VJvttted States
Environmental
Protection Agency
Office of Emergency and
Remedial Response
Washington, DC 20460
9203.1-17
PB 94-963272
EPA 540/R-94/044
August 1994
     Common Chemicals
 Found at Superfund Sites

             vvEPA

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                                 INTRODUCTION

       This booklet contains  one page fact sheets on the most common chemicals found
at hazardous  waste sites across the nation,  it is meant to help you understand  more
about the chemical.

       It answers such questions as:   How can a person  be exposed to the chemical?
How can it affect human health?  How does  it enter and leave the body?  What levels of
exposure result in harmful  effects?  What recommendations  has the federal government
made to protect human health  from  the chemical?  and What are the methods for
treatment  and disposal of the chemical?

       If you have more questions about the  chemicals mentioned  in this  booklet or
would like information on the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency's Superfund
hazardous waste cleanup  program, please  call the Superfund Hotline at 1-800-424-9346 or
1-800-535-0202.

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                                                                                             June 1992
   What is ammonia?

   Ammonia, the most abundant basic (alkaline) gas in
   the environment, is a colorless gas with a very sharp
   odor.  The odor is familiar to most people because
   ammonia is used in smelling salts and  household
   cleaners.  Ammonia dissolves easily in water where
   most of it changes to liquid ammonium.

   Ammonia is very important to animal and human
   life.  Because of its significance in natural cycles,
   ammonia has a background concentration in most
   environmental media, and is found in water, soil,
   and air.  Ammonia is  a source of much-needed
   nitrogen for plants and animals.
How might exposure to ammonia occur?

Since ammonia occurs naturally in the environment, we
are regularly exposed to low levels of ammonia in air, soil,
and water.  Ammonia exists naturally in air  at levels
between one and five parts per billion (ppb).  The term
"parts per billion" is a way of expressing the concentration
of a contaminant in a liquid or air. One part per billion
is  equal  to one  inch  in  a distance  of about sixteen
thousand miles or a penny in ten  million dollars, a very
small amount.  It is commonly found in rain water.  The
ammonia levels in rivers and bays  are usually less than 6
parts per million (ppm). Soil typically contains about 1 to
5  ppm of ammonia.   The levels  of  ammonia  vary
throughout the day, as well as from season to season.
Generally, ammonia levels are highest in the spring and
summer, when nature is most active.

Ammonia  may  be  released  to   the  atmosphere by
volatilization  from  decaying organic  matter;  animal
livestock waste; fertilization of soil; sewage or wastewater
effluent;  burning  of  coal,  wood, and  other  natural
products;  and  volcanic eruptions.   The  amount of
ammonia produced by man is very small compared to that
produced by nature every year. However, when ammonia
is found at a level that may  cause concern, it  is usually
produced either directly or indirectly by man.
Exposure  to high levels of ammonia in the air can be
caused by leaks and spills at production plants and storage
facilities, and from pipelines, tank trucks, rail cars, and
ships that  transport ammonia. Ammonia can be found as
an atmospheric gas near hazardous waste sites. It can also
be found dissolved in ponds or other bodies of water, and
adheres (attaches) to soil at  these sites.  Ammonia does
not persist in  the environment.   Because it is recycled
naturally,  nature  has many  ways of incorporating and
transforming ammonia.   In  soil  or water,  plants and
microorganisms take up ammonia rapidly, reducing  the
amount in soils to low levels within a few days. Ammonia
remains in the air for about one week.

How can ammonia affect human health?

Exposure  to very high levels of ammonia can  result in
severe  health effects.  For example, walking into a dense
cloud of ammonia or spilling concentrated ammonia on
exposed skin can cause  severe burns to the skin, eyes,
throat, or  lungs.  These burns may be serious enough to
cause  permanent  blindness, lung  disease, or  death.
Similarly,  accidental  ingestion  of large  amounts  of
ammonia  could cause burns  in the mouth, throat, and
stomach.  Mild exposure to ammonia gas can produce
headaches, salivation, burning of the throat, nausea, and
vomiting.
   How can ammonia enter and leave the
   body?

   Ammonia can enter the body through inhalation of
   ammonia gas  or  ingestion  of water  or  food
   containing ammonia. Spills of ammonia on exposed
   skin can cause a small amount of ammonia to enter
   the  body; however, more ammonia  will probably
   enter through inhalation of the fumes. Most inhaled
   ammonia exits the body quickly through the lungs.
   Ingested ammonia  will enter the blood  and  be
   carried throughout the body within minutes.  Most
   of the ammonia that enters the body changes rapidly
   into harmless substances.  The remaining ammonia
   leaves the body in urine within a couple of days.

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What levels of exposure have resulted in harmful
health effects?

Ammonia has a very strong odor that can be smelled in
the air at levels above 50  ppm.   Therefore, severe
inhalation exposure, which would require levels above
human detection,  would  likely be  avoided by  most
individuals.

Ammonia in water at levels of approximately 35 ppm can
be tasted.  Lower levels occur naturally in food and water.
Swallowing even small  amounts of ammonia in household
cleaner can cause burns in the mouth and throat
Is there a medical test to identify ammonia
exposure?

There are tests that measure ammonia in blood and urine;
however, these tests probably would not accurately indicate
exposure to ammonia because it is normally found in the
body. Exposure to harmful amounts of ammonia will be
noticed immediately because of the strong,  unpleasant
smell and taste, and skin, eye, nose, and throat irritation.
What recommendations has the federal
government made to protect human health?

The  U.S.  Environmental  Protection  Agency (EPA)
regulates the ammonia content in wastewater released by
industry. In addition, any discharge or spill of ammonia of
100 pounds or more, or of ammonium salts of 1,000 or
5,000 pounds  (depending upon the compound) must be
reported to EPA.

Maximum allowable levels have been set for ammonium
salts  in  processed  food.   The  U.S. Food and  Drug
Administration (FDA) has determined that the levels of
ammonia and ammonia compounds  normally found in
food do not pose a health risk.  Ammonia is necessary for
normal bodily functions.
What are the methods of treatment and disposal
of ammonia?

Solutions of ammonia can be highly diluted with water, or
alternatively,  diluted with water and  neutralized  with
hydrochloric acid and then routed to the sewer system.
Limited amounts of gaseous ammonia may be discharged
to the atmosphere.

Disposal of liquified ammonia or of large quantities of
gaseous or aqueous ammonia directly into water is not
desirable because of the large amount of heat generated.
Recovery of ammonia from aqueous waste solutions is a
viable option for many industries.
                   GLOSSARY

   Aqueous: A swbsfance w^cti fc dissolved in wafer,
   Background Concentration:
   Substance which would normally be found in an
   area. Tfels level fc *i$ed as a basis of comparison m
   identifying contamination levels,

   Gaseous: JTae vapor form (for example, air) of any
   substance.
                         ,,,' !                     ,
   Inhalation: To drawjajr, vapor, etc. Into the lungs;
   lobreathel     "   ""           -, •<•'-,•    -   - ~
            '• sS fV                      ••

   Volatilization: The process by which substances are"
   released into tae atmosphere aslt gas through rapid
   vaporizations or evaporation!.
   For more information  about Ammonia,  please
   contact EPA at the following address:

           U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
           ATTN: Superfitnd Hotline
           401M Street, S.W.
           Washington, D.C. 20460
           1-800-424-9346 or 1-800-535-0202
 The information contained in this fact sheet was compiled from the Toxicological Profile for Ammonia. Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry,
 US. Public Health Service, in collaboration with the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, December 1990. This fact sheet focuses on the impact of
 haurdous wastes on human health; however, EPA does evaluate these impacts on the environment, including plants and animals.

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                                  EPAF
                                                                                                    June 1992
    What is arsenic?

    Arsenic is a naturally occurring element.  Pure arsenic
    is a gray-colored metal, but this form is not common.
    It is usually found in combination with one or more
    other elements such as oxygen, chlorine, and sulfur.
    Arsenic combined with these elements is referred to as
    inorganic arsenic, whereas  arsenic  combined with
    carbon and hydrogen is referred to as organic arsenic.
    Organic forms of arsenic are usually less toxic than the
    inorganic forms.

    Arsenic is produced primarily as a by-product from the
    operation of nonferrous smelters, glass manufacturing,
    pesticide production and application, and burning of
    fossil fuels.  Arsenic is also  produced as a result of
    natural forces,  that is, volcanos and weathering  of
    arsenic-containing rocks.  The  major uses of arsenic
    are as wood preservatives and agricultural pesticides.
 How might exposure to arsenic occur?

 Arsenic is very widely distributed in the environment, and
 everyone  is exposed to low levels.  For most people, food
 constitutes the largest source of arsenic intake, with lower
 amounts coming from air and drinking water. Some edible
 fish and shellfish contain elevated levels of arsenic, but this
 is predominantly in an organic form known as "fish arsenic"
 that has a low toxicity.  Above-average levels of exposure are
 usually associated  with  one  or more  of  the following
 circumstances: (1) Natural mineral deposits containing large
 quantities of arsenic (may result in elevated inorganic arsenic
 levels in drinking water); (2) Chemical waste disposal sites,
 which  contain large quantities of improperly-contained
 arsenic, (may  allow the  chemical to  escape into the
 groundwater); (3) Elevated levels of arsenic in soil (may lead
 to  exposure  from  ingesting  soil);  (4)  Manufacturing
 (smelting)  of copper  and other  metals (often releases
inorganic  arsenic into the air); (5)  Burning  of  fossil fuels
(results in low levels of inorganic arsenic emissions into the
air); and, (6)Widespread application of pesticides (may lead
to water or soil contamination).
How does arsenic enter the body?

Arsenic enters the body principally through ingestion of food
or water.  Most ingested arsenic is quickly absorbed through
the stomach and intestines and  enters  the blood  stream.
Arsenic which is inhaled (low levels of arsenic are present in
cigarette smoke) is also well-absorbed into the blood stream
through the lungs. Small amounts of arsenic may enter the
body through the skin.

Most arsenic absorbed into the body is converted by the liver
to a less-toxic form that is efficiently excreted in the urine.
Consequently, arsenic does not have a  strong tendency to
accumulate in the body except at high exposure levels.
   How can arsenic exposure affect human
   health?

   Large doses of inorganic arsenic can be fatal.  Lower
   levels of exposure may injure a number of different
   body tissues or  systems, producing systemic  effects.
   When taken orally, a common effect is irritation of the
   digestive tract, leading to pain, nausea, vomiting, and
   diarrhea. Other effects include decreased production of
   red and white  blood cells, abnormal heart function,
   blood vessel  damage, liver and/or kidney injury, and
   impaired nerve function causing a "pins and needles"
   feeling in the feet and hands.

   Perhaps the systemic effect most characteristic  of oral
   exposure to  inorganic arsenic  is  a pattern of  skin
   abnormalities including the appearance of dark and
   light spots on the skin, and small "corns" on the palms,
  soles, and trunk.  Some of these corns may ultimately
  progress to skin cancer.   Arsenic  ingestion has  also
  been reported to increase the risk  of internal cancer,
  especially in the liver, bladder, kidneys, and lungs.

  Inhalation exposure to inorganic arsenic dusts or fumes
  sometimes produces the same types of systemic health
  effects produced by oral exposure. However, this is not
  common, and the effects  are  usually mild.  Of much
  greater concern is the ability of inhaled  arsenic to
  increase the risk of lung cancer.  Direct skin contact
  with  arsenic  compounds,  frequently from  inorganic
  arsenic dusts  in air,  may  result  in mild to  severe
  irritation of the skin, eyes and throat.

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Is there a medical test to identify arsenic
exposure?

Measuring the levels of arsenic in urine is the best way to
identify recent exposures.  However, some common tests
do not distinguish nontoxic forms such as fish arsenic
from other forms. Consequently, a high concentration of
arsenic in urine may not necessarily indicate a health
problem. Measurement of arsenic in hair or fingernails
is sometimes used to detect chronic exposures; however,
this method is not very reliable for detecting low levels of
arsenic exposure.

What levels  of exposure have resulted in
harmful health effects?

Generally, inorganic forms of arsenic are more toxic than
organic forms, and forms that dissolve easily in water tend
to be more toxic than those that dissolve poorly in water.
Studies indicate considerable variation among different
individuals, and it is difficult to identify with certainty the
range of exposures which are of concern. The levels of
arsenic that most people ingest  in food or water are not
usually considered to be a health concern. In fact, arsenic
in trace amounts may be essential to good health.

For inhalation exposure, air concentrations of around 0.2
parts per billion (ppb) are associated with irritation to
the nose, throat and exposed skin.  The term "parts per
billion" is a way of expressing the concentration of  a
contaminant in a liquid or air.   One part per billion is
equal to one inch in a distance of about sixteen thousand
miles (or a penny in  ten  million dollars), a very small
amount.   Higher levels may occasionally lead to mild
signs of systemic toxicity similar to that seen with oral
exposure.

What currently happens to arsenic wastes?

The principal waste  product of arsenic is slag,  a by-
product of ore  smelting.  Arsenic production is  a dry
operation (no water is used); only small quantities are
discharged in wastewater. There is no recycling of arsenic
from its  principal  use  in  wood  preservatives  and
agricultural chemicals.
What recommendations has the federal
government made to protect human health?

The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has
established limits on the amount of arsenic released to
the environment. EPA has also restricted or prohibited
many  of  the uses  of arsenic  in pesticides  and  is
considering further restrictions. EPA has established a
Maximum Contamination Level (MCL) of 50 ppb for
arsenic in drinking water.
                   GLOSSARY

   Maximum Contaminant Level: EPA evaluates the
   health risks associated with various contaminant
   levels to ensure that public nealth  is adequately
   protected; The MCL> as it is commonly k&6w»> is
   the maximum allowable concentration of a specific
   omtaraiaaat in public drinking water.
  * Systemic Effect:  Impacts of contamination which
   affect the entire organism or bodily system.
   Toxic:   Acting as  a poisonous  or hazardous
   substance, having poisonous or harmful qualities,
   For more  information about  Arsenic,  please
   contact EPA at the following address:

           U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
          ATTN: Superfund Hotline
           401M Street, S.W.
           Washington, D.C. 20460
           1-800-424-9346 or 1-800-535-0202
The information contained in this fact sheet was compiled from the Toxicological Profile for Arsenic. Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry,
U.S. Public Health Service, in collaboration with the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, March, 1989. This fact sheet focuses on the impact of
fuuardous wastes on human health; however, EPA does evaluate these impacts on the environment, including plants and animals.

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                          EPA
                                       Asbestos
                                                                                      June 1992
   What is asbestos?

   Asbestos is the name used for a group of six
   different   minerals   (amosite,   chrysotile,
   tremolite,   actinolite,   anthophyllite,  and
   crocidolite)  that  occur naturally  in  the
   environment. The most common mineral type
   is white (chrysotile), but others may be blue
   (crocidolite), gray (anthophyllite), or brown
   (amosite).   These minerals are made  up of
   long, thin fibers similar to fiberglass. Asbestos
   fibers are very strong and are resistant to heat
   and chemicals.  These properties of asbestos
   have led to its use in a wide range of products,
   mostly in building materials, friction products
   (for example,  braking  linings  and clutch
   plates), and heat-resistant fabrics.

   Because  the fibers  are so resistant  to
   chemicals,  they are also very stable in  the
   environment.    Asbestos  fibers  do   not
   evaporate into the air or dissolve in water, and
   are not broken down over time; their natural
   tendency is to settle out of air and water and
   be deposited in soil or sediment.  However,
   some fibers are small enough that they  can
   remain in suspension  in both air and water
   and be transported long  distances.
How might asbestos exposure occur?

Inhaling tiny asbestos fibers suspended in air is the
most likely exposure route.  Low levels of asbestos
can be detected in almost any air sample.  In rural
areas, there are usually an average of 0.03 to 3 fibers
present in a cubic meter of outdoor air.  (A cubic
meter is about the amount of air you breathe in 1
hour.)  Higher levels are usually found in cities.  In
the air near an asbestos mine or factory, levels could
reach 2,000 fibers per cubic meter or higher. Levels
could also be above average near a building that is
being torn down or renovated, or near waste sites
where  asbestos wastes are not properly protected
from wind erosion. Asbestos has been detected at
approximately 52 of the 1,300 National Priorities List
hazardous waste sites eligible to receive Superfund
money for cleanup.
Asbestos exposure can also result from drinking
fibers present in water.  Even though asbestos
does not dissolve in water, fibers can enter water
by being eroded from natural deposits or piles of
waste asbestos, or from  cement pipes used to
carry  drinking water.   Most  drinking water
supplies in the United States have concentrations
of less than 1 million fibers per liter.
   How  can  asbestos  affect human
   health?

   Information  on  the health  effects of
   asbestos comes mostly  from  studies of
   workplace exposure  to  high levels of
   asbestos. Such asbestos exposure has been
   found to increase the chances of getting
   two types of cancer:  cancer of the lung
   tissue itself, and mesothelioma, a cancer of
   the thin membrane that  surrounds the
   lung and other internal organs. Both lung
   cancer and mesothelioma are usually fatal.
   .These diseases do not appear immediately,
   but develop only after a number of years.
   There is also some evidence that breathing
   asbestos can increase  the chances of
   getting  cancer in  other  locations (for
   example,  the   esophagus,  stomach,
   intestines, pancreas, and kidneys).

   Besides causing cancer, breathing asbestos
   can also cause  a slow  accumulation of
   scar-like tissue in the lungs  and  in the
   membrane which surrounds  the   lungs.
   This tissue does not expand and contract
   like normal lung tissue, making breathing
   difficult. Blood flow to the lungs may also
   be decreased, and this causes the heart to
   enlarge. When the injury is mostly  in the
   lungs, the disease is called asbestosis. This
   is  a serious  disease, and  can  eventually
   lead to disability or death.

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How can asbestos enter and leave the body?
Asbestos fibers Inhaled in air  may be deposited in the
passages and on the cells of the lungs.  However, very few
of these fibers move through  the lungs  into the body.
Instead, most Obers are removed from the lungs  by being
carried away in a layer of mucus to the throat, where they
are swallowed into the stomach. This usually takes place
within a few hours, but fibers deposited in the deepest parts
of the lung are removed more slowly. Some can remain for
many years and may never be removed.

Nearly all  the  swallowed asbestos fibers pass along the
intestines  within a few days and are  excreted.  A small
number of fibers remain in cells that line the stomach or
intestines, and a few penetrate into the blood.  Some of
these become  trapped  in other tissues,  and some are
removed in the urine.

What levels of exposure have resulted in harmful
health effects?
The levels of asbestos in air that lead to lung disease depend
primarily  on three factors:   (1)  the duration  of each
exposure, (2) the number of years exposure continues, and
(3) whether or not an individual smokes cigarettes.  There
Is also a debate concerning the differences in the amount of
disease caused by different fiber types and sizes. Most data
indicate that fiber size is the  most important  factor in
cancer-causing potential.

Is there a medical  test to identify asbestos
exposure?
The most  common test used to determine  exposure to
asbestos is a  chest x-ray.   The x-ray cannot detect the
asbestos fibers themselves, but can detect early signs of lung
disease caused by asbestos. It is also possible to test for the
presence  of asbestos fibers  in urine,  feces, mucus, or
material rinsed out of the lungs by a doctor. Low levels of
asbestos fibers are found in nearly all people. Higher-than-
average levels indicate that exposure has occurred.

What recommendations has the  federal
government made  to protect human health?

Despite ongoing debate concerning health effects resulting
from the different asbestos fiber types, the Agency for Toxic
Substances and Disease Registry considers the  different
mineral forms  of asbestos to  be  known  human cancer-
causing substances.  Fibers have a prolonged latency period
(they may be  deposited  in the lungs  and not produce
harmful effects for many years) of 10 to 30 years between
exposure and the onset of disease.
The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has proposed
a limit of 7 million fibers per liter for concentrations of long
fibers present in drinking water.  The Food and Drug
Administration regulates  the  use of  asbestos  in  the
preparation of drugs, and restricts the use of asbestos in
food-packaging materials.

How are we disposing of asbestos?

Currently, asbestos-containing wastes may only be deposited
in  landfills  approved  and  regulated  by  the  federal
government. These regulations are intended to ensure that
asbestos at these sites is not dispersed into the environment.
Proposed  new recordkeeping and reporting requirements
will help ensure that landfill operators provide data on the
location and amounts of asbestos at disposal sites.
                    GLOSSARY
    Exposure Route: T&e way in which people come into
    contact with a substance.  The main routes  are
    jngestion, inhalation, and absorption  through the
    skin.
    National Priorities  List  (NPL):   EPA's list  of
    raacaatrolted or abandoned hazardous  waste sites
    identified for possible long-term clean-up under the
    Saperftittd Program.

    Superfund Program:  The program operated  under
    the  legislative authority  of the  Comprehensive
    Environmental  Response,   Compensation  and
    Liability Act of 1980 (CERCLA), as amended by the
    Superfund Amendments and Reauthorization Act of
    1986 (SARA) that  funds the EPA solid  waste
    emergency  and  long-term removal and  remedial
    activities.
    For more  information  about  Asbestos,  please
    contact EPA at the following address:

            U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
            ATTN: Superfund Hotline
            401 M Street, S.W.
            Washington, D.C. 20460
            1-800-424-9346 or 1-800-535-0202
The information contained in this fact sheet was compiled from the Toxicological Profile for Asbestos. Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry,
US. Public Health Service, in collaboration with the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, October, 1987. This fact sheet focuses on the impact of hazardous
wastes on human health; however, EPA does evaluate these impacts on the environment, including plants and animals.

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                             EPA  Facts  About
                                     Beryllium
   What is beryllium?

    Beryllium is a naturally occuninelement  which, ir
    its purest form, is a hard grayish metal. Two kinds
    of mineral rocks, bertrandite and beryl, are mined
    commercially for the recovery of beryllium.  Very
    pure gem quality beryl is better known  as either
    aquamarine or emerald.

    Most of the beryllium  ore  that is  mined is
    converted into metal alloys, many of which are used
    in electronics or structural applications. Beryllium
    ore is processed into beryllium hydroxide which is
    further refined into beryllium metal, alloys, and
    oxides.

    The major source of beryllium emissions to the
    environment is the combustion of coal and fuel oil,
    which releases particulates  anc/jy ash  containing
    beryllium into the atmosphere.  These particulates
    eventually settle  to the earth's surface or are
    removed from the atmosphere by rainfall. Upon
    reaching soil and sediment, beryllium is absorbed
    and held in an insoluble (does not readily dissolve
    in water) and relatively immobile form.

  Atmospheric  emissions  of  beryllium dusts  and
   particulates are also associated with ore processing,
   metal fabrication, and beryllium oxide production
   and  use.   Natural  emission  sources  include
   windblown  dusts  and  volcanic  particles.   The
   amounts of beryllium released to the atmosphere
   from natural sources are relatively small.
How might exposure to beryllium occur?

Each of us is exposed to small amounts of beryllium in
the air we breathe, in many foods we eat, and in some
water we drink. Most of the beryllium that is inhaled is
released into  the air  by  burning coal and  fuel oil.
Beryllium occurs naturally in various tobaccos, and is
inhaled during smoking. People who smoke cigarettes
may breathe considerably more beryllium than those who
do not smoke. Beryllium is also present in many fruits
and vegetables.
                                                                                    June 1992
The greatest exposure to beryllium, usually in the form of
beryllium oxide, occurs in the workplace. Occupational
exposure to beryllium occurs where it is mined, processed,
and converted into metal, alloys, and chemicals. Workers
engaged in machining  metals containing beryllium,  in
reclaiming beryllium from scrap alloys, or  in  using
beryllium products will also be exposed. People who live
near these industries, or near hazardous waste sites that
contain high  concentrations of beryllium, can also be
exposed to small amounts.
  How can beryllium affect my health?

  Beryllium is a    substance that can be harmful,
  depending on the amount and length of exposure.
  Not  all of the effects that beryllium and its
  compounds  have on  human health  are  well
  understood, and not all forms of beryllium are
  equally toxic.   The primary  organs affected by
  beryllium are the lungs. Short-term exposure to
  high  levels of soluble  beryllium compounds can
  lead  to the development  of inflammation or
  reddening and swelling of the lungs, a condition
  known  as Acute Beryllium Disease (similar to
  pneumonia). Removal from exposure can result in
  a reversal of symptoms. Long-term exposure to
  beryllium or beryllium oxide at much lower levels
  has reportedly caused Chronic Beryllium Disease in
  sensitive individuals. This disease is characterized
  by shortness of breath,  scarring of the lungs, and
  berylliosis (noncancerous growths in the lungs).

  Both Acute and Chronic Beryllium Disease can be
  fatal, depending on the severity of the exposure. In
  addition, a skin allergy can develop when sensitized
  individuals  are exposed  to  soluble  beryllium
  compounds.   If beryllium  enters through cuts,
  noncancerous growths  can form on the  skin or
  mucous  membrane and may ulcerate, becoming
  open sores.

  Evidence from  laboratory  tests using  animals
  suggests  that  inhalation  of  beryllium  or its
  compounds  may have  some cancer   causing
  potential.  No studies, in  animals  or humans,
  provide convincing evidence that the ingestion of
 beryllium or its compounds causes cancer.

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How does beryllium enter and leave the body?

Animal studies have shown that  only  small  amounts of
beryllium are absorbed (pass into)  the blood and other
tissues after ingestion of beryllium or its compounds. Most
of the ingested beryllium leaves the body through wastes in
a few days without having entered the bloodstream.  This low
rate of absorption also holds true for skin exposure, although
contact with the skin is, in itself, sufficient to cause irritation.
These studies have also shown that the most efficient way in
which beryllium  enters the body of animals is through
inhalation of beryllium particles suspended  in  the  air.
Beryllium which is inhaled may require  months to years to
leave the body because of the time it takes to leave the lungs
and enter the stomach or the bloodstream. The small amount
of beryllium that  moves  from the lungs, stomach, and
intestines into the bloodstream is carried by the blood to the
kidneys. Beryllium leaves the kidneys (and the body) in the
urine.

What recommendations has the federal
government made to protect human health?

The Environmental Protection Agency  (EPA) restricts the
amount of  beryllium  emitted  into  the environment by
 industries that produce beryllium ores,  metal,  oxide, alloys,
 or waste to amounts that would result in atmospheric levels
 of 0.01 parts per trillion (ppt) of beryllium in air, averaged
 over a 30-day period.  The term "parts per trillion" is a way
 of expressing the concentration of a contaminant in a liquid
 or air.  One part per trillion is equal to one  inch in a
 distance of about sixteen million  miles (or a  penny in ten
 billion dollars), a very small amount.

 Js there a medical test to identify beryllium
 exposure?

 Beryllium levels in the urine and blood can  be  measured,
 however, levels in the urine may be highly variable. Elevated
 levels in  the urine and blood indicate exposure, but not
 necessarily the disease.  Another procedure  involving the
 sampling of tissues, that is, a biopsy, may be  performed so
 that beryllium levels in those tissues can be measured. There
 is also a medical test which involves the examination of cells
 that have been washed out of the  lungs.  This  test helps
 doctors  to identify noncancerous  growths  in  the  lungs;
 however, this test cannot distinguish  growths  that  were
 caused by  beryllium  (Chronic Beryllium Disease)  from
  growths caused by other factors. A test in which lymphocytes
  (blood cells involved in  immunity) are transformed in the
  presence of beryllium can definitively  diagnosis  Chronic
  Beryllium Disease.
What are the methods of treatment and
disposal of beryllium?

Beryllium dust has been designated by EPA as a hazardous
waste. Most of these wastes result from pollution control
methods such as containment of solid  particles or liquid
suspensions resulting from air-scrubbing processes. Recycling
of the wastes is  the  most desirable method of handling.
Burial in plastic-lined,  metal drums  is recommended for
landfill disposal.
   Air-scrubbing: ^rious process^ are used to remove
   parities front gaseous  emissions, usually produced
   during incineration*  One process, uses electronically-
   charged  plates  to collect  particles; another uses
   atomized water to remove particles suspended in gases.
   , Atmospheric Emissions:
   dusty or partfeulates trite the air., x-"'}'''          'fi'''

   - Element:  "All substances  are made ap ,of elements,
   which are the  basic ^mponettt^ or" parts', of all
   materials/ Elements cannot  be separated or'brdken
   dawn Mp,smaUer waits by ojrditiajry chemical means,

   Fty 'Ash-  'A^borfe'tils of unTbutnabte dust or fine
   p^rticles/iisualh/ associated with combustlojo, of fossil
   fuels or  Incinerators.;,   Bnviroanieatal regulations'
   require that fly ash be captured t>y air pottwtlon control
   devices,    "^c^T/      ,  ,"" "j*'-'''""   '"'/''""'

   Particulates: "Ala'extremely tiny fragment or smalt piece
   t of material which cap be carried by the wind.
    Toxic: ;Actittg as a poisonous ol hazardous substance;
    having poisonous or harmful qualities.         ; ,
    For more information about Beryllium, please contact
    EPA at the following address:

            U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
           ATTN: Superfund Hotline
            401M Street, S.W.
            Washington, D.C. 20460
            1-800-424-9346 or 1-800-535-0202
  The Information contained in this fact sheet was compiled from the ToxJcoloeical Profile for Beryllium. Agency forToric Substances and Disease Registry, U.S.
  SiteStbS
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                              EPAF
                                         Cadmium
                                                                                       June 1992
     What is cadmium?

     Cadmium is a naturally occurring element. Pure
     cadmium is a soft bluish-white metal; however, this
     form is not common.  Cadmium is most often
     found in combination with other elements such as
     oxygen   (cadmium oxide),  chlorine  (cadmium
     chloride), or sulfur (cadmium  sulfide).  These
    combinations, or compounds, are all stable solids
    that do not evaporate, although small particles of
    cadmium oxide are often found in the air.

    Most cadmium used in the U.S. is obtained as a
    by-product from the  smelting of zinc, lead, or
    copper ores. Cadmium has a number of industrial
    applications; it is used mostly in metal plating,
    pigments, batteries, and plastics.
 How might exposure to cadmium occur?

 Small quantities of cadmium occur naturally in air,
 water, soil, and food.   For most people, food is the
 primary  source  of cadmium  exposure, since  food
 products tend to absorb  and retain  cadmium.   For
 example, plants draw cadmium from soil, and fish absorb
 cadmium from water.

 The application of phosphate fertilizers or sewage sludge
 may increase cadmium levels in soil, which, in turn, can
 cause increased cadmium levels in crops. Cadmium is
 not often encountered at  levels of  concern in water,
 although it can leach into groundwater from  pipes and
 solder or may enter groundwater from chemical waste
 disposal sites.

 The largest sources of cadmium are the burning of fossil
 fuels  and  the  incineration  of municipal wastes.
 Cadmium may also escape  into the environment from
 zinc, lead, or copper smelters, resulting in above-average
 concentrations.

 Smoking  is another major  source of cadmium.  Like
 most plants, tobacco contains cadmium, some of which
 is inhaled in cigarette smoke.  Most people who smoke
have about twice as much cadmium in their bodies as do
nonsmokers.
How does cadmium enter the body?

Cadmium can enter the blood by absorption from the
stomach or intestines following ingestion of food or
water, or by absorption from the lungs after inhalation.
Very little cadmium  is absorbed  through the skin.
Usually only about 1 to 5% of what is ingested is
absorbed into the blood; about 30 to 50% of what is
inhaled is absorbed. Once cadmium enters the body,
it is retained; therefore, even low doses may build up
significant cadmium levels if the exposure is long-term.
  How can cadmium affect human health?

  Cadmium can cause a number of adverse health
  effects.  Ingestion of high doses causes severe
  irritation to the stomach, leading to vomiting and
  diarrhea.  Inhalation of high doses leads to
  severe irritation of the lungs. Such exposures are
  extremely rare today.  The effects  which may
  occur following long-term, low-level exposure are
  of greater concern.  Examples of adverse health
  effects resulting from various exposure levels and
  times are: kidney damage in people exposed to
  excess cadmium either through air or diet; and
  lung damage, such as emphysema, in factory
  workers where cadmium levels in air are high.

  Lung cancer has been shown to occur in animals
  exposed  to cadmium  in air  for long periods.
  Studies in humans also suggest that long-term
  inhalation of cadmium can increase  the risk of
  lung cancer.  Exposure to cadmium through
  contaminated  foods is not believed to  cause
  cancer.

  Other tissues reported to be injured by cadmium
  exposure include the  liver,  the  testes, the
  immune and nervous  systems, and the blood.
  Reproductive  and developmental effects have
  been observed in animals treated with cadmium,
  however, these effects have not been reported in
  humans.

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Is there a medical test to identify
cadmium exposure?

One test  for excessive  cadmium exposure  involves
measuring the amount of cadmium present in the blood,
urine, or hair.  The amount in the  blood is a good
indicator of recent exposures, whereas the amount in
urine is a reflection of total cadmium present in the
body. The amount of cadmium in hair  is not usually
considered to be reliable, since cadmium can bind to the
outside  of hair and give faulty test results.   Another
approach is to measure cadmium concentrations in the
liver or kidneys; however, it is  usually too costly and
inconvenient for routine use.

What levels of exposure have resulted in
harmful health effects?

The amount of cadmium known  to cause harmful health
effects depends on the chemical and physical form of the
element. In general, cadmium compounds that dissolve
easily in water (e.g., cadmium chloride), or those that
can be dissolved in the body (e.g., cadmium oxide), tend
to be more toxic than compounds that are very hard to
dissolve (e.g., cadmium sulGde).

Airborne  concentrations  of 1 part per  million of
cadmium in air are associated with acute irritation to the
lungs.    The term "parts  per million" is  a way of
expressing the concentration of a contaminant in a liquid
or air.  One part per million is equal to one inch in  a
distance of about sixteen miles (or a  penny in ten
 thousand  dollars), a very small amount. Long-term
 exposure may increase the risk  of lung disease, such as
 emphysema.  These same levels  are also associated with
 development of kidney injury similar to that observed
 following oral exposure.   Levels of cadmium exposure
 through food, water, and air typical for most people are
 not a major health concern. For example, the intake of
 cadmium in the diet is  usually about  one-tenth the
 amount required  to cause kidney damage via this  route.

 What are the methods of disposal of
 cadmium?

 Most waste cadmium  is  disposed of  in landfills.
 Municipal  waste  disposal of  cadmium-containing
 products  to  landfills accounts  for  the  majority  of
 cadmium disposal.    Cadmium  wastes can  also be
 destroyed through high temperature incineration.
What recommendations has the federal
government made to protect human
health?

The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has
established limits on the quantity of cadmium that may
be discharged into water or disposed of as solid wastes.
EPA  is considering regulations that would  limit the
amount of cadmium emitted into outside air.  The
Agency has also established  an interim Maximum
Contaminant Level (MCL) of 5 parts per billion of
cadmium in drinking water.
                  GLOSSARY
             -
   Groundwater \Vgtsr  found below the ground
   surface In a rock or sand formation*  Much of
   our  domestic water supplies are drawn  from
   grourtdwater wells.

   Maximum Contaminant Level: "EPA evaluates
   the  health  risks  associated  with,  various
   contaminant levels to  ensure that "public health
   is adequately protected. The MCL, as they are
   commonly known, is  the maximum  allowable
   concentration of a specific contaminant in public
   drinking water*

   Toxic:   Acting as a  poisonous or hazardous
   substance; having poisonous or harmful qualities.
    For more information about Cadmium, please
    contact EPA at the following address:

           U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
           ATTN: Superfiind Hotline
           401 M Street, S.W.
           Washington, D.C. 20460
           1-800-424-9346 or 1-800-535-0202
 The Information contained in this fact sheet was compiled from the Toxicological Profile for Cadium . Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease
 Registry US Public Health Service, in collaboration with the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, March 1989. This fact sheet focuses on the
 impaa of hazardous wastes on human health; however, EPA does evaluate these impacts on the environment, including plants and animals.

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    What is carbon tetrachloride?

    Carbon tetrachloride (CC14) is a clear, heavy liquid with
    a sweet odor. Because it evaporates very quickly, most
    CC14 that escapes into the environment is found in the
    air as a gas. Small amounts can also be found dissolved
    in water.

    CC14 does not occur naturally. It is produced in large
    quantities  to make  refrigerants  and propellants  for
    aerosol cans.  Since these products have been found to
    affect  the earth's ozone layer, production  of these
    chemicals  is  being  phased out.    Consequently,  the
    manufacture and use of CC14 will also tend to decline.
    In the past, CC14 was widely used as a cleaning fluid,
    both in industry, where it served as a degreasing agent,
    and in  the household, where it was used  to remove
    spots from clothing, furniture, and carpeting.  Because
    CC14 does  not burn,  it  was  also   used in  fire
    extinguishers. These uses were discontinued in the mid-
    1960s. Until recently, CC14 was used to fumigate grain,
    but this was stopped in 1986.
    CC14 is very stable and,  therefore, remains in  the
    environment.  Although it is broken down by chemical
    reactions in air,  this happens so slowly  that it takes
    between 30 and  100 years for one-half of the original
    amount of CC14  to be destroyed.
How might exposure to carbon tetrachloride
occur?

Past and present releases of CC14 have resulted in low levels
of   this  compound  being  dispersed  throughout   the
environment.  In air, concentrations of 0.1 parts per billion
(ppb) are common around the world, with somewhat higher
values (0.2 to 0.6 ppb) in cities. The term "parts per billion"
is a way of expressing the concentration  of a contaminant in
a liquid or air.  One part per billion is equal to one inch in a
distance of about sixteen thousand miles, or a penny in ten
million  dollars, a very small amount.  CC14 is also found in
some drinking  water   supplies,  usually  below  0.5 ppb.
Exposure to  levels of CC14  higher  than these  typical
background levels may occur at industrial locations where CC14
is still used or near waste sites where releases into air, water,
or soil are not properly controlled. Exposure from such sites
could occur  by breathing CC14 in air, by  drinking water
contaminated with CC14, or by getting contaminated soil on
the skin. CC14  has been found in water or soil at about 7%
of  the   waste  sites  investigated  under  Superfund>   at
concentrations from less than 50 to over 1,000 ppb.
                                                                                                 June 1992
 How can carbon tetrachloride affect
 human health?

 Exposure  to high levels of CC14 can cause a
 number of harmful health  effects,  including
 death.   The most  immediate health effects
 usually involve the brain.  Common effects are
 headaches and dizziness, along with nausea and
 vomiting.  In severe  cases, stupor or even coma
 may  result.   These effects usually disappear
 within  a  day or two  following exposure, but
 permanent damage to  nerve cells may occur in
 severe cases.

 The liver is especially sensitive to CC14. In mild
 cases, the liver becomes swollen and tender, and
 fat tends to build up  inside the tissue.  In severe
 cases, many cells may be killed, leading to
 decreased liver function.

 The kidneys are also sensitive to CC14, with the
 main effect being a decrease in urine formation.
 This can lead to accumulation of water in the
 body (especially in the lungs)  and buildup of
 waste products in the blood.  Kidney failure is
 often the main cause of death in people who die
 as a result of exposure to CC14.

 Fortunately, if injuries to the liver and kidneys
 are not too severe, these effects disappear once
 exposure ceases.  This is because both organs
 can  repair  damaged cells and replace  dead
 tissue.  Function is often nearly normal within
 a few days or weeks  following exposure.  CC14
 also causes harm to  other  tissues in the body,
 but this is not usually as important as the effects
 on  the liver, kidneys, and  brain.   Limited
 information from animal studies indicates that
 CC14  does not cause birth defects, but might
 decrease the survival rate of newborn animals.
 Most information on the health effects of CC14
 in humans stems from cases in which individuals
 have been exposed only once  or for  a short
 period of time  to relatively high levels of the
chemical.   Studies of the effects of long-term
exposure to low levels of CC14 on humans have
not been  performed and the  effects of such
exposures  are unknown.

-------
Is there a medical test to identify carbon
tetracWoride exposure?

Several very sensitive and specific tests can detect
CC14 in exposed persons.  The most convenient
way is simply to measure CC14 in exhaled air; CC14
can also be measured in  the blood, fat, or other
tissues.   Because special equipment is  needed,
these tests are not routinely performed in doctors'
offices.  Although these tests can identify exposure
to CCl^ the test results cannot yet  be used to
predict  harmful health effects.  Because CC14 is
removed from the  body fairly  quickly,  these
methods are best suited to detection of exposures
that have occurred within the past several days.
 How can carbon tetracWoride enter and
 leave the body?

 Carbon tetrachloride can enter the body through
 the lungs by breathing air containing CC14, or
 through the stomach by swallowing food or water
 containing CC14.   Liquid  CC14 can also pass
 through the skin into the body.  Most  CC14 is
 exhaled  through the lungs within a  few hours.
 Some CCJ4 in the body is temporarily absorbed by
 fat, and is then removed more slowly by the lungs.


 What recommendations has the federal
 government made to protect human
 health?

 The federal government has limited or banned the
 use of CC14 in most common household products
 and fire extinguishers, and has discontinued its use
 as a grain fiimigant.   The U.S.  Environmental
 Protection Agency (EPA) has also set limits on the
 amount of CC14 released from an industrial plant
 into waste water, and is preparing to set limits on
 the amounts of CC14 released  into outside air.
 One additional case of cancer may result in a
 group  of 100,000 people exposed to  CC14 in
 concentrations  above 4 parts per billion  in air or
 water over a period of 70 years.
What levels of exposure have resulted
in harmful health effects?

Not all people are affected equally by exposure to
CC14.  Individuals who drink alcohol  are usually
much more susceptible than people who do not.
Most serious or fatal  cases of CC14 tenacity  have
involved people who have had several  alcoholic
drinks before or during exposure to CC14.
                GLOSSARY       !

   Background Levels: ^Hie concentration of
   any  s«bstancĄ"wJuc6, would normally be
   found in an area.  This fevel is used as a
   basis  of   comparison   to  identifying
   contamination levels.
       ~V.<     1.1.1. j   l.^-"* "&''&&'     ''''        i,w
   Fumigant: Substance producing fuitteS used
   to disinfect of i> 'destroy pesfc.
   Superfund Program: Tjoe program operated
   under'"the "legislative  authority 'of the
   Compifefiensiv&  Environmental Response,
   Compensation and UabUity ^Act of 1980
   (CERCLA), as amende|>y t&e Sopetfund
   Amendments and ReauChoriza.tion Act  of
   i98S (SARA)  thai,fi»nds  thi EPA solid
   wastfe emergency and long-term removal and
   remedial aetiyt&es.^    "  "_    -  '""'"f "\,
   '' "   ^---i^  , •.fVt "      -,^X   /  m""   ,'
    Toxicity: "1TCbe degVe© to wnict & substance
   acts as a^ poison. ,„,'''', •''     •.-*•""• ';;  '""
               '%,?'
    For  more   information  about  Carbon
    Tetrachloride, please contact EPA at the
    following address:

     U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
     ATTN: Superfund Hotline
     401M Street, S.W.
     Washington, D.C. 20460
     1-800-424-9346 or 1-800-535-0202
              contained in this fact sheet was compiled from the Theological Profile, for Carbon Tetrachlonde, Agency for Toxic
                        y, U.S. Public Health Service, in collaboration with the US. Environmental Protection Agency, December
          fo«rf/     « «te inyact of hazardous wastes on human health,- however, EPA does evaluate these «npacts on the
  environment, Includingplants and animals.

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                             EPA
                                         Chloroform
                                                                                       June 1992
    What is chloroform?

    Chloroform is a colorless liquid with a pleasant
    odor. It is both a naturally-occurring and a man-
    made  compound, or  combination,  of several
    chemicals. Most of the chloroform manufactured
    in the  United  States  (93%) is used to make
    fluorocarbon-22, which is used in the production
    of fluoropolymers and as a cooling fluid in air
    conditioners. It is also used in the manufacture of
    pesticides and dyes, and in such products as fire
    extinguishers, dry cleaning spot removers, and
    various solvents.
 How might exposure to chloroform occur?

 Chloroform released to soil will either vaporize rapidly
 from the surface or leach readily  through the soil,
 eventually entering groundwater. It is believed to persist
 for relatively long periods of time in  groundwater.
 Exposure to chloroform can result from breathing air or
 ingesting   drinking  water,   beverages,   or   foods
 contaminated with chloroform. Exposure may also occur
 during skin contact with various consumer products
 containing  this  compound  or from   exposure  to
 chlorinated  waters, for  example,  bath  water and
 swimming pool water.

 The primary sources  of chloroform release  to  the
 environment are pulp and paper mills, drug and chemical
 manufacturing  plants,  chlorinated  wastewater from
 sewage treatment plants, and chlorinated drinking water.
 Pulp and paper mills  emit more chloroform  to  the
 environment than any other single source. Most of the
 chloroform released to the environment eventually enters
 the atmosphere. Once in the atmosphere, chloroform
 may be transported long distances  before ultimately
 being degraded by photochemical reaction. Much smaller
 amounts  enter groundwater as the result of filtration
 through the soil. Chloroform leaches into groundwater
 primarily from spills, landfills, and industrial sources.
 Chloroform in soil may  come from improper land
disposal of waste materials containing chloroform or
other chlorine-containing compounds that are broken
down to form chloroform.
How does chloroform enter the body?

Chloroform can enter the body by breathing air, eating
food, or drinking water that contains chloroform.
Chloroform readily  penetrates  the  skin,  therefore,
chloroform may also enter the body by bathing in water
containing chloroform. Foods such as dairy products,
seafood, meat, vegetables, bread, and beverages  may
contain small, but measurable, amounts of chloroform.
Drinking-water   supplies   containing   organic
contaminants may contain chloroform as a by-product
of chlorination of the water supply for disinfection
purposes.

Is there a medical test to identify
chloroform exposure?

Chloroform can be detected in blood, urine, and body
tissues;  however,  because   chloroform  is  rapidly
eliminated from the body, these methods are not very
reliable. In addition, the presence of chloroform may
have resulted from the biological breakdown of other
chlorine compounds.  An elevated level of chloroform
may reflect exposure to these other compounds.
  How  can  chloroform  affect  human
  health?

  Chloroform affects the central  nervous system,
  liver, and kidneys. It was once used as a surgical
  anesthetic before its harmful effects on the liver
  and  kidneys  were  recognized.    Short-term
  exposure to high concentrations of chloroform in
  the air causes tiredness, dizziness, and headaches.
  Longer-term  exposure   to  high  levels  of
  chloroform can affect liver and kidney function.
  Toxic effects may include jaundice and burning
  urination.  High doses of chloroform have also
  been found to cause liver and kidney cancer in
  experimental animals.  The risks of cancer, if
  any, from low-level exposures to chloroform in
  drinking water  as  a result of  chlorination,
  however, are far outweighed by the benefits of
  chlorination in terms  of the greatly decreased
  incidence of waterbome diseases.

-------
What levels of exposure have resulted in
harmful health effects?

Based  on available data  for animals, the U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency  (EPA)  has
estimated that exposure to 1 part per billion (ppb)
chloroform in air may result in 2.3 additional cases
of cancer  in a population of 100,000 people
exposed over a period of 70 years.  Exposure to
drinking water containing 10 ppb chloroform may
result  in 17  additional cases of cancer in a
population  of 100,000  people exposed over a
period of 70 years. The term "parts per billion" is
a  way  of  expressing  the  concentration  of a
contaminant in a liquid or air.   One part per
billion Is equal to one inch in a distance of about
sixteen thousand miles (or a penny in ten million
dollars), a very small amount

What recommendations has the federal
government made to protect human
health?

EPA sets  rules for  the  amount  of chloroform
allowed in water. EPA has established a drinking
water  Maximum  Contaminant  Level (MCL)  for
total trihalomethanes, a group of chemicals which
includes chloroform,  of 0.1 ppm as  a technically
and economically feasible level for municipal water
supplies which serve  10,000 people or more.  In
addition, the Agency  requires that chloroform
spills of 10 pounds or more be reported to the
National Response Center.

What are the methods of treatment and
 disposal of chloroform?

 EPA  requires  that  individuals  who  generate,
 transport, treat; store, or dispose of this compound
 comply  with the  regulations  of the  Resource
 Conservation and Recovery Act One method used
 to dispose of chloroform involves sedimentation
 followed by filtration and adsorption onto activated
 carbon.   Chloroform  can be disposed  of by
 incineration, preferably  after  it  is  mixed with
 another combustible  fuel.
          f          f f  •*••%_, > .v.x f
Adsorption: A lament method which t
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                            EPA   Facts  About
                                        Chromium
                                                                                       June 1992
   What is chromium?

   Chromium is a naturally occurring element found in
   soil and in volcanic dust and gases.  It exists in three
   forms:  metallic chromium (chromium(O)), trivalent
   chromium (chromium(III)), and hexavalent chromium
   (chromium(VT)). Trivalent chromium occurs naturally
   in the environment; hexavalent chromium and metallic
   chromium are  generally produced  by industrial
   processes. Metallic chromium is a steel-gray solid.
   Chromium is used mainly for making steel and other
   alloys. The mineral chromite is used by the refractory
   industry to make bricks for metal smelting furnaces.
   Chromium compounds are used for chrome plating,
   the manufacture of pigments, leather tanning, and
   wood treatment.
How might exposure to chromium occur?
Exposure to small amounts  of chromium results from
breathing air and ingesting water and food containing this
chemical. Chromium has been found in approximately 815
of 1,300 hazardous waste sites on the National Priorities List
(NPL).  Much higher exposure occurs for people working in
certain chromium industries and those who smoke cigarettes.

The two largest sources of chromium emissions  into  the
atmosphere are from the chemical  manufacturing industry
and combustion of natural gas, oil, and coal. Other sources
of chromium exposure are:  cement  plants; asbestos brake
linings from automobiles or similar  sources of wind-carried
asbestos; incineration of municipal refuse and sewage sludge;
and  exhaust  emissions  from  catalytic  converters   in
automobiles. Emissions from air conditioning cooling towers
that use chromium compounds as rust inhibitors; wastewaters
from  electroplating, leather  tanning, and textile industries;
solid wastes from the manufacture of chromium compounds;
and ashes from municipal incineration when disposed  of
improperly in landfill sites constitute additional sources of
chromium.
How does chromium enter the body?
Most chromium enters the body through the diet.  Some
exposure occurs  from breathing air  or  drinking  water
contaminated with chromium; however, exposure from these
sources is  normally small compared to intake in food.
Chromium exposure from breathing chromium may increase
for people breathing air near industrial sites where chromate,
a form of chromic acid, is produced or used. Exposure may
also increase by drinking water which has passed through
steel alloy pipes containing chromium.

Is there a medical test  to identify chromium
exposure?

Trivalent and hexavalent chromium can be measured in the
hair, urine, blood serum, and red blood cells.  However,
because trivalent chromium is normally present at low levels
in these tissues and fluids, measurements for chromium are
not very useful in determining slight elevations in chromium
exposure  over the low levels normally  present  in the
environment. With relatively high exposure levels (usually
occupational), chromium levels in the urine and red blood
cells can provide indications of exposure to compounds of
hexavalent chromium,  but not  to  trivalent chromium
compounds.
  How does chromium affect human health?

  Chromium is considered an essential nutrient that
  helps maintain the normal metabolism of glucose,
  cholesterol, and fat. Signs of chromium deficiency
  include weight loss and impairment of the body's
  ability to remove glucose from the blood.

  Short-term  high-level  exposure   to  hexavalent
  chromium can result in adverse effects at the point of
  contact, such as ulcers of the skin, perforation of the
  nasal septum, and irritation of the nasal mucous
  membrane and gastrointestinal tract.   Hexavalent
  chromium  may also cause adverse effects  in the
  kidneys and liver.  Trivalent chromium does not
  result in these effects and is the form that is thought
  to be an essential food nutrient.  Most chromium in
  food is trivalent. Metallic chromium exposure is less
  common and information concerning potential health
  effects is not well-developed.

  Long-term exposure of workers to elevated levels of
  chromium in  the air has been associated with lung
  cancer. Lung cancer may occur long after exposure
  to chromium has ended.  Although it is not clear
  which form of chromium is  responsible for this effect
  in workers, only hexavalent chromium compounds
  have been found to cause cancer in animal studies.

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What levels of exposure have resulted in
harmful health effects?

Based   on  occupational   exposure   data  for
hexavalent   chromium  compounds,   the   U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) estimates
that lifetime exposure to 1 part per million (ppm)
of hexavalent chromium in air could result in 1,200
additional cases of cancer  in a population  of
100,000 people. The term "parts per million" is a
way of expressing   the  concentration of  a
contaminant in a liquid or air.   One part per
million is equal to one inch in a distance of about
sixteen miles (or a penny in ten thousand dollars),
a very small amount.

The known health effects from ingesting foods
containing chromium indicate that a single dose of
a hexavalent chromium  compound is  more  toxic
(causes death at a lower exposure level) than a
single  dose  of a trivalent  chromium  compound.
Long-term  exposure  of animals  to  chromium
compounds,  particularly   trivalent   chromium
compounds, in  drinking water or food,  has not
resulted in any adverse effects. The known health
effects from absorbing chromium through the skin
indicate that the most common effect  of  skin
exposure to chromium is skin allergy  in sensitive
individuals.
What recommendations has the federal
government made to protect human
health?

EPA has established a level of total chromium of
0.1 ppm as the current drinking water regulation.
The Agency requires industry to report discharges
or spills  of 1 pound or more of chromium and
1,000 pounds or  more  or  various  chromium
compounds.
What is the method of treatment and
disposal of chromium?

Approximately 15% of chromium  used  in  the
metal industry is recycled, largely from stainless
steel  scrap.    Large  amounts  of chromium-
containing wastewaters are discharged into surface
waters.   Very  little is known  about disposal
methods for other chromium processes such  as
refractory  materials  used  in  metal  smelting
furnaces and chemical industries producing such
products as chromium-containing pigments.
               GLOSSARY

   Emissions: 'Release Of discharge of jtumes*
   dast or participates into the air,

   Gastrointestinal Tract:  That portion of the
   digestive system made up of the stomach and
   the intestines,

   Metabolism:    A chemical  and  physical
   process  in  which  substances  (such  as
   glucose) are transformed into energy and
   waste products.

   National Priorities List (NPL): EPA's Hslof
   the uflcontrolfed or abandoned  hazardous
   waste sites identified for possible long-term
   remedial  action   under  the   Superfund
   Program.

   Superfund Program:  The program operated
   under  the  legislative  authority  of  the
   Comprehensive Environmental  Response,
   Compensation and  Liability Act  of 1980
   (CERCLA), as amended by the Superfund
   Amendments and Reauthorization Act of
   198$ (SARA) that funds the EPA  solid
   waste emergency and long-term removal and
   remedial activities.
   For more  information  about Chromium,
   please contact EPA at the following address:


        U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
        ATTN: Superfund Hotline
        401 M Street, S.W.
        Washington, D.C. 20460
        1-800-424-9346 or  1-800-535-0202
The information contained in this fact sheet was compiled from the ToxJcological Profile for Chromium. Agency for Toxic Substances and
Difcase RegUtiy, U.S. Public Health Service, in collaboration with the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, October, 1987. This fact
ibett focuses on the Impact of hazardous wastes on human health; however, EPA does evaluate these impacts on the environment, including
plants and animals.

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                              EPA
                                                                                           June 1992
   What is copper?

   Copper is a reddish metal that occurs naturally in
   rock,  soil,  water, sediment,  and air.   It  is an
   essential element for all living organisms, including
   humans and other animals.  Copper also occurs
   naturally in plants.

   It  is most  commonly seen in the United States
   penny, electrical wiring, and some water pipes.  It
   is  also found in many  alloys, such as  brass and
   bronze. Many  compounds, or combinations,  of
   copper exist. The most commonly used compound
   of copper  is  copper  sulfate.    Many  copper
   compounds can be recognized by their blue-green
   color.

   Copper is extensively mined and processed and is
   primarily used as copper metal or  alloy in the
   manufacture of wire, sheet metal,  pipe,  and other
   metal products.   Copper  compounds  are most
   commonly  used  in agriculture  to  treat  plant
   diseases, such as mildew; for water treatment; and
   as  preservatives for wood, leather,  and fabrics.
How can copper affect human health?

Copper is necessary for good health; however, very large
daily intakes of copper can be  harmful.   Long-term
exposure to copper dust can irritate the nose, mouth, and
eyes, and cause headaches, dizziness, nausea, and diarrhea.
Vomiting, diarrhea, stomach cramps, and nausea may
occur following ingestion of water containing high levels
of copper. Large amounts of copper can cause liver and
kidney damage, and even death.  Very young children are
more sensitive to copper toxicity. Long-term exposure to
high levels of copper in  food or water may  cause liver
damage or death.  Copper is not known to cause cancer.

How can copper enter and leave the body?
Copper can enter the body through ingestion of water or
food, soil, or other substances that contain copper.  It
may also  enter the lungs  through  inhalation of air
containing copper dust, copper fumes,  or other particles.
The body is very good at blocking high levels of copper
from entering the bloodstream.  Following ingestion of
high levels of copper, vomiting or diarrhea may result;
this prevents copper from entering the blood. Ingested
copper is excreted from the body within several  days.
Little data is available concerning exposure through the
lungs or skin.
   How might exposure to copper occur?

   The largest release of copper, by far, is to land. The
   major sources of release are mining operations,
   agriculture, solid waste, and sludge from municipal
   treatment works.  Copper is released to water as a
   result of natural weathering of soil and discharges
   from industries and sewage treatment plants. Much
   of  this  copper  is attached to  dust  and other
   particles in the air.

   Most copper  compounds found in air,  water,
   sediment, soil, and rock are so strongly attached to
   dust and dirt or imbedded in minerals that they
   cannot  easily  affect  health.   Copper  found  at
   hazardous waste sites is likely to be of this form.
   Some copper  in the environment is less  tightly
   bound to particles and may be absorbed by plants
   and animals. Dissolved copper compounds that are
   most commonly used in agriculture, are more likely
   to threaten human health.

   Exposure to high levels of dissolved copper can
   result from drinking contaminated water.  This is
   because copper is picked up from copper pipes and
   brass faucets when the water sits  in  the pipes
   overnight. The average concentration of copper in
   tap water ranges from 20 to 75 parts of copper per
   billion parts of water (ppb).  The term "parts per
   billion" is a way of expressing the concentration of
   a contaminant in a liquid or air.  One part per
   billion is equal to one inch in a distance of about
   sixteen thousand miles (or a penny in ten million
   dollars), a very small amount.

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What levels of exposure to copper have
resulted in harmful health effects?

The levels of  copper  in air that can result in harmful
health effects in humans are not known. Exposure to low
levels of copper in air affects the lungs of animals.

Copper can  usually be tasted in drinking water at levels
below those which cause adverse health effects.  Ingestion
of excessive  amounts  of copper in water may result in
vomiting, diarrhea, and stomach cramps. Drinking water
contaminated  with  high levels  of copper may  have
harmful health effects on infants at levels lower than
those for adults.  High levels of copper in drinking water
or food  have  been shown to cause liver  and kidney
damage in animals.
Is there a medical test to identify copper
exposure?

There are reliable and accurate ways to measure copper
in the body. It can be measured in the urine and blood.
Blood plasma or urine samples  can be collected in a
doctor's office and sent to a laboratory for analysis using
special equipment to measure copper levels. However,
such measurements cannot predict the extent of exposure
or the potential health effects.
What recommendations has the federal
government made to protect human
health?

The Environmental  Protection  Agency  (EPA)  has
determined that the level of copper  in surface water
(rivers, lakes, streams, etc.) should be limited to one part
per million (ppm) to protect the public from the toxic
properties  of  copper ingested  through  water  and
contaminated  aquatic organisms.    EPA  has  also
determined that copper levels in drinking water should
not exceed 1.3 ppm.   EPA has developed regulations
controlling the amount of copper released by industry.
What are the methods of treatment and
disposal of copper?

An estimated 60% of all copper in  scrap materials is
recycled. Copper or copper compounds not recycled are
disposed of in landfills, or released into wastewater.
Copper-containing  sludge  generated  by  wastewater
treatment  facilities  is   disposed of by  landfilling,
landspreading, incineration, or ocean disposal.
   Copper Dust:
   mair.'"
Solid particle^ of copper suspended
   Copper Fume:  Oaseotis form of copper which can
   en.iter the atmosphere.

   Landspreading:   A disposal technique in which
   liquid or solid contaminated materials are applied
   to the surface of the ground. Sunlight and bacterial
   action   theft   breakdown  the  , contaminant.
   Landspreading is one alternative to land0Iling.

   Superjund Program: The program operated under
   the legislative authority  of the  Comprehensive
   Environmental   Response,  Compensation  and
   Liability Act of 1980 (CERCLA), as amended by
   the Superfund Amendments and  Reauthorfaatfan
   Act of  1986 (SARA) that funds the  EPA solid
   waste  emergency  and long*te«n removal  and
   remedial activities.
   For more  information  about  Copper,  please
   contact EPA at the following address:

        U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
        ATTN: Superjund Hotline
        401 M Street, S.W.
        Washington, D.C. 20460
        1-800-424-9346 or 1-800-535-0202
The information contained in this fact sheet was compiled from the Toxicological Profile for Copper. Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry,
U.S. Public Health Service, in collaboration with the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, December, 1990. This fact sheet focuses on the impact
of hazardous wastes on human health; however, EPA does evaluate these impacts on the environment, including plants and animals.

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                                                                                              June 1992
   What is cyanide?

   Cyanides  are both man-made and  naturally
   occurring  substances.    They  are  found  in
   combination with  other  chemicals.   Of these
   combinations, or compounds, those with which
   people are most likely to come  into contact are
   hydrogen cyanide, sodium cyanide, and potassium
   cyanide.  Hydrogen cyanide is a colorless gas or
   liquid with a faint, bitter  odor.  Sodium  cyanide
   and potassium cyanide are both colorless solids
   that have a slightly bitter  odor.
How can cyanide affect human health?

Cyanide, in the form of vitamin B12 (cyanocobalamin),
is needed as part of a healthy diet to prevent iron poor
blood, or anemia.

The harmful effects of cyanide may vary from person to
person, depending upon such factors as general health,
family traits, age, and sex. Short-term exposure to high
levels of cyanide harms the central nervous, respiratory,
and cardiovascular systems.  Such  exposures can also
cause coma or death.  Brief exposures to lower levels
can result in rapid, deep breathing; shortness of breath;
convulsions; and loss of consciousness.  These effects
disappear with time because cyanide does not remain in
the body. In some cases, quick medical treatment can
revive a person who has been poisoned by cyanide.

Skin contact with the dust of certain  cyanide compounds
can cause skin irritation and ulcerations.  Ingestion of
food containing low levels of cyanide over an extended
period  has resulted in damage  to the nervous system
and thyroid gland.

Effects on the nervous system believed  to stem from
long-term exposure to cyanide include deafness, vision
problems, and loss of muscle coordination. Effects on
the thyroid gland can cause cretinism, or enlargement
and overactivity of the gland.
How might exposure to cyanide occur?

Exposure  to  cyanide  stems  from  environmental,
occupational, and consumer product sources.   The
single largest source of cyanide in the  air is vehicle
exhaust. Other sources of release to the air may include
emissions from chemical processing industries, steel and
iron industries, metal plating and finishing industries,
and  petroleum  refineries.   Cyanides   may also  be
released from municipal waste incinerators, from landfill
wastes,  and  during the  use  of cyanide-containing
pesticides. Cyanides are released when certain types of
plastics, silk, wool, and paper are burned. Smokers are
exposed to larger amounts of cyanide than nonsmokers.

The major sources of cyanide release  to water are
discharges from wastewater treatment works, iron and
steel production plants, and organic chemical industries.
Much smaller amounts of cyanide may enter  water
through storm-water runoff in locations where cyanide-
containing road  salts are used.  Groundwater can  be
contaminated by cyanide  from landfills as it passes
downward through  the  soil.   The largest sources  of
cyanide  releases to  soil are probably the disposal  of
cyanide  wastes in landfills and the use  of road salts.
Cyanide has been found in approximately 366 of the
1,300 sites on the National Priorities List  (NPL).
   How does cyanide get into the body?

   Cyanide can enter the body through inhaling air
   containing  hydrogen  cyanide  vapor or  dust
   containing cyanide compounds. This may be a
   common exposure route for individuals who work
   with the chemical, and for those who smoke. It is
   probably also an exposure route for those who
   live near industrial and commercial areas where
   large  amounts of  the compound  are used or
   disposed of at waste sites.  Cyanide can also enter
   the body through  ingestion of food or water
   tainted  with  cyanide.  Although   exposure  to
   cyanide through contact with the skin can occur,
   it is not common outside the workplace.

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Is there a medical test to identify cyanide
exposure?

Blood and urine levels of cyanide and thiocyanate, a
compound produced from cyanide, can be measured.
Because these compounds are always found in the body,
these measurements are only useful when exposure to
large amounts of cyanide has occurred.
What levels of exposure have resulted in
harmful health effects?

Inhalation of cyanide quickly causes harmful  health
effects.  Exposure at a level of 110 parts per million
(ppm) can cause death within 30 minutes.  The term
"parts  per  million"  is  a  way  of expressing the
concentration of a contaminant in a liquid or air. One
part per million is equal to one inch in a distance of
about  sixteen miles (or a  penny  in  ten  thousand
dollars), a very small amount. Levels of about 18 ppm
may cause headaches, weakness, and nausea. Animal
deaths have been reported at exposure levels ranging
from 20 ppm for 4.5 hours to 503 ppm for 5  minutes.

Only  limited,  long-term exposure information  is
available.  Nervous system effects have  been seen in
dogs exposed to hydrogen cyanide at 45 ppm  for 30
minutes a  day for up to 22 weeks.    Information
concerning health effects stemming from eating cyanide
is also limited.  Short-term  exposures resulting from
suicides and suicide  attempts have been  reported.
Ingcstion of very small amounts of cyanide has been
fatal.
What recommendations has the federal
government made to protect human health?

The government has made recommendations to protect
the general public from cyanide exposure in food and in
the workplace. Hydrogen cyanide is sometimes used to
treat food after it is harvested to prevent pest damage.
The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) permits
levels of cyanide in food ranging from 25 ppm in dried
beans, peas,  and nuts to 250 ppm in spices.   The
proposed  Maximum  Contaminant Level for  hydrogen
cyanide in drinking water is 0.2 ppm.
What are the methods of treatment and
disposal of cyanide?

The most widely used method for treating cyanides is
alkaline chlorination.  This process converts cyanide
solution  to less  toxic  cyanate.    Other  treatment
techniques   include   large-scale   outdoor  burning
(following   special   precautions);  ozonation;   and
decomposition to less toxic compounds through physical
or chemical processes.  Following  these treatments,
cyanide wastes are disposed of in a secured sanitary
landfill.
                  GLOSSARY

   Cretinism:  A congenital deficiency of the thyroid
   gland resulting In physical deformities and mental
   deficiencies*

   Exposure Route: The way in which people come
   into cdtttact witK a substance.  The main routes
   are ingestion, inhalation, and absorption through
   the skin.

  Maximum Contaminant Level: EPA evaluates the
   health risks associated' with various contaminant
   levels to ensure that public health is adequately
   protected.  The MCL,  as they are commonly
   known, is the maximum  allowable concentration
   of a specific contaminant in public drinking water.

   National Priorities  List  (NPL): "EPA'S  list of
   uncontrolled or abandoned hazardous waste sites
   identified for possible long-term clean-up under
   the Superfiind Program.
   For more information about cyanide, please
   contact EPA at the following address:

          U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
          ATTN: Superjund Hotline
          401M Street, S.W.
          Washington, D.C. 20460
          1-800-424-9346 or 1-800-535-0202
The Information contained in this fact sheet was compiled from the Toxicological Profile for Cyanide. Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease
Registry, U.S. Public Health Service, in collaboration with the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. This fact sheet focuses on the impact of hazardous
wastes on human health; however, EPA does evaluate these impacts on the environment, including plants and animals.

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                           EPA
                          1,1  Dichloroethene
                                                                                     June 1992
  What is 1,1-dichloroethene (DCE)?

  Dichloroethene (DCE), a man-made chemical
  also known as vinylidene  chloride,  is used to
  make certain plastic wraps and flame-retardant
  fabrics.  It  is  a clear, colorless  liquid  that
  evaporates quickly at room temperature and has
  a mild, sweet smell.

  DCE is also found as a  by-product of other
  chemicals. Although high amounts  of DCE in
  soil and water will  quickly escape into the air,
  small amounts will remain and are broken down.
  How long it will remain in soil and water is
  unknown.  DCE breaks down quickly in the air;
  releases into the atmosphere are estimated to be
  degraded by the sun in about two days.
How might exposure to DCE occur?

DCE may be released into the environment in the air
and water coming from factories where it is made, at
hazardous waste sites where it has been dumped, and
from accidental spills.

In addition to these high exposures, low-level exposures
may occur in the environment.  DCE is found in very
low amounts in indoor and outdoor air, estimated at
less than one part per trillion (ppt).  The term "parts
per trillion" is a way of expressing the concentration of
a contaminant in a liquid or air.  One part per trillion
is equal to  one  inch in a distance of about sixteen
million miles (or a penny in ten billion dollars), a very
small amount. Therefore, the potential for exposure in
the environment is extremely low.

The amount of DCE in the air near production sources
is unknown.  In air around waste sites, DCE amounts
range from 0.39 to 36.4 parts per billion (ppb). Levels
of DCE in  air around waste sites are usually much
lower than those that affect the health of laboratory
animals. DCE was found at approximately 16% of all
hazardous waste sites tested by the U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency (EPA) andjs found at approximately
432  of the 1,300  National Priorities List (NPL)
hazardous waste sites.
A small percentage (3%) of the drinking water sources in
the U.S. have been found to contain low amounts of DCE
(0.2-0.5 ppb). These amounts are very low when compared
with levels expected to affect human health.  Levels in
groundwater samples taken from hazardous waste sites
where DCE was found averaged 1.38 parts per million
(ppm).

How can DCE enter and leave the body?

DCE can easily enter the body through the lungs as an air
pollutant or through the digestive tract in contaminated
food or water.  DCE probably also enters the body through
the skin. This assumption is based on (1) its physical and
chemical properties, (2) the fact that similar chemicals are
known to  be  absorbed through the skin, and (3) the
occurrence of toxic effects in animals after DCE  was
applied to  their skin.  The most common means of DCE
exposure is breathing contaminated air.

Research  on  animals indicates  that within hours of
exposure, DCE begins to leave the body through the lungs.
DCE remaining in the body is broken down into other
substances  and removed through the kidneys within two
days. Low to moderate levels inhaled or ingested leave the
body mainly as breakdown products in the urine.  As the
levels of DCE exposure increase, more and more leaves the
body in exhaled breath. DCE is not stored in the body
following moderate exposure.
  How can DCE affect human health?
  The health effects of DCE on humans are unknown.
  In animal studies, high amounts of DCE have caused
  liver, kidney, heart, and lung damage; nervous system
  disorders; and death after short exposures.  Liver
  damage has also been seen in  cases of prolonged
  exposure.  The amount of damage depends on the
  level of exposure and the length of time exposed.
  Exposure by breathing DCE appears to be more
  harmful to animals than through food or water.

  Harmful effects on the developing fetus of pregnant
  animals which had inhaled this chemical have been
  seen. An increased risk of cancer has been shown in
  animals exposed to DCE.  EPA considers it to be a
  possible cancer-causing substance in humans.

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Is there a medical test to identify DCE
exposure?

DCE can be measured in the breath, blood, urine, and
body tissues of exposed individuals.  However, only
relatively high levels of DCE can be detected in body
tissues and fluids using currently available techniques.
Because breath samples are easily collected, tests of
exhaled air are now the most common way to identify
exposure to high levels of DCE. Other medical tests
can measure breakdown products of the chemical in the
blood and urine. Because DCE leaves the body fairly
quickly, these  methods are best for  identifying recent
exposures.  Measured levels in the body may not reflect
exposure to DCE  alone, since exposure  to DCE at
hazardous waste sites is likely to include exposure to
other  organic compounds  that  produce  similar
breakdown products.
What leveb of exposure have resulted in
harmful health effects?

Except for loss of breath, fainting, and nervous system
disorders like drunkenness that result from exposure to
high amounts of DCE in a closed space, there are few
medical reports which document ill health effects.

Animal studies indicate that the normal actions of the
liver, kidney, lungs, heart, and blood can be affected by
DCE exposure. Harmful effects begin to occur at levels
of 15 ppm following 5 days of exposure.  Animals
exposed to DCE levels of 98 ppm for 7 days have died.
Animals which had very large amounts of DCE placed
in their stomachs developed liver disease;  some died.
Those  fed  small amounts in drinking water over a
period of months to years also developed liver disease.
What recommendations has the federal
government made to protect human health?

Current EPA requirements limit DCE in drinking water
to 7 ppm and mandate the reporting of all  releases
exceeding 5,000 pounds.  Work is now underway by
EPA to measure the levels of DCE at abandoned waste
sites.
The Food and Drug Administration (FDA) regulates the
use of plastic packaging films. The FDA does not consider
the low levels of DCE found in  foods wrapped in these
films to be a health risk to the consumer.
What are the methods of treatment and disposal
of DCE?

DCE is classified as a flammable liquid hazardous waste.
Current disposal regulations require that DCE be dissolved
in combustible solvents and scatter-sprayed into a furnace
equipped  with an  afterburner  and alkaline  scrubber.
Significant revision of the criteria for land treatment and
burial is underway.
                   GLOSSARY

   Breakdown Products:    $fosf contaminants  are
   combinations of specific substances.  Contaminants
   are  degraded, or  separated, into  these  individual
   substances through chemical or physical means.
   National  Priorities List (NPL):   EPA%  list of
   uncontrolled or abandoned hazardous waste sites
   identified for possible long-term clean-up under the
   Superftmd Program.

   Toxic: Acting as a poisonous or hazardous substance;
   having poisonous or harmful qualities.
   For more information about DCE, please contact
   EPA at the following address:

           U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
           ATTN: Superfund Hotline
           401 M Street, S.W.
           Washingion, D.C. 20460
           1-800-424-9346  or 1-800-535-0202
The infonnition conuined in this fact sheet was compiled from the Toxicological Profile for Dichloroethene. Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry,
U.S. Public Health Service, in collaboration with the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, December, 1989. This fact sheet focuses on the impact of
hazardous wastes on human health; however, EPA does evaluate these impacts on the environment, including plants and animals.

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                              EPAF
                                                D/ax/n
                                                                                           June 1992
   What is dioxin?


   Chlorinated  dibenzo-p-dioxins  are  a  class  of
   compounds referred to as dioxins.  There are 75
   possible forms of dioxin.  One of these, containing
   four   chlorine  atoms,  is  called   2,3,7,8-
   tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (2,3,7,8-TCDD) and is the
   most toxic form of dioxin.  It is a colorless solid with
   no  known odor.   2,3,7,8-TCDD  does  not occur
   naturally,  nor  is it  intentionally manufactured by
   industry.
How might exposure to dioxin occur?

Important environmental sources of dioxin are the use of
herbicides;   in  wood  preservatives;   pulp  and  paper
manufacturing plants; incineration of municipal and certain
industrial wastes;  and  transformer  or capacitor  fires
involving chlorinated benzenes and biphenyls.

Although   2,4,5-T,   2,4,5-trichlorophenol   and
hexachlorophene are no  longer produced commercially
(except for certain medical purposes), disposal  sites of past
production wastes are sources of present exposure. 2,3,7,8-
TCDD has been found in at least 57 of the 1,300 hazardous
waste sites on the National Priorities List (NPL).

Very low levels have been detected  in air surrounding such
activities.  2,3,7,8-TCDD in drinking water has not  been
reported; the compound has not been detected in most rural
soils examined, but it can be present in trace  amounts in
urban soils.   It has  been detected  in fish caught  in
contaminated surface waters.  It has also been detected in
human milk, fat, and blood serum; however, the levels of
dioxin considered  to be  harmful have  not yet   been
determined.
How can dioxin affect human health?

Exposure  to  high  doses  of 2,3,7,8-TCDD  can  cause
chloracne, a severe skin lesion that usually occurs on the
head and upper body.  Chloracne is more disfiguring than
common  acne, and often  lasts for years  after the initial
exposure. There is suggestive evidence that 2,3,7,8-TCDD
may cause liver damage, as indicated by an increase in levels
of certain enzymes in the blood.
Although not demonstrated in humans, animal studies
involving high dioxin dosage levels have shown various
forms oftoxicity. Severe liver damage occurred in some
species. It may cause loss of appetite, weight loss, and
digestive disorders.  Animal exposure to the compound
has resulted in severe  loss  of body weight prior to
death.  Animal studies have also revealed that 2,3,7,8-
TCDD produces toxicity to the immune system. Some
animal species exposed during  pregnancy  have  had
offspring with deformities. Although detected in human
milk, the effects on infants and children are unknown.
Both the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)
and the International Agency for Research on Cancer
(IARC) have  concluded  that  2,3,7,8-TCDD causes
cancer in animals and  probably causes  cancer  in
humans.
   Is there a medical test to identify dioxin
   exposure?

   No  common  medical  test  is  available  to
   convincingly  demonstrate  exposure  to  2,3,7,8-
   TCDD. It is  believed that a blood test to detect
   certain enzymes indicating  liver damage may be
   helpful  in  determining  whether exposure has
   occurred; other substances, including alcoholic
   beverages, can produce similar results.

   Other tests are available that are not commonly
   conducted  by  doctors,  but  appear  to  more
   adequately  indicate dioxin  exposure.  One test
   consists of  analysis of a small piece of body fat
   removed by  a  simple surgical procedure.  In
   another recently developed test,  blood serum is
   analyzed for the presence of 2,3,7,8-TCDD. The
   initial study appears to indicate that the method
   is sensitive enough to detect extremely low levels.
   If the levels of 2,3,7,8-TCDD are  higher than the
   determined background range,  the test indicates
   probable above-average exposure, or exposure
   more recent than that of the comparison group.
   In  addition,   detection  of  2,3,7,8-TCDD  in
   mother's milk also indicates exposure; levels in
   the milk may provide some indication of whether
   exposure is due to background levels or additional
   exposure.

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How does dioxin enter the body?
The 2^,7,8-TCDD form of dioxin can be adsorbed
through the skin following contact with contaminated
materials such as soil.  Ingestion of 2,3,7,8-TCDD can
occur through consumption of contaminated  fish,
milk, foodstuffs, and soil. Breathing contaminated air
is also a source of exposure. This exposure route may
contribute very small  amounts to total body intake;
partlculatcs such  as  fly  ash from  municipal and
industrial incineration may also constitute a source of
exposure.    Intake   of  2,3,7,8-TCDD  from  the
consumption  of  drinking  water  is   considered
negligible,

What recommendations has the federal
government made to protect human health?

The EPA has calculated health advisories (HAs) for
23,7,8-TCDD in drinking water, that is, estimates of
containment levels below which adverse health effects
arc not expected.  The 1-day (of exposure) HA is 1
part per trillion (ppt), for a child; the 10-day HA is
0.1 ppt for a child. The longer-term HA is 0.01 ppt
for a child and 0.035 ppt for an adult; the lifetime HA
is also 0.035 ppt for adults.  These  are very small
amounts.  The term "parts per  trillion11 is a way of
expressing the concentration of a contaminant in a
liquid or air.  One part per trillion is equal to one
inch in a distance of about sixteen million miles (or a
penny in ten billion dollars). EPA has also performed
a risk assessment and found that the amount of 2,3,7,S-
TCDD in surface waters (lakes and rivers) that would
be associated with one additional incidence of cancer
in a population of 100,000 could be  as low as 0.13
parts per quadrillion (an extremely small amount),
based on the consumption of contaminated water or
fish.

What are the methods  of treatment and
disposal of dioxin?
Incineration at a minimum temperature of 800° to
 1,200°C  for at least 30- seconds can  destroy dioxin.
Stabilization of buried dioxin through the addition of
cement and asphalt materials; biological degradation
 (breaking down) with a  white rot  fungus;  and
ultraviolet destruction by light are other techniques
that may have application in the disposal of dioxin.
 Other proposed  methods  achieve stabilization  by
 placing a protective cap over the contaminated soil.
              GLOSSARY
                   **• "Cv^?4  V ^<- v ,w
Background Range:  'The concentration of any
substance whicn would normally fee found in an
area.    This  range is  used  as  a basis  of
comparison in Identifying contamination levels.

Exposure Route: Th'fway fn which people come
into contact with a substance, The main routes
are  Ingestion,  Inhalation,  and   absorption
through the skin,

Ffy Ash: Airborne bits of uabutnable dast of
fine" particles',  'usually   associated   with
combustion  of  fossil   fuels  or  incinerators.
Environmental regulations require that By ash
b& captured 1>y air pollution control devices.

National 'Priorities List  (NPL):  EfA'S tfst'of
uncontrolled  or  abandoned  hazardous waste
sites identified for possible long-term clean-up
under theSuperfund Program.

Risk Assessment:  An evaluation process' that
deiettttines the projected health effects caused
by exposure to a specific contaminant based on
(l) an evaluation  of  the characteristics and
concentration of the  contaminant* (2)  the
exposure pathways present, (3) the projected
incidence of human exposure, and  (4| toxicity
(poisonous) factors.

 Toxicity: The degree to which a substance acts
SB a poison.
 For more information about Dioxin, please
 contact EPA at the following address:

       U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
       ATTN: Superfund Hotline
       401M Street, S.W.
       Washington, D.C. 20460
       1-800-424-9346 or 1-800-535-0202
 The information contained in this fact sheet was compiled from the Toricological Profile for Dioxin. Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease
 Rcglitry, MS. Public Health Service, in collaboration with the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, June 1989.  This fact sheet focuses on the
 impact of hazardous wastes on human health; however, EPA does evaluate these impacts on the environment, including plants and animals.

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                             EPAF
                                     Ethyl
    enzene
                                                                                       June 1992
   What is ethyl benzene?

   Ethyl benzene is a colorless liquid that smells like
   gasoline.   It evaporates at room temperature and
   burns easily. Ethyl benzene occurs naturally in coal
   tar and petroleum. It is also found in many man-
   made products, including paints, inks, gasoline, and
   insecticides.
 How might exposure to ethyl benzene occur?

 Persons living near factories or heavily traveled highways
 may be exposed to ethyl benzene in the air.  Releases of
 ethyl benzene into these areas occur from burning oil, gas,
 and coal and from discharges of ethyl benzene from some
 factories.

 Exposure to ethyl benzene can also occur in the workplace.
 Gas and oil workers may be exposed either through contact
 with the skin or by  breathing  ethyl benzene vapors.
 Varnish workers, spray painters, and persons involved in
 gluing operations may  also be exposed to high levels of
 ethyl benzene. Exposure may occur in factories that use
 ethyl benzene to produce other chemicals.

 Many individuals  are exposed to small  doses of ethyl
 benzene in their daily lives. Gasoline is a common source.
 Other sources of ethyl benzene exposure stem from its use
 as a solvent in pesticides, carpet glues, varnishes and paints,
 and from the use of tobacco products.

 What levels of exposure have resulted in
 harmful health effects?

 No reliable data on the effects of ethyl benzene exposure
 after eating,  drinking,  or breathing  this chemical or
 following direct exposure to the skin are available. Animal
studies have documented eye damage and skin irritation in
rabbits as a result of exposure to liquid ethyl benzene.
Additional animal studies are  in progress at federal
research laboratories.
How can ethyl benzene enter and leave
the body?

Exposure via the lungs occurs when air containing
ethyl benzene vapor is inhaled.  Food and water
contaminated  with ethyl  benzene  can result in
exposure through the digestive tract. It may also be
absorbed through the skin  during  contact with
contaminated liquids.  Absorption of ethyl benzene
vapors  through the skin is not significant.  People
living in urban areas or in areas near hazardous
waste sites  may be  exposed by breathing air or
drinking water contaminated with ethyl benzene.

Once in the body, ethyl benzene is broken down into
other chemicals.   Most of it leaves in  the urine
within  two  days.   Small amounts can also leave
through the lungs and in bodily wastes. Liquid ethyl
benzene which enters  through  the  skin is also
broken down.
  How can ethyl benzene affect human
  health?

  Short-term exposure to low levels of ethyl
  benzene in the air for short periods of time
  has caused eye and throat irritation. Exposure
  to higher levels has caused more severe effects
  such as decreased movement and dizziness.
  No studies have reported fatalities following
  exposure to ethyl benzene. However, evidence
  from animal studies suggests that it can cause
  death at very high concentrations.  Short-term
  exposure  of  laboratory animals  to  high
  concentrations  of ethyl  benzene  in air may
  cause liver and kidney damage, nervous system
  changes, and changes in the blood.   Birth
  defects have occurred  in  newborn animals
  whose mothers were exposed by breathing air
  contaminated   with  ethyl  benzene.  The
  seriousness of these effects appears to increase
  with higher exposure levels.

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   Is there a medical  test to identify  ethyl
   benzene exposure?

   Ethyl benzene is found in the blood, urine, breath,
   and some body tissues of exposed individuals.  Urine
   is most commonly tested to identify exposure to ethyl
   benzene.    The test  measures  the  presence  of
   substances  formed  following  exposure  to   ethyl
   benzene.  Because these substances  leave the body
   very quickly, the test must be performed within a few
   hours of exposure.  Although this test can identify
   exposure  to ethyl benzene, it cannot yet be used to
   predict the kind of health effects that might develop
   as a result of that exposure.
What  are the methods  of treatment and
disposal of ethyl benzene?

Disposal methods for ethyl benzene are rotary kiln
incineration liquid injection incineration andfluidized
bed  incineration-   Ethyl  benzene  can  also  be
concentrated,  that  is, the waste volume  can  be
reduced,  through biological  treatment, chemical
precipitation,   air  and  steam stripping,  solvent
extraction, or  activated carbon treatment.  Each of
these  treatment forms  reduces  the  amount  of
contaminated  material which must then be disposed
of in a landfill.  Waste ethyl benzene solvents and
residues from the recovery of these solvents are
designated hazardous wastes and are subject to EPA
handling and recordkeeping requirements.
What recommendations has the federal
government made to protect human
health?

The Environmental Protection Agency's (EPA's) Maximum
Contaminant Level for ethyl benzene in drinking water
supplies is 0.7 parts per million (ppm).  The Maximum
Contaminant Level is the highest acceptable concentration
of a specific contaminant in drinking water.  The term
"parts per million* is a way of expressing the concentration
of a contaminant in a liquid or air.  One part per million
is equal to one inch in a distance of about sixteen miles (or
a penny  in ten thousand  dollars), a very small  amount.
This value is for lifetime exposure and is not expected to
increase the risk of (noncancer) health effects. EPA also
recommends that no fish or water from a body  of water
containing more than 1.4 ppm ethyl benzene be ingested.
EPA requires that releases  of 1,000 pounds or  more of
ethyl benzene be reported to the National Response Center
in Washington, D.C.
   For more information about Ethyl Benzene, please
   contact EPA at the following address:

            U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
            ATTN: Superfund Hotline
            401 M Street, S.W.
            Washington, D.C. 20460
            l-tSOO-424-9346 or  1-800-535-0202
                 GLOSSARY

   Chemical  Precipitation:  ,   Application   of
   chemicals or heat to a liquid waste solution
   containing slightly soluble contaminants  fo
   cause contaminants to become insoluble and
   "settle out"'of solution.   Settled solids can
   then be collected for proper disposal,
   Fluidized  Bed  Incineration:   A' treatment'
   'process that destroys solid and liquid wastes
   using recycled gases to produce temperatures'
   of1600°K
    Liquid  Injection Incineration:  A treatment
    process which uses  high  temperatures  to
    destroy liquid and gas wastes In which the
    wastes  are  sprayed  {atomized  through  a
    nozzle) into a combustion chamber heated to
    between t3QO°F and 3000°F.
    Rotary Kiln Incineration:  A treatment process
    which uses high temperatures to destroy solid
    and liquid wastes using a two*step process.
    Wastes are first treated in a rotating chamber
    at a.600M3QO°F> then fed to a second chamber
    with temperatures of 2400°R
The information in this fact sheet was compiled from the Toxicological Profile for Ethyl Benzene. Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry,
US. Public Health Service, in collaboration with the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, December, 1990.  This fact sheet focuses on the impact
Of hazardous wastes on human health; however, EPA does evaluate these impacts on the environment, including plants and animals.

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                                 EPA  Fact
                 pROt^
                                                                                            June 1992
   What is lead?

   Lead is a bluish-gray metal which occurs naturally
   throughout the  environment.    Lead  and  its
   compounds are found in plants and animals used
   for food, and in air, drinking water, surface waters,
   and soil.

   Lead is mined from ore deposits or salvaged from
   recycled scrap metal. It is used in a wide range of
   products; the  main use is in  the manufacture of
   storage batteries.  Other uses are the production of
   chemicals,  including  paint,  gasoline  additives,
   ammunition and  various  metal  products (for
   example, sheet lead, solder, and pipe).
How can lead  and  its compounds affect human
health?

Lead exposure is especially dangerous for unborn children
because their bodies can be harmed while they are being
formed. Exposure of the mother during pregnancy can cause
premature birth,  low birth weight,  or  even  miscarriage.
Young children are also at an increased risk because more of
the lead ingested into their bodies is absorbed and they are
more sensitive than adults to its effects.  Lead exposure in
infants and young  children  has been shown to  decrease IQ
scores, retard physical growth, and cause  hearing problems.
These health effects  can occur at exposure  levels  once
thought to be safe.

A link between lead exposure and cancer in humans has not
been demonstrated. However, because laboratory animals fed
lead throughout their lives have  developed tumors,  lead
should be considered a possible cancer-causing substance in
humans.

Exposure to high levels  of lead can cause severe brain and
kidney damage. Lead exposure may increase blood pressure
in middle-aged men; high levels may also affect the  male
reproductive system.
Is there a medical test to identify lead exposure?

Lead exposure can be identified by measuring the amount of
a substance called erythrocyte protoporphyrin (EP) present
in red blood  cells.  The amount of EP is high when the
amount  of lead in the blood is high.  However, there are
problems associated  with  this technique.  Unless the lead
levels are extremely high, EP levels may be within what are
considered normal limits.  In addition, other diseases which
affect the red blood cells, such as some types of anemia, can
cause high EP levels.  Exposure can also be identified by
using x-ray techniques to measure the amount of lead present
in bone and teeth. However, this test is not commonly used.
   How does lead enter the body?

   Lead exposure stems primarily  from contact  with
   contaminated dust or water.  Lead present in the air
   attaches  to  dust.  Dust contaminated with lead is
   removed from the air by rain. Lead can remain in the
   soils where it is deposited for many years,  however,
   heavy rainfall can  cause lead contaminated soil to
   move into both groundwater and surface waters.  Lead
   and  lead compounds  have been found at 853 of
   approximately 1,300 sites on the National Priorities
   List of hazardous waste sites in the U.S.

   Lead  can enter  the body through inhalation of air
   contaminated  with  lead  particles  or  dust which
   contains lead. Nearly all lead entering the lungs moves
   to the blood and then  to other parts of the body. In
   adults, very little of the  amount  of lead  ingested in
   food, beverages, water, and dust enters the blood from
   the intestinal tract.  However, when children swallow
   food or soil containing lead, much more  of the lead
   enters their blood and moves to other parts of the
   body.  Relatively small  amounts of lead enter the body
   through the skin.

   Regardless of the route by which lead enters the body,
   most is stored in bone.  Since additional lead is stored
   with each new exposure, the level in bones and  teeth
   increases with age. Lead that is not stored in the body
   is removed in bodily wastes.

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  What recommendations has the federal
  government made to protect human health?

  The Centers for Disease Control (CDC) recommends
  that screening for lead poisoning be included in health
  care programs for children, especially those between
  the ages of 6 months and 9 years.

  The CDC recommends immediate medical treatment
  for children found to have blood lead levels of 250
  parts per billion (ppb) or greater. The term "parts per
  billion" is a way of expressing the concentration of a
  contaminant in a liquid or  air. One part per billion is
  equal to one  inch  in a  distance of  about  sixteen
  thousand miles (or a penny in ten  million dollars), a
  very small amount.  There is now concern that levels
  as low as 100 to 150 ppb might be harmful to children,
  and because of this, the  CDC is  reviewing  current
  screening criteria.

  The  Consumer Product Safety  Commission (CPSC)
  does not permit lead content in most paints to be
  above 0.06%.   The CPSC suggests  that all painted
  surfaces in homes be tested for lead. Paint which is
  found  to  contain high  levels of lead should  be
  removed.

  The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) prohibits
  lead  levels in drinking water above 15 ppb of lead in
  water.  EPA suggests that public water systems treat
  their water to decrease contamination from plumbing
  (pipes, solder, etc.) if the level of lead in tap water that
  has been standing overnight exceeds 15 ppb. Drinking
  water in schools must be tested for  lead and provision
  made for its removal if lead levels exceed allowable
  limits.
How might exposure to lead occur?

Lead exposure can result from inhaling air, drinking water,
or ingesting foods or soil that contain lead.  Inhaling air
containing  lead-contaminated   dust   or  ingesting  lead-
contaminated soil, both of which may be found at hazardous
waste sites or near areas with heavy automobile traffic, are
also exposure sources.  Children may be exposed to lead by
swallowing such  non-food items as chips of paint which
contain lead.
Until recently, the largest single source of lead in air was
vehicle exhaust.  Other sources of release to the air include
emissions  from  iron  and   steel  production,  smelting
operations,  municipal waste  incinerators,  and  lead-acid
battery manufacturers. Cigarette smoke is also a source of
lead.

The major  sources  of lead  released to water are lead
plumbing and solder in houses, schools, and public buildings;
lead-contaminated dust and soil carried into water by rain
and wind; and wastewater from industries that use lead.

Lead can be released to the  soil  from lead-contaminated
wastes in municipal and hazardous waste landfills, and from
fertilizers that contain sewerage sludge.   Plants can absorb
lead from  contaminated soil, and as a result, food and
beverages may contain lead.
What is the method of treatment and disposal of
lead?

The primary method of disposing of lead is recycling; an
estimated 70-75 percent of the lead produced in the U.S. is
considered  recyclable.    Certain  uses  of  lead preclude
recycling, for example, lead  used  in  gasoline.  Over 90
percent of the lead used in manufacturing lead-acid storage
batteries is recycled; 50 percent of the lead requirements are
met by recycled lead, mostly from lead batteries.

A substantial amount of lead is disposed of in municipal and
hazardous waste landfills.  Lead is commonly disposed of as
lead-containing waste  products  such as storage batteries,
ammunition waste, sheet lead, solder, pipes, lead-based
paints, and  solid waste from  lead mining and mineral ore
processing.
   For more information about Lead, please contact EPA
   at the following address:

           U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
           ATTN: Superfund Hotline
           401 M Street, S.W.
           Washington, D.C. 20460
           1-800-424-9346  or 1-800-535-0202
The Information contained in this fact sheet was compiled from the lexicological Profile for Lead. Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry, U.S.
Public Health Service, in collaboration with the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, June, 1990. This fact sheet focuses on the impact of hazardous wastes
on human health; however, EPA does evaluate these impacts on the environment, including plants and animals, impacts on the environment, including plants and
animals.

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                            EPA   Fact
                                       Mercury
                                                                                     June 1992
   What is mercury?

   Mercury is a naturally occurring element found in
   several forms.  One form, used in thermometers, is
   called "metallic mercury".  Mercury is also used in
   barometers, and  in other  common  consumer
   products.   Mercury can combine  with other
   chemicals such as chlorine, carbon, or  oxygen to
   form  either   "inorganic"   Or  "organic"  mercury
   compounds. Mercury is unusual in that one form of
   organic   mercury,   called  methylmercury,  can
   accumulate in certain fish.  As a result, rather low
   levels of mercury in bodies of water can significantly
   contaminate these fish.

   Mercury released into the environment will persist
   for a long time. It can change between organic and
   inorganic forms. For example, some or all released
   organic mercury will slowly break down to become
   inorganic mercury. Some released inorganic mercury
   will also slowly be changed into organic mercury
   (specifically, methylmercury) in soil and water by
   reaction with substances produced by microorganisms
   and various chemical processes.
How might exposure to mercury occur?

Air  usually  contains  mercury in  concentrations of
approximately 2.4 parts per trillion (ppt). The term "parts
per trillion" is a way of expressing the concentration of a
contaminant in a liquid or air.  One part per trillion is
equal to one inch in a distance of about sixteen million
miles (or a penny in ten billion dollars), a  very small
amount. Levels near certain industries (such as mercury
mines and refineries) can be nearly 1,800 ppt. Mercury
levels in water samples taken from Super/and sites
(including both National Priorities List (NPL) and non-
NPL sites) were about 200 ppt.  Levels greater than 500
ppt have been found in some drinking water wells tested
during groundwater surveys.

People who eat large amounts of fish, such as tuna and
swordfish,  may be exposed to  high  levels of mercury
because  these fish can contain high  levels of organic
mercury. Environmental exposure can result from contact
with water and air  near spills and  toxic waste sites
contaminated with mercury.  Mercury is found at above
normal background levels at approximately 568 of 1,300
NPL sites.
How can mercury enter the body?

Mercury can easily enter the body if its vapor js
inhaled or if fish or other foods contaminated with
mercury are ingested.  Mercury may also enter  the
body directly through the skin.  Exposure to above-
normal levels of mercury at NPL sites may result
from drinking water contaminated with inorganic
mercury salts.   Some  sites  may  have such high
amounts of mercury in the soil or in containers, that
breathing mercury metallic vapor may be a problem.
Once  mercury has entered  the  body, it may be
months before all of it leaves.  It is  largely eliminated
from the body in wastes.

Is there a medical test to identity mercury
exposure?

There are reliable, accurate, and easily available ways
to measure mercury levels  in the body.  Blood or
urine samples can be taken in a doctor's office and
tested in a laboratory using special equipment.
   How can mercury affect human health?

   Long-term  exposure to either  organic  or
   inorganic mercury can permanently damage the
   brain, kidneys, and developing fetuses.  The
   form of mercury and the method of exposure
   determine which of these health effects will be
   more severe.  For example, organic mercury
   that is eaten in contaminated fish or grain may
   cause greater harm to the brain and developing
   fetuses than to the kidneys; inhaled metallic
   mercury vapor may cause greater  harm to the
   brain; and  inorganic mercury salts that  are
   ingested  may  cause  greater harm  to  the
   kidneys.  Thus, maternal exposure to organic
   mercury may lead to brain damage in fetuses;
   adults exposed to metallic mercury vapor may
   develop shakiness (tremors), memory loss, and
   kidney disease.

   Short-term exposure to high levels of inorganic
   and organic mercury will have similar health
   effects.  However, full recovery is more likely
   after short-term exposure.  Mercury has  not
   been shown to cause cancer in humans.

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   What levels of exposure have resulted
   in harmful health effects?

   An exact exposure level cannot be determined
   for some known health effects. For example,
   eating fish  or grain contaminated  with high
   levels  of organic mercury can  cause brain
   damage,  especially  in  developing  infants.
   However, an estimate of  the exact level  of
   mercury that would cause this effect cannot be
   determined because the amount of mercury in
   food, and  the amount of  contaminated food
   eaten, is unknown.   In addition,  long-term
            of high levels of mercury vapor can
   cause brain damage.
What recommendations has the federal
government made to protect human health?

The Environmental Protection  Agency (EPA) has
limited the level of inorganic mercury in rivers, lakes,
and streams to 144 parts per billion  (ppb).  EPA
requires the reporting of all releases of more than
one pound of mercury metal into the  environment.
The Food and Drug Administration limits levels of
mercury in bottled water to no more than 2 ppb.
How are mercury releases controlled?

Current federal guidelines limit  air  emissions of
mercury  generated by  incinerators  or drying of
wastcwater sludge.  Spills which do occur must be
cleared with a special vacuum cleaner and washed
with dilute calcium sulfide solution. Small quantities
can be gathered by mixing the spilled  mercury with
copper metal granules.
   For more information about Mercury, please
   contact EPA at the following address:

      U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
      ATTN: Superfund Hotline
      401M Street, S.W.
      Washington, D.C. 20460
      l-SOO-424-9346 or 1-800-535-0202
                 GLOSSARY

Background  Levels:   The concentration of  any
substance which would normally be found in an area.
This level  is  used as a  basis of comparison In
identifying contamination levels.

Element: All substances are made up of elements,
which are the i>asie components,  or  parts,  of all
materials. Elements cannot be separated or broken
down into smaller tmKs by ordinary chemical means.

Groiindwater: Water found below the surface* usually
in sands or a rock formation. Much of our domestic
water Supply is drawn from groundwatet wells.

Inhalation: To draw air, vapor, etc. into the lungs; to
breathe.

Inorganic:  A. compound  which does not contain
carbon and is derived from mineral sources.  Metals
are inorganic compounds,

Microorganisms: Microscopic animal or plant  life;
particularly any of the bacteria, protozoans, viruses,
etc.
National Priorities List:  BPA'S list of uncontrolled Ot
abandoned  hazardous  waste  sites identified for
possible  long-term  remedial  action  under  the
Superfund Program.
 Organic: A compound which contains carbon and is
 derived from animal ot plant sources.

 Superfund Program:  The program operated under the
 legislative   authority   of   the   Comprehensive
 Environmental  Response,   Compensation   and
 Liability Act of 1980 (CERCLA), as amended by the
 Superfund Amendments and Reauthorization Act of
 1986  (SARA) that funds the EPA  solid waste
 emergency  and  long-term removal and remedial
 activities.

 "Toxic: Acting as a poisonous or hazardous substance]
 having poisonous or harmful qualities.

 Vapor: Gaseous form of a substance which can be
 carried in the air and may expose individuals through
 Inhalation,
The information contained in this fact sheet was compiled from the Toxicological Profile for Mercury. Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease
Rcglsuy, U.S. Public Health Service, in collaboration with the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, December, 1989. This fact sheet focuses on
the Impact of hazardous wastes on human health; however, EPA does evaluate these impacts on the environment, including plants and animals.

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                            EPA  Fact
      m  w^^^^^ -^  >•       ^^^^                  ^K»-,S» -^K^ ^»-^ns^   H   vtBn«ir ^BW ^BPIM ^
      \«/     Methylene  Chloride
                                                                                    June 1992
   What Is methylene chloride?


   Methylene chloride, also called dichloromethane,
   is an organic solvent that looks like water, has a
   mild sweet odor, and evaporates very quickly. It
   is widely used as an  industrial solvent and as a
   paint stripper.  It is also a component in certain
   aerosol and pesticide products, and is used in the
   manufacture of photographic film.
How does methylene chloride affect human
health?

High levels of methylene chloride in air (above 500
parts per million [ppm]) can irritate the eyes, nose, and
throat.  The term "parts per million"  is a way of
expressing the concentration  of a contaminant in a
liquid or air. One part per million is equal to one inch
in a distance of about sixteen miles (or a penny in ten
thousand  dollars),  a very small  amount.   If this
substance gets on the skin, it usually evaporates quickly
and causes only mild irritation.  However, methylene
chloride can be trapped against the skin by gloves,
shoes, or clothes and can cause a burn. If it comes into
contact with the eyes, a severe  (but temporary) eye
irritation may result.

Methylene chloride can affect the central nervous system.
If it is inhaled at levels above 500 ppm, effects much
like those produced by alcohol, including sluggishness,
irritability, lightheadedness, nausea, and headaches may
result.    Some effects   have  been  observed  at
concentrations  as low as  300 ppm.  These symptoms
usually disappear quite rapidly once exposure ceases.

Some  of  the effects  of  methylene chloride  on the
nervous system may be due to the breakdown of this
compound to   carbon  monoxide   (CO).   Carbon
monoxide interferes with the blood's ability to  carry
oxygen to the tissues and causes symptoms similar to
the narcotic effects previously described. Since smoking
increases the amount of CO in the blood, smokers may
experience effects on the nervous system at lower levels
of exposure to methylene chloride than do non-smokers.
Animal  studies  suggest  that frequent  or  lengthy
exposures to methylene chloride can cause changes in
the liver and kidneys. In certain laboratory experiments,
animals exposed  to high concentrations of methylene
chloride throughout their lifetime developed cancer.
Methylene chloride has not been shown to cause cancer
in humans exposed at occupational levels; however, it
should be  treated  as a potential  cancer-causing
substance.

Is there a medical test to identify exposure to
methylene chloride?

Several methods exist for determining whether a person
has  been  exposed  to methylene  chloride.    The
compound can be measured in the breath to determine
recent exposure;  the amount of the chemical detected
will reflect the amount  inhaled. The urine can also be
analyzed by monitoring for methylene chloride itself or
for some intermediate products (such as formic acid) .
Blood can be analyzed to determine possible methylene
chloride  exposure  by  monitoring  blood levels  of
carboxyhemoglobin (CO-Hb). Carbon monoxide formed
in the blood through  the breakdown of methylene
chloride readily binds with the hemoglobin to form CO-
Hb.  Thus, excessive levels of CO-Hb in the blood can
be an indication of exposure to high concentrations of
methylene chloride.
  How can methylene chloride enter the
  body?

  Methylene chloride may enter the body when it is
  inhaled  or  ingested.   No data  are currently
  available on the absorption of methylene chloride
  through the skin. Since it vaporizes very quickly,
  the primary route of exposure is inhalation. Once
  methylene chloride enters the body, it is absorbed
  through   body  membranes   (e.g.,   stomach,
  intestines, and  lungs)  and quickly enters the
  bloodstream.

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What are the methods of treatment and
disposal of methylene chloride?

Methylene  chloride wastes  may be disposed of by
controlled incineration, a high temperature combustion
process used to  destroy hazardous wastes.   In  1988,
about  11,500  tons  of  methylene  chloride  were
transferred  to landfills or other treatment  facilities;
1,300 tons were sent to publicly-owned treatment works.
Methylene chloride has been found  in at least 311 of
the approximately 1,300 National Priorities List (NPL)
sites.
                  OLOSSAEY

   Central Nervous System: The group of nerve cells
   arid  tissues, iacludittg the brain,,  spinal cord,
   ganglia, nerves, and nerve centers which control
   and coordinate all bodily functions.

   Intermediate Products: "Those materials produced
   by the breakdown or degradation of substances in
   the body which can indicate the presence and
                of the original substance.
What levels of exposure have resulted in
harmful health effects?

In case studies  involving people, the primary health
effects are  on  the central  nervous system.   Short
exposures to concentrations of 500 ppm and above result
in chemical intoxication, fatigue, and irritability.  One
study reported a slight effect on sensory function at 300
ppm for 4 hours.   At  concentrations of 500 ppm and
above, methylene chloride also irritates  the  nose and
throat.

Rats have developed changes in liver cells following long-
term ingestion of methylene chloride in drinking water.
However, based on animal and human studies, it appears
unlikely that this compound will cause serious liver effects
in humans unless exposure is very high.

Methylene  chloride is  not known to cause  cancer in
humans, but based on animal studies, the Environmental
Protection  Agency (EPA)  believes  that  it  has the
potential to cause cancer in humans. Exposures should,
therefore, be avoided or,  when unavoidable,  kept to a
minimum.

How might exposure to methylene chloride
occur?

The highest exposures to methylene chloride usually
occur in workplaces where this solvent is used or from
contact with consumer products that contain it. Exposure
to the solvent in outdoor air and water is generally low.
Hobby and household  use of paint-stripping chemicals
and aerosol products containing methylene chloride are
major sources of exposure.  Exposure occurs as a  result
of breathing vapors given off by the product or from
direct contact with the skin. Special efforts  should be
taken to  follow  label  directions which  recommend
working in a well-ventilated area when using products
containing methylene chloride.

What recommendations has  the federal
government made to protect human health?

EPA has provided guidelines concerning the amounts of
methylene chloride which  may cause  risk to human
health.  The Agency  recommends that exposure  to
methylene chloride in  water not exceed 10 ppm for
children for 1 day or 2 ppm for 10 days.  The Food and
Drug Administration (FDA) has established limits on the
amounts of methylene chloride present in spice, hops
extract, and decaffeinated coffee.

The Information contained In this fact sheet was compiled from the Toxicological Profile for Methvlene Chloride. Agency for Toxic Substances and
Disease Registry, US. Public Health Service, in collaboration with the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, April, 1989. This fact sheet focuses on
Ac impact of hazardous wooes on human health; however, EPA  does evaluate these impacts on the environment, including plants and animals.
                       »
   National Priorities List (NPL):  EPA'S list of
   imcontKJlled of abandoned hazardous waste sites
   Identified for possible long-term clean-up under
   the Superfuftd Program.

   Organic Solvent: A jarboji compound, usually a
   liquid, that can dissolve other substances.
   For more information about Methylene Chloride,
   please contact EPA at the following address:

           U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
           ATTN: Superfund Hotline
           401 M Street, S.W.
           Washington, D.C. 20460
           1-800-424-9346  or 1-800-535-0202

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                             EPAF
                                              Nickel
                                                                                       June 1992
   What is nickel?

   Nickel is a naturally-occurring silvery metal. Nickel
   and its compounds can be detected throughout the
   environment in plants and animals used for human
   consumption, air, drinking water,  rivers, lakes,
   oceans, and soil.  Nickel used by industry comes
   from mined ores or recycled scrap metal. It is used
   primarily in making various steels and alloys, and in
   electroplating.  Minor applications include use in
   ceramics, permanent magnets, and nickel-cadmium
   batteries.
 How does nickel enter the body?

 Because nickel occurs naturally in most foods, the highest
 level of exposure to nickel usually comes from our diet.
 Nickel is found in fruits, vegetables, grains, seafood, and
 in human and cow's milk.

 The intake of nickel or its compounds by the ingestion of
 drinking  water is  typically less than through the  diet;
 however, ingestion of nickel in drinking  water can be
 increased significantly by the consumption of water from
 plumbing or faucets that contain nickel.

 Nickel can  also enter the body through  inhalation of
 nickel  dust or particles containing  nickel compounds.
 Compared to oral intake, the typical amount of nickel
 inhaled is small.  The amount of nickel entering the
 blood from the lungs, or remaining in the lungs, depends
 on the location in the lungs where the nickel has been
 deposited and on the properties of the nickel compound
 (for example, particle size and ability to dissolve in body
 fluids).   Breathing tobacco  smoke can  significantly
 increase the amount of nickel inhaled.

 Some nickel compounds, for example, nickel chloride, can
 penetrate skin, especially if the skin  has been damaged.
 Skin exposures stem predominantly from nickel metal
 found in  jewelry, coins, zippers, and cooking utensils.
 Nickel  metal  does not  readily  penetrate  the  skin,
 therefore, only those persons with skin allergies to nickel
should be concerned with skin exposures to nickel metal.
Is there a medical test to identity nickel
exposure?

The amount of nickel in the urine and blood can
be measured. Although increased nickel levels in
urine and blood have been noted in persons
exposed  to  nickel  compounds  at  work,
information about the level in urine and blood
cannot be used to identify the exposure levels.
Similarly, information concerning the severity
and  length of  exposure to  nickel does  not
provide information about the levels that might
then be found in the blood or urine.
   How  might  exposure  to  nickel
   occur?

   Exposure to nickel and its compounds can
   result   from  breathing  air,  ingesting
   drinking water and  foods  that  contain
   nickel or  nickel  compounds,  and skin
   contact with a wide range of consumer
   products. Segments of the population that
   may be exposed to higher levels of nickel
   include people whose diets contain foods
   naturally   high   in  nickel,   who  are
   occupationally exposed to nickel, those
   living in the vicinity of a nickel processing
   facility, and people who smoke tobacco.

   The single largest nickel source in the
   atmosphere is fuel oil combustion.  Other
   sources include atmospheric emissions from
   mining and refining operations, emissions
   from  municipal waste incineration, and
  windblown dust. Sources of nickel in water
   and soil include stormwater runoff, soil to
  which municipal sewage sludge has  been
  added, wastewater from municipal sewage
  treatment  plants,  and groundwater  near
  landfill sites.

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  What levels of exposure have resulted in
  harmful health effects?

  Insufficient information is available to determine
  the levels at which nickel may cause health effects
  following skin contact.  Based on what is known,
  the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has
  estimated  that lifetime exposure to 1  part  per
  trillion (ppt) of nickel refinery dust in air could
  result in  24  additional  cases  of cancer in a
  population of 100,000 people.  The term  "parts
  per   trillion"   is  a way  of  expressing  the
  concentration of a contaminant in a liquid or air.
  One part per trillion is equal to one inch hi a
  distance of about sixteen  million miles  (or a
  penny in ten billion dollars), a very small amount.
  Lifetime exposure to 1 ppt of nickel subsulfide in
  air could cause 48 additional cases of cancer in a
  population of 100,000.   The major sources of
  nickel refinery  dust and  nickel  subsulfide  are
  nickel refineries.  Because  there  are no  nickel
  refineries operating in the United States,  actual
  exposure of the  general  population  to  nickel
  refinery dust and nickel subsulfide is expected to
  be very low.
How can nickel affect human health?
The most common adverse effects of nickel exposure
are skin allergies. Surveys indicate that 2.5 to 5.0% of
the general population may be sensitive to nickel. For
pepple not sensitive to nickel, normal long-term oral,
inhalation, and skin exposures to low  levels of nickel
have not been associated with adverse health effects.
Adverse effects have been caused by inhalation of nickel
compounds in  the workplace.   Asthma  has been
reported in nickel platers exposed to nickel sulfate, and
in  welders  exposed to  nickel  oxides.   Inhalation
exposure  of workers  to  nickel  refinery dust which
contains  nickel subsulfide has resulted in increased
numbers of deaths from lung and nasal cavity cancers,
and possibly  cancer of.  the  voice box.   However,
occupational exposure to nickel  metal has not been
associated with cancer.

Animal studies  have  shown that  inhaling  nickel
compounds can increase susceptibility to respiratory
infection,  indicating that this effect may also  be of
concern for humans. These studies reveal that exposure
to  high  levels of  some  nickel  compounds  during
pregnancy   can   cause   miscarriages,   pregnancy
complications, and low birth weight in newborns.There
are no data regarding birth defects in humans due to
nickel or its compounds. Additional effects that have
been observed in animals exposed to nickel compounds
include those on the kidneys, blood, and growth.

What are the methods of treatment and
disposal for nickel?

Nickel products to be disposed of should be routed to
a metal salvage facility for profitable reuse or sale as
scrap.   Methods  for disposing of  nickel-containing
sludge are landspreading, landfilling, incineration, and
ocean disposal.

What recommendations has the federal
government made to protect  human health?

For drinking  water exposure, EPA advises  that the
following exposure concentrations  of nickel are levels
below which adverse effects would not be expected: 3.5
parts per million (ppm) of nickel in water for 10 days of
exposure, and 0.1  ppm of nickel in water for lifetime
exposure. These exposure concentrations are for adults;
those for children and sensitive individuals would be
slightly lower.
                  GLOSSARY
   Emissions: Release of discharge of fumes, dust,
   or partlculates into the air.
   Landspreading:   A disposal technique in which
   liquid or solid contaminated materials are applied
   to  the  surface of the ground.   Sunlight  and
   bacterial   action  then   break  down  the
   eoataminajtits. Landspreadjtagfe one alternative to
   landfilling.

   Sludge:  A" seatl-soljd waste product generated
        air or water treatment processes.
   For  more information  about  Nickel,  please
   contact EPA at the following address:

         U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
         ATTN: Superfund Hotline
         401 M Street, S.W.
         Washington, D.C. 20460
         1-800-424-9346 or  1-800-535-0202
The Information contained in this fact sheet was compiled from the Toxicoloeical Profile for Nickel and Its Compounds. Agency for Toxic Substances
and Disease Registry, U.S. Public Health Service, in collaboration with the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, December, 1988.  This fact sheet
focuses of the impact of hazardous wastes on human health; however, EPA does evaluate these impacts on the environment, including plants and animals.

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*•
         "
          PRCrt^
                         EPA   Faets  About
                          P-Dichlorobenzene
                                                                               June 1992
   What is p-dichlorobenzene?

   The  compound  1,4-dichlorobenzene  (p-
   DCB) is most commonly referred to as para-
   DCB or p-DCB,  but  approximately 20
   additional terms are used for this chemical.
   Some of these names include Paramoth, para
   crystals,  and  paracide,  reflecting  its
   widespread use as a moth killer. It is also
   used to make deodorant blocks used in
   restrooms.

   At room temperature, p-DCB is a colorless
   solid with a characteristic penetrating odor.
   When exposed to air, it is slowly transformed
   from its solid state into a vapor; the released
   vapor then acts as a deodorizer and insect
   killer.

   p-DCB enters the environment primarily as
   a   result  of  releases  during   use.
   Manufacturing  accounts  for  only
   approximately  1.5% of the environmental
   releases. There are no natural sources of p-
   DCB.
How might exposure to p-DCB occur?

Dichlorobenzene is released to the environment
during its manufacture and use. Heavily populated
or industrialized areas tend  to have the highest
concentrations  of p-DCB in air and  in water,
including surface water, groundwater, and drinking
water.

Exposure to p-DCB is most likely to occur during
its manufacture or processing, in the vicinity of
industrial areas where it is produced, and  near
chemical waste disposal sites due to local air or
water contamination.  In addition, consumers are
exposed  to  p-DCB  through  commonly  used
household products, such   as  mothballs  and
deodorant blocks used in public and household
bathrooms. As a result, individuals can be exposed
to p-DCB in the air, via drinking water, or from
handling products containing p-DCB.
                                      How does p-dichlorobenzene get into the
                                      body?

                                      The major route of p-DCB entry into  the body is
                                      through the lungs.  This compound can also enter the
                                      body in drinking water, and has been found in drinking
                                      water in various locations throughout the U.S.  It may
                                      also enter the body through the skin during contact with
                                      products containing p-DCB.

                                      Is there a medical test to identity
                                      p-dichlorobenzene exposure?

                                      A urine test can identify exposure to p-DCB and can
                                      give an estimate of the exposure level.  A specific
                                      compound (2,5-dichlorophenol) is produced in the body
                                      following  exposure  to  p-DCB.   Detection of this
                                      chemical in the urine will indicate exposure to p-DCB
                                      within the past day or two.  The amount of p-DCB in
                                      urine is also an indicator of the level present in the air
                                      when inhalation is the exposure route.
                                        How can p-dichlorobenzene affect human
                                        health?

                                        There is no evidence suggesting that brief low-
                                        level or moderate-level exposures to  household
                                        products containing p-DCB cause human health
                                        problems.  Higher p-DCB levels in air, such as
                                        the levels that are sometimes associated with
                                        industrial exposure, can cause headaches and
                                        dizziness. Levels that would result in death would
                                        be associated  with an odor so intense that it
                                        would be very unpleasant, if not intolerable, and
                                        would serve as a warning.

                                        Inhalation or ingestion of p-DCB has caused toxic
                                        effects in the  liver and kidney of  laboratory
                                        animals.  Although there is no evidence that p-
                                        DCB can cause cancer in  humans,  laboratory
                                        animals treated with p-DCB in lifetime studies
                                        had increased rates of cancer.  Based on  the
                                        results of these animal studies, the potential for
                                        p-DCB to cause cancer in humans  does exist.
                                        Animal studies also suggest that p-DCB exposure
                                        can result in birth defects.

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How are p-dichlorobenzene wastes
handled?

Production of p-DCB generates wastes residues
such as sludge, a thick semi-solid material.  These
are mainly disposed of in landfills. p-DCB wastes
are also discharged to surface waters. Because p-
DCB sublimes at room temperature, some of this
waste may also reach the air. Small amounts of p-
DCB also enters the atmosphere from hazardous
waste disposal sites.
What levels of exposure to p-DCB have
resulted in harmful health effects?

Although there  have been  several  reports  of
harmful effects in humans exposed to p-DCB, most
information concerning p-DCB exposure is based
on animal studies.  For example,  below normal
weight gain has been observed in pregnant animals
breathing p-DCB at similar levels  (800 parts per
million)  for a few days.   The  term "parts per
million" is a way of expressing the concentration of
a contaminant in a liquid  or air.  One part per
million is equal to one inch in a distance of about
sixteen miles (or a penny in ten thousand dollars),
a very small amount.  Slight abnormalities  have
also been observed in the  circulatory systems  of
animal offspring.

When small amounts p-DCB were administered to
rats and mice, even for a few days, subtle effects on
the liver were seen.   At  much higher levels, a
single dose resulted in the death of test animals.
With  long-term exposure,  administering p-DCB
orally led to  damage to the liver, kidneys, and
cancer in these organs resulted.

Based on the  results of cancer studies in  rats and
mice, the excess risk of cancer in humans resulting
from exposure to p-DCB has been calculated. The
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) estimates
that lifetime exposure to 1 part per billion (ppb) of
p-DCB could result in significantly less than one
additional  case  of cancer in  a  population  of
 100,000 people,

What recommendations has the federal
government made to protect human
 health?

The  EPA  has  included p-DCB  on the list  of
 Hazardous  Waste Constituents, making it subject
 to hazardous  waste regulations. EPA has issued
 test  rules  requiring  environmental  and health
 effects testing of p-DCB. EPA has also established
 a maximum contaminant level of 75 ppb for p-
 DCB in drinking water. In addition, all pesticides
 are registered with EPA, and their manufacturers
 must submit certain information to EPA in  order
 that the products be allowed to be used.

 The Information contained in this fact sheet was compiled from the Toxicological Profile for p-Dichlorobenzene. Agency for Toxic
 Substances and Disease Registry, U.S. Public Health Service, in collaboration with the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, January
 19S9.  This fact dteet focuses on tlie impact of hazardous wastes on human health; however, EPA does evaluate these impacts on the
 environment, including plants and animals.
     -.      ""   ""        vSuswvw  J .v-v
   Exposure Route: The way in. which people
   come into contact with a substance." The
   main routes are ingestion, inhalation, and
   absorption through the skin.
   Groundwater:""" Water  found  below  the
   ground surface In a rock or sand formation*
   Much  of our domestic water supplies are
   drawn  from groundwater wells.
   Sublimes:  A process in which a substance
   passes directly  from,  a solid to  a gas;
   vaporizes.
   For more information about p-DCB, please
   contact EPA at the following address:

       U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
      ATTN: Superfund Hotline
       401M Street, S.W.
       Washington, D.C. 20460
       1-800-424-9346 or 1-800-535-0202

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                               EPA   Fact
                                               Phenol
                                                                                              June 1992
   What is phenol?

   Pure phenol is a flammable, colorless  or white
   solid.  It is mainly a man-made chemical, sold and
   used as  a  liquid.  It has  a strong odor that  is
   sickeningly sweet and irritating. Phenol evaporates
   slowly and  dissolves fairly well in water.  It is also
   found in nature  in  animal wastes and organic
   material.

   The largest single use of phenol is in the making of
   plastics, but it is  also used to make caprolactam
   (used to make nylon 6 and other man-made fibers)
   and bisphenol A  (used to  make epoxy and other
   resins).  It  is also used  as a  slimicide,  as  a
   disinfectant, and in medical products.
How might exposure to phenol occur?

Small releases of phenol do not persist in the air (usually
half is removed in less than one day), and usually do not
remain in the soil for long periods (usually completely
gone in 2-5 days).  Above-average levels of phenol have
been found in surface waters and  surrounding air that
were contaminated by industrial and commercial product
releases containing  phenol.    It  has  been found  in
materials released from landfills and hazardous waste
sites, and in the groundwater near these sites. Phenol is
usually found in the environment  below 100 parts per
billion (ppb), although much higher levels have  been
reported.  The  term "parts  per billion" is a way  of
expressing the concentration of a contaminant in a liquid
or air.  One part per billion is equal to one inch in a
distance of about sixteen thousand miles (or a penny in
ten million dollars), a very small amount.

Because phenol is used in many manufacturing processes
and products, exposure to  phenol may occur  in the
workplace or, in lower amounts, in  the home. Phenol is
present in a number of consumer products, including
ointments,  ear  and nose drops,  cold sore  lotions,
mouthwashes, gargles, toothache drops,  analgesic rubs,
throat lozenges, and antiseptic lotions. Phenol has been
found in drinking water, air, automobile exhaust, tobacco
smoke, marijuana smoke, and certain foods, including
smoked summer sausage, fried chicken, mountain cheese,
and some species of fish.
Phenol has not been reported in soil except at hazardous waste
sites; this is likely due to the fact that phenol does not remain
in soil very long, rather than never occurring there.  Phenol
has been found at 512 of the approximately 1,300 National
Priorities List (NPL) hazardous waste sites.

How can phenol enter and leave the body?

Phenol can enter the body through ingestion of contaminated
water or food, or through products containing phenol. It easily
enters the body through the skin. Phenol also enters the lungs
during smoking or inhaling air containing phenol.

The amount of phenol entering the body from skin  contact
with water  containing  phenol  depends on the amount of
phenol in the water, and on  the length and extent of the
exposure. Higher amounts of phenol will enter the body when
large areas of skin are  exposed to weak solutions of phenol
than when small areas of skin are exposed to strong solutions
of phenol.  Phenol  present in  the air can enter  the body
through the skin and lungs.  The skin may absorb as much as
one-half the phenol entering the body exposed  to phenol in
air.  Air exposures are limited to areas  near spills  and
hazardous waste sites, as most spilled phenol will remain in
soil or water rather than evaporate into air.

Studies show that most  phenol entering the body through the
skin, by breathing contaminated air, eating food, drinking
water, or taking products containing phenol leaves the body in
the urine  within 24 hours.
   Is there a medical test to identify phenol
   exposure?

   Urine can be tested for phenol. This test can be used to
   identify recent exposures to phenol or to substances
   which  are changed to phenol once in the body,  (for
   example, benzene). No test can prove conclusively that
   a person has been exposed only to phenol, because many
   substances are changed to phenol in the body.  Because
   most of the phenol that enters the body leaves in the
   urine  within  24  hours,  this  test can only  identify
   exposure that occurred 1 or 2 days prior to  the test.
   Test results  cannot be used  to predict which  health
   effects  might result from phenol exposure. Measurement
   of phenol in urine requires special laboratory equipment
   and techniques not usually available in most hospitals or
   clinics.

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How can phenol affect human health?

The serious effects of a harmful substance usually
increase as both the level and length of exposure
increase.  Repeated exposure to low levels  of
phenol in drinking water has been linked with
diarrhea and mouth sores in humans; eating very
large amounts of phenol has resulted in death.
Laboratory animals  fed  very  large amounts of
phenol in water experienced muscle tremors and
loss of coordination.  Animals inhaling high levels
of phenol suffered irritation to the lungs; repeated
exposure for several  days causes muscle tremors
and loss of coordination.  Exposure to high levels
of phenol over several weeks results in paralysis
and severe injury to the heart, kidneys, liver, and
lungs, followed by death in some cases.
Phenol  can have positive effects  when used for
medical reasons.  It is an antiseptic (kills germs)
when applied to the skin  and may also have
antiseptic properties when used as a mouthwash.
It is an  anesthetic (relieves pain) and is a part of
some   sore-throat   remedies   (lozenges   and
formulas). Small amounts of phenol in water have
been injected into nerves to reduce pain caused by
some nerve disorders.  Phenol will kill the outer
layers of skin if it  remains  on the skin; small
amounts  of strong  solutions  of  phenol  are
sometimes applied to the skin to remove warts and
to treat other skin spots and disorders.
What recommendations has the federal
government made to protect human
health?

The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has
limited  waters  (lakes, streams) to 0.3 parts per
million  to protect human health from the possible
harmful effects of exposure to phenol by drinking
water and eating contaminated water plants and
animals.
What are the methods of treatment and
disposal of phenol?

Phenol may be disposed of by controlled burning.
Dilute phenol solutions can be broken down, and
rendered harmless, through the action of sewage
organisms. Phenol can be recovered economically
from solutions of greater than 1% phenol by steam
stripping, distillation, or carbon adsorption.
               GIJOSSARY

   Carbon Adsorption:  A'jWOCCSS which uses
   carbon particles to'remove substances from
   air or liquids. Carboa is used because of its
   ability to collect or adsorb contaminants on
   its surface.
   National Priorities List (NPL): EPAVMst oF'
   uncontrolled or abandoned hazardous waste
   sites identified for possible long-term clean-
   up under the Superfund Program*
        .-•,       •"  f     *f v"
   Slimicide:  A chemical used ftj kill bacteria,
   anil fungi that eause tvater sMntesu

   Superfund Program: ^The program Operated
   wider  the  legislative  authority,,of the
  . Comprehensive Environmental' Response,
   Compensation anC Liability  Act of 1980
   (CERCLA), as amended by the Saperfufld
   Amendments and R.mthorizatioiti Act of
   !<>8tf (SA&A) that funds  the EPA solid
   waste emergency «a
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      \
                             EPA   Facts   About
                                                                                      June 1992
    What is pentachlorophenol?

    Pure pentachlorophenol exists as colorless crystals
    with a very sharp characteristic odor when hot, but
    very little  odor at room temperature.   Impure
    pentachlorophenol  (the form  usually  found  at
    hazardous waste sites) can be dark gray to brown dust,
    beads or flakes.  It does not burn easily, but does
    evaporate.    Pentachlorophenol   has  two  forms:
    pentachlorophenol   and  the  sodium   salt  of
    pentachlorophenol.  The sodium salt dissolves easily
    in water; pentachlorophenol does not.

    Pentachlorophenol does not  occur naturally  in the
    environment. When it is found in the environment, it
    has come from releases  from factories or  hazardous
    waste sites or other sources, such as treated wood.

    At one time, pentachlorophenol was one of the most
    extensively used pesticides in the United States. It is
    now a  restricted-use pesticide.  This compound is
    found in all environmental  media as  a  result  of
   widespread use in the past.  It has been detected in
   surface waters  and  sediments, rainwater, drinking
   water, aquatic life, soils,  foods, and human milk and
   urine.  It is used industrially as a wood preservative
   for power poles, fence posts, etc.
How can pentachlorophenol affect human
health?

Reports describing worker exposure to high levels of
pentachlorophenol indicate that short-term exposures can
cause harmful effects on the  liver, kidneys, skin,  blood,
lungs, nervous system, and intestinal tract, and can cause
death.     Long-term   exposure   to   low  levels   of
pentachlorophenol such as those that occur in the workplace
can also cause damage  to the liver, kidneys, blood,  and
nervous system.

An increased risk of cancer has been identified in laboratory
animals exposed to large amounts of pentachlorophenol.
Harmful effects on the developing fetus have been seen in
animals exposed to  this  chemical  at exposure levels high
enough to cause noticeable sickness in the mothers. EPA
has classified  pentachlorophenol  as  a  probable cancer-
causing agent in humans.
 What levels of exposure have resulted in
 harmful health effects?

 Pentachlorophenol  can cause  death if sufficiently
 large amounts  are taken into the body.  Although
 harmful health effects result following inhalation, the
 exact route of exposure (inhalation or skin contact)
 is not known,  and  the lengths of exposure or the
 levels that cause harmful effects have not been well
 documented. Studies in which animals breathed the
 sodium salt of pentachlorophenol show that this form
 of the chemical is very toxic by this exposure route.


 Is there a medical test to identify
 pentachlorophenol exposure?

 Pentachlorophenol and its breakdown products can be
 measured in the blood, urine, and  tissues of exposed
 individuals.    Although  these  tests  can identify
 exposure to pentachlorophenol, they  cannot yet be
 used to predict the severity of harmful health effects.
 Because pentachlorophenol leaves the body fairly
 quickly, these tests are best for identifying exposures
 that occurred within the past several days.  Exposure
 to pentachlorophenol at hazardous  waste sites usually
 includes exposure to other organic compounds as well
 that  could  break  down  into  pentachlorophenol.
Therefore, levels of pentachlorophenol measured by
blood and urine tests may not show exposure to
pentachlorophenol alone.
  How can pentachlorophenol enter the
  body?

  Pentachlorophenol can enter the body through
  the lungs  as  an air pollutant, through  the
  digestive tract after eating contaminated food
  or water, or through the skin.  Breathing and
  skin contact are the most significant exposure
  routes.  Pentachlorophenol quickly leaves  the
  body after a short exposure period; it does not
  appear  to   accumulate.      Nearly  all
  pentachlorophenol taken into the body leaves
  in the urine.

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What recommendations has the federal
government made to protect human
health?

The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)
limits  the  amount  of  pentachlorophenol  in
drinking water to no more than 1 ppb. For short-
term  exposures,  EPA   recommends  that  the
concentration of pentachlorophenol in drinking
water (for children) not exceed 1.0 part per million
(ppm) for 1 day or 0.3 ppm for 10 days.
                03JQSSARY
How might exposure to pentachlorophenol
occur?

The majority of pentachlorophenol releases during
production and  use are to the air  from wood
preservation plants and cooling towers, and to land
from commercial and home use of treated wood
products.  Pentachlorophenol is also released into
surface waters, especially in storm water runoff and
wood-treatment plant effluents.

Levels of pentachlorophenol in the workplace and
near hazardous waste sites and accidental spills are
usually higher than in the general environment.
Pontachlorophenol   has  been   found   at
approximately 228 of the 1,300 National Priorities
List (NPL) hazardous waste sites in the United
States.

Risk of exposure to pentachlorophenol through
ingestion  of contaminated food  is small;  the
average intake in food is very low.  People near
pentachlorophenol  sources may be  exposed to
higher levels.

Pentachlorophenol levels of 0.5 to 104 parts per
billion (ppb) have been recorded in the indoor air
Of treated log homes. The term "parts per billion"
is a way of expressing  the  concentration of a
contaminant in  a liquid or air.   One  part per
billion is equal to one inch in a distance of about
sixteen thousand miles (or a penny in ten million
dollars), a very small amount.

What are the methods of treatment and
disposal of pentachlorophenol?

Pentachlorophenol  can be incinerated following
treatment with sodium bicarbonate or a sand-soda
ash mixture. Incineration of pentachlorophenol is
one  of   the   most   significant   sources  of
polychlorinated    dibenzo-p-dioxins   and
dibenzofurans;  therefore,  care  must  be taken
during this process.

 Current land treatment and disposal  practices are
being reviewed.   EPA requires that any release to
 the environment of more than  10 pounds be
 reported and is now working to measure the levels
 of pentachlorophenol found at abandoned waste
 sites.

 The information contained in this feet sheet was compiled from the Toxicological Profile for Pentachlorophenol. Agency for Toxic
 Substances and Disease Registry, U.S. Public Health Service, in collaboration with the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, December,
 '1989. This fact sheet focuses on the impact of hazardous wastes on human health; however, EPA does evaluate these impacts on the
 environment, inchtdingplants and animals.
   Breakdown Products: $ost contaminants are
   combinations  o'f  specific   substances.
   Contaminants are degraded, or separated,
   into these Jndividtial substances" through
   chemical or physical mearts.
                           !•*
   Exposure Routes:  The way in which people
   comelMQ  coatactltitlfa substance.  The
   main routes are ing&tion, inhalation, and
   absorption through the sMn.

   Media:  Air, water, and soil are the three
   environments,  or   media,   subject   to
   regulatory action by EPA.

   National Priorities List (NPL): "EPA'S list of
   unwntroll&f or abandoned hazardous waste
   sites identified for'possible long-term clean-
   up tinder the Superfund Program.
   For  additional   information   about
   Pentachlorophenol, please contact EPA at
   the following address:

      U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
      ATTN: Superfund Hotline
      401 M Street, S.W.
      Washington, D.C. 20460
      1-800-424-9346 or 1-800-535-0202

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                            EPA  Facts  About
                          Polychlorinated Biphenyl
                                                                                   June 1992
    What are PCBs?


    The abbreviation PCB refers to polychlorinated
    biphenyls.   PCBs are a family of man-made
    chemicals that contain 209 individual compounds
    with varying toxicity. Commercial formulations of
    PCBs enter  the  environment  as  mixtures
    consisting of a variety of PCBs and impurities.
    Because  of their insulating and nonflammable
    properties,  PCBs  have  been used widely as
    coolants   and  lubricants   in   transformers,
    capacitors, and other electrical equipment.  The
    manufacture  of PCBs in the United  States
    stopped in 1977 because of evidence that PCBs
    accumulate in the environment and may cause
    health hazards.
 How might exposure to PCBs occur?

 Although PCBs are no longer manufactured, human
 exposure still occurs.  Many older transformers and
 capacitors use fluids that contain PCBs.  The useful
 lifetime of many of these transformers can be 30 years
 or more.

 The two main sources of human exposure to PCBs are
 environmental and  occupational.   PCBs  are  very
 persistent  chemicals  and  are  widely  distributed
 throughout the environment. They have been found in
 approximately 314 of the 1,300 hazardous waste sites on
 the National Priorities List (NPL). Background levels of
 PCBs can be found in the outdoor air, on soil surfaces,
 and in water.

 Eating contaminated fish can be a major source of PCB
 exposure. Although PCBs found in fish are generally
 concentrated in nonedible  portions, the amounts in
 edible portions are high enough to make consumption
 a major  source  of exposure.    Exposure  through
 breathing outdoor  air containing PCBs  is small
 compared with the intake of PCBs through eating
 contaminated fish.

 Most PCBs in outdoor air may be present because  of a
 natural  cycle.  PCBs in surface water, or  on  soil
surfaces, evaporate and are  then returned to earth by
 rainfall or settling of dust particles.  Re-evaporation
 repeats the cycle. Once in the air, PCBs can be carried
 long distances; they have been found in snow and
 seawater in the Antarctic.  In addition, contaminated
 indoor air may be a major source of human exposure to
 PCBs, particularly in buildings with  PCB-containing
 devices.

 PCBs can be released into the environment from:  (1)
 poorly maintained toxic waste sites that contain PCBs;
 (2) illegal or improper dumping of PCB wastes, such as
 transformer fluids; (3) leaks or fugitive emissions from
 electrical  transformers  containing PCBs;  and  (4)
 disposal  of PCB-containing consumer products into
 municipal landfills, rather than into hazardous waste
 landfills.

 How do PCBs enter the body?

 PCBs enter the body through contaminated food and air
 and through skin contact. The most common route of
 exposure is eating  fish  and  shellfish  from PCB-
 contaminated water.  Exposure from drinking water is
 minimal. It is known that nearly everyone has PCBs in
their  bodies, including infants who  drink breast milk
containing PCBs.
  How do PCBs affect human health?

  Animal experiments have shown that some PCB
  mixtures produce adverse health effects including
  liver damage, skin irritations, reproductive and
  developmental effects, and .cancer.  Therefore, it
  is prudent to consider that there may be health
  hazards for humans. Human studies to date show
  that skin irritations, such as acne-like lesions and
  rashes, can occur in PCB-exposed workers. Other
  studies  of occupational exposure  suggest that
  PCBs may cause liver cancer. Reproductive and
  developmental effects may also be related to
  occupational exposure and  eating contaminated
  fish. While the role of PCBs in producing cancer,
  and reproductive and developmental effects in
  humans cannot be clearly delineated, the evidence
  provides an  additional basis for public  health
  concern over exposure to PCBs.

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Is there a medical test to identify PCB
exposure?

There are tests to determine PCBs in the blood,
body fat, and  breast milk.   These tests are not
routine clinical tests. Although the tests indicate
exposure to PCBs, they do not predict potential
health  effects.   Blood tests  are the easiest, safest
and, perhaps, the best method for detecting recent,
large exposures.  It should be recognized  that
nearly  everyone has  been exposed to PCBs, and
that nearly everyone is likely to have detectable
levels of PCBs in their bodies.
What levels of exposure have resulted in
harmful health effects?

EPA advises that exposure  to concentrations of
PCB 1016 (one form of PCBs) below 3.5 parts per
billion (ppb)  is not expected to  cause  adverse
health effects in adults.  Children exposed to PCB
1016 concentrations below 1 ppb are not expected
to experience adverse health effects.   The term
"parts per billion"  is a way of expressing the
concentration or strength of a contaminant in a
liquid or air. One part per billion is equal to one
inch in a distance of about sixteen thousand miles
(or  a penny in ten million dollars), a very small
amount.
 What recommendations has the federal
 government made to protect human
 health?

 Based on evidence that  PCBs  cause cancer in
 animals,  the  Environmental Protection Agency
 (EPA) considers  PCBs to  be probable cancer-
 causing chemicals in humans.

 The  Food  and  Drug  Administration  (FDA)
 specifies PCB concentration limits of 0.2 to 3 parts
 per million in infant foods, eggs, milk (in milk fat),
 and poultry (fat).
What are the methods of treatment and
disposal of PCBs?

Early federal regulations specified incineration as
the only acceptable method of  PCB disposal.
EPA's present PCB disposal rules require disposal
in chemical-waste landfills, or by destruction in
high-temperature incinerators  or high-efficiency
boilers.
              I  OIJOSSARY
                  - _ ;px, '
   Background Levels: ""The concentration  of
   any substance  which would normally  be
   found in an area,  This amount is used as a
   basis   of  comparison   in   Identifying
   eontaminatfott'leveis.
   Fugitive  Emissions:     Any  release   of
   contaminants   from  products   of
   manufacturing processes, usually in the form
   of gases escaping into the atmosphere.
   National Priorities List (NPL): 'EPA's list Of
   uncontrolled or abandoned hazardous waste
   sites identified for possible long-term clean*
   up under the Superftmd Program.
   For more information about PCBs, please
   contact EPA at the following address:


       U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
       ATTN: Superjund Hotline
       401 M Street, S.W.
       Washington, D.C. 20460
       1-800-424-9346 or 1-800-535-0202
 The information contained in this fact sheet was compiled from the Toxicological Profile for PCBs. Agency for Toxic Substances and
 Disease Registry, VS. Public Health Service, in collaboration with the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, June, 1989. This fact sheet
 jbetucs on the impact of hazardous wastes on human health; however, EPA does evaluate these impacts on the environment, including plants
 and animals.

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Jfi0* **"*!,
                           EPA  Facts  About
                  f Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbon
                                                                                   June 1992
   What are potycyclic aromatic
   hydrocarbons?

   Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are a
   group of chemicals formed during the incomplete
   burning of coal, oil, gas, refuse, or other organic
   substances.  They are a widespread product of
   combustion from common sources such as motor
   vehicles and other  gas burning engines,  wood
   burning stoves, cigarette smoke, industrial soot,
   and charcoal-broiled foods.   Wood which has
   been treated with creosote also contains PAHs.
   Natural sources  include volcanoes, forest fires,
   and shale oil.

   As pure chemicals, PAHs  generally exist as
   colorless, white, or pale yellow-green solids. Most
   PAHs do not occur alone in the environment;
   they are found as mixtures, or compounds, of two
   or more PAHs.   They  can  occur  in the air
   attached to dust particles, or in soil or sediment
   as  solids.   Except  for research  purposes, no
   known uses exist for most of these chemicals;
   there are over 100  different PAH compounds.
   Most do not dissolve easily in water; some readily
   evaporate into the air.  They generally do not
   burn easily and will persist in the environment for
   months  to years.  PAHs  have been detected at
   over 1,975 of the 2,783  hazardous waste sites
   analyzed.
How might exposure to pofycyclic aromatic
hydrocarbons occur?

Exposure to these chemicals may result from contact
with PAH vapors or PAHs attached to dust and other
particles in  the air.   Other sources include vehicle
exhausts, wild fires, agricultural burning, and hazardous
waste sites. Exposure to PAHs in soil may occur near
areas where coal, wood, gasoline, or other products have
been burned. Exposure to PAHs in the soil may also
occur  on or  near  hazardous waste  sites, former
manufactured-gas sites, and wood-preserving facilities.
PAHs have been found in some drinking water supplies
in the United States.
                                           PAHs are present in tobacco smoke, smoke from wood-
                                           burning stoves and furnaces, creosote-treated wood
                                           products, cereals, grains, flour, bread, vegetables, fruits,
                                           meat, processed or pickled foods, and beverages. Food
                                           grown  in contaminated soil  or air may also  contain
                                           PAHs.    Cooking  meat or other food at  high
                                           temperatures, which happens during grilling or charring,
                                           increases the amount of PAHs in the food.

                                           How can PAHs  enter and leave the body?

                                           PAHs can enter the body through the lungs when air
                                           that contains them is inhaled. This is one of the most
                                           significant routes of exposure for people living near
                                           hazardous waste sites.  Drinking water or swallowing
                                           food, soil, or dust particles that contain PAHs are other
                                           exposure routes.   Under  normal conditions  of
                                           environmental exposure, PAHs can enter the  body if
                                           skin comes  into contact with soil that contains high
                                           levels of PAHs. This type of exposure could occur near
                                           a hazardous waste site, or from contact with products
                                           that contain PAHs.

                                           PAHs enter the body quickly by all routes of exposure.
                                           This rate is  increased when PAHs are present in oily
                                           mixtures. PAHs travel to all tissues of the body that
                                           contain fat, and tend to be stored in the kidneys, liver,
                                           and fat, with smaller amounts in the spleen, adrenal
                                           glands,  and ovaries.  Most PAHs that enter the body
                                           leave within a few days, primarily in wastes.
                                             Is there a medical test to identify
                                             potycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons?

                                             Once in the body,  PAHs  are  changed into
                                             chemicals that can attach to substances within the
                                             body. The presence of PAHs attached to these
                                             substances can then be measured in body tissues
                                             or blood following exposure to PAHs. However,
                                             this test is still in the developmental stage. PAHs
                                             or their breakdown products can also be measured
                                             in urine.   Although these tests  can  reveal
                                             exposure to PAHs,  they cannot predict  the
                                             severity of any health effects that might occur or
                                             determine the extent of exposure.

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How can PAHs affect human health?

Several  of the PAHs,  including benz(a)anthracene,
benzo(a)pyrene,   benzo(b)fluoranthene,   chrysene,
bcnzo(k)fluoranthene,   dibenz(a,h)anthracene,   and
indeno(I,23-cd)pyrene,   have  caused   tumors   in
laboratory animals when fed to them, applied to their
skin, or when they breathed them in the air for long
periods of time. Mice fed high levels of benzo(a)pyrene
during pregnancy had difficulty reproducing and so did
their offspring. The offspring from pregnant mice fed
benzo(a)pyrene also showed other harmful effects, such
as birth defects and decreased body weight.  Similar
effects could occur in humans, however, no information
is available to document these effects.

Studies  in animals have also shown that PAHs  can
cause harmful effects on skin, blood, and the immune
system following both short and long-term exposures.
These effects have not been reported in humans.
What levels of exposure have resulted in
harmful health effects?

No information is available from human studies to
determine health  effects  resulting from exposure to
specific levels of the individual PAHs. However, long-
term  inhalation  and  skin exposure  to  mixtures
containing PAHs have been associated with cancer in
humans.
 What are the methods of treatment and
 disposal of PAHs?

 Approximately one-third of PAHs in solution bind to
 particles  and  can  be  removed by  sedimentation,
 jtocculation, and filtration  processes.   Remaining
 dissolved PAHs  usually require oxidation (combining
 with oxygen) for partial removal or transformation.

 Specific  PAHs  can  be  destroyed by  rotary  kiln
 incineration at temperatures ranging between 1,500°F
 and 3,000°F. Others can be oxidized using such agents
 as concentrated sulfuric acid. Anthracene, one form of
 PAH which may contaminate water, can be destroyed by
 sorptton with powdered activated charcoal,  filtration
 through a granular activated carbon  bed, and chemical
 oxidation.
What recommendations has the federal
government made to protect human health?

Based  on  data   on  benzo(a)pyrene,  the  federal
government has developed regulatory standards and
guidelines to protect individuals from the potential
health effects of PAHs in drinking water.  The U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has provided
estimates of levels of total cancer-causing PAHs in lakes
and streams associated with various  risks of developing
cancer. EPA has  also concluded that any release of
PAHs of more than 1 pound should be reported.
   Breakdown Products:   Most  contaminants are
   combinations  "If   specific   substances.
   Contaminants are  degraded, or separated, ioto
   these individual substances through chemical or
   physical means,

   Floccuiatipn: A dean*up technique in which, solid
   particles & water or sewage are clumped together
   by biological or chemical action.  These larger
   clumps of solids can be more easily removed by
   filtration.                          ,,,     '

   Rotary Kiln Incineration:  'K treatment process
   which uses high temperatures to destroy solid and
   liquid wastes usi»g a  Jwo-sfep process.  Wastes
   are first treated in a rotating chamber at H§OQ°-
   XSQQpF, then fed  to  a JecotuJ chamber with
   temperatures of 24QG°Fl

   Sorption:    A process  in which  contaminants
   adhere to charcoal surfaces «ttdt in this way,  are
   removed front contaminated substances.
    For  more information  about  PAHs,  please
    contact EPA at the following address:

         U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
         ATTN: Superjund Hotline
         401M Street, S.W.
         Washington, D.C. 20460
         1-800-424-9346 or 1-800-535-0202
 The information contained in this fact sheet was compiled from the Toxicoloeical Profile for PAHs. Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry,
 US. Public Health Scrvke, in collaboration with the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, December, 1990.  This fact sheet focuses on the mpact
 Of hazardous wastes on human health; however, EPA does evaluate these impacts on the environment, including plants and animals.

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                              EPA   Facts  About
                                            Toluer)(
                                                                                         June 1992
   What is toluene?

   Toluene is a clear, colorless liquid with a sweet
   smell.  It occurs naturally in crude oil and the tolu
   tree. Toluene is produced from petroleum refining,
   and as a by-product of styrene production and coke-
   oven operations. Industry uses it in refining gasoline;
   chemical manufacturing;  manufacture  of paints,
   lacquers, adhesives, rubber; and in some printing and
   leather tanning processes. Toluene is often disposed
   of at hazardous  waste sites as a  used solvent.
   Toluene does not usually remain in the environment;
   it readily breaks down in soil and evaporates from
   water.
 How might exposure to toluene occur?

 Exposure to toluene stems from many sources, including
 drinking  water, food,  air, workplaces,  and  consumer
 products.  Exposure to toluene occurs  mostly through
 breathing  the  chemical  in  the workplace  or during
 deliberate glue sniffing or solvent abuse.  Toluene readily
 evaporates and can  be released to the air when toluene-
 containing products are used. Automobile exhaust can also
 be a significant source of toluene emissions. Petrochemical
 workers, workers in the chemical industry,  dye makers, and
 paint workers are at  the greatest risk of exposure. Because
 toluene is a common solvent found  in many  consumer
 products, exposures may occur in the home and outdoors.
 Consumer products  containing toluene include gasoline,
 nail polish, cosmetics, rubber cement, paint solvents, stain
 removers, fabric dyes, inks, and adhesives.  Smokers are
 exposed to toluene in cigarette smoke.

 Exposure may occur at some hazardous waste sites.  The
 U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) conducted a
 survey  in  1988  and  found  toluene  in  either  the
 groundwater, surface water, or soil at 29% of the hazardous
 waste sites surveyed. While toluene was found in varying
 amounts at these sites, the concentrations identified were
 below the Maximum Contaminant Level  established for
 toluene.  Federal and state surveys do not show toluene  to
be a widespread contaminant of drinking water supplies.
How can toluene affect human health?

The most  important  health  concern from  either
intentional or occupational exposure to toluene is its
harmful effects on the  nervous system.  These effects
depend on both the amount and length of exposure.
Short-term exposure to moderate amounts  of toluene,
such as elevated workplace exposures, can produce
fatigue,  confusion,  general  weakness,  drunken-type
actions, memory loss, nausea, and loss of appetite. These
symptoms disappear when exposure ends.

Short-term exposure to high amounts of toluene results
in sleepiness, unconsciousness, and, in some cases, death.
When exposure ends before death occurs, these symptoms
disappear.  Long-term exposure to low and moderate
amounts of toluene has caused slight effects  on the
kidneys in some individuals, however, other solvents are
known to have contributed to these  effects. Long-term
exposure to high amounts of toluene by intentional abuse
has been linked with permanent brain damage.  Effects
such as problems with speech, vision, and hearing; loss of
muscle control; loss of memory and balance; and reduced
scores on psychological  tests have also been reported.
Researchers have seen possible impacts on resistance to
disease in individuals exposed  to moderate and high
amounts of chemical mixtures that contained toluene.
  Is there a medical test to identify toluene
  exposure?

  Several tests measure toluene and its breakdown
  products in the blood and urine. These tests are
  not  commonly  available at a  doctor's  office;
  however,  they  are  easily  done  by  specialized
  laboratories.  Measurement of  one of  toluene's
  breakdown products in urine has been used to
  determine  recent, workplace exposure.  Because
  several other chemicals are also changed  to the
  same breakdown products within the body, this test
  may not prove that toluene exposure has occurred.
  Other factors, such as the amount of body fat and
  body weight, the person's sex, and the  exposure
  conditions, may also change estimates of toluene
  exposure.

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  How can toluene enter the body?

  Toluene can  enter  the body by passing
  through the skin,  being inhaled, or being
  ingested in contaminated  food  or water.
  Exposure occurs mainly by breathing air
  containing toluene.   Diet and  where an
  individual  lives, works, and  travels affect
  daily exposure to toluene.  Such factors as
  age, sex,  and health  status  affect what
  happens to toluene once it is in the body.
  Most toluene leaves the body  within  12
  hours in exhaled air and as a breakdown
  product in urine.
What recommendations has the federal
government made to protect human
health?

EPA has recommended that drinking water not
contain more than 1 part per million (ppm) for
lifetime consumption. The term "parts per million11
is a way  of expressing the concentration  of  a
contaminant in a liquid  or air.  One part per
million is equal to one inch in a distance of about
sixteen miles (or a penny in ten thousand dollars),
a very small amount.  Any release of more than
1,000  pounds  of toluene into  the  environment
must   be  reported  to the National Response
Center.
What levels of exposure have resulted in
harmful health effects?

Toluene in air has an odor at a level of about 0.16
ppm and in water at a level of 0.04 ppm.  It can
also be tasted at a level of 0.04 ppm. Minimum
Risk Levels (MRL) have been established based on
animal data for both short-term and longer-term
exposure.  Exposure to  toluene at an amount
below the  MRL is  not expected  to  produce
harmful  noncancer health effects.  An MRL does
not imply anything about the presence, absence, or
level of risk of cancer.
What is the method of treatment and
disposal of toluene?

Federal regulations  prohibit  the  disposal  of
industrial wastes and wastewaters containing spent
solvents with  high  concentrations  of toluene.
Consumer products containing toluene are likely
disposed of directly as a municipal waste. No data
is available concerning  disposal by  municipal
incineration,   however,  high   temperature
incineration (over 1,600°F) is likely very efficient
in toluene destruction.
                0UOSSARY
   Breakdown Products:
   conibinations   of  specific   substances.
   Contaminants  are degraded, or separated,
   into these individual substances through
   chemical or physical means,

   Maximum   Contaminant  Level:    EPA
   evaluates the  health risks associated with
   various contaminant levefe to ensure that
   public health i& adequately protected.  The
   MCL,  as they are commonly known, is the
   maximum  allowable  concentration  of a
   specific  contaminant  in  public  drinking
   water*

   Superfund Program: The program operated
   under   the  legislative  authority  of  the
   Comprehensive  Environmental Response,
   Compensation and Liability  Act of  1980
   (CERCLA), as amended by the Superfund
   Amendments  and Reauthorization Act of
   1986 (SARA) that funds the EPA  solid
   waste emergency and long-term removal and
   remedial activities.
    For more information about Toluene, please
    contact EPA at the following address:

       U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
       ATTN: Superfund Hotline
       401 M Street, S.W.
       Washington, D.C. 20460
       1-800-424-9346 or 1-800-535-0202
 The Information contained in this fact sheet was compiled from the Toxicological Profile for Toluene. Agency for Toxic Substances and
 Dtsouc Registry, US. Public Health Service, in collaboration with the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, December, 1989. This fact
 ^tett focuses on the impact of hazardous wastes on human health; however, EPA does evaluate these impacts on the environment, including
 plants and animals.

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                             EPA
                                Trichloroethylene
                                                                                      June 1992
   What is trichloroethylene?

   Trichloroethylene (TCE)  is a colorless liquid
   with an odor similar to ether. It is man-made
   and  does   not  occur  naturally  in  the
   environment. TCE is used mainly as a solvent
   to remove oils and grease from metal parts.
How might exposure to trichloroethylene
occur?

Trichloroethylene has been found in approximately
745 of the 1,300 hazardous waste sites on the National
Priorities  List (NPL).   Various federal and  state
surveys indicate that between 9 and 34% of the water
supply  sources  in  the  United  States may  be
contaminated with  trichloroethylene.   In addition,
TCE present at disposal sites is released to the air by
evaporation and to underground water as leachate.

Trichloroethylene  can also be  released  to  the
environment through evaporation from adhesive glues,
paints, coatings, and other chemicals; and during their
production.  Releases can  also occur during air-
cleaning processes at treatment facilities that receive
wastewater containing TCE, and during incineration of
municipal and hazardous wastes.

Is there a medical test to identify
trichloroethylene exposure?

Recent or ongoing exposures to trichloroethylene can
be determined  by  measuring  TCE  in  the breath.
Another way of determining whether exposure  to
trichloroethylene has occurred is by measuring a
number of breakdown products (metabolites) of TCE
in the urine or blood. Because one of the breakdown
products, trichloroacetic acid, is removed very slowly
from the body, it can be measured in the urine for up
to about one week  following exposure. Exposure  to
other chemicals can produce the same  breakdown
products in the urine and blood as TCE.  Therefore,
these methods cannot be used to indicate conclusively
that exposure to trichloroethylene has occurred.
How can trichloroethylene affect human
health?

Dizziness, headaches, slowed reaction time, sleepiness,
and  facial  numbness  have  occurred  in workers
breathing  trichloroethylene  or  in  people   using
trichloroethylene products in small, poorly ventilated
areas.  These effects are also caused by ingestion of
several ounces of undiluted TCE.  Irritation of the
eyes, nose, and  throat can also occur  under  these
conditions.     More  severe   effects,  such  as
unconsciousness  or possibly death, can occur  from
drinking  or  breathing  higher  amounts  of   TCE.
Generally, the  less severe central  nervous system
effects  that result from one or several exposures to
trichloroethylene disappear when exposure ends.

Results of a few studies of pregnant animals exposed
to trichloroethylene in air or in food showed effects
on  unborn animals  or  on  newborns.   Current
information based on animal studies is not sufficient
to determine whether cancer, or the effects seen in
animal  embryos following exposure to TCE, may also
occur in humans.

Some harmful health  effects may persist following
long-term  exposure to  trichloroethylene.    This
information is based largely on animal studies. These
studies  show that ingesting or breathing levels of TCE
that  are higher  than  typical  background levels can
produce nervous system changes; liver  and kidney
damage; effects on  the blood; tumors of the  liver,
kidney, lung, and  male sex organs; and possibly cancer
of the tissues that form white blood cells (leukemia).
Alcohol consumption can heighten susceptibility  to
liver  and kidney injury caused by trichloroethylene
exposure.
  How does trichloroethylene enter the
  body?

  Trichloroethylene can enter the body through
  inhalation of contaminated air or ingestion of
  contaminated water.  TCE can also enter the
  body through contact with the skin.

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What levels of exposure have resulted in
harmful health effects.

Tests using laboratory animals and humans show that
short-term and long-term exposures to air containing
about 50  parts  per million  (ppm)  or more  of
trichloroethylene have produced harmful effects. The
term "parts per  million" is a way of expressing the
concentration of a contaminant in a liquid or air.
One part per million is equal to  one inch in a  distance
of about sixteen miles (or a penny in ten thousand
dollars), a very small amount.   Ingestion of TCE for
more than two weeks produced  harmful effects in the
livers of animals. Drinking TCE over longer periods
of time  caused effects on unborn animals  and the
kidneys as well as the liver.
Based  on   animal  studies,  the  Environmental
Protection Agency (EPA) has estimated that breathing
air containing 1 ppm trichloroethylene every day for
70 years  may place as many as 930  persons  in  a
population of 100,000 at risk of developing cancer.
EPA has also estimated that drinking water containing
1 ppm TCE every day over a lifetime may place as
many as 32 persons in a population of 100,000 at risk
of developing cancer.


What recommendations has the federal
government made to protect human
health?

EPA has established a drinking water standard of 5
parts of trichloroethylene per billion parts of water
(ppb). EPA requires industry to report spills of 1,000
pounds or more of trichloroethylene. A reduction of
this amount to 100 pounds has been proposed.
produced. There has been an emphasis on recovery
and recycling of TCE to reduce emissions into the
atmosphere.
                   Glossary

   Background'Level: ^Tfae conceittration Of any
   substance which wo'uid normally be found in aa
  %area. This level is used as a basis of comparison
   in Identifying contamination
   Breakdown Products:  Most contaminants ate
   combinations   of   specific   substances.
   Contaminants are, degraded^ or separated^ into
   these individual substances through chemical or
   physical means.
   Leachate:  A contaminated liquid that results
   from water collecting contaminants, as |t trickles
   through  wastes,  agricultural  pesticides,  or
   fertilizers.
   National Priorities List (NPL):  EPA*S list 0f
   uncontrolled  or abandoned hazardous waste
   sites identified for possible long-term clean-up
   under the Superfund Program,
   For more information about Trichloroethylene,
   please contact EPA at the following address:


       U.S.Environmental Protection Agency
       ATTN: Superfund Hotline
       401 M Street, S.W.
       Washington, D.C. 20460
       1-800-424-9346 or 1-800-535-0202
 What are the methods of treatment and
 disposal of trichloroethylene?

 The  recommended method  of  TCE disposal is
 incineration following mixing with a combustible fuel.
 Complete combustion must be achieved to prevent the
 formation  of phosgene, a poisonous gas.  An acid
 scrubber must  be used to remove  the haloacids

The information contained in this fact sheet was compiled from the Toxicological Profile for Trichloroethvlene. Agency for Toxic Substances and
Disease RegisUy, US. Public Health Service, in collaboration with the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, October, 1989. This fact sheet focuses
on the Impact of hazardous wastes on human health; however, EPA does evaluate these impacts on the environment, including plants and animals.

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                            EPA
                  About
                                  Vinyl  Chloride
                                                                                       June 1992
   What is vinyl chloride?
              *
   Vinyl chloride is a colorless gas with a mild,
   sweet odor.  It is a man-made chemical that
   does  not occur naturally.  Most of the vinyl
   chloride produced in the United States is used
   to  make polyvinyl  chloride  (PVC).   This
   material  is used to manufacture a variety of
   plastic and vinyl products including pipes, wire
   and  cable  coatings,   packaging  materials,
   furniture  and  automobile  upholstery, wall
   coverings, housewares, and automotive  parts.
   Much  smaller amounts of vinyl chloride  are
   used as a cooling gas and in the manufacture of
   other compounds.

   Emissions  from vinyl  chloride and  PVC
   manufacturers are responsible for the majority
   of vinyl chloride released to the environment.
How might exposure to vinyl chloride
occur?

Vinyl chloride has been found in approximately 418 of
the 1,300  hazardous waste sites on  the  National
Priorities List (NPL). Vinyl chloride is mainly released
into the air and discharged in wastewater from the
plastics industry.   Most of the vinyl  chloride that
enters the air gradually breaks down into less harmful
substances.  Levels of  vinyl chloride  found in the
environment are usually more than a thousand times
below levels found in occupational settings.  Elevated
outdoor levels are usually expressed in terms of parts
of vinyl chloride present in a billion parts of air or
water (ppb).  The term  "parts per billion" is a way of
expressing  the concentration of a contaminant in a
liquid or air. One part per billion is equal to one inch
in a distance of about sixteen thousand miles (or a
penny in ten million dollars),  a very small amount.
Outdoor levels of vinyl chloride result  from  the
discharge  of  exhaust  gases  from factories that
manufacture or process vinyl chloride, or evaporation
from areas where chemical wastes are stored.  The
highest outdoor levels have been measured in air near
vinyl chloride factories or over chemical waste storage
areas.
Vinyl chloride that enters  drinking water  comes from
factories that release vinyl chloride wastes into rivers and
lakes, and from leaching into groundwater in areas where
chemical  wastes are stored.   Small  amounts of vinyl
chloride can  enter drinking  water  from contact with
polyvinyl chloride pipes. In the past, higher than expected
amounts were present in  foods packaged in plastic that
contained vinyl chloride.  Currently, the U.S.  Food and
Drug Administration (FDA) regulates the amount of vinyl
chloride allowed in food packaging in order to limit the
intake of vinyl chloride.

How can vinyl chloride affect human health?

Short-term exposures to very high levels of vinyl chloride
in air can cause dizziness, lack of muscle coordination,
headaches, unconsciousness, or death. Long-term exposure
to lower amounts in factories which produce or use vinyl
chloride has caused "vinyl chloride disease". This disease is
characterized by severe damage to  the liver, effects on the
lungs, poor circulation in the fingers, changes in the bones
of the fingers, thickening of the skin, and changes in the
blood.  An increased risk of developing cancer of the liver
and possibly several other tissues has been linked with
breathing air in factories containing vinyl chloride.

Some health effects observed in humans have also been
seen in laboratory animals. Effects on the  nervous system
of animals have occurred following short-term exposure to
very high levels of vinyl chloride in air. Animals exposed
to high levels for a short period of time, as well as to low
levels for a long period, developed liver damage.  Kidney
effects have also occurred following exposure to high levels.
Animals developed cancer in several tissues after eating
food or breathing air that contained vinyl chloride.
  How can vinyl chloride enter the body?
  The most likely way that vinyl chloride can enter the
  body is by inhalation.  This exposure route is  of
  concern for persons  employed in vinyl chloride
  manufacturing or processing, for people living  in
  communities where vinyl chloride plants are located,
  and for individuals living near  hazardous  waste
  disposal sites. Vinyl chloride can also enter the body
  through ingestion.  Absorption of vinyl chloride
  through the skin is not likely to be an important
  exposure route.

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Is there a medical test to identify vinyl
chloride exposure?

Vinyl chloride  can be measured in urine  and body
tissues, but these tests cannot be used to determine the
level of vinyl chloride exposure. Measuring the amount
of the major breakdown product of vinyl chloride in the
urine may give some indication of  recent exposure;
however, the quantity of this breakdown product may
vary for different  people.  Neither  of these tests  is
routinely available at a doctor's office. Laboratory tests
commonly used by doctors to evaluate liver damage and
liver function are  usually not helpful in determining
whether liver damage has resulted from vinyl chloride
exposure.
What levels of exposure have resulted in
harmful health effects?

Vinyl chloride is regarded worldwide as a chemical that
causes cancer in humans, but exposure levels necessary
to  cause  cancer  are  not  known.     The   U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), therefore,
uses animal data to estimate risk in humans. According
to this data, it is estimated that breathing air containing
1 ppm vinyl chloride for 70 years may place as many as
11,000 persons in a population of 100,000 at risk of
developing cancer. Eating food containing 1 ppm vinyl
chloride every day for 70 years may place  as many as
6,440 persons in  a population of 100,000 at risk of
developing cancer. Similarly, drinking water containing
1 ppm vinyl chloride every day for 70 years may place as
many as 9,570 persons in a population of 100,000 at risk
of developing cancer.
What recommendations has the federal
government made to protect human health?

EPA requires that community drinking water systems
that regularly serve the same 25 persons for at least 8
months of the year must limit vinyl chloride in the
drinking water to 2 ppb.  Recently, the FDA changed
its regulations regarding the vinyl chloride content of
various plastics used in food packaging and to carry
water used in food processing in  order to  limit the
intake of vinyl chloride in food to levels considered to
be safe. Limits range from 5 to 50 ppm depending on
the nature of the plastic and its use.
What are the methods of treatment and
disposal of vinyl chloride?

The recommended method of disposal of vinyl chloride
is   incineration,  following   mixing  with  another
combustible fuel.   Complete combustion must be
ensured  to  prevent  the formation  of phosgene, a
poisonous gas.  An acid scrubber is  also required to
remove hydrochloric acid produced during incineration.

EPA  has classified vinyl chloride  as a  "hazardous
component of solid waste"  in order to  control the
handling of this chemical. All releases greater than one
pound must be  reported to the  National  Response
Center.
                  GLOSSARY

   Breakdown  Product:   Most contaminants  are
   combinations  of  specific   substances.
   Contaminants are degraded, or separated, into
   these individual substances through chemical or
   physical means.

   Exposure Route: The way in which people come
   into contact with a substance.  The main routes
   are ingestion, inhalation, and absorption through
   the skin.

   Leach:  The process by which substances are
   released from  the  soil by dissolving in fluids,
   usually rain and surface water> and are carried
   down through the soil

   National  Priorities  List  (NPL):  EPA'S list of
   uncontrolled or abandoned hazardous waste sites
   identified for possible long-term clean-up under
   the Superfund Program.
   For more information about Vinyl  Chloride,
   please contact EPA at the following address:

           U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
           ATTN: Superfund Hotline
           401 M Street, S.W.
           Washington, D.C. 20460
           1-800-424-9346 or 1-800-535-0202
The information contained in this fad sheet was compiled from the "lexicological Profile for Vinyl Chloride. Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease
Registry, US. Public Health Service, in collaboration with the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, August, 1989. This fact sheet focuses on the impact
afhiiKrJotiS HWfer on human health; liowever, EPA does evaluate these impacts on the environment, including plants and animals.

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                              EPA   Facts   About
                                             Xylen<
                                                                                            June 1992
   What is xylene?

   Xylene is primarily a man-made chemical. Industries
   produce xylene from petroleum and, to a smaller
   extent, from coal.  Xylene also occurs naturally in
   petroleum and coal tar, and is formed during forest
   fires.  It is a colorless  liquid with a sweet odor.
   There are three  forms  of xylene called isomers:
   weta-xylene, ortho-xylene, and para-xylene (m-, o-,
   and /7-xylene).  Isomers are substances with similar
   chemicals properties. Mixed xylene is a combination
   of the three forms of xylene and smaller amounts of
   other chemicals, primarily ethyl benzene.

   Solvents and thinners for paints and varnishes often
   contain xylene.  It is used as a solvent in the printing,
   rubber, and leather industries; and as  a cleaning
   agent. It is also found in airplane fuel and gasoline,
   and is used in  the chemical, plastic, and synthetic
   fiber industries, and as an ingredient in  fabric and
   paper coatings.  Isomers of xylene are used  in  the
   manufacture of certain polymers, such as plastics.

   Xylene evaporates and burns easily. It does not mix
   well with water; however, it does mix with alcohol
   and many other chemicals.  Because xylene is a
   liquid, it can  leak into soil, surface  water,  or
   groundwater, where it may remain for 6 months or
   more before it is broken down into other chemicals.
   However, most xylene evaporates into the air, where
   it lasts for several days.  Once in the air, xylene is
   broken down into other chemicals by sunlight.
How might exposure to xylene occur?

Xylenes are distributed throughout the environment. They
have been detected in  the  atmosphere, rainwater, soils,
surface waters and sediments, drinking water, and aquatic
organisms; and in human blood, urine, and breath. Xylenes
have been identified at approximately 576 of the 1,300
National Priorities List (NPL) sites.

Xylenes are released to the atmosphere primarily as fugitive
emissions from industrial sources, in automobile exhaust,
and through evaporation of solvents.   Discharges  into
waterways and spills on  land result primarily from the use,
storage, and transport of petroleum  products and waste
disposal.  Most of the xylenes released to the environment
evaporate into the atmosphere. Xylenes are moderately mobile
in soil and can leach into the groundwater, where they may
persist for several years.

Human exposure to xylenes is believed to occur via inhalation
of indoor and workplace air, inhalation of air containing auto
emissions,  ingestion of contaminated drinking water, smoking,
and inhalation and skin absorption of solvents containing
xylenes.

Is there a medical test to identify xylene
exposure?

Once in the body, xylene is degraded (broken down) into other
chemicals.  Xylene exposure can be determined by measuring
these  chemicals which are eliminated in the urine.  These
measurements will  specifically  identify exposure to  xylene.
There is a high correlation between exposure to xylene  and the
concentration of chemicals produced when the body degrades
xylene. A urine sample must be provided soon after exposure
ends, because xylene leaves the body quickly.
   How can xylene enter and leave the body?

   Xylene is most likely to enter the body through breathing
   xylene  vapors.  It is rapidly  absorbed by the  lungs
   following inhalation of air containing xylene. Absorption
   of xylene through the skin also occurs rapidly following
   direct contact or exposure to xylene in liquid or vapor
   form. Exposure to xylene may also result from eating or
   drinking xylene-contaminated food or water. Absorption
   of xylene following ingestion is both rapid and complete.
   Hazardous waste disposal sites also serve as possible
   sources of exposure;  breathing xylene vapors,  drinking
   well water contaminated with this chemical, and direct
   contact with the skin are possible routes for xylene to
   enter the body.  Xylene passes into the blood soon after
   entering the body.

   Xylene is broken down into  other chemicals in the liver
   and lungs. This process changes most of the xylene that
   is inhaled or ingested into a different form.  Once xylene
   has been broken down, the products rapidly leave the
   body, mainly  in urine.  Some unchanged xylene also
   leaves in breath from the lungs.  Most of the xylene that
   is taken in usually leaves the body within 18 hours after
   exposure  ends.  Storage of xylene in fat or muscle may
   prolong the time needed for it to leave the body.

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possible adverse health effect is impaired eye function. Death
can occur in animals which ingest very high levels (40,000 ppm).

What recommendations has the federal
government made to protect human health?

The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) estimates
that exposure to xylene at concentrations in water of  0.4 ppm
each day  for  a lifetime (70 years)  is unlikely  to result in
noncancerous  adverse health effects.   EPA has proposed  a
recommended maximum level of 10 ppm for xylene in  drinking
water.  EPA requires that spills  of 1,000 pounds or  more of
xylene or used xylene solvents be reported to the National
Response Center.

What are the methods  of treatment and disposal of
xylene?

Various methods of incineration are  used in the disposal of
xylene isomers; the addition of a more flammable solvent has
been suggested to facilitate this heat destruction process.
How can xylene affect human health?

Short-term exposure to high levels of xylene or chemical
mixtures containing xylene causes irritation of the skin,
eyes, nose, and  throat; difficulty in  breathing; impaired
function of the lungs; delayed response to visual stimulus;
Impaired  memory;  stomach  discomfort;  and  possible
changes in the liver and kidneys.  Death can occur in
individuals exposed to very high levels of xylene for short
periods.   Both short- and long-term exposure to high
concentrations of xylene can also cause nervous system
effects, such as headaches, lack of muscle coordination,
dizziness, and confusion.

Results of animal studies indicate that large amounts of
xylene can cause changes in the liver and adverse effects on
the kidneys, lungs, heart, and nervous system. Short-term
exposure to high concentrations of xylene causes death in
some animals.  Muscular spasms; coordination loss; hearing
loss; and changes in behavior, organ weights, and enzyme
activity have also been observed.

Exposure of pregnant women to high levels of xylene may
cause adverse  effects in  the fetus.  Studies with unborn
animals indicate that  high levels of  xylene may  cause
increased  numbers of deaths, decreased weight, skeletal
changes, and delayed skeletal development. There is no
data to indicate that xylene causes cancer.

What levels of exposure have resulted in
harmful health effects?

Xylene or chemical mixtures containing xylene are deadly
if sufficient quantities are swallowed or inhaled. However,
the levels which cause death are not known. Lower levels
(100-299 parts per million [ppm]) of inhaled xylene can
cause eye, nose, and throat irritation,  and  poor memory.
The term "parts per million"  is a way of  expressing the
concentration of a contaminant in a liquid or air. One part
per million is equal to one inch in a distance of about
sixteen miles (or a penny in ten thousand dollars), a very
small amount. Direct contact with several drops of xylene
causes skin irritation.

In animals, inhalation of moderate to high levels  (1,300-
2,000 ppm) of xylene for short periods of time may cause
decreased  breathing   rate,    hearing  loss,   inactivity,
unconsciousness, and  biochemical changes in the  brain.
With longer-term inhalation,  adverse health  effects  in
animals generally occur at lower levels (230-800 ppm).  In
animals breathing high  levels  over long-term exposures,
possible adverse health effects include changes in heart rate
and blood flow, changes in the chemical  composition of
nerves, and hearing loss.  In  animals given high levels
(5,000  ppm)  of xylene orally over  shorter periods,  a

The Information contained in this fact sheet was compiled from the Toxicological Profile for Xvlene. Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry, U.S.
Public Health Service, in collaboration with the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, December, 1990.  This fact sheet focuses on the impact of hazardous
wastes on human health,- however, EPA does evaluate these impacts on the environment, including plants and animals.
                      GLOSSARY
   Fugitive Emissions:  Any release of contaminants from
   products of, manufacturing processes, usually in the form
   of gases escaping into the atmosphere.              ,;

   Leach:   To pass  through the soil  due  to rain or
   gro»»dwater moving 'through 
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              i    ^.
EPA   Fact
                  Zinc
                                                                                              June 1992
   What is zinc?


   Zinc is a metal which may be found in its pure state
   or combined with other metals to form alloys such as
   brass.  It also combines with other chemicals to form
   zinc compounds, such as chlorine (zinc chloride), in
   the same way that sodium (another metal) is found in
   table salt (sodium chloride).

   Zinc compounds occur naturally in  the air,  soil, and
   water, and are present in all foods. Zinc is an essential
   food element; however, in large doses or exposures,
   zinc can also be harmful.

   Zinc is most commonly used as a protective coating of
   other metals.   It  is also used in alloys such as bronze
   and brass, and for electrical components in numerous
   products. Salts of zinc are used as dissolving  agents in
   many drugs, including insulin.
                         Zinc is present in most rocks, certain minerals, and some
                         carbonate sediments.  As a result of weathering of these
                         materials, soluble compounds of zinc are formed and may be
                         released to water.  However, this source of zinc is diluted and
                         widely  dispersed.    Urban runoff,  mine  drainage, and
                         municipal and industrial wastes represent smaller, but more
                         concentrated sources of zinc in water.

                         Municipal wastewaters are major contributors of zinc in
                         marine environments.   Municipal wastewater treatment
                         facilities receive  the largest  zinc discharges, including
                         contributions from corrosion of water supply pipes, combined
                         sewer runoff, and  industrial and human wastes.

                         Limited information is available on total releases of zinc to
                         the soil. Zinc present in the atmosphere is often deposited
                         in soils and grasses. Municipal sludges applied  to cropland
                         soils can also be an important source of trace  metals
                         including zinc. Hazardous waste sites are additional sources
                         of zinc in soil. Zinc has been found in approximately 711 of
                         the 1,300 National Priorities List (NPL) hazardous waste sites.
How might exposure to zinc occur?

Zinc is one of the most widely used metals in the world. The
primary sources of zinc in the environment are metal wastes
from smelter and refining operations.  Releases to surface
water  and groundwater are probably the greatest sources of
zinc in the environment. Zinc is also released to the soil due
to discharges  from  industrial  operations  and natural
weathering of zinc ore deposits.

The major source of zinc for the general population is food.
Other  sources  of exposure  include  drinking water,
contaminated  air,  tobacco  products,  and  occupational
exposure.

Zinc is released to the atmosphere as dust and fumes from
zinc   production  facilities,  automobile emissions,  fuel
combustion, and  soil erosion.  Refuse incineration,  coal
combustion, smelter operations,  and some metal-working
industries constitute the major sources of zinc in air. These
sources, along with releases of zinc through metal corrosion
and tire wear, contribute to urban runoff contamination.
                         Is there a medical test to identity zinc exposure?

                         Zinc can be measured in body fluids. The presence of excess
                         zinc in bodily wastes can  indicate high zinc exposure; high
                         levels in the blood can show high zinc absorption.
                           How can zinc enter and leave the body?

                           Zinc enters the body through the digestive tract when
                           food or water containing zinc is ingested.  It can also
                           enter through the lungs when zinc dust or fumes from
                           zinc-smelting or welding operations are inhaled in the
                           workplace. The amount of zinc that passes directly
                           through  the  skin  is  relatively  small.    The most
                           important route of exposure near NPL waste sites is
                           likely to be through drinking zinc-contaminated water.
                           Normally, zinc leaves the body in wastes.

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What levels of exposure have resulted in
harmful health effects?

The major effects of eating food or drinking water that
contains too much zinc or taking too many dietary zinc
supplements are digestive problems. Stomach cramps,
nausea, and vomiting have resulted from taking 2 or 3
capsules (each containing 220 milligrams (mg) zinc
sulfatc or 50 mg zinc) each day.  Decreased levels of
high density lipoprotein (HDL)-cholesterol (the "good-
cholesterol) in blood have been reported in people who
took approximately one  150 mg capsule  of zinc each
day. Similar levels of zinc intake, when continued over
an  extended  period,  may alter the  body's immune
system.
What recommendations has the federal
government made to protect human health?

The U. S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has
recommended that zinc  levels  in drinking water not
exceed 5 parts per million. The term "parts per million"
is  a  way  of  expressing the concentration  of  a
contaminant in a liquid or air. One part per million is
equal to one inch  in a distance of about sixteen miles
(or a penny in ten thousand  dollars), a very small
amount.  This  value is based on taste considerations
rather than health effects.  Any release of more than
1,000 pounds (or in some cases 5,000 pounds) of zinc or
its compounds into the environment must be reported
to EPA.
               GLOSSARY

Cement-based  Fixation:  '"A" process  used 40
stabilize  wastes  by adding chemicals  (such as
cement)  to bind and  solidify the contaminated
soils. The resulting solidified mass is resistant to
leaching  and greatly reduces the mobility of the
hazardous wastes.
National Priorities List (NPL):   EPA'S  list  of
uncontrolled or abandoned hazardous waste sites
eligible  for  long-terra   clean-up  under the
Superfund Remedial Program.
Precipitation? Application of chemicals or cold to
a liquid waste solution containing slightly soluble'
contaminants causing them to become insoluble
and "settle out* of solution.  Settled solids  can
then be collected for proper disposal.
Soluble Compounds:
dissolved in water.
Substances which can be
Urban Runoff:    The  flow  of rainwater  in
developed areas along the surface of the ground.
These flows often contain pollutants, particularly
hydrocarbons.
What are the methods of treatment and
disposal of zinc?

Zinc processing plants have attempted to limit releases
to the environment by using techniques such as water
re-use, control of paniculate emissions, and filtration.
In addition, liquid effluents are limed  and  allowed to
settle  so that zinc can be removed from solution
through precipitation-  Disposal procedures for  spills
include  the  use of  precipitation  and cement-based
fixation processes.  The latter method renders  zinc
contaminants  insoluble,  that is, will not dissolve in
groundwater, and stable in  the environment.
For more information about Zinc, please contact
EPA at the following address:
       U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
      ATTN: Superfund Hotline
       401 M Street, S.W.
       Washington, D.C. 20460
       1-800-424-9346 or 1-800-535-0202
The information contained in this fact sheet was compiled from the lexicological Profile for Zinc. Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry,
U.S. Public Health Service, in collaboration with the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, December 1989. This fact sheet focuses on the impact of
hazardous wastes on human health; however, EPA does evaluate these impacts on the environment, including plants and animals.

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