Common Chemicals Found at Superfund Sites


VJvttted States
Environmental
Protection Agency
Office of Emergency and
Remedial Response
Washington, DC 20460
9203.1-17
PB 94-963272
EPA 540/R-94/044
August 1994
     Common Chemicals
 Found at Superfund Sites

             vvEPA

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                                 INTRODUCTION

       This booklet contains  one page fact sheets on the most common chemicals found
at hazardous  waste sites across the nation,  it is meant to help you understand  more
about the chemical.

       It answers such questions as:   How can a person  be exposed to the chemical?
How can it affect human health?  How does  it enter and leave the body?  What levels of
exposure result in harmful  effects?  What recommendations  has the federal government
made to protect human health  from  the chemical?  and What are the methods for
treatment  and disposal of the chemical?

       If you have more questions about the  chemicals mentioned  in this  booklet or
would like information on the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency's Superfund
hazardous waste cleanup  program, please  call the Superfund Hotline at 1-800-424-9346 or
1-800-535-0202.

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June 1992
What is ammonia?

Ammonia, the most abundant basic (alkaline) gas in
the environment, is a colorless gas with a very sharp
odor. The odor is familiar to most people because
ammonia is used in smelling salts and household
cleaners. Ammonia dissolves easily in water where
most of it changes to liquid ammonium.

Ammonia is very important to animal and human
life. Because of its significance in natural cycles,
ammonia has a background concentration in most
environmental media, and is found in water, soil,
and air. Ammonia is a source of much-needed
nitrogen for plants and animals.
How might exposure to ammonia occur?

Since ammonia occurs naturally in the environment, we
are regularly exposed to low levels of ammonia in air, soil,
and water. Ammonia exists naturally in air at levels
between one and five parts per billion (ppb). The term
"parts per billion" is a way of expressing the concentration
of a contaminant in a liquid or air. One part per billion
is equal to one inch in a distance of about sixteen
thousand miles or a penny in ten million dollars, a very
small amount. It is commonly found in rain water. The
ammonia levels in rivers and bays are usually less than 6
parts per million (ppm). Soil typically contains about 1 to
5 ppm of ammonia. The levels of ammonia vary
throughout the day, as well as from season to season.
Generally, ammonia levels are highest in the spring and
summer, when nature is most active.

Ammonia may be released to the atmosphere by
volatilization from decaying organic matter; animal
livestock waste; fertilization of soil; sewage or wastewater
effluent; burning of coal, wood, and other natural
products; and volcanic eruptions. The amount of
ammonia produced by man is very small compared to that
produced by nature every year. However, when ammonia
is found at a level that may cause concern, it is usually
produced either directly or indirectly by man.
Exposure to high levels of ammonia in the air can be
caused by leaks and spills at production plants and storage
facilities, and from pipelines, tank trucks, rail cars, and
ships that transport ammonia. Ammonia can be found as
an atmospheric gas near hazardous waste sites. It can also
be found dissolved in ponds or other bodies of water, and
adheres (attaches) to soil at these sites. Ammonia does
not persist in the environment. Because it is recycled
naturally, nature has many ways of incorporating and
transforming ammonia. In soil or water, plants and
microorganisms take up ammonia rapidly, reducing the
amount in soils to low levels within a few days. Ammonia
remains in the air for about one week.

How can ammonia affect human health?

Exposure to very high levels of ammonia can result in
severe health effects. For example, walking into a dense
cloud of ammonia or spilling concentrated ammonia on
exposed skin can cause severe burns to the skin, eyes,
throat, or lungs. These burns may be serious enough to
cause permanent blindness, lung disease, or death.
Similarly, accidental ingestion of large amounts of
ammonia could cause burns in the mouth, throat, and
stomach. Mild exposure to ammonia gas can produce
headaches, salivation, burning of the throat, nausea, and
vomiting.
How can ammonia enter and leave the
body?

Ammonia can enter the body through inhalation of
ammonia gas or ingestion of water or food
containing ammonia. Spills of ammonia on exposed
skin can cause a small amount of ammonia to enter
the body; however, more ammonia will probably
enter through inhalation of the fumes. Most inhaled
ammonia exits the body quickly through the lungs.
Ingested ammonia will enter the blood and be
carried throughout the body within minutes. Most
of the ammonia that enters the body changes rapidly
into harmless substances. The remaining ammonia
leaves the body in urine within a couple of days.

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What levels of exposure have resulted in harmful
health effects?

Ammonia has a very strong odor that can be smelled in
the air at levels above 50 ppm. Therefore, severe
inhalation exposure, which would require levels above
human detection, would likely be avoided by most
individuals.

Ammonia in water at levels of approximately 35 ppm can
be tasted. Lower levels occur naturally in food and water.
Swallowing even small amounts of ammonia in household
cleaner can cause burns in the mouth and throat
Is there a medical test to identify ammonia
exposure?

There are tests that measure ammonia in blood and urine;
however, these tests probably would not accurately indicate
exposure to ammonia because it is normally found in the
body. Exposure to harmful amounts of ammonia will be
noticed immediately because of the strong, unpleasant
smell and taste, and skin, eye, nose, and throat irritation.
What recommendations has the federal
government made to protect human health?

The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)
regulates the ammonia content in wastewater released by
industry. In addition, any discharge or spill of ammonia of
100 pounds or more, or of ammonium salts of 1,000 or
5,000 pounds (depending upon the compound) must be
reported to EPA.

Maximum allowable levels have been set for ammonium
salts in processed food. The U.S. Food and Drug
Administration (FDA) has determined that the levels of
ammonia and ammonia compounds normally found in
food do not pose a health risk. Ammonia is necessary for
normal bodily functions.
What are the methods of treatment and disposal
of ammonia?

Solutions of ammonia can be highly diluted with water, or
alternatively, diluted with water and neutralized with
hydrochloric acid and then routed to the sewer system.
Limited amounts of gaseous ammonia may be discharged
to the atmosphere.

Disposal of liquified ammonia or of large quantities of
gaseous or aqueous ammonia directly into water is not
desirable because of the large amount of heat generated.
Recovery of ammonia from aqueous waste solutions is a
viable option for many industries.
GLOSSARY

Aqueous: A swbsfance w^cti fc dissolved in wafer,
Background Concentration:
Substance which would normally be found in an
area. Tfels level fc *i$ed as a basis of comparison m
identifying contamination levels,

Gaseous: JTae vapor form (for example, air) of any
substance.
,,,' ! ,
Inhalation: To drawjajr, vapor, etc. Into the lungs;
lobreathel " "" -, •<•'-,• - - ~
'• sS fV ••

Volatilization: The process by which substances are"
released into tae atmosphere aslt gas through rapid
vaporizations or evaporation!.
For more information about Ammonia, please
contact EPA at the following address:

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
ATTN: Superfitnd Hotline
401M Street, S.W.
Washington, D.C. 20460
1-800-424-9346 or 1-800-535-0202
The information contained in this fact sheet was compiled from the Toxicological Profile for Ammonia. Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry,
US. Public Health Service, in collaboration with the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, December 1990. This fact sheet focuses on the impact of
haurdous wastes on human health; however, EPA does evaluate these impacts on the environment, including plants and animals.

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EPAF
June 1992
What is arsenic?

Arsenic is a naturally occurring element. Pure arsenic
is a gray-colored metal, but this form is not common.
It is usually found in combination with one or more
other elements such as oxygen, chlorine, and sulfur.
Arsenic combined with these elements is referred to as
inorganic arsenic, whereas arsenic combined with
carbon and hydrogen is referred to as organic arsenic.
Organic forms of arsenic are usually less toxic than the
inorganic forms.

Arsenic is produced primarily as a by-product from the
operation of nonferrous smelters, glass manufacturing,
pesticide production and application, and burning of
fossil fuels. Arsenic is also produced as a result of
natural forces, that is, volcanos and weathering of
arsenic-containing rocks. The major uses of arsenic
are as wood preservatives and agricultural pesticides.
How might exposure to arsenic occur?

Arsenic is very widely distributed in the environment, and
everyone is exposed to low levels. For most people, food
constitutes the largest source of arsenic intake, with lower
amounts coming from air and drinking water. Some edible
fish and shellfish contain elevated levels of arsenic, but this
is predominantly in an organic form known as "fish arsenic"
that has a low toxicity. Above-average levels of exposure are
usually associated with one or more of the following
circumstances: (1) Natural mineral deposits containing large
quantities of arsenic (may result in elevated inorganic arsenic
levels in drinking water); (2) Chemical waste disposal sites,
which contain large quantities of improperly-contained
arsenic, (may allow the chemical to escape into the
groundwater); (3) Elevated levels of arsenic in soil (may lead
to exposure from ingesting soil); (4) Manufacturing
(smelting) of copper and other metals (often releases
inorganic arsenic into the air); (5) Burning of fossil fuels
(results in low levels of inorganic arsenic emissions into the
air); and, (6)Widespread application of pesticides (may lead
to water or soil contamination).
How does arsenic enter the body?

Arsenic enters the body principally through ingestion of food
or water. Most ingested arsenic is quickly absorbed through
the stomach and intestines and enters the blood stream.
Arsenic which is inhaled (low levels of arsenic are present in
cigarette smoke) is also well-absorbed into the blood stream
through the lungs. Small amounts of arsenic may enter the
body through the skin.

Most arsenic absorbed into the body is converted by the liver
to a less-toxic form that is efficiently excreted in the urine.
Consequently, arsenic does not have a strong tendency to
accumulate in the body except at high exposure levels.
How can arsenic exposure affect human
health?

Large doses of inorganic arsenic can be fatal. Lower
levels of exposure may injure a number of different
body tissues or systems, producing systemic effects.
When taken orally, a common effect is irritation of the
digestive tract, leading to pain, nausea, vomiting, and
diarrhea. Other effects include decreased production of
red and white blood cells, abnormal heart function,
blood vessel damage, liver and/or kidney injury, and
impaired nerve function causing a "pins and needles"
feeling in the feet and hands.

Perhaps the systemic effect most characteristic of oral
exposure to inorganic arsenic is a pattern of skin
abnormalities including the appearance of dark and
light spots on the skin, and small "corns" on the palms,
soles, and trunk. Some of these corns may ultimately
progress to skin cancer. Arsenic ingestion has also
been reported to increase the risk of internal cancer,
especially in the liver, bladder, kidneys, and lungs.

Inhalation exposure to inorganic arsenic dusts or fumes
sometimes produces the same types of systemic health
effects produced by oral exposure. However, this is not
common, and the effects are usually mild. Of much
greater concern is the ability of inhaled arsenic to
increase the risk of lung cancer. Direct skin contact
with arsenic compounds, frequently from inorganic
arsenic dusts in air, may result in mild to severe
irritation of the skin, eyes and throat.

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Is there a medical test to identify arsenic
exposure?

Measuring the levels of arsenic in urine is the best way to
identify recent exposures. However, some common tests
do not distinguish nontoxic forms such as fish arsenic
from other forms. Consequently, a high concentration of
arsenic in urine may not necessarily indicate a health
problem. Measurement of arsenic in hair or fingernails
is sometimes used to detect chronic exposures; however,
this method is not very reliable for detecting low levels of
arsenic exposure.

What levels of exposure have resulted in
harmful health effects?

Generally, inorganic forms of arsenic are more toxic than
organic forms, and forms that dissolve easily in water tend
to be more toxic than those that dissolve poorly in water.
Studies indicate considerable variation among different
individuals, and it is difficult to identify with certainty the
range of exposures which are of concern. The levels of
arsenic that most people ingest in food or water are not
usually considered to be a health concern. In fact, arsenic
in trace amounts may be essential to good health.

For inhalation exposure, air concentrations of around 0.2
parts per billion (ppb) are associated with irritation to
the nose, throat and exposed skin. The term "parts per
billion" is a way of expressing the concentration of a
contaminant in a liquid or air. One part per billion is
equal to one inch in a distance of about sixteen thousand
miles (or a penny in ten million dollars), a very small
amount. Higher levels may occasionally lead to mild
signs of systemic toxicity similar to that seen with oral
exposure.

What currently happens to arsenic wastes?

The principal waste product of arsenic is slag, a by-
product of ore smelting. Arsenic production is a dry
operation (no water is used); only small quantities are
discharged in wastewater. There is no recycling of arsenic
from its principal use in wood preservatives and
agricultural chemicals.
What recommendations has the federal
government made to protect human health?

The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has
established limits on the amount of arsenic released to
the environment. EPA has also restricted or prohibited
many of the uses of arsenic in pesticides and is
considering further restrictions. EPA has established a
Maximum Contamination Level (MCL) of 50 ppb for
arsenic in drinking water.
GLOSSARY

Maximum Contaminant Level: EPA evaluates the
health risks associated with various contaminant
levels to ensure that public nealth is adequately
protected; The MCL> as it is commonly k&6w»> is
the maximum allowable concentration of a specific
omtaraiaaat in public drinking water.
* Systemic Effect: Impacts of contamination which
affect the entire organism or bodily system.
Toxic: Acting as a poisonous or hazardous
substance, having poisonous or harmful qualities,
For more information about Arsenic, please
contact EPA at the following address:

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
ATTN: Superfund Hotline
401M Street, S.W.
Washington, D.C. 20460
1-800-424-9346 or 1-800-535-0202
The information contained in this fact sheet was compiled from the Toxicological Profile for Arsenic. Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry,
U.S. Public Health Service, in collaboration with the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, March, 1989. This fact sheet focuses on the impact of
fuuardous wastes on human health; however, EPA does evaluate these impacts on the environment, including plants and animals.

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EPA
Asbestos
June 1992
What is asbestos?

Asbestos is the name used for a group of six
different minerals (amosite, chrysotile,
tremolite, actinolite, anthophyllite, and
crocidolite) that occur naturally in the
environment. The most common mineral type
is white (chrysotile), but others may be blue
(crocidolite), gray (anthophyllite), or brown
(amosite). These minerals are made up of
long, thin fibers similar to fiberglass. Asbestos
fibers are very strong and are resistant to heat
and chemicals. These properties of asbestos
have led to its use in a wide range of products,
mostly in building materials, friction products
(for example, braking linings and clutch
plates), and heat-resistant fabrics.

Because the fibers are so resistant to
chemicals, they are also very stable in the
environment. Asbestos fibers do not
evaporate into the air or dissolve in water, and
are not broken down over time; their natural
tendency is to settle out of air and water and
be deposited in soil or sediment. However,
some fibers are small enough that they can
remain in suspension in both air and water
and be transported long distances.
How might asbestos exposure occur?

Inhaling tiny asbestos fibers suspended in air is the
most likely exposure route. Low levels of asbestos
can be detected in almost any air sample. In rural
areas, there are usually an average of 0.03 to 3 fibers
present in a cubic meter of outdoor air. (A cubic
meter is about the amount of air you breathe in 1
hour.) Higher levels are usually found in cities. In
the air near an asbestos mine or factory, levels could
reach 2,000 fibers per cubic meter or higher. Levels
could also be above average near a building that is
being torn down or renovated, or near waste sites
where asbestos wastes are not properly protected
from wind erosion. Asbestos has been detected at
approximately 52 of the 1,300 National Priorities List
hazardous waste sites eligible to receive Superfund
money for cleanup.
Asbestos exposure can also result from drinking
fibers present in water. Even though asbestos
does not dissolve in water, fibers can enter water
by being eroded from natural deposits or piles of
waste asbestos, or from cement pipes used to
carry drinking water. Most drinking water
supplies in the United States have concentrations
of less than 1 million fibers per liter.
How can asbestos affect human
health?

Information on the health effects of
asbestos comes mostly from studies of
workplace exposure to high levels of
asbestos. Such asbestos exposure has been
found to increase the chances of getting
two types of cancer: cancer of the lung
tissue itself, and mesothelioma, a cancer of
the thin membrane that surrounds the
lung and other internal organs. Both lung
cancer and mesothelioma are usually fatal.
.These diseases do not appear immediately,
but develop only after a number of years.
There is also some evidence that breathing
asbestos can increase the chances of
getting cancer in other locations (for
example, the esophagus, stomach,
intestines, pancreas, and kidneys).

Besides causing cancer, breathing asbestos
can also cause a slow accumulation of
scar-like tissue in the lungs and in the
membrane which surrounds the lungs.
This tissue does not expand and contract
like normal lung tissue, making breathing
difficult. Blood flow to the lungs may also
be decreased, and this causes the heart to
enlarge. When the injury is mostly in the
lungs, the disease is called asbestosis. This
is a serious disease, and can eventually
lead to disability or death.

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How can asbestos enter and leave the body?
Asbestos fibers Inhaled in air may be deposited in the
passages and on the cells of the lungs. However, very few
of these fibers move through the lungs into the body.
Instead, most Obers are removed from the lungs by being
carried away in a layer of mucus to the throat, where they
are swallowed into the stomach. This usually takes place
within a few hours, but fibers deposited in the deepest parts
of the lung are removed more slowly. Some can remain for
many years and may never be removed.

Nearly all the swallowed asbestos fibers pass along the
intestines within a few days and are excreted. A small
number of fibers remain in cells that line the stomach or
intestines, and a few penetrate into the blood. Some of
these become trapped in other tissues, and some are
removed in the urine.

What levels of exposure have resulted in harmful
health effects?
The levels of asbestos in air that lead to lung disease depend
primarily on three factors: (1) the duration of each
exposure, (2) the number of years exposure continues, and
(3) whether or not an individual smokes cigarettes. There
Is also a debate concerning the differences in the amount of
disease caused by different fiber types and sizes. Most data
indicate that fiber size is the most important factor in
cancer-causing potential.

Is there a medical test to identify asbestos
exposure?
The most common test used to determine exposure to
asbestos is a chest x-ray. The x-ray cannot detect the
asbestos fibers themselves, but can detect early signs of lung
disease caused by asbestos. It is also possible to test for the
presence of asbestos fibers in urine, feces, mucus, or
material rinsed out of the lungs by a doctor. Low levels of
asbestos fibers are found in nearly all people. Higher-than-
average levels indicate that exposure has occurred.

What recommendations has the federal
government made to protect human health?

Despite ongoing debate concerning health effects resulting
from the different asbestos fiber types, the Agency for Toxic
Substances and Disease Registry considers the different
mineral forms of asbestos to be known human cancer-
causing substances. Fibers have a prolonged latency period
(they may be deposited in the lungs and not produce
harmful effects for many years) of 10 to 30 years between
exposure and the onset of disease.
The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has proposed
a limit of 7 million fibers per liter for concentrations of long
fibers present in drinking water. The Food and Drug
Administration regulates the use of asbestos in the
preparation of drugs, and restricts the use of asbestos in
food-packaging materials.

How are we disposing of asbestos?

Currently, asbestos-containing wastes may only be deposited
in landfills approved and regulated by the federal
government. These regulations are intended to ensure that
asbestos at these sites is not dispersed into the environment.
Proposed new recordkeeping and reporting requirements
will help ensure that landfill operators provide data on the
location and amounts of asbestos at disposal sites.
GLOSSARY
Exposure Route: T&e way in which people come into
contact with a substance. The main routes are
jngestion, inhalation, and absorption through the
skin.
National Priorities List (NPL): EPA's list of
raacaatrolted or abandoned hazardous waste sites
identified for possible long-term clean-up under the
Saperftittd Program.

Superfund Program: The program operated under
the legislative authority of the Comprehensive
Environmental Response, Compensation and
Liability Act of 1980 (CERCLA), as amended by the
Superfund Amendments and Reauthorization Act of
1986 (SARA) that funds the EPA solid waste
emergency and long-term removal and remedial
activities.
For more information about Asbestos, please
contact EPA at the following address:

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
ATTN: Superfund Hotline
401 M Street, S.W.
Washington, D.C. 20460
1-800-424-9346 or 1-800-535-0202
The information contained in this fact sheet was compiled from the Toxicological Profile for Asbestos. Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry,
US. Public Health Service, in collaboration with the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, October, 1987. This fact sheet focuses on the impact of hazardous
wastes on human health; however, EPA does evaluate these impacts on the environment, including plants and animals.

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EPA Facts About
Beryllium
What is beryllium?

Beryllium is a naturally occuninelement which, ir
its purest form, is a hard grayish metal. Two kinds
of mineral rocks, bertrandite and beryl, are mined
commercially for the recovery of beryllium. Very
pure gem quality beryl is better known as either
aquamarine or emerald.

Most of the beryllium ore that is mined is
converted into metal alloys, many of which are used
in electronics or structural applications. Beryllium
ore is processed into beryllium hydroxide which is
further refined into beryllium metal, alloys, and
oxides.

The major source of beryllium emissions to the
environment is the combustion of coal and fuel oil,
which releases particulates anc/jy ash containing
beryllium into the atmosphere. These particulates
eventually settle to the earth's surface or are
removed from the atmosphere by rainfall. Upon
reaching soil and sediment, beryllium is absorbed
and held in an insoluble (does not readily dissolve
in water) and relatively immobile form.

Atmospheric emissions of beryllium dusts and
particulates are also associated with ore processing,
metal fabrication, and beryllium oxide production
and use. Natural emission sources include
windblown dusts and volcanic particles. The
amounts of beryllium released to the atmosphere
from natural sources are relatively small.
How might exposure to beryllium occur?

Each of us is exposed to small amounts of beryllium in
the air we breathe, in many foods we eat, and in some
water we drink. Most of the beryllium that is inhaled is
released into the air by burning coal and fuel oil.
Beryllium occurs naturally in various tobaccos, and is
inhaled during smoking. People who smoke cigarettes
may breathe considerably more beryllium than those who
do not smoke. Beryllium is also present in many fruits
and vegetables.
June 1992
The greatest exposure to beryllium, usually in the form of
beryllium oxide, occurs in the workplace. Occupational
exposure to beryllium occurs where it is mined, processed,
and converted into metal, alloys, and chemicals. Workers
engaged in machining metals containing beryllium, in
reclaiming beryllium from scrap alloys, or in using
beryllium products will also be exposed. People who live
near these industries, or near hazardous waste sites that
contain high concentrations of beryllium, can also be
exposed to small amounts.
How can beryllium affect my health?

Beryllium is a substance that can be harmful,
depending on the amount and length of exposure.
Not all of the effects that beryllium and its
compounds have on human health are well
understood, and not all forms of beryllium are
equally toxic. The primary organs affected by
beryllium are the lungs. Short-term exposure to
high levels of soluble beryllium compounds can
lead to the development of inflammation or
reddening and swelling of the lungs, a condition
known as Acute Beryllium Disease (similar to
pneumonia). Removal from exposure can result in
a reversal of symptoms. Long-term exposure to
beryllium or beryllium oxide at much lower levels
has reportedly caused Chronic Beryllium Disease in
sensitive individuals. This disease is characterized
by shortness of breath, scarring of the lungs, and
berylliosis (noncancerous growths in the lungs).

Both Acute and Chronic Beryllium Disease can be
fatal, depending on the severity of the exposure. In
addition, a skin allergy can develop when sensitized
individuals are exposed to soluble beryllium
compounds. If beryllium enters through cuts,
noncancerous growths can form on the skin or
mucous membrane and may ulcerate, becoming
open sores.

Evidence from laboratory tests using animals
suggests that inhalation of beryllium or its
compounds may have some cancer causing
potential. No studies, in animals or humans,
provide convincing evidence that the ingestion of
beryllium or its compounds causes cancer.

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How does beryllium enter and leave the body?

Animal studies have shown that only small amounts of
beryllium are absorbed (pass into) the blood and other
tissues after ingestion of beryllium or its compounds. Most
of the ingested beryllium leaves the body through wastes in
a few days without having entered the bloodstream. This low
rate of absorption also holds true for skin exposure, although
contact with the skin is, in itself, sufficient to cause irritation.
These studies have also shown that the most efficient way in
which beryllium enters the body of animals is through
inhalation of beryllium particles suspended in the air.
Beryllium which is inhaled may require months to years to
leave the body because of the time it takes to leave the lungs
and enter the stomach or the bloodstream. The small amount
of beryllium that moves from the lungs, stomach, and
intestines into the bloodstream is carried by the blood to the
kidneys. Beryllium leaves the kidneys (and the body) in the
urine.

What recommendations has the federal
government made to protect human health?

The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) restricts the
amount of beryllium emitted into the environment by
industries that produce beryllium ores, metal, oxide, alloys,
or waste to amounts that would result in atmospheric levels
of 0.01 parts per trillion (ppt) of beryllium in air, averaged
over a 30-day period. The term "parts per trillion" is a way
of expressing the concentration of a contaminant in a liquid
or air. One part per trillion is equal to one inch in a
distance of about sixteen million miles (or a penny in ten
billion dollars), a very small amount.

Js there a medical test to identify beryllium
exposure?

Beryllium levels in the urine and blood can be measured,
however, levels in the urine may be highly variable. Elevated
levels in the urine and blood indicate exposure, but not
necessarily the disease. Another procedure involving the
sampling of tissues, that is, a biopsy, may be performed so
that beryllium levels in those tissues can be measured. There
is also a medical test which involves the examination of cells
that have been washed out of the lungs. This test helps
doctors to identify noncancerous growths in the lungs;
however, this test cannot distinguish growths that were
caused by beryllium (Chronic Beryllium Disease) from
growths caused by other factors. A test in which lymphocytes
(blood cells involved in immunity) are transformed in the
presence of beryllium can definitively diagnosis Chronic
Beryllium Disease.
What are the methods of treatment and
disposal of beryllium?

Beryllium dust has been designated by EPA as a hazardous
waste. Most of these wastes result from pollution control
methods such as containment of solid particles or liquid
suspensions resulting from air-scrubbing processes. Recycling
of the wastes is the most desirable method of handling.
Burial in plastic-lined, metal drums is recommended for
landfill disposal.
Air-scrubbing: ^rious process^ are used to remove
parities front gaseous emissions, usually produced
during incineration* One process, uses electronically-
charged plates to collect particles; another uses
atomized water to remove particles suspended in gases.
, Atmospheric Emissions:
dusty or partfeulates trite the air., x-"'}''' 'fi'''

- Element: "All substances are made ap ,of elements,
which are the basic ^mponettt^ or" parts', of all
materials/ Elements cannot be separated or'brdken
dawn Mp,smaUer waits by ojrditiajry chemical means,

Fty 'Ash- 'A^borfe'tils of unTbutnabte dust or fine
p^rticles/iisualh/ associated with combustlojo, of fossil
fuels or Incinerators.;, Bnviroanieatal regulations'
require that fly ash be captured t>y air pottwtlon control
devices, "^c^T/ , ,"" "j*'-'''"" '"'/''""'

Particulates: "Ala'extremely tiny fragment or smalt piece
t of material which cap be carried by the wind.
Toxic: ;Actittg as a poisonous ol hazardous substance;
having poisonous or harmful qualities. ; ,
For more information about Beryllium, please contact
EPA at the following address:

Cadmium is a naturally occurring element. Pure
cadmium is a soft bluish-white metal; however, this
form is not common. Cadmium is most often
found in combination with other elements such as
oxygen (cadmium oxide), chlorine (cadmium
chloride), or sulfur (cadmium sulfide). These
combinations, or compounds, are all stable solids
that do not evaporate, although small particles of
cadmium oxide are often found in the air.

Most cadmium used in the U.S. is obtained as a
by-product from the smelting of zinc, lead, or
copper ores. Cadmium has a number of industrial
applications; it is used mostly in metal plating,
pigments, batteries, and plastics.
How might exposure to cadmium occur?

Small quantities of cadmium occur naturally in air,
water, soil, and food. For most people, food is the
primary source of cadmium exposure, since food
products tend to absorb and retain cadmium. For
example, plants draw cadmium from soil, and fish absorb
cadmium from water.

The application of phosphate fertilizers or sewage sludge
may increase cadmium levels in soil, which, in turn, can
cause increased cadmium levels in crops. Cadmium is
not often encountered at levels of concern in water,
although it can leach into groundwater from pipes and
solder or may enter groundwater from chemical waste
disposal sites.

The largest sources of cadmium are the burning of fossil
fuels and the incineration of municipal wastes.
Cadmium may also escape into the environment from
zinc, lead, or copper smelters, resulting in above-average
concentrations.

Smoking is another major source of cadmium. Like
most plants, tobacco contains cadmium, some of which
is inhaled in cigarette smoke. Most people who smoke
have about twice as much cadmium in their bodies as do
nonsmokers.
How does cadmium enter the body?

Cadmium can enter the blood by absorption from the
stomach or intestines following ingestion of food or
water, or by absorption from the lungs after inhalation.
Very little cadmium is absorbed through the skin.
Usually only about 1 to 5% of what is ingested is
absorbed into the blood; about 30 to 50% of what is
inhaled is absorbed. Once cadmium enters the body,
it is retained; therefore, even low doses may build up
significant cadmium levels if the exposure is long-term.
How can cadmium affect human health?

Cadmium can cause a number of adverse health
effects. Ingestion of high doses causes severe
irritation to the stomach, leading to vomiting and
diarrhea. Inhalation of high doses leads to
severe irritation of the lungs. Such exposures are
extremely rare today. The effects which may
occur following long-term, low-level exposure are
of greater concern. Examples of adverse health
effects resulting from various exposure levels and
times are: kidney damage in people exposed to
excess cadmium either through air or diet; and
lung damage, such as emphysema, in factory
workers where cadmium levels in air are high.

Lung cancer has been shown to occur in animals
exposed to cadmium in air for long periods.
Studies in humans also suggest that long-term
inhalation of cadmium can increase the risk of
lung cancer. Exposure to cadmium through
contaminated foods is not believed to cause
cancer.

Other tissues reported to be injured by cadmium
exposure include the liver, the testes, the
immune and nervous systems, and the blood.
Reproductive and developmental effects have
been observed in animals treated with cadmium,
however, these effects have not been reported in
humans.
-------
Is there a medical test to identify
cadmium exposure?

One test for excessive cadmium exposure involves
measuring the amount of cadmium present in the blood,
urine, or hair. The amount in the blood is a good
indicator of recent exposures, whereas the amount in
urine is a reflection of total cadmium present in the
body. The amount of cadmium in hair is not usually
considered to be reliable, since cadmium can bind to the
outside of hair and give faulty test results. Another
approach is to measure cadmium concentrations in the
liver or kidneys; however, it is usually too costly and
inconvenient for routine use.

What levels of exposure have resulted in
harmful health effects?

The amount of cadmium known to cause harmful health
effects depends on the chemical and physical form of the
element. In general, cadmium compounds that dissolve
easily in water (e.g., cadmium chloride), or those that
can be dissolved in the body (e.g., cadmium oxide), tend
to be more toxic than compounds that are very hard to
dissolve (e.g., cadmium sulGde).

Airborne concentrations of 1 part per million of
cadmium in air are associated with acute irritation to the
lungs. The term "parts per million" is a way of
expressing the concentration of a contaminant in a liquid
or air. One part per million is equal to one inch in a
distance of about sixteen miles (or a penny in ten
thousand dollars), a very small amount. Long-term
exposure may increase the risk of lung disease, such as
emphysema. These same levels are also associated with
development of kidney injury similar to that observed
following oral exposure. Levels of cadmium exposure
through food, water, and air typical for most people are
not a major health concern. For example, the intake of
cadmium in the diet is usually about one-tenth the
amount required to cause kidney damage via this route.

What are the methods of disposal of
cadmium?

Most waste cadmium is disposed of in landfills.
Municipal waste disposal of cadmium-containing
products to landfills accounts for the majority of
cadmium disposal. Cadmium wastes can also be
destroyed through high temperature incineration.
What recommendations has the federal
government made to protect human
health?

The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has
established limits on the quantity of cadmium that may
be discharged into water or disposed of as solid wastes.
EPA is considering regulations that would limit the
amount of cadmium emitted into outside air. The
Agency has also established an interim Maximum
Contaminant Level (MCL) of 5 parts per billion of
cadmium in drinking water.
GLOSSARY
-
Groundwater \Vgtsr found below the ground
surface In a rock or sand formation* Much of
our domestic water supplies are drawn from
grourtdwater wells.

Maximum Contaminant Level: "EPA evaluates
the health risks associated with, various
contaminant levels to ensure that "public health
is adequately protected. The MCL, as they are
commonly known, is the maximum allowable
concentration of a specific contaminant in public
drinking water*

Toxic: Acting as a poisonous or hazardous
substance; having poisonous or harmful qualities.
For more information about Cadmium, please
contact EPA at the following address:

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
ATTN: Superfiind Hotline
401 M Street, S.W.
Washington, D.C. 20460
1-800-424-9346 or 1-800-535-0202
The Information contained in this fact sheet was compiled from the Toxicological Profile for Cadium . Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease
Registry US Public Health Service, in collaboration with the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, March 1989. This fact sheet focuses on the
impaa of hazardous wastes on human health; however, EPA does evaluate these impacts on the environment, including plants and animals.
-------
What is carbon tetrachloride?

Carbon tetrachloride (CC14) is a clear, heavy liquid with
a sweet odor. Because it evaporates very quickly, most
CC14 that escapes into the environment is found in the
air as a gas. Small amounts can also be found dissolved
in water.

CC14 does not occur naturally. It is produced in large
quantities to make refrigerants and propellants for
aerosol cans. Since these products have been found to
affect the earth's ozone layer, production of these
chemicals is being phased out. Consequently, the
manufacture and use of CC14 will also tend to decline.
In the past, CC14 was widely used as a cleaning fluid,
both in industry, where it served as a degreasing agent,
and in the household, where it was used to remove
spots from clothing, furniture, and carpeting. Because
CC14 does not burn, it was also used in fire
extinguishers. These uses were discontinued in the mid-
1960s. Until recently, CC14 was used to fumigate grain,
but this was stopped in 1986.
CC14 is very stable and, therefore, remains in the
environment. Although it is broken down by chemical
reactions in air, this happens so slowly that it takes
between 30 and 100 years for one-half of the original
amount of CC14 to be destroyed.
How might exposure to carbon tetrachloride
occur?

Past and present releases of CC14 have resulted in low levels
of this compound being dispersed throughout the
environment. In air, concentrations of 0.1 parts per billion
(ppb) are common around the world, with somewhat higher
values (0.2 to 0.6 ppb) in cities. The term "parts per billion"
is a way of expressing the concentration of a contaminant in
a liquid or air. One part per billion is equal to one inch in a
distance of about sixteen thousand miles, or a penny in ten
million dollars, a very small amount. CC14 is also found in
some drinking water supplies, usually below 0.5 ppb.
Exposure to levels of CC14 higher than these typical
background levels may occur at industrial locations where CC14
is still used or near waste sites where releases into air, water,
or soil are not properly controlled. Exposure from such sites
could occur by breathing CC14 in air, by drinking water
contaminated with CC14, or by getting contaminated soil on
the skin. CC14 has been found in water or soil at about 7%
of the waste sites investigated under Superfund> at
concentrations from less than 50 to over 1,000 ppb.
June 1992
How can carbon tetrachloride affect
human health?

Exposure to high levels of CC14 can cause a
number of harmful health effects, including
death. The most immediate health effects
usually involve the brain. Common effects are
headaches and dizziness, along with nausea and
vomiting. In severe cases, stupor or even coma
may result. These effects usually disappear
within a day or two following exposure, but
permanent damage to nerve cells may occur in
severe cases.

The liver is especially sensitive to CC14. In mild
cases, the liver becomes swollen and tender, and
fat tends to build up inside the tissue. In severe
cases, many cells may be killed, leading to
decreased liver function.

The kidneys are also sensitive to CC14, with the
main effect being a decrease in urine formation.
This can lead to accumulation of water in the
body (especially in the lungs) and buildup of
waste products in the blood. Kidney failure is
often the main cause of death in people who die
as a result of exposure to CC14.

Fortunately, if injuries to the liver and kidneys
are not too severe, these effects disappear once
exposure ceases. This is because both organs
can repair damaged cells and replace dead
tissue. Function is often nearly normal within
a few days or weeks following exposure. CC14
also causes harm to other tissues in the body,
but this is not usually as important as the effects
on the liver, kidneys, and brain. Limited
information from animal studies indicates that
CC14 does not cause birth defects, but might
decrease the survival rate of newborn animals.
Most information on the health effects of CC14
in humans stems from cases in which individuals
have been exposed only once or for a short
period of time to relatively high levels of the
chemical. Studies of the effects of long-term
exposure to low levels of CC14 on humans have
not been performed and the effects of such
exposures are unknown.
-------
Is there a medical test to identify carbon
tetracWoride exposure?

Several very sensitive and specific tests can detect
CC14 in exposed persons. The most convenient
way is simply to measure CC14 in exhaled air; CC14
can also be measured in the blood, fat, or other
tissues. Because special equipment is needed,
these tests are not routinely performed in doctors'
offices. Although these tests can identify exposure
to CCl^ the test results cannot yet be used to
predict harmful health effects. Because CC14 is
removed from the body fairly quickly, these
methods are best suited to detection of exposures
that have occurred within the past several days.
How can carbon tetracWoride enter and
leave the body?

Carbon tetrachloride can enter the body through
the lungs by breathing air containing CC14, or
through the stomach by swallowing food or water
containing CC14. Liquid CC14 can also pass
through the skin into the body. Most CC14 is
exhaled through the lungs within a few hours.
Some CCJ4 in the body is temporarily absorbed by
fat, and is then removed more slowly by the lungs.

What recommendations has the federal
government made to protect human
health?

The federal government has limited or banned the
use of CC14 in most common household products
and fire extinguishers, and has discontinued its use
as a grain fiimigant. The U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency (EPA) has also set limits on the
amount of CC14 released from an industrial plant
into waste water, and is preparing to set limits on
the amounts of CC14 released into outside air.
One additional case of cancer may result in a
group of 100,000 people exposed to CC14 in
concentrations above 4 parts per billion in air or
water over a period of 70 years.
What levels of exposure have resulted
in harmful health effects?

Not all people are affected equally by exposure to
CC14. Individuals who drink alcohol are usually
much more susceptible than people who do not.
Most serious or fatal cases of CC14 tenacity have
involved people who have had several alcoholic
drinks before or during exposure to CC14.
GLOSSARY !

Background Levels: ^Hie concentration of
any s«bstanc¥"wJuc6, would normally be
found in an area. This fevel is used as a
basis of comparison to identifying
contamination levels.
~V.< 1.1.1. j l.^-"* "&''&&' '''' i,w
Fumigant: Substance producing fuitteS used
to disinfect of i> 'destroy pesfc.
Superfund Program: Tjoe program operated
under'"the "legislative authority 'of the
Compifefiensiv& Environmental Response,
Compensation and UabUity ^Act of 1980
(CERCLA), as amende|>y t&e Sopetfund
Amendments and ReauChoriza.tion Act of
i98S (SARA) thai,fi»nds thi EPA solid
wastfe emergency and long-term removal and
remedial aetiyt&es.^ " "_ - '""'"f "\,
'' " ^---i^ , •.fVt " -,^X / m"" ,'
Toxicity: "1TCbe degVe© to wnict & substance
acts as a^ poison. ,„,'''', •'' •.-*•""• ';; '""
'%,?'
For more information about Carbon
Tetrachloride, please contact EPA at the
following address:

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
ATTN: Superfund Hotline
401M Street, S.W.
Washington, D.C. 20460
1-800-424-9346 or 1-800-535-0202
contained in this fact sheet was compiled from the Theological Profile, for Carbon Tetrachlonde, Agency for Toxic
y, U.S. Public Health Service, in collaboration with the US. Environmental Protection Agency, December
fo«rf/ « «te inyact of hazardous wastes on human health,- however, EPA does evaluate these «npacts on the
environment, Includingplants and animals.
-------
EPA
Chloroform
June 1992
What is chloroform?

Chloroform is a colorless liquid with a pleasant
odor. It is both a naturally-occurring and a man-
made compound, or combination, of several
chemicals. Most of the chloroform manufactured
in the United States (93%) is used to make
fluorocarbon-22, which is used in the production
of fluoropolymers and as a cooling fluid in air
conditioners. It is also used in the manufacture of
pesticides and dyes, and in such products as fire
extinguishers, dry cleaning spot removers, and
various solvents.
How might exposure to chloroform occur?

Chloroform released to soil will either vaporize rapidly
from the surface or leach readily through the soil,
eventually entering groundwater. It is believed to persist
for relatively long periods of time in groundwater.
Exposure to chloroform can result from breathing air or
ingesting drinking water, beverages, or foods
contaminated with chloroform. Exposure may also occur
during skin contact with various consumer products
containing this compound or from exposure to
chlorinated waters, for example, bath water and
swimming pool water.

The primary sources of chloroform release to the
environment are pulp and paper mills, drug and chemical
manufacturing plants, chlorinated wastewater from
sewage treatment plants, and chlorinated drinking water.
Pulp and paper mills emit more chloroform to the
environment than any other single source. Most of the
chloroform released to the environment eventually enters
the atmosphere. Once in the atmosphere, chloroform
may be transported long distances before ultimately
being degraded by photochemical reaction. Much smaller
amounts enter groundwater as the result of filtration
through the soil. Chloroform leaches into groundwater
primarily from spills, landfills, and industrial sources.
Chloroform in soil may come from improper land
disposal of waste materials containing chloroform or
other chlorine-containing compounds that are broken
down to form chloroform.
How does chloroform enter the body?

Chloroform can enter the body by breathing air, eating
food, or drinking water that contains chloroform.
Chloroform readily penetrates the skin, therefore,
chloroform may also enter the body by bathing in water
containing chloroform. Foods such as dairy products,
seafood, meat, vegetables, bread, and beverages may
contain small, but measurable, amounts of chloroform.
Drinking-water supplies containing organic
contaminants may contain chloroform as a by-product
of chlorination of the water supply for disinfection
purposes.

Is there a medical test to identify
chloroform exposure?

Chloroform can be detected in blood, urine, and body
tissues; however, because chloroform is rapidly
eliminated from the body, these methods are not very
reliable. In addition, the presence of chloroform may
have resulted from the biological breakdown of other
chlorine compounds. An elevated level of chloroform
may reflect exposure to these other compounds.
How can chloroform affect human
health?

Chloroform affects the central nervous system,
liver, and kidneys. It was once used as a surgical
anesthetic before its harmful effects on the liver
and kidneys were recognized. Short-term
exposure to high concentrations of chloroform in
the air causes tiredness, dizziness, and headaches.
Longer-term exposure to high levels of
chloroform can affect liver and kidney function.
Toxic effects may include jaundice and burning
urination. High doses of chloroform have also
been found to cause liver and kidney cancer in
experimental animals. The risks of cancer, if
any, from low-level exposures to chloroform in
drinking water as a result of chlorination,
however, are far outweighed by the benefits of
chlorination in terms of the greatly decreased
incidence of waterbome diseases.
-------
What levels of exposure have resulted in
harmful health effects?

Based on available data for animals, the U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has
estimated that exposure to 1 part per billion (ppb)
chloroform in air may result in 2.3 additional cases
of cancer in a population of 100,000 people
exposed over a period of 70 years. Exposure to
drinking water containing 10 ppb chloroform may
result in 17 additional cases of cancer in a
population of 100,000 people exposed over a
period of 70 years. The term "parts per billion" is
a way of expressing the concentration of a
contaminant in a liquid or air. One part per
billion Is equal to one inch in a distance of about
sixteen thousand miles (or a penny in ten million
dollars), a very small amount

What recommendations has the federal
government made to protect human
health?

EPA sets rules for the amount of chloroform
allowed in water. EPA has established a drinking
water Maximum Contaminant Level (MCL) for
total trihalomethanes, a group of chemicals which
includes chloroform, of 0.1 ppm as a technically
and economically feasible level for municipal water
supplies which serve 10,000 people or more. In
addition, the Agency requires that chloroform
spills of 10 pounds or more be reported to the
National Response Center.

What are the methods of treatment and
disposal of chloroform?

EPA requires that individuals who generate,
transport, treat; store, or dispose of this compound
comply with the regulations of the Resource
Conservation and Recovery Act One method used
to dispose of chloroform involves sedimentation
followed by filtration and adsorption onto activated
carbon. Chloroform can be disposed of by
incineration, preferably after it is mixed with
another combustible fuel.
f f f •*••%_, > .v.x f
Adsorption: A lament method which t
-------
EPA Facts About
Chromium
June 1992
What is chromium?

Chromium is a naturally occurring element found in
soil and in volcanic dust and gases. It exists in three
forms: metallic chromium (chromium(O)), trivalent
chromium (chromium(III)), and hexavalent chromium
(chromium(VT)). Trivalent chromium occurs naturally
in the environment; hexavalent chromium and metallic
chromium are generally produced by industrial
processes. Metallic chromium is a steel-gray solid.
Chromium is used mainly for making steel and other
alloys. The mineral chromite is used by the refractory
industry to make bricks for metal smelting furnaces.
Chromium compounds are used for chrome plating,
the manufacture of pigments, leather tanning, and
wood treatment.
How might exposure to chromium occur?
Exposure to small amounts of chromium results from
breathing air and ingesting water and food containing this
chemical. Chromium has been found in approximately 815
of 1,300 hazardous waste sites on the National Priorities List
(NPL). Much higher exposure occurs for people working in
certain chromium industries and those who smoke cigarettes.

The two largest sources of chromium emissions into the
atmosphere are from the chemical manufacturing industry
and combustion of natural gas, oil, and coal. Other sources
of chromium exposure are: cement plants; asbestos brake
linings from automobiles or similar sources of wind-carried
asbestos; incineration of municipal refuse and sewage sludge;
and exhaust emissions from catalytic converters in
automobiles. Emissions from air conditioning cooling towers
that use chromium compounds as rust inhibitors; wastewaters
from electroplating, leather tanning, and textile industries;
solid wastes from the manufacture of chromium compounds;
and ashes from municipal incineration when disposed of
improperly in landfill sites constitute additional sources of
chromium.
How does chromium enter the body?
Most chromium enters the body through the diet. Some
exposure occurs from breathing air or drinking water
contaminated with chromium; however, exposure from these
sources is normally small compared to intake in food.
Chromium exposure from breathing chromium may increase
for people breathing air near industrial sites where chromate,
a form of chromic acid, is produced or used. Exposure may
also increase by drinking water which has passed through
steel alloy pipes containing chromium.

Is there a medical test to identify chromium
exposure?

Trivalent and hexavalent chromium can be measured in the
hair, urine, blood serum, and red blood cells. However,
because trivalent chromium is normally present at low levels
in these tissues and fluids, measurements for chromium are
not very useful in determining slight elevations in chromium
exposure over the low levels normally present in the
environment. With relatively high exposure levels (usually
occupational), chromium levels in the urine and red blood
cells can provide indications of exposure to compounds of
hexavalent chromium, but not to trivalent chromium
compounds.
How does chromium affect human health?

Chromium is considered an essential nutrient that
helps maintain the normal metabolism of glucose,
cholesterol, and fat. Signs of chromium deficiency
include weight loss and impairment of the body's
ability to remove glucose from the blood.

Short-term high-level exposure to hexavalent
chromium can result in adverse effects at the point of
contact, such as ulcers of the skin, perforation of the
nasal septum, and irritation of the nasal mucous
membrane and gastrointestinal tract. Hexavalent
chromium may also cause adverse effects in the
kidneys and liver. Trivalent chromium does not
result in these effects and is the form that is thought
to be an essential food nutrient. Most chromium in
food is trivalent. Metallic chromium exposure is less
common and information concerning potential health
effects is not well-developed.

Long-term exposure of workers to elevated levels of
chromium in the air has been associated with lung
cancer. Lung cancer may occur long after exposure
to chromium has ended. Although it is not clear
which form of chromium is responsible for this effect
in workers, only hexavalent chromium compounds
have been found to cause cancer in animal studies.
-------
What levels of exposure have resulted in
harmful health effects?

Based on occupational exposure data for
hexavalent chromium compounds, the U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) estimates
that lifetime exposure to 1 part per million (ppm)
of hexavalent chromium in air could result in 1,200
additional cases of cancer in a population of
100,000 people. The term "parts per million" is a
way of expressing the concentration of a
contaminant in a liquid or air. One part per
million is equal to one inch in a distance of about
sixteen miles (or a penny in ten thousand dollars),
a very small amount.

The known health effects from ingesting foods
containing chromium indicate that a single dose of
a hexavalent chromium compound is more toxic
(causes death at a lower exposure level) than a
single dose of a trivalent chromium compound.
Long-term exposure of animals to chromium
compounds, particularly trivalent chromium
compounds, in drinking water or food, has not
resulted in any adverse effects. The known health
effects from absorbing chromium through the skin
indicate that the most common effect of skin
exposure to chromium is skin allergy in sensitive
individuals.
What recommendations has the federal
government made to protect human
health?

EPA has established a level of total chromium of
0.1 ppm as the current drinking water regulation.
The Agency requires industry to report discharges
or spills of 1 pound or more of chromium and
1,000 pounds or more or various chromium
compounds.
What is the method of treatment and
disposal of chromium?

Approximately 15% of chromium used in the
metal industry is recycled, largely from stainless
steel scrap. Large amounts of chromium-
containing wastewaters are discharged into surface
waters. Very little is known about disposal
methods for other chromium processes such as
refractory materials used in metal smelting
furnaces and chemical industries producing such
products as chromium-containing pigments.
GLOSSARY

Emissions: 'Release Of discharge of jtumes*
dast or participates into the air,

Gastrointestinal Tract: That portion of the
digestive system made up of the stomach and
the intestines,

Metabolism: A chemical and physical
process in which substances (such as
glucose) are transformed into energy and
waste products.

National Priorities List (NPL): EPA's Hslof
the uflcontrolfed or abandoned hazardous
waste sites identified for possible long-term
remedial action under the Superfund
Program.

Superfund Program: The program operated
under the legislative authority of the
Comprehensive Environmental Response,
Compensation and Liability Act of 1980
(CERCLA), as amended by the Superfund
Amendments and Reauthorization Act of
198$ (SARA) that funds the EPA solid
waste emergency and long-term removal and
remedial activities.
For more information about Chromium,
please contact EPA at the following address:

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
ATTN: Superfund Hotline
401 M Street, S.W.
Washington, D.C. 20460
1-800-424-9346 or 1-800-535-0202
The information contained in this fact sheet was compiled from the ToxJcological Profile for Chromium. Agency for Toxic Substances and
Difcase RegUtiy, U.S. Public Health Service, in collaboration with the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, October, 1987. This fact
ibett focuses on the Impact of hazardous wastes on human health; however, EPA does evaluate these impacts on the environment, including
plants and animals.
-------
EPA
June 1992
What is copper?

Copper is a reddish metal that occurs naturally in
rock, soil, water, sediment, and air. It is an
essential element for all living organisms, including
humans and other animals. Copper also occurs
naturally in plants.

It is most commonly seen in the United States
penny, electrical wiring, and some water pipes. It
is also found in many alloys, such as brass and
bronze. Many compounds, or combinations, of
copper exist. The most commonly used compound
of copper is copper sulfate. Many copper
compounds can be recognized by their blue-green
color.

Copper is extensively mined and processed and is
primarily used as copper metal or alloy in the
manufacture of wire, sheet metal, pipe, and other
metal products. Copper compounds are most
commonly used in agriculture to treat plant
diseases, such as mildew; for water treatment; and
as preservatives for wood, leather, and fabrics.
How can copper affect human health?

Copper is necessary for good health; however, very large
daily intakes of copper can be harmful. Long-term
exposure to copper dust can irritate the nose, mouth, and
eyes, and cause headaches, dizziness, nausea, and diarrhea.
Vomiting, diarrhea, stomach cramps, and nausea may
occur following ingestion of water containing high levels
of copper. Large amounts of copper can cause liver and
kidney damage, and even death. Very young children are
more sensitive to copper toxicity. Long-term exposure to
high levels of copper in food or water may cause liver
damage or death. Copper is not known to cause cancer.

How can copper enter and leave the body?
Copper can enter the body through ingestion of water or
food, soil, or other substances that contain copper. It
may also enter the lungs through inhalation of air
containing copper dust, copper fumes, or other particles.
The body is very good at blocking high levels of copper
from entering the bloodstream. Following ingestion of
high levels of copper, vomiting or diarrhea may result;
this prevents copper from entering the blood. Ingested
copper is excreted from the body within several days.
Little data is available concerning exposure through the
lungs or skin.
How might exposure to copper occur?

The largest release of copper, by far, is to land. The
major sources of release are mining operations,
agriculture, solid waste, and sludge from municipal
treatment works. Copper is released to water as a
result of natural weathering of soil and discharges
from industries and sewage treatment plants. Much
of this copper is attached to dust and other
particles in the air.

Most copper compounds found in air, water,
sediment, soil, and rock are so strongly attached to
dust and dirt or imbedded in minerals that they
cannot easily affect health. Copper found at
hazardous waste sites is likely to be of this form.
Some copper in the environment is less tightly
bound to particles and may be absorbed by plants
and animals. Dissolved copper compounds that are
most commonly used in agriculture, are more likely
to threaten human health.

Exposure to high levels of dissolved copper can
result from drinking contaminated water. This is
because copper is picked up from copper pipes and
brass faucets when the water sits in the pipes
overnight. The average concentration of copper in
tap water ranges from 20 to 75 parts of copper per
billion parts of water (ppb). The term "parts per
billion" is a way of expressing the concentration of
a contaminant in a liquid or air. One part per
billion is equal to one inch in a distance of about
sixteen thousand miles (or a penny in ten million
dollars), a very small amount.
-------
What levels of exposure to copper have
resulted in harmful health effects?

The levels of copper in air that can result in harmful
health effects in humans are not known. Exposure to low
levels of copper in air affects the lungs of animals.

Copper can usually be tasted in drinking water at levels
below those which cause adverse health effects. Ingestion
of excessive amounts of copper in water may result in
vomiting, diarrhea, and stomach cramps. Drinking water
contaminated with high levels of copper may have
harmful health effects on infants at levels lower than
those for adults. High levels of copper in drinking water
or food have been shown to cause liver and kidney
damage in animals.
Is there a medical test to identify copper
exposure?

There are reliable and accurate ways to measure copper
in the body. It can be measured in the urine and blood.
Blood plasma or urine samples can be collected in a
doctor's office and sent to a laboratory for analysis using
special equipment to measure copper levels. However,
such measurements cannot predict the extent of exposure
or the potential health effects.
What recommendations has the federal
government made to protect human
health?

The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has
determined that the level of copper in surface water
(rivers, lakes, streams, etc.) should be limited to one part
per million (ppm) to protect the public from the toxic
properties of copper ingested through water and
contaminated aquatic organisms. EPA has also
determined that copper levels in drinking water should
not exceed 1.3 ppm. EPA has developed regulations
controlling the amount of copper released by industry.
What are the methods of treatment and
disposal of copper?

An estimated 60% of all copper in scrap materials is
recycled. Copper or copper compounds not recycled are
disposed of in landfills, or released into wastewater.
Copper-containing sludge generated by wastewater
treatment facilities is disposed of by landfilling,
landspreading, incineration, or ocean disposal.
Copper Dust:
mair.'"
Solid particle^ of copper suspended
Copper Fume: Oaseotis form of copper which can
en.iter the atmosphere.

Landspreading: A disposal technique in which
liquid or solid contaminated materials are applied
to the surface of the ground. Sunlight and bacterial
action theft breakdown the , contaminant.
Landspreading is one alternative to land0Iling.

Superjund Program: The program operated under
the legislative authority of the Comprehensive
Environmental Response, Compensation and
Liability Act of 1980 (CERCLA), as amended by
the Superfund Amendments and Reauthorfaatfan
Act of 1986 (SARA) that funds the EPA solid
waste emergency and long*te«n removal and
remedial activities.
For more information about Copper, please
contact EPA at the following address:

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
ATTN: Superjund Hotline
401 M Street, S.W.
Washington, D.C. 20460
1-800-424-9346 or 1-800-535-0202
The information contained in this fact sheet was compiled from the Toxicological Profile for Copper. Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry,
U.S. Public Health Service, in collaboration with the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, December, 1990. This fact sheet focuses on the impact
of hazardous wastes on human health; however, EPA does evaluate these impacts on the environment, including plants and animals.
-------
June 1992
What is cyanide?

Cyanides are both man-made and naturally
occurring substances. They are found in
combination with other chemicals. Of these
combinations, or compounds, those with which
people are most likely to come into contact are
hydrogen cyanide, sodium cyanide, and potassium
cyanide. Hydrogen cyanide is a colorless gas or
liquid with a faint, bitter odor. Sodium cyanide
and potassium cyanide are both colorless solids
that have a slightly bitter odor.
How can cyanide affect human health?

Cyanide, in the form of vitamin B12 (cyanocobalamin),
is needed as part of a healthy diet to prevent iron poor
blood, or anemia.

The harmful effects of cyanide may vary from person to
person, depending upon such factors as general health,
family traits, age, and sex. Short-term exposure to high
levels of cyanide harms the central nervous, respiratory,
and cardiovascular systems. Such exposures can also
cause coma or death. Brief exposures to lower levels
can result in rapid, deep breathing; shortness of breath;
convulsions; and loss of consciousness. These effects
disappear with time because cyanide does not remain in
the body. In some cases, quick medical treatment can
revive a person who has been poisoned by cyanide.

Skin contact with the dust of certain cyanide compounds
can cause skin irritation and ulcerations. Ingestion of
food containing low levels of cyanide over an extended
period has resulted in damage to the nervous system
and thyroid gland.

Effects on the nervous system believed to stem from
long-term exposure to cyanide include deafness, vision
problems, and loss of muscle coordination. Effects on
the thyroid gland can cause cretinism, or enlargement
and overactivity of the gland.
How might exposure to cyanide occur?

Exposure to cyanide stems from environmental,
occupational, and consumer product sources. The
single largest source of cyanide in the air is vehicle
exhaust. Other sources of release to the air may include
emissions from chemical processing industries, steel and
iron industries, metal plating and finishing industries,
and petroleum refineries. Cyanides may also be
released from municipal waste incinerators, from landfill
wastes, and during the use of cyanide-containing
pesticides. Cyanides are released when certain types of
plastics, silk, wool, and paper are burned. Smokers are
exposed to larger amounts of cyanide than nonsmokers.

The major sources of cyanide release to water are
discharges from wastewater treatment works, iron and
steel production plants, and organic chemical industries.
Much smaller amounts of cyanide may enter water
through storm-water runoff in locations where cyanide-
containing road salts are used. Groundwater can be
contaminated by cyanide from landfills as it passes
downward through the soil. The largest sources of
cyanide releases to soil are probably the disposal of
cyanide wastes in landfills and the use of road salts.
Cyanide has been found in approximately 366 of the
1,300 sites on the National Priorities List (NPL).
How does cyanide get into the body?

Cyanide can enter the body through inhaling air
containing hydrogen cyanide vapor or dust
containing cyanide compounds. This may be a
common exposure route for individuals who work
with the chemical, and for those who smoke. It is
probably also an exposure route for those who
live near industrial and commercial areas where
large amounts of the compound are used or
disposed of at waste sites. Cyanide can also enter
the body through ingestion of food or water
tainted with cyanide. Although exposure to
cyanide through contact with the skin can occur,
it is not common outside the workplace.
-------
Is there a medical test to identify cyanide
exposure?

Blood and urine levels of cyanide and thiocyanate, a
compound produced from cyanide, can be measured.
Because these compounds are always found in the body,
these measurements are only useful when exposure to
large amounts of cyanide has occurred.
What levels of exposure have resulted in
harmful health effects?

Inhalation of cyanide quickly causes harmful health
effects. Exposure at a level of 110 parts per million
(ppm) can cause death within 30 minutes. The term
"parts per million" is a way of expressing the
concentration of a contaminant in a liquid or air. One
part per million is equal to one inch in a distance of
about sixteen miles (or a penny in ten thousand
dollars), a very small amount. Levels of about 18 ppm
may cause headaches, weakness, and nausea. Animal
deaths have been reported at exposure levels ranging
from 20 ppm for 4.5 hours to 503 ppm for 5 minutes.

Only limited, long-term exposure information is
available. Nervous system effects have been seen in
dogs exposed to hydrogen cyanide at 45 ppm for 30
minutes a day for up to 22 weeks. Information
concerning health effects stemming from eating cyanide
is also limited. Short-term exposures resulting from
suicides and suicide attempts have been reported.
Ingcstion of very small amounts of cyanide has been
fatal.
What recommendations has the federal
government made to protect human health?

The government has made recommendations to protect
the general public from cyanide exposure in food and in
the workplace. Hydrogen cyanide is sometimes used to
treat food after it is harvested to prevent pest damage.
The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) permits
levels of cyanide in food ranging from 25 ppm in dried
beans, peas, and nuts to 250 ppm in spices. The
proposed Maximum Contaminant Level for hydrogen
cyanide in drinking water is 0.2 ppm.
What are the methods of treatment and
disposal of cyanide?

The most widely used method for treating cyanides is
alkaline chlorination. This process converts cyanide
solution to less toxic cyanate. Other treatment
techniques include large-scale outdoor burning
(following special precautions); ozonation; and
decomposition to less toxic compounds through physical
or chemical processes. Following these treatments,
cyanide wastes are disposed of in a secured sanitary
landfill.
GLOSSARY

Cretinism: A congenital deficiency of the thyroid
gland resulting In physical deformities and mental
deficiencies*

Exposure Route: The way in which people come
into cdtttact witK a substance. The main routes
are ingestion, inhalation, and absorption through
the skin.

Maximum Contaminant Level: EPA evaluates the
health risks associated' with various contaminant
levels to ensure that public health is adequately
protected. The MCL, as they are commonly
known, is the maximum allowable concentration
of a specific contaminant in public drinking water.

National Priorities List (NPL): "EPA'S list of
uncontrolled or abandoned hazardous waste sites
identified for possible long-term clean-up under
the Superfiind Program.
For more information about cyanide, please
contact EPA at the following address:

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
ATTN: Superjund Hotline
401M Street, S.W.
Washington, D.C. 20460
1-800-424-9346 or 1-800-535-0202
The Information contained in this fact sheet was compiled from the Toxicological Profile for Cyanide. Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease
Registry, U.S. Public Health Service, in collaboration with the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. This fact sheet focuses on the impact of hazardous
wastes on human health; however, EPA does evaluate these impacts on the environment, including plants and animals.
-------
EPA
1,1 Dichloroethene
June 1992
What is 1,1-dichloroethene (DCE)?

Dichloroethene (DCE), a man-made chemical
also known as vinylidene chloride, is used to
make certain plastic wraps and flame-retardant
fabrics. It is a clear, colorless liquid that
evaporates quickly at room temperature and has
a mild, sweet smell.

DCE is also found as a by-product of other
chemicals. Although high amounts of DCE in
soil and water will quickly escape into the air,
small amounts will remain and are broken down.
How long it will remain in soil and water is
unknown. DCE breaks down quickly in the air;
releases into the atmosphere are estimated to be
degraded by the sun in about two days.
How might exposure to DCE occur?

DCE may be released into the environment in the air
and water coming from factories where it is made, at
hazardous waste sites where it has been dumped, and
from accidental spills.

In addition to these high exposures, low-level exposures
may occur in the environment. DCE is found in very
low amounts in indoor and outdoor air, estimated at
less than one part per trillion (ppt). The term "parts
per trillion" is a way of expressing the concentration of
a contaminant in a liquid or air. One part per trillion
is equal to one inch in a distance of about sixteen
million miles (or a penny in ten billion dollars), a very
small amount. Therefore, the potential for exposure in
the environment is extremely low.

The amount of DCE in the air near production sources
is unknown. In air around waste sites, DCE amounts
range from 0.39 to 36.4 parts per billion (ppb). Levels
of DCE in air around waste sites are usually much
lower than those that affect the health of laboratory
animals. DCE was found at approximately 16% of all
hazardous waste sites tested by the U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency (EPA) andjs found at approximately
432 of the 1,300 National Priorities List (NPL)
hazardous waste sites.
A small percentage (3%) of the drinking water sources in
the U.S. have been found to contain low amounts of DCE
(0.2-0.5 ppb). These amounts are very low when compared
with levels expected to affect human health. Levels in
groundwater samples taken from hazardous waste sites
where DCE was found averaged 1.38 parts per million
(ppm).

How can DCE enter and leave the body?

DCE can easily enter the body through the lungs as an air
pollutant or through the digestive tract in contaminated
food or water. DCE probably also enters the body through
the skin. This assumption is based on (1) its physical and
chemical properties, (2) the fact that similar chemicals are
known to be absorbed through the skin, and (3) the
occurrence of toxic effects in animals after DCE was
applied to their skin. The most common means of DCE
exposure is breathing contaminated air.

Research on animals indicates that within hours of
exposure, DCE begins to leave the body through the lungs.
DCE remaining in the body is broken down into other
substances and removed through the kidneys within two
days. Low to moderate levels inhaled or ingested leave the
body mainly as breakdown products in the urine. As the
levels of DCE exposure increase, more and more leaves the
body in exhaled breath. DCE is not stored in the body
following moderate exposure.
How can DCE affect human health?
The health effects of DCE on humans are unknown.
In animal studies, high amounts of DCE have caused
liver, kidney, heart, and lung damage; nervous system
disorders; and death after short exposures. Liver
damage has also been seen in cases of prolonged
exposure. The amount of damage depends on the
level of exposure and the length of time exposed.
Exposure by breathing DCE appears to be more
harmful to animals than through food or water.

Harmful effects on the developing fetus of pregnant
animals which had inhaled this chemical have been
seen. An increased risk of cancer has been shown in
animals exposed to DCE. EPA considers it to be a
possible cancer-causing substance in humans.
-------
Is there a medical test to identify DCE
exposure?

DCE can be measured in the breath, blood, urine, and
body tissues of exposed individuals. However, only
relatively high levels of DCE can be detected in body
tissues and fluids using currently available techniques.
Because breath samples are easily collected, tests of
exhaled air are now the most common way to identify
exposure to high levels of DCE. Other medical tests
can measure breakdown products of the chemical in the
blood and urine. Because DCE leaves the body fairly
quickly, these methods are best for identifying recent
exposures. Measured levels in the body may not reflect
exposure to DCE alone, since exposure to DCE at
hazardous waste sites is likely to include exposure to
other organic compounds that produce similar
breakdown products.
What leveb of exposure have resulted in
harmful health effects?

Except for loss of breath, fainting, and nervous system
disorders like drunkenness that result from exposure to
high amounts of DCE in a closed space, there are few
medical reports which document ill health effects.

Animal studies indicate that the normal actions of the
liver, kidney, lungs, heart, and blood can be affected by
DCE exposure. Harmful effects begin to occur at levels
of 15 ppm following 5 days of exposure. Animals
exposed to DCE levels of 98 ppm for 7 days have died.
Animals which had very large amounts of DCE placed
in their stomachs developed liver disease; some died.
Those fed small amounts in drinking water over a
period of months to years also developed liver disease.
What recommendations has the federal
government made to protect human health?

Current EPA requirements limit DCE in drinking water
to 7 ppm and mandate the reporting of all releases
exceeding 5,000 pounds. Work is now underway by
EPA to measure the levels of DCE at abandoned waste
sites.
The Food and Drug Administration (FDA) regulates the
use of plastic packaging films. The FDA does not consider
the low levels of DCE found in foods wrapped in these
films to be a health risk to the consumer.
What are the methods of treatment and disposal
of DCE?

DCE is classified as a flammable liquid hazardous waste.
Current disposal regulations require that DCE be dissolved
in combustible solvents and scatter-sprayed into a furnace
equipped with an afterburner and alkaline scrubber.
Significant revision of the criteria for land treatment and
burial is underway.
GLOSSARY

Breakdown Products: $fosf contaminants are
combinations of specific substances. Contaminants
are degraded, or separated, into these individual
substances through chemical or physical means.
National Priorities List (NPL): EPA% list of
uncontrolled or abandoned hazardous waste sites
identified for possible long-term clean-up under the
Superftmd Program.

Toxic: Acting as a poisonous or hazardous substance;
having poisonous or harmful qualities.
For more information about DCE, please contact
EPA at the following address:

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
ATTN: Superfund Hotline
401 M Street, S.W.
Washingion, D.C. 20460
1-800-424-9346 or 1-800-535-0202
The infonnition conuined in this fact sheet was compiled from the Toxicological Profile for Dichloroethene. Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry,
U.S. Public Health Service, in collaboration with the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, December, 1989. This fact sheet focuses on the impact of
hazardous wastes on human health; however, EPA does evaluate these impacts on the environment, including plants and animals.
-------
EPAF
D/ax/n
June 1992
What is dioxin?

Chlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins are a class of
compounds referred to as dioxins. There are 75
possible forms of dioxin. One of these, containing
four chlorine atoms, is called 2,3,7,8-
tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (2,3,7,8-TCDD) and is the
most toxic form of dioxin. It is a colorless solid with
no known odor. 2,3,7,8-TCDD does not occur
naturally, nor is it intentionally manufactured by
industry.
How might exposure to dioxin occur?

Important environmental sources of dioxin are the use of
herbicides; in wood preservatives; pulp and paper
manufacturing plants; incineration of municipal and certain
industrial wastes; and transformer or capacitor fires
involving chlorinated benzenes and biphenyls.

Although 2,4,5-T, 2,4,5-trichlorophenol and
hexachlorophene are no longer produced commercially
(except for certain medical purposes), disposal sites of past
production wastes are sources of present exposure. 2,3,7,8-
TCDD has been found in at least 57 of the 1,300 hazardous
waste sites on the National Priorities List (NPL).

Very low levels have been detected in air surrounding such
activities. 2,3,7,8-TCDD in drinking water has not been
reported; the compound has not been detected in most rural
soils examined, but it can be present in trace amounts in
urban soils. It has been detected in fish caught in
contaminated surface waters. It has also been detected in
human milk, fat, and blood serum; however, the levels of
dioxin considered to be harmful have not yet been
determined.
How can dioxin affect human health?

Exposure to high doses of 2,3,7,8-TCDD can cause
chloracne, a severe skin lesion that usually occurs on the
head and upper body. Chloracne is more disfiguring than
common acne, and often lasts for years after the initial
exposure. There is suggestive evidence that 2,3,7,8-TCDD
may cause liver damage, as indicated by an increase in levels
of certain enzymes in the blood.
Although not demonstrated in humans, animal studies
involving high dioxin dosage levels have shown various
forms oftoxicity. Severe liver damage occurred in some
species. It may cause loss of appetite, weight loss, and
digestive disorders. Animal exposure to the compound
has resulted in severe loss of body weight prior to
death. Animal studies have also revealed that 2,3,7,8-
TCDD produces toxicity to the immune system. Some
animal species exposed during pregnancy have had
offspring with deformities. Although detected in human
milk, the effects on infants and children are unknown.
Both the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)
and the International Agency for Research on Cancer
(IARC) have concluded that 2,3,7,8-TCDD causes
cancer in animals and probably causes cancer in
humans.
Is there a medical test to identify dioxin
exposure?

No common medical test is available to
convincingly demonstrate exposure to 2,3,7,8-
TCDD. It is believed that a blood test to detect
certain enzymes indicating liver damage may be
helpful in determining whether exposure has
occurred; other substances, including alcoholic
beverages, can produce similar results.

Other tests are available that are not commonly
conducted by doctors, but appear to more
adequately indicate dioxin exposure. One test
consists of analysis of a small piece of body fat
removed by a simple surgical procedure. In
another recently developed test, blood serum is
analyzed for the presence of 2,3,7,8-TCDD. The
initial study appears to indicate that the method
is sensitive enough to detect extremely low levels.
If the levels of 2,3,7,8-TCDD are higher than the
determined background range, the test indicates
probable above-average exposure, or exposure
more recent than that of the comparison group.
In addition, detection of 2,3,7,8-TCDD in
mother's milk also indicates exposure; levels in
the milk may provide some indication of whether
exposure is due to background levels or additional
exposure.
-------
How does dioxin enter the body?
The 2^,7,8-TCDD form of dioxin can be adsorbed
through the skin following contact with contaminated
materials such as soil. Ingestion of 2,3,7,8-TCDD can
occur through consumption of contaminated fish,
milk, foodstuffs, and soil. Breathing contaminated air
is also a source of exposure. This exposure route may
contribute very small amounts to total body intake;
partlculatcs such as fly ash from municipal and
industrial incineration may also constitute a source of
exposure. Intake of 2,3,7,8-TCDD from the
consumption of drinking water is considered
negligible,

What recommendations has the federal
government made to protect human health?

The EPA has calculated health advisories (HAs) for
23,7,8-TCDD in drinking water, that is, estimates of
containment levels below which adverse health effects
arc not expected. The 1-day (of exposure) HA is 1
part per trillion (ppt), for a child; the 10-day HA is
0.1 ppt for a child. The longer-term HA is 0.01 ppt
for a child and 0.035 ppt for an adult; the lifetime HA
is also 0.035 ppt for adults. These are very small
amounts. The term "parts per trillion11 is a way of
expressing the concentration of a contaminant in a
liquid or air. One part per trillion is equal to one
inch in a distance of about sixteen million miles (or a
penny in ten billion dollars). EPA has also performed
a risk assessment and found that the amount of 2,3,7,S-
TCDD in surface waters (lakes and rivers) that would
be associated with one additional incidence of cancer
in a population of 100,000 could be as low as 0.13
parts per quadrillion (an extremely small amount),
based on the consumption of contaminated water or
fish.

What are the methods of treatment and
disposal of dioxin?
Incineration at a minimum temperature of 800° to
1,200°C for at least 30- seconds can destroy dioxin.
Stabilization of buried dioxin through the addition of
cement and asphalt materials; biological degradation
(breaking down) with a white rot fungus; and
ultraviolet destruction by light are other techniques
that may have application in the disposal of dioxin.
Other proposed methods achieve stabilization by
placing a protective cap over the contaminated soil.
GLOSSARY
**• "Cv^?4 V ^<- v ,w
Background Range: 'The concentration of any
substance whicn would normally fee found in an
area. This range is used as a basis of
comparison in Identifying contamination levels.

Exposure Route: Th'fway fn which people come
into contact with a substance, The main routes
are Ingestion, Inhalation, and absorption
through the skin,

Ffy Ash: Airborne bits of uabutnable dast of
fine" particles', 'usually associated with
combustion of fossil fuels or incinerators.
Environmental regulations require that By ash
b& captured 1>y air pollution control devices.

National 'Priorities List (NPL): EfA'S tfst'of
uncontrolled or abandoned hazardous waste
sites identified for possible long-term clean-up
under theSuperfund Program.

Risk Assessment: An evaluation process' that
deiettttines the projected health effects caused
by exposure to a specific contaminant based on
(l) an evaluation of the characteristics and
concentration of the contaminant* (2) the
exposure pathways present, (3) the projected
incidence of human exposure, and (4| toxicity
(poisonous) factors.

Toxicity: The degree to which a substance acts
SB a poison.
For more information about Dioxin, please
contact EPA at the following address:

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
ATTN: Superfund Hotline
401M Street, S.W.
Washington, D.C. 20460
1-800-424-9346 or 1-800-535-0202
The information contained in this fact sheet was compiled from the Toricological Profile for Dioxin. Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease
Rcglitry, MS. Public Health Service, in collaboration with the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, June 1989. This fact sheet focuses on the
impact of hazardous wastes on human health; however, EPA does evaluate these impacts on the environment, including plants and animals.
-------
EPAF
Ethyl
enzene
June 1992
What is ethyl benzene?

Ethyl benzene is a colorless liquid that smells like
gasoline. It evaporates at room temperature and
burns easily. Ethyl benzene occurs naturally in coal
tar and petroleum. It is also found in many man-
made products, including paints, inks, gasoline, and
insecticides.
How might exposure to ethyl benzene occur?

Persons living near factories or heavily traveled highways
may be exposed to ethyl benzene in the air. Releases of
ethyl benzene into these areas occur from burning oil, gas,
and coal and from discharges of ethyl benzene from some
factories.

Exposure to ethyl benzene can also occur in the workplace.
Gas and oil workers may be exposed either through contact
with the skin or by breathing ethyl benzene vapors.
Varnish workers, spray painters, and persons involved in
gluing operations may also be exposed to high levels of
ethyl benzene. Exposure may occur in factories that use
ethyl benzene to produce other chemicals.

Many individuals are exposed to small doses of ethyl
benzene in their daily lives. Gasoline is a common source.
Other sources of ethyl benzene exposure stem from its use
as a solvent in pesticides, carpet glues, varnishes and paints,
and from the use of tobacco products.

What levels of exposure have resulted in
harmful health effects?

No reliable data on the effects of ethyl benzene exposure
after eating, drinking, or breathing this chemical or
following direct exposure to the skin are available. Animal
studies have documented eye damage and skin irritation in
rabbits as a result of exposure to liquid ethyl benzene.
Additional animal studies are in progress at federal
research laboratories.
How can ethyl benzene enter and leave
the body?

Exposure via the lungs occurs when air containing
ethyl benzene vapor is inhaled. Food and water
contaminated with ethyl benzene can result in
exposure through the digestive tract. It may also be
absorbed through the skin during contact with
contaminated liquids. Absorption of ethyl benzene
vapors through the skin is not significant. People
living in urban areas or in areas near hazardous
waste sites may be exposed by breathing air or
drinking water contaminated with ethyl benzene.

Once in the body, ethyl benzene is broken down into
other chemicals. Most of it leaves in the urine
within two days. Small amounts can also leave
through the lungs and in bodily wastes. Liquid ethyl
benzene which enters through the skin is also
broken down.
How can ethyl benzene affect human
health?

Short-term exposure to low levels of ethyl
benzene in the air for short periods of time
has caused eye and throat irritation. Exposure
to higher levels has caused more severe effects
such as decreased movement and dizziness.
No studies have reported fatalities following
exposure to ethyl benzene. However, evidence
from animal studies suggests that it can cause
death at very high concentrations. Short-term
exposure of laboratory animals to high
concentrations of ethyl benzene in air may
cause liver and kidney damage, nervous system
changes, and changes in the blood. Birth
defects have occurred in newborn animals
whose mothers were exposed by breathing air
contaminated with ethyl benzene. The
seriousness of these effects appears to increase
with higher exposure levels.
-------
Is there a medical test to identify ethyl
benzene exposure?

Ethyl benzene is found in the blood, urine, breath,
and some body tissues of exposed individuals. Urine
is most commonly tested to identify exposure to ethyl
benzene. The test measures the presence of
substances formed following exposure to ethyl
benzene. Because these substances leave the body
very quickly, the test must be performed within a few
hours of exposure. Although this test can identify
exposure to ethyl benzene, it cannot yet be used to
predict the kind of health effects that might develop
as a result of that exposure.
What are the methods of treatment and
disposal of ethyl benzene?

Disposal methods for ethyl benzene are rotary kiln
incineration liquid injection incineration andfluidized
bed incineration- Ethyl benzene can also be
concentrated, that is, the waste volume can be
reduced, through biological treatment, chemical
precipitation, air and steam stripping, solvent
extraction, or activated carbon treatment. Each of
these treatment forms reduces the amount of
contaminated material which must then be disposed
of in a landfill. Waste ethyl benzene solvents and
residues from the recovery of these solvents are
designated hazardous wastes and are subject to EPA
handling and recordkeeping requirements.
What recommendations has the federal
government made to protect human
health?

The Environmental Protection Agency's (EPA's) Maximum
Contaminant Level for ethyl benzene in drinking water
supplies is 0.7 parts per million (ppm). The Maximum
Contaminant Level is the highest acceptable concentration
of a specific contaminant in drinking water. The term
"parts per million* is a way of expressing the concentration
of a contaminant in a liquid or air. One part per million
is equal to one inch in a distance of about sixteen miles (or
a penny in ten thousand dollars), a very small amount.
This value is for lifetime exposure and is not expected to
increase the risk of (noncancer) health effects. EPA also
recommends that no fish or water from a body of water
containing more than 1.4 ppm ethyl benzene be ingested.
EPA requires that releases of 1,000 pounds or more of
ethyl benzene be reported to the National Response Center
in Washington, D.C.
For more information about Ethyl Benzene, please
contact EPA at the following address:

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
ATTN: Superfund Hotline
401 M Street, S.W.
Washington, D.C. 20460
l-tSOO-424-9346 or 1-800-535-0202
GLOSSARY

Chemical Precipitation: , Application of
chemicals or heat to a liquid waste solution
containing slightly soluble contaminants fo
cause contaminants to become insoluble and
"settle out"'of solution. Settled solids can
then be collected for proper disposal,
Fluidized Bed Incineration: A' treatment'
'process that destroys solid and liquid wastes
using recycled gases to produce temperatures'
of1600°K
Liquid Injection Incineration: A treatment
process which uses high temperatures to
destroy liquid and gas wastes In which the
wastes are sprayed {atomized through a
nozzle) into a combustion chamber heated to
between t3QO°F and 3000°F.
Rotary Kiln Incineration: A treatment process
which uses high temperatures to destroy solid
and liquid wastes using a two*step process.
Wastes are first treated in a rotating chamber
at a.600M3QO°F> then fed to a second chamber
with temperatures of 2400°R
The information in this fact sheet was compiled from the Toxicological Profile for Ethyl Benzene. Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry,
US. Public Health Service, in collaboration with the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, December, 1990. This fact sheet focuses on the impact
Of hazardous wastes on human health; however, EPA does evaluate these impacts on the environment, including plants and animals.
-------
EPA Fact
pROt^
June 1992
What is lead?

Lead is a bluish-gray metal which occurs naturally
throughout the environment. Lead and its
compounds are found in plants and animals used
for food, and in air, drinking water, surface waters,
and soil.

Lead is mined from ore deposits or salvaged from
recycled scrap metal. It is used in a wide range of
products; the main use is in the manufacture of
storage batteries. Other uses are the production of
chemicals, including paint, gasoline additives,
ammunition and various metal products (for
example, sheet lead, solder, and pipe).
How can lead and its compounds affect human
health?

Lead exposure is especially dangerous for unborn children
because their bodies can be harmed while they are being
formed. Exposure of the mother during pregnancy can cause
premature birth, low birth weight, or even miscarriage.
Young children are also at an increased risk because more of
the lead ingested into their bodies is absorbed and they are
more sensitive than adults to its effects. Lead exposure in
infants and young children has been shown to decrease IQ
scores, retard physical growth, and cause hearing problems.
These health effects can occur at exposure levels once
thought to be safe.

A link between lead exposure and cancer in humans has not
been demonstrated. However, because laboratory animals fed
lead throughout their lives have developed tumors, lead
should be considered a possible cancer-causing substance in
humans.

Exposure to high levels of lead can cause severe brain and
kidney damage. Lead exposure may increase blood pressure
in middle-aged men; high levels may also affect the male
reproductive system.
Is there a medical test to identify lead exposure?

Lead exposure can be identified by measuring the amount of
a substance called erythrocyte protoporphyrin (EP) present
in red blood cells. The amount of EP is high when the
amount of lead in the blood is high. However, there are
problems associated with this technique. Unless the lead
levels are extremely high, EP levels may be within what are
considered normal limits. In addition, other diseases which
affect the red blood cells, such as some types of anemia, can
cause high EP levels. Exposure can also be identified by
using x-ray techniques to measure the amount of lead present
in bone and teeth. However, this test is not commonly used.
How does lead enter the body?

Lead exposure stems primarily from contact with
contaminated dust or water. Lead present in the air
attaches to dust. Dust contaminated with lead is
removed from the air by rain. Lead can remain in the
soils where it is deposited for many years, however,
heavy rainfall can cause lead contaminated soil to
move into both groundwater and surface waters. Lead
and lead compounds have been found at 853 of
approximately 1,300 sites on the National Priorities
List of hazardous waste sites in the U.S.

Lead can enter the body through inhalation of air
contaminated with lead particles or dust which
contains lead. Nearly all lead entering the lungs moves
to the blood and then to other parts of the body. In
adults, very little of the amount of lead ingested in
food, beverages, water, and dust enters the blood from
the intestinal tract. However, when children swallow
food or soil containing lead, much more of the lead
enters their blood and moves to other parts of the
body. Relatively small amounts of lead enter the body
through the skin.

Regardless of the route by which lead enters the body,
most is stored in bone. Since additional lead is stored
with each new exposure, the level in bones and teeth
increases with age. Lead that is not stored in the body
is removed in bodily wastes.
-------
What recommendations has the federal
government made to protect human health?

The Centers for Disease Control (CDC) recommends
that screening for lead poisoning be included in health
care programs for children, especially those between
the ages of 6 months and 9 years.

The CDC recommends immediate medical treatment
for children found to have blood lead levels of 250
parts per billion (ppb) or greater. The term "parts per
billion" is a way of expressing the concentration of a
contaminant in a liquid or air. One part per billion is
equal to one inch in a distance of about sixteen
thousand miles (or a penny in ten million dollars), a
very small amount. There is now concern that levels
as low as 100 to 150 ppb might be harmful to children,
and because of this, the CDC is reviewing current
screening criteria.

The Consumer Product Safety Commission (CPSC)
does not permit lead content in most paints to be
above 0.06%. The CPSC suggests that all painted
surfaces in homes be tested for lead. Paint which is
found to contain high levels of lead should be
removed.

The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) prohibits
lead levels in drinking water above 15 ppb of lead in
water. EPA suggests that public water systems treat
their water to decrease contamination from plumbing
(pipes, solder, etc.) if the level of lead in tap water that
has been standing overnight exceeds 15 ppb. Drinking
water in schools must be tested for lead and provision
made for its removal if lead levels exceed allowable
limits.
How might exposure to lead occur?

Lead exposure can result from inhaling air, drinking water,
or ingesting foods or soil that contain lead. Inhaling air
containing lead-contaminated dust or ingesting lead-
contaminated soil, both of which may be found at hazardous
waste sites or near areas with heavy automobile traffic, are
also exposure sources. Children may be exposed to lead by
swallowing such non-food items as chips of paint which
contain lead.
Until recently, the largest single source of lead in air was
vehicle exhaust. Other sources of release to the air include
emissions from iron and steel production, smelting
operations, municipal waste incinerators, and lead-acid
battery manufacturers. Cigarette smoke is also a source of
lead.

The major sources of lead released to water are lead
plumbing and solder in houses, schools, and public buildings;
lead-contaminated dust and soil carried into water by rain
and wind; and wastewater from industries that use lead.

Lead can be released to the soil from lead-contaminated
wastes in municipal and hazardous waste landfills, and from
fertilizers that contain sewerage sludge. Plants can absorb
lead from contaminated soil, and as a result, food and
beverages may contain lead.
What is the method of treatment and disposal of
lead?

The primary method of disposing of lead is recycling; an
estimated 70-75 percent of the lead produced in the U.S. is
considered recyclable. Certain uses of lead preclude
recycling, for example, lead used in gasoline. Over 90
percent of the lead used in manufacturing lead-acid storage
batteries is recycled; 50 percent of the lead requirements are
met by recycled lead, mostly from lead batteries.

A substantial amount of lead is disposed of in municipal and
hazardous waste landfills. Lead is commonly disposed of as
lead-containing waste products such as storage batteries,
ammunition waste, sheet lead, solder, pipes, lead-based
paints, and solid waste from lead mining and mineral ore
processing.
For more information about Lead, please contact EPA
at the following address:

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
ATTN: Superfund Hotline
401 M Street, S.W.
Washington, D.C. 20460
1-800-424-9346 or 1-800-535-0202
The Information contained in this fact sheet was compiled from the lexicological Profile for Lead. Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry, U.S.
Public Health Service, in collaboration with the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, June, 1990. This fact sheet focuses on the impact of hazardous wastes
on human health; however, EPA does evaluate these impacts on the environment, including plants and animals, impacts on the environment, including plants and
animals.
-------
EPA Fact
Mercury
June 1992
What is mercury?

Mercury is a naturally occurring element found in
several forms. One form, used in thermometers, is
called "metallic mercury". Mercury is also used in
barometers, and in other common consumer
products. Mercury can combine with other
chemicals such as chlorine, carbon, or oxygen to
form either "inorganic" Or "organic" mercury
compounds. Mercury is unusual in that one form of
organic mercury, called methylmercury, can
accumulate in certain fish. As a result, rather low
levels of mercury in bodies of water can significantly
contaminate these fish.

Mercury released into the environment will persist
for a long time. It can change between organic and
inorganic forms. For example, some or all released
organic mercury will slowly break down to become
inorganic mercury. Some released inorganic mercury
will also slowly be changed into organic mercury
(specifically, methylmercury) in soil and water by
reaction with substances produced by microorganisms
and various chemical processes.
How might exposure to mercury occur?

Air usually contains mercury in concentrations of
approximately 2.4 parts per trillion (ppt). The term "parts
per trillion" is a way of expressing the concentration of a
contaminant in a liquid or air. One part per trillion is
equal to one inch in a distance of about sixteen million
miles (or a penny in ten billion dollars), a very small
amount. Levels near certain industries (such as mercury
mines and refineries) can be nearly 1,800 ppt. Mercury
levels in water samples taken from Super/and sites
(including both National Priorities List (NPL) and non-
NPL sites) were about 200 ppt. Levels greater than 500
ppt have been found in some drinking water wells tested
during groundwater surveys.

People who eat large amounts of fish, such as tuna and
swordfish, may be exposed to high levels of mercury
because these fish can contain high levels of organic
mercury. Environmental exposure can result from contact
with water and air near spills and toxic waste sites
contaminated with mercury. Mercury is found at above
normal background levels at approximately 568 of 1,300
NPL sites.
How can mercury enter the body?

Mercury can easily enter the body if its vapor js
inhaled or if fish or other foods contaminated with
mercury are ingested. Mercury may also enter the
body directly through the skin. Exposure to above-
normal levels of mercury at NPL sites may result
from drinking water contaminated with inorganic
mercury salts. Some sites may have such high
amounts of mercury in the soil or in containers, that
breathing mercury metallic vapor may be a problem.
Once mercury has entered the body, it may be
months before all of it leaves. It is largely eliminated
from the body in wastes.

Is there a medical test to identity mercury
exposure?

There are reliable, accurate, and easily available ways
to measure mercury levels in the body. Blood or
urine samples can be taken in a doctor's office and
tested in a laboratory using special equipment.
How can mercury affect human health?

Long-term exposure to either organic or
inorganic mercury can permanently damage the
brain, kidneys, and developing fetuses. The
form of mercury and the method of exposure
determine which of these health effects will be
more severe. For example, organic mercury
that is eaten in contaminated fish or grain may
cause greater harm to the brain and developing
fetuses than to the kidneys; inhaled metallic
mercury vapor may cause greater harm to the
brain; and inorganic mercury salts that are
ingested may cause greater harm to the
kidneys. Thus, maternal exposure to organic
mercury may lead to brain damage in fetuses;
adults exposed to metallic mercury vapor may
develop shakiness (tremors), memory loss, and
kidney disease.

Short-term exposure to high levels of inorganic
and organic mercury will have similar health
effects. However, full recovery is more likely
after short-term exposure. Mercury has not
been shown to cause cancer in humans.
-------
What levels of exposure have resulted
in harmful health effects?

An exact exposure level cannot be determined
for some known health effects. For example,
eating fish or grain contaminated with high
levels of organic mercury can cause brain
damage, especially in developing infants.
However, an estimate of the exact level of
mercury that would cause this effect cannot be
determined because the amount of mercury in
food, and the amount of contaminated food
eaten, is unknown. In addition, long-term
of high levels of mercury vapor can
cause brain damage.
What recommendations has the federal
government made to protect human health?

The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has
limited the level of inorganic mercury in rivers, lakes,
and streams to 144 parts per billion (ppb). EPA
requires the reporting of all releases of more than
one pound of mercury metal into the environment.
The Food and Drug Administration limits levels of
mercury in bottled water to no more than 2 ppb.
How are mercury releases controlled?

Current federal guidelines limit air emissions of
mercury generated by incinerators or drying of
wastcwater sludge. Spills which do occur must be
cleared with a special vacuum cleaner and washed
with dilute calcium sulfide solution. Small quantities
can be gathered by mixing the spilled mercury with
copper metal granules.
For more information about Mercury, please
contact EPA at the following address:

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
ATTN: Superfund Hotline
401M Street, S.W.
Washington, D.C. 20460
l-SOO-424-9346 or 1-800-535-0202
GLOSSARY

Background Levels: The concentration of any
substance which would normally be found in an area.
This level is used as a basis of comparison In
identifying contamination levels.

Element: All substances are made up of elements,
which are the i>asie components, or parts, of all
materials. Elements cannot be separated or broken
down into smaller tmKs by ordinary chemical means.

Groiindwater: Water found below the surface* usually
in sands or a rock formation. Much of our domestic
water Supply is drawn from groundwatet wells.

Inhalation: To draw air, vapor, etc. into the lungs; to
breathe.

Inorganic: A. compound which does not contain
carbon and is derived from mineral sources. Metals
are inorganic compounds,

Microorganisms: Microscopic animal or plant life;
particularly any of the bacteria, protozoans, viruses,
etc.
National Priorities List: BPA'S list of uncontrolled Ot
abandoned hazardous waste sites identified for
possible long-term remedial action under the
Superfund Program.
Organic: A compound which contains carbon and is
derived from animal ot plant sources.

Superfund Program: The program operated under the
legislative authority of the Comprehensive
Environmental Response, Compensation and
Liability Act of 1980 (CERCLA), as amended by the
Superfund Amendments and Reauthorization Act of
1986 (SARA) that funds the EPA solid waste
emergency and long-term removal and remedial
activities.

"Toxic: Acting as a poisonous or hazardous substance]
having poisonous or harmful qualities.

Vapor: Gaseous form of a substance which can be
carried in the air and may expose individuals through
Inhalation,
The information contained in this fact sheet was compiled from the Toxicological Profile for Mercury. Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease
Rcglsuy, U.S. Public Health Service, in collaboration with the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, December, 1989. This fact sheet focuses on
the Impact of hazardous wastes on human health; however, EPA does evaluate these impacts on the environment, including plants and animals.
-------
EPA Fact
m w^^^^^ -^ >• ^^^^ ^K»-,S» -^K^ ^»-^ns^ H vtBn«ir ^BW ^BPIM ^
\«/ Methylene Chloride
June 1992
What Is methylene chloride?

Methylene chloride, also called dichloromethane,
is an organic solvent that looks like water, has a
mild sweet odor, and evaporates very quickly. It
is widely used as an industrial solvent and as a
paint stripper. It is also a component in certain
aerosol and pesticide products, and is used in the
manufacture of photographic film.
How does methylene chloride affect human
health?

High levels of methylene chloride in air (above 500
parts per million [ppm]) can irritate the eyes, nose, and
throat. The term "parts per million" is a way of
expressing the concentration of a contaminant in a
liquid or air. One part per million is equal to one inch
in a distance of about sixteen miles (or a penny in ten
thousand dollars), a very small amount. If this
substance gets on the skin, it usually evaporates quickly
and causes only mild irritation. However, methylene
chloride can be trapped against the skin by gloves,
shoes, or clothes and can cause a burn. If it comes into
contact with the eyes, a severe (but temporary) eye
irritation may result.

Methylene chloride can affect the central nervous system.
If it is inhaled at levels above 500 ppm, effects much
like those produced by alcohol, including sluggishness,
irritability, lightheadedness, nausea, and headaches may
result. Some effects have been observed at
concentrations as low as 300 ppm. These symptoms
usually disappear quite rapidly once exposure ceases.

Some of the effects of methylene chloride on the
nervous system may be due to the breakdown of this
compound to carbon monoxide (CO). Carbon
monoxide interferes with the blood's ability to carry
oxygen to the tissues and causes symptoms similar to
the narcotic effects previously described. Since smoking
increases the amount of CO in the blood, smokers may
experience effects on the nervous system at lower levels
of exposure to methylene chloride than do non-smokers.
Animal studies suggest that frequent or lengthy
exposures to methylene chloride can cause changes in
the liver and kidneys. In certain laboratory experiments,
animals exposed to high concentrations of methylene
chloride throughout their lifetime developed cancer.
Methylene chloride has not been shown to cause cancer
in humans exposed at occupational levels; however, it
should be treated as a potential cancer-causing
substance.

Is there a medical test to identify exposure to
methylene chloride?

Several methods exist for determining whether a person
has been exposed to methylene chloride. The
compound can be measured in the breath to determine
recent exposure; the amount of the chemical detected
will reflect the amount inhaled. The urine can also be
analyzed by monitoring for methylene chloride itself or
for some intermediate products (such as formic acid) .
Blood can be analyzed to determine possible methylene
chloride exposure by monitoring blood levels of
carboxyhemoglobin (CO-Hb). Carbon monoxide formed
in the blood through the breakdown of methylene
chloride readily binds with the hemoglobin to form CO-
Hb. Thus, excessive levels of CO-Hb in the blood can
be an indication of exposure to high concentrations of
methylene chloride.
How can methylene chloride enter the
body?

Methylene chloride may enter the body when it is
inhaled or ingested. No data are currently
available on the absorption of methylene chloride
through the skin. Since it vaporizes very quickly,
the primary route of exposure is inhalation. Once
methylene chloride enters the body, it is absorbed
through body membranes (e.g., stomach,
intestines, and lungs) and quickly enters the
bloodstream.
-------
What are the methods of treatment and
disposal of methylene chloride?

Methylene chloride wastes may be disposed of by
controlled incineration, a high temperature combustion
process used to destroy hazardous wastes. In 1988,
about 11,500 tons of methylene chloride were
transferred to landfills or other treatment facilities;
1,300 tons were sent to publicly-owned treatment works.
Methylene chloride has been found in at least 311 of
the approximately 1,300 National Priorities List (NPL)
sites.
OLOSSAEY

Central Nervous System: The group of nerve cells
arid tissues, iacludittg the brain,, spinal cord,
ganglia, nerves, and nerve centers which control
and coordinate all bodily functions.

Intermediate Products: "Those materials produced
by the breakdown or degradation of substances in
the body which can indicate the presence and
of the original substance.
What levels of exposure have resulted in
harmful health effects?

In case studies involving people, the primary health
effects are on the central nervous system. Short
exposures to concentrations of 500 ppm and above result
in chemical intoxication, fatigue, and irritability. One
study reported a slight effect on sensory function at 300
ppm for 4 hours. At concentrations of 500 ppm and
above, methylene chloride also irritates the nose and
throat.

Rats have developed changes in liver cells following long-
term ingestion of methylene chloride in drinking water.
However, based on animal and human studies, it appears
unlikely that this compound will cause serious liver effects
in humans unless exposure is very high.

Methylene chloride is not known to cause cancer in
humans, but based on animal studies, the Environmental
Protection Agency (EPA) believes that it has the
potential to cause cancer in humans. Exposures should,
therefore, be avoided or, when unavoidable, kept to a
minimum.

How might exposure to methylene chloride
occur?

The highest exposures to methylene chloride usually
occur in workplaces where this solvent is used or from
contact with consumer products that contain it. Exposure
to the solvent in outdoor air and water is generally low.
Hobby and household use of paint-stripping chemicals
and aerosol products containing methylene chloride are
major sources of exposure. Exposure occurs as a result
of breathing vapors given off by the product or from
direct contact with the skin. Special efforts should be
taken to follow label directions which recommend
working in a well-ventilated area when using products
containing methylene chloride.

What recommendations has the federal
government made to protect human health?

EPA has provided guidelines concerning the amounts of
methylene chloride which may cause risk to human
health. The Agency recommends that exposure to
methylene chloride in water not exceed 10 ppm for
children for 1 day or 2 ppm for 10 days. The Food and
Drug Administration (FDA) has established limits on the
amounts of methylene chloride present in spice, hops
extract, and decaffeinated coffee.

The Information contained In this fact sheet was compiled from the Toxicological Profile for Methvlene Chloride. Agency for Toxic Substances and
Disease Registry, US. Public Health Service, in collaboration with the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, April, 1989. This fact sheet focuses on
Ac impact of hazardous wooes on human health; however, EPA does evaluate these impacts on the environment, including plants and animals.
»
National Priorities List (NPL): EPA'S list of
imcontKJlled of abandoned hazardous waste sites
Identified for possible long-term clean-up under
the Superfuftd Program.

Organic Solvent: A jarboji compound, usually a
liquid, that can dissolve other substances.
For more information about Methylene Chloride,
please contact EPA at the following address:

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
ATTN: Superfund Hotline
401 M Street, S.W.
Washington, D.C. 20460
1-800-424-9346 or 1-800-535-0202
-------
EPAF
Nickel
June 1992
What is nickel?

Nickel is a naturally-occurring silvery metal. Nickel
and its compounds can be detected throughout the
environment in plants and animals used for human
consumption, air, drinking water, rivers, lakes,
oceans, and soil. Nickel used by industry comes
from mined ores or recycled scrap metal. It is used
primarily in making various steels and alloys, and in
electroplating. Minor applications include use in
ceramics, permanent magnets, and nickel-cadmium
batteries.
How does nickel enter the body?

Because nickel occurs naturally in most foods, the highest
level of exposure to nickel usually comes from our diet.
Nickel is found in fruits, vegetables, grains, seafood, and
in human and cow's milk.

The intake of nickel or its compounds by the ingestion of
drinking water is typically less than through the diet;
however, ingestion of nickel in drinking water can be
increased significantly by the consumption of water from
plumbing or faucets that contain nickel.

Nickel can also enter the body through inhalation of
nickel dust or particles containing nickel compounds.
Compared to oral intake, the typical amount of nickel
inhaled is small. The amount of nickel entering the
blood from the lungs, or remaining in the lungs, depends
on the location in the lungs where the nickel has been
deposited and on the properties of the nickel compound
(for example, particle size and ability to dissolve in body
fluids). Breathing tobacco smoke can significantly
increase the amount of nickel inhaled.

Some nickel compounds, for example, nickel chloride, can
penetrate skin, especially if the skin has been damaged.
Skin exposures stem predominantly from nickel metal
found in jewelry, coins, zippers, and cooking utensils.
Nickel metal does not readily penetrate the skin,
therefore, only those persons with skin allergies to nickel
should be concerned with skin exposures to nickel metal.
Is there a medical test to identity nickel
exposure?

The amount of nickel in the urine and blood can
be measured. Although increased nickel levels in
urine and blood have been noted in persons
exposed to nickel compounds at work,
information about the level in urine and blood
cannot be used to identify the exposure levels.
Similarly, information concerning the severity
and length of exposure to nickel does not
provide information about the levels that might
then be found in the blood or urine.
How might exposure to nickel
occur?

Exposure to nickel and its compounds can
result from breathing air, ingesting
drinking water and foods that contain
nickel or nickel compounds, and skin
contact with a wide range of consumer
products. Segments of the population that
may be exposed to higher levels of nickel
include people whose diets contain foods
naturally high in nickel, who are
occupationally exposed to nickel, those
living in the vicinity of a nickel processing
facility, and people who smoke tobacco.

The single largest nickel source in the
atmosphere is fuel oil combustion. Other
sources include atmospheric emissions from
mining and refining operations, emissions
from municipal waste incineration, and
windblown dust. Sources of nickel in water
and soil include stormwater runoff, soil to
which municipal sewage sludge has been
added, wastewater from municipal sewage
treatment plants, and groundwater near
landfill sites.
-------
What levels of exposure have resulted in
harmful health effects?

Insufficient information is available to determine
the levels at which nickel may cause health effects
following skin contact. Based on what is known,
the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has
estimated that lifetime exposure to 1 part per
trillion (ppt) of nickel refinery dust in air could
result in 24 additional cases of cancer in a
population of 100,000 people. The term "parts
per trillion" is a way of expressing the
concentration of a contaminant in a liquid or air.
One part per trillion is equal to one inch hi a
distance of about sixteen million miles (or a
penny in ten billion dollars), a very small amount.
Lifetime exposure to 1 ppt of nickel subsulfide in
air could cause 48 additional cases of cancer in a
population of 100,000. The major sources of
nickel refinery dust and nickel subsulfide are
nickel refineries. Because there are no nickel
refineries operating in the United States, actual
exposure of the general population to nickel
refinery dust and nickel subsulfide is expected to
be very low.
How can nickel affect human health?
The most common adverse effects of nickel exposure
are skin allergies. Surveys indicate that 2.5 to 5.0% of
the general population may be sensitive to nickel. For
pepple not sensitive to nickel, normal long-term oral,
inhalation, and skin exposures to low levels of nickel
have not been associated with adverse health effects.
Adverse effects have been caused by inhalation of nickel
compounds in the workplace. Asthma has been
reported in nickel platers exposed to nickel sulfate, and
in welders exposed to nickel oxides. Inhalation
exposure of workers to nickel refinery dust which
contains nickel subsulfide has resulted in increased
numbers of deaths from lung and nasal cavity cancers,
and possibly cancer of. the voice box. However,
occupational exposure to nickel metal has not been
associated with cancer.

Animal studies have shown that inhaling nickel
compounds can increase susceptibility to respiratory
infection, indicating that this effect may also be of
concern for humans. These studies reveal that exposure
to high levels of some nickel compounds during
pregnancy can cause miscarriages, pregnancy
complications, and low birth weight in newborns.There
are no data regarding birth defects in humans due to
nickel or its compounds. Additional effects that have
been observed in animals exposed to nickel compounds
include those on the kidneys, blood, and growth.

What are the methods of treatment and
disposal for nickel?

Nickel products to be disposed of should be routed to
a metal salvage facility for profitable reuse or sale as
scrap. Methods for disposing of nickel-containing
sludge are landspreading, landfilling, incineration, and
ocean disposal.

What recommendations has the federal
government made to protect human health?

For drinking water exposure, EPA advises that the
following exposure concentrations of nickel are levels
below which adverse effects would not be expected: 3.5
parts per million (ppm) of nickel in water for 10 days of
exposure, and 0.1 ppm of nickel in water for lifetime
exposure. These exposure concentrations are for adults;
those for children and sensitive individuals would be
slightly lower.
GLOSSARY
Emissions: Release of discharge of fumes, dust,
or partlculates into the air.
Landspreading: A disposal technique in which
liquid or solid contaminated materials are applied
to the surface of the ground. Sunlight and
bacterial action then break down the
eoataminajtits. Landspreadjtagfe one alternative to
landfilling.

Sludge: A" seatl-soljd waste product generated
air or water treatment processes.
For more information about Nickel, please
contact EPA at the following address:

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
ATTN: Superfund Hotline
401 M Street, S.W.
Washington, D.C. 20460
1-800-424-9346 or 1-800-535-0202
The Information contained in this fact sheet was compiled from the Toxicoloeical Profile for Nickel and Its Compounds. Agency for Toxic Substances
and Disease Registry, U.S. Public Health Service, in collaboration with the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, December, 1988. This fact sheet
focuses of the impact of hazardous wastes on human health; however, EPA does evaluate these impacts on the environment, including plants and animals.
-------
*•
"
PRCrt^
EPA Faets About
P-Dichlorobenzene
June 1992
What is p-dichlorobenzene?

The compound 1,4-dichlorobenzene (p-
DCB) is most commonly referred to as para-
DCB or p-DCB, but approximately 20
additional terms are used for this chemical.
Some of these names include Paramoth, para
crystals, and paracide, reflecting its
widespread use as a moth killer. It is also
used to make deodorant blocks used in
restrooms.

At room temperature, p-DCB is a colorless
solid with a characteristic penetrating odor.
When exposed to air, it is slowly transformed
from its solid state into a vapor; the released
vapor then acts as a deodorizer and insect
killer.

p-DCB enters the environment primarily as
a result of releases during use.
Manufacturing accounts for only
approximately 1.5% of the environmental
releases. There are no natural sources of p-
DCB.
How might exposure to p-DCB occur?

Dichlorobenzene is released to the environment
during its manufacture and use. Heavily populated
or industrialized areas tend to have the highest
concentrations of p-DCB in air and in water,
including surface water, groundwater, and drinking
water.

Exposure to p-DCB is most likely to occur during
its manufacture or processing, in the vicinity of
industrial areas where it is produced, and near
chemical waste disposal sites due to local air or
water contamination. In addition, consumers are
exposed to p-DCB through commonly used
household products, such as mothballs and
deodorant blocks used in public and household
bathrooms. As a result, individuals can be exposed
to p-DCB in the air, via drinking water, or from
handling products containing p-DCB.
How does p-dichlorobenzene get into the
body?

The major route of p-DCB entry into the body is
through the lungs. This compound can also enter the
body in drinking water, and has been found in drinking
water in various locations throughout the U.S. It may
also enter the body through the skin during contact with
products containing p-DCB.

Is there a medical test to identity
p-dichlorobenzene exposure?

A urine test can identify exposure to p-DCB and can
give an estimate of the exposure level. A specific
compound (2,5-dichlorophenol) is produced in the body
following exposure to p-DCB. Detection of this
chemical in the urine will indicate exposure to p-DCB
within the past day or two. The amount of p-DCB in
urine is also an indicator of the level present in the air
when inhalation is the exposure route.
How can p-dichlorobenzene affect human
health?

There is no evidence suggesting that brief low-
level or moderate-level exposures to household
products containing p-DCB cause human health
problems. Higher p-DCB levels in air, such as
the levels that are sometimes associated with
industrial exposure, can cause headaches and
dizziness. Levels that would result in death would
be associated with an odor so intense that it
would be very unpleasant, if not intolerable, and
would serve as a warning.

Inhalation or ingestion of p-DCB has caused toxic
effects in the liver and kidney of laboratory
animals. Although there is no evidence that p-
DCB can cause cancer in humans, laboratory
animals treated with p-DCB in lifetime studies
had increased rates of cancer. Based on the
results of these animal studies, the potential for
p-DCB to cause cancer in humans does exist.
Animal studies also suggest that p-DCB exposure
can result in birth defects.
-------
How are p-dichlorobenzene wastes
handled?

Production of p-DCB generates wastes residues
such as sludge, a thick semi-solid material. These
are mainly disposed of in landfills. p-DCB wastes
are also discharged to surface waters. Because p-
DCB sublimes at room temperature, some of this
waste may also reach the air. Small amounts of p-
DCB also enters the atmosphere from hazardous
waste disposal sites.
What levels of exposure to p-DCB have
resulted in harmful health effects?

Although there have been several reports of
harmful effects in humans exposed to p-DCB, most
information concerning p-DCB exposure is based
on animal studies. For example, below normal
weight gain has been observed in pregnant animals
breathing p-DCB at similar levels (800 parts per
million) for a few days. The term "parts per
million" is a way of expressing the concentration of
a contaminant in a liquid or air. One part per
million is equal to one inch in a distance of about
sixteen miles (or a penny in ten thousand dollars),
a very small amount. Slight abnormalities have
also been observed in the circulatory systems of
animal offspring.

When small amounts p-DCB were administered to
rats and mice, even for a few days, subtle effects on
the liver were seen. At much higher levels, a
single dose resulted in the death of test animals.
With long-term exposure, administering p-DCB
orally led to damage to the liver, kidneys, and
cancer in these organs resulted.

Based on the results of cancer studies in rats and
mice, the excess risk of cancer in humans resulting
from exposure to p-DCB has been calculated. The
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) estimates
that lifetime exposure to 1 part per billion (ppb) of
p-DCB could result in significantly less than one
additional case of cancer in a population of
100,000 people,

What recommendations has the federal
government made to protect human
health?

The EPA has included p-DCB on the list of
Hazardous Waste Constituents, making it subject
to hazardous waste regulations. EPA has issued
test rules requiring environmental and health
effects testing of p-DCB. EPA has also established
a maximum contaminant level of 75 ppb for p-
DCB in drinking water. In addition, all pesticides
are registered with EPA, and their manufacturers
must submit certain information to EPA in order
that the products be allowed to be used.

The Information contained in this fact sheet was compiled from the Toxicological Profile for p-Dichlorobenzene. Agency for Toxic
Substances and Disease Registry, U.S. Public Health Service, in collaboration with the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, January
19S9. This fact dteet focuses on tlie impact of hazardous wastes on human health; however, EPA does evaluate these impacts on the
environment, including plants and animals.
-. "" "" vSuswvw J .v-v
Exposure Route: The way in. which people
come into contact with a substance." The
main routes are ingestion, inhalation, and
absorption through the skin.
Groundwater:""" Water found below the
ground surface In a rock or sand formation*
Much of our domestic water supplies are
drawn from groundwater wells.
Sublimes: A process in which a substance
passes directly from, a solid to a gas;
vaporizes.
For more information about p-DCB, please
contact EPA at the following address:

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
ATTN: Superfund Hotline
401M Street, S.W.
Washington, D.C. 20460
1-800-424-9346 or 1-800-535-0202
-------
EPA Fact
Phenol
June 1992
What is phenol?

Pure phenol is a flammable, colorless or white
solid. It is mainly a man-made chemical, sold and
used as a liquid. It has a strong odor that is
sickeningly sweet and irritating. Phenol evaporates
slowly and dissolves fairly well in water. It is also
found in nature in animal wastes and organic
material.

The largest single use of phenol is in the making of
plastics, but it is also used to make caprolactam
(used to make nylon 6 and other man-made fibers)
and bisphenol A (used to make epoxy and other
resins). It is also used as a slimicide, as a
disinfectant, and in medical products.
How might exposure to phenol occur?

Small releases of phenol do not persist in the air (usually
half is removed in less than one day), and usually do not
remain in the soil for long periods (usually completely
gone in 2-5 days). Above-average levels of phenol have
been found in surface waters and surrounding air that
were contaminated by industrial and commercial product
releases containing phenol. It has been found in
materials released from landfills and hazardous waste
sites, and in the groundwater near these sites. Phenol is
usually found in the environment below 100 parts per
billion (ppb), although much higher levels have been
reported. The term "parts per billion" is a way of
expressing the concentration of a contaminant in a liquid
or air. One part per billion is equal to one inch in a
distance of about sixteen thousand miles (or a penny in
ten million dollars), a very small amount.

Because phenol is used in many manufacturing processes
and products, exposure to phenol may occur in the
workplace or, in lower amounts, in the home. Phenol is
present in a number of consumer products, including
ointments, ear and nose drops, cold sore lotions,
mouthwashes, gargles, toothache drops, analgesic rubs,
throat lozenges, and antiseptic lotions. Phenol has been
found in drinking water, air, automobile exhaust, tobacco
smoke, marijuana smoke, and certain foods, including
smoked summer sausage, fried chicken, mountain cheese,
and some species of fish.
Phenol has not been reported in soil except at hazardous waste
sites; this is likely due to the fact that phenol does not remain
in soil very long, rather than never occurring there. Phenol
has been found at 512 of the approximately 1,300 National
Priorities List (NPL) hazardous waste sites.

How can phenol enter and leave the body?

Phenol can enter the body through ingestion of contaminated
water or food, or through products containing phenol. It easily
enters the body through the skin. Phenol also enters the lungs
during smoking or inhaling air containing phenol.

The amount of phenol entering the body from skin contact
with water containing phenol depends on the amount of
phenol in the water, and on the length and extent of the
exposure. Higher amounts of phenol will enter the body when
large areas of skin are exposed to weak solutions of phenol
than when small areas of skin are exposed to strong solutions
of phenol. Phenol present in the air can enter the body
through the skin and lungs. The skin may absorb as much as
one-half the phenol entering the body exposed to phenol in
air. Air exposures are limited to areas near spills and
hazardous waste sites, as most spilled phenol will remain in
soil or water rather than evaporate into air.

Studies show that most phenol entering the body through the
skin, by breathing contaminated air, eating food, drinking
water, or taking products containing phenol leaves the body in
the urine within 24 hours.
Is there a medical test to identify phenol
exposure?

Urine can be tested for phenol. This test can be used to
identify recent exposures to phenol or to substances
which are changed to phenol once in the body, (for
example, benzene). No test can prove conclusively that
a person has been exposed only to phenol, because many
substances are changed to phenol in the body. Because
most of the phenol that enters the body leaves in the
urine within 24 hours, this test can only identify
exposure that occurred 1 or 2 days prior to the test.
Test results cannot be used to predict which health
effects might result from phenol exposure. Measurement
of phenol in urine requires special laboratory equipment
and techniques not usually available in most hospitals or
clinics.
-------
How can phenol affect human health?

The serious effects of a harmful substance usually
increase as both the level and length of exposure
increase. Repeated exposure to low levels of
phenol in drinking water has been linked with
diarrhea and mouth sores in humans; eating very
large amounts of phenol has resulted in death.
Laboratory animals fed very large amounts of
phenol in water experienced muscle tremors and
loss of coordination. Animals inhaling high levels
of phenol suffered irritation to the lungs; repeated
exposure for several days causes muscle tremors
and loss of coordination. Exposure to high levels
of phenol over several weeks results in paralysis
and severe injury to the heart, kidneys, liver, and
lungs, followed by death in some cases.
Phenol can have positive effects when used for
medical reasons. It is an antiseptic (kills germs)
when applied to the skin and may also have
antiseptic properties when used as a mouthwash.
It is an anesthetic (relieves pain) and is a part of
some sore-throat remedies (lozenges and
formulas). Small amounts of phenol in water have
been injected into nerves to reduce pain caused by
some nerve disorders. Phenol will kill the outer
layers of skin if it remains on the skin; small
amounts of strong solutions of phenol are
sometimes applied to the skin to remove warts and
to treat other skin spots and disorders.
What recommendations has the federal
government made to protect human
health?

The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has
limited waters (lakes, streams) to 0.3 parts per
million to protect human health from the possible
harmful effects of exposure to phenol by drinking
water and eating contaminated water plants and
animals.
What are the methods of treatment and
disposal of phenol?

Phenol may be disposed of by controlled burning.
Dilute phenol solutions can be broken down, and
rendered harmless, through the action of sewage
organisms. Phenol can be recovered economically
from solutions of greater than 1% phenol by steam
stripping, distillation, or carbon adsorption.
GIJOSSARY

Carbon Adsorption: A'jWOCCSS which uses
carbon particles to'remove substances from
air or liquids. Carboa is used because of its
ability to collect or adsorb contaminants on
its surface.
National Priorities List (NPL): EPAVMst oF'
uncontrolled or abandoned hazardous waste
sites identified for possible long-term clean-
up under the Superfund Program*
.-•, •" f *f v"
Slimicide: A chemical used ftj kill bacteria,
anil fungi that eause tvater sMntesu

Superfund Program: ^The program Operated
wider the legislative authority,,of the
. Comprehensive Environmental' Response,
Compensation anC Liability Act of 1980
(CERCLA), as amended by the Saperfufld
Amendments and R.mthorizatioiti Act of
!<>8tf (SA&A) that funds the EPA solid
waste emergency «a
-------
\
EPA Facts About
June 1992
What is pentachlorophenol?

Pure pentachlorophenol exists as colorless crystals
with a very sharp characteristic odor when hot, but
very little odor at room temperature. Impure
pentachlorophenol (the form usually found at
hazardous waste sites) can be dark gray to brown dust,
beads or flakes. It does not burn easily, but does
evaporate. Pentachlorophenol has two forms:
pentachlorophenol and the sodium salt of
pentachlorophenol. The sodium salt dissolves easily
in water; pentachlorophenol does not.

Pentachlorophenol does not occur naturally in the
environment. When it is found in the environment, it
has come from releases from factories or hazardous
waste sites or other sources, such as treated wood.

At one time, pentachlorophenol was one of the most
extensively used pesticides in the United States. It is
now a restricted-use pesticide. This compound is
found in all environmental media as a result of
widespread use in the past. It has been detected in
surface waters and sediments, rainwater, drinking
water, aquatic life, soils, foods, and human milk and
urine. It is used industrially as a wood preservative
for power poles, fence posts, etc.
How can pentachlorophenol affect human
health?

Reports describing worker exposure to high levels of
pentachlorophenol indicate that short-term exposures can
cause harmful effects on the liver, kidneys, skin, blood,
lungs, nervous system, and intestinal tract, and can cause
death. Long-term exposure to low levels of
pentachlorophenol such as those that occur in the workplace
can also cause damage to the liver, kidneys, blood, and
nervous system.

An increased risk of cancer has been identified in laboratory
animals exposed to large amounts of pentachlorophenol.
Harmful effects on the developing fetus have been seen in
animals exposed to this chemical at exposure levels high
enough to cause noticeable sickness in the mothers. EPA
has classified pentachlorophenol as a probable cancer-
causing agent in humans.
What levels of exposure have resulted in
harmful health effects?

Pentachlorophenol can cause death if sufficiently
large amounts are taken into the body. Although
harmful health effects result following inhalation, the
exact route of exposure (inhalation or skin contact)
is not known, and the lengths of exposure or the
levels that cause harmful effects have not been well
documented. Studies in which animals breathed the
sodium salt of pentachlorophenol show that this form
of the chemical is very toxic by this exposure route.

Is there a medical test to identify
pentachlorophenol exposure?

Pentachlorophenol and its breakdown products can be
measured in the blood, urine, and tissues of exposed
individuals. Although these tests can identify
exposure to pentachlorophenol, they cannot yet be
used to predict the severity of harmful health effects.
Because pentachlorophenol leaves the body fairly
quickly, these tests are best for identifying exposures
that occurred within the past several days. Exposure
to pentachlorophenol at hazardous waste sites usually
includes exposure to other organic compounds as well
that could break down into pentachlorophenol.
Therefore, levels of pentachlorophenol measured by
blood and urine tests may not show exposure to
pentachlorophenol alone.
How can pentachlorophenol enter the
body?

Pentachlorophenol can enter the body through
the lungs as an air pollutant, through the
digestive tract after eating contaminated food
or water, or through the skin. Breathing and
skin contact are the most significant exposure
routes. Pentachlorophenol quickly leaves the
body after a short exposure period; it does not
appear to accumulate. Nearly all
pentachlorophenol taken into the body leaves
in the urine.
-------
What recommendations has the federal
government made to protect human
health?

The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)
limits the amount of pentachlorophenol in
drinking water to no more than 1 ppb. For short-
term exposures, EPA recommends that the
concentration of pentachlorophenol in drinking
water (for children) not exceed 1.0 part per million
(ppm) for 1 day or 0.3 ppm for 10 days.
03JQSSARY
How might exposure to pentachlorophenol
occur?

The majority of pentachlorophenol releases during
production and use are to the air from wood
preservation plants and cooling towers, and to land
from commercial and home use of treated wood
products. Pentachlorophenol is also released into
surface waters, especially in storm water runoff and
wood-treatment plant effluents.

Levels of pentachlorophenol in the workplace and
near hazardous waste sites and accidental spills are
usually higher than in the general environment.
Pontachlorophenol has been found at
approximately 228 of the 1,300 National Priorities
List (NPL) hazardous waste sites in the United
States.

Risk of exposure to pentachlorophenol through
ingestion of contaminated food is small; the
average intake in food is very low. People near
pentachlorophenol sources may be exposed to
higher levels.

Pentachlorophenol levels of 0.5 to 104 parts per
billion (ppb) have been recorded in the indoor air
Of treated log homes. The term "parts per billion"
is a way of expressing the concentration of a
contaminant in a liquid or air. One part per
billion is equal to one inch in a distance of about
sixteen thousand miles (or a penny in ten million
dollars), a very small amount.

What are the methods of treatment and
disposal of pentachlorophenol?

Pentachlorophenol can be incinerated following
treatment with sodium bicarbonate or a sand-soda
ash mixture. Incineration of pentachlorophenol is
one of the most significant sources of
polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and
dibenzofurans; therefore, care must be taken
during this process.

Current land treatment and disposal practices are
being reviewed. EPA requires that any release to
the environment of more than 10 pounds be
reported and is now working to measure the levels
of pentachlorophenol found at abandoned waste
sites.

The information contained in this feet sheet was compiled from the Toxicological Profile for Pentachlorophenol. Agency for Toxic
Substances and Disease Registry, U.S. Public Health Service, in collaboration with the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, December,
'1989. This fact sheet focuses on the impact of hazardous wastes on human health; however, EPA does evaluate these impacts on the
environment, inchtdingplants and animals.
Breakdown Products: $ost contaminants are
combinations o'f specific substances.
Contaminants are degraded, or separated,
into these Jndividtial substances" through
chemical or physical mearts.
!•*
Exposure Routes: The way in which people
comelMQ coatactltitlfa substance. The
main routes are ing&tion, inhalation, and
absorption through the sMn.

Media: Air, water, and soil are the three
environments, or media, subject to
regulatory action by EPA.

National Priorities List (NPL): "EPA'S list of
unwntroll&f or abandoned hazardous waste
sites identified for'possible long-term clean-
up tinder the Superfund Program.
For additional information about
Pentachlorophenol, please contact EPA at
the following address:

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
ATTN: Superfund Hotline
401 M Street, S.W.
Washington, D.C. 20460
1-800-424-9346 or 1-800-535-0202
-------
EPA Facts About
Polychlorinated Biphenyl
June 1992
What are PCBs?

The abbreviation PCB refers to polychlorinated
biphenyls. PCBs are a family of man-made
chemicals that contain 209 individual compounds
with varying toxicity. Commercial formulations of
PCBs enter the environment as mixtures
consisting of a variety of PCBs and impurities.
Because of their insulating and nonflammable
properties, PCBs have been used widely as
coolants and lubricants in transformers,
capacitors, and other electrical equipment. The
manufacture of PCBs in the United States
stopped in 1977 because of evidence that PCBs
accumulate in the environment and may cause
health hazards.
How might exposure to PCBs occur?

Although PCBs are no longer manufactured, human
exposure still occurs. Many older transformers and
capacitors use fluids that contain PCBs. The useful
lifetime of many of these transformers can be 30 years
or more.

The two main sources of human exposure to PCBs are
environmental and occupational. PCBs are very
persistent chemicals and are widely distributed
throughout the environment. They have been found in
approximately 314 of the 1,300 hazardous waste sites on
the National Priorities List (NPL). Background levels of
PCBs can be found in the outdoor air, on soil surfaces,
and in water.

Eating contaminated fish can be a major source of PCB
exposure. Although PCBs found in fish are generally
concentrated in nonedible portions, the amounts in
edible portions are high enough to make consumption
a major source of exposure. Exposure through
breathing outdoor air containing PCBs is small
compared with the intake of PCBs through eating
contaminated fish.

Most PCBs in outdoor air may be present because of a
natural cycle. PCBs in surface water, or on soil
surfaces, evaporate and are then returned to earth by
rainfall or settling of dust particles. Re-evaporation
repeats the cycle. Once in the air, PCBs can be carried
long distances; they have been found in snow and
seawater in the Antarctic. In addition, contaminated
indoor air may be a major source of human exposure to
PCBs, particularly in buildings with PCB-containing
devices.

PCBs can be released into the environment from: (1)
poorly maintained toxic waste sites that contain PCBs;
(2) illegal or improper dumping of PCB wastes, such as
transformer fluids; (3) leaks or fugitive emissions from
electrical transformers containing PCBs; and (4)
disposal of PCB-containing consumer products into
municipal landfills, rather than into hazardous waste
landfills.

How do PCBs enter the body?

PCBs enter the body through contaminated food and air
and through skin contact. The most common route of
exposure is eating fish and shellfish from PCB-
contaminated water. Exposure from drinking water is
minimal. It is known that nearly everyone has PCBs in
their bodies, including infants who drink breast milk
containing PCBs.
How do PCBs affect human health?

Animal experiments have shown that some PCB
mixtures produce adverse health effects including
liver damage, skin irritations, reproductive and
developmental effects, and .cancer. Therefore, it
is prudent to consider that there may be health
hazards for humans. Human studies to date show
that skin irritations, such as acne-like lesions and
rashes, can occur in PCB-exposed workers. Other
studies of occupational exposure suggest that
PCBs may cause liver cancer. Reproductive and
developmental effects may also be related to
occupational exposure and eating contaminated
fish. While the role of PCBs in producing cancer,
and reproductive and developmental effects in
humans cannot be clearly delineated, the evidence
provides an additional basis for public health
concern over exposure to PCBs.
-------
Is there a medical test to identify PCB
exposure?

There are tests to determine PCBs in the blood,
body fat, and breast milk. These tests are not
routine clinical tests. Although the tests indicate
exposure to PCBs, they do not predict potential
health effects. Blood tests are the easiest, safest
and, perhaps, the best method for detecting recent,
large exposures. It should be recognized that
nearly everyone has been exposed to PCBs, and
that nearly everyone is likely to have detectable
levels of PCBs in their bodies.
What levels of exposure have resulted in
harmful health effects?

EPA advises that exposure to concentrations of
PCB 1016 (one form of PCBs) below 3.5 parts per
billion (ppb) is not expected to cause adverse
health effects in adults. Children exposed to PCB
1016 concentrations below 1 ppb are not expected
to experience adverse health effects. The term
"parts per billion" is a way of expressing the
concentration or strength of a contaminant in a
liquid or air. One part per billion is equal to one
inch in a distance of about sixteen thousand miles
(or a penny in ten million dollars), a very small
amount.
What recommendations has the federal
government made to protect human
health?

Based on evidence that PCBs cause cancer in
animals, the Environmental Protection Agency
(EPA) considers PCBs to be probable cancer-
causing chemicals in humans.

The Food and Drug Administration (FDA)
specifies PCB concentration limits of 0.2 to 3 parts
per million in infant foods, eggs, milk (in milk fat),
and poultry (fat).
What are the methods of treatment and
disposal of PCBs?

Early federal regulations specified incineration as
the only acceptable method of PCB disposal.
EPA's present PCB disposal rules require disposal
in chemical-waste landfills, or by destruction in
high-temperature incinerators or high-efficiency
boilers.
I OIJOSSARY
- _ ;px, '
Background Levels: ""The concentration of
any substance which would normally be
found in an area, This amount is used as a
basis of comparison in Identifying
eontaminatfott'leveis.
Fugitive Emissions: Any release of
contaminants from products of
manufacturing processes, usually in the form
of gases escaping into the atmosphere.
National Priorities List (NPL): 'EPA's list Of
uncontrolled or abandoned hazardous waste
sites identified for possible long-term clean*
up under the Superftmd Program.
For more information about PCBs, please
contact EPA at the following address:

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
ATTN: Superjund Hotline
401 M Street, S.W.
Washington, D.C. 20460
1-800-424-9346 or 1-800-535-0202
The information contained in this fact sheet was compiled from the Toxicological Profile for PCBs. Agency for Toxic Substances and
Disease Registry, VS. Public Health Service, in collaboration with the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, June, 1989. This fact sheet
jbetucs on the impact of hazardous wastes on human health; however, EPA does evaluate these impacts on the environment, including plants
and animals.
-------
Jfi0* **"*!,
EPA Facts About
f Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbon
June 1992
What are potycyclic aromatic
hydrocarbons?

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are a
group of chemicals formed during the incomplete
burning of coal, oil, gas, refuse, or other organic
substances. They are a widespread product of
combustion from common sources such as motor
vehicles and other gas burning engines, wood
burning stoves, cigarette smoke, industrial soot,
and charcoal-broiled foods. Wood which has
been treated with creosote also contains PAHs.
Natural sources include volcanoes, forest fires,
and shale oil.

As pure chemicals, PAHs generally exist as
colorless, white, or pale yellow-green solids. Most
PAHs do not occur alone in the environment;
they are found as mixtures, or compounds, of two
or more PAHs. They can occur in the air
attached to dust particles, or in soil or sediment
as solids. Except for research purposes, no
known uses exist for most of these chemicals;
there are over 100 different PAH compounds.
Most do not dissolve easily in water; some readily
evaporate into the air. They generally do not
burn easily and will persist in the environment for
months to years. PAHs have been detected at
over 1,975 of the 2,783 hazardous waste sites
analyzed.
How might exposure to pofycyclic aromatic
hydrocarbons occur?

Exposure to these chemicals may result from contact
with PAH vapors or PAHs attached to dust and other
particles in the air. Other sources include vehicle
exhausts, wild fires, agricultural burning, and hazardous
waste sites. Exposure to PAHs in soil may occur near
areas where coal, wood, gasoline, or other products have
been burned. Exposure to PAHs in the soil may also
occur on or near hazardous waste sites, former
manufactured-gas sites, and wood-preserving facilities.
PAHs have been found in some drinking water supplies
in the United States.
PAHs are present in tobacco smoke, smoke from wood-
burning stoves and furnaces, creosote-treated wood
products, cereals, grains, flour, bread, vegetables, fruits,
meat, processed or pickled foods, and beverages. Food
grown in contaminated soil or air may also contain
PAHs. Cooking meat or other food at high
temperatures, which happens during grilling or charring,
increases the amount of PAHs in the food.

How can PAHs enter and leave the body?

PAHs can enter the body through the lungs when air
that contains them is inhaled. This is one of the most
significant routes of exposure for people living near
hazardous waste sites. Drinking water or swallowing
food, soil, or dust particles that contain PAHs are other
exposure routes. Under normal conditions of
environmental exposure, PAHs can enter the body if
skin comes into contact with soil that contains high
levels of PAHs. This type of exposure could occur near
a hazardous waste site, or from contact with products
that contain PAHs.

PAHs enter the body quickly by all routes of exposure.
This rate is increased when PAHs are present in oily
mixtures. PAHs travel to all tissues of the body that
contain fat, and tend to be stored in the kidneys, liver,
and fat, with smaller amounts in the spleen, adrenal
glands, and ovaries. Most PAHs that enter the body
leave within a few days, primarily in wastes.
Is there a medical test to identify
potycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons?

Once in the body, PAHs are changed into
chemicals that can attach to substances within the
body. The presence of PAHs attached to these
substances can then be measured in body tissues
or blood following exposure to PAHs. However,
this test is still in the developmental stage. PAHs
or their breakdown products can also be measured
in urine. Although these tests can reveal
exposure to PAHs, they cannot predict the
severity of any health effects that might occur or
determine the extent of exposure.
-------
How can PAHs affect human health?

Several of the PAHs, including benz(a)anthracene,
benzo(a)pyrene, benzo(b)fluoranthene, chrysene,
bcnzo(k)fluoranthene, dibenz(a,h)anthracene, and
indeno(I,23-cd)pyrene, have caused tumors in
laboratory animals when fed to them, applied to their
skin, or when they breathed them in the air for long
periods of time. Mice fed high levels of benzo(a)pyrene
during pregnancy had difficulty reproducing and so did
their offspring. The offspring from pregnant mice fed
benzo(a)pyrene also showed other harmful effects, such
as birth defects and decreased body weight. Similar
effects could occur in humans, however, no information
is available to document these effects.

Studies in animals have also shown that PAHs can
cause harmful effects on skin, blood, and the immune
system following both short and long-term exposures.
These effects have not been reported in humans.
What levels of exposure have resulted in
harmful health effects?

No information is available from human studies to
determine health effects resulting from exposure to
specific levels of the individual PAHs. However, long-
term inhalation and skin exposure to mixtures
containing PAHs have been associated with cancer in
humans.
What are the methods of treatment and
disposal of PAHs?

Approximately one-third of PAHs in solution bind to
particles and can be removed by sedimentation,
jtocculation, and filtration processes. Remaining
dissolved PAHs usually require oxidation (combining
with oxygen) for partial removal or transformation.

Specific PAHs can be destroyed by rotary kiln
incineration at temperatures ranging between 1,500°F
and 3,000°F. Others can be oxidized using such agents
as concentrated sulfuric acid. Anthracene, one form of
PAH which may contaminate water, can be destroyed by
sorptton with powdered activated charcoal, filtration
through a granular activated carbon bed, and chemical
oxidation.
What recommendations has the federal
government made to protect human health?

Based on data on benzo(a)pyrene, the federal
government has developed regulatory standards and
guidelines to protect individuals from the potential
health effects of PAHs in drinking water. The U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has provided
estimates of levels of total cancer-causing PAHs in lakes
and streams associated with various risks of developing
cancer. EPA has also concluded that any release of
PAHs of more than 1 pound should be reported.
Breakdown Products: Most contaminants are
combinations "If specific substances.
Contaminants are degraded, or separated, ioto
these individual substances through chemical or
physical means,

Floccuiatipn: A dean*up technique in which, solid
particles & water or sewage are clumped together
by biological or chemical action. These larger
clumps of solids can be more easily removed by
filtration. ,,, '

Rotary Kiln Incineration: 'K treatment process
which uses high temperatures to destroy solid and
liquid wastes usi»g a Jwo-sfep process. Wastes
are first treated in a rotating chamber at H§OQ°-
XSQQpF, then fed to a JecotuJ chamber with
temperatures of 24QG°Fl

Sorption: A process in which contaminants
adhere to charcoal surfaces «ttdt in this way, are
removed front contaminated substances.
For more information about PAHs, please
contact EPA at the following address:

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
ATTN: Superjund Hotline
401M Street, S.W.
Washington, D.C. 20460
1-800-424-9346 or 1-800-535-0202
The information contained in this fact sheet was compiled from the Toxicoloeical Profile for PAHs. Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry,
US. Public Health Scrvke, in collaboration with the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, December, 1990. This fact sheet focuses on the mpact
Of hazardous wastes on human health; however, EPA does evaluate these impacts on the environment, including plants and animals.
-------
EPA Facts About
Toluer)(
June 1992
What is toluene?

Toluene is a clear, colorless liquid with a sweet
smell. It occurs naturally in crude oil and the tolu
tree. Toluene is produced from petroleum refining,
and as a by-product of styrene production and coke-
oven operations. Industry uses it in refining gasoline;
chemical manufacturing; manufacture of paints,
lacquers, adhesives, rubber; and in some printing and
leather tanning processes. Toluene is often disposed
of at hazardous waste sites as a used solvent.
Toluene does not usually remain in the environment;
it readily breaks down in soil and evaporates from
water.
How might exposure to toluene occur?

Exposure to toluene stems from many sources, including
drinking water, food, air, workplaces, and consumer
products. Exposure to toluene occurs mostly through
breathing the chemical in the workplace or during
deliberate glue sniffing or solvent abuse. Toluene readily
evaporates and can be released to the air when toluene-
containing products are used. Automobile exhaust can also
be a significant source of toluene emissions. Petrochemical
workers, workers in the chemical industry, dye makers, and
paint workers are at the greatest risk of exposure. Because
toluene is a common solvent found in many consumer
products, exposures may occur in the home and outdoors.
Consumer products containing toluene include gasoline,
nail polish, cosmetics, rubber cement, paint solvents, stain
removers, fabric dyes, inks, and adhesives. Smokers are
exposed to toluene in cigarette smoke.

Exposure may occur at some hazardous waste sites. The
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) conducted a
survey in 1988 and found toluene in either the
groundwater, surface water, or soil at 29% of the hazardous
waste sites surveyed. While toluene was found in varying
amounts at these sites, the concentrations identified were
below the Maximum Contaminant Level established for
toluene. Federal and state surveys do not show toluene to
be a widespread contaminant of drinking water supplies.
How can toluene affect human health?

The most important health concern from either
intentional or occupational exposure to toluene is its
harmful effects on the nervous system. These effects
depend on both the amount and length of exposure.
Short-term exposure to moderate amounts of toluene,
such as elevated workplace exposures, can produce
fatigue, confusion, general weakness, drunken-type
actions, memory loss, nausea, and loss of appetite. These
symptoms disappear when exposure ends.

Short-term exposure to high amounts of toluene results
in sleepiness, unconsciousness, and, in some cases, death.
When exposure ends before death occurs, these symptoms
disappear. Long-term exposure to low and moderate
amounts of toluene has caused slight effects on the
kidneys in some individuals, however, other solvents are
known to have contributed to these effects. Long-term
exposure to high amounts of toluene by intentional abuse
has been linked with permanent brain damage. Effects
such as problems with speech, vision, and hearing; loss of
muscle control; loss of memory and balance; and reduced
scores on psychological tests have also been reported.
Researchers have seen possible impacts on resistance to
disease in individuals exposed to moderate and high
amounts of chemical mixtures that contained toluene.
Is there a medical test to identify toluene
exposure?

Several tests measure toluene and its breakdown
products in the blood and urine. These tests are
not commonly available at a doctor's office;
however, they are easily done by specialized
laboratories. Measurement of one of toluene's
breakdown products in urine has been used to
determine recent, workplace exposure. Because
several other chemicals are also changed to the
same breakdown products within the body, this test
may not prove that toluene exposure has occurred.
Other factors, such as the amount of body fat and
body weight, the person's sex, and the exposure
conditions, may also change estimates of toluene
exposure.
-------
How can toluene enter the body?

Toluene can enter the body by passing
through the skin, being inhaled, or being
ingested in contaminated food or water.
Exposure occurs mainly by breathing air
containing toluene. Diet and where an
individual lives, works, and travels affect
daily exposure to toluene. Such factors as
age, sex, and health status affect what
happens to toluene once it is in the body.
Most toluene leaves the body within 12
hours in exhaled air and as a breakdown
product in urine.
What recommendations has the federal
government made to protect human
health?

EPA has recommended that drinking water not
contain more than 1 part per million (ppm) for
lifetime consumption. The term "parts per million11
is a way of expressing the concentration of a
contaminant in a liquid or air. One part per
million is equal to one inch in a distance of about
sixteen miles (or a penny in ten thousand dollars),
a very small amount. Any release of more than
1,000 pounds of toluene into the environment
must be reported to the National Response
Center.
What levels of exposure have resulted in
harmful health effects?

Toluene in air has an odor at a level of about 0.16
ppm and in water at a level of 0.04 ppm. It can
also be tasted at a level of 0.04 ppm. Minimum
Risk Levels (MRL) have been established based on
animal data for both short-term and longer-term
exposure. Exposure to toluene at an amount
below the MRL is not expected to produce
harmful noncancer health effects. An MRL does
not imply anything about the presence, absence, or
level of risk of cancer.
What is the method of treatment and
disposal of toluene?

Federal regulations prohibit the disposal of
industrial wastes and wastewaters containing spent
solvents with high concentrations of toluene.
Consumer products containing toluene are likely
disposed of directly as a municipal waste. No data
is available concerning disposal by municipal
incineration, however, high temperature
incineration (over 1,600°F) is likely very efficient
in toluene destruction.
0UOSSARY
Breakdown Products:
conibinations of specific substances.
Contaminants are degraded, or separated,
into these individual substances through
chemical or physical means,

Maximum Contaminant Level: EPA
evaluates the health risks associated with
various contaminant levefe to ensure that
public health i& adequately protected. The
MCL, as they are commonly known, is the
maximum allowable concentration of a
specific contaminant in public drinking
water*

Superfund Program: The program operated
under the legislative authority of the
Comprehensive Environmental Response,
Compensation and Liability Act of 1980
(CERCLA), as amended by the Superfund
Amendments and Reauthorization Act of
1986 (SARA) that funds the EPA solid
waste emergency and long-term removal and
remedial activities.
For more information about Toluene, please
contact EPA at the following address:

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
ATTN: Superfund Hotline
401 M Street, S.W.
Washington, D.C. 20460
1-800-424-9346 or 1-800-535-0202
The Information contained in this fact sheet was compiled from the Toxicological Profile for Toluene. Agency for Toxic Substances and
Dtsouc Registry, US. Public Health Service, in collaboration with the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, December, 1989. This fact
^tett focuses on the impact of hazardous wastes on human health; however, EPA does evaluate these impacts on the environment, including
plants and animals.
-------
EPA
Trichloroethylene
June 1992
What is trichloroethylene?

Trichloroethylene (TCE) is a colorless liquid
with an odor similar to ether. It is man-made
and does not occur naturally in the
environment. TCE is used mainly as a solvent
to remove oils and grease from metal parts.
How might exposure to trichloroethylene
occur?

Trichloroethylene has been found in approximately
745 of the 1,300 hazardous waste sites on the National
Priorities List (NPL). Various federal and state
surveys indicate that between 9 and 34% of the water
supply sources in the United States may be
contaminated with trichloroethylene. In addition,
TCE present at disposal sites is released to the air by
evaporation and to underground water as leachate.

Trichloroethylene can also be released to the
environment through evaporation from adhesive glues,
paints, coatings, and other chemicals; and during their
production. Releases can also occur during air-
cleaning processes at treatment facilities that receive
wastewater containing TCE, and during incineration of
municipal and hazardous wastes.

Is there a medical test to identify
trichloroethylene exposure?

Recent or ongoing exposures to trichloroethylene can
be determined by measuring TCE in the breath.
Another way of determining whether exposure to
trichloroethylene has occurred is by measuring a
number of breakdown products (metabolites) of TCE
in the urine or blood. Because one of the breakdown
products, trichloroacetic acid, is removed very slowly
from the body, it can be measured in the urine for up
to about one week following exposure. Exposure to
other chemicals can produce the same breakdown
products in the urine and blood as TCE. Therefore,
these methods cannot be used to indicate conclusively
that exposure to trichloroethylene has occurred.
How can trichloroethylene affect human
health?

Dizziness, headaches, slowed reaction time, sleepiness,
and facial numbness have occurred in workers
breathing trichloroethylene or in people using
trichloroethylene products in small, poorly ventilated
areas. These effects are also caused by ingestion of
several ounces of undiluted TCE. Irritation of the
eyes, nose, and throat can also occur under these
conditions. More severe effects, such as
unconsciousness or possibly death, can occur from
drinking or breathing higher amounts of TCE.
Generally, the less severe central nervous system
effects that result from one or several exposures to
trichloroethylene disappear when exposure ends.

Results of a few studies of pregnant animals exposed
to trichloroethylene in air or in food showed effects
on unborn animals or on newborns. Current
information based on animal studies is not sufficient
to determine whether cancer, or the effects seen in
animal embryos following exposure to TCE, may also
occur in humans.

Some harmful health effects may persist following
long-term exposure to trichloroethylene. This
information is based largely on animal studies. These
studies show that ingesting or breathing levels of TCE
that are higher than typical background levels can
produce nervous system changes; liver and kidney
damage; effects on the blood; tumors of the liver,
kidney, lung, and male sex organs; and possibly cancer
of the tissues that form white blood cells (leukemia).
Alcohol consumption can heighten susceptibility to
liver and kidney injury caused by trichloroethylene
exposure.
How does trichloroethylene enter the
body?

Trichloroethylene can enter the body through
inhalation of contaminated air or ingestion of
contaminated water. TCE can also enter the
body through contact with the skin.
-------
What levels of exposure have resulted in
harmful health effects.

Tests using laboratory animals and humans show that
short-term and long-term exposures to air containing
about 50 parts per million (ppm) or more of
trichloroethylene have produced harmful effects. The
term "parts per million" is a way of expressing the
concentration of a contaminant in a liquid or air.
One part per million is equal to one inch in a distance
of about sixteen miles (or a penny in ten thousand
dollars), a very small amount. Ingestion of TCE for
more than two weeks produced harmful effects in the
livers of animals. Drinking TCE over longer periods
of time caused effects on unborn animals and the
kidneys as well as the liver.
Based on animal studies, the Environmental
Protection Agency (EPA) has estimated that breathing
air containing 1 ppm trichloroethylene every day for
70 years may place as many as 930 persons in a
population of 100,000 at risk of developing cancer.
EPA has also estimated that drinking water containing
1 ppm TCE every day over a lifetime may place as
many as 32 persons in a population of 100,000 at risk
of developing cancer.

What recommendations has the federal
government made to protect human
health?

EPA has established a drinking water standard of 5
parts of trichloroethylene per billion parts of water
(ppb). EPA requires industry to report spills of 1,000
pounds or more of trichloroethylene. A reduction of
this amount to 100 pounds has been proposed.
produced. There has been an emphasis on recovery
and recycling of TCE to reduce emissions into the
atmosphere.
Glossary

Background'Level: ^Tfae conceittration Of any
substance which wo'uid normally be found in aa
%area. This level is used as a basis of comparison
in Identifying contamination
Breakdown Products: Most contaminants ate
combinations of specific substances.
Contaminants are, degraded^ or separated^ into
these individual substances through chemical or
physical means.
Leachate: A contaminated liquid that results
from water collecting contaminants, as |t trickles
through wastes, agricultural pesticides, or
fertilizers.
National Priorities List (NPL): EPA*S list 0f
uncontrolled or abandoned hazardous waste
sites identified for possible long-term clean-up
under the Superfund Program,
For more information about Trichloroethylene,
please contact EPA at the following address:

U.S.Environmental Protection Agency
ATTN: Superfund Hotline
401 M Street, S.W.
Washington, D.C. 20460
1-800-424-9346 or 1-800-535-0202
What are the methods of treatment and
disposal of trichloroethylene?

The recommended method of TCE disposal is
incineration following mixing with a combustible fuel.
Complete combustion must be achieved to prevent the
formation of phosgene, a poisonous gas. An acid
scrubber must be used to remove the haloacids

The information contained in this fact sheet was compiled from the Toxicological Profile for Trichloroethvlene. Agency for Toxic Substances and
Disease RegisUy, US. Public Health Service, in collaboration with the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, October, 1989. This fact sheet focuses
on the Impact of hazardous wastes on human health; however, EPA does evaluate these impacts on the environment, including plants and animals.
-------
EPA
About
Vinyl Chloride
June 1992
What is vinyl chloride?
*
Vinyl chloride is a colorless gas with a mild,
sweet odor. It is a man-made chemical that
does not occur naturally. Most of the vinyl
chloride produced in the United States is used
to make polyvinyl chloride (PVC). This
material is used to manufacture a variety of
plastic and vinyl products including pipes, wire
and cable coatings, packaging materials,
furniture and automobile upholstery, wall
coverings, housewares, and automotive parts.
Much smaller amounts of vinyl chloride are
used as a cooling gas and in the manufacture of
other compounds.

Emissions from vinyl chloride and PVC
manufacturers are responsible for the majority
of vinyl chloride released to the environment.
How might exposure to vinyl chloride
occur?

Vinyl chloride has been found in approximately 418 of
the 1,300 hazardous waste sites on the National
Priorities List (NPL). Vinyl chloride is mainly released
into the air and discharged in wastewater from the
plastics industry. Most of the vinyl chloride that
enters the air gradually breaks down into less harmful
substances. Levels of vinyl chloride found in the
environment are usually more than a thousand times
below levels found in occupational settings. Elevated
outdoor levels are usually expressed in terms of parts
of vinyl chloride present in a billion parts of air or
water (ppb). The term "parts per billion" is a way of
expressing the concentration of a contaminant in a
liquid or air. One part per billion is equal to one inch
in a distance of about sixteen thousand miles (or a
penny in ten million dollars), a very small amount.
Outdoor levels of vinyl chloride result from the
discharge of exhaust gases from factories that
manufacture or process vinyl chloride, or evaporation
from areas where chemical wastes are stored. The
highest outdoor levels have been measured in air near
vinyl chloride factories or over chemical waste storage
areas.
Vinyl chloride that enters drinking water comes from
factories that release vinyl chloride wastes into rivers and
lakes, and from leaching into groundwater in areas where
chemical wastes are stored. Small amounts of vinyl
chloride can enter drinking water from contact with
polyvinyl chloride pipes. In the past, higher than expected
amounts were present in foods packaged in plastic that
contained vinyl chloride. Currently, the U.S. Food and
Drug Administration (FDA) regulates the amount of vinyl
chloride allowed in food packaging in order to limit the
intake of vinyl chloride.

How can vinyl chloride affect human health?

Short-term exposures to very high levels of vinyl chloride
in air can cause dizziness, lack of muscle coordination,
headaches, unconsciousness, or death. Long-term exposure
to lower amounts in factories which produce or use vinyl
chloride has caused "vinyl chloride disease". This disease is
characterized by severe damage to the liver, effects on the
lungs, poor circulation in the fingers, changes in the bones
of the fingers, thickening of the skin, and changes in the
blood. An increased risk of developing cancer of the liver
and possibly several other tissues has been linked with
breathing air in factories containing vinyl chloride.

Some health effects observed in humans have also been
seen in laboratory animals. Effects on the nervous system
of animals have occurred following short-term exposure to
very high levels of vinyl chloride in air. Animals exposed
to high levels for a short period of time, as well as to low
levels for a long period, developed liver damage. Kidney
effects have also occurred following exposure to high levels.
Animals developed cancer in several tissues after eating
food or breathing air that contained vinyl chloride.
How can vinyl chloride enter the body?
The most likely way that vinyl chloride can enter the
body is by inhalation. This exposure route is of
concern for persons employed in vinyl chloride
manufacturing or processing, for people living in
communities where vinyl chloride plants are located,
and for individuals living near hazardous waste
disposal sites. Vinyl chloride can also enter the body
through ingestion. Absorption of vinyl chloride
through the skin is not likely to be an important
exposure route.
-------
Is there a medical test to identify vinyl
chloride exposure?

Vinyl chloride can be measured in urine and body
tissues, but these tests cannot be used to determine the
level of vinyl chloride exposure. Measuring the amount
of the major breakdown product of vinyl chloride in the
urine may give some indication of recent exposure;
however, the quantity of this breakdown product may
vary for different people. Neither of these tests is
routinely available at a doctor's office. Laboratory tests
commonly used by doctors to evaluate liver damage and
liver function are usually not helpful in determining
whether liver damage has resulted from vinyl chloride
exposure.
What levels of exposure have resulted in
harmful health effects?

Vinyl chloride is regarded worldwide as a chemical that
causes cancer in humans, but exposure levels necessary
to cause cancer are not known. The U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), therefore,
uses animal data to estimate risk in humans. According
to this data, it is estimated that breathing air containing
1 ppm vinyl chloride for 70 years may place as many as
11,000 persons in a population of 100,000 at risk of
developing cancer. Eating food containing 1 ppm vinyl
chloride every day for 70 years may place as many as
6,440 persons in a population of 100,000 at risk of
developing cancer. Similarly, drinking water containing
1 ppm vinyl chloride every day for 70 years may place as
many as 9,570 persons in a population of 100,000 at risk
of developing cancer.
What recommendations has the federal
government made to protect human health?

EPA requires that community drinking water systems
that regularly serve the same 25 persons for at least 8
months of the year must limit vinyl chloride in the
drinking water to 2 ppb. Recently, the FDA changed
its regulations regarding the vinyl chloride content of
various plastics used in food packaging and to carry
water used in food processing in order to limit the
intake of vinyl chloride in food to levels considered to
be safe. Limits range from 5 to 50 ppm depending on
the nature of the plastic and its use.
What are the methods of treatment and
disposal of vinyl chloride?

The recommended method of disposal of vinyl chloride
is incineration, following mixing with another
combustible fuel. Complete combustion must be
ensured to prevent the formation of phosgene, a
poisonous gas. An acid scrubber is also required to
remove hydrochloric acid produced during incineration.

EPA has classified vinyl chloride as a "hazardous
component of solid waste" in order to control the
handling of this chemical. All releases greater than one
pound must be reported to the National Response
Center.
GLOSSARY

Breakdown Product: Most contaminants are
combinations of specific substances.
Contaminants are degraded, or separated, into
these individual substances through chemical or
physical means.

Exposure Route: The way in which people come
into contact with a substance. The main routes
are ingestion, inhalation, and absorption through
the skin.

Leach: The process by which substances are
released from the soil by dissolving in fluids,
usually rain and surface water> and are carried
down through the soil

National Priorities List (NPL): EPA'S list of
uncontrolled or abandoned hazardous waste sites
identified for possible long-term clean-up under
the Superfund Program.
For more information about Vinyl Chloride,
please contact EPA at the following address:

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
ATTN: Superfund Hotline
401 M Street, S.W.
Washington, D.C. 20460
1-800-424-9346 or 1-800-535-0202
The information contained in this fad sheet was compiled from the "lexicological Profile for Vinyl Chloride. Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease
Registry, US. Public Health Service, in collaboration with the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, August, 1989. This fact sheet focuses on the impact
afhiiKrJotiS HWfer on human health; liowever, EPA does evaluate these impacts on the environment, including plants and animals.
-------
EPA Facts About
Xylen<
June 1992
What is xylene?

Xylene is primarily a man-made chemical. Industries
produce xylene from petroleum and, to a smaller
extent, from coal. Xylene also occurs naturally in
petroleum and coal tar, and is formed during forest
fires. It is a colorless liquid with a sweet odor.
There are three forms of xylene called isomers:
weta-xylene, ortho-xylene, and para-xylene (m-, o-,
and /7-xylene). Isomers are substances with similar
chemicals properties. Mixed xylene is a combination
of the three forms of xylene and smaller amounts of
other chemicals, primarily ethyl benzene.

Solvents and thinners for paints and varnishes often
contain xylene. It is used as a solvent in the printing,
rubber, and leather industries; and as a cleaning
agent. It is also found in airplane fuel and gasoline,
and is used in the chemical, plastic, and synthetic
fiber industries, and as an ingredient in fabric and
paper coatings. Isomers of xylene are used in the
manufacture of certain polymers, such as plastics.

Xylene evaporates and burns easily. It does not mix
well with water; however, it does mix with alcohol
and many other chemicals. Because xylene is a
liquid, it can leak into soil, surface water, or
groundwater, where it may remain for 6 months or
more before it is broken down into other chemicals.
However, most xylene evaporates into the air, where
it lasts for several days. Once in the air, xylene is
broken down into other chemicals by sunlight.
How might exposure to xylene occur?

Xylenes are distributed throughout the environment. They
have been detected in the atmosphere, rainwater, soils,
surface waters and sediments, drinking water, and aquatic
organisms; and in human blood, urine, and breath. Xylenes
have been identified at approximately 576 of the 1,300
National Priorities List (NPL) sites.

Xylenes are released to the atmosphere primarily as fugitive
emissions from industrial sources, in automobile exhaust,
and through evaporation of solvents. Discharges into
waterways and spills on land result primarily from the use,
storage, and transport of petroleum products and waste
disposal. Most of the xylenes released to the environment
evaporate into the atmosphere. Xylenes are moderately mobile
in soil and can leach into the groundwater, where they may
persist for several years.

Human exposure to xylenes is believed to occur via inhalation
of indoor and workplace air, inhalation of air containing auto
emissions, ingestion of contaminated drinking water, smoking,
and inhalation and skin absorption of solvents containing
xylenes.

Is there a medical test to identify xylene
exposure?

Once in the body, xylene is degraded (broken down) into other
chemicals. Xylene exposure can be determined by measuring
these chemicals which are eliminated in the urine. These
measurements will specifically identify exposure to xylene.
There is a high correlation between exposure to xylene and the
concentration of chemicals produced when the body degrades
xylene. A urine sample must be provided soon after exposure
ends, because xylene leaves the body quickly.
How can xylene enter and leave the body?

Xylene is most likely to enter the body through breathing
xylene vapors. It is rapidly absorbed by the lungs
following inhalation of air containing xylene. Absorption
of xylene through the skin also occurs rapidly following
direct contact or exposure to xylene in liquid or vapor
form. Exposure to xylene may also result from eating or
drinking xylene-contaminated food or water. Absorption
of xylene following ingestion is both rapid and complete.
Hazardous waste disposal sites also serve as possible
sources of exposure; breathing xylene vapors, drinking
well water contaminated with this chemical, and direct
contact with the skin are possible routes for xylene to
enter the body. Xylene passes into the blood soon after
entering the body.

Xylene is broken down into other chemicals in the liver
and lungs. This process changes most of the xylene that
is inhaled or ingested into a different form. Once xylene
has been broken down, the products rapidly leave the
body, mainly in urine. Some unchanged xylene also
leaves in breath from the lungs. Most of the xylene that
is taken in usually leaves the body within 18 hours after
exposure ends. Storage of xylene in fat or muscle may
prolong the time needed for it to leave the body.
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possible adverse health effect is impaired eye function. Death
can occur in animals which ingest very high levels (40,000 ppm).

What recommendations has the federal
government made to protect human health?

The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) estimates
that exposure to xylene at concentrations in water of 0.4 ppm
each day for a lifetime (70 years) is unlikely to result in
noncancerous adverse health effects. EPA has proposed a
recommended maximum level of 10 ppm for xylene in drinking
water. EPA requires that spills of 1,000 pounds or more of
xylene or used xylene solvents be reported to the National
Response Center.

What are the methods of treatment and disposal of
xylene?

Various methods of incineration are used in the disposal of
xylene isomers; the addition of a more flammable solvent has
been suggested to facilitate this heat destruction process.
How can xylene affect human health?

Short-term exposure to high levels of xylene or chemical
mixtures containing xylene causes irritation of the skin,
eyes, nose, and throat; difficulty in breathing; impaired
function of the lungs; delayed response to visual stimulus;
Impaired memory; stomach discomfort; and possible
changes in the liver and kidneys. Death can occur in
individuals exposed to very high levels of xylene for short
periods. Both short- and long-term exposure to high
concentrations of xylene can also cause nervous system
effects, such as headaches, lack of muscle coordination,
dizziness, and confusion.

Results of animal studies indicate that large amounts of
xylene can cause changes in the liver and adverse effects on
the kidneys, lungs, heart, and nervous system. Short-term
exposure to high concentrations of xylene causes death in
some animals. Muscular spasms; coordination loss; hearing
loss; and changes in behavior, organ weights, and enzyme
activity have also been observed.

Exposure of pregnant women to high levels of xylene may
cause adverse effects in the fetus. Studies with unborn
animals indicate that high levels of xylene may cause
increased numbers of deaths, decreased weight, skeletal
changes, and delayed skeletal development. There is no
data to indicate that xylene causes cancer.

What levels of exposure have resulted in
harmful health effects?

Xylene or chemical mixtures containing xylene are deadly
if sufficient quantities are swallowed or inhaled. However,
the levels which cause death are not known. Lower levels
(100-299 parts per million [ppm]) of inhaled xylene can
cause eye, nose, and throat irritation, and poor memory.
The term "parts per million" is a way of expressing the
concentration of a contaminant in a liquid or air. One part
per million is equal to one inch in a distance of about
sixteen miles (or a penny in ten thousand dollars), a very
small amount. Direct contact with several drops of xylene
causes skin irritation.

In animals, inhalation of moderate to high levels (1,300-
2,000 ppm) of xylene for short periods of time may cause
decreased breathing rate, hearing loss, inactivity,
unconsciousness, and biochemical changes in the brain.
With longer-term inhalation, adverse health effects in
animals generally occur at lower levels (230-800 ppm). In
animals breathing high levels over long-term exposures,
possible adverse health effects include changes in heart rate
and blood flow, changes in the chemical composition of
nerves, and hearing loss. In animals given high levels
(5,000 ppm) of xylene orally over shorter periods, a

The Information contained in this fact sheet was compiled from the Toxicological Profile for Xvlene. Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry, U.S.
Public Health Service, in collaboration with the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, December, 1990. This fact sheet focuses on the impact of hazardous
wastes on human health,- however, EPA does evaluate these impacts on the environment, including plants and animals.
GLOSSARY
Fugitive Emissions: Any release of contaminants from
products of, manufacturing processes, usually in the form
of gases escaping into the atmosphere. ,;

Leach: To pass through the soil due to rain or
gro»»dwater moving 'through
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i ^.
EPA Fact
Zinc
June 1992
What is zinc?

Zinc is a metal which may be found in its pure state
or combined with other metals to form alloys such as
brass. It also combines with other chemicals to form
zinc compounds, such as chlorine (zinc chloride), in
the same way that sodium (another metal) is found in
table salt (sodium chloride).

Zinc compounds occur naturally in the air, soil, and
water, and are present in all foods. Zinc is an essential
food element; however, in large doses or exposures,
zinc can also be harmful.

Zinc is most commonly used as a protective coating of
other metals. It is also used in alloys such as bronze
and brass, and for electrical components in numerous
products. Salts of zinc are used as dissolving agents in
many drugs, including insulin.
Zinc is present in most rocks, certain minerals, and some
carbonate sediments. As a result of weathering of these
materials, soluble compounds of zinc are formed and may be
released to water. However, this source of zinc is diluted and
widely dispersed. Urban runoff, mine drainage, and
municipal and industrial wastes represent smaller, but more
concentrated sources of zinc in water.

Municipal wastewaters are major contributors of zinc in
marine environments. Municipal wastewater treatment
facilities receive the largest zinc discharges, including
contributions from corrosion of water supply pipes, combined
sewer runoff, and industrial and human wastes.

Limited information is available on total releases of zinc to
the soil. Zinc present in the atmosphere is often deposited
in soils and grasses. Municipal sludges applied to cropland
soils can also be an important source of trace metals
including zinc. Hazardous waste sites are additional sources
of zinc in soil. Zinc has been found in approximately 711 of
the 1,300 National Priorities List (NPL) hazardous waste sites.
How might exposure to zinc occur?

Zinc is one of the most widely used metals in the world. The
primary sources of zinc in the environment are metal wastes
from smelter and refining operations. Releases to surface
water and groundwater are probably the greatest sources of
zinc in the environment. Zinc is also released to the soil due
to discharges from industrial operations and natural
weathering of zinc ore deposits.

The major source of zinc for the general population is food.
Other sources of exposure include drinking water,
contaminated air, tobacco products, and occupational
exposure.

Zinc is released to the atmosphere as dust and fumes from
zinc production facilities, automobile emissions, fuel
combustion, and soil erosion. Refuse incineration, coal
combustion, smelter operations, and some metal-working
industries constitute the major sources of zinc in air. These
sources, along with releases of zinc through metal corrosion
and tire wear, contribute to urban runoff contamination.
Is there a medical test to identity zinc exposure?

Zinc can be measured in body fluids. The presence of excess
zinc in bodily wastes can indicate high zinc exposure; high
levels in the blood can show high zinc absorption.
How can zinc enter and leave the body?

Zinc enters the body through the digestive tract when
food or water containing zinc is ingested. It can also
enter through the lungs when zinc dust or fumes from
zinc-smelting or welding operations are inhaled in the
workplace. The amount of zinc that passes directly
through the skin is relatively small. The most
important route of exposure near NPL waste sites is
likely to be through drinking zinc-contaminated water.
Normally, zinc leaves the body in wastes.
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What levels of exposure have resulted in
harmful health effects?

The major effects of eating food or drinking water that
contains too much zinc or taking too many dietary zinc
supplements are digestive problems. Stomach cramps,
nausea, and vomiting have resulted from taking 2 or 3
capsules (each containing 220 milligrams (mg) zinc
sulfatc or 50 mg zinc) each day. Decreased levels of
high density lipoprotein (HDL)-cholesterol (the "good-
cholesterol) in blood have been reported in people who
took approximately one 150 mg capsule of zinc each
day. Similar levels of zinc intake, when continued over
an extended period, may alter the body's immune
system.
What recommendations has the federal
government made to protect human health?

The U. S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has
recommended that zinc levels in drinking water not
exceed 5 parts per million. The term "parts per million"
is a way of expressing the concentration of a
contaminant in a liquid or air. One part per million is
equal to one inch in a distance of about sixteen miles
(or a penny in ten thousand dollars), a very small
amount. This value is based on taste considerations
rather than health effects. Any release of more than
1,000 pounds (or in some cases 5,000 pounds) of zinc or
its compounds into the environment must be reported
to EPA.
GLOSSARY

Cement-based Fixation: '"A" process used 40
stabilize wastes by adding chemicals (such as
cement) to bind and solidify the contaminated
soils. The resulting solidified mass is resistant to
leaching and greatly reduces the mobility of the
hazardous wastes.
National Priorities List (NPL): EPA'S list of
uncontrolled or abandoned hazardous waste sites
eligible for long-terra clean-up under the
Superfund Remedial Program.
Precipitation? Application of chemicals or cold to
a liquid waste solution containing slightly soluble'
contaminants causing them to become insoluble
and "settle out* of solution. Settled solids can
then be collected for proper disposal.
Soluble Compounds:
dissolved in water.
Substances which can be
Urban Runoff: The flow of rainwater in
developed areas along the surface of the ground.
These flows often contain pollutants, particularly
hydrocarbons.
What are the methods of treatment and
disposal of zinc?

Zinc processing plants have attempted to limit releases
to the environment by using techniques such as water
re-use, control of paniculate emissions, and filtration.
In addition, liquid effluents are limed and allowed to
settle so that zinc can be removed from solution
through precipitation- Disposal procedures for spills
include the use of precipitation and cement-based
fixation processes. The latter method renders zinc
contaminants insoluble, that is, will not dissolve in
groundwater, and stable in the environment.
For more information about Zinc, please contact
EPA at the following address:
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
ATTN: Superfund Hotline
401 M Street, S.W.
Washington, D.C. 20460
1-800-424-9346 or 1-800-535-0202
The information contained in this fact sheet was compiled from the lexicological Profile for Zinc. Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry,
U.S. Public Health Service, in collaboration with the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, December 1989. This fact sheet focuses on the impact of
hazardous wastes on human health; however, EPA does evaluate these impacts on the environment, including plants and animals.
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