and carbon monoxide into the air in addition to other
compounds at lower levels. In addition, when circumstances
make it more difficult to ignite the oil, an accelerant such as
gasoline may need to be added, possibly increasing the
toxicity of the volatilizing particles. Lack of data regarding
the environmental and human health effects of burning has
also discouraged its use.
In-situ burning will be used more often as federal response
agencies learn from its behavior and effects. As in the case
of the New Carissa, a Japanese freighter that ran aground at
the entrance to Coos Bay in Oregon on February 4, 1999,
the conditions were favorable for burning. The ship was
carrying approximately 360,000 gallons of bunker fuel.
Early assessment of the vessel revealed that it was leaking
fuel. In order to reduce the potential for oil to spill from the
vessel during impending storms, responders ignited the
grounded ship with incendiary devices in an attempt to
burn the fuel in the cargo holds.
Despite its drawbacks, in-situ burning may be an efficient
cleanup method under certain conditions where there are
few negative effects on humans or the environment. These
In-situ burning
can remove oil
quickly.
conditions include remote areas, areas with herbaceous or
dormant vegetation, and water or land covered with snow
or ice. In these circumstances, burning can quickly prevent
the movement of oil to additional areas, eliminate the
generation of oily wastes, provide a cleanup means for
affected areas with limited access for mechanical or
physical removal methods, or provide an additional level
of cleanup when other methods become ineffective. When
oil is spilled into water containing a layer or chunks of ice,
burning can often remove much more oil than
conventional means. Burning can also help to eliminate
some volatile compounds that might otherwise evaporate
off a slick.
Although limited, research and development for in-situ
burning in the areas of training, fire-resistant booms, and
ignition systems have increased in recent years.
Investigation into inland environments and vegetative
species that are more tolerant of burns is also yielding
results which can aid responders. As data regarding the
effects of burning oil on the environment and human
population increase, consideration and use of in-situ
burning may become more frequent when spills occur.
SUMMARY
CHEMICAL AND BIOLOGICAL methods can be used in
conjunction with mechanical means for containing and
cleaning up oil spills. Dispersants are most useful in helping
to keep oil from reaching shorelines and other sensitive
habitats. Biological agents have the potential to assist
recovery in sensitive areas such as shorelines, marshes, and
wetlands. In-situ burning has shown the potential to be an
effective cleanup method under certain circumstances.
Research into these technologies continues in the hope that
future oil spills can be contained and cleaned up more
efficiently and effectively.
EPA Office of Emergency and Remedial Response •	15

-------
16	• Understanding Oil Spills and Oil Spill Response

-------
Shoreline Cleanup J)
Of Oil Spills
INTRODUCTION
FRESHWATER and marine shoreline areas are important
public and ecological resources. However, their cleanliness
and beauty, and the survival of the species that inhabit
them, can be threatened by accidents that occur when oil is
produced, stored, and transported. Oil is sometimes
spilled from vessels directly into waterways; spills from
land-based facilities can flow into waters and foul
shorelines. These accidents affect both oceans and
freshwater environments. Despite the best efforts of
response teams to contain spilled oil, some of it may
contaminate shorelines of oceans and lakes, banks of rivers
and streams, and other ecologically sensitive habitats
along the water's edge. To help protect these resources
from damage and to preserve them for public enjoyment
and for the survival of numerous species, cleaning up
shorelines following oil spills has become an important
part of oil spill response.
SHORELINES: PUBLIC AND
ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCES
FRESHWATER and marine shoreline areas serve as homes
to a variety of wildlife during all or part of the year. Many
bird species build their nests on sand or among pebbles,
while others regularly wander the shoreline searching for
food. Marine mammals, such as elephant seals and sea
lions, come ashore to breed and bear their pups. Fish, such
as salmon, swim near shorelines on their upriver
migrations during spawning season, and their offspring
swim through these same areas on their trips to the sea in
the following year. In addition, freshwater environments
are important to human health as they are often used for
drinking water and are home to many different mammals,
aquatic birds, fish, insects, microorganisms, and vegetation.
Freshwater and marine shorelines also provide public
recreation throughout the world. Rivers, streams, and
other freshwater bodies are known for their fishing
activities, while many beaches are famous for their wide
expanses of beautiful sand and rugged rocky cliffs,
providing opportunities for sports such as swimming,
boating, and windsurfing. When response teams develop
strategies for cleaning up a shoreline after an oil spill, they
must consider the characteristics of the shoreline and the
natural and recreational resources it provides.
FACTORS AFFECTING CLEANUP DECISIONS
FREQUENTLY, oil spills will start on land and reach shore
areas. Whenever possible, control and cleanup of an oil
spill begins immediately. If the oil spill can be controlled, it
is less likely that it will reach sensitive freshwater or
marine habitats. If the oil does reach the shore, however,
decisions about how best to remove it must be made.
These decisions will be based on factors such as the
following:
•	Type of oil spilled
•	Geology of the shoreline and rate of water flow
•	Type and sensitivity of biological communities likely to
be affected
Each of these factors is described below.
Type of Oil Spilled
Lighter oils tend to evaporate and degrade (break down)
very quickly; therefore, they do not tend to be deposited in
large quantities on banks and shorelines. Heavier oils,
however, tend to form a thick oil-and-water mixture called
mousse, which clings to rocks and sand. Heavier oils
exposed to sunlight and wave action also tend to form
dense, sticky substances known as tar balls and asphalt that
are very difficult to remove from rocks and sediments.
Therefore, deposits from heavy oils generally require more
EPA Office of Emergency and Remedial Response •	17

-------
aggressive cleanup than those from lighter ones. Shoreline
clean-up of inland spills usually involves lighter oils.
Inland oil spills often involve refined petroleum products,
although spills of other types of oil are not uncommon.
Spills in marine ecosystems often involve crude oils and
heavy fuel oils originating from accidents during tanker
operations.
Geology of the Shoreline and Rate of Water Flow
Shorelines can vary dramatically in their forms and
compositions. Some marine shorelines are narrow, with
beaches formed from rounded or flattened cobbles and
pebbles; some are wide and covered in a layer of sand or
broken shell fragments; and still others are steep cliffs with
no beach at all. Generally, freshwater shorelines are
composed of sediments and may be lined with trees or
heavy vegetation. The composition and structure of the
bank will determine the potential effects of oil on the
shoreline.
Oil tends to stick to sediments and to the surfaces of
cobbles and pebbles. It also flows downward in the spaces
between cobbles, pebbles, and sand grains, and
accumulates in lower layers of sediments. Oil that sticks to
sediment particles suspended in the water column, or to
cobbles and pebbles along the bank, is exposed to sunlight
and waves, which help it to degrade and make it less
hazardous to organisms that come into contact with it. Oil
that sticks to rocks and pebbles can be wiped or washed
off. Oil that flows onto sandy banks, however, can
"escape" downward into sand, making it difficult to clean
up and reducing its ability to degrade.
The effects of an oil spill on marine and freshwater habitats
varies according to the rate of water flow and the habitat's
specific characteristics. Standing or slow-moving water,
such as marshes or lakes, are likely to incur more severe
impacts than flowing water, such as rivers and streams,
because spilled oil tends to "pool" in the water and can
remain there for long periods of time. In calm water
The type of environment needs to be
considered when devising a cleanup plan.
conditions, affected habitats may take years to recover.
When oil spills into a flowing river, the impact may be less
severe than in standing water because the river current
acts as a natural cleaning mechanism. Currents tend to be
the strongest along the outside edge of a bend in a river
where the current tends to flow straight into the outside
bank before being deflected downstream. Oil
contamination is usually heavy in this area because
currents drive the oil onto the bank.
In marine environments and on large lakes and rivers,
waves affect the movement and spreading of oil spills in
several different ways. Initially, the oil spreads to form a
thin film, called an oil slick. The slick appears smooth
compared to the water around it. Momentum is then
transferred from the waves to the oil slick. Small waves
tend to push oil slicks in the direction of wave
propagation. This makes oil slicks move slightly faster than
the surface of the water that they are floating on. Short,
relatively steep waves can result in a surface current that
will move the oil in a downwind direction. As waves
break, the resulting plunging water creates a turbulent
wake, carrying particles of oil down into the water column.
Type and Sensitivity of Biological Communities
Biological communities differ in their sensitivity to oil
spills and the physical intrusion that may be associated
with various cleanup methods. Some ecosystems seem to
recover quickly from spills, with little or no noticeable
harm, while others experience long-term harmful effects.
Animals and plants may be affected by the physical
properties of spilled oil, which prevent respiration,
photosynthesis, or feeding. Animals, such as elephant
seals, which depend on the marine environment for
breeding and pupping, can lose their ability to stay warm
in cold water when their skin comes into contact with oil.
Birds lose their ability to fly and to stay warm when their
feathers are coated with oil, and fish can suffocate when
their gills are covered with oil. An oil spill can disrupt an
ecosystem's food chain because it is toxic to some plants
which other organisms may depend on for food. In
addition, oil in sediments like those that are common in
freshwater shorelines may be very harmful because
sediment traps the oil and affects the organisms that live
in, or feed off, the sediments.
CLEANUP PROCESSES AND METHODS
BOTH NATURAL processes and physical methods aid in
the removal and containment of oil from shorelines.
Sometimes physical methods are used to enhance naturally
occurring processes. Examples of a technology that uses
both natural processes and physical methods to clean up
an oil spill are biodegradation and bioremediation, which are
described later.
18	• Understanding Oil Spills and Oil Spill Response

-------
Natural Processes
Natural processes that result in the removal of oil from the
natural environment include evaporation, oxidation, and
biodegradation.
Evaporation occurs when liquid components in oil are
converted to vapor and released into the atmosphere. It
results in the removal of lighter-weight substances in oil. In
the first 12 hours following a spill, up to 50 percent of the
light-weight components may evaporate. Since the most
toxic substances in oil tend to be those of lightest weight,
this evaporation decreases the toxicity of a spill over time.
Oxidation occurs when oxygen reacts with the chemical
compounds in oil. Oxidation causes the complex chemical
compounds in oil to break down into simpler compounds
that tend to be lighter in weight and more able to dissolve
in water, allowing them to degrade further.
Biodegradation occurs when naturally occurring bacteria
living in the water or on land consume oil, which they can
use to provide energy for their various biological needs.
When oil is first spilled, it may be toxic to some bacteria,
which makes the initial rate of biodegradation quite slow.
As the oil evaporates and the more toxic substances are
removed, the population of bacteria grows and
biodegradation activity accelerates.
In nature, biodegradation is a relatively slow process. It
can take years for a population of microorganisms to
degrade most of the oil spilled onto a shoreline. However,
the rate at which biodegradation occurs can be accelerated
by the addition of nutrients, such as phosphorus and
nitrogen, that encourage growth of oil-degrading bacteria.
This process is called biostimulation. Biodegradation rates
can also be increased by adding more microorganisms to
the environment, especially species that are already used
to consuming the type of oil spilled. Adding
microorganisms is referred to as bioaugmentation. The use
of nutrients or the addition of microorganisms to
encourage biodegradation is called bioremediation.
When oil spill response personnel develop bioremediation
strategies, they have to consider the effects of waves, tides,
and currents on the nutrients and microorganisms they are
applying to oil-contaminated areas. Contamination of
coastal areas by oil from offshore spills usually occurs in
the intertidal zone where waves and tides can quickly
carry away dissolved nutrients. Adding nutrients may not
be effective on beaches with a great deal of wave action
and tidal flows because most of the nutrients will be lost to
dilution. On calmer shorelines, adding nutrients may be an
effective bioremediation strategy.
With respect to freshwater shorelines, an oil spill is most
likely to have the greatest impact on wetlands or marshes
rather than on a wide shoreline zone like a marine
intertidal zone. Less research has been conducted in these
types of environments, so it is not yet known how well
bioremediation enhances oil removal. The same principals
apply to this environment as a marine environment,
namely, that nutrients should be applied in ways that will
keep them from washing away from the affected areas long
enough to affect the enhanced treatment. In wetlands,
bioremediation may not work as well because there is less
oxygen in the sediments than there is on a sandy beach;
even with added nutrients, microorganisms may not have
enough oxygen to effectively combat the spill.
EPA is currently studying the biodegradability of non-
petroleum oils (vegetable oils and animal fats) and their
impacts on freshwater and marine environments during
biodegradation.
Chapter three discusses bioremediation and other
alternative cleanup approaches.
Physical Methods
Physical removal of oil from shorelines, and especially
beaches, is time-consuming and requires much equipment
and many personnel. Methods used to physically clean oil
from shorelines include the following:
•	Wiping with absorbent materials
•	Pressure washing
•	Raking or bulldozing
Before physical cleaning methods are used, booms made of
absorbent material are often set up in the water along the
edge of the bank. Booms prevent oil released during bank
cleanup activities from returning to the water and contain
the oil so that it can be skimmed from the water for proper
disposal.
Wiping with Absorbent Materials
Materials that are capable of absorbing many times their
weight in oil can be used to wipe up oil from contaminated
shorelines. These materials are often designed as large
squares, much like paper towels, or shaped into "mops."
The squares or mops are used to wipe the shoreline or oily
rocks during which time the absorbents are filled with as
much oil as they can hold.
There are advantages to the use of absorbents. They can be
used to clean up any kind of oil on any shoreline that can
be reached by response personnel. The use of absorbents is
generally not harmful to the shoreline itself or to the
organisms that live on it, and no material is left behind
following the cleanup effort. Some sorbents are reusable,
reducing the need for disposal after a spill.
Wiping with absorbent materials requires the use of a large
quantity of material and several personnel. Personnel must
wear proper protective clothing to minimize direct contact
with the oil as they are removing it. Oil-filled absorbents
and protective clothing that are used by response
personnel must be properly disposed of following cleanup,
which can be costly. In addition, the intrusion of many
people onto an isolated shoreline may disrupt animal
behaviors such as breeding or nesting.
EPA Office of Emergency and Remedial Response •	19

-------
Pressure Washing
Pressure washing involves rinsing oiled shorelines and
rocks using hoses that supply low- or high-pressure water
streams. Hot or cold water can be used to create these
streams. The oil is flushed from the shoreline into plastic-
lined trenches, then collected with sorbent materials and
disposed of properly. Since many river banks, and some
lakes, have vegetation extending down into or growing in
the water, plants may have to be cleaned or removed.
Depending on the type of oil, low-pressure washing will
usually remove most of the oil from the vegetation. In a
marine ecosystem, high-pressure washing usually does
more harm than good by driving the oil deeper into the
beach and by killing many of the organisms on the beach.
Additionally, high-pressure water streams can accelerate
bank erosion and dislodge organisms, such as algae and
mussels, from the rocks and sediments on which they live,
or can force oil deeper into sediments, making cleanup
more difficult.
Pressure washing has the advantage of being relatively
inexpensive and simple to apply; however, it requires
many people.
Raking or Bulldozing
When oil moves downward into the sands or between
pebbles and cobbles on a shoreline, it becomes more
difficult to remove. If the oil has moved downward only a
short distance, tilling or raking the sand can increase
evaporation of the oil by increasing its exposure to air and
sunlight. If the oil has penetrated several inches into the
sand, bulldozers may be brought in to remove the upper
layers of sand and pebbles. This allows the oil to be
exposed so it can be collected and removed from the site,
washed with pressure hoses, or left to degrade naturally.
Raking and bulldozing are simple methods for helping to
remove oil that might otherwise escape into sediments.
However, these methods can disturb both the natural
shape of the shoreline and the plant and animal species
that live on and in the sediments. In addition, the use of
Response crews using high pressure hose
to wash an oil covered beach.
bulldozers requires specially trained operators who can
maneuver them without damaging the shoreline
unnecessarily; raking and tilling are time-consuming and
require many people.
DISPOSAL OF OIL AND DEBRIS
CLEANUP FROM an oil spill is not considered complete
until all waste materials are disposed of properly. The
cleanup of an oiled shoreline can create different types of
waste materials, including liquid oil, oil mixed with sand,
and tar balls. Oil can sometimes be recovered and reused,
disposed of by incineration, or placed in a landfill. States and
the federal government strictly regulate the disposal of oil.
Reuse or recovery of oil requires that the oil be processed
and separated from the other materials, such as water, that
are mixed in with it. The recovered oil can then be blended
with other fuels for use in power plants or boilers.
Incineration uses extremely high temperatures to convert
compounds, such as oil, into carbon dioxide and water.
When a mobile incinerator is used at a remote spill site, the
need for transporting large volumes of oiled wastes to
distant disposal sites is eliminated. This can be a practical
and efficient method to manage large volumes of waste
generated during a cleanup. Because incineration can
potentially produce air pollution, it is important that it be
used in strict compliance with air pollution laws.
Landfilling is another method of disposing of oiled debris.
The oil is mixed with chemicals, such as calcium oxide
("quicklime"), that stabilize the oil and make it less able to
leak into groundwater or soils. Mixtures of quicklime and
oil must sometimes be taken to specially designed landfills
for disposal.
SUMMARY
CLEANING shorelines after an oil spill is a challenging
task. Factors that affect the type of cleanup method used
include the type of oil spilled, the geology of the shoreline
and rate of water flow, and the type and sensitivity of
biological communities in the area. Natural processes, such
as evaporation, oxidation, and biodegradation, help to
clean the shoreline. Physical methods, such as wiping with
sorbent materials, pressure washing, and raking and
bulldozing, can be used to assist these natural processes.
Oil collected during cleanup activities must be reused or
disposed of properly, using such methods as incineration
or landfilling. Choosing the most effective yet potentially
least damaging cleaning methods helps to ensure that the
natural systems of shorelines and the recreational benefits
they offer will be preserved and protected for future
generations.
20	• Understanding Oil Spills and Oil Spill Response

-------
Wildlife And Oil Spills
INTRODUCTION
IN THE UNITED STATES there are more than 70 spills
reported on an average day. When oil spills occur, plants
and animals will be contaminated and some will be unable
to survive. Whether they occur in oceans, estuaries, rivers,
lakes, ponds, or on land, they can affect algae, plants,
invertebrates, fish, amphibians and reptiles, birds, and
mammals. These species and communities are at risk of
smothering, hydrocarbon toxicity, hypothermia, and
chronic long-term effects.
Planning ahead is one of the best ways to minimize the
impacts of oil spills on wildlife. Contingency planning at the
local area level helps both planners and responders
identify protection strategies and response options for fish,
wildlife, and sensitive environments. The following
chapter describes how contingency plans are used to help
prepare for oil spills.
EPA, along with other planners and responders, is working
to develop a thorough understanding of how oil spills
affect fish, wildlife, and environmental resources. Knowing
the species and communities that might be affected by a
spill and their susceptibilities to oil contamination helps
planners choose the best response options. These response
concerns are addressed in pre-spill response planning so
that they can be implemented more easily during actual
response efforts.
When a spill occurs, wildlife responders try to minimize
injuries to fish, wildlife, and sensitive environments. By
working with the response agencies that contain and clean
up spills, wildlife responders can reduce the negative
effects an oil spill has on natural resources.
WILDLIFE AND SENSITIVE ENVIRONMENTS'
SUSCEPTIBILITY TO OIL SPILLS
MOST BIOLOGICAL communities are susceptible to the
effects of oil spills. Plant communities on land, marsh
grasses in estuaries, and kelp beds in the ocean; microscopic
plants and animals; and larger animals, such as fish,
amphibians and reptiles, birds, and mammals, are subject to
contact, smothering, toxicity, and the chronic long-term
effects that may result from the physical and chemical
properties of the spilled oil. The primary effects of oil
contamination include loss of the insulative capability of
feathers and fur which can lead to hypothermia;
dehydration resulting from lack of uncontaminated water;
stomach and intestinal disorders and destruction of red
blood cells resulting from ingestion of oil; pneumonia
resulting from inhalation of oil vapors; skin and eye
irritation from direct contact with oil; and impaired
reproduction. Animals can also suffer during capture and
rehabilitation operations; potential ailments include
infectious diseases, skin problems, joint swellings, and
lesions. In addition, eggs and juveniles are particularly
susceptible to contamination from oil. Very small quantities
of oil on bird eggs may result in the death of embryos.
EFFECTS OF OIL ON FISH,
BIRDS, AND MAMMALS
Fish
Fish may be exposed to spilled oil in different ways. They
may come into direct contact and contaminate their gills;
the water column may contain toxic and volatile
components of oil that may be absorbed by their eggs,
larvae, and juvenile stages; and they may eat contaminated
food. Fish that are exposed to oil may suffer from changes
in heart and respiratory rate, enlarged livers, reduced
growth, fin erosion, a variety of biochemical and cellular
EPA Office of Emergency and Remedial Response •	21

-------
changes, and reproductive and behavioral responses.
Chronic exposure to some chemicals found in oil may
cause genetic abnormalities or cancer in sensitive species.
If chemicals such as dispersants are used to respond to a
spill, there may be an increased potential for tainting of
fish and shellfish by increasing the concentration of oil in
the water column. This can affect humans in areas that
have commercial and recreational fisheries. (Chapter three
discusses dispersants and other alternative oil spill response
techniques.)
Birds
Birds are very susceptible to oil spills. Seabirds, for
example, spend a lot of time on the ocean's surface, dive
when disturbed, and have low reproductive rates, making
them particularly vulnerable to oil spills. In addition, the
populations of species with small numbers of individuals,
a restricted geographic range, or threatened and
endangered species may be very adversely affected by oil
spill contamination.
A bird's feathers overlap to trap air and provide the bird
with warmth and buoyancy. Birds that contact an oil slick
may get oil on their feathers and lose their ability to stay
waterproof, they may ingest oil while trying to clean their
feathers or when they try to eat contaminated food, and
they may suffer long-term reproductive effects.
Birds can be smothered by oil.
Mammals
Mammals that may be affected include river otters,
beavers, sea otters, polar bears, manatees, seals, sea lions,
walrus, whales, porpoises, and dolphins. The sensitivity of
mammals to spilled oil is highly variable. The amount of
damage appears to be most directly related to how
important the fur and blubber are to staying warm, which
is called thermoregulation. River otters, beavers, sea otters,
fur seals, polar bears, and land mammals need clean fur to
remain warm.
Direct exposure to oil can result in temporary eye
problems. Ingestion of oil can result in digestive tract
bleeding and in liver and kidney damage. Ingestion of oil
is of greater concern for species that groom themselves
with their mouth, such as sea otters and polar bears.
Breathing hydrocarbon vapors can result in nerve damage
and behavioral abnormalities to all mammals.
Capturing and cleaning oiled marine mammals generally
is not feasible. While procedures for dealing with oiled
birds have been developed, no such procedures have been
developed for marine mammals except for sea otters and,
to a more limited extent, polar bears.
Procedures for capturing, treating, and releasing animals
may hurt them more than the oil does. For example,
manatees are particularly susceptible to secondary fungal
and bacterial infections following capture or
transportation.
OIL SPILLS EFFECTS ON SPECIFIC
TYPES OF MAMMALS
Pinnipeds and Cetaceans
The most common pinnipeds are harbor seals, fur seals, sea
lions, and walrus. The most common cetaceans are
porpoises, dolphins, and whales. Except for fur seals, both
the pinnipeds and the cetaceans have blubber for
insulation and do not groom or depend on fur to stay
warm. This characteristic makes them less susceptible to
oil spills than other mammals. The pinnipeds are
associated with coastal environments, as they must
venture onto land to reproduce and often inhabit beaches
and rocky shores at various times of the year. This may
make them more at risk to oil spills than cetaceans, which
are generally more nomadic and migratory. Contact with
oil has similar effects on both pinnipeds and cetaceans.
When they come to the surface to breathe they may inhale
hydrocarbon vapors that may result in lung injuries; oil that
comes in contact with the animals' sensitive mucous
membranes and eyes may produce irritations. Young
pinnipeds and cetaceans may be injured due to ingestion
of oil from contaminated teats when nursing. There may be
long-term chronic effects as a result of migration through
oil-contaminated waters.
Manatees
The effects of discharged oil on adult manatees' body
temperature as a result of direct contact with oil is negligible
because they have a layer of blubber for insulation. Also,
they exhibit no grooming behavior that would contribute to
ingestion. However, manatees may be affected by inhaling
volatile hydrocarbons while they are breathing on the
surface, and it is very likely that exposure to petroleum
would irritate sensitive mucous membranes and eyes.
As with most animals, the young are the most at risk.
Nursing pups may be injured due to ingestion of oil from
contaminated teats. There may be long-term chronic effects
22	• Understanding Oil Spills and Oil Spill Response

-------
as a result of migration through oil-contaminated waters,
and there is a substantial possibility of consuming
contaminated plant material and other incidental
organisms. Manatees may not be severely affected by the
oil spill through direct contact, but they are sensitive to
habitat disturbances and injury, such as collisions with
boats and barges and propeller strikes, that may occur
during response actions.
Sea Otters
Because sea otters spend a great deal of time on the ocean's
surface and depend exclusively on their fur for insulation
and buoyancy, they are highly susceptible to oil
contamination. Sea otters are considered vulnerable to oil
spill contamination during their entire life cycle. The most
harmful effect from direct exposure to oil is the fouling of
fur, which may lose its ability to insulate. In addition,
breathing hydrocarbon vapors and ingesting oil as they
groom themselves or feed on contaminated prey can
damage their lungs, cause digestive tract bleeding, and
result in liver and kidney damage. Indirect effects may
include loss of habitat and food resources.
Polar Bears
Polar bears rely on blubber, guard hair, and a dense
underfur for thermoregulation and insulation. Polar bears
may groom oil-contaminated fur; swallowing oil during
grooming has killed several bears in Canada. There is some
evidence that oil's toxic effects on polar bears include an
inability to produce red blood cells and kidney damage.
RESPONSE OPTIONS TO PROTECT WILDLIFE
WHEN A SPILL OCCURS, the severity of injuries to fish,
wildlife, and sensitive environments depends on the
location and the quantity and type of oil. Oils tend to
spread rapidly whether spilled on land or water, but the
spreading will be enhanced if the spill reaches
groundwater, lakes, streams, rivers, and the ocean.
Currents, winds, and temperatures may complicate
response efforts. Once the spill reaches the environment,
fish, wildlife, and sensitive environments are at risk. Three
categories of response options have been developed to
meet the needs of responders trying to minimize injuries to
the environment.
Containing Spilled Oil
The first response strategy for fish, wildlife, and
environmental protection emphasizes controlling the
release and spread of spilled oil at the source to prevent or
reduce contamination of potentially affected species, their
habitats, and sensitive environments. In addition, primary
response strategies include the removal of oiled debris,
including contaminated fish and wildlife carcasses, in
water and on land.
These response options are often limited in their
application and effectiveness, making it necessary to try to
maneuver healthy wildlife out of the path of the spill.
Keeping Animals Away from Spilled Oil
The second response option for protecting wildlife
emphasizes keeping unoiled wildlife away from oiled
areas through the use of deterrents and pre-emptive
capture. Like first response options, second response
options also prevent healthy and clean wildlife from
becoming oiled, but they may not be effective unless
conditions are nearly perfect. The techniques, often called
hazing, use a variety of visual, auditory, and experimental
sensory deterrent methods. Visual deterrents include shiny
reflectors, flags, balloons, kites, smoke, scarecrows, and
model predators. Auditory methods often rely on loud
noises generated from propane cannons, alarms, model
wildlife distress calls, predator recordings, and other noise
makers. These techniques have been used with mixed
success by airport personnel to keep flocks of birds away
from runways. A combination of visual and auditory
devices may be used, including herding with aircraft or
helicopters, and boats. One promising experimental
deterrent is the use of the chemical that produces grape
flavoring. When the grape flavoring is used in conjunction
with bird feed, it appears to effectively deter birds from
landfills and public parks where birds pose a health threat
to humans. It might be used to create a buffer around the
slick to preclude birds from swimming into it. The
application would only have an effect on birds that swim
on the surface and less so on diving birds, which continue
to present extensive operational problems for recovery
during spill response.
Cases involving endangered species may warrant the use
of unusual or heroic secondary response options. Two
unique applications involving fish employ a visual method
and an auditory method.
1.	Many fish have a sensitivity to bright lights. For
example, walleyes in Lake Michigan collide with rocks
or beach themselves in an attempt to escape automobile
floodlights at close range. Lighting may be manipulated
to restrict fish movement in specific areas.
2.	Most bony fish have the ability to detect vibrations.
High frequencies have been used to keep fish away
from the turbines at hydroelectric dams. While these
methods have not been proven successful for all species,
the method does hold promise for some.
If a spill occurs on land, a combination of deterrent devices
might be employed to keep wildlife from entering the spill
area. Deterrence is more difficult if a spill occurs on water
and the slick is moving. It is very difficult to keep the
devices actively scaring wildlife from the area. Untended
or misdirected hazing of wildlife could result in accidently
moving them into oiled areas. Noises and visual deterrents
work best in a smaller, well-defined spill area, which may
EPA Office of Emergency and Remedial Response •	23

-------
Volunteers wash
a seabird coated
with a mixture of
vegetable oils.
be ringed with devices to make it unappealing for wildlife
to enter. Often, just the activities of oil spill cleanup
workers on beaches, in boats, in vehicles, or in aircraft
provide good deterrent effects for as long as they are in the
area.
Another way to keep wildlife from becoming oiled is to
capture clean animals before they come in contact with oil.
However, this approach is complex and requires good
planning. The capture, handling, transportation, and
release of uncontaminated wildlife is labor and equipment
intensive and should be reserved for animals that can be
captured easily and species of particular concern.
Preemptive capture should only be attempted when the
threat of oiling is very high. Small populations of
endangered or critically sensitive wildlife may be captured
with nets or traps that do not hurt the animals. Careful
consideration must be given to finding clean release sites,
which should be determined before capturing animals.
Rescuing Oiled Animals
The third response option is capturing and treating
animals that have already been oiled; this option is used
only as a last resort. Typically only a small percentage of
wildlife that are highly sensitive to the effects of oiling will
be captured. Even very oiled animals are often able to
evade capture until they are very ill. Of those captured,
only a portion will survive the treatment process and be
released back into the wild. Some will survive, but their
injuries will require them to live under the care of
aquariums and zoological parks.
The fate of animals released back into the wild has been
questioned and requires additional investigation to
determine if these efforts are warranted. The decision to
capture and treat oiled wildlife, and the decision to release
them back to the wild or retain treated wildlife in captivity
must be based on spill-specific criteria. The criteria must
be based on the best available science and focus on the
protection and maintenance of healthy wild populations of
the species affected or potentially affected by the spill.
Major Considerations in Oiled Animal Rescue
It is necessary to locate facilities that are capable of
handling the water, sewage, and solid waste requirements
of the operation. It is particularly important to ensure that
the facility, personnel, and operations are in compliance
with all laws, regulations, and permit requirements prior
to initiating operation of the facility.
In addition, responders must ensure that facilities operate
within established guidelines and that all wildlife
operations are conducted under qualified veterinary
supervision.
Finally, in order to have the best chance for success, the
capture effort must be initiated rapidly and efficiently,
using trained and qualified managers and responders,
including rehabilitation workers.
OILED WILDLIFE CARE:
A VETERINARIAN'S OVERVIEW
MANY GOVERNMENT AGENCIES, universities and
private organizations help rescue animals and birds that
have been exposed to oil pollution. While the government
is responsible for animal rescue efforts, many private
organizations assist in rescuing injured wildlife. Before any
person or organization can handle or confine birds or
mammals for rescue, however, they must get special
permits that are issued by state and federal officials. It is
unlawful for any person or organization to capture and
handle oiled wildlife without training or permits. This
training prepares them to capture, handle, and treat
injured wildlife without causing pain and suffering to the
animals or causing injury to themselves as they treat
wildlife.
Rescue parties usually will contact rehabilitation workers
even before they arrive to make sure that they are
prepared to care for the captured birds immediately. This
ensures that the birds are treated as quickly as possible.
Birds that are most likely to be affected by oil spills are
those that remain in, dive in, or feed in the water, such as
ducks, loons, grebes, cormorants, gulls, terns, herons,
murres, pelicans, coots, auklets, bald eagles, and ospreys.
Once a bird has been brought to a rehabilitation center,
certain basic procedures are followed. First, birds are given
complete physical exams, including checking body
temperature, respiratory rates, and heart rates. Birds are
examined for broken bones, skin burns and abrasions. Oil
is flushed from birds' eyes and nares. Heavily oiled birds
are wiped with absorbent cloths to remove patches of oil.
Pepto Bismol™ or Toxiban™ is administered orally to
24	• Understanding Oil Spills and Oil Spill Response

-------
prevent additional absorption of oil inside the bird's
stomach and to help remove internal oil from the bird. The
bird is then warmed and placed in a quiet area. Curtains,
towels, and sheets are often hung to limit visual contact
with people.
Nutrition is essential for the recovery of oiled birds. Birds
are fed and rehydrated using a rehydration solution
(Pedialyte™) and gruel (fish, vitamins, minerals) until they
are washed. Birds need up to five days to rehydrate and
strengthen themselves before being washed.
After a bird is alert, responsive, and stable, it can be
washed. Dawn™ dishwashing detergent diluted with
water has been found to be the most effective washing
agent for oiled birds. Beads of water will roll freely from
the feathers, and down will begin to fluff up and appear
dry when a bird has been acceptably rinsed. Failure to
properly rinse birds is one of the most common causes of
unsuccessful rehabilitation.
After its feathers are completely rinsed, the bird is placed
in a clean holding pen lined with meshed nets and a
ceiling made of sheets or towels. The pen is warmed with
pet dryers, and, again, minimizing human contact is
important. If behavior appears normal and a bird's
condition remains stable, it is placed in a recovery pool
and allowed to swim. The bird then begins to preen and
realign its feathers to restore them to their original
structure, helping the bird to become waterproof again.
Before a bird is released, it must pass the waterproofing
test; it must demonstrate buoyancy (the ability to float)
and water-repellency (the ability to keep water away from
its body). Once a bird passes this test, it is slowly exposed
to temperatures comparable to outside weather. Its weight
should be close to the average for the species, and it should
show no signs of abnormal behavior. Rehabilitated birds
After extensive washing, birds
still have oil coated feathers.
GOVERNMENT AGENCIES RESPONSIBLE
FOR PROTECTING WILDLIFE
THE U.S. FISH and Wildlife Service (FWS) has
management authority for fish species that live in both
freshwater and marine environments, coastal fishes, and
inland threatened or endangered species.
The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
(NOAA) has management authority over marine and
estuarine fishes. It is authorized to manage or protect
marine fish during oil discharges and releases of
hazardous materials.
Individual states have responsibility for all wildlife
within their state boundaries unless federal law gives
the authority to another agency (such as NOAA or
FWS).
are banded by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, and are
released early in the day into appropriate habitat. Release
location is a very important element in rehabilitation. Birds
must not be allowed to return to oiled areas nor should
they be released into an unsuitable habitat.
Post-release Survival Studies
In the past, oil spill success has been measured by release
rates. However, it has become apparent that release does
not mean that birds will necessarily survive. In order to
evaluate survival after release, several techniques have
been used. In the United States, birds are routinely banded
with federal stainless steel bands. If birds die and they are
recovered, or if birds are recaptured at a later date, based
on banding records maintained by the Bird Banding
Laboratory (National Biological Survey, Department of the
Interior), it is possible to know the duration of survival.
Unfortunately, many banding studies rely on recovery of
very few banded birds.
Outside the US, and with different species of birds
(penguins), color bands are attached to the wings of birds
making them visible from long distances even when birds
are in large congregations. Through resighting of wing
placed color bands, some of the best information on long-
term survival and breeding success has been documented.
More recently, technological advances in radio-marking
aquatic avian species has made radio-tracking a valuable
tool for post-release survival monitoring. In these studies,
oiled and rehabiliated birds are radio-marked upon release
and both their survival and behavior can be evaluated.
This technique can provide daily, weekly or monthly
information on habitat use, movement patterns, and
survival, as well as determine survival rates of oiled and
rehabilitated birds.
EPA Office of Emergency and Remedial Response •	25

-------
SUMMARY
OIL SPILLS can harm wildlife in a number of ways. The
toxic effects of inhaling vapors and ingesting oil when
grooming or feeding can make animals sick. Oil can also
coat an animal's fur or feathers, leading to hypothermia
and a loss of buoyancy. Preventing spills is the best way to
protect wildlife from oil spills. When oil is spilled,
however, responders try to (1) prevent it from reaching
animals and sensitive environments, (2) keep animals
away from the oil, and (3) capture and rehabilitate oiled
animals.
Spill responders have learned a great deal since the Exxon
Valdez ran aground in Prince William Sound, Alaska, in
1989. There are new laws providing additional protection
for natural resources that may be affected by oil spills.
Area contingency planning is becoming the primary tool
for preparing for an effective spill response. Wildlife and
sensitive environmental resources must be identified and
prioritized. Communication and cooperation between
response agencies and other agencies that protect wildlife
will ensure that when a spill occurs the fish and wildlife
response operations will effectively minimize injuries to
natural resources.
26	• Understanding Oil Spills and Oil Spill Response

-------
Preparing For Oil Spills: J)
Contingency Planning
INTRODUCTION
OIL SPILLS ARE, unfortunately, common events in many
parts of the United States. Most of them are accidental, so
no one can know when, where, or how they will occur.
Spills can happen on land or in water, at any time of day
or night, and in any weather condition. Preventing oil
spills is the best strategy for avoiding potential damage to
human health and the environment. However, once a spill
occurs, the best approach for containing and controlling
the spill is to respond quickly and in a well-organized
manner. A response will be quick and organized if
response measures have been planned ahead of time.
THE ROLE OF CONTINGENCY PLANS
A CONTINGENCY PLAN is like a "game plan," or a set of
instructions that outlines the steps that should be taken
before, during, and after an emergency. A contingency plan
looks at all the possibilities of what could go wrong and,
"contingent" upon actual events, has the contacts, resource
lists, and strategies to assist in the response to the spill.
ELEMENTS OF A CONTINGENCY PLAN
AT FIRST GLANCE, an oil spill contingency plan may
appear complicated because it provides many details
about the numerous steps required to prepare for and
respond to spills. It also covers many different spill
scenarios and addresses many different situations that
may arise during or after a spill. Despite its complexity, a
well-designed contingency plan should be easy to follow.
Although they are different in many respects, contingency
plans usually have four major elements in common:
•	Hazard identification
•	Vulnerability analysis
•	Risk assessment
•	Response actions
Planners use hazard identification and vulnerability
analysis to develop a risk assessment. The risk assessment
is then used as the basis for planning specific response
actions. Each of the four elements is described below.
Hazard Identification
It is impossible to know when an oil spill is going to
happen and how much oil is likely to be spilled. However,
it is possible to identify where oil is stored, the corridors
through which it travels, and the industries that use large
quantities of oil.
Different situations can affect the ability of response
personnel to contain and clean up an oil spill, such as
weather conditions, geographic isolation, and spill size.
Private companies and local, state, and federal agencies
design their contingency plans to address spills from many
locations and under many different conditions. The
following information is usually collected as part of the
hazard identification:
•	Types of oils frequently stored in or transported through
that area
•	Locations where oil is stored in large quantities and the
mode of transportation used to move the oil, such as
pipelines, trucks, railroads, or tankers
•	Extreme weather conditions that might occur in the area
during different times of the year
•	The location of response equipment and personnel
trained to use the equipment and respond to the spill
Vulnerability Analysis
The vulnerability analysis section of a contingency plan
provides information about resources and communities
that could be harmed in the event of a spill. This
information helps personnel involved in cleaning up a spill
make reasonable, well-informed choices about protecting
EPA Office of Emergency and Remedial Response •	27

-------
public health and the environment. Vulnerability analysis
information might include the following:
•	Lists of public safety officials in the community
•	Lists of facilities such as schools, nursing homes,
hospitals, and prisons
•	Lists of recreational areas, such as campgrounds
•	Lists of special events and when they take place
•	Identification of parts of the environment that are
particularly susceptible to oil or water pollution
Risk Assessment
Contingency planners compare the hazard and the
vulnerability in a particular location to see the kind of risk
that is posed to a community. The plan then addresses
those problems by determining how best to control the
spill, how to prevent certain populations or environments
from exposure to oil, and what can be done to repair the
damage done by the spill.
Response Actions
Response actions are developed to address the risks that
are identified in the risk assessment. A carefully designed
contingency plan will describe major actions that need to
be taken when a spill occurs. These actions should take
place immediately following a spill so as to minimize
hazards to human health and the environment. The
following response actions should be included in a
contingency plan:
•	Notifying all private companies or government agencies
that are responsible for the cleanup effort
•	Getting trained personnel and equipment to the site
quickly
•	Defining the size, position, and content of the spill; its
direction and speed of movement; and its likelihood of
affecting sensitive habitats
•	Ensuring the safety of all response personnel and the
public
•	Stopping the flow of oil from the ship, truck, or storage
facility, if possible, and preventing ignition
•	Containing the spill to a limited area
•	Removing the oil
•	Disposing of the oil once it has been removed from the
water or land
TESTING THE PLAN
AFTER THE PLAN is developed, it is important to test it
to see if it works as anticipated. Testing usually takes the
form of an exercise or drill to practice responding to a spill.
Exercises can range from a discussion around a table about
how things would occur to a full-scale deployment of
equipment and mobilization of staff. Exercises can take a
few hours or several days. Exercises provide the following
benefits:
•	Training of response staff in the procedures developed
for the plan
•	A test of the plan to see what needs to be improved
•	A low-stress environment where new techniques and
procedures may be tried without adverse consequences
Exercises are also a time for responders from different
organizations to meet in a low-stress environment. This
builds familiarity and teamwork, which can make
response more effective during real spills.
IMPROVING CONTINGENCY PLANS
AFTER AN OIL SPILL has been controlled and cleaned
up, or after an exercise, the companies, as well as the local,
state, and federal agencies that were involved in the
emergency or exercise, should assess the usefulness of
their contingency plans. Information gathered during the
assessment, such as problems that had not been considered
in the original plan and the successes or failures of cleanup
techniques used, is used to revise and improve
contingency plans.
Lessons learned during oil spills and exercises are also
shared with other private, state, regional, and federal
agencies so that they too may learn from oil spills to
improve their contingency plans.
Improving Plans with GIS
Contingency planners in EPA and other response
organizations are now using geographic information
systems (GIS) to make contingency plans better and easier
to use. GIS make electronic maps that can focus attention
on the locations of things that are important to planners
and oil spill responders. For example, planners can make
maps that show the locations of sensitive environments,
drinking water intakes, roads, oil storage and production
facilities, pipelines, and boat launches. GIS can also
provide detailed information about each of the items
shown on a map, such as how large an oil storage facility
or pipeline is, whether a road is paved, or the times of the
year that sensitive species are in the area.
Having all of this data easily accessible in one place and
being able to see these things in relation to each other can
make planning more effective. It allows planners to know
where spills are most likely to happen and how bad they
might be and lets them prioritize actions to protect the
most sensitive resources first. It can also help planners
know what kind of resources (booms, skimmers, vacuum
trucks, etc.) they may need in a given area and how much
of a specific resource may be needed. GIS can also help to
determine the best way to get to potential spill sites and
identify areas that responders might have difficulty
accessing.
28	• Understanding Oil Spills and Oil Spill Response

-------
EXAMPLES OF CONTINGENCY PLANS
SOME CONTINGENCY plans are designed to deal with
oil spills that might occur at specific places, such as oil
storage or refining facilities. Others are designed to
address spills that might occur anywhere within a large
geographic region. In fact, the federal government has
designed a national plan that establishes the process for
dealing with any spill that occurs in the United States.
The National Contingency Plan
The federal government has designed a spill response
plan, called the National Oil and Hazardous Substances
Pollution Contingency Plan, also called the National
Contingency Plan or NCP The NCP ensures that the
resources and expertise of the federal government would
be available for those relatively rare, but very serious, oil
spills that require a national response. This plan was
designed primarily to assist with coordinating the various
federal agencies that are responsible for dealing with oil
spill emergencies. The following chapter discusses the
roles of the different federal agencies and how the NCP fits
in with the National Response System.
Area Contingency Plans
Because a single plan cannot address the unique conditions
of all areas, EPA and other organizations have developed
many plans for smaller areas. These plans, known as Area
Contingency Plans, may cover only a few counties. These
plans describe the area covered by the plan; describe the
responsibilities of an owner or operator and of government
agencies in removing, mitigating, or preventing a
discharge; and list all equipment, dispersants, or other
mitigating substances and devices available to an owner or
operator and government agencies to ensure effective and
immediate removal, mitigation, or prevention of a
discharge.
Area Contingency Plans may be broken into sub-areas
based on higher risk, such as busy transportation corridors
and environmentally sensitive areas.
Area and sub-area contingency plans are prepared with
the involvement of the local, state, and federal
governments, as well as with state and federal Natural
Resource Trustees. Natural Resource Trustees are federal,
state, or tribal officials who act on behalf of the public for
resources under their control. They are important to
contingency planning because they often have special
knowledge about areas where oil might be spilled and
resources that might be affected.
Facility Contingency Plans
Every facility in the United States that stores or refines oil
products, whether owned by a private company or
operated by a government agency, is required to develop a
plan for dealing with an accidental release of oil on its
property.
Contingency plans range from general to very specific.
Regional
Contingency
Plans (RCPs)
Area
Contingency
Plans (ACPs)
Vassel Response Plans
National Oil and Hazardous
Substance Pollution
Contingency Plan
(NCP)
FRPs
State/Local Plans
Sub-Area Plans
EPA Office of Emergency and Remedial Response

-------
SUMMARY
PLANNING FOR an oil spill emergency helps to minimize
potential danger to human health and the environment by
ensuring a timely and coordinated response. Well-
designed local, state, regional, and national contingency
plans can assist response personnel in their efforts to
contain and clean up oil spills by providing information
that the response teams will need before, during, and after
spills occur. Developing and exercising the plan provides
opportunities for the response community to work
together as a team and develop the interpersonal
relationships that can mean so much to the smooth
functioning of a response.
Because the approaches and methods for responding to oil
spills are constantly evolving and each oil spill provides an
opportunity to learn how to better prepare for future
incidents, contingency plans are also constantly evolving
and improving—ensuring increased protection for human
health and the environment from these accidents.
30	• Understanding Oil Spills and Oil Spill Response

-------
Responding To Oil Spills: J)
The National Response System
INTRODUCTION
WHEN A MAJOR oil spill occurs in the United States,
coordinated teams of local, state, and national personnel
are called upon to help contain the spill, clean it up, and
ensure that damage to human health and the environment
is minimized. Without careful planning and clear
organization, efforts to deal with large oil spills could be
slow, ineffective, and potentially harmful to response
personnel and the environment. In the United States, the
system for organizing responses to major oil spills is called
the National Response System. This chapter describes the
origins of the National Response System and outlines the
responsibilities of the teams and individuals who plan for
and respond to major oil spills in navigable waters.
THE NATIONAL RESPONSE SYSTEM
UNTIL 1967, the United States had not formally addressed
the potential for major oil or hazardous substance spills.
On March 18, 1967, a 970-foot oil tanker, the Torrey Canyon,
ran aground 15 miles off Land's End, England, spilling 33
million gallons of crude oil that eventually affected more
than 150 miles of coastline in England and France. The
spill had negative impacts on beaches, wildlife, fishing,
and tourism.
Recognizing the possibility of a similar spill in the United
States, the federal government sent a team of
representatives from different federal agencies to Europe
to observe the cleanup activities and bring back lessons
learned. Based on what the team learned from the Torrey
Canyon spill and response, several federal agencies
developed the National Oil and Hazardous Substances
Pollution Contingency Plan, or National Contingency Plan
(NCP) for short.
The NCP, which was signed into law on November 13,
1968, established the National Response System, a network
of individuals and teams from local, state, and federal
agencies who combine their expertise and resources to
ensure that oil spill control and cleanup activities are
timely, efficient, and minimize threats to human health and
the environment.
The three major components of the National Response
System are the (1) On-Scene Coordinators, (2) National
Response Team, and (3) Regional Response Teams. A fourth
component, Special Forces, are organizations with special
skills and knowledge that can be called upon to support a
response.
The National Response System is activated when the
National Response Center receives notification of an oil spill.
The National Response Center, located in Washington,
D.C., is one of the first organizations to be notified when
an oil spill occurs. It is staffed by officers and marine
science technicians from the U.S. Coast Guard, and serves
as the national communications center responsible for
notifying On-Scene Coordinators (OSCs) who oversee
cleanup efforts at a spill site.
ON-SCENE COORDINATORS
ON-SCENE COORDINATORS have the most prominent
role in the National Response System. They are federal
officials responsible for directing response actions and
coordinating all other efforts at the scene of a discharge or
spill. In addition, OSCs work in partnership with other
federal, state, local, and private response agencies. OSCs'
duties also include providing support and information to
regional response committees.
Four federal agencies have staff that serve as OSCs: the
Coast Guard, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
(EPA), the U.S. Department of Energy, and the U.S.
EPA Office of Emergency and Remedial Response •	31

-------
Department of Defense. Among these agencies, the Coast
Guard and EPA have the greatest responsibility for
responding to oil spill emergencies. There are 48 OSCs in
the Coast Guard and 215 OSCs in EPA. OSCs are stationed
in locations across the country to allow for quick and
efficient response to spills. When a spill occurs in coastal
waters, the local Coast Guard Port Commander is the OSC.
When a spill occurs in an inland area, such as a spill from a
pipeline or rail tank car, a regional EPA official is assigned
as the OSC. The OSC is responsible for four main tasks
during an oil spill response: (1) assessment, (2) monitoring,
(3) response assistance, and (4) reporting.
Assessment
As part of a response to a spill, an OSC must evaluate the
size and nature of a spill and its potential hazards. The
OSC who is in charge also estimates the resources needed
to contain the oil and clean it up and assesses the ability of
the responsible party or local authorities to handle the
incident. Collectively these activities are called assessment.
OSCs typically conduct assessment activities at the
beginning of a response. The assessment determines the
need for personnel, equipment, and other resources to
promptly and effectively combat the spill.
Monitoring
Throughout an oil spill response, OSCs monitor the actions
being taken to control and clean up a spill to make sure
they are appropriate. All spills of a legally defined
minimum size must be monitored by an OSC, even though
most spills are small and are cleaned up by the responsible
party or local fire or police departments. Monitoring can
be conducted from the site when necessary, or from an
agency office if the situation appears to be under control.
Response Assistance
Once a spill has been assessed, an OSC determines
whether federal assistance will be necessary to help control
and contain the spill. If an OSC decides that federal
assistance is required, he or she will obtain needed
resources such as personnel and equipment. If sufficient
resources are not available at or near the spill site, an OSC
can secure them using a special fund—the Oil Spill
Liability Trust Fund—that the federal government
established for this purpose. (See the box on this page for
more information). The fund is intended to ensure that oil
spill cleanups will not be hindered by a lack of personnel
or equipment.
Reporting
As required by the NCP, OSCs report all activities that take
place during and after a spill. For example, following a
spill, the OSC is required to file a summary report that
outlines the actions taken to remedy the spill and the level
of assistance provided by local, state, and federal agencies.
THE OIL SPILL LIABILITY TRUST FUND
THE COMPANY or individual responsible for an oil
spill known as a responsible parly is legally
responsible for expenses related lo containment and
cleanup of the; spill. I Iowever, wheni the responsible1
parly is unable1 lo pay for cleanup, funds Ironl the Oil
Spill Liability Trust Fund can Ik1 used lo pay for removal
costs or damages resulting from discharge's ol'eiil iritej
U.S. waKTS. IJp lo one1 billion ekillars Ironl the1 Fund
may be1 e^peuidiHl on a spill ine.idenil. The; Fund, e.ivaleHl
by Cejngivss in 1990, is administered by I he; U.S. Coast
Guard. The1 rnoru'y e-.emie's I'rejtn a five1 e.:e;ril peT barn1! lee1
on oil.
These reports can be used to identify problem areas and
improve spill response plans. They can also be shared with
other agencies who may make recommendations about
how to respond more effectively in future incidents or how
to prevent more spills.
Planning
Under the NCP guidelines, OSCs also participate in the
inland/coastal area planning committees. These
committees support the OSC in preparing area
contingency plans for emergency incidents. (Chapter six
discusses contingency planning in greater detail.)
REGIONAL RESPONSE TEAMS
REGIONAL RESPONSE TEAMS (RRTs) are another
major component of the National Response System. There
are 13 RRTs in the United States, each representing a
particular geographic region of the United States
(including Alaska, the Caribbean, and the Pacific Basin).
RRTs are composed of representatives from states and from
field offices of the federal agencies that make up the
National Response Team. The RRTs provide assistance
when it is requested by OSCs and may respond on-scene.
The four major responsibilities of RRTs are (1) response, (2)
planning, (3) training, and (4) coordination.
Response
Regional Response Team members do not respond directly
to spills like OSCs do, but they may be called upon to
provide technical advice, equipment, or manpower to
assist with a response. RRTs provide a forum for federal
agency field offices and state agencies to exchange
information about their abilities to respond to OSCs'
requests for assistance.
32	• Understanding Oil Spills and Oil Spill Response

-------
RRT Areas
ALASKA
OCEANIA O
Hawaii
Guam
Northern Marianas
Pacific Island Gov'ts
American Somoa
CARIBBEAN
Puerto Rico
U.S. Virgin Islands
Planning
Each RRT develops a Regional Contingency Plan to ensure
that during an actual oil spill the roles of federal and state
agencies are clear. Following an oil spill, the RRT reviews
the OSC's reports to identify problems with the Region's
response to the incident and improves the plan as
necessary.
Training
Regional Response Teams provide simulation exercises of
regional plans to test the abilities of federal, state, and local
agencies to coordinate their responses to oil spills. Any
major problems identified as a result of these exercises
may be addressed and changed in the Regional
Contingency Plans so the same problems do not arise
during an actual oil spill response.
Coordination
The RRTs are responsible for identifying the resources
available from each federal agency and state in their
regions. Such resources include equipment, guidance,
training, and technical expertise for dealing with oil spills.
When there are too few resources in a Region, the RRT can
request assistance from federal or state authorities to
ensure that sufficient resources will be available during a
spill. This coordination by the RRTs ensures that resources
are used as wisely as possible and that no Region is lacking
what it needs to protect human health and the
environment from the effects of an oil spill.
THE NATIONAL RESPONSE TEAM
THE THIRD MAJOR component of the National
Response System is the National Response Team (NRT). It
is an organization composed of 16 federal agencies, each of
which has responsibilities in environmental areas and
expertise in various aspects of emergency response to
pollution incidents. EPA serves as the NRT's chair and the
Coast Guard serves as the vice chair. Although the NRT
does not respond directly to incidents, it is responsible for
three major activities relating to managing oil spill
response: (1) distributing information, (2) planning for
emergencies, and (3) training for emergencies.
Distributing information
The NRT is responsible for ensuring that technical,
financial, and operational information about oil spills is
available to all members of the team. NRT committees
focus attention on specific issues, then collect and
disseminate information on those issues to other members
of the team.
EPA Office of Emergency and Remedial Response •	33

-------
NATIONAL AND REGIONAL RESPONSE TEAM MEMBER AGENCIES
ONE REPRESENTATIVE from each of the Following 16 Federal agencies sils on the NRT. The RRTs are composed of
representatives from tlie; Hold offices of these agencies along with representatives from each state within tin1 Region.
Environmental Protection Agency	I )eparlmenl of Justice
Coast Cuard	I )eparlmenl of Labor
I )epartment of Agriculture1	I )eparlnienl of Stall1
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration	I )eparlmenl ofTransporlalion
I )eparlmenl ofDefense	Federal Emergency Management Agency
I)eparlmenl of Energy	General Services Administration
1 )eparlmenl of I Iealth and I luman Services	Nuclear Regulatory Commission
Department of the; Interior	I )eparlmenl of the1 Treasury
Planning for Emergencies
The NRT ensures that the roles of federal agencies on the
team for oil spill emergency response are clearly outlined
in the NCP After a major spill event, the effectiveness of
the response is carefully assessed by the NRT. The NRT
may use information gathered from the assessment to
make recommendations for improving the NCP and the
National Response System. The NRT may be asked to help
Regional Response Teams (see below) develop Regional
Contingency Plans. The NRT also reviews these plans to
ensure that they comply with federal policies on
emergency response.
Training for Emergencies
One important aspect of any emergency response is
preparedness, which is best developed by training.
Although most training is actually performed by state and
local personnel, the NRT develops training courses and
programs, coordinates federal agency training efforts, and
provides information to regional, state, and local officials
about training needs and courses.
Supporting RRTs
The NRT supports RRTs by reviewing Regional
Contingency Plans and ensuring that they are consistent
with national policies on oil spill cleanup. The NRT also
supports RRTs by monitoring and assessing RRT
effectiveness during an oil spill cleanup activity. The NRT
may ask an RRT to focus on specific lessons learned from
an incident and to share those lessons with other members
of the National Response System. In this way, the RRTs can
improve their own Regional Contingency Plans while
helping to solve problems that might occur elsewhere
within the National Response System.
SPECIAL FORCES
SPECIAL FORCES are national resources with unique
expertise. When responders face difficult problems, they
can call on special forces for assistance. The NCP
designates five special force components: (1) the Coast
Guard National Strike Force (NSF), (2) the Coast Guard
Public Information Assist Team (PIAT), (3) the EPA
Environmental Response Team (ERT), (4) the National
Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration's Scientific
Support Coordinators (SSCs), and (5) National Resource
Trustees.
National Strike Force
The NSF provides specially trained personnel equipped to
handle major oil spills and chemical releases and maintains
a national inventory of spill response equipment. In
addition, the NSF aids development and implementation
of exercises and training for the National Response System.
Public Information Assist Team
The PIAT is a team of skilled public affairs specialists that
supplements the existing public information capabilities of
OSCs.
Environmental Response Team
The scientists and engineers who make up the ERT provide
expertise in sampling and analysis, hazard assessment,
cleanup techniques, and technical support.
Scientific Support Coordinators
Scientific Support Coordinators lead the scientific teams
that provide support to OSCs in the areas of chemistry,
natural resources, pollutant transport modeling,
contingency planning, and environmental tradeoffs. SSCs
also serve as liaisons to natural resources trustees and the
scientific community.
34	• Understanding Oil Spills and Oil Spill Response

-------
Natural Resource Trustees
Natural Resource Trustees are federal, state, or tribal
officials who act on behalf of the public for resources under
their control. They are important to oil spill response
because they often have special knowledge and technical
expertise about areas where oil is spilled. Trustees also
cooperate with the OSC in coordinating assessments,
investigations, planning, and response.
SUMMARY
THE NATIONAL Response System is the mechanism
established by the federal government to respond to
discharges of oil into navigable waters of the United States.
This system functions through a cooperative network of
federal, state, and local agencies. The primary mission of
the system is to provide support to state and local response
activities.
The major components of the National Response System
are the On-scene Coordinators, the National Response
Team, and the 13 Regional Response Teams, with
supplementary support from Special Forces. These
individuals and teams work together to develop detailed
contingency plans to outline responses to oil spill
emergencies before they occur and to develop or engage in
training that prepares responders for actual emergencies.
During oil spill events, they cooperate to ensure that all
necessary resources such as personnel and equipment are
available and that containment, cleanup, and disposal
activities are timely, efficient, and effective. Four Special
Forces components provide specialized support to OSCs
during spill response. It is through this cooperation that
the National Response System protects human health and
the environment from potential harm from oil spills in
navigable waters.
EPA Office of Emergency and Remedial Response •	35

-------
36	• Understanding Oil Spills and Oil Spill Response

-------
Response To Oil Spills ^
INTRODUCTION
RESPONSE TO OIL spills requires the combined efforts of
the owner or operator of the facility or vessel that spilled
the oil, the federal On-Scene Coordinator (OSC), and state
and local government officials. The specific steps taken to
respond to a spill depend on the type of oil discharged, the
location of the discharge, the proximity of the spill to
sensitive environments, and other environmental factors.
Oil spills do not occur only in coastal areas. Various types
of oils are also spilled in inland areas. Many of the same
problems associated with cleanup efforts found in
conjunction with coastal spills are created when spills
occur in inland areas from sources such as storage tank
rupturing, pipeline leaks, and oil transport accidents.
Because they usually occur closer to areas where people
live and work, inland spills typically have a more direct
impact on human populations than marine and coastal
spills do. Inland oil spills are more likely to have negative
impacts on drinking water sources, metropolitan areas,
recreational waterways, and shoreline industry and
facilities. Also, species affected by coastal and inland spills
are likely to differ because freshwater and marine
ecosystems are different.
There are many sources of oil spills. Vessels are major
sources for both coastal and inland spills. Offshore
facilities such as oil rigs are also large contributors to
coastal spills. Fixed facilities such as gas stations and oil
tank farms are responsible for a large percentage of inland
releases.
The Exxon Valdez oil spill is probably the best known and
most widely reported of all spills. Another very large spill,
the Ashland oil spill, happened the year before the Exxon
Valdez spill, when a giant inland storage tank ruptured.
Although these events were catastrophic, responders
learned a great deal from them. The lessons they learned
have helped to prevent more oil spills and to make
response more effective when spills do occur. This chapter
describes these spills and the responses to them. It also
describes three other spills that highlight a variety of types
of oil spills and response activities.
EXXON VALDEZ SPILL
AT TWO YEARS OLD, the oil tanker Exxon Valdez, with a
capacity of 1.46 million barrels (62 million gallons) of oil,
was the newest and largest of Exxon's 19-ship fleet. On the
evening of March 23, 1989, 1.26 million barrels of oil (54
million gallons) were loaded onto the ship in Valdez,
Alaska. The ship left the port at 9:10 p.m., bound for Long
Beach, California.
Chunks of ice from the nearby Columbia Glacier were
sitting low in the water, so the ship's captain tried to turn
into an empty inbound shipping channel to avoid them.
The ship was moving at approximately 12 miles per hour
when it struck the rocks of Bligh Reef in Prince William
Sound. The underwater rocks tore huge holes in 8 of the
vessel's 11 giant cargo holds, releasing a flood of oil into
the Sound. More than 11 million gallons of oil spilled
within 5 hours of the event. Seven hours after the spill was
reported, the resulting oil slick was 1,000 feet wide and 4
miles long.
In addition to the spilled oil, there were other immediate
dangers. About 80 percent of the ship's oil cargo remained
on board; the ship was resting in an unstable position and
was in danger of capsizing. Removing the remaining oil
from the ship and cleaning the spilled oil were top
priorities.
Since the incident occurred in coastal waters, the U.S.
Coast Guard's OSC had authority over all activities
relating to the cleanup effort. Once the OSC was notified of
the spill, he immediately closed the Port of Valdez to all
EPA Office of Emergency and Remedial Response •	37

-------
traffic. A Coast Guard investigator, along with a
representative from the Alaska Department of
Environmental Conservation, visited the scene of the
incident to assess the damage caused by the spill. By noon
on Friday, March 25th, the Alaska Regional Response Team
was brought together by teleconference. The National
Response Team was activated soon thereafter. The National
Response Team is based in Washington, D.C. It is
composed of representatives from 14 different federal
agencies, with either the U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency (EPA) or the U.S. Coast Guard taking primary
responsibility for coordinating oil-spill cleanup activities.
The Alyeska Pipeline Service Company first assumed
responsibility for the cleanup. Alyeska operates the trans-
Alaska pipeline and the shipping terminal at Valdez.
Exxon and the other oil companies that operate in Alaska
each own part of the pipeline company. Alyeska is
responsible for carrying out plans for oil-spill emergencies
in the area. The company opened an emergency
communications center in Valdez shortly after the spill was
reported and set up a second operations center in
Anchorage, Alaska.
The OSC, in cooperation with the Exxon Corporation,
established several goals for the response. The most
important goal was to prevent additional spilling of oil.
Because the Exxon Valdez was unstable and in danger of
capsizing, the 43 million gallons of oil still onboard the
tanker threatened the environmentally sensitive Prince
William Sound. The first priority was to protect four fish
hatcheries that were threatened by the spill. In addition,
there were concerns about the safety of response
personnel, since highly flammable and toxic fumes made
response actions difficult.
Numerous equipment problems slowed down the response
to the spill. Alyeska had booms and other mechanical
containment equipment available, but there was not
enough equipment to contain an 11 million-gallon spill.
Because of the remote location of the spill, equipment had
to be moved over great distances to reach the accident
scene. The barge that Alyeska's response team normally
used had been stripped for repairs and was not
immediately available. It took ten hours to prepare and
load the barge and another two hours to reach the Exxon
Valdez.
In addition, the remote location of the incident presented
many logistical problems. Because the spill site was located
two hours by boat from the port of Valdez, every task was
time-consuming. The response had to be staged from
mobile platforms, and equipment had to be air-dropped or
delivered by boat.
Other problems became apparent as the emergency teams
began to arrive to help with the cleanup. Only limited
lodging was available in Valdez, a small village of only
4,000 people. The small airstrip at Valdez could not handle
large planes carrying the cleanup equipment. These planes
were forced to land in Anchorage, a nine-hour drive from
Valdez. The Federal Aviation Administration, the agency
responsible for all air traffic control, had to set up a
temporary tower to manage increased flights to the area.
At the start of the spill, necessary communications
between response personnel were difficult because there
was limited phone service in Valdez. The Coast Guard
OSC was the only person with a direct telephone line out
of the community. The lack of phone lines delayed requests
for resources that response teams needed to combat the
spill; it took time for the phone company to increase the
number of phone lines. Radio communication was also
troublesome. The large number of boats working the area
led to multiple simultaneous radio transmissions. The
mountainous terrain also made radio communication
difficult. The Coast Guard established a news office and
requested more communications staff because many news
reporters and crews were arriving in Valdez every day.
On the second day of the spill, Exxon assumed
responsibility for the cleanup and its costs. Exxon activated
its emergency center in Houston, Texas, which sent
equipment to stabilize the ship. The company directed
another ship, the Exxon Baton Rouge, to remove the
remaining oil from the stricken Exxon Valdez. In taking
responsibility for the cleanup operations, Exxon set out to
address the problems mentioned earlier. The company
opened a communications network that allowed
information about the spill and the cleanup efforts to be
shared with state and federal government officials, private
company representatives, and others who were interested
in the events surrounding the spill. The company, in
cooperation with the Coast Guard, installed four weather
stations around Prince William Sound to provide weather
forecasts that were critical to planning cleanup efforts. A
refueling station for helicopters was set up in Seward,
Alaska. More than 274 tons of additional equipment,
including skimmers, booms, and dispersants, arrived at the
site by the fourth day.
Maxi-barge hoses down the shoreline.
38	• Understanding Oil Spills and Oil Spill Response

-------
Wildlife can become heavily oiled.
Hundreds of people were brought to the area to help
conduct the cleanup effort within two days of the spill.
More than 1,000 Coast Guard personnel, along with
employees of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, and
EPA helped with the response. Nine additional Coast
Guard cutters and eight aircraft were brought to the scene.
Specialists from the Hubbs Marine Institute of San Diego,
California, set up a facility to clean oil from otters, and the
International Bird Research Center of Berkeley, California,
established a center to clean and rehabilitate oiled
waterfowl.
Three methods were attempted in the effort to clean up the
spill: in-situ burning, chemical dispersants, and
mechanical cleanup.
A trial burn was; conducted during the early Stages; of the
Exxon Valdez spill. A fire-resistant boom was placed on tow
lines, and the two ends of the boom were each attached to
a ship. The two ships, with the boom between them,
moved slowly through the main portion of the slick until
the boom was full of oil. The ships then towed the boom
away from the slick, and the oil was ignited. The fire did
not endanger the main slick or the Exxon Valdez because of
the distance separating them. Because of unfavorable
weather conditions, however, no additional burning was
attempted in this cleanup effort.
Soon after the spill, dispersants were sprayed from
helicopters. Mechanical cleanup was started using booms
and skimmers. The use of dispersants proved to be
controversial. Alyeska had less than 4,000 gallons of
dispersant available at its terminal in Valdez and no
application equipment or aircraft. A private company
applied dispersants on March 24 with a helicopter and
dispersant bucket. Because there was not enough wave
action to mix the dispersant with the oil in the water, the
Coast Guard representative: at the site concluded that the
dispersants were not working.
Skimmers, devices that remove oil from the water's
surface, were not readily available during the first 24 hours
following the spill. Thick oil and heavy kelp tended to clog
the equipment. Repairs to damaged skimmers were time-
consuming. Transferring oil from temporary oil storage
vessels into more permanent containers was also difficult
because of the oil's weight and thickness. Continued bad
weather.slowed down the recovery efforts.
Efforts to save delicate areas began early in the cleanup.
Sensitive environments were identified, defined according
to degree of damage, and then ranked for their priority for
cleanup. Seal pupping locations and fish hatcheries were
given highest priority; special cleaning techniques were
approved for these areas. Despite the identification of
sensitive areas and the rapid start-up of shoreline cleaning,
wildlife rescue was slow. Adequate resources for this task
did not reach the accident scene quickly enough. Through
direct contact with oil or because of a loss of their food
resources, many birds and mammals died.
On June 12, 1992, more than three years after the spill, the
Coast Guard announced that the cleanup activities should
end. Although the cleanup activities ceased, there were
still pools of oil left in some areas. The harm caused to the
ecosystem by the oil left in these areas was considered too
small to justify the cost of further cleanup.
During the years after the Exxon Valdez oil spill, cleanup
and environmental restoration of the affected shorelines
and islands continues. The cost of the cleanup has
amounted to billions of dollars, and the cost of legal
settlements has resulted in millions more.
The Exxon Valdez incident and the environmental impact
caused by the spill attracted the attention of political,
scientific, and environmental groups from around the
world. The scientific groups include those from Exxon
Workers use
pressure hoses to
clean the shoreline.
EPA Office of Emergency and Remedial Response •	39

-------
Corporation and EPA that were involved in efforts to use
experimental technologies, such as bioremediation, to
clean up the spill. The National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration provided weather forecasts for Prince
William Sound. This allowed the cleanup team to know
what type of cleanup technology would be compatible
with the changing weather conditions in the sound. Some
of the groups formed a trustee council. This council is
made up of representatives from numerous federal and
Alaskan state agencies that deal with environmental
issues. This trustee council has been successful in
promoting more scientific research on the Exxon Valdez
incident.
The Exxon Valdez incident also prompted the U.S. Congress
to pass the Oil Pollution Act of 1990. This law required EPA
and the Coast Guard to strengthen regulations on oil tank
vessels and oil tank owners and operators. As of July 17,
1992, all tank vessels of 20,000 tons or greater are required
to carry special equipment that will enable the vessel
captain and the vessel traffic center in Valdez to
communicate better for safer sailing through that area.
Projects to restore affected areas to their original conditions
have been ongoing. A legal settlement has helped to fund
restoration efforts. On September 30, 1991, Exxon agreed to
pay $900 million to the U.S. and Alaska governments in 10
annual payments. The agreement requires that the funds
be used first to reimburse the federal and state
governments for the costs of cleanup, damage assessment,
and litigation. The remaining funds are to be used for
restoration. The settlement also has a provision allowing
the governments to claim up to an additional $100 million
to restore resources that suffered a substantial loss.
The Exxon Valdez oil spill caused injury to the environment
at virtually all levels. However, the extent and degree of
injury was uneven across the oiled landscape. Some
species were only slightly affected, for example, the brown
bear and Sitka blacktail deer. Other species, like the
common murre and the sea otter, suffered population-level
injuries, with possible long-term consequences.
The complex issue of determining injury from the Exxon
Valdez spill is highly controversial and is still being argued
in the courts, at scientific meetings, and in scholarly and
professional journals. Both the oil that reached the shore
and the efforts to clean it up severely impacted intertidal
habitats and biota. Seabirds and marine mammals, which
are especially vulnerable to floating oil, suffered heavy
mortalities. Some of the studies done to determine the
damage estimated that between 100,000 and 300,000 birds
were killed. Studies also reported that populations of some
common murre colonies in the affected area were reduced
by one-half. One study estimated a loss of 2,650 sea otters
in Prince William Sound. The spill severely impaired
south-central Alaska's fisheries, which are the foundation
for most of the region's small communities. The spill also
had severe social and psychological consequences for the
area's human population.
The Exxon Valdez Oil Spill Trustee Council concluded that
natural resource injuries from exposure to the spill or from
the cleanup included the following:
•	Mortality: Death caused immediately or after a period of
time by contact with oil, cleanup activities, reductions in
critical food sources caused by the spill, or other causes
•	Sub-lethal effects: Injuries that affect the health and
physical condition of organisms (including eggs and
larvae), but do not result in the death of juvenile or
adult organisms
•	Degradation of habitat: Alteration or contamination of
flora, fauna, and the physical components of the habitat
The Trustee Council also acknowledged that some
environmental damage might persist for generations.
Other resources that the Trustee Council listed as injured
included archeological sites that may have been oiled or
affected by cleanup activities on sensitive sites. Areas
designated by the state or federal governments as
Wilderness Areas were considered to be injured because
the spill damaged the public's perception that these areas
were pristine. The Trustee Council also found that services
(human uses) were injured by the spill.
Services were considered reduced or lost if the spill caused
any of the following:
•	Reduced the physical or biological functions performed
by natural resources that support services
•	Reduced aesthetic and intrinsic values, or other indirect
uses provided by natural resources
•	Reduced the desire of people to use a natural resource
or area
Each year after the incident, the Exxon Valdez Oil Spill
Trustee Council has funded research and monitoring
projects. Information from these projects helps to define
the status and condition of resources and services—
whether they are recovering, whether restoration activities
are successful, and what factors may be constraining
recovery. Recovery monitoring projects have tracked the
rate and degree of recovery of resources and services
injured by the spill. They may also determine when
recovery has occurred or detect reversals or problems with
recovery. Research projects have provided information
needed to restore an injured resource or service or
information about ecosystem relationships. Results of
restoration monitoring studies suggest that affected
ecosystems and populations may regain normal species
composition, diversity, and functional organization
through natural processes.
Exxon's annual payments to the restoration fund end in
September 2001. To ensure funding for continued
restoration activities, the Trustee Council places a portion
of the annual payments into a restoration reserve fund.
40	• Understanding Oil Spills and Oil Spill Response

-------
ASHLAND OIL SPILL
ON THE AFTERNOON of January 2, 1988, a four million
gallon oil storage tank owned by Ashland Oil Company
Inc., split apart and collapsed at an oil storage facility
located in Floreffe, Pennsylvania, near the Monongahela
River. The tank split while being filled to capacity for the
first time after it had been dismantled and moved from an
Ohio location and reassembled at the Floreffe facility. The
split released diesel oil over the tank's containment dikes,
across a parking lot on an adjacent property, and into an
uncapped storm drain that emptied directly into the river.
Within minutes, the oil slick moved several miles down
river, Washing over two dam locks and dispersing
throughout the width and depth of the river. The oil was
carried by the Monongahela River into the Ohio River,
temporarily contaminating drinking water sources for an
estimated one million people in Pennsylvania, West
Virginia, and Ohio. The Ashland oil spill is the largest
inland oil spill in U.S. history. Although it was less than
half the size of the Exxon Valdez spill, the Ashland spill
highlights the direct impact inland spills can have on large
populations—in this case, one million people were
affected.
The fuel contaminated river ecosystems, killing thousands
of animals, such as waterfowl and fish. Two oil impact
studies designed by aquatic toxicologists from the
Pennsylvania Department of Natural Resources took
mussel samples and a census before and after the spill.
Pennsylvania and West Virginia authorities conducted
shoreline counts to determine the number of fish killed. In
the week following the spill, several, counts of dead and
stressed fish were taken in dam pools along the river. Fish
collection surveys conducted by a local contractor in
conjunction with state agencies yielded further
information regarding ecological effects. Several groups,
including the Pennsylvania Game Commission, the
Audubon Society, and dozens of volunteers, were involved
in capturing oiled waterfowl. This effort had only limited
success due to weather conditions; ice and very low
temperatures kept rescue workers on shore, hampering the
recovery effort. Although many birds were saved,
waterfowl mortality estimates ranged from 2,000 to 4,000
ducks, loons, cormorants, and Canada geese, among
others.
After local authorities executed the initial on-scene
response during the night, EPA took control of cleanup
operations. Response personnel from EPA were dispatched
to the site immediately following the incident, and an EPA
OSC assumed the lead role in the spill response. The OSC
was responsible for delegating tasks and responsibilities to
the agency best qualified to perform them.
The Incident-Specific Regional Response Team (RRT) was
formally activated two days after the incident. The RRT
consisted of many environment- and health-related
agencies from the federal level, as well as from the states of
The Ashland storage tank split when filled to capacity.
Pennsylvania, Ohio, and West Virginia- These agencies
worked cooperatively to provide advice and guidance to
the OSC regarding environmental and response matters as
well as political and legal issues.
Contractors employed by Ashland performed the actual
cleanup duties. The contractors used booms, vacuum
trucks, and other equipment to retrieve the spilled oil,
recovering about 20 percent of the oil that flowed into the
river..
EPA, in cooperation with other agencies, monitored the
cleanup process and river conditions. State personnel set
up a river monitoring system to track the spill, as well as a
sampling and analysis process to protect water supplies.
EPA also performed follow-up activities, such as
compliance inspections and a spill prevention control and
countermeasures (SPCC) plan inspection of the facility.
Several important lessons were learned from this spill
response. The quick notification by Ashland to the local
response authorities and the National Response Center
(NRC) was fundamental to the establishment of the
command post on the evening of the spill.
The Monongahela and Ohio Rivers converge.
EPA Office of Emergency and Remedial Response •	41

-------
Although there was prompt notification, responders
concluded that establishment of a central command post
sooner would have improved the response coordination.
However, communication was enhanced by the positive
presence of the media throughout the incident. This was
instrumental in keeping the public informed of the cleanup
operations. Evaluators of the response recommended that
inventories of locally available equipment be prepared so
that emergency responders might locate needed
equipment quickly. It was also recommended that, to
protect public water sources in future emergencies, water
suppliers should plan for the availability of contingency
water supplies and equipment.
COLONIAL PIPELINE SPILL
ON MARCH 28, 1993, a rupture occurred in an oil
pipeline in Fairfax County, Virginia, sending a 100-foot
plume of fuel oil into the air. The high-pressure pipeline,
owned by the Colonial Pipeline Company, released an
estimated 477,436 gallons of No. 2 heating oil into the
environment before it could be shut down and fully
drained. One of the largest inland oil spills in recent
history, the oil affected nine miles of the nearby Sugarland
Run Creek as well as the Potomac River.
The Fairfax County Fire Department conducted the initial
response to the release, quickly notifying the NRC. The
federal response was initiated by the OSC from EPA.
Because many organizations were involved in the
response, a unified command was established to
coordinate the efforts of federal, state, and local
authorities, as well as Colonial Pipeline representatives.
The OSC received support in the form of personnel and
equipment from other federal agencies, primarily the
Coast Guard Atlantic Strike Team. State officials provided
technical support and information. The RRT, a group of
representatives from a variety of federal agencies,
provided valuable advice and guidance regarding
recovery actions and policy questions which arose during
the incident.
Colonial Pipeline carried out its duties as the responsible
party, hiring contractors to perform containment and
recovery actions. Under the direction of the OSC,
contractors secured the source of the release by shutting
down the pipeline. They then attempted to contain the oil
flow along the creek through the use of booms, but a sheen
had already developed on the Potomac River. As a
precaution to protect public health, water intakes along the
Potomac River were closed. Recovery of the oil involved
use of skimmers, vacuum trucks, sorbents, and a
temporary pipeline to direct recovered oil into tanker
trucks. Through these actions, response personnel
recovered 372,498 gallons of spilled oil.
Throughout the incident, authorities evaluated the oil's
actual and potential impact on human health and the
environment. The public water intakes along the rivers
presented the greatest concern and were promptly shut
down. Local drinking water wells were also feared to be
contaminated, but sampling proved that they were not
affected. The greatest problem for area residents turned
out to be fuel odor. EPA received many complaints from
citizens about strong odors. These concerns led the
National Park Service to the close nearby Great Falls
National Park. Forty-one residents were evacuated from
their homes as a precautionary measure. EPA monitored
air quality to identify and mitigate health risks associated
with the oil fumes.
The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, the National Oceanic
and Atmospheric Administration, and natural resource
trustee agencies provided reports on the effects of the spill
on fish, wildlife, and other environmental resources;
shoreline evaluations; and rehabilitation of affected
wildlife. County animal control set up shelters and
recovery activities to restore any affected animals. Fish
kills did occur in Sugarland Run, although no other serious
impacts on area wildlife were reported.
Establishing a unified command was a key to the
successful and timely response at the spill. It made the
following critical contributions:
•	Early and continued support of the Coast Guard Marine
Safety Office and National Strike Force
•	Coordination with the RRT, leading to rapid assembly of
a large support team to assist the OSC
•	Provision of a means of input from all levels of
government in spill response
•	Allowed EPA enforcement of efforts by the responsible
party, along with elimination of duplicate efforts in
assessment of the affected areas
The response to the Colonial Pipeline spill demonstrates
the smooth operation of the National Response System.
Federal, state, and local authorities were able to coordinate
personnel and equipment in an efficient manner to recover
the spilled oil.
Participants identified several areas for improvement. One
suggestion was to develop a directory of water intakes in
the area in order to better ensure that drinking water
sources are not contaminated in the event of an oil release.
A second recommendation addressed the need for better
communication with personnel downstream from a
release. Other technical issues concerned improvements in
skimming and dam systems to increase the speed and ease
of recovery.
42	• Understanding Oil Spills and Oil Spill Response

-------
WISCONSIN FIRE AND BUTTER SPILL
NOT ALL OIL spills involve petroleum oil. Animal fats
and vegetable oils can also cause great harm to the
environment when spilled. The butter spill described
below demonstrates that oil spills can come from many
different sources and that fires and other accidents can
lead to spills.
A fire broke out at the Central Storage and Warehouse
Company facility in Madison County, Wisconsin, around
3:30 p.m., May 3, 1991. The facility provided refrigerated
storage space for the perishable goods of several food
companies. Seventy firefighters responded to the four
alarm blaze, which burned for nearly three days and
became the most costly fire in Madison County history.
The fire was believed to have been started by the explosion
of a forklift battery. Approximately 3,000 nearby residents
were evacuated due to the threat of toxic fumes that might
have escaped from tanks of anhydrous ammonia and
sulfuric acid if the fire had reached them.
The fire destroyed roughly 50 million pounds of food,
including nearly 16 million pounds butter. When the fire
reached the butter and animal tallow in the warehouse
storage facility, it became a hard-to-control grease fire.
Melted butter spilled into roadways and ditches,
increasing difficulty in fighting the fire and threatening the
environment.
Six truckloads of sand were applied to the butter spill in an
attempt to absorb it and prevent it from reaching
Starkweather Creek. Engineers from the Wisconsin
Department of Natural Resources dug a channel from the
warehouse to a low-lying area beneath a highway overpass
and built hundreds of feet of redirecting dikes to allowed
the melted butter to flow into the depression and other
lagoons. Water that collected, in these areas along with the
butter was pumped to the city's sewer treatment plant,
while congealed material was skimmed from the surface.
Instead of incurring additional costs for disposal, a
contractor was hired to attempt to salvage the butter and
lard for use in animal feed. Collected material was
dumped in a railcar fitted with steam tubes, melted,
filtered, processed, and sold.
Very few contaminants were reported to have reached the
creek. The area residences are connected to the municipal
system's wells, which are deep and securely encased, so
the spill did not present a threat to drinking water.
Quick and persistent response action performed by the
local fire authorities and the Wisconsin Department of
Natural Resources prevented severe environmental
damage. It was hypothesized that, had the butter been able
to reach the creek, the resulting loss of oxygen in the water
would have affected the resident fish species and reversed
the effects of a recent $1 million cleanup effort in the area's
watershed.
Workers contain spilled butter with booms.
Warehouse scene two hours after start of fire.
LAKE LANIER SOYBEAN OIL SPILL
ON SEPTEMBER 26, 1994, north of Atlanta, Georgia, a
tanker truck wrecked, releasing approximately 5,000
gallons of low-grade soybean oil. The oil entered a small
stream, which allowed it to flow into a man-made
impoundment on the Chattahoochee River called Lake
Lanier.
Within two hours of the spill, the U.S. Army Corps of
Engineers had contained the oil within a one-acre area by
deploying a boom across a cove. The federal OSC began
removal activities because the responsible party had failed
to initiate a response. The oil was corralled to a collection
point by boats towing a sorbent boom. Skimmers and
vacuum trucks then extracted the oil from the surface of
the water. The remaining oil was recovered using sorbent
pads and sweeps, bringing the total response time to six
days at a cost of nearly $43,000,
No environmental damage was recorded during response
activities, Fish may have been forced to swim from the
localized spill area, but no other effects on wildlife were
apparent. Effects on the water body itself are unknown
EPA Office of Emergency and Remedial Response •	43

-------
because no measurements of water quality criteria were
made during the cleanup. The OSC decided not to use
dispersants because they might have caused the oil to
biodegrade very quickly, severely reducing dissolved
oxygen levels in the water and damaging the local
ecosystem. The primary effects of the spill were realized by
property owners who dealt with unpleasant odors and oil
coated boats and docks. Several thousand dollars worth of
claims for cleaning were incurred; however, the damage
would have been much more costly if reaction to the spill
had not been as timely.
SUMMARY
OIL SPILLS, especially the Exxon Valdez spill, have
increased public awareness about the risks involved in the
storage and transport of oil. The location of a spill and a
lack of necessary equipment often add to response
problems. Prevention of spills is the first line of defense,
and the oil industry, together with federal agencies, has
taken steps to reduce the risks of oil spills. Once a spill
occurs, however, improved response coordination between
federal, state, and local authorities should produce more
rapid and effective cleanup actions and decrease the
environmental impact of the discharge. A program to
provide better training of emergency response personnel is
being prepared, and safety issues are being addressed.
Cleaning techniques that are more effective and less labor-
intensive are being developed. Studies of the long-term
environmental effects of oil spills and their influence on
food chains in oceans, freshwater, and on land are now
underway. The costs of cleanup activities, ecosystem
restoration, and legal settlements of oil spills are so high
that the best strategy is to work to prevent discharges.
44	• Understanding Oil Spills and Oil Spill Response

-------
r?
Glossary T)
Accelerant: A chemical used to intentionally speed up a
fire; gasoline can be used as an accelerant to speed up oil
fires.
Aquatic: Habitats and ecosystems that exist in bodies of
water; refers to both marine and freshwater environments.
Asphalt: A brown to black residue formed from weathered
petroleum products, consisting chiefly of a mixture of
hydrocarbons; varies in texture from hard and brittle to
plastic.
Bioaugmentation: The addition of microorganisms to the
existing native oil-degrading population; also known as
microbial seeding.
Biodegradation: The breaking down of substances by
microorganisms, which use the substances for food and
generally release harmless byproducts such as carbon
dioxide and water.
Biological community: All of the living things in a given
environment.
Bioremediation: The act of adding nutrients or
microorganisms to the environment to increase the rate at
which biodegradation occurs.
Biostimulation: Also known as nutrient enrichment, the
method of adding nutrients such as phosphorus and
nitrogen to a contaminated environment to stimulate the
growth of the microorganisms capable of biodegradation.
Boom: A temporary floating barrier used to contain an oil
spill.
Cetaceans: A group of related marine mammal species that
includes whales, dolphins, and porpoises.
Contingency plan: A document that describes a set of
procedures and guidelines for containing and cleaning up
oil spills.
Deployment: Strategic placement of equipment and
personnel.
Dispersants: Chemicals that are used to break down
spilled oil into small droplets (See surfactant).
Dispersion: The spreading of oil on the water's surface
and, to a lesser degree, into the water column.
Ecosystem: The interrelationships between all of the living
things in an area.
Emulsiflcation: The formation of a mixture of two liquids,
such as oil and water, in which one of the liquids is in the
form of fine droplets and is dispersed in the other.
Emulsions: A mixture of small droplets of oil and water.
Evaporation: The physical change by which any substance
is converted from a liquid to a vapor or gas.
Facility Response Plan: A detailed plan which must be
prepared in accordance with the Oil Pollution Prevention
regulation (40 CFR 112.20) by facilities which may cause
"substantial harm" to the environment or exclusive
economic zone. The plan must contain an Emergency
Response Action Plan (ERAP) and demonstrate that a
facility has the resources to respond to a worst case
scenario oil spill.
Fate: The outcome; the fate of an oil spill is what happens
to the oil.
Fertilization: The method of adding nutrients, such as
phosphorus and nitrogen, to a contaminated environment
to stimulate the growth of microorganisms capable of
biodegradation; also known as nutrient enrichment or
biostimulation.
Freshwater spill: An oil spill that occurs in or affects
bodies of freshwater, such as lakes and rivers.
Hydrocarbons: A large class of organic compounds
containing only carbon and hydrogen; common in
petroleum products and other oils.
Hydrophobic: Having a tendency to repel water;
hydrophobic materials will not easily absorb water.
Incineration: The destruction of wastes by burning at high
temperatures.
Marine: Relating to the seas and oceans.
Microorganism: A very small plant, animal, or bacteria;
some microorganisms, like larger organisms can be hurt by
oil spills; however, some microorganisms actually break oil
down into less harmful substances.
EPA Office of Emergency and Remedial Response •	45

-------
Mortality: The proportion of deaths to population or to a
specific number of the population.
Mousse: A thick, foamy oil-and-water mixture formed
when petroleum products are subjected to mixing with
water by the action of waves and wind.
National Response Center: An organization, staffed by
officers and marine science technicians from the U.S. Coast
Guard, that serves as the national communications center
responsible for notifying On-Scene Coordinators.
National Response System: A network of individuals and
teams from local, state, and federal agencies who combine
their expertise and resources to ensure that oil spill control
and cleanup activities are timely and efficient and
minimize threats to human health and the environment.
National Response Team (NRT): An organization
composed of 16 federal agencies, each of which has
responsibilities and expertise in responding to oil spill and
hazardous materials emergencies.
National Contingency Plan (NCP): Apian designed to
ensure that resources and expertise of the federal
government will be available in the event of a very serious
oil spill. The full name of the NCP is the National Oil and
Hazardous Substances Contingency Plan.
Non-petroleum oils: Oils that are not derived from
petroleum; this group of oils includes vegetable oils and
animal fats.
Oil: Crude oil and refined petroleum products (motor oils,
fuels, lubricants, etc.), as well as vegetable oils, animal fats,
and other non-petroleum oils.
Oil slick: A layer of oil floating on the surface of water.
Oleophilic: Having a strong affinity for oils; oleophilic
materials absorb or stick to oils.
On-Scene Coordinator (OSC): The person responsible for
overseeing the cleanup efforts at a spill; the OSC
represents either the U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency or the U.S. Coast Guard.
Oxidation: A chemical reaction that occurs when a
substance is combined with oxygen; oxidation may lead to
degradation or deterioration of the substance.
Polyaromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs): A family of chemical
substances that are found in many types of oil;
polyaromatic hydrocarbon vapors can cause harm to
humans and animals that inhale them.
Pinnipeds: A group of related species of marine mammals
that have flippers for all four limbs; pinnipeds include sea
lions, seals, and walrus.
Regional Response Teams (RRTs): Thirteen teams (each
representing a particular geographic region) that provide
assistance to OSCs; RRTs are composed of representatives
from field offices of the federal agencies that make up the
National Response Team, as well as state representatives.
Seeding: Adding microorganisms to the environment to
speed up biodegradation (also known as bioaugmentation).
Skimmers: Devices used to remove oil from the water's
surface.
Slick: A thin film of oil on the water's surface.
Sorbents: Substances that take up and hold water or oil;
sorbents used in oil spill cleanup are made of oleophilic
materials.
Specific gravity: The ratio of the density of a substance to
the density of water; substances with a specific gravity
greater than one are denser than water and sink;
substances that have a specific gravity less than one are
less dense than water and float.
Sub-lethal effects: Injuries that affect the health and
physical condition of organisms (including eggs and
larvae) but do not result in the death of juvenile or adult
organisms.
Surface tension: The attractive force exerted upon the
surface molecules of a liquid by the molecules beneath the
surface. When oil is spilled on water, this tension makes
the oil behave as a continuous thin sheet that is difficult to
separate or break up.
Surfactant: A substance that breaks oil into small droplets;
this helps to increase the surface area of the oil spill, which
increases the rate at which the oil can be degraded or
weathered into less toxic substances (See dispersant).
Tar balls: Dense, black sticky spheres of hydrocarbons',
formed from weathered oil.
Viscosity: Having a resistance to flow; substances that are
extremely viscous do not flow easily.
Viscous: The tendency of a liquid to hold itself together;
viscous liquids do pour freely and having the consistency
of syrup or honey.
Volatile organic compounds (VOCs): A family of chemical
compounds found in oils; VOCs evaporate quickly and
can cause nerve damage and behavioral abnormalities in
mammals when inhaled.
Water column: An imaginary cylinder of water from the
surface to the bottom of a water body; water conditions,
temperature, and density vary throughout the water
column.
Weathering: Action of the wind, waves, and water on a
substance, such as oil, that leads to disintegration or
deterioration of the substance.
Weir: An underwater structure that controls the flow of
water; weir-type oil skimmers use a dam-like underwater
barrier that lets oil flow into the skimmer while holding
back the water.
46	• Understanding Oil Spills and Oil Spill Response

-------
For Further Information J)
PUBLICATIONS
Exxon Valdez Oil Spill Trustee Council. Legacy of an Oil
Spill, 10 Years After Exxon Valdez. March 1999.
Frink, L., and E. A. Miller, Tri-State Bird Rescue and
Research, Inc. Wildlife and Oil Spills: Response, Research, and
Contingency Planning. Newark, Delaware, 1995.
LaFleur, Joseph. Pennsylvania State Response to the Ashland
Oil Spill. Conference Presentation at Pittsburgh Oil Spill,
Past Response, Future Plans, March 1989. (Available from
the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Region 3,
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.)
National Research Council. Spills of Non-floating Oils: Risk
and Response. National Academy Press, Washington, D.C.,
1999.
National Oil and Hazardous Substances Contingency Plan. 40
CFR 300.
Spill Prevention, Control and Countermeasures (SPCC)
Regulation 40 CFR 112: Facility Owners/Operator's Guide to
Oil Pollution Prevention. EPA Publication EPA540K98003.
Tri-State Bird Rescue and Research, Wildlife & Oil Spills
(periodical). Available from Tri-State Bird rescue and
Research, 110 Possum Hollow Road, Newark, Delaware
19711.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. EPA Oil Spill
Program Update, vol. 2, no. 2, January 1999, and vol. 1, no.
4, July 1998. Special issue on vegetable oils and animal
fats. The Oil Spill Program Update is available on line at
www.epa.gov/oilspill
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Evaluation of the
Response to the Major Oil Spill at the Ashland Terminal,
Floreffe, Pennsylvania, by the Incident-specific Regional
Response Team. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency,
Region III, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Oil Pollution
Prevention: Non-Transportation Related Onshore Facilities
Rule. 40 CFR Part 112. October 20, 1997.
Walton, William D., and Nora H. Jason, eds. In-situ Burning
of Oil Spills. Proceedings of the 1998 Workshop on In-situ
Burning of Oil Spills, New Orleans, Louisiana. November
2-4, 1998.
WEB SITES
U.S. EPA Oil Program: http://www.epa.gov/oilspill
U.S. EPA Publications:
http://www.epa.gov/epahome/publications.htm
National Response Team: http://www.nrt.org
Exxon Valdez Oil Spill Trustee Council:
http://www. oilspill. sta te.ak. us/
National Response Center: http://www.nrc.uscg.mil
Oil Wildlife Care Network:
http://www. vetmed. ucdavis.edu/owcn/
Tri-State Bird Rescue and Research, Inc.:
http://www. tristatebird. org/
FEDERAL AGENCIES
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Oil Program Center
401 M Street, SW
Mail Code 5203G
Washington, DC 20460
http://www. epa.gov/oilspill
U.S. Coast Guard
2100 2nd Street, SW
Washington, DC 20593
http://www. uscg.mil
Department of the Interior
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service
1849 C Street, NW
Washington, DC 20240
http://www.fws.gov
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
Office of Response and Restoration
1305 East-West Highway
Silver Spring, MD 20910
http://response.restoration.noaa.gov/index.html
EPA Office of Emergency and Remedial Response •	47

-------
BIRD REHABILITATION
MAMMAL REHABILITATION
International Bird Rescue Research Center
699 Potter Street
Aquatic Park
Berkeley, CA 94710
Center of Marine Conservation
312 Sutter Street, Suite 316
San Francisco, CA 94108
Defenders of Wildlife
1244 19th Street, NW
Washington, DC 20036
Tri-State Bird Rescue and Research, Inc.
110 Possum Hollow Road
Newark, DE 19711
Friends of the Sea Otter
P.O. Box 221220
Carmel, CA 93922
University of California, Davis
Oiled Wildlife Care Network
Wildlife Health Center
Monterey Bay Aquarium
886 Cannery Row
Monterey, CA 93940
School of Veterinary Medicine
University of California, Davis
Davis, CA 95616
National Wildlife Federation
1412 16th Street, NW
Washington, DC 20036
University of California, Davis
Oiled Wildlife Care Network
Wildlife Health Center
School of Veterinary Medicine
University of California, Davis
Davis, CA 95616
To Report
Chemical And Oil Spills:
Call The National Response Center
at 1-800-424-8802
48
Understanding Oil Spills and Oil Spill Response

-------